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The Raral Science Series
LH Bailey Latfor

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ie Hana EEECENEESEY

CORNELL UNIVERSITY.

THE

Roswell Pf. Flomer Library
THE GIFT OF
ROSWELL P. FLOWER
FOR THE USE OF

THE N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE.
1897

Cornell University Library
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3 1924 000 006

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
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There are no known copyright restrictions in
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu3 1924000006076

The Rural Science Series
Epitep sy L. H. BAILEY

WESTERN LIVE-STOCK MANAGEMENT

The Rural Science Series

Epitep sy L. H. BarLey

Ture Som. Hing.

Tur Sprayine or Piants. Lodeman.

MILK anv Irs Propucts. Wing. Enlarged and Revised.

Tue Fertivity oF THE LAnp. Roberts.

Tus Principtes or Fruit-crowine. Bailey. 20th
Edition, Revised.

Busu-rruits. Card. Revised.

Fertivizers. Voorhees. Revised.

Tue PrincipLes or Acricutrure. Bailey. Revised.

IRRIGATION AND DrainacGE. Hing.

Tue FarmsteaD. Roberts.

Rurat WeattH anp WELFARE. Fairchild.

Tue PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE-GARDENING., Bailey.

Farm Poutrry. Watson. Enlarged and Revised.

Tur Fexpinc or Animas. Jordan. (Now Rural
Text-Book Series. )

Tue Farmer’s Businrss Hanpsoox. Roberts.

Tue Diseases oF Animas. Mayo.

Tue Horse. Roberts.

How to Cuoose a Farm. Hunt.

Forace Crops. Voorhees.

Bacrerta Nn Revarion to Country Lire. Lipman.

Tue Nursery-Book. Bailey.

PLANT-BREEDING. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised.

Tue Forcine-soon. Bailey.

Tue Pruninc-poon. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.)

FRUIT-GROWING IN ARID Recions. Paddock and Whipple.

Rurat Hyeienge. Ogden.

Dry-rarminc. Widtsoe.

Law For THE AMERICAN FARMER. Green.

Farm Boys anp Girts, McKeever.

Tue TRAINinG AND BREAKING OF Horses. Harper.

Sneep-rarmine In Norrn America. Craig.

Co6PERATION IN AGRICULTURE. Powell.

Tur Farm Wooprot. Cheyney and Wentling.

Hovsenoxp Insects. Herrick.

Cirrus Fruits. Coit.

PrincipLes OF Rurat Crepits. Morman.

BEEKeEEPING. Phillips.

SUBTROPICAL VEGETABLE-GARDENING. Rolfs.

Turr ror Gotr Courses, Piper and Oakley.

Tue Potato. Gilbert.

STRAWBERRY-GROWING. Fletcher.

WESTERN
LIVE-STOCK MANAGEMENT

EDITED BY

ERMINE L. POTTER

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AT THE
OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

ASSISTED BY

Cart N. Kennepy, Specialist in Horses and
Secretary of Stallion Registration Board ;
Grorce R. Samson, Specialist in Swine ;
Oran M. Netson, Specialist in Sheep ;

AT THE OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

Netw Work
: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1917

Copyrieut, 1917,

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped, Published August, 1917.

Norwood ¥Ppress
J. 3. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE

Tuts book is prepared for the use of all who wish to ob-
tain a knowledge of the methods and problems of live-stock
production in the West. We have tried to give the reader
an idea of live-stock conditions as they actually exist and
to avoid advocating new or untried systems of breeding
or management; in other words, we have tried to record
what the western stockmen are doing rather than to advise
what they should do. Methods now in vogue are doubt-
less far from perfect, but we believe that all real improve-
ment must be based on an accurate knowledge of present
practices. We are, therefore, presenting here the infor-
mation which experienced stockmen already possess, but
which the young man or the beginner often finds slow
and expensive to acquire.

In the absence of a text on this subject, the material
here presented was originally prepared for the use of a
class in Live-Stock Management at the Oregon Agri-
cultural College. It was first published as mimeographed
notes, later as printed circulars, and appears in its present

form only after many revisions.

ERMINE L. POTTER.
CoRVALLIS, OREGON,
April 1, 1917.

CONTENTS
PART I
GENERAL CONDITIONS

Cuapter I. Tue West

Topography — Climate — Guiving areas —
Reserved lands — Deeded lands — Unappropri-
ated lands— Winter and summer ranges —
Range grasses— Carrying capacity — Home-
steaders — Range improvement — Legal diffi-
culties — Cultivated areas — Distribution of live-
stock — Live-stock markets.

Cuaprer II]. GrneRAL PRINCIPLES OF LIVE-sTOCK

PRODUCTION . é
Breeding — Nutrition — Titerout stock com-
pared.

PART II
BEEF CATTLE

Cuapter III. Brrr Propucers or THE WEST
Beef sections of the West — Range cattle —
Farmer breeders — Feeders.

Cuapter IV. Tue Brezpinc Herp i
Bulls — Cows and calves — Weaning — = Cs.
tration — Wintering.

CuapTer V. FatrENING STEERS :
Fattening on corn — Fattening on hay sone —_
Buying steers — Method of feeding — Amounts
of feed — Length of feeding period — Marketing
— Comparison of feeds — When to feed cattle.
vii

PAGES

3-27

28-34

37-52

53-67

68-92

Contents

CuaprTer VI. EQuipMENT

Barns — Fencing — Corrals — Seales

Cuapter VII. Branping anp MARKING

Ear-marking — Brand laws and inspection

Cuapter VIII. Pure-sprep CaTTLe

The man — Location — Founding the herd —
Feed and care — Marking — Marketing.

PART III
SHEEP

Cuarter IX. Woot anp Murton PrRopucERs OF

THE WEST
Range sheep — Farm sido:

Cuarter X. Rance SHEEP

Herding — Summer and ‘atuber iene — The
breeding band — Determining age — Breeding —
Winter management — Lambing — Lambing on
the open range — Lambing sheds and tents —
Percentage increase — Marking — Shearing —
Dipping — Branding — Summer management —
Care of the range — Watering — Salt — Wean-
ing — Marketing mutton stock — Marketing
pure-bred stock — Calendar of operations — Loss
from wild animals — Costs and profits of a range
ewe — Capital required — Buildings — Corrals

Cuarter XJ. Farrentnc Rance LAMBs IN WINTER

The lambs — Length of feeding period — Feeds
and ration — Method of feeding — Shearing for
feed-lot — Shelter — Dipping — Gains — Costs
and profits — Feeding wethers— Feeding old
ewes.

Cuarter XII. Cross-BREEDING FOR WooL AND

Murton Propuction ‘
The Corriedale— The Panama — Systematic
cross-breeding.

PAGES

93-102

103-108

109-117

121-123

124-153

154-165

166-171

Contents ix

PAGES
Cuapter XIII. Farm Sueerp . ‘ ; . 172-208

The Flock — Establishing a flock — Grade
flock — Pure-bred flock — The ram — The ewe
— Flushing the ewes — Breeding season — Win-
tering ewes — Wintering ewe lambs — Care of
the ram — Lambing time — Castration and dock-
ing — Growing the lamb — Grain — Shearing —
Dipping — Weaning — Marketing — Dry ewes
— Barns, tools, and equipment — Panels — Feed-
racks and troughs — Shipping crates — Shep-
herds’ crooks — Dipping vat — Dodging chute —
Corrals — Sheep fencing — Lamb-creep — Hoof-
trimmers — Docking instruments — Ear-label-
ing punch — Branding stamp and iron — Trochar
and canula — Hand sheep shears — Wool box —

Sheep bell.
Cuapter XIV. Frrepinc Farm SHEEP. 209-220
Regularity — Uniformity and variety — Clean
liness — Exercise — Fall shearing — Concen-

trates — Corn — Barley — Oats — Wheat —
Emmer — Peas — Cotton-seed products — Lin-
seed products — Bran — Succulence — Roots —
Kale — Cabbage — Silage — Hay — Soiling
crops — Pastures — Rape — Rape and clover —
Field peas — Vetches — Rye — Wheat — Kale
— Alfalfa.

CHarter XV. Luck witH SHEEP . 221-225
Driving — Catching — Leading shen —_ ” Lift-
ing and carrying — Setting a heavy sheep on its
rump — Hauling sheep.

CuarterR XVI. Woot PropucTIon ‘ . 226-239
American market classes — Teneth. and
strength of fiber— Grading as to fineness —
Shrinkage or condition — Color and character —
Paint — Packing — Australian shearing shed.

x Contents

PART IV
HORSES

Cuapter XVII. Sratus or toe Horse INDUSTRY
Numbers and values — Exports and imports —
Horse-producing sections.

Cuarter XVIII. Tue Worx Horse
Feeding — Feeding when at work — Feeding
when idle — Principal feeds — Influence of loca-
tion — Water, salt, condiments — Feeding the
city work horse — Feeding the driver and saddler
— Grooming — Blankets — Care of harness —
The horse at work — Stables.

Cuapter XIX. Tue Broop Mare

Feeding — Feed during the breeding season —
Feed during pregnancy — Feed during parturi-
tion — Breeding practices — Season to breed —
Heat and gestation periods — Conditions affect-
ing breeding — Serving the mare — Artificial im-
pregnation — Care after service — Signs of preg-
naney — Signs of parturition — Parturition —
Care after parturition — Stables, sheds, and lots.

Cuapter XX. THe Growine Stock

Fundamentals of feeding — Raising the ought
— Feeding the young foals — Halter-breaking —
Trimming the hoofs — Wintering the foal — Cas-
tration — Feeding the yearling — Wintering the
yearling — Growing the twos and threes — Gen-
tling — Breaking to tie — Breaking to lead —
Breaking to work — Breaking single drivers —
Breaking saddlers — Special devices for break-
ing — Stables and sheds.

Cuarter XXI. Tue Stauiion
Feeding in the breeding season — Cast in the
breeding season — Feeding and care out of sea-
son— Handling the service stallion — Breeding
equipment — Stables and Jots — Advertising —
Breeding terms and contracts.

PAGES

243-250

251-273

274-290

291-311

312-325

Contents xi

PAGES
CuapTterR XXII. Tue Rance Horse. 326-331
Range mares— Range stallions — Geowiae ign
— Control of range stallions.

CuapteR XXIII. Tue Pure-srep . 5 - 332-345
Foundation mares — Foundation stallions —
Pedigrees and registration — Methods of record-
ing — Recognized associations — Methods of mis-
representation — Feeding and care — Equip-
ment — The show ring — Advertising — Selling
methods.

Cuaprer XXIV. Fitting Horsts ror SHOW anpD
SaLE. 346-360
Fattening — Broaldny aud taining — Braid.
ing and trimming — Grooming — Show yard
methods and customs— Common _ troubles —
Shipping horses — Marketing.
CuaprEerR XXV. Jacks, JENNETS, AND Mugs . 361-365
Advantages and disadvantages of mules —
Feeding of mules — Handling of jacks— Market
requirements — Hinny production.

PART V
SWINE

CuaPTteR XXVI. BrGINNER’s PROBLEMS ‘ . 369-375
Locality — The farm — Market conditions —
Fluctuations — Number of pigs for the farm.

Cuarter XXVII. Equipment : : . 376-388
Houses — Granary — Water supply — Water-
ing devices — Troughs — Fences — Floors —
Dipping vat — Miscellaneous equipment.

Cuarter XXVIII. Tue Breepinc Herp : . 389-406
The boar — Dry sows — Gestation period —
Breeding — Pregnant sows — Farrowing — Cas-
tration — Weaning — Feeding the weanlings —
Number of pigs to the acre — Ringing.

xi Contents

CHapreR XXIX. Fatrentnec ror Market
When to begin fattening — Standard feeds —
Supplemental feeds — Gains.

Cuapter XXX. Mertuops or FEEDING .
Cooking — Grinding — Soaking — Other
methods — Self-feeders.

Cuarter XXXII. Operations anp Minor AIL-
MENTS .
Wounds and edie — linus ng Ete pigs’ rails
— Milk fever — Paralysis — Worms — Bronchial
trouble — Trimming feet — Cutting boar’s tusks
— Marking.

CuHapter XXXII. Pure-srep Swine
Breeds — Management — Marketing — Fit-
ting for show and sale — Age of show pigs.

GLossaRY

PAGES

407-414

415-418

419-428

429-433

437-446

LIST OF FIGURES
Fia.
1 — Altitude Map of United States
2 — Annual Rainfall of the United States
3 — Land in Crops, 1910
4 — Alfalfa Acreage, 1909
5 — Steers and Bulls, Number, 1910
6 — Two Good Hay Racks for Cattle
7 — Bunks for Feeding Grain or Silage
8 — Two Methods of Building Corral Fences .
9 — Model Corral System :
10 — Scale Rack for Weighing Cattle
11 — Floor Plan of Lambing Shed
12 — Floor Plan of Open Court Lambing Shed .

13 — Systematic Cross Breeding for Dual Purpose Sheep

14 — Lambing Panel
15 — Self-cleaning Grain Trae
16 — Combination Grain and Hay Rack
17 — Shipping Crate i ‘
18 — Sheep Crook
19 — Dipping Crook . e
20 — A Good Portable Fence
21 —- Pruning Shears are Useful in Ta mmine Hand Hoa
22 — Docking Pinchers
23 — Ear Labeling Punch .
24 — Branding Stamp
25 — Trochar and Canula .
26 — Hand Sheep Shears .
27 — Wool Box or Wool Board
28 — Shearing Shed . : :
29 — Floor Plan for a Convenient Home Ca ‘
xiii

Pace

xiv List of Plates

Fia.
30 — Impregnator Syringe
31 — Tools for Trimming Horse’s Feet
32 — A Satisfactory Arrangement for the Breeding ot
33 — Typical “A” Hog House . . .
34 — The Most Common Type of Hog Tone
35 — Typical Pen of the Oregon Hog Barn
36 — Hog Holder : ‘
37 — Small Self-feeder for Hoee
38 — Self-feeder
39 — Tools for Minor Operations
40 — Marking System

LIST OF PLATES

Pace
282
295
321
377
381
384
388
417
418
420
427

To Face Pace

Puiatge I — Cheap Grass is the Basis of Western Livestock

Production
Puate II — Chutes and Feed Lots
Puate III — The New and the Old in the West
Piate IV — Open and Close Herding
Piate V — Western Lamb Fattening
Piare VI — Sheep Sheds .
Puate VII — Bad Luck

Puate VIII — A, B, and C, steps in insane dustyeors § D
aid E, steps in lifting a sheep; F, method

of cade a sheep
Puiate TX — Australian Shearing Shed
Piate X — Australian Shearing Shed
Puatse XI — City, Ranch, and Stable
Piate XII — “Liberty or Death”
Piate XII — “As the Twig is Bent”
Prare XIV — Special Appliances for Breaking Ties
Piatt XV — Fitting for Sale or Show
Piate XVI — Hog Farm Conveniences

79
112
146
158
196
221

204
236
238
253
274
294
308
353
380

PART I

GENERAL CONDITIONS

By Ermine L. Potrer

CHAPTER I
THE WEST

Waar is the West? The very word “West” is fas-
cinating, full of inspiration and attainment. We have all
felt the impulse of Greeley’s wise advice, “Go west,
young man.” Not only do we want to be in the West
ourselves, but every state and every country wants to be
a part of the West. Probably the only countries that do
not claim to be West are India and China. Japan no
longer admits herself as being eastern, but now claims to
be the West, to say nothing of the western pretensions of
the remainder of the world, from New York to Petrograd.
But regardless of the claims of others, there is in the minds
of the American people but one West and that is the great

egion lying between the one-hundredth meridian and the
acific Ocean. In this book we shall deal exclusively with
this territory, comprising the western parts of the Dakotas,
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, and the whole
* the eleven states of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New
aexico, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, Washington,
Oregon, and California.

TOPOGRAPHY

With the exception of some areas in the extreme west
od southwest, all of the territory considered under the
, neral term of “The West,’ as used in this book, lies at

4 Western Live-stock Management

an altitude of 2000 feet or more. The 2000-foot contour
line runs north and south through the United States fol-
lowing almost accurately the one-hundredth meridian and
it is only a short distance west of that line to the 3000-foot
contour and east to the 1000-foot contour. (See Fig. 1.)

Fic. 1. — Altitude Map of United States.

A high altitude, however, is about the only feature of topog-
raphy which is nearly universal in this region. There is
every possible variation of surface; immense plains almost
absolutely level, rolling hills, and the wildest and most
rugged mountains. The soil varies from the richest and
deepest to solid rock. Generally speaking, however, the
soil of the West, wherever the country is not too rough and
rocky for tillage, is of extreme richness, whether it be in
the lower valleys or on the rolling hills.

The West 5

CLIMATE

The most noticeable feature of western climate is the
limited rainfall, which is fairly well indicated in the ac-
companying map (Fig. 2). It will be noted that with
the exception of those parts of Oregon and Washington
lying to the west of the Cascade Mountains, almost this

Fia. 2. — Annual Rainfall of the United States.

entire region has less than 20 inches of rainfall, while
some parts, as in southern Nevada and Arizona, have even
less than 10 inches. This dry climate, combined with
the high altitude, tends to make the summers rather cool,
particularly at night, although it may be quite warm in
the sun during the day. The winters in such states as
Arizona and New Mexico are very mild, while farther
north, as in Montana, they are severe. The extreme dry-

6 Western Live-stock Management

ness of the atmosphere tends to counteract to a marked
extent the effects of any unusual temperature; therefore,
the climate of the West is on the whole much more pleasant
to both man and beast than in the central and eastern
part of the United States. There are but few localities
where cattle or sheep will not do reasonably well in the
open range or pasture without shelter of any kind. The
absence of extreme wet and sleety storms, such as occur
in the eastern states, makes it unnecessary to provide much
shelter, even where the temperature becomes very low. As
we approach the Pacific Coast, we reach a country in
which the climate is modified by the influence of the Japan
current. The western part of Washington and Oregon
has exceedingly mild winters and a rainfall three or four
times that in other parts of the West. The dividing line
between this humid area and the drier districts is distinct
and follows quite accurately the crest of the Cascade
Mountains as far south as the Siskiyou Mountains on the
Oregon-California boundary, and then follows the crest
of the Coast Mountains nearly to San Francisco. Along
this boundary a distance of 50 miles east and west will
take us from a region of eight or nine months’ growing
season with a rainfall of 40 to 60 inches and practically
no snow in winter to a region of not to exceed 90 days’
growing season, and a rainfall of less than 15 inches.
Midsummer is the dry season in nearly all parts of the
West, and the months of July and August have but little
rainfall, even in the humid regions of the North Pacific
Coast. The exceptions to this are western Texas, Ari-
zona, and New Mexico. In Arizona and New Mexico most
of the precipitation comes in July and August, with a sec-
ondary rainy season in midwinter, while in western Texas,
there is little regularity as to either rainfall or drouth.

The West 7

In the various discussions of live-stock raising in the
West which follow, the reader may assume that we refer
to the higher and drier districts unless otherwise indicated.

GRAZING AREAS

The West may be considered as one great grazing
ground or range. The term “range” is applied to all
the grazing lands of the West where the area is large and
the carrying capacity small. There are stockmen who

LAND IN CROPS EACH DOT REPRESENTS
1910 2 CRES

acTUAL

oor 13 TH JATHS AD OREAT
AO THE AREA IT ACPRCOENTS

zz 27er|<

FFE

ore rated eses STEPPE

restrict the use of the word to grazing areas that are not
fenced, but this definition is not generally accepted. For
example, we hear much of the “ranges” of Texas, yet
nearly all of the grazing land of that state is fenced.
The accompanying map (Fig. 3) showing the land in
crops will indicate at once the very small portion under

8 Western Live-stock Management

cultivation. That which is not under cultivation is al-
most entirely range, although there are limited areas so
exceedingly rough and mountainous or so heavily tim-
bered as to afford no grazing.

From the standpoint of ownership and legal control,
the lands of the West are of several classes, as shown by
the accompanying table :

CLASSIFICATION OF WESTERN LANDS

MIScEL-

California . | 99,617,280} 4,924,733] 20,853,637} 19,532,731| 54,306,179
Colorado .| 66,341,120] 2,614,312] 19,353,231] 13,107,681} 31,265,896

Idaho . .| 53,346,560] 1,638,479] 17,915,622} 17,719,972] 16,072,487
Montana .| 93,568,640} 1,848,113) 21,542,853} 16,104,734} 54,072,940
Nevada. .| 70,285,440) 392,387; 55,138,593} 5,287,710} 9,466,750
New Mexico} 78,401,920) 632,769) 31,298,621] 8,470,043] 38,000,487
Oregon . .| 61,188,480] 2,281,288] 16,545,522] 13,123,010] 29,238,660
Utah . «| 52,597,760] 755,370] 33,837,596] 7,449,160] 10,555,634

Washington | 72,775,040] 3,431,273] 1,750,208) 9,953,166] 57,640,393
Wyoming .| 62,460,160} 786,650) 32,255,679] 8,385,288] 21,032,543

Total . . |783,420,800/19,496,356 290,016,757|131,421,620/342,486,067

By far the larger portion still belongs to the United
States government and is therefore designated as federal
or government land. This federal land may be sub-
divided as reserved and unreserved.

Reserved lands.

The reserved land is mostly Forest Reserve, which is
grazed only by the possessors of permits obtained by
application to the Forest Supervisor. In the allotment
of these permits, preference is given to ranchmen owning

The West 9

improved ranches in or near the Forest Reserves. Second
preference is given old users of the range who reside at a
distance. Last consideration is given new non-resident
owners. The fees for grazing are not the same on all
ranges, but for year-long permits are usually within the
following limits :

Sheep, 15-16 cents a head a year
Cattle, 60-64 cents a head a year
Horses, 75-80 cents a head a year
Swine, 36-38 cents a head a year

For a grazing period of less than a year, the charge
for a month is about one-tenth of the annual fee. Since
the Forest Ranges include most of the higher elevations,
the year-long permits are confined to the Southwest,
while in the northern states the permits are usually for
less than six months, and commonly for only four. When
the Forest Reserves were first established, there was much
friction between the Range officials and the stockmen,
but the system has finally been adjusted so as to be
reasonably fair to all, and the stockmen now have much
better control over their grazing lands than under the
open range system. The Forest officials act largely in
codperation with the local stockmen’s associations and
the stockmen know definitely what they may expect.

The 210,000,000 acres of Forest Reserve pay no taxes,
but 35 per cent of the receipts goes to the counties in
which the range is located for the construction of roads
and trails anywhere within the county and 10 per cent
for roads and trails exclusively within the Reserve. In
this way, they help support the local governments, al-
though to a much less extent than if they were deeded
lands subject to the usual rates of taxation.

10 Western Live-stock Management

Beside the Forest Reserves, some small areas are re-
served as Indian Reservations, power sites, and the like.
Grazing on Indian Lands is under control of the Indian
agents, while the power sites are subject to no grazing
regulations.

Deeded lands.

A considerable part of the grazing lands belongs to
private owners. Some of this land is owned by stock-
men and some by timber companies, road companies,
and other large interests. The grazing lands belonging
to stockmen are mostly under fence. The lands belong-
ing to the big commercial corporations have in most cases
been held for other purposes than grazing, and until re-
cently have been grazed by anyone who wished to do so.
Within the last few years many of these lands have been
leased or sold to stockmen and are being fenced. By
far the largest area of deeded range is in Texas, where there
are no Forest Reserves and no government land. When
Texas joined the Union, she retained the ownership of
all her unoccupied lands, and has since sold or leased
them to stockmen.

Unappropriated lands.

The unappropriated lands are those which have not
been reserved by the national government for forest or
other purposes and which have not yet been considered
of sufficient value to be worth homesteading. Anyone
may use these unappropriated lands for grazing or for
any other purpose, but cannot legally prevent anyone
else from using them by fencing or in any other way
except by the ownership of all the available water. If

The West 11

there is no water on any given area, the only person who
can use it is the man who has water on his own land near
enough to supply his stock. There is still in the West
290,000,000 acres of this “free” range, but it is not as
much of a gift as it looks. Owing to the lack of rains,
the grass grows only a short time; however, since the
mature grass cures down into a good feed, satisfactory
grazing may be obtained at any time of the year that
the ground is not covered with snow, providing the
grass was not all eaten off as fast as it came through.
With free range, no one has control and consequently
the man who tries to save a little grass for the dry season
or winter may be only saving it for the other fellow.
Consequently, everyone gets what he can while it is grow-
ing and during the dry season may have to do without.
This necessitates feeding an undue amount of hay, makes
poor stock, and eventually ruins the grass.

Most of the deeded lands outside of Texas were ob-
tained from the government by the Homestead Act.
Smaller amounts have been obtained under the Swamp
Act, Timber and Stone Act, Desert Act, Script, Lieu
Lands Act, and various other acts or laws providing for
the taking up of government land. At the present time
the Homestead Act is the only one applicable to any
large areas.

Winter and summer ranges.

Summer ranges are those on which the grazing is best
in midsummer. Such ranges are found almost entirely
in the mountains where the winter snows are deep, and
since these higher elevations are mostly in the Forest
Reserves, a map of the National Forests is a crude map of
the summer ranges. The grass is very dry in the lower

12 Western Live-stock Management

plains and valleys during July and August, and in this
season all ranchmen run their stock in the mountains if
possible. Green grass in midsummer is very helpful to
all kinds of live-stock, but is imperative for ewes and
lambs, hence the very keen interest of the sheepmen in
the administration of the Forest Reserves. Owing to
severe spring and fall storms in the mountains, the sea-
son on the summer ranges is rarely longer than four or
five months.

Winter ranges are those on which the grazing is best in
the winter or in the spring and fall. The term “winter
range” is used throughout the West, but about the only
place where the grass is really best in midwinter is in
certain parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Elsewhere
“spring and fall” range would describe the condition more
accurately, since outside of the mountains and high
mountain valleys the best grazing is at these seasons. If
the grass is allowed to mature and the snowfall is light,
it will furnish fair feed all winter. The sage-brush and
other shrubs will also help, especially with hungry sheep,
but outside of Arizona and New Mexico, these ranges
cannot be depended on to carry the stock through the
winter unless supplemented with hay. The usual system
is four months on hay in the winter, two months spring
grazing on the lower altitudes, or “winter ranges,” four
months in the mountains on the “summer range,” and
then back on the “winter range” for two months’ fall
grazing. There are some exceptions to this but in no case
does the stock run on the same land throughout the year.

Range grasses.

Most of the ranges outside of the mountains are cov-
ered with sage-brush, especially in the more northern

The West 13

regions, while to the south the sage-brush is replaced
by the chaparral and other similar shrubs. Scattered
through it all is some grass, the species varying with the
locality. In these dry climates there is a marked tend-
ency for the grass to grow in clumps or bunches instead
of scattering over the entire surface as a sod. This
bunching tendency gives the name of “bunch-grass” to
the grasses grown in such a climate. The name “bunch-
grass,” therefore, is not the name of any particular species
or variety. The feed on western ranges is not confined to
the grasses, but is supplemented by the innumerable
weeds and shrubs. In the mountains there is a great
abundance of miscellaneous plants which afford some
grazing.’ In the lower altitudes the stock eat little ex-
cept grass during the summer, but consume large quan-
tities of sage-brush and other browse in the winter when
the grass is all gone or covered with snow.

Carrying capacity.

The western ranges are at the best of low carrying
capacity, but the enormous area makes up for the small
production of each acre. An apparently large ranch in
the range country may support but a limited amount of
stock and produce only a very moderate income.

The extent to which the Forest Reserves of the West
are grazed is shown by the accompanying table:

1 The number of these forage plants, as well as of the grasses,
is too great to permit discussion of them in this book. Readers
desiring more complete information of range plants should refer
to such works as ‘‘ Western Grazing Grounds,”’ by W. C. Barnes,
or to the various technical bulletins put out by the United
States Department of Agriculture and by the experiment stations
of the western states.

Western Live-stock Management

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The West 15

In this table it must be remembered that the carrying
capacity of the Reserves is figured on the basis of the
total area and no deductions are made for those parts
which are so rough or so heavily timbered that no graz-
ing is possible. The heaviest timbered areas are found
toward the North Pacific Coast where the rainfall is
greatest. The Washington Reserves are nearly all in the
rain belt, hence the comparatively low grazing capacity
shown in the table. The roughest Reserves are found
in the heart of the Rocky Mountains, as in Montana.
The carrying capacity of the various sections is illus-
trated in the following tabulation concerning the Re-
serves of Oregon. The Coast Mountains are in a region
of excessive rainfall and very heavy timber. The Cascade
Mountains are partly in this belt, but extend over into
the semi-arid section. Eastern Oregon, on the other
hand, is in the typical semi-arid region of ten to twenty
inches of rain and so has much less timber and much more
grass.

Outside of the heaviest timber and roughest mountains,
about thirty to forty acres of mountain or forest range
will be required for each cow. This is summer range only.
In addition, grazing on the lower hills and plains or “win-
ter ranges”’ must be provided for spring and fall. In the
regions of fifteen inches or more rainfall, ten to fifteen
acres will support a cow during this season, while twenty-
five to fifty acres will be needed where the rainfall is only
ten inches. If no hay is used for winter, another twenty-
five to fifty acres is needed. Under favorable conditions
one ton of hay and a total of forty acres of grass will
support a cow. Selected tracts might do a little better
than this. On the other hand, there are thousands of
cattle in the West that require more than one hundred

16 Western Live-stock Management

GrRazInG ON NATIONAL ForRESTS OF OREGON

CaTrLE
Eavtv- | Acres
CATTLE ALENT PER
NaTIonaL Forest Net AREA AND SHEEP (Six Cow
Horses SHEEP |Equiva-
To ONE | LENT

Cow)
Siskiyou 981,949} 4,000) 3,000) 4,500/218.21
Siuslaw F 544,396} 1,200) 4,000) 1,267/429.67
Total, Coast Mts. . . 1,526,345] 5,200! 7,000} 5,767|264.67
Oregon . [1,030,132] 2,000) 30,000} 7,000)147.16
Santiam -| 588,336 300; 24,000} 4,300/136.82
Cascade . {1,019,737 900| 33,000} 6,400/159.33
Umpqua 3 949,052] 1,000} 12,000) 3,000|/316.35
Total, Cascade Mts. . |3,587,257/ 4,200; 99,000) 20,700;173.30
Crater 748,960) 8,000} 10,000} 9,667) 77.48
Deschutes 804,794; 3,000) 43,000) 10,167] 79.16
Fremont 779,941) 11,000)105,000} 18,500) 42.16

Klamath : 5,640
Malheur - |1,057,842| 24,000)130,000|} 45,667) 23.16
Minam 400,767} 10,500, 60,500) 20,583) 19.47
Ochoco 716,576) 10,000)107,000} 27,833] 25.17
Paulina. 802,144

Umatilla . 490,884} 11,000) 77,000) 23,833] 20.59
Wallowa 999,260} 15,000)120,000) 35,000} 28.59
Wenaha 429,462} 10,000)100,000| 26,667) 16.11
Whitman . 877,540} 8,300/113,500] 27,217] 32.25
Total, eastern Oregon. |8,113,810/110,800|866,000/245,134] 33.10

acres a head. Six sheep consume about as much feed as
a cow, while a horse will need slightly more.

Homesteaders.

The statement is often made that the open ranges of
the West are a thing of the past and that the homesteader
has taken them all up and put them under the plow.

The West 17

The map showing the area under cultivation contradicts
these statements. On the eastern slope of the Rocky
Mountains there have been large areas put under the
plow in the last fifteen years, but west of the Rocky
Mountains there have been but comparatively small
changes in.the cultivated area for twenty or twenty-five
years. It is true that much land has been homesteaded
in that time, but very few of these homesteads are under
cultivation. In fact, a very large proportion of the home-
steaders who have not “proved up” are not expecting to
stay any longer than necessary to obtain title to the
land, and those who have “ proved up” and obtained their
patent have moved away and their land has been either
abandoned or sold or leased to the ranchmen. The pro-
cess of putting the range lands under cultivation is, there-
fore, going very slowly. The lands now untaken are,
for the most part, so rough and rocky as to be absolutely
impossible of cultivation. This is especially true of some
of the better grazing lands. On the other hand, there
are areas small in extent, as compared with the whole
area of the unappropriated lands, yet containing several
million acres of fairly good soil, comparatively level,
which can be plowed and seeded with the minimum of
expense; but these lands are either very dry or very
frosty or both, and so far no one has developed a system
of farming that will make them produce a profitable crop.
The development of the science of dry-farming has al-
ready put under the plow thousands of acres formerly
considered worthless and it is possible that these remain-
ing areas of tillable land may some day be farmed, but
it will require the use of crops or methods at present un-
known. This, however, applies only to the tillable area.
The big areas of the range cannot be plowed and are suit-

18 Western Live-stock Management

able for grazing only. The Homestead law has been a
remarkable instrument as applied to the tillable portions
of the United States, but with its present limitations, it
is not applicable to the grazing lands of the West, where
it requires from fifteen up to 150 acres to support a steer
through the grazing season. Under the Homestead Act,
the applicant is given 160 acres of land in return for liv-
ing on the same for a term of years, and putting a certain
portion under cultivation. All of the desirable lands
have been taken up and put under private ownership by
this method, but with the remaining untillable areas
where 160 acres of land will not support to exceed ten
head of cattle, and probably in extreme cases only one or
two, the homestead act is not applicable, since there is
no way in which the homesteader can make a living rais-
ing stock on the amount of land allotted him. Recently
the homesteads have been enlarged to 320 acres in many
parts of the West, but this does not make any material
change in the situation, since even 320 acres is far from
enough to support a family in the range stock business.
With the land now being homesteaded, the homesteader
does not pretend to make a living on his land, but rather
by employment obtained elsewhere. The desirability
of a homestead is now dependent more on available em-
ployment than on the value of the land. It was expected
that by developing a farm home, the applicant should
render the community a valuable service and in return
he should receive the title to his land. At present he does
not develop a home, and consequently renders the gov-
ernment no service, although he is obliged to live where
he should not live and to cultivate land which should
not be cultivated, thus undergoing bitter hardships and
deprivations, which do no one any good, but really much

Puate J. — Cuear Grass Is THE Basis or WESTERN LIVE-
stock PrRopucTIoN.

The West 19

harm, since the community is deprived of much of the
homesteader’s labor, while his children are deprived of
the social and educational advantages to which they are
justly entitled.

Range improvement.

Most of the range grasses reproduce by seed and if
eaten down so close that they never mature seed, they are
finally killed out. On the other hand, if they have a.
chance to grow and produce mature seed, they will hold
their own indefinitely. Fortunately, after the seed has
matured and shattered out, the remaining dry grass
makes a good feed, and thus no grazing need be lost.
The Forest Service and the various state experiment
stations have conducted many investigations into the re-
establishment of the ranges and have obtained splendid
results from what they call the “deferred grazing”’ sys-
tem. This is simply holding the stock off until after the
grass has made seed and then turning them on and letting
them eat the grass and tramp the seed into the ground.
In order properly to take care of the stock, the range
is divided into four parts and grazing deferred on one
part this year, on another the next, and thus rotating so
as to defer the grazing on each part once in four years.
There is no loss of feed by this system and the ranges are
greatly improved. Results are not only cheaper but better
obtained by this method than by artificial seeding or by
keeping stock off for a whole year.

Legal difficulties.

Cheap and effective as the deferred grazing system is,
it cannot be applied to the government lands. With

20 Western Live-stock Management

“free” range, there is no way to keep the cattle off until
the seed matures and the ranges must constantly de-
teriorate. Furthermore, these 290,000,000 acres of un-
appropriated lands contribute no taxes to the support of
either county, state, or national government, but are sup-
plied with schools and roads from taxes on other land
and property. In many western counties, 75 per cent
or more of the land is unappropriated and the taxes on
the remaining 25 per cent are necessarily very heavy.
The stockmen themselves are helpless in the matter and
are in no way responsible for these disastrous results.
On the contrary, the blame is due to the laws which force
this situation on the West, and these laws are in turn due
to Congress which is finally responsible to the people
of the United States —in other words, you and me.
The vast bulk of our population live in the cities and in
the eastern parts of the United States, where land values
are high and where a thousand or two thousand acres of
land is a princely fortune. They cannot realize that a
thousand acres of this range will not in most cases sup-
port a family and they feel that when the federal gov-
ernment gives the homesteaders 160 or 320 acres, the gov-
ernment is already being grafted out of “good farms.”
Then to add to this feeling, there has been the great agita-
tion for intensified farming. and the ten-acre farm has
been praised in song and story until the public was ready
to believe that ten acres anywhere would support a
family if “farmed right.”

Within the last year or two, the pendulum of public
opinion has started in the other direction and it is pos-
sible that we may shortly be able to get a careful and un-
biased judgment on the matter. The remedy must be
a legal one and must make it possible for the stockmen

The West 21

to adopt better methods of range management. In a
general way there are three possible methods of pro-
cedure. First, to sell the land to the highest bidder;
second, to lease it to the stockmen, either as a direct lease
of certain areas or by grazing under permit as is now
the case in the National Forests; third, to permit the
homesteading of the land in quantities sufficiently large
to support a family and to induce settlers actually to take
up the land. The stockmen would prefer one of the first
two and doubtless from the general good of the country,
one or the other of these methods would be best. The
third, however, or some modification of it, is apparently
most likely to get through Congress, since it would do
most to put the land into the hands of the man with
nomoney. The stockmen now on the ground have almost
all used their homestead rights. The land would, there-
fore, have to be taken up by new persons. The western
homesteaders do not have and cannot get the money to
stock up these ranges; they are by training and natural
ability not adapted to the range stock business; and the
minute a patent for the land would be obtained, it would
be on the market with the stockmen as possible pur-
chasers. The stockmen would eventually get it but the
buying and selling would be a. cut-throat game on both
sides. The proper use of this land often depends so much
on the ownership or control of adjoining lands that many
factors other than the actual productive value of the land
itself would enter into the deal, sometimes to the ad-
vantage of the stockman and just as often to the advan-
tage of the homesteader. In the long run, things would
probably work out all right but the stock business would
be much demoralized for a period of several years. If such
a homestead system be adopted, the homesteads must be

22 Western Live-stock Management

large if the law is to be effective. At the present mo-
ment, there is a law before Congress for a 640-acre grazing
homestead. Six hundred and forty acres is too small and
if such a law be passed, it will not affect any large por-
tion of the range lands. If, however, the ranges were
classified and the homestead in each case made large
enough to support a family, whether that be two sections
-or ten, the law would really be effective. Another way
in which the result might be reached more cheaply and
quickly would be to fix the size of the homestead taken
the first year at one section, those taken the second year
at two sections, the third year, three sections, and so on
until all of the land was taken. This would leave the
classification to the judgment of the homesteader and
he could take his choice whether he would homestead a
section the first year or wait until the next and get two
sections of what was left by that time.

The leasing system would put the range under control
with the least difficulty. It would not involve a vast
shifting of population as would be required by home-
steading or the enormous influx of capital and outflow
of interest which the sale of the land would necessitate.
The men who are now in the country, the men who have
already built homes and roads and schools, would be given
a positive control of the land they now use in the sup-
port of their families. For this they would pay a small
annual rental, a sum within their means, and a sum for
which they would receive immediate and compensating
returns. On the other hand the rental in the public
treasury would be most useful in the further building of
roads and schools and in the general support of the com-
munity, whereas under the present system, these 290
million acres must have roads and schools and a general

The West 23

government, but do not contribute a dollar for the sup-
port of the same.

After the land is once under control, regardless of the
method by which this result is obtained, improved methods
of management may be expected. Deferred grazing will
be practiced to improve the grass, while fencing will re-
duce the cost of handling, lessen the amount of range re-
quired, permit the use of better stock, and lastly give a
permanence and stability which the industry does not
now possess.

CULTIVATED AREAS

According to the latest available statistics put out by
the United States Department of Agriculture in the 1915
Yearbook, there are in the eleven states lying entirely
within the region under discussion, a total of nineteen
million acres of land actually in crop. The significance
of these figures is shown by the fact that these eleven states
comprise nearly one-half the total area of the United
States, yet from the standpoint of cultivated lands, there
are three states of the Union any one of which contains
more land actually in crop than the entire eleven states
of the West. For example, Kansas alone contains almost
twenty million acres of land in crops, while Illinois and
Towa each contain a little more than twenty million acres.

The cultivated areas of the West are of three distinct
classes: irrigated, dry-farm, and humid. The irrigated
sections comprise small scattered valleys always of limited
area. The chief crop in these irrigated valleys is alfalfa,
although considerable grain is grown in some sections
together with fruit of various kinds. These valleys are
perhaps best known for their fruit production but from
the standpoint of real importance, either as money or

24 Western Live-stock Management

acreage, alfalfa is by far the biggest crop. The dry-farm
sections are farmed under the dry-farm system, which is
essentially summer fallow and careful tillage adapted to
using two years’ moisture for the growing of one crop.
These lands are largely on the rolling hills which have a
good soil and an annual rainfall of twelve to twenty
inches. The largest dry-farm areas are found in the

ALFALFA ACREAGE EACH DOT REPRESENTS
2,000 ACRES

Fia. 4.

eastern parts of Montana, in the Columbia Basin in
eastern Oregon and Washington, and in the central val-
leys of California. The big crop in the large dry-farm
areas, and in fact very commonly the exclusive crop, is
wheat. In some places rye is grown as a hay or forage
crop, and farther south the sorghums, milo maize and
similar drouth-resistant plants are grown as a feed for
stock. These areas, however, must be considered very
largely as wheat-growing districts and they produce live-
stock only on a limited scale, with the exception of horses.

The West 25

Large numbers of fine horses are raised and used on the
wheat ranches.

The humid district is confined to the western part of
‘Washington and Oregon, with the larger portion of the
good tillable land in the latter state. Since this humid
section is confined to one small locality, and isolated from
the remainder of the country by a great mountain range,
it is not of so much interest to most persons of the West,
as are the alfalfa and dry-farm sections which are scat-
tered over a much larger area. This humid section, how-
ever, does comprise about 15 per cent of the tillable
land of the West. It is a region of immense variety from
the agricultural standpoint, and practically every crop
grown in the temperate zone is grown here in commer-
cial quantities. The chief crops are hay, grain, and pas-
ture, while the chief live-stock industry is dairying and
farm sheep. Fine pure-bred stock are especially nu-
merous and this region must be considered as the breeding
ground of the West.

DISTRIBUTION OF LIVE-STOCK

The distribution of live-stock is perhaps best shown by
the maps (Fig. 5). In a general way cattle and sheep
are well distributed throughout the western country, and
all of the grazing area supports more or less of these
animals. There are very few sections which are exclu-
sively cattle or exclusively sheep, although in a general
way the regions having the greenest and best grass in the
summer time attempt to raise the larger number of sheep,
while the regions that are comparatively dry and have
little green grass are more largely devoted to cattle.
There are but few beef cattle raised entirely on cultivated

26 Western Live-stock Management

land and almost no sheep except in the Willamette Val-
ley. Horses are scattered throughout all parts. As the
range-men and the farmers all have to use a large number

STEERS AND BULLS
CH DOT ESENTS
NUMBER, 1910 ACH por snePae EN’

EnfE
id

é
zt

SEEET PELE! 3

cer
vole el

140:
‘Dab. | 130193

of horses, the distribution is fairly uniform, but they are
slightly more numerous where agriculture is better de-
veloped and a large amount of farm work done. Hogs
are confined strictly to the cultivated districts and the
same is true with dairy cattle. Hogs and dairy cattle
go together in the West, while the close connection be-
tween hogs and beef cattle which we find in the Corn-
Belt does not exist here.

LIVE-STOCK MARKETS

A large part of the West is tributary to the big live-
stock markets of the eastern states and much of the
stock has an eastward drift to the markets of the Missouri

The West 27

River, Chicago, and finally on toward the eastern ports
of New York ‘and Boston, some of the meat even going
across the Atlantic to the big consuming centers of Eu-
rope. The general drift of all live-stock from the Rocky
Mountains, and to some extent from west of that region,
is eastward, in other words, from the centers of produc-
tion toward the centers of consumption. In the western
country, there are certain local centers of consumption
which take a portion of the live-stock. These centers
are Seattle, Portland, Spokane, San Francisco, and Los
Angeles, of which the larger are Portland, Seattle, and
San Francisco. Portland, Spokane, and Seattle handle
all the stock from Oregon and Washington and part of
the stock from Idaho and Montana. San Francisco and
Los Angeles handle the California stock and some from
Nevada. Denver is an important market but is really
a part of the eastern system and the trade is largely con-
fined to stockers and feeders on their way to the pastures
and feed lots of the Corn-Belt. The shipments of stock
vary according to the season and the kind of stock. In
the fall all kinds of stock are more abundant than at other
times. The surplus is, therefore, obliged to go to the
eastern markets. The western markets all have to com-
pete with the eastern markets along their boundary line,
and hence the prices follow eastern quotations, with such
variations as may be necessary to account for the differ-
ence in freight. These small western markets help ma-
terially, but it is the Chicago and Missouri River markets
that really fix the price. The prices of western stock are,
therefore, with a few exceptions, Chicago prices less the
expenses of shipment. In any comparison of the live-
stock industry of the West and of the central states, this
difference of price must not be forgotten.

CHAPTER II

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LIVE-STOCK PRO-
DUCTION

Tur West is essentially a live-stock country and must
remain such because of the fact that we have an immense
quantity of feed in the form of grass and hay which can-
not be used directly for support of the human race and
which must, therefore, be converted into live-stock be-
fore it can serve any useful purpose. This includes the
millions of acres of grass, the alfalfa produced in the ir-
rigation sections, and the straw, stubble, and waste from
the grain fields and meadows. On the cultivated farms
the great value of live-stock is to consume waste which
would otherwise be unmarketable, and to maintain the
fertility of the soil. About the only part of the cultivated
areas of the West in which fertility has in any way ma-
terially diminished up to date is in the humid sections of
western Oregon and Washington. In the other parts
fertility is still very high. It behooves all farmers, how-
ever, not to allow the fertility to run down, as it is much
easier to take land which is already in a good state of
fertility and maintain it as such, than to take land which
is run down and attempt to restore it.

BREEDING

The production of live-stock depends on two things:
first, the ability of the animals to multiply or increase
their kind, and secondly, their ability to grow, in other

General Principles of Live-stock Production 29

words, to convert feed into flesh. The general science of
reproduction is indicated under the head of “animal
breeding” and the converting of feed into flesh and fat
as “nutrition.” The science of breeding is too extended
to take up in this brief space. The essential point which
must always be observed is the old law of, “like begets
like”: that is, that good breeding stock produces good
offspring, and that poor breeding stock produces poor
offspring, subject of course to many variations, as the
offspring is seldom the exact duplicate of the parents.
There are many mysteries connected with breeding, but
from the standpoint of the practical man on the farm,
the whole procedure is really based on the one proposition
of “like begets like.” The difference between the suc-
cessful breeder and the unsuccessful breeder lies largely
in the ability of the successful man to know and to judge
accurately the kind of stock which he wants to produce,
whereas the failure of the other is largely in his inability
to decide accurately the kind of stock which he wishes.
In other words, it is largely a question of judging, and of
knowing the live-stock. Good breeders are good judges,
and the farmer or ranchman who wishes to be a suc-
cessful breeder must first of all become an expert judge.
All the science in the world will not make a successful
breeder of a poor judge. On the other hand many good
judges have been successful breeders without great sci-
entific knowledge of breeding and often, in fact, handi-
capped by more than useless superstitions.

NUTRITION
Nutrition includes all the processes by which food ma-
terial is converted into flesh and fat. The science of
breeding is concerned with the increase in numbers of

30 Western Live-stock Management

live-stock, while nutrition is concerned with growth and
development of the individual. It is too large a subject
to be handled in the space now available but is none the
less worthy of careful consideration on the part of the
stockman. The cattle- or sheep-man running stock on
the range does not have so great a need for a scientific
knowledge of feeding, but everyone running stock on the
farm where much hay, grain, or silage is used will find
it much to his advantage to have a fair knowledge of sci-
entific feeding and especially of nutritive ratios, feeding
standards, and the compounding of rations. A list of
suitable bulletins and books along this line may be ob-
tained by writing to any agricultural college.

DIFFERENT STOCK COMPARED

The different kinds of live-stock vary greatly in the
returns which they give for every hundred pounds of di-
gestible matter which they consume in their feed. For
example, a hundred pounds of digestible matter fed to a
good dairy cow will give a product of at least twice the
money value that would be obtained from the same amount
of feed fed to a fattening steer. Likewise the amount of
edible solids suitable for human consumption produced
by the dairy cow will be very much higher than that pro-
duced by the steer. The pig also produces a very high
return both in human food and the money value of the
product; every hundred pounds of digestible nutrients
compares in this way very favorably with the dairy cow.
The sheep, on the other hand, gives a relatively low re-
turn for each hundred pounds of digestible matter con-
sumed, although he, as a rule, brings slightly higher re-
turns than does the steer. The horse is of course not a

General Principles of Live-stock Production 31

food-producing animal but the gain made on a hundred
pounds of feed by a growing colt is possibly even lower
than from the steer. These figures are very generally
used by the boosters of the dairy and hog industry as
evidence that the dairy cow or the pig is a very much
more profitable animal than the steer or sheep. The
amount of digestible nutrients required, however, to make
a hundred pounds of gain is only one side of the question.

In all animals there is a very great difference in the
proportion of feed which must be derived from concen-
trates as compared with the proportion which is derived
from the roughages and pastures. For example, beef
cattle, range horses, and range sheep can be and are raised
very successfully and profitably without the use of any
concentrates whatever. Even farm sheep will use but a
very small amount of grain, deriving practically all of
their sustenance from hay and pasture. This is very
significant in view of the fact that one hundred pounds
of digestible nutrients from grain will cost $1.50 to $2;
from hay about 50 cents to 75 cents; and from pasture,
5 cents to 25 cents. The pig must derive as much as 75
to 90 per cent of his sustenance from the grains or concen-
trates. The dairy cow requires less concentrates than the
hog, and on the other hand very much more than beef
cattle and sheep.

Another very important factor in grazing countries is
the extent to which these animals can utilize the pastures
and ranges. For example, we find that horses, beef
cattle, and sheep are sometimes run on range the year
round, and derive their entire support from this source
without the use of any other feed whatever. This is not
the general custom, since they are usually given some feed
for winter, but probably from two-thirds to three-fourths

32 Western Live-stock Management

of their sustenance even under these conditions is derived
from the range. On the other hand, the range has no
value for hogs or dairy cattle, and if the live-stock indus-
try was confined to these two kinds of stock, all of the im-
mense areas of range and pasture land would go unutilized.
Both the dairy cattle and hogs can use some pasture, but
it must be of exceptional quality, such as is produced on
the tillable lands and not the scattering bunch-grass and
sage-brush found upon the ranges.

The labor necessary in proportion to the gross income,
or in proportion to the capital invested, is very small
with horses and beef cattle as compared with dairy cattle,
while sheep and hogs occupy an intermediate place. One
man can take care of beef cattle to the value of perhaps
$20,000, while $1000 invested in good grade dairy cows
will give him all the work he can take care of. With
sheep he could probably handle an investment of $3000
to $5000 and with hogs about the same.

The relative advantages and disadvantages of the
various kinds of stock are also affected by their prolificacy
and by their quickness of maturity. The time elapsing
from the date at which the females are bred until the
progeny are of marketable age is about as follows: hogs,
9 months; sheep, 12 months; beef cattle, 3 to 4 years;
horses, 5 to 6 years. The offspring of 100 head of fe-
males of breeding age will average in twelve months as
follows: Hogs (2 litters), 1000; hogs (1 litter), 500;
sheep, 85; cattle, 70; horses, 50. This of course has
much bearing on the relative investment in breeding-
stock and the percentage of income from it. With horses
the gross income on the investment in stock will be about
20 per cent per annum, while with hogs it will be about
700 per cent. All of these factors must be considered in

General Principles of Live-stock Production 33

determining the ultimate advantages and disadvantages
of these various kinds of live-stock. When the chief
resource of the community is range, the industry must
of necessity be either horses, beef cattle, or sheep, and
cannot be dairy cattle or hogs. On the other hand, on
cultivated ground where land is high priced and feed of
extra quality, dairy cows and pigs will be more likely to
return a satisfactory profit.

From the standpoint of the individual, the man who
desires a profitable investment for any considerable amount
of money will usually find a greater profit in range cattle
or sheep. On the other hand, the man who has very
limited capital and whose chief resource is his own labor,
can invest this labor to much better advantage in some
industry like dairying.

Some of these industries lend themselves to operation
on a large scale while others must be limited. Beef cattle
and sheep may be handled by the thousand, while very
few dairies have proved profitable where there are more
than forty or fifty cows. Hogs likewise cannot be kept
on too large a scale. Hogs will consume many waste
products and the chief profit in these animals is found to
come from that source. While practically every farmer
anywhere in the West can raise a few hogs at a profit,
there are very few who have been able to make a financial
success of raising hogs as an exclusive business, since under
this plan they are obliged to allow a market value for all
feed consumed, and cannot compete with the man who
raises his hogs on feeds that would otherwise be wasted.
Horses also are rarely raised on a large scale, but are more
commonly produced on the farm where the mares do some
work to help pay their keep. The farmers can in this
way produce them at a low enough price to shut out the

34 Western Live-stock Management

man who attempts to raise horses more extensively and
therefore keep a mare solely for the colt she produces.
About the only stockmen who make an exclusive business
of raising horses are those located in the range districts
where winter feed is very scarce. Range horses will stand
more hardship than any other class of stock and can be
wintered out in the hills when cattle and sheep would
starve. Horses raised in this manner, however, do not
have the size and type to compete with farm-raised
stock, and do not have much effect on the general horse
market. While the horse can live under very hard con-
ditions, the growing of good marketable stock requires
plenty of good pasture, hay, and grain, the cost of which
is partially offset by the work done by the mare. All of
these considerations must be taken into account in select-
ing the kind of stock to raise. Old residents seldom
make radical mistakes along this line, but newcomers
often undertake to raise hogs where only a Merino sheep
would live, or to raise beef where only a high-class dairy
cow would return a profit.

PART II

BEEF CATTLE

By Ermine L. Porter

CHAPTER III

BEEF PRODUCERS OF THE WEST

BE«EF cattle are found in considerable numbers in every
state of the Union and in every country on the globe. In
the United States they are most abundant in the Missis-
sippi Valley and on the eastern slope of the Rocky Moun-
tains. There are not as many cattle to a square mile in
the West as in the central states, but more per capita of
population, so that a very large proportion of the people
of the West are concerned with the production of cattle.
It must also be remembered that the West produces more
cattle than it consumes and must market its surplus in
the East. Both beef and dairy cattle are found in the
West, but the former are far the more numerous. The
dairy cattle are raised on the tillable farms while the beef
cattle are on the ranges and big pastures. In this book
we shall deal exclusively with the beef industry.

We will not burden our readers with a mass of figures
as to beef production, since up-to-date statistics may be
obtained from the census reports, the Monthly Crop
Report, and from the Yearbooks of the United States
Department of Agriculture. It should be noted, however,
that the number of cattle declined materially from 1900
to 1910, until by the latter year there was a shortage of
cattle. Prices had been low but with the shortage that
developed prices went up. With better prices every effort
was made to increase the beef herds, until at the present

38 Western Live-stock Management

time the ranges and pastures are fairly well restocked, al-
though there is not yet (1916) any material increase in
the number of fat cattle being marketed. A larger supply,
however, does not seem very far in the future. There
have always been periodical fluctuations in the supply
and in the price of beef cattle and such changes must be
regarded as fluctuations to be expected and not considered
as permanent changes.

BEEF SECTIONS OF THE WEST

The raising of beef cattle may be divided into three
phases: First, the production of the calf up to the time
at which he is weaned from his mother; second, the
growing of the steer from the time the calf is weaned
until he is old enough and mature enough to fatten off
for beef; third, the fattening of the steer. Many steers
spend their entire lives up to the time of marketing on
one farm, but this is far from universal. Localities differ
in their adaptability to handling steers of the various
ages, and consequently we find a tendency to devote some
parts of the country to raising calves, others to growing
the steers, and others to fattening them. Cows and
calves demand a rather mild climate. They are, of
course, handled in countries of very severe winters, but
other things being equal, a mild winter climate is a very
marked advantage. On the other hand, exceptionally
good feed is not so important, whereas the growing steer
demands above all an abundance of good grass. He can
stand a severe winter and heavy storms. In fact, the
loss with steers, unless they actually starve to death, is
very small. A steer does not require any grain and only
about a ton of hay for winter. The fattening of steers,

Beef Producers of the West 39

however, especially if the business is conducted in the
winter time, requires a quantity of feed of exceptionally
good quality. This means either plenty of good alfalfa
hay or corn, or preferably both. The steer may be fat-
tened on grass in the summer time, providing the grassis
sufficiently good. On looking over the western country,
we find that the southern part, including particularly
Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas, has a com-
paratively mild winter climate, and on that account is
well suited to the handling of cows and calves, but on the
other hand the grass is often poor and steers mature
slowly. The eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains,
particularly the eastern parts of Colorado, Wyoming,
and Montana and the western parts of Kansas, Nebraska,
and the Dakotas, is a region of much better grass than the
Arizona and New Mexico country, but on the other hand
subject to much more severe storms. The growing
steer, such as the yearling and the two-year-old, does
better in this region than farther south. Sometimes the
grass is sufficiently good in the summer that the steers
may be shipped directly from the range to the slaughtering
centers, but often it is necessary to put them through some
definite fattening process. This region does not produce
very good fattening feeds; consequently the industry of
fattening steers is centered largely in the states farther
east, that is, in the Corn-Belt. The southern part of
the West, i.e., Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas,
is largely devoted to the raising of calves, which are sold
at an age of about twelve months to the cattle-men farther
north, along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.
These men keep the cattle for one or two more years, and
if they become fat in that time they are sent directly to
the markets on the Missouri River or at Chicago, or in

40 Western Live-stock Management

case they are not fat they go to the feeders in the Corn-
Belt, and there, after three to six months, they are sent
to the big markets. Not all of the cattle, however, are
transferred in this manner, and as stated before, many
are born, grown, and finished on the same farm. Es-
pecially is this true of Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and
California. This region is more varied in its agricultural
and grazing conditions, and the tendency is much greater
to raise and finish the steer on the same farm. Another
factor is that the western markets handle much of the
beef produced in these states, which means that the cattle
cannot very well be shipped to the Corn-Belt for finish-
ing, but this must be accomplished somewhere in the
Northwest. In the northwestern country such immense
areas of land of approximately uniform nature are not
commonly found; on the other hand, however, the sum-
mer range, spring and fall ranges, winter ranges, and
alfalfa are found well mixed together, often all within a
very few miles. Hence, the Northwest is not only adapted
to the grazing, growing, and finishing of the steer on the
same farm, but is especially adapted to the small stock-
man, handling from 50 up to 400 or 500 head, and is
much less adapted to the big outfit, running cattle by the
thousands.

RANGE CATTLE

The range cattle-man’s business varies slightly in dif-
ferent parts of the West, but generally speaking, his
equipment and operation will be about as follows: He
will own a considerable tract of land, usually scattered
over a large area, so as to cover most of the available water
and all of the hay land. If he has land sufficient to raise
a large amount of hay and to cover a number of streams

Beef Producers of the West 41

and springs, he can in this way control the use of a large
area of outside range for which he has no legal title. In
addition to controlling a large tract of government land,
the cattle-man may run some of his stock on the Forest
Reserves in the summer. In the case of much of the open
range, however, no one stockman has complete control;
but instead, cattle belonging to a number of persons will
be found running together. This is true of nearly all of
the government land, whether unappropriated or Forest
Reserve.

The system of management is comparatively simple.
During the summer the cattle are run on the range, mainly
in the higher and more inaccessible districts. Wherever
possible, the cattle are worked from the lower to the
higher altitudes as summer approaches, so that by June
or July they are on the high mountain pasture where the
grass is green in midsummer but where the grazing season
is very short. As fall comes the cattle are moved down to
lower altitudes where the season is longer and where in
some cases the cattle may graze all winter. They are
given little care except occasionally to give them salt and
to see that they do not stray too far away. One man will
look after several hundred cattle. Practically no attempt
is made in the way of herding. In some cases there is
a little line riding; that is, guarding a certain line to
prevent the cattle from going into some district where
they are not wanted, or perhaps to keep them from stray-
ing into the Forest Reserve when no permit has been
granted. In the fall of the year the cattle are rounded
up; that is, the entire district is carefully ridden over, all
the cattle gathered together at one or more central points.
At this time those that are to be sold are separated and
sent to market. Sometimes the cattle are rounded up in

42 Western Live-stock Management

a certain district two or three times during the fall; in
other cases, there will only be one round-up at this sea-
son. It is usually necessary for several men to get to-
gether in order to collect their cattle. When the round-up
is over, the cattle which are not to be sold or taken into
some other range or pasture are turned loose again. The
round-up also gives opportunity for each man to separate
his cattle from the others and for branding the calves.
When winter comes, the cattle are worked down on to the
lower lands where there will perhaps be some bunch-grass
saved up for fall and winter range, or they may be put on
the meadows after the hay has been cut. On the gov-
ernment land it is practically impossible to save any grass
for winter use, but a little may be saved on the land which
belongs to the stockman and which is under fence. This
grass which has grown up in the summer and died down in
the fall makes an excellent feed when abundant, and when
the snow is not too deep provides a good and economical
method of wintering cattle. The inability of cattle-men
to control the range, however, usually makes it difficult
to save any considerable amount of grass for winter use,
and thus the stockman is obliged to feed a large amount
of hay, even when there is little snow on the ground. The
feeding of hay is put off until as late in the winter as
possible, since the cattle will not rustle for grass to any
advantage after they have once had a taste of hay. The
amount of hay used, in any case, is comparatively small.
One ton a head is the usual allowance. Most of the
hay used is wild hay, grain hay, or alfalfa. When spring
comes the calves are branded and the cattle turned out
on the lower ranges. The steers are ordinarily kept until
they are three years old, although some stockmen who
have sufficient hay for fall pasture to fatten them in the

Beef Producers of the West 43

winter will sell them off as “twos.” The range-men,
however, do not undertake a great amount of winter
fattening.

The age and weight of cattle marketed depend a great
deal on whether they are marketed for feeders or for
beef. The cattle marketed in the fall for winter-feed-
ing purposes range in weight from 900 to 1100 pounds,
with much the larger number coming between 950 and
1050. The cattle that are fat enough for beef usually
weigh between 1000 and 1300, with the larger portion
between 1100 and 1200. The ages at which cattle be-
come fat enough for beef and reach a weight of 1100 to
1200 will depend on the system of feeding. The cattle —
marketed as feeders are commonly two-year-olds, al-
though some calves and yearlings go to the Corn-Belt
for feeding purposes. The cattle marketed for beef are
sometimes twos but more commonly threes. Many
statements are heard to-day to the effect that the day of
the three-year-old is past and that the two-year-old can-
not last long. Such statements should not be taken too
literally as applied to the western country. There are
enormous districts which have plenty of grass of a low
grade, but only a limited amount of hay and no grain.
Such a country cannot produce a fat yearling at a profit,
but in order to utilize their feed and grass properly must
keep the steer until he is two or three years old. The
price of cattle also influences early maturity. When
cattle are high, the producers can afford to feed them
large amounts of hay and even grain, but when prices are
low producers are compelled to use only feeds which
have no other value, and this means the bunch-grass on
the range. Under strictly open range conditions with
only hay enough for wintering, steers at an age of about

44 Western Live-stock Management

thirty months will rarely weigh 1000 pounds or be fat
enough for beef, and hence must either be taken to
some other country or carried over another year. Of
course more hay would make the steer larger but most
of the range districts are already raising all the hay they
can and feeding it all. The very same country, how-
ever, when put under fence, will produce enough feed to
cause the larger part of the two-year-olds to become fat
and to weigh over 1000 pounds. On the open range, even
where grass is very abundant, the cattle will remain all
the season where they were first turned out and eat the
grass into the ground, although there may be fine feed a

mile or two away. They may be driven on to the good
' grass but unless held there by a fence will soon return to
the bare ground and half starve rather than change
their habits. Cattle, to do well, should be put into new
pastures at least two or three times during the season.
When this is done and some care is given to the grass,
the steers will mature approximately one year earlier
and be better cattle, but even this is far from yearling
beef or baby beef.

The reader should bear in mind that in indicating the
ages of cattle, an animal born in the spring of the year is
called a calf until the following spring, at which time he
is called a yearling. Beginning with the second spring,
he is called a two-year-old. Calves dropped in the late
fall and winter are grouped with calves dropped the fol-
lowing spring except that they are designated as “early”
calves. They are called calves until the second spring
when they are called “long” yearlings. Along in the
winter these early calves will still be called “early” calves,
although they are actually past twelve months of age.
A year later they will be called “long yearlings,” although

Beef Producers of the West 45

they are actually past twenty-four months. Late calves,
that is, those born in the summer, are classed with those
dropped that spring, but their late birth is indicated by
calling them “late” calves or “short” two-year-olds or
“short” three-year-olds as the case may be. A “short”
two is not necessarily less than two years old, but is an
animal born late in the season, that is, well along into the
summer, while a “long” two is not necessarily more
than two years old, but is a calf born very early, actually
in the late fall or in the winter.

The Hereford and the Shorthorn are the most common
breeds and practically all of the cattle of the West carry
a considerable percentage of the blood of one or both of
these breeds. A few Angus and Galloway bulls are
used, but not many. Generally speaking, the beef cattle
of the West are well bred, although there is still some
evidence of unimproved blood and in many places dairy
blood has been allowed to creep in. In Arizona, New
Mexico, and all the region east of the Rockies, the Here-
ford is by far the popular breed. In the other western
states, however, the Shorthorn is very strong and in
California, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho is fully able.to
hold its own with the Hereford. In a general way the
quality of western cattle improves as one goes north from
Mexico to Canada. Feed conditions also improve going
north and some of the better quality of cattle may be due
to better feed, but some of it must be attributed to better
breeding. In the past few years, since cattle have been
sufficiently high priced to justify the expense, the range-
men have been using many very high-class pure-bred
bulls, costing from $100 to $250 for bulls old enough for
service. In some states, as Oregon and Idaho, laws have
been passed prohibiting anyone from turning on the public

46 Western Live-stock Management

ranges any but pure-bred bulls of some recognized beef
breed. The use of these good bulls has proven very prof-
itable and to-day steers of good breeding, that is, carrying
several crosses of Hereford or Shorthorn blood, are selling
for $10 to $30 a head more than unimproved stock even
when the feed has been the same.

While there are many very large and very wealthy cattle
outfits in the West, particularly farther south, the business
is very largely in the hands of small cattle-men running
from 100 to 500 cattle and having invested a capital of
$10,000 to $50,000. While these men handle large
numbers of stock and own or control hundreds of acres
of land, the capital invested and the annual proceeds are
not so far different from the capital and income of the
general farms of the irrigated sections or of the Corn-Belt.
The profits of the business are very hard to estimate.
Most of the ranch-men have been in the business for many
years and have accumulated considerable property, both
in cattle and land. The land was in most cases obtained
for little or nothing and the cattle were raised at little
expense. The business was accomplished by much risk
and considerable hardship, but on the whole those who
have followed it for a number of years have been successful.
At the present time, these men value their real estate
rather high, and this, combined with the large amount of
hay required in the winter time, makes the expense very
heavy. Few of these men are now making more than a
moderate rate of interest on the value which they give
their holdings. The situation is also complicated by the
rapid deterioration of the range. Much land which for-
merly produced a large amount of grass now produces prac-
tically nothing, and in many places sage-brush and weeds
have almost completely taken the place of grass. This

Beef Producers of the West 47

is making the cost of wintering higher and higher, and
also tending to deteriorate the quality of beef. Never-
theless, the man who has a fairly good free range and
plenty of land for raising hay, is making very good money.
His great drawback is his inability to obtain legal title to
the range which he uses. If there were some system
whereby he might homestead or purchase this land, he
would then cut down the amount of stock and give the
land a chance to develop instead of killing it out by over-
stocking. Under the present conditions, however, there is
no incentive for the stockman to protect his range, since
the grass which he might save for his own use would be
eaten up by someone else’s cattle or sheep. Of course
the process of fencing the range has not been an unmixed
benefit. Range-men have been willing to pay a large
price for a little fenced land which they could hold in
reserve for emergency, or for land which would give con-
trol to a larger amount of outside range. This has tended
to establish prices for grass land far in excess of its actual
productive value. Then as the country develops and the
free range disappears, the cattle-man finds himself confined
to his own land with an investment so high that he cannot
pay the interest. Bunch-grass land is of course very
variable in its value, but at best it will pay interest on but
anominal price. This is shown in the following statement
of the cost of running cows under typical conditions in
the Northwest, from October to October :

Interest on $45.00 cows at 8% bo ae es ae) 83,60
Annual loss of cows 3% (of $45) . . . . 2. . 1.35
Cost of one ton of ote inthe stack . ...... 6.00
Cost of feeding one ton of hay. . . ..... . 1.00
Riding and salt . . . St) te ino a ee he 1.00
Interest and depreciation on ‘bulls | a, Uy ah Baas eB 1.00

Total without grazing . . 2. . ee ee] G13.95

48 Western Live-stock Management

Value of calfin October . . . . . . . . s+) +) «$25.00
Per cent calves at weaning . . - . « 663%
Value of calves per cow (663% of $25) Sant . . . 16.67

Margin for interest and taxes or rental on grazing land 2.72

On a typical cattle ranch of the better class of the North-
west, such as are now being put under fence, each cow will
require ten acres of extra good bunch-grass for spring and
fall and fifteen acres of mountain grass for summer or a
total of not less than twenty-five acres of grazing land
for each cow in the best localities and two to four times
this amount on the poorer lands. Of course the cost
figures vary somewhat from those given above, but not
very much. Under strictly free range conditions the per-
centage of loss is greater than the 3 per cent indicated and
the percentage of calves at weaning somewhat less. On
the other hand, with good fencing and careful management,
the loss can be cut to 2 per cent and the percentage of calves
raised to 75 or even 85 or 90 percent. Only from a herd
of carefully selected cows in the hands of a very skillful
and painstaking owner can 85 or 90 per cent calves be
obtained.

The annual cost of running calves and yearlings and
two-year-olds is about the same as that of running breed-
ing cows. With calves, the investment and the hay are
less, but they require more care and the loss is much
heavier. With yearlings and twos, the expense items do
not differ much from those with cows. About the only
item in which cows cost more than steers is in the interest
and depreciation on the bulls. The annual income is also
about the same. At the present time in the Northwest
the October prices on steers are about as follows: calves,
$25; yearlings, $40; twos, $55; thus making an annual
increase in value of about $15. Investigations into the

Beef Producers of the West 49

cost of producing cattle conducted by the writer for the
Cattle and Horse Raisers’ Association of Oregon indicate
that with present (1916) prices the average cattle-man of
the Northwest will have left as income from the grass
land after he pays interest on his cattle, on one ton of
hay to a head and other incidentals, not to exceed $2.50
a head. Therefore, the man who invests in range land
should figure that land enough for a cow will produce not
over $2.50 per annum.

The reason that the present ranges are devoted to
cattle rather than to some other form of agriculture, is
because the land is too rough to be used for anything but
cattle, sheep, or horses, and the competition of the farmer
horse-breeder has largely done away with the range
horse-men. The range is still rather evenly divided
between cattle and sheep. The chief reason for raising
cattie in preference to sheep is the absence of high moun-
tain pastures where the grass will be green throughout the
summer. This green grass is necessary for the ewes and
their lambs, but the cattle can thrive in the drier sections.
The high mountains of the Forest Reserves are especially
suitable to sheep, and would be almost exclusively devoted
to that industry were it not for the policy of the forest
officials, who prefer cattle to sheep on account of the less
damage done to young trees. The Forest Supervisor
often refuses to allow cattle-men to run sheep in place of
cattle, but will readily grant permission to make opposite
change. These are the most important factors, although
in many cases the large amount of work and worry con-
nected with the sheep business leads the stockman to take
up cattle instead; while personal preference is another

factor.

50 Western Live-stock Management

FARMER BREEDERS

Many of the more well-to-do and ambitious grain and
hay farmers in the irrigated valleys raise a few cattle in
connection with their farming operations. The cattle
will be run on the ranges or bunch-grass pastures during
the summer. Very few are pastured in midsummer on
the irrigated lands. In the fall they are brought in from
the ranges and allowed to clean up the stubble fields, which
in this semi-arid climate have a good feeding value. They
are also allowed to graze meadows after the hay is off.
In many of the hay districts the last crop of alfalfa or
clover and timothy may make excellent pasture, even
though not quite good enough to cut for hay. During
the winter the cattle are still allowed the run of the fields
and in addition have access to the straw stacks. In some
cases they have no feed other than the straw, but on the
larger number of ranches some hay is given during the
winter, particularly in the latter part of the winter and
early spring. As soon as the grass is good on the hills,
the cattle are again turned out and the farmer pays little
attention to them during the summer, devoting almost
his entire time to his farming operations. In some cases
the farmer may own range and have it fenced. In other
cases he may lease range, and in still others, several farmer
breeders may go together and hire someone to look after
the cattle out on the open range or Forest Reserve. While
there are very few large herds handled in this manner,
there are many small ones, so that the total number of
cattle raised by these breeders is considerable. The
quality of cattle raised in this way is above the average,
and many very fine steers are bred by this class of stock-
men. Where the summer grazing is not too expensive,

Beef Producers of the West 51

the profits are apparently large, since the cattle utilize
the stubble fields, straw stacks, and other material which
would otherwise be wasted, but the number which can
be kept on any farm is limited, usually from twenty-five
to one hundred. These farmers raise cattle rather than
sheep mainly because of the less care and work required.
Since cattle are handled almost entirely as a side issue,
the owners do not care to devote much labor or expense
to the industry. If sheep were raised, it would be
necessary to have a herder throughout the year, and
this in turn would necessitate a flock of perhaps 2000, a
larger number than most of the small farmers could ac-
commodate. Another factor is that the cattle seem to
make better use of the straw than do sheep.

FEEDERS

When we speak of “fattening steers,” we refer to
finishing steers on heavy feed after they have grown to a
fair degree of maturity on range or pasture. When a
steer weighs about 1000 or 1100 pounds, he is sufficiently
developed that there will be little profit in attempting to
grow him to a much greater size. The older a steer be-
comes, the slower the growth, and the larger the amount of
feed consumed. Consequently the cost of each pound of
growth increases very rapidly, and at about the weights
given (1000 or 1100 pounds) it ceases to be profitable to
proceed any further. A large number of cattle coming
in from the range at 1000 or 1100 pounds, however, are
not sufficiently fat to sell for beef at satisfactory prices
and so require to be put on full feed and fattened as
rapidly as possible.

When steers become fat on the range and are sold di-

52 Western Laive-stock Management

rectly to the butcher or packer, we seldom speak of a
separate process of fattening; but when these range
steers are taken to the farms, put into feed lots, and
kept on full feed for a few months, we speak of “fatten-
ing” them, and the men who carry on this business are
called “feeders.” In some localities the business is car-
ried on primarily with the idea of fattening cattle, which
would otherwise be in unsalable condition. More com-
monly, however, it is conducted with the idea of market-
ing surplus feeds. The larger part of the feeding takes
place in the Corn-Belt, but a considerable amount is done
in the irrigated portions of the West. Since the feed used
in the West is almost always alfalfa, the feeder is usually
a farmer who grows a quantity of alfalfa for which he
must find some market, hence he buys steers in the fall
and fattens them during the winter and sells them when
fat. Many of these feeders buy all the steers they feed
and do not raise any cattle at all. Such feeders may
have no pasture land or range. The fattening of cattle
is usually confined to the larger irrigated valleys which
produce a surplus of alfalfa which is not needed for win-
tering stock or for shipment to the cities. The details of
the feeding business will be taken up in Chapter V.

CHAPTER IV

THE BREEDING HERD

SINcE beef cattle are usually run on pasture or range
until ready to go into the feed lot, with only a little hay
for winter and no grain, the problems of beef raising re-
solve themselves very largely into problems of care and
management. It is commonly said that beef cattle are
“fed” but very little, meaning of course that little hay or
grain is given, and the animals instead are allowed to de-
pend largely on pasture or range for their living. The
popular press criticizes the cattle-men for these practices,
and is fond of telling how much better cattle could be
produced by the proper use of more hay and grain. This
is all true, but the problem of producing better cattle is
secondary to the problem of producing them cheaper so
as to leave a greater profit for the man who raises them.
With dairy cattle and hogs, the best feeding is nearly
always the cheapest. The feeder who obtains the best
gains with these animals finds that economy largely takes
care of itself. With beef cattle, however, the case is en-
tirely different. They consume more feed for what they
produce than any other kind of live-stock. The only
reason that beef is not very much more expensive than
other kinds of meat is the fact that cattle can and do
consume feeds which have little or no value for other kinds
of stock and that they require the minimum amount of
labor and attention. A beef steer requires as much food

54 Western Live-stock Management

as a dairy cow and yields about one-third the income.
To put him in the stable and feed him in the same manner
as a dairy cow would be an economic impossibility, al-
though the finest kind of beef might be produced in this
way. The beef steer cannot compete with the dairy cow
or the pig for feeds which these animals can use.

BULLS

Like nearly all male animals, bulls will last longer, have
a larger percentage of calves, and handle a larger number
of cows when they are not allowed to run with the cows at
will, but are kept up and the cows brought to them when
they come in heat. In spite of these facts, however, where
beef is raised on a large scale it seems absolutely necessary
that the bulls be allowed to run with the cows. The bad
results arising from this practice can be and are largely
overcome by providing more bulls and by using only
mature or fairly mature bulls. In many places there is
such an indiscriminate mixing of the herds that the owners
do not know whether their calves are from their own
bulls or from their neighbor’s bulls, or even from some
maverick that has escaped castration. Under these con-
ditions there is little incentive toward the use of good
sires. The range-man should, therefore, see that his
cattle are so managed that his cows, and his cows only,
are served with his bull. This may be accomplished in
three ways: codperation, line riding, and fencing, or
perhaps by all of these together. Since the range-man
seldom owns all of the land upon which he runs his cattle,
fencing cannot be generally practiced, and even when he
does own his range, the land may be so poor that the task
of fencing enough off to make grazing possible for his

The Breeding Herd 55

herd would be expensive. This, however, is rarely the
case, since the cost of fencing cattle pastures is only from
fifty cents to $1.00 an acre and if the whole country is
fenced the neighbors pay half of this. The range countries
are usually divided into sections of various size by streams,
mountains, and other topographical features, so that
cattle in one section will not stray into another. In other
cases these divisions are not complete but are nearly so;
hence a little herding at the mouth of the gulch or a few
rods of fencing may complete the division. The natural
divisions vary in size from small valleys capable of sup-
porting a few milk cows to vast prairies comprising many
counties. A single one of these districts is usually spoken
of as “a range.”’ If the ranchman has control of one of
these natural divisions of about the proper size for his
herd, be it large or small, he is fortunate; but this state
of affairs seldom exists, and as a result several men may
be obliged to run their cattle together unless separated
by fencing or line riding. By line riding is meant keep-
ing theherd in their proper territory by having riders guard
the imaginary line between ranges. Each man is given
so much of the line to ride over each day. Along well-
defined trails it may be necessary to have a man for only
a mile or two, while in other places where the cattle are
not inclined to stray, one man may be given all that he
can ride over two or three times a week. The natural
divisions of the ranges are always taken advantage of, so
it seldom is necessary to ride more than a fraction of the
boundaries of the range. Line riding is expensive but
many cattle-men find that the advantage of having their
stock to themselves more than pays for it, although
fencing is much to be preferred and.is being used wherever
possible.

56 Western Live-stock Management

When all of the men running cattle in the same territory
are progressive and on peaceable terms, they may com-
bine and agree to use only bulls of a certain grade. This
plan is hardly as successful as when each man has his
cattle to himself, but is much better than running the
cattle together without any codperation. It also tends
to lessen another great evil of the open range — the prac-
tice of some stockmen to run too many cows in propor-
tion to their number of bulls, and depend on the service
of their neighbors’ bulls. These codperative associations
usually require one bull with a certain number of cows,
the number being usually one to twenty-five.

No bull is too good to use on scrub cows, and there is
no danger of paying too much for a bull, so long as one is
paying for real beef-producing merit and not for popular
blood lines or fancy points which have no great value
beyond the limits of the pure-bred trade, but which are
often the basis of the extraordinary prices that are some-
times paid. Figuring one bull to twenty-five cows, $100
added to the price of a common bull will accomplish more
toward improving the calf crop than $4 a head added to
the price of common cows. There will be a marked dif-
ference between the progeny of a $150 bull and of a $50
bull, while the calves from $49 cows will be but a very
slight improvement over those from $45 cows. From
the calf standpoint, the money invested in the bull goes
about twenty-five times farther than when invested in the
cows. It often happens that fine beef bulls are off type
in some fancy point of the breed, or are of an unpopular
family. Such bulls can be purchased cheaply, and should
be watched for by the man who is breeding grades for the
beef market. Then again, good bulls of mature age are
often sold because their calves are coming into breeding

The Breeding Herd 57

age; these, too, may be bought cheaply and are often
more useful than a young bull would be, but this refers
only to bulls from the small farms and from registered
herds. Discarded range bulls are usually worthless for
breeding purposes. They are too often sold because they
have lost their breeding powers through too much serv-
ice or general hard conditions. Good bulls may be
purchased from almost any of the breeders of good pure-
bred cattle in the West. Some of the bulls are marketed
direct from the farm and some through the public auction
sales. The names of the leading breeders may be obtained
from the advertising columns of the agricultural papers
or by writing to the state agricultural college. Most of
the agricultural colleges keep in close touch with the
breeders and can give at any time the nearest and best
place to buy bulls.

Under farm conditions, a yearling bull should sire
about twenty calves; a two-year-old bull, thirty; and
a three-year-old, forty. Under range conditions not more
than half of this number can be expected. A yearling
is not very satisfactory on the open unfenced range, since
hard conditions‘and too many cows not only cause him to
get very few calves that year but may render him useless
thereafter. The best cattle-men use only mature bulls
and put one with twenty or thirty cows.

The price commonly paid for beef bulls ranges from $100
up to $250. It is practically impossible to buy a good bull
of any kind for less than $100, and the better grades cost
from $150 to $200. This is for good, well-bred, regis-
tered animals of breeding age. Calves cost somewhat less.
A fancy grade of bulls, such as are suitable to head good
pure-bred herds, cannot be bought for these prices, but
will cost $400, $500 and up to $5000 each. A few years

58 Western Live-stock Management

ago there was much complaint that the range-men were
trying to buy their bulls too cheaply. Cattle were low
and feed expensive, and the range-men felt unable to
pay $150 or $200 for a bull when cattle were at the price
they were then receiving, and in the meantime the-breeder
of pure-breds was not getting for his stock what it cost to
raise them; within the last few years, however, since
beef has been a good price, there is little complaint from
that source, and the range-men are now willing and able
to pay good prices for bulls.

COWS AND CALVES

The well-known veterinary authority, Fleming, esti-
mates that the average breeding efficiency of cattle is
about 78 per cent. By this is meant that with 100 cows
of breeding age, we should expect 78 calves per annum.
The carefully managed herd will do somewhat better than
this, and will sometimes go as high as 85 per cent or 90
per cent. On the other hand, however, the average herd
on the open range will not do so well, the average being
about 60 per cent, although with good care and good
bulls an average of 65 per cent to 70 per cent is obtainable.
This percentage largely determines the cost of the calf.
At the present time a good range calf is worth about $25.
If the cost of caring for a cow a year is assumed at $15,
it will be noted that if it is necessary to maintain two
cows to get one calf, there will be an annual loss of $5 on
each calf, but if four calves can be raised from five cows
a good profit will be allowed. There is perhaps no other
phase of the beef-cattle industry wherein so much im-
provement can be effected by careful management, with
the minimum additional investment in the way of capital.

The Breeding Herd 59

The first point to be considered is that there should never
be too many cows to one bull, and that the bull is strong,
vigorous and fertile. Some range-men test their bulls
each year by breeding to a few named cowsin pasture. The
other important factor is the elimination of the non-
breeding, or shy-breeding, cows. In the beef herd there
is but one course to take with a cow that comes from the
range in the fall without a calf; namely, to send her to
the butcher. Usually if she brings no calf she will be fat,
and if she is not she should be given a few weeks in the
feed-lot. About January one can often tell what cows
are not going to bring calves in the spring, and it is not
then too late to put them in the feed-lot and turn them for
beef at a profit rather than to carry them another year.
Such a practice will have a great influence in increasing
the percentage of calves. When a shy-breeder does have
a calf, that calf will not be so valuable to keep in the herd
because of the tendency toward irregular breeding that is
likely to be transmitted. It is generally admitted by
those who have studied the matter, that the two most com-
mon faults among all of our stock, and at the same time
the two most damaging, are lack of constitution and low
fertility. Not absolute barrenness, but breeding part of
the time, is more dangerous; the former ends itself, but
the latter is self-perpetuating.

The time of the year when calves should come varies
with the feed and the climate, but it should ordinarily be
as early in the spring as the cow can take care of the calf.
Where hay is abundant, the calf may come some little
time before grass is good. The additional growth of the
calf will pay for the extra care, since he obtains so much
more good out of the succulent summer grass and goes
into the winter quarters strong and Vigorous. Late

60 Western Live-stock Management

July and August calves are to be avoided. If weaned
with the others, they are too young and will not thrive,
while if allowed to run with the cow on winter feed neither
the cow nor the calf does well unless more hay is fed than
the calf is worth. A July calf will not usually be any
larger at two years of age than one dropped the following
March. Fall calves are satisfactory in the dairy herd or
the show herd but on the range they usually are expensive
and unsatisfactory. An exception, however, must be
made in the case of the stockman who has unusually good
shelter and a great abundance of good alfalfa. It has
been demonstrated that under these conditions the cow
and calf may be given a well-bedded shed and a ton
and a half of alfalfa and produce an excellent calf. When
spring comes the cow goes out on grass, and the calf, in-
stead of being weaned at six months of age, gets more
milk than ever and is so allowed to suck the cow for nine
or ten months. Such a calf at twelve months is as big
as the spring calf at eighteen months. These methods
mark the most advanced stages of beef production under
western conditions; however, only a few cattle-men have
facilities for handling this class of cattle, and but few are
willing to give them the necessary attention.

The length of the period of pregnancy (the time be-
tween breeding and calving) is nine months; hence for
spring calves the cow should be bred in early summer.
The cow comes in heat at intervals of about eighteen to
twenty-one days throughout the year except for two or
three months after calving, and remains in heat for about
twelve hours. When the bull is not allowed to remain
with the cows, care must be taken to watch the cows
carefully every day when it is desired to breed them,
else the period of heat will pass by without being noticed

The Breeding Ierd 61

and thus three weeks’ unnecessary delay in the time of
breeding and calving. Heifers should be bred to calve
at about three years of age, unless they are especially well
fed, when they may calve at two years. They come in
heat first at six to twelve months of age, and if allowed to
run with the bull will calve too early. Heifers should,
therefore, be kept in a separate herd from weaning until
ready to breed.

WEANING

Spring calves should be weaned some time the next
fall. There need be no hurry so long as the grass is good ;
in fact, it is best not to wean until the feed in the pasture
is gone. Weaning should not be deferred after the cows
are on winter feed. A pasture at some distance from
where the cows are kept is a good place to wean calves,
but the fences must be practically hog tight, not only
where the calves are but also where the cows are kept.
Such pastures are seldom found on ranches where cattle
is the leading industry. The method is to shut the
calves up in a tight corral and feed them all the hay they
want during the winter. Such a corral should be on rather
dry ground, and provided with good watering facilities
and a dry well-bedded shed besides the necessary racks.
Refuse or damaged hay may be fed, but it usually pays
to feed rather heavily of good clover or alfalfa all winter.
Timothy is expensive and not the best feed for calves or
any other kind of cattle. Wild hays are not as good as
the legumes, although some of the upland hays are very
nutritious. Slough grass and tules are poor feed. Of
course there are cattle sections where timothy or wild
hay must be used, as there is nothing else available. In
such places it is necessary to feed it, but as good results

62 Western Live-stock Management

cannot be expected as on alfalfa. The calves, when
isolated in a corral, will be weaned before the winter is
over, but should be left in the feed-lot until the grass
comes. If the number is large enough to divide, the
heifers and steers may be separated, and the steer calves
fed the larger and better rations. There is little danger
that steers will not pay for all the hay they will eat the
first winter, but heifers must be handled with more econ-
omy. When fall calves are raised, they need not be
weaned until about ten months old. This long sucking
period is the advantage of the fall calf besides the fact
that he can be weaned on pasture instead of dry hay.

CASTRATION

Castration is usually performed somewhere between
the ages of one and five months. Generally speaking,
the earlier the better after the calves are strong and
vigorous. After the age of five months, the sexual char-
acters begin to develop and the animal will have a staggy
appearance. The better the calves are fed, the earlier
they must be castrated to avoid all danger of stagginess.
Castration of calves is performed by two methods; cut-
ting vertical slits in the front of the bag or scrotum to
take out the testicles or cutting off the entire lower end
of the scrotum. Some buyers of steers judge the con-
dition of the animal by the size and filling of the “cod”
or “purse” (the scrotum after the testicles are removed).
Many cattle-men, therefore, object to cutting off the end
of the scrotum, since it makes the cod appear smaller.
But others prefer this method since it guarantees perfect
drainage of the wound and easy healing. In the other
method, perfect drainage may be obtained by taking

The Breeding Herd 63

care that the slits extend well to the bottom of the scro-
tum, but careless operators will often leave a pocket that
will gather pus and cause infection of the wound. In
making the vertical incision, the skin is held tightly over
the testicle and the testicle pops out the instant the in-
cision is long enough to permit it. This leaves an in-
cision that often does not reach to the end of the scrotum
and which in any case is so small that the wound will
heal on the outside before it does on the inside. For these
reasons, it is necessary to enlarge the openings after the
testicles have been removed, a precaution which careless
operators will not take. Thus many cattle-men require
the operator to take off the entire end of the sack, and
since but few buyers now pay any attention to the filling
of the cod, it would seem best to follow this as the easiest
and most sanitary method.

After the scrotum is opened, the testicle will be found
inclosed in a membranous covering. This is slit open,
and the testicle squeezed out. The membranes are also
cut from around the cord, so that there is nothing holding
the testicle but the soft vascular cord. This is then pulled
out as far as possible and scraped in two with the knife.
Some good disinfectant is used to wash off the scrotum
before the operation and to apply to the wound when
finished. The best operators will sometimes lose a calf,
but most of the losses are due to failure to use disinfec-
tants or to open the wound so the pus can escape and
so that there is no danger of the outside healing before the
inside.

WINTERING

Winter feeds in different communities vary so widely
that few rules for wintering can govern all cases. Dry

64 Western Live-stock Management

pastures, stubble fields, straw, and hay are the feeds
used. Of these, hay is far the most important. When
hay feeding is begun, it must last until grass comes again,
since cattle that have had a taste of hay will stand around
and bawl for more even though they have other feed.
For this reason, it may be wise to let the herd suffer a
little during the early storms rather than to begin on hay
and have to keep it up until spring, even though there
may be plenty of other feed as soon as the storm is over.
The amount of hay that can be profitably fed to wintering
cattle depends on whether they are steers, heifers, or cows.
Steer calves, as already mentioned, will pay for all the
hay they will eat, providing it is not too high in price,
* say $4.50 or $5.00. Yearling steers will not pay for as
much feed as calves, but for more than heifers, and heifers
for more than cows. One usually expects cows and
heifers to lose some fat during the winter. It is not al-
ways profitable to try to keep them in the same flesh they
were in in the fall, provided they are fat at that time. If
they come off grass in a thin condition, it will be neces-
sary to feed rather heavily to keep them up. It is es-
sential, therefore, that cows should go into the winter in
good condition, since winter feed is very expensive as com-
pared with summer grass. One ton of hay for a cow during
the winter as a supplement to old grass or straw is the
standard allowance, and a country where it is necessary
to feed more than this is badly handicapped for beef-
raising. Heifers perhaps stand a little more feeding
than the cows, but not much. They must be kept in a
good thrifty condition and that is about all that is neces-
sary. They will not grow very much during the winter,
but will make a good gain during the summer. Yearling
steers, as compared to heifers, should have a little more

The Breeding Herd 65

care, but it will not always pay to give them a full hay
ration all winter. Even on light feed every pound of
gain put on in winter will cost more than it will sell for,
but stock cattle are usually worth more a pound in the
spring than in the fall, because they have been carried
over this expensive period and are now ready to make
cheap gains on grass. Thus it is seldom advisable to
attempt to make large gains in beef cattle during this
expensive period, unless the price of cattle is high enough
to warrant producing extra large gains at a high cost.
Even then the pasture should be good, since cattle will
not make as heavy gains when turned from extra good
winter feed to poor pasture as if they had been fed more
lightly during the winter. If the pasture is very fine, how-
ever, the cattle will gain well, even though they have had
extra good feed all winter. This does not mean that one
must allow these cattle to become poor during winter, but
it does mean that economy must always be kept in mind.

Two-year-old steers should usually not be wintered
but should be put in the feed-lot and finished for market
in case they are not fat enough for beef in the fall. Much
of our cattle country has reached a stage where it does
not pay to keep three-year-olds. The judicious but not
excessive use of hay during the winter, especially for
calves, and care during the grazing seaon will easily enable
the ranch-man to produce “twos” that will come in in
the fall weighing around 1000, which is about as large
as the common run of “threes,” raised by the old method.

As a guide to the amount of feed required for wintering
cattle, it may be stated that a 1000-pound steer or cow
will require seventeen or eighteen pounds of good hay each
day for maintenance. This means merely to maintain
the weight without either gain or loss. The estimate is

66 Western Live-stock Management

based on the use of hay alone, without the addition of any
other feed, such as straw, stubble fields, or grass. On this
basis one ton of hay would maintain the animal for just
about 120 days, or four months. When there is other
feed to supplement the hay, or when it is not necessary to
feed as long as 120 days, somewhat less than one ton of
hay may be used. On the other hand, if it is necessary to
maintain the cattle on hay alone for longer than four
months, or when it is desired to make some gain in weight,
more than this amount of feed will be needed. The
amount of hay which can profitably be used for wintering
cattle will always be subject to question, since it varies
with so many other factors, especially with the price of
cattle. With cattle worth 7 or 8 cents a pound and hay
$5.00 a ton in the stack, it is hard to feed too much, but
with hay at $6.00 or $7.00 and cattle worth 4 or 5
cents it is a different proposition, and beef production
under such prices is possible only by the most rigid
economy and hay can hardly be cheap enough to justify
its unlimited use with low-priced beef. The kind of
hay used will on most ranches be the kind available.
When cattle are wintered in the larger irrigated valleys
some selection is possible, in which case alfalfa practi-
cally always proves the best feed and can be bought at
the lowest price. Plenty of good alfalfa produces a
quality of cattle that can hardly be duplicated without
this feed. In many range districts, however, it is a
problem to procure hay of any kind. On the marshy
sinks such as are found throughout the Great Basin
region, wild hays are grown. These range from timothy
or clover to tules, with a corresponding variation in
feeding value. In the high dry parts of the country
farther north, rye is about all that can be grown and this

The Breeding Herd 67

crop has saved many a cow from starvation and made
cattle-raising possible where otherwise there would be
only the jack-rabbit. Toward the Mexican line the
sorghums play much the same part as rye farther north.
The quality of the hay makes much less difference in
wintering stock cattle than in fattening steers, and the
hay that a fattening steer would not touch will pull a
thin cow through the winter in good condition.

CHAPTER V

FATTENING STEERS

PRACTICALLY no corn is grown in the West, hence the
cattle are fattened on alfalfa or other hay. We include,
however, in this chapter a discussion of fattening cattle
on corn, since many of the cattle raised in the West even-
tually find their way into the Corn-Belt feed-lots, and
since the supply of corn-fed steers largely controls the
price of cattle in the big markets.

FATTENING ON CORN

In the central states the fattening of steers is accom-
plished almost exclusively on corn supplemented with a
little hay. The corn is fed in various forms, as ground,
shelled, or soaked, but most commonly on the ear. Feed-
ing on the ear is cheaper than most methods and produces
good gains. The amount of corn fed each day will vary
from fifteen to twenty-five pounds of shelled corn or
twenty to thirty pounds of ear corn. It is generally
estimated by farmers that a good healthy steer will eat
one-half bushel each day, but it takes a very large steer
actually to consume this amount. One bushel of shelled
corn weighs fifty-six pounds, while one bushel of ear corn
is ordinarily estimated to weigh seventy pounds. A
“bushel” of ear corn is the amount of ear corn which would

Fattening Steers 69

produce one bushel of shelled corn, and would, therefore,
much more than fill a bushel basket. Steers getting all
the corn they want will eat but little hay, not over seven
or eight pounds a head after they are on full feed. Most
of the feeders in the Corn-Belt pay little attention to the
kind of roughage, although it has been conclusively proven
that the use of lerume hay, such as clover or alfalfa, will
cause the steers to gain faster at much less cost. The
steers will not only eat more hay, but will at the same time
eat as much or more grain. In all cases it is the intention
to give the steers all they will eat of both hay and grain,
except for the first few weeks. Steers not used to heavy
feeding can be allowed only a small amount of grain or
they will gorge themselves and go off feed. This makes it
necessary to begin with a small amount, three or four
pounds daily, and gradually increase until they are
eating all they will clean up twice a day. This increase
is usually at the rate of about one-half pound a day,
although some feeders increase the rations one pound a
day for a few davs, and then do not increase them at all
for several days more. It thus takes from a month to
six weeks to get the animal on full feed. This process of
“getting on feed” applies only to grain. Steers may be
given all the hay they will eat from the start, even if
turned in the feed-lot very hungry. The steers fed in
the central states are largely twos and the average weight
is around 1350 at market time. The length of the feeding
period will be four or six months, and the gains each day
under favorable conditions are two pounds or more in
winter and about two and one-half pounds in the summer
on corn and grass. The gains made in summer are
cheaper than those made in winter, and many feeders are
now feeding in the summer instead of the winter as

70 Western Live-stock Management

formerly. Investigations by the Missouri Station showed
that over half of the feeders in that and adjoining states
have discarded winter feeding. Steers for summer fatten-
ing are usually bought in the fall and roughed through
the winter without grain.

As an adjunct to beef-raising, in almost all of the eastern
states, hogs are allowed to run with the steers and clean
up the droppings. A considerable part of the corn passes
through the steers undigested and is utilized by the hogs
following. When ear corn is fed, the hogs will obtain
from 10 to 20 per cent of the grain fed, not counting the
cob. With ground corn they secure less. Sometimes
the hogs have no other food, but when a large number
of hogs are used some extra grain must be fed. The
droppings are more completely utilized by stock hogs
that are not obtaining all the grain they will eat. With
whole corn, one to three hogs may follow each steer,
while with ground corn one hog will clean up after
two or three steers, or even more, in which case they
will not repay more than 4 or 5 per cent of the cost of
the feed.

The system of feeding above outlined is practiced
throughout the corn-producing states, and thousands of
cattle are fattened in this manner every winter. In the
states following this method of cattle-feeding, the experi-
ment stations have conducted a large amount of valuable
experimental work along the line of fattening steers, and
have published many good bulletins. Nearly all of the
books as well as bulletins on cattle feeding have likewise
been published in the Corn-Belt. Consequently 95 per
cent of the literature on cattle feeding refers to a system of
feeding practically the same as outlined above. On this
account we have described this system somewhat in detail

Fattening Steers 71

although it must be distinctly understood that cattle
fattening in the West is carried on in an entirely different
manner, as outlined in the following discussion.

FATTENING ON HAY ALONE

In the West there is no corn, and the grains that are at
hand are so high-priced that their use leaves little profit
to the feeder. Feeding with grain, while the steers are
on rich pasture during the summer, is also impossible in
this region, partly because of the high price of grain,
partly because of the absence of rich blue-grass pasture,
and more especially because the gains made on the range
during the summer are so much cheaper than can possibly
be produced on any tillable farm. On the other hand,
however, the western feeder has the advantage of plenty
of alfalfa or clover hay at a lower price and of a higher
quality than any hay with which the eastern feeder is
familiar. The abundance and cheapness of this hay
makes it possible for the western cattle-man to fatten
steers in the winter as cheaply as can be done anywhere.
In the Corn-Belt the problem is to insure the best possible
use of the corn, while in the western states it is the prob-
lem to obtain the best possible use of the hay without
any grain at all. Western cattle feeding has developed
only in recent years. It could not exist until the great
irrigated alfalfa hay fields had been developed, and
furthermore, with corn selling in the Corn-Belt at 15 to
30 cents a bushel, as it was for many years, the western
man could not meet the competition even with alfalfa
at $4.00 a ton. But with corn at fifty cents and western
hay at $5.00 to $6.00 in the stack, the advantage is the
other way, at least for a medium grade of steers. Fancy

72 Western Live-stock \anagement

beef is not often produced in the West because it requires
grain in addition to the hay.

Steers fed on hay alone consume from thirty-five to
forty-five pounds daily providing the hay is good, and
make a daily gain of one to one-and-one-half pounds.
The feeding period is not as long as in the East, usually
three to five months. Counting hay at $6.00 a ton, the
cost of one pound of gain is from § to 12 cents, and for a
good profit there is required a margin of about one cent a
pound for 120 days’ feed. By margin is meant the differ-
ence between the buying and selling price a pound or 100
pounds. For example, fet us assume that a steer is bought
for $4.50 a hundred pounds and sold after an increase of
200 pounds for $5.50 a hundred. Assuming the cost of
the gain to be 8 cents a pound, the profit must be in the
increased value of each pound of the whole carcass.
The fattening process makes the carcass better and hence
more valuable, leaving out the gain in weight. Under the
conditions named, if the steer weighed 1000 pounds at
the start, the original cost at $4.50 would be $45.00.
The 200 pounds of gain would cost 8 cents a pound, bring-
ing the total cost of the steer up to $61. He now weighs
1200 and if sold at the original price of $4.50 a hundred
weight would bring $54.00, making a loss of $7.00. But
because of the better beef he will make, he sells for $5.50
a hundred weight, thus bringing $66.00, and a profit of
$5.00. The margin required to make a profit varies with a
number of factors. High cost of feed, of course, increases
the margin required. Small steers also require slightly
more margin than large ones.

When steers are low in price, more margin is required
than when they are high, providing the price of feed re-
mains the same. For example, if the cost of a pound of

Fattening Steers 73

gain was 8 cents and the selling price of the steer was 8+
cents, a very fair profit could be made without any margin
whatever. At the present time cattle are considerably
higher than the prices listed above, and the margin of
price between thin steers and fat steers is somewhat less
than $1.00 a hundred pounds.

The margin required to make a profit and the margin
the feeder may receive, are not necessarily the same.
Any factor which makes the steers fatter increases the
selling price and therefore increases the probable margin.
Mere increase in weight does not increase the margin.
The increase must be in fat so as to make the beef better
and to raise the dressing percentage. There is, therefore,
usually more margin in older steers than in younger ones,
because more of the increase in weight goes to fat and
less to growth. Rapid fattening will also bring a greater
margin than slow fattening, for similar reasons. A
two-year-old steer which is made to gain 200 pounds in
200 days might not be any fatter than when he began and
so would sell at the same price a pound. A similar steer
which is made to gain 200 pounds in 100 days would neces-
sarily put much of the increase into fat rather than into
growth and as a result would sell for a higher price a pound.
Unfortunately, the chief factor affecting the margin
actually obtained is the condition of the cattle market.
If the price of cattle goes up during the fattening period,
the margin will be large; if the price goes down, the margin
will be small, or may be wiped out entirely. This factor
is entirely beyond the control of the feeder and he must
take his chances. If the price of cattle remains unchanged,
however, a good steer weighing from 1000 to 1200 pounds
at the start may be fed from 120 to 150 days on first-class
hay and be made to gain about 175 pounds, at the end

74 Western Live-stock Management

of which time he will sell on an average market for about
$1.00 a hundred pounds more than at the start. In other
words, 175 pounds of fat put on a good steer will, on a
steady market, make him worth about $1.00 more for
each hundred pounds, which in turn will allow a fair
profit on cheap feed. To the beginner the fluctuations
of the market seem all important, but the old-timer does
not bother so much about them. He figures that what he
loses from a drop in prices one time will be regained by a
raise some other time. The averages are what count.

BUYING STEERS

Feeding steers are usually bought locally, since, in the
West, there are no large open markets for feeder cattle
such as are found in the East. Denver is a feeder market
but the buyers are largely from the Corn-Belt. The west-
ern feeder must buy direct from the producer or wherever
he can, and must be something of a judge of steers in
order to make a successful purchase. His judgment is
all the more important when he has to buy by the head;
for in this case he not only has to estimate their value by
the pound, but also has to guess their weight, and as may
be readily seen, it is only too easy to miss the true value
of a steer by several dollars. Experienced feeders study
their animals very carefully and often become very expert
in judging their weights and values, but it is necessary
that they follow the market reports very carefully. By
frequent shipments to the large centers, they become
familiar with conditions there, and by seeing cattle sold.
and then comparing their observations with the market
reports for that day, they are able in the future to interpret
the reports with far greater accuracy than they could other-

Fattening Steers 75

wise do. This ability to estimate quickly and accurately
the value of a steer is just as necessary as the ability to
feed properly, and requires both training and natural
ability to a greater extent than any other branch of beef
production. The beginner should ask the advice of some
older man, and should start with a small number of cat-
tle, say a carload. There is much risk in cattle feeding,
especially as it is carried out almost entirely with borrowed
money. One hundred steers is not an enormous number
to feed, yet they will cost at least $5000, a larger sum
than most farmers have to invest for a short time. Also it
is cheaper to borrow for a few weeks than to keep the
money lying idle for eight or nine months of the year.
A reliable farmer who has the feed, or the money to buy
it, will have no trouble in borrowing money at the bank
with which to buy the cattle.

The kind of steers to feed will largely depend on the
price paid for them. There is no steer, and no cow or bull,
that is too poor to feed with profit if bought at a low enough
price. Under western conditions, however, as they usually
exist, the most profitable feeder is the square blocky steer
with a straight broad back, a deep flank and weighing
about 1000 pounds. He should show no signs of dairy
or unimproved blood, should not be rough and above all
should be in good flesh at the start. Steers that are not
already in almost killing condition would better be roughed
through the winter and given another summer on grass.
The younger the steer, the better, providing he has the
weight. One should look out for steers that have been
topped a few times. The most thrifty cattle become fat
first, and the first man who tops the bunch secures these
good ones and by the time it comes around to the last man
there is little left but cattle that are naturally poor doers.

76 Western Live-stock Management

Of course a poorer steer will turn a profit if bought cheaply
enough, but in the West where the cattle are bought from
the producers, it is dificult to buy the poor cattle at their
real value. A few years ago everything sold for so much
a head regardless of weight or quality. Now selling is
mostly by weight, but there is still a strong tendency for
everyone to want the same price a pound and the man’
with poor cattle is usually hard to deal with.

The class of cattle fed in the West is much more uni-
form than in the East. Western feeders handle practi-
cally no calves or yearlings nor do they produce the
extremely fat heavy cattle sometimes found in the cen-
tral states. These fancy cattle require long feeding on
heavy grain rations and cannot be produced on alfalfa
alone. Furthermore the western markets do not demand
this class of cattle and cannot pay a price that will justify
their production, while the distance to the eastern markets
is so great that it is hard to get fancy cattle there in good
condition.

Alfalfa fed to the proper kind of cattle will produce a
steer weighing about 1100 to 1300 pounds and dressing
57 to 59 per cent, which, fortunately, is a very practical
steer for both producer and consumer.

Steers fat enough to dress out 60 to 65 per cent are very
expensive to produce and their carcasses contain a great
amount of waste tallow, all of which makes the cost of the
beef to the consumer so high that only the ultrawealthy
can possibly afford it. On the other hand, the thin steers
dressing 48 to 55 per cent make tough watery beef and
the average consumer is willing to pay enough more for a
better steer to justify their production. Of course there
is some demand for all grades of beef but by far the great-
est demand, cost considered, is for the steer free from any

Fattening Steers 77

noticeable evidence of dairy or scrub blood and fat enough
to dress somewhere between 56 and 60 per cent.

In purchasing feeding steers, it should be especially
borne in mind that fat steers are always worth more than
thin ones of otherwise equal quality. Thin animals
make very good gains, but must be purchased at a very
low price as it takes a long time to finish them for market.
It seems very difficult for beginners in the cattle-feeding
business to realize this.

METHOD OF FEEDING

When hay alone is fed, the method of feeding is very
simple. Large hay racks are built as shown in Fig.
6. The racks as shown are six feet wide, six feet high

Fic. 6. — Two Good Hay Racks for Cattle.

and about twelve feet long and will accommodate about
four steers on each side, allowing three feet of rack room
to each steer, which is about right for average cattle.
Small dehorned steers require less space while large
steers or steers with long horns will need three-and-one-
half to four feet of rack room. The sides are boarded

78 Western Live-stock Management

up to a height of about two-and-one-half feet. In the
first style it is expected that the steer put his whole head
through between the uprights while in the second, only
his nose. With the second it sometimes requires nice
adjustment to have the slats just wide enough apart so
that the steer can eat well and yet with no danger of his
putting his whole head through and getting caught.
Either rack may be made with the posts set in the ground
or may be built on skids so as to be movable. Both racks
are good and are in general use throughout the West.
There seems to be little preference between the two.

DEPTH INSIDE 4”

T+ 240° IN GRovNP
i

Fic. 7. — Bunks for Feeding Grain or Silage.

When grain is used, it is fed in bunks as shown in Fig.
7. This style of grain-bunk is in almost universal use
wherever grain is fed to cattle on a large scale. The
dimensions indicated may be varied a little. Amateur

Puatse IIl.— Cuures anp Freep Lots.

Above, dehorning and branding chute in operation. Note the
squeeze side, the rope and windlass to hold the head down, the kind of
saw, and the position of the cut. When the operation is done, the front
end opens to let the animal walk out. Below, typical alfalfa ranch with
feed-racks and yards in the foreground.

Fattening Steers 79

feeders sometimes feed from narrow troughs, about twelve
or fifteen inches wide, but usually change to the standard
feed-bunks after a year’s experience. In building bunks,
as with all other cattle equipment, strength is essential.
In feeding grain, it is important that the correct amount of
bunk room be provided. The steers should have plenty
of room so that all may get to the bunks at one time;
otherwise the timid ones will get nothing. On the other
hand, there must not be much vacant space, since the
greedy steers will get their grain eaten first and then go to
the vacant space and obtain a second helping. As in
the racks, about three feet of space for each steer will
be needed; that is, three feet along one side or at
the end.

The steers must be started with a small amount of
grain and gradually worked up to the desiied ration just
as in corn feeding, but it does not take long to have the
steers eating as much grain as is ever used in the West.
Some find it profitable to feed no grain until about the
last month or two, and then to use a little in order to
give the steers a better finish and make them stand the
shipping better, but the usual practice is to feed hay alone,
making no attempt to use grain at all. The price of grain
in the West is too high to enable the feeder to make much
profit by its use. If the hay is of the best quality, a good
gain may be made, and, while not as large as on grain,
at a cheaper cost. But the hay must be good. Poor
or damaged hay is not worth feeding for fattening pur-
poses. It will produce nothing more than a fair growth,
and the steers will be worth no more a pound when through
than at the beginning. It is argued that the time to
feed the grain is when the hay is poor; ‘and it is true that
good results may thus be obtained, but the gain all comes

80 Western Live-stock Management

out of the grain, and this brings the cost up to such a point
as to be prohibitive. When hay is poor, no attempt
should be made toward fattening steers, but such hay
should be used for stock cattle. The Eastern Oregon
Experiment Station has conducted three experiments in
which one lot was fed straight alfalfa, one alfalfa and five
pounds of barley a day, and one alfalfa alone for sixty
days and alfalfa and ten pounds of barley for another sixty
days. There were acarload of steers in eachlot. Averag-
ing the three tests, it was found that those on alfalfa alone
in 120 days gained 112 poundsata cost of $11.36 a hundred
pounds; those on five pounds of barley gained 150 pounds
at a cost of $12.10 a hundred pounds, while those getting
ten pounds of barley during the last sixty days gained 141
pounds at a cost of $12.90 a hundred pounds. A some-
what similar test was conducted at the Colorado station
as reported in Bulletin 102, where a lot of steers on alfalfa
alone gained 1.5 pounds a day at a cost of $8.48 a hundred
pounds while another lot getting an average of 6.6 pounds
of corn a day in addition to the alfalfa gained 1.8 pounds
a day at a cost of $10.03 a hundred pounds. In figuring
the costs of gains in both Oregon and Colorado tests, the
alfalfa has been figured at $6.00 a ton and grain at $25.00
aton. These tests do not indicate any marked advantage
for the grain. The hay alone in each case produced the
cheaper gains, but the addition of the grain to the hay
ration gave a larger gain and consequently about enough
better finish to offset the added cost. In view of the fact
that in many of the cattle-feeding districts grain is very
expensive and hard to procure, its use would hardly seem
advisable. The feeders themselves apparently take this
view of the matter and very few cattle-feeders in the West
use any grain.

Fattening Steers 81

AMOUNT OF FEED

The amount of hay will be no less than all that the steers
possibly can be persuaded to eat. Eleven hundred pound
steers will actually eat, with good hay and careful atten-
tion, about 35 pounds a day. In rare cases thay may
eat as much as 40 pounds, but this is unusual. More
commonly they eat 30 pounds or less, but a steer eating
only 30 pounds of hay a day will not become fat, and will
be fed at aloss. Assteers will not eat thestems and coarser
parts of the hay to good advantage, it is necessary to allow
them to waste part of it, and in order to get a steer actually
to eat 35 pounds of hay a day, he must be offered more than
this, 40 or even 50 pounds a day. The stems and refuse
hay are cleaned out every day, and given to stock cattle
and horses. Horses will clean up the coarse hay that
cattle will hardly touch. The amount of hay refused and
cleaned out will of course depend on the quality of hay,
but will ordinarily be from five to fifteen pounds a day.
Tests at the Eastern Oregon Experiment Station indicate
a daily waste of five to six pounds with choice hay care-
fully fed. The waste is not a dead loss as it may be used
for stock cattle or horses and has a value of about one-half
that of good hay. Hay should be given at least three or
four times a day. When only a carload of cattle is being
fed, all of the day’s ration may be hauled at one load and
sufficient hay may be put in the racks in the morning to
last until night; but several times a day it will be neces-
sary to stir up the hay in the racks, and push it around
where the cattle can get at it better. Loosening up the
hay in the racks in this manner is about the same as offer-
ing new hay, and every time a steeg is offered fresh feed
he will eat a little bit more. Hence the oftener he is fed
the better. One cannot possibly expect to get steers fat

82 Western Live-stock Management

on hay by filling up the racks in the morning and then not
going near them until the next day. Even feeding twice
a day will not give satisfactory results as compared with
feeding three or four times. When large numbers of
cattle are fed, the feed is hauled continually throughout
the day and the cattle are generally fed four to five or six
times during the day. One man and a team can feed in
this way from 80 to 100 cattle. The tops and bottoms of
the stacks, if at all bad, should never be put into the racks,
but rather scattered on the ground or fed to stock animals.
If scattered out on the ground for the steers, they will
waste all the bad parts of the hay; but it is much more
economical to let fattening steers waste bad hay than to
allow them to become hungry enough to eat it. Whenever
the ground is dry or frozen and there is plenty of room, it
is a very good practice to feed about one load a day on
the ground the first thing in the morning. Cattle would
rather eat hay off the ground than from the racks, and
if fed one load in this way they will clean it up with very
little waste. Experiments have shown that a lot of a
hundred steers will eat about as much out of the racks
during the day with this extra load on the ground as they
will without it. When the cattle are allowed to run in a
field of a considerable size, it is possible to scatter the
manure over the field in this manner, but of course when
the ground is muddy all the hay must be fed in racks.
Chopped hay or alfalfa meal must be fed several times a
day, just as the long hay,. but ordinarily the cattle will
clean it up well and there will be very little waste.

LENGTH OF FEEDING PERIOD

The length of the feeding period will not be as great
as in the East where, as we have noted, it is usually about

Fatiening Steers 83

sixmonths. The average feeding period here will be from
three to five months. After this time the gains are slower
and consequently more expensive. A very high finish is
difficult to obtain on hay alone and when obtained does
not usually bring enough money to pay for the cost. It
is the consensus of opinion among practical feeders that
it does not pay to feed hay longer than four or five months,
unless unusual conditions prevail. Four months is the
most convenient time to feed on most ranches. The
feeding cannot well commence before time to bring the
cattle in from the ranges and, on the other hand, they
should be out of the way in time to prepare for the spring
work; and four months will usually about fit these ex-
tremes. The market and the amount of hay on hand in-
fluence the exact time of selling. If one starts with the
intention of feeding three months he may see that there
is a chance for a better price earlier, or perhaps he may
not want to sell until after his hay is all gone, so as to
avoid carrying feed over until the next season.

MARKETING

A fat steer full of feed and water will ordinarily weigh
about 4 per cent more than if he has been without feed and
water for twelve hours. On account of this variation in
weight, allowance is often made in selling for this fill.
This allowance is usually spoken of as “shrinking.”
When steers are sold locally, they are usually shrunk
by standing twelve hours without feed and water or by
weighing full and deducting 4 per cent. There is not
much difference between the two ways of shrinking.
When shipped to the large markets, cattle are not shrunk,
and in fact obtain all the feed and water they want before

84 Western Live-stock Management

being sold, but in spite of this they will lack considerable
of weighing as much as at home. A steer which weighs
1200 pounds when just out of the feed-lot and full of feed
and water would be shrunk 4 per cent when sold to be
shipped, which would make the shipper pay for 1152
pounds. After the steer has been on the train twenty-
four hours and has been unloaded and filled with feed
and water, he will not weigh over 1125 and perhaps only
1100. After a long shipment of five or six days, he will
probably weigh between 1050 and 1100, probably about
1075. Inshipping, from twenty to thirty steers are placed
in the car, the average being twenty-five. There should
be room enough so that if one lies down he can get up
again. Eastbound rates are for 24,000 pounds in a car,
whether you have that much in or not, and this means
twenty 1200-pound steers, which will about fill an ordinary
car. Westbound freight rates, however, are quoted at
so much for each 363-foot car, regardless of the number
in the car. In this case, the shipper, to save expense,
loads heavier than he otherwise would. If possible, one
should secure a car with good racks and fill the racks well
with hay; and one also should be sure the cars are well
sanded. The watering troughs found on most cars are
out of order and utterly useless.

According to the ruling of the Secretary of Agriculture,
cattle in interstate shipments cannot be kept on the train
longer than twenty-eight hours without unloading and
feeding, except on written request, when they may remain
thirty-six hours. The feeding en route is done at regular
feeding stations which cater to this trade and which supply
the necessary feed and water at a stated price. The rail-
roads pay for this feed en route but collect from the shipper
when the cattle are unloaded. There are feed yards at

Fattening Steers 85

each railroad division point. After arriving at the market,
the stock is turned over to the commission man and there
is little more for the feeder to do except watch the pro-
ceedings and learn what he can about the market.

In the Northwest the beef cattle are practically all
handled either by the local butchers or through the Union
Stock-Yards at Portland or Seattle. About the only
exceptions are those cattle bought by Seattle and Tacoma
packing-houses, and shipped directly to those places.
The Portland Stock-Yards handle close to 90,000 head of
cattle a year. Of this amount, Oregon furnishes about
one-half, Montana about one-seventh, and California
about one-tenth. The remainder comes from various
parts of the West. The stock-yards in Seattle and Spo-
‘kane are new. Seattle will probably handle about as
many cattle as Portland, and Spokane somewhat less.

The Oregon packing-houses now buy nearly all their
cattle through the Portland Stock-Yards. The Seattle,
Tacoma, San Francisco and Los Angeles packers, however,
send out regular buyers into the various feeding sections
and buy directly from the farmers. With the develop-
ment of the stock-yards industry, there has grown up a
class of men known as “shippers,” who make it a business
to buy cattle from the farmer and ranch-man and then
ship them to some stock-yard where they are sold in the
open market. These men are usually able to buy this
stock from the farmers sufficiently cheaply to enable them
to make a profit. The chief reason for their existence is
the fact that many of the farmers and ranch-men are afraid
to ship to the open markets and take chances on what
they may receive. The shippers, however, understanding
conditions better and knowing about what the stock will
bring, are thus able to make a profit. The only logical

86 Western Live-stock Management

method of marketing cattle for the beef producers is to
ship their own cattle direct to the stock-yards instead of
selling them to a shipper. The cattle are worth just
what they will bring on the market and selling them to
a shipper is merely gambling on the market, and gambling
with men who know much more about it than the pro-
ducers. Shippers will contend that on account of their ex-
perience and knowledge of conditions of the stock-yards,
they can get more for their cattle when they ship them
there than can the producer, but such statements are
questionable. The chief value of the shipper is in buying
less than carload lots. The expenses of making a
shipment may be listed approximately as follows: Freight
from point of origin to market; commission amounting
to $15 a car; feed, including the small amount of feed
which cattle will eat after arriving at the yard just before
being sold; and yardage at 25 cents a head. In compar-
ing prices received at central market with prices offered
or received at home, the shrinkage must be considered,
as noted in a previous paragraph. All expenses consid-
ered, cattle shipped a distance of 200 or 400 miles should
be worth at home within about 50 cents to 75 cents a
hundred of what they would bring on the market. That
is, the expenses of freight, commission, yardage, feed,
and the shrinkage would make the cattle net on the
home weight about 50 cents to 75 cents a hundred less
than the price at the stock-yards. With long eastern
shipments of 1000 to 2000 miles, the difference in prices
will be about 75 cents to $1.25.

COMPARISON OF FEEDS

Alfalfa hay forms the basis of practically all of the
steer-feeding that is carried on in the West. In a ‘few

Fattening Steers 87

localities, clover or wild hays are used in place of alfalfa,
but there are many times the number of cattle fattened
on alfalfa as on all of the other hays together. The chief
reason for this is that the alfalfa meadows yield more
and last longer than clover meadows. Clover is grown
only in the section where grain is the chief crop, the clover
being used as a rotation crop with grain. Because alfalfa
is grown under irrigation and cured practically without
rain, it possesses a very high feeding value, but not higher
than that of clover raised under the same conditions; in
fact, if there is any difference the clover is the better,
especially when fed without grain, as is the general custom
throughout the West. The almost universal preference
for alfalfa over clover, therefore, is based on economy of
production. Chopped alfalfa is now being extensively
used throughout the West. Chopped alfalfa is alfalfa hay
cut into lengths of about one-half to three-fourths inch by
running through a large cutter. The alfalfa is stacked in
the field in the usual manner and after it has stood for a
few weeks so as to sweat out thoroughly, the cutter is drawn
up beside the stack and the hay chopped, and then restacked
in the field. It is surprising that the chopped hay stacks as
well as the long hay, and seems to turn water as well. In
the winter the chopped hay is fed in the same manner
as long hay except that it is hauled in tight racks and
handled with silage or coal forks. Alfalfa meal is similar
to chopped alfalfa, except that the hay is ground up very
fine. The meal has no apparent advantage over the
chopped hay and since grinding is expensive, the meal is
not widely used. The advantages of the chopped hay
are ease of handling, saving of waste, and possibly an
increased gain. One man can feed more cattle on chopped
hay than on long hay, and the cattle eat it all up clean

88 Western Live-stock Management

without waste. Since the usual cost of chopping is about
$1.50 a ton, when hay is worth $6.00, the saving must be
around 20 per cent in order to show a profit. Ina recent
test at the Eastern Oregon Experiment Station, thirty-
six steers on long hay gained 147 pounds in 120 days at
a cost of $10.75 a hundred pounds, while another thirty-
six steers on cut hay gained in the same time 177 pounds
at a cost of $10.32 a hundred. In figuring these costs
long alfalfa was valued at $6.00 and cut alfalfa at $7.50
a ton. The steers on long hay wasted five pounds a
head each day while those on cut hay wasted 1.2 pounds.
The additional gain made by those on cut hay gave them
a noticeably better finish so that in this test, at least, the
cut hay was without question profitable. Further tests,
however, may change these figures. In some districts,
notably the Big Hole country in southwestern Montana,
the native meadows are irrigated, and are sown broadcast
with some cultivated grass seed, such as rye-grass, in
addition. These hays, after being carefully cured, have
a very high feeding value; in fact, the finest hay-fed
cattle are produced in this region. Something like 25,000
head are fattened in this way annually. In general,
upland wild hay has a high feeding value, but that from
the lowlands, especially where the land is swampy, will
not be sufficiently palatable and nutritious to justify its
use for fattening purposes. The Big Hole country is the
only locality where any large success has been made of fat-
tening steers on wild hay. Timothy hay alone will not
fatten cattle. The price which it brings as a feed for
horses, moreover, does not make it economical for cattle
fattening, even though it had a high feeding value. Vetch
hay, if cured properly, would be satisfactory for this
purpose, but practically all the vetch is grown in western

Fattening Steers 89

Oregon, where conditions for curing are for the most part
quite unsatisfactory. Thus far, it has not proved possible
to produce hay in western Oregon or any other humid
district that is good enough to fatten steers without
grain. The demand for such hay for dairy and other
purposes, moreover, makes the price prohibitive to the
steer-feeder. It is argued by some that steers could
be fattened on vetch hay, kale, and barley. This could
be done, without doubt, but the cost under present
conditions would prohibit it. At present prices, the gain
which would be put on by such feeding would cost about
15 cents a pound, while 10 cents a pound is about the maxi-
mum cost which the industry will bear.

Of the grains which may be used as a supplement to the
hay, either barley, wheat or oats will be satisfactory.
These three grains have about the same feeding value,
pound for pound, but a mixture of the three has proven
superior to either one alone. When grain is used, ten
pounds a day is probably the maximum, and five pounds
a day the best. These grains may not have quite the
same feeding value as corn, but they have never been
thoroughly compared under similar conditions, and, at any
rate, the difference is slight. Rye is used in a few locali-
ties and has a feeding value somewhat similar to that of
wheat, although hardly as good and not as palatable.
Speltz has been tried rather extensively, and when
obtainable at a very low price may be used at a profit.
Screenings from the elevators and flour mills sometimes
have considerable feeding value, but sheep seem to use
these screenings to better advantage than steers, and for
that reason they are nearly always used for fattening
sheep or lambs rather than fattening cattle, in spite of
the fact that they are qtite satisfactory for the latter

90 Western Live-stock Management

purpose. In the early days when bran was almost un-
salable throughout the western states, it was successfully
used for fattening cattle. Because of its bulky nature and
high protein content, it is too much like alfalfa and hence
not so good for fattening cattle as for dairy stock, and as
a result is now used almost entirely for dairy cattle rather
than for fattening beef cattle. Middlings are rather too
heavy and pasty a feed for fattening cattle, and their
value for hogs makes the price prohibitive to the steer-
feeder.

Protein concentrates, such as oil meal, cotton-seed meal,
or gluten feed, have little value in the West and are not
used at all. The real need in western cattle-feeding is a
cheap grain. Any of our common grains would be satis-
factory if they were not so high in price. Wet sugar-beet
pulp makes a very satisfactory feed together with good
alfalfa hay and when the sugar factory is located in a cattle
country, as are most of the factories in the irrigated sec-
tions, the pulp is commonly contracted to some large
cattle-feeder who will arrange to feed his cattle at the
factory so as to avoid hauling the pulp. The pulp carries
about 90 per cent of water and it requires very little han-
dling to cost more than the pulp is worth. Fifty to one
hundred pounds of pulp together with all the alfalfa
hay the cattle will eat provides a very satisfactory ration
and produces a better steer than alfalfa alone. Beet
pulp should feed out about two to three dollars a ton but
there is a large amount of expense attached to the handling
of it and is generally purchased at not over one dollar a
ton. Dried pulp is being put on the market in a few
places, notably California, but has so far been largely
used by the dairymen, who pay more for it than the beef
men think it is worth. The only beef men, therefore,

Fattening Steers 91

who are at present concerned with beet pulp are the large
outfits having feed yards within a few blocks of a sugar
factory. The sugar factories are largely located in the
irrigated sections of Idaho, Utah and Colorado.

Silage for beef cattle under western conditions is so far
an experiment. It may prove a great success, but at
present there is too little known about it to justify any
positive statements. Silage has proven its value to the
beef producers of the Corn-Belt.

WHEN TO FEED CATTLE

For a man who raises neither hay nor cattle to buy
both, unless he expects to secure some value out of either
the clean-up or the manure, would not usually be advisable.
But the ranchman who raises his own hay, or who raises
his own cattle, and can procure hay at a reasonable price
and close enough to feed on his own farm, will often find
it profitable to feed, providing, however, that he likes cattle
and is willing to study them and follow the markets care-
fully. Cattle-feeding is an attractive business, but is no
easy task; and it takes but a very small break to lose a
whole crop of hay. The successful feeder will usually be
found very much interested in his work, and eager to talk
cattle at any and all places. There is a certain fascination
about handling cattle which when once felt, is hard to
escape.

On the whole it would not be well to encourage any
marked increase in the cattle fattening business. Rather
extensive experiments and investigations conducted by
the Eastern Oregon Experiment Station lead us to believe
that the business is generally over-rated and that many of
the feeders are not receiving as large or as cheap gains as

92 Western Live-stock Management

they think. It seems that one year with another there
are rather too many cattle being fattened on alfalfa with
the result that on one hand the price of feeder cattle is
being forced above a normal level and on the other too
many cattle are put on the western markets in March
and April with a consequent lowering of the price. Some-
what fewer cattle on feed throughout the West would
doubtless adjust matters so that all could make a fair
profit.

CHAPTER VI
EQUIPMENT

THE equipment required for the raising of beef cattle
is simple compared with the equipment required for the
handling of many other kinds of live-stock. Perhaps
the first and most important is a saddle horse and lariat
rope. As the industry becomes more intensified, addi-
tional equipment is required. The second step will be
a good set of corrals, and these in turn will be supple-
mented by branding chutes and scales. Following these
will come fixed pastures and possibly feed-lots, with full
equipment of feed-racks and watering devices. Then will
come hay cutters, and, in some parts of the country, silos.
Barns, in most of the West, would probably come last,
since almost no cattle are kept under roof.

BARNS

With a few exceptions barns in the true sense of the
word are unnecessary for commercial beef in the West,
although in exposed localities bedded sheds are very use-
ful. These are merely long sheds opening away from the
wind and large enough to bed down all the cattle. They
are very simply constructed and aim only to keep off the
wind and storms. Rough boards are generally used for
both sides and roof. Plenty of bedding is essential to
obtain the real value from a shed. It is almost never

94 Western Live-stock Management

necessary in the range countries to provide cover for the
feed-racks or for the hay.

Natural shelter is in many places as .satisfactory as
barns, as places protected from prevailing winds and storms
by hills, timber or brush and on well-drained ground where
there will be little mud. Cattle sheds are rare in the range
country even among the best cattle-men, but we find the
good managers all very carefully picking out the most
sheltered spots for their winter feeding. In much of the
semi-arid country, cattle will do better in a place well
protected by nature but without sheds than in an exposed
position fortified with a number of expensive buildings.

In the rainy district of the Pacific Northwest, real
barns are required and they must not only shelter the
cattle but the hay and feed-racks. The popular barn
throughout all this region has the hay extending from the
ridge pole down to the ground and with racks and cattle
sheds around two or three sides of the central portion or
hay barn. The hay is forked directly from the mow to
the feed-racks. Dehorned cattle require about three
feet of rack room and fifty to sixty square feet of floor
space for each mature animal. Horned cattle require
more room and are a nuisance in a barn regardless of the
amount of space allowed.

FENCING

Without question the best fence for cattle is a good
woven-wire type, about forty-two inches high with a barb
wire on top about six inches above the top of the woven
wire, but such fences are usually too expensive for com-
mercial cattle so that as a matter of economy one is obliged
to resort to the old-time barb wire. Three barb wires

Equipment 95

make a fair cattle fence but not one that is really satis-
factory, especially for calves. Four barb wires, however,
make a strictly first-class cattle fence for inclosing large
pastures and ranges, although it will not turn calves or
any other kind of cattle if they are crowded into a corner.
Five barb wires make a slightly better fence for cattle
than four, but hardly enough better to justify the expense
of the additional wire, and this extra wire at the bottom
of the fence makes it much more dangerous for horses.
The posts for such fences are placed about a rod apart,
and this is close enough for all ordinary purposes. A
three-wire fence stretched very tight is better than four
wires a little slack.

CORRALS

In the building of corrals of any kind, the first and most
important consideration is to build them so that the cattle
cannot possibly get out. This seems simple enough, but
unless one is fairly familiar with the handling of cattle he
will underestimate the ability of the average steer to escape
froma corral. The fence must be at least six feet high and
exceedingly strong. There are four common ways of
building corral fences. The first is by putting up a pen
of heavy poles, having the ends rest one on top of the
other between pairs of heavy posts tied together with
wire, thus building up the fence after the manner of a log
cabin. If the fence is well made, this is an excellent
method, and is especially adapted to small round corrals.
For long straight corral fences, it is not so satisfactory
unless the posts are exceedingly heavy.

The second method is that used by all the leading stuck-
yards. In this style of fence the posts are set deep in the

96 Western Live-stock Management

ground, about eight feet apart and six feet above ground,
with boards nailed crossways. The boards are two inches
thick and not less than eight inches wide, and from three
to six inches apart. They are always placed on the inside
of the post, and in case of division fences on both sides.
This is the most expensive under the average farm condi-
tions, but at the same time not sufficiently expensive to
prevent its use. In fact, when the material must be
bought, it is about as cheap as any method.

The third common method is a plain board wall, made
perfectly tight out of inch boards set upright. The posts
are set eight feet apart, with crossbars, to which the up-
right boards are nailed. When built in this manner, the
fence does not need to be nearly so strong as when it is
made open so that the cattle can see through. If the
cattle can neither see over the fence nor through the
cracks, they will not make nearly as much effort to get
out. This type of fence also serves as a windbreak, which
is often of great advantage around the barns or feed-lots
in a windy country. It can also be made to look well,
especially when the boards and crossbars are made of
dressed lumber and nicely painted. This style of fence is
not used as much as it should be. (See Fig. 8.)

The fourth method of building corral fences is the old-
style stake fence, formerly rather common in the range
districts. It is built of posts only and has no cross bars
of any kind. The posts are set as close together as they
can stand, and are made as high as desired. Usually the
tops are fastened together by one or two wires or strips of
rawhide running around the top. In the early days of
the range industry posts and lumber were practically
out of the question and in the desert regions where the
only building material obtainable was scrawny juniper or

Equipment 97

willow poles, this style of fence was popular. It is very
strong, and there is no fault to be found with it from the
viewpoint of holding the cattle, but where lumber or

iiyjel!

uly fly
lly Ml

uff pl! il HALA hall |
A uw! mol sib

I}!

Fic. 8. — Two Methods of Building Corral Fences.

straight poles may be obtained at a reasonable price,
other forms of fence are usually cheaper and more satis-
factory. (See Plate III.)

On most farms it will be necessary to have more than
one corral so that the animals may be separated into differ-

98 Western Live-stock Management

ent bunches. The corrals should be separated by suitable
gateways, and the branding chute should also open from
one to the other. If the two main corrals can be separated
by one or more small pens, it will be a great convenience,
since a few animals can be run into the small pen and there
separated or run into the branding chute much easier
than directly from a large corral containing a hundred or
more cattle. When it is necessary to do much roping
either for branding, castrating, or other purposes, a small
branding corral with a snubbing post in the center will be
necessary. The snubbing post must be heavy, set well
into the ground, and thoroughly tamped. The height
will vary according to the fancy of the user, but three to
four feet is usually about right. The branding corral
itself must be circular, without sharp corners or other
projections. With any other shape the animals will
crowd into the corners and may injure each other or break
the fence, while in the round corral they keep going round
in a circle and find no corners to stop them. For roping
this is especially important, since if the corral is of the
proper size, the roper may stand in the center while the
animals chase around the outside, giving him a fair chance
to throw. With the rectangular corrals the cattle jam
into the corners so that it is almost impossible to get at
them with the rope. The diameter will depend tosome
extent on the number of animals to be held, but for good
work, forty to sixty feet will be found to be the best. The
roper should be able to stand in the center near the snub-
bing post and catch the animal desired as the bunch pass
around the corral. If the corral is smaller than the limits
given, there will not be room enough for good work; and
if larger, the roper cannot reach all parts of the corral from
the snubbing post. For general use the fifty-foot size

Equipment 99

will probably be the best. If a larger number of cattle
are to be handled than can be held conveniently in a
fifty-foot corral, two small corrals will be very much better

Fic. 9. — Model Corral System.

than one large one. There is no greater convenience on
the stock farm than a set of corrals that can always be
depended on to hold anything and everything that is
put into them. (See Fig. 9.)

SCALES

. The old system of selling cattle by the head is dis-
appearing so rapidly that every well-equipped stock ranch
now has wagon and stock scales. When such scales are
intended for stock use only, or for wagon use only, the
location and equipment are easily arranged; but in case
they are to be used for both cattle and wagons, some little
study and ingenuity may be required to place them so that
both may be weighed conveniently. It will be necessary,
of course, to have them placed adjoining the corrals or

100 Western Live-stock Management

chute so that the cattle may be run on them without
difficulty or inconvenience. It is often as hard to put
a steer on the scales as it is to get him into the branding
chute. The scales, moreover, must be placed in such a
manner that the stock-rack may be removed and wagons
driven on. The make or kind of scale is not so important,
as nearly all of the standard scales now on the: market
give very good satisfaction. Between the pitless scale
and the pit scales, when one is buying, it is largely a
question of which kind one can afford. The old type of
pit scales probably last longer and give rather better
service than the pitless ones, but they cost more. Not
only is the first cost of the scales greater, but the cost of
installing pit scales will be equal to the original cost of the
scales. After the scales are properly installed, the rack
for holding the stock must next be prepared. There are
various plans for building these racks, but the good ones
are very much alike. The essential point is strength.
In building a rack for weighing cattle, it is a safe rule to
build one about three times as strong as seems necessary.
The common method of building is to use 4 X 4’s for the
posts, using four or five on a side. The method of bracing
and putting on the siding is shown in Fig. 10. For siding,
1 X 6’s about two inches apart at the bottom should be
used and gradually widened until they are about six inches
apart at the top. It is the common practice to make a
gate at each end of the scale-rack so that the cattle may
be run in at one gate and out at the other, but this is not
absolutely necessary, since the corrals may be so arranged
that the cattle may be put out at the same gate they came
in but into a different corral from that from which they
came. By having only one gate, the rack may be made
considerably lighter and at the same time very much

Equipment 101

stronger than when it is necessary to make a gate at each
end. When it is expected to weigh both wagons and
cattle on the same scales, the best method is to set the
rack on runners, placed crosswise of the scales. About
three runners, one at each end, and one across the middle,
will be satisfactory. These runners may be made of 4 X 4’s

Fic. 10. — Scale Rack for Weighing Cattle.

and the upright posts fastened solidly to them. In order
to keep the scale racks from slipping off the scale platform,
bore a hole through the middle of each end runner and on
through into the scale platform. Loose bolts dropped
into these holes will prevent the racks from shipping. The
ground to the side of the scale platform should be leveled
up to the same height as the platform, and when it is
desired to move the rack it can be slipped off to one side.
Wheels or rollers are sometimes put under the rack in
order to make it move easier, but this is not necessary,
unless the rack is to be moved every day or two.

The cattle corrals should be on the side of the scales
next to the box and about as close to the box as will permit

102 Western Live-stock Management

easy access to the beam. The gate from the corral or
chute to the scales should be placed just in front of the
scales, and made about eight or ten feet wide. The gate
may then be swung outward to meet the scale gate, and
by fastening the two together a chute is formed direct
from the corral to the scale-rack. Yet when the gates
are closed and the scale removed, there is nothing to
prevent easy access of wagons and teams to the scales.
If the scale-rack is made rather high and with a gate at
each end, a team and wagon may be driven through with-
out removing the rack, but this arrangement is useful
only in weighing small loads of grain; it cannot be utilized
for loads as large as a load of hay. Cattle-racks are some-
times made with the sides hinged at the bottom so that
they may be dropped back far enough to allow a load of
hay to drive through, but these racks are practically
never strong enough to hold western cattle.

Special attention should be given the arrangement
of the corrals, so that the cattle may be brought to the
scales with the least amount of difficulty. Not only does
running the cattle around the corral waste much time, but
it likewiseruns the flesh off the steers and causes shrinkage.
If the corrals are so arranged that the cattle may be
weighed without running them around or exciting them
in any way, they will often weigh as much as five or ten
pounds a head more than if weighed from corrals that re-
quire a good deal of running to get them on the scales.
A model arrangement of corrals, chutes, and scales is shown
in Fig. 9. This system includes the good points in corral
construction from various western ranches.

CHAPTER VII

BRANDING AND MARKING

Tue branding of cattle is such a simple operation as
to need very little elaboration in the way of explanation
or instruction. The difficult part of the operation is
usually to catch and hold the animals. On the open
range this is usually done by roping by the neck and by
the hind legs. Then, by pulling in opposite directions,
the animal is thrown and stretched out in the position
that it is impossible for him to make much of a struggle
when the iron is applied. This method has the advantage
of requiring no corrals or chutes, but is slow; and is hard
on both the calves and the horses. It also requires some
skill in roping, although if the operator is used to handling
a rope, it may be about as easy to get the rope on as to get
it off. Considerable branding is done by a method that
is similar except that a stout corral and a snubbing post
are used. The animal is roped by the neck or horns and
snubbed to the post in the center of the corral. Then a
rope is put on the hind legs, usually by throwing it over
the rump when the animal can be made to move around
a little so that he will soon step into the rope. Then with
a flirt and a quick jerk the rope is dropped down around
the hind legs and drawn tight. By a strong pull with a
horse, the hind legs are pulled from under the animal and
he is thrown and held while being branded. This method

103

104 Western Live-stock Management

is not at all difficult, the only trouble being that if the rope
is not properly managed when it is dropped down off the
hips, the animal may kick out of it with one foot, if not
with both. The method is not very fast, and is hard on
the animals, causing much excitement in catching, and
also “wooling” them around more than is desirable. It
is, however, convenient for the farmer who has only a few
to brand and is about the only method for castration.

The modern method of branding, however, is with a
“mash”’ or chute with movable sides. This method of
branding is faster, and easier on the animals than the
roping process, although this depends largely on the con-
veniences that have been arranged for getting the cattle
into the chutes. If the corral is large and only a short
wing of twenty-five or thirty feet is used, there will be
much difficulty in persuading the meaner cattle into the
trap; but if a larger wing is used, and especially if it is
divided with one or more stop gates, the cattle can be
put in as fast as the iron can be applied.

The essential point in regard to branding irons is that
the design be simple and the iron large. Small compli-
cated designs are easily blurred out, and even if they are
put on correctly, long hair soon covers them over so
they cannot be read. A good brand must above all
things be legible. A brand that cannot be read until the
animal is sheared is an abomination. If the iron be large
and simple and properly applied, the brand should be
legible all the year round. The actual size will depend
on various things, but in general each letter, if letters
are used, should be seven or eight inches high and M’s
and W’s even larger. The stock of which the brand is
made should also be large, three-eighths to one-half inch
across the face. The depth of the stock is not so im-

Branding and Marking 105

portant, but if it is an inch or more the heat will be re-
tained better. Copper is by far the best material for
making irons, since it holds the heat much better than iron.
It is expensive, however, and if the heating facilities are
good and the branding not carried on with extreme
rapidity, iron instead of copper will answer very well, or
for rapid work several iron brands may be used. For
heating the iron, a large hand forge is the best, but they
are not always readily available. Old stoves are some-
times used, and quite successfully. The common method,
however, is the open bonfire, which does very well, but
is troublesome and takes a lot of good dry wood.

The temperature of the iron has much to do with making
a permanent brand. Long-haired cattle require a much
hotter iron than short-haired cattle. In all cases the iron
must be hot enough to make a good blister everywhere
it touches, which usually means a good red. There is
very little danger of having the iron too hot, but much
danger of not having it hot enough. The injury to the
animal may be greater with the moderately hot iron, since
it is often held to the skin for some time, and although the
skin may not be much affected, the heat has time to pene-
trate to the tenderer tissues beneath and do more damage
and cause the animal more suffering than if the skin were
burned to a crisp by the almost instantaneous application
of white-hot iron. This same principle is well illustrated
in horse-shoeing. Veterinarians know that serious injury
to a horse’s foot seldom comes from the application of a
red-hot shoe, for the scorching warns the shoer to take it
away, but the serious injury comes when the shoe is not
quite hot enough to scorch, and is therefore left in con-
tact with the foot long enough for the heat to penetrate
into the tenderer tissues below, thus producing serious

106 Western Live-stock Management

and lasting injury. With horses, the brand is applied
almost instantly, but with cattle the iron must be held to
the skin for a moment, since it takes a little time for the
hair to burn through. If the iron is very hot, however,
the work is performed as soon as the iron strikes through
the hair. One should not be satisfied, however, with
brands that only affect the hair. They look all right, but
in the fall they cannot be found.

Another very important factor in making a brand legible
is the way the animal is held. If held absolutely solid
so that he cannot jump around and cause the iron to slip,
a good brand can be made; but if he can move at all, a
blur is sure to result. One of the strong points in favor
of the chute method of branding is that the animals can
be held more securely so that there is less danger of blurred
brands.

The common locations for the brand are the hips,
thighs, sides, and shoulders. Of these, the hips and side
are by far the best. Between the two, the preference is
for the hips. When animals are running out in the open,
a brand on the side can be more easily seen; but when
crowded together in a corral or cutting pen, the hip brand
is more convenient. If the brand is placed on the side it
must be well up toward the backbone, for otherwise it can-
not be seen when the animals are crowded. A larger brand
can be placed on the side than on the hip, although a brand
larger than can be put on the hip is seldom necessary.
The shoulder presents an excellent surface on which to put
a brand, but the animal must stand broadside toward
you and there must be no other animals in the way or the
brand cannot be seen. The thigh brand also cannot be
seen when the animal is in a bunch. This is a very im-
portant consideration, since it is essential that the brands

Branding and Marking 107

be in view when the cattle are corraled for cutting out and
separating. The whole object of branding is so to mark the
animals that their ownership may be known at all times,
and to accomplish this, it is necessary that the brand be
large and plain and on a spot where it may be easily seen
when the cattle are bunched together. In making the
brand legible, then, the essential points are a large iron
of simple design, made of good, wide stock, applied red hot
when the animal is held so as to be absolutely immovable.

EAR-MARKING

Ear-marking is practiced by many cattle-men in addi-
tion to branding. Various slits and notches are made in
the ears, according to the fancy of the owner, he, of course,
adopting one certain form as his particular mark. The
number of combinations is limited, so that only a com-
paratively small number of stockmen can have different
ear-marks. They are also in some cases easily changed.
Ear-marking is not then a substitute for branding, but a
supplement thereto. Calves can be and should be marked
as soon as they come, but they would be in no condition to
withstand branding at this age. They are thus marked at
an early age when there is the least danger of being lost or
stolen. The ear-mark is also very convenient as a supple-
ment to the usual brand on matured cattle and affords
a double means of identification. It is also more legible
than the brands, especially in the dead of winter when the
hair becomes long. In looking over a bunch of steers, the
owner knows that those without his mark on the ears
are not his, without going to the trouble further to identify
the animals by examination of the brands.

108 Western Live-stock Management

BRAND LAWS AND INSPECTION

In most states brands must be registered with some
authorized state official before they can be recognized as
any proof of ownership. Duplication of brands is not
allowed ; that is, every man in the state must have a differ-
ent brand. Cattle-men running stock close to the state
boundary usually have their brands recorded in both
states. The details of brand registration vary with the
different states and furthermore may be changed from
time to time. Exact information for any state may
be obtained from the agricultural college, the state veteri-
narian, or any prominent stockman.

Nearly all western states have laws requiring the in-
spection of the brands of cattle shipped out of the state.
The inspection is usually made at the point of shipment
and a permanent record is kept of all branded cattle
shipped. Of course the details of inspection vary in
the different states. In addition to these local inspectors,
the state cattle-men’s association commonly employ
salaried brand inspectors at the large market centers to
inspect the brands of all cattle shipped from the territory
of their association. Sometimes in the smaller markets,
two or more states combine to employ an inspector.
While these inspectors are in private employ, state laws
usually give them certain police authority and allow them
te stop payment on any stock when the ownership is
questionable. The object of brand inspection is to dis-
courage stealing, to make prosecution easier where theft
has occurred, and to aid in the restoration of strays. The
inspection at the large market centers is usually very
thorough, but that done by local inspectors at the shipping
points is not always so carefully or so competently per-
formed.

CHAPTER VIII

PURE-BRED CATTLE

In previous chapters we have dealt exclusively with
the production of commercial beef which, owing to the
scarcity and high price of pure-bred beef cows, is almost
entirely produced from grade females, although the use
of pure-bred bulls is general and should be universal,
The man with pure-bred cows does not as a rule try to
raise steers for beef but rather good bulls for the range
trade. A few of the poorer bulls will be castrated and
sold for beef. The discarded cows will also be slaughtered,
while the surplus heifers will go to the founding of new
herds of pure-bred cattle. The breeding of pure-bred
cattle and the production of beef are, therefore, two
separate and distinct lines of business yet closely linked
together by two facts; the beef producer must look to
the breeder for his bulls, and the breeder must look to the
beef producer for a market for these bulls.

THE MAN

The breeding and handling of pure-bred beef cattle
require a somewhat different type of man from the han-
dling of commercial stock. He must first of all be a very
keen judge of animals and he must be a good feeder and
a good salesman. The latter point cannot be emphasized
too strongly. There is an established market and es-

109

110 Western Live-stock Management

‘tablished prices for all forms of commercial cattle and one

man can get as much for his stock as another, but pure-
bred cattle is another proposition and salesmanship on the
part of the owner enters very largely into the success of
the operation. A successful breeder of pure-bred cattle
must also be a man who reads and travels to some ex-
tent in order to keep himself well informed on pedigrees
and on the work of other breeders. A successful breeder
should also have working knowledge of the handling of
commercial cattle and should above all know the kind
of cattle which the trade demands.

LOCATION

On account of the value of the stock and the necessity
of keeping an exact record of each individual animal, it
is not practical to run pure-bred beef cattle on the open
range, although they may be run in well-fenced bunch-
grass pasture. Generally speaking, a ranch for the raising
of pure-bred cattle must afford much better feed than one
suitable for commercial beef. Breeders of pure-bred cattle
are of two kinds. The first is the constructive breeder
who aims to obtain the very best stock which the breed
affords and from this build up a herd which is even better,
if possible, than anything which has existed in the breed
heretofore. The surplus from such a herd will not be
sold to the beef-producer but rather to other breeders of
pure-bred cattle. The other is the man who does not
attempt to breed the very finest but rather to breed on a
larger scale and to furnish good bulls to the beef-producers
at prices which the latter can afford to pay. We find
the bulls produced by these two men similarly grouped.
The bulls suitable to head a herd of good pure-bred cows

Pure-bred Cattle 111
are designated as “herd headers,” while bulls of some-
what less quality and merit, but still very satisfactory for
use on grade herds, are designated as “range bulls.” The
class of cattle one intends to breed has some influence on
the farm selected and if it is intended to breed largely
range bulls, one can handle a considerable amount of
bunch-grass pasture and it should preferably be located
close to some beef-producing center. If handling the
higher class of cattle, however, one must obtain a rich
well-tilled farm that grows plenty of hay, grain, silage,
and luxuriant pasture and it must be located close to some
good railroad point. In all cases it must be borne in mind
that pure-bred cattle, to be made a success financially,
require better feed than do commercial beef cattle, and
- the man who expects to raise bulls in the same manner
that he raises steers is doomed to disappointment.

FOUNDING THE HERD

Since the success or failure of a herd of pure-bred cattle
is largely determined by the first purchases, it is not wise
to rush blindly into the purchase of a large number of
breeding stock until one has become thoroughly familiar
with the standards of the breed. We offer the sugges-
tion, therefore, that anyone contemplating founding a
herd of cattle should study the matter for at least a year
before making any purchases. One should visit the lead-
ing fairs and find out the class of cattle which the other
breeders are handling, and something of the type of cattle
which they are trying to breed. Also one should study
the leading blood lines so as to be able to interpret pedi-
grees. The public auction sales are good places to learn
something of the judgment of other breeders as to the

112 Western Live-stock Management

financial value of cattle and of blood lines. The most
expert judge of commercial beef is not competent to buy
pure-bred cattle until he has had a course of training of
this kind. It should be borne in mind from the outset
that with any improved breeds of live-stock there is some
tendency for them to revert back to the unimproved form
and usually the more highly they have been improved the
greater the tendency for reversion. The man, therefore,
who buys a bunch of cows at $250 a head and a bull for
the same price and expects to sell the offspring for $250
a head will be disappointed. About the only way which
the $250 cows can be kept producing $250 calves is by the
use of a bull of a much higher quality, and on that ac-
count it is usually found necessary to pay three or four
times as much for a bull as for the cows. We would
hesitate to say that it is always advisable for the beginner
to buy only the very highest class and highest priced
animals, but we would warn the prospective breeder
against inferior pure-bred stock. The cattle must in
all cases be good useful stock of such quality that the
bulls will be capable of producing a marked improvement
on the average herd of good commercial beef. Sway-
backed, cat-hammed, or slab-sided bulls are worthless
no matter how imposing the pedigree.

FEED AND CARE

As previously indicated, pure-bred cattle require better
feed than will grade cattle. This is not because they will
not do as well on poor feed as will grade cattle, but be-
cause, in order to make a commercial success of pure-bred
cattle, they must be kept in a higher degree of flesh and
growing more rapidly. Breeding cows do not need to be

Piate Il]. — Tus NEw AND THE OLD IN THE WEsT.

Above, Herefords at the Spokane Interstate Fair. Below, old time
corral near Prineville, Oregon.

Pure-bred Cattle 118

kept in high flesh but must be handled in such a manner
as to give the largest quantity of milk for their calves. The
calves, however, which are intended for sale, especially
the bulls, must be kept fat and growing from the very
day of their birth. The bulls are usually sold at about a
year to a year and a half of age, and when selling time
comes they must be fat and have plenty of weight for their
age, and this fat and weight can be obtained only through
the medium of liberal feeding. The feed that will pro-
duce a good steer will not make a satisfactory bull for two
reasons. First, the bull is restless and quarrelsome and
will not make as good use of scanty feed as a steer; second,
the beef-producer will not buy a bull that is not finer
looking, fatter, and above all, bigger for age than the
steers which he has at home. It is said by some that the
poorly fed bull will be as good a breeder as the one that
has had better treatment. This may or may not be true,
but it is absolutely certain that a bull will not sell for his
true value if he does not have good weight for age and does
not have meat on his back.

Calves born in the spring should be taught to eat grain
at least by late in the summer so that when weaned they
will be able to go on a ration of grain and hay without
any set-back. They should have all the grain they want
together with plenty of good hay through the first winter
and in fact until the time when they are sold, with a
possible exception of a short period during the second
spring when the grass is especially good. Most breeders
of pure-bred cattle prefer a fall to a spring calf. If the
cows are given reasonable shelter and good feed, they will
milk well all winter and the calves will thrive, and when
grass comes the calves are just at the age when the spring
calves would be weaned, but the fall calves do not have

114 Western Live-stock Management

to be taken from their mothers so early. Instead, the
mothers are turned out on good grass, which stimulates
the milk flow, and the calves, therefore, get an abundant
supply of milk for several months. They also will learn
to eat grass and by the time they are nine or ten months
old, they may be weaned without the least set-back. They
should, like the spring calves, be taught to eat grain be-
fore they are separated from their mothers, and should
have grain from this time on through the winter until
the next spring, when they will be ready to sell. The
advantages of fall calves are: first, they secure much more
milk and for a longer time and so make bigger calves at
less expense; second, they may be sold at about six
months’ less age than the spring calves. Purchasers of
bulls to go on beef herds want to buy them in the spring
and they want bulls old enough to go into service. A fall
calf can be ready for this market at the age of eighteen
months, whereas the spring calf has to be kept to an age
of about twenty-four months. Of course the spring
calf at twenty-four months is a bigger, more mature bull
than the fall calf at eighteen, but the fall calf at eighteen
is big enough for service and that is all the beef-man wants
or is willing to pay for. The chief objection to fall calves
is that cows are sometimes harder to breed in the fall.
Some of the larger range-men prefer to buy their bulls as
calves just weaned and grow them out themselves. Their
reason for doing this is twofold: they obtain the first
pick of the calves in the breeder’s herd, and they can grow
them out just the way they want them. This is, of course,
a very satisfactory method of doing business. The
smaller beef-producers, however, do not do this but put
off buying bulls until it is necessary to have them, which
means that they must purchase a bull old enough for

Pure-bred Cattle 115

service. In all the large auction sales for pure-bred cattle
the best age for the bulls is about eighteen months. Some
few are sold at the age of twelve months, but unless they
are exceptionally growthy and fat, they go at a consider-
able discount.

MARKING

Pure-bred cattle do not ordinarily require branding in
order to establish the ownership, as in the case of com-
mercial cattle, but it is necessary to give each animal some
number or other identification mark in order that an
accurate record may be kept of the breeding. There are
two common methods of marking pure-bred cattle. One
is to put a small button or metal in the ear. This tag
bears the initials of the owner and the number of that
particular animal. Theother method is to tattoo the num-
ber in the ear. The latter method is by far the most
permanent, but the marks are difficult to read except at
very close range. In addition to these methods some
breeders brand the number on the horns. In this case,
if the horn is broken off the number is lost. Such a num-
ber is very easily read, and some of the breeders put the
tattoo mark in the ear in order to have a permanent mark,
and then also put the same number on the horn so as to
have a mark that is easily read. On account of its ab-
solute permanence, the tattoo is recommended by most
breed associations, and, whenever possible, the tattoo
number should appear on the certificate of registration.

MARKETING

The surplus from the pure-bred herd may be marketed
by public auction, or by private sale. An auction of pure-
bred cattle, in order to attract any considerable number

116 Western Live-stock Management

of buyers, should offer at least fifty and preferably sev-
enty-five or eighty head of good cattle. The larger
breeders often put on auctions of their own cattle where
they have enough to justify it. In other cases breeders’
associations, either the national Shorthorn or Hereford
associations or local organizations, put on combination
sales in which many breeders will consign their cattle.
For small breeders located at some distance from the
beef-producing centers, the latter method of sale is very
desirable, as it enables them to secure as good prices as
the larger man and cuts down materially the cost of ad-
vertising, which on a small herd is a heavy burden. Re-
gardless of the class of cattle or location, advertising is
always essential to the success of a pure-bred herd. By
advertising is meant advertising in the broader sense of
making one’s product known to the public. Whether this
be through word of mouth, reputation of the herd, a record
of the show rings, high prices obtained at sales, or through
newspaper advertising, the effect is the same. It makes
the herd known and talked about among persons who
may be purchasers. The various fairs and stock shows,
ranging from county fairs to the Chicago International,
are big factors in the pure-bred cattle business. They
enable the breeders to come together and compare stock
and thus better their judgment. They also accomplish
much to advertise the stock of exhibitors among the
other breeders and with the public at large. For a breeder
who is ambitious to have the reputation of producing only
the best, there is no advertising so effective as a record of
successful winnings at the fairs. A man who wins an
important prize at the state fair not only wins a small
money consideration, but obtains free advertising which
would cost him many dollars if secured through the ad-

Pure-bred Cattle 117

vertising columns, and which furthermore reaches more
persons and is much more effective. A regular adver-
tisement, however, in the farm press must not be over-
looked, and the successful breeder must constantly keep
his name before the public through this means. There
is much art in successful newspaper advertising and the
young breeder should study carefully the various papers
which might be used as a medium for advertising pur-
poses. It is also well to consult with the older more ex-
perienced breeders and find out what papers and what
kind of advertising they have found brings the best
results. It is sometimes possible for a small breeder of a
rather cheap grade of cattle to sell considerable of his
surplus with very little advertising, provided he is lo-
cated in the heart of the range district and has a wide
personal acquaintance with the beef-producers. It is
rarely possible, however, by this means to reach any more
than a local market and as soon as the neighbors are sup-
plied with bulls, the breeder finds himself without an out-
let for his stock. The problem of selling is one that no
breeder can long neglect.

PART III

SHEEP

By Oran M. NeEutson

CHAPTER IX

WOOL AND MUTTON PRODUCERS OF THE
WEST

Tue sheep of the West, because of geographical and
climatic conditions, are divided into two great classes:
range sheep and farm sheep. Farm sheep in the West
are handled in a manner similar to that followed in the
eastern states, in England and in Europe, making, of
course, necessary allowance for differences in feed, climate,
and peculiarities of the people. Nothing similar to the
western range sheep industry is to be found elsewhere
in America or Europe. It resembles more closely the
sheep business of Australia and Argentina, but even there
the resemblance is largely confined to the immense size
of the flocks and the preponderance of Merino blood.

RANGE SHEEP

The range sheep industry resolves itself into three
phases: the raising of range sheep for wool and mutton;
the raising of pure-bred sheep on the range; and the
fattening of range lambs in the winter time.

The essential features of raising of sheep for wool and
mutton on the ranges are as follows: extensive use is made
of rough range land not suitable for cultivation, such
range usually being public domain, either within or
without Forest Reserve; the sheep are handled on a

121

122 Western Live-stock Management

large scale and are seldom kept under fence; the raising
of sheep on the ranges is a business in itself, and is not
ordinarily conducted in connection with, or as a by-prod-
uct of, any other line of agriculture.

The raising of pure-bred sheep on the range is very
similar to that of raising commercial sheep for wool or
mutton. The essential differences come in marketing
and in the fact that the pure-bred stock, because of the
capital invested in them, require better care.

The fattening of range sheep on grain and hay is a
business confined strictly to those districts where alfalfa
is abundant. It is conducted exclusively in the winter
time, and is usually carried on in connection with either
raising sheep on the range or the raising of hay and grain
on the farm. Of the three phases, the first is, from the
standpoint of capital invested and number of persons
employed, by far the most important.

FARM SHEEP

The three phases of the farm sheep industry are: the
raising of spring lambs, the raising of pure-bred sheep,
and the raising of hot house lambs.

The raising of spring lambs on the cultivated farms of
the West is a business that is conducted on a small scale
in connection with other forms of general grain and
hay farming. The flock usually consists of twenty to
two hundred head. These sheep are never herded but
are always under fence and for the most part on culti-
vated land. Some native pasture is used, but not a large
amount. The sheep are mostly grades of the down or
long-wooled breeds.

The raising of pure-bred sheep on the farm is very

Wool and Mutton Producers of the West 123

similar to that of raising spring lambs. The essential
difference is in the time and manner of marketing. The
lambs have to be held over until the fall, and sometimes
are past a year before they are placed on the market.
When sold, they go largely for breeding purposes.

The raising of hot house or winter lambs is the raising of
baby mutton to be marketed in December, January, or
February. Such lambs are raised in small lots in certain
parts of the West. This phase of the sheep industry is
of but minor importance and could be easily over-done.

In any discussion of sheep raising of the West, it is
absolutely necessary to keep these different phases dis-
tinctly in mind, for facts which apply to one branch of the
industry may have no application to another.

CHAPTER X

RANGE SHEEP

THE natural conditions and environment in the western
states, and the extensive scale on which the sheep industry
is conducted, together with the high price of labor and
the comparative inaccessibility of some of the larger
sheep ranges, have rendered it necessary to develop a
system of management which is comparatively, uniform
throughout the range districts, although certain minor
differences prevail in various localities on account of cli-
matic, labor and transportation conditions.

HERDING

The great western ranges, unlike other sheep countries,
are absolutely devoid of sheep fences. Consequently,
the sheep must be herded every day of the year except
when they are shut in the feed-lots in the winter. At
evening, they are brought in close to the herder’s camp
where they lie down during the night. Next morning,
they are out grazing early and the herder must be up to
keep watch of them. The herder is assisted by a camp
tender who moves camp and brings out supplies. One
camp tender may in some cases tend more than one herder.
The heavy expense of herding range sheep makes it neces-
sary to give each man as many sheep as he can take care
of, which will be 2000 to 3000 wethers or 1000 to 1500

124

Range Sheep 125

ewes not counting their lambs. This in turn necessitates
the use of sheep carrying a considerable portion of Merino
blood, since it is only from this source that sheep derive
that peculiar tendency to “flock” or stay together, which
makes it possible for one man to handle so many.

The herders are never called shepherds, but always
“herders” or “sheep-herders.”’ The word “shepherd”
is used in the West only to indicate the man who takes
care of a flock of pure-bred sheep on the breeding farm or
on the show circuit. The word “flock” is also supplanted
on the range by the word “band.” “Flock” is considered
correct usage only when applied to a small bunch of sheep
kept under fence.

SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES

The summer range is located in the higher altitudes
where the high plateaus, burns, and mountain meadows
furnish green grass during the months when the lower
ranges would be very dry. Green grass is very neces-
sary during the months of June, July, and August in order
to maintain the milk flow at a maximum. At the age of
two months, lambs require green feed even more than do
the ewes. The exact time the sheep enter the summer
ranges depends on the season and the locality, but it is
usually during the months of May or June and after shear-
ing. The sheep are kept upon the summer range as long
as the weather permits, which is until there is danger of
blockade from early snow storms. Usually the sheep-
men drive their sheep out of the mountains before any
signs of deep snow appear rather than take the chance of
a severe loss. In a favorable season, when the weather
is good and the feed abundant, there is a strong tempta~

126 Western Live-stock Management

tion to leave sheep in the mountains after the time when
snow storms may possibly come. This policy is success-
ful part of the time, but occasionally entire bands are lost
from an unexpected storm, and in severe cases the herder
will be fortunate if he escapes with his own life. Most of
the sheep are brought out of the mountains in September
and October.

The location of the winter range is determined by its
proximity to haystacks or the ranch house. Where the
snowfall is heavy, it is necessary that the winter range be
located close to covered corrals and haystacks. The
winter ranges are for the most part located on the lower
hills, plateaus, and prairies, where the snowfall is com-
paratively light, especially as compared with the moun-
tains. Inthe lower lands the atmosphere is usually fairly
dry and there is a considerable wind, so that even when
there is a comparatively heavy snowfall, the wind will
leave a great many bare places. While all of these ranges
are designated as “winter” ranges, it must be understood
that to call them spring and fall ranges would give a more
adequate idea of their real use unless it be in parts of New
Mexico, Arizona, or Nevada. Most of these ranges af-
ford grazing for one to three months earlier in the spring
than do the typical summer ranges and in addition they
afford a like amount of good grazing during the fall after
the danger of early storms has made it necessary to take
the sheep out of the mountains. During the winter,
most of the winter ranges amount to very little. It is
very true that when the grass is allowed to obtain a good
growth during the summer, it cures down in the fall and
makes a very nutritious feed at such times in the winter
that it is not covered with snow. On account of the
present scarcity of range land of this kind, it is almost

Range Sheep 127

impossible to save very much grass for strictly winter
use ; but they may afford a little feed which together with
sage-brush and other shrubs will carry the sheep through
the winter with but a limited amount of hay.

THE BREEDING BAND

The ewe band on the range is usually grade Merino,
although the type and general character of the breeding
band varies with the motive of the owner. If he is a
wool-producer his ewes tend toward the long-stapled
dense-fleeced kinds and the sires are usually of one of the
long-wool breeds. In case he specializes in fat lambs,
his ewes are of the heavier blockier sort and his rams of
one of the mutton breeds. In one case fleece is the prin-
cipal product and in the other the lambs are considered
more important. In either case one cannot be profitably
produced without the other. In other words, the breed-
ing band is in all cases dual-purpose.

The sires used on the range are mostly pure-bred.
Grade sires are not very successful as they are not able
to stamp their type on their offspring as uniformly as
pure-bred sires. The sire, no matter what breed he be-
longs to or whether his rdle is mutton or wool production,
must have a strong constitution, well-formed feet, and
straight legs with strong bone. His mouth must be
sound and his head must have the masculinity that goes
with the normal male. Some breeders lay special empha-
sis on the latter point, believing that a ram lacking in
this feature will not be able to stamp his characteristics on
his lambs. Rams used on the range are purchased in
carload lots, usually from dealers for $15.00 to $35.00 per
head.

128 Western Live-stock Management

While the rams may be of any breed, the ewes must
always carry some Merino blood in order that they may
have the hardiness and flocking qualities necessary for
range use. One quarter Merino ewes give fair satis-
faction but the half blood is most popular and brings the
highest price. The ewe, like the ram, must have a strong
constitution, strong back, and good feet and straight
legs with plenty of bone. She should be at least a year-
ling and not over a six-year old and have a sound mouth.
To breed ewes younger than one year tends to diminish
their size, while ewes older than six too often have broken
mouths. Ewes’ mouths begin to break at about six
years and sometimes before. It is better to fatten them
and sell for mutton just before they break. All ewes
that have proven to be non-breeders or poor mothers
should be taken out before breeding begins, since they
are worth more as mutton than as breeding stock. It
is customary for the range-men to go over their flocks
every fall and cut out all ewes that are no longer fit for
breeding purposes. If taken before their teeth are gone,
they can be fattened into good mutton, but if their teeth
are broken, they will not fatten and must be sold as “cull
ewes” for whatever they will bring. Some men mark at
lambing time all the ewes that are poor mothers or which
do not bring lambs. By fall they will be fat and can be
sold for mutton. A popular way of marking such ewes
is to cut off the end of the ear.

DETERMINING AGE

The age of sheep is determined by the order of ap-
pearance of the permanent incisor teeth. The sheep has
eight permanent incisors which supplant the milk teeth

Range Sheep 129

in regular order. The permanent incisors are consider-
ably larger than the milk teeth and aresomewhat broader
in shape. The first pair of permanent incisors appears
in the center of the mouth when the sheep is about twelve
months old. The next pair appears, one on each side of
the first pair, the following year. The third pair appears
when the animal is three years old and the fourth pair
when it is between four and five years old. This method
of determining the age of a sheep is quite reliable, although
feeding may cause a little variation in the time at which
the permanent teeth appear.

BREEDING

Breeding on the range usually occurs somewhere be-
tween October first and December first. The exact time
depends on the spring climatic conditions. As the ges-
tation period of ewes is about five months, breeding should
begin five months before the lambs are wanted. The rams
are turned in with the ewe band at the rate of about one
ram to forty ewes. They are left sufficient time that
all the ewes are bred, which is usually from sixty to ninety
days.

WINTER MANAGEMENT

Sheep-men estimate the cost of wintering, including
labor, from 50 cents to $1.00 a head. It is generally con-
sidered that the price of the wool will easily pay for the
cost of wintering. At the present time, practically no
sheep-men attempt to run their sheep through the winter
without hay. The amount allowed varies considerably,
but usually runs from seventy-five to two hundred pounds
a head. One hundred fifty pounds a head would doubt-
less be more nearly the usual average. Very little grain is

130 Western Live-stock Management

fed torange sheep, although it has been found that at times
when feed is very scarce and it becomes necessary to ship
or haul the feed for considerable distance, grain is more
economical than hay on account of the ease with which it
may be handled. Especially is this true where it is neces-
sary to haul the feed for several miles out into the range.
If the sheep have sage-brush to nibble on with an occa-
sional bite of grass, one-fourth pound of grain a day will
help greatly in pulling them through a bad winter. In
some of the range districts on the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains, the sheep-men purchase corn in car-
load lots and hold it as insurance against short feed. In
other localities, cotton-seed cake and linseed cake are
used. The nut size cake is used the most as it can be fed
on the ground. It is given at the rate of four or five
ounces a head a day. In some localities it is necessary
to keep the ewes up and feed in corrals a great part of
the winter. In such cases, alfalfa hay is used. The cost
of wintering in this system is somewhat greater than
where some grazing is available.

LAMBING

The proper time for lambing is the earliest time of the
year that climate and feeding conditions will permit.
Lambs should not come before the green grass starts in
the spring, since green grass is quite essential to a maxi-
mum milk flow. The possibility of late storms is also
an important consideration, especially in the higher al-
titudes. The actual date of lambing varies somewhat
according to local conditions and according to the amount
of hay and feed room which the owner may have. The
larger part of the range lambs in the Northwest are dropped

Range Sheep 131

between March first and May first and in the Southwest
somewhat earlier.

At lambing time, a number of extra men must be hired.
During the other seasons of the year from 1500 to 3000
sheep are handled in one band, but during the lambing
season each one of the larger bands must be divided into
a number of smaller ones. As far as possible, the older
and more experienced herders are put in charge of the
lambing pens, and the owners and managers in this sea-
son of the year are obliged to give the flocks the closest
personal attention. There are two principal methods of
lambing: namely, the open range and the lambing shed
or tent.

Lambing on the open range.

Lambing on the open range differs from that in the shed
primarily in that the sheep are herded on the range during
the day and corralled at night. In different localities
lambing on the open range varies somewhat, but the
following may be taken as a fair example. At lambing
time a night herder is placed in charge of the band. As
soon as the lamb is born, it and its mother are removed
from the corral and placed in a lambing pen and kept
there until maternal relationships are well established.
A lambing pen is a pen just large enough for a ewe and
her lamb. Some sheep-men vary the above procedure
by bedding the drop bands just outside the corrals. The
lambs which are born during the night are, under this
system, not disturbed unless something is radically wrong.
The next morning the ewes which have no lambs move
away from the bedding ground leaving the ewes and
their young lambs behind. When the ewes have been
bedded outside, this separation is comparatively natural

132 Western Live-stock Management

and is effected without disturbing lambs to any great
extent. After the newly born lambs and their mothers
have been separated out, those lambs which do not seem
to be properly owned are put with their mothers in the
lambing pen, while the others are worked out on to the
range to graze. This system requires much less work
than where the ewes are corralled at night, but is probably
not quite so effective.

During the daytime an extra herder follows the lambing
band and the young lambs and their mothers are sepa-
rated from the main band, generally known as the
“drop” band, and are gathered together in small bunches
of ten to thirty head. As soon as a small bunch of ewes
with their newly born lambs are gathered together, they
are left behind and a tall stake with a flag erected in or-
der to show their iocation. The ewes and their lambs will
not stray far from this place for the first twesty-four
hours. During the course of the day several of these
bands are separated out. They are not usually moved
the first night but left out on the range where they are
and the herder camps with them. Special precautions
are sometimes necessary to keep off wild animals. A
lantern may be hung on a stake to keep away the coyotes,
or the herder may fire off guns or fire crackers from time
to time. The next morning these small bunches of newly
born lambs are brought together and put with other
ewes and young lambs to form what is known as the
infant herd.

A simple piece of equipment that has not yet been used
to a great extent on the range but which is growing in
popularity is a lambing blanket. This blanket is simply
a piece of canvas lined with soft cotton cloth. The
canvas is fifteen inches wide and sixteen inches long with

Range Sheep 133

a small part cut out for the neck. A string is looped in
each corner on the lower end of the blanket through which
the hind legs of the lamb are put. On each side of the
front of the blanket a string is fastened to be tied across
the lamb’s chest. The use of the blanket is limited to
stormy weather. In lambing on the open range many
lambs are lost because of cold rains or snows that occur
in the first few hours of the lamb’s life. If it is storming
at the time the lamb is dropped, one of these blankets is
placed on the lamb and left from two to five hours as the
occasion may require. Care has to be exercised in its
use as the blanket may tend to cause some ewes to disown
their lambs.

When the range is level, a lambing wagon is often used.
This wagon has a broad, flat-bottomed rack, which is
divided into about twenty-one small pens, each barely
large enough to hold the ewe and lamb. Each pen is so
arranged that it opens toward the back. This wagon
goes out on the range every morning. As each ewe
lambs, she and her lamb are placed in one of these pens.
As soon as the wagon is full, it returns to the corral
where the ewes and lambs are placed in the care of an
experienced shepherd. Here the ewes with young lambs
are banded together into an infant herd, much the same
as when the wagon is not used. At first, there are about
100 in each infant band, but as the lambs grow older the
smaller bands are put together, thus gradually increasing
the herd until at the end of about ten or fifteen days
there will be 1200 or 1500 ewes with their lambs in each
band. The lamb bands are from this time on driven
greater distances from the home ranch, but are not usually
moved to the summer range until they are a month or
six weeks old. Ewes with their new born lambs are kept

134 Western Live-stock Management

in small bunches at first so that the lamb and ewe may not
become separated. A ewe separated from her lamb for
a period of twenty-four hours, loses its scent and con-
sequently disowns it. In such a case not only is the lamb
lost, but the ewe’s udder may become spoiled. All lambs
which are disowned or whose mothers have died are
known as “bums.” They are usually given over to some
ewe that has lost her lamb; this failing, they must be
taken to the ranch house and brought up on bottles, or
else allowed to die. Wherever there is any difficulty in
making the ewe own the lamb, the ewe is put in an in-
dividual lambing pen along with the lamb and left there
for such time as may be necessary. When this treat-
ment fails, other or additional measures may be adopted ;
for instance, the ewe may be fastened in a stanchion made
by driving two stakes in the ground about four inches
apart at the bottom and fastened together at the top
with a small rope or wire. Rubbing some of the ewe’s
milk on the lamb will also assist, since the ewe recognizes
her lamb entirely by scent, and not by sight, sound, or
touch. When a ewe is expected to own a lamb not her
own, as when her own lamb has died, it is a very common
practice to take the skin of the dead lamb and fasten
it over the back of the other lamb. In no case should the
skin be left on the adopted lamb longer than twenty-four
to forty-eight hours. If the ewe and lamb are kept in a
small pen, no further difficulty will be experienced.

The tendency of ewes to disown the lambs is partly
dependent on the natural disposition of the ewes and
partly on the feed and treatment which they have re-
ceived. Ewes that are thin and badly run down at lamb-
ing time will not own their lambs as readily as those that
are in better condition. Hard late winters are usually

Range Sheep 135

followed by increased difficulties at lambing time. These
same conditions, of course, also affect the milk flow, and
it has been found that the willingness of the ewe to own

the lamb is almost directly proportional to the abundance
of her milk.

LIambing sheds and tents.

The use of the lambing shed or tent is the newer
method of lambing and its success has brought it into
great favor with the sheep-men. The systems of man-
agement for the shed and tent are similar and, therefore,
the shed alone will be discussed. The lambing shed,
which is not an expensive structure, is so arranged that
the ewe and lamb after lambing are kept inside and fed
until the ewe comes well into milk and maternal relation-
ships have become well established. When the lambing
shed is used, the sheep do not roam over the open range
but are usually inclosed in a yard adjacent to the shed.
The band of ewes is watched very closely night and day,
and as soon as a ewe lambs she and her offspring are re-
moved to a place in the lambing shed. There are at
present several types of lambing sheds used on the range
and they all have their merits and faults. However,
there are two types that stand out as being more perfect
than the others and because of this, a short discussion of
each will be given.

The general procedure in the type of shed illustrated in
Fig. 11 is as follows. If the lamb is dropped during
the night, the ewe and the lamb are placed by themselves
in one of the small pens in part of the shed marked B.
Here they are left until daybreak, at which time they are
removed. Ifthe ewe had only one lamb and has owned
it, she is placed in pen 1. Each ewe which lambs during

136

Western Live-stock Management

< 09 >
wood ANIdITS ft
9) 9)
Ir
+ ¢
Leer
a
co) Sp)
L S
pee 9 | 01
WS
a | a
ae
<— 21—
Lo a
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aco
~ fete]
ee, =
weteel ae
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Fic. 11. — Floor Plan of a Lambing Shed.

Range Sheep 137

the day is placed in pen A until she has cleaned, and has
given indications of owning or disowning the lamb. As
soon as this is accomplished, she is placed in pen 1, or one
of the lambing pens marked C, depending on her attitude
toward the lamb and on whether she had singles, twins,
or triplets. If she had a single and properly owns it, she
goes into pen 1. Thus by night, pen 1 contains ewes
with their lambs that were dropped during the preceding
twenty-four hours. The next morning this bunch of ewes
is moved to pen 2, so as to leave pen 1 vacant for a fresh
lot of ewes. Every morning this bunch of ewes is moved
until on the fifth day they are in pen 5. On the morn-
ing of the sixth day they are ready to leave the shed and
go to the adjacent range. All ewes that are stubborn and
all ewes having twins, instead of being placed in pen 1
are placed in one of the lambing pens marked C, where
they are left until there is no doubt as to relationship be-
tween the ewe and the lamb. As soon as the proper
maternal relationships have been established, the ewe with
her lamb or lambs is placed in pen lettered D. Each
succeeding day she is moved to the next pen, going from
pen D to E, from pen E to F, and F to G, and from G to
H, and pen H to 4, from pen 4 to 5, and from pen 5 to
the outside. By this arrangement all stubborn ewes and
ewes having twins are kept inside seven days after they
own their lambs, and all ewes having singles and owning
them are kept inside the shed for five days. At the par-
ticular shed illustrated, the lambs are dropped at the rate
of eighty every twenty-four hours during the busy season.
Five men do the work. One is a night-drop picker, one
a day-drop picker, and three are shed-men. The duty of
the night-drop picker is to watch the band at night and
as soon as a lamb is born he puts the lamb and its mother

138 Western Live-stock Management

in one of the night lambing pens marked B. The duties
of the day-drop picker are similar to those of the night-
drop picker, but instead of placing the ewe and lamb in one
of the lambing pens marked B, he places them in pen A.
The duties of the shed-men are to care for all ewes that
enter the shed, shift them to their proper pens, and give
such special attention as may be necessary.

The system of management with the other type of
shed may be outlined as follows: Whenever a ewe drops
a lamb, she and her lamb are moved by means of a sled
to the nearest opening in the shed. They are immedi-
ately placed in one of the individual pens marked A.
Here they are kept for twenty-four hours. If proper
maternal relationships are well established at this time,
they are moved across the alley into one of the larger open
pens marked B with several other ewes and their lambs.
Here they are kept for three to six days depending on the
strength of the lamb. From pens B they go into the
yards marked C. These pens are large enough to hold
about 200-250 head of ewes and their lambs. In these
large pens the ewes remain until grass comes, at which
time the bands are made up for the range.

In both the types of lambing sheds, it is necessary to
feed the ewes as they lamb before grass is good. A very
common feed is chopped alfalfa hay. Often a little
grain is fed to insure a good milk flow. All pens in lamb-
ing sheds must be well supplied with running water.

The system of lambing in the shed has several distinct
advantages, which can be enumerated as follows: first, a
great saving of labor; second, a larger percentage of
lambs ; third, less orphans and dead lambs result; fourth,
better and stronger lambs, as the ewes cared for in this
manner give more milk.

Range Sheep 139.

pens A&B, See detail of Corner

re x ra x

OPEN COURT

LoTs
s20' x 150°

300'

120

600" 120

GROUND PLAN

FEED ROOM f
Le)

20 xX 20 |

‘

vee

e : |
Detail of one Corner Ad

- of Shed. ' oS
All corners are alike. Ip Ae +

Fre. 12. — Floor Plan of Open Court Lambing Shed.

140 Western Live-stock Management

All lambing systems, whether shed, tent, or corral, have
two purposes: first, to prevent ewes and their lambs
from becoming separated until the lambs are old enough
that there is no danger of their being disowned ; second,
in those cases in which lambs are unavoidably disowned,
to remedy the difficulty by some special means. Minor,
although important, considerations in lambing are to
prevent lambs from becoming chilled or trampled to death
and to assist ewes that have difficulty in parturition.
The large size of the range flocks makes the dangers of
lambing many times greater than with small farm flocks,
hence the system of lambing on the range is always
elaborate and painstaking.

PERCENTAGE INCREASE

The percentage of increase varies with the climatic
conditions, and with the care given. Severe weather tends
to decrease the percentage while good care tends to raise
it. The percentage usually varies from about 50 to 100;
that is, there are 50 to 100 lambs for each 100 ewes.
The average in the western states is between 80 and 85
per cent. A percentage higher than 100 is not to be de-
sired, since not many of our ranges are good enough to
support ewes bearing twins and one good strong lamb is
better than two weak ones, neither of which may live
through the summer. ‘The percentage increase is usually
calculated on the basis of the number of lambs and ewes
counted at the time of marking.

MARKING

The term marking is used on the range to designate
the operations of docking, castration, and branding lambs.

Range Sheep 141

These three operations are usually performed at the same
time rather than at separate times as is the case on the
small farms. The method of castrating and docking is
the same as that used on the farms and a detailed dis-
cussion of these operations is given in the chapter devoted
to farm sheep.

SHEARING

The time of shearing is usually shortly after lambing if
weather conditions permit. On the ranges, nearly all
of the shearing is performed sometime during the months
of April, May, and June.

The work is usually conducted by professional shearers
who travel from one locality to another. Because of the
large experience which these men have, they are able to
shear 100 or 200 sheep in a day. Some of them shear in
Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina as well as in the
United States and in this way have work almost the year
around. Within the past ten or fifteen years, machine
shearing is largely taking the place of hand work. The
machine shears are usually arranged in gangs of ten to forty
machines all run by one engine. The chief advantages of
machine shearing are: a neater job and less cutting of
the skin. An expert can shear about as many by hand
as by machine, but an amateur can work much faster
with a machine. It was at first feared that the very
close shearing performed by the machine might subject
the sheep to damage when exposed to the burning sun or
storms; but so far, few bad results from these sources
have been noticed. In many states a large amount of
shearing is still done by hand, but the use of the machine
is growing. The process of shearing large flocks occupies
considerable time under the most favorable conditions,

142 Western Live-stock M anagement

and since the sheep spend most of this time with very
little feed, it is necessary to work with the greatest pos-
sible speed. On this account the sheep-men are partial
to the large plants that can shear an entire band in one
day.

DIPPING

Dipping for ticks is an operation which should follow
shearing. Both lambs and mature sheep must be dipped.
The method of dipping is to run the sheep through a long
vat or tank which contains a solution of dip. The tank
on the range usually is long enough so that it takes about
two minutes for the sheep to swim through.

The directions sent along with the dip recommend
dipping twice, nine to ten days apart. The life cycle of
the tick, however, indicates that it would be better to
make the time about twenty-one days. The first dipping
kills all ticks on the animal at that time but has no effect
on the pups. The second dipping kills the ticks that
have hatched since the first dipping. There are many
dips on the market at the present time, all of which fall
into two general classes, namely, dips which kill by poison-
ing, and dips which kill by burning. Arsenical dips
would fall in the first class, while dips such as Kreso No.
1, Zenoleum, Chloroleum, Lysol, and Creolin and Lime-
sulfur make up the second class. There is considerable
controversy between the producers of dips as to the rela-
tive merits of these two classes. One claims that the
class which kills by burning damages the wool, while the
other sets forth the damages resulting from the sheep
swallowing some of the poisonous dips. Tests have been
carried on at various experiment stations to determine
the relative merits of these dips. It appears from these

Range Sheep 143

tests that all of the standard dips are effective in killing
the ticks but the effect on the wool has not yet been dem-
onstrated with sufficient certainty to justify any positive
statements at this time.

Dipping for scab, although the method of dipping is
the same as that for ticks, is quite another problem.
This is performed only when the disease is present or
when the band has been exposed. Such dipping should
be done at once under the directions of a competent man.
When allowed to spread, sheep scab causes a great financial
loss. These losses are caused by a decrease in production
of wool, loss in weight and general condition of animals,
and the death of large numbers of sheep. While this
disease is severe and highly contagious, it yields readily
to proper treatment. The state live-stock sanitary boards
or the United States Bureau of Animal Industry usually
take charge of the dipping for scab and all cases should
be reported at once to the state or federal authorities.
Lime and sulfur, nicotin, coal-tar-creosote and cresylic-acid
are dips commonly used for scab. Dipping for scab is
usually done twice at intervals of ten to fourteen days.
The entire band should be dipped regardless of number
bearing symptoms of the disease. The temperature of
the bath should be 100° to 105° F. for lime and sulfur
and nicotin dips and about 95° F. for the coal-tar-creosote
and cresylic-acid dips. The sheep should be held in the
dip for two to three minutes if the disease is not too ad-
vanced and three to five minutes in bad cases. The
sheep at dipping should have no cuts or sores, especially
if lime and sulfur is used, as blood poisons may result.
For this reason dogs that bite the sheep should be kept
out of the corrals.

Often some weak sheep may get dip in its lungs or be

144 Western Live-stock Management

almost drowned in spite of care exercised. Such a sheep
can be saved by removing it from the vat and swinging it
around in a circle holding it by the hind legs. The cen-
trifugal force developed in this way removes the dip from
the lungs and the sheep soon recovers.

In dipping for ticks or scab, one should remember that
there are two methods of procedure. One way is ac-
cording to directions, and the other is to attempt to
economize time, labor, or money by using weaker solu-
tions than advised and by hurrying the sheep through
the swim. If the former method is used with any of the
standard dips, the treatment should result in a cure. If
the latter method is adopted, failure to effect a permanent
cure is sure to result, regardless of dip used. It is a loss
of time and money to dip sheep unless the work is prop-
erly performed.

BRANDING

After shearing, the sheep are usually branded with
paint marks so that they can be distinguished from other
owners’ sheep. Common paint is generally used, but
brands so made cannot be removed by the usual process
of scouring, so the manufacturer must cut off the brands
with the shears at a cost of much labor and considerable
loss of wool. A trial of brands at one of the western sta-
tions showed that of those in common use, Kemp’s Aus-
tralian Branding Fluid scoured out best, but with this
fluid it is necessary to brand twice. The expense of
branding twice a year, however, is less than the loss oc-
casioned by the use of common paint brands.

SUMMER MANAGEMENT

In summer the herder with the assistance of the camp
tender moves the sheep to the higher mountains or sum-

Range Sheep 145

mer ranges. In some localities a camp wagon is used.
These wagons are complete with cover, bed, stoves, and
other equipment and can, therefore, be moved with little
trouble. Most of the summer ranges, however, are too
rough for the use of wagons, so the camps must be moved
with pack horses. The herder is in charge of the sheep
at all times, and during the day drives them out for a
distance of two or three miles and at night works them
back to the camp. As soon as the grazing becomes short,
the camp is moved for some distance and the sheep are
maintained about the new camp as a center for a similar
length of time. The moving of the camp is usually con-
ducted by the camp tender, who also looks after bringing
in the supplies, and the like. In some districts, one
camp tender will look after several camps, but in most
places, on account of the roughness and inaccessibility of
much of the range, one tender is employed for each camp.
Sheep do better and waste less grass when the camps are
moved frequently, hence with the present scarce range
and high-priced sheep, more camp tenders are used and
camps moved more often than formerly. In the case of
small sheep-men who own only one or two bands, the
owner often tends to the camp, but depends on hired help
for herding.

CARE OF THE RANGE

Best results are obtained when sheep on the winter
and summer ranges are allowed to graze in open formation.
Considerable damage to the range results when shep-
herds use the closed formation of grazing. Not only is
this latter method of grazing detrimental to the range but
it is also hard on the sheep. Only those sheep grazing
around the edges get the amount of feed that they should.

146 Western Live-stock Management

Those in the center are forced to eat the less choice forage
left by other sheep. Often they have to eat down to the
roots. Danger from poisonous plants is also greatly in-
creased. Many of the best sheep-men, realizing the danger
of close formation grazing, give orders to their herders to
give their sheep. considerable liberty. In this way the
range is kept in good condition from year to year and
the sheep receive the best grazing possible. The Forest
Service now demands that sheep on the Reserves be
grazed in the open formation as far as possible.

WATERING

‘The frequency with which sheep must be watered de-
pends on the succulence of the feed. When the forage
is rank and green, sheep may run for many days without
water, but when it is very dry, water will be required
at least every day. The summer ranges are for the most
part well watered with springs and small streams so that
there is no difficulty encountered in giving the sheep water
at least every day. There are, however, considerable
areas of range land where there is very little water. These
ranges are for the most part too dry for use as summer
sheep range even if water were abundant, so no attempt is
made to use them except in the winter, when the sheep
depend on snow instead of water. In some localities the
sheep-men have provided ponds, wells, or other artificial
water systems for these drier districts but these cannot
be erected on government land.

SALT

Some men furnish their sheep salt at all times, either
giving at regular intervals or keeping salt before them.

ry att

a ys
7

1 oA)
Rie

Puate IV. — Open anp Ciose HeErpina.

Much less range is required where the sheep are grazed in open forma-
tion as above instead of being closely bunched as below.

Range Sheep 147

On the other hand, some may not give any salt at all and
claim they secure better results by allowing the sheep to
find alkali licks than by supplying them salt. Where the
alkali licks are abundant, and when this alkali contains
as much as 85 per cent common salt, it must be considered
as entirely satisfactory, but where the alkali is not very
abundant or when it is composed largely of carbonate of
soda, sulfate of soda, or Epsom salts, it cannot satis-
factorily take the place of artificial salt.

WEANING

The lambs are ordinarily weaned at the time when they
are brought off the summer range. The lambs are sep-
arated and taken some distance away from the ewes.
The process of weaning is simple, as at this time the ewes
are not giving a large quantity of milk and consequently
the lambs are not very dependent.

MARKETING MUTTON STOCK

Mutton lambs are either marketed at weaning or are
placed in the feed-lot and sold ninety to one hundred days
after being placed on feed. Big breeders usually divide
their lambs into three lots; one lot consists of ewe lambs
which are to be kept for breeding purposes; the second,
lambs which are fat enough to ship direct to market ;
while the third lot consists of those lambs which are too
thin to go for mutton and which must be put into the
feed-lot. In addition, there is sometimes a fourth lot
consisting of wether lambs which are to be held over and
run as yearlings the next summer. This fourth division
is growing constantly smaller and in practically all cases
consists only of those wether lambs which show no evi-

148 Western Live-stock Management

dence of mutton blood. Straight Merino wethers usually
fall in this class. Mutton lambs are consigned in carload:
lots to commission firms at the stock yards, who sell
them to the buyers of various meat companies.

MARKETING PURE-BRED STOCK

The general practice in the case of pure-bred stock is
to hold them over a year and market them as yearlings.
A few are marketed as lambs but this is not the usual
practice. Pure-bred stock is offered for sale either by
private treaty, private auction, or public auction. In
the first method, the buyers come singly tothe ranch and
dicker with the owner. Arrangements as to price, pay-
ment, and delivery are made which are more or less sat-
isfactory to both parties. Private auctions are held only
in cases in which a party has large numbers of sheep to
sell. Public auctions are usually held under the auspices
of some organization such as the National Wool Growers,
the Breed Associations, and the like. A certain percentage
to cover expenses of the sale is charged on all stock sold.
Auction sales, whether private or public, have advantages
to both the buyer and the seller. The buyer has a large
number to select from and has a chance to secure just what
he wants. The seller has a fairly good chance to obtain
a good price for his stock. Competitive bidding tends to
run prices up. This is particularly true of good stock.

CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS ON THE RANGE

In the following calendar, the time will be given by sea-
son and the operations will be named in the order in which
they are performed :

Range Sheep 149

CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS

TIME OPERATIONS

Fall. . . .| Return of flocks from summer range, division of
flocks, selling of lambs, dipping if infested
with ticks, and breeding.

Winter. . .| Winter feeding if range is not sufficient.

Spring . . .| Lambing, marking, shearing, dipping, branding,
entrance on the summer range.

Summer . | Herding on the summer range.

LOSS FROM WILD ANIMALS

The loss from wild animals is always a serious problem
in the raising of sheep on the range. The cougar, bob-
cat, mountain lion, bear, and coyotes all come in for
their share of the sheep-man’s profit. Some prominent
sheep-men estimate the losses from wild animals at about
10 per cent per annum for the entire West. This figure
may be too high, but the loss is enormous at the most
conservative estimate. No successful method has yet
been found to check this loss. It is kept down to the low-
est point by constantly guarding the sheep, especially at
lambing time, when the herders make a practice of hang-
ing out lanterns, and firing off guns and fire crackers.
Some attempt is also made to shoot the coyotes. The
only place where this problem has been fully solved is in
Australia, where in certain parts of the country entire
range districts are surrounded by high wire fences. Fenc-
ing has been tried by the Forest Service of this country
with good success. Not only is the loss from wild animals

150 Western Lave-stock Management

practically eliminated with the use of high wire fences,
but the expenses of handling sheep are greatly lessened.
To what extent fencing will be practiced in this country
cannot be foretold, but it is the general opinion among the
best informed range-men that, since the most tillable
land has been put under cultivation, the next step will
be the fencing of those parts suitable only for grazing.
There are so far three great obstacles in the way of ex-
tensive fencing. The first is the cost, the second is the
drifting snow over these fences in the winter, and the
third is that most of the grazing land is not under private
ownership.

COSTS AND PROFITS OF A RANGE EWE

Based on figures gathered in 1914, the cost and profit
on a range ewe can be taken as follows:

Costs
Interest on ewe at 8 percent. . . . .$.40
Shearing, packing, and marketing wool 15
Depreciation! . . ao i te Ge ohn HAZ
150 lb. of hay at 4¢a pound fae oe we aD
Loss on ewes by death she 10
Cost of range (summer and winter range) .50
Labor aside from lambing . . . . . . .80
Extra labor forlambing. . . . . . . .32
Upkeep, depreciation, and interest on
eamp tender’s outfit . . . . . . . .10
Totalcost. . 2... 2. $3.54
Income
10 pounds wool A 15 ga os e600,
llamb .. : eo ae 2/8350
Totalincome. . ....... 5.00
Profita head. . . . .... $1.46

1The yearly depreciation on a ewe was figured as follows:
The average price of a yearling breeding ewe was $5.00. Her
period of usefulness would be six seasons, after which she could

Range Sheep 151

CAPITAL REQUIRED

The capital invested in a sheep ranch must necessarily
vary within very wide limits. A band is the unit of man-
agement and necessarily the business cannot be conducted
with less than this number. A very good start can be
made with 1500 ewes, while with wethers a larger num-
ber would be needed. The minimum capital required to
start in the business might be estimated as follows:

1500 ewes, at $5.00 ahead . . . » . . « $7,500
Horses, wagons, and general camp equipment eee 1,000
Home ranch capable of raising winter feed for 1500 ewes 5,000

Wot. de en See hee CRD. She eee a ee 1500

This represents about the minimum capital with which
the business can be started, but of course a considerable
part of this $13,500 may be borrowed. The cost of the
home ranch is the most variable factor. In the early
days no land at all was necessary, but at the present
time it is very difficult to succeed without at least some
land. The price given would usually purchase a ranch
that would furnish hay for 1500 ewes. A larger area
would, perhaps, in addition to furnishing the necessary
amount of hay, give considerable winter and summer
range. As a rule, however, ranches handling only one
band of sheep will seldom cost more than $10,000 to
$12,000.

When large numbers of sheep are raised, the capital
invested is much in the same proportion, although per-
haps hardly as great as with the small outfits. By far
the larger number of sheep-men, however, are running

only one band.

be sold for $2.50. This would make a total depreciation of
$2.50, which would amount to about 42 cents a year.

152 Western Live-stock Management

BUILDINGS

A considerable proportion of the sheep-men use no
buildings, although in such cases they commonly have
protected localities where the sheep may be fed in the
worst storms and where there is a certain amount of pro-
tection during the lambing season. In the more unpro-
tected localities-and in those regions where an effort is
made to have the lambs come early, large sheds are re-
quired. These will usually be very low, but will cover
a considerable area and are of the cheapest possible con-
struction. A common method of construction is to drive
stakes in the ground for posts, putting poles across the
top as a framework and covering them with brush. An-
other popular building material is corrugated sheet iron.
Since the hay is usually stacked in the field and hauled to
the sheep, the sheds have no provision for the storage of
hay. The inside of these sheds is perfectly plain, but
with the aid of a number of board panels and the numer-
ous posts supporting the roof, the shed can be divided
into many small pens suitable for lambing purposes.
Most of these sheds are approximately square in shape,
and are inclosed on all sides. In some localities where
all the bad winds are from one direction, the sheds are
long and narrow and open on the unexposed side, but in
regions of severe climate the closed shed is usually pre-
ferred.

CORRALS

Corrals are used to a greater or less extent on all sheep
ranches. Some sheep-men make a practice of having
cheap corrals scattered about the ranch, keeping sheep
in them at night, but this is not the usual practice and is

Range Sheep 153

not permitted in the Forest Reserve. It is customary,
however, to have corrals within at least a reasonable dis-
tance so that in case bands of sheep become mixed, it is
possible to corral them for separation. At the home
ranch, corrals are always used to some extent at lamb-
ing time. In addition, the better equipped sheep ranches
all have corrals equipped with a dodging chute. This is
a long narrow chute through which the sheep may pass
one at a time. At the end of the chute is a small gate
so arranged that the sheep may be run into either one of
two corrals by simply moving the gate. In separating
sheep, men will be stationed along the chute to pick out
the ones which go into a certain pen. These will bemarked
usually with blue chalk. Then, after they reach the end
of the chute, the man working the gate lets the marked
sheep into one pen and the remainder into the other. In
this way a large flock of sheep may be divided into several
parts, with great rapidity. In picking out ewes which
are to be sold on account of broken mouths or spoiled
udders, this system is very commonly used. A number
of corrals are always necessary in connection with dipping
vats and shearing plants.

The most common method of corral construction is
by means of light panels of boards. These are wired to-
gether at the ends and either put zigzag or are supported
by wiring or nailing to stakes driven in the ground. Woven
wire also makes good corrals, especially for temporary use.
Thirty rods of woven wire fencing will corral a large band
of sheep, yet this amount of fencing will only weigh 200
pounds.

CHAPTER XI

FATTENING RANGE LAMBS IN WINTER

Tue fattening of range lambs in winter has become an
important industry in the irrigated sections of the West
where good hay and grain are abundant. Since both
hay and grain are required for the best results, lambs
cannot be fattened profitably where either one is lacking
or excessively high in price. A comparatively dry cli-
mate is also very helpful. Where there are a great many
wet storms, sheds and barns are necessary and cost of
maintenance and interest on the investment in such
barns take off a large part of the profit.

THE LAMBS

The lambs used for winter fattening are those that
are brought in from the range in the fall or early winter
and that have not had good enough grass during the
summer to make them fat. When the range is extra
good, lambs will become fat and attain weights of seventy-
five to eighty pounds before fall and are thus suitable to
go directly to market. When the range is not so good,
the lambs will not be fat, and will weigh approximately
sixty pounds each when they come off the range in the
fall. Such lambs, while rather small and lacking in flesh,
are in most cases very strong and vigorous, and when put
on full feed make rapid gains. When fat, moreover,

154

Fattening Range Lambs in Winter 155

they sell at top prices, even though they may look some-
what leggy and rough. Range lambs that are born very
late in the season and that perhaps have had very poor
feed, come off the range in the fall weighing forty to fifty
pounds each. Such lambs are usually known on the
market as “pewees” or “peanuts,” and sell for rather a
low price. These lambs are not desirable for mutton pur-
poses of course, and are badly in need of more weight and
finish, but they are usually rather delicate and too light
to be profitable feeders. Unless they are known to be
fairly thrifty, and the feeder has an abundance of rich
feed, they had better be let alone. Generally speaking,
the ideal feeder is the thrifty fleshy range lamb, weighing
sixty pounds in October or November. The more mutton
blood which these lambs carry, the better. Lambs with
heavy wrinkled pelts are objectionable, as they do not
gain rapidly and sell to a disadvantage. The black-faced
lambs are preferred, as the black faces are an indication
of Shropshire, Hampshire, or Oxford blood.

LENGTH OF FEEDING PERIOD

The time lambs are ordinarily kept on full feed in win-
ter is about ninety to one hundred days. This period
varies very little in the different feeding sections. A
shorter period than this commonly does not put on suf-
ficient gain to pay a profit, while a longer feeding period is
unnecessary, as good lambs will be sufficiently fat in one
hundred days to bring the top price. There are a num-
ber of large feeders in the West, however, that do not feed
for any regular length of time. These men buy sheep of
all kinds, sell the fat ones for mutton, and put the others
in the feed-lot. These sheep that go into the feed-lot

156 Western Live-stock Management

will necessarily vary considerably in condition, and some
will be ready for market long before the others. The
feeder will therefore go through the bunch a number of
times during the winter and top out the best to send to
market. Handled in this manner, some of the sheep will
not remain on feed over thirty days, while others will
remain on feed as much as three or four months.

FEEDS AND RATION

Corn is perhaps the best grain for feeding lambs, but it
is not available in the lamb-fattening districts of the
West except eastern Colorado. In this particular district
the lambs are all fed alfalfa hay raised on the farms, to-
gether with corn shipped in from Kansas and Nebraska.
The finest lambs produced in America come from this
section. In other states, oats, barley, bran, and screen-
ings are commonly used. Screenings are variable in their
cost and in their value, but in most cases will produce
just as rapid gains as barley, though requiring larger
quantities. When a lamb would be fed one pound of
grain a day, he would be given perhaps one and one-fourth
to two pounds a day when screenings are used. If the
screenings are very chaffy, as much as three pounds a day
are sometimes fed. In this case, no hay is used, since the
chaff and cob in the screenings afford the necessary
roughage.

While alfalfa is most popular, clover hay, free from
weeds or other grass, and well cured, will give equal re-
sults. Prairie hays and wild hays of various sorts are
seldom used, and in practically no case do they give the
same satisfaction as alfalfa. The Wyoming Experiment
Station has made a long series of tests of alfalfa in com-

Fattening Range Lambs in Winter 157

parison with prairie and wild hays, and they have found
that with the wild hays so much more grain was required
for one hundred pounds gain that the cost of this grain
was equal to the cost of both grain and hay where the
alfalfa was used. It is evident, therefore, that it does not
pay to use this kind of hay at all when alfalfa can be ob-
tained at a reasonable price.

Near the sugar-beet factories, considerable quantities
of beet pulp are fed. This pulp is given in quantities
somewhat less than the lambs will consume, together
with hay and grain in the usual manner. Since beet pulp
is largely water, it must be bought at a low price and
must be fed in the vicinity of the sugar-beet factories.
Dried beet pulp can be fed at a greater distance from the
factory than the wet beet pulp, but has so far been but
little used for lamb feeding.

The standard daily ration for lambs weighing 60 pounds
at the start would be about two-and-one-half to three
pounds a head of good alfalfa hay. This would, of course,
be all that they could be made to eat, with the stems and
waste parts cleaned out and fed to other stock. After the
lambs have been in the feed-lot for perhaps as week, and
are thoroughly accustomed to their surroundings, a small’
amount of grain is given, usually about one-fifth to one-
fourth pound a day a head. The grain is then slowly
increased until they are receiving one to one-and-a-half
pounds a day.

A grain ration of one to one-and-a-half pounds of grain
is called a full ration. In many cases this amount is not
reached until practically the end of the feeding period,
the ration being gradually increased through the entire
time. The lambs still receive all the hay they will eat,
but with a full ration of grain they will not usually eat over

158 Western Live-stock Management

one-and-a-half to two pounds of hay. A system of feed-
ing lambs that is very often found in feed-lots where the
ninety days’ feeding period is used could be outlined as
follows :

Grain Datty a Heap Hay Dany «a Heap
First 30 days . . . 4 pound 234 pounds
Second 30 days . 1 pound 2 pounds
Third 30 days 2 13 pounds 1} pounds

After he is on full feed, a thrifty lamb will eat close to two
pounds of grain a day, but in the West it is not customary
to give quite all he wants. As a rule the alfalfa is-of fine
quality and rather cheap, while the grain is very expensive,
hence the necessity for economy in the feeding. Re-
markably heavy gains are often obtained with good al-
falfa and only one pound of grain a head and it is very
doubtful whether a larger amount of grain is a profitable
investment. It will be noticed that the increase of grain
ration is greater in the first and second periods than in
the second and third periods. Great care has to be ex-
ercised in increasing the ration toward the close of the
feeding period as lambs go off feed easily at this time.

METHOD OF FEEDING

It is essential in fattening lambs that the grain and
hay be fed in such a manner that fresh hay can be put in
and stems and refuse taken out without interfering with
the lambs. The method most widely used is to have the
lambs fed through a fence made of panels so that the hay
can be put on one side while the lambs are on the

Puate V.— WESTERN LamB FatTtTeNIna.

Above, arrangement of racks; center, detail construction of racks;
below, typical feeder lambs.

Fattening Range Lambs in Winter 159

other. These panels are ordinarily made out of six-inch
fence boards with about seven-inch space between each
board. The load of hay is driven along the outside of
these fences and the hay thrown off on the ground. After-
ward it is pushed up to the fence so the sheep can reach
it. When hay and grain are fed in the same troughs,
the wagon drives around in the same manner as when
the hay and the grain are placed in the feed troughs with-
out disturbing the lambs. In such feed yards, the wagon
never goes inside the lot with the sheep. Very com-
monly the fence is built in a zigzag, instead of straight
line. This gives the lambs more feeding room on the
same ground. In feed-lots where the grain and hay are
fed in separate troughs, the hay is fed through panels as
described above, while the grain is fed in long narrow
troughs built so that they stand about a foot from the
ground and have a bar along the top to keep the lambs
from jumping into them. When these grain troughs
are used, it is essential that these be in a separate pen and
that the feed be put in before letting in the lambs. Other-
wise, it will be impossible to distribute the grain so that
each lamb will receive his share. To accomplish this,
feed-lots are often built in a series of long narrow pens,
fenced with zigzag panels. When large numbers of
lambs are fed, it will require several pens with one extra
vacant pen. In feeding grain, the feed is placed in the
troughs of the vacant pen first and the lambs turned in
from pen no. 2. The grain is then put in no. 2 and the
lambs from no. 3 put in that pen and so on until all are
fed. At the next feeding, the pens are taken in the re-
verse order. To attempt to feed hy driving teams into the
lot with the lambs is only to make trouble.

The practice of cutting alfalfa hay for lambs is grow-

160 Western Live-stock Management

ing rapidly throughout the West. The alfalfa is run
through a cutter that chops it up in lengths of about
three-fourths of aninch. After being cut, the hay may
be fed direct; stored in barns, or stacked in the fields.
Some feeders make a practice of stacking their hay in
the field at haying time and then during the late summer
or early fall go into the field with a big chopper and
traction engine, chop the hay, and restack it in the field.
This chopped hay stacks well and the stacks are said to
turn moisture as well as those made from the long hay.
Grinding alfalfa is practiced to some extent, but this
process requires much more power than chopping and
seems to be little improvement. There are many large es-
tablishments that make a business of grinding hay, but
these firms ship out their product and usually sell it under
fancy names to the dairymen and small farmers.

The chief advantages of chopping are ease of handling
and freedom from waste. When long hay is used, it is
always necessary to clean out the stalks and leavings,
since the lambs will not eat these until they become very
hungry. When the feeder has a considerable amount of
stock, sheep, cattle, or horses, this refuse may be fed to
advantage, but where he has no outlet for refuse hay, it
is a dead loss. With the chopped hay, however, the
‘entire amount is consumed without waste or loss. An-
other advantage is that the grain is mixed with the chopped
hay. In this manner lambs that are not used to this
grain may be put on full feed in the shortest time and
with the least danger. It is not usually claimed that
chopping or grinding hay has any great effect on its di-
gestibility or feeding value; that is, the professional lamb- —
feeders who are handling it on a large scale do not make
such claims, although firms grinding it and selling it under

Fattening Range Lambs in Winter 161

fancy names go so far as to claim, in some cases, that the
ground hay is fully equal to, if not better than, the com-
mon grains.

Grain for sheep does not need to be ground, cooked, or
treated in any way. There is no class of animals better
able to grind its own grain than sheep. There is a pos-
sible exception to this rule, however, in the case of old
ewes with bad teeth.

SHEARING FOR FEED-LOT

In regions where the winter climate is not too severe,
the practice of shearing sheep for the feed-lot is more or
less common. The object of shearing is to increase the
gain, the idea being that shorn lambs will thrive better
and have better appetites. There is usually no profit to
be obtained on the operation of shearing itself. Shorn
sheep are docked to such a degree as to account for all
possible profit. A few figures gathered in the range dis-
trict will prove this contention. On an average, 100
pounds of lamb will yield eight pounds of wool, which
will bring 18 cents in the grease.

8 pounds of wool @ 18¢ . . . $1.44
Cost of shearing and magketing this 8 pontids wool et oe 5
Net income from wool Ge BO ep we we. SLO

Were this wool marketed on the sheep’s back, it would
bring at mutton prices 7 cents a pound, or 56 cents. This
leaves a net difference of 73 cents in favor of marketing
the wool off the sheep’s back. However, the dock on
shorn sheep is usually $1.00 a 100 pounds. In this case,
the dock more than accounts for the profit which might
arise from shearing. These figures were gathered in
1914. Since that time prices of mutton and wool have

162 Western Live-stock Management

both risen. By inserting current prices, a feeder can
soon figure whether he will derive any profit on shearing
itself or whether he will have to depend on the increased
gains only for his returns from shearing lambs for the
feed-lot.

Shearing is especially popular among speculators near
the large markets. These men find that shearing saves
room in the feed-lots, which in their case is often an im-
portant item, as shorn sheep may be sorted without han-
dling. They usually handle immense numbers of sheep
of all grades and are constantly sorting them over to
procure those which may be turned at a profit. When the
sheep are shorn, a glance will tell the condition of each
animal.

SHELTER

The ideal feed-lot should be located in a place sheltered
by nature from the prevailing winds and storms, and
should have a small stream for the water supply. In such
localities sheds are hardly necessary. In fact, very few
lambs are fattened under shelter. When the feed-lots
are in exposed positions, simple sheds of rough boards may
be necessary. These will be used only for shelter in times
of storm, and the hay racks and grain boxes will all be
out in the open. There is a growing preference among
feeders for pumped water instead of running streams. It
is claimed that the warmer well-water is better for the
lambs than the ice cold stream. It is possible, however,
that the advantage is due to the well-water being givenin
convenient troughs where the lambs can get it easily,
while the running stream often has such steep icy banks
that the lambs will not drink until their thirst becomes
unbearable.

Fattening Range Lambs in Winter 163

DIPPING

It is becoming a very common practice to dip all sheep
before putting them in the feed-lot. The chief purpose of
this is to rid them of ticks. If allowed to run out on the
open range in winter, the sheep are not usually seriously
troubled with ticks, but if they are crowded together in
the feed-lots, especially if under shelter, the ticks multi-
ply with the greatest rapidity, and in a few weeks there
are millions of them. On this account many of the most
progressive sheep-men make a practice of dipping all
sheep before putting them in the feed-lot.

GAINS

Lambs fed as outlined above may be expected to gain
from .2 to .8 pound a day, an average of one-fourth of a
pound. This would mean a gain of twenty-five pounds
a head in 100 days. Gains of less than twenty pounds
during this period are unsatisfactory, asthe lambs are grow-
ing rather than becoming fat. Gains of over thirty pounds
are extraordinary and are obtained only with well-bred
mutton lambs and very choice feed. If the lamb weighs
sixty pounds at the start and gains twenty-five pounds
during the feeding period, he will then weigh eighty-five
pounds, which will be an ideal weight for a fat lamb. The
buyers like to have the lambs as small as they can be pro-
cured, providing they are sufficiently fat. About eighty-
five pounds is considered the best weight, since a lamb
can easily be made fat at that weight and make it un-
necessary to hold him until he becomes much larger, while,
on the other hand, lambs lighter than eighty pounds are
rarely very fat.

164 Western Live-stock Management

COST AND PROFIT

From the following figures gathered prior to opening of
the European War, one can obtain an idea as to the costs
and profits of feeding lambs. These figures are based on
a lamb as a unit. A lamb fed as outlined in the dis-
cussion of feeds and ration would, during a ninety-day
feeding period, consume eighty-five pounds of grain and
180 pounds of hay and during this time would gain about
twenty-two-and-one-half to twenty-five pounds:

Costs:
60 poundslamb @ .05 .. . $3.00
Interest on $3.00 for 90 days @ 8. per cent é .06
85 pounds grain @ $1.25 .. ‘ 1.06
180 pounds of hay a $7.00 2a ea & -63
Loss by death . . oR a He RR -05
Commission... ......... .05
Wardage. « 3 @ @ @ 6 &@ oh w ge oR 6 & -05
Hrewht a. ga @ ee) ep ee ee ee -20
Incidentals . . . ...... 05
$5.15
Income:
823 poundslamb @ 07 .... . . . . = $5.775

Deducting the cost from the income would leave a net
profit a head of $.625. The feeding margin in this case is
$.02, being the difference between the buying and selling
price a pound. As the various items listed above are more
or less variable, the profit a head increases and decreases
from year to year.

FEEDING WETHERS

Wethers are fattened in the same way as lambs, although
not on so large a scale. They will require on the average
about 40 per cent more feed, a larger portion of which may
be hay. In spite of this larger feed, the daily gain is about

Fattening Range Lambs in Winter 165

the same as for lambs, or possibly a little less. The cost
of feeding, therefore, will be about 40 per cent greater,
and the margin required correspondingly increased. For
these reasons, there is not usually the profit in feeding
wethers that there is in feeding lambs unless the margin
is very large.

FEEDING OLD EWES

Large numbers of old ewes are sold in the stock-yards
every fall at low prices, and in many cases offer attractive
opportunities to the sheep-feeder. It is very essential,
however, that these old sheep have good teeth. A large
part of these old ewes are put on the market because their
teeth are bad and they are no longer profitable on the range.
Such ewes will not pay for feeding. In fact, they com-
monly will not become fat at all and all of the feed put
into them will be wasted. On the other hand, however,
if the teeth are fairly good, they may often be profitable.
Sometimes the teeth are too bad to allow the ewes to be
kept on the range, but are still good enough so that they
will fatten when put on good feed. In general, fattening
old ewes is rather risky, and such ewes should not be
bought for feeding purposes without a very careful ex-
amination. The rations required for ewes are about the
same as for wethers, though in some cases slightly less.
Grinding the grain for ewes will sometimes pay, but not
usually. The gains will vary from nothing to one-fourth
pound a day, and the cost is usually somewhat higher than
with wethers.

CHAPTER XII

CROSS-BREEDING FOR WOOL AND MUTTON
PRODUCTION

One of the most difficult problems which confronts the
range-man is the maintenance of his cross-bred breeding
stock. It has long been known that the combination of
the Merino with long-wooled or mutton breeds is the best
and most profitable one for the range when it is desired
to improve the mutton qualities without sacrificing wool
production. The Merino blood furnishes the fineness
of wool fiber and the flocking propensity so essential on
the range, while the long-wooled breeds lengthen the
wool staple and improve the mutton conformation. This
type of ewe is easily obtained by crossing long-wool rams,
such as the Lincoln, on Merino ewes. A more difficult
problem is holding the cross after having produced it.
These cross-bred ewes mated to a fine wool ram produce
offspring more nearly resembling the Merino, while mated
to a Lincoln ram, much of the Merino quality disappears.
By mating back and forth, using sires ranging from the
Merino to the long-wool, a great variety of types more
or less profitable are produced and in time the flock be-
comes a mixture of all kinds and types and even some of
the individual fleeces show much variation in different
parts. With this zigzag method of breeding the ewe stock
is constantly deteriorating, and the fleeces becoming more

166

Cross-breeding for Wool and Mutton Production 167

and more irregular. The fleece of a straight cross-bred
sheep is quite uniform throughout and each fiber is a blend
as to length and fineness between the long-wool and the
Merino. Such fleeces are very popular on the market and
are suitable to many forms of manufacture. If, however,
the ewe is of this zigzag breeding, the fleece of the offspring
will not be a good blend but will be mixed, some fibers fine
and some coarse, thus making the wool unsuitable to the
manufacture of many of the standard grades of cloth.
Many a range-man has experienced these difficulties, and
after years of careful breeding and the constant use of
pure-bred rams has realized that his stock had deterio-
rated and is no longer producing profitable fleeces. This
difficulty must be met in one of two ways. One is to
breed cross-bred ewes to cross-bred rams and continue
the process with careful selection until there is evolved
a new breed carrying the type of the original cross-bred
but breeding true. This is being attempted in the case of
the Corriedale and Panama. The second is to adopt some
system of cross-breeding which will hold off deterioration
as long as possible and thus give the breeder the maximum
returns from the cross-bred flock before he has to turn the
ewes for mutton and start anew.

THE CORRIEDALE

The Corriedale is an established breed, the type having
become fixed by years of careful breeding and selection
in New Zealand. The original stock was obtained by
crossing Lincoln rams on Merino ewes. Later a little
Leicester blood was introduced to make the lambs mature
earlier. All this was years ago and since that time no
outside blood has been introduced and selection has been

168 Western Lave-stock Management

extremely rigid. The Corriedale is very similar to the
Lincoln-Merino cross which is so common on our ranges,
with the addition that they breed reasonably true. Pure-
bred Corriedale ewes are out of the question for range
purposes, but if cross-bred ewes are carefully selected
and mated to good Corriedale rams, the offspring will be
as profitable as the ordinary half-bred and much of the
same type. By moderate but careful culling and the
continued use of Corriedale rams, the type of the ewe
flock should become well established in a few years. This
system has not been tried on an extensive scale in this
country, but it has proven very successful in New Zea-
land. The great difficulty is in securing Corriedale rams.
Being a comparatively new breed, rams are not numerous,
and those available require close culling.

THE PANAMA

The Panama breed of sheep was developed in America
from a cross-bred origin somewhat the same as the Corrie-
dale. The type of this breed is not well fixed as yet, but
with years of breeding, involving careful selection and cull-
ing, it will undoubtedly be a factor in western sheep-
breeding.

SYSTEMATIC CROSS-BREEDING

In view of the relative scarcity of sheep of these new
breeds that possess the type really desired by the range-
men, it seems necessary to continue some form of cross-
breeding. Although cross-breeding always has its faults
and its difficulties, it has been demonstrated that there
are better methods than the indiscriminate mixing
commonly followed on the range. The best system of
cross-breeding yet devised is illustrated by the diagram

Cross-breeding for Wool and Mutton Production 169

(Fig. 13). The first mating consists of pure-bred long-
wooled rams and pure-bred Merino ewes. This cross

SYSTEMATIC CROSSBREEDING

FOR
Dua. Purposz: SHEEP &
START STOP a Ky
‘LONGWOOL MERIN
RAM | EWR? 7 ES
OK ge
MERINO oS
RAM

FIRST
COMEBACK
thm OB HALF BREED

Yi:
SELL ALL THE
PROGENY

Copyrighted by
American Sheep Breeder.

produces a type of ewe known as a half-bred. The ewe
offspring of this first cross mated to a long-wooled ram gives

170 Western Lave-stock Management

a sheep known as the three-quarter-bred. ‘The three-
quarter-bred ewe has a coarser fleece than the half-bred
but somewhat finer than the long-wooled ram. These
ewes are, therefore, mated to a Merino ram. ‘The off-
spring of this mating is known as the first come-back and
has a fleece of a finer staple than the regular half-bred.
The first come-back mated to a pure-bred Merino ram
produces the fine or second come-back, a sheep which
closely approaches the Merino. The process ends at this
point and the fine come-back ewe is bred to a good mutton
ram and the progeny all sold for mutton, none of the ewe
lambs being retained for breeding purposes.

One might at first think that this ewe would serve for
a long-wooled cross again, but as a result of her mixed
breeding her offspring will be very irregular and con-
tinued zigzag breeding will finally result in a run-out stock.
It is an established fact that one cannot repeat this cross-
breeding process and be successful. On the contrary,
it is necessary to go back to pure-bred Merino stock
every few years, and experience has shown that the fine
come-back is as far as the cross-breeding can be profitably
continued and that deterioration is very rapid after this
point is passed. The system described is not used to a
great extent in this country, but during the last few
years has attracted considerable attention on account of
its success in Australia and New Zealand. An objection
raised to it by the range-men is that a breeder would have
to have several bands and that one man would not be able
to handle it. This objection hardly holds, since it is only
during the breeding season that separation is necessary.
A man not sufficiently experienced to tell the ewes of va-
rious stages could use the following system of identifica-
tion. Pure-bred Merino ewes, the half-bred ewes, and the

Cross-breeding for Wool and Mutton Production 171

three-quarter-bred ewes can easily be distinguished by
their appearance and would need no marking. The first
come-back may be marked by cutting a notch at the end
of the right ear; the fine or second come-back with a notch
in the left ear; and the offspring of the fine or second
come-back with notches in both ears. If the sheep are
marked by the lamber at birth there will be no danger of
mistakes. It is a simple matter to herd all the sheep to-
gether during the year and divide the band into two or
three bands during the breeding season, depending on
whether the breeder wishes his mutton stock sired by a
medium-wooled or a long-wooled ram. If he preferred the
latter, then his pure-bred Merino ewes, half-bred ewes, and
second come-back would all run in one breeding band with
long-wooled rams; and his three-quarter-bred ewes and
first come-back ewes, in another breeding band with pure-
bred Merino rams. If he preferred the former, he would
have to maintain a separate breeding flock for his fine
come-back ewes, which would be mated with medium-wool
rams.

This system permits of as many steps in the process of
cross-breeding as is possible and still produce the most
profitable sheep for range conditions. The ewes of these
five classes produce wool of a very high character and uni-
form from year to year. The male lambs of the first four
classes and the entire progeny of the fifth class sell satis-
factorily as mutton lambs. In this way the band would
be producing both wool and mutton of the very best type,
and the greatest possible value would have been obtained
from the original start of Merino ewes.

CHAPTER XIII
FARM SHEEP

Raisin sheep on the farms is usually a very profitable
branch of the live-stock industry. It is adapted to any
climatic condition, requires little capital or skill, builds
up the soil, fits in with the most approved rotation, and is
not very likely to be over-done. It is not at present very
highly developed except in western Oregon and Wash-
ington where nearly every farm has a few sheep.

Among the farms suitable for the raising of sheep may
be included practically all of the general hay and grain
farms of the West. The farms where grains, clover, vetch,
and rape are grown are the best for this purpose. Es-
pecially is this industry suitable for those farms which have
had their fertility exhausted by continuous grain cropping.
Sheep-raising requires about the same kind of a farm as
dairying, but facilities for marketing are not so important
and more grass land can be used. As compared with dairy-
ing, sheep-raising requires more land and capital, but is
not as laborious and confining. The ideal sheep farm will
include much rolling, well-drained land that will stand
much tramping. Such land can be pastured the year
round. Of course, this is a good type of land for any pur-
pose, but it is especially good for sheep.

No expensive buildings are needed. If one has room to
store his hay, necessary sheds may be constructed at a

172

Farm Sheep 173

very small expense. A shed eighteen feet wide and sixty
feet long, closed on three sides, may be erected at a cost of
about $30 to $35 for the material. Such a shed will
provide ample protection for about forty or fifty ewes
but of course will not provide storage room for hay and
feed. In regions where climatic conditions are very severe,
it might be necessary to have a sheep barn, but such a
barn can be erected at a very reasonable figure and yet be
very serviceable. A more detailed discussion of barns
will be found on page 194.

THE FLOCK
Establishing a flock.

In establishing a flock, it is better for a farmer to start
on a small scale unless he has previously had experience
with sheep. A mistake in management or an error in
judgment is not of so great importance when only a few
are involved and experience is thus obtained at the mini-
mum risk and expense. Sheep, although they do not in-
terfere materially with the regular farm operations, do
have peculiarities which at times require immediate at-
tention. One cannot turn them off by themselves and
expect them to thrive and do well. Such things as
falling on their backs in dead furrows, foot-rot, and simi-
lar troubles, will cause serious loss if not given immediate
attention. By raising the sheep himself, instead of buying
them all, the farmer may obtain a more uniform flock and
one that would be better adapted to his conditions, besides
getting them cheaper.

Grade flock.

A grade flock is required where the production of market
stock is the sole aim. Grade sheep are inferior to pure-

174 Western Live-stock Management

breds in every way but in the important points of abun-
dance and cheapness. Not over one or two per cent of the
sheep in America are pure-bred, hence it is impossible to
obtain pure-bred ewes to produce the mutton and wool
needed. The few pure-bred ewes obtainable are too high-
priced to be used for commercial mutton and wool pro-
duction, and, except the culls, are of much more use to
the country when used for raising good rams for grading
up our common flocks. The question of whether to raise
grades or pure-breds is not, therefore, one of the relative
merits of grades or pure-breds, but a question of whether
one is to raise mutton and wool for the usual market chan-
nels, or to raise breeding rams and ewes for other sheep-
men. While for the production of commercial mutton
and wool, grade ewes are a necessity, the ram should in
all cases be pure-bred. The grade ewes vary in quality,
depending on the judgment that has been exercised in
their selection and the extent to which they have graded
up from common stock by the use of pure-bred sires. As
a rule, the better ewes are the most profitable investment,
since ewes that have not been bred up to the point where
they are reasonably well suited to the purpose in hand
can seldom be purchased at their true value. After the
flock has been established, it may be constantly improved
by the continued use of good sires so that altogether there
is no reason why the breeder of grades should not have
a strictly high-class flock. Ewes carrying considerable
Merino blood are usually hardy good mothers, and heavy
shearers, and, therefore, very good for farm use except in
western Washington and Oregon where the winter climate
is ill-suited to the tight Merino fleeces. The long open
fleeces of the Cotswold or Lincolns are better suited to the
warm winter rains of this region, as they drain and dry off

Farm Sheep 175

better. The middle wools are also good, but need more
protection from the rains. Any of the mutton breeds
may be used successfully in the dry parts of the West, since
the flocking qualities of the Merino are of no advantage
on the farm. Regardless of breed, the fleeces must re-
ceive careful attention, since the wool from the ewes should
bring in nearly as much money as the lambs.

Pure-bred flock.

Since the increase from the pure-bred flock is to be sold
as breeding stock, it is fundamental that the foundation
stock be enough better in breeding and individuality than
the average stock of the country that their offspring will
be capable of effecting a marked improvement when used
to grade up the common stock. Not all pure-bred sheep
of any breed are sufficiently desirable and those that are
not should be sold for mutton and not continued in the
breeding flock. In establishing a pure-bred flock, only
first-class stock is worthy of consideration. It is also de-
sirable to buy from a well-known breeder, since one is
more sure of what he is procuring and, furthermore, will
give the new flock a good reputation at the start. Repu-
tation, it must be remembered, is very important when
one comes to sell his increase.

It should be borne in mind that the breeding flock is
by no means a show flock. The best breeders usually
keep their breeding ewes in the background and place
their show stock in the barn where it can be seen by buyers
and visitors. A good breeding ewe, which is working every
year carrying one, two, or three lambs and successfully
nursing them during the period of infancy, is sure to lose
some of her uniformity of body lines and wool covering
in a few years, and will not present the handsome ap-

176 Western Live-stock Management

#
pearance she had earlier in life. Because of this, the
flock of breeding ewes cannot have the fine appearance
of show sheep, a fact to bear in mind in buying founda-
tion stock.

There are many good breeds from which selection can
be made. The best returns are from the standard breeds
for which there is a well-established market. Rams
are bought in large quantities, hence the larger the num-
ber on hand and the larger the number of breeders in
the neighborhood, the better the sales. Cotswolds, there-
fore, sell better in a Cotswold neighborhood and Shrop-
shires in a Shropshire neighborhood. The small breeder
should not attempt to introduce a new or unknown breed.
That is a business for the man with a thorough knowledge
of the sheep trade and strong financial backing. On the
other hand, temporary waves of popularity need not be
followed too closely. Such breeds as the Rambouillet,
Cotswold, Lincoln, Shropshire, and Hampshire are stand-
ard in spite of their temporary booms and depressions, and
a good, well-managed flock of any of these breeds is always
a practical business investment, and one of especial appeal
to the farmer who has developed a liking for sheep together
with a knowledge of their ways and who desires to devote
his entire time to the business.

The ram.

There is a saying that if a ram is a good one he is half
the flock, and if he is a poor one, he is all of it. This state-
ment may be somewhat overdrawn, but nevertheless it
does carry much truth. Improvement in a flock can be
brought about at less expense by the use of a good sire
than in any other way. The best ram is the cheapest one
in the end. The wise selection of a single ram has, in

Farm Sheep 177

many instances, made a flock famous. A ram, to be
worthy of being the head of either a pure-bred or grade
flock of ewes, must have considerable masculinity, or he
is not likely to transmit his qualities to his offspring. No
one can afford to use a ram that cannot easily be distin-
guished among a flock of ewes. The ram is expected to
carry all of the characteristics of the breed which he rep-
resents, together with a good constitution as indicated by
a large heart girth and a strong back, well formed feet, and
straight legs with plenty of bone. The fleece should be
typical of his breed and by all means uniform in density
and length and fineness.

Prepotency is most essential. This is impossible to
determine in the case of an untried ram, but is usually
indicated by a good pedigree. In all cases, individuality
must be combined with good breeding. Over-fitted rams
are never desirable for breeding purposes and it is not
usually wise to take one directly from the show circuit.
Breeders often will make the statement that showing does
not hurt breeding stock. This, of course, is true where
the sheep are in the hands of a skillful shepherd. Few
men, however, have sufficient skill to fit and to reduce
show stock without materially damaging the breeding
properties of the same. An exception should be made in
the case of lambs, since it is almost impossible to get them
too fat, while the fitting produces more growth than would
otherwise be obtained. Unless the buyer is an experi-
enced sheep-man, it pays better to purchase field sheep
rather than show stock. By field sheep are meant sheep
that are in normal condition, not having been fitted or
pampered with the idea of showing.

Rams should be examined carefully to see that they
have two testicles, and that they are free from goiter. aA

178 Western Live-stock Management

ram to be a satisfactory breeder should be at least one year
old before being used. Ram lambs may be used to a very
limited extent but with the average breeder this is not ad-
visable. However, when ram lambs are used they should
be early lambs and well grown, and should not be allowed
any more than about ten or fifteen ewes during the season.
Ram lambs used excessively are very likely to become non-
breeders later in life and thus the period of greatest use-
fulness would be lost. It is not advisable to give a year-
ling ram too free a run in the beginning. Two-year-old,
three-year-old, and four-year-old rams need less attention.
Possibly a two-year-old ram is the most satisfactory for
breeding purposes, at least breeding records kept at
various experiment stations indicate this. Often a
breeder can purchase a tried ram and secure him very
reasonably when the former owner wishes to dispose of
him to prevent in-breeding. A ram of this kind very
often proves to be a bargain. In selecting such a ram,
one should be sure that his mouth is sound. In a small
flock, one ram can be used for only two seasons. On a
larger flock, where more than one ram is used, he can be
kept a longer period without in-breeding.

The ewe.

With ewes, as with rams, the ideal form is desirable, but
in the case of the ewes this is much harder to obtain than
with the rams. The ewe’s work of reproduction soon
spoils the beautiful lines that she once had and for this
reason one should not lay too much stress on the form to
the exclusion of other qualities. The ewe, like the ram,
should carry as much breed type as possible. Large roomy
ewes, possessing a considerable degree of the dairy type,
raise the best lambs. Very often the barren ewe presents

Farm Sheep 179

a superior mutton conformation. Ewes for breeding pur-
poses must not be overly fat. The ewe that is patchy
and seems to have a ledge of fat projecting out above the
sex organ is objectionable, as it may be difficult or impos-
sible for the ram to serve her. Femininity is as desirable
in a ewe as masculinity is in a ram. It is an indication
of refinement and should not be confused with indications
of weakness. Ewes that are good mothers should be se-
lected as far as possible. All stubborn ewes that have a
tendency toward disowning their offspring or ewes that do
not milk well are a source of considerable annoyance and
the sooner they are removed from the breeding flock the
better. There seems to be a direct correlation between
the amount of milk and the degree of maternal relation-
ship the ewe bears toward her young. When it is possible,
the ewes should be selected on their past records and rec-
ords of their ancestors. Investigations have shown that
good breeding stock comes from good breeding stock. A
ewe is not ready for breeding purposes until she is a year-
ling. Sheep ordinarily breed in the fall and drop their
young five months later. This would make a ewe about
a year and a half old at the time she is first bred, and two
years old at the time she drops her lamb. The reason for
not breeding sooner is that the strain of carrying a lamb
is too great for a ewe until she has had her full develop-
ment, and if bred young, may be stunted and never attain
her full growth. It is usually preferable to buy ewes as
yearlings, since the older ewes offered for sale are usually
culls, unless the owner is disposing of his entire flock.

Flushing the ewes.

About a month or so before the breeding season begins
the ewes are flushed. The term “flushing” means bring-

180 Western Live-stock Management

ing the ewes from a thin run-down condition to a strong,
vigorous condition. Perhaps this can be brought about
in no better way than by feeding good succulent feed such
as rape, kale, or green clover. Of these rape is the best.
The ewes are commonly kept on dry pastures during the
summer months so that when put on this green rich feed,
they gain very rapidly. The important point in “flush-
ing” is that the ewes be gaining rapidly rather than that
they be already fat. There are several advantages to be
gained by flushing. First, if the ewe is in good vigorous
condition she will be better able to withstand disease than
if she goes into winter quarters in a thin condition. Sec-
ond, the percentage of lambs is slightly increased, due to
more vigorous condition of the ewe. Third, the ewes will
breed more readily, thus shortening the lambing period.

Breeding season.

Before the breeding season begins the ewe flock is culled.
All ewes that have not proved to be good producers or
good mothers and all ewes with broken mouths or with
spoiled udders and teats, are sold to the butcher. The
work of culling is usually performed by the shepherd
himself, as he knows the actual performance and condition
of each ewe.

Most breeders tag the ewes before turning in the ram.
This means clipping all surplus wool from the end of the
tail and around the vulva. This aids the ram in mating,
saves his vitality, and also insures less barren ewes in the
flock. a:

The breeding season for most sheep is the fall of the year.
The ewes are bred as early as possible, preferably during
the months of September and October where climatic
conditions in the early spring are not too severe. As

Farm Sheep 181

ewes carry their lambs five months, this will cause the
lambs to arrive in the months of February and March,
which is a good time in mild climate for either the com-
mercial lamb or the pure-bred. Lambs earlier than this
require extra care and expense, while later lambs do not
have as good a start before the hot weather sets in.
Fifty ewes is the number usually allowed to one ram
in a season. On many farms it is customary to turn the
ram with the flock of ewes when breeding is to begin.
This practice, though permissible, is not as satisfactory
as the method where the ewes are bred by hand coupling.
In hand coupling the ram is turned in with the ewes night
and morning. At these'times the flock is watched closely,
and as soon as a ewe is served she is taken away so that
the ram will pay attention to other ewes which may be in
heat. The ram is not allowed to serve more than three
ewes each morning and three each night. Some of the
advantages of hand coupling may be enumerated as
follows: the vitality and vigor of the ram is saved, as
each ewe has one service instead of half a dozen; the ram
is not allowed to give all his attention to one ewe, thus
neglecting other ewes which might be in heat; the shep-
herd has a chance to find out whether or not his ram is
a good breeder, as ewes which do not become pregnant
from the first service will come in heat again ; the shepherd
is able to keep a record of the date of breeding of each ewe,
and hence knows the date when she is to lamb. The
disadvantages are additional labor and expense. For a
choice pure-bred flock, hand coupling is usually advisable.
It has also proven profitable when one wishes to breed
more than the normal number of ewes to one especially
good ram rather than to go to the expense of buying
another ram which might not prove a satisfactory breeder.

182 Western Live-stock Management

Wintering ewes.

The ewes require a large amount of range in the winter
and should not be closely confined in barns or muddy
lots. Access to an open shed or barn under which they
will be given hay and such grain as may be necessary is
very satisfactory. Elaborate barns are not only un-
necessary but are positively harmful. Some successful
sheep farms use no sheds or barns, but in such cases they
rely on natural shelter, as trees or brush and the like,
where the sheep do not have to stand in mud.

It is impossible to give any exact rules for feeding during
the winter. Sometimes when a few ewes are given the
run of large fields and pastures, they will pick up enough
feed to keep them. There will be found all intermediates
between this condition and those in which ewes must be
given all of their feed inthe form of grain and hay. In the
latter case the hay should be good legume hay. Timothy
or cheat hay is poor feed for sheep and its use requires
an excessive amount of grain. One ordinarily expects
to feed a little grain when the ewes have no pasture. A
mixture consisting of one-and-one-half parts oats to one
part bran is a good feed for pregnant ewes. With ordi-
nary hay, a daily ration of about one-half pound of the
mixture for each ewe a day is sufficient, while with poor
hay as much as one pound daily will be required. With
good alfalfa or clover hay, no grain is needed until about
a month before lambing. At this time it becomes neces-
sary to feed a little grain or to increase the amount of
hay to insure a good milk flow. One of the greatest
difficulties of sheep-raising is the winter feeding of ewes.
The shepherd either feeds them too well and does not
exercise his ewes enough, or he goes to the other extreme
and exposes them to storms with little or no feed. When

Farm Sheep 183

the ewes are fed heavily with little exercise, particularly
if a large amount of bran is fed, the lambs, when they come,
will be of such enormous size as to make lambing difficult,
often causing the death of a number of ewes. When the
ewes have been exposed in storms with little or no feed,
they have no milk for the lambs and will not own them.
Pregnant ewes must have enough food of the right nature
to nourish the growing foetus without stimulating too
much development of the bone. A good rule is to use
feeds fairly high in protein and mineral matter, and in
sufficient quantities to keep the ewes in moderate condi-
tion, neither very fat nor very thin. Combined with this
must be abundant exercise. Ewes must have good clean
water, which can be reached without wading in the mud
so deep that they will not drink until they are very thirsty.
Sheep are so particular about mud that one must be very
careful in this regard. When streams are used for water,
conditions may often be improved by making an ap-
proach out of gravel or boards.

The attention given to the ewes at this season of the
year must be constant. Turning ewes into a back pasture
and never going near them is poor policy. They are sub-
ject to accidents which may seem trivial, but which kill
many sheep. Of these, the most common is falling on
their backs in a dead furrow where they remain helpless
waiting for death or rescue. A successful shepherd early
forms the habit of counting his sheep, in order that he
may know when any are missing.

Wintering the ewe lambs.

Wintering the ewe lambs is essentially the same as
wintering breeding ewes. When the flock is out on pas-
ture and is receiving no grain or hay, the ewe lambs may

184 Western Live-stock Management

be run with the older ewes; but when grain is fed, the
lambs must be kept separate, as the older ewes will crowd
them away from the feeding troughs. Lambs require
more feed than older ewes, instead of less.

Care of the ram.

The ram is usually kept away from the ewe flock
except during the breeding season. If allowed to winter
with the ewes, he is likely to bunt the pregnant ewes and
cause abortion. If he has the company of another ram
or a wether, he will thrive better than if kept alone. A
small amount of a grain mixture of two parts oats to one
part bran, together with some good clover, vetch, or
alfalfa hay, and a few roots or a little corn silage will
keep him in excellent condition. Mangels or sugar-beets
should never be fed to rams and wethers, as they cause
bladder trouble. During the summer, good pasture is
sufficient, but a month before breeding season begins he
will require some grain. While the ram must be in a
good vigorous condition, there is great danger of having
him too fat. Exercise is essential at all times.

Lambing time.

At lambing time the ewes ‘require access to a shed or
barn, although close confinement is very detrimental.
Well-drained land that will stand tramping may be seeded
to rape and clover, and the ewes run on this during the
lambing season. Unfortunately, such land and climatic
conditions are not everywhere available. When the ewes
are strong and healthy, they will need little attention at
lambing as compared with the attention required by range
ewes. The most important equipment for lambing time
is a set of panels about four feet long and two-and-one-

Farm Sheep 185

half feet high. Two of these panels are hinged together
so that they will form the letter ~ L” when open. These
panels are made into pens, four feet by four feet, by
fastening one set in the corner of the barn so that the walls
of the building form two sides and the panels the other

Fic. 14. — Lambing Panel.

two. After the first pen 1s made the next is made in the
corner formed by the frst one and the wall. In this
manner a row of small pens may be made very easily
and the panels, when not in use, May be stored in a very
small space. Much attention is given the ewes at lambing
time, and any ewe showing sighs of lambing soon is sep-

186 Western Live-stock Management

arated from the remainder of the flock and. shut up in
one of the lambing pens. If she has been properly fed
and cared for during the winter, little difficulty will
present itself. She must be watched carefully to see that
the lamb is presented properly and that she own her
lamb after it is born. The latter difficulty presents itself
very commonly when the ewe has little milk. With stub-
born ewes stanchions often have to be used. These are
made by driving stakes into the ground one on each side
of the ewe’s neck. In such a case it is well to feed the
lamb a little cow’s milk until its mother’s milk-flow is
started. The ewe and her lamb should be penned up
until the proper maternal relations have been well es-
tablished. This system of penning the ewes about to
lamb will prove valuable, especially when the ewes drop
twins or triplets. In such a case if the ewe were left with
the flock she very likely would disown one of them, be-
cause the first lamb born usually is the strongest and would
wander off looking for its first meal while its mother was
giving birth to the other lamb, or lambs. It would thus
be surrounded by other ewes and its mother would lose
its scent and consequently disown it. When a lamb dies
the ewe may be induced to become a stepmother to some
orphan. The method of making the ewe own a strange
lamb has been discussed in the chapter on lambing of
range ewes.

Castration and docking.

All male lambs not intended for breeding purposes
must be castrated. As a rule, at about the age of three
months the ram lambs begin to know that they are males,
become restless and not only fail to gain but actually lose
the flesh put on in an early period. Asa result, ram lambs

Farm Sheep 187

come on to the market with thinner flesh than wether
lambs raised under the same conditions. They also annoy
the ewes so they do not thrive.

Castration is a simple operation involving little risk
when conducted with ordinary care and cleanliness. It
can best be performed when the lamb is from one to two
weeks old. The operation consists in cutting off the lower
end of the scrotum and drawing out the testicles, together
with the adhering cords. A little disinfectant poured into
the holes from which the testicles have been removed
prevents infection. The morning of a nice bright day
is the best time.

Docking is also another operation commonly neglected
by farmers. Failure to dock causes a loss of twenty-five
to fifty cents a hundred pounds when the lambs are sold,
depending on the amount of dirt collected. Tails are
unnecessary appendages on sheep, and the blood nourish-
ing the useless tail would add, no doubt, to the growth
of the rest of the body. There are several ways of dock-
ing lambs; namely, chopping off the tails with a mallet
and chisel, cutting off with a sharp knife, or removing
with hot pincers. Of these three methods the latter is
the most preferred as there is very little loss of blood when
it is practiced. In any case, the tail should be removed so
as to leave a stub or dock, which is one to one-and-one-
half inches long. This operation should be performed
on ewe lambs at one or two weeks of age, and with ram
lambs, it should follow from five to seven days after
castration. On large ranches, to save time, both castra-
tion and docking are performed at one time, but on smaller
farms better results are obtained where they are done
separately. The loss from castration and docking should
not be more than one lamb in five hundred. Strange to

188 Western Live-stock Management

say, docking and castrating are commonly neglected on
the farms, while on the range neglect in this regard is
practically unheard of.

Growing the lamb.

In order to make the most out of a lamb whether he be
a mutton or pure-bred lamb, he must be grown as cheaply
as possible, which means to feed him well while he is
young, as he then makes the most economical gains. It is
well to put as much gain as possible on the lambs during
the months of April and May, as these months are when
feed and weather are best. The best results on the general
farm in the Northwest are obtained when the lambs are
grown on sown pastures such as vetch and oats, vetch
and rye, clover, and rape and clover. Sheep are commonly
kept on the general farms for scavenger purposes, but
good lambs cannot be grown in this way. The common
system is to have a few sheep to clean up the fence corners,
stubblefields, and the like. The lambs receive no care
and slowly mature into scrawny brutes of little value. If,
instead of raising twenty-five lambs in this manner, the
grower were to raise fifty by the more modern method,
he would derive a much greater profit, while the ewes
could clean up the fields after the lambs are weaned or
sold.

It will be necessary to have several fields for the lambs
in order to secure the best gains and that each kind of
pasture may be utilized in its proper season. It is also
especially desirable to have fresh pastures on which to
finish the lambs if they are for the mutton market. Often
the lambs do well until about ready for market. Then
the pastures begin to fail and the lambs, which were so
nearly done, begin to go backward, and the dry season

Farm Sheep 189

coming on, the lambs cannot be made ready for market
until fall. By this time they are too coarse and heavy to
bring the best price and have cost more money than they
are worth. It is, therefore, essential that the ewes and
their lambs be supplied with the most liberal pasture
throughout the growing season. In the case of pure-bred
lambs the pasture is of equal importance. In order to
afford a number of different fields, portable fences are
often used.

Grain.

The use of grain will depend on various factors, such as
the prices of grain and of mutton, and the richness of the
pastures. Ordinarily no grain need be used, but when
mutton is a good price or when grain is rather low, some
may be used with a profit. Lambs given grain will grow
faster and finish better. In feeding grain, it is a good
plan to teach the lambs to eat early in life; that is, when
they are two or three weeks old. They can be fed in a
“creep” so that they can procure the grain they need
without interference by the ewes. A “creep” is a panel
of fence arranged with upright bars so spaced that the
lambs can go through but the ewes cannot. A mixture
of two pounds of wheat bran, one pound of crushed oats,
one pound of finely ground corn-meal, and one-half pound
of oil meal is perhaps the ideal feed for young lambs.
Another occasion where grain is very necessary is when
the pastures are beginning to fail a little before the lambs
are quite ready to market. A liberal feed of grain for a
few days will often put the lambs in marketable condition
and save the necessity of carrying them through the dry
summer. Of course, the pasture should not fail before
the lambs are ready, but sometimes there may be more

190 Western Lave-stock Management

lambs than there is pasture for, or perhaps weather condi-
tions make the pastures poorer than there was reason to
expect. The use of grain is of more importance in the
case of pure-bred sheep than with the market sheep, since
pure-bred lambs must be kept growing after they are
weaned in spite of the fact that pastures dry up, and the
only way that this can be accomplished is with the use of
grain. The lambs, taught to eat grain long before they
are weaned, have the habit of coming regularly to the
feed trough well established before it is most needed.
Pure-bred lambs do their best if fed during this first
summer at the rate of a half or three-quarters of a pound
of grain daily with as much fresh pasture as possible, but
care should be taken not to have lambs off feed during the
hot summer months.

Lambs handled in the manner outlined above should
gain one-half pound a day, while under favorable condi-
tions, and with extra feed and care, the daily gain may be
close to one pound a day. When the gain is less than one-
half pound a day, the feed is becoming a little scanty,
and the lambs are not quite as thrifty as they should be.

Shearing.

On the farms throughout the Northwest, shearing is
performed during the months of April, May, and June.
The exact time of shearing will depend on the opinion of
the owner, locality, season, shelter, and the like. Shear-
ing should not be done too early or too late, as in one case
the sheep suffer from cold after shearing and in the
other, sheep suffer from heat before shearing. Many
men have the mistaken idea that late shearing, because
of increased flow of yolk, increases the income of the flock.
This is true in a certain sense. It does increase the

Farm Sheep 191

returns on the fleece, but what is gained here is lost on
the body of the sheep due to excessive heat. There is
much more variation in the time of shearing farm sheep
than range sheep, since the farmer has better protection
for his flock in case they are sheared too early or too late.

Machine shearing is gradually taking the place of hand
shearing, especially in the larger flocks. The amateur
can learn to shear so much faster and easier with a machine
that the farmer can easily sheer his own flock. Sheep
are not damaged with the machine to the extent that they
are with the blades. On the farm, hand machines are
more commonly used than the power driven ones, and
are satisfactory for flocks of twenty-five or fifty head.
Hand machines, however, are not fast enough or durable
enough for shearing large bands. While being shorn, the
sheep must be handled as humanely as possible, as there
are enough cuts at best. It is a good plan to place the
fleece in a bin to cool before packing, as the manufacturers
claim that it comes out of the sack in better condition.
This is one of the good features of the Australian shearing
sheds. Unscrupulous farmers often wet the wool, or
place sand, stones, and the like in the wool sacks to increase
the weight. It would seem as if selling sand, water, and
stones at twenty-five to thirty cents a pound would be a
profitable business, but the effect of this practice always
comes back to the offender and the community, and
buyers discriminate against farmers whom they suspect
of such acts. In case wool is held for some time before
selling, it should be stored in a cool place where the sun
and wind cannot strike it. Wool normally contains about
13 per cent moisture which is legitimate and the farmer
should do all in his power not to lose it. A more complete
discussion of growing and handling the wool clip is taken

192 Western Live-stock Management

up in the chapter on wool production. While this chapter
deals with the subject from the standpoint of the range-
man, it contains much information for the farmer breeder.

Dipping.

Dipping of farm sheep is even more important than
dipping on the range, since ticks multiply more rapidly
under farm conditions. The method of dipping is the
same only it is conducted on a much smaller scale. In-
stead of having a vat fifty or sixty feet long, one ten or
fifteen feet is large enough. With these short vats the
sheep must be held in for a short time and not be allowed
to swim through. The dips used for ticks and scab are
the same as on the range.

Weaning.

In the case of lambs for the market, weaning is a simple _
process, as the lambs go direct to the market from their
dams. With the pure-bred lambs, it is different. They
are weaned at about three to five months of age. After
the separation, the lambs should be turned into a good
shady pasture far away from the ewes, and never returned.
Lambs already taught to eat grain are easiest weaned.
A stunted lamb never makes up its lost growth no matter
how favorable circumstances may be afterwards. Forage
crops, such as rape and clover, make excellent pasture for
lambs, and where available, grain may not be needed.
Ram lambs should be separated from the ewe lambs when
not older than six months, and would better be separated
at weaning.

Marketing.

Spring lambs are marketed whenever they become
fat. This will ordinarily be at a weight of somewhere

Farm Sheep 193

between fifty and eighty pounds, the proper market
weight being about sixty pounds. A farmer located near
a large city can dress very early spring lambs on the farm,
shipping by express and selling to hotels, clubs, and the
like. The very earliest lambs bring fancy prices and are
very profitable in spite of the higher cost of production,
but since it is only a few of the very earliest that bring
the fancy prices, the early lamb business must be limited
to those farms so situated that the lambs may be easily
marketed before the rush begins. The average farmer
must, therefore, try to meet a more stable, although
lower market. He can and must, however, get his
lambs off before the range lambs come in. The large
number of spring lambs are marketed in carload lots
in the stock-yards. These lambs are young and
tender and great care must be taken to see that
they receive the least possible rough treatment on their
journey.

The marketing of pure-bred stock issomewhat different,
as they must be held until they are older. With pure-
bred stock the farmer has two methods to follow; namely,
selling his stock as lambs or as yearlings. Marketing in
either case is done in the fall, just prior to the breeding
season. The system of selling stock as yearlings is best
when the farmer has enough land, since there usually is
more money in it for the producer and the buyer is better
satisfied. The sale of lambs for breeding purposes should
be discouraged as much as possible.

Annual auction sales, wherever established, are the best
means of marketing. Breeders should support these
sales as they are the cheapest way for the buyer and seller
to get in touch with each other.

194 Western Live-stock Management

Dry ewes.

After the lambs are shipped to market, the ewes are
at once turned into dry pasture. Such feed will aid very
much in drying up their milk and preventing spoiled
udders. Also, the ewes would become too fat if kept
on rich pastures after the lambs are weaned, and the ex-
pense of keeping them would be too great. Fortunately
the requirements of the ewes fit in exactly with cropping
conditions on the western farm. The lambs are sold or
weaned at a time when the fields are becoming dry. The
clover, vetch, and rape which were good earlier in the
season become woody, and green feed is rarely available.
But the ewes may be turned out on the drier hill pastures,
on the meadows after the hay is cut, or on the stubble
fields. In this way they will not only obtain the feed
which is best for them but will procure it at the least cost.

Heavy milkers will require some attention, because
their udders are likely to swell and spoil. These are the
ewes that raise the best lambs, and their loss means an
unprofitable flock. Persistent milkers should be milked
two or three times at intervals of two, five, and seven
days, but at no time should they be milked completely
dry.

BARNS, TOOLS, AND EQUIPMENT

Barns.

A sheep barn differs from a cattle barn or other stock
barn in that it must have more floor space and less hay
mow. In building a sheep barn, the farmer has to con-
cern himself only with the floor space, as the hay mow
capacity will take care of itself. There are two general
types of sheep barns found in the West, one with all the
hay overhead and the other with the hay in the center

Farm Sheep 195

and running to the ground. In most localities one or
possibly two sides of the barn are left open. The need
of protection for sheep is against rain, snow, and wind,
and a barn open on one side, or possibly two sides, if
placed properly, will furnish all of this protection. Sheep
are clothed naturally with one of the best non-conductors
of heat that is known, and in a closed barn they very
easily become over-heated and go off feed. In some lo-
calities the open side is absolutely necessary. Whether
the barn is open on one side or closed, ample ventila-
tion must be furnished. In building a sheep barn or shed
of any type, if the posts are set at equal distances in every
direction, panels can be made so they will fit any place
in the shed. A distance of either ten or twelve feet from
center to center is a good dimension. In practice this
will be found very convenient, since with the panels the
same size and the distances between the posts the same,
pens can easily be set up in any part of the barn desired.
Light is as essential as ventilation, and windows should
be well distributed around the outside walls of the barn.
A part of the barn can be set aside for the storage of
roots and grain; another part for a hospital, and shep-
herd’s room. This part of the shed is usually furnished
with a stove, which is very convenient during lambing
time in treating chilled lambs. The best location for the
hospital room is adjoining the shepherd’s room.
Running water in the shed is quite an asset, and if
possible should be piped to troughs in the various pens.
Sheds can be used for the housing of sheep where the
hay is stored in the horse or cattle barns or where it is
stacked in the open. A shed open away from the pre-
vailing winds will furnish ample protection in most places.
Often it is desirable to have a shed that can be moved

196 Western Live-stock Management

from place to place on the farm, especially where there
are sown pastures that have no shade. The illustrations
(Plate VI), show a portable sheep shed, which was built
at the Oregon Agricultural College, and which has proved
very satisfactory. The outside dimensions of the com-
plete shed are twenty-eight by eighty feet, affording pro-
tection for a large flock of sheep. The shed is built in
eight sections and each section is built on skids so that it
may be moved to any place desired. Each section is
twenty feet long and fourteen feet wide and can be con-
structed at a cost of about $15.00 or $16.00 for material.
The great advantage of this shed is that it can be moved
from place to place and even be moved through a twelve-
foot gate and can be set up as one shed or be divided
into two, three, or four parts. Two horses haul a sec-
tion without difficulty. While portable sheds have their
place, a permanent structure is always more satisfactory
whenever a permanent location is available.

Panels.

Panels of various sorts are very convenient about a
sheep shed, and can be cheaply constructed out of one
by three-inch lumber. A good height for a panel is about
two-and-a-half feet. The construction of panels should
be such that they will be light in weight and yet have con-
siderable strength also.

Feeding racks and troughs.

Hay and grain may be fed from the same rack, but
separate racks are generally preferred. All racks must
be so constructed as to permit easy cleaning, since of all
farm animals, sheep perhaps are the most particular
about their feed. They will not eat from dirty racks.
The grain trough is usually made one foot wide and three

Puiate VI. — SHEEP SHEDS.

Above, a good type of permanent barn; below, sectional portable sheep
shed as used in winter, in transit, and as a summer shade.

Farm Sheep 197

inches deep, and of desired length. A one by four inch
strip may be built in about a foot above the trough to

Fic. 16. — Combination Grain and Hay Rack.

prevent the lambs from jumping across it. The legs
‘are so placed on the trough that when it is tipped over

198 Western Live-stock Management

the grain and feed will drop out. This type is usually
known as a self-cleaning trough. If these troughs are
tipped over after each feeding, little further attention need
be given to the cleaning. A combination hay and grain
rack usually is heavier in construction, and because of
this it is inconvenient to tip it over for the cleaning
of the trough each time, and therefore a little more care
must be exercised as to cleanliness.

While self-feeders have proved very satisfactory for
feeding grain to hogs, they have not proved so with sheep.
The death rate with sheep on self-feeders is much greater
than where they are fed by hand, and the gains are less
economical.

Fic. 17. — Shipping Crate.

Shipping crates.
A few shipping crates should always be at hand when
pure-bred sheep are raised, since a buyer will often insist

Farm Sheep 199

on immediate shipment. During haying or harvest, it is
a nuisance to stop and build a crate, and the sale may be
lost on that account. Crate building is a good rainy day
job. They are built of one by three-inch material and
are so constructed as to combine as far as possible strength
with lightness. They are made barely large enough for
the sheep to stand comfortably.

Shepherd’s crooks.

Shepherd’s crooks have been in use for centuries and
are still a very necessary article, especially with high
class sheep. With a crook the flock can be worked over

a z aap aaa

Fiq. 18.— Sheep Crook.

and handled with much less excitement than without.
The Jaxon type of sheep crook is very satisfactory.
Dipping crooks are very handy at the time of dipping.
They are made with a large double crook, and by their

= —

Fic. 19. — Dipping Crook.

use the sheep can be either pushed under the dip or pulled
out, as desired. A home-made dipping crook can be
made out of two pieces of wood.

Dipping vat.
A dipping vat on a sheep farm should be built as durable
and lasting as possible, and located so that it cannot be

200 Western Live-stock Management

reached by horses and cattle. Where gravel is available,
a concrete dipping vat is the cheapest in the end. The
vat itself is about ten to fifteen feet in length. With a
long tank, sheep do not try to jump over it and thereby
injure themselves by striking the other side. All the
panels in the corrals and runs should be as smooth as
possible and free from projecting nails and slivers, because
crowding sheep are likely to cut and bruise themselves on
such projections, and in the case of dipping in lime and
sulfur or dips of that nature, blood poisoning may result.
There are various types of approaches to the tank, some
which use a decoy and others which have a trap-door and
still others which have no special device for getting the
sheep into the vat. The decoy system possibly is the
best. Sheep have a great desire for company and will
usually endeavor to go where they see another sheep, and
in their effort to arrive at the decoy fall into the tank.
This system removes nearly all of the labor of pushing
the sheep into the dip. The trap-door arrangement works
fairly well, but the sheep have to be pushed more or less.
In the other method, there usually is a small inclosure
just at the beginning of the tank into which a lot of
sheep are run, and a man catches each sheep and forces
it into the vat.

One of the essentials of a good dipping vat is that the
outlet should not be made too steep or the sheep may
injure their feet and strain themselves in getting out.

The draining pen is so constructed that all of the dip
will drain back into the vat. The dip usually runs from
the draining pen into a well, or catch basin, where the
sediment settles to the bottom, while the dip runs back
into the vat. The draining pen is divided in two, with a
‘swinging door between, so that one side can be filled up,

Farm Sheep 201

while the other side is draining. When the second side
is filled, the first side has sufficiently drained so that they
can be turned out. When poisonous dips are used, the
sheep need to be well drained before they are turned out
to pasture, to avoid poisoning the grass. However, this
danger is not as great as one might think, and if the sheep
are not too closely confined, the amount of arsenic they
would consume while eating grass is not sufficient to
harm them. Some shepherds use the arsenic dip in
minute quantities for treating lambs for stomach worms,
but there is a possible danger even in this.

Dodging chute.

Farmers having small flocks separate them by “legging
out”’ the sheep, as they call it. This is a very bad practice
and should not be continued. A little money invested
in a dodging chute saves much time and labor as well as
injury to the sheep. There is absolutely no better way of
separating lambs from their ewes than by running the
flock through the dodging chute. One might think that
the matter of separating lambs from the ewes would be
simple and that all that would be necessary would be to
catch the lambs and lift them over the panels into a
second pen. Experience shows that such a practice very
often results in some lame lambs. Lambs at weaning
time are very tender, and injuries of this sort mean the
loss of the lamb. A dodging chute consists of a long
narrow chute at the end of which is a swinging gate which
opens into two pens. The main essential of a dodging
chute is length. The longer the chute, the better and
faster fhe sheep will travel through and the greater the
opportunity the operator of the dodge gate has to observe
his sheep and decide into which pen they go.

202 Western Live-stock Management

Corrals.

Corrals are very necessary in handling sheep for any
purpose. They are best made of one-inch to six-inch
material, dressed on one side, and the fences should be at
least three or four feet in height. Such a corral is very
convenient for sheep that are to be sold or for sheep that
require treatment for foot-rot or various other ailments.
It is a poor practice to catch a sheep in the open field. A
sheep caught in an inclosure realizes that its liberty is
limited and does not make such an effort to get away.
It, therefore, is not frightened and does not have the
opportunity of causing disturbance among the remainder
of the flock. The corrals can be built as lots around the
sheds or barns and therefore need not be considered as
extra equipment, but they should be small enough that
any of the flock can be caught without much disturbance.

Sheep fencing.

Portable sheep fencing is at times very convenient.
Such a fence may be made out of lumber in the form illus-
trated in Fig. 20. The panels are made out of one inch
by four inch or one inch by three inch material, fourteen
to sixteen feet long. The standards are of the same mate-
rial and made in the form of a triangle. The panels are
set in these triangles or braces, the ends of two panels
sitting in one standard. Another kind of portable sheep
fence is made of woven wire and stakes. Woven wire and
stakes can be moved as conveniently as the portable panel
fence, and when it is up if the wire is stretched, it makes
a better appearance and is a more serviceable fencing.
For any fence less than ten rods, the panels are good, but
for a longer fence the woven wire is better.

Lack of adequate fence has been one factor in the decline

Farm Sheep 203

of the sheep industry in many localities, and a good perma-
nent fence is the cheapest in the end. Sheep are the easiest
to fence of all farm animals. Almost any board or woven
wire fence will turn sheep. Barbed wire cattle fences are
about the only kind that will not turn sheep, and these

2 i
es 7 “Pp
I
fe 5 eal
. ae
ee © is |
12°

Fic. 20. — A Good Portable Fence.

not only do not turn them but tear out a quantity of
valuable wool. Farm fences, however, must turn cattle
and horses and often hogs as well as sheep. When this is
the case, it is easy to go a step farther and make a fence
that will turn dogs and coyotes as well. A good woven
wire close enough at the bottom to turn hogs and about
five feet high with a barbed wire on top will turn almost
any dog or -coyote; in fact, very few dogs will jump a
four-foot fence. The bottom of the woven wire may be
placed in a furrow and the soil turned back against it, or

204 Western Live-stock Management

it may rest on the top of the ground with a barbed wire
at the bottom. Such an arrangement will prevent dogs
from going under. A dog- and coyote-proof fence has
been proven to be entirely practical, and it is only a
matter of a short time until all farm fences will be practi- .
cally dog-proof.

Lamb-creep.

A lamb-creep is a small pen having on at least one side
a panel made of vertical slats so spaced that the lambs
can readily slip through but the ewes cannot. Inside
the creep there are troughs in which grain is placed. The
lambs can thus pass through into the creep at any time
during the day and obtain a mouthful or two of grain.
In this way they balance their ration and get additional
nourishment which will make them develop at a much
earlier age than they otherwise would. The panels of a
lambing-creep can be easily made by putting the strips
- vertical about ten inches apart. The edges of the up-
right sticks are rounded off so as not to tear the wool.
Elaborate creeps can be made, using rollers in the place
of sticks, so that the lambs passing through do not injure
themselves or their wool in any way. These rollers are
especially good after the lambs become rather large.

Hoof-trimmers.

During wet weather,

the best hoof-trimmer

Fie, 21.— Pruning Shears are Useful in jg g good, sharp jack-
Trimming Hard Hoofs. ae Pd

knife of the type
stockmen usually carry. Dry weather requires a some-
what different implement, since the shell of the sheep’s
foot is very hard at this time. Small pruning shears or

Farm Sheep 205

a good hoof-pincher are best instruments in this case.
The foot, after having been trimmed with the pincher
or pruning shears, may be dressed with a good rasp or
a jack-knife.

‘

Docking instruments.

The instruments used in docking are a sharp pocket-
knife, docking chisel, or docking pinchers. The knife
needs no explanation. The docking chisel is usually
made of rather heavy 2
iron, and has a broad ya
blade and a long
handle. The edge of
the chisel is fairly
blunt and in use, the
chisel is heated to a
dull, cherry red heat,
and the lamb’s tail is pinched off with the hot chisel
against a block, the heat searing the blood vessels. The
principle on which the docking pinchers work is similar
to that of the docking chisel; that is, the pinchers are
so built as to retain heat for a considerable time and
the edges are not sharp.

Fic. 22. — Docking Pinchers.

Ear-labeling punch.

In a pure-bred flock,
an ear-labeling punch
is necessary. Such a
punch can be procured
from any stockmen’s
supply house. It combines a punch to make a hole in the
sheep’s ear and a pincher to close the label after it has

Fic. 23. — Ear Labeling Punch.

206 Western Live-stock Management

been inserted. The punch can be used for marking sheep
where a system of ear notching is used.

Branding stamp and iron.

On the farm it is sometimes desirable to mark sheep so
that they may be easily identified. The commonest
practice is the use of a branding paint or fluid which is
applied with a branding stamp.
Such a stamp can be very
easily made out of a block of
dl wood and a piece of leather.

Fic. 24. — Branding Stamp. A block of wood about four
inches in diameter and eight
inches long is cut out so as to form a handle with a
disk at one end. Any figure or letter can be cut out of
leather and tacked on to the disk. Several thicknesses of
leather are used so as to make a, total thickness of not
less than half an inch. Nothing but standard branding
fluid should be used with such a system of marking, be-
cause of the damage of permanent paint to the wool.
Since the stamped brand lasts only until shearing, many
farmers prefer the use of a hot iron branding on the nose
of the animal, or on the horn in the case of such breeds
as carry horns. Such brands, of course, are of a perma-
nent nature.

Trochar and canula.

This instrument is used in giving relief to sheep that
are suffering from bloat and is much better for this
purpose than the pocket-knife. It consists of a
sharp-pointed steel (the trochar) which fits inside of a
metal tube or sheath (the canula). When used, the point
of the combined instrument is pushed through the skin

Farm Sheep 207

and into the paunch of the bloated animal and the trochar
removed, leaving the canula in the opening. The canula
keeps the hole open, so

the gas can pass off from —— er
the paunch. After the ee
animal has been relieved, Fre. 25. — Trochar and Canula.

the canula is removed

and a little disinfectant placed on the wound. A knife
may be used to relieve bloat, but when there is nothing
to keep the hole open, the operation is ineffective in a
great many cases.

Hand sheep shears.

Even though a
farmer shears by ma-
Fic. 26. — Hand Sheep Shears. chinery, he should
have a pair of hand

sheep shears. They are necessary in tagging, an opera-
tion that is absolutely necessary at breeding and lambing
time. They are also very convenient in the case of mag-
gots in the wool, since the infested wool may be removed.

Wool box.

The wool box or wool board is a piece of equipment
that is gradually passing out of use. It is constructed
out of five pieces of wood hinged together. In use, the
wool box is spread out flat and four pieces of twine laid
across it, two crossing in one direction and two at right
angles. The fleece is placed in the middle of the box.
The box is then folded up to form a box and the twine
tied over the top of the fleece while the box is in this posi-
tion. A fleece tied in such a box has a very good appear-
ance. An objection to this system of tying fleeces is that

208 Western Live-stock Management

it requires considerably more twine than is necessary.
Fleeces for display might well be tied in this manner.

* 3-0". ————|
T T
aa) =
| i A
i Mi q
arr aa)
=
1 L
Fig. 27. — Wool Box or Wool Board.
Sheep bell.

The old practice of using a sheep bell on the leader of a
flock is a good one in regions where pastures run back into
wooded land and where sheep could graze and be out of
sight. The tinkle of the bell will locate the sheep even
though they are at a considerable distance. The sheep
themselves tend to follow a bell and thus do not separate.

CHAPTER XIV
FEEDING FARM SHEEP

THERE are several factors which operate to determine
success or failure in the feeding of farm sheep. These
factors may be enumerated as follows: (1) regularity,
(2) uniformity, (3) variety, (4) cleanliness, (5) exercise,
(6) shelter, and (7) shearing.

REGULARITY

Sheep are very quick to learn the time and place of their
feeding. Shortly before feeding time they usually are
very quiet, but soon they become more or less restless, and
at the exact time that feed should be given they will
be standing up at the gate or around the troughs where
they will make considerable disturbance until they are
fed. Successful sheep-men, therefore, never allow the
feeding hour to pass without giving the usual feed, as
much flesh is lost by this worrying of the sheep when the
feed is late. Sheep do. not require a large amount of
attention, but the attention that they do receive must be
very prompt and regular.

UNIFORMITY AND VARIETY

Sudden changes of feed, either in kind or amount, are
very likely to cause digestive disturbance in the sheep
and in all probability weak spots in the wool. Sheep like

P 209

210 Western Live-stock Management

considerable variety but the best results are obtained when
this variety is uniformly fed: Gradual changes from one
feed to another are not harmful but often beneficial.

CLEANLINESS

Because sheep are great weed destroyers and utilize
the odds and ends about the farm, it is often assumed that
they are not particular about what they eat. This isa
mistake. Sheep picking weeds and odds and ends select
the more choice parts and consume them fresh. If offered
feed that has been nosed over by other stock, they will
refuse it or will eat it without a relish. Feeding troughs
in which feed has been allowed to accumulate and sour
are extremely distasteful to them. Feed-racks so arranged
as to let the hay down a little at a time, thus preventing
the sheep from breathing on it, are the best. Cleanliness
is of the utmost importance in the feeding of all classes of
sheep.

EXERCISE

Exercise is very conducive to the natural development
of the sheep. This is particularly true of growing stock.
Young sheep confined too closely are very likely to be
delicate in their later life and not attain normal develop-
ment. Plenty of exercise and good feed are the two main
factors necessary for a good breeding flock. Exercise
prevents the ewe from accumulating too much body fat
and at the same time it makes her appetite much keener.
In the case of lambs that are being fattened for the market,
as much exercise is not needed as in the case of growing or
breeding stock. However, they should not be confined too
closely because of the effect that exercise has on the
appetite. Gains made by sheep depend very largely on

Feeding Farm Sheep 211

the amount they eat, but too much exercise in the case
of fattening sheep may make the cost of a hundred pounds
of gain a little greater.

FALL SHEARING

The question of fall shearing is one that has caused
considerable discussion in the feeding operations of the
West. In many localities where the climate is mild,
sheep that are shorn before being placed on feed will
oftentimes make larger gains than if unshorn. Taking
all in all, it is very questionable whether the practice of
shearing would be profitable to the farmer, since shorn
sheep are docked on the market so as to compensate
the buyer for the loss of the wool.

CONCENTRATES

The concentrates used to the greatest extent in the
feeding of sheep throughout the West are corn, barley,
oats, wheat, speltz, peas, cotton-seed cakes, linseed oil
meal, and bran. They all have their merits and their
limitations.

Corn.

Corn has been fed more to fattening sheep in the United
States than any other grain, but plays its greatest part
in the feeding operations of the Corn-Belt. The western
states being removed from the region often have to rely
on other grains. Wherever it is successfully grown, corn
possibly makes the best concentrate for fattening sheep.
It can also be used with good success when fed in limited
amounts to breeding and growing stock, although it is
too carbonaceous in character to form more than a part of
their ration. It may be shelled and cracked, or ground.

212 Western Live-stock Management

Barley.

Barley is one of the very best grains that we have. In
the West and the Northwest, it has gained its widest
popularity in the feeding of sheep, and the results from its
use have been quite as favorable as that from corn. It,
like corn, is a carbonaceous feed, and because of this it
should not be fed in too liberal a quantity to breeding
stock.

Oats.

Oats should, and usually do, form the basis of grain
mixtures for feeding farm sheep. They are highly nutri-
tious and perfectly safe, and are usually grown on all sheep
farms. As a single grain feed for sheep, oats meet prac-
tically every requirement. There is no better feed for
toning up breeding stock or for feeding show sheep. For
fattening purposes, oats alone may be used, but to get
best results, they should be mixed with carbonaceous feeds
such as corn and barley.

Wheat.

Because of the prevailing high prices that are paid for
wheat, it is not extensively used as a sheep feed, although
damaged wheat and wheat screenings are fed through-
out the western states. In some feed-lots, wheat mixed
with barley is used for fattening purposes. Sheep prefer
the wheat whole rather than ground.

Emmer.

Emmer, or speltz as it is commonly known, is a rather
inferior grain for feeding sheep, and in most of the feeding
trials in this country has ranked very near the bottom.
It is used only where it can be grown cheaper than other
grains.

Feeding Farm Sheep 213

Peas.

Cracked peas or pea meal are highly nitrogenous,
and because of this are rarely fed alone, but rather in
conjunction with other feeds. There is no feed quite
equal to peas to put on the extra finish required for show
sheep. They give firmness and character to the flesh
that no other feed will do. Peas are usually rather expen-
sive and for that reason do not enter into the usual farm
rations.

Cotton-Seed Products.

Cotton-seed cake and cotton-seed meal are used as
supplementary feeds. They are not usually fed alone
but mixed with the grain at the rate of about 10 per cent
of the meal or cake. Fed in this manner they are very
good in rations that would otherwise be low in protein.

Linseed Products.

These feeds, like cotton-seed meal and cotton-seed cakes,
are very high in protein matter and they are of course fed
in the same manner. They are usually preferred to the
cotton-seed products. In the feeding of any of these
nitrogenous feeds, the pea-sized cake is best. The meal
is rather fine and has a tendency toward gumming or
forming an undesirable paste in the sheep’s mouth.

Bran.

Bran is a superior concentrate for sheep when fed in
connection with various grains, and can usually be sub-
stituted advantageously for one-fourth to one-half of the
grain ration. It is especially good for breeding stock
and growing animals. There is no other concentrate
better than bran for ewes about to lamb or that have just
lambed. Being of a laxative nature, it has a tendency

214 Western Live-stock Management

toward keeping the bowels in very good condition. A
grain mixture consisting of oats and bran is exceptionally
good for breeding stock, and on most farms is the cheap-
est feed available.

SUCCULENCE

Succulent feeds such as roots, kale, and cabbage are of
considerable value in winter feeding, since they furnish
for winter what pasture furnishes in summer. A little
succulence as a part of the daily ration has a very good
effect on the bowels and general condition of the animal,
and produces results which are difficult to obtain otherwise.

Roots. 3

One of the commonest succulent feeds in the western
states is roots. Breeding ewes thrive especially well on
this form of succulence, and with all classes of sheep, roots
prevent constipation and keep the sheep in healthy condi-
tion. There is no superior feeding value in the dry
matter of the roots over that of grain, but they are espe-
cially valuable because of their tonic effect on the system.
Roots should be cut into small pieces before feeding, hence
a root-cutter is practically indispensable when many
roots are used. When roots are not cut, choking may
occur. Three to four pounds a day is sufficient for the
average sheep, and it is not customary to feed breeding
ewes much more than two pounds a day because lambs
from ewes fed excessively on roots may be large, soft, and
flabby. The commonest roots in the western states are
turnips, rutabagas, sugar-beets, and mangel-wurzels.
The first three are the best for sheep feeding. The last
two, namely, sugar-beets and mangel-wurzels, should not
be fed to rams under any circumstances because of the

Feeding Farm Sheep 215

bad effect on the kidney and the bladder. They should
be fed only with great care to ewes.

Kale.

Kale is used especially in the Willamette Valley where
the winter climate is mild and where the mercury seldom
drops below the freezing point. The kale plant remains
green all winter and is cut in the field and hauled direct
to the barn, where it is fed either whole or passed through
a cutter. If run through the cutter, the entire plant is
consumed, otherwise the coarser stalks are not eaten.

Cabbage.

On the average western farm there is usually more
or less cabbage, but because of human consumption, it
usually has too high a market value for sheep feed. How-
ever, when grown to any extent, there are always damaged,
unsalable heads which can be used to great advantage as
sheep feed. Sheep relish cabbage, eating it when they
refuse all other feed. Cabbage is used extensively in the
feeding of show sheep, since it can always be purchased
on the show circuit and is very easily handled.

SILAGE

Silage is being used more and more for sheep through-
out the western states. Fed in quantities of two pounds
a head a day, it provides an excellent supplement to the
ration for breeding ewes. Care must be exercised in the
feeding of silage, however, because musty and moldy
silage is poisonous to sheep. In most trials at the experi-
ment stations, the gains from silage have been somewhat
below that from roots, but the cost of the gain usually has
been in favor of the silage. These trials, however, have

216 ~— Western Live-stock anagement

been carried on in the Corn-Belt where corn silage can
be produced at a lower figure than it can on the average
western farm. For this reason the figures may not have
the significance to the western farmer that they otherwise
would. A silo for less than 250 sheep is too small to be
practical unless there are other stock to be fed silage as
well as the sheep.

HAY

Sheep everywhere are largely and often exclusively
wintered on hay. Being more or less dainty about their
eating, the hay must be of the very best quality and cer-
tain kinds cannot be used at all. The commonest hays
that are used throughout the western states are alfalfa,
clover, vetch and oats, vetch and rye, and vetch and
barley. These are all good. Possibly the alfalfa hay in
localities where it can be grown is the best sheep hay,
but clover hay is a very close competitor. Such hays as
timothy and prairie hay should not be fed to sheep when
other hay can be obtained. Timothy hay does not have a
very high feeding value for sheep and is extremely objec-
tionable because the heads become lodged in the wool and
working their way down to the skin of the animal cause
much irritation. Prairie hay, likewise, is of a compara-
tively low feeding value for sheep. The trials at some of
the western experiment stations show that when prairie
hay was fed to sheep, it required additional grain to. the
extent that the cost of the grain equaled the cost of both
hay and grain where the alfalfa was used. Under such
conditions, a farmer could not afford to feed prairie hay
when he could grow the alfalfa or clover. As a rule, it
is impractical to attempt to grow farm sheep without some
form of legume hay.

Feeding Farm Sheep 217

SOILING CROPS

The practice of soiling sheep is not a profitable one.
Sheep are very dainty about their feed and will refuse
to eat soiling crops after they become more or less wilted,
preferring them while they are still crisp and green. The
extra labor necessary to feed soiling crops is, therefore,
wasted,

PASTURES

During the summer months the question of pastures is
a very vital one to the sheep farmer. If his lambs are
dropped early, he must have pastures that he can utilize
at an early date in the spring. If, on the other hand, his
lambs are late, he must have pastures that will extend
well into the summer before they dry up. Pastures may
be permanent or annual. Both have their merits, and on
the average sheep farm it is not a good practice to rely
entirely on one or the other. Permanent pastures may
be used to a good advantage during the wet weather when
it would be harmful to pasture on a cultivated field. They
can be used as tramping grounds for sheep during the
months of the year when the weather is rather rainy. The
disadvantage in the use of permanent pastures is that they
usually dry up during the hot dry months; and also there
is always the ever present danger of parasites. When
stocked heavily with sheep year after year, it is almost
impossible to prevent permanent pastures from becoming
infested with stomach worm, liver fluke, and other
parasites. Annual pastures yield heavily and may be
used at the time of the year when permanent pastures
dry up. They are used in this country more to supple-
ment permanent pastures and to flush and fatten sheep
than as a complete pasturing system. A number of crops

218 Western Live-stock Management

may be used, such as rape, oats, and peas, vetch and oats,
rye, cowpeas and soy beans and kale.

Rape.

Rape is one of the most popular of the annual pastures.
It is used largely for lamb pasture at weaning time and
for the flushing of ewes. No other feed is better for the
latter purpose. Rape can be grown in almost any loca-
tion and sown so as to be ready at any time desired. From
eight to ten weeks after sowing, it is ready for use. There
is more or less danger of bloat or hoven from the pasturing
of the sheep on rape. However, if the sheep are well fed
and watered before being turned into the rape, there is
not much danger in this regard, although there will always
be a certain small percentage of loss no matter what
precautions are taken.

Rape and clover.

Rape and clover is a very good annual pasture in certain
regions, especially in the Willamette Valley. The rape
and clover is usually sown sometime in June and the
pasture is ready for use the following fall — the rape being
of sufficient stand to permit of considerable pasture at
that time. It should not be grazed too heavily the first
fall, as it will otherwise come up again in the spring and
give considerable early pasture. Later in the summer the
clover comes on and gives pasture for the dry months.
Experiments at the Oregon Experiment Station tend to
prove that this is the cheapest of all pastures for sheep.

Field peas.

Field pea pastures are used for fattening sheep in some
parts of the West. This practice is very common in

Feeding Farm Sheep 219

Colorado, this state being noted for its pea-fattened lambs.
Maturing rather late in the season, peas are especially
suitable for fattening range lambs. The lambs are turned
in when the- peas are well filled, and allowed to remain
until the field is cleaned up. Peas are sometimes sown
with oats for summer pasture.

Vetches.

Vetches are usually sown with some other crop, such as
oats, rye, wheat, or rape. Sown in this manner they
make a very good pasture in some sections, especially
in the South and the extreme Northwest. Spring lambs
of western Oregon and Washington are usually grown
on this type of pasture, as they furnish one of the earliest
spring pastures for that section. A very common practice
is to sow vetch and grain in the fall and graze it off in the
spring, later cutting it for hay. Hay made in this manner
is of very good quality, as it does not become coarse
and tough, and is not cut until dry weather.

Rye.

Rye is commonly used for fall and winter pastures
and is probably more widespread in its use than any
other annual pasture. It is not suitable for late spring
or summer use as it becomes too hard and woody by that
time.

Wheat.

Many farmers allow their sheep to pasture on their
wheat fields a short time in the spring. This is a good
practice in humid sections where wheat is making a too
rapid growth.

220 Western Live-stock Management

Kale.

Kale is used to a very limited extent for pasturing. Its
most common use is that of a winter soiling crop in climates
that do not fall below the freezing point. At such seasons
cultivated ground is too wet to pasture.

Alfalfa.

Throughout the irrigated sections alfalfa makes a very
heavy yielding pasture. Sheep grow and fatten rapidly
on alfalfa pasture, while the heavy yield makes the cost
low. Unfortunately there is always danger of bloat on
alfalfa, especially in midsummer. The average loss of
ewes and lambs on alfalfa pasture is about 10 per cent for
the season. This figure, however, represents only the
approximate average. In actual farm practice one may
sometimes pasture alfalfa for several years and not lose a
sheep and again half or two-thirds of the flock may be lost
in one day. So far no sure preventive has been dis-
covered, although innumerable plans have been tested.
The farmer who uses alfalfa for his sheep must, therefore,
figure on taking some chances.

Puate VII.— ‘Bap Luck.”

Above left, down in w dead furrow; above right, caught in the
brush; below left, docking and castration are often neglected; below
right, lamb held in position to dock and castrate. A little work at the
right time saves much trouble.

CHAPTER XV
LUCK WITH SHEEP

In every locality there are discouraged farmers who
say, “I have never had any luck with sheep.” A careful
investigation reveals that the matter of luck had nothing
to do with the failure, but that ignorance and mismanage-
ment drove him out of the business. Statements that
sheep do not require as much work as other forms of farm-
ing are quite true, but this does not mean that they require
no care whatever. Turning sheep into a back forty and
allowing them to manage themselves is poor business and
no profit can be expected from such a system. Sheep
should be given the necessary protection from dogs, wild
animals, and other peculiar dangers which beset them.
All the profits of the flock may be lost in one night from
dogs or wild animals. A very common danger to sheep is
the “dead furrow.”” Heavily wooled sheep falling on their
backs in a dead furrow or ditch seldom are able to get
up and consequently die in a few hours unless help arrives,
Many persons think that sheep are difficult to care for,
yet this is denied by the most successful sheep-men. The
man who willingly gives his sheep the care actually re-
quired does not find the task difficult, while the man who
tries to shirk and leave something undone finds himself
constantly in trouble. Ignorance of these facts or care-
lessness in regard to them often costs large sums of money.

221

222 Western Live-stock Management

HANDLING SHEEP

In handling or working over the flock, care and gentle-
ness must always be exercised. Hired help of the rough
cursing sort should never be tolerated on a sheep farm.
They are worse than useless. One man understanding
the nature of sheep with care and gentleness can accom-
plish more than a dozen men of the other sort. Some of
the better ways of performing the commonest operations
of a sheep farm are described in the following paragraphs.

Driving.

In driving a flock of sheep, one must always be careful
not to drive too fast, particularly on a warm, sultry day.
Sheep are so heavily covered with wool that they are very
easily over-heated. The sheep-man can save not only the
sheep but himself a large amount of work and worry by
taking things easier. In turning corners at cross-roads,
a lump of dirt or a pebble or two, thrown so as to fall in
the road which the sheep are not to take, will usually
guide them into the right road, thereby saving many
steps. The lump of dirt or a stone should be thrown
so as to drop in the road just at the time the head sheep
are at the turning point. A shout or whistle accompany-
ing the fall of the stone very often will help. After the
first two or three sheep have turned, there need be no
worry about the remainder of the flock. Sheep naturally
follow their leader, even when it leads over dangerous
routes and possibly to death.

In driving sheep into cars and dipping vats or difficult
corrals, a considerable amount of work can be saved by
merely holding a sheep in the place where it is desired to
drive the entire flock. When the sheep see one of their
number ahead of them, they drive much more easily.

Luck With Sheep 223

Catching.

One should never try to catch a sheep in the open field,
but instead should drive the flock into a corral or an in-
closure where the sheep may be caught without un-
necessary chasing and frightening of the entire flock.
The proper way to catch a sheep is by the neck, the flank,
or the hind leg. In catching by the hind leg, never
grab lower than the hock, as the sheep will struggle and
possibly dislocate one of the joints of the leg. A very
humane method of catching sheep is that of using the
“Jaxon”? or any other standard type of sheep crook.
With a crook, sheep can be caught at a distance and the
flock is not frightened. Catching a sheep by the wool
causes bruises which will show plainly on the carcass
in case the animal is slaughtered within the next few days.

Leading Sheep.

After the sheep has been caught, one should never try
to lead it by taking hold of the wool of its neck and pulling
it along. Instead, one should stand on the left side, place
the left hand under the lower jaw and the right hand on
the dock or tail. By gently pressing on the dock, one
may easily cause the animal to move to any place desired.
In this manner the left hand is used in guiding the sheep
and the right hand is used to make him go. Dragging
sheep, even over a smooth pavement, is unnecesennNy hard
on both man and sheep.

Lifting and Carrying.

Occasions often present themselves when it becomes
necessary to lift and even carry small sheep for a short
distance. This can be most easily performed in the
following manner. Standing to the rear of the sheep and
a little to the right side, place the right hand just back of

224 Western Live-stock Management

the right front leg and underneath the brisket. Gently
raise the front end of the sheep off the ground. With the
left hand grasp the left hind leg at the hock and lift the
sheep up. By this method struggling is prevented and no
harm will be done to the sheep.

Setting a heavy sheep on its rump.

With a light sheep or lamb it is a relatively easy task
to set it on its rump by simply lifting it up and setting it
down. With heavier sheep, however, especially rams
and ewes that are heavy with lambs, this would not only
be impossible but dangerous. Perhaps the best way to
upset a heavy sheep is to stand at the left side, place the
left arm around the front of the sheep and with the right
arm reach across under the animal and grasp the right
hind leg at the hock. Then by gently pushing the sheep
with your chest and at the same time drawing its right
hind leg, the animal is easily rolled over on its rump.
One should never set a sheep squarely on its rump, as all
the weight then comes on the dock or tail-head and will
cause much uneasiness to the sheep; let it tip to one side
or the other, supporting it with your knee. To get the
sheep back on its feet, merely push it forward and let it
go. A sheep should never be allowed to fall on its back or
side where it will have to struggle to regain its feet. Such
a practice is likely to result in ruptures.

Hauling sheep.

At all times sheep should travel on their feet even while
being hauled. ,A wagon to haul sheep should have
slatted sides sufficiently high to prevent their jumping
out. Boards may be laid across, forming a cover to the
wagon. A wagon rack that is about fourteen feet long

‘daays 8 Surpesl jo poyjom ‘y ‘ daeys 8 suns ut sdays ‘gq pus gq ‘deaeays e Sunjesdn ut sdaqs ‘9 pus ‘g ‘Py
THA 81v1g

Luck With Sheep 225

and as wide as the wagon box, with sides and ends slatted
and about three feet high, is very satisfactory. In loading
sheep, it is not necessary to lift them by the wool. Load-
ing should be performed by two persons, one on each side
of the animal. The left hand of one loader is graspéd by
the right of the other underneath the chest of the sheep.
Then the other two hands are grasped beneath the flank.
In this way a sheep can be loaded easily and without
injury.

CHAPTER XVI
WOOL PRODUCTION

TuE production of wool is so intimately connected with
the raising of mutton that in practically no case has it
proved practicable to raise sheep for either mutton or
wool exclusively. According to the report of the Tariff
Board for the year 1910, the average receipts for each sheep
in the United States west of the Missouri River were
$2.44. Of this amount, $1.05 was derived from wool
and $1.39 from other sources; thus for all the sheep west
of the Missouri River, which includes approximately 70
per cent of the sheep in the United States, the income
from wool amounts to 43 per cent of the total gross in-
come. This proportion varies considerably when different
flocks are compared. It perhaps varies somewhat with
the different states of the West, but in no case do the
receipts from wool exceed the receipts from other sources.
In the states east of the Missouri River the proportion of
the income derived from wool is somewhat less, but at
the same time it is a large and important item.

The wool industry of the United States is on the whole
one of very great importance. This country produces
about 325 million pounds of wool, which is worth to the
farmers something over 60 million dollars. This enormous
amount of wool, however, does not meet the demands of
the American people. While the United States produces

226

Wool Production 227

about 325 million pounds of wool annually, our mills
consume approximately 500 million pounds. This extra
amount must be imported from some foreign country.
Australia is the greatest wool-producing country in the
world, yielding about three times as much as the United
States. South America produces about twice as much as
the United States, the larger part of which is raised in
Argentina.

AMERICAN MARKET CLASSES

In order to obtain an adequate conception of the market- >
ing of wool and accurately to interpret market conditions,
it is necessary to study the different grades and classes of
wool. The money value of a pound of wool depends on
the length, strength, and fineness of fiber; shrinkage
and condition; color and character.

Length and strength of fiber.

The length and the strength of the fiber are associated
together for two reasons: first, the kind of yarn which
demands a long fiber also demands one of considerable
strength; second, fiber lacking in strength will break in
the process of combing, and the broken fibers must,
therefore, class with the shorter wools. On the basis of
length and strength, all wools are divided into two general
classes, known as combing and clothing wool. The comb-
ing class includes the longer wools that are manufactured
by the combing process into worsted yarns. The clothing
wools are the shorter ones that are manufactured without
combing into carded woolen yarns. In the process of
making worsted yarns the wool is combed and drawn out
in such a way as to make the fibers lie as nearly parallel
as possible; while in the manufacture of carded woolen

228 Western Lave-stock Management

yarns the process of combing is omitted and the wool is
so treated that the fibers are intermingled and interlaced
as much as possible. The resulting yarns are, of course,
very different. The worsted yarns are hard, firm, and
strong, while the woolen are softer, more loose, and not
as strong. The worsted yarns are adapted to make
smooth-faced light fabrics, while the woolen are better
suited for the soft, heavy-fulled goods. The manu-
facturer of the worsted yarns, therefore, requires a longer
and stronger fiber than is necessary for the carded or
woolen yarns. In the early days of the woolen business,
only the longest and strongest fibers could be combed
and therefore the only wools known on the market as
combing wools were those of a very long, strong nature,
such as would be obtained from pure-bred or high-grade
Cotswold or Lincoln sheep. The shorter wools, such as
those coming from the Shropshire or Merino breeds, were
in those days not considered long enough to comb. Recent
improvements, however, in the process of manufacture
have made it possible to comb much shorter wool than
was formerly the case. There is no hard and fast dividing
line between combing and clothing wools, but generally
speaking, the finest grades of wool should be at least two
inches long in order to be classed as combing. With the
coarser wools, a greater length is required and with the
very coarse wool, such as would be obtained from pure-
bred Cotswold or Lincoln sheep, only those longer than
four-and-one-half inches would be considered as combing
wools. At the present time, the wool from Cotswolds
and Lincolns, as well as from most Merinos, would class
as combing wool. The better grades of fleeces from the
Down or mutton breeds would also come in this class,
although the proportion of clothing wool from these

Wool Production 229

breeds is decidedly higher than with either the coarse
wools or the fine wools. The term “staple” is used in
market circles interchangeably with the term “combing.”

Grading as to fineness.

With regard to fineness of fiber, wools are most com-
monly divided into the following classes or grades; fine
and fine medium; one-half blood; three-eighths blood ;
one-quarter blood; and braid.

Fine and fine medium wools are very fine wools such as
would be obtained from good pure-bred Merinos. Sheep
to produce wool of this class must be of good Merino
breeding.

One-half blood wools are such as would be represented
by the coarsest of the pure Merino wools. Seldom are
the wools of the pure mutton breeds fine enough to come
in this class. The sheep producing such wools are usually
of Merino stock but with a considerable outcross of
native or mutton blood.

Three-eighths blood wools are such as would be rep-
resented by good Shropshire wool of the finer sorts.
The sheep producing these wools are commonly grade
blackfaces on a Merino foundation.

One-quarter blood wools are intermediate in fineness
between the Shropshire and the Cotswold or Lincoln.
The coarsest grade of pure Shropshire wool might come in
this class. It is ordinarily obtained from sheep having
a mixture of Cotswold or Lincoln with some of the finer-
wooled breeds. It will not require much Merino, how-
ever, to make it grade finer than a one-quarter blood.

Braid wools are the long coarse ones, such as would be
obtained from pure-bred or high-grade Cotswolds or Lin-
colns. They carry very little of any other blood.

230 Western Live-stock Management

These terms originated at a time when about the only
sheep in common use were scrubs or natives and Merinos.
The terms one-half blood, and the like were used to des-
ignate the wools obtained from sheep having that pro-
portion of Merino blood. Custom has gradually caused
these terms to be used for certain definite grades of wool
regardless of the breeding. There are, of course, other
terms used, especially to designate sub-classes.

Shrinkage or condition.

When the wool comes from the sheep’s back, it contains
a large proportion of oil or grease, together with a con-
siderable quantity of dirt, sand, and other foreign matter.
The buyer buys grease wools solely for the scoured wool
they may contain. The grease and dirt are worth noth-
ing to him. All of this material has to be removed in the
scouring process and is a complete loss. The actual
percentage of shrinkage varies with the weather, the soil,
the method of handling, and with the breeding. Generally
speaking, the fine wool ordinarily shrinks between 60
and 70 per cent, while the shrinkage on braid wool

SHRINKAGE OF VARIOUS STATES

AES Estimatep AVERAGE SHRINKAGE
GRapEs FIcures
WrSTERN .
U.S Montana Idaho Wyoming Utah

Fine and fine

med. . . . | 67.25% | 64-65% | 67-68% | 68-70% | 66-67 %
g-blood . . . | 62.28 61-62 | 62-64 | 63-65 | 61-63
q-blood . . . | 53.83 55-57 =| 58-60 =| 58-60 | 57-59
¢-blood . . 48-08 |51-53 |54-56 | 54-56 | 53-55

Braid . . . 46-48 | 48-51 49-50 ‘| 48-49

Wool Production 231

runs from 40 to 50 per cent. Necessarily this shrinkage
must be a tremendous factor in determining the value of
grease wools. Especially is this true when wools of the
same fineness and from the same ranch will vary several
per cent from year to year.

Color and character.

The color of the wool in the grease is one of the ear-
marks by which the quality of wool is judged. Usually
the brighter the wool is in the grease, the better it will
scour out. The general usefulness of wool depends on
its scouring properties. Wools that are heavy in grease,
aged wool, wools packed damp, and wools that contain
red soil do not scour well and for this reason they are less
valuable. The brightest part of the fleece is the flesh
side. Because of this fact fleeces are tied flesh side out.

Another factor by which the quality of wool is judged is
character. Wool of high character is that which is
regular in fiber and staple, free from kemp, and has a firm
elastic touch. Mushy wool, or dry, harsh, brittle wool
lacks character. The spinning properties of wool are
affected directly by its character. Careless breeding in-
variably results in wool of low character.

Paint.

Common paint brands injure the wool very much, as
paint will not come off in the scouring process. The
loss from paint is shown by the following test made by a
prominent manufacturer to be about three cents a pound,
due to the following factors: labor of cutting off the paint ;
loss of the painted wool; lowering the grade of the clipped
wool because shortened by cutting off the ends; and the
danger that all the specks of paint may not be removed,

232 Western Live-stock Management

thus making the wool unsafe to use for the finer cloths.
On the ranges sheep must be branded, and there is no
brand known that will remain a whole year and yet scour
out perfectly ; therefore it is necessary to use some brand
such as Kemp’s Australian Branding Fluid and brand
twice a year.

PACKING WOOL

To bring a good price, wool must be tied with paper
twine and packed in clean bags. Sisal or common jute
twines are very detrimental, as particles of fiber come off
in the wool, and since sisal or jute will not take wool dyes,
these particles must be picked out by hand. Even then,
the danger of leaving some particles is so great that such
wool cannot be used for the finest grades of fabrics. Paper
twine, on the other hand, sheds very few particles in the
wool, and such particles are readily dissolved out in the
scouring process. Burlap bags also shed some particles
into the wool. In some countries the growers singe the
interior of the bags or use bags lined with paper.

Another serious problem to the buyer is the practice of
packing all kinds of wool in one sack. Thousands of
sacks of wool are marketed containing some fine medium
wool, some one-quarter blood, some braid, some tags,
and some black wool. The buyer who wants one kind
does not desire the others, and when forced to buy them
pays a proportionately lower price. Wools of different
kinds should be put into different bags and sold accord-
ingly. Especially, should the black wool be packed sep-
arately. Black wool is worth as much as white and for
some purposes more, but a few fleeces of black in a bag
will lower the value of the whole, since such wool cannot

Wool Production 233

be used for making pure white and cream cloth on account
of the danger of black fibers.

The packing of wool for market is a subject that has
commanded much interest and attention in our western
range districts in the last few years. Wool experts have
estimated that the wool-producing sections of the United
States have been about thirty years behind in their
methods of caring for the wool clip. Fortunately, this
statement is becoming less correct every year, as much
benefit has been derived from the work of wool journals,
wool warehouses, and wool experts in educating the range
wool-grower in the preparation of his clip for market.
There are about three methods of wool packing in use in
the wool-producing sections of this country; namely the
old method of sacking the wool in the long burlap bags
just as it is shorn, the system of grading and baling the
wool as is advocated by the wool warehouses of this
country, and the system used in the Australian shear-
ing shed.

In the discussion of any of these systems it is necessary
to understand the meaning of such terms as grading,
classing, sorting, and skirting. These terms have been
used synonymously and have caused considerable con-
fusion. In connection with the wool clip these terms are
defined as follows: Grading is the placing of whole fleeces
into different classes according to their indications as to
breed and quality. Skirting is the removal of all stained,
damaged, and inferior wool. In the Australian shed this
is always done before the classing. Classing is the
placing of skirted fleeces into different classes according to
their length, quality, soundness, condition, and tint.
Sorting is the dividing of the individual fleeces into separate
parts according to their various spinning counts or fineness.

234 Western Lnve-stock Management

This is work that is always performed at the mill, while
grading, skirting, and classing are done at the shed.

The old method of sacking wool in a long burlap bag just
as it is shorn could be best described as a lack of system.
The wool is tramped into the sack while it is still warm.
No care is taken to separate the fleeces into classes or
grades, or to keep the dirt out. When wool is marketed
in this manner, the buyer usually has the advantage of
the grower, since the grower does not know what his wool
is worth. Buyers purchasing all grades of wool mixed
in one sack buy on the basis of the poorer grades. Until
the last five or ten years, this method of packing wool
was the only one in use in the United States. In the
hands of untruthful growers this system is even worse
than described above. Such cases as these are reported
by the Textile World Record. From one fleece 121 feet
of stout rough twine were taken. Twenty-two lamb tails
were found rolled in another fleece. A boulder weighing
seven pounds was received in a fleece by a Boston firm.
Such practices, while not general, are very demoralizing
to the wool industry. They are usually prompted by
dissatisfaction on the part of the grower.

Within recent years the various wool-warehouses about
the country have been making various propositions to
the wool-grower. Most of them are something as follows.
The warehouse handles the wool on a commission basis,
grading, baling, storing, and selling it for the grower. In
some cases the warehouse sends a grader and baler to the
shearing sheds and the work of grading and baling is done
at the time of shearing. In other cases the warehouse
receives the wool in the long bag from the grower and does
the work of grading and baling at the central warehouse.
This method of packing wool is more expensive, but the

Wool Production 235

returns on the wool are enough to more than pay for the
additional cost.

The method of packing wool in the Australian shearing
shed is more complex than either of the two preceding
methods. In such a shed the fleeces after being shorn are
skirted, classed, cooled, and baled. In every operation the
object is to lower the shrinkage percentage and to get the
fleece to the manufacturer in the best possible condition.
Since the Australian shearing shed is new in this country,
a more or less detailed discussion of this method will be
given. ,

Australian shearing shed.

The shed is a well-constructed, well-lighted and well-
‘ventilated building in which every possible precaution is
taken for the welfare of the fleece, the sheep, and the
shearer. The shed is usually built on sloping ground so
the floors of the sweating pens, filling race, and catching
pens are sufficiently high from the ground to permit the
shorn sheep to pass through chutes underneath to the
counting or tally pens, which are outside the building.
The shed, as indicated by the diagram on the floor plan
(Fig. 28), is divided into the following parts: the sweating
pens, the filling race, the catching pens, the shearing board,
the skirting and classing stands, and the wool room. The
floors of the sweating pens, filling race, and catching pens
are made of two by fours set on edge with a space between
so that urine and droppings will fall through. This fea-
ture prevents the soiling of fleeces in case the sheep lie
down. The walls, panels, and gates are made of dressed
lumber to prevent the tearing of the fleeces. The con-
struction of the sweating pen is such that the temperature
can be regulated by ventilation. This part of the shed

236 Western Live-stock Management

is not well lighted, but is in semi-darkness. Most of the
light comes into the sweating room from the side toward
the shearing board. Sheep by instinct go toward light

Telsesni iT

SWEATING PENS

SHEARING

Leeman
iE Wook TABLES: vce Orrics Encium.
is 00)
4

i f TABLES

ia ed ET lay)

WOOL, STORAGE ROOM

LOADIAG
PLAT¥ORN

Fig. 28.

and with such a light arrangement they move toward
the shearing board with greater ease. The filling race is
the alley through which the sheep pass to the catching

Puate I[X.— AvsTRALIAN SHEARING SHED.

Above, interior of sweating pen with division gates thrown open. On
the left is the filling race and the catching pens with the partition be-
tween the pens and the shearing board. Notice the 2” x 3” slatted floor,
all slats § inch apart. Below, interior showing portion of the shearing
board, shearer’s tool racks and some of the right and left chutes for the
shorn sheep. The double-acting swing doors for entering the catching
pens effectually cure careless _chearere of tha bed babit of legging the

<_< TOU.

Wool Production 237

pen. In some sheds two shearers use one catching pen
and in others each shearer has his own. The door leading
from the shearer’s stand to the catching pen is immediately
back of the shearer and the opening of the chute leading
to the tally pens is directly beside it. The shearing
board and skirter’s tables and the classer’s table are all
one room. The light of this part of the shed comes from
above and is plentiful. The bins for the various classes
of wool have doors on the side opposite from the classer’s
table, which can be locked. This prevents the packing
of any wool until the classer thinks that it is sufficiently
cooled. The wool room is located back of the bins and
is for the storage of wool after it is packed. The counting
or tally pens are outside the shed. These are pens to
hold the sheep after shearing. At regular times during
the day the sheep are here counted and the shearer receives
credit on the basis of this count.

According to the Australian method, the sheep before
shearing are divided into the following bands: rams,
wethers, wet ewes, dry ewes, and hoggets or sheep to
be shorn the first time. The reason for this division of
the flock at this time is because there are differences in
the fleeces that come from these classes of sheep. For
instance, the belly wool from the wether is far inferior to
that of the ewe, due to the different arrangement of the
sex organs. The fleece of the wet ewe, or one suckling
a lamb, is inferior to that of a dry ewe. Hoggets have a
tapering fiber, and consequently their wool is more valu-
able, as it will spin to a finer yarn.

On arriving at the shed, each band is placed in the sweat-
ing room for two or three hours. The temperature of this
room should be such that the yolk, or natural oil of the
sheep, will travel outward through the internal channels

238 Western Live-stock Management

of the fibers. Great care is taken not to allow the tem-
perature to become too high, as this will cause the yolk
to raise on the outside of the fiber, and leave the wool in
an undesirable condition. The object of this sweating
is to improve the condition of the fleece, and to make
shearing easier.

From the sweating pen the sheep are moved through the
filling race to the catching pens. Because of the light
arrangement the shepherd and his dog are able to keep
the catching pens filled, work which in an ordinary shed
requires several men. Labor is thus cut down and less
excitement results, as the sheep are handled by the man
to whom they are accustomed.

In the Australian shed the work is performed with
machines and the shearer’s stand is swept after each sheep
is sheared. Each fleece is removed in two parts, namely
the belly and the main fleece. Belly wool and the main
fleece are picked up separately and handled differently.
The belly wool is placed in bins according to the length,
quality, soundness, and condition of fiber. The main
fleece is picked up and thrown on an adjacent skirting
table, where two men pull off the damaged, stained, in-
ferior wool, or the skirtings. After skirting, this fleece
is rolled up so that the shoulder wool is on the outside. It
is then taken to the wool-classer’s table for examination.
The wool-classer, who is an educated and high-priced
man, examines each fleece carefully, and places it in bins
according to the length, quality, soundness, and condition
of the fiber. Skirtings and loose locks of the fleece that
drop off are gathered and taken to the piece pickers’ table.

The balers bale the wool from the bins indicated by the
classer. No wool is baled until it has cooled. This
practice allows the wool to retain its fluffiness even after

Puate X.— AUSTRALIAN SHEARING SHED.

Above, the tables in the foreground are skirter’s tables. The wool
bins are shown at the back of the picture. The wool classer’s tables are
between the bins and the skirter’s tables. The table at the right side
and under the window is the piece picker’s table. Below, wool baling
room. Some of the wool bins are open and some are closed. The num-
bers on the doors refer to the wool bins.

Wool Production 239

it comes out of the bale. The fleeces are not tied but are
placed in the bale as rolled by the skirters. The bales
are marked, showing the number and weight of the bale,
class of wool, and the name of the owner.

The most important advantages of the Australian sys-
tem of packing wool are as follows: Well-arranged catch-
ing pens, proper sweating, and good light make shearing
easier and prevent the crippling and cruel cutting of sheep
so prevalent under the usual system. Sheds having good
sanitation, ventilation, equipment, and light draw the
best class of shearers. Removal of the dirt, classing, and
proper packing put the wool in condition to go on any of
the world’s markets, whereas the common American pack
is salable only on American markets. The classification
corresponds with the usual market quotation and thus
enables the grower to know the true value of his wool.
The classification of the wool at the shearing shed also
acts as an accurate and an immediate indicator of any
progress that is being made in the breeding and manage-
ment of the flock and is thus a potent factor for improve-
ment.

PART IV

HORSES

By Cart N. Kennepy

CHAPTER XVII
THE STATUS OF THE HORSE INDUSTRY

IMPROVEMENT in the breeding and management of
horses has proven of practical value. Many factors have
occurred to depress the price of horses, but a strong
demand and a profitable price exist for good serviceable
stock. On the other hand, misfits and horses of poorer
grade have suffered depreciation. Such results demon-
strate that the live-stock industry is making progress and
that progress and prosperity go hand in hand.

In the early days the range of the West was an entirely
free proposition. The man with the most power could
secure the most land, but time has brought about differ-
ent conditions. The western range has in many places
given way to more intensive agriculture and this change
has brought new methods and a better type of stock.
Even in the places where the range has not been broken
up, the ranchers must figure on a higher cost of production
than in former years. Stockmen throughout the West
realize this condition and as a result are trying to produce
a type of stock that the market demands and which will
bring a price more proportionate to the cost of production.

In this work of improvement there has been the in-
fluence of the management as well as breeding. A definite
correlation may be found in the advance of the pure-
bred sire and in the better methods of care and feeding.

243

244 Western Live-stock Management

Either is useless without the other. In this improvement
we see the outlook for the future. The pure-bred sire
is needed at the head of every commercial herd of stock.
Stockmen have depended on the pure-bred for the im-
provement that has been wrought in the past, and this
improvement has now furnished a type of animal that
more nearly meets the demand of the market and the
requirements of economic production. The maximum
of improvement has not been reached and with the im-
provement yet to come we will have to depend on the pure-
bred sire. Grades are good simply because they trace
back to animals that were pure-bred, and which have
given them their better type. Mongrels and scrubs lack
breeding, and therefore lack type. There are also some
types that might be termed “scrub pure-breds.”” These
animals are not needed because their only prepotency is
along the lines of the scrub type. Coupled with improve-
ment which must come by the use of better sires, there
must also be the improvement that comes by better
methods of management. In the correlation of these
facts lies the permanence of the horse industry.

NUMBERS AND VALUES

The numbers of horses and mules in the United States
have practically doubled in the last fifteen years. The
number is now approximately 25,000,000. In the last
five years of the period mentioned there has been no great
change, but in the first ten years the increase was very
rapid. This increase in horse production was propor-
tionately faster than the increase in the population, and
this may be a reason why there is at present an apparent
standstill in regard to the numbers. The automobile

The Status of the Iorse Industry 245

and the motor truck have also exerted a large influence
and to them the credit is partly due for educating the
buyers to select only the better class of horses. Motors
have especially displaced a large number of light horses.
If history repeats itself, and it is likely that it will, the type
of horses will soon readjust itself to the demand, which is
at present strongest for the draft horse and the light
horse that is strongly built, and therefore serviceably
built for draft, army, or any work that requires constitu-
tion and wearing ability.

The value of the horses in the United States has kept in
close pace with the number. In the period when horses
were increasing in numbers, they were also increasing in
price. In 1897 the average price given by government
authorities was $31.50. In 1916 the value was $101.60,
which was a decrease since 1911, when the value was given
as $111.46. Of even greater importance is the value of
the horses in different sections. In the more thickly
settled states, where the agricultural development is
greater, the horses are of higher value. There are two
reasons for this situation. In the sections of greater
agricultural development, the food is of such a nature
that the horses produced are of higher value, and secondly,
as the West is more of a breeding center, there is less
local demand for commercial stock. These two points
may be illustrated. The value of horses produced in
grain and farming sections is higher than those produced
under range conditions, as the former are invariably larger
and better grown, due to heavier feeding, and therefore of
more value. The West with its undeveloped lands raises
many horses with but little or no grain. A study of horse
values shows a direct ratio existing between the agricul-
tural development and the value of the horses. Fertile

246 Western Live-stock Management

land and good crops mean valuable horses. The second
reason for lower prices in the West is due to it being a
great breeding center, as is illustrated by figures com-
piled from the 1910 census. This gives the number of
colts produced in each state for 1909, as well as the mature
horses. All horses over fifteen and one-half months were
considered as mature horses in this classification. These
figures show that there were 9.9 colts produced in the
United States for every 100 mature horses. The sections
of states were rated as follows: 14.2 colts in the Mountain
states; 11.3 colts in the Pacific states; 10.5 colts in
the North Central states; 9.2 colts in the South Central
states; 7.6 colts in the South Atlantic states; 5.0 colts
in the Middle Atlantic states; and 2.8 colts were produced
for each 100 mature horses in the New England states.
In proportion to the numbers of horses, the West can claim
to be the greatest producers. Prices, therefore, so adjust
themselves that it is profitable to ship horses from the
producing to the consuming centers and pay the attendant
expenses of shipping, buying, and selling.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS

Previous to-the European War, the United States had
been importing about 10,000 horses annually, and their
estimated value was about $285.00 a head. Of this
number, approximately 3000 were pure-bred, which
were imported for breeding purposes. Their estimated
value at the port of entry is given at $400.00 to $500.00
a head in spite of the fact that the larger number of them
were sold for several times this price. There is a tariff on
all horses imported to this country, except those brought
in for breeding purposes. Since the beginning of the Euro-
pean War, the importation of horses for breeding purposes

The Status of the Horse Industry 247

from the European countries has been largely shut off,
and hence imported horses are not sold by the stallion
dealers to the extent which they were. The home-bred
horse has a better opportunity. In some ways it is good
that such has been the case, for it has brought the Ameri-
can horse before the public in a way that could not have
been accomplished if the war had not occurred.

The exportation of horses previous to the European War
was from 30,000 to 40,000 head yearly. These were mostly
work stock, and went to various countries. Since 1914
the number has increased to a large extent, and during the
first thirty months 853,116 horses were exported. It is
certain that the horse market is based largely on the Euro-
pean demand at this time. The number of mules exported
under normal conditions is about 4000, but since the war
this number has been largely increased. This exporting
of horses has had a marked influence on the demand, as
the number of exported horses and the price of them
largely controls the price of horses for local use. Under
the conditions which will exist after the war, we may
expect to export large numbers for commercial and
probably some for breeding purposes. Following the Boer
War, when a large number of our horses were used for
cavalry purposes, we supplied the European countries
with a larger number of horses than we had been doing
previously. This will mean that our export trade, for
the near future at least, is well assured.

HORSE-PRODUCING SECTIONS

The entire West is a horse-producing country, but it
may be subdivided into a great number of different sec-
tions, each one more or less distinctively peculiar to
itself. The largest users of horses, and also the largest

248 Western Live-stock Management

producers, are the farmers of the Wheat-Belt. In the
tending of the summer fallow, the plowing, the cultivating
and harvesting of wheat a great number of horses are
used. These horses, in order to be useful in pulling heavy
machinery, are largely draft horses of substantial char-
acter. The surplus horses from these regions are very
marketable, and are sold to a large extent in the East and
in the cities. Large numbers of the good draft sires have
been used in these sections in past years, and good stock
is produced, although the Wheat-Belt is often handi-
capped by the lack of a large amount of pasture. In
some sections this is overcome by using adjacent range,
or land which is not suitable for the production of wheat,
but generally speaking the wheat ranches must support
their horses largely on grain and hay.

The irrigated valleys produce many good horses. In
these valleys the farmers do a large amount of farm work,
and therefore require draft horses for this purpose.
Usually adjacent to the irrigated valleys there are pasture
lands which are supplemented by cultivated feed and
irrigated pastures. The horses produced in these sec-
tions are large and growthy, and therefore good market-
able stock.

The homestead farmers form another class who are
raising some horses. These men, as a rule, are raising a
poor class of horses, for-they usually lack the capital,
and also lack the land for the production: of any large
amount of feed, and therefore they have neither the feed
‘nor the opportunity to raise a large amount of high class
stock. Occasionally, however, a homesteader will be
found who is developing his land and raising some grain,
and these will more nearly correspond to the Wheat-
Belt producers.

The Status of the Horse Industry 249

Other sections which are different from the ones men-
tioned and comprise a division presenting different prob-
lems are the valleys of the North Pacific slope. In
these valleys the climate is humid during a large part
of the year, and as a result there is more or less abundant
pasture. In corinection with these pastures a large
amount of clover and vetch hay is raised, together with
barley and oats. These good feeds, together with the
use of high-grade sires, make these valleys producers of a
valuable class of horses.

The other large division of horse-producers in the West
is that made up of the range-men. On the range a large
number of the horses are produced without any supple-
mental feed. In fact, the main reason for raising horses
is that they require less hay for winter than other stock.
A large number of the range-men are raising more
cattle and sheep than horses, especially where they
possess valleys to raise winter feed, but it is unlikely that
the range horse will be entirely displaced. These horses
are of a smaller class, the best of them seldom weighing
over 1200 pounds. The reasons for the small size are
feed conditions, and the inability of heavy draft sires to
take care of themselves on the open range. A large pro-
portion of the range horses are raised by the cattle-men
and sheep-men in connection with their other stock.
These horses are better fed and attain more size than those
raised by the exclusive horse-producers. These animals _
supply the saddle and work horses needed by the ranch-
men and some excess which is marketed.

In all of these sections, the factor which is most favor-
able to a large number of horses of better quality is an
abundance of well-tilled land devoted to grain and hay.
Generally speaking, the higher priced the land, the more

250 Western Live-stock Management

numerous and valuable the horses, excepting in fruit and
other special areas. Where the land is of low productive
value, poor horses are found, and only very few in pro-
portion to the area. In those fertile valleys of the West
where the best crops are grown, the best horses are raised.
The poorer horses are found on the ranges and in the
rougher country. The kind of people has much to do with
the kind of horses. The best farmers, like the better
horses, are usually found on the richer soil.

CHAPTER XVIII
THE WORK HORSE

Ir has been estimated that two-thirds of the horses in
the United States are work horses, and that a sum equal
to two-thirds their value is needed every year to pay for
their feed and care. Therefore the work horses of the
country are an expense which must be offset by their
profitable employment. In order to be kept at the high-
est state of efficiency as well as to be maintained eco-
nomically, horses must receive proper feed and care. In
no other class of farm animals is there so large an aver-
age investment, and therefore no other that offers so
large an opportunity for saving.

FEEDING WHEN AT WORK

In the feeding of a hard-worked horse, the essential
points are to give feeds containing a large amount of
net energy, and of such nature that they will agree with
the digestive system of the horse under conditions of
severe work. Most of this energy must be obtained from
the grains, as the hays are too bulky to supply the net
energy needed. From the standpoint of energy alone,
corn would be best, with barley second, and wheat next,
but when the effect on the digestive system is taken into
consideration, it is found that oats are distinctly the best
feed, although horses may be successfully fed on either
corn or barley. Such hays as clover, vetch, and alfalfa,

251

252 Western Live-stock Management

which are especially good for the growing horse, also
contain a considerable amount of energy, and from
this standpoint would be good for the hard-worked horse,
but because of their washy effect, they are less desirable
than some of the less nutritious hays, such as timothy.
Timothy does not contain a large amount of digestible
nutrients, but because of its favorable influence on the
digestive system of hard-worked horses, it has long been
the common practice to use it almost exclusively and de-
pend on grain for most of the energy or digestible nutrients.
In some sections rolled barley and wheat hay are used
extensively. Either of these feeds has a tendency to
cause impactions. In using feeds of such nature, it is
desirable to use some laxative feed, such as alfalfa hay
or bran, which will tend to keep the bowels open and have
a favorable action on the digestive organs. Thedemands
of the work horse for protein and mineral matter are com-
paratively small and there are very few feeds commonly
used which do not contain a sufficient amount of these
nutrients. A slight excess of protein will not be harmful,
for it may serve the same purposes in the body as carbohy-
drates and fat; that is, for the production of energy.
There is a limit, however, to the amount of protein which
may be successfully fed. All of the nitrogen taken
into the body must be taken out by the kidneys, and an
excess of protein will produce disorders of these organs. '
The amount of protein which may be fed to a horse varies
greatly with different individuals, and there is no way to
tell in advance just where the limit lies. The feeds which
produce the largest amount of net energy or digestible
nutrients are the grains and mill feeds, as corn, barley,
oats, bran, and oil meal, and it is on such feeds that the
horse must largely depend for the energy to perform hard

Puate XI. — Ciry, Rancu, anv STABLE.

Above, a city team that is a walking advertisement; center, mules
have given especial satisfaction in big teams on the wheat farms; be-
low, a well-arranged sale stable with neat stalls and a wide alley for
showing horses.

The Work Horse 253

work. Such hays as alfalfa, clover, vetch, or the grain
hays furnish a fair amount of net energy but not usually
enough to supply the horse when he is working hard.
Timothy, wheat, and wild hay furnish but very little
net energy and the straws almost none. Among the feeds
that are usually high in protein are oil meal, bran, and
oats, also alfalfa, clover, and vetch hay. Barley and the
cereal hays are rather low in protein, while timothy hay
and corn are very low. The feeds that are high in pro-
, tein are also usually rather high in mineral matter, which
is an important point with young stock.

The work horse has need for feeds supplying a large
amount of energy rather than protein. In order properly
to supply this, a horse at heavy work will require from
one and one-quarter to one and one-half pounds of con-
centrates and from one to one and one-quarter pounds
of hay to 100 pounds of live weight. A ration often used
for 1600-pound dray horses consists of twenty-two pounds
of oats and sixteen pounds of timothy hay a day with
two or three pounds of wheat bran and less grain on Satur-
day night and Sunday. The grain is cut down and the
bran fed on Saturday night and Sunday in order that the
horse will be lightly fed when idle and that the bowels
may be open so that he will not be so likely to be affected
with azoturia when put to work. The amounts listed are
about what the horse will consume when the hay is timothy,
but with clover or alfalfa the amounts must be limited,
since the horse given all he wants will eat entirely too much
hay and too little grain?

FEEDING WHEN IDLE

In the case of mature horses maintained in idleness, the
needs of the body are for maintenance of heat and the gen-

254 Western Tave-stock Management

eral wear of the body tissues. They do not need the large
amount of net energy which is required when the horse is
doing physical work. Since the body has already attained
full growth, protein and mineral matter will be needed only
to make up for the loss due to the natural wear and waste
of the body tissues, while the larger part of the need will
be carbohydrates and fats, which are heat-producing.
Such bulky feeds as straw and the coarser hays, that would
not be suitable for work horses, may be used to advantage
in this case. It has been found that the energy required
for mastication and digestion of wheat straw is about
equal to the total energy of the feed. Therefore, the
energy which can be derived from wheat straw and con-
verted into actual work is very small, in fact so small that
such feeds have little value for hard-working horses. In
the case of an idle horse, however, where the chief need
of the body is for heat-producing feeds, it is found that
this energy from the wheat straw, which was used up in its
own digestion and assimilation, is converted finally into
heat, and thus serves to maintain the temperature of the
body. Thus it is that these foods with very small amount
of net energy may be used to advantage in maintaining
idle horses. Another point in favor of using bulky feeds
for this purpose is that the total amount of digestible
nutrients required to maintain a horse in idleness is com-
paratively small, and if given in concentrated form,
such as some of the rich grains, the horse will not produce
enough bulk to satisfy the appetite, and would be very
ravenous and not thrifty. Furthermore, this small
quantity of rich food would be likely to cause digestive
disorders.

The feeding of the cheaper feeds to idle horses has
another decided advantage. Work horses are not expen-

The Work Horse | 955

sive for upkeep while they are at work, as feed is converted
into energy in a very efficient manner, but the expense
runs up on account of the large amount of time which the
average horse is idle. On the average farm, more saving
can be made in cost of horse power by feeding cheap feeds
when the horses are idle than in any other way. This
saving can be made by the use of more hay and straw when
the horses are idle, instead of feeding them on the same grain
ration, whether they are at work or not. A larger use
of pasture can be taken advantage of than is common on
the average farm. On the other hand, when a horse is
working, a larger proportion of concentrates should be
fed than under average conditions. The result of the
feeding system as commonly practiced is that the horse is
fattened during the season when he is not at work, but is
losing flesh when he should be at his best.

The work geldings in good flesh in the fall will winter
very well if given the run of a straw pile with a feed
of eight to ten pounds legume or cereal hay each a day.
Horses that are kept up will winter on good cereal hay and
perform all the light work without additional grain,
but they will consume from one-and-one-half to one-and-
three-fourths pounds of hay to 100 pounds live weight.
Very little grain is necessary for idle mature stock.

PRINCIPAL FEEDS

Barley is much used throughout the West, due to the
large yield to the acre, especially in the dry-farm sections.
It is usually fed steam-rolled. Barley supplies large
amounts of energy, but care must be taken in its feeding,
as it is somewhat constipating, and when fed with wheat
hay considerable trouble with impactions may be expected.

256 Western Live-stock Management

Wheat is not as largely used as some of the other feeds,
due to its higher market value for other purposes. When
fed, it is usually ground, and makes a fairly satisfactory
substitute for barley or oats. It has about the same di-
gestive effect as barley. Horses must be gradually accus-
tomed to wheat before it is fed in any large amounts.
A large feed of wheat may kill a horse not used to it.

Oats are the standard grain feed of horses throughout
the country. This is due to the normal effect on the diges-
tive system, and the well-balanced amount of nutrients
which they contain. Very few digestive disorders are
involved in the feeding of oats, and it is this that makes it
the standard feed, especially in the hands of unskilled
feeders.

Corn is not largely raised in the West but when available
it forms a highly nutritious feed, supplying large amounts
of energy. Corn contains a relatively small amount of
protein and hence needs to be balanced with feeds con-
taining more protein when used for growing stock or
brood mares. On account of the extremely concentrated
nature, care should be taken in the feeding of corn to
avoid digestive troubles.

Oil meal is used to balance up the feeds containing barley
or wheat. It is laxative in its general nature, and provides
a large amount of protein, thus making it a good supple-
mental feed, especially with rations that would otherwise
be rather constipating.

Wheat bran is used in the same general way as oil meal,
but is more bulky, and makes a very good feed to use in
connection with barley. The laxative effect of the wheat
bran offsets the constipating effects of the barley as well
as furnishing more protein. Bran is a very safe feed and,
like oats, causes little digestive trouble.

The Work Lorse 257

Oat hay, when well cured, constitutes a very satis-
factory feed, especially for the wintering of stock. It
has a normal effect on the digestive system, and is a fairly
well-balanced feed. It is especially satisfactory for brood
mares and colts and is used to some extent for work horses.

Wheat hay is largely used throughout all the wheat-
producing sections. It is a very valuable feed, and has a
high energy value. The most serious fault is that it is
somewhat constipating, especially when fed in connection
with barley, as suggested above. This fault may be over-
come, however, by feeding in connection with bran, alfalfa,
or some other laxative feed. Wheat hay, morning and
noon, and alfalfa at night make an ideal combination.

Barley hay is not so extensively used as wheat hay, but
meets the same general requirements and also many of
the criticisms. The beardless barleys are generally used
for hay purposes.

Rye hay is largely used throughout the homestead
areas, as they are usually high in altitude, and therefore
need a drought- and frost-resisting crop. Usually rye is
somewhat constipating in its general nature, and therefore
must be fed with care. It is not considered advisable
to feed over one-half rye if it is possible to obtain other
feed, although many will feed entirely on rye hay and get
along satisfactorily with it. The difference will depend
largely on the cutting and on the individual horses.

Wild hay is used in many sections, and is very well
liked. It is usually normal in its general effect on the
system and is fairly nutritious.

Timothy hay is considered as the standard hay for all
work horses. This is not due to its large amount of
nutrients, but to the normal effect which it has on the
horse’s digestive system. Timothy contains a large

258 Western Live-stock Management

amount of crude fiber, but when well cured is palatable.
It is usually high-priced and is not a good hay for grow-
ing stock unless supplemented with other feeds. Horses
do not eat as much timothy as alfalfa, vetch, or clover,
which is an advantage in the hands of a feeder who per-
sists in keeping the mangers full regardless of the needs of
the horse.

Cheat hay is largely grown in some of the western
sections, and is used in place of timothy. It is somewhat
more woody in its general character, and is not well
adapted for growing stock. When used for work horses,
the energy needed, as in the case of feeding timothy,
must be largely supplied by the use of concentrated
feeds.

Alfalfa hay is standard throughout the West. The
first cutting is preferred for horses, as it is of a less laxative
nature, and therefore does not have as washy an effect.
Usually it is considered advisable to feed some other hay
with alfalfa, but in some sections where the horses are
used to it, very fair results have been attained when the
entire feed is alfalfa. On account of the large amount of
protein involved, there is occasionally some trouble with
kidneys.

Clover hay is not as rich in protein, but practically
as rich in digestible matter as alfalfa, and when well
cured it is an excellent hay for growing stock. Clover
is very often dusty if improperly cured and therefore care
must be taken in the feeding of it, especially with work
horses, in order to prevent any trouble with the wind. It
is also laxative and somewhat washy for hard-worked
horses.

Vetch hay is very laxative for horses, especially when it
is cut when somewhat immature, which is the best stage

The Work Horse 259

for other stock. When mixed with oats in the form of
vetch and oat hay, it provides a very satisfactory ration
for the wintering of stock, but when vetch comprises a
large proportion of the hay, it is too laxative to be fed to
work animals under usual circumstances.

The straws through the West consist largely of wheat,
oats, and barley. Of these oats is considered the best,
although some wheat straw is good feed for the wintering
of stock. Straw throughout the West could be more
largely used than it is at present. The use of straw for
the wintering of work horses as a supplement to some
good alfalfa or clover hay could be made one of the big
factors in cheapening the cost of horse power.

In the western states, pastures vary from alfalfa to
bunch-grass. Most of the grasses are very nutritious,
except in some of the coast regions. In most sections,
some use is being made of the range in cheapening the cost
of horse power in wintering and also in the keeping of idle
horses. Growing horses require other feeds on many of
the pastures, especially in the winter.

INFLUENCE OF LOCATION

The section in which the horses are used largely in-
fluences the feeding. In the sections where alfalfa is
produced, it is fed exclusively except when wheat and
barley are raised in addition. In this case a very satis-
factory ration is made of the rolled barley for the grain
and alfalfa and wheat hay for the roughage. For light
work, the wheat hay and alfalfa may make the sole
ration. In the Wheat-Belt the principal ration is rolled
barley and wheat hay. This constitutes a very satis-
factory ration, except that it is somewhat constipating and

260 Western Live-stock Management

therefore may cause sickness and loss due to impactions.
The ration is benefited either by feeding some wheat
bran, oil meal, or alfalfa hay. In some of the more remote
sections, the horses work largely on either grain hay or
wild hay. Under these conditions, they cannot perform
the amount of work that they could if fed on more concen-
trated feeds. In the humid valleys of the north coast, a
large amount of oats is fed with clover, timothy, cheat or
grain hay. These make ideal feeds for horses, and many
of the best horses are produced here. In the northern
irrigated valleys, oats and some barley usually comprise
the grain feed, with timothy, timothy and clover, or
alfalfa for hay. In the southern valleys, especially Cali-
fornia, the horse feed is largely barley with alfalfa or
cereal hay.

WATER, SALT, CONDIMENTS

The principal point to consider in the watering of horses
is that they receive their water at regular periods, so as
not to drink too much. It is usually better to water before
than after feeding, but regularity is more important than
the time of watering. Salt should be kept before the
horses where they can have access to it, or it should be
given to them often so that they will not desire too much
of it at one time. Condiments are feeds that are used
for special purposes, such as special stock foods, and are
used to tone a horse up for some special purpose or to
keep himin good condition. Usually these are not advised,
as the best condiment that the horse can have is good feed
and care. Occasionally a worm medicine or something of
the kind may be needed, and if so, should be prescribed
by a reliable veterinarian.

The Work Horse 261

FEEDING THE CITY WORK HORSE

Two feeds are used as a staple base for all city horse
feeding operations. These feeds are oats and timothy
hay. The packing companies usually feed their horses
five times daily, and if any horses are called out irregularly,
such horses are fed before going out. Oats and timothy
hay constitute the regular ration. A hot bran mash is
given on Saturday night or Sunday morning with only
one or possibly two light feeds of grain during that day.
Most of the large transfer firms in all the western cities
feed their horses in a similar manner. The greater part
of the hay is bought from the irrigated or dry land sections,
as it is more uniform in its quality. Certain firms use
some barley and considerable bran, but most of them con-
sider that even if the barley is cheaper, it is more expensive
in the long run than oats, as it causes more digestive
troubles. The customary manner of feeding is to give
oats as the main ration, together with timothy hay, and
on Saturday night a hot bran mash, with very little feed
except hay on Sunday. The small amount of grain on
Sunday is in order that the horses may not be troubled
with azoturia when taken out on Monday morning. Some
of the larger firms are using some mixed hay, but as stated
before, timothy forms the chief roughage for all city work
horses. Horses that are hard-worked will need from
one-and-one-fourth to one-and-one-half pounds of grain
and from one to one-and-one-fourth pounds of hay to 100
pounds of live weight a day.

FEEDING THE DRIVER AND SADDLER

Unless the driver or saddler has regular exercise, which
is not usually the case, it is impossible to feed a large

262 Western Live-stock Management

amount of concentrated grain, as they will become too
fat and out of condition. On the other hand, if they are
fed a large amount of hay and not exercised, they will
be poddy and soft when taken out. The feeds largely
used are oats and timothy supplemented with bran,
and these must be regulated according to the work which
the horse is doing. Under farm conditions, the feeding
of the light horses is somewhat easier, and the main prob-
lem is how much pasture to use and when to use it. If
an animal is to be worked every day he would need pasture
only for a few hours occasionally for a change. On the
other hand, if the washy effects of the pasture were not
noticeable, then he should be turned out whenever he is
not in use. This class of horses on the farm is used with
little regularity, and when not used, the farmer cannot
find time to take an animal out merely for exercise.
Pasture with a certain modification is usually the most
satisfactory system of management. Ordinarily the
horse has the liberty of the pasture, and when it is known
beforehand that he is to be used, he is put in the stable
the evening before, or when he is not to be used until
evening, early that morning. Oats given in four-quart
amounts at the regular feeding periods is best under these
conditions, but the hay should be limited. Legume hays
should not be used, especially soft, washy cuttings, but
rather some woody carbonaceous hay, such as timothy,
which has become quite ripe before cutting. Twelve
‘hours with nothing but oats and a little dry hay will
usually put the horse in fair working condition. When it
is impossible to give the horse a few hours in the barn be-
fore using, it is necessary to handle him carefully when he
is first taken out. In this case, the driving or riding will
have much to do with the results obtained. From two to

The Work Horse 263

five miles at a walk will put most horses in a condition for
good work, provided they are walked from the start, but
if they are started off at a fast gait, and begin to scour,
the walk will not stop the trouble. Late in the summer
and in the fall, the driving horse may run in the pasture
and stubble fields and be in fairly good working condition
with no great tendency to scour. It is possible to keep
the horses in the barn all the time, and by skillful manage-
ment, plenty of grooming, and daily work put them in con-
dition to look better and do more driving than the horse
that has been in pasture. The conditions mentioned,
however, are impracticable on the farm, except in rare
cases.

GROOMING

Horses that are running in the pasture do not require
grooming, but do well without it, and horse-men fre-
quently wonder why it is necessary to groom horses in
the stables. It is not the stabling that makes it necessary
to groom a horse, but it is the high feeding, and active
work. This is proved by the cavalry horses, which require
grooming, even when living in the camp, just as much as
horses which are kept in stables. Fast or active work
increases the secretion of the glands of the skin, and the
greater the action of the skin, the greater the attention
that must be paid to it. The horse which is not at heavy
or fast work does not require much grooming, because
the excretions of the system are carried off mainly by
the bowels and kidneys ; but during hard work much of the
excretions must be carried off through the pores of the
skin. Grooming is not a mere matter of external cleanli-
ness, but of the perfect condition of the skin and blood.

The skin is composed of two layers; namely, the outer or

264 Western Live-stock Management

upper layer called the cuticle, which is hard and insensitive,
and the inner or under layer called the cutus or true skin,
which is sensitive and vascular. The cutus or true skin
is thick and full of blood vessels and nerves and from it
grows the layer which forms the cuticle or outer skin.
Each cell is originally filled with moisture and as the
moisture evaporates, the cells become flattened and are
laid in series, one over the other, forming the cuticle or
outer skin. The cells of the outer skin are constantly
being worn off and are replaced from below by new cells
formed by the cutus or true skin. The sweat glands in
the skin secrete perspiration which is exuded through a
pore terminating in the surface of the skin. Each
gland is minute in itself, but collectively they form one
of the largest secreting organs in the body. The oil
glands open partly on the surface, but mostly into the
tubes of the hair. Each hair tube is furnished with one
or more of these glands. Wherever there is much fric-
tion or motion in the skin, the old glands are very numer-
ous. The healthy or unhealthy condition of the skin is
very readily shown by the appearance of the hair. If the
skin is unhealthy, the coat is harsh and dry. If the skin
is not properly cleaned, the dirt remains, not merely on
the coat, as many think, but in the system, due to the
clogging up of this very important set of drains. The
general health of the animal must in consequence suffer.

In order that grooming should produce the desired effects
of removing the scurf and worn-out cells as. well as clean-
ing the horse, it is necessary that the skin be cleaned
thoroughly by a good bristle brush well laid on. The other
necessary instruments are a curry comb, mane comb, and
fiber brush. By fiber brush is meant one which is made of
stiff vegetable fiber and not of hair bristles. The curry comb

The Work Lorse 265

need not be largely used, except when the horse is partic-
ularly dirty or sweaty, when it will be needed to get the
hair in condition so that fiber brush, and later the bristle
brush, will thoroughly clean out the hair. A satisfactory
system of currying is to start with the curry comb and
fiber brush and thoroughly go over the animal with these
two instruments, and then follow over the animal with the
fiber brush, followed with the bristle brush, since the latter
will clean out the skin better than the fiber brush, although
it will not loosen the particles as well. The hair on the
legs must not be neglected, but must be thoroughly
brushed out. Otherwise this region will become impaired
and grease heel, mud fever, or other ailments may result.

The mane and tail should not be allowed to become too
heavy, but should be thinned out occasionally by pulling
or combing. On driving and saddle horses, the foretop
should be kept clipped short back to about three inches
behind the ears. Some men clip the foretop on draft
horses, and also clip their manes, but it is usually not cus-
tomary. When the mane under the collar is clipped, the
short stubby growth very often irritates the neck more
than the long hairs. This is especially true if it is not
kept short.

BLANKETS

The use of the blanket is to be recommended. In the
summer the blanket should be very thin. A light burlap,
little heavier than a fly net, is satisfactory. In the winter
a heavier one may be used, but not too heavy, for there is
more danger of the animal catching cold if he is accustomed
to a heavy blanket in the stable. A storm blanket should
be provided for the protection of the horse when obliged
to work or stand out in bad weather. For draft horses,

266 Western Live-stock Management

a waterproof canvas blanket is very satisfactory. For
hot-blooded horses, it is necessary to have a woolen
blanket under the waterproof canvas, as they are more
likely to chill. When a horse returns to the stable in a
sweaty condition in cold weather, it is well to put on a
light porous blanket, and then a heavier one on top, of
some other material. These blankets should be left on
for a short time to draw out the moisture, and then the
regular stable blanket put on. If such blankets are not
at hand, the horse should be put in a protected part of
the barn, where there will be no draft, and rubbed down
until he is about dry, and then the usual blanket put on.
If the stable blanket is put on when the horse is in a sweaty
condition, it will become wet, the horse will not dry out
in good condition, and very often a cold will be caught in
this manner. When the horse is in the stable and dry,
one should not attempt to blanket him for warmth, but
rather to keep the coat in good condition, short and glossy,
and free from dirt.

CARE OF HARNESS

Harness is the horse’s most expensive equipment, and
it is all important that this material be kept in proper
condition. A good harness, if well made and properly
taken care of, will last for along period under average work.
On the other hand, if it is left to dry out, rot with the sweat,
and break to pieces, it will soon be destroyed. On well-
managed farms the harness is repaired completely at least
twice each year. It is taken apart and thoroughly washed
with soap and water, dried, and then oiled with neat’s
foot or with prepared harness oil. The latter is more
popular at the present time. At the time of oiling the

The Work Horse 267

harness, it should be thoroughly repaired in all parts,
and if this is done, but little trouble will occur during the
year, except for the occasional breakage. A home re-
pairing kit consisting of a sewing outfit, riveting machine,
together with leather snaps and buckles will enable the
average man to repair most of his harness at home.

In the fitting of the harness, the most important point
is to see that the collar fits correctly. If the collar is too
short, it cuts the wind, throws the pressure too high on the
shoulder, and causes sores on the top of the neck. On
the other hand, if it is too long, it throws the pressure a
little low, and causes a bruising of the shoulder points, and
may also cause a bruising of the withers by pulling back
too far on the top of the neck. If the collar is too narrow,
it will pinch the neck, irritating the shoulder, and will also
throw the pressure too far in on the shoulder. On the
other hand, if it is too wide, it will throw the pressure too
far out on the side of the shoulder, causing the collar to
slip back and forth and make sores. The usual difficulty
in fitting the collar is that it is bought to fit when the
horse is in good condition before going to work, and as
soon as the fat is gone, the collar is too loose. Therefore,
special care must be taken in fitting horses to see that they
are snug, but still do not pinch in any place. If the collar
does not set to the horse’s neck, it is very often satis-
factory to soak it overnight, then place it upon the
neck, fitting it closely with the hames and let it mold itself
to the horse’s neck. This will usually cause a very satis-
factory fit if the collar is the right size.

If it is necessary to use collar or sweat pads, it should be
to change the fit of the collar or to change the general seat
of the pressure, as collar pads are usually hot and soft,
and stick to the skin, causing irritation which would not

268 Western Live-stock Management

be the case with a properly fitting collar. The pad, if
used, should be long enough to come within two or three
inches of meeting at the bottom of the collar, otherwise
it will irritate the points of the shoulder and make them
sore. The top pad should be hard and firm, and not of
soft leather that will wrinkle and irritate the neck.

The remainder of the harness should be fitted as care-
fully as the collar, although it is easier to secure a good
fit. However, many farmers will work with the back
band six inches out of place, or with hold back straps that
hang down so low that the horse will stick his feet through
them at every opportunity. In the fitting of single driving
harness, it is especially necessary that they be neat and
well kept. The appearance of the horses is greatly en-
hanced by well-fitting harness. Everything should set
snug, but not so that it will bind on any place.

THE HORSE AT WORK

One of the common ailments of horses at work is sore
shoulders. Sores on the points of the shoulders are caused
by the collar usually being too wide or too long. The
remedy is to put on a different collar or use a pad. The
sore may be treated with gall cures, of which many are
sold by harness-makers and druggists, and usually are
fairly satisfactory. A remedy which is largely used is
air-slaked lime or flowers of sulfur on the shoulders in
the morning and at noon, and occasionally sprinkled on
the shoulder while the horse is at work. This acts sim-
ilarly to talcum powder, and causes the collar to slip
easily, and not irritate the shoulder as it would normally.
Then at night, a treatment of the gall cure may be put
on if necessary, or the shoulder if in good condition may

The Work Horse 269

be washed off with a solution of salt water, which will
tend to harden the shoulder to the work. Small sore
bumps or collar boils may be found along the side of the
shoulder. These may be caused by ill-fitting collars, but
they are more often due to derangement of the system,
which is very common in the summer. If the collar fits
properly, then it is necessary to clean up the animal’s
system. Some good can also be accomplished by treating
the bumps as indicated before, and also occasionally it
will be necessary to cut out a hole in the pad over the sore,
and in this way it can sometimes be cured. A collar wide
at the top works back and forth, and thus irritates the top
of the neck. These sores are also often caused by poorly
fitting pads, or too much weight on the neck yoke. Sores
on top of the neck are very difficult to treat successfully.
Prevention is the best cure. If the horse is subject to such
afflictions, always use a stiff, smooth pad on him and see
that the collar sets properly. Be very careful about
excess weight on the neck yoke. All forms of two-wheeled
machinery are likely to injure the horses’ necks. Tongue
trucks are a great benefit wherever they can be used. In
any of the treatments given, rest will accomplish much,
especially if it is accompanied by proper treatment.

A disease which often affects work horses is azoturia.
This is often called Monday morning sickness, due to the
fact that it is an affliction which troubles the horses when
they have been off work and are suddenly put into work
again. It is usually due to heavy feeding when idle. It
is first noted by the fire and life with which he first left
the stable giving way to dullness and oppression as shown
in heaving flanks, sweaty condition, dilated nostrils, and
pinched loin. The muscles become swollen and rigid and
the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily. If any of the

270 Western Live-stock Management

conditions are noticed, the horse should be stopped at
once and blanketed, and put under the treatment of a
competent veterinarian. While the veterinarian is
coming, it is beneficial to put blankets wrung out of hot
water over the loin. If the veterinarian cannot be secured
quickly, the horse should be given a dose of bromide of
potassium (four drams) and sweet niter (one ounce);
drench slowly and carefully, giving the horse time to
swallow. The horse should not be moved, but left
where one sees the first symptom. If none of these
remedies is available, the horse should be allowed to stand
until he has recovered, which usually will be in a short
time if stopped at the start. If the horse is not stopped
at once, he will usually “go down” and there is a high
mortality when the disease advances to this point.
The speed and the amount of the load at which a
horse works influence to a large degree the efficiency of
the horse power produced. A draft horse working under
a heavy load can do the work more efficiently when
walking at the rate of two to two-and-one-half miles an
hour than at any other gait. Therefore, it is false economy
to speed the horse up and put on a light load, expecting
a larger amount of work. When the speed is increased
above that mentioned, the efficiency of the horse power
produced is decreased accordingly. When the horse
trots at the rate of ten miles an hour, the amount of work
which it is possible for him to perform is decidedly de-
creased, being about 10 per cent of the maximum amount
which can be done at a slower gait. Under usual cir-
cumstances, a horse should be required to exert a pull of
about one-tenth of his weight. When a horse is over-
loaded or underloaded, the efficiency is greatly reduced.
Under practical conditions this is of value, for it influences

The Work Horse 271

the farming operations. The horses should be loaded so
that they can work steadily throughout the day without
requiring long intervals for rest; and they should not be
loaded lightly and driven fast, as either method lowers the
efficiency of the work produced.

An item which is often overlooked in the care of draft
horses, especially under farming conditions, is the care of
feet. If horses are kept on the farm continually and not
used for road work, it is very seldom that they will require
shoes, but their feet will need attention which can be
given with a rasp and pair of nippers. There is no neces-
sity for horses’ feet being grown out and broken off, when
a little attention will keep them in good condition. If
horses do road work, then it is necessary to have them shod,
and the shoes should be put on securely and changed or
reset every six weeks, or sooner, depending on the kind
of work. Injury to horses’ feet is often caused by leaving
shoes on too long and thereby causing contraction.

STABLES

In the construction of stables for work horses, the
principal requisite should be that they are handy. One of
the most convenient arrangements is to have single stalls
facing toward the side of the barn with the feed alleys
in front of the horse. This will leave a large driveway
behind the horses for them to back out, and provide
hitching room. The harness stalls in this case could be
on the opposite side of the alley, which may be partially
devoted to box stalls, feed bins, carriage rooms, and the
like.

Another essential point is comfort. For extreme com-
fort, the box stall is essential, but for work horses, under

272 Western Live-stock Management

average conditions, the single stall is very satisfactory.
The usual dimensions are five feet wide and ten feet deep
from the front of the manger back. This will give enough
depth that the horses will not kick one another. The
mangers should be made in a convenient manner, which

a r
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mes.
STALLE BOX STALL FOR be a Aa
10°0'x14-0" 14-0°x 25+0" &
Pe al ee call (ee oa

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en
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2
Se {6 abese| srdus mee
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oo FEED [a] ALLEY fae g |
ra ay

Fic. 29. — Floor Plan for a Convenient Horse Barn.

will necessitate them not being too deep, so that the hay
can be easily reached and so the bottom will not fill up
with hay, moldy grain, and similar material. Board
floors in the stalls over the regular concrete floor are
usually preferred.

Sanitary conditions as influenced by drainage, light, and
ventilation are often overlooked. “These points are es-
sential in insuring health. Protection against drafts is
often neglected. The horse does not require an especially
warm barn under average conditions, but it does need
one that is protected from drafts, as such will cause colds,
especially when the horse is warm.

All horse barns should be accompanied by paddocks or

The Work Horse 273

lots where the horses can be let out for exercise when not
at work. A few grass lots of this kind, where the horses
can be divided up, will help considerably in making the
feet and legs last longer, as continued standing upon
board, cement, or other floors of that nature is destructive
to the best interests of the feet and legs. Pastures into
which the horses may be turned during Sunday or idle
days are essential, as this lowers the cost of feed, and also
lessens the danger of azoturia. <A little grass will also
help the digestive system by keeping it in better tone,
and thereby insure a longer period of usefulness for the
horse. Exercise lots should be provided where horses
can be turned out at any time. These should be long and
narrow rather than square or circular. In some sections
they will need to be graveled or floored on account of mud.
Twenty-five dollars will surface a fair-sized lot. This lot
will be a poor substitute for regular work, but will aid
greatly in keeping in condition horses that are irregularly
used.

CHAPTER XIX
THE BROOD MARE

Broop mares have proven to be economical producers
of farm work, since the value of the foals produced more
than offsets the loss of labor and the increased feed as
compared with mules or geldings. The brood mare is
especially a dual purpose animal. She produces both
work and foals. There are few people that can afford
to keep a brood mare solely for the colt that she will
produce.

FEEDING
Feed during the breeding season.

Feeding the brood mare is very similar to feeding the
work horse, except that the brood mare, in addition to
doing regular work, is getting in condition for breeding,
suckling a colt, or developing the foetus of the young. In
either case the brood mare needs more protein and ash
than is required for the work horse, but the supply of
carbohydrates or energy-producing foods must also be
large, owing to the work that she is doing. In obtaining a
ration, then, that is suitable for a brood mare during the
breeding season, one must give feeds that are slightly
higher in protein than those needed for work horses. Such
feeds as oats, balanced with oil meal or bran and good
bright clover or alfalfa hay, are suitable for this purpose.
The feed prior to the breeding season should keep the mare

274

Puate XII. — ‘‘Liserry or DeatH” 1s THE IMPERATIVE DE-
MAND OF BOTH Broop Mare AND Foat.

Above, a handy lot where brood mares may be turned out with their
foals; below, brood mares are successfully wintered in the open if some
shelter and plenty of legume hay is provided.

The Brood Mare 275

in good flesh. If she is idle, she must be turned on pasture
or in a lot that will give her plenty of exercise to keep her
from becoming too fat, as excessively fat or excessively
thin mares are not as likely to become pregnant as mares
in good, hard, physical flesh. Some breeders believe that
mares are hard to get in foal when on clover pasture, but
as such pasture is the natural habitat of the horse, it
does not seem reasonable that any such condition should
exist.

Feed during pregnancy.

After the brood mare has proven to be in foal the feed
must be rather liberal. She is usually suckling a foal as
well as developing the foetus and this means that she
stands in need of a large amount of protein and ash as
well as energy-forming feeds. This, as suggested in the
previous paragraph, should be supplied by the legumes,
oats, oil meal, or bran. Many mistakes are made on
this score, and often the brood mares are not fed as well
as the geldings. A hard-worked mare in foal and suckling
a colt will need from one-and-one-fourth to one-and-one-
half pounds of grain and an equal amount of hay for
every 100 pounds of live weight. If the mares are not
working in winter, it is not essential that they be fed
grain if provided with legume or grain hay. In many
sections mares are wintered very successfully if in good
flesh in the fall by running on stubble fields and to the
straw stacks with the addition of a feed of clover or
alfalfa hay in the evening. Then in the spring they are
grained for two or three weeks before active work begins.

Feed during parturition.

Previous to parturition, the mare should be kept on
good laxative feed so that the bowels will be in perfectly

276 Western Live-stock Management

normal condition. A grain ration consisting of one-half
oats and one-half bran by measure has proven very
satisfactory. The feed at this time must not be so
heavy that the bowels will be extended more than
normally. If it is possible to have the mares on pasture,
so much the better, as this is the natural condition for
horses. After foaling, the mare will not need any feed
for a few hours, and then the first feed should be a bran
mash or something cooling in its general nature. This
should be followed in five or six hours with a small feed
of bran and oats, providing the mare is getting along
nicely. Then later the feed can be gradually increased,
depending on the condition of the mare and foal. If the
mare seems to have an over-abundance of milk, it is some-
times necessary that she be not fed very heavily, but if
her milk-flow is lacking, it will be necessary to feed more
heavily to try to increase the flow. For this purpose,
very good results are obtained by some green feed, such as
good pasture, or grass which is cut and given the mare.
As the mare gets into good physical condition, her ration
may be gradually changed back to that fed when the mare
was suckling a colt.

BREEDING PRACTICES
Season to breed.

Nearly all foals come in the spring of the year, although
artificial conditions may sometimes make it undesirable
for the foals to be born at this season. With race horses,
and usually with show horses, the ages are counted from
January Ist of the year of foaling, regardless of the actual
age. In such cases, it is necessary to have the mares foal
as soon after January Ist as possible. Under farm condi-

The Brood Mare 277

tions, however, it is usually advisable to breed the mare
so that she will foal after the spring weather has opened
up and the pastures and lots are accessible. The general
exceptions to this rule are due to mares being busy, and
to the inability to get them to breed at the proper time.
With the work mare the time of foaling may be adjusted
to the season when the least loss of work will result. It
must be borne in mind that while mares are pregnant
they can do more work than when suckling a colt. Es-
pecially is this true when the foal is only a few days or a
week old. If the heavy work of the farm comes in the
spring, therefore, the foal should not arrive until the rush
is over, so that the mare can be turned out to pasture
as soon as the foal is dropped. Generally speaking, fall
foals are not as desirable as spring foals, but with good feed
may be raised very successfully. The larger number
of colts throughout the West are dropped in April, May,
and June. Very few are dropped in March and July.
Early foals necessitate good barns. In breeding the mares:
in the fall, it is often necessary to give more feed, prefer-
ably of a succulent nature, so as to start the mare picking
up a little and cause her to breed when she would not
otherwise do so.

Heat and gestation period.

In mares the period of heat usually occurs every eighteen
to twenty-one days, and lasts from three to five days.
The first period of heat after foaling occurs in nine days
or less if the mare is perfectly healthy, and received no
injury during parturition. The mare is usually bred
at this nine-day period if she is in good condition.

The gestation period varies from 330 to 340 days, the
average usually given ag 336 days. Most horse-men

278 Western Lnve-stock Management

figure eleven months, and this is usually close enough.
Mares vary greatly in the length of the period of gesta-
tion. Some perfectly healthy foals may be dropped in
less than ten months and others may be carried for twelve
months. Usually, however, a variation of over two
weeks is considered abnormal.

Conditions affecting breeding.

Some horse-men are successful in breeding mares at
two years of age, but it is not customary to breed until
three. When the mare is bred at two years of age she
is usually allowed to skip the next year, and is fed very
liberally. Otherwise the two-year-old mare will be
stunted considerably in growth. The argument in favor of
the early breeding is that it insures a more reliable breeder.
This, however, has never been fully demonstrated.

The breeding mare should not be overly fat. A mare
will breed better if she is in normal flesh than if she is
pampered. A better plan is to have the mare increasing
in flesh rather than decreasing at the time of breeding,
if there is to be any variation one way or the other. If
the mares have any sickness due to foaling, or any trouble
with the sexual organs, they should not be bred until
they have thoroughly recovered from the ailment. It is
better to allow them rest until fall and breed them at that
time than to run any unnecessary risks. If perfectly
normal, the brood mare is generally bred at the ninth day
after foaling, and if not bred at this time, she occasionally
will not do so until the colt is weaned, although this is
not usually the case.

Serving the mare.

The first item in serving the mare is to ascertain
whether or not she is in heat. This is determined by

The Brood Mare 279

leading the mare up to one side of a teasing pole, and then
leading the stallion on the opposite side and allowing
him to bite and otherwise play with her, which process is
known as teasing. If the mare is in heat she will submit to
the teasing, and show signs of heat, but if not, she will
fight and attempt to kick the stallion. It is sometimes ad-
visable to permit the stallion to tease her for several minutes,
for some mares, particularly fillies, are shy about accepting
the stallion, and will not at first exhibit signs of heat. The
presence of heat is indicated by passing a white viscous
fluid, and by a nervous, excitable condition. Usually if
the mare is in pasture with other mares or geldings, they
will be riding or teasing her. These signs, however,
should not be relied on, as a mare may pass through several
periods of heat without making any apparent signs, even
though she is worked every day and the driver is watching
to tell when she comes in. The only safe way is to try
her with the stallion. As the mare stays in heat from
three to five days, it is not necessary to try her less than
every five days. The larger part of stallion men practice
trying once a week, which is fairly satisfactory if not
neglected.

To insure that the mare will get in foal, and that there
is no disease, she should be properly examined. A blood-
shot condition of the eyelids or vulva often indicates some
ailment, and an excited condition. Very often, also, the
neck of the uterus or the os is closed, and if so, the mare
will not become pregnant, as the spermatozoa cannot
enter the uterus. If such is the case, the mare should be
opened by inserting a finger into the mouth of the os, and
gently dilating the same.

Barrenness is also met with. Mares may be barren
because of imperfectly formed sexual organs, diseased

280 Western Live-stock Management

condition of the sexual organs, or by having the neck
of the uterus stopped up with mucus, or excessively
enlarged. The latter ailments are very common, and if
the neck of the uterus is closed, it should be opened as
above indicated. In inserting the hand, it should always
be perfectly clean and lubricated with pure soapsuds.
When any diseased condition is suspected, the hands
should be absolutely free from any breaks in the skin,
such as cuts, scratches, hang nails, and the like. Mares
that are in diseased condition should not be bred by a
stallion. If it is thought best to breed them, this should
be done artificially. A veterinarian should be called to
handle any unusual conditions of the sexual organs, as
they require skilled treatment.

The re-trying system that is practiced in the serving
of the mares is to re-try them in three weeks after breed-
ing, and then re-try again once a week for four weeks
following, or until seven weeks from the time of breeding.
Many mares will not re-breed at twenty-one days if they
are not in foal, but come in at the fourth or fifth week
after breeding. In order, therefore, to be sure that they
are in foal, it is necessary to have them re-tried at least
four times, instead of once, as many stallion men practice.

Artificial impregnation.

Three methods of artificial impregnation are commonly
practiced: with the breeding bag, with the impregnating
syringe, and with the use of capsules. The object of
artificial impregnation is to breed two or more mares
from one service of the horse, and in this manner lessen
the necessary services of the horse, and increase the number
of mares which it is possible for him to breed. When a
mare is bred, the horse injects the semen or male fluid

The Brood Mare 281

containing the spermatozoa into the vagina of the mare,
from whence the spermatozoa pass into the uterus and
from there into the Fallopian tube where they meet the
ovum or female cells and impregnation proper takes place.
This may not occur for several hours after copulation.
The mare produces one, and sometimes more than one
ovum during the period of heat, while the semen ejected
by the horse contains hundreds of the microscopic sperm-
cells, and only one of which may unite with the ovum to
produce the colt. Thus the horse at each act of copula-
tion produces many more spermatozoa than are actually
needed, provided of course that he is a normal, healthy
horse. The idea in artificial impregnation is to collect
some of these spermatozoa which are not needed by the
mare bred, and transfer them to other mares. If prop-
erly conducted this will produce exactly the same im-
pregnation as if the mares were bred directly by the stal-
lion.

The breeding bag is a rubber bag which is tied on to the
end of the penis. When the penis is withdrawn after
service, the bag with the ejected semen comes back with
it. The bag is then placed in warm water, 95° to 101°
temperature. A syringe is filled with the fluid, and emp-
tied into the vagina of the mare. As only a part of the
fluid is used for one impregnation, a number of mares
may be bred from this one bag of semen. The objections
to this method are: stallions may refuse to serve with the
breeding bag attached; the fluid may become contam-
inated with germs; the fluid may be exposed to the
light and the sperm-cells killed ; and lastly, the stallion,
even though it may not refuse at first, usually does refuse
to serve properly after the breeding bag has been used
for some time.

282 Western Live-stock Management

With the impregnating syringe, the operator allows
the stallion to serve in the normal manner, then uses a
syringe to go into the vagina, or if the semen has been
injected into the uterus proper, to go into the uterus
and collect the semen by means of the syringe. The
type of syringe shown in Fig. 30 is now being very success-
fully used in obtaining the semen either from the uterus
or from the vagina. After withdrawing the semen, the
operator may proceed
directly to the other
mares, insert the end of
the syringe into the
uterus of the mare, and
deposit some of the fluid, or he may fill capsules from the
fluid and insert capsules into the other mares. In these
cases it is necessary to have a vessel of water from 95°
to 101° temperature, so that the syringe and semen may
be held at a constant temperature, and also that the
instruments and materials be kept out of the direct sun-
light. Sanitary precautions are also absolutely necessary,
as the spermatozoa are very delicate, and have to be
handled with every degree of care.

With the capsule system of breeding, the stallion is
allowed to serve one mare in the usual manner; the
operator then takes a gelatine capsule in the hollow
of his hand, inserts his hand into the vagina and
scoops the capsule full of semen. He then withdraws
his arm carefully, holding the capsule in the hollow of
his hand to protect from light, and holding his finger over
the opening to prevent the loss of fluid. He immediately
goes to another mare and inserts his hand and the capsule
into the vagina, and pushes the capsule carefully on
into the uterus. This operation is very successful if the

Fie. 30. — Impregnator Syringe.

The Brood Mare 283

mare which the stallion breeds does not take the semen
completely into the uterus. If the semen, however, does
all go into the uterus, it cannot be obtained by this
method. Therefore, it is not largely used, as it cannot
always be depended on, but it is a very easy and useful
method in some cases.

With all of these methods of artificial impregnation, it
is advisable to have the mares in heat, although some
results have been obtained otherwise. All the mares
should be at the breeding place at the same time. The
semen may be kept for a limited interval if under ideal
conditions, but this is not advisable, as the spermatozoa
weaken rapidly even when kept in the best manner
possible. It is also necessary that everything be kept in
sanitary condition, and that the operator be exceedingly
careful in regard to temperature and light. Artificial
impregnation as a whole has proved very successful
and will doubtless be used more in the future.

Care after service.

After the mare has been bred she should be kept rather
quiet for several hours, but after that she may be put to
work as usual. The best treatment she can receive is
steady work and three mealsaday. If there is no slipping,
straining, or jerking, and the mare keeps up in condition
on good feed, the work is probably not too hard, providing
it be steady. The mare should not be worked so hard that
she will run down in condition on good feed. If there is
any slacking in the work it should be about the fifth or
sixth month, as it is at that time that the foetus is making
its most rapid growth. During the last months of preg-
nancy the mare can do a large amount of work without
injury. If the mare is working steadily it will not hurt

284 Western Lave-stock Management

her to work up until the time she drops her foal. Under
these circumstances, she will usually be in good, strong,
healthy condition and her digestive system will be in
order. If she is laid off in new surroundings and the
feeding greatly changed, her system is liable to be upset
and leave her in worse condition than the regular work.
Parturition is a severe strain, and in order to bring forth
a vigorous, strong foal, the mare must be in good condition.

Some mares come in heat after missing three or four
regular periods. Such cases are often due to abortion.
Mares of this kind should be carefully watched, and
examined to see that their sexual organs are in good condi-
tion. A few mares will come in heat regularly and accept
the horse, and still be in foal from the first service. Ir-
regular conditions of this kind require that the mare
owners be exceedingly careful, watch the mares closely,
and use their best judgment in regard to them.

Signs of pregnancy.

The first sign of pregnancy, and the one which is used
in breeding mares, is the absence of the usual heat period.
When a mare becomes pregnant, the usual periods of
heat do not appear, and the mouth of the womb becomes
closed. As the pregnancy advances, the mare usually
becomes quieter, has a tendency to take on fat, is cross
toward other horses, has somewhat fuller flanks, and there
is a general contraction of the vulva. In the more ad-
vanced stages the belly becomes more pendulous, the
udder develops, and a jerking movement of the foetus is
often noticed, especially after the mare has taken a
drink of cold water. If there is any special doubt in
regard to the pregnancy of the mare, and it becomes
necessary to ascertain whether she is pregnant or not,

The Brood Mare 285

a competent veterinarian should make a rectal examina-
tion, as the foetus can be felt in this manner. This
examination should not be undertaken by one who is
not skilled in such work, as it is likely to cause abortion
if not carefully performed.

Signs of parturition.

Since thé gestation period is of uncertain length with
mares, they should be closely watched from the tenth
month until parturition. There are some signs of the
near approach of parturition that seldom fail. The
udder becomes greatly distended some time before foaling,
but the teats very seldom fill out full and plump to the
end more than a few days before the foal is born. In
most mares the vulva enlarges, and a reddening of the
lining of the vagina is noticed immediately prior to par-
turition. There is also a marked falling away and de-
pression of the rump muscles about a week before the
time. About twenty-four hours before foaling a clear
wax forms on the end of the nipple. This wax is often
confused with that formed from the colostrum which
escapes from the udder, so care is needed in distinguishing
it. Immediately prior to time of parturition, the mare
will usually show some nervousness and if with other stock,
a desire to be left alone.

Parturttion.

The normal presentation of the foetus at the time of
parturition is fore-feet first, with the head between the
front legs, and these act as a sort of wedge in dilating the
passage. Sometimes the foal is born with a rear presenta-
tion, in which case the rear feet come out first, and the
widening of the legs acts in a similar manner. One of the
variations from these presentations is with the front

286 Western Live-stock Management

feet back. In this case, unless the mare is unusually
open, it will be necessary to push the foetus back and get
it straightened out so that it will come in normal manner.
Occasionally a rear presentation will come with the rump
first rather than the feet. It is practically impossible to
deliver the colt in this manner, and again it must be pushed
back and worked around so that it will be. in normal
manner, either front or rear. Often the colt will come
with one leg or the other back in either the fore or rear
presentation. It is sometimes possible to deliver this
presentation, but usually it is advisable to try to straighten
out the limb that is crooked. If the mare needs assistance
in delivering the foetus because of the abnormal size
or presentation, the help should be rendered as soon as
possible. The mare should be allowed to labor only a
short time before an investigation is made, as the chances
for successful delivery are increased if the mare is assisted
at once before the parts become dry, and before her
normal pains of delivery weaken. In pulling the foetus
from the mare, it should be put in proper position and then
gently pulled in a downward direction. The pulling
should be gentle and steady, allowing the mare to aid in
every way possible. Otherwise injury is likely to occur
by bruising, tearing, or cutting some of the tissues. If
the case cannot be delivered in the usual manner, it may
be necessary to dissect the foetus in order to save the
life of the mare. In all cases of this kind, great care
should be taken to lessen the inflammation, as there is
likely to be infection, resulting in blood poisoning.

Care after parturition.

The place where the mare foals is very important, be-
cause of the danger of the disease known as “navel

The Brood Mare 287

disease’’ or “joint disease,”’ which kills hundreds of colts
every year. When the colts are a few days old the joints
swell, the legs become stiff, and the animal usually dies.
A veterinarian may be called at this time, but there is
very little hope of the animal recovering. Fortunately,
however, the disease may be prevented. It is a germ
disease caused by putrefactive organisms, the germs that
cause decay and rotting around the barns, strawstacks,
and manure piles. They enter through the raw navel
cord and if the colt is born and kept for the first few days
in a place where these germs are not present, the disease
will not exist. The best place, therefore, is in some grass
lot or pasture where there are no sheds, barns, manure
piles, or old straw stacks. The next best place is in a
box stall that has been thoroughly disinfected and cleaned.
The whole stall must be cleaned perfectly, new bedding
put in, and thoroughly sprayed with some good dis-
infectant. If possible, two stalls should be prepared,
and when the foal arrives, the mare’s udder and hind
parts should be washed with some non-poisonous dis-
infectant, such as sheep dip, and the mare and foal
transferred to the other stall. The first stall can then be
cleaned out and prepared for the next mare. If the extra
stall is not at hand, wash the mare’s udder as indicated,
clean out all the blood and after-birth, and disinfect again.

The colt’s belly and cord should be cleaned imme-
diately with some good disinfectant. A good way of doing
this is to cut the umbilical cord about an inch and a half
long, and completely immerse the same in an iodine solu-
tion, also washing the immediately surrounding parts of
the belly with the solution. It is important that this
gets on the inner parts, as well as on the external surface
of the cord. The cord should later be treated with some

288 Western Live-stock Management

drying powder. A suitable powder is made of two parts
each of tannic acid, boracie acid, and zinc oxide, with
one part of iodoform. Formerly it was thought well
to tie the cord, but it has been found that this has a ten-
dency to keep a jelly-like substance within the cord,
forming a good medium for the action of bacteria. The
proper treatment is to use some material that will tend
to dry up the cord as quickly as possible, and at the same
time keep out bacteria. The whole process is to prevent
putrefactive germs from entering the raw navel, although
it may happen that the germs entering through the
mouth may cause the same effect. Scours is another
disease that often comes from getting disease germs into
the system.

Another trouble that often affects foals during the first
twenty-four to forty-eight hours is constipation. If the
colt does not receive the first milk, known as colostrum,
which is nature’s laxative provided to start the passage
of the bowels, he may have serious difficulty. Many
breeders do not notice that there is anything wrong with
the colt until he begins to weaken and fails to take nourish-
ment. When the trouble has progressed thus far it is
often hard to treat successfully. The simplest treat-
ment, if the colt fails to make the proper passage of the
first excreta, which is dark brown in color, is a solution of
soapsuds injected into the rectum. This treatment should
not be given unless necessary, which will seldom be the
case when the mare’s milk is normal and the colt healthy.

The mare should now be allowed to rest. The working
of the mare after foaling should be delayed as long as
possible, preferably until after weaning. If kept up, the
mare should have plenty of nourishing, rather laxative
food, except for the first day or two, when she must be

The Brood Mare 289

fed lightly. Medicines and physics should be avoided,
and if any serious condition arises a veterinarian called.
The best place, however, for both mare and foal is out in a
good, rich pasture, unless the weather is extremely bad,
and even then they should be kept in just as little as
possible. Scours and other digestive troubles are the
chief dangers at this time and they are seldom contracted
in the pasture.

If it is necessary to work the mare, she should at least
be given a rest of ten days to two weeks. When first
started to work the mare should be brought in so as to
allow the colt to suck during the middle of the forenoon
and afternoon. After the colt becomes accustomed to
doing without the mare and her milk, the period may be
lengthened to the half day periods if the days are not too
long. If the mare is warm or is a heavy milker, some of
the fluid should be milked out, or scours and indigestion
will be produced in the colt. The colt should never be
allowed milk from hot mares. The mares should be
allowed to cool to'some extent and part of the milk drawn
before turning with the colt.

The weaning should be put off as long as possible. This
usually means until late in the fall. Whether or not the
mares work, the colts should be taught to eat early and
by the time they are six months old they will hardly miss
the mother. Feed put into a colt at this age starts the
framework of the future horse. A saving of feed at this
time will mean a sacrifice in the value of the horse in the
future.

STABLES, SHEDS, AND LOTS

Colts whose mothers must work need other exercise
than that obtainable in the box stall. Two general
plans may be adopted. One is a strong, high paddock

290 Western Lave-stock Management

where all the foals are turned out when the mares are at
work, and the other is to turn the mare and the foal in
the pasture at night. Usually the latter method is the
easiest to put into practice. In either case, the colt
must be taught to eat grain if possible. This may be
brought about by putting an extra trough in the stall,
or by a creep in the paddock where they can run and not
be bothered by the other horses. Some arrangement of
this kind is necessary. Open sheds for wintering brood
mares are practical, especially when there is not sufficient
exercise in the form of work to keep these mares in good
physical condition. A mistake that is often made is
confining the mares closely, feeding them heavily, and
thereby getting them softer and fatter than they should
be. One way to avoid this is by the open shed system,
having a shed where the mares can run in and find protec-
tion, or run out into an open lot for exercise. Sheds of
this kind will keep the mares in good physical condition.

A horse barn is not complete unless it has maternity
stalls. By these are meant large, roomy box stalls,
where the mare may foal without being in cramped
quarters, if it is necessary that she foal in the barn. The
stalls are also useful for the mare and colt, as the common
small box stall is somewhat confining for the mare and
foal. Double stalls with a pole run between the horses,
which can be converted into large, roomy box stalls open-
ing on the outside are a very practical method of solving
the problem. During the winter the stalls will hold more
animals than if arranged in permanent box stalls.

CHAPTER XX
THE GROWING STOCK

Tue future size and value of the colt depend to a
large extent on the start it gets. Gains may be eco-
nomically made on weanlings and yearlings, but an un-
usually large amount of feed is necessary to make much
growth if the animal is stunted in its early life. On ac-
count of this fact the horse-men who are making the big-
gest success in the raising of horses are careful of them
the first and second winters and let the colts rough it
later in life rather than when they are young.

FUNDAMENTALS OF FEEDING

The principles involved in feeding growing horses are
practically the same as with other kinds of live-stock.
The chief requirements of the body at this time are for
protein and for mineral matter or ash. It is, therefore,
especially important that these nutrients be supplied
in the proper quantities. On an average, the proper
nutritive ratio for growing horses will be about one to
five or one to six; that is, the ration will need to contain
five or six parts carbohydrates or their equivalent to one
part of protein. Of the feeds best adapted to produce
such a ratio may be mentioned the leguminous hays, such
as alfalfa, clover, vetch, and among the grains oats and
bran will be the best. The native pasture grasses, when

291

292 Western Live-stock Management

thrifty, will usually supply about the proper nutritive
ration for growing horses. Among the feeds which are
deficient in protein and mineral matter, and therefore
unsatisfactory for growing horses, may be mentioned
timothy hay, cheat hay, corn, and barley. When any of
these feeds are used ‘for young horses, a limited amount
of other feeds containing large quantities of protein and
mineral matter should be supplied.

RAISING THE ORPHAN

The feeding of an orphan foal, or a foal that is in-
sufficiently nursed by its dam, is a task which requires
much care and patience. Cow’s milk is the best substitute
for that of the mare, although the latter has more sugar
and less fat than the former. If the cow’s milk is given
to a foal it should be modified, depending on the richness
of the milk. Milk low in butter-fat is best for this
purpose. One pint of cow’s milk diluted with one-fourth
pint of lime-water, and to which a teaspoonful of sugar
is added, approximately approaches the consistency of
mare’s milk. Lime-water helps to prevent the milk from
forming into hard curds. A nursing bottle with a rubber
nipple is about the best means of giving the milk, but some
prefer to use the spout of a teapot, with the finger of a
kid glove on the end of the spout, with a hole punched in
the same so that the milk can flow through it. The instru-
ments should be thoroughly cleaned and sterilized with
boiling water each time before they are used, and the milk
should be warmed to a temperature of about 100° F.
before feeding. At first the colt should be fed every hour,
giving it about one-half pint at each feeding. It is advis-
able at the start to feed the colt two or three times at

The Growing Stock 293

night, but after a short time, he will be able to consume
enough milk to carry him through the night. As the
colt grows older, the quantity of milk should be gradually
increased and the number of feeds decreased, until he is
about a month old, when, if he is doing nicely, he may be
fed only four or five times a day, and the sugar and lime-
water omitted. He should also be taught to drink out
of a pail by this time, and the feed gradually increased,
although great care must be taken that too much milk is
not given, as the result will be scours. Many orphan
foals are fed more milk than they need rather than not
enough. The orphan foal should be taught to eat grain
as early as possible. If a little is added to the bucket with
the milk, the colt will soon be munching at it when the
milk is gone, and in this way will soon be eating grain.
Unless the foal is early started on grain, he will generally
become pot-bellied, and after such an appearance is
acquired, it takes considerable time, good feed and care
to overcome it.

FEEDING THE YOUNG FOALS

The larger number of horse-men do not take enough
pains in starting the colt on grain. This is especially
important if the mare is at work. Colts should not be
allowed to run with mares when in the field, but if neces-
sary the mare should be brought in to allow the colt to
suck. After a period of two weeks of this practice, it
should not be necessary, as the colt can go from one
period to the regular feeding period. If a box is arranged
near his mother, and a mixture of rolled oats and bran
placed in it, he will soon acquire the habit of nibbling
at it while she is eating. If such a box is kept with some

294 Western Lave-stock Management

grain in it while the dam is gone, the colt will soon be
eating considerable grain. This will greatly increase the
colt’s growth, as it is a correct supplement for the mare’s
milk. The colt will not eat too much if allowed all he
wants and if he consumes only one pound of grain a day
the same will be a valuable addition to his ration.

If the mares and colts are on pasture, a creep should be
arranged for the colts. This can be put near the salting
trough for the mares and in this way the mares will visit
it every day and the colts can get under the creep to their
grain. This will keep the colts growing through the drier
period, when otherwise they would not make any appre-
ciable growth. One should not be in a hurry to wean the
colt, as the additional milk which the mare gives, even if
small, is of benefit to the colt. However, if the mare’s
milk does not agree with the colt, and he does not seem
to thrive on it, it is often well to wean him earlier, and
put on a grain ration as heavy as he will stand. Normally
it is not advisable to wean the colt until five or six months’
of age.

HALTER-BREAKING

Halter-breaking should be brought about just as soon as
possible. A few minutes’ work while the colt is still
running with the mare will suffice better than the same
number of hours when the colt is two or three years of
age. The chief advantage of halter-breaking early in
life is not so much that it is accomplished with less effort,
but that the colt may be handled in any way desired. If
such is the case, he will receive better treatment and
better care. If halter-broken, his feet may be properly
cared for and crooked legs and deformed feet prevented.
Usually no trouble will be experienced in getting the colt

Puate XIII.—‘‘As toe Twic is Benrv.”’

Above left, trimming the colt’s feet on a rainy day; above right, an
open shed that colts like; center, breaking the colt to lead; below, a
good method of tying halter pullers.

The Growing Stock 295

to lead, but if somewhat stubborn, a rope may be passed
back through the halter ring, and a loop dropped overthe
rump and placed so that it will strike the colt in the thighs.
If this is pulled upon rather than the halter, the colt
will usually walk up without any great trouble. If the
colt is tied up, a rope should be passed through its halter,
and around the belly, and tied in that manner. Then
when he pulls upon it, it will tighten around his belly,
and pull there instead of on his head. Very often if
this is not done, the head will become bruised when the
colt struggles.

TRIMMING THE HOOFS

Trimming the colt’s hoofs is a task which is often
neglected. The horn grows out and part of it breaks off,
so that the foot sets on the
ground unevenly and as the
bones are soft and cartilagi-
nous at this time, a crooked
leg or deformed foot results.
This may be avoided by trim-
ming the hoof occasionally,
so that it will set level. To
do this, take up the foot,
and trim off the surplus horn
with a pair of hoof nippers,
a heavy knife, or rasp. Round
off the edges so that there is

Fig. 31. — Tools for Trimming
less tendency for the hoof Horse's Feet.

to break. Handle the colt

gently at first, and if he struggles to get his foot down,
talk gently to him and pet him, but do not release the
foot. If he gets his foot away a few times he will

296 Western Live-stock M anagement

acquire the habit and will always make trouble in han-
dling the feet, either for shoeing or for trimming. A com-
mon method is to stand the colt on the board floor and
trim off the surplus horn with his foot on the floor. One
front foot is tied up to make him keep his other foot on
the floor. In working with the left hind foot, tie up the
left fore foot; and with the right hind foot, the right
fore foot. With this method, the horn is cut with a
mallet and chisel. This is a quick and easy device
adapted to vicious horses, but the operator cannot do
as good a piece of work, and often has difficulty in telling
exactly where to cut, since he has to guess at the position
of the sole. In buying nippers or any instrument for
hoof cutting, one should procure only the best, for the
poorer ones will probably not cut at all. (See Fig. 31.)

WINTERING THE FOAL

Many persons in raising their young horses make a
mistake in not supplying them with a liberal enough ration,
especially during the first year. After the colts are weaned
from the dam, it is difficult to keep them in good condition,
and at such times special care and feed should be given
them. Feed is seldom made too liberal, as this is the time
to shove the colt if exceptional growth is desired. Horse-
men agree that if you stunt the colt you stunt the horse,
and that if you have a stunted yearling you seldom obtain
a good mature horse. On the other hand, a growthy
yearling does not need the feed nor care afterwards that
the stunted one demands. In order to get this growth in
the winter, it is necessary that the colt be fed some grain
in connection with hay and roughage. If timothy is fed
as the roughage, the grain must be of nitrogenous char-

The Growing Stock 297

acter, as oats and bran. If good alfalfa or clover hay is
accessible for the colt, this with oats will make a very
desirable ration. Young colts make larger growth than
older horses in proportion to the feed consumed and hence
it is an economical proposition to put grain into the young
animal.

In addition to good feed, the young colt must have
plenty of exercise. An open shed arrangement is excellent
in most sections of the country for this purpose. This
shed may be constructed by putting the feeding quarters
inside and having them bedded so that the colt may have
a dry place to eat and sleep, but with access to a lot or
pasture where they may run at will. Colts handled in
this way will have long hair, but will develop a ruggedness
that cannot be obtained with colts that are raised with
lack of exercise. Winter pasture should be used if avail-
able but it should not be depended on for the entire
ration if maximum growth is desired.

CASTRATION

Castration is usually performed when the colt is one
year old. If the animal is undeveloped in the neck and
fore-quarters, the castration is sometimes deferred until
the second year, but there is less danger of losing a colt
by castration when one year old than later. Unless
colts are castrated they usually have to be separated from
other horses as early as the second winter, as they become
a great nuisance, although they are not usually capable
of getting colts until the second spring.

FEEDING THE YEARLING

The feed that the yearling should obtain will depend
largely on his future use. If maximum gain is to be

298 IVestern Lave-stock Management

desired, as in the case of pure-bred colts, they should re-
ceive some grain in connection with pasture. If the
animal is merely growing for market purposes and the
pasture is good, this should be sufficient. Under range
conditions, nothing other than grass will be supplied. In
sections in which the grass is limited and more grain is
raised, the grain can be supplied to better advantage. If
the maximum gains are desired, the colt should be kept
up in the day-time when the flies become bad, and fed
some grain, and then turned out at night.

WINTERING THE YEARLING

Plenty of bright legume hay, good water, shed for
shelter, and as much oats as can be spared is a program
that makes for ideal winter management of the yearling.
If the animals come into the winter in good condition,
very little grain is usually needed. A feed of grain once
a day will help materially in keeping the flesh on the colt,
and therefore make for larger gains. Under range condi-
tions, the yearlings are usually left to run with the bunch,
but if maximum size is desired, it would be more satis-
factory to cut them from the bunch and winter on the
better pasture, or with hay. With prue-bred stock,
when large size is desired, it is essential that some grain
be fed in connection with the hay. Oats are very satisfac-
tory for this, but if the hay is a legume, rolled barley will
prove quite satisfactory. The shed arrangement spoken
of for wintering the foal is even more essential for winter-
ing older animals. It is not so necessary that the older
colts have as good shelter as the younger ones. In the
sections where the winters are warm and wet, protection
should be provided so that they can keep out of the rainy

The Growing Stock 299

weather. In sections where snows and storms are bad,
protection is needed for like reason. Under moderate
conditions of winter, the horses will do very well if left
outside most of the time, with protection provided for
extreme cases. Colts wintered in this manner will not
have the same sleekness as the barn-fed colt but they will
obtain a ruggedness of constitution that will last much
longer than a glossy coat.

GROWING THE TWOS AND THREES

The essentials in growing the twos and threes are to
provide feeds that will continue the growth which was
started in the foal and yearling. Fine pasture in summer,
with good hay in winter, together with protection from
storms makes for this growth. Colts that are twos and
threes will not need as much grain as the foal or yearling
but will consume rougher feeds. These feeds, however,
should be of nutritious character, as legume or cereal
hay. Mature work horses do very well on straw and
feeds of less nutritious character, but they are not suit-
able for wintering the immature stock. If the twos or
threes are being developed for show purposes, they will
need to be pushed along with some grain in order to give
them their maximum size and the most satisfactory
gains. For commercial purposes, however, very little
grain is needed, until they reach the age when they will
start to work.

GENTLING

There can be no hard and fast rule for the breaking or
gentling of colts. The complete plans and systems of
horse-breaking are useful only as suggestions which may
be applied as occasion arises. No two colts are exactly

300 Western Live-stock Management

alike. What applies to one will not of necessity apply to
another. However, since the western range produces
a class of horses that are of exceptional individual merit
through the use of good sires, it is well to give a system of
management which many western horsemen have tried
and recommended as the best. The range horses are not
handled until from three to five years of age, and their
only acquaintanceship with man being at the time they
were branded and castrated, they are naturally wild. The
horses are quietly rounded up and driven to the corral.
One of the horses to be handled is then worked out of the
bunch into the catching pen, which is a round corral
built of poles. It is usually fifty or sixty feet in diameter,
and the sides should be at least ten or twelve feet high.
When the horse has been driven into the corral, the two
men who are to conduct the work of gentling enter as
quietly as possible. The lariat rope is hung on a short,
strong wire on the side of the corral, and the man handling
it steps back to the center of the ring, pulling the rope
tight enough to hold the noose about three feet from the
ground. The assistant then drives the horses around the
corral. Instinctively the horse keeps to the outside
whether trotting or loping, and goes into the running
noose with his forelegs, striking the top of the noose
with his breast. The man handling the rope quickly
draws it tight, thereby drawing the horse’s front legs
together and dropping him in a heap on the soft dirt of
the corral.

As soon as the horse is down, the assistant kneels
on his head, thereby holding him down. He may also”
blindfold the horse by dropping a piece of blanket over
his head. The hobbles are placed upon him and he is
allowed to get up. These hobbles have a padded strap

The Growing Stock . 301

buckled around each of the four pasterns. Each strap is
connected to a center ring by a piece of chain eighteen
inches long, thus fastening all four feet together close
enough to prevent the horse from running, striking, or
kicking, but not close enough to prevent him from stand-
ing comfortably. The men now approach the horse
squarely from the side, just opposite the withers, and pro-
ceed to handle him over all parts, talking quietly to him
meanwhile. This is continued for twelve or fifteen
minutes, and the horse allowed to smell harness, saddles,
whips, blankets, and the like. He may then be har-
nessed and bridled, and left alone for a few minutes,
the men leaving the corral. When they return, the horse
is treated as before, and after being handled for a short
time is unharnessed, petted, and the hobbles quietly
removed. The horse should be quiet by this time, and
may be approached and handled without the hobbles.
When the lesson is over, the horse is allowed to pass quietly
out of the corral and into a lot and turned back with
the horses that have not been handled. Another horse
is then driven into the catching corral, and the work is
continued. Experienced men will handle a horse in about
forty-five minutes, or from ten to twelve a day. Horses
that have been handled should be kept together, and when
turned out to pasture at night, they are turned with well-
broken horses. The second day the horses are handled
again as previously,-and after this, the draft colts are
usually quiet, and can be rubbed and harnessed without
again resorting to the hobbles. The colts with hotter
blood will usually need more treatment. After such
colts are thoroughly gentled, they are then in position to
be treated and broken in the same manner as farm-raised
horses.

302 Western Live-stock Management

The entire work of gentling must be conducted with but
one aim, to win the confidence of the horse, for no wild
horse will be gentle until he is confident that the men will
treat him kindly. Horses act largely from force of habit.
After doing a thing a few times, they keep on whether there
is a reason for it or not. A horse has a good memory, but
very little real intelligence. He has much mettle and
energy, with a high-strung nervous system, but very
little reasoning power. All of these characteristics must
be borne in mind when gentling a horse. Great care
must be taken to see that all ropes, halters, harness, and
the like are strong, so there is absolutely no danger of
breaking.

BREAKING TO TIE

Before tying the colt, one should see that the halter is
especially strong. No ordinary halter is strong enough
to hold a healthy colt of two years. A very heavy halter
made for the purpose should be procured. It is usually
better to take a three-quarters-inch rope, pass it through
the ring of the halter, and tie it around the neck with a
bowline knot. Even if the halter is strong enough to
hold the colt, it is not safe to tie and leave him, for he may
pull hard enough to kink his neck or bruise his head.
There are various ways of tying colts and_ halter-pullers.
One of the most satisfactory methods is to take a three-
fourths-inch rope, run it through the halter, and tie it with
a running knot around the body. Therefore, when the
colt pulls back, instead of pulling against the halter, the
rope tightens and squeezes him around the abdomen and
the result is that he will come up to the snubbing pole or
manger. (See Plate XIII.) It is very often practical to
force the colt to pull back once or twice against this and

The Growing Stock 303

try it out, so that he will find that he is securely tied,
that pulling inflicts pain, and afterwards he is not so
likely to try it even when tied only with the regular
halter. Another method of tying horses is to put a loop
in the rope, tying a bowline knot, and put it in place
the same as a crupper on the harness, running the rope
forward and passing it through the halter as before.
The trouble with this tie is that the horse is likely to
rupture the muscles and tendons at the seat of the tail,
and it is somewhat risky on that account. Another
method that is sometimes used is to tie the colt by one of
the front feet. This method is open to several objections,
and it is not as widely used as the other. A method that
is not widely advertised, but is rather efficient, is to tie
the colt with a regular halter, but fasten to a ring above
his head instead of the manger, so that when he pulls
back, the pulling lifts him off his feet and leaves him
helpless. There is very little danger of hurting a horse
by this method. Practically all colts will pull back more
or less when they are first being broken, but if they are
always tied so that they cannot get loose, there is no
danger of their becoming pullers. These precautions
need not be kept up very long if the colt never gets away.
The habit of standing tied soon becomes fixed, and a string
will hold them, but if they break loose once or twice, it
may be several months before it is safe to tie in the ordi-
nary manner. It is often a good plan to keep a colt loose
in a box stall until he becomes used to being confined.

BREAKING TO LEAD

After the horse is somewhat gentle, it is necessary to
teach him to lead. For this purpose the halter rope
should have some length, and in addition to the halter it

304 Western Live-stock Management

is well to put on a hitch known as a guy rope. (See Plate
XIV.) Thisis made by using a soft three-eighths-inch rope
about twenty feet long, with a running loop like a lariat.
The loop is placed around the horse’s neck and then a half
hitch put around the jaw. This makes a very severe
hitch and should not be used for long pulls or for leading
the horse, but in short quick jerks to stop him when he
tries to get away. With this equipment upon the colt, a
strong man should be able to handle him successfully,
but at first, the training should be inside the corral so
that there will be no chance for him to break loose. At
the start a helper should follow behind with a whip, and
urge the colt along as gently as possible without using
the whip until necessary. After the colt learns what is
wanted of him, he can be taught to lead up by the leader
without any one behind. This may be accomplished by
the leader using the whip in the left hand, and tapping
the colt gently, so as to show him what is desired. The
guy rope should not be used to pull upon but merely to
restrain the colt if he becomes over-fractious, as he cannot
be held at such times by a common halter. The colts
that are to be exhibited in the show or sale ring are taught
to lead up beside the attendant ; while some work horses
are broken in this manner, others prefer them to lead
behind. Whichever is the case, they should be taught
to lead up briskly without dragging back.

BREAKING TO WORK

The colt should be handled considerably before trying
to work him. He should become used to being harnessed
and saddled. When hitching him up, one must be sure
that the harness is strong enough so that he cannot possibly

The Growing Stock 305

break it. One should not be lulled into a feeling of security
if he goes all right the first time. With care and judgment,
almost any colt can be driven without trouble the first
time, but often about the third or fourth driving there may
be difficulty. A colt with spirit will not give up without a
struggle. One of the best practices is to hitch him with an
older horse. A stay chain is attached so that the older
horse may pull the wagon, and then by tying the colt to
the older horse, he cannot become unmanageable. A horse
that is‘used to breaking colts seems to enter into the spirit
of it, and is a great help in this work. In some sections
where four-horse teams are used, the colt is often hitched
in as a wheeler, with three old horses, and in this
method he must come along and do what is desired. If
the colt is on good ground and the rigging is strong, one
can force him to do what is wanted, with little difficulty.
If the harness breaks or if one is in some dangerous place
where they must get out the easiest way possible, and thus
give in to him a little, it is more serious and a spoiled
colt likely to be the result. Some horse-men knowing the
necessity of the struggle at some time, think it would
better be met the very first time, but this is a doubtful
policy. The green colt is easily frightened, and what is
intended to restrain him or to punish his obstinacy may.
scare him, so that he has little idea of what is wanted. He
thus not only becomes harder to handle, but fails to learn
the desired lesson. On the other hand, if he is treated
more gently, he may become thoroughly accustomed to
the bit and harness before making trouble. He may
also learn to guide by the reins and know the meaning
of the word “whoa.” When this is the case, he may be
mastered with little difficulty if the outfit is strong and
efficient.
x

306 Western Live-stock Management

BREAKING SINGLE DRIVERS

High-class single drivers are broken to a strong cart
and never worked double at all. This requires plenty of
time and special management and equipment, since it is
difficult to manage a colt hitched to a single cart. In
this method of breaking colts, special carts are used.
These carts are very strong and have extra long shafts
so that the colts will not do any damage by kicking. An
extra length must be attached to the traces, so that
they will reach to the singletree. Extra heavy harness is
also used ; since there are very few single harnesses made
strong enough for this purpose, they are usually made to
order. A kicking strap is also necessary. This is a
heavy strap running across the hips and buckled to the
shafts on each side, and will prevent the colt from kicking
out of the shafts. A crude cart may be made by using an
old buggy axle and wheels, with long poles for shafts, and
the harness may be worked over from a heavy double har-
ness. Few breeders, except those dealing extensively in fine
drivers, have need for these special breaking carts. Before
hitching the colt to the cart, he should be thoroughly
bitted by putting on a bitting harness which consists of a
bridle, surcingle, and reins. The reins should be made
loose at first, but gradually tightened so that the colt
knows what the bit is and becomes accustomed to it so
that he will not bite it. The colt should then be accus-
tomed to the single harness and driven to some extent
with it before being put to the wagon. He should be
taught the terms “whoa,” “get-up,” and be made to
know that the driver is master of the operation. After
the colt’s confidence is obtained is the time to put him to
the strong cart and start the regular. work. Even then

The Growing Stock 307

some difficulty may be experienced, and the driver should
be ready for any trouble that may come up. Good single
drivers are only obtained after a thorough education.
This education requires the training to all kinds of sights,
and the development of a good mouth so that he will carry
the lines and travel in a free manner.

BREAKING SADDLERS

Some persons prefer to break a horse to ride even though
he may never be intended for a saddle horse. The object
of this is to gain complete mastery over the animal with
less trouble and risk than with other methods. No
outfit is needed other than a saddle, bridle, and spurs,
which are obtainable on any farm. After the horse is
thoroughly gentled and broken to lead, he should be accus-
tomed to the bridle and saddle in the same way as when
broken for single driver. The saddle should be put on
and taken off several times, cinched up and uncinched.
Working with the horse for twenty or thirty minutes in
this way will accomplish much. One should then put his
weight in the stirrups for a few times, getting on and off,
repeating this several times. The horse should stand for
a time while the rider is mounted. It should be remem- ,
bered at all times that while one is trying to break the
horse without bucking, he may buck, and then it is the
rider’s business to stay in the saddle; he must, therefore
be prepared. The horse may be allowed to move about
the corral a little, then led away from the barn, always
turning him toward home before getting on. He will
walk back to the barn in much the same way as if he were an
old plow horse. The rider should then turn him the other
way. This time it is better to have him out in the field,

308 Western Live-stock Management

out of sight of the barns and other horses. In fact, he
should be out of sight and hearing of other horses all the
time while breaking. There will now be very little diffi-
culty, and one will find that he can ride the horse around
almost any way desired. He should be ridden only a short
distance the first time, and one should not be fooled be-
cause he rides like an old horse. It is likely that there will
be a struggle before many times, but the colt will be used
to the rider then and can be handled all right, although
one may have to spur him rather hard and he may jump
around and try to buck a little. There are many men in
the West who would call this a cowardly way of breaking
horses, but we are discussing matters from the standpoint
of the good of the horse. The professional wild horse-
men use the method outlined when they want a reliable
saddle horse. They call it “breaking them gentle.”
The practice of roping a horse, saddling him up, and riding
him off is not breaking; it is simply riding without break-
ing. A horse so handled rarely becomes tame enough
so that he can be ridden by an ordinary man. After the
colt is accustomed to general handling and to riding, is
the time to start in with the training. If he is to be used
as a cattle horse, the proper procedure is to start him to
work with the cattle. If he is to be trained at special
gaits, he should be first taught to walk and walk fast;
then he should be taught to trot and later taught the
canter, which is a restrained gallop.

SPECIAL DEVICES FOR BREAKING

Famous horse trainers who have made a reputation
for handling the most vicious horses use some special
methods for gaining mastery of the horse. These are

Pirate XIV.—SpecraL APPLIANCES FOR BREAKING Horses.

Above, Galvayne appliance in use; center left, the war bridle; cen-
ter right, the modified war bridle; below left, guy rope; below right,
guy rope with halter.

The Growing Stock 309

usually very severe, and many of the best horse trainers
will not use them on this account. These methods will
master a horse, but unless the horse-man uses good judg-
ment, they may break the horse’s spirit. One of the most
useful of these devices is known as the Rarey Tackle.
This is made by using a surcingle of heavy leather which
has three strong rings attached three inches apart under
the chest. Two heavy straps with rings inserted are
made to buckle around the pastern of each of the fore-
legs. Then a light three-eighths-inch rope is used in lacing
this arrangement up, starting on one of the outside rings,
running the free end down to the foot, back to the middle
ring, down to the other foot, and back and tie to the third
ring. The free end of the rope comes back so as to be of
sufficient length that the man handling the horse can hold
it without getting close to the horse’s heels. This tackle
should only be used on soft ground unless the horse is
protected on the knees by heavy pads, as the throwing of
the horse on hard ground would injure the knees. These
tackles should not be used to throw the animal suddenly,
but the restraint should be put upon him gradually. If
the horse refuses to be controlled by the halter or guy
rope, then the pressure should be put upon the fore legs,
throwing him to the knees and to the ground, where he
should be held until he gives up. Then he should be
allowed to get up, and if he will not do as desired, it will
be necessary to put him down again. After a horse has
been thrown once or twice in this manner, a slight pressure
upon these ropes, showing him that they are still present
and may be used, is all that is usually necessary. They
are very often used upon single drivers that are incontrol-
lable otherwise, and especially if they are addicted to
backing or whirling.

310 Western Live-stock Management

Another device that is very useful in subduing vicious
horses is the Galvayne appliance. In this a rope is
attached to the tail by a series of half hitches so that it
will not come off, and has sufficient length remaining to
extend to the halter. The horse’s head is then turned
around and the rope which is attached to the tail tied
short into the halter so that the horse’s head will be
cramped to one side. He is then turned loose in the soft
dirt of the corral and allowed to whirl himself around until
he becomes more or less sluggish. After this he is allowed
to straighten himself out and put back to work. If he
still fights another treatment should be given. This is a
very handy arrangement in that it uses the horse’s own
energy and will power to help subdue himself, and it is
very efficient. (See Plate XIV.)

A bridle, known as a war bridle, is often used in the con-
trolling of the wilder horses. This is made with a soft
rope three-eighths of an inch in diameter and about twenty
to twenty-five feet long. A small loop is tied in one end
just large enough to go in the horse’s mouth and around
the lower jaw. This is placed in the animal’s mouth
with the knot and free end on the right side, bringing the
free end up over the head and down through the loop in
the mouth, thus completing the bridle. A modification
of this may be made by putting the free end again over
the top of the head from left to right, around the right
side through the mouth, and then through the part which
passes over the head. The severity of this last hitch may
be increased by putting the rope which passes through the
mouth last just under the upper lip, thus forming a twitch.
A bridle of this kind should only be used when absolutely
necessary as it can be very severe. All of these hitches
are useful, but can be made instruments of torture if they

The Growing Stock 311

are put in the hands of a man who loses his temper.
As such a man should not attempt to break horses, we do
not hesitate in recommending their use.

STABLES AND SHEDS

Barn or shed room for young growing stock is especially
needed for protection from rains and severe storms.
Formerly it was thought that the young stock should be
pampered by keeping them in close quarters. Good horse-
men are realizing more than ever that the outdoor system
of raising young stock is the most practical and successful
under average conditions. In this system the aim is to
provide shelter where the animals can go in case of storms
or bad weather of any kind, and to arrange it so that the
colts can be outdoors most of the time. Even in stormy
weather, it is surprising to find how much time the colt
will spend out in the open weather if given his own choice
in the matter. An arrangement of this kind can be made
in the horse barn or by having a shed adjacent to it. One
method is to have a series of single stalls facing the center
feed alley where the colts may be tied up during feeding
time, so that if grain is fed, the colts which are stronger
will not get the major portion. The side of the barn can
be made in the form of an open shed or closed with doors
to open on a lot. If there are halters on the animals so
that the ropes may be snapped and unsnapped from the
front, it is seldom necessary to go into the pen where they
are. A similar arrangement made without the stalls is
better liked by some, as it takes less room to a colt and
provides more freedom of movement.

CHAPTER XXI

THE STALLION

Goop sires have wrought a wonderful improvement in
the quality of Western horses, and the margin of profit
between the cost of raising a good pure-bred stallion and
the income derived from the increased value of his colts
has been tremendous. This margin, however, has been
largely lost to the farmers, owing on the one hand to the
exploitation of the business by dealers and on the other
to the indifferent care given the stallions themselves.
The stallion business is a fertile field for improvements —
improvements that cost little money and bring big
returns.

METHODS OF BUYING

Two general methods of purchasing stallions are prefer-
able to most persons. These are privately owned stallions
which stand for public service throughout the neighbor-
hood, and conipany stallions which are owned by a company
of neighbors who join together and purchase a horse. Of
these two systems the first is preferable, and is coming into
practice to a larger extent. The company stallion has
generally proved unsatisfactory, except in cases in which
the men have formed their own organization. If the com-
pany waited for some salesman of a distant stallion dealer -
or importer to organize them into a company and then sell

312

The Stallion 313

them a horse at an inflated value, there has generally
been dissatisfaction on account of the high price of the
horse, or disagreement among the individual members of
the company. Occasionally such a system has proved
satisfactory, and it can be recommended only where the
individual members are not able to buy a stallion in any
other way, and where a few horse-men can get together
and agree on some horse which they wish to buy.

The time is at hand when the buyer should take the
initiative in regard to purchasing a stallion. At present,
$1500 in the hands of a buyer who knows what he wants
‘will purchase a horse from the breeder or dealer-that would
cost him $2500 or $3000 from the dealer or stallion sales-
man. At the same time he can secure a wider range of
selection and therefore buy a horse that more nearly suits
his conditions. In practically every section of the West
there are some pure-bred breeders who have good founda-
tion stock, and who are selling pure-bred animals at so
low a price that one cannot possibly afford to use a grade
or mongrel sire. The dealers are also selling horses at
reasonable prices, especially when the buyers go to the
farm and offer cash. There is no one factor that will in-
crease the general merit of the commercial stock produced
as will the going of the buyer to select the stallion. Pure-
bred horses of merit cannot be bought at grade prices,
but $3000 should not be paid for the average horse and
nothing but a stallion which is good enough to go at the
head of a bunch of pure-bred mares can be purchased at
that price and money made on the deal.

The European War has barred the American horse-
men from using imported stallions to any large extent.
Previous to the opening of the war, there was a fictitious
value placed on the word “imported” and now that such

314 Western Live-stock Management

horses are scarce, the dealers who own a few have tried
to make it of greater value than ever. The American
horses produced at the present time are often far better
than the horses which were imported prior to 1914, as
many of the imported ones were a cheap class of horses
which were sold on the reputation of the better individuals.
Since European stock has been brought to this country,
some excellent animals have been imported and have been
used for the foundation of the breeds in this country.
The American-raised stock, therefore, contains much of
the best blood of the European countries, and in addition
they have been raised under American conditions and
are therefore acclimated. But even in this case, an
American horse of equal merit with an imported horse,
both from the standpoint of conformation and breeding,
would not sell for as high a price as the imported one.
The present supply of imported horses is low, and there-
fore the American horse is being forced on the American
public. It is now the business of the pure-bred breeders
of this country to develop their horses to the utmost, to
castrate the poorer individuals, and further to develop
this home trade which is now becoming firmly established.

A factor which has been of immense value in putting
the pure-bred horse properly and consistently before the
public has been the stallion license laws. These laws are
the outgrowth of a demand from the public for a correct
representation of the stallion’s breeding and soundness.
In most laws these factors are the points that have had the
most prominence. It has been necessary to submit the
breeding of the horse to the stallion board, together with
a veterinarian’s certificate of soundness. A license is then
issued, showing the correct breeding, and if the horse is
afflicted with hereditary unsoundnesses, he is either barred

The Stallion 315

from license, or the unsoundness is posted in a conspicuous
manner upon the license. The licenses are required to be
posted in public places so that breeders who patronize the
public service stallion can be truthfully informed in regard
to the breeding. So many states now have such laws that
they cover the larger proportion of the horse-producing
sections. Throughout these states there has been a
strong tendency toward increasing the number of the pure-
bred sires, and decreasing sires with unsoundness and poor
conformation. The stallion laws have also provided a
lien upon mares bred. This furnishes the stallion owner
with protection so that he can collect service fees and
therefore put his investment on a more substantial basis.

FEEDING IN THE BREEDING SEASON

The feeds needed by a stallion during the breeding season
correspond closely to those needed by a growing animal
or the brood mare that is suckling a foal or developing a
foetus. In view of the large amount of albumen that is
in the semen, together with the nervous strain of the breed-
ing season, foods are needed which contain a considerable
amount of protein, and in order that the stallion’s system
keep in good physical bloom, these feeds should have a
cooling effect. Feeds which meet these requirements espe-
cially well are oats and bran. The bran will tend to keep
his bowels open, and therefore make him less likely to
have trouble with leg or skin diseases. Roots, when they
are available, form a very valuable addition to the ration
if fed in limited quantities. Fresh-cut grasses or pasture
are also valuable as either roots or grasses tend to keep the
bowels in good condition and the horse healthy. For
hay, a mixture of timothy and clover is very satisfactory.

316 Western Live-stock Management

The amount of grain that the stallion requires will be from
one to one-and-one-fourth pounds a 100 pounds of live
weight, with about a similar amount of hay. In order to
keep the stallion doing well, he will need to have con-
siderable work of one kind or another, as it is impossible
to feed the horse heavily and keep him in good condition
without exercise.

CARE IN THE BREEDING SEASON

In the breeding season, many of the stallions are
peddled; that is, taken from one barn to another where
the mares are to be bred. In a circuit of ten miles or
thereabouts the horse will receive plenty of exercise in
this way. Some breeders lead their horses with a saddle
pony, while others drive them to a cart, or in some in-
stances ride them. The saddle pony is the more con-
venient and saves much hitching and unhitching, but of
course it means the maintenance of an extra horse. When
the stallion is kept at home during the breeding season and
the mares brought to him, the question of exercise is more
serious. It will be necessary to give the horse at least a
five-mile walk each day, either hitched to a cart or led
with a saddle horse. This is a disagreeable task, but
must be done if the horse is to be a sure foal-getter. If at
any time he shows signs of being slow in serving or un-
certain, he should be given still more exercise. Some
horses have to be worked hard before they are sure breed-
ers. One should not use drugs or dope of any sort. The
horse should be given plenty of good feed and exercise
and kept clean. If then he becomes sick, a veterinarian
must be called. One should not try to treat a good
stallion oneself, as he is too valuable an animal.

The Stallion 317

The grooming of a stallion presents problems that are
not common with other classes of horses. In addition to
tending to his coat, as mentioned under “Work Horses,”
it is necessary to take good care of the sexual organs, as
they will become filthy and require washing and cleaning.
Two general methods are advocated for this, and either
is quite satisfactory. One is to take a bucket of warm
water and ivory or castile soap, and thoroughly cleanse
the sheath and adjacent regions. The other method is to
use wet bran and pack in the sheath and let it gradually
work out. It will carry out a large part of the dirt and
filth with it. Some persons advise using a mild antiseptic
on the penis after the serving of each mare. This tends
to cleanse the organ, but one cannot expect this to prevent
the horse from becoming diseased if the mare is diseased,
on account of the large number of wrinkles which will not
be thoroughly cleansed. The only way to keep the horse
free from disease is to watch the mares and keep the stal-
lion off the mares that are questionable.

FEEDING AND CARE OUT OF SEASON

The best system of management for the stallion out of
season is that given to the gelding. That is, three fairly
heavy feeds a day, and a good day’s work six times a week,
and rest and light feed on Sunday. The feed need not be
as heavy as during the breeding season, and three-fourths
of a pound of oats for 100 pounds of live weight is sufficient
grain unless the stallion is doing extremely heavy work.
The stallion should not be in a condition so that he would
need to be reduced in flesh, as many stallion men practice.
If he is exercised regularly with some form of work, and
fed in the way the gelding should be fed, he will be in the

318 Western Live-stock Management

best possible physical bloom. More stallions are injured
in the winter through lack of exercise and heavy feeding
than by any other method. Too many are put in a box
stall when the season is over and never taken out until
the next spring except occasionally to clean the stall.
The appearance of some stalls would indicate that he
was seldom taken out even for this purpose. The result
of such practice, together with too much feed, is that the
horse becomes fat, sluggish, and out of condition. Noth-
ing can be expected the following spring except an un-
healthy horse and an uncertain breeder. The stallion
should be broken to work young, but should not do much
until he is mature. The breaking of a stallion should be
conducted the same as for the gelding except that the
stallion is stronger and more spirited, although less likely
to be frightened than the gelding.

HANDLING THE SERVICE STALLION

A reliable man is a good investment in handling the
service stallion. There are several reasons for this, the
most important of which is that a good horse represents
a large investment, and therefore must be handled care-
fully, and second, the patrons who use the horse are
largely influenced to do so by the personality of the stal-
lion keeper. One reason why the grade and mongrel
stallions have made such inroads on the business of the
pure-bred horse is because of the methods of salesmanship
which some of the owners have used. The inroad is
not entirely dependent on the difference of service fee,
but that is usually a strong point. The service stallion
is a business proposition and as such should be handled
as a business. The patrons will appreciate the horse
better if he is in good physical shape, well groomed, and

The Stallion 319

properly cared for. They will also appreciate courteous
treatment and will be especially pleased if the stallion
man keeps a close check on the time the mares are to be
tried or bred. Stallion men are notoriously slipshod in
their business dealings and a change from such methods
is good business.

The young stallion at two years of age should not breed
more than eight or ten mares during the season, and the
mares should not come oftener than four or five days
apart. Well-developed three-year-old stallions may cover
twenty to thirty mares a season without injuring them-
selves, but should not be bred oftener than three times a
week. Forty to fifty mares may be bred by a four-year-
old. One mare a day, or perhaps three in two days is all
that he can cover. A mature stallion may make two
covers a day. If bred oftener, the semen frequently
contains very few spermatozoa and the stallion is sure
to be a better breeder if not used so often. The number
of mares that the mature stallion may breed will, there-
fore, depend largely on the length of the season. Artifi-
cial impregnation is increasing the number of mares that
the stallion may cover. In this method it is common for
the stallion man to announce that the mares will be bred
at eight o’clock in the morning, and have the mares
assembled at that time. Then the mares are tried and
those in heat assembled so that they may be bred artifi-
cially. A mare which is in good physical condition and
normal in every regard is used as the mare for breeding.
Part of the semen is then taken from her and used in the
other mares.

BREEDING EQUIPMENT

Every man who handles a stallion should have proper

equipment for safe breeding. This consists of a suitable

320 Western Live-stock Management

place for trying and breeding the mare, some type of re-
straining apparatus for the mare, and a substantial stallion
bridle. Mares are very likely to kick when they are being
tried or teased. The commonly used teasing pole does not
fully protect the stallion, and a much safer arrangement
is a solid wall about three feet high and about twelve
feet long. Its top should be broad, rounded, and smooth.
A good pen in which to confine the foal should be near by,
probably directly in front of the mare. Mares in foal
are much quieter if the foal is in sight. A breeding
stall is also used by many, and is found quite satisfactory.
This is made by setting two posts, four feet apart, with a
removable bar between them for the mare to bump
against. From the posts a side rail is placed so that it
will go on each side of the mare and keep her from moving
from one side to the other, but low enough to be out of
way of stallion and attendant. (See Fig. 32.)

Breeding hobbles should be used on every mare that is
at all nervous or excitable. Even the gentlest of mares
sometimes kick unexpectedly. Ifa stallion is good enough
to use as a sire, he certainly deserves full protection. The
best type of hobbles consists of a strong neck band or
collar with connecting ropes which pass through straps
around the hocks. Those that fasten around the pasterns
hold just as well, but the ropes are lower, and the mare or
stallion is more likely to become entangled with it. It is
usually advisable to fix the hobbles in position before the
stallion is brought in sight, for nearly all mares are ner-
vous when the stallion is near.

If the stallion has been properly trained and handled, a
strong bridle with a plain bar bit and leading rein with a
chain in one end is sufficient for controlling him. The
chain should be passed through the ring on the near side

The Stallion 321

under the chin, and fastened to the ring on the off side.
Tough-mouthed and head-strong horses sometimes re-
quire more severe apparatus. The following apparatus

EQUIPMANT
HOUSE.

28’x a

2— GATE TO BARN

coLtT
PADDOCK
10'x 16°

eo ees

TEASING STALL

3’x 10’
BREEDING
STALL
ag x 5"

TIGHT BOARD FENCE—,

GRAVEL OR CINDER LOT
40/x 40°

| ie RACK -———>

f AE"

Fic. 32. — A Satisfactory Arrangement for the Breeding Lot.

is successful with horses of this type. An iron rod three-
eighths of an inch in diameter and eight inches long is
fitted with a ring in one end and a snap in the other.
The end with the snap is fastened on the off side of the
bit, with the rod running through the near side. The

322 Western Live-stock Management

lead rein is then fastened to the ring on the free end of the
rod. A heavy twisted bar or snaffle bit should be used.

In addition to the equipment above, the modern stallion
owner is equipped with an impregnating outfit and gela-
tine capsules, even though he does not make a regular
business of using artificial impregnation. There will be
occasions when many mares will come for service at the
same time, and unless he is situated so as to take care of
them by this means, many of them will be forced to some
other stallion, or his stallion will be forced to breed oftener
than advisable if he is to be a sure foal-getter.

STABLES AND LOTS

The breeding stallion on the best farms is not isolated
from other horses. Isolation is likely to make him more
crabbed and vicious, and also cause him to be much
harder to control when around other horses. If but
one stallion is kept on the place, it is preferable that he
have a roomy box stall in the regular horse barn, adjacent
to a large paddock. If several stallions are owned and
kept at the same farm, a separate stallion barn may be
kept for them. A horse that is isolated from others, in
addition to becoming vicious, is more likely to develop
habits of cribbing and masturbating.

The stall for the stallion should be of box form, not less
than fourteen by fourteen feet, and absolutely solid in
construction, with smooth walls. There are differences
of opinion in regard to mangers and feed-boxes. Some
prefer a small feed-box for grain in one corner, with a
slatted hay-rack placed high from the floor. Others use
a type of smooth manger across the corner of the stall,
so as to have no sharp edges. If a manger is built it

The Stallion 323

should have no opening in front, since the horse is likely
to try to get over it and hurt himself in the effort. To pre-
vent him from rubbing his tail, the walls of the box should
slope one foot from the bottom. A good way to accom-
plish this is to nail a two by four on the floor. This
two by four should reach entirely around the stall, and
be a foot from the sides. Boards four feet long should he
taken and set on end, the upper end against the wall and
the lower end against the two by four’s. When nailed
firmly one has a wall that will protect the outer wall,
and also keep the horse from rubbing.

There must be an exercising lot wherever the stallion
is located. This should be in connection with the stall,
and should be roomy. It is even better if it assumes the
dimensions of a pasture. To make a fence high and
strong enough for stallions costs a little more than ordi-
nary fence, but it pays. One hundred dollars will fence
a good-sized pasture, and in many cases it will be repaid
the first year by the larger number of colts obtained.
Exercise for the stallion pays returns more quickly than
it will with any other animal. Many stallions are changed
in a few days from non-breeders to good foal-getters by
giving plenty of work.

ADVERTISING

In order that the investment in a good stallion be justi-
fied by a large amount of business, it is essential that he
be properly placed before the public by liberal advertising.
There are three requirements to a clear concise poster:
the name of the stallion and owner; a statement as to
the place of stand; the terms of service clearly stated.
In addition to these three points, many of the states

824 Western Live-stock Management

require that a copy of stallion license be posted which will
clearly define whether the animal is a pure-bred, grade,
or mongrel. It is also well to include a picture of the
stallion, so that persons who have not seen him will
become acquainted with his general type and char-
acteristics. If the horse has won any prizes and made
a show record, these should be stated, as they are factors
which should influence horse-men in breeding to him. It
is also well to notify through the local papers in regard
to the horse and to the place of stand. This is especially
essential in the early part of the season, so that breeders
will not be inconvenienced, and will be on the lookout for
the stallion. Conservative advertising by these two
methods is productive of good results.

BREEDING TERMS AND CONTRACTS

In order to insure prompt payment of services and to
avoid misunderstandings, it is essential that the terms of
service be clearly defined. ‘The common terms of service
are single leap; by the season, with or without return
privilege; insure the mare to be in foal; and to insure
a living colt to stand and suck. The terms of service
which are to be used should depend largely on the custom-
ary practice in the locality. Usually when the single leap
is $10.00, the season without return privilege is $15.00,
insure in foal $20.00, and to insure foal to stand and suck,
$25.00. These will be approximately the ratio of the
various terms of service, as figured on the net average
amount which the stallion owner will usually obtain.
Stallion owners should everywhere encourage men to
accept the season or in foal contract, as they tend to induce
the mare owners to take better care of their mares, and

The Stallion 325

therefore reduce the liabilities due to dead foals, and the
like which come from lack of proper care. Also the stal-
lion owner will then not be troubled with mares which
are not likely to get in foal, especially if the breeders use
the season charge. Another advantage of the season
charge is that it usually insures that the mare owners
will return their mares with more regularity, and therefore
give the stallion owner a better chance to get them in foal.
Stallion men now largely use breeding contracts con-
sisting of a promissory note for the service of the stallion
payable when the terms of the breeding service are ful-
filled. This is signed by the owner of the mare, and there-
fore a more careful record is kept of it than otherwise.
This will also make it possible to collect for the mares in a
much easier manner than where no absolute record is
kept of the service. The entire stallion business should be
considered as a business investment and handled as such. -
This cannot be done except by the use of business methods.

CHAPTER XXII
THE RANGE HORSE

THE men designated as range horse breeders are those
who use the range for the larger proportion of the feed
of their animals, occasionally supplementing it with hay
during the winter period. The range horse breeders
are found over a large territory. Wherever cattle are
raised, many horses will be found. The reason for this
is that the cattle-men wish to raise the large number of
saddle and work horses which they need for their own use
as well as some surplus for sale. There are also many
breeders who are strictly horse-producers. Throughout
the range country, a decided change may be noted toward
more cattle and sheep and fewer horses. There are several
factors that have caused this movement, the principal
one being the high price of cattle and sheep and the
relatively slow market for range horses. In addition,
there are the barbed wire fences which have, in some
places, greatly handicapped the horse-men who let their
stock run on the open range. The slipshod fences put
up by the homesteaders kill and cripple many horses,
especially when they are being chased by the home-
steader’s dogs. Even with a large number of breeders
transferring to cattle or sheep, there are still many who
will continue with the range horse. Horses winter out
better than the other classes of animals and are therefore

326

The Range Horse 327

popular on ranges where good winter pasture or feed is
not available. Many of the smaller ranchers are breed-
ing range horses, but these are of better type than for-
merly and it is easier to find a market for them. A marked
change has come about in recent years in the general
type of range horse. Formerly, the thorough-bred and
standard-bred stallions were favorites on the range, due
to the production of saddle horses, but at present, on
account of the small demand for light horses, these animals
are not meeting with favor and heavier-boned stallions
are being used. This results in a more rugged type of
horse which for wearing ability and constitution is hard
to surpass.

RANGE MARES

During the breeding season there are two methods
of handling the mares. One method is to turn them
loose upon the range and let them run, usually with more
or less herding. The other method is to turn them on
adjacent ranges or pastures, but to drive them to the
corral for breeding purposes and also to take care of the
colts when necessary. The latter method is becoming
the more general as it results in the use of a better class
of stallions and while as many mares may not get in foal
as when the stallions run loose with them, the percentage
of colts actually saved is larger.

After the breeding season is over, the mares and colts
are usually left free to seek their own pasture and very
often they are not rounded up until fall as the colts are
usually branded before the mares are turned out. The
better horse-men herd their mares to some extent to keep
them separated from other bands and on the better pas-
tures. This treatment pays, as closer watch may be

828 Western Live-stock Management

kept on the bunch and more size obtained on the colts
by the better feed. In the winter, if the pastures are
good, the mares are left out for the larger proportion of
the time. When the heavy snows come, they are some-
times put up but usually if they will winter through, they
are left to do so. It is seldom necessary to feed for a
long period in most sections of the West as the horses
will paw out bunch-grass except where the snow becomes
unusually deep. Hay should always be on hand to take
‘care of this emergency. If the hay is not too high in
price, good profit can be made by using some in the winter,
as it will insure better condition of the mares and there-
fore larger percentage of foals in the spring.

RANGE STALLIONS

There are three general methods of handling the range
stallion. One is to keep him up and bring the mares to
him; another is to turn him loose upon the range and
herd the mares and the stallion; and the other is to turn
the stallion loose with the mares and let them run at will.
In the past, the practice of the range was to turn the
stallions loose with the mares, but with the advance of
the draft sire, it has been found impracticable to do this,
as he will not stand range conditions. The large stallion
will tear up his feet and not keep in physical condition
to do service if turned loose upon the average range. He
also costs many times as much as the stallion formerly
used and therefore represents a larger investment. Some
of the more active of the draft sires will do fairly well
if the mares are closely herded so as not to cover too much
territory. The system that has been found most satis-
factory by the breeders who are using the heavier class

The Range Horse 329

of stallions has been to keep the stallions up and herd
the mares, bringing in the ones which are in heat. This
results in a smaller percentage of the mares getting in
foal but a larger number of the colts that are dropped
are saved, due to the better care which the mares are
receiving. Another benefit of this practice is that the
stallions may tend to more mares and especially the mares
which one wishes him to serve. When the stallions are
loose on the range, it is an all too common practice to drive
mares to those that are known to be the best colt-pro-
ducers, and therefore the better stallions are very often
overworked and injured.

After the breeding season is over, the range stallion
that is kept up is handled very similarly to the stallion
in other places. Usually a large paddock or field is suit-
ably fenced so that he may run in it and keep in good
physical condition. If he is a light-boned stallion or one
that will stand the range conditions, he is usually turned
loose with the mares and allowed to roam with them.
This method will often catch some of the mares that have
failed to get in foal earlier in the year. It will also insure
that the stallion receives plenty of exercise, which is not
always the case when kept in close quarters.

GROWING STOCK

Different conditions of range necessitate different
methods of growing the younger stock. The common
practice, however, is to let the stock run, furnishing them
with the hay that is absolutely necessary in the winter
and gradually letting them attain their growth. Under
this practice, the horses at four or five years of age will
usually not weigh over 1000 to 1200 pounds. On the

330 Western Live-stock Management

other hand, some of those that are better fed in the winter
on some alfalfa or wild hay will often attain a weight of
1300 to 1400 pounds, but it is seldom deemed advisable to
feed hay in winter unless the horses absolutely need it.
Horses that are raised in this manner will often increase
in weight after they are put to work in other sections,
especially if they are fed heavily on grain and leguminous
hay.

The only time that the young stock are caught up is
when they are branded and castrated. The castration
is usually performed as yearlings, as the colts become a
nuisance if allowed to go a longer time. As the horses
are not handled until they reach maturity except as above
mentioned, they are rather wild, but if they are from the
draft sires, which are coming into use more and more,
they do not require nearly the amount of gentling that
will be needed if they are from hot-blooded stallions.
The system of gentling in general practice has been given
in another chapter. It is a common practice to sell the
colts any time after they are four or five years of age,
depending on general market conditions and the growth
of the colts. They are rounded up, inspected by the
owner or buyer, and any not fit are turned back on the
range to grow or to develop more if they have it in them.
The ones that are needed for use are cut out and broken.
Some ranchers use the buckaroo method of breaking,
while others go at it more systematically and try to gentle
and win the confidence of the horses. The latter method
is growing in favor.

CONTROL OF RANGE STALLIONS

An important problem with the range horse-men is
the control of range stallions. The breeders who are

The Range Horse 331

seeking to improve their stock are constantly worried
with scrub stallions which belong to some one else, or by
two-and three-year-old stallions that were not castrated
when they should have been. In some states rigid con-
trol of these stallions is obtained by having special agents
appointed to castrate them and providing fines for turn-
ing loose such animals upon the range. There is some
agitation towards passing a law which would prohibit
any but pure-bred stallions running loose upon the public
domain. It is probable that it will be some time before
a law of this kind is put into actual operation, but it is
certain that in the near future the range-men will ask for
laws doing away with the scrub stallions.

CHAPTER XXIII
THE PURE-BRED

SINCE pure-bred horses will perform the farm work
and at the same time breed and raise high-priced colts,
they offer a strong inducement to those who are inter-
ested in raising a better class of stock. The handling
of pure-bred stock as compared with grade stock offers
larger returns from a larger investment and better care.
The pure-bred horse should not be owned by the man who
does not have the desire and ability to take care of horses
in the proper manner. If the man is a successful raiser
of grades, the breeding of pure-bred animals of like type
offers a good opportunity, for with somewhat larger in-
vestment in the original stock, he receives larger returns
from the young stock on account of their breeding and
the better care which they receive.

Handling pure-bred horses requires a man with three
qualifications. He must be a competent horse-man, a
good judge of live-stock, and a thorough business man.
A good horse-man is needed, as the future success of the
business depends on the ability to raise good stock and
to take care of them properly. A good judge is necessary
in the selection of the breeding animals and in the pricing
of their produce. Other than a good judge will not select
the ‘type of animals which are demanded on the market.
More than the average amount of business ability is re-

332

The Pure-bred 333

quired in the recording of pedigrees, buying, and especially
the selling of pure-bred horses.

Three large problems confront the average small
breeder of pure-bred horses. These are salesmanship,
sires, and feed and care. The producer of grade horses
is accustomed to the buyer coming to his place and offer-
ing him a price for his stock, which he accepts or refuses
as he sees fit. The pure-bred buyers seldom proceed in
this way at the present time. They expect the seller to
find them. At present the law of supply and demand
does not trouble the pure-bred breeder as much as getting
the supply to where the demand exists. Good sires are
also a problem of the small breeder. They are high-
priced and unless there are other pure-bred mares in the
neighborhood that will pay a higher service fee than the
ordinary grade stock, it is sometimes inadvisable to pay
the price necessary to buy the type of animal really needed
at the head of a pure-bred herd. Feed and care as given
on the average American farm will not produce the maxi-
mum development. The horses which are imported from
foreign countries or those which are bred and produced
by large dealers and breeders in this country are developed
in the best manner possible. These animals present a
better appearance to the buyer, and therefore demand a
higher price than the average stock raised. Therefore,
if the small breeder is to raise pure-bred stock, he must
give them every opportunity to develop into the best
type possible.

FOUNDATION MARES

It is essential to consider the type of horses which one
wishes to produce when selecting the foundation mares
for the production of pure-breds. The type demanded

334 Western Lwwe-stock \JLanagement

by the draft horse buyers at the present time is an animal
with soundness, ruggedness, and the general character-
istics of serviceableness stamped upon her body and with
a certain degree of beauty. In selecting the mares, it
is better to procure one or two good mares that will pro-
duce the type of stock which is salable than to buy three
or four which are off-type, unsound, or which may fail
to breed. It is not essential that foundation mares
weigh a ton, as often the extremely heavy mares are
coarse and masculine in appearance, and not as reliable
breeders as those of average weight and more feminine
appearance. .

FOUNDATION STALLIONS

The sire of pure-bred horses is more than one-half the
stock. The reason for this is that he has one-half the
influence on the offspring, and in addition he is the adver-
tising and sale feature for the entire bunch. Occasionally”
a mare will become noted for the kind of offspring which
she produces, but the sire is invariably the animal which
puts the breeder at the top with any kind of pure-bred
stock. On account of this, it is essential that the sire
be more than an average horse; in fact he should be an
out-standing individual. More attention than usual
should also be paid to the breeding of such horses, espe-
cially among breeders of draft horses. There are few
draft horse breeders who are good judges of pedigrees.

PEDIGREES AND REGISTRATION

A pedigree in the broadest sense of the word is a record
of ancestry. In common use, however, the term is applied
to the published record of breeding and ancestry issued
by some association, organized for the express purpose

The Pure-bred 835

of recording and publishing such pedigrees. The different
breeds of live-stock which now have associations organized
for the recording, of pedigrees have all developed in a
more or less similar manner. Breeders find that a cer-
tain strain of animals fits their needs better than any
other, and continue to use that strain, constantly selecting
the best. After a course of years this strain becomes
distinctly different from other animals of the same species.
Not only are these animals themselves different, but they
transmit these differences to their offspring. The men
handling these animals finally realize that they have
something different and perhaps of real value, and so
begin to think of perpetuating it, thereby forming a new
breed. A breed, according to the generally accepted
definition, is a race of animals having a common ancestry
and possessing common traits that are transmitted by
heredity. As interest in the new stock grows, a permanent
record is kept of the best animals and their offspring.
Sometimes this is handled by private parties, but usually
a small association is started for the purpose. The
animals first recorded are called “foundation” stock.
They are not admitted according to rule, but on the
judgment of the association. All the offspring of such
foundation stock are eligible to record on the books of
the association. It is also customary in the beginning
to accept animals for record which are largely but not
entirely of the blood of these foundation animals. Foun-
dation stock may be taken into the records of the associa-
tion for some time, but usually for only a few years,
when the books are closed, and no more foundation
stock is admitted. After this time animals are often
registered if they have a certain number of top crosses.
Some of the horse associations still register animals with

336 Western Live-stock Management

five top crosses. This means that the animal to be re-
corded has been bred up from scrub stock by the use of
five pure-bred sires in direct succession, thus making the
animal 3% pure-bred. Now, however, this rule is abol-
ished and nearly all the leading breed associations record
only the offspring of sires and dams already registered.

Methods of recording.

In recording animals with the association, blanks or
forms printed by the secretary are used. In the appli-
cation, it is necessary to give the name and number of the
sire, name and number of the dam, signature of the breeder
as to the service and the time of foaling, and complete
color markings of the colt. If the animal is registered
under the top cross rule, it is necessary to give his entire
pedigree, tracing back to the sixth generation in most
cases. When an animal is accepted for registry, it is
given the name which the breeder suggests and a regis-
tration number, or in some cases assigned a certain vol-
ume and page on the record. The secretary of the asso-
_ Ciation then issues a certificate to the owner, which shows
the information in regard to the animal’s breeding, the
color markings, and the like, and certifies under the seal
of the association that the animal has been duly recorded
on their books. Such a certificate is known as certif-
icate of registration, or more commonly as a pedigree.
These certificates usually show, in addition to the sire
and dam, the other ancestors for several generations.
The names of the animals are in all cases accompanied
by their registration numbers or by the volume and page
of the book in which they are recorded. When the num-
ber or page is not given, the ancestor in question is not
recorded. In case of grades admitted under top cross

The Pure-bred 337

rules, the unregistered dams will have no number, al-
though their names will usually appear. When the
animals have been registered in foreign countries, the
foreign registration number will always accompany the
American number, but will be in parenthesis. Canadian
numbers will be put in brackets. In addition to such
certificates of registration, the secretary of the association
publishes all such pedigrees in a book, which is called a
stud-book. The volumes of such books are published
as often as there are sufficient number of pedigrees to
warrant it. With our leading breeds of horses, there are
from ten to twenty volumes published.

Recognized associations.

In the stallion business there have been many fakes
in pedigrees or certificates of registry. This has led to
a closer study of the breed associations to determine
which are reliable in their methods of recording and which
have rules stringent enough that the animals registered
may be considered pure-bred. The larger number of
the stallion registration laws allow pure-bred licenses
to animals registered in the following associations. Ani-
mals recorded in other associations are considered of
doubtful breeding.

American Association of Importers and Breeders of Belgian
Draft Horses, Wabash, Indiana.

American Breeders and Importers Percheron Registry, Plain-
field, Ohio.

American Breeders Association of Jacks and Jennets, Columbia,
Tennessce.

American Clydesdale Association, Union Stock Yards, Chicago,
Illinois.

American Hackney Horse Society, New York.

Percheron Society of America, Union Stock Yards, Chicago,
Illinois.

838 Western Live-stock Management

American Saddle Horse Breeders Association, Lexington,
Kentucky.

American Shetland Pony Club, Lafayette, Indiana.

American Shire Horse Breeders Association, Wenona, Illinois.

American Studbook (Thoroughbred), New York.

American Trotting Register Association, Chicago, Illinois.

American Suffolk Horse Association, Janesville, Wis.

Cleveland Bay Society of America, Oconomovoc, Wis.

French Coach Horse Society of America, Oak Park, Ill.

French Coach Registry Company, Columbus, Ohio.

German Hanoverian and Oldenburg Coach Horse Breeders
Association, Lafayette, Indiana.

Morgan Horse Register, Middlebury, Vermont.

National French Draft Horse Association, Fairfield, Iowa.

Standard Jack and Jennet Registry, Kansas City, Missouri.

Welch Pony and Cob Society, Aurora, Illinois.

Methods of misrepresentation.

Bogus or fraudulent pedigrees for horses have usually
come under one of the following classes: 1. Pedigrees
or certificates of registration issued by associations or
companies without recognized standing; 2. Certificates
or pedigrees issued by recognized associations upon
misrepresentation of the owners of the horses; 3. Pedi-
grees which are correct in themselves, but which do not
belong to the horses with which they are associated, the
original horse having died and a grade having been sub-
stituted; 4. Pedigrees which have been changed in the
age or description of the horse in order to make them fit
another horse than the original for which the pedigree
was intended. All of these methods of misrepresentation
have been discovered by the stallion registration boards
of the various states. It is probable also that such mis-
representation is practiced with other classes of live-stock,
but on account of the higher value of horses they have

The Pure-bred 339

been more closely checked. The breeder in buying a
horse should either study up carefully on the matter or
have the pedigree passed upon by the registration board
of his state or some one who is entirely familiar with such
problems.

FEEDING AND CARE

The pure-bred horse, in order to be profitable, must
be given every chance to develop into the best type pos-
sible. The size and development of the pure-bred greatly
influence the sales and price. Therefore, the feeding of
the pure-bred should be similar to the grade, except
that it is more important that the animals be given every
chance for development. If the pasture falls short,
grain or good hay should supplement it so that the ani-
mals may be kept growing. This is especially important
with the foal and the yearling, as it is impossible to make
an 1800- to 2000-pound horse out of a stunted colt. The
best that feed can accomplish after a yearling is stunted
will be to produce about a 1600-pound horse. The general
requirements for growth are the same as outlined in
Chapter XX. Fitting for show and sale will be taken
up later.

The pure-bred colt must be properly trained and broken
at an early age so that he will be easily handled, and there-
fore will receive better care. The breeding of pure-bred
horses is but one-half of the problem. The other half is
the feeding and care, and the larger number of pure-bred
breeders in America fail more in this field than they do in
the breeding.

The weight and development of pure-bred draft horses
obtained by the leading breeders is shown by the follow-
ing table of weights compiled from the first and second

340 Western Live-stock Management

prize winners of the Percheron classes at the Chicago
International in December, 1913.

| AcED |3YrR.Oup/2 Yr. Oup ang Foau
Stallions . .| 2292 | 2075 | 2110 | 1780 | 990
Mares . .| 2065 | 1977 | 1757 | 1522 | 987

The futurity winners of the same exhibition show that
these weights are fairly representative, as eight yearling
stallions averaged 1657 pounds and seven mares averaged
1491 pounds.

These figures are important as they show the early
development of the draft horse that is absolutely demanded
by the modern show and sale ring. They also demon-
strate that under good feed conditions the two-year-old
is practically a developed horse. This is more true with
the stallions than the mares.

A 1400- or 1500-pound two-year-old would be consid-
ered under farm conditions a big horse, but in compe-
tition with a fully developed two-year-old weighing a
ton, such colts are immature and undeveloped and can-
not be expected to win in the show ring or sell for a high
price.

EQUIPMENT

A large barn, showy harness, and an extensive estab-
lishment are not necessary to produce good pure-bred
horses. The main advantage of such equipment is in
selling, for it makes a good impression on the buyer and
shows off the horses to better advantage so that men with

The Pure-bred 341

such equipment receive higher prices. On the other
hand, they must receive higher prices to pay interest and
depreciation on the investment. On account of this
very often pure-bred animals of the same merit can be
purchased from the small, poorly equipped breeders at a
lower price than from the larger breeders and dealers.
The real essentials are barns and lots which are handy
and comfortable, and which give the horse opportunity
for proper development. The equipment in addition to
this must be charged to the marketing end of the business.
Under the present conditions of selling, it is usually pos-
sible to make a profit on good equipment, especially if
the breeder is operating on a larger scale, but any breeder
will find it profitable at least to keep his barns and fences
neat, clean, in good repair, and well painted.

THE SHOW RING

In the development of pure-bred horses, the show ring
has had a significant place in putting them before the
public and in demonstrating type and values. The show
ring has also exerted much influence in the education of
the breeders. Usually the judges at the larger fairs are
capable, and showing under such men and studying their
placing is one of the surest methods of fixing the correct
type in mind. Usually a breeder’s stock looks very good
to him until he takes them in the show ring, where he
quickly sees that he still has much improvement to make.
The show ring has also an extended advertising value
and the value of the animals is greatly increased by the
winnings at the large fairs. In the future the show ring
will continue to be a prominent as well as essential factor
in the pure-bred horse business.

342 Western Live-stock Management

ADVERTISING

The breeder of pure-breds, if he is operating on a pay-
ing basis, must conduct his affairs on better business
principles than the average producer of grade horses.
Two established principles that he must adopt are con-
servative advertising and salesmanship. In the pure-
bred horse business the demand must be developed, since
the seller must hunt the buyer. There are many ways
which will tend to develop this demand. The essential
feature is advertising or publicity. The show ring is the
leading method of advertising. Winning at the fairs
will put the stock before the public by newspaper men-
tion, by persons who see the stock, and by various com-
ments and criticisms that disseminate one way and another
through the live-stock breeders. The county fairs, the
state fairs, and the larger international fairs are important
advertising centers, as each of them reaches a certain class
of potential buyers. Usually the prize money will ap-
proximately pay traveling expenses, and the care and
fitting are usually more than paid by the advertising and
the development of the individuals. The advertise-
ments which are run in the agricultural press are also
important. For the smaller breeder, it is usually advisable
that a breeder’s card be inserted in the papers which
reach the customers with which he is most likely to do
business. It is not usually advisable to put in big, flaring
advertisements, but a conservative yet attractive card,
which is inserted with some degree of regularity, will
more probably produce the business. Advertising with
the papers will also aid in getting the animals written
up by the newspaper men when at the shows and exhibi-
tions. The essential in all advertising is to place the

The Pure-bred 343

animals and the name of the breeder before the public
in a way that will show them that the stock produced
is good, reliable, and worth the money.

SELLING METHODS

Salesmanship is essential in handling pure-bred horses.
There are four general methods of selling which are used.
One which has been worked to some extent in the past is
the company stallion plan. Under this method the stal-
lion is sold to a group of men each of which is part owner.
The original idea of the company stallion system was to
supply a good horse to those who individually could not
afford to buy. This part of the plan was excellent but
the system as a whole has been subject to many serious
abuses. At first the system met considerable success,
but is not proving satisfactory in most sections, not be-
cause the idea was incorrect, but because of the abuses.
The first complaint usually comes from the fact that
the salesman employs an influential man in the neigh-
borhood to aid in the selling by giving him one or two
shares. The second is that usually only one or two reli-
able men sign the notes while the remainder are poor
pay, and therefore it falls on a few to pay the entire
amount. Again the method of selling is so expensive
that the stallion must bring a considerable amount above
his actual value in order to pay for the shares given away
and for the profit and expenses of the salesman and his
grooms. Also it might be well to note that the class of
stallions sold by this method are usually of an inferior
grade, as the better class are picked up by the buyers
who deal direct with the breeder or dealer at their barns
and thereby have an opportunity to select the better

344 Western Lrve-stock Management

individuals and to save the enormous commissions and
salesman charges that are necessary under the company
plan. These abuses of the system usually offset the
advantages. The companies that are really satisfactory
have often joined together of their own volition and
bought the stallion direct from the breeder or dealer.
Such companies are most satisfactory when the number
of members is small and when they are men that can
work together.

Another method which is being encouraged at the
present time is selling direct to the buyer. The proper
development of the pure-bred horse business depends
largely on both the buyer and seller. If the business
can be developed so that the buyer takes the initiative,
as with other kinds of live-stock, it will be a great benefit
to the stallion and mare trade, and will also be one of the
most potent factors in the improvement of the grade
horses throughout the country. This method requires
that the buyer develop more or less initiative and that
the breeder be advertised so that the buyers will know
who they are and what kind of stock they can obtain.

Many breeders sell direct to dealers, who in turn ad-
vertise the horses and sell to the ultimate purchaser.
This method is a very good one and one that probably
always will be used. The stallion dealer is gradually
taking up this method instead of importing as he has done
in the past. When such a trade can be worked up, it
will be for the benefit of the small breeder, as it will give
him a reasonable market for his stock. He cannot expect
to receive as high a price as he would if selling direct
to the ultimate buyer, but should obtain a good profit
on the animals produced. Selling horses requires con-
siderable ability on the part of the seller and entails

The Pure-bred 345

heavy expenses, so that the salesman must have some of
the proceeds.

Coéperative selling is helping the small breeders in
some localities. When there are several small breeders
together, they sometimes form a local association and
advertise accordingly. If they are somewhat scattered,
., then sale lists are prepared and the advertising done by
means‘of a secretary who helps the buyer to locate the
kind of stock which he wants, and aids the breeders in
marketing their pure-bred stock. Such methods are
bound to advance more in the future, as they increase the
sales and at the same time lower selling expenses.

CHAPTER XXIV

FITTING HORSES FOR SHOW AND SALE

Horses may be well bred but they must be well fed,
fitted and shown in order to receive the recognition that
they deserve. In addition to bettering the appearance
of the individuals, the practice of properly fitting and
showing animals is a custom which the public expects.
The majority of people are not able to recognize the
real value of a horse if he is thin in flesh, and even
those that do recognize this value feel that their expert
knowledge entitles them to buy for less than the true
value.

FATTENING

The most important point to be considered in the prep-
aration of horses for market is to have them properly
fattened. Many breeders keep their horses until they
are ready to sell them, and then turn them to the first
buyer that comes along, regardless of whether they are
fat or not. Many horse buyers, however, will not buy
horses if they are thin, regardless of the price. If they
do buy them, they will not pay the price they would
otherwise. Horses should have at least fat enough to
give them a smooth appearance and considerable weight.
Experiments show that the value in the weight of a horse
above 1600 pounds is worth from 25 to 50 cents a pound,
and as this weight will cost but 8 to 11 cents a pound

346

Fitting Horses for Show and Sale 347

to put on, there is profit in fattening horses for market
from the standpoint of weight. The draft horse market
is a peculiar one, in that weight is one of the more impor-
tant factors in determining the price.

In fattening draft horses, it is common to stall-feed.
The reason for stall-feeding rather than lot-feeding is
because the horses when highly fed will often kick and
injure one another to some extent. The horses will
also make quicker gains when kept up than when allowed
to exercise as much as they naturally would. The horses
are put in the barn and started on feed gradually. Great
care must be exercised for the first few days not to put
them on feed too rapidly, as they are somewhat susceptible
to colic. A common method in the larger feeding estab-
lishments is to feed them three times a day at first, and
gradually increase to a full ration and five feeds a day.
The reason for feeding so many times a day is because
the horse has a small stomach and so he needs food in
smaller quantities and more often. Hay is kept before
the horses practically all the time, and is usually fed
immediately after the grain so as to cause the horse to
eat all the grain possible. The horse should have all
the water he can possibly drink, and preferably before
he has the regular feed, so as not to hinder digestion by
drinking a large amount. Oats, rolled barley, wheat
bran, and oil meal make up the larger portion of the grain
feed. Farther east, corn is used to a large extent. A
mixture of rolled oats and barley of equal parts, together
with from two to three pounds of wheat bran a day, will
make a very satisfactory ration. The amount of bran
or oil meal fed will need to be regulated according to the
condition of the horse, as some will eat more bran than
others. Bran is somewhat laxative in its general nature,

348 Western Live-stock Management

and is a very good feed for keeping the bowels open.
Good, bright clover mixed with some timothy makes a
most satisfactory hay. Plenty of it should be fed, as it
will make belly on the horses. Care should be taken that
it does not have dust with it, or it may injure the wind.
‘In some sections alfalfa will form the main portion of the
hay ration and when fed, very little wheat bran will be
needed. It is advisable to feed as much barley as is
safe, since it is somewhat more fattening in its general
nature than oats. It should not comprise the entire
grain ration, as it is hard to condition the horses on barley
alone.

Horses being fitted for the market are seldom given.
exercise until a few days before they are shipped unless
their legs show some filling. As a substitute for exercise,
and in order to keep the blood in good condition and to
prevent stocked legs, many use Glauber salts. These
salts are fed twice a week mixed with the grain feed.
Others use oil meal for largely the same purpose. It is a
well-recognized fact that oil meal will aid in getting the
skin and hair in good condition. Horses that are being
fitted for show purposes instead of sale should be given
a proper amount of exercise, since in the show yard it is
especially important that their legs be clean and show no
tendency toward filling. Show horses will also be fed
much longer than market horses, and unless the proper
amount of exercise is given, they will put their flesh on
too soft. Before any horses are shipped, they should be
given exercise for a few days. This will eliminate the
possibility of azoturia. Horses are seldom curried
throughout the entire feeding period, but this is done very
thoroughly just previous to shipping time. As a horse
becomes fat the dandruff and scurf of the skin will work

Fitting [orses for Show and Sale 349

out upon the hair, so that it is a fairly easy matter to
clean them up in good condition. The labor during the
fattening period should be spent in bedding the horses
heavily, and in giving them every comfort that is pos-
sible. :

Many persons have doubted the wisdom of forcing
horses in this way. They claim that the horses will not
wear as long after being subjected to such a fattening
process. It may or may not be true, but it does not
seem probable that experienced buyers of work horses
would buy fat horses for any length of time if they did
not find them as serviceable as horses bought in a thinner
condition. It is a well-known fact that fat placed on
sound draft horses that are of good conformation will
bring profitable returns for the feed. Hence it is policy
for the horse-producers, if they are to make a profit on
their draft horses, to get them in the best marketable
condition, as with fattening steers or other stock for
market.

BREAKING AND TRAINING

It is essential that the show horse be properly man-
nered. He should be taught to lead up freely at the right
side of the leader and to stand properly upon his legs,
without weaving over the show yard. Often the well-
mannered horse will beat one of a trifle better conforma-
tion, but which does not show off as well. The animal
is in the show ring but a short time and it is impossible
for the judge to see all his points unless he is shown to
the best possible advantage.

In teaching a horse to lead, the lead rein or strap should
be held entirely in the right hand of the leader, and if the
horse does not come up readily, a whip may be carried

350 Western Live-stock Management

in the left hand, which will touch him gently in the flank
and rear quarters and teach him to come up by the leader.
If the horse is unusually stubborn, it may be necessary
to have an additional man for helper. The horse should
not be trained to expect this man to follow, for often it
is impossible to have him in the show ring, and if the horse
is accustomed to him, he will not lead up well without
him. A horse that will travel off free with a leader and
without assistance always presents an attractive appear-
ance. In turning the horse, care should be taken to
stop before turning around, as the horse will form the
habit of taking a large circle, and is also likely to slip
and injure himself, as well as make an ungainly show.
The larger number of horse-men prefer to have the leader
turn around the horse, as the animal can be brought in
a straighter line to the judge by such leading, and it will
also protect the judge from the horse so as to avoid any
danger from kicking.

Training the horse to stand properly on his legs
requires patience. The horse should always stand on
ground that is level or with the front feet higher than the
rear. The horse should be stopped in the place wanted,
straightened upon the hind feet, and then the front feet
gradually worked into position. At first the horse will
not know what is wanted, but with a little training and
patience will readily acquire it. In getting him to pull
his right front foot forward, pull the head to the left
and forward, and vice versa for the left front foot. If it is
desired to have the front foot placed back, do not kick the
horse on the shin or foot, but pull the head back toward
that leg, and at the same time place the hand upon the
shoulder and the horse will readily learn what is wanted.
After being placed upon his feet, the horse should be

Fitting [Horses for Show and Sale 351

trained to hold its head erect in a stylish manner. Play-
ing with the bit and chain is not allowed.

BRAIDING AND TRIMMING

With light horses very little trimming is used in the
show ring, as it interferes with the general appearance
and quality in the horse. With the draft horses the cus-
tom is different. The decoration in common use on the
manes is known as the Aberdeen plait. The diamond
roll is used also but not extensively, as it is more difficult
to. put in, and is not liked as well by many show-men.
There are three common methods of fixing the tail — the
French tie and two braided ties.

In the Aberdeen plait colored yarns are used. Two
skeins are employed, having colors that will harmonize
with each other. Each skein should be straightened out
and cut once. These skeins furnish sufficient yarn for
one horse. A bit of yarn is given three or four wraps
around the two colors and tied. This puts the ends in
attractive condition. The yarn will be four or four-and-
one-half feet long. The mane should be clean and well
brushed out and combed to one side, usually the right.
Small benches thirty inches high and four or five feet
long are provided to stand on. The horse’s head is held
or tied up in show position. The worker should stand
on the bench close up beside the neck, supposing the
mane to be combed to the right, and facing the same way
that the horse does. The braiding is begun two inches
back of the ears. From the top of the mane a strand
about as large as the fore-finger should be separated from
the remainder of the mane and held up. Place this
strand of hair between the two strands of yarn and draw
the yarn down until the knot rests firmly against the

352 Western Live-stock Management

strand of hair. Draw the left (yellow) strand of yarn
straight along the top and right side of the mane. Toss
the right hand strand (red) across it and let it hang down
on the left side of the mane. Hold all in position with
the left hand. Separate another strand of hair about
the size of the little finger from the top of the mane just
opposite where the yarn strands cross. Draw this di-
rectly toward yourself and then over the yellow strand.
This is done with the thumb and fore-finger of the left,
hand. Next draw the original strand of the mane back,
crossing the other mane strand at right angles, and ly-
ing over and parallel to the yellow strand of yarn. Draw
snugly so as to keep plait close to the top of mane. When
all has been drawn tightly, the yellow strand is drawn
toward the body of the operator, then crossed over the
strand of the mane which is parallel to the yellow yarn,
and allowed to drop over the left side of the mane. The
strands are held firmly with the left hand and the right
hand is passed over to secure the strand of the red yarn,
which is drawn directly toward the operator, crossing
the yellow. Draw snugly, and keep left hand holding
close in toward the top of the mane. Now draw the
strand of mane which lies to the left of the strand of yarn
to the right, causing it to cross the red strand. Hold
firmly with the left hand, reach over with the right and
gather up a small strand of mane from the top of the
neck and draw in with the other, at the same time crowd-
ing the plait close in to the top of the neck. Hold firmly
with the fore-finger of the left hand below the red varn,
thumb on top of the strands which cross it. Next
draw the strand of mane which has been lying on the
right, back toward the withers, crossing the other strand
of mane, and thereby coming parallel to and above the

Pirate XV. —Firtine ror SALE or SHOW.

Above, in the rough before grooming or braiding; center, the same
horse two hours later with Aberdeen plait and rosettes; below, Aber-
deen plait partially completed.

Fitting Torses for Show and Sale 353

red. Place thumb on top of this, and draw the red yarn
slightly to the right, and then throw over to the left, clear
over the neck. Then draw the yellow toward the oper-
ator, crossing the red yarn, and continue as before.
Special care must be exercised to keep the strands of the
mane of approximately the same size as the strands of
the yarn. Fresh mane should be taken each time as
the main strand is drawn in from the left and the plait
is kept close in beside the top of the mane until well
down toward the withers, where it should be gradually
sloped down from the top, giving it a graceful curve.
Hairs must be kept out of the yarn, as the beauty of the
Aberdeen plait depends largely on the skill with which
it is put in. Artificial roses may be used in this plait
and it may be further decorated by the use of ribbon
streamers. It is not customary to use the latter except
in the larger shows, and when showing for championship,
or other shows of similar nature. (See Plate XV.)

The French tie, or as it is sometimes termed, mud tie,
is a quick and easy way of tying the tail in muddy weather,
and is often resorted to in sale horses. The tail is first
combed out with a mane comb. The operator then
catches hold at the end of the tail bone, and separates
the long hair into three portions. The center portion
is pushed forward, and the operator draws the portion
in the right hand across that in the left, and proceeds with
an ordinary three braid underhand. After braiding a
few inches, he rolls the greater portion up on the tail
bone, and wraps the end of the strands around the tail
twice, then braids again and tucks the ends through the
tail. This gives a neat secure tie. This may be further
decorated by the use of yarn and roses and be made into
an attractive tie.

354 Western Live-stock Management

A tail braid which is often used in sale stables and also in
the show rings is made by tying a loop in a stout cord and
then tossing the cord over the horse’s croup and drawing
the loop end down over the tail. Draw it far enough so
that the loop hangs below the end of the tail bone. Braid
an ordinary underhand three strand braid over this cord
and tail by selecting small bunches of hair from the out-
side. This braid binds in and conceals the cord and most
of the tail. After the operator has braided down to the
end of the tail bone, all the hair is braided in, care being
taken to leave the loose string out of the braid. When
about six inches of tail remains to be braided, a small
stout piece of the cord about eighteen inches long is
braided in, and when the end is reached the cord is used.
to put a hitch on the braid. This braid is then tied back
to the loop string, and the cord is pulled out, pulling the
large braid up underneath the braid surrounding the
tail where it is tied in position so that the ends will not
work loose. This is often used in shipping horses, and
the tail is covered with muslin so that it will not rub out
and be unfit for show or sale purposes. For show pur-
poses it is decorated with yarn and made into an attrac-
tive braid. For long-tailed horses in show, it is not cus-
tomary to braid in the entire tail, but braid about eight
inches, drawing the portion back and decorating, leaving
the larger portion of the tail flowing and natural.

Another method that is often used in the show ring is
that of fixing the tail with rye straw. Tough, clean straw
about eighteen or twenty inches long is needed. Twenty
or thirty individual straws are selected and placed side
by side and the ends trimmed. The straws should be
damp and very tough. Tie a plain knot in the band
of the straw, leaving one end about five inches long and

Fitting Horses for Show and Sale 355

the other thirteen to fifteen inches. Separate the long
ends in three parts of equal size. Then place on the
top of the tail and plait the long ends into the tail by using
a small strand of hair with each strand of straw, and
braiding the whole as a three plait underhand. Braid
down in this manner for four or five inches, and discon-
tinue braiding and break the lower ends of the straw
up about six inches from the end. Now roll the braid
from the lower portion of the tail up to the straw and
bind all fast with some cord and ribbon. The hairs
from the lower end of the tail referred to above should be
braided into a common three plait and tied before the
work with the straw starts. The end of the straw is
spread out like an open fan and trimmed with a pair of
shears. It is sometimes necessary to see this braid put
in before it can be carried out, but it makes a very attrac-
tive tie when it is properly done.

The long hair which is usually found around the throat
and ears of the horse should be trimmed or singed neatly.
This will add much to the appearance of the head and
neck, and the general refinement of the horse. If the
mane is unusually heavy, it may be thinned by pulling
rather than cutting. This is done by taking a heavy
mane comb, and by taking a few hairs at a time it can be
readily thinned, and left in uniform condition. All of
these methods of trimming have the object not of creating
something unusual, but making the horse present his
best appearance.

GROOMING

A horse well groomed is pleasing to every one, but groom-
ing is absolutely essential for the show ring. With show
horses, the principles are the same as outlined in Chapter

356 Western Live-stock Management

XVIII, but even more care must be taken that absolutely
all the dirt be removed and that the coat carry the gloss
which results from the extensive use of the brush. The
action of the hair brush tends to increase the secretion,
and obtains a gloss which cannot be artificially produced.
To remove the final dust from the hair a wool rag may be
used. A few drops of sweet oil upon the rag will aid in
the collection of the dust. Proper feeding will greatly
aid in the grooming, as the horse cannot be groomed so
that the hair looks well unless he is in good physical
condition.

SHOW YARD METHODS AND CUSTOMS

Courtesy to the judges and officials should always be
a watchword with the exhibitor. Many show-men make
a practice of being disagreeable, and as a result are neither
popular with the public, the exhibitors, nor any one con-
nected with the show. If any matters are not agreeable,
they should be taken up in a quiet respectful manner
and with the proper authorities. In handling the entries
for show, the customary method is to send to the secre-
tary and obtain entry blanks which should be properly
filled out according to directions and returned. At the
larger shows, cards and numbers are furnished to the
exhibitors, designating the age and class for the animal.
These should be compared with the catalogue or the
premium list and definite knowledge ascertained as to
when the animals will show. By following a system of
this kind, the animals can be in better condition to show
at the proper time, and the exhibitor will not be caught
with his stock not ready when the class is called. The
age limits on horses are based usually from January first,
so that with the young animals, it is especially important

Fitting Horses for Show and Sale 357

that the colts be foaled early, as they will have more
size, and therefore a better chance for winning.

COMMON TROUBLES

In the show circuit bruises will cause as much trouble
as. any other ailment. These will be caused by the
horses being in strange quarters and kicking one another,
or from the injuries received in the car. This necessitates
that the animals be handled with the utmost care. They
cannot be run loose in a car like market horses and be
expected to win prizes at the larger shows. For common
bruises, hot applications, together with pressure bandages
closely applied, are successful in removing the swelling.

Filled joints and stocked legs are also common. Usually
these come from lack of exercise and the best cure is
preventative. Usually when a large number of horses
are on the show ground, it is difficult to get the men to
exercise them properly, and the horse that is accustomed
to four or five miles a day will usually fill up in the legs
unless they are walked out. If exercise will not remove
the filling, they should be rubbed with the hands so that
the blood circulation is increased. Applications of warm
water and bandages will help. Some horse-men find a
rather strong solution of salt water mixed with vinegar
useful for this purpose.

Horses that are fed highly very often itch, and thus
cause trouble for the show-man. This is often caused by
the feed not being cooling in its general nature, and if
such is the case, a more laxative feed in the nature of
bran should be used in connection with a reduction of the
highly carbohydrate feeds. Very often a thorough wash-
ing of the affected parts with tar soap followed by

358 Western Live-stock Management

thorough drying will effect some relief. If the trouble is
due to mange, a small amount of some standard disin-
fectant added to the water will help.

Flies cause considerable worry to the show-man. The
most satisfactory method of fighting them is to use light
stable blankets upon the horses. These may be very
effectively made by the use of light weight canvas or mus-
lin. If it is not possible to use light weight blankets,
it becomes imperative to employ some of the anti-fly
preparations. Most of these, if applied in large quantities,
will color the coat, especially on the lighter horses, and
leave it sticky so that it will be hard to clean. Therefore,
the better plan is to apply very lightly and often rather
than to spray the horses thoroughly with it.

Colds, distemper, and influenza are difficulties that very
often confront the show-men. In order to prevent them,
care should be taken to prevent any drafts striking the
horses. Very often such diseases are carried from an
affected group of horses and spread to the others that are
near by by the close association and use of the same water-
pails. Hence it is necessary that the show-man provide
himself with his own utensils and also that he be on the
lookout for any trouble.

Horses on heavy feed are more liable to colics, indiges-
tion, and founder. The preventative methods in this
case are a close watch of the bowels. If a horse is con-
stipated or shows an inclination to go off feed, he should
receive immediate attention. The feed should be cut
down and treatment prescribed according to the ailment.
In troubles of this kind, a veterinarian should be called at
once, as very little treatment at first will usually check
such troubles, whereas they will take considerable treat-
ment and probable loss if allowed to develop.

ana
Ko)

Fitting Horses for Show and Sale 3

SHIPPING HORSES

In shipping horses, there are three standard cars used ;
the palace horse car, the common box car, and common
stock car. If any large amount of shipping is to be done,
the first is preferable, as it provides stalls where the horses
may be kept separate, and also may be fed more con-
veniently. They usually will prove a good investment if
obtainable. Box or stock cars should be subdivided
by proper stalls, so that the horses will not have oppor-
tunity to fight. In shipping market horses, it is custom-
ary to use open stock cars and to bed heavily with hay,
so that the horses may eat some of it if they so desire.
This will in some measure offset the shrink. The hay
racks should also be well filled.

The watering and feeding of show horses especially
should be looked after, as it is hard to put good bellies
on the horses if they are allowed to shrink to any extent.
Horses cut up in the flank are not good show prospects.
The same will hold true for stock that is offered for sale.
Railroads are required to feed and water at least every
twenty-eight hours, but it is advisable to cut this time
shorter if possible.

The cars should be ordered some time ahead so there
will be no excuse for the agent not having them spotted
and on hand at the time required. Railroads handle
the situation better than they did in the past, but even
yet require some attention. In many show circuits
a refund is granted for show horses. It is well to
inquire in regard to this before shipping so that proper
authorization may be made for any refund if this is
obtainable.

360 Western Live-stock Management

MARKETING

The common market for most stockmen is the local
horse buyer. This local horse buyer usually spots horses
for the larger buyers who come through the country
at certain periods. When such a system is in use, and
especially if there is any competition, a fair price is usually
paid the farmer. These men want the horses in good
flesh so that they are ready to ship to the central markets.
In some sections, codperative horse marketing is meeting
some favor. By this method the men who have some
horses to market go in together and make up a car-load
and send to the larger city horse markets. When handled
in this way they are consigned to some commission man
who handles the selling end of the proposition. When
it is not possible to get in touch with buyers from the
outside, usually a local buyer can be obtained by present-
ing the horses at local shows and otherwise advertising
that they are for sale. The European governments buy
war horses only at the central markets, but scattered
through the country are local buyers who usually operate
for some of the larger firms that are established in the
central markets. It is seldom that any war horses are
sold by the producer direct to the foreign governments,
but in common practice, they are handled very much as
other market horses and change hands several times
before reaching the consumer.

CHAPTER XXV
JACKS, JENNETS, AND MULES

Tue mule is a hybrid produced from the breeding of
jacks to mares. On account of these being of two distinct
species, the hybrid will not reproduce, and therefore the
mule must be considered as merely a machine for the
production of work. Even though mules will not repro-
duce, it is necessary to castrate the males as with horses,
or they are unsatisfactory for work. The public does not
regard the mule with as high respect as the horse, prob-
ably because it does not have the style, carriage, spirit,
and beauty which is found in the better specimens of
horses, and also because his sire has long been considered
the emblem of stupidity.

Even though the mule is a hybrid, his parents must be
properly bred and developed in order that he have good
size and conformation. The idea that any mare which
is not good enough to raise a horse will raise a good mule
has been found not to be true. The better class of mules
come from the better class of mares. The small pony
jacks likewise do not produce large mules, but it requires
a rugged type of jack in order to produce a mule with
good bone and constitution. The extremely long-legged,
and light-boned jack, or the extremely large, rough mare,
is not suitable for mule production, as the mule so pro-
duced is too leggy and lacks bone and constitution.

361

362 Western Live-stock Management

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF MULES

The principal advantages of mules as compared to horses
are as follows: They are somewhat more hardy and
possess more endurance than horses, at least under cer-
tain conditions; they are surer footed and for this reason
are more in demand as pack animals in the mountains,
and for climbing up and down grades and embankments
as in all forms of railroad and contract work; they have a
better sense of self-protection and are thus more satisfac-
tory for use with unskilled labor; they are somewhat
easier to feed in large bunches as on large plantations and
ranches and large contracting jobs, and they seldom over-
eat if given too much; they are commonly considered
more tough and wiry than horses and more resistant to
diseases, and on this account will stand more hard work
and abuse than will horses. Since mules are entirely
for commercial purposes and since they have few dis-
qualifying defects, their market value is much more
stable than with horses. On the other hand, there are some
well-defined disadvantages to the raising of mules which
may be given as follows: they will not reproduce, hence
their total value must be measured in terms of work;
mules lack the style and attractiveness possessed by a
well-bred horse; they do not have the gaits or speed for
fine driving or saddle purposes; and they do not have
the weight and muscle for very heavy pulling. Many
persons will argue that for the amount of work performed,
a mule will require less feed than a horse, but this has been
found by experiments to be a fallacy. In common
labor, the horse will accomplish just about as much for
each 100 pounds of weight as will a mule, and the feed
requirements for horses and mules for each 100 pounds
live weight are practically equal.

Jacks, Jennets, and Mules 363

FEEDING OF MULES

The main difference in feeding mules as compared to
horses is that they do better in large bunches. In fatten-,
ing mules it is very seldom that they are stall-fed, but
are usually run in bunches in small lots and all fed together
like cattle. Mules will seldom over-eat or injure one
another as would horses under like conditions. If not
properly watered and fed, they will have colic and other
diseases the same as horses. Usually, however, they seem
to have a better sense of self-protection and use better judg-
ment in regard to their eating. Mules, however, respond
to careful attention and care the same as horses.

HANDLING OF JACKS

The average mule-producer does not own jennets, but
only a jack which he has purchased from some breeder
of jacks and jennets. The jacks should be properly
trained to breed and serve mares before they are sold.
If they are produced on the farm, care should be taken
that they are not raised with the jennets, but are sepa-
rated and raised with horses. They should also not be
allowed to serve jennets, as very often they will refuse
to cover mares after mating with jennets. The equip-
ment for handling the jack is very similar to that of
handling the stallion except that a pit is needed to lower
the mare. The main difference in handling is that the
jack is usually more slow in the service. One way of
partly. overcoming this is to have a slatted door on his
stall which faces on the breeding lot, so that the jack may
see the mare some time before he is taken out of the
stable. Under such management he will generally be of
quicker service than otherwise. Care should always be

364 Western Live-stock M. anagement

taken that no undue cruelty is used with the jacks, as
they are often timid and therefore must be encouraged
rather than discouraged.

In the handling of jacks with jennets the problem is
simpler, and usually no trouble will be encountered. Oc-
casionally jacks will be found that will breed both mares
and jennets, but such is not commonly the case. When
such practice is followed, the mares are bred in the early
season with the jennets, waiting until after the main part
of the mare season is over.

MARKET REQUIREMENTS

The type of jacks and jennets demanded in America at
the present time is best defined as an American type.
This type has been developed by the use of jacks and
jennets from several different countries, but under the
direction of breeders located largely in Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, and Missouri. These jacks have developed into
a larger type than the imported ones and are usually
termed Mammoth jacks. The main requirements for a
good breeding jack are large bone, large heart girth,
strongly coupled back and ribs, a large head arid large
ears. The finer jacks will not produce as large a mule,
and therefore are not to be desired. The general type
of jennet is similar to that of the jack, except that she is
naturally smaller. Many jacks are found throughout
the country that are nothing more than large burros and
are not desired by the breeders.

HINNEY PRODUCTION

The hinney is produced by the opposite cross from the
mule; that is, by breeding a stallion and a jennet.

Jacks, Jennets, and Mules 365

Usually this cross is harder to obtain than the cross
producing the mule, as the stallion usually refuses to
breed jennets. This necessitates that the larger number
be produced by artificial impregnation, or by a stallion
that has been raised in company with the jennets, and
not allowed to serve mares. Because jennets are smaller
than mares, it has been argued by many that the cost
of keep is correspondingly less and therefore the hinney
is a more profitable market animal than the mule, as the
feed for the jennet costs less than for the mare. One diffi-
culty with the enterprise is that good jennets are not
used for the production of hinnies but for the production
of jacks, and therefore the smaller and pony-like jennets
are the ones used for hinney production. This results
in a small type of animals of low marketable value.
The other difficulty is in the management, on account
of the use of artificial impregnation or the care
which must be taken with the stallion. It is probable
that hinney production will be increased to some extent
in the future, but it is extremely doubtful whether it
will ever become large enough to produce any noticeable
effect on the market situation.

PART V

SWINE

By Georce R. Samson

CHAPTER XXVI

BEGINNER’S PROBLEMS

Tue most rapidly growing live-stock industry of the
West is that of raising hogs, although even yet hog-
raising does not assume the proportions it does in the
Corn-Belt or with other lines of live-stock in the West.
The hog is essentially a grain-eating animal and is grown
in large numbers only where there is abundant grain
of not too high a price. The West has more grass land
than grain land, and where grain is grown, it is wheat,
barley, or oats, instead of corn, and therefore usually
has a higher market value than corn, although the feeding
value a pound is not much different. It has been dem-
onstrated, however, that by proper use of pastures
and other supplemental feed, the cost can be made
lower than was popularly supposed. In addition, there
are great quantities of waste material in the grain fields
of the West and equally large quantities of by-products
from the dairies, all of which may be utilized for pig
feeding so that a good profit may be realized, even when
the grain fed does not in itself any more than return
its cost. About the year 1910 the farmers of the West
began to take a great interest in hogs. Prices were ab-
normally high and the numbers of hogs increased enor-
mously. Western markets that had been procuring

28 369

(eS)

370 Western Live-stock Management

most of their live hogs from the Corn-Belt ceased shipping
from there within three or four years. The Portland
market shipped 33,789 hogs from Nebraska in 1911, but
none since 1912. In 1910, Portland received 25,559 hogs
from Oregon and in 1915, 202,804. Similar conditions
were found in other parts of the West. Necessarily
many mistakes were made and many disappointments
met, but the business is now on a permanent and sub-
stantial basis. Those farmers who use some waste prod-
ucts in raising their hogs find that the business is prof-
itable even with high-priced grain. On the other hand,
farms devoted to raising hogs exclusively, excepting high-
class breeding farms, have rarely been successful. The
most successful pork-producers are those who raise a
few pigs in connection with dairying, grain farming, or
orcharding. These men all feed considerable quanti-
ties of threshed grain, and the pigs actually obtain most
of their nutrients from the grain, although the profit
is largely from the waste products.

LOCALITY

The locality suitable for hog-raising must be one that
produces an abundance of grain, more than is necessary
for local use; that produces good legumes, as alfalfa
and clover; and that is not cut up into small tracts at
an excessively high value an acre. Distance from market
will also be a factor, but since hogs can be shipped or
hauled almost as cheaply as grain, a long distance from
market may not be a serious handicap. The important
item in the adaptability of any locality for hog-raising
is whether it produces suitable feed at prices which will
justify its use for pork production.

Beginner’s Problems 371

THE FARM

Having considered the locality, it is well to ask a few
questions regarding the farm itself: Are the farm prod-
ucts suitable for hog feeding? Is the land sufficiently
well drained to permit hogs running on pasture during
the greater part of the year? Is there abundant shade,
or will artificial shade be necessary? Does the over-
flow from adjoining farms run over the place and thus
increase the danger of infection? Are there many other
hog-men in the vicinity? If so, are they careless about
the spread of disease? Have they given the community
a reputation for producing good stock, or do the buyers
look askance at everything coming from that source?

If the farm is to be devoted largely to hogs, the greater
part of its area should be capable of producing the staple
cereals and one or more legumes. If cows are kept for
dairy purposes, it should be determined whether the
skim-milk or other by-products will be utilized more
economically by pigs or by calves. About one pig to
a cow may be maintained if half the calves are raised,
but if all the calves are to be raised, a smaller number
of pigs must be kept. In general, one may safely count
on one pig to each seven pounds of milk available daily.
If dairying is followed only part of the year, the time the *
pigs are on hand must be adjusted to the supply of milk.

Swine are particularly adapted to dairy farms where
the skim-milk can help fill in the gap between the wean-
ing and fattening period. With the exception of high-
grade dairy heifer calves, pigs will pay a better price
for skim-milk than any other class of stock. In fact,
under most good systems of farming, pigs and dairy
cows on the same farm will pay better than either one

372 Western Live-stock Management

or the other raised exclusively. The exception to this
tule is found in localities where milk condensers have
been developed so that there are few by-products of the
dairy business which can be utilized in pig feeding.

Swine fattening differs from cattle fattening in that it
is conducted largely on the farm where the hogs were
raised, while in the case of cattle, the fattening process
is often carried on at a long distance from the farms
and ranges on which the cattle were grown. In the
West the practice of fattening hogs after beef cattle is
unknown, since hay-fed cattle contribute nothing to pigs
through their droppings, and grain feeding is not prac-
ticed here as in the Corn-Belt. Hence, hogs and beef
cattle do not supplement each other as do hogs and dairy
cattle. Many farms in the Willamette Valley carry
both hogs and sheep, but there is little relation between
the two lines of industry and neither of them contrib-
utes anything material to the other. Hogs are also
rapidly making a place for themselves on the large grain
farms of the West, for they fit in well with the common
systems of farming and they utilize the down grain and
the waste of the threshing yards.

MARKET CONDITIONS

The time to sell pigs is when the price is good and not
many are on the market. Portland market reports for
the few years the market has been established, reveal
the fact that there are certain high spots and low spots
recurring each year at approximately the same time.
When the supply goes down, the price goes up, and
vice versa. This rule is not without exception but it
holds in a greater number of cases. The packer demands
the largest number of hogs during the months of Novem-

Beginner’s Problems 373

ber, December, and January as this is the packing season,
but even then the demand during these months is usually
somewhat over-supplied, at least in the West. The
western farmers market about one-half of their year’s
production of hogs during these three months,. while
the eastern farmers do not market over one-third of their
hogs at this time. This makes it imperative that if
one is to realize highest price, the periods of heavy supply
must be avoided.

When the by-products available for feeding come at
a particular time of the year, and then are gone, the
pigs must be at a suitable size to consume these by-
products to the best advantage when they are available;
but when the by-products are rather evenly distributed,
it is necessary that some pigs of suitable size be avail-
able through the year. In the great grain-growing
sections of the West the chief by-product is the shattered
grain on the stubble fields; and since this must be used
quickly after harvest, and since the pigs which make the
most profitable use of this by-product are individuals
weighing from 75 to 125 pounds, it follows that within
a few weeks after this period a large number of pigs
will be sent to market from these localities. Fat pigs
are a perishable product; that is, they must be marketed
very soon after they are finished, regardless of price
or other conditions. Hence it is necessary to plan for
their disposal a long time before the pigs are ready for
marketing, in fact before the sows are bred.

FLUCTUATIONS

Pigs are subject to wider and more rapid fluctuation
in prices than any other class of live-stock. This is be-
cause they increase so rapidly that a shortage may

374 Western Live-stock Management

change to a surplus in two or three years’ time. When
for any reason pigs are high in price a great many persons
are attracted to the business; accordingly they rush
in, buy large numbers, and thus increase the price, through
absorbing stock that would otherwise go to the market.
In about a year’s time they have surplus stock to put
on the market, thus causing a decline in the price. They
then become discouraged because of the low price, and
sell out not only their surplus but their original breeding
animals. Much of this stock is not suited to market
requirements and tends further to demoralize the market
until those who have been in the business in a legitimate,
conservative way also suffer. These rapid changes are
facilitated by the fact that the feed used for hogs may
be readily put to other uses, while the cattle-man or
sheep-man must keep some stock to consume the grass.

A better method is to buy only on a small scale at the
start, and gradually build up a herd. This avoids the
necessity of tying up a large amount of capital at the begin-
ning, besides decreasing the danger of an over-supply
and the consequent lower price. The beginner will learn
as much about raising pigs as if he had a much larger
number, and is not likely to lose so many. Usually a
good time to buy is when the price is poor and the market
over-supplied. Choice stock can then be bought at a
low price and if young stock is purchased which will
not bring a crop of pigs too quickly, the market has time
to change before the increase is ready for market.

NUMBER OF PIGS FOR THE FARM

A sufficient number of pigs should be kept to consume
the by-products which are suitable for pig-feed, with
only enough of the expensive concentrated feeds to

Beginner’s Problems 375

fatten the pigs sufficiently for market. By the term
by-products, is meant such products of the farm as can-
not be marketed in their present form. Grain shat-
tered in the stubble fields, melons and pumpkins
which have been found unsalable and left in the field,
the aftermath of clover, skim-milk, cracklings, and table
refuse all have a place in the pig’s diet, and can be mar-
keted through the pigs more profitably than through
any other kind of stock. Too few pigs will not use all the
waste of the farm while too many will require an excessive
amount of high-priced grain. A good rule, but one subject
to many exceptions, is to raise one pig for each dairy
cow on the dairy farms and one pig to each five to ten
acres of grain on the grain farms. If this rule were uni-
versally followed, the western markets would be liberally
supplied with pork and every pig, not mismanaged, would
return a profit.

CHAPTER XXVII
EQUIPMENT

THE equipment required for hogs is not necessarily
expensive but it comprises numerous combinations for
the comfort of the animals and the convenience of the
attendant. Much ingenuity may be exercised in design-
ing equipment especially suitable to individual condi-
tions. It is very easy, however, to spend more money
than is at all necessary or profitable.

HOUSES

Pig houses are of two general classes: colony houses
designed to shelter a single sow and her litter, and cen-
tralized houses, designed to shelter a larger number of
pigs or sows. Neither has all the advantages, and both
kinds are often successfully used on the same farm where
more than one or two sows are kept. The colony houses
are economical in first cost, portable, easily kept clean
and sanitary, but they entail a greater.amount of labor and
the labor must be performed, in part at least, in the open and
exposed to the weather, while the centralized house affords
shelter to the attendant. The colony houses are designed
according to a wide variety of plans, but the A-shaped,
open-front house has been found most desirable for the
milder sections of the country. In colder localities, a
warmer house, that is, one with a closed front, is desirable.

376

Equipment 377

Because they require no glass and lighter framing, the
colony houses are the less expensive in first cost.

With the centralized house, the danger of disease
spreading through the herd is greater, once it enters, than
when colony houses are
used. It should, there-
fore, be planned with
sanitation and easy dis-
infection constantly in
mind. Sanitation in-
volves light, ventila-

etn

tion, cleanliness, and Fic. 33. — Typical ‘‘A’’ Hog House.
pure-water supply.

The method of ventilation depends on the climate. If
the climate is severe, greater precaution will be neces-
sary in admitting fresh air and permitting the exit of
the stale air, while if the temperature is habitually
higher, very little system is necessary in securing
good ventilation. A hollow shaft leading from the
floor through the roof will permit the exit of stale air
from the bottom; and an intake under the eaves with
a shaft opening just under the comb will admit fresh
air from the top, which will minimize the draft on
the pigs. Light may be secured by open space or by
glass, depending on the climate. Since glass is expensive,
it should be on the south side of the, building, so that
morning, noon, and afternoon rays all reach some part
of the pig house where sunshine is needed. Any equip-
ment used constantly isless expensive from the standpoint
of results obtained than the same equipment used only
a part of the time, and therefore greater expense is justified
in case the glass is in the south whereit is used constantly.
A plan with this end in view has been worked out by

378 Western Live-stock Management

Dietrich at the Illinois Experiment Station as described
in Illinois Bulletin 109. This house has been in operation
for eleven years and has been found quite satisfactory.
The vital principle of this house is the location of the
windows so that the maximum sunlight will reach the
pens during the time of the vear when the pigs are far-
rowed, while in midsummer when the sun is high, it is
shut out by the projection of the roof. The centralized
house should not be too close to other buildings and it
should be located on ground that will produce pastures
suitable for hogs during the greatest part of the year.
A number of plans for providing a separate pasture for
each compartment of the centralized house have been
worked out, but the expense of fencing and the difficulty
of cultivating small fields usually make them impractical.
For this reason it is considered better to provide fewer
but larger pastures and have four or five compartments
open into each.

GRANARY

As a part of the centralized pig house, or in close prox-
imity to it, should be a granary large enough to contain
sufficient grain and other feed to last through the feeding
period. It is especially desirable to have all of the feed
close enough to the pigs that it need not be hauled during
muddy weather. The granary should have a sufficient
number of compartments to contain as many mixtures
as are likely to be used at any one time during the year.
In addition, there should be a mixing floor. Convenient
to this, but not too close, should be a water supply.

A sufficient amount of grain room should be allowed
to each sow, to contain seven pounds of feed for each day
she is to be fed in the building. If it is desirable to store

Equipment 379

feed to last five months, or 150 days, this would necessi-
tate the storage of 1050 pounds of feed for each sow.
If pigs are also to be fattened from the same supply,
about 700 or 800 pounds should be allowed for each pig.
A safe average would be about 124 cubic feet of bin room
for each farrowing pen, or if the herd is to be fed from the
central house the entire year, double this amount. The
mixing floor should be five or six feet each way and should
preferably open into the alley so that there will be room
for manipulating the shovel handle without needing to
leave special space for this.

If a large quantity of ground grain is mixed and stored
for a considerable period of time, there is danger of it
spoiling, so that in case a large plant is being installed,
it is safer to have the grinder in the same building with
the feed, and only grind small portions of feed at a time.
In most cases, however, if the feed is stored very dry and
the building is watertight, there will be but little difficulty
from having grain spoil, and the plant on the average
farm will not usually be large enough to justify the in-
stallation of a grinder and power plant solely to grind
hog-feed.

The power is the greatest expense and when the farm
already has an engine or other power, the grinder will cost
very little. A good burr grinder suitable for general farm
use will cost from $25.00 to $50.00 and will take five to ten
horse power. A roller grinder will cost $100.00 to $150.00,
but there are no burrs to wear out so that when any large
quantities of grain are to be ground, the final cost of
grinding a bushel of grain will be less than with the burr
mills. The roller mill, if used, must have corrugated
rollers and be equipped with a differential so as to grind
as well as roll. Pigs require that the grain be ground

380 Western Live-stock Management

very fine and this should be kept in mind in selecting
a grinder, since there are many grinders on the market
which will not grind fine enough for pig feeding.

WATER SUPPLY

Pigs drink a large amount of water, from twelve to
twenty pounds to the pig each day for mature hogs;
hence a good watering system is very desirable. On
most western farms, a waterworks system can be installed
with so little difficulty that not only for the convenience
of the pigs, but for the general improvement of the farm
it should be put in as soon as possible.

WATERING DEVICES

Since hogs require water at frequent intervals, it is
desirable that a system be established which will reduce
the labor of watering to the minimum. It seems justi-
fiable to go to greater expense in putting in an efficient
water system than‘in almost any other item of the pig
equipment. So far as possible, fields which are to be used
as pig pastures and which are not provided with springs
or natural streams should be supplied with pipes running
from a central water system. If this expense cannot be
entailed, a suitable device may be made of a large barrel
with an automatic watering equipment attached. This
will supply water for 1000 pounds of pigs for four days,
provided none is wasted. The labor of refilling the barrel
if the water has to be hauled adds a considerable expense.
A suitable device if water is piped to the pastures or pens
may be made with a float valve, the float being boxed
in at one end of the trough so that the pigs cannot break
it to pieces, and if the troughs are on the same level,
one trap can regulate several troughs. (See Plate XVI.)

Puate XVI. — Hoa Farm ConveENIENCES.

Above, left, Oregon breeding crate; above, right, trimming a boar’s
tusks; below, left, hitch for holding large hogs; below, right, auto-
matic hog waterer attached to a barrel.

Equipment 381

TROUGHS

With reference to the initial cost, the cheapest troughs
are made of wood, oak being the most durable and fir
the least. The fir, however, is by far the cheapest in
the first cost. If troughs are made of wood, the shape
may be either flat-bottomed or V-shaped. The flat-
bottomed troughs are preferable for sows with small pigs,
and for all pigs on dry feed. The V-shaped troughs are

Fic. 34. — The Most Common Type of Hog Trough.

preferable for feeding slop or wet feed and when small
pigs are not to be fed with their dams. V-shaped troughs
are too high to permit of small pigs eating from them
with ease and they will not begin eating so soon. On
the other hand, the flat troughs are harder for pigs to
clean and more waste results from their use. Cement
as a trough material has not been tried out on any large
scale, but is entirely satisfactory if a system of flushing
can be used. It is impossible to turn the troughs, hence
a drain must be provided. A slatted door or lid, hinged
at one side of the trough, may be raised and hooked
when troughs are to be cleaned. Iron troughs are highly
satisfactory, except for the initial cost, which is almost
prohibitive. They may be of any shape, but they are
usually made with an oval bottom.

382 - Western Live-stock Management

FENCES :

For inside fences or partitions, heavy woven wire with
a close mesh has been tried out and found fairly satis-
factory. It admits the light freely, permits the hogs to
see each other and the attendant, and it is easily cleaned
and kept sanitary. Wooden partitions must be tight,
otherwise the pigs will gnaw through them or try to climb
overthem. They would better be made movable, so that,
if desired, two or more pens may be combined. This may
be done by means of two cleats nailed to the underside
of a two by four placed at the height which the partition
should be. One of these cleats is nailed in temporarily
after the ends of the boards have been set up against
the opposite cleat, and when the partition is to be removed,
the nails are drawn from the temporary cleat and as many
boards as desired taken out. Worn-out boards may be
replaced in the same manner. Concrete fences have been
suggested and used to a slight extent, but more as a base
for iron fences : that is, a wall of concrete a foot or eighteen
inches in height is used on which to set the iron fence.
This prevents the manure passing from one pen to another
and makes quarantine more easily possible. As an entire
fence, concrete takes up too much space and is too ex-
pensive. For outside fences, no material is more service-
cable or convenient than woven wire. The material of
which the fence is made should be as heavy as can be
secured, since the very heaviest and closest mesh fence
obtainable will be none too good. The regulation hog
fence is made of No. 9 wire throughout. Very little of this
fence is sold in the West, but its extra durability will jus-
tify securing it even with the additional expense involved.
The stays should be six inches apart instead of twelve as

Equipment 383

is usually the case. In general, the fence should be
stretched tightly to posts sixteen feet apart, but when
fencing small lots, the posts should be only eight feet
apart. Around the small lots, it is convenient to have
a two by four laid flatwise on top of the posts. This
serves to brace the posts, to keep the wire from sagging
down between them, and adds a finished appearance to
the fence. The fence should be securely attached at the
bottom, and heavy barb wire stretched tightly on the
ground below the bottom wire of the woven fence. Many
fences are provided with a barb wire woven in as the
bottom strand of the fence, but this has no advantage,
and the fence is less convenient to handle.

FLOORS

The durability and ease of disinfection are the chief
advantages of concrete, but when only a small number
of pigs is kept, or when the floors are latér to be replaced
by better ones, wooden floors are satisfactory, and will
last three or four years. The floors of the inside pens
usually slope toward the drain if a drain is provided.
Whether the floor should be provided with a drain will
depend on the system which is in use on the farm for
handling.the manure. Just as with other kinds of stock,
there are two general systems for handling manure; one
method is to absorb the liquid with bedding and remove
at frequent enough intervals to keep the house sanitary.
The other method is to lay the floor in such a manner
that the liquid will not reach the bedding and will run
off from the pen either into a drain or cistern. There
is more difficulty in keeping the piggery bedded down
than is experienced with other kinds of stock, because

384 Western Live-stock Management

of the pig’s habit of rooting. If pigs have the opportunity,
that is, if their pen is built in such a manner as to permit
it, they will keep themselves and their beds clean, so there
is usually provided some sort of device which will shut
off the bedding quarters from the dung quarters. The

ran e
cl re fd
— »
H «7h WATER.
) N
Y = N
u =f — MORTISE
| CONCRETE REMOVABLE. FEND N
fe a TROVGH \
id
i N
Eatery y
N
CROSS SECTION TROVGA \
i: TJROVGAS AND FRONT ze HOOK Bo Ny
PARTITION ie x . wi
\; i 7
U bg DOVBLE ACTING GATE \
\

Fic. 35. — Typical Pen of the Oregon Hog Barn.

bed may be placed on a platform raised from two to six
inches above the remainder of the pen, and the remaining
portion built according to either of the previously suggested
methods. On the other hand, the entire pen may slope
towards the outside door or towards the drain, and no
special precaution taken to keep the bedding out of the
manure. (See Fig. 35.)

The advantages for concrete are durability and sani-
tation. The disadvantages are the expense involved and

Equipment 385

the coldness of the material. As sometimes constructed,
they are also slippery, but this need not be the case,
as a rough finish will obviate this difficulty. The coldness
may be avoided either by the liberal use of bedding or
by an overlay, which consists of a board platform laid over
that part of the cement floor on which the pigs are to
lie and the bedding placed on top of this. In summer, of
course, this platform should be removed and the pigs
allowed to lie on the cool floor. Some persons have
recommended two layers of coal tar between the grouting
and surface layers of cement. In winter, moisture some-
times accumulates under the platform, so that it will
need to be moved from time to time, but if the dust is
kept from beneath it, very little dampness will accumulate.
Those who have used concrete floors differ in their judg-
ment on them. Some maintain that the pigs warm the
concrete floor through their bedding, and the floors re-
main warm, provided they are dry. On the other hand,
others maintain that the floors are always cold and clammy,
and must make the pigs uncomfortable. Undoubtedly
the drainage and ventilation of the building have much
to do with the condition of the concrete floor. If the
ventilation is not good, more moisture will accumulate
on the floors; and if drainage is poor, they will like-
wise be damp. If ventilation and drainage are good,
however, keeping the floors dry is a much easier problem,
especially if the floors are thoroughly water-proof, which
will not be the case unless the concrete is made from the
correct mixture and properly tamped.

DIPPING VAT

In order to keep pigs free from external vermin and
occasional attacks of mange, some system of dipping is
2c

386 Western Live-stock Management

desirable. On farms where sheep as well as pigs are kept,
the dipping vat is ordinarily already installed, but where
sheep are not kept and only a small number of pigs are
raised, it may be considered too expensive to install a
dipping vat. In the latter case a hole may be dug in the
ground and water poured into it and the sheep dip or
crude oil added to it. The pigs are then allowed to
wallow in it at their pleasure, and in hot weather they
will keep themselves free from vermin. The difficulty
with this method is that the wallow will soon become
foul, and if sows which are suckling pigs are allowed
to run into it they daub themselves with mud so that the
little pigs get the mud into their stomachs, causing some
losses. This difficulty may be largely obviated by lining
the hole with planks, or in other words, building a box of
suitable size and embedding it in the earth, allowing the
edges to extend slightly above the level of the ground.
If the sides are high enough to avoid splashing the water
over, a mud-hole can be avoided. The wallowing vat
should be embedded more deeply in the ground at one side
than at the other, so that pigs may lie in the water at
different depths as they desire, and so that they can get
in and out of the vat without difficulty. Wallowing vats
of concrete are often used and they are very satisfactory
and not particularly expensive.

Rubbing posts, consisting of bagging or some other
absorbent material tightly bound around posts, located
conveniently for the pigs to rub on them and saturated
with crude oil, have been recommended as a means for
keeping pigs free from vermin, but the results have not
been entirely satisfactory. There are too many other
posts which are convenient for the pigs to rub on, and they
do not use the oiled posts enough. Various devices

Equipment 387

are recommended as efficient lice-killers, but the expense
which they entail is ordinarily too great in comparison
with that of a regular dipping vat. A dipping vat for
pigs is constructed in the same manner as those for sheep
already described except that for large hogs the vat
must not be less than twenty-six inches wide at the top.
Other dimensions may be the same.

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT

Under this heading will be considered such instruments
and implements as are useful and necessary in connection
with the pig business, but which cannot properly be spoken
of as fixtures on the place. If pastures are used the pigs
must be ringed. A small pair of pinchers for applying
the rings may be procured for fifteen cents and will last
along time. The rings cost about ten cents a box. The
fish-hook rings are most generally used, but plain rings are
sometimes necessary, and both should be provided.

An ear-punch similar to that used for cattle or sheep is
useful, if pigs are to be ear-marked; that is, notches
placed in their ears.

A castration knife with a straight edge blade and
made of the best steel is very essential. Such a blade is
sometimes found on the ordinary pocket knife, but in
such cases the blade usually requires extra attention
before any operation is to be performed.

If the pig house is to be kept disinfected and free from
vermin, a spray is needed and may be provided with small
expense. Such a device is worth having if the house has

been built in such a manner as to make disinfection
practicable. .
A hog-holder, for ringing pigs or for holding them for

388 Western Live-stock Management

any other purpose, may be made similar to a twitch for
horses. A simpler device consists simply of a small hard
rope with a running loop like a lariat which may be
placed about the pig’s upper jaw just back of his incisor
teeth, and the loop drawn tight. The pig pulls back
on the rope in an attempt to get away, and may be easily
held. Another hog-holder is made of iron about the size
of'a wagon rod and provided with a loop bent on either end

Fic. 36.— Hog Holder.

as shown in Fig. 36. One of the loops is for large hogs,
and one for small ones, the opposite end in either case
being used as a handle. A man single handed can hold
and ring a bunch of pigs with either of these implements,
while without one of them, two men would be necessary.
Even large hogs may be snubbed up with a rope and the
rope tied about a post, making it possible for one man
to handle them.

A loading chute with a pair of wheels so it can be moved
easily is a great convenience. The sides of the chute should
be biased and the angle adjusted to the height of the wagon
which is ordinarily used for hauling hogs. The bottom
of the chute can be rested on the bottom of the wagon
box and held in place with a hook and eye.

CHAPTER XXVIII

THE BREEDING HERD

THE secret of successful pig raising lies in the handling
of the breeding herd; and the profit or loss of the sea-
son’s work is very largely determined before the pigs
are born. A fattening pig that is improperly fed or
managed at once retaliates by ceasing to gain, and the
attendant is thereby warned to change his methods.
But a boar or brood sow improperly handled may ap-
parently thrive and yet some weeks or months later
pay the debt with heavy interest. It is necessary that
this matter receive most careful attention.

THE BOAR

It is best, when possible, to secure a tried breeder;
that is, one which has sired pigs. Such boars have gen-
erally been used until the owner, because of having gilts
sired by the boar, or for some other reason must let him
go. The opportunities to secure such animals, however,
are not very frequent, and it is usually necessary to resort
to a young untried pig. If possible, one should visit the
farm from which it is proposed to secure the animal before
making any definite contract. This will give an oppor-
tunity to see the way the animals have been kept and to
find out the particulars which could not be learned by
mail. The following points should be kept in mind when

389

390 Western Live-stock Management

selecting a boar: First, that the animal is of good market
type; second, that he has masculinity well defined; third,
that he is in good condition as compared with the other
pigs kept in the same lot with him, or kept in like manner
as himself; fourth, that he is out of a large litter from a
sow that is a good mother; fifth, that the boar is pure-
bred, and his pedigree or transfer certificate should be
received with him, or if the owner has not these papers
a part of the purchase price should be held until he turns
them over to you.

One should not buy a grade boar, or one which the owner
says is of pure blood, but on which the registration papers
have not been kept up. If such a boar is found to be an
exceptionally good breeder and the new owner wants to
pass him on to some one else, the next person will be
sure to insist on the papers. A runt from a good herd
should not be purchased merely because he is cheap. One
should not buy a boar of one breed when his sows are pure-
bred and of some other breed, nor should a pig under
five months of age be purchased for immediate service.
When the boar has been secured, one should not turn
him out in a lot with strange hogs, because there may be
brood sows in heat, and other hogs may fight him. Over
six sows should not be bred a week, nor more than two
in one day with a boar under a year, and over eight a
week with a mature boar.

A boar six months old can get pigs, but a boar should not
be used until he is eight months old, and but sparingly
at that age. The way the young boar is used has a great
deal to do with his length of life and his utility. If de-
sirable to try him out, it may be done with only a small
number of sows, and then his usefulness will not be im-
paired. Many breeders waste much money by procuring

The Breeding Herd 391

a new boar every year. Allowing a boar to do service,
‘takes a considerable amount from his value as a market
animal, and most boars are sent to the butcher before the
owner finds out whether or not they have proven
profitable breeders. A much better way of handling the
boar is to keep him for several years, and if no new sows
are added from his produce, there is little chance of making
a mistake in retaining him. He is not worth much for
meat, and another year of service will take but little
value from his carcass when he is killed. When a good
boar is obtained, he should be used as long as possible,
and then passed on to some one else. A mature boar
will get larger and stronger pigs, and more of them from
the same sows than will a younger boar.

The feed of the boar should not be materially changed
when he is taken to his new home. If any changes are
to be made, they are to be made gradually. If he is in
good growing condition, keep him so, but do not endeavor
to make him excessively fat. On the other hand, if he
has been kept up in show condition, and it is not necessary
to use him for breeding purposes immediately, it is not a
bad policy to reduce his flesh somewhat, and then a month
before he is to be used, begin to make him pick up again.
As a rule, however, it is not necessary to remove the
flesh of the boar unless he is very large or old.

DRY SOWS

Sows from which pigs have been weaned usually come
in heat three days after the pigs are removed and if it is
desired to produce a second litter that year, the sow should
be bred at that time. However, if she is in thin flesh, it
may be best to allow her to pass one or two periods and

392 Western Live-stock Management

breed her later. After sows are bred, if they are in
reasonably good flesh, they may be turned to good pasture
where they will maintain. their weight without any grain
feed. However, if the sows are thin in flesh, or are not good
grazers or if pastures are poor, they must have enough
grain to provide for a slight increase in weight during
the gestation period and thus regain the flesh lost while
suckling the pigs.

GESTATION PERIOD

The gestation period of pigs is usually 112 to 115 days.
Vigorous sows generally come within these limits. Im-
mature and old broken-down sows ordinarily farrow in
a shorter time than the vigorous ones. The weight of the
pigs is usually larger with those sows which have the
smallest litters, and which have the longest gestation
period. It will require six or seven months to grow the
pigs from birth until they are ready for market. Hence,
it is ten or eleven months from the time the sow is bred
until the pigs are fat. As has already been intimated,
there is likely to be a comparatively weak market during
the fall months for many years to come. A sow bred
January 1 should farrow April 22, and the pigs will be
ready for market in November. These dates are fairly
typical of the practice throughout the greater part of
the West regardless of other conditions which are often
more important. If two litters a year are to be pro-
duced, one litter should come in February or March,
and the other in August or September, the kind of
housing and the climate of the locality determining
whether it is most advisable to have pigs farrowed at the
earlier dates.

The Breeding Herd 393

BREEDING

If more than five sows are to be kept in the herd,
it will be more profitable to own a herd boar, while if
less than five are to be kept, and if the service of a good
boar may be procured from a neighbor, it will be less prof-
itable to own the boar than to hire the service. Sows
begin to come into heat when five or six months old, but
should not be bred until they are at least eight months
old, and fall-farrowed sows had best be a year old before
being bred. Fall pigs do not develop so rapidly as spring
pigs, so that at the same age they are not usually so large.
Healthy sows will normally continue to come in heat every
twenty-one days until they are bred. Several weeks be-
fore the regular breeding season begins a record may be
kept of the date at which the various sows come into heat.
In this way one may know how many sows will be in heat
at a certain time so that none need be missed and the
boar may be handled more intelligently. If two or more
sows are to come into heat at the same time, it is well
to breed one of them as soon in the period of heat as
possible, and not to breed the other until toward the close
of the period. If small sows are to be bred to a large
boar, a breeding crate is almost a necessity, for the in-
juries to young sows will often amount to more than the
price of a breeding crate. Likewise, the energies of the boar
are conserved by the use of a crate. The one in Plate
XVI was developed at the Oregon Experiment Station,
and is as satisfactory as any. However, like fences for
hog pastures, much is yet to be desired in the way of a
satisfactory breeding crate. Not more than one sow a
day should be bred to a boar and but one service should
be allowed, if another sow is to be bred within a day or

394 Western Live-stock Management

two. If no other sow is to come into heat within the
time, a sow may be served at the beginning of the period
of heat, and also near the close, for the period of heat
is not always coincident with the discharge of the ova
from the ovaries. After a sow is served, she should be im-
mediately removed from other hogs. The boar should also
be removed to his own pen if he does not serve her there,
and should be shut off from other hogs, or at least from sows.
Using the boar in different pensis likely to make him unruly.
Three weeks after the sow is bred she should be tried again,
or if she shows evidence of being in heat before three weeks
is up, she should be re-bred. If the boar and sow are both
in good healthy condition, there should be few returns.

PREGNANT SOWS

Usually if sows do not come in heat three weeks after
being bred, they will not come into heat again until after
farrowing, but occasionally a sow will pass a period of
heat and then resume. It is therefore wise to try the sow
for at least two periods after she has been bred. When
pregnant, young sows should be kept gaining at the rate
of about one pound a day during the gestation period,
and old sows if in reasonably good flesh should gain from
one-quarter to one-half pound a day during the pregnant
period. With old sows, which are very thin when bred,
a larger gain than a pound a day is desirable, but in no
event should a sow be made so heavy that her feet be-
come sore.

The sow, during the pregnant period, requires feed con-
taining an abundance of mineral and protein matter. In
summer, if good pasture is available, heavy grain feed will
not be required; in fact, some sows will make sufficient

The Breeding Herd 395

gains on pasture alone, but the great number will require
three or four pounds of grain in addition to pasture.
Each sow must be fed according to her needs as shown
by the weight and general appearance. Sows bred for
spring farrow will require heavier grain feeding than those
farrowing in the fall.

FARROWING

A week before each sow is due to farrow, she is separated
from the herd and placed in a pen by herself so she will
become accustomed to her new quarters and be more quiet
at farrowing time. The farrowing pen need not be an
expensive affair, and whether a single colony house is used,
or a centralized house in which there are several farrowing
pens, the essential features are the same; namely, dryness,
freedom from drafts, light, ventilation, freedom from ob-
jects on which the sow can. injure herself or her little
pigs, and a rail to prevent the sow from mashing the pigs
against the wall. If the sow is not already gentle, care
should be taken during this preliminary period to get her
accustomed to the attendant and responsive to kind treat-
ment, so that when it is desired to make her lie down this
can be accomplished without difficulty. A little gentle
rubbing or scratching on the side of the belly will usually
induce the sow to lie down. About twelve hours before
the sow is to farrow, she will usually show a great deal of
activity in making a bed. She will be gathering up such
material as is available, and carrying it into piles, often
starting a bed in several different places. If she has not
been in her present pen very long, she will often try to
get out, but if precautions have been taken to keep her
there for a week before farrowing, she will usually be con-
tented with her quarters. Two or three hours before

396 Western Live-stock Management

farrowing, there will ordinarily be milk in the teats, al-
though neither of these signs is infallible. If the presence
of any one in or near the farrowing pen seems to annoy
the sow, the attendant should keep out of sight, but near
enough to be of service if required. As labor comes on
the sow usually lies on one side, and frequently appears
oblivious to everything going on around her. She will
get her breath at longer intervals, and after a few hard
pains will usually give birth to her first pig. If after much
labor no pig has yet appeared, the attendant may insert
one or two fingers in the vulva to determine whether a
pig has yet appeared in the vagina. Frequently if a pig
comes hind feet first, the head will be wedged in the pelvis
in such a way that the circulation through the umbilical
cord will be cut off, and a pig so held will very quickly
suffocate. If the feet are felt in the vagina, they should
immediately be seized and pulled gently but firmly: until
the pig escapes, else he will come dead. Unless a sow is
immature, high in the pelvis, or has run considerably
over time, there should be little difficulty in giving
birth. As soon as a pig arrives, if he gasps and gets his
breath, the only precaution is to remove the mucous
covering from his body and rub him vigorously to get
him dry, and even this latter will not be necessary if the
weather is warm. It is usually best to rub the mucus
from the nose and after drying the pig, place him in
a basket or box in which a woolen lining has been placed.
However, if the sow is perfectly quiet, it will not be
necessary to remove the pigs as they are born, unless the
attendant is to leave the farrowing pen fora time. If any
pigs fail to show signs of life when born, they should be
examined to see whether the heart is beating, which can
be noted by the palpitation in the umbilical cord. A

The Breeding Herd 397

few slaps on the sides or blowing in his nostrils will usually
start respiration if he has any life in him.

The after-birth is usually passed in two installments,
the passage of the first portion marking the emptying of
one horn of the uterus, while the remainder is ordinarily
passed after the last pig has come. The after-birth should
be immediately removed from the pen, and buried or
_burned, or at least placed where the sow or other hogs can-
not eat it. If this is not done the habit of eating pigs may
be acquired.

After the pigs are all born and the sow is quiet, all the
pigs should be placed to the sow to suckle, if they have not
already done so. It is well to squeeze each teat a little
to make sure that milk can be drawn from each one, and
if there are more pigs than there are good teats, it is ad-
visable to give some of the pigs to another sow, if this
can be done; and if not, kill them or raise them by hand.
The value of the pigs will determine which is the more
desirable course to pursue. If this is not done there is
great danger that the pigs may bite the sow in their ef-
forts to possess themselves of the teat, and cause the sow
to mash some of the best pigs in the litter.

When the pigs have sucked until, they are satisfied,
they should be removed to their box again, and fed every
two or two-and-one-half hours until they are forty-eight
hours old. Very little bedding is allowed the sow at far-
rowing time, or for several days afterward, if the pigs are
left with her; and such bedding as is provided should be
finely chaffed, so that the pigs cannot become entangled
init. Troughs and other objects which the sow can move,
and which are heavy enough to injure the pigs if rooted
upon them, should be removed from the pen when the
sow and pigs are left alone. A sow which experience has

398 Western Live-stock Management

shown to be a poor milker should be fed a milk-forming
ration for several days before farrowing. On the other
hand a sow which is known to be a fine milker should not
receive such aration until two or three days after farrowing.
A good milk-forming ration for a sow which is not on
pasture may consist of six or seven pounds of barley,
with one-half pound of tankage, or three pounds middlings
and five pounds ground barley, six pounds of rolled wheat,
and one-half pound tankage; two pounds ground oats, two
pounds ground rye, two pounds middlings, and one-third
pound tankage. Any of these rations should be fed in
connection with ten to fifteen pounds roots, kale, green
clover, or green alfalfa if they are in season, or if skim-
milk is available, ten to fifteen pounds of skim-milk may
take the place of the succulence and the tankage. Fora
sow of which heavy milk production is not desired, the
succulent feed may be cut in two, and the grain ration
reduced to four pounds a day. To dry a sow up if she
has been running on pasture, the other feed may be dis-
continued entirely, and if the pasture is rank, it is best
that she be removed from pasture for three days, and fed
only three or four pounds of ground oats.

If the sow has been fed a milk-forming ration before
farrowing time, she is likely to have plenty of milk, and
in fact, may have too much. Individual sows differ
greatly in this respect. If the sow has little or no milk
at farrowing time, it is necessary to feed her a stimulating
ration to start the milk-flow, and if this cannot be done
quickly, it is necessary to hand-feed the pigs until milk is
provided. Fresh, warm cow’s milk, and a medicine
dropper should be secured, the pig placed with his mouth
on the sow’s teat, and the milk slowly dropped on the
upper side of the teat so that the pig gets the milk as he

The Breeding Herd 399

sucks. In this way the pig is receiving extra feed without
knowing it, and without losing the habit of sucking the
sow. Itis very difficult to get pigs to suck after they have
been hand-fed; so that hand-feeding should be resorted
to only in cases of the absolute failure of the sow. If the
sow has more milk than the pigs can take during the
first few days, a husky, hungry pig from another sow may
be allowed to suckle out the teats which the little pigs
do not empty; this is the best way to prevent caked
udders, and at the same time keep the teats in good con-
dition, so that they will be available for the little pigs
when they need them all. If the sow has an insufficient
quantity of milk, the pigs are likely to follow her around
the pen, and some of them be trampled upon.

After a week or ten days, or sooner if the pigs are
taking all the sow’s milk, she should be put on full feed
of a milk-forming ration. The aim should be to main-
tain the sow’s flesh, although this is almost impossible if
she is a heavy milker. Since the gains on young pigs are
the most economical which they make, it is desirable that
as rapid gains as possible be secured during the milking
period. In late spring or early summer the sow should
be turned into pasture if at all convenient, but care
should be taken to prevent the pigs from contracting
pneumonia when first turned out into pasture. Sows with
fall-farrowed pigs should be given abundance of succulent
feed along with their grain feed.

CASTRATION

Castrated pigs will make more satisfactory gains them-
selves and will allow other pigs to gain more satisfac-
torily. The meat from castrated pigs, or barrows, is more
palatable than that from boars, and the reproduction of

400 Western Live-stock Management

undesirable pigs is prevented by castration. Pigs should
be castrated when about six weeks old, or two weeks be-
fore they are weaned. To perform the operation the pig
is laid on one side, an attendant holds the pig by the front
and hind foot which are on top, and the operator holds the
testicle between the thumb and forefinger with the left
hand, holding the knife with the right. The lower tes-
ticle should be removed first, so that the flow of blood
will not interfere. An incision is made parallel to the
septum, about half an inch from it, and extending a little
below the lower point of the testicle. This is to pre-
vent the formation of a pus pocket in the bottom of the
scrotum, which would be likely to cause difficulty when
the wound heals. The skin and the membrane covering
the testicles are cut through, the testicle is squeezed out,
and either pulled out entirely, or pulled out until the
cord connecting the testicle with the body is an inch and
a half or two inches long. Then the cord is gradually
cut or scraped off near the body. Some disinfectant
should be rubbed over the scrotum and adjacent parts
before the incision is made, and it is well to wash out the
wound with disinfectant. Any of the standard sheep dips
will be found satisfactory for this purpose.

Pigs which show an enlargement at one side of the scrotum
are usually ruptured, and require special treatment. It
is best that a veterinarian operate on such animals until
the pig-raiser becomes familiar with the operation. The
loss of ordinary healthy pigs from castration is very small,
while that with ruptured pigs is nearly fifty per cent.

WEANING

If two litters a year are to be produced, it is necessary
that the pigs be weaned at eight to ten weeks, while

The Breeding Herd 401

with only one litter pigs may be allowed to run with the
sows for three or four months, or until the sows wean
them themselves. Small pigs should be induced to eat
as soon as possible after they are farrowed, and are usually
at least three weeks old before they take any other feed
than their mother’s milk. Every inducement ought to
be offered them to eat as much as possible of the right
kind of feed. Sweet skim-milk and middlings make an
excellent combination, and since these feeds are rather ex-
pensive, it is not always desirable to allow the mothers
to have the same ration. Hence, a creep, or enclosure
into which the pigs have access, but which excludes older
hogs, is often desirable. The creep should be provided
with both feed and water troughs so that pigs will not
be compelled to crowd in with older hogs either to eat
or drink. It is considered a good practice to wean all
the pigs from a sow at the same time, having begun to
cut down the feed of the sow prior to weaning. It is a
good plan also to change the character of the feed of the
sow, so that it will be less conducive to milk-formation.
Shutting the sows off pasture, and withholding succulent
and concentrated feeds, will help materially in decreasing
the milk-flow, and if the entire ration be decreased, but
little trouble should be experienced in getting sows to
dry off without any caked udders or any derangement.
Some prefer to leave one or two of the pigs with the
sow in order to draw off the surplus milk, but these
ordinarily suckle only one or two teats. Other breeders
prefer to take the pigs from the sow and return them
to her after twelve hours, and gradually prolong the
intervals between feeding until the sow is dry. This
entails more trouble, and may result in digestive derange-
ments of the pigs.
2D

402 Western Live-stock Management

FEEDING THE WEANLINGS

If the suckling pigs are induced to eat grain as early as
possible and have all they can consume, weaning brings
about little hardship. If two litters a year are to be
produced, ten weeks is as long as the pigs may be allowed
to suck, and at this age should have had five weeks in
which to become accustomed to artificial feed. If any
change from the ration on which the suckling pigs were
started must be made, it had best be done gradually and
before the pigs are weaned. In any event the change
must be brought about carefully to avoid digestive trouble,
waste, and pot-belly. The digestive tract of a small pig
is larger in proportion to his body than when he grows
older. Hence it is possible at this time to over-feed a pig; *
but the more common mistake is under-feeding. Another
illness which may result from over-eating is impaired effi-
ciency of the entire system, so that the gains in later
life are secured at greater cost than should be. Pot-
bellies result from the too long continued use of very
bulky or watery feeds. Little trouble of this kind, how-
ever, is likely to result from the feeding during the first
seven weeks, but where pigs suckle for as much as three
months, such troubles are not unusual.

With little pigs both before and after weaning, care
must be taken that no feed be left in their troughs to
become sour, or scours will almost surely result. There-
fore but little should be given them and what is left re-
moved and given to their dams. Then their trough
should be thoroughly cleaned, and if possible, with the very
youngest pigs, scalded and set up in the sun. At all
events the trough must be left clean, and should be so
when feed is put into it again. A good start makes

The Breeding Herd 403

success possible; a bad one makes success very uncertain.
The advantages of the creep are that cleanliness is more
easily secured, and a smaller amount of high-priced feed
is necessary, as the sow does not require so expensive
a ration.

If green pasture of any kind is in season, the weanling
pigs should still have access to it: and if they are to be
hurried for market, their other feed should be continued
in liberal quantities. If skim-milk is abundant enough to
permit its use in quantity for the pigs, it may be fed to
them twice daily in quantities not to exceed eight pounds
to 100 pounds live weight. Their other feed may well be
given through a self-feeder, or it may be given by hand
either at noon, if they are not to be hurried to the limit,
or at morning and night if they are. A better return
will be made for the skim-milk if used at the rate of only
five pounds for each 100 pounds of live weight. The other
feed of the pigs at this time may be ground oats, barley,
wheat, speltz, kafir, milo maize, or corn, according to the
price. If skim-milk is not available for the weanling pigs,
tankage, about one part to ten of grain, making a nutritive
ratio of about one to five, will be found satisfactory.
Oats should not form to exceed one-third of the ration if
rapid gains on the pigs are desired, but if only moderate
growth is to be secured, ground oats may form the greater
portion of the grain ration. If more rapid finish is de-
sired, the proportion of ground wheat or ground barley
should be increased so as to form at least two-thirds of
the grain ration. A good quality of middlings is more
valuable than any of the grains if fed in connection with
other feed, but as a single feed is unsatisfactory. In any
event, except for the suckling pigs, one should not pay
more than $5.00 a ton more for middlings than for the

404 Western Live-stock Management

grain, and with ordinary prices of grain, $2.00 a ton is the
maximum premium that could be given for middlings.
Barley and wheat are of practically equal value with corn,
while speltz, thenon-saccharine sorghums, hog millet, oats,
and rye, generally range in the order given. In connection
with good pasture, two and one-fourth pounds of grain
feed should be allowed to each 100 pounds live weight of
pigs, and if pastures are poor, the amount of grain should
be increased.

Clover, rape, alfalfa, green wheat, and mixed grain which
is not over five inches high, make satisfactory pasture.
Rape will afford more pasture when sown in rows and
cultivated until six inches high. In this way the plants
will be tramped very little, and will start up several
times during the summer. Clover, in early summer, and
the second growth if rains follow the cutting, affords good
pasture. Irrigated alfalfa is second to none. As a rule,
liberal feeding of the growing pig is profitable, since
feeding simply for maintenance nets no profit.

Selling the pigs at feeder size is practiced to a consider-
able extent when plenty of alfalfa and but little grain is
grown. ‘These feeder pigs are taken to the grain regions
for finishing. Local conditions will determine whether
there is any profit in this business.

NUMBER OF PIGS TO THE ACRE

The Eastern Oregon Experiment Station found that
when no grain was fed, twelve pigs kept an acre of alfalfa
cropped close, while with a self-feeder, twice as many pigs
could be run to the acre.

Rape pasture, if conditions are favorable, will carry
about ten or twelve pigs to the acre. The carrying
capacity will be somewhat increased if the pasture is

The Breeding Herd 405

divided into two parts and the pigs alternated from one
to the other.

Clover will carry asomewhat larger number, because of its
deeper rooting system and longer growing period. If the
pasture is fairly large so that the area likely to be tramped
excessively is a smaller proportion of the pasture, twelve
to fifteen shotes or five or six mature dry sows may be
run to an acre.

Many experiments have been carried on to determine
the amount of pork which can be produced from an acre of
pastures, both with and without grain rations. It is
obvious that no one test would be very wide in its ap-
plication, nor would an average of these tests mean any
more, especially when most of the gain is made from the
grain rather than the pasture. It is safe to say, however,
that reports of pastures paying $40.00 to $100.00 an acre
when used for pigs are misleading, even when technically
correct. The judicious use of pasture nearly always lowers
the cost of gains as compared with any other system of
feeding, but the saving is not usually very much in excess
of a fair rental of the land.

In selecting pasture, the points suggested by Evard in
Jowa Bulletin 136 should be kept in mind. “An ideal
forage for hogs should show: 1. Adaptability to local
soil and climate; 2. palatability; 3. a heavy yield of
digestible nutrients, being high in protein and mineral
matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, and low in
crude fiber; 4. succulence; 5. long pasturing season ;
6. ability to endure grazing; 7. permanency; 8. reason-
able cost and ease of seeding; 9. capability of furnish-
ing good pasture at any time during the growing season.
These essentials are not found in any single forage, but
alfalfa, the clovers, and rape have most of them.”

406 Western Live-stock Management

RINGING

When the weanling pigs are run on pasture, as is
usually the case, both they and their dams will probably
require ringing. Ringing consists of inserting pig rings in
the cartilages at the top of the pig’s snout to prevent
rooting. Fish-hook rings are most satisfactory for larger
hogs and should be placed in the nose so that the loop
is at the front of the snout, and the point protruding
forward through the loop. Pigs still sucking should not
be rung with fish-hook rings since these rings injure the
sow’s udder, so if rung at all, the plain rings should be
used. Small pigs will require but one small size ring,
while old sows will require two or three larger size rings.
If two rings are used, they should not be over one-half
inch apart, and should be at either side of the middle.
The necessary apparatus for holding the hogs and for
inserting the rings has been described under equipment.

CHAPTER XXIX

FATTENING FOR MARKET

FATTENING swine for market covers that part of the
pig’s life from the time he is put on full feed until he is
ready for slaughter. Usually a pig weighing from 80
to 125 pounds is known as a feeder, and is put on fatten-
ing feed to finish him for pork.

Fattening, as the term implies, increases not only the
absolute weight of fat in the pig’s body, which is one of
its main purposes, but increases the proportion of fat to
other constituents. Since lean meat contains a greater
proportion of water than does fat meat, making a pig fat
also decreases the amount of water in the carcass. This
renders curing easy without hardening of the meat by the
abstraction of too much water, and without the meat
taking up too much salt. Making the pig fat increases
the dressing percentage and, within reasonable limits,
improves the flavor and quality of the meat. The butcher,
therefore, insists on purchasing a fat pig and will pay more
for it since the fat pig yields better meat and more of it.
A thin pig may not dress over 70 per cent, while a fat one
will dress 75 to 80 per cent. The feeder wishes to have his
pigs fat when he sells them, for fat is usually put on at
less outlay for each pound than it costs to grow the pig’s
frame, while the fat pig will bring from 1 cent to 1% cents
a pound more for slaughter than will the same pig in
thin condition. In addition to those noted, other signifi-

407

408 Western Live-stock Management

cant changes are going on in the pig’s body. A certain
amount of muscular cells undergo fatty degeneration,
making the meat more tender and delicious to the epicure,
but at the same time rendering the pig weaker and less
efficient as a machine for transforming feed into pork.
This is one reason why more and more feed is required
to produce gains as the pig approaches market maturity
and why, when once fat, he should be marketed as soon
as possible. The debilitation process also accounts in a
measure for the greater susceptibility of fat pigs to disease.
Fattening increases the body weight which has to be
maintained and this in turn increases the cost of the gains.

WHEN TO BEGIN FATTENING

The western markets nearly all demand a smooth,
nicely finished pig weighing about 200 pounds. It is
found that with a pig in good growing condition at the
start, it takes about sixty days on full feed to produce the
desired finish and that during this sixty day period, he
will put on about 100 pounds of live weight. This means,
therefore, that the fattening process should begin when
the pig is not to exceed 100 pounds live weight. If
heavier than this, he will not be fat until too large for the
market requirements, while if too small at the start, he
will become too fat to gain economically before reaching
market weight. Of course if the pig has been grown on
liberal feed and is already in fair condition, he will require
less time to fatten than if he had been grown less rapidly
and is thinner in flesh at the start. A pig at 100 pounds
live weight should be from four to six months old. If
much older than six months, it is practically impossible
to finish him into a good market hog and he will always be
rough and ill-shaped.

Fattening for Market 409

STANDARD FEEDS

At the beginning of fattening average pigs are given
about four and one-half pounds of feed for each 100
pounds of live weight. This is increased until within a
week the pigs are receiving all they will clean up in thirty
minutes. If they are to be fed on the self-feeder, a little
larger increase is given before turning them to the feeder.

The basis of the fattening ration must in all cases be one
of the cereals. As proven by many tests at the Oregon
Experiment Station, corn, wheat, and barley have about
the same feeding value, pound for pound. The choice
between these must, therefore, be determined by their
cost, the preference always being for the one that can
be grown or purchased the cheapest. Speltz, emmer,
kafir, and milo maize are suitable for fattening, but should
be supplemented a little more liberally with protein feeds
than corn, wheat, or barley, and even then not quite as
good gains will be secured with a given quantity of feed.
When purchased, these grains should be procured at one-
fifth to one-fourth less a ton than wheat. Oats, rye, and
speltz should only be fed with other cereals and supple-
mented with protein feeds. A grain ration consisting of
one-third oats or speltz and two-thirds wheat, barley, or
corn may be expected to yield practically as much gain
as a ration of wheat or barley alone, providing that in
each case they are properly supplemented. Rye gives
better results in connection with oats or barley than with
wheat or corn. If rye is cheaper in price than barley,
one-third of the grain ration may be rye.

Canada field peas are adapted to much of the semi-
arid regions lying either side of the Rockies. Any quan-
tity of pea-meal up to two-thirds of the ration will save

410 Western Live-stock Management

a little more than its weight of any of the cereals. Un-
fortunately, peas are usually too high in price to be
utilized with advantage in fattening hogs.

A mixture of grains will usually be found superior to
any single grain; and with the exception of field peas,
any of the above feeds will give better results when prop-
erly supplemented with a protein feed. With the possible
exception of corn, grinding will be found profitable and
even with corn there is usually an advantage in grinding
during the finishing period of fattening. None of the
other treatments ordinarily given grain for fattening pigs
has any advantage.

SUPPLEMENTAL FEEDS

Aijthough most of the nutrients needed by the pigs
must be supplied by the grains, it has seldom been found
satisfactory to use grain alone. The grains may be lack-
ing in protein, mineral matter, palatability, bulk, or suc-
culence, so that the addition of some other feed may be
desirable. These additional feeds are designated as
“supplemental,” since they supplement rather than re-
place the grain in the ration. The rational use of supple-
mental feeds is the real test of a skillful feeder.

Since most of our farm grains are deficient in protein,
supplements are judged largely as a source of this nutrient.
Alfalfa hay is high in protein and although suitable for
brood sows and boars, is too bulky for fattening. It may
be used to fair advantage at the start. Its continued
use in any considerable quantities will almost certainly
result in slower gains, and a poorer finish. Alfalfa pasture
is as bulky as the hay, but is more palatable. In the
irrigated parts of the West, alfalfa is usually so cheap that

Fattening for Market 414

it is used to excess. In the many tests that have been
conducted with alfalfa pasture or hay, without grain, it is
only rarely that the pigs have made any gain. The best
results have so far been obtained where the pigs were
given grain in a self-feeder and so not forced to consume
any more alfalfa than they wished. When such supple-
ments as skim-milk or tankage are available at reasonable
rates, they may be profitably used in addition to the
alfalfa but of course in smaller quantities than when no
alfalfa is used. Bran, like alfalfa hay, carries too much
bulk to be desirable feed for fattening pigs and in addition
is very expensive on the basis of the nutrients contained.
Middlings and shorts can be depended on for a consider-
able part of the supplemental protein if they may be
procured for little more than the price of the grain fed,
and the distance to haul is not too great. Linseed-oil
meal is used to a considerable extent in the North Central
states, but even if flax-growing should assume consider-
able proportions in the Northwest, the price of oil meal will
never be low here on account of its value to the dairy-
man. Soybean meal is being imported in small quantities
from Manchuria and it is barely possible that it may be
unloaded on the Pacific Coast at a price which will make it
available as a supplemental pig feed. Since soybean meal
has about the same percentage of protein as linseed-oil
meal and very nearly the same carbohydrate equivalent,
it is evident that it should be procured at practically
the same price, or less than the latter, else there is no
inducement for using it in preference to American-grown
products. Cotton-seed meal has a third more protein,
as well as a little more digestible carbohydrates than the
two above named meals but because of the poisonous effect
it exerts when fed in large quantities to pigs, it should not

412 Western Live-stock Management

be used for longer than six weeks. It can usually be
obtained at a price little above that of linseed-oil
meal.

Tankage, one of our best supplements, is a by-product
of the meat industry. Scraps of meat and other offal
from the slaughter houses are cooked in a closed steam
tank to remove all the grease. After the grease is skimmed
off the residue is dried and ground and the better grades
used for pig feed and the poorer grades for fertilizer.
Tankage is commonly the cheapest source of supplemental
protein, and is likely to remain so, since it is not used by
any other stock and must, therefore, be sold to the hog-
raiser. Tankage is the highest in protein content of all
the feeds named, carrying twice as much as linseed and
soybean meal, and a fourth more than cotton-seed meal.
It may be fed for an indefinite period without injurious
results. It carries nearly seven times as much protein as
barley or corn, and costs but twice as much: »

In localities adjacent to creameries and cheese factories,
skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey are often available in
larger quantities than are needed for younger pigs, and
these by-products of the dairy industry all have value
for fattening pigs. Used in quantities of two to ten pounds
a head, the Oregon Experiment Station has found skim-
milk to have a value of about 22 cents a 100 pounds as
compared with tankage at $45.00 a ton. As compared
with barley feeding alone, it doubtless has a much
higher value than this. Some experiment stations give
it a value double this, when compared with corn feed-
ing alone, but it is obviously more fair to compare it
with the cheapest satisfactory source from which sup-
plemental protein can be secured, since grain alone is
always unsatisfactory.

Fattening for Market 413

GAINS

A pig on full feed should gain from one to one-and-three-
fourths pounds daily and should make 100 pounds of gain
on about 425 pounds of feed. The daily maintenance
requirement is about one per cent of the live weight of the
pig and about one-fourth of a full feed for mature swine,
but less than one-fourth of a full feed for growing and
fattening pigs. A 100-pound pig can consume six pounds
of feed daily, while the average daily feed consumed by
200-pound hogs is only about seven pounds. As a prac-
tice, heavy feeding during fattening is most economical
because rapid gains involve a shorter feeding period and
a smaller consumption of feed for maintenance. High
finish also is not secured on pigs which make their gains
slowly ; for they grow instead of fatten, and mere frame-
work without finish will not bring top prices. The age
of pigs affects the economy of gains as well as the quality
of the carcass, and the consequent price for each pound.
In the western markets, there is a difference of nearly a
cent in the prevailing prices of heavy hogs and of 200-
pound pigs. This is not only in accord with the desire
of the consumer, but is economy to the producer, since
younger and smaller pigs produce more economical gains
than older or larger animals.

Experiments have shown that, other things being equal,
pigs will gain more rapidly and economically on three
feeds daily than on two, but usually not enough to pay
for the extra labor involved. This is, of course, in accord
with the better gains made on the self-feeder.

The palatability of a ration determines in a considerable
degree its usefulness to the pig. If unpalatable, the pig
will not eat as much as is required for economical gains

414 Western Live-stock Management

and may eat only enough for maintenance, thus making
no gains at all.

It has been noted that sufficient protein in a feed in-
creases the digestibility of the other nutrients. It has
also been found that the addition of protein. to a ration
deficient in that nutrient causes an increased consumption
of feed.

In conclusion the following points may be noted: that
the purposes in fattening swine are to increase the edible
meat and dressing percentage, to decrease the proportion
of water, and to improve the texture of the meat; that
approximately 1 per cent of the live weight in digestible
dry matter is required for the maintenance of the pig;
that rather more protein than exists in ordinary farm grains
is necessary for economical pork production; that the
price paid for protein supplement should be in general
proportionate to the protein content, but the carbohydrate
equivalent should be given a value of about two-thirds as
much for each pound as the protein. The supplemental
feeds should be guaranteed as to the protein they contain.

CHAPTER XXX

METHODS OF FEEDING

Hoe raisers have for generations been trying to find
some method of finding that which would give to the
feed some added nutritive value. In recent years even
the chemists have tried to discover chemical processes
that would increase the value of the feeds. Of the vari-
ous methods that have been suggested, those in more or
less common use to-day are: cooking, grinding, soaking,
and the use of self-feeders.

COOKING FEED

Cooking feed has been largely abandoned, because it
has been found that the digestibility of most feeds is
diminished by cooking. Potatoes seem to be the one
exception. When cheap enough to feed to pigs, potatoes
will pay a profit for cooking if the equipment does not
cost too much. It seems fairly well determined that
at the present time no one would be justified in installing
an expensive cooker, for ordinarily potatoes are more
valuable for human food than for pig feed, and in localities
where they are not, other crops would furnish more
nutrients at less cost. Potatoes are cooked in order to
decrease the water content and to burst the starch cells.
Steaming is more desirable than boiling, and in the latter
process, if the water is drawn off and the potatoes left

415

416 Western Live-stock Management

over the fire long enough so that they have a mealy appear-
ance when they are opened, they make better feed than
if left in the water in which they were cooked and have
the meal mixed with them.

GRINDING

Grinding feed is a profitable practice at the prevailing
prices of grain. The saving is about 6 per cent with corn,
from 12 to 20 per cent with barley, oats, and wheat, and
even a higher percentage with hog millet and weed seed.
Grinding, if performed at all, should be thoroughly done
and the meal made fine. In addition to the actual saving
of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain, grinding
feed will usually secure a better finish and consequently
is sometimes practiced only at the close of the fattening
period. The desired finish is thus secured without the
larger expense involved in grinding the feed for the entire
period. Likewise, younger pigs chew their feed better
than older ones, therefore older pigs are more likely to pay
a profit on grinding than are younger ones.

SOAKING

Soaking feeds which are so excessively hard that they
are not likely to be well chewed unless so treated, may be
of some advantage. It is very probable, however, that
some sugar may be dissolved out and possibly become
fermented if the weather is at all warm. Soaking may
take the place of grinding if the cost of grinding is ex-
cessive. With ground grain, no advantage due to soaking
is noticed, although merely wetting before feeding is a
good practice, in that it prevents the finer parts from
being blown away, or from being inhaled by the pigs.

Methods of Feeding 417

OTHER METHODS

Other methods of treatment, such as steaming, roasting,
fermenting, malting, and predigesting with various acids
and caustics, result unfavorably, because they either
destroy or render less available some or all of the nutrients
contained in the feed.

SELF-FEEDERS

The self-feeder attempts to decrease the labor cost inci-
dent to pork production. By this method, once a lot of
fattening pigs are on full feed, a correct ration may be
put into the bin to last a week or more, and only slight

SS al
in Ny

NARS
HY u

Fic. 37. — Small Self-feeder for Hogs.

attention need be paid to that feeder for several days.
The use of the self-feeder has been general in the West
for many years and while much labor was saved it was
commonly believed to be less economical of feed than hand
feeding. Several years ago tests were begun at the Oregon
Experiment Station at Corvallis and at the Eastern Oregon
Experiment Station at Union to determine just how much
loss there was in using the self-feeder. As a result of

418 Western Live-stock Management

numerous repeated tests it was found that 100 pounds of
feed put in the self-feeder would actually make more pork
than if fed by hand in the most approved manner. The
very great practical value of the self-feeder was therefore

Fic. 38. — Self-feeder.

put beyond all question. Later an extension of this system
to eliminate the labor of mixing feeds has been put into
practice by the Iowa Experiment Station. Several self-
feeders in which were placed various ground grains and
tankage, each in separate compartments, were provided,
and the pigs were allowed to balance their own ration.

CHAPTER XXXI

OPERATIONS AND MINOR AILMENTS

Even with the best of care, pigs will require some
vetermary attention, but because of the relatively low
value per head in comparison with the fee, one hesitates
to call the veterinarian. The ability to handle the more
common work of this nature determines largely the suc-
cess of the pig-man; in fact, these apparently small jobs
form no inconsiderable portion of his duties.

WOUNDS AND ULCERS

Not infrequently lumps or ulcers are seen on the various
parts of the hog’s body. ‘These are usually due to abra-
sions in the skin which may have healed up on the surface,
leaving only a white scar. Such abrasions are usually
caused by nail pricks and by contact with sharp points on
fences, usually at corners or passageways, and the pig-
man should be constantly on the alert in removing such
sources of troubles. Pus-forming germs gain access to
the system through the abrasions and may cause pus
pockets in the pig’s flesh to considerable depth. As the
abrasion heals very quickly, no point of discharge for the
pus is open until the tissues become sufficiently soft to
break of themselves, or until an incision is made by the
operator. Such ulcers, if noted very soon after they form,
may be treated by simply washing them with a disin-

419

420 Western Live-stock Management

fectant, and lancing with a clean knife, care being taken
to reach the bottom of the pocket. The wound should
then be washed with disinfecting solution, such as ordinary
sheep dip, and the animals kept in a clean, dry pen. A
little attention should be given to the wound that it does
not become infected again, the abrasion in the skin being
kept open until the tissues below have healed. In the
case of larger ulcers, it is usually best to have a veterinarian

remove them, since a considerable amount of abnormal
tissue ordinarily must be dressed out, and the layman
is not always able to discriminate between the abnormal
and the natural tissues.

CLIPPING LITTLE PIGS’ TUSKS

Another frequent cause of ulcers on the bellies of sows
suckling pigs is the wounds inflicted by the tusks of
small pigs. In the efforts of two or more pigs to acquire
the same teat, it not infrequently happens that one pig
in attempting to bite another, inflicts a wound on the

Operations and Minor Ailments 421

sow’s belly to which pus-forming germs gain access. Such
wounds, if treated immediately with an antiseptic solu-
tion, may cause no further trouble if the pigs are pre-
vented from repeating the offense. On examination it will
usually appear that the pigs which are most pugnacious
have several teeth which are considerably longer than
normal. Not infrequently these irritate the lips of the
pigs, so that they do not care to suckle as normal pigs
would, and the result is that when the others suckle,
these want to prevent them from doing so. A small pair
of pruning shears or dental clippers may be used, and the
teeth removed to the level of the others. This is but
little trouble, and it should be attended to soon after the
pigs are born, to avoid having to treat wounds later on.

MILK FEVER

It sometimes happens that a large quantity of milk
will be present in the udders of sows before the pigs are
farrowed. This may be due to too stimulating a ration
during the gestation period, and it is sometimes due to the
failure of the sow to deliver the pigs when they are ready.
Partial paralysis or abnormal condition of the genital
organs may make parturition unduly late.

The approach of trouble may be noticed if the sows have
milk in the udders more than two or three hours before
the pigs arrive. One or more sections of the udder will
be abnormally full, then gradually harden, and finally
the hardened area extends until the entire udder may be
involved. The milk should be drawn from the teats which
are beginning to harden, or if the hardening has already
become general, the udder should be treated with castor
oil, which has been heated to a temperature as warm as

422 Western Live-stock Management

the human skin will bear. A flannel cloth should be
dipped into the castor oil and spread over the sow’s udder,
after which hot packs may be placed over the flannel. If
the pigs are alive and healthy, they will prevent the
spread of the trouble to other parts, and only such portions
as are already hardened need be given attention.

PARALYSIS

Young pigs in high condition, and receiving but little
exercise, are sometimes troubled with the loss of the use
of the hind legs. Several causes may be responsible, but
relief may usually be secured by compelling the pigs to
exercise, and feeding them a ration containing plenty of
bone-forming material, as might be obtained by adding a
little steamed bone-meal to their ration. One form of
the paralysis which does not respond readily to such treat-
ment is due to a pressure on the spinal cord caused by
the dislocation of vertebree, or by the inflammation of
membranes surrounding the cord. In older hogs, espe-
cially in pregnant sows, partial paralysis of the hind
quarters sometimes occurs, and is usually fatal. Little
can be done except to remove the animal from the others,
so that further injuries will not be inflicted. The bowels
should be loose, and if necessary a soapsuds enema given,
or a dose of salts or calomel, and the animal kept on a
nutritious diet. Occasionally, animals so affected will
recover after farrowing, although of course it is impossible
for a sow in such a condition to give birth to vigorous pigs,
or to raise them herself.

WORMS

The worms which cause the most frequent trouble in
pigs are the round intestinal worms, which inhabit the

Operations and Minor Ailments 493

small intestines. Sometimes in very bad cases, they will
traverse the bile duct, clogging the duct and reaching to
the liver. It is not always possible to see worms passed
from these pigs, but usually if the infestation is at all bad,
an occasional worm will be seen in the feces. A lack of
thrift in the pigs and failure to respond to even large
quantities of good feed will be apparent.

To treat the pigs successfully, they should be placed in a
dry pen for twelve hours, and then given a good vermifuge
mixed with their feed. The most satisfactory vermifuge
consists of three to five grains of santonin, and five to eight
grains of calomel to each 100 pounds of live weight. The
pigs may be weighed up, the feed distributed in a long
trough, and the drug sprinkled over the feed before the
pigs are given access to the trough. The pigs should be
confined for twenty-four hours longer in the dry pen so
that the worms which are discharged may be gathered up
and burned. It is obviously more convenient if the
pen in which the pigs are kept has a tight floor, so that
after the droppings have been scooped up, the floor may
be thoroughly disinfected with a strong solution of sheep
dip, so as to destroy any eggs which have been left on the
floor.

BRONCHIAL TROUBLE

Pigs farrowed in damp, cold weather when exercise
out of doors is difficult and when little sunlight is avail-
able, frequently suffer from bronchial troubles, the most
common of which is bronchial pneumonia. Due to a
lack of exercise, considerable quantities of fat accumulate
about the pigs’ chests and throats, making breathing diffi-
cult, and starting an inflammation of the membranes
lining the bronchial tubes. The inflammation may spread

424 Western Live-stock Management

to the lungs and pleura, and germ infection may follow,
causing a thickening of these parts, so that breathing
becomes difficult. Spasmodic contractions will be ob-
served in the region of the abdomen whenever the pig
attempts to move rapidly. There is nothing so effective
in treating this difficulty as sunshine and exercise in the
open air and the disease is most troublesome when condi-
tions make this treatment difficult or impossible. In
acute cases, a few drops of kerosene placed in the pigs’
mouth or nostrils may remove a sufficient quantity of
mucus slightly to prolong the life of the pig, but unless
weather conditions make recovery possible, there is but
little use in this treatment. This disease is also frequently
brought on by damp bedding or drafty quarters. The
remedy for such cases is obvious. Loss from bronchial
pneumonia is one of the most serious obstacles to mid-
winter farrowing, even under most favorable conditions.

TRIMMING FEET

The toes of older hogs frequently become so long as to
throw too much of the weight on the rear part of the
foot, causing a straining of the tendons and the pasterns.
If not attended to, the pasterns may become so weak
that they will remain permanently broken, even when
the toes are leveled up. If the toes are not too long, a
sharp knife or a rasp may be used. If the toes have
become very long, a pair of blacksmith pinchers may be
used to take off the surplus, after which the smoothing
is done with a knife or rasp. This operation will prolong
the usefulness of a brood sow and is generally necessary
in fitting older hogs for showing.

Operations and Minor Ailments 425

CUTTING BOARS’ TUSKS

Boars which are a year old or over, develop long tusks
with which they may injure other hogs or the keeper or
which sometimes may interfere with the boar’s eating.
Removing the tusks makes the boar more quiet and tract-
able besides making him safer to handle. Several instru-
ments have been suggested for the purpose; among these
being the file, hack saw, crowbar and cold chisel, pinchers,
and clippers. The last method is preferred.

The boar should be confined in a small pen, preferably
where there are strong posts to which he can be snubbed.
A loop of rope should be placed over the upper jaw of
the boar far enough back so that he cannot pull out of it.
He should then be snubbed up fairly short to a strong post,
and the operator should keep behind the boar’s head ;
that is, farther from the post than the boar’s mouth. In
this way, the operator keeps out of the way of the boar’s
reach. With a pair of clippers the tusks can be cut off
close to the gum, but care should be exercised to avoid
breaking them in the gum, thus causing a sore mouth.
Plate XVI is of a 600-pound vicious boar which was oper-
ated on by one man.

MARKING

Marking pigs for future identification may be done in
several ways. The two most common methods are ear
buttons, and notches in the ears. Buttons are rather
easily torn out by the pigs fighting, and are hard to read.
Notches sometimes become obliterated by pigs biting
each other’s ears, but will not be destroyed nearly as
often as will the ear buttons.

A system of marking, to be remembered, should be

426 Western Live-stock Management

systematic. The most satisfactory one is described as
follows: One notch on the outer margin of the left ear,
half way between the tip and base, means one; a similar
notch on the same location of the right ear means ten.
Two notches on the outer margin of the left ear, half way
between the point and base, means two, and similar marks
on the right ear, twenty. A single notch near the base of
the left ear, on the outer margin, means three, while a
similar notch on the right ear means thirty. A three
notch and a one notch mean four, and a thirty notch and
a ten notch mean forty. A notch at the tip of the left
ear means five, and a notch at the tip of the right ear
means fifty. Six is five and one, seven, five and two,
eight, five and three, nine, five and three and one; while
sixty, seventy, eighty, and ninety are like combinations on
the right ear. A single notch on the front margin of the
left ear, about half an inch from the tip, is 100, while a
similar notch on the right ear is 1000. Two notches near
together on the front of the left ear mean 200, and similar
notches on the right ear, 2000. A notch near the base
of the front margin of the left ear is 300, and a similar
one on the right ear is 3000. A hole punched through the
middle of the left ear is 500, while a similar hole through
the right ear is 5000; 400 is made with a 300 and a 100
notch; 600 of 500 and 100; 700 of 500 and 200; 800 of
500 and 300; 900 of 500, 300, and 100; while the corre-
sponding thousands are made up in the same way, except
on the right ear. Other systems suggested are based on the
number 3 instead of 10, but the decimal system is much
more satisfactory. The hardest numbers to make out
are the three and thirty notches. But if these are not
placed too near the head, they can ordinarily be read
without having to feel for them. If market pigs only

Operations and Minor Ailments 427

()

300 400 500
°o fe) o

600 7oo 800
o fo) °o

800 1000 9999

Fia. 40. — Marking System.

428 Western Live-stock Management

are to be produced, the tip may be removed for about
three-quarters of an inch from the left or right ear for
three or thirty, and if a five notch is to be used in either
ear it may be cut in the middle of the cut edge. It is
next to impossible to see the number at the base of the
ear when the animal has long hair about that part, so
that it is frequently necessary to feel for this notch, which
is a great trouble in some cases. (See Fig. 40.)

CHAPTER XXXII

PURE-BRED SWINE

WHILE pure-bred swine are relatively more numerous
than pure-bred sheep, cattle, or horses, they do not yet
produce any large portion of our meat supply. Conse-
quently the breeders of pure-bred swine are raising breed-
ing stock rather than producing commercial pork. On
account of this greater abundance of pure-bred swine and
the consequent keener competition among the breeders,
the selection of only the best stock is even more important,
if possible, than with other animals. The proportion of
pure-bred hogs which must be sold for pork is large,
especially in slack times. This condition is very fayor-
able for the development of the industry as a whole, al-
though it may make it a little hard financially on the
amateur who tries to start out with second-grade stuff.

BREEDS

The Berkshire, Poland China, Duroc Jersey, and the
Chester White are the leading breeds in the West. With
any one of these neither success nor failure can be charged
to the selection of the breed. The Hampshire is growing
in popularity and in many places must be counted with
the standard breeds. The other breeds may be as well
adapted to western conditions as the five named, but so
far they must be considered as an experiment.

429

430 Western Live-stock Management

MANAGEMENT

The heavier investment in pure-bred stock justifies
and in fact demands greater care to prevent disease and
loss than is given grades for market purposes. The differ-
ence in feed, however, is slight since the best feed is usually
the most profitable in producing market pork even on a
very economical plan. The great problem of the breeder
is marketing. One can sell pork for the market price at
any time, but he has to make a particular effort to sell
breeding stock.

MARKETING

Breeding hogs are usually marketed somewhere between
three and twelve months of age with the larger part be-
tween five and ten months. Gilts are commonly sold
after they have been bred and safe in pig. The beginner
may thus buy only one animal yet in a few days have a
whole litter. He will also not have to buy a boar until
ready to breed for the second litter, and when purchased
the boar may be used both on the original sow and upon
the females of the first litter. A full herd is thus obtained
with the purchase of but two animals. For these reasons
bred gilts are very popular. They are usually about ten
or eleven months old and due to farrow in a month or six
weeks. If sold immediately after breeding the purchaser
cannot be sure they are in pig, while if due to farrow ina
few days they cannot be moved without danger. Boars
and open gilts are usually marketed at not over nine
months of age. Pigs of any kind over twelve months old

are difficult to sell, and have consumed a large amount
of feed.

Pure-bred Swine 431

Pure-bred swine may be marketed by private agreement
between buyer and seller, by mail, or by public auction.
Selling by mail is characteristic of the hog business, and
while some breeders have been able to build up a consider-
able mail order trade there is room for much dissatisfaction
in this method of marketing. Unscrupulous breeders
sometimes take advantage of a customer to the detriment
of the entire trade, while on the other hand amateur
buyers commonly expect too much and are disappointed
even with a really good pig worth more money than they
paid. Pure-bred herds are now so well distributed
throughout the West that there seems little reason to
encourage marketing by mail. After a reputation for
fair dealing has once been established, auctions are perhaps
the best means of selling. Auctions enable the breeder
to sell all his stock at one time and when they are in the
best condition. He is thus enabled to adjust better
both the management of his herd and his financial affairs.
The objection most frequently offered is the uncertainty
as to the price which will be received. A well advertised
sale of good stock, however, is fairly sure to bring the
market price. By private sale the breeder fixes his own
prices, and this appeals very much to the average buyer.
He cannot, however, avoid running up a big feed bill on
stock which he does not sell when ready nor can he avoid
selling some pigs for pork in case he overestimates the
demand for breeding stock.

Good advertising is especially necessary in the pure-
bred hog business. Competition is very keen, and buyers
seldom have to look for what they want as they commonly
do with sheep and cattle. Persistent newspaper adver-
tising and successful showing are therefore necessary.

432 Western Live-stock Management

FITTING FOR SHOW OR SALE

It is demanded that animals brought into the show or
sale ring be fat. Plenty of exercise during the fattening
process will produce a firmer and smoother flesh than
feeding in close confinement. The thinner animals are
given the most concentrated and fattening rations, while
those that are already fat are given feeds more bulky
and less fattening. Oats in this case are used for the larger
portion of the ration. Much skill and careful attention is
required to get the hogs in condition at just the right time
and to hold them in condition until after the show is
over. Even more important than skill in feeding is good
judgment as to how long it will take to get the animal in
condition so as to know just when to start. Early in the
fitting process the hogs should be dipped or scrubbed
with some standard sheep dip. This, combined with
good feed, should soon free the skin from scurf and dead
hair. After this an occasional washing is given. The
toes are trimmed to keep the feet square and the pasterns
straight. When time for showing comes, little more need
be done than to brush the hair clean. Sometimes the
hair is treated with a mixture of sweet oil and gasoline
or of separator oil and alcohol in order to produce a good
luster. Black hogs are occasionally greased freely with
crude oil. If the fitting has been conducted thoroughly
from the start, only very coarse harsh-coated animals will
be improved by these treatments.

AGE OF SHOW PIGS

All fairs have base dates from which the ages of the
pigs are calculated. The usual dates are March 1st
for spring pigs and September Ist for fall pigs although

Pure-bred Swine 433,

these exact dates are not used by all fairs. The pigs must
be farrowed as soon as possible after the base date in
order that they may be shown with the greatest possible
age, weight, and maturity. For example, pigs practically
twelve months of age have a great advantage over pigs
barely past six months, so much so that in hot competition
it is a waste of time to exhibit short aged stock. It there-
fore becomes necessary to plan a long time ahead to have
the stock of the right ages. Since the base dates are
usually good farrowing dates for climatic reasons, the
leading breeders try to have all their farrowing begin
at this time regardless of the particular animals they
wish to show.

GLOSSARY

GENERAL TERMS

Balanced ration. A ration suitable for the production of a
given result without loss or excess of any nutrients.

Castration. The removal of the testicles, or sex glands, of
the male.

Cod. The scrotum after the testicles have been removed by
castration. The term is used most frequently in connection
with steers and wethers.

Cross-bred. An animal whose sire and dam are of different
breeds.

Docking. The practice of deducting from either the weight
or the price of an animal at the time of sale for any purpose
whatever. Cattle or sheep sold out of the feed lot when full of
feed and water are commonly docked 4 per cent in order to give
the buyers some compensation for the shrinkage which will
occur in getting these animals to market. It is also customary
to dock stags of all kinds.

Dressing percentage. The weight of the carcass of the animal
expressed as a percentage of the live weight. In dressing beef
and mutton, the head, hide, feet, and entrails are removed.
The average dressing percentage of good steers is from 55 to 60
per cent and of cows 4 or 5 per cent less. Sheep dress 5
or 6 per cent less than cattle of similar condition. With hogs,
only the hair and entrails are removed in dressing; good mar-
ketable hogs dress 75 to 80 per cent. Very poor or very good
animals dress considerably more or less than the figures given.

Gestation period. The period intervening between the breed-
ing of the female and the birth of the offspring. The length

437

438 Western Live-stock Management

of the period of gestation for different animals is approximately
as follows: Horses, 11 months; cattle, 9 months; sheep, 5
months; swine, 112 days. E

‘Grade. This term is often applied to any animal which is
not pure-bred. It is more correctly used for stock that carries
a considerable percentage of the blood of some one of the im-
proved breeds, but that are not entirely of that breeding. Ex-
ample: the offspring resulting from the breeding of pure-bred
sires to common females.

In-breeding. Mating very closely related animals as full
brother and sister.

Line-breeding. Mating animals that are related, but which
are not as close as brother and sister.

Mongrel. An animal of nondescript or mixéd breeding.
Usually used in a derogatory sense.

Parturition. The act of giving birth to young. Includes the
actual delivery of the offspring together with attendant pains
and symptoms.

Prolificacy. The property of bearing numerous young.

Pure-bred. An animal carrying only the blood of some one
breed. The dividing line between those that are pure-bred and
those that are not is usually considered to be registration, or
eligibility to registration, with the particular breed associa-
tion having charge of the registration of animals of that partic-
ular breed.

Purse. Synonymous with cod.

Scrotum. The sack which contains the testicles of the male
animal.

Scrub. An animal of inferior merit and usually of mongrel
breeding.

Shrinkage. The loss of weight occurring in the driving,
shipping, or handling of stock. Shrinkage is a particularly
important item in the marketing, and must always be taken into
consideration in comparing the prices a pound at home with
the prices offered at the stock-yard. The word shrinkage is
sometimes used as synonymous with docking as applied to
weight.

Spaying. The removal of the ovaries or sex glands of the
female.

Stag. A male animal of any kind that has been castrated

Glossary 439

after he is old enough for more or less masculine character of
the head and neck to become noticeable.

Staggy. Having the appearance of a stag. The degree of
stagginess is of course controlled by the age at which the animal
was castrated.

Thoroughbred. A term often used as synonymous with pure-
bred, but generally considered as incorrect when so used. It is
more properly used as the name of a breed of horses. It is also
used in nontechnical literature to indicate any very high class
animal.

BEEF CATTLE TERMS

Beef cattle. A stock-yard term used to designate all steers
suitable for slaughter purposes, as distinguished from steers
not fat enough or old enough to slaughter, and as distinguished
from all classes of cows, heifers, and bulls.

Bos. Bos is the zodlogical name for the particular genus of
the animal kingdom to which cattle of all kinds belong.

Bovine. Of or pertaining to cattle; derived from the word
bos.

Butcher stock. A stock-yard term used to indicate all classes
of cows, heifers, and bulls used for slaughter purposes. (See
Beef cattle.)

Calf. The young animal of the bovine species without regard
to sex, usually under twelve months of age. Animals born
during any one calendar year are ordinarily called calves until
some time the following spring.

Canners. A market class of very inferior cattle, usually old,
thin cows, used for canning purposes.

Cow. The female of the bovine species after she has pro-
duced her first calf. Sometimes in the case of pure-bred herds
the term cow is not applied until after the female has produced
her second calf.

Durham. An old but now practically obsolete name for the
Shorthorn breed of beef cattle.

Feeders. Steers that are not fat enough to slaughter, and
yet are old enough and large enough to be ready to fatten off
without further growth on range or pasture. Ordinarily steers
that are two years old or over and weigh over 950 pounds will

440 Western Live-stock Management

be designated as feeders unless they are fat enough for slaughter,
in which case they would be designated as beef cattle. (See
Beef cattle.)

Heifer. The female of the bovine species that has not yet
produced a calf. (See Cow.)

Polled. Without horns. This term is often used as a suffix
to the name of some of the breeds of polled cattle, as for ex-
ample, “‘ Polled Angus,” “‘ Polled Hereford,” or ‘ Polled Durham.”

Steer. A male animal of the bovine species which has been
castrated before the animal is old enough to show any mas-
culine character, as indicated by coarse head and heavy neck.

Stockers. Young growing cattle, including both steers and
heifers; steers not old enough for feeders (see Feeders) and
heifers not old enough to produce their first calf. The term,
however, is sometimes used to include the entire breeding herd
of cows as well as the young steers and heifers.

Veal. A young calf fat enough to slaughter, and weighing
between 125 and 300 pounds live weight.

SHEEP TERMS

Binders. Cross fibers that hold the locks of a fleece together.

Blackface. A term applied to the Hampshire, Shropshire,
and Oxford sheep or to lambs sired by rams of this breed. Black-
faced lambs are preferred in the feed-lot because the black face
indicates the presence of this good mutton blood. (See Down
breeds, also Middle wool.)

Brightness. A term referring altogether to the color of wool.
It is quite distinct from the term luster.

Britch. That part of the fleece that covers the rear legs.

Broken mouth. A mouth in which one or more of the perma-
nent incisor teeth are badly broken or missing.

Buck. A male sheep. This term is used largely in the range
district. The word ram is preferable.

Crimp. The spiral or waves found in each fiber of wool.

Dock. The portion of the tail left after docking.

Down breeds. A term applied to certain of the middle wool
breeds which developed on the rolling hills or downs of Eng-
land. The Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire, and Oxford are
the principal Down breeds. (See Blackface, also Middle wool.)

Glossary 441

Ewe. Female sheep.

Feeders. Lambs, wethers, or ewes not fat enough to slaughter
but ready to be placed in the feed-lot. Lambs are the best
feeders as they make the most economical gains.

Fine wools. A class of sheep producing the finest wool. It
includes all the strains of the Merino and Rambouillet.

Four-year-old. A sheep past forty-eight months and having
eight permanent incisor teeth.

Full mouth. A mouth which contains eight sound permanent
incisors.

Gummy. An old ewe having a badly broken mouth.

Half-bred. The cross-bred offspring of a long wool ram and
a fine wool ewe. This term is applied to the animal itself while
the term “half blood”’ refers to a class of wool.

Hogget. A yearling sheep that has never been shorn. Hogg
wool is the first fleece from a sheep.

Kemp. Dead fiber found in a fleece — found especially in
goats.

Lamb. <A sheep under twelve months of age and having no
permanent teeth.

Legging out. The practice of separating sheep by catching
each one by hand and pulling them out of the bunch. It is
called legging out because the sheep are usually caught by the
hind legs. The use of the dodging chute is a much better way
of separating.

Long wool. A term applied to those breeds of sheep having
a long fibered wool. The Long wool breeds include the Lin-
coln, Cotswood, Leicester, and Romney Marsh. The wool of
these breeds is classed as braid.

Luster. A term referring to the glistening appearance of
the fiber or wool when held to the light.

Middle wool. A class of sheep having wool between that of
the long wool and the fine wool. It includes breeds of the very
best mutton type, namely: Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire,
Oxford, Cheviot, Dorset, Suffolk, and Tunis. Wool from this
class usually falls in the three-eighths blood and one-fourth
blood classes. (See Blackface, also Down breeds.)

Ram. <A male sheep.

Scurs. A horney growth taking the place of horns.

Short wools. A term applied to the fine wools.

442 Western Live-stock Management

Three-quarter-bred. The offspring of a ‘“‘half-bred” ewe
mated to a long wool ram. The animal is three-fourths Lin-
coln and in the United States is often called a quarter blood.
The term quarter blood is more correctly used to designate a
class of wool which very often comes from three-quarter-bred
sheep.

Three-year-old. A sheep between the ages of thirty-six months
and forty-eight months, and having six permanent incisor teeth.

Two-year-old. A sheep between the ages of twenty-four
months and thirty-six months, and having four permanent
incisor teeth.

Wether. A castrated male sheep.

Yolk. The natural oil or grease found in a fleece.

Yean. To bring forth a lamb; to lamb.

Yearling. A sheep between the ages of twelve months and
twenty-four months, and having two permanent incisor teeth.

HORSE AND MULE TERMS

Burro. A small species of ass generally used as a pack
animal. :

Blemish. A scar, scratch, or the like, that is unsightly but
does not injure the usefulness of the horse.

Bow-legged. Too wide apart at the knees, the opposite of
knock-kneed.

Buck-knee. YKnees bent forward when standing.

Calf-kneed. Knees bent too far back, the opposite of buck
kneed.

Capped-hock. The point of the hock back of the web enlarged.
Caused by a bruise of the bursa.

Cock-ankle. Standing bent forward on the fetlocks, more
often on the hind legs.

Colt. A term commonly used to signify young horses of
either sex, although technically speaking it refers to the male,
while the female is commonly spoken of as filly.

Coupling. The space or connection between the dorsal verte-
bree and the pelvis on top of the back. This is best measured
by the distance of last rib from hip.

Cow-hocked. Standing with hocks together and hind toes
out.

Glossary 443

; Crampy. Raising either one or both hind legs up with a
jerk. eo apparent when the animal has been standing and
is cool.

Cribber. An, animal having the vice of biting or setting the
teeth against something and “sucking wind.”

Cross firing. Hitting one of the fore feet with the opposite
hind foot when traveling.

Curb. An injury or sprain of the ligaments at the back of
the hock which usually causes an enlargement.

Curby hock. The back of the hock is rounding when viewed
from the side.

Docked. Having the end of the tail cut off.

Donkey. An ass or mule.

Ewe neck. A deficiency of muscling causing a depression
at the top of the neck just in front of the withers.

Filly. A female animal not yet of breeding age.

Filled-in hocks. May mean either bog spavins or thoropins,
although most often the former.

Fistula. Fistulous withers. An abscess occurring in the
region of the withers.

Foal. A young animal of either sex under one year of age.

Forging. Striking the front shoes with the toe of the hind
ones.

Founder. Inflammation of the feet causing lameness. Tech-
nically known as laminitis.

Gelding. Male animal which has been castrated.

Heavey. Having the heaves.

Hipped. Uaving the point of one hip broken over so that. it
appears lower than when normal.

Hinney. A hybrid from stallion and jennet.

Horse. Used as either male or female, but technically as male.

Interfering. Striking the fetlock or cannon with the opposite
foot as it passes, either in front or behind.

Jack. A bone spavin.

Jack. A male ass.

Jennet. A female ass, sometimes called jinnie.

Knee-sprung. Over on the knees caused by the relaxation of
the extensor muscles. Sometimes spoken of as buck knees.

Knock-kneed. The front legs bent in at the knees with feet
wide apart. Sometimes called bench-legged.

444 Western Live-stock Management

Mare. Female animal, although generally used after the
animal is three years old or of breeding age. Previous to that
time she is commonly known as a filly.

Moon blindness. Technically known as periodic ophthalmia.
This is an affliction of the eyes which causes a sort of blue scum
to cover over the pupil.

Mule. A hybird from jack and mare; females known as
“mare mules,” and males as “horse mules.”

Overreach. Reaching farther forward with the hind feet in
traveling than where the front feet were picked up.

Paddle. Throwing the front feet in when traveling.

Parrot mouth. The upper teeth extending over the lower ones.

Pink eye. A disease causing a white scum to form over the
eye, often causing blindness.

Poll evil. A fistulous condition or abscess on or near the
poll. (Top of the head.)

Posting. Rising and falling in the saddle with each alter-
nate step when the horse is trotting.

Puffs. Wind galls, bog spavins, or thoropins.

Quarter crack. A vertical crack on the side of the hoof,
often running to the coronet.

Quittor. A fistulous gathering upon the heel or coronary
band of the foot.

Ringbone. A bony growth on the upper or lower pastern
bones, and almost always causing lameness.

Roarer. Defective in wind.

Shoe boil. A bruise at elbow which results in an abscess.

Sickle hock. Too much bend in the hock. A conformation
predisposed to curbs.

Side bone. An ossification of the lateral cartilage, occurring
on either side of the foot.

Slab-sided. Flat ribbed.

Sound. Free from any defect or injury which may interfere
with the usefulness of the animal.

Splint. A bony growth on the cannon bone, occurring most
often on the front legs and on the inside.

Stallion. A male horse, although commonly applied to a
male colt only after he is of breeding age.

Stringy. Stringhalt. A convulsive action in the hind legs,
flexing either one or both up with a jerk.

Glossary 445

Stump sucker. A cribber.

Sweeney. Shoulder muscles shrunken away, causing a de-
pression.

Thoropins. Puffiness occurring in the web of the hock.

Unsound. Not sound. (See sound.)

Wall-eye. The iris a pearly white color, due to a lack of
pigment. Sometimes called glass-eye.

Windgalls. Puffs occurring at the upper part of the fetlock
joints.

Windy. Whistling or roaring when exerted.

Whistler. Defective in wind.

Winging. Throwing the front feet out when traveling.

SWINE TERMS

Bacon. The belly or side of a pig which has been cured or
smoked. Also the type of hog suited to the production of such
meat.

Barrow. A male hog which has been castrated when quite
young, before secondary sex characters have developed.

Berkshire. A breed of swine of English origin, but widely
distributed at present; perhaps the most cosmopolitan breed
in the world. Color black with six white points.

Black teeth. The tusks of small pigs, sometimes so long that
they injure the udder of the sow and the jaws of other pigs with
which they fight.

Block hog. A northwestern term applied to fat swine suit-
able to the fresh meat trade; a light butcher hog of the eastern
market.

Boar. An entire male hog.

Brood sow. A female hog kept for the production of young.

Cholera, or hog cholera. A very infectious and fatal disease
of swine. It is practically mcurable but may be prevented by
vaccination.

Crude oil. A petroleum product frequently used as an insec-
ticide on swine.

Farrow. To give birth to young pigs.

Feeder. A young hog of suitable size and condition to make
a market animal after about sixty days or less on full feed. Such
a pig usually weighs 80 to 125 pounds.

446 Western Live-stock Management

Fender rail. A bar placed in the bed in a farrowing pen, to
prevent the crushing of young pigs by their dams.

Gilt. A young female hog which has not produced young.

Hog. An American term applying to mature swine of either
sex.

Pig. A young hog of either sex up to about eighty pounds.
Commonly applied to all classes of swine, especially by the
English.

Porcine. Of or pertaining to swine.

Pork. The edible flesh of the swine.

Self-feeder. A bin with trough attached and adjustment so
that feed can run into trough as fast as removed by pigs.

Shote. A young hog of 80 to 125 pounds.

Sow. A female hog which has reached maturity.

Sus Indica. The Asiatic branch of the swine family.

Sus Scrofa. The European branch of the swine family.

Tankage. A packing-house by-product consisting of the resi- .
dues from the production of lard, tallow, and grease, and used
in pig feeding as a source of protein, as a balance to a grain or
otherwise too carbonaceous a diet.

Weanling. A pig which has ceased to suckle and is able to
eat solid feed. Roughly speaking, a weanling is between a
suckling pig and a shote.

Worms. Round intestinal worms, Ascaris Suis, are the most
common parasites of the digestive tract of pigs in the North-
west.

Yelt. English term for gilt.

INDEX

Acreage of the forest reserves, 14.

Advertising, pure-bred cattle, 117;
pure-bred horses, 342; pure-bred
swine, 431; stallions in service,
323.

Age, determination of, in sheep, 128;
of breeding rams, 178; of cattle,
definitions of, 44.

Alfalfa, acreage of, in the West, 24;
distribution of, 24; for boars,
410; for brood sows, 410; for
calves, 61; for cows and calves,
60; cut (see Cut hay); for fat-
tening cattle, 52; for fattening
horses, 348; for fattening lambs,
156; for fattening pigs, 410; for
feeding brood mares, 274; for
growing horses, 291; for wean-
ling pigs,405 ; for wintering cattle,
42; for wintering foals, 297; for
work horses, 251, 258, 260; for
range horses, 330.

Alfalfa meal for fattening cattle,
82, 87.

Alfalfa pasture, for fattening swine,
410; for pigs, 405.

Alkali licks for sheep, 147.

Altitude of the West, 4.

Angus cattle for the ranges, 45.

Appropriated lands, 10.

Area of Western states, 8.

Artificial impregnation, in hinney
production, 365; methods of,
280.

Auction sales, for sheep, 193;
pure-bred cattle, 111.

Australia, a wool-producing coun-
try, 226.

Australian shearing shed, 234.

Azoturia, prevention of, in city
work horses, 261; prevention of,

in fattening horses, 348; pre-
vention of, in work horses, 253;
symptoms, causes, and _treat-
ment, 269.

Baby mutton, 123.

Bacon, definition, 445.

Bags for wool, 232.

Balanced ration, definition, 434.

Barley, for city work horses, 261;
for fattening cattle, 80, 89; for
fattening lambs, 156; for fat-
tening swine, 409; for growing
horses, 292; for idle horses, 255;
for sheep, 212; for work horses,
251.

Barley hay for work horses, 257.

Barns (see Shelter).

Barrenness in brood mares, 279.

Barrow, definition, 445; meat su-
perior, 399.

Beef cattle (see Cattle).

Beet pulp, for fattening cattle, 90;
for fattening lambs, 157.

Berkshire breed of swine, 429; defi-
nition, 445.

Binders, definition, 440.

Blackface, definition, 440.

Black teeth, definition, 445.

Black wool, 232.

Blanketing horses, 265.

Blemish, definition, 442.

Bloat in sheep, 218.

Block hogs, definition, 445.

Boar, definition, 445; feeding, 391;
handling the, 394; number of
services per day, 393; selection
and management, Chap. XXVIII,
389; services per sow, 393.

Boar’s tusks, cutting, 425.

Bogus pedigrees for horses, 338.

447

448

Bos, definition, 439.

Bovine, definition, 439.

Bow-legged, definition, 442.

Braiding and trimming for the show
ring, illustration, 353; horses
for the show ring, 351.

Branding, cattle, Chap. VII, 103;
chute for cattle, illustration, 99;
equipment for sheep, 206;
Kemp’s Australian branding
fluid, 144; of range horses, 330;
paint on wool, 231; paint, 144;
sheep on the range, 144.

Brand inspection, 108; laws, 108.

Bran, for city work horses, 261; for
driving or saddle horses, 262;
for fattening cattle, 90; for
fattening horses, 347; for fat-
tening lambs, 156; for fattening
swine, 411; for feeding brood
mares, 274; for growing horses,
291; for sheep, 213; for stal-
lions in the breeding season, 315;
for wintering foals, 297; for
work horses, 252, 256, 260.

Bran mash for city work horses,
261.

Breaking colts, 299; colts, equip-
ment for, 301; foals to halter,
294; horses for show and sale,
349; horses, special appliances
for, illustration, 308; horses,
special devices for, 308; range
horses, 330; single drivers, 306;
stallions to work, 318; to lead,
303; to lead, illustration, 294;
to stand tied, 302; to work, 304.

Bred sows, rate of gain, 394; try-
ing, 394.

Breed associations, lists of, for
horses, 337; origin of, 335.

Breeding, contracts for stallions,
324; crate for swine, 383; equip-
ment for stallions, 319; hand
coupling for sheep, 181; hobbles,
320; length of breeding season,
129; lot, 321; of live-stock, 28;
rams, production of, 174; season
for brood mares, 276; season for
sheep on the farm, 179; season

Index

for sheep on the range, 129;
swine, 393; terms for stallions,
324; zigzag method of, 166.

Breeds, of cattle for the ranges, 45;
of sheep for cross-breeding, 168.

Brightness, definition, 440.

Britch, definition, 440.

Broken mouth, 128;
440.

Bronchial trouble in swine, 423.

Brood mares, Chap. XIX, 274;
artificial impregnation of, 280;
barrenness in, 279; care after
parturition, 286; care after serv-
ice, 283; condition at weaning
time, 278; feed during parturi-
tion, 275; feed during pregnancy,
275; feed in breeding season,
274; heat and gestation periods,
277; on the range, 327; partu-
rition, 285; pure-bred, require-
ments of, 334; season to breed,
276; service of, 278; sheds,
stables, and lots for, 289; work-
ing, 289.

Brood sow, definition, 445.

Buck, definition, 440.

Buck-kneed, definition, 442.

Buildings (see Shelter).

Bulls, cost of, for range purposes,
45; discussion of, 56; on the
ranges, laws concerning, 45;
prices of, 56.

Bunch grass, 13.

Bunks for feeding grain, 78.

Burro, definition, 442.

Butcher stock, definition, 439.

Buttermilk for fattening swine,
412.

By-products for pork production,
369.

definition,

Cabbage for sheep, 215.

Caked udders in sows, treatment of,
399.

Calendar of operations on the range,
148.

Calf, definition, 439.

Calf-hocked, definition, 442.

Calf-kneed, definition, 442.

Index

Calves, and cows, general discussion
of, 58.

Calves, cost of, 48; percentage of,
58; prices of, 48; time of wean-
ing, 61.

Camp tender, duties of, 124, 145.

Canada field peas for fattening
swine, 409.

Canners, definition, 439.

Capacity of ranges, 13;
cars, 84.

Capital, for various kinds of live-
stock, 32; for cattle, 46; for
range sheep, 151.

Carbohydrates (see Nutritive re-
quirements).

Carrying capacity of ranges, 13.

Castration, definition, 434; knife
for swine, 387; of calves, 62; of
colts, 297; of lambs, 141, 186;
of pigs, 399, 400; of range bulls,
54; of range horses, 330.

“Cattle, ages when marketed, 43;
brand laws and inspection, 108;
classes of producers, Chap. III,
37; cost of, on the ranges, 47;
distribution of, 26, 37; fattening
of, Chap. V, 68; gestation period,
60; grazed on the forest reserves,
14; income from, 48; losses of,
on the ranges, 48; management
of the breeding herd, Chap. IV,
53; numbers of, 37; on the
farms, 50; on the range, 40; per-
centages of increase, 48; periods
of heat, 60; pregnancy of, 60;
prices of, 48; pure breeds, man-
agement of, Chap. XVI, 109;
racks, 77; range management,
40; sections of the West, 38; suit-
ability to various environments,
33; vs. sheep, 30, 49; weights
when marketed, 43; wintering,
43.

Cattlemen’s associations, 108.

Cement troughs for swine, 381.

Centralized house for swine, 376,
377.

Certificates
horses, 336.

of stock

of registration for

449

Cheat hay, for growing horses, 292 ;
for work horses, 257.

Chester White breed of swine, 429.

Cholera, definition, 445.

Chopped hay (see Cut hay).

Chute, for branding cattle, de-
scription of, 104; illustrations,
99; for dehorning, 79; for load-
ing swine, 388.

City work horses, methods of feed-
ing, 261.

Classes of wool, 226.

Classification of Western lands, 8.

Classing wool, 233.

Climate, length of season in the
mountains, 12; of the West, 5.
Climatic conditions, affecting per-
centage of increase, 140; affect-
ing time of breeding sheep,

129.

Clover hay, for brood mares, 274;
for calves, 61; for fattening
horses, 348; for fattening lambs,
156; for growing horses, 291;
for stallions in breeding season,
315; for swine, 375; for winter-
ing foals, 297; for work horses,
251, 258, 260.

Clover pasture for pigs, 405.

Cock ankle, definition, 442.

Cod, definition, 434.

Colony houses for swine, 376.

Colts, breaking and training for the

show ring, 349; breaking to
halter, 294; breaking to lead,
303; breaking to lead, illustra-

tion, 294; breaking to tie, 302;
breaking to tie, illustration, 294;
breaking to work, 304; castra-
tion of, 297; definition, 442;
nutritive requirements of, 291;
on the range, 329; rations efor,
293; rations for two- and three-
year-olds, 298; rations for win-
tering, 296; stables and sheds
for, 311; weights of pure breeds,
340; wintering yearlings, 298.

Combing wools, 227.

Commission in marketing cattle, 86.

Company stallions, 343.

450

Comparison of the requirements of
different stock, 30.

Condiments for horses, 260.

Contracts for breeding stallions, 324.

Cooking feed for swine, 415.

Coéperative associations on the
range, 56.

Corn, for fattening cattle, 68; for
fattening horses, 347; for fat-
tening swine, 409; for growing
horses, 292; for sheep, 211; for
work horses, 251, 253, 256.

Corrals, for cattle, 95; for cattle,

illustrations, 112; for range
sheep, 152; for sheep, 202;
method of construction, 153;

model system for cattle, 99; not
permitted in forest reserve, 153.

Corriedales, 167.

Cost and profits, of fattening lambs,
164; on a range ewe, 150.

Cost, of cattle on the ranges, 47;
of fattening cattle, 80; of feeding
old ewes, 164; of wintering range
sheep, 129.

Cotton-seed cake for range sheep,
130.

Cotton-seed meal, for fattening
cattle, 90; for fattening swine,
411; for sheep, 213.

Coupling, definition, 442.

Cow-hock, definition, 442.

Cows and calves, general discussion
of, 58.

Cows, breeding efficiency of, 58;
definition, 439; gestation period,
60; number to each bull, 56;
periods of heat, 60; suitability
to various locations, 38.

Crampy, definition, 443.

Creeps, for lambs, 189, 204;
pigs, advantages of, 403.

Cribber, definition, 443.

Crimp, definition, 440.

Crops, land in the West, 6.

Cross-bred, definition, 434.

Cross-breeding for wool and mutton,
166, 168, 169, 170, 171.

Cross-firing, definition, 443.

Crude oil, definition, 445.

for

Index

Culling the ewe flock, 179; of the
range band, 128.

Cultivated areas of the West, 23.

Curby, definition, 443.

Curby hock, definition, 443.

Cut hay, for fattening cattle, 82, 87;
for lambs, 159.

Cutting hay, cost of, 88.

Dairy cows, proportion of swine to,
375. :

Decorating horses for the show
ring, 351.

Deeded lands in the West, 10.

Deferred grazing, 19.

Dehorning cattle, illustration, 79.

Denver as a live-stock market, 27.

Different stock compared, 30.

Dipping, for scab and ticks, 192;
of farm sheep, 192; of range
sheep, 142; of sheep for the feed
lot, 163; right and wrong
methods, 144; sheep for scab, 143;
sheep for ticks, 142; vats for
sheep, 199; vats for swine, 385.

Dips for sheep, 142.

Distribution, of beef cattle, 37; of
live-stock, 25.

Dock, definition, 440, 443.

Docked, definition, 443.

Docking, definition, 484; fat cattle,
83; instruments for sheep, 205;
loss of castration and, 187;
methods of, 187.

Dodging chute for sheep, 201.

Down breeds, definition, 440.

Dressing percentage, definition,
434; of cattle, 76; of swine, 407.

Driving horses, breaking, 306;
method of feeding, 261.

Driving sheep, 222.

Dry ewes, management of, 194.

Dry-farm, homesteads, 17; lands,
23; regions, horse feeding in, 260.

Durham, definition, 439.

Duroc-Jersey breed of swine, 429.

Ear-marks in cattle, 107.
Ear punch, for sheep, 205;
swine, 387.

for

Index 451

Economy of different kinds of live-
stock, 31. °

Emmer, for fattening cattle, 89;
for fattening swine, 409; for
sheep, 212.

Energy (see Nutritive require-
ments).

Enlarged homesteads, 18.

Ewe neck, definition, 443.

Ewes, accidents to, 183; at lamb-
ing, 186; barren, 178; breeding
age of, 128; cost of feeding, 164;
culling of, 179; definition, 441;
disowning of lambs, 134, 186;
dry, 194; exercise for, 183;
feeding in winter, 182; feminin-
ity of, 179; flushing of, 179,
218; for the farm, 178; for the
range, 127; gestation period of,
129, 181; grinding of grain for,
164; management of dry ewes,
194; number allowed to each
ram, 129, 181; nutritive re-
quirements, 183; on the range,
127; seasons of breeding, 179;
selection of, 178; shelter for, 182;
summer management, 145; tag-
ging, 179; water for, 183; winter-
ing of ewe lambs, 183; wintering
of farm sheep, 182.

Exercise, brood mares and colts,
illustration, 274; for the preg-
nant ewe, 183.

Exercise lots, for mares and colts,
289; for stallions, 272, 322.

Exports and imports of horses, 246.

Fairs and stock shows, 115.

Fall, calves, 60; grazing for cattle,
41; pigs, 393.

Farm cattle, management of, 50.

Farmer breeders, 50.

Farm lands of the West, 23.

Farm sheep, 122, 172; buildings
for, 172; dipping of, 192; feed-
ing of, 209; in western Oregon
and Washington, 172; market-
ing, 123; shearing of, 190.

Farms for raising sheep, 172.

Farrow, definition, 445.

Farrowing, 395.

Farrowing pen, 395; plan of, 384;
treatment of, 397. ~

Fats (see Nutritive Requirements).

Fattening, cattle, amounts of feed,
81; cattle, experiments in, 80;
cattle, length of feeding period,
82; horses, exercise for, 348;
horses for show and sale, 346;
lambs, 157; range lambs in
winter, Chap. XI, 154; steers,
Chap. V, 68; swine, Chap.
XXIX, 407.

Feeder, cattle, 43; cattle, descrip-
tion of, 51; cattle, definition,
439; lambs, definition, 441;
swine, definition, 445; lambs,
weight of, 163; pigs, marketing,
405.

Feeding, principles of, 29; (see
Cattle, Sheep, Horses, Swine,
Barley, Alfalfa, etc.).

Fees for service of stallions, 324.

Feet, care of horses’, 271; trim-
ming colts’, 295.

Fences, for cattle corrals, 95; for
sheep, 202; for swine, 382.

Fencing, for cattle, 94; public range,
10; ranges for sheep, 150.

Fender rail, definition, 446; for
swine, 384.

Fermenting feed for swine, 417.

Field peas for swine, 410.

Filled-in hock, definition, 443.

Filly, definition, 443.

Fine, medium wools, 229; wools,
definition, 441.

Fistula, definition, 443.

Fitting horses for show and sale,
general discussion, Chap. XXIV,
346.

Fleece, irregularity due to poor
breeding, 167.

Flock (see Sheep).

Floors for swine, 383.

Flushing ewes, 179, 218.

Foal, definition, 443.

Foals, breaking to halter, 294;
eare of, after birth, 287; cas-
tration of, 297; joint disease of,

452

287; navel disease of, 286;
raising the orphan, 292; rations
for, 293; rations for wintering,
296; weaning of, 289.

Forage plants on the range, 13.

Forest reserves, area of, &; as
summer ranges, 11; description,
9; grazing permits, 9; number
of live-stock grazed in the year
1915, 14; of Oregon, area and
carrying capacity, 16; of Oregon,
live-stock grazed upon, 16;
receipts, 9.

Forging, definition, 443.

Foundation stock, definition of, 335.

Founder, definition, 443.

Four-year-olds, definition, 441.

Free range (see Ranges).

Freight rates on cattle, 84.

Full mouth, definition, 441.

Galloway cattle for the ranges, 45.

Galvayne appliances, descriptions
of, 310.

Garget in sows, treatment of, 399.

Gelding, definition, 443.

Gentling, of colts, 299; range horses,
330.

Gestation period, definition, 434;
in brood mares, 277; in cows,
60; in ewes, 129, 181; in sows,
392.

Gilt, definition, 446.

Gluten feed for fattening cattle, 90.

Goats grazed on forest reserves, 14.

Goitre in rams, 177.

Government lands (see Lands).

Grade, definition, 438; flock, 173;
horses, admission to registration,
335.

Grading wool, 229, 233.

Grain, for ewes in winter time, 182;
for farm sheep, 189; for fat-
tening steers in the West, 79;
for fattening swine, 410; for
idle horses, 255; for lambs, 189;
for pure-bred cattle, 113; for
pure-bred sheep, 190; for range
sheep, 130; for wintering year-
ling colts, 298; for work horses,

Index

discussion of different kinds,
256; grinding for sheep, 161;
grinding for swine, 410; grown
in the West, 369; hay for winter-
ing cattle, 42; hay for work
horses, 253, 257, 260; racks for
cattle, 78; relative value for
weanling pigs, 404; requirements
for 100 pounds pork, 413; shat-
tered for swine, 375.

Grasses on the range, 12.

Grazing, areas, 7; closed forma-
tion, 145; for cattle, 41; home-
steads, 22; lands, carrying ca-
pacity of, 13; lands, income pro-
duced by cattle, 49; permits,
fees for, 9; on Indian reserva-
tions, 10; open formation, 146.

Grinder for swine feeding, 378.

Grinding, feed for swine, 416; grain,
cost of, 478; grain for fattening
swine, 410; grain for old ewes,
164; grain for sheep, 161.

Grooming, fattening horses, 348;
horses for show ring or sale, 355;
horses, instruments for, 364;
stallions, 317; theory and prac-
tice of, 263.

Growing horses, general discussion,
Chap. XX, 291; lambs, 188.

Gummy, definition, 441.

Guy rope, illustration, 308.

Half-bred, definition, 441.

Halter breaking foals, 294.

Hampshire breed of swine, 429.

Hand coupling sheep, 181.

Hand shearing machine, 191.

Harness, care of, 266; fitting of,
267.

Hay, advantages of chopping, 160;
amount required for range ewes,
129; for fattening cattle without
grain, 71; for sheep, 216; for
stallions in breeding season, 316;
for winter feeding, 182; for
wintering cattle, 42, 60, 64, 66;
for work horses, 257; racks for
cattle, 77; racks, illustration,
79.

Index

Heat periods, in cows, 60; in ewes,
181; in mares, 277; in sows, 393.

Heavey, definition, 443.

Heifer, definition, 440.

Herder, duties of, 124, 145.

Herding, cattle, 41; sheep,
145.

Hereford cattle, for the ranges, 45;
in the show ring, illustration, 112.

Hernia in pigs, treatment of, 400.

Hinney, definition, 443; the pro-
duction of, 364.

Hipped, definition, 443.

Hog cholera, definition, 445.

Hog, definition, 446.

Hogeget, definition, 441.

Hogs (see Swine).

Holders for swine, 387.

Homesteaders, and_ horses,
discussion of, 16.

Homesteads, 640 acres for grazing,
22; enlarged for dry-farming, 17;
land available for, 11, 17.

Homestead law, comments on, 18.

Hoof trimmer for sheep, 204.

Horse, producing sections, 246, 247;
status of, industry, Chap. XVII,
243.

Horses, city work, 261; definition,
443; distribution of, 26; drivers
and saddlers, feeding of, 261;
exports and imports of, 246;
fattening out for show and sale,
Chap. XXIV, 346; fitting for
show and sale, general discus-
sion of, Chap. XXIV, 346;
grazed on forest reserve, 14; idle,
253; increase in, 246; manage-
ment of breed mares, Chap. XIX,
274; management of growing
stock, Chap. XX, 291; manage-
ment of pure-breds, Chap. XXIII,
332; management of stallion,
Chap. XXI, 312; range manage-
ment, Chap. XXII, 326; suit-
ability to various environments,
33; values and numbers of, 244;
work horses, management of,
Chap. XVIII, 251.

Hot house lambs, 128.

124,

248 ;

Hoven in sheep, 218.

Humid, lands, 23;
feeding in, 260;
horses, 249.

regions, horse
sections and

Importation of stallions, 313.

Imports and exports of horses, 246.

Impregnation, artificial in brood
mares, 280.

Increase in various kinds of live-
stock, 32.

Indian reservations, grazing on, 10.

Inspefétion of brands, 108.

Interfering, definition, 443.

Irrigated lands, 23; valleys for
fattening cattle, 5; valleys for
horses, 248; valleys, horse feed-
ing in, 260.

Jacks and jennets, market require-
ments, 364.

Jacks, care of, 363; definition, 443 ;
jennets and mules, discussion of,
Chap. XXV, 361.

Jennets, care of, 363;
443.

Joint disease, 287.

definition,

Kaffir for fattening swine, 409.

Kale, for fattening cattle, 89; for
sheep, 215.

Kemp, definition, 441.

Kemp’s Australian branding fluid,
144.

Knee-strung, definition, 443.

Knock-kneed, definition, 443.

Labor for various kinds of live-
stock, 32.

Lambing, on the farm, 186; on
the range, 130; percentage, 140.

Lambs, annual pastures for, 188;
black-face lambs for feeders, 155;
bummer, 134; cost of feeding,
164; creeps for, 189, 204; daily
gains of, 190; definition, 441;
disowning of, 134, 186; docking
and castration of, on the range
148; ewe, wintering of, 183;
fattening of range lambs, Chap.

Malting feed for swine, 417.

Manes, braiding and trimming of,
for the show ring, 351.

Manure, cistern for swine, 383;

454 Index
XI, 154; feeding period, 155;
feed racks for fattening, 159;
feeds and rations for, 156; for
the feed lot, 154; grain ration
for, 190; hay for, 156; hot

house, 123; marketing of pure-
bred, 193; marketing of spring
lambs, 192; market weights of
winter fed, 163; market weights
of spring, 193; marking of, on
range, 140; ‘'Pewees and Pea-
nuts,’ 155; spring, 122; wean-
ing of farm lambs, 192; wéaning
of range lambs, 147.

Lands, alfalfa, 24; classification
of Western, 8; cropped, maps,
7; cultivated in the West, 23;
deeded, 10; Indian, 10; public,
disposition of, 19; public, method
of obtaining, 11; reserved for
power sites, 10; unappropriated,
area of, 8; unappropriated, use
of, 10; wheat, 24.

Laws governing stallions, 314.

Leading sheep, 223.

Leasing the ranges, 22.

Legging out, definition, 441.

Leicester blood in Corriedale, 167.

Lifting and carrying sheep, 223.

Lincoln blood in the Corriedale, 167.

Line breeding, definition, 438.

Line riding, 41, 55.

Linseed oil meal (see Oil meal).

Litters, two per year, 392.

Live-stock, breeding, 28; distribu-
tion of, 25; markets, 26.

Location for pure-bred cattle, 110;
for swine, 370; influence in feed-
ing horses, 259; of windows, 377.

Long wool, definition, 441.

Losses of cattle, 48.

Loss of lambs from castration and
docking, 187.

Lots (see Exercise).

Luster, definition, 441.

Machine shearing, 191; advantages
of, 141.

Maintenance requirement of swine,
413.

swine, handling, 383.

Mare, definition, 444.

Margin in fattening cattle, 72.

Marketing cattle, cost of, 86; fat
cattle, 83; finished horses, 360;
mutton stock, 147; pure-bred
cattle, 115; pure-bred horses,
343; pure-bred sheep, 148, 193;
pure-bred swine, 430; range
horses, 330; spring lambs, 192.

Market requirement of jacks and
jennets, 364; weights of lambs,
163, 193.

Markets in the West, 26.

Marking cattle, 103; lambs on the
range, 140; pigs, 425.

Melons for swine, 375.

Merino blood, in the Corriedale,
167; on the range, 166.

Merino sheep on the range, 125,
127; in cross-breeding, 168.

Middle wool, definition, 441.

Middlings, and shorts for swine,
411; for fattening cattle, 90;
for weanling pigs, 423; value for
weanling pigs, 403.

Milk fever in swine, 426.

Milo maize for fattening swine, 409.

Mongrel, definition, 438.

Moon blindness, definition, 444.

Mules, advantages and _ disad-
vantages of, 362; definition of,
361, 444; exports and imports

of, 246; feeding of, 363; jacks
and jennets, discussion of, Chap.
XXV, 361; illustration of com-
bine team, 353.

Mutton, baby mutton, 123; cross-
breeding, 166; lambs in feed
lot, 147; producers of the West,
Chap. IX, 141; stock, market-
ing of, 147.

Navel disease, 286.
New Zealand, the home of the Cor-
riedale, 168.

Index 455

Numbers and values, of horses and
mules, 244; of beef cattle, 37.
Nutrients per 100 pounds gain of
different stock, 31.

Nutrition, principles of, 29.

Nutritive requirements, of brood
mares, 274; of brood sows, 394;
of fattening horses, 347; of
fattening swine, 410; of growing
horses, 291; of idle horses, 253;
of pregnant ewes, 183; of stal-
lions, 315; of work horses, 252.

Oat hay for work horses, 257.

Oats for city work horses, 261; for
driving or saddle horses, 262;
for fattening cattle, 89; for fat-
tening horses, 347; for fattening
lambs, 156; for feeding brood
mares, 274; for growing horses,
291; for sheep, 212; for stal-
lions, 317; for swine, 403; for
wintering foals, 297; for winter-
ing yearling colts, 298; for work
horses, 251, 256.

Oil meal for fattening cattle, 90;
for fattening horses, 347; for
feeding brood mares, 274; for
feeding sheep, 213; for sheep on
the range, 130; for swine, 411;
for work horses, 252, 256, 260.

One-half blood wools, 229.

One-quarter blood wools, grade, 229.

Operations and minor ailments,
Chap. XXI, 419. ia

Oregon, farm sheep of, 172.

Orphan foals, 292.

Over-reach, definition, 444.

Packer’s demand for swine, 372.

Packing houses, methods of buying
cattle, 85.

Packing, of wools, 232; season for
hogs, 373.

Paddle, definition, 444.

Paints in wools, 231.

Panama breed of sheep, 168.

Panels for sheep, 196.

Paralysis in swine, 422.

Parrot mouthed, definition, 444.

Parturition, definition, 438; in
brood mares, 275; in brood
mares, description of, 285; in
sows, 395, 396; signs of, in brood
mares, 285.

Pasture, annual, for growing lambs,
188; annual, for lambs, alfalfa,
220; annual, for lambs, clover,
218; annual, for lambs, field
peas, 218; annual, for lambs,
kale, 220; annual, for lamb,
rape, 218; annual, for lambs,
rye, 219; annual, for lambs,
wheat, 219; annual, for lambs,
vetches, 219; annual, for sheep,
217; for brood mares, 274; for
driving and saddle horses, 262;
for growing horses, 291; for idle
horses, 255; for sheep, 217; for
stallions in breeding season, 315;
for swine, 375, 405; for weaning
lambs, 192; for weanling pigs,
403, 404; for winter feeding
sheep, 182; for wintering foals,
297; for wintering yearling colts,
298; for work horses, 259; in-
fested, 217; pigs to the acre,
405; pork to the acre, 405.

Pea meal, proportion for fattening
swine, 409.

Peas, for sheep, 213; for swine, 410.

Pedigrees, misrepresentation of,
338; of stallions, 334; origin
of, 335.

Pens for lambing, 131.

Percentage of calves, 58; of in-
crease in cattle, 48; of increase
in sheep, 140; of pure-bred sheep
in America, 174; increase of
sheep, average for Western states,
140.

Periods of heat, in brood mares,
277; in cows, 60; in ewes, 181;
in sows, 393.

Permits for grazing in forest re-
serves, 9.

Pigs, age affects economy of gain,
413; age affects price per pound,
413; castration of, 399; creeps,
400; definition, 446; dressing

456

percentage, 407; hand fed, 399;
marking, 425; new born, arti-
ficial feeding, 398; new born,
treatment of, 396; number to
the acre, 405; ringing, 406;
ruptured, treatment of, 400;
scours in, 402; tusks, clipping,
420; weanling, nutrient require-
ments of, 403; weanling, rela-
tive value of grains for, 404;
young, digestive capacity of,
402; (see Swine).

Pinkeye, definition, 444. %

Poland China breed of swine, 429.

Polled, definition, 440.

Poll evil, definition, 444.

Porcine, definition, 446.

Pork, definition, 446; per acre,
405; production, requirements
for, 370.

Portland, as a cattle market, 85;
as a live-stock market, 27; mar-
ket developments, 369; Oregon,
swine shipped from East to, 370.

Posting, definition, 444.

Potatoes, cooking for swine, 415.

Power sites, grazing on, 10.

Prairie hay for fattening lambs, 156.

Predigesting feed for swine, 417.

Pregnancy, length of, in cattle, 60;
length of, in ewes, 129, 181;
length of, in mares, 277; length
of, in sows, 393; of mares, feed
during, 275; signs of, in brood
mares, 284.

Prices, of bulls for range purposes,

56; of grazing permits, 9; of
heavy and light hogs, 413; of
service fees of stallions, 325; of

stallions, 313; relative, of fat and
lean pigs, 407.
Principles of feeding, 29.

Profit, in fattening cattle, 73; on
fattening lambs, 164; on a
Tange ewe, 150.

Prolificacy, definition, 438.

Protein (see Nutritive require-
ments).

Public lands (see Lands).
Puffs, definition, 444,

Index

Pumpkins for swine, 375.
Pure-bred cattle, feed and care of,
112; founding the herd, 111;
general discussion, Chap. VIII,
109; location for, 110; market-
ing, 115; marking, 115.
Pure-bred, definition, 438.
Pure-bred horses, advertising of,
342; equipment for, 340; care
and feed of, 339; general dis-
cussion of, Chap. XXIII, 332;
in the show ring, 341; methods
of selling, 343; requirements
for raising, 332; weights of, 340.
Pure-bred sheep, 122, 175; market-
ing from the farm, 193; market-
ing from the range, 148; per
cent of, in America, 174; on the
range, 122; weaning of, 192.
Pure-bred swine, advertising, 431;
discussion of, Chap. XXXII,
429; showing, preparation for,
433.
Purse, definition, 438.

Quarter crack, definition, 444.
Quittor, definition, 444.

Racks, for feeding hay to cattle,
77; for feeding sheep, 196; for
weighing cattle, 99.

Rainfall of the West, 5.

Rainy seasons, 6.

Rams, age for breeding, 178; defi-
nition, 441; goitre in, 177; long-
wooled for cross breeding, 166;
number of ewes to, 129, 181; on
the range, 127; over-fitted, 177;
prepotency of, 177; selection of,
176.

Ranches, size of cattle, 46.

Range, and the horse industry,
243; bulls, 54; carrying capac-
ity of, 13; cattle, system of
management, 41; definition of,
7; ewes, description of, 128;
ewes to be discarded, 128; fenc-
ing of, for sheep, 150; grasses,
12; horses, care of growing
stock, 329; horses, general dis-

Index 457

cussion, Chap. XXII, 326; horses
on, 249; homesteading of, 16;
improvement, 19; lambing of
sheep on, 130; lambs, division
of, 147; lands, income from, with
cattle, 49; legal problems, 19;
mares, discussion of, 327; Merino
blood on, 166; method of lamb-
ing on, 131; natural divisions
of, 55; political problems, 20;
possible sale of, 22; problem of
range sheep man, 166; rams,
description of, 127; rams, price
of, 127; sheep discussion of,
Chap. X, 124; sheep (see Sheep) ;
spring and fall, 12; stallions,
eare of, 328; stallions, legal
control of, 330; summer, for
sheep, 125; system of herding
sheep on, 145; time of lambing
on, 130; winter and summer, 11;
winter, for sheep, 126.

Rape for flushing sheep, 179; for
pigs, 405; number of pigs to the
acre, 405.

Rations, definition of balanced,
434; for brood mares, 275; for
city work horses, 261; for driving
and saddle horses, 262; for ewes,
182; for fattening cattle, 81;
for fattening horses, 347; for
fattening lambs, 156; for foals,
293; for idle horses, 265; for
lambs, 157; for mules, 363; for
orphan foals, 292; for pigs, 413;
for pure-bred horses, 339; for
stallions, 315, 317; two- or three-
year-old colts, 298; for winter-
ing colts, 296; for work horses,
253; for yearling colts, 297;
swine balancing own, 418.

Recording pure-bred horses, 336.

Registration of horses, method of,
336, 338; origin of, 335.

Relative economy of different kinds
of live stock, 331.

Reserved lands, 8.

Reserves, forest (see Forest re-
serves).

Ringbone, definition, 444.

Ringers, for swine, 387.

Ringing swine, 406.

Rings for swine, 387.

Roarer, definition, 444.

Roasting feed for swine, 417.

Rolled barley, for fattening horses,
347; for wintering yearling colts,
298; for work horses, 252; (see
Barley).

Roots, for sheep, 214; for stallions,
315.

Rounding up cattle, 41.

Rubbing posts for swine, 386.

Ruptured pigs, castration of, 400.

Rye for fattening cattle, 89; hay
for work horses, 257.

Saddle horses, breaking, 307; feed-
ing, 261.

Sage brush for grazing, 12.

Salt, for horses, 260; from alkali
licks for range sheep, 147.

Salting sheep on the range, 146.

San Francisco as a live-stock mar-
ket, 27.

Sanitation for swine, 377.

Scab, dipping by Livestock Sanitary
Board, 143; dipping for, on the
farm, 192; dipping for, on the
range, 143.

Seales, for cattle, 99; racks for
cattle, 99.

Screenings for fattening cattle, 89;
for fattening lambs, 156.

Scrotum, definition, 438.

Scrub, definition, 438.

Scurs, definition, 441.

Seattle as a live-stock market, 27.

Self-feeder, definition, 446; for
sheep, 198; for swine, 417.

Service fees for stallions, 324.

Shade in pork production, 371.

Shearing, advantages of machine
shearing, 141; for the feed lot,
161; late shearing, 191; machine
and blade, 141, 191; method of
shearing in Australian shearing
shed, 237; number per day, 141;
on the farm, 190; on the range,
141; sheds, Australian, 234.

458

Sheep, accidents to, 183; alkali
licks, 197; annual pastures for,
188, 217; auction sales for, 193;
barns (see Shelter); barley for
212; beet pulp for, 156; bloat
in, 218; bran for, 213; branding,
144; breeding, 181; breeding on
the range, 129; breeding season
of, 179; breeds for cross-breed-
ing, 168; breeds for the range,
125; buildings for, on the farm,
172; buildings for range sheep,
152; cabbage for, 215; capital
required for, 151; catching of,
223; chopping hay for, 159;
concentrates for, 211; corn for,
211; corrals for, 202; corrals for
range sheep, 152; costs and
profits, 150; cottonseed prod-
ucts for, 213; creeps for lambs,
189, 204; crooks for catching,
199; cross-breeding for wool and
mutton, 168; determination of
age in, 128; dipping of farm
sheep, 192; dipping of, for feed-

lot, 163; dipping of, on the
range, 142; dipping vats for,
199; docking instruments for,

docking chute for, 201; driving
of, 222; ear labeling punch for,
205; emmer for, 212; equip-
ment for branding, 206; the
ewe at lambing, 186; exercise
for, 183; factors affecting feed-
ing of, 209; farm, 122, 172;
farms suitable for, 172; fatten-
ing of range lambs in winter,
154; feeding lambs, 155; feed-
ing of farm sheep, 182, 209;
feeding racks and troughs for,
196; fences for, 202; flushing of
ewes, 218; for the farm, 172;
gains of, in feed lot, 163; gesta-
tion period of, 129, 181; goitre
in, 177; grain for, 156, 182, 189;
grazed on the forest reserve, 14;
grinding grain for, 161; handling
of, 222; hauling of, 224; hay
for, 216; herding on the range,
145; hoof trimmer for, 204;

Index

kale for, 215; leading of, 223;

lifting and carrying of, 224;
linseed products for, 213; loss
from wild animals, 149; luck

with, 221; marketing of mutton
stock, 147; marketing of pure-
bred lambs, 193; marketing of
pure-bred stock on the range, 148;
marketing of spring lambs, 192,
193; milk teeth in, 129; oil
meal for, on the range, 130; oats
for, 212; peas for, 213; panels
for, 196; pastures for, 217;
pastures for weanling lambs, 192;
permanent teeth, 129; phases of
sheep industry, 121; pure-bred,
marketing of, 148; pure-bred,
on farms, 122; pure-bred, on the
range, 122; range sheep, 121;
Chap. X, 124; rations for winter
fattening, 156; returns from,
226; roots for, 214; salt for,
147; scab, 143; selection of, for
farm, 174; self-feeders for, 198;
shearing for feed lot, 161; shear-
ing of, on farm, 190; _ shears,
blade, 207; sheds (see Shelter) ;
shipping crates for, 198; silage
for, 215; silo for, 216; soiling
crops for, 217; succulence for,
214; suitability to various en-
vironments, 33; three-quarter
bred, 169; time of breeding, 179;
treating of stubborn ewes at
lambing, 186; vs. cattle, 30, 49;
water for, 183; weaning of lambs,
192; wheat for, 212; wintering
of ewe lambs, 183; wintering
range sheep, 130; wool box, 207.

Sheds (see Shelter).

Shelter, for beef cattle, 94; for
brood mares, 289; for colts,
illustration, 294; for cows and
calves, 60; for pure-bred horses,
340; for sheep on the farm, 192,
194, 195, 196; for sheep on the
range, 152; for sheep in the feed
lot, 162; for stallions, 322; for
swine, 376, 377, 385; for work
horses, 371; for young horses,

Index

311; horse barn plans, 272;
Oregon hog barn, 384; sale
stables for horses, illustration, 253.

Shepherd, 125.

Shepherd’s crook, 199.

Shippers, live stock, 85.

Shipping, cattle, 84; horses for the
show or sale, 359; sheep, 198.

Shoeboil, definition, 444.

Shorthorn cattle for the range, 45.

Short wools, definition, 441.

Shote, definition, 446.

Shoulders of horses, care of, 268.

Showing horses, braiding and trim-
ming, 351; illustrations of deco-
rations, 353; pure-bred horses,
340; swine, base dates for, 432.

Show ring, horses, common ail-
ments, 357; methods and cus-
toms, 356.

Shrinkage, and condition of wool,
230; definition, 438; in market-
ing cattle, 83.

Sickle hock, definition, 444.

Side bone, definition, 444.

Silage, for fattening cattle, 91; for
sheep, 215.

Silo for sheep, 216.

Size of cattle ranches, 46.

Skim milk, for fattening swine, 412;
for hogs, 371; for suckling sows,
398; for swine, 375; for wean-
ling pigs, 403.

Skin of the horse, 264.

Skirting of wool, 233.

Slab sided, definition, 444.

Soaking feed for swine, 416.

Soiling crops for sheep, 217.

Soil of the West, 4.

Sore shoulders, 268.

Sorting of wool, 233.

Sound, definition, 444.

Sow, definition, 446.

Sows, breeding, 391; brood, 394;
down, treatment of, 395; dry-
ing at weaning time, 400; effect
of age on weight of pigs, 392;

feed, 395; gestation period of,
392; on pasture alone, 294;
periods of heat, 391; poor

459

milkers, 399;
suckling, 398.
Soy bean meal for fattening swine,

411.

Spaying, definition, 438.

Special appliances for breaking
horses, illustration, 308.

Special devices for breaking, 308.

Speed of horses, its influence on
‘work, 270.

Speltz, for fattening cattle, 89; for
fattening swine, 409.

Splint, definition, 444.

Spokane as a live-stock market, 27.

Spray pump for swine, 387.

Spring, and fall ranges, 12; grazing
for cattle, 41; lambs, 122;
lambs, marketing of, 192, 193.

Stag, definition, 438.

Staggy, definition, 439.

pregnant, 394;

Stallions, advertising in service,
323; breaking to work, 318;
breeding equipment for, 319;
breeding contracts, 324; care
in breeding season, 316; care

of, on the range, 328; definition,
444; discussion, Chap. XXI,
312; for pure-bred studs, 334;
grooming of, 317; importation
of, 313; in breeding season, 315;
in service, 318; legal control of,
on ranges, 330; license law, 314;
list of recognized associations,
337; method of buying, 312;
method of selling, 343; number
of mares, 318; number of ser-
vices per day, 318; out of season,
317; prices of, 313; stables
and lots for, 322; use of breed-
ing hobbles, 320; weight of, at
different ages, 340.

Stalls (see Shelter).

Stanchions used fer stubborn ewes,
186.

Steers, ages and weights of feeders,
343; definition, 440; descrip-
tion of good feeders, 75; dressing
percentage of, 76; fattening of,
Chap. V, 68; suitability to vari-
ous locations, 38.

Summer and winter ranges,

460

Steaming feeds for swine, 417.
Stock cars, capacity of, 84.
Stockers, definition, 440.

Stock, feed for horses, 260; grazing

on homesteads, 22; shows and
fairs, 116.
Straw, for idle horses, 254; for

work horses, 259.
Stringy, definition, 444.
Stubble fields for swine, 373, 375.
Stump sucker, definition, 445.
Succulence for sheep, 214.

Sugar-beet pulp for fattening cattle,

90.

1s
for cattle, 41, 60; for sheep, 125,
144,

Supplemental feeds for swine, 410.
Sus Indica, definition, 446.

Sus Scrofa, definition, 446.
Sweeney, definition, 445.

Swine, afterbirth, passing of, 397;

beginner’s problems, Chap.
XXVI, 369; breeding, 393;
breeding crate, 393; breeding
herd, Chap. XXVIII, 389;
breeds of, 429; bronchial trouble
in, 423; brood sows, treatment
of, 394; by-products for, 369;
castration knife for, 387; cas-
tration of, 399; chute for loading,
388; clover aftermath for, 375;
condition for growing, 369 ; creeps
for little pigs, 400; dipping vats
for, 385; distribution of, 26;
dressing percentage, 407; equip-
ment for, Chap. XXVII, 376;
fall pigs, 393; fattening for
market, Chap. X XIX, 407; feed
grinder for, 378; feeding, Chap.
XXX, 415; feeding standards,
409; feed used for other stock,
374; fences for, 382; fitting
for show and sale, 432; floors for,
383; following cattle on corn,
70; gestation period, 392; grain,
relative values for weanling pigs,
404; grazed on forest reserves,
14; holder, 387; manure cistern
for, 383; market conditions,

- Index

372; market demands, 408;
market fluctuations, 392; melons
for, 375; middlings for, 403;
milk fever in, 426; number for
the farm, 369; nutritive require-
ments for fattening, 410; nu-
tritive requirements for weanling,
403; nutritive requirements of,
for brood sows, 394, 398; packers’
demand, 372; paralysis in, 422;
parturition in, 395; pastures for,
375, 403, 405; periods of heat,
393; price in relation to supply,
373; prices, fluctuation in, 373;
proportion to dairy cows, 375;
pumpkins for, 375; pure-bred,
marketing, 430; pure-bred, start-
ing with, 430; relation to beef

cattle, 372; relation to sheep,
372; ringing, 406; rings for,
387; rubbing posts for, 386;

shattered grain for, 375; shelter
for, 376; skim milk for, 371, 375;
stubble fields for, 375; suitability
to various environments, 33;
supplemental feeds for, 410;
supply in relation to price, 372;
table refuse for, 375; trimming
feet, 424; troughs for, 381; two
litters per year, 392; wallowing
vats for, 386; water supply for,
380; weaning pigs, 400; wean-
ling pigs, pasture for, 403, 404;
the West for growing, 369;
wounds and ulcers, 419.

Table refuse for swine, 375.

Tagging ewes, 179.

Tails, braiding and tying for show
ring, 353.

Tankage, definition, 446;
tening swine, 412.

Teeth, appearance of permanent
teeth in sheep, 129.

Three-eighths blood wools, 229.

Three-quarter bred, definition, 442;
sheep, 169.

Three-year-old, definition, 442.

Thoropins, definition, 445.

Thoroughbred, definition, 439.

for fat-

Index

Ticks, dipping for, 142, 192.

Timothy, for calves, 61; for city
work horses, 261; for driving or
saddle horses, 262; for fattening
cattle, 88; for fattening horses,
348; for growing horses, 292;
or stallions in breeding season,
315; for wintering foals, 296:
for work horses, 252, 257, 260.

Tools for minor operations, Fig. 49,
420.

Top crosses, 336.

Topography of the West, 3.

Trimming, colt’s feet, illustration,
294; feet of the colt, 295; feet
of swine, 424; feet of work
horses, 271.

Trochar and Canula, 206.

Troughs, for feeding sheep, 196;
for swine, 381.

Tusks, clipping little pigs’, 420;
cutting boars’, 425.

Twine for tying wools, 232.

Two-year-old, definition, 442.

Ulcers and wounds on swine, 419.
Unappropriated lands in the West,
8

Wasound, definition, 445.

Values and numbers of horses and
mules, 244.

Veal, definition, 440.

Ventilation for swine, 377.

Vetch hay, for fattening cattle, 89;

for growing horses, 291; for

work horses, 251, 258.
Wall-eyed, definition, 445.
Wallowing vats for swine, 386.
War bridle, illustration, 308; de-

scription of, 310.

War horses, exports of, 247; mules,
exports of, 247.

Washington, farm sheep of, 172;
sheep for western, 174.

Water, for horses, 260; for sheep,
146, 183; for swine, 377, 380.
Weaning, calves, 61; foals, 289;

lambs on range, 147; lambs on

461

the farm, 192; pigs, 400; pure-
bred calves, 114.

Weanling, definition, 446.

Weight, of cattle when marketed,
43; of market lambs, 163, 193.
West, the, altitude of, 4; area of,

8; climate of, 5; definition of,
3; description of, Chap. I; for
hog growing, 369; rainfall of, 5;

soil of, 4; topography of, 3.

Western lands, classification of, 8;
swine markets, supply, 369.

Wether, definition, 442; feeding of,
164.

Wetting feed for swine, 416.

Wheat, areas, 24; belt, horse feed-
ing in, 259; bran (see Bran);
for horses, 260, 261; for fattening
cattle, 89; for fattening swine,
409; for sheep, 212; hay for
work horses, 256, 257; straw for
idle horses, 254.

Whey for fattening swine, 412.

Whistler, definition, 445.

Wild animals, loss of sheep from,
149; methods of combating, 149.

Wild hay, for calves, 61; for fatten-
ing cattle, 88; for fattening
lambs, 156; for range horses,
330; for work horses, 257, 260.

Windgalls, definition, 445.

Windy, definition, 445.

Winging, definition, 445.

Wintering, calves, 61; cattle, 42;
cattle, general discussion, 63;
cows and calves, 60; ewes on
farm, 182; the ewe lamb, 183;
the foal, 296; on grass, 65; idle
horses, 255; of range sheep, 149;
range sheep on cottonseed and
linseed cake, 130; range sheep
on hay, 129; yearling colts, 298.

Winter, management of sheep on
range, 129; ranges, 11; ranges,
for sheep, 126.

Wool, American classes of, 226;
black wool, 232; box, 207;
branding paint for, 231; bur-
lap bags for containing wool,
232; carding wools, 227; dis-

462

honest methods in handling, 191;
imports of, to the United States,
226; industry, status of, 226;
inferior wool, results from poor

breeding, 167; length and
strength of fiber, 226; the old
method of packing, 234; one-

half blood, 229; one-quarter
blood, 229; packing of, 232; pays
the price of wintering range
sheep, 129; paper twine for
tying, 232; moisture contained,

191; producers of, Chap. IX,
121; production, 226; shrink-
age. and condition of, 230;

skirting of, 233; sorting of, 233;
three-eighths blood, 229; twine
for tying, 232; value of, in this
country, 226; warehouse method
of packing, 234.

Wools, classing of, 233; color and
character of, 231; combing

Index

\
wools, 227; cross-breeding, 166;
fine, medium, 229; grade, 229;
grading of, 233; grading of,
according to fineness, 229.

Work horses, general discussion,
Chap. XVIII, 251; in the city,
methods of feeding, 261; in the
United States, cost of feed, 251;
feeding of, 251.

Worms, definition, 446; intestinal,
in swine, 423.

Worsted yarn, 228.

Wounds and_ ulcers
419.

on swine,

Yarn, worsted, 228.
Yean, definition, 442.
Yearling, definition, 442.
Yelp, definition, 446.
Yolk, definition, 442.

Zigzag breeding, 166,

Printed in the United States of America.

The Nutrition of Farm Animals

By HENRY. PRENTISS ARMSBY

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heritance common to plants and animals, but emphasizes the prin-
ciples, methods and practices which are peculiar to animal breeding,

The improvement of the domestic animal resulting in the develop-
ment of highly specialized qualities useful to man is one of the most
notable achievements in modern agriculture. How, through man’s
efforts, these highly specialized and valuable qualities have been
acquired, and how these qualities have come to be represented in
the constitution of the germplasm and thus transmitted from parent
to offspring, is a subject of great scientific and practical interest.

The scientific principles which govern the practice of animal
breeding may all be classified under inheritance, reproduction and
development. The text emphasizes particularly those scientific prin-
ciples which are recognized as the basis of heredity and which have
been sufficiently well established to afford a real basis for the practice
of animal breeding. The physical basis of heredity in the germplasm
of the cell and the significant changes resulting in transmission are
described and illustrated.

The physiology of reproduction and its applications to the practice
of breeding is the subject of an important chapter. The interrela-
tions of heredity and development which constitute the real basis
of the breeder’s art are discussed. The practical questions of in-
breeding, crossbreeding, grading, fertility, sterility, and sex are con-
sidered in the light of the most modern development of biological

science.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

The Breeds of Live-Stock

By Livestock BREEDERS. REVISED AND ARRANGED

By CARL W. GAY
Professor of Animal Husbandry in the
University of Minnesota

Rural Textbook Series. Ill, r2mo, $1.75

A more urgent demand, from a constantly increasing number of
consumers, for animal products must stimulate a greater exploita-
tion of pure-bred livestock as the source of the seed from which
market animals and their products are derived. The breeders who
will get the most out of the respective breeds with which they work,
will be those best informed as to the inherent possibilities of their
stock. Study of the origin, history, and development of the breeds
is, therefore, important. The most successful breeders are essen-
tially specialists and the most authoritative presentation of the his-
toric facts, points of merit, and economic importance of the different
breeds should be expected from those who have devoted themselves
most exclusively to these breeds.

Men who have been more or less eminently identified with the
respective breeds were chosen to prepare the breed material for the
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. This matter has been revised,
brought up to date, and amplified to include types in their relation
to breeds, and the whole material has been edited, arranged, and
revised by Dr. Carl W. Gay, Professor of Animal Husbandry in the
University of Minnesota. The original illustrations are reproduced
in half tones and the book is offered as the most complete and
recent work on the types and breeds of livestock.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

The Principles and Practice of
Live-Stock Judging

By CARL WARREN GAY

Professor of Animal Industry in the *
University of Minnesota

Rural Textbook Series. Cloth, r2mo, illustrated, $1.50

This book has been prepared to meet the demand incident to the
progress made in livestock husbandry for a more comprehensive,
thorough, and systematic study of the judging of animals. The
effort has-been made in its preparation to take the student and
stockman a step further than they have gone heretofore. Part I
introduces the principles upon which the practice of judging is
founded ; Part II applies to the practice of judging, definition and
procedure — the features of animal form to be considered, the means
of making observations and practice judging by the score card,
demonstrations, comparative and competitive judging. The bal-
ance of the work is devoted to special judging, one part being given
to each of the following : horses, cattle, sheep, swine, the judging
of breeding animals, and livestock shows. The volume is profusely
illustrated, typical representatives of the types and breeds being
shown in untouched photographs of animals to which championship

honors have been awarded.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York

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