Veterinary state board questions and answers

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CORNELL UNIVERSITY
a THE 2
Hlower Veterinary Library
FOUNDED BY

ROSWELL P. FLOWER

for the use of the

N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE
1897

This Volume is the Gift of
Alice L, Dustan
uacuieed POR. De I Dey Pol
Dr, Henry W, Dustan '28

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VETERINARY
STATE BOARD QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS

BY
V. G. KIMBALL, D.V.M.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
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COPYRIGHT, 1914
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U.S. A.

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PREFACE

BEING intimately associated with veterinary students, the author is
fully aware of the feelings of fear and mysticism with which they are
possessed when confronted with the ordeal of taking a State Board exam-
ination. Partly to dispel these fears, but more to provide a means of self-
quizzing, this work was undertaken.

A large number of State Board questions from ten of the more repre-
sentative eastern and a few of the middle and western States have been
sorted over. Those contained herein represent what was left after elim-
inating hundreds of duplicates. The few duplications which remain serve
to illustrate the close relationship of the various subjects to one another.
The overlapping and the necessary process of elimination resulted in the
abbreviation of some subjects, especially Sanitary Science, Pathology and
Zootechnics, to a considerable degree. Many topics, considered elsewhere,
might rightly have been inserted under these headings.

The author lays no claim to literary genius or bombastic propensities.
The aim has been to supply brief, accurate answers, and this has been
done many times at the expense of grammatical precision.

The extensive library of the Veterinary School of the University of
Pennsylvania, being at my disposal, has been thoroughly perused and the
highest authorities on the different phases of veterinary science have been
carefully consulted and compared. It would be impossible to make
acknowledgment to all in the space allotted.

To my colleagues, with whom it is a privilege to associate, and who have
endeared themselves by their valuable suggestions and advice, my heartfelt
thanks are due.

It is the author’s hope that this humble beginning will meet the
student’s demands for a means of self-interrogation in preparing for State
Board and Civil Service examinations. Incidentally, by reason of the
complete index, it may, in a measure, satisfy the need of a convenient, com-
plete, reliable reference book on veterinary science. To the end that
this may be accomplished, criticisms and suggestions will be cheerfully
received.

May, 1914 V. G. KIMBALL.

i

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CONTENTS

CHEMISTRY
InorGANIc CHEMISTRY
HypRoGEN

CO oem ee w em emer eter moans tree ses noeveesenarenes

ANATOMY
OSTHOLOGY vo 4nd soe ehlan abies POS ER AOE R a RelAsGameabee emer eS

DIGESTIVE ORGANS.....0 0c eee eee eet ene eect ene nnees
RESPIRATORY ORGANS..... 0000 cece eee eee ett n eee eee
URINARY: ORGANS 6 nc.c5 os cc 82 SE Fis ala eee seed RE Pee REE ee oe
SexXUAT: (ORGANS 6 occ esa ve edd ado Ca¥ Ge Rea SS See ES PEN EGE Ree
ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE........0 0.0 c eee eet eee e nee enee
Skin, Harn AND HOOPF...........0 0000 erence eee eee n eres
DUCTLESS GUANDS: <5 iss chet be eae eRe ee Daa Mee ee eee eee es
TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY........00. 00 eee eee teen eee eee eee tenes
HISTOLOGICAL ANATOMY... 0.00000 c ccc eee teen e eens

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vi CONTENTS
PHYSIOLOGY

Jie Giese ne eS 106
rs Ee ec OA pL RDC ne SUSE EES 109
BLOOD-VESSEES «2.00548 «acide name eshcaun ode SUSE STRESS DEe eat Fees 110
VASCULAR, GEANDS iis cocaine aoa des make eb ne ees SHEETS TE SHE Ee TG 112
RESPIRATION. << cjccalos nag kp ead ROR GS cE E ee ee ERE wie Se eS 113
DIGESTION? (send sea vy ace ees Meo og RE et eee bin REPRE PE RES 115
ABSORPTIONS 9.03 ve veg 24 f Ae SSeS BE SAR Ses AER NS STAM NAT oy Uo eRe HEE 122
SRI jcc. c cuakd Seth pads He mca Sa CUBR EMS Pag Gen TER eke FE Beet 123
URINE & 5.5.5 enecc sue ds id dlgvis Onder e OEE GRD AER aan ap ER Pe De hee ae wis 125
INUURERIONS aie 0-0 4b AL OSES DDE See DAR ke PERRY AEG OE BEE SUS ET RR DOS 126
ANIMAL FIGAT «oc scacsa gaGa ited dp Rhine oe ee PPA MB RS Eee eee 128
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.......0000 00 ccc cece ee eee ene ene ee en ees 130
INERVOUS: SYSTEM jcc, ceicacia gat oa G aa adoe ele nA au oes Sk PRES EE PS 131
BENSESi iat sidan ee 5:0 Geo ye Schala aiamla deal apvedhech oa SMES ot ad Mates Ae eae, See aaas OOS eS 136
"PoE: HOOP: soi eens es aw BOY OES Ga Me PACED ee RR CaO BE Ra Seale dee De BS 138
GENERATION AND DEVELOPMENT..........00 000 e eee ee eee eee ees 139
PATHOLOGY
HYPERTROPHY AND ATROPHY.........0 000 cece een cece ete teenies 143
DEGRNERATIONS joins iu erase Quien 8 oo wuevarnm recta ke hee Shs See Ree Raa Bhs 143
TNEVAMMATIONG ¢ 2 2 acs cn cat neu onus Ga Lay nie meh eee Gees ee hae ee nes oh 144
DUMORSE crcacrlarn nd Ae Waka ngn Condos ne 6 WEA hey ates Gia Ee A Sess ieee Se A 145
BE OOD) saceausigaier sxe 49% ayn a Ween aaa des eae MGR ae ih Re Ae Sear end Ere Se eee 146
BONES CAND: JOIUNTC) ccc aatanitsh ecules EN ae OLE Me AEE nW PR ew ems 147
HEART AND: BLOOD-VESSELS scree xd one paddogy dau reer ae ee se ewe EES 148
RESPIRATORY ORGANS» 2 24.7 had 26 eae Soe taeh eee Ged gs aretecd ee a sig Sete cndiges 150
ABDOMINAL (ORGUNS s+ 4 sacs eens é Sas ele es Sas Bad Ma a Migs ane oe 152
GENITO-URINARY ORGANS):,¢ 6 gic 5 os oan bas Kode one bie SEE OE PEER EA SE BYES 153
NERVOUS: SYSTEM sis c00 4 ddcarcauayu pin eticstas oa teva gdewa det eee ee 155
IMTS CCHS) dee osos seh.a sacatine guipouctho hse nantes iat lod natal sa woty Shes dtedet Seed a 155
POS Bs so oie. ha acer eke tps acatetie easy eetes Ae ce aNiat ae hae Sin G(R EAN Dae CGS atts 155
RROUIN ces cyeenrttys eek, peck a evap ccs MAN nn tei antec tune ase ee ana ete te Mucha? eaBS 156
INFECTIOUS: .DISBASES |... candiccia ginata aye aie anid a lelaceal das oe Row aed SE 157
BACTERIOLOGY a :cauivats sn anacscasny D2 die ones eS Ga nee Se BEE Barada sep RR 160
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE
GENERAL AND DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS........0.0 0000 ee cee eee ceues 165
Acute GENERAL INFEcTIOUS DISEASES..............0.00 0000 ese ee cee 172
Curonic Inrectious DISEASES...........000. 0000 cee eee cece eens 179
Diszases oF BLoop AND BLOOD-FORMING ORGANS...............-000 182
Diseases OF METABOLISM.........000000 00 cc cee cee cect e ete eens 183
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS..........0. 0000 c cece eens 184
DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS..........0.0.. 0000000 c eee ee eee 186
DisEaszes OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS............0.0000 000 cee eees 188
Disnases or THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS..........0 0000000 cee cece ee eae 191
Diseases oF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM...........000 000000 cece cece ee aee 199
Diseases oF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION.................-000000 ee 201
DisbaSES OF THE SKIN........ 0.0 ccc ccc cece eect eeeenas 202
SURGERY
WOUNDS: dices, Wane BANG Adee naenad acne ee dake eerie @olaas Antes 206
ADIN TGAIMINGA TL ON apse Soce aw sins naan gowla) eokeon wlacala Fan elon ws Sites ree ently nie as 209
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TENDONS AND TENDON-SHEATHS......0.0.000 00000 cc eceee cece ceeeceeas 215
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EYE, Hak AND DRROAT: 952% wae pee coed Wb ve gd vy wh Oba eo vee ema 217
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DISEASES OF THE THORAX........0.0000 0.0 ccc cceceeceeeeecsececesee 228

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CONTENTS vii

DISEASES OF THE ABDOMEN........0..0000 00.0 cc cece cece ceceecccccee. 229
Disrases OF THE URINARY ORGANS....................0..00....0... 232
DisEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS...................-.0.2..... 234
DIsEASES OF THE SpinaL COLUMN AND PELVIS...................... 238
Diseases-oFr THE Fore Lims............0.0 0.0.0 .c cece cece e eee. 239
Disnases oF THE Hinp Limp............................. sarge ane ded 245
Diseases OF THE FOOT..........00. 000 c cece cece cece cece cece ce. 250
Mersops or Restraint, Castine, Erc.................2.0..000-005, 257
OBSTETRICS
OBSTETRICAL ANATOMY........ 0.0000 c cece cece cece eeeecevecneceecee 259
PHYSIOLOGY S 2 vas cays bee oe oh Rea Bates elas ous, HUE Gohs Gated 264
IPREGNANOWY, 5 12.< sachs Gauteapieecue done his san burgh is Wan ¢ a @ien cnchieams ee os AR Bee eae 269
IA BOR TION esis 8 istic 4an st ae herve eco NIC Aue Wai coe saw we autor 'bb pnvateane yee EA ard oben oe 276
TABOR <4 elmo cast arte erel ates Agv or te OY eee Mo ae aia on ba lac anit 278
Diseases INcIDENT TO PREGNANCY AND LABOR...................... 284
DISEASES OF THE NEW-BORN............0.0.0 00 cece ecu e eee ceeeeeees 294
MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS
PRESCRIPTION WRITING..........0. 00 ccc ccc e ccc eee eee e seen eeannes 332
DORICOLO GY i. ciais cs ws Gate Sea OH Heo A Sm Aa Sal ww eee me Abe RR 338
SERUM THERAPY, 4, sitde des aactev ait Fis ee ne ais we RN Bo EE wee Sd Bs 341
VACCINE “EHERAPYS «a4 can wl. nas Aye 2M AER Ne SBE ie cence ace Baie 343
SANITARY SCIENCE—MEAT AND MILK HYGIENE
AIR AND VENTIGATION ic cccii-s ocscas 4 pace eie wings do Quad 6 Sve Huw wee ede NEeNS 346
INFECTIOUS DISEASES.......... 0.0 cece cece cece eee e teen eeeeeeeeeees 347
PRO PHY EARS veoisi, aoe 4.8 id ete Sua pat c ssiniech one Seagy 4:3 G wa HOO ee ake as CEBU 349
Minx anp Mat HyYGImne..........000 00 cc ccc ccc cece eee eeenaes 351
ZOOTECHNICS : enis 36 5 dooce sureled Pa Gaey ae tena Renae Gang tae Ae Pan hae ees 360
PND Biel 2 ada eee da Ruigus Haulin Soin a CaS Daas He wa Raa RAGES adaes 367

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

CHEMISTRY

Distinguish between chemistry and physics.

Physics is the science of matter and energy. It deals with those
changes in matter which do not involve a change in composition.
It also deals with the doctrine of equilibrium and with that of
motions. The latter are visible, as those of mass, in fall, projection,
rotation, propagation in a plane, etc.; or invisible, and only per-
ceptible by their results, as sound, heat, light and electricity.

Chemistry reveals to us the composition of matter, and in the
formation of new compounds, acquaints us with the rules and laws
by which its various forms act upon one another. It deals with
those changes in matter which do involve a change in composition.

Define specific gravity. If the specific gravity of a substance is 1.5,
how many c.c. of distilled water will ten grammes represent?

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the
weight of any volume of the substance and the weight of a like
volume of some other substance taken as a standard. For solids and
liquids, the standard is distilled water at its temperature of maxi-
mum density ; for gases and vapors, the standards are hydrogen and
air at a temperature of 0° C. and a barometric pressure of 76 centi-
metres of mercury.

If the specific gravity of the substance in question is 1.5, 10
grammes would equal 15 grammes of water; 1 gramme of water
equals 1 ¢.c., hence 15 grammes would equal 15 c.c.

How is the specific gravity of a liquid determined?

There are several ways. The hydrometer is usually employed,
or comparisons can be made of the weights of equal volumes of the
liquid and water.

What effect on the volume of a gas has (a) change of pressure, (b)

change of temperature?
(a) The volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure upon
“it (Boyle’s law).
(b) All gases approximately expand equally for equal rises of

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2 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

temperature. Theoretically, at 273 degrees below zero (absolute
zero) the gas becomes nothing, and for each degree of rise in tem-
perature it expands aig of the volume which it occupied at 0° C.;
hence 273 volumes of air at 0° C. becomes 274 volumes at 1° C.,
275 at 2° C., ete.

Describe the process of electro-plating.

This process depends upon electrolysis, that is, the decomposition
of a chemical compound, the electrolyte, into its constituent parts,
called ions, by an electric current. In a battery or in an electro-
lytic bath, the metallic, or electropositive ion is carried with the
current through the electrolyte. Similarly, when a chemical salt
is electrolysed, the metallic base is carried to the cathode (the nega-
tive pole of the battery). Therefore, by attaching the object to be
plated at the cathode in a bath composed of a silver, gold or copper
solution, it will become coated, or plated, with silver, gold or copper.

Define evaporation, electrolysis, amorphism, dialysis.

Evaporation is the process of converting a substance, especially
a liquid, into a vapor.

Electrolysis—see answer to preceding question.

Amorphism relates to the non-crystalline character of some
substances, such as starch and glue.

Dialysis is the passing of a dissolved substance through a dia-
phragm of parchment into another liquid.

Convert (a) 104° F. to its equivalent in Centigrade degrees, (b) 38° C.
to Fahrenheit scale.
(a) (104° F.— 32) X = 40° C.
(b) (388° C. X 2) + 32 = 100.4° F.

INorGANIC CHEMISTRY
Define chemistry.

Chemistry is the science which treats of the properties and
composition of substances, their changes in composition and the
phenomena attending such changes. The subject of chemistry is
divided for convenience into inorganic, organic and physiologic.

State the difference between a chemical and a physical change, with
an example of each.

A chemical change is one occurring in the molecules of matter
in which the substance or substances lose their identity by the for-
mation of new substances. Example: Paper, when burned, yields
carbon dioxide, water and some charcoal.

A physical change is one occurring in a mass of matter in which

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 3

the substance retains its original composition. Example: Water,
changing into ice or steam.

Define the following terms: analysis, synthesis, atom, molecule, com-
bustion, chemical affinity, compound.
Analysis is the process of determining the composition of a sub-
stance. There are two kinds, qualitative and quantitative.
Synthesis is the artificial building up of a chemic compound,
by the union of its elements.
An atom is, theoretically, the smallest particle of an element
which can exist. ;
A molecule is, theoretically, the smallest particle of a compound
that can exist.
Combustion is oxidation accompanied by the development of
heat and light.
Chemical affinity is the affinity or attraction which exists between
the atoms of certain substances.
A compound is a substance made up of two or more elements,
united to each other in definite proportions:

Define and illustrate acid, base, salt, alkali.

An acid is a compound having electronegative, or anionic, prop-
erties and containing hydrogen which is replaceable by metals to
form salts. It produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
or other dissociating liquids. Acids change blue litmus to red.
Example: hydrochloric acid, HCl.

A base is a substance which unites with an acid to form a salt.
Bases produce hydroxyl ions when dissolved in water or other dis-
sociating liquids. Example: Zinc unites with sulphuric acid to
form zinc sulphate.

A salt is a compound formed by the union of a base with an acid.
Example: Iron sulphate is formed by the action of sulphuric acid
on iron.

An alkali is a soluble substance having strong basic (electro-
positive) properties, usually applied to the oxides and hydroxides
of the alkali metals and metals of the alkali earths. Such substances
are very soluble in water, change red litmus to blue, unite with and
neutralize acids, forming salts, and emulsify fats. Example: potas-
sium and sodium.

Define efflorescent substance, deliquescent substance. Give an ex-
ample of each.

An efflorescent substance is one which is converted from a

erystalline solid to an amorphous powder on exposure to the air,

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4 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

due to the loss of its water of crystallization. Example: erystal-
line sodium sulphate, exposed to the air, becomes a white powder.

A deliquescent substance is one which can be converted from a
solid salt into a liquid form by the absorption of moisture from
the air. Example: calcium chloride left in an open vessel for a
few days will become wet and in time will even liquefy.

Define acid salt, amalgam, molecular repulsion, neutralization.

An acid salt is one in which only part of the hydrogen of an
acid is replaced by a metal or basic radical. Example: NaHSQ,.

An amalgam is an alloy containing mercury, as tin and mercury.

Molecular repulsion is the term applied to the tendency of
molecules to separate. According to the theory of the constitution
of matter, the molecules of every mass are in ceaseless motion,
hitting and rebounding from one another. In gaseous masses, the
molecules move without restraint; hence gases always tend to
expand.

Neutralization is the term applied to the interaction between
acids and bases with the result that both acid and basic properties
disappear, 7.¢., are neutralized. It consists in the union of the
hydrogen ion of an acid with the hydroxyl ion of a base to form
water.

Define valence and write formulas of four compounds containing ele-
ments having different valences, indicating the valence in
each case.

Valence is the definite capacity which every elementary atom
has for uniting with other atoms. Hydrogen is taken as the standard
and its valency is assumed to be unity. In HCl, Cl is univalent
because it combines with one atom of H; in H,O, O is bivalent;
in NH,, N is trivalent; in CH,, C is quadrivalent.

Define monad, diad, triad, tetrad, pentad. Give an example of each.
Monad is an element having a valency of one; diad, a valency of
two; triad, three; tetrad, four; pentad, five.
Examples: see preceding answer; pentad, phosphorus as in

PCl,.

Define monobasic acid, dibasic acid, tribasic acid. Give an example of
each.
A monobasic acid is one containing in its molecule one replace-
able atom of hydrogen, as nitric acid, HNO,,.
A dibasic acid is one having two raplenbatie atoms of hydrogen
in its molecule, as sulphuric acid, H,SO,.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 5

A tribasic acid is one having three replaceable atoms of hydrogen
in its molecule, as phosphoric acid, H,PQ,.

Define crith, atomic weight, and molecular weight.

A crith is the unit of weight for gases, it being the weight, in a
vacuum, of a litre of hydrogen gas at 0° C. A crith = 0.0899 gramme.

Atomic weight is the weight of an atom of a substance compared
with the weight of an atom of hydrogen which is taken as unity.
(In scientific work, oxygen is taken as the standard, but the U.S. P.
takes hydrogen. )

Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of the element
or elements contained in a molecule of a substance.

Define allotropism and reduction.

Allotropism is the property possessed by certain elements of
presenting themselves in two or more different forms, as the allo-
tropic forms of carbon, seen in the diamond, charcoal and graphite.

Reduction is the process of abstracting oxygen from an oxide.
(This is a generally accepted definition, although the subject of
reduction has a deeper significance, as may be instanced in the
reduction of calomel with stannous chloride, which also involves
the subject of valence. SnCl, + 2HgCl = SnCl,-+ Hg,. See oxi-
dation, p. 16.)

What is a metal?

A metal is an element which is predominantly basic in its chemi-
cal behavior. Metals are solid at ordinary temperature, except
mercury, usually opaque, have a more or less metallic lustre, are
malleable, ductile, tenacious, good conductors of heat and elec-
tricity, and are capable of forming basic substances and salts.

What is meant by isomerism?

Two or more compounds which contain the same elements in the
same relative proportions by weight in the molecule, but differ more
or less widely in their physical, chemical and physiological proper-
ties, are called isomeric, ¢.g., C,;H,O,, lactic acid, and C,H,,0,,
grape sugar.

Define chemical action. Name three kinds and give an example of
each.

Chemical action refers to the changes taking place in two or
more elements when brought in contact or disintegrated.

Light: Silver chloride decomposes in the presence of light.

Heat: Heat decomposes red oxide of mercury into mercury and
oxygen.

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6 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Electricity: By electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and
oxygen.
How many elements are there?
There are about eighty known elements.

Give the symbol and atomic weight of each of the following elements:
chlorine, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium and
sodium.

Chlorine, Cl, 35.2; hydrogen, H, 1; nitrogen, N, 14; oxygen,
O, 16; potassium, K, 39; sodium, Na, 23.

Name five elements. Give the symbol and one principal use of each
element named.
Carbon, C, is the chief element of coal.
Phosphorus, P, is used in matches.
Arsenic, As, is used in medicine.
Copper, Cu, is used in the arts.
Chlorine, Cl, is used as a bleaching agent.

Define incompatibility. Name three forms and give an example of each.
Incompatibility is that relation between medicines which ren-
ders their admixture unsuitable. There are three forms, viz., chemi-
cal, physical or pharmaceutical, and physiological or therapeutic.
A chemical incompatibility exists when a new compound is
formed, as silver nitrate and sodium chloride form silver chloride;
a physical, when an unsightly appearance is produced, as when
resinous tinctures are added to aqueous solutions, the resins sepa-
rate; a physiological, when there is an antagonistic action between
the drugs, as atropine, which checks secretion, and pilocarpine,
which stimulates glandular activity.

‘Write the chemical formula for (a) sulphuric acid, (b) nitric acid, (c)
potassium iodide, (d) copperas, (e) epsom salts.
(a) H,SO,, (b) HNO,, (c) KI, (d) FeSO,, 7H,0, (e) MgSO,,
7H,0.

What is meant by synthesis? Name two products that can be made
this way.
Synthesis is the artificial building up of a chemic compound
by the union of its elements.
Water can be made by uniting hydrogen and oxygen. Cupric
oxide can be made by heating metallic copper in the air.

What is meant by diffusion of gases? Describe an experiment to illus-
trate diffusion of gases.
A diffusion, similar to that of liquids, takes place when two

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 7

different gases are separated from each other by some porous sub-
stance, such as burned clay, gypsum, ete.

In the open end of an unglazed clay cylinder (such as is used
in galvanic experiments) there is fixed a glass tube about one metre
long, its open end terminating in a dish containing water ; the eylin-
der and tube are filled with air. Over the porous cylinder is placed
a wider vessel filled with hydrogen. The latter presses faster into
the cylinder than the air escapes from it; the air in the cylinder
and tube is displaced and rises in the water in bubbles. When the
escape of gas ceases, the tube and cylinder are almost filled with
pure hydrogen.

State which of the following gases are (a) lighter than air, (b) heavier
than air: oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia gas,
sulphur dioxide, chlorine.

(a) Hydrogen, ammonia gas, nitrogen.
(b) Sulphur dioxide, chlorine, oxygen.

Distinguish in meaning between the following suffixes when used in
names of chemical compounds: (a) ous and ic, (b) ate and
ite. Give examples.

(a) ous indicates that a compound contains less, and ic that it
contains more, of the other, or electronegative, element. An ex-
planation of these terms involves the subject of valence. Fre-
quently, two elements unite to form two or more compounds, for
instance, mercury and chlorine unite to form mercurous chloride,
Hg,Cl,, and also, mereurie chloride, HgCl,. The electropositive
atom (mercury) terminates in ous, indicating the lower valence
(or a valence of 2 for two atoms), while ic indicates the higher
valence (or a valence of 2 for one atom).

(b) The suffix ite indicates that a salt is derived from an acid,
terminating in ous (as Na,SO,, sodium sulphite), and the suffix ate
that it is derived from an acid terminating in ic (as Na,SO,, sodium
sulphate).

Give the formula and the chemical name of each of the following: (a)
washing soda, (b) saltpetre, (c) blue vitriol, (d) corrosive
sublimate, (e) Glauber’s salt, (f) Rochelle salt.

(a) Sodium carbonate, Na,CO,, 10H,O. (b) Potassium nitrate,
KNO,. (ce) Copper sulphate, CuSO, (d) Mercurie chloride,
HgCl,. (e) Sodium sulphate, Na,SO, (f) Potassium sodium
tartrate, KNaC,H,0,.

Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.
Organic compounds contain carbon and therefore, upon burn-

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8 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

ing, char. When pure they are completely consumed under con-
tinued heat; any residue remaining after the disappearance of the
char indicates the presence of mineral matter. They are the essen-
tial compounds of plant and animal structures and their molecular
composition may be very complex, but includes only a few elements.

An inorganic compound is any one of the large series of com-
pounds (minerals, metals, ete.) which are not directly connected
with vital processes, either in origin or nature, and which are
broadly and relatively contrasted with organic compounds.

Distinguish between solution and emulsion.
The term solution is applied to any clear and homogeneous
liquid obtained by causing the transformation of matter from a
solid or gaseous state to the liquid state, by means of a liquid called
the solvent or menstruum. Solutions may be made by uniting two
liquids, as when we dissolve oil in ether.
The term emulsion is used to designate a more or less homo-
geneous liquid, rendered opaque or milky by the suspension in it
of finely divided particles of fat, oil or resin.

Distinguish in meaning between the following when used in names of
chemical compounds: hypo and per. Give examples to illus-
trate the differences.

Hypo is prefixed to a compound containing less of the negative
element, oxygen, than the ows compound in that series, as hypo-
chlorous acid, HClO, and chlorous acid, HC10,.

Per or hyper indicates that the compound contains a greater
amount of oxygen than the ic compound in the series, as perchloric
acid, HC1O,, and chloric acid, HC1O,. We have the term peroxide,
applied to compounds very rich in oxygen.

Name a substance used as a bleaching powder and explain chemically
its bleaching properties.

Hypochlorite of lime, CaOCl,. The element chlorine has a strong
affinity for hydrogen. In the presence of moisture, it unites with
the hydrogen and thus liberates oxygen, which acts upon the coloring
matter and bleaches it,

Write the equation to show the reaction between (a) sulphuric acid
and zinc, (b) hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate, (c)
sodium carbonate and calcium hydroxide.

(a) H,SO, + Zn = ZnSO, + H,.
_ (b) 2HCl + CaCO, = CaCl, + H,O + CO,.
(ce) Na,CO, + Ca(OH), = 2NaOH + CaCo,,.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 9

Distinguish between a mixture and a compound,

A mixture consists of a combination of two or more substances
each of which retains its individual characteristics and may be
separated from each other by mechanical means, no matter how
thoroughly mixed and finely commingled. Ezample: Iron filings
and sulphur may be mixed and if no heat is added, the iron can be
removed from the mixture with an electromagnet; if heat had been
added to the mixture, a compound, ferrous sulphide (FeS) would
have been formed, which would require chemical means to separate.

Distinguish between a metal and a non-metal.

See ‘‘metals,’’ p. 5. Non-metals do not possess a metallic
appearance and are known as metalloids. To these belong sulphur,
carbon, phosphorus, oxygen, etc. The line between metals and non-
metals is not very marked. Thus, mercury, despite the fact that
it is liquid at ordinary temperature, must be included among the
metals because of its chemical properties.

Mention (a) three light metals and (b) three heavy metals. Give the
symbol and atomic weight of each. —
(a) Aluminum, Al, 26.9; sodium, Na, 23; potassium, K, 39.
(b) Gold, Au, 195.7; lead, Pb, 205; iron, Fe, 56.
Name ten non-metallic elements and write the symbol of each.
Hydrogen, H; oxygen, O; nitrogen, N; sulphur, 8; carbon, C;
phosphorus, P; chlorine, Cl; bromine, Br; iodine, I; fluorine, F.
Complete the following equations:
1, HCl + AgNO, =
2. 2NH,OH + H,S0, =
3. H,O + Na =
1. HCl + AgNO, = AgCl + HNO,.
2. 2NH,OH + H,SO, = (NH,),S0, + 2H,0.
3. H,O + Na = NaOH -+ H.
Complete the following equations:
. AgNO, + KCl =
. ZnCl, + 2KOH =
. CaF, + H,SO, =
. 83HC1+ HNO, =
. Ca(OH), + 2NH,Cl =
. AgNO, + KCl = AgCl + KNO,.
. ZnCl, + 2KOH = 2KCl + Zn(OH),.
. CaF, + H,SO, = 2HF + CaSO,.
3HCl + HNO, = 2H,0 + NO + 3Cl.
Ca(OH), + 2NH,Cl = CaCl, + 2(NH,OH).
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10 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Complete the following equations:
1. AgNO, + NaCl =
. CuSO, + HS =
. 2NaCl + H,SO, =

2
3
1. AgNO, -- NaCl = AgCl + NaNO,.
2. CuSo, + H,S = H,SO, + CuS.

3. 2NaCl -+ H,SO, = Na,SO, + 2HCL

Complete the following equations:
1. NaNO, + H,80, =
2. CaCO, + 2HCl =
3. 2NaCl + 2H,SO, + MnO, =
4. Cu + 2H,S0, =
1. NaNO, + H,SO, = NaHSO, + HNO).
2. CaCO, + 2HCl = CaCl, + H,O + CO,.
3. 2NaCl + 2H,SO, + MnO, = Cl, + Na,SO, + MnSO, +
2H,0.
4. Cu-+ 2H,SO, = CuSO, + 2H,0 + SO,.

Complete the following equations:
1. Pb(NO,), + H,S =

Ca(OH), + 2HCl=

2NaOH + H,S0, =

Pb(NO,), + H,S = 2HINO, + PbS.
Ca(OH), + 2HCl = CaCl, + 2H,0.
3. 2NaOH + H,SO, = Na,S0, + 2H,0.

Complete the following chemical equation. Give the name of the new
compound formed.
Zn + 2HCl =
Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl, + 2H. ZnCl, = Zine chloride.

Write the equation to express the reaction that takes place between
sulphuric acid and sodium carbonate. Name the compounds
formed.

H,SO, + Na,CO, = Na,SO, (sodium sulphate) + H,O (water) +
CO, (earbon dioxide).

Write the equation to express the reaction between (a) potassium
chloride and sodium nitrate, (b) ammonium chloride and
calcium hydroxide, (c) ferrous sulphide and hydrochloric
acid.

(a) KCl-+ NaNO, = NaCl + KNO,.
(b) 2NH,Cl + Ca(OH), = CaCl, + 2(NH,OH).
(c) FeS + 2HCl = FeCl, + H,S.

Np wh

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 11

Give the chemical symbol and the atomic weight of each of the follow-
ing: (a) hydrogen, (b) chlorine, (c) iron, (d) mercury,
(e) oxygen.
(a) H,1; (b) Cl, 35; (c) Fe, 56; (d) Hg, 198.5; (e) O, 16.
Give the chemical name of each of the following: (a) FeCl,, (b)
NaHCO,, (c) CO,, (d) As,O,, (e) H,PO,,.
(a) Ferrous chloride, (b) sodium bicarbonate, (c) carbon diox-
ide, (d) arsenic trioxide, (e) phosphoric acid.
Write the chemical names of the substances whose formulas are as
follows: (a) Ca(OH),, (b) KC10,, (c) PH,, (d) KNO,, (e)
HgCl, (f) SnCl,, (g) KMnO,, (h) NO, (i) CO, (j) AgNO.,.
(a) Calcium hydroxide, (b) potassium chlorate, (c) phosphine,
(d) potassium nitrate, (e) mercurous chloride, (f) stannous chlo-
ride, (g) potassium permanganate, (h) nitric oxide, (i) carbon
monoxide, (j) silver nitrate.
Write the graphic formula of (a) sulphuric acid, (b) ammonia, (c)
potassium chlorate.
(a) H-O\ v0
H-0” x;

/H
(b) H-M a
(ec) Cl-O-0-0-K

Give two laws relating to chemical combinations.

1. Law of constant or definite proportions. The same compound
is always composed of the same elements in constant proportions by
weight.

2. Law of multiple proportions. When two elements unite to
form several compounds the higher proportions of each are even
multiples of the lowest.

Explain fully how the percentage composition of any compound is
determined.

Obtain the molecular weight of the compound by adding together
the atomic weights of the elements it contains. Then, the percentage
of any one element is obtained by dividing its atomic weight by the
molecular weight. For instance, the molecular weight of KNO,
is, 38.82 + 13.93 + 47.64 = 100.39. The percentage composition
of K is 38.82 = 100.39, or 38.66 per cent.

Define and illustrate the law of definite proportions.

Definition given above.

Sodium chloride, NaCl, is always composed of 23 parts by weight
of Na and 35.5 parts of Cl.

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12 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

State Avogadro’s law.
Equal volumes of gases, compared under identical conditions of
temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules.

Name the elements that enter into the composition of each of the fol-
lowing alloys: (a) brass, (b) German silver, (c) soft solder,
(d) bell metal.
(a) Copper and zinc, (b) copper, zine and nickel, (c) tin and
lead, (d) copper and tin.

Is glass a compound or a mixture? To what does green glass owe its
color?
Glass is a mixture. Green glass owes its color to silicates of iron
derived from the impure materials of which it is made.

What element occurs in all acid compounds?
Hydrogen.

Name two classes of salts and distinguish between the classes named.
Acid salts are acids in which only a portion of their replaceable
hydrogen atoms have been replaced, e.g., KHSO,, potassium hydro-
gen sulphate. Acid salts are generally acid in reaction to litmus.
Basic salts are salts containing a higher proportion of a base
than is necessary for the formation of a salt, e.g., Pb(OH) NO,, basic
lead nitrate.

What gas is evolved when copper acts on nitric acid? Account for
the formation of this gas.
Nitric oxide, NO.
3Cu + 8HNO, = 3Cu(NO,), + 2NO + 4H,0.

Determine how much sulphuric acid and how much copper will be
needed to produce 1,000 grammes of copper sulphate by the
reaction Cu + 2H,SO, = CuSO, + SO, + 2H,O. [Atomic
weight of S = 32, of copper = 63, of O = 16.]

See p. 11 regarding determination of percentage composition.

Molecular weight of Cu = 63, of sulphuric acid = 196, of copper
sulphate = 159; it takes 63-196 or 259 parts of copper and
sulphuric acid to make 159 parts of copper sulphate, So, 259: 159 —
X:1000; X = 1629. 63/259 of 1629 = 396, and 196/259 of 1629 —
1233. Substituting grammes for parts, we have 396 grammes of
copper and 1233 grammes of sulphuric acid necessary to make 1000
grammes of copper sulphate.

Find the number of grammes of oxygen that can be prepared from 10
grammes of KC1O,. [Atomic weight of K = 39, of Cl = 35,
of O=> 16.]

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 13

39 + 35 + 48 = 122, the molecular weight of KCI0,.
48 — 122 = .393, the percentage composition of oxygen.
10 grammes of KC10, would contain 3.93 grammes of oxygen.

Calculate the weight of carbonic acid gas that can be obtained from
one pound of marble. Write the equation. [Atomic wt.
of Ca — 40, of O = 16, of C = 12.]

CaCO, + heat = CaO + CO,,.

40 + 12 + 48 = 100, the molecular weight of calcium carbonate
(marble). 12+ 32 = 44, the molecular weight of carbon dioxide
(carbonic acid gas). Therefore .44 is the percentage composition
of CO,. From one pound of marble, .44 of a pound of CO, could
be obtained.

Under standard conditions how many litres of hydrochloric acid will
result from the action of sulphuric acid on 117 grammes of
common salt? [Na = 23, Cl = 35.5.]
2NaCl + H,SO, = Na,SO,+ 2HCl The molecular weight of
NaCl = 58.5. The molecular weight of HCl = 36.5. 58.5:36.5 =
117:X. X= 78g. One litre of hydrogen weighs 0.0899 gramme
under standard conditions. 73 + 0.0899 = 812 litres.

How much chlorine can be derived from 50 grammes of NaCl?
[Atomic weight of Na = 23, of Cl = 35.5.]
23 + 35.5 = 58.5, the molecular weight of NaCl. 35.5:58.5 =
X:50. X = 30.34 grammes.

HYDROGEN

What are the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen?
Hydrogen, the lightest of all elements, is a colorless, odorless,
tasteless gas; combustible, burning with a colorless flame, but is not
a supporter of combustion. The resulting compound of its com-
bustion in air is water. It is only slightly soluble in water, is
electropositive and capable of combining with many elements.

Give details of the preparation of hydrogen by the action of an acid
ona metal. Write the equation.

Place a quantity of granulated zine in a glass flask and cover
it with dilute hydrochloric acid. Adjust a piece of glass tubing in
the stopper of the flask and after the air of the flask is expelled,
hydrogen will pass from the tubing. Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl, + 2H.

Give (a) the symbol, (b) valence, (c) atomic weight, and (d) a method
of preparation of hydrogen.
(a) H, (b) 1, (ce) 1, (d) see answer to preceding question (Iron

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14 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

filings may be substituted for the zinc, and sulphuric acid for the
hydrochloric acid).

What element occurs in all acid compounds? Describe the element.
Hydrogen. See description given above.

Find how many grammes of H may be released from HCl by 260
4 grammes of Zn. How many grammes of HCl are neces-
sary? [Atomic weight of Zn = 65, of Cl= 35.5.]
65:2 = 260:X. X =8 grammes of H.
73:2=X:8 X= 292 grammes of HCl.

WATER

Give the composition of water (a) by volume, (b) by weight, and (c)
give its molecular weight.
(a) Two volumes hydrogen and one volume of oxygen.
(b) Two parts of hydrogen and sixteen parts of oxygen.
(ce) 18.

If six volumes of hydrogen and two volumes of oxygen are placed
together and the electric spark passed through them, will
the volume be increased or diminished, and to what extent?

The volume will be diminished from 8 to 2, because four volumes
of hydrogen would unite with the two of oxygen and form 2 mole-
cules of water, leaving two volumes of hydrogen free. The volume
of the water formed is so small that it may be disregarded in the
calculations,

Describe one way in which water can be decomposed and two ways in
which it can be formed.

Decompose by acidulating slightly with sulphuric acid and pass
an electric current through it. Water can be formed by passing
an electric spark through a receptacle containing two volumes of
hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; also by burning hydrogen in
the presence of oxygen, as in the air.

State the means by which water may be purified. Describe one of
these ways.
Filtration, distillation and precipitation.
Filtration is accomplished by allowing the water to percolate
through layers of charcoal and sand, or by forcing it through a
very thick porcelain material with small pores.

Describe a test to show the presence of each of the following in water:
(a) chlorides, (b) nitrates, (c) lead.
(a) Add silver nitrate: a white, curdy precipitate is produced

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 15

which is soluble in even very dilute ammonia water, but insoluble
in nitric acid.

(b) Add a few drops of 1 part of brucine in 300 parts of 5 per
cent. dilute sulphuric acid, then add some concentrated sulphurie
acid by pouring carefully down the side of the test tube and a red
color, changing to yellow, is produced at the line cf contact.

(ec) Add hydrogen sulphide or ammonium sulphide to the solu-
tion and a black precipitate of lead sulphide, which is insoluble in
dilute acids or alkalies, results.

Distinguish between hard water and soft water. Under what con-
ditions and how may hard water be made soft?

Hardness of water is due to the presence of mineral salts (cal-
cium, magnesium), Hard water does not readily produce a lather
with soap. Soft water contains very little or no inorganic matter
and readily produces a lather with soap.

By boiling hard water, carbon dioxide escapes, the carbonates of
the metals are precipitated, and the water is rendered soft. By
distillation, hard water may be made soft.

Describe a test to determine the hardness of water.

For calcium: Pass a small amount of CO, into the water,
CaHCoO, will be thrown down, but is redissolved in an excess of
CO,. Upon boiling the clear solution, the excess of CO, will be
driven off and CaHCO, will be precipitated.

For magnesium: The addition of an alkali carbonate solution
causes a white precipitate of basic magnesium carbonate.

Hard water does not readily produce a lather with soap, as does
soft water.

Describe the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe.

In this apparatus the oxygen and hydrogen are contained in two
separate receptacles. They are mixed just at the tip of the burner,
which consists of two tubes, one within the other. Through the
inner tube, oxygen is passed, and the outer one is connected with
the hydrogen reservoir. The hydrogen is first turned on and ignited,
then the oxygen is admitted. The resultant flame is intensely hot.

HYDROGEN DIOXIDE

What is hydrogen dioxide? Write the formula.
It is a colorless liquid with an odor resembling weak chlorine
solution, a bitter astringent taste, and is unstable in concentrated
solutions, being easily decomposed with the liberation of oxygen.

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16 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

It is composed of two parts by weight of hydrogen and thirty-two
of oxygen. Formula H,0,.

Write the equation for the preparation of hydrogen dioxide.
BaO, + H,SO, + H,O = BaSO, + H,0, -+ H,0.

Mention the important properties and the uses of peroxide of hydrogen.
It is an active oxidizing agent and is used preéminently as a
disinfectant, bleaching agent, antisuppurant, and deodorant.

Give the chemical explanation of the uses of hydrogen peroxide.
It acts as an oxidizing agent because it is readily decomposed
into water, H,O, and nascent oxygen, O.

OXYGEN
Describe oxygen as to (a) occurrence, (b) physical properties, (c)
chemical properties.

(a) Most abundant of all the elements. Uncombined, but mixed
with nitrogen, it constitutes one-fifth of the atmosphere; combined,
it forms eight-ninths of the material composing water, and nearly
half the weight of all the rocks. It is a very important constituent
of animal and vegetable matter.

(b) A colorless, tasteless, odorless gas, nearly sixteen times
heavier than hydrogen, and somewhat heavier than air. It may be
made liquid or even solidified by great cold and pressure.

(c) It supports combustion, but is non-combustible and is one
of the most powerful electronegative elements; capable of uniting
with all elements except fluorine, bromine and the helium group.

Describe a method of preparing oxygen. Give the symbol, atomic
weight and specific gravity of oxygen.
Mix potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide, equal parts, and
apply heat, carefully; oxygen will be given off copiously. Symbol,
O. Atomic weight, 16. Specific gravity, compared with hydrogen,
is 16, compared with air, 1.1056.

How much oxygen can be obtained from 50 grammes of potassium
chlorate? [Atomic weight of potassium = 39, of chlor-
ine — 35.5, of oxygen = 16.]
39 + 35.5 + 48 = 122.5, the molecular weight of KCl0,. The
molecular weight of 3 atoms of oxygen= 48. 122.5:48=—50:X.
X = 19.5 grammes.

What is oxidation? Give an example.
Oxidation is the union of oxygen with other elements, the prod-
ucts formed are oxides. Example: iron and oxygen unite to form
ferrous oxide. See reduction, p. 5.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 17

What is combustion?

Combustion is rapid oxidation and is accompanied by heat and
light.

Distinguish between an oxidizing and a reducing agent and give an
example of each.

An oxidizing agent is one which readily parts with its oxygen
when brought in contact with substances having a greater affinity
for it. Example: KCI1O,.

A reducing agent is one which has the power to abstract oxygen
from an oxide. Example: hydrogen.

What is meant by (a) slow oxidation, (b) rapid oxidation? Give an
example of each.

(a) A process of oxidation evolving no light. Example: oxida-
tion of the different organic substances in the living body.

(b) When the heat generated by oxidation is sufficient to cause
the emission of light and perhaps a loud report, the process is called
rapid oxidation, or combustion. Example: gunpowder is a mix-
ture of sulphur, carbon and potassium, KNO,. Upon heating or ignit-
ing this mixture, the sulphur and carbon are oxidized, and various
gases (CO, CO,, N, SO,, etc.) are formed, the sudden generation
and expansion of which cause the explosion.

Describe a method of preparing oxygen on a commercial scale. Write
the equation to express the reaction.
Heat to redness in an iron vessel manganese dioxide (Mn0O,),
causing it to decompose into manganous manganic oxide and oxygen.
38Mn0, = Mn,0, + 20.

Compare the physical and chemical properties of oxygen with those
of hydrogen.

Both gases are colorless, odorless and tasteless. Oxygen is 16
times heavier than hydrogen. Oxygen supports combustion but is
non-combustible, whereas hydrogen is combustible but not a sup-
porter of combustion.

What is ozone? Describe the preparation of ozone.
Ozone is an allotropic modification of oxygen. It possesses
a peculiar odor and is a stronger oxidizing agent than common oxy-

gen. Its symbol is O,.
Ozone is prepared by passing non-luminous electric discharges
through atmospheric air or through oxygen.

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18 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

NITROGEN

Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) molecular weight, and
(d) describe the properties of nitrogen.

(a) N. (b) 14. (ce) 28. (d) Nitrogen is an odorless, colorless,

tasteless gas, neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion.

It is distinguished by having very little affinity for any other

element. Nitrogen is not poisonous, but, being unable to support

combustion, cannot sustain animal life. In compounds it is unstable.

What is the function of nitrogen in the air? Describe a process of pre-
paring nitrogen from the air.

It serves to dilute the oxygen and has some important function
in regard to plant life.

By burning phosphorus in a confined portion of air, the oxygen
of the air unites with the phosphorus and forms phosphorus pen-
toxide, P,O,. If the experiment is conducted over water, P,O,
unites with the water, forming phosphoric acid, leaving nitrogen in
the container.

Name a preparation of nitrogen. Mention the properties of nitrogen.
Ammonia, NH,. Properties described above.

Describe the usual method of preparing laughing gas. Write the
equation to show the reaction,
By heating ammonium nitrate, it breaks down directly into
water and nitrous oxide.
NH,NO, = N,0 + 2H,0.

‘Name the oxides of nitrogen.
Nitrogen monoxide, N,O; nitrogen dioxide, N,O, ; nitrogen triox-
ide, N,O, ; nitrogen tetroxide, N,O,; nitrogen pentoxide, N,O,.

Calculate the percentage composition of HNO,. [Atomic weight of
N= 14.]
1+ 14-+ 48 = 63, the molecular weight of HNO,.
1 + 63 = 0.0158, or 1.58 per cent. hydrogen.
14 ~ 63 = 0.222, or 22.2 per cent. nitrogen,
48 — 63 = 0.761, or 76.1 per cent. oxygen.

Mention two nitrates and give two uses of each.
Silver nitrate, used in medicine and electro-plating.
Sodium nitrate, used in fertilizers and in the preparation of
saltpetre.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 19

Describe a method of preparing nitrogen. Compare the properties of
nitrogen with those of oxygen.
By passing a current of air over copper, heated to redness,
copper oxide will be formed and nitrogen isolated.
Nitrogen and oxygen are both colorless, odorless, tasteless gases.
Oxygen has a great affinity for other elements and supports com-
bustion; nitrogen unites with very few elements and does not
support life nor combustion.

Describe the commercial preparation of nitric acid and write the reac-
tion. Mention important uses of nitric acid.

Sodium nitrate is distilled with sulphuric acid.

2NaNO, + H,SO, = Na,SO, + 2HNO,.

Nitric acid is used in medicine as a caustic and is employed in
etching copper plates for engraving ; it is also important in the refin-
ing of precious metals and in the making of nitroglycerine, gun
cotton, aniline dyes, ete.

What element constitutes four-fifths of the air?
Nitrogen.
AMMONIA

What is ammonia? Give the source and uses of ammonia.

Ammonia is a colorless gas, of a peculiar, characteristic and
very pungent odor. It is neither combustible nor a supporter of
combustion. By weight it is composed of 13.93 parts of nitrogen
and 3 parts of hydrogen. It is very soluble in water; caustic and
readily blisters the skin; strongly alkaline in reaction. Formula,
NH,.

Sources: Decomposition of organic matter (meat, urine, blood,
ete.). Decomposition of ammonium salts by the hydroxides of
sodium, potassium and calcium, 2(NH,Cl)+ Ca(OH), = CaCl, +
2H,0 + 2NH,. Ammonia is obtained, commercially, from gas
liquor, a by-product of gas plants.

Uses: It is used in medicine as a cardiac stimulant and general
stimulant, also to increase secretions. In the household it is used
as a general cleaning agent in the aqueous form (hartshorn).

Explain why the presence of free ammonia in drinking water is a sign

of danger.
Because it is indicative of contamination with decomposing

organic matter.

Give the composition and method of preparation of ammonium chloride.
It is composed of nitrogen, hydrogen and chlorine, NH,Cl. Pre-

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20 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

pared by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with ammonia water. The
solution is evaporated and the crystalline mass remaining is am-
monium chloride. HCl + NH,OH = NH,Cl-+ H,0.

Give the chemical name and formula of two compounds of ammonia.
Ammonium chloride, NH,Cl, ammonium nitrate, NH,NO,.

AIR

‘Name the important constituents of air and give the approximate per-
centages of each constituent.

By weight By volume
NILPOG@ER oo hy BAe eR REE Osa Rk 76 77
ORVOON: cays dieing Reena G was 23 21
Co,, ammonia, argon, ete. ........ 1 2

State three facts tending to show that air is a mixture and not a
compound.

1. By artificially mixing oxygen and nitrogen in the proportions
found in the air, no energy change (heat) that indicates chemical
union takes place.

2. Analysis shows air taken from different heights to be slightly
variable.

3. By passing air through water it is changed, oxygen being more
soluble than nitrogen.

Mention the injurious substances added to the air in breathing. What
per cent. of carbon dioxide is fatal to the animal breathing it?
Carbon dioxide and disease germs are added to the air in
breathing.
It is not advisable to allow animals to breathe for any length
of time air containing more than 1 per cent. CO,; 5 per cent. pro-
duces insensibility, and 8 per cent. causes death in a few minutes.

What element constitutes four-fifths of the air?
Nitrogen.
CARBON

Give (a) the symbol, (b) specific gravity, (c) the physical and chemical
properties of carbon.

(a) C. (b) In its purest form, 3.5; graphite, 2.15; amorphous
forms, 1.5 to 2. (ce) One of the most common elements, tasteless,
odorless, non-volatile, infusible and insoluble in all its forms;
black in color, except in the form of the diamond, and is combustible,
yielding CO,. It unites readily with a great many elements, forming
important compounds.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 21

Discuss the use of carbon as a reducing agent.

Carbon is a very active reducing agent, because of its great
affinity for oxygen. By heating carbon in the presence of any
oxide, the latter is rapidly reduced, its oxygen forming CO or
CO, with carbon.

Mention and describe three allotropic forms of carbon.

1. Diamond is the purest form of carbon, and is the hardest sub-
stance known. It occurs in crystals, octahedral in shape. It is a
very brilliant gem, owing to its great refractive power.

2. Graphite, also known as plumbago, or black lead, is a black,
greasy substance with a specific gravity of 2.15. It is a good con-
ductor of heat and electricity. Used as a lubricant for machinery,
and in the manufacture of lead pencils, stove polish, crucibles, ete.

3. Amorphous carbon is always a black solid, but the different
kinds vary in hardness and specific gravity. It is seen as the prin-
cipal part of the various kinds of coal; in the form of lamp-black
it is used in printer’s ink; and occurs in bone-black, which serves as
a decolorizing agent in the making of sugar, syrups and other liquids.

Describe how each of the following may be prepared: (a) lamp-black,
(b) bone-black. Mention the important uses of each.

(a) Lamp-black is made by burning tar, rosin, turpentine or
petroleum, with a deficient supply of air, and passing the smoke
into large chambers where the carbon is deposited. It is used in
making printer’s ink.

(b) Bone-black is made by carbonization of bones of animals
and is used as a decolorizing agent,

Give the important physical and chemical properties of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas which by cold and

pressure may be easily condensed to a liquid. Its specific gravity is

1.529, and its symbol, CO., being composed of one volume of carbon

and two of oxygen. It is not combustible and is not a good sup-

porter of combustion, in fact it has a decided tendency to extinguish
flames. It unites with water to form carbonic acid, H,COQ,.

Describe the method of preparing carbon dioxide from marble and
write the equation.
By heating marble (CaCO,) or by adding hydrochloric acid,
carbon dioxide is liberated.
CaCO, + heat = CaO + CO,.
CaCo, + 2HCl = CaCl, + H,0 + CO,.

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22 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe a simple test for carbon dioxide and write the reaction.
Pass the gas through lime water and the solution becomes
turbid.
Ca(OH), + CO, = CaCO, -+ H,0.

Compare as to weight, carbon dioxide with air.
Carbon dioxide is one and one-half times heavier than air.

Describe the manufacture of some carbide and mention its common use.

Calcium carbide (CaC,) is manufactured on a commercial scale

by heating, in an electric furnace, a mixture of lime and coal, or

coal tar (CaO + 38C = CaC,+ CO). It is used for generating

acetylene gas, which is formed by the action of calcium carbide and
water (CaC, + H,O = C,H, + CaO).

What is marsh gas? Give its formula and chemical importance with

a method of preparation.

Marsh gas (CH,) is a colorless gas which burns readily with a
bluish-yellow flame, emitting much heat but little light. In nature
it is produced by the decay of dead leaves in the bottom of stagnant
pools. It also accumulates in coal mines as the dreaded ‘‘fire damp’”’
and mixing with the oxygen of the air forms deadly explosions. In
impure form it is obtained from wells in some localities and is used.
for lighting and heating. It can be prepared by mixing aluminum
carbide and water [Al,C, + 12H,0 = 3CH, + 4A1(0H),].

Find the weight of each of the products formed by the complete com-
bustion of 20 grammes of marsh gas (CH,). [Atomic
weight of C = 12, of O = 16.]
CH, + 20, = CO, + 2H,0.
16:44 = 29: XY, XY = 55 grammes of CO,.
16:36 = 20:X, X = 45 grammes of H,0.

Describe the manufacture of illuminating gas.

Bituminous or cannel coal is heated in clay or brick retorts and
the products of distillation pass out into a series of pipes in which
water, coal-tar, ammonia, ete., are deposited. The gas still con-
tains impurities, which are removed by passing it over some absorb-
ent substance, such as slaked lime.

Describe the construction and operation of the Bunsen burner.

In a gas flame, if the air is excluded, soot and smoke will form
copiously. But if the combustion is rendered more perfect, no car-
bon is deposited and the flame becomes hotter, but less brilliant. In
the Bunsen burner, this is arranged for by allowing air to enter at
the bottom of the burner and become thoroughly mixed with the
gas before the latter is ignited. If the openings through which

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 23

the air enters are stopped up, the flame becomes more luminous and
less hot.
Give proof of the fact that a diamond is composed of carbon.
A diamond, when heated intensely in the presence of oxygen,
burns and forms carbon dioxide.

SULPHUR
Mention the properties and important uses of sulphur.

Sulphur is ordinarily a yellow, brittle solid, without taste or
odor. It dissolves in carbon disulphide, but not in water, and
combines easily with most of the other elements. Allotropic forms:
prismatic or monoclinic, rhombic octahedra, and plastic. Uses:
Used in the manufacture of gunpowder, matches, sulphuric acid,
bleaching agents, in medicine, etc.

Discuss the behavior of sulphur at different temperatures.

At 115° C. it melts to a clear, amber-colored liquid which be-
comes viscid as the temperature rises to 230° C. Above 250° C. it
becomes fluid again and if poured into cold water it becomes plastic
or ductile, but after standing a few days it returns to its primary
condition, original sulphur.

Describe the use of sulphur in disinfecting. Explain its efficiency.

Remove animals from premises. All openings to outside air
should be closed. Three pounds of flowers of sulphur, mixed with
two ounces of alcohol and ignited, should be employed for every
1000 cubic feet of air space to be disinfected. Keep premises
closed for six hours. Steam introduced into the apartment together
with the sulphur fumes is more efficient, the water unites with the
sulphurous anhydride to make the more potent sulphurous acid
(H,SO,). Sulphur fumigation is of little worth to destroy disease
germs. Formaldehyde or chlorine gas is to be preferred.

Write the formula of hydrogen sulphide. Describe its properties.
H,S. A colorless gas with the peculiar odor of rotten eggs
and a disgusting taste. It is soluble in water and highly combustible
in the air, burning with a blue flame and forming sulphur dioxide
and water. This gas is poisonous when inhaled.

Describe a method of preparing hydrogen sulphide.
Prepared by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon iron
sulphide. (FeS + H,SO, = FeSO, + H.S.)

Describe a process of preparing sulphuric acid on a commercial scale.
Mention the important uses of sulphuric acid.
“Lead chamber process.’’ Sulphur dioxide, generated by the

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24

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

combustion of sulphur or by roasting iron pyrites in a suitable
furnace, is passed into a large chamber, or series of chambers, lined
with sheet lead. Nitrous fumes, produced by heating sodium nitrate
with a little sulphuric acid, enter the chamber at the same time;
jets of steam are blown in at several points and a draft of air is
kept up throughout. The sulphur dioxide meeting the nitrous fumes
is oxidized by them and with the water of the steam forms sulphuric
acid.

Uses: Very extensively used in the arts, in the manufacture of
all the other strong acids, and fertilizers; refining sugar, fats and
oils; in galvanic batteries, etc.

Write the graphic formula and calculate the percentage composition

of sulphuric acid. [Atomic weight of S = 32.]
H=-O\ 70
H-0” No
2+ 382 + 64 = 98, the molecular weight of sulphuric acid.
2/98 or 2.04 per cent. hydrogen.
32/98 or 32.65 per cent. sulphur.
64/98 or 65.30 per cent. oxygen.

What is copper sulphate? How prepared?

Copper sulphate, blue vitriol, or blue stone, is the most im-
portant compound of copper. It is formed in large, transparent,
deep-blue crystals which are easily soluble in water and have a
nauseous, metallic taste. Formula, CuSO,.

It is prepared by dissolving cupric oxide in sulphuric acid,
evaporating and crystallizing the solution.

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uw

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DISINFECTANTS AND ANTISEPTICS

Differentiate between disinfectants and antiseptics.

Disinfectants are agents that destroy the microorganisms which
cause infectious and contagious diseases, fermentation and putre-
faction.

Antiseptics are agents which prevent the growth and develop-
ment of the microdrganisms occasioning fermentation but more
especially the pus-producing variety.

What is a deodorant?

Deodorants are agents which destroy or counteract a foul odor,
é.g., phenol, zine chloride and charcoal.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 25

Describe an efficient method of disinfecting by the use of formaldehyde.
For every 1000 cubic feet of air space, mix in a deep vessel 1634

ounces of potassium permanganate with 20 ounces of formalin

(a 40 per cent. aqueous solution of formaldehyde). Close all open-

ings and leave this mixture in the room for 3 hours before opening.

PHOSPHORUS

Give a description of phosphorus as to (a) occurrence, (b) physical
properties, (c) source.

(a) Never found free in nature, but as phosphates is an im-
portant constituent of plants, animals and the earth’s crust.

(b) Phosphorus exists in several allotropic varieties, the more
important of which are the yellow and red. The yellow variety is a
yellowish-white, waxy solid of specific gravity 1.837. It melts at
44.2° C. and boils at 263° C.; is highly inflammable and oxidizes
readily in the air at ordinary temperature. It has a faint odor,
resembling garlic, is very poisonous, is soluble in carbon disul-
phide and insoluble in water. The red variety is not easily inflam-
mable in air, has a density of 2.2, is insoluble in carbon disulphide
and is not poisonous.

(c) Prepared from bone-ash or from sombrerite, an impure cal-
cium phosphate found in the West Indian guano.

Mention the principal uses of phosphorus.
Used in matches, vermin poison, medicine and fertilizers.

Give (a) the symbol, (b) the valence, (c) atomic weight, (d) molecular
weight, of phosphorus.
(a) P, (b) 3 and 5, (ec) 31, (d) 124.

Name the allotropic forms of phosphorus.
Yellow, red, white and black.

HALOGENS

Name the elements of the halogen group and write the symbol of each.
Fluorine, F; chlorine, Cl; bromine, Br; iodine, I.

Give the physical and chemical properties of iodine. Describe a test
for iodine.

Iodine is a bluish-black crystalline substance, with a metallic
luster and an odor faintly resembling that of chlorine. Its specific
gravity is 4.95 and its atomic weight is 125.89. Its vapor has a violet
color. Iodine is almost insoluble in water but forms several im-
portant compounds with other elements.

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26 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Test: Add a solution of starch paste, when an intensely blue
color is produced.

Give the source and the preparation of iodine.

Iodine was previously obtained from the ashes of sea-weeds which
are treated with water and the solution thus obtained is heated with
manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid. Iodine is set free by dis-
tillation.

At present, it is obtained from NalO,, a by-product in the manu-
facture of Chili saltpetre.

Mention the important uses of iodine.
Used in medicine, photography and in the preparation of aniline
dyes.

Give the method of making potassium iodide. Write the equation
involved.

Add iodine crystals to an aqueous solution of caustic potash
until saturated, then evaporate to dryness; the residue, which con-
sists of potassium iodide and iodate, is then strongly heated to
decompose the iodate, thus forming iodide with the liberation of
oxygen. Dissolve the mass in water and evaporate, when crystals
of potassium iodide will be left.

6KOH -+ 381, = 5KI + KIO, + 3H,0.

2KIO, + heat = 2KI + 30,.

What are the phyical and chemical properties of chlorine. Mention the
uses and important compounds of chlorine.

Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, two and one-half times heavier
than air, and having a highly irritating odor; soluble in water and
convertible into a liquid by cold and pressure. It has a strong
affinity for other elements and forms a number of important com-
pounds. Its atomic weight is 35.18.

Uses: Strong disinfecting, deodorizing and bleaching agent and
its compounds are valuable medicinal agents.

Among its important compounds are: sodium chloride, hydro-
chloric acid, chloral hydrate, calcium chloride, ete.

Describe a method of preparing chlorine and write the reaction.

Mix manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid in a large flask
provided with a delivery tube and heat gently ; chlorine gas will be
evolved.

MnO, + 4HCl = MnCl, + Cl, + 2H,0.

Describe the preparation of hydrochloric acid.

It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium chloride
in the presence of heat.

2NaCl + H,SO, = Na,SO, ++ 2HCl.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 27

Mention a compound of each of the halogens.
Sodium chloride, potassium iodide, sodium bromide and hydro-
fluoric acid.

Describe the properties of bromine and give a method for its prepara-
tion,

At ordinary temperature, bromine is a heavy, dark, reddish-
brown liquid, giving off yellowish-red fumes of an exceedingly
suffocating and irritating odor; it is very volatile and has a specific
gravity of 2.99. It is soluble in water, is a strong disinfecting and
bleaching agent and acts as a corrosive poison.

Bromine is prepared by treating magnesium bromide with
chlorine.

MgBr, + 2Cl= MgCl, + 2Br.

Give the properties and uses in medicine of bromine.
Properties given above. Sodium and potassium bromide are
used in medicine as antispasmodics, narcotics and nerve sedatives.

GOLD

Give a test for gold and gold compounds.
Most reducing agents, as oxalic acid, ferrous sulphate, etc.,
precipitate gold from its solutions as a dark-brown powder.

SILVER

Describe silver, giving names of its most important compounds used in
medicine.

Silver is a pure, white brilliant metal, a good conductor of heat
and electricity, and is malleable and ductile. It is univalent and
forms but one series of salts. It is not affected by the oxygen of the
air, but is readily affected by traces of hydrogen sulphide, which
forms a black film of sulphide upon the surface. Its atomic weight
is 107, its specific gravity is 10.5 and its symbol is Ag. Compounds
used in medicine are: silver nitrate, protargol, argyrol, collargol.

What is lunar caustic? How is lunar caustic prepared and what is
its medicinal use?

Lunar caustic is nitrate of silver, fused into round sticks, or
pencils. It is prepared by adding 4 per cent. hydrochloric acid to
silver nitrate, fusing and pouring into suitable moulds. It is used
for cauterizing inflamed surfaces, warts, ete.

Give a chemical test for silver. #
Add to a solution of silver a solution of hydrogen sulphide
or ammonium sulphide, and a dark-brown precipitate of silver sul-

phide will be produged. yy py Microsoft®

28 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

LEAD

Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) valence, and (d) the physi-
cal properties of lead.
(a) Pb. (b) 205. (¢) 2 and 4. (d) Lead is a soft, bluish-
white metal; specific gravity, 11.38. When freshly cut, it has a
bright metallic luster, but quickly tarnishes on the surface and
becomes dull. It is malleable and ductile.

What is sugar of lead? Give its pharmaceutical name.

Sugar of lead is a salt formed by the action of acetic acid on
lead oxide. It forms colorless, shining, transparent crystals, easily
soluble in water, and has a sweetish, astringent, afterwards metallic
taste. Formula, (C,H,O,),Pb.

Pharmaceutical name is plumbi acetate.

MERCURY

Describe mercury as to physical and chemical properties and occur-
rence in nature.

Mercury is the only metal which is liquid at ordinary tempera-
ture ; it is almost silver-white and has a bright metallic lustre ; specific
gravity, 13.56. Pure mercury does not tarnish in the air until heated
above 300° C., when it unites with the oxygen to form the red oxide.
It combines directly with chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur and
dissolves in nitric acid and hot sulphuric acid. Its atomic weight
is 198.5.

Mercury occurs in nature in a free state; but generally as mer-
curic sulphide (cinnabar), a dark-red mineral.

Name the compounds of mercury used in medicine.
Mercuric oxide, mercuric and mercurous chloride, mercuric
iodide, massa hydrargyri, unguentum hydrargyri, hydrargyri cum
creta.

Write the formula of each of the following: (a) mercurous chloride,
(b) mercuric chloride. Mention the common name and im-
portant properties of each.

(a) Hg,Cl,, calomel, is a cholagogue cathartic, intestinal anti-
septic and diuretic. The formula is commonly written, HgCl.

(b) HgCl,, corrosive sublimate, is a violent poison, antiseptic,
and alterative.

Write the chemical equation representing the preparation of calomel.
HgSO, + Hg + 2NaCl = Na,SO, + 2HegCl.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 29

METALS OF THE ALKALIES

Name three important elements of the alkali group of metals.
Potassium, sodium, lithium.

Name three important potassium salts. Give in regard to each salt
named: (a) its formula, (b) its principal uses in medicine.
Potassium chlorate, KClO;, antiseptic, refrigerant, sialogogue,
and diuretic.
Potassium nitrate, KNO,, diuretic and antipyretic.
Potassium bicarbonate, KHCO,, antacid and sedative in gastric
disorders.

Name five sodium salts used in medicine and write the chemical formula
of each.
Sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO,; sodium chloride, NaCl; sodium
sulphate, Na,SO,,10H,O; sodium phosphate, Na,HPO,,12H,0O;
sodium carbonate, Na,CO,,10H,0.

Describe the chemical action of liquid caustics on the tissues of the
body.

The liquid caustics (sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide)
have a great affinity for water and in abstracting same from the
tissues, a great amount of heat is produced, which coagulates the
albumin.

Mention the metals of the sodium group and describe the process of
manufacturing sodium carbonate.

Potassium, sodium, lithium, rubidium and cesium.

The Solvay process for manufacturing sodium carbonate depends
upon the fact that when carbon dioxide is passed into a solution of
common salt, in aqueous ammonia, sodium bicarbonate is formed,
thus:

NH, + CO, + NaCl -+ H.O = NaHCO, + NH,CL

The bicarbonate of soda (NaHCO,), being slightly soluble, is
deposited in large quantities and is converted into ordinary car-
bonate by heating.

CALCIUM GROUP

Name the elements of the calcium group and give their general charac-
teristics.

Magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium, They are
alkaline in character and form oxides and salts whose properties
somewhat resemble the metals of the alkalies. They are white in
color and fusible only above a red heat; all oxidize readily in the
air; all are malleable and ductile.

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30 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the process of preparing lime water from lime stone. Write
the reactions.

By heating lime stone, CO, is driven off and calcium oxide
obtained. One part of calcium oxide is slaked and agitated occasion-
ally during half an hour with 30 parts of water. The mixture is
then allowed to settle and the liquid, containing, besides calcium
hydroxide, the salts of the alkali metals which may have been pres-
ent in the lime, is decanted and thrown away. To the calcium
hydroxide left, and thus purified, 300 parts of water are added
and occasionally shaken in a well-stoppered bottle, from which the
clear liquid may be poured off for use.

CaCO, + heat = CaO + CO,, ete.

CaO + H,O = Ca(OH),.

Ca(OH), + 300H,O = lime water.

Describe with explanation the manufacture of plaster of Paris.
Plaster of Paris is made by heating native calcium sulphate
(gypsum) and depriving it of part of its water.
2(CaSO,,2H,O)-+ heat = 2CaSO,.H,O (plaster of Paris) and
3H,0.

What is gypsum?
It is native calcium sulphate, CaSO,,2H,O, and occurs abund-
antly in nature in white translucent masses.

Describe magnesium. Name its principal compounds used in medicine
and write the chemical formula of each compound named.
Magnesium is a brilliant, almost silver-white alkaline metal with
a specific gravity of 1.74. It is tenacious and ductile; dissolves
readily in dilute acids, forming salts. It is easily combustible and
burns with an intensely brilliant light, and is used in photography
for flashlight purposes.
Compounds used in medicine: oxide, MgO, known as magnesia;
carbonate, MgCO,; sulphate (Epsom salts), MgSO,,7H,0.

Describe the method of preparing Epom salts. Write the formula of
Epsom salts.
Prepared by treating magnesium carbonate with sulphuric acid
and evaporating the solution to the crystallizing point. MgCO, +
H,SO, = MgSO, + H,O + CO,. Formula of Epsom salts, MgSO,,-
7H,0.

Name and give the formula of a compound of barium used in medicine.
Barium chloride, BaC],,.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 31

ZING
Name three preparations of zinc that are used in medicine and write
the chemical formula of each.
Zine sulphate, ZnSO, ; zine chloride, ZnCl,; zine oxide, ZnO.

Describe a method of preparing zinc sulphate.
Dissolve zine in dilute sulphuric acid.
H,SO, + Zn = ZnSO, + 2H.

How can Epsom salts be distinguished from zinc sulphate?
By testing with potassium ferrocyanide. Zine ferrocyanide will
be thrown down as a white precipitate. No precipitate is formed
with magnesium.

BORON

Give the names of the principal compounds and the chemical impor-
tance in medicine of boron.
Borie acid, H,BO,.
Sodium borate, Na,B,0,,10H,O (borax).
Borie acid and borax are mild, harmless, non-irritating anti-
septics and are very serviceable in surgery.

ALUMINUM

Give the properties of aluminum and mention its important salts.
Aluminum is a bluish-white, brilliant metal; malleable and
ductile; specifie gravity, 2.583. It is an excellent conductor of heat
and electricity. It oxidizes superficially in the air and has the
valuable properties of strength and lightness combined.
Aluminum sulphate is its most important salt. This combines
with the sulphates of the alkaline metals to form a class of double
salts, known as alums. Potassium alum is the commonest example.

BISMUTH

Give (a) the symbol, (b) atomic weight, (c) occurrence in nature, and
(d) the compounds used in medicine of bismuth.
(a) Bi. (b) 206.5. (ce) Rare, occurs as an oxide and sulphide.
(d) Bismuth subnitrate, subgallate, subcarbonate, subsalicylate and
citrate.

IRON

How does iron occur in nature?
Iron is found in small quantities in nearly all forms of rocks,
clay, sand and earth, and in plants and blood. Rarely found free

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32 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

in nature except in meteoric masses, but is very abundant in certain
ores, Viz., magnetite, hematite and siderite.

Give the physical and chemical difference between cast iron and
wrought iron.

Cast iron is brittle and cannot be welded or forged. It contains
two, three or more per cent. of carbon. Wrought iron fuses with
difficulty and is tough, fibrous and can be welded. It contains
1.6 per cent. or less of carbon.

Describe briefly the Bessemer process.

The Bessemer process of making steel from cast iron, which
is accomplished by removing the carbon from the latter, is as follows:
melted pig iron (cast iron) is poured into an egg-shaped vessel,
called a ‘‘converter,’’ through which a powerful blast of air can be
blown. The converter is made of the strongest wrought iron and is
lined with an infusible layer of fire clay. As the air bubbles through
the molten iron, being forced in from below, the temperature rises
aud silicon and carbon are burned away. Spiegeleisen is added to
supply the proper amount of carbon for good steel. The molten
mass is then poured into moulds.

Mention three important ores of iron.
Magnetic oxide, Fe,0,; hematite, Fe,O,; and siderite, FeCQ,.

Give the common name, the chemical name and the chemical formula of
three compounds of iron.
1. Copperas, or green vitriol, ferrous sulphate, FeSO,.
2. Chloride of iron, ferric chloride, Fe,Cl,.
3. Carbonate of iron, ferrous carbonate, FeCQ,.

Give the chemical equation showing the preparation of ferrous sulphate.
Give the common names of ferrous sulphate and state its
uses in medicine.

Fe, + 2H,S0, = 2FeSO, + 2H,. Fe,SO,,7H,O, copperas, green
vitriol or ferrous sulphate, is used in medicine as a hematiniec, astrin-
gent, vermicide and disinfectant.

What is reduced iron and how is it made?
It is a very fine, grayish-black, lusterless powder, without odor
or taste ; permanent in dry air, insoluble in water or alcohol.

Made by passing hydrogen gas over freshly made, and carefully
washed, ferric oxide, in a hot and closed tube.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 33

ARSENIC

Give the properties of arsenic and name some of the compounds of
arsenic used in medicine.

Arsenic is an odorless, tasteless, steel-black non-metal with a
metallic appearance. It is very brittle and volatilizes unchanged
and without melting when heated to 180° C. without access of air.
In the air it burns with a bluish-white light and gives forth an odor
which resembles that of garlic; insoluble in water; occurs as an
opaque powder or in irregular masses.

Compounds of arsenic used in medicine: Fowler’s solution,
arsenious acid, arsenious iodide and sodium arsenate.

Write the chemical formula of white arsenic. State the occurrence of
arsenic in nature.
White arsenic, or arsenious acid, As,O,.
Arsenic sometimes occurs in nature in the native state, but
generally as a sulphide or oxide.

Describe the making of one preparation of arsenic that is used in
medicine.

Fowler’s solution, liquor potassit arsenitis. Dissolve one part
arsenious oxide and two parts of potassium bicarbonate in ten parts
of distilled water by boiling. Add enough distilled water to make
ninety-seven parts and then add three parts of compound tincture
of lavender. Filter through paper.

Give Marsh’s test for arsenic. What other element gives a similar
reaction? How may these two be distinguished?

Make a hydrogen generator with a flask containing zine and
hydrochloric acid. Ignite the hydrogen escaping through the tube.
Pour into the generating flask a few drops of any compound of
arsenic. Hold a piece of cold porcelain against the flame, and a
black, mirror-like stain of metallic arsenic will be deposited upon it.

Antimony compounds give a similar reaction. The arsenic stain
is soluble in a solution of sodium hypochlorite, whereas, the anti-
mony stain is not.

Mention a common substance containing arsenic.

Paris green. Arsenic is also found in lead shot, it being used to
harden the same.

How should the contents of the stomach be examined for the presence
of arsenic?

Examine under the microscope for solid arsenious oxide. Then
apply Marsh’s test given above. :

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34 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

ANTIMONY

Name the preparation of antimony used in medicine.
Antimonyl-potassium tartrate, commonly called tartar emetic.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

What is organic chemistry?
Organic chemistry is the chemistry of the carbon compounds or
the chemistry of the hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

Differentiate between hydrocarbons and carbohydrates.
Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon, as
methane, CH,.
Carbohydrates are compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, the two latter elements being present in the same
relative atomic proportion as in water, ¢.g., grape sugar, C,H,,0,.

Name four elements that enter into the formation of most organic
bodies.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

Give the difference between essential oils and fixed oils.

Essential oils are derived from plants and belong to the class
of compounds known as terpenes. They generally bear the em-
pirical formula C,,H, and are volatile liquids. They do not form
glycerine when treated with an alkali.

Fized oils are the true fats and are composed of the glyceryl
radical combined with a fat acid radical. They form soap when
treated with an alkali.

How does gallic acid differ from tannic acid? What are the tests for
differentiating the same?

Gallic acid does not coagulate albumin, nor precipitate alkaloids,
gelatin or starch; whereas, tannic acid does.

To a dilute solution (1-100) of tannic acid add a small quantity
of lime water. A pale, bluish-white, flocculent precipitate is formed,
which is not dissolved on shaking (difference from gallic acid), but
becomes more copious and of a deeper blue than pinkish by the addi-
tion of an excess of lime water.

FERMENTATION AND PUTREFACTION

Why are organic substances liable to decay?

Because they are composed of combustible elements (carbon
and hydrogen) which readily oxidize, forming carbon dioxide and
water. Organic substances offer the proper environment for the
incubation of bacteria.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 30

Name the principal salts of acetic acid and state which of the salts
named are used in veterinary medicine.
The acetates of potassium, lead, ammonium, sodium, zine and
copper. The first five named are used in veterinary medicine.

What is vinegar? How made?

Vinegar is dilute acetic acid (about 6 per cent.). It is made by
the oxidation of fermented juices (wine, cider). This oxidation is
greatly facilitated by the enzyme ‘‘Mycoderme aceti.’’ Vinegar is
also made artificially by adding coloring and odoriferous substances
to dilute acetic acid.

ALCOHOLS

State briefly the method of preparation of alcohol. Give the properties
and the principal uses of alcohol.

Ethyl alcohol is prepared by the fermentation of grape sugar
(glucose). Toa solution of grape sugar, a certain yeast (ferment) is
added which causes the decomposition of the sugar, yielding carbon
dioxide and ethyl alcohol. Alcohol boils at a much lower tempera-
ture than water and therefore it can be readily separated by dis-
tillation.

C,H,.0, = 2C0, + 2C,H,OH (ethyl alcohol).

Methyl alcohol (CH,OH) is obtained by the distillation of wood.

Pure ethyl alcohol is a transparent, colorless, volatile liquid, of
a characteristic, rather agreeable odor, and a burning taste. It is
very soluble in water, for which it has a great affinity. It is used in
medicine in the preparation of tinctures, extracts and fluidextracts,
and widely used in the arts.

What is the difference between an alcohol and an aldehyde?

An aldehyde is derived from an alcohol by dehydrating the
latter, hence it contains less hydrogen than an alcohol. Aldehydes
are unstable (except formaldehyde), very volatile liquids having
a peculiar odor, e.g., liquor formaldehydt.

Give the formula for (a) ethyl alcohol, (b) methyl alcohol. Which is
used for internal purposes?

(a) C,H,OH, used internally.

(b) CH,OH.

What is absolute alcohol?
Alcohol containing not more than one per cent. of water.

Compare wine and brandy in respect to composition.
Wine, according to the variety, contains from 6 to 22 per cent.
alcohol. Brandy contains from 40 to 50 per cent. of alcohol.

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36 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

CHLOROFORM

How is chloroform prepared? Write the formula of chloroform.
Chloroform is prepared by the action of chlorinated lime on
alcohol, or the purest from chloral. Formula, CHC1,.

Give the properties of chloroform.

Chloroform is a heavy, colorless liquid of a characteristic ethereal
odor, a burning, sweet taste, and a neutral reaction; it is but spar-
ingly soluble in water, but miscible with alcohol and ether in all
proportions. It evaporates rapidly at all temperatures. Specific
gravity, about 1.48.

IODOFORM

State the derivation of iodoform.

Iodoform is a derivative of methane, CH,, in which three atoms
of hydrogen have been replaced by three atoms of iodine. It is
made by heating together an aqueous solution of an alkali car-
bonate, iodine and alcohol, until the brown color of iodine has disap-
peared ; on cooling, iodoform is deposited in yellow scales, which are
washed and dried between filter paper.

Give the chemical formula and uses of iodoform.
CHI,. It is used in surgery as an antiseptic for wound dress-
ings, also for its slight local anesthetic effect.

CHLORAL
Describe chloral.
Chloral is a colorless, oily liquid, with a penetrating odor and
an acrid taste; soluble in water; specific gravity, 1.5. Formula,
C,HC1,0.

How is chloral hydrate made? Mention its principal uses in medicine.
Chloral hydrate is made by adding chloral to water, forming
erystals. It is used in medicine for its hypnotic effect.

What is the difference between chloral hydrate and chloroform?

Chloral hydrate, C,HC1,0.

Chloroform, CHC},.

Chloral hydrate is freely soluble in water; chloroform is only.
sparingly so. Chloral hydrate is a crystalline mass and volatilizes
slowly at ordinary temperatures, whereas chloroform is a liquid
and volatizes rapidly at all temperatures.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 87

PHENOLS

Give the composition and the properties of phenol.
Pure phenol, C,H,OH, occurs in colorless crystals which are
deliquescent and soluble in fixed oils, glycerine and water. It has
a characteristic, aromatic odor; when diluted, it has a sweetish and
afterward burning, caustic taste and produces a benumbing and
caustic effect and even blisters on the skin. It is strongly poisonous
and a powerful disinfectant.

What is phenol? For what is it used and from what is it obtained?

See answer to preceding question.

Phenol is used in surgery for its germicidal, antiseptic and slight
anesthetic effects. Used as a disinfectant and deodorant in cess-
pools, stables, ete. It is obtained by fractional distillation of crude
carbolic acid which is obtained during the distillation of coal-tar.

What is salol? Give its properties and uses.

Salol, a compound of salicylic acid and phenol, is a white, crystal-
line, almost tasteless powder, with a faintly aromatic odor; nearly
insoluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol and ether. It is
made by the action of suitable dehydrating agents upon a mixture
of phenol and salicylic acid. It is used as an antirheumatic, anti-
pyretic and intestinal antiseptic.

PETROLEUM

What is petroleum? Name the important derivatives of petroleum
used in medicine.
Petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matier,
mostly of the fats and oils of fish and other aquatic animals. It is
a mixture of the various liquid and solid paraffins, often containing
in solution the gaseous and solid members of this group and also
small quantities of coloring and other matters.
Derivatives used in medicine: petrolatum (cosmoline, vaseline)
and liquid petrolatum.

Mention the source and important properties of vaseline.
Vaseline is obtained from petroleum by distilling off the lighter
and more volatile portion and purifying the residue. It is a fat-
like mass, varying in color from yellowish-white to light amber,

slightly fluorescent, odorless and tasteless; when heated it gives
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38 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

off a faint odor of petroleum. Used principally as a base for
ointments.

What is glycerine? How is glycerine prepared? Give its chemical
formula. ,

Glycerine, a trihydroxyl alcohol, is a colorless, syrupy liquid,
with a specific gravity of 1.28. It is prepared by the action of super-
heated steam and an alkali upon fats, causing a splitting of the
fats into fatty acids and glycerine. Formula, C,H,(OH),.

Mention the sources from which each of the following is obtained:
(a) acetic acid, (b) lactic acid, (c) tartaric acid.

(a) From the destructive distillation of wood and the fermen-
tation of alcohol.

(b) From lactie fermentation of sugar; certain bacteria in milk
produce the enzyme.

(ec) Obtained from the deposit occurring in the fermentation of
wine.

ALKALOIDS

What is an alkaloid? State the properties of a vegetable alkaloid.
Mention three alkaloids.

An alkaloid is an alkaline or basic principle of vegetable or ani-
mal origin. Alkaloids combine with acids to form salts. Vegetable
alkaloids show the characteristic physiologic properties of the sub-
stance from which they are derived. They are usually crystalline,
white, with a bitter taste, and odorless, except those which are vola-
tile. They are insoluble in alkalies, sparingly soluble in water, but
readily soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform. They are all more
or less toxic.

Strychnia, from nux vomica; morphia, from opium; atropia,
from belladonna.

Mention a chemical antidote for alkaloids and explain why it acts as an
antidote.
Tannin forms an insoluble tannate with nearly all alkaloids.

TOXICOLOGY
What is a poison?
A poison is any substance applied to the body, ingested, or
developed within the body, which causes or may cause disease.

Give a classification of poisons and an example of each class named.
1. Irritant poisons, as caustic potash, phenol and caustic acids.
2. Neurotic poisons, as opium, belladonna and strychnine.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 39

Define ptomaines and state how they are produced.
Ptomaines are the alkaloidal or basic products of the putrefac-
tion of animal or vegetable matter. They are produced by the action
of bacteria on nitrogenous matter.

Distinguish between physiological, chemical and mechanical antidotes
and give an example of each.

A physiological antidote does not act directly upon the poison
but produces physiological effects opposite to that of the poison.
Example: strychnine as an antidote to opium poisoning.

A chemical antidote is one which changes the chemical nature of
the poison, rendering it inert. Example: sulphates in lead poison-
ing form insoluble lead sulphate.

A mechanical antidote is one that prevents the absorption of the
poison. Example: stomach pump, mucilaginous drinks.

Name three metallic poisons and mention an antidote for each.
Lead: antidote, magnesium sulphate.
Mercury: antidote, albumin.
Copper: antidote, potassium ferrocyanide.

Name the antidotes that should be prescribed in case of poisoning by
(a) caustic alkalies, (b) mineral acids, (c) mercuric chloride.
(a) Vinegar, olive oil, demulcent drinks, lemon juice.
(b) Sodium bicarbonate, lime water, soap.
(ec) Egg albumin, flour and water.

Give the treatment for strychnine poisoning in the dog.
Produce vomiting at once; give tannin; place patient under
ether, chloral or potassium bromide for a few hours.

Name the antidotes for phosphorous poisoning.
Copper sulphate, turpentine, peroxide of hydrogen, potassium
permanganate. Never use oils.

Mention a chemical antidote for arsenic and explain its action.
Freshly prepared hydrated oxide of iron forms the insoluble
ferric arsenite or arsenate.

Give treatment in case of poisoning by Paris green.
Same as arsenic. See preceding answer. Empty stomach; give
oils and mucilaginous drinks as well as stimulants.

Give the chemical antidotes for (a) zinc salts, (b) lead salts.
(a) Solution of tannin (or strong tea) forms the insoluble
tannate of zine.

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40 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

(b) Magnesium sulphate forms the insoluble sulphate of lead.
In chronic lead poisoning, give potassium iodide liberally.

Mention precautions to be observed in case of poisoning by mineral
acids.
Avoid stomach tube, as it might perforate the softened cesopha-
gus. Neutralize the acids before producing vomiting.

What is the treatment for carbolic acid poisoning?

Give Epsom salts, or neutralize with alcohol, and produce vomit-
ing with apomorphine or use the stomach pump. Opiates relieve
pain.

PuHystoLocicaL CHEMISTRY

Define physiological chemistry.
Physiological chemistry is that part of chemistry which has
more especially for its object the various chemical changes which
take place in the living organism of either plants or animals.

Define the terms metabolism, catabolism and anabolism.

Metabolism refers to the various chemical changes occurring in
the living body, due to the action of enzymes, bacteria, and the
living cell activity.

Catabolism is destructive metabolism, or the conversion of mat-
ter, especially protoplasm, into a lower state of organization and
ultimately into waste products.

Anabolism is constructive metabolism, or the change of matter
from a lower to a higher state of organization ; especially the conver-
sion of matter into protoplasm.

Define isotonic, hypo-isotonic and hyperisotonic solutions.

Isotonie is a condition in which the tension in two substances,
or solutions, is the same, that is, the osmotic pressure is equal, e.g.,
physiologic salt solution is isotonic with blood.

Hypo-isotonic refers to a solution having a lesser osmotic power
than another.

Hyperisotonic refers to a solution having a greater osmotic power
than another. A solution of salt in greater proportion than is
present in a physiological salt solution would be hyperisotonie to

blood. Such a solution if mixed with blood would cause hemolysis
and other changes.

What is a physiologic salt solution?

It is a solution of sodium chloride of a certain strength (0.6 to
0.9 per cent.) which is isotonic with blood.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 41

Define (a) osmosis, (b) diffusion.
(a) Osmosis is the phenomenon of the passage of certain fluids
through a porous substance, usually an animal membrane.
(b) Diffusion is the gradual interchange of the particles of mis-
cible liquids when brought together.

CARBOHYDRATES

Define carbohydrates. How do they differ from hydrocarbons? Give
an example of each.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of hydrogen,
carbon and oxygen; hydrogen and oxygen usually being present in
the same proportion as in water. Example: glucose, C,H,,0,.
A hydrocarbon is an organic compound composed of carbon and
hydrogen. Example: methane, CH,.

Mention carbohydrates that are common food for horses and cattle.
Starches, sugars and gums which are present in large propor-
tions in nearly all the common feeding-stuffs,

FATS

Define fats. ‘Give the names of three fats.

Fats are compounds of the glyceryl radical and a fat acid
radical. They are formed by glycerine and a fat acid, and consist
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, are insoluble in water, slightly
soluble in cold alcohol, easily soluble in ether. In a pure state,
all fats are odorless, colorless, tasteless substances, and stain paper
permanently. :

Palmitin, stearin and olein are the principal animal fats.

What is soap? Describe a laboratory method of preparing soap.
Soap is a compound of one or more fatty acids with an alkali.
It is usually prepared by the direct action of caustic soda or
potash upon fats.

MILK

What is the composition of normal cow’s milk?
The average composition may be given as follows:

{Wiel bE Te stays pes eoehns aed ute taal et orth ate coats 871.7
SOlS 2 ister veins RO LGA eee Re aes 128.3
Albumins: o.ci6.c: cee ee oe eee 35.5
AES Ee cet A sre hana hones an te ee 36.9
WactOs@sae ove as bee eee Geese weal 48.8
Salte 2..6cske ae ese dae ee ees ee |

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42 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the process of determining the per cent. of butter fat in a
specimen of milk.

Take 20 e.c. of milk and add to it a small amount of a sodium
hydrate solution. Extract the fat by adding 80 e.c. of ether which
has been saturated with water. This is done by shaking in a tightly
closed bottle. After the ethereal extract has entirely separated,
60 ¢.c. are placed in a weighed beaker, and the ether allowed to
evaporate ; the residue is dried and weighed. The result is calculated
out for 80 c.c. of the ethereal extract, corresponding to 20 c.c. of
milk.

Describe briefly the cause of the souring of milk and the changes
thereby produced.
The lactic acid bacteria act upon the lactose, forming lactic acid
which renders the milk sour and coagulates the caseinogen, the curd.
The milk becomes acid in reaction, the curd settles as a thick, jelly-
like mass, leaving a watery fluid, the whey, above.

Give the requirements of the State of New York in regard to milk
composition.

Milk must contain twelve per cent. solids, of which three per cent.
must be butter fat.

Give the Pennsylvania State requirements for milk composition.
Milk must contain not less than 12.5 per cent. solids, of which
3 per cent. must be fat.

URINE

Describe a test for sugar in the urine.

Place some Fehling’s solution in a test tube and boil it. If no
discoloration takes place, it is suitable for the test. Add a few
drops of the suspected urine and boil. If the mixture suddenly
turns to an opaque yellow or red color, the presence of sugar is
indicated.

Give a test for albumin in the urine.
To a small amount of nitric acid in a test tube, gently pour upon
the surface some of the suspected urine. If albumin is present,
a ring of white coagulum occurs at the junction of the two fluids.

Describe a method of detecting the presence of bile in the urine.
Agitate a few drops of chloroform with the suspected urine
in a test tube. If bile be present, the chloroform becomes turbid

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 43

and acquires a yellowish hue, the depth of which depends upon the
amount of bile present.

What is Fehling’s solution and for what is it employed?
Fehling’s solution is an aqueous solution of cupric sulphate
mixed with potassio-sodic tartrate solution. It is used as a test for
sugar. See answer to preceding question.

State the specific gravity of normal urine.

The specific gravity of horse urine ranges from 1020 to 1050,
the average being about 1035,

What is urea? Give its chemical formula.

Urea is an end-product of metabolism. It is produced by the
metabolism of the albuminous foods ingested and the albuminous
substances in the body. It is a white, crystallizable substance and
the chief nitrogenous constituent of urine. Formula, CON,H,.

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ANATOMY*

OSTEOLOGY

Give the properties and describe the development of the growth of bone.

Bone is composed of one-third animal matter and two-thirds
mineral matter, principally phosphates and carbonates of lime.

Externally, bones are covered by a very vascular and nervous,
fibrous membrane, except over the articular surfaces and insertion
of tendons and ligaments. Bone proper consists of lamelle, trav-
ersed by ‘‘Haversian canals.’’ These canals are very minute and
are part of the vascular system. The medulla, or marrow, is a
pulpy, fatty substance which fills the interior and the areole of the
spongy tissue of bones. Blood-vessels and nerves enter by way of
the nutrient canal. Flat bones (found in the head) do not have a
medullary cavity.

Bones are developed from cartilages and fibrous tissue. The
bones of the face and cranium are the only ones formed from the
latter. Cartilage, undergoing calcification and being ramified with
blood-vessels which carry the osteoblasts (bone-producing cells),
eventually becomes hard, dense bone. Fibrous tissue is transformed
very much the same except that the blood-vessels and other directing
lines do not arrange themselves in parallel as in the long bones
and, as a result, the medullary canal is absent, it being replaced
by irregular, communicating cavities, called medullary spaces.

How many bones are there in the skeleton of the horse?
The number is subject to slight variation in different skeletons.
Considering the sacrum as a single bone, the os hyoides as one and
16 as the average number of coccygeal vertebrx, there are 191
bones in the horse’s skeleton.

Name the bones of the cranium.

Occipital, parietal, frontal, sphenoid and ethmoid, and two tem-

poral—seven in all.
Name the bones of the head.

Besides those of the cranium, above mentioned, there are the
following pairs: superior maxillary, premaxillary, palatine, ptery-
goid, malar, lachrymal, nasal, superior and inferior turbinated, and
three single bones—vomer, inferior maxillary and hyoid.

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.
44

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 45

Describe the frontal bone of the ox.

A very large, flat bone, oceupying nearly one-half the anterior
surface of the head and forming the front part of the roof of the
cranium and part of the face. Quadrilateral in shape, it presents
an external and internal face and four borders. The external face,
slightly convex, is extended laterally by the processes which form
the orbital arches and rest on the malar bone. Its middle region is
covered by the skin and constitutes the base of the forehead. In the
upper third, the supra-orbital foramen opens into a_ vasculo-
nervous groove which ascends toward the base of the horns, and
descends to near the lower border of the bone. The internal face
is concave and divided into two unequal parts by a transverse ridge.
The superior, the more extensive, is covered with digital impres-
sions and belongs to the cranial cavity. The inferior part, articu-
lating in the median line with the ethmoid, shows, between the
external and internal plates of the bone, the frontal sinuses, two
spaces which form part of the roof of the nasal cavities. Projecting
from each side of the superior border are the osseous conical cores
which support the horns (absent in hornless breeds). These projec-
tions are long and eurved, very rugged, perforated by foramina and
grooved by small vascular channels. The inferior border is deeply
notched in its middle to receive the nasal bones. Laterally, the
bone articulates with the sphenoid, parietal, lachrymal and malar.
The orbital foramen, in the ox, belongs entirely to the frontal bone.

Describe the superior maxillary bone.

This bone, the most extensive in the upper jaw, is situated on the
side of the face; it is bordered above by the frontal, palatine,
zygomatic and lachrymal bones, below by the premaxillary, in front
by the nasal, behind and within by that of the opposite side. It is
elongated vertically and is irregularly triangular.

The external face shows a convex surface ending below in the
supermaxillary spine; the infra-orbital foramen. The internal face
shows a flat surface which forms the outer wall of the nasal fossa;
the maxillary sinus, the palatine canal; a ridge for the attachment
of the inferior turbinated; the inferior opening of the lachrymal
canal.

The external border is very thick and hollowed into six large
quadrilateral cavities, alveoli, which hold the molar teeth. Above
the last alveolus is the alveolar tuberosity, and, below the first, the
interdental space.

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46 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

The superior extremity is large and rounded and shows: a large
cavity, the maxillary sinus; the infra-orbital canal; and the palatine
canal.

The inferior extremity presents a cavity which forms the alveolus
of the tusk, and unites with a similar space in the premaxillary bone.

Describe the inferior maxilla.

The inferior maxillary is a very large bone, situated behind the
upper jaw, and is composed of two symmetrical branches, joined at
their lower extremities to form the intermaxillary space. It consists
of two extremities, an inferior and superior, two faces, external and
internal, and two borders, a superior and inferior.

The inferior extremity shows the body of the bone which is
formed by the union of the two lateral halves. The inferior face
is smooth and convex, and shows the inferior opening of the maxillo-
dental canal—the mental foramen; on a level with this foramen,
the bone markedly contracts to form the neck. The superior face
is smooth and concave; it supports the free extremity of the tongue.
The circumference is convex anteriorly and contains six sockets for
the incisors, and behind these—in the male only—on either side is
an additional socket for the tusks. The space between the lateral
incisors and tusks is called the bars, or inferior interdental space.

The superior extremity shows the condyloid process which
articulates with the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone; the neck,
a constriction below the condyle; the coronoid process, in front of
the condyle and separated from it by the sigmoid notch, is flattened
on its sides and receives the terminal insertion of the temporalis
muscle.

The external face is smooth and rounded in its inferior two-
thirds and roughened above for the insertion of the masseter
muscle. The internal face presents in its upper one-third the
superior orifice of the inferior maxillodental canal which runs down
under the molar teeth, between the two plates of the bone, to the
mental foramen; in its inferior two-thirds the internal face is
smooth. Near the alveolar border and running parallel therewith
is the myloid ridge. At the junction of the two sides is a roughened
excavation—the genial surface.

The superior, or alveolar border, shows a straight or inferior
portion which is hollowed by six alveoli to receive the inferior molar
teeth, and a curved or superior portion for muscular insertion.
The inferior border shows a sharp, straight portion and a more
rounded portion above. The union of these two portions forms the
angle of the jaw.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 47

‘Name the bones of the fore limbs of the horse and state how they
differ from those of the ox.

In the horse: Scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, scaphoid, lunar,
cuneiform, pisiform, trapezoid, magnum, unciform, principal meta-
carpus, two rudimentary metacarpi, suffraginis, corone, pedis, two
sesamoids and one naviculare.

In the ox: Scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, six carpal bones (the
os megnum and trapezoid are fused together), two metacarpi (one
principal and one rudimentary, situated outwardly), four digits—
two with three phalanges and three sesamoids (as in the single digit
of the horse), and two rudimentary ones, composed of two small
bones.

Describe the scapula and name the bone with which it articulates.

The scapula is a flat, triangular-shaped bone which is applied
against the anterior and outer plane of the thorax in an oblique
direction downward and forward.

It has two faces, external and internal; three angles, anterior
or cervical, posterior or dorsal, and inferior or humeral, and three
borders, anterior, posterior, and superior.

The external surface is divided by a marked crest, the acromian
spine, which runs parallel to the long axis of the bone, into two
unequal depressed surfaces, the supra- and infraspinous fossz.
The internal face is concave, forming the subscapular fossa, and is
roughened for muscular insertion.

The anterior or cervical angle is comparatively thin, the posterior
or dorsal is thick. The inferior or humeral is separated from the
rest of the bone by a slight constriction, the neck of the scapula.
It presents a glenoid cavity, a round, shallow depression, which
receives the head of the humerus, and in front, a coracoid process,
with a base and a summit which curves inwardly.

The superior border is sharp and thin, while the posterior is
thick and slightly concave, and the superior is irregular and is
prolonged by a thin cartilage, the cartilage of prolongation.

The scapula articulates with the humerus.

Describe the ulna.

The ulna is an elongated, triangular-shaped bone which is applied
against the posterior and upper three-fourths of the radius and
strongly united with the same. It presents for study a middle por-
tion and two extremities.

The middle portion shows an external smooth, an internal con-
cave, and an anterior rough surface which unites with the radius.
In the middle third of the anterior surface is seen the ulnar groove

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48

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

which aids in forming the radio-ulnar arch. The posterior border is
concave and thick.

On the superior extremity is an enormous process, the olecranon,
which provides place for the attachment of the extensors of the fore-
arm. It shows anteriorly an articular surface, the sigmoid cavity,
which terminates above in a beak. The inferior extremity terminates
in a sharp point, and sometimes by a small knob, the capitellum,
which sometimes extends to the inferior extremity of the radius.

The ulna articulates with the humerus and radius.

Name the bones of the carpus.

Seaphoid, lunar, cuneiform, pisiform or supercarpal, trapezoid,
magnum and unciform.

Describe the pedal bone.

The pedal bone, os pedis, third phalanx or coffin bone as it is
variously known, supports the hoof and anterior limb. It is a short
bone, somewhat pyramidal in shape, and is divided into three faces,
three borders, and two lateral angles.

The anterior face is perforated by vascular openings and shows
laterally the preplantar fissure, a horizontal groove between the
basilar and retrossal processes ; between this fissure and the inferior
border of the bone is a roughened projecting surface, the patilobe
eminence. The superior face shows two articular surfaces, glenoid
cavities, which are divided by a median ridge. The inferior (or
solar) face is somewhat concave and divided into two regions by
the semilunar crest; just behind this crest and on either side the
plantar fissures which open into a cavity in the interior, the semi-
lunar sinus, may be seen.

The superior border is convex forward and shows the pyramidal
eminence. The inferior border is convex and perforated by from
five to ten large foramina. The posterior border is slightly con-
cave and shows a diarthrodial facet for the navicular bone.

The lateral angles are two projections which are directed back-
ward. They show a superior, the basilar, and an inferior, the retros-
sal, process.

What bones enter into the formation of the foot?

Seven carpals, three metacarpals, three phalanges and three
sesamoids, before mentioned.

Describe the first two cervical vertebre.

The first or atlas has no head but instead two deep concave
facets which articulate with the occipital ; posteriorly, is an articular
surface for the odontoid process of the axis; the transverse processes

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 49

are large, flattened and incline forward and downward; there is no
spinous process, but a roughened surface instead. At the base of
each transverse process are two foramina which traverse it from
below upward.

The second or axis is the longest of all the cervical vertebre.
It terminates anteriorly in a conical process, the odontoid, which
is convex, smooth below and concave above to articulate with the
atlas. The spinous process is very prominent and elongated antero-
posteriorly. The transverse processes are only slightly developed.

Describe the common characteristics of vertebrz.

Each vertebra has a body, and an arch enclosing the spinal canal.
The superior face of the body forms the lower boundary of the
spinal canal. The anterior extremity of the body is convex and the
posterior is concave. The arch projects upward from the body and
is composed of pedicles, lamine, transverse, spinous and articular
processes. The articular processes, four in number, are distributed
two anteriorly and two posteriorly. The anterior pair look upward,
the posterior look downward.

What are true vertebre? Give the number in the horse, ox and dog.
True vertebre are those constituting the cervical, dorsal and lum-
bar regions of the spinal column. There are 30 in the horse, 26 in

the ox, and 27 in the dog.

Describe the sternum of the horse and compare it with the sternum of
the ox and dog.

The sternum is the osteocartilaginous body which forms the in-
ferior boundary of the thoracic cavity. It shows on either side
articulations for the first eight ribs; anteriorly, it shows a carti-
laginous mass, flattened on each side and curved upward, the cervical
prolongation or presternum; posteriorly it is flattened above and
below to form the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage. It is flattened,
laterally, in its anterior two-thirds, and from above downward in its
posterior one-third.

The sternum never undergoes complete ossification. It is de-
veloped, in the horse, from six single nuclei which never coalesce
to form a single piece.

In the ox, the sternum is made up of seven parts; they are
much more compact than those in the horse, and are united to each
other, with the exception of the first. There is no cervical pro-
longation and the xiphoid cartilage is feebly developed.

In the sternum of the dog, eight component parts are noted.
They are hollowed in their middle part and thick at their ends.
They are never ossified to each other. -

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the sacrum.

The sacrum is formed by the consolidation of five vertebra which
are closely fused. It articulates, anteriorly, with the last lumbar
vertebra, posteriorly, with the first coceygeal bone, and, laterally,
with the os innominata.

The bone is triangular in shape with a base anteriorly, articulat-
ing with the last lumbar vertebra through its body, articular and
transverse processes; posteriorly, the apex articulates with the
coccyx; and laterally, the first segment shows a sort of transverse
process which has an auricular facet to furnish articulation with
the os innominata. The inferior surface is smooth and shows four
intervertebral foramina, and the superior surface shows in its mid-
dle the spinous processes which together constitute the sacral spine.
On each side of the sacral spine is a groove which is pierced between
each segment by the supersacral foramina.

Name the bones of the pelvis.

The os innominatum, made up of the ilium, pubis and ischium,
and the sacrum.

Describe the cotyloid cavity.

The cotyloid cavity is a deep excavation which is formed in the
middle of the os innominata at the junction of the ilium, pubis and
ischium. It is circumscribed by a narrow rim which is notched on
the inner side to communicate with the subpubic notch. The deeper
portion is roughened for ligamentous insertion. The cavity receives
the articulating head of the femur.

Describe the pelvis. State the difference between the pelvis of the

horse and that of the ox.

The pelvis is a bony cavity in the posterior part of the body,
which prolongs the abdominal cavity between the sacrum and the
coceygeal vertebre. It is formed above by the sacrum, laterally
by the ilia, but mostly by the sacrosciatic ligament, and below by
the ischia and pubes. The inlet is bounded by the sacrum, pubes
and ilia and has four diameters, vertical, horizontal and two
oblique; the outlet, through which pass the rectum and genital
organs, is bounded by the sacrum, ischia and sacrosciatic ligament,
and has two diameters, vertical and horizontal.

In the ox, the os innominatum is nearly horizontal, the transverse
diameter is relatively less extensive, and the ilium is more oblique.

Name the bones of the hind limb.

The os innominatum or coxa (composed of ilium, pubis and
ischium), femur, tibia, fibula, the tarsus (composed of six bones,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 51

viz., astragalus, caleaneum, cuneiform magnum, cuneiform medium,
cuneiform parvum, and cuboid), one principal and two rudimentary
metatarsi, two sesamoids, suffraginis, corone, pedis, and naviculare.

Give the number of ribs, sternal and asternal, in the horse, the ox and
the dog respectively.
Sternal: horse, 8; ox, 8; dog, 9.
Asternal: horse, 10; ox, 5; dog, 4.

Define trochanter, condyle, trochlea, foramen, sinus, tuberosity, spinous
process, glenoid cavity.

Trochanter is a large, bony eminence on the superior extremity of
the femur, below the neck.

A condyle is an articular eminence on the extremity of a bone
which represents an ovoid segment cut parallel to its larger axis
(e.g., the condyles of the femur).

A trochlea is a pulley-like articular surface on the extremities
of bones, as seen on the os astragalus or tibial-tarsal bone.

A foramen is an opening into or surrounded by bone, through
which blood-vessels and nerves pass.

A sinus is a recess, cavity or hollow space surrounded by bone,
found chiefly within the cranium.

A tuberosity is a large, round, and slightly detached non-
articular eminence on a bone (the great tuberosity of the
humerus).

A spinous process is a bony projection on the dorsal face of a
vertebra.

A glenoid cavity is an oval, shallow, diarthrodial cavity in a bone
(the glenoid cavity of the scapula).

ARTHROLOGY

Name the different classes of articulations and give an example of each
class.
Synarthroses, e.g., the occipitotemporal articulation.
Amphiarthroses, e.g., the intervertebral articulations.
Diarthroses, e.g., the coxofemoral articulation.

Define (a) synarthrosis, (b) amphiarthrosis, (c) diarthrosis.

Synarthrosis is an immovable articulation as seen in the bones
of the skull.

Amphiarthrosis is a joint with limited movement, being inter-
mediate between a synarthrosis and a diarthrosis; ¢.g., the sacro-iliac
joint.

Diarthrosis is a freely movable joint, as the atlo-axoid.

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52 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What structures may enter into the construction of the following
different kinds of joints: (a) synarthrodial, (b) amphi-
arthrodial, and (c) diarthrodial?

(a) Bone, fibrous tissue and periosteum.
(b) Bone, fibrocartilage, ligaments.
(c) Bone, cartilage, ligaments, synovial capsule and synovia.

Describe the atlo-axoid articulation.

This is an example of a diarthrodial joint. It is made up of the
odontoid and articular processes of the axis and the corresponding
depressions on the atlas.

Ligaments: Odontoid, from the odontoid to the inferior arch of
the atlas; the superior atlo-axoid, between the spines; the inferior
atlo-axoid below the bodies; the capsular ligaments (two) between
the articular processes; synovial membrane.

Action: Lateral rotation.

Describe the articulating surfaces of the axis.

Anteriorly, is a conical process, termed the odontoid, which is
flattened above and below, convex and smooth on its inferior surface
to fit the corresponding surface on the atlas. The anterior articu-
lating processes (prezygopophyses) are carried to the base and to
each side of the odontoid in the shape of two undulating facets and
are confounded with the gliding surface of the latter. Posteriorly,
is a wide and deep cavity to receive the head of the succeeding
vertebra; above and on each side of this cavity are the posterior
articulating processes (post-zygopophyses) inclined downward.

Describe the joints that, back of the dentata, connect the vertebra.

Ligaments: 1. The common superior vertebral ligament which
lies above the bodies of the vertebree and is attached to them from
the axis to the sacrum.

2. The common inferior vertebral ligament which lies below the
bodies and is attached to them from the sixth or eighth dorsal to
the sacrum.

3. An interarticular fibrocartilage which is found between the
bodies of the vertebre.

4, A capsular ligament, between the articular processes.

An intertransverse, between the transverse processes.

. An interlamellar, between the laminz.

. An interspinous, between the spinous processes.

. A supraspinous, between the summits of the spinous processes.
The ligamentum nuche extends from the first dorsal to the

occiput. In the sacral and coccygeal regions the articulations are

more or less fused and rudimentary.

DADN

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 53

The fibrocartilage in the lumbosacral articulation is very thick
and the transverse processes of the last lumbar articulates with the
external angles of the sacrum. The fifth and sixth lumbar also
articulate between their transverse processes.

The movements of the spinal column are those of flexion, exten-
sion and lateral. These movements are quite free in the cervical
region but restricted elsewhere.

Describe the ligamentum nuche, particularly as to its origin, distribu-
tion and function.

The ligamentum nuche is composed of two portions, viz., a
funicular portion, from the first dorsal spinous process to the sum-
mit of the head, and a lamellar portion which extends between the
spinous processes of the second dorsal and the last six cervical
vertebre.

Function: It acts as a stay and support to the head and main-
tains the head and neck in a natural position during repose.

What forms and kinds of costochondral and costosternal joints in the
horse and the ox hinder or favor free breathing in the
recumbent position?

The costochondral in the horse are synarthrodial and hinder, but
in the ox they are true gingymoid diarthroses and hence favor free
breathing. The costosternal in both the horse and the ox are
diarthrodial, but have a gliding movement only, hence they hinder
free breathing in the recumbent position.

Describe the shoulder-joint.

The scapulohumeral articulation is an enarthrodial, or ball-and-
socket joint, which is formed by the head of the humerus and the
glenoid cavity of the scapula.

Ligaments: A rudimentary glenoid ligament which deepens the
cavity; a capsular ligament, extending from the margins of the
cavity to the neck of the humerus; two supporting fasciculi from
the coracoid process to the head of the humerus.

The muscles in relation to the joint are:

1. In front, coracoradial.

2. Behind, large extensor of the forearm and teres minor.

3. Outside, short abductor of the arm and postea spinatus.

4. Inside, subscapularis.

Action: Abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, rotation and
circumduction.

‘Name and describe the ligaments of the elbow-joint.
An anterior, from the humerus above the articuiar surface to

the anterior part of the radius.
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54 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

An external lateral, from the cavity outside of the humerus to
the external portion of the radius.

An internal lateral, from the inner tuberosity of the inferior
extremity of the humerus to the radial tuberosity and to interos-
seous fibres.

Describe the radiocarpal articulation.

The radiocarpal articulation is an imperfect ginglymoid which
is made up of the lower articular surface of the radius and the four
upper carpal bones.

Three ligaments: an internal from the radius to the fourth bone,
a superficial external from the radius to the supercarpal bone, and
a deep external from the radius to the second bone and interosseous
ligament.

‘Name the structures composing the carpus.
1. The articulations uniting the carpal bones of the first row to
each other.
2. The analogous articulations of the second row.
3. The radiocarpal articulation.
4. The articulation of the two rows with each other.
5. The carpometacarpal articulation.

Describe the ligaments of the knee-joint.

Besides those mentioned above in describing the radiocarpal joint
are three anterior and three interosseous in front ox and between
the first row of carpal bones; two anterior and two interosseous in
front of and between the second row; an external posterior, from the
first bone of the upper to the second bone of the lower row; an
internal posterior, from the internal bone of the upper row to the
second and third of the lower row; an external, from the supercarpal
bone to the first bone of the second row and head of the external
metacarpal.

Between the lower row and the metacarpal bones are two an-
terior, one between the second bone and the principal metacarpal,
the other from the first to the external metacarpal; two interosseous
from the articulation between the metacarpi to the interosseous
ligaments of the second row.

Common carpal ligaments are:

1. Anterior, from the radius to the principal metacarpus.

2. Posterior, from the posterior part of the radial surface to the
carpus and the principal metacarpus.

3. External lateral, from the outer side of the radius to the

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 55

first bones of the upper and lower rows and the outer metacarpal
bone.

4. Internal lateral, from the inner side of the radius to the prin-
cipal and inner metacarpi, as well as to the capsular ligament.

Name the bones and ligaments of the fetlock joint.

Bones: Metacarpus, first phalanx, and two sesamoids.

Ligaments: Intersesamoid, between the two sesamoids; lateral
sesamoid, between the sides of the sesamoid and the upper extremity
of the first phalanx; inferior sesamoid, of three fasciculi from the
posterior surface of the first phalanx to the sesamoid bones ; external
and internal lateral, from the metacarpus to the sides of the
first phalanx; an anterior, between the anterior surfaces of both
bones; a posterior, or suspensory ligament of the fetlock, from the
first and second bone of the inferior carpal row and posterior face
of the principal metacarpus to the top of the sesamoids, where it
divides into two fasciculi which pass forward and are inserted into
the anterior extensor of the phalanges.

What is the function of the suspensory ligament?
It acts as a mainstay or brace to the foot, and assists in preventing
jar from concussion when the fore limbs are brought to the ground
in locomotion.

Describe the first interphalangeal articulation.

This is an imperfect ginglymus, between the os suffraginis and
os corone. Ligaments: two lateral ligaments between the sides of
the bones; one posterior ligament, or glenoidal fibrocartilage
attached to the first and second phalanges by six bands, increases
the articular surface below and forms a sheath for the passage of
the perforans tendon.

Movements: Flexion, extension and some lateral motion.

Describe and discuss the functions of the lateral cartilages.

The lateral cartilages, two in number, are composed of fibrous
and cartilaginous tissue, and are the shape of an oblique parallelo-
gram. They are prolonged behind the third phalanx and are
attached in front to the anterior lateral ligament, behind, to the
basilar and retrossal processes and plantar cushion. They are thin
above with a notch posteriorly for vessels; thick below, concave
internally, with vascular foramina, and convex externally, with
foramina for vessels.

In association with the plantar cushion they act as cushions in
preventing jar and allowing for expansion when the foot is brought
in contact with the ground.

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56 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the hip-joint.

The coxofemoral articulation is an enarthrodial, or ball-and-
socket, joint between the cotyloid cavity of the os innominata and
the head of the femur.

Ligaments: Capsular, extending from the margins of the coty-
loid cavity to the neck of the femur; a transverse, converting the
notch into a foramen; a cotyloid which deepens the cavity; a coxo-
femoral (ligamentum teres), from the bottom of the cotyloid cavity
to the depression in the head of the femur ; a pubiofemoral, from the
inferior face of the pelvis to the cotyloid cavity; a synovial mem-
brane which is very extensive.

Muscles in relation to the joint are, anteriorly, the gracilis and
rectus; posteriorly, the gemelli, internal obturator and pyramidalis;
inferiorly, the external obturator; and superiorly, the small gluteus.

State the difference between the hip-joint of the horse and that of
the ox.
See answer to preceding question.
The pubiofemoral ligament is absent in the ox, which permits of
greater freedom to movements of abduction.

Describe the femorotibial articulation.

A diarthrodial type of joint, between the femur, tibia and
patella.

Ligaments: An anterior, made of three strong fasciculi from
the patella to the anterior surface of the tibia; the antepatellar
aponeurosis, which is an expansion of the fascia lata, binds the
patella to the femur by two lateral fasciculi; an external lateral,
from the external condyle to the head of the fibula; an internal lat-
eral, from the inner condyle to the inner tibial tuberosity; a pos-
terior, from the posterior face of the femur to the tibia; two crucial,
or interosseous, from the intercondyloid notch to the tibial spine,
crossing in the centre, forming an X; two interarticular fibrocarti-
lages (menisci), attached to the tibial spine and by fasciculi to the
femur and tibia; a synovial membrane in two portions, one under
the patella and the other under the lateral ligaments.

Action: Flexion, extension and rotation.

Name the various articulations of the tarsal joint.
Tibiotarsal, caleaneo-astragaloid, second row of tarsus with each
other, two rows of tarsus with each other, and tarsometatarsal.

Describe the calcaneocuboid ligament.
A strong fibrous brace which unites the posterior border of the
calcis to the cuboides and to the head of the external rudimentary

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 57

metatarsal bone. It blends, outwardly, with the external and super-
ficial, tibiotarsal ligament, and inwardly, with the posterior tarso-
metatarsal band. Strains of this ligament give rise to ‘‘curb,’”’

Myo.oey
Describe aponeuroses. ;
Aponeuroses are flattened bands of white fibrous tissue which
envelop, in common, all the muscles of one or several adjoining re-
gions, and by one extremity are attached to the bones. They main-
tain the muscles in their position and sustain them during their
contraction.

Describe the masseter muscle.

A short, wide and very thick muscle, irregularly quadrilateral,
applied against the external face of the mandible. Origin: the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone. Insertion: the outer sur-
face of the ramus of the jaw. Action: elevator of the jaw. Nerve:
inferior maxillary branch of the fifth.

Name the muscles that close the jaw and give the attachments of each.
Masseter, see above. Temporal, from the temporal fossa, the
temporal fascia and the outer border of the orbit to the coronoid
process and ramus of the inferior maxilla; pterygoid internus, from
the palatine crest and subsphenoidal process to the hollow on the
inner face of the inferior maxilla; pterygoid externus, from the
inferior face of the sphenoid and the pterygoid process to the neck

of the condyle of the lower maxilla.

'Name the muscles of the globe of the eye.
Retractor oculi; superior, inferior, external and internal recti;
superior oblique and inferior oblique.

Describe the mastoidohumeralis muscle.

It extends from the summit of the head to the inferior part of the
arm. It consists of two portions, viz., an anterior portion which
originates on the mastoid process and crest, and is inserted in the
furrow of torsion of the humerus, below the deltoid imprint; a
posterior portion which originates on the transverse processes of the
first four cervical vertebra and is inserted with the anterior portion.
It carries the limb forward or inclines the head to the side.

‘Name the muscle separating the carotid artery from the jugular vein.
‘What is the function of this muscle?
The subscapulohyoideus. It is a depressor of the hyoid bone
and its appendages.

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58 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Name the muscles that aid in flexing the shoulder-joint.
Teres externus (long abductor of the arm) and teres internus
(adductor of the arm).

Name the muscles of the brachial region.
Anterior region: the flexor brachii and humeralis obliquus.
Posterior brachial region: the triceps, viz., caput magnum, caput
medium and caput parvum, and the anconeus.

‘Name the muscles of the forearm.

Four anteriorly, viz., anterior extensor of the metacarpus,
oblique extensor of the metacarpus, extensor pedis and extensor suf-
fraginis.

Five posteriorly, viz., external flexor of the metacarpus, oblique
flexor of the metacarpus, flexor pedis perforatus, flexor pedis per-
forans and internal fiexor of the metacarpus.

Describe the flexor pedis perforans.

Situated immediately behind the radius and is composed of three
portions which unite at the carpus to continue to the inferior
extremity of the digit by a long and powerful tendon.

Origin: The summit of the epitrochlea, summit and posterior
border of the olecranon, and posterior surface of the radius, by
the three portions, respectively. Above the carpus, these three
unite and pass through the carpal sheath and between the two
terminal branches of the perforatus tendon to its insertion, the
semilunar crest of the os pedis.

Name all the muscles that would be severed in amputating the fore limb
just above the knee.
All those of the forearm mentioned above.

Name the muscles that flex the carpus. Give their attachments.

1. External flexor of the metacarpus, from the external condyle
of the humerus to the supercarpal and external metacarpal bones.

2. Oblique flexor of the metacarpus from the base of the epi-
trochlea and olecranon to the supercarpal.

3. Internal flexor of the metacarpus from the base of the epi-
trochlea to the head of the internal metacarpal bone.

4. Flexor pedis perforatus arises on the summit of the epi-
trochlea and extends to the second phalanx; in contracting shortly,
it flexes the carpus.

5. Flexor pedis perforans, described above.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the flexor brachii.
Origin: Coracoid process of the scapula.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 59

Insertion: Superior and internal tuberosity of the radius, the
capsular and internal lateral ligament.
Action: Flexes the forearm.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the flexor metacarpi medius.
This is the same as the oblique flexor of the metacarpus given
above.

Name the muscles of the gluteal region, or croup.
Three: superficial, middle and deep glutei.

Name the muscles attached to the upper third of the femur.

Great psoas, iliopsoas, superficial, middle and deep glutei, ten-
sor fascia lata, vastus externus, vastus internus, pectineus, small
adductor of the thigh, great adductor of the thigh, quadratus fem-
oris, obturator externus, internal obturator, and gemelli.

Give the origin and the insertion of the vastus externus muscle.
Origin: Outer and anterior surfaces of the superior extremity of
the femur.
Insertion: Superior face and external side of the patella.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the popliteus.
Origin: Outside the external condyle of the femur.
Insertion: Into the triangular surface on the posterior surface
of the tibia in its superior parts.
Action: Flexes the tibia and rotates it outward.

Describe the origin, insertion and action of the gastrocnemius.
Origin: The external head from above and behind the external
condyle of the femur; the internal head from the internal condyle.
Insertion: Into the posterior part of the summit of the os calcis
after passing into a bursa.
Action: Extends the foot on the tibia.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the sartorius.
Origin: The iliac aponeurosis near the tendon of the psoas
parvus.
Insertion: The internal patellar ligament.
Action: Adducts the leg and flexes the femur.

Name and give the attachments of the muscles that flex the tarsus.

1. Flexor metatarsi: the tendinous portion orginates from the
front of the femur between the trochlea and the external condyle
and is inserted in front of the superior extremity of the principal
metatarsus and to the cuboid bone; the muscular portion originates
from the tibia on the sides of the groove through which the tendon

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

passes, and is inserted in front of the superior extremity of the
principal metatarsus and the second cuneiform bone.

2. Anterior extensor of the phalanges: originates in the digital
fossa above the external condyle of the femur; and is inserted in the
capsular ligament of the metatarsophalangeal articulation, the an-
terior surfaces of the first two phalanges, and the pyramidal emi-
nence of the os pedis.

3. Lateral extensor of the phalanges: originates along the ex-
ternal femorotibial ligament and the whole extent of the fibula, and
terminates in the tendon of the anterior extensor.

Give the origin, course, relations and termination of the lateral ex-

tensor of the phalanges (peroneus).

Origin and termination given above.

The muscular portion extends in the direction of the tibia on the
external side from the superior to its inferior extremity. The
tendinous: portion, succeeding the muscular portion, passes to the
external side of the tarsus through the tibial sheath and passes for-
ward to join the tendon of the anterior extensor, near the middle of
the metatarsal region.

The muscular body is enveloped in a special containing apo-
neurosis which separates it in front from the anterior extensor and
behind from the perforans. The tendon covers the tibia and margins
the external and superficial ligament of the tibiotarsal articulation.

Name the muscles of the tail.

Six sacrococcygeal muscles, viz., two superior, two inferior and
two lateral; two ischiococcygeal muscles.

Describe the panniculus carnosus muscle.

An immense wide muscle on the inner surface of the skin, cover-
ing the sides of the thorax and abdomen. It is irregularly triangular,
thin at its borders and thicker in its middle.

Origin: From the flank to the posterior border of the ulnar mass
of muscles and pectoralis major.

Insertion: One layer to the anterior limb and one to the small
trochanter; aponeurotic fibres attach it to the internal surface of
the skin and fascia of the superficial muscles.

Action: In contracting, the whole cutaneous integument is
shaken, thus preventing insects from alighting.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the longissimus dorsi.

Origin: The lumbar border, external angle and internal surface
of the ilium, and the spinous processes of all the lumbar, dorsal and
last four cervical vertebre.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 61

Insertion: The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebre and
the outer surfaces of the fifteen or sixteen last ribs.

Action: Extends the vertebral column and pulls the ribs forward
in expiration.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the longus colli muscle.

Origin: Posterior portion arises from the inferior face of the
bodies of the first six dorsal vertebre. The middle portion, from
the transverse processes of the last six cervical vertebre. The an-
terior portion, from the anterior three or four fasciculi of the
middle portion.

Insertion: The posterior portion is inserted on the tubercle of
the sixth cervical vertebra. The middle portion, on the inferior
ridge of the bodies of the first six cervical vertebre. The anterior
portion, on the inferior tubercle of the atlas.

Action: Flexes the neck.

Give the origin, insertion and action of the serratus magnus.
Origin: The external surface of the first eight ribs.
Insertion: The anterior and posterior triangular surfaces of the
scapula and the subscapularis.
Action: Supports the body as a girdle, or depresses the scapula.

Describe the diaphragm. What important structures pass through the
diaphragm?

The diaphragm is the muscular partition between the thoracic
and abdominal cavities.

Originates by right and left pillars from the lumbar vertebre
and is confounded with the inferior common ligament of the spine;
also from the xiphoid appendage of the sternum, and the anterior
extremities of the last twelve ribs.

Insertion: Phrenic centre, dividing into right and left leaflets.

The diaphragm is related anteriorly with the pleura and lungs;
posteriorly, with the peritoneum, stomach, liver, colon and spleen.

The aorta, thoracic duct, vena cava and cesophagus pass through
the diaphragm.

How does the diaphragm of the ox differ from that of the horse? Of
what surgical importance is this difference?
The attachments of the muscular portion are much farther dis-
tant from the cartilaginous circle than in the horse.
This arrangement permits puncture of the rumen through the
last intercostal space, whereas a puncture at this point in the horse
would enter the thoracic cavity.

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62 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Name the muscles of respiration.
Inspiratory: External and internal intercostals, levatores costa-
rum, serratus anticus, serratus magnus, latissimus dorsi, diaphragm.
Expiratory: External and internal intercostals, serratus posti-
cus, triangularis sterni, great and small oblique muscles of the
abdomen, longissimus dorsi, and the retractor of the last rib.

Describe the inguinal canal, stating the structures which it contains.
A canal, two to two and one-half inches in length, on each side
and in front of the pubic bone, running downward, backward and
inward, comprised between Poupart’s ligament of the great oblique
muscle, posteriorly, and the small oblique muscle anteriorly. Its
inferior orifice (external or cutaneous orifice, inguinal or external
abdominal ring) is much larger than the superior (internal) ring.
The spermatic cord and vessels in the male, and the external
mammary vessels in the female pass through the inguinal canal.

Describe the navicular sheath.

The navicular sheath is a fibrous membrane which covers the os
naviculare and the single ligament of the pedal articulation. It is
reflected on the plantar aponeurosis of the flexor pedis tendon, in
front of this ligament and ascends to the inferior sac of the sesamoid
sheath, where it is reflected upon itself, thereby forming two culs-de-
sac, one superior and one inferior. It is lined by a synovial mem-
brane which aids the aponeurosis of the tendon in gliding over the
navicular bone.

CIRCULATORY ORGANS

State the position of the heart and show its relation to the right and
left walls of the chest and to the sternum in the horse
and dog.

In the horse, the heart occupies a position in the middle line of
the chest, corresponding to the third, fourth, fifth and sixth ribs,
being enclosed in a sac and suspended from the spine by its aortic
vessels. Its base is uppermost, its apex nearly touches the sternum
but does not rest on the ribs. The diaphragm lies just behind the
apex. The heart is separated from the right wall of the chest by
the right lobe of the lung. There is a triangular notch in the left
lung which exposes the left ventricle and allows it to make its
impulse felt against the chest wall.

In the dog, the heart occupies a more nearly median position,
resting almost entirely on the upper face of the sternum and about
equidistant from the right and left chest wall.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 63

Describe the right and left heart, noting the size of the different cavi-
ties, the thickness of the walls at different points, the nature,
position and dependencies of the four sets of valves and
the source and distribution of the vascular and nervous
supply.

The heart is divided by a vertical septum into two parts, which
are further divided into four by a transverse septum. The cavities
above the transverse septum are called right and left auricles, those
below, the right and left ventricles, the two latter constituting the
largest portion of the heart.

The right auricle: The walls are about one-fourth of an inch in
thickness. It receives the anterior vena cava, posterior vena cava,
vena azygos, and the large coronary veins. It opens, in its floor, into
the right ventricle through the auriculoventricular opening.

The right ventricle: Its walls are on an average six-tenths of an
inch thick. It has two openings, the auriculoventricular, and the
pulmonary opening into the pulmonary artery.

The left auricle: Similar to the right. The walls are irregular
in thickness, varying from one-third of an inch in some places to a
very thin membranous wall in others. It receives the pulmonary
veins and empties through the auriculoventricular opening in its
fioor into the left ventricle.

The left ventricle: Its walls are on an average one and one-fifth
to one and five-eighths inches in thickness. Two openings, the
auriculoventricular and aortic.

The valves of the heart are made of fibrous segments. The right
auriculoventricular is composed of three segments (tricuspid)
attached by their free edges to the ventricular wall by tendinous
cords, chorde tendine. The left auriculoventricular is composed
of two segments (bicuspid) and is similarly attached. The pul-
monary and aortic openings of the ventricles are closed by the semi-
lunar valves made up of three segments which are also attached
by tendinous cords.

The blood supply of the heart is by the two coronary arteries,
branches from the trunk of the aorta at the sigmoid valves. Each
divides into two principal branches, one passing along the horizontal,
the other in the vertical furrow of the heart. The venous blood is
returned to the right auricle by the coronary vein.

The nerves of the heart, furnished by the cardiac plexus, come
from the pneumogastric and sympathetic.

Mention all the arteries given off from the posterior aorta.
Intercostals, phrenic, lumbar, middle sacral, broncho-cesophageal,

celiac axis, anterior mesenteric, posterior mesenteric, renal, sper-
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64. VETERINARY STATE BOARD

matic, small testicular (uterine in females), external and internal
iliacs.
Name the terminal branches of the anterior aorta.
The two axillary arteries.

Name in regular order the important blood-vessels through which the
blood moves in passing from the left ventricle to the right
front foot.

Common aorta, anterior aorta, axillary, humeral, posterior radial,
collateral artery of the cannon, digital.

Describe the posterior radial artery and give its branches.

It arises from the humeral artery near the inferior extremity of
the humerus, passes along the internal ligament of the elbow-joint,
along the inner side of the radius to the inferior extremity of the
same, where it divides into the common interosseous, metacarpal
and collateral artery of the cannon, giving off branches in its course
to the elbow and muscles of the forearm.

Describe the digital arteries and their branches.

The digital arteries originate just above the fetlock, from the
terminal extremity of the collateral artery of the cannon, and
descend one to the right, the other to the left, along the margin of
the flexor tendons to the basilar process of the pedal bone, where
they bifurcate to form the plantar and preplantar ungual arteries.

Several small branches are given off at the fetlock to the articu-
lation, sesamoid sheath and tendons. Near the middle of the os
suffraginis, the perpendicular artery, with anterior and posterior
branches, encircles the limb, and by anastomosing both before and
behind, supplies the neighboring tissues. Small branches are given
off to the plantar cushion and coronary circle. The preplantar
ungual enters foramina in the os pedis. The plantar ungual passes
into the plantar fissure, plantar canal and semilunar sinus and unites
with the opposite to form the semilunar anastomosis.

Give the origin and the distribution of the brachial artery.

The brachial, or axillary, arteries, two in number, are the ter-
minal branches of the anterior aorta. They give off the following
branches: dorsal, superior cervical, vertebral, internal thoracic,
external thoracic, superior cervical, suprascapular and subscapular ;
after giving off these branches, the brachial artery is continued as
the humeral artery. In addition to those named, the right axillary
gives off, near its origin, the common trunk of the two carotid
arteries,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 65

‘Name the branches of the external carotid artery.
Glossofacial, maxillomuscular, posterior auricular, superficial
temporal and internal maxillary.

State the anatomic relations of the external carotid artery.

From its origin to the hyoid bone, it is related inwardly to the
guttural pouch and the glossopharyngeal and superior laryngeal
nerves; outwardly, to the outer belly of the digastric muscle and
the hypoglossal nerve; throughout the rest of its course, it is com-
prised between the guttural pouch, the parotid gland, the great
cornu of the hyoid bone, and the inner side of the posterior border
of the inferior maxilla.

Give the course and the termination of the vertebral artery.

It arises from the axillary at the first intercostal space. It passes
beneath the transverse process of the seventh and through the
foramina of the upper six cervical vertebra, anastomosing with
the retrograde branch of the occipital and giving off muscular and
spinal branches at each intervertebral space.

Give the blood supply of the larynx.
The laryngeal artery, which arises from the common carotid at a
short distance from its termination, just behind the larynx.

Give the blood supply of the salivary glands.
Small branches from the external carotid supply the parotid and
submaxillary glands. The sublingual is supplied by the sublingual
artery.

Trace the course of the blood from the left ventricle to the left hind foot,
naming in regular order all the important vessels through
which the blood passes.

The common aorta, posterior aorta, external iliac, femoral, popli-
teal, anterior tibial, collateral artery of the cannon, digital, plantar
and preplantar. A collateral stream from the popliteal passes
through the posterior tibial region and gives off an interosseous
branch which unites with the collateral artery of the cannon just
above the fetlock.

Describe the origin and distribution of the external iliac artery.
Originates in common with the internal iliac from the posterior
extremity of the posterior aorta and gives off the small testicular,
or artery of the cord in the male, or the uterine in the female, and
the circumflex iliac; then it is continued as the femoral upon
leaving the anterior border of the pubis.

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66 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the cceliac axis and name its branches.

The celiac axis is a short trunk which arises from the posterior
aorta immediately upon the entrance of that vessel into the abdom-
inal cavity. After a course of three-fourths inch, it separates into
three large branches, the gastric, splenic and hepatic arteries.

Describe the origin and the distribution of the internal iliac artery.
The internal iliac artery arises from the posterior extremity of
the posterior artery and terminates near the insertion of the small
psoas muscle by dividing into the obturator and iliofemoral arteries.
It gives off the following branches: umbilical, internal pudic, ilio-
lumbar, lateral sacral and gluteal.

Give the course and the termination of the femoral artery.

It arises at the anterior border of the pubis as a continuation
of the external iliac and descends to the superior extremity of the
gastrocnemius, where it is continued as the popliteal. The following
branches are given off: prepubic, femoris profunda, superficial
femoris, small muscular, and saphena.

Give the blood supply of the stomach.
Supplied by the gastric artery, a branch of the celiac axis.

Give the blood supply of the spleen.
Supplied by the splenic artery, a branch of the eceliac axis.

Give the blood supply of the uterus.
The uterine artery which arises from the posterior aorta or, from
the external iliac near its origin; the utero-ovarian which arises
from the posterior mesenteric.

Give the functional and nutritive blood supply of the liver and lungs.
Liver: Functional supply, the portal vein; nutritive, the hepatic
artery, a branch of the ccelic axis.
Lungs: Functional, pulmonary artery; nutritive, bronchial
artery which is given off from the posterior aorta near the first pair
of intercostals.

Give the blood supply of bone.

The arteries of bones belong to three orders, viz.:

Those of the first order penetrate to the interior of the medullary
canal of long bones, by a particular orifice, the nutrient foramen.
They soon divide into a network that lines the walls of the canal and
enters the medulla. This network communicates with the arteries
of the second order which go to the spongy tissue of the extremities
of the long bones. The arteries of the third order are branches

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 67

of the periostic network that enters the superficial Haversian canals.
In the flat and short bones, there are no arteries of the first order.

Describe the systemic circulation.

The blood enters the left auricle from the lungs through the
pulmonary vein, passes through the bicuspid valve into the left
ventricle, through the semilunar valve into the common aorta, an-
terior and posterior aorta, from thence it is distributed to all parts
of the body, passing through arteries, capillaries and into the veins
back to the right auricle, through the anterior and posterior vena
cava. At the right auricle, the pulmonary circulation begins.

Describe the pulmonary circulation.

The blood reaches the right auricle through the anterior and pos-
terior vena cava and passes through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle, thence through the semilunar valve into the pulmonary
artery, through which it is carried to the lungs. In the lungs it goes
through a fine network of capillaries and returns through the pul-

monary vein to the left auricle, here to begin the systemic circu-
lation.

Describe the fetal circulation of the blood.

The blood, after interchanging gases in the placenta, enters the
umbilical vein and is carried to the liver. In the substance of the
liver, it is mixed with the venous blood from the intestines and
posterior parts, through the medium of the ductus venosus, and at
last arrives at the right auricle. From here it passes into the left
auricle through the foramen ovale, thence into the left ventricle and
aorta. The greater portion is driven into the vessels that supply
the head, neck and fore limbs, the remainder passes backward in the
posterior aorta. After the fluid has circulated in the anterior part
of the body, it is returned to the right auricle by the anterior vena
cava. From the right auricle, it passes to the right ventricle, and
from this cavity it is pumped into the pulmonary artery, there
through the ductus arteriosus into the posterior aorta, which carries
it to the hinder parts of the body. The veins of the hind parts unite
in forming the umbilical artery, which conveys the blood to the
placenta. The umbilical artery is practically a continuation of the
internal iliacs. (The ductus venosus only exists in ruminants. )

Describe the umbilical arteries of the foetus.

The umbilical arteries arise from the internal iliacs and pass
along the sides of the bladder. Escaping at the umbilicus, they
arrive at the terminal extremity of the amniotic portion of the
cord, and, giving off some branches to the amnion, they are continued

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68 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

to the extremity of the allantoid portion, where they end in an
expansion of placental ramifications.

Describe the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale in the foetus.
Give their uses and state what remnants of these can be
found in mature life.

The ductus arteriosus is a short vessel which connects the pul-
monary artery, near its origin, to the posterior aorta. In fetal life,
the lungs do not functionate, hence the blood is not carried to them
but takes this short course to the aorta. This duct remains, but in
mature life is represented by a yellow elastic fibrous cord (the liga-
mentum arteriosum).

The foramen ovale is the opening between the right and left
auricles, through which the blood passes in fetal life. It is pro-
vided with a valve, the Eustachian valve (absent in horse and pig),
that stretches from the mouth of the posterior vena cava to the
annulus, or thickened border of the foramen. The function of this
valve is to direct the blood-stream into the left auricle, from whence
it goes into the systemic circulation. In mature life, the foramen
ovale is represented by a depression of a thin membrane, surrounded
by the ring of Vieussens, or annulus ovalis. Occasionally the open-
ing persists throughout adult life.

‘Describe the anterior vena cava.

A large trunk extending from the entrance of the chest to the
right auricle. It is formed by the union of the two axillary and
the two jugular veins. It receives in its course: the internal
thoracic, vertebral, superior cervical and dorsal veins, and the
great vena azygos.

Give the origin of the vena azygos and name its tributaries.

Originates at the first lumbar vertebra and extends forward to
the sixth dorsal, where it terminates in the anterior vena cava. Its
tributaries are the satellite veins of the first lumbar and all of the
aortic intercostal arteries, right and left.

Describe the pulmonary veins.

The pulmonary veins, four to eight in number, arise from the
substance of the lung, emerging immediately above the origin of the
bronchi. They terminate in the left auricle, which they enter by way
of four to eight orifices. They have no valves. Their function is to
carry the blood from the lungs, where it has been purified, to the
left auricle to begin the systemic circulation.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 69

Give the course and relations of the jugular vein.

Formed by the union of the superficial temporal and internal
maxillary veins, behind the inferior maxilla. It passes downward
and backward, lodged at first in the substance of the parotid gland,
afterward in the jugular furrow (the muscular interspace between
the mastoidohumeralis and the sternomaxillaris). At the inferior
extremity of the neck, it unites with its mate to form the confluent
of the jugulars. After leaving the parotid gland, the jugular is
covered externally by the cervical panniculus. Inwardly and
above, it is related to the subscapulohyoideus muscle, which separates
it from the carotid, but in its inferior part it is in direct relation
with that vessel, the trachea and the esophagus.

Branches: maxillomuscular, posterior auricular, occipital, glosso-
facial, thyroid, cephalic, parotidean and many small muscular veins.

Describe the course and the function of the portal vein.

It begins in the sublumbar region, by the union of the anterior
and posterior mesenterics and the splenic veins; it is then directed
forward, traversing the pancreatic ring, below the vena cava, and
is afterward lodged in the great fissure of the liver, where it ramifies
by forming the interlobular veins. It receives on its course the
right gastro-omental and anterior gastric veins. Its function is to
carry the blood which comes from the intestinal walls, charged with
assimilable substances, that are absorbed by the veins of the villi,
to the liver.

Give a general description of the lymphatics.

The lymphatics are vessels with very thin and transparent walls,
found all over the body, except in blood-vessels, nervous tissue,
bone, muscles, eyeball, cartilage, tendons, the membranes of the
ovum, placenta, umbilical cord, cuticle and hair. They possess
nutrient vessels, no nerves, have valves, and carry lymph or chyle
into the vascular system. Like the veins, the lymphatics terminate
in two principal trunks, resembling the vena cava; and, like the
veins, have three tunics. The lymphatics originate from capillaries
which form networks or terminal culs-de-sac. They terminate, as
before stated, by emptying into the vascular system; the union of
the blood with the lymphatic system takes place at the origin of the
anterior vena cava.

Give the course and the termination of the thoracic duct.

The thoracic duct receives all the lymphatics except those of the
right side of the head, neck and thorax and the right anterior
limb. It originates beneath the vertebral column, near the first
lumbar vertebra, where it is marked by a very irregular dila-

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70 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

tation (receptaculum chyli), passes forward through the pillars
of the diaphragm to the sixth dorsal vertebra, where it passes to the
left and empties, after a dilatation, into the anterior vena cava at
the junction of the jugulars.

Describe the lymphatic glands.

The lymphatic glands are ovoid, spherical or discoid bodies of
medium consistency, which intercept the course of lymphatic vessels
at several points. Their number is considerable, and they are rarely
single, but most frequently are collected in groups along the blood-
vessels. All the vessels of the lymphatic system are provided with
one or more of these glands on their course. The branch of the
vessel, entering the gland, is called the afferent, and that leaving,
the efferent. The capsule of the gland sends fibrous strands into its
substance, dividing it into very minute spaces (lymph sinuses)
which are filled with lymph corpuscles. The afferent vessels take a
tortuous course and, communicating with the sinuses, become
charged with lymph-cells.

Lymph-glands are richly supplied with blood-vessels which
penetrate the gland through the capsule, or enter at the hilum and
break up into a fine-meshed capillary network, branches of which
pass through the lymph sinuses.

The lymph-glands act as filters for the lymphatic system and are
important as a source of leucocytes.

In what part of the intestinal tract is lymphoid tissue found?
At certain places in the walls of the ileum there are collections
of solitary follicles, known as Peyer’s patches.

Give the situation of the lymphatic glands of the thorax.
1. Posterior mediastinal, a series of small granular masses on the
course of the cesophagus.
2. The bronchial, in the angle of the bifurcation of the trachea.
3. Two long strings of lobules which extend on the sides of the
inferior face of the trachea, from the base of the heart to near the
first rib.

Mention the location of the following lymphatic glands: posterior
cervical, prescapular, posterior mediastinal, inguinal, popli-
teal, precrural, iliac, axillary and bronchial.

Posterior cervical, situated on the side of the terminal extrem-
ity of the jugular, within the inferior border of the scalenus muscle,
extends into the chest by passing beneath the axillary vessels and
ascends to the inner face of the first rib.

Prescapular, situated on the ascending branch of the inferior

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 71

cervical artery, beneath the internal face of the mastoidohumeralis
muscle and extends close to the attachment of the sternomaxillaris
muscle.

Posterior mediastinal (see preceding question).

Inguinal, the deep inguinal situated beneath the crural aponeu-
rosis and arch in the interstice between the adductor muscles of the
leg, along with the iliac vessels. The superficial inguinal are located
in front of the inguinal ring at the side of the sheath on the track of
the subcutaneous abdominal artery.

Popliteal, located behind the great sciatic nerve and gastroc-
nemius muscle, between the biceps femoris and the semitendinosus
muscles, and near the femoropopliteal artery.

Precrural, located within the anterior border of the tensor fascia
lata, on the course of the circumflex iliac artery.

Iliac, situated in the triangular space between the two branches
of the circumflex iliac artery.

Axillary, beneath the anterior limb, inside the arm; one group
is near the ulnar articulation, the other, behind the brachial vessels,
near the common insertion of the teres major and latissimus dorsi
muscles.

Bronchial (see preceding question).

State the approximate number of mesenteric lymph-glands.
About thirty in number.

NEUROLOGY

The nervous system is divided into two great parts, the cerebro-
spinal and the sympathetic. The cerebrospinal system consists of
the brain, spinal cord, ganglia and nerves. The brain is the central
portion of the nervous system and is situated in the cranial cavity ;
the spinal cord is, in reality, a great extension of the brain through-
out the length of the spinal canal, from which emerge, at numerous
points, branches, nerves, upon which are noted enlargements, called
ganglia. The sympathetic system will be described in answer to a
question below.

Name the membranes that cover the brain and describe the outer one.
From within outward, pia mater, arachnoid and dura mater.
The dura mater is a strong, fibrous membrane, adherent to the
bony walls. It gives off prolongations into the brain, forms de-
pressions for the venous sinuses and is prolonged on the nerves and
spinal cord.

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Name the principal parts of the brain.
Cerebrum, cerebellum, the isthmus, and medulla oblongata,

Describe the island of Reil.
The island of Reil is a very small lobule of brain in the fissure
of Sylvius, found in man but not in the horse.

Describe the optic thalami.

The optic thalami are two masses of gray matter, placed above
the crura cerebri; they are separated by a deep groove, and form
the sides of the third ventricle. At their posterior border are found
two projections, the external and internal geniculate bodies.

Describe the cerebellum.

The cerebellum is that part of the brain, situated behind and
beneath the cerebrum, above the isthmus and separated from the
cerebrum by a fold of the dura mater.

It is globular in form and is divided by two fissures into three
lobes, two lateral and a middle. The lateral lobes are convex and
show many convolutions or depressions. The middle lobe is dis-
posed in a vermicular manner, which gives rise to the names of the
two divisions, anterior vermiform and superior vermiform
processes.

The structure is gray externally and white internally with a
tree-like arrangement called the arbor vite.

Describe the corpora quadrigemina.

These are four round eminences, placed in pairs, which lie
above the cerebral peduncles. The two posterior, the smallest, are
also named the tubercula testes, and the anterior pair, the tubercula
nates. The nates are gray and the testes are white.

Describe the spinal cord, using a diagram.

The spinal cord is the portion of the nervous system which is
enclosed in the spinal canal from the occipital foramen to the upper
third of the sacral canal. Its average weight in the horse is 1014)
ounces. It is slightly flattened above and below, and has two enlarge-
ments in its course, one between the fifth cervical and second dorsal
vertebre, the brachial bulb, the other, near the middle of the loins,
the lumbar enlargement.

The structure of the cord is, externally, white matter, internally,
gray. The gray matter is arranged like two horns, the larger ends
of which point down and out, but do not reach the surface, the
smaller look upward and outward, reaching the surface. The two
horns are connected by a transverse band (similar to the letter

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 73

“‘H’’), called the commissure, which shows in its middle the central
canal of the cord.

The cord is traversed throughout its length by two fissures, the’
superior of which is narrower and shallower than the inferior, which
is only separated from the gray commissure by a white band, the
white commissure.

The white matter is divided on each side into three columns. The
superior column lies between the superior fissure and the superior
or sensory nerve root. The inferior, between the inferior fissure
and the inferior or motor root. The lateral lies between the two.
The cord is covered by membranes similar to the brain, viz., dura
mater, arachnoid and pia mater. The posterior end of the cord
is marked by a narrow prolongation, the jfilum terminale.

Describe the spinal nerves.

The spinal nerves emanate from the spinal cord and leave the
vertebral canal by the intervertebral foramina to proceed to the
various organs. They proceed from the lateral aspects of the cord
by two orders of roots: one motor, the other sensitive. These two
roots unite into a very short trunk in passing through the inter-
vertebral foramen and this mixed nerve divides almost immediately
into two terminal branches. On the superior root, before its union
with the inferior, a ganglion is found. Passing out with the in-
ferior root of the spinal nerve, but indistinguishable from it, is a
branch of nerve known as the white ramus communicans which
leaves the main trunk after the mixed nerve has been formed, and
runs to a distinct system known as the sympathetic.

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in the horse? State the
relative number in the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, sacral and
coccygeal regions, respectively.

There are 42 or 43 pairs of spinal nerves as follows: cervical,
8 pairs; dorsal, 17 pairs; lumbar, 6 pairs; sacral, 5 pairs; and
coceygeal, 6 to 7 pairs.

Name the cranial nerves.

Olfactory, optic, motor oculi, patheticum, trifacial, abducens,
facial, auditory, glossopharyngeal, pneumogastric, spinal accessory
and hypoglossal.

Describe the first pair of cranial nerves.

The olfactory nerves originate, superficially, in the olfactory
lobe of the brain, deeply, from the corpus striatum and transverse
fibres of the pons. Pass through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid
bone and are widely distributed over the nasal septum and ethmoidal

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cells in the upper third of the nasal fosse. Function: preside over
the sense of smell.

Give the origin and the distribution of the optic nerve.
Origin: From the commissure and optic tracts which arise from
the thalamus and corpora quadrigemina.
Distribution: To the retina.

Describe the third pair of cranial nerves, the oculomotor.

Originates superficially from the crura near the interpedun-
cular fissure, deeply, from the anterior border of the pons. Passes
through the smallest suprasphenoidal foramen of the orbit. Dis-
tributed to all the muscles of the eye except the external rectus, the
great oblique and part of the posterior rectus, and by the ophthalmic
ganglion to the iris.

Give the origin and the distribution of the fourth pair of cranial nerves.
The patheticum originates in the band of Reil, behind the cor-
pora quadrigemina and, deeply, from the interior of the isthmus.

It is distributed to the great oblique muscle of the eye.

Describe the fifth pair of cranial nerves, the trifacial.

This nerve originates by two roots, motor and sensory, in the
pons varolii. On the sensory branch, in the region of the occipito-
sphenotemporal hiatus, is a large ganglion, the Gasserian, which
gives rise to the three branches of the nerve, viz., the superior
maxillary, the inferior maxillary and the ophthalmic. The motor
root passes along, but outside of, the ganglion and unites with the
fibres of the inferior maxillary branch. So, although the fifth pair
is called a mixed nerve, in reality only the inferior maxillary branch
is composed of sensory and motor fibres.

The branches emerge from the cranial cavity as follows: the
first branch (ophthalmic) passes through the smallest of the large
suprasphenoidal foramina to the orbit and is distributed to the skin
of the forehead and eyelids, lachrymal gland and nasal fossa. The
second, superior maxillary, passes through the foramen rotundum
to the orbit and along the infra-orbital canal, where it ends in small
branches to the face and upper lip. It sends branches to the eyeball,
palate, nose and teeth of the upper jaw. The third, inferior maxil-
lary, passes through the foramen ovale to the temporomaxillary
articulation and then passes downward to enter the inferior dental
canal; it supplies the muscles of mastication and the teeth of the
lower jaw.

On the course of the fifth pair of nerves, the following ganglia

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 75

from the sympathetic system are seen: the ophthalmic or ciliary, the
sphenopalatine or Meckel’s, and the otic or Arnold’s.

Describe the sixth pair of cranial nerves.

The abducens originates superficially from the medulla behind
the pons and, deeply, from the inferior pyramid and lateral tract of
the medulla.

It leaves the cranial cavity with the ophthalmic branch of the
fifth, and is distributed to the external rectus muscle of the eye.

Describe the seventh pair of cranial nerves, the facial.

Originates superficially from the medulla behind the pons and,
deeply, in the floor of the fourth ventricle. It escapes from the
cranial cavity through the internal auditory meatus with the eighth
pair, enters the aqueduct of Fallopius, has the geniculate ganglion
developed on it and passes out through the stylomastoid foramen to
the muscles of the face, ears, lips, nostrils and eyelids.

Branches: great petrossal, to Meckel’s ganglion; small petrossal,
to otic ganglion ; tympanitic, to stapedius ; chorda tympani, to tongue
and mouth; muscular, to occipitostyloid, digastric, stylohyoid and
cervical muscles; auricular, to the ear and face.

Describe the auditory nerve (eighth pair).
Originates in the medulla, below the seventh pair. Leaves the
eranial cavity with the seventh pair and is distributed to the internal
ear by two branches, the cochlear and the vestibular.

Describe the ninth pair of cranial nerves, glossopharyngeal.

Originates in the medulla and more deeply in the floor of the
fourth ventricle. Leaves the cranial cavity by the posterior fora-
men lacerum and is distributed to the back part of the tongue, and
pharynx.

Branches: Jacobson’s nerve to the tympanum; filaments com-
municating with the superior cervical ganglion; carotid and
pharyngeal.

Give the origin and the distribution of the pneumogastric nerve.

The pneumogastric, vagus or tenth pair, originates in the
medulla and passes through the posterior lacerated foramen to be
distributed to the cesophagus, pharynx, lungs, bronchi, trachea,
heart, stomach and intestines. Its principal branches are: 1,
superior laryngeal to the mucous membrane of the larynx and cerico-
thyroid muscle ; 2, inferior laryngeal to all the muscles of the larynx
except the cricothyroid; 3, bronchial to the bronchi and lungs;
4, esophageal to the esophagus, stomach, liver and solar plexus.

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76 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the spinal accessory nerve.

The eleventh pair of cranial nerves, spinal accessory, originate
along the whole cervical region of the cord, and from the fourth
ventricle. It enters the cranium through the foramen magnum
and escapes through the foramen lacerum to be distributed to the
muscles of the neck and thorax. It gives off the following branches:
to the cervical sympathetic, sternomaxillaris, mastoidohumeralis,
cervical and dorsal trapezius muscles and motor fibres to the vagus.

Describe the hypoglossal or twelfth pair of cranial nerves.
Originates in the medulla and leaves the cranium through the
condyloid foramen to be distributed to the muscles of the tongue and
depressor muscles of the larynx.

Describe the formation of the brachial plexus.
Formed from the inferior branches of the sixth, seventh and
eighth cervical and first and second dorsal spinal nerves.

Give the nerve supply of the extensors of the forearm.
Radial.

What is the nerve supply of the flexors of the forearm?
Median.

Describe the median nerve.

The median nerve arises from the posterior part of the brachial
plexus and a branch from the musculocutaneous. It passes down
in front of the humeral artery, along the inner side of the radius to
the lower one-third of the same, where it bifurcates into the external
and internal plantar.

It gives rise to the following branches: To the flexors of the
forearm and subcutaneous region of the forearm; the plantars
which give off the anterior, middle and posterior digitals at the
fetlock and supply the phalangeal region.

Give the origin and the distribution of the posterior digital nerve.
See answer to preceding question. Originates from the plantars
at the fetlock and is distributed to the podophyllous and osseous
structures of the foot.

Of what is the lumbosacral plexus formed?
Last two lumbar and first three sacral spinal nerves.

What nerve supplies the following named muscles of the hind limb:
gastrocnemius, flexor pedis perforans and flexor pedis per-
foratus?

Branches of the great sciatic.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 77

Give the nerve supply of the salivary glands.
Parotid: from the facial and inferior maxillary nerves.
Submaxillary: from the carotid plexus.
Sublingual: from the lingual and carotid plexus.

Give the nerve supply of the larynx.
Inferior and superior laryngeal from the pneumogastric.

Give the nerve supply of the spleen.
Branches from the solar plexus.

Give the nerve supply of the stomach.
Pneumogastric and solar plexus.

What is the nerve supply of the uterus?
Branches from the small mesenteric and pelvic plexuses.

Describe briefly the sympathetic nervous system.

This extensive system, composed of nerves and ganglia, is de-
rived from the spinal cord and brain. It consists of two long cords
lying under the spinal column, from the head to the tail. From
the great number of ganglia along its course, there arise very fine
nerves which are distributed to the blood-vessels, viscera and glands.
The system is divided into cephalic, cervical, dorsal, lumbar and
sacral portions.

Ganglia are distributed as follows: cephalic, three on the fifth
nerve (see above) ; cervical region, two, superior and inferior caro-
tid; dorsal, seventeen below the vertebrocostal articulations (most
important is the solar plexus); lumbar, six on the psoas parvus
muscle; sacral, four beneath the sacrum.

The function of the sympathetic system may be summarized
thus: 1, supplies the blood-vessels with constrictor and dilator
fibres; 2, supplies the viscera with motor and inhibitory fibres;
3, accelerator fibres to the heart; 4, dilator fibres for the pupil; 5,
secretory fibres for sweat, salivary and sebaceous glands; 6, motor
fibres to the muscles of the hair; 7, trophic fibres which exercise an
effect on the nutrition of a part.

DIGESTIVE ORGANS

Name the organs of prehension, deglutition and digestion.
Prehension: lips, tongue and incisor teeth.
Deglutition: hard palate, tongue, pharynx and cesophagus.
Digestion: salivary glands, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas
and teeth.

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78 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the permanent dental formula of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c)
the dog.

3-3 1-1 3-3 3-3
@ 33 fl 33 38
(b) oe 33 33 Total 32,

(e) a a = $8. Total 42.
Describe an incisor tooth.

Pyramidal, flattened from before, backward, with a single fang.
Three surfaces, anterior, indented by a slight longitudinal furrow,
which is prolonged to the root; a posterior face, rounded from side
to side and concave from above downward, and two borders, of which
the internal is always thicker than the external; last, a surface of
friction, the table.

In composition, there are three fundamental substances: the
dentin envelops the pulp cavity, the enamel covers the dentin. The
enamel is doubled in the external dental cavity, lining it throughout,
and when the surface of friction is in wear, a ring of enamel sur-
rounds that surface and an internal ring of the same surrounds the
infundibulum. The first circle forms what is called the encircling
enamel; the second, the central enamel. Over the enamel is a pro-
tecting substance, the cementum or crusta petrosa, which disappears
soon after the tooth becomes in wear.

Total 40.

Give the general arrangement of dentin, enamel and cementum from
without, inward, in the following teeth: (a) incisor, (b)
canine, (c) molar.

(a) Cementum, enamel and dentin.

(b) Cement, enamel and dentin.

(c) External cement, external enamel, dentin, internal enamel
and internal cement.

State the difference between the incisors of the horse and those of
the ox.

(See description of horse’s incisor above. )

In the ox, the incisors are eight in number, all in the lower jaw.
They are not fixed in the alveoli, as in the horse, but have a certain
degree of mobility. The root is more conical in shape, giving the
tooth a shovel-like appearance, the root being the handle. On the
middle of the internal face, is a conical eminence, the base of which
widens and terminates near the free extremity of the tooth. As
age and wear advance, the teeth seem to separate from one another,
and in youth they only touch by their extremities.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 79

Describe the appearance of the incisors of the horse at the age of (a)
5 years, (b) 10 years.

(a) In the lower jaw, the nippers are worn more or less com-
pletely. The intermediates are on a level with the nippers and
their posterior border is level with the anterior. The corners are
lower than the intermediates. There is a notch on the posterior which
is lower than the anterior border ; sometimes this notch is very deep
and extends down on the posterior face of the tooth. The corners
are fresh and well grown out. The dental arches form a regular
semicircle from above, downward, and from one side to the other.

(b) In the lower jaw, the nippers are rounded. The central
enamel is round and small and very near the posterior border. The
intermediates are nearly round, while the corners still remain oval.
In profile, the arch of the upper and lower teeth from above, down-
ward, becomes more angular.

Give the dental formula of (a) a six-year-old mare, (b) a seven-year-old
cow, (c) a one-year-old dog.
At the ages stated, these animals would have all their permanent

teeth.

3-3 0-0 3-3 33

See OE ee | arog ee:
©) 33 oo 3a gg Totals

00 00 33 33

OO 2) ee 2 ae a8
We as se
@) 33 Ht 38 33 Total 42.

3-3 1-1 3-3 44
What modifications are seen in the upper and lower molars of the horse
and how do these modifications affect decay?

The inferior molars are somewhat longer and much more fiat-
tened than the superior. Their enamel is but a single organ and is
not divided into internal and external parts as in the superior
molars. In the superior, the two central rings of enamel completely
enclose the infundibula. This arrangement renders the upper
molars slightly more susceptible to decay because there is greater
possibility of the enamel being broken and an opening for micro-
organisms being produced, resulting in caries.

a

Describe the tongue.

The tongue is a fleshy organ, elongated anteroposteriorly, flat-
tened on each side, and fixed to the os hyoides and inferior maxilla
by the muscles forming the basis of its structure, or by the membrane
covering it. It lies in the intermaxillary space, extending from the
back part of the mouth to the incisor teeth, and rests on a kind of
wide sling formed by the two mylohyoidean muscles. The anterior

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extremity of the tongue, the free portion, is quite free from the
middle of the interdental space to the tip; by its inferior face, it is
fixed to the body of the inferior maxilla by a fold of mucous mem-
brane, the frenum lingue.

The superior surface of the tongue 1s not smooth but is covered
with innumerable papille, which, according to their shape, are
termed filiform, fungiform and calciform.

The blood supply to the tongue is by the lingual and sublingual
arteries and the nerve supply by the lingual, ninth and twelfth pairs.

Function: concerned in prehension, mastication, deglutition and
taste.

Name the three principal salivary glands and the duct or ducts of each.

Parotid, Steno’s duct; submaxillary, Wharton’s duct; sublin-
gual, 15 or 20 ducts (of Rivinus).

Describe the pharynx, giving particular attention to its connection with

the mouth, nose and ears.

The pharynx is a membranous vestibule common to the digestive
and air passages, situated behind the soft palate; attached above
to the base of the cranium and below to the laryngeal apparatus.

It communicates with the mouth through the isthmus of the
fauces, with the nose through the posterior nares, and with the
middle ear through the guttural pouch and eustachian tube.

'

Describe the cesophagus and give its relations.

The cesophagus is an elongated, muscular canal extending from
the pharynx to the stomach. It is made up of superficial longi-
tudinal and deep circular muscular fibres and is lined internally
by mucous membrane. At its upper extremity it is comprised be-
tween the guttural pouch and the posterior crico-arytenoid muscles.
In the cervical region, superiorly, it lies between the trachea and the
longus colli muscles, bordered on the side by the carotid artery, the
great sympathetic, pneumogastric and inferior laryngeal nerves;
inferiorly, it is related to the trachea, internally, the inferior sca-
lenus muscle and the jugular vein, externally. In its thoracic por-
tion, it lies along the trachea, passes above the left bronchus, to the
right of the thoracic aorta, against the internal face of the lungs.
Passing through the diaphragm, it is lodged in a fissure of the liver
and terminates in the cardiac opening of the stomach.

Name the organs contained in the abdominal cavity.

Stomach, large and small intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen, kid-
neys, ovaries and uterus.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 81

Describe the stomach.

The stomach is a muscular sac, situated in the diaphragmatic
region between the cesophagus and the duodenum, in which the
principal acts of digestion take place. It has a capacity of 3 to 3144
gallons and weighs from 3 to 4 pounds. It is elongated, often con-
stricted in its middle, and presents an anterior and a posterior face,
a great curvature below, to which the great omentum is attached,
a lesser curvature above, to which the esophagus and gastrohepatic
ligament are attached. In the left extremity is an opening con-
tinuous with the esophagus, and the right extremity communicates
with the duodenum through the pyloric orifice.

Externally, the stomach is covered with a serous coat, the peri-
toneum ; internally, it is lined with mucous membrane in which are
innumerable peptic and mucous glands. The middle coat is mus-
cular, the fibres of which run in various directions.

Blood supply: gastric, splenic, pyloric, esophageal, right and
left gastro-epiploic vessels.

Nerves: pneumogastrie and solar plexus.

Give the relative capacity of the gastric cavities and intestines in (a)
horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog.
(a) Stomach small, intestines large.
(b) Stomach large, intestines small.
(ec) Stomach large, intestines small.
(d) Stomach small, intestines large.
(e) Stomach small, intestines large.

Describe the rumen of the ox.

The rumen is a large reservoir which occupies nearly three-
fourths of the abdominal cavity. It has a capacity of 45 to 50
gallons. Elongated from before, behind, it presents two surfaces,
superior and inferior, an anterior and posterior extremity and a
right and left border.

By its superior surface, it is in contact with the intestines and
its opposite face lies on the inferior abdominal wall. Its left border,
supporting the spleen, extends to the highest part of the flank and
sublumbar region. The right border lies against the abomasum.
The anterior extremity lies close to the diaphragm and receives the
insertion of the esophagus. The posterior extremity occupies the
entrance to the pelvic cavity. Interiorly, the rumen is divided by
two septa, muscular pillars, into a right and left sae.

The rumen has three coats: outer serous, middle muscular and
inner mucous. The mucous coat has innumerable papille similar

6
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82 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

to those on the tongue. Two openings, one into the esophagus, the
other into the reticulum, are close together.

Describe the internal surface of the recticulum of the ox.
It is divided by ridges of the mucous membrane into polyhedral
cells which look like honeycomb. In the centres of the cells and
deeply situated are conical papille.

Name some of the synonyms for the omasum and give the reason for
these names.

Manyplus, manyplies, many-leaves and psalterium.

So named because of the peculiar arrangement of the mucous
membrane, which is disposed into 25 to 30 unequally developed
leaves, arranged longitudinally, adherent to the great curvature and
free on the border turned toward the lesser curvature. This arrange-
ment gives the opened organ an appearance not unlike that of an
open book.

Describe the arrangement of the mucous membrane in the first, second,
third and fourth stomachs of the ox.

See answers to three preceding questions. The mucous mem-

brane of the fourth stomach is practically the same as in the horse,

g.v.

Give the length of the intestines of (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the
dog.
(a) 100 feet; (b) 180 feet; (c) 14 feet.

Describe the small intestine and name its divisions.

The small intestine, a tube 75 feet in length, begins at the pyloric
orifice of the stomach, turns transversely to the left, forms numerous
folds, being suspended in the mesentery (a fold of the peritoneum),
and terminates in the cecum in the right hypochondriac region. The
diameter of the tube is variable in different portions and in all por-
tions depends upon the contraction of the muscular tunic, but aver-
ages 1 to 134 inches.

Three coats: outer serous, middle muscular, and inner mucous.
Blood supply by the great mesenteric and cceliac axis. Nerves from
the solar plexus.

Divisions: duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

Describe the double (fixed) colon.

The double colon begins at the cecum, passes forward, then
bends backward and to the left, forming the suprasternal curvature,
lying above the sternum, then backward and turning again to form
the pelvic flexure, then runs forward to the diaphragm, forming

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 83

the diaphragmatic flexure, then passes back with the first portion
to terminate in the small (floating) colon.

Throughout its length, it is traversed by from 1 to 4 longitudinal,
muscular bands which hold the transverse folds in position. It is
made up of three coats: outer serous, middle muscular and inner
mucous. Length, 10-13 feet. Capacity, 18 gallons. Blood supply,
two colic arteries. Nerves, sympathetic.

What is the difference between the caecum of the horse and that of
the ox?
In the horse, there are four longitudinal muscular bands which
are absent in the ox, hence in the latter the bulgings seen in the
horse do not appear.

Describe the ileoczcal valve and give its function.

It is formed by the projection of the ileum into the ceeum and
is formed by a circular mucous fold, strengthened externally by
muscular fibres. Situated on the inferior face of the cecum.

Function: by acting as a sort of check-valve, probably aids the
onward movements of the intestinal contents.

What is the capacity of the cecum?
Seven and a half gallons.

Describe the liver.

The liver is a glandular viscus, situated in the abdominal cavity
to the right of the diaphragmatic region. Its average weight is
eleven pounds. Flattened before and behind and indented at its
borders, the organ is divided into three principal lobes and presents
two surfaces and a border for study.

The anterior face, applied against the diaphragm, is channelled
by a deep fissure for the posterior cava. The posterior surface also
has a fissure for the passage of the portal vein and vessels. In the
superior border is a notch for the esophagus. Several smaller fis-
sures are observed, one dividing the right and left lobes and small
ones dividing the middle lobe into lobules.

The four lobes are: left (the largest), right, spigelian or caudate,
and middle.

The liver is held in place by five ligaments, viz.:

j. Anterior or coronary, from the fissure for the cava to the
phrenie centre.

2. One from the left lobe to the sides of the esophageal orifice.

3. One from the right lobe to the sublumbar wall.

4. Broad or suspensory, from the middle lobe to the inferior
abdominal wall and lower part of the diaphragm.

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5. Round, a fetal remnant, from the middle lobe to the umbilicus.
The external serous coat covers the true capsule (Glisson’s) which
is of fibrous tissue.

Hepatic ducts, originating within the liver parenchyma, unite
to form the ductus choledochus, or great bile duct, which empties
into the duodenum.

Blood supply: functional, portal vein; nutritive, hepatic artery.

Nerve supply: sympathetic, vagus and phrenic.

Name the lobes of the liver.

Three principal lobes are right, left and middle. The right lobe
has a small secondary lobe attached to it, the lobus Spigelii, or
caudate lobe.

Describe and give the relations of the pancreas.

This organ, sometimes called the abdominal salivary gland, be-
cause of its resemblance to the salivary glands in structure, is
situated in the sublumbar region, across the aorta and post cava, in
front of the kidneys and behind the liver and stomach. Its weight
is seventeen ounces. In form, it is elongated, triangular and curved
on itself. It has two surfaces, superior and inferior, two borders,
anterior and posterior, and two extremities, a right or head and
a left or tail. The posterior border is notched for the portal vein
to pass through.

Two ducts, duct of Wirsung, the principal, runs along the an-
terior border from the left to the right side and opens into the
duodenum in common with the bile duct; an accessory duct opens
alone after receiving several branches.

Blood supply: hepatic and great mesenteric.

Nerve supply: solar plexus.

State the difference in the relation of the biliary and pancreatic ducts

in (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the goat,
and (e) the pig.

(a) Open in common into the duodenum.

(b) Two separate openings into the duodenum.

(ec) Open in common into the duodenum.

(d) Open in common into the duodenum.

(e) Two separate openings into the duodenum.

Describe the peritoneum and give its relation.

The peritoneum is a serous membrane composed of a parietal
and a visceral layer which together form a closed sac, so arranged
that the organs contained in the abdominal cavity are enveloped by,
but are external to, it.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 85

In its various folds and duplicatures, it forms ligaments, mesen-
teries and omenta as follows: falciform ligament from the umbilicus
to the middle lobe of the liver; the common ligament of the liver
which surrounds the posterior vena cava; the cardiac ligament that
envelops the termination of the esophagus; the gastrohepatic liga-
ment or omentum attaches the stomach to the posterior fissure of the
liver and separates at the lesser curvature of the stomach to envelop
the same, joining again at its greater curvature. This fold is
called the great omentum and also the gastrocolic omentum, because
by its posterior border it is extended around the termination of the
large colon. A reflection from the stomach to the spleen is called
the gastrosplenic omentum. Behind the stomach, there is a small
opening in the great omentum, which communicates with the peri-
toneal cavity, called the foramen of Winslow. Posteriorly, the
great omentum is continued as the mesentery proper, being reflected
over the small and large intestines, forming their mesenteries, the
ligaments of the bladder, broad ligaments of the uterus, and then
from the rectum and front of the bladder is reflected to the superior
and inferior abdominal wall, forming the parietal layers. The in-
ferior parietal layer continues forward, descends into the scrotum
through the inguinal canal to envelop the testicles, and is continued
forward to form the suspensory ligament of the liver. The superior
parietal layer passes beneath the kidney, forms the mesenteries and
is continued to the diaphragm.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Name the sinuses of the head.
The sinuses of the head are arranged in pairs, five on each side as
follows: the frontal, supermaxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal and
inferior maxillary.

Compare the frontal sinus of the ox with that of the horse as regards
position, structure and size.

In the ox, the frontal sinuses are prolonged into the horn cores
and into the parietal and occipital bones. They envelop the anterior
and superior part of the cranium and form a double wall to this
cavity. They are, therefore, much larger and situated more supe-
riorly than in the horse. In the horse, the sinus communicates with
the superior maxillary sinus by a vast opening in the thin bony
partition, but in the ox, no such communication exists.

Describe the larynx.
The larynx is a cartilaginous box, situated in the intermaxillary
space between the two corona of the os hyoides and fixed to these

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appendages by one of its constituent pieces, the thyroid cartilage.
Its anterior opening is at the bottom of the pharynx, its posterior
is continuous with the trachea.

In structure, it is comprised of five cartilages, viz., three single,
cricoid, thyroid and epiglottis, and one pair, the arytenoids. The
muscles which either move the whole organ or its cartilages upon
one another are: three extrinsic, the sternothyroideus, hyothy-
roideus and the hyo-epiglottideus; five intrinsic, cricothyroid, pos-
terior crico-arytenoideus, lateral crico-arytenoid, thyro-arytenoid
and arytenoideus. All of these muscles are pairs, except the hyo-
epiglottideus and arytenoideus,

Internally, the larynx is lined with mucous membrane and is
marked on each side by the elastic structure known as the vocal
cords.

Blood supply: laryngeal arteries.

Nerve supply: superior and inferior laryngeal.

Function: an air passage and organ of phonation.

Name the cartilages of the larynx.

See answer to preceding question.

Describe the guttural pouch and give its function.

Two in number, one on each side, the guttural pouches are elon-
gated cavities, communicating with the pharynx and lying on its
sides. In reality, a dilatation of the eustachian tube, these two
pouches lie against each other in the median plane; externally, they
are related to the carotid artery and parotid gland. Before and
behind, they extend from the anterior part of the pharynx to the
inferior face of the atlas. Capacity, about three-quarters of a pint.
Function: probably connected with hearing and phonation in some
way.

Describe the trachea and give its relations.

The trachea is a long, flexible, elastic, cylindrical tube, composed
of a series of about fifty incomplete cartilaginous rings that succeed
the cricoid cartilage of the larynx and terminate above the base of
the heart by bifureating into the two bronchi. The rings are united
by fibrous tissue.

Relations: In its cervical portion, surrounded by muscles of this
region—sternohyoid and sternothyroid, in front; the sternomaxil-
laris muscles are situated in front in the inferior part but on the
sides near their termination; the subscapulohyoideii are placed
above and in the middle of the lateral parts; the scaleni are below
and at the sides; the longus colli, behind. The csophagus descends

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 87

at first in the middle of the posterior face, then to the left side
of the trachea. The carotid arteries, the pneumogastric, great sym-
pathetic and recurrent nerves pass along both sides of the tube.

In the thoracic portion, the trachea is related superiorly to the
longus colli muscle and the esophagus; below to the brachial vessels,
the anterior aorta, anterior vena cava, the cardiae and recurrent
nerves, and to the left auricle of the heart; laterally it is in contact
with the inferior cervical ganglia of the great sympathetic, the
vertebral vessels and the two layers of the anterior mediastinum,
vena azygos, aorta and thoracic duct.

Describe the thoracic cavity. Name the organs that are contained in
this cavity.

The thoracic cavity is a bony cage, representing a hollow cone
placed horizontally, depressed on its sides, apex forward and base
formed by the diaphragm, posteriorly.

Boundaries: in front, the first ribs and longus colli muscle; be-
hind, the diaphragm ; superiorly, the vertebre, ribs and longus colli
muscle; inferiorly, the sternum, costal cartilages and the triangu-
laris sterni muscle; laterally, the ribs and deep intercostal muscles.
Its internal face is covered with a serous membrane, the pleura.

It contains the following organs: heart and great vessels, lungs,
trachea, cesophagus, thoracic duct and lymphatic glands.

Function: Receptacle for the contained organs; its movements
are of primary importance in the act of respiration.

Compare the thoracic cavity of the horse with that of the ox.

In the ox, the thorax is not so long, particularly in its superior
part, as in the horse, because the diaphragm is situated less obliquely
and its attachment to the ribs is more anterior. Its total capacity
is less than in the horse.

Give the number of pulmonary lobes in (a) the horse, (b) the ox,
(c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog.
(a) 5; (b) 6; (¢) 6; (d) 6; (e) 7.
Describe the lungs of the horse.

The lungs, the essential organs of respiration, are situated in the
thoracic cavity, surrounding the heart, and enveloped by a serous
membrane, the pleura.

Divided into two lateral halves, the lungs are considered as two
parts, right and left, which, in contour, correspond to the thoracic
cavity which they practically fill. Hach half is cone-shaped and
has: an external face lying against the ribs; an internal face,
forming the side of the mediastinum which presents an excavation

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in which the heart is lodged, and behind this is the root of the lung,
formed by the bronchi, blood-vessels and nerves entering the struc-
ture, also a fold of the pleura, ligamentum latum pulmonalis, which
is attached to the mediastinum and posterior face of the diaphragm ;
a base or diaphragmatic face, concave and in contact with the dia-
phragm, showing a notch for the posterior vena cava; an apex or
summit, situated behind the first rib, forms the anterior lobe; a
superior border, thick and convex, rests in the vertebracostal chan-
nel or concavity ; an inferior, shorter and thinner, is notched deeply
for the heart.

The right lung has three lobes, an anterior, middle and posterior ;
the left, two, an anterior and posterior.

The lung substance is pink-colored, soft, spongy and elastic tis-
sue; it is divided into lobules which are further subdivided into
alveoli and air-cells that communicate with bronchioles, the sub-
divisions of bronchii.

Blood supply: nutrient, bronchial arteries; functional, pul-
monary arteries. Nerve supply: pneumogastric and sympathetic.

Describe the different reflections of the pleura and state the different

structures to which they are respectively applied.

1. Costal pleura is applied to the internal face of the ribs and
internal intercostal muscles.

2. Diaphragmatic pleura, a continuation of the costal, is adher-
ent to the diaphragm.

3. Mediastinal pleura separates the two lateral halves of the
lungs. It is applied against the internal face of each half and com-
prises between its two layers the heart. The portion in front of the
heart is called the anterior mediastinum, and that behind, the pos-
terior mediastinum.

The anterior mediastinum contains the trachea, cesophagus, an-
terior aorta and its divisions, anterior vena cava, thoracic duct, and
the cardiac, pneumogastric, recurrent and phrenic nerves. In the
fetus and very young animals, it also contains the thymus glands.

The posterior mediastinum is traversed by the posterior aorta,
vena azygos, thoracic duct, esophagus and nerves.

4, Pulmonary or visceral pleura, a continuation of the medias-
tinal, completely envelops the lung-tissue proper.

Give the relative thickness of the mediastinum in horses and in cattle,

and state how this affects conditions in unilateral pleurisy.
In its inferior part, the posterior mediastinum of the horse is
very thin and perforated by small openings; whereas, in cattle, it is

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 89

not open but is thick and solid there as elsewhere. A case of unilat-
eral pleurisy in the horse tends to become bilateral because the
effusion, and hence the infection, can readily pass from one side to

the other. In cattle, localization of the disease in one side is
possible.

URINARY ORGANS
Describe the kidney.

The kidneys, two in number, are situated in the right and left
sublumbar region, against the psoas muscles, usually imbedded in
fat, and supported beneath by the peritoneum. The right kidney
is heart-shaped and more anterior than the left, which is bean-
shaped. Each kidney has a superior and inferior flattened surface,
an external convex border and an internal concave one which is
deeply notched, the hilum. In the hilum, the blood-vessels, nerves
and beginning of the ureter are lodged. Inside, at the hilum, is a
cavity, the pelvis, into which the uriniferous tubules empty and
which is the beginning of the ureter.

The kidney is encapsulated by a fibrous coat which sends pro-
longations into its substance. The tissue proper of the kidney is
divided into an external or cortical layer and an internal or medul-
lary layer. The cortical layer contains the malpighian corpuscles
and the medullary layer contains the uriniferous tubules.

Blood supply: renal artery.

Nerve supply: branches from the solar plexus.

Function: secretion of urine.

Compare the kidney of the horse with that of the ox.
In the ox, the kidneys are more elongated from before to behind,
and are divided into 15 to 20 lobules, the structures of which are
comported like so many separate kidneys.

Describe the ureters.

The ureters, two in number, are membranous canals, beginning
at the pelvis of the kidney and running backward and downward to
the upper face of the bladder, which they enter in an oblique direc-
tion. Size, about 14 inch in diameter. Structure consists of an
external fibrous coat, a middle muscular and an internal mucous.

Function: to convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

Describe the urinary bladder.
The bladder is a muscular bag, situated in the inferior part of
the pelvic cavity, and has three openings, viz., the openings of the
two ureters and the beginning of the urethra. Its structure is

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90 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

principally muscular tissue and is lined with mucous membrane
made up of stratified epithelium. Its anterior half is covered with
peritoneum. Related above to the uterus and vagina in the female,
and to the seminal vesicles and rectum in the male.

Blood supply: internal pudie and umbilical arteries.

Nerve supply: pelvie plexus.

Function: receptacle for urine until conditions are satisfactory
for its expulsion.

Compare the urethra of the horse with that of the ox.

In the ox, the urethra conforms with the bend of the penis in
front of the pubis, by making an S-shaped curve. Its diameter
diminishes from its commencement to its termination. The latter
is not prolonged by an urethral tube, as in the horse. Near the
ischial arch, the urethra of the ox shows a valve which covers a
cul-de-sac about one inch deep. This is not present in the horse.
The walls of the urethra in the ox are thicker than in the horse
and are provided with a sphincter muscle and erectile tissue.

What is the length of the urethra in the mare?
It is very short, less than one inch.

SEXUAL ORGANS

Describe the ovaries of the mare and state how they differ from those
of the cow.

The ovaries, two in number, situated in the right and left sub-
lumbar regions, are small, ovoid bodies with a deep notch or hilus on
their upper surface, which gives attachment to the pavilion of the
oviduct. Each ovary floats at the anterior border of the broad liga-
ment and is attached to the uterus by vessels and the utero-ovarian
ligament. Externally, they are covered by serous membrane, under-
neath which is the tunica albuginea, a fibrous covering.

In the cow, the ovaries are relatively much smaller than in the
mare, but in form and structure are the same.

Describe the uterus of the mare. Give distinctive features of the
uterus of the cow and bitch.

The uterus of the mare is a hollow, muscular sac, situated in the
abdominal cavity in the sublumbar region. Its posterior extremity
extends to or within the anterior opening of the pelvic cavity.
It is comprised of a body, constituting the greater bulk, which is
continued anteriorly by a slight bifurcation into the two cornua.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 91

Posteriorly, it is separated from the vagina by a constriction, the
cervix or neck,

Relations: Above, to the rectum; below, with the bladder; an-
teriorly and laterally with the intestines; behind, with the vagina.

Attachments: Two broad ligaments, descending from the sub-
lumbar region to the sides of the uterus and cornua; two rudimen-
tary, round ligaments, from the sides of the uterus to the upper
inguinal ring.

Openings: One small opening in each cornua, from the oviducts ;
os uteri, opening into the vagina.

Structure: Outer serous coat, middle muscular, and inner
mucous.

Blood supply: Uterine and utero-ovarian vessels.

Nerve supply: Mesenteric and pelvic plexuses.

Function: The sac in which the embryo is developed.

In the cow, the concave curvature of the cornua looks down-
ward, instead of upward, as in the mare. The body is shorter and
narrower and the cornua are thinner and more tapering than in the
mare. The interior is studded with numerous tubercles, cotyledons.
The cervix is longer and the muscular coat thicker.

In the bitch, the body of the uterus is short and the cornua are
very long and folded, floating amongst the intestines. Its cervix
projects into the vagina and is even more voluminous than the body.

Mention the ligaments of the uterus.
Broad ligament, round ligament, and utero-ovarian ligament.

Describe the vagina.

The vagina is a long, membranous canal, situated in the pelvic
cavity, succeeding the uterus and terminating in the vulva. It is
made up of an inner mucous coat, a middle muscular, and its an-
terior part is covered with peritoneum. It is related above with the
rectum; laterally, with the ureters and connective tissue; below
with the bladder.

Blood supply: Internal pudie artery.

Nerve supply: Pelvic plexus.

Function: Copulation and passage of the foetus.

Describe the mammary gland of the cow.
The mammary gland of the cow, situated in the inguinal region,
is made up of two lateral halves, each of which is composed of two
distinct glands. The whole mass is enclosed by a fibrous capsule.

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92 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

In the centre of each quarter is a prolongation, the teat or nipple,
which is pierced at its extremity by a small orifice, the opening of
the teat duct. The teat duct or canal traverses the teat and opens
superiorly into the galactophorus sinus or reservoir at the base
of the teat.

Externally, the organ is covered with skin which, together with
ligamentous, elastic bands attached to the abdominal tunic, fixes it
in position. Internally, the organ is made up of glandular, adipose
and connective tissue.

Blood supply: External pudic.

Nerve supply: First lumbar pair.

Describe the mammary glands of the bitch.
The mammary glands of the bitch are ten in number, five on each
side, situated along the ventral surface of the body from the inguinal
to the axillary region. Each teat has from eight to ten orifices.

Describe the genital organs of the cow.
The genital organs of the cow include the ovaries, Fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina and mammary gland. For description of same, see
preceding questions.

Name the coverings of the testicles.
From without, inward: scrotum, dartos, cremaster, fibrous tunic
and tunica vaginalis.

Of what structures is the spermatic cord composed?
Vas deferens, spermatic artery, spermatic vein, nerves of sym-
pathetic origin, cremaster muscle and peritoneum.

Define the following: epididymis, vas deferens, globus major, vesiculz
seminales, prostate gland, clitoris and vulva.

Epididymis is an elongated duct, placed against the upper bor-
der and outside of the testicle, arising from the vas efferentia and
also called the head of the epididymis.

Vas deferens is an elongated canal, beginning at the epididymis
and ending at the seminal vesicles, through which spermatozoa pass.

Globus major is the enlarged anterior part of the epididymis;
also called the head of the epididymis.

Vesicule seminales are two elongated pouches in which the semen
is stored, situated above the neck of the bladder.

The prostate gland is situated at the commencement of the
urethra around the neck of the bladder. It secretes a viscid fluid,
which it pours forth into the urethra through several orifices.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 93

The clitoris is a small body, two to three inches long, situated
in the inferior commissure of the vulva. It is composed of erectile
tissue.

The vulva is the slit-like orifice of the female genitalia and is
situated in the perineal region below the anus.

ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE
Describe the eyeball.

The eyeball, which lies in the fat of the orbit, is a spherical-
shaped shell, consisting of three tunics surrounding the humors.
It is slightly bulged in front (the cornea), making the antero-
posterior, the longest diameter.

The tunics of the eye are, outer sclerotic and cornea, middle
choroid and iris, and inner retina.

The sclerotic is a white, dense membrane, forming about four-
fifths of the external shell, into which the muscles are inserted. It
is continued in front as the cornea, a transparent membrane which
constitutes the remaining one-fifth of the outer tunic. Posteriorly,
the sclera has an opening for the passage of the optic and ciliary
nerves and the central artery.

The choroid, the middle layer, is a thin, brownish, vascular
membrane. It is continued anteriorly as the iris, a circular curtain
with a central opening, the pupil. This curtain is governed by the
ciliary muscle which unites the iris to the sclera.

The retina, or internal layer, is the thinnest and most delicate.
It is the expansion of the optic nerve and adheres closely to the
choroid, ending anteriorly in a number of folds, the zone of Zinn.
Although very thin, the retina is composed of connective tissue and
nerve elements, arranged in nine or ten superposed layers.

The crystalline lens is a double convex lens of concentric layers,
with an external capsule. It is situated in the anterior one-third of
the eye, behind the pupil. Back of the lens, filling the space bounded
by the retina, is a gelatinous fluid, the vitreous humor, and anterior
to the lens is the aqueous humor, which entirely fills the anterior
and posterior chamber, the space between the cornea, pupil and iris.

The eyeball is freely movable in various directions, the move-
ments being controlled by seven muscles: five recti and two oblique,
all of which attach to the sclera.

Describe the cornea.
The cornea is a transparent membrane which constitutes the

anterior one-fifth of the outer covering of the eyeball. It is shaped
like a watch glass with its convexity forward, and is composed of

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

three layers. The anterior layer is epithelial in character and is a
continuation of the conjunctiva. The middle is composed of con-
nective tissue and the internal layer, elastic in structure, is called
Descemet’s membrane.

Name the tunics of the eyeball. Describe one.

See answer to preceding questions.

Describe the membrana nictitans and give its use.

The membrana nictitans, also called the third eyelid, is placed at
the greater angle of the eye, whence it extends over the eyeball to
remove foreign bodies from the cornea. It is made up of fibro-
cartilage, triangular in shape, thick anteriorly and thick at its base,
where it is continued by an adipose cushion which is insinuated be-
tween the muscles of the eye. It moves, almost instantaneously and
in a mechanical manner, over the eye, whenever the eyeball is
retracted in the orbit.

Describe the lachrymal apparatus of the horse and compare it with that

of the ox.

The lachrymal apparatus consists of the lachrymal gland, puncta
lachrymalia, lachrymal sac and lachrymal canal.

The lachrymal gland is conglomerate, situated between the orbi-
tal process and the upper part of the eyeball. It secretes the tears
which empty on the inner surface of the upper lid. After lubri-
cating the cornea and conjunctiva, the excess of tears enter the
puncta lachrymalia, two small canals in the upper and lower lids,
which carry the tears into the lachrymal sac, a small reservoir,
the beginning of the lachrymal canal. The latter runs down in the
lachrymal bone as a membranous canal, ending on the upper side of
the nostril.

In the ox, the lachrymal gland is much more voluminous than
in the horse; it has two large and several small ducts, and the nasal
opening is situated higher in the nostril than in the hoxse.

Describe the humors of the eye.

The vitreous humor occupies all the cavity of the eye, behind the
lens, surrounded by the retina. It is a colorless, transparent, jelly-
like tissue which concurs in refracting the rays of light and at the
same time acts as a supporting substance by maintaining the
rotundity of the eyeball.

The aqueous humor is more fluid than the vitreous, containing
only 2 per cent. solids. It occupies the anterior and posterior cham-
ber of the eye in front of the lens and is secreted by Descemet’s

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 95

membrane. It serves to maintain the convexity of the cornea and
assists in refracting the rays of light.

Describe the Eustachian tube and state its function.

The Eustachian tube is a fibrocartilaginous canal, about four
inches long, extending from the middle ear to the pharynx. Its
upper orifice is narrow, but the inferior is widened by a great slit,
the borders of which are cartilaginous in structure. Its inferior
border is cleft, allowing the mucous membrane to escape in the form
of a large sac, known as the guttural pouch. It is bordered by the
stylopharyngeus muscle.

Function: maintains the equilibrium of air within the cavity of
the tympanum.

Describe the membrana tympani.

The membrani tympani, or ear-drum, is a thin membrane which
separates the middle ear from the auditory canal; oval in shape and
is attached by its circumference to a bony frame, the tympanitie
circle. Its inner face is slightly convex and is adherent to the
handle of the malleus. Although very thin, it consists of three
layers, a middle fibrous and muscular, an external of skin, and an
internal of mucous membrane.

The function of this drum-like membrane is to receive the vibra-
tions of the sound waves and transmit them to the internal ear.

SKIN, Hair anp Hoor

Name the appendages of the skin.
Hair, sweat-glands, sebaceous glands and horny parts (chest-
nut, ergot and hoof and, in ruminants, horns).

Describe the different structures that make up the elastic cushion of
the heel.

These consist of two fibrocartilages and the plantar cushion.

The cartilages, two in number, are flattened plates, shaped like
an oblique-angled parallelogram. They are attached in front to
the anterior lateral ligament, behind to the basilar and retrossal
processes and plantar cushion; they have a thin upper border and
a thick lower. The upper border is notched for the passage of
vessels and nerves.

The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass, situated between
the lateral cartilages, the perforans tendon and the lower part of the
hoof. Superiorly, it lies against the expansion of the perforans
tendon and is attached by ligamentous bands to the ergot, meta-
carpus and os pedis. Inferiorly, it is covered by the keratogenous

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96 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

membrane and presents at its middle the pyramidal body which
corresponds to the frog. Its base terminates in two lateral masses,
the bulbs of the plantar cushion. Its summit attaches to the plantar
surface of the os pedis and on each side it is attached to the lateral
cartilages. In structure, it is composed of fibrous, elastic and adi-
pose tissue, and contains vessels and nerves.

Describe the coronary cushion.

The coronary cushion is the matrix of the wall of the hoof. It
is lodged in a cavity at the upper border of this horny case. Its
inferior border is separated from the upper extremity of the laminz
by a white ring. Its superior border is limited by the perioplic ring.
The extremities are narrow and end in the velvety tissue of the
plantar cushion. In structure it is a modified skin made up of a
fibrous framework.

What is the keratogenous membrane?

This is the secreting structure of the horny foot. It envelops
the extremity of the digit and is covered by the hoof. It consists
of the coronary cushion (see preceding question), velvety and lam-
inal tissue. The velvety tissue covers the plantar surface of the os
pedis and plantar cushion. The laminal tissue consists of 500 to 600
leaves, on the front and sides of the os pedis, which dovetail with the
leaves on the inside of the hoof wall.

Describe minutely the mode of connection of the hoof wall with the
pedal bone and state how the weight of the animal is sup-
ported by the hoof.

The os pedis is covered on the front and side by the laminal tissue
(see preceding question). This tissue consists of five to six hundred
parallel leaves, running from above, downward. On the inner side
of the hoof wall, there are analogous leaves, keraphyllous tissue,
which dovetail with these.

The weight of the body is supported by the hoof wall and bars
through the intimate union of the horny and sensitive lamine. The
sole of the foot is slightly convex upward, thus making an arch-like
support. The frog, through the medium of the plantar cushion and
lateral cartilages, receives a share of the weight and the wall the
balance.

DuctTLess GLANDS

Mention the ductless glands and state where they are located.
Spleen, adrenals, pituitary gland, thyroid and thymus.
The adrenals, two in number, lie on the under and inner side of
the kidneys, in front of the hilus.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 97

The spleen is situated in the diaphragmatic and left hypochon-
driac regions, and suspended from the sublumbar.

The pituitary gland is situated near the third ventricle of the
brain, being attached to the interpeduncular fissure by the pituitary
stem.

The thyroid gland lies in the neck beside the first two tracheal
rings.

The thymus lies under the lower face of the trachea, partly with-
out and partly within the chest in the foetus and very young animals.

Describe the spleen,

The spleen is a falciform-shaped organ, situated in the dia-
phragmatic and left hyponchondriac region. It has an external
convex and an internal concave face; a convex posterior border and
a concave and sharp anterior border. The superior extremity, the
base, is broad, and the inferior extremity is pointed. It is held in
position by a suspensory ligament from the sublumbar region and
kidney to its base, and the gastrosplenic omentum which envelops
the whole organ.

It is covered with peritoneum and has a thick, strong, fibrous
coat which sends prolongations, or trabecule, into the interior. The
tissue of the spleen is made up of pulp, a reddish material, com-
posed of pigment, broken-down corpuscles and Malpighian cor-
puscles, small rounded bodies of lymphoid structure which are
covered by the outer tunic of the small arteries.

Blood supply: Splenic artery.

Nerve supply: Solar plexus.

State the difference between the spleen of the horse and that of the ox.
(See answer to preceding question.)
In the ox, the spleen is not supported by the great omentum,
but adheres to the left side of the rumen and diaphragm. It is not
falciform, and the breadth is the same throughout its extent.

Apart from the disease microbe, what anatomic arrangement favors the
sanguineous engorgement of the spleen in anthrax and
Texas fever of animals and in malaria in man?
The capsule, the sheaths of the vessels and the trabecule consist
of a dense mesh of white and yellow elastic fibrous tissue which gives
it a great amount of elasticity.

Describe the thyroid gland.
The thyroid gland lies on the sides of the first two tracheal rings.
It is composed of two lateral lobes and a median portion, the isthmus.

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98 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Its fibrous coat sends prolongations into its structure, as in the
spleen. Its parenchyma is divided into lobules which contain vesi-
cles, lined with polygonal cells, and contains albuminous matter.
It is a very vascular organ, receiving its supply from the thyro-
laryngeal branch of the carotid artery. Nerve supply from the
first and second cervical and sympathetic.

What is the thymus gland? Where is it found?

It is a transitory organ which is found only in the fetus and
very young animals, and disappears a few months after birth. In
structure, it closely resembles the thyroid gland. It is situated
beneath the trachea, partly without and partly within the thoracic
cavity.

What are the adrenals? Give location.
The adrenals, or suprarenals, are two small bodies which resem-

ble somewhat the kidney in structure. They are applied to the lower
face of the kidney in front of the hilus and close to their inner
border. They have no excretory duct but have an internal secretion.

TOPOGRAPHICAL ANATOMY

What structures are severed in tracheotomy?
The skin, connective tissue, the cervical panniculus and sterno-
thyrohyoideus muscles and the trachea.

State the difference between the foramen ovale and the foramen
magnum.
The foramen ovale is the opening between the auricles of the
heart, seen in the fetus.
The foramen magnum is the large orifice that passes through the
occipital bone and establishes a communication between the cranial
cavity and the spinal canal.

Name the structures that would be severed in amputating the hind
limb just below the tarsus.

Skin, subcutaneous fascia, flexor pedis perforans and flexor pedis
perforatus tendons, the tendon of the oblique flexor of the meta-
tarsus, the anterior extensor of the phalanges, the lateral extensor
of the phalanges, the sheaths of these tendons, the plantar arteries,
the perforating pedal artery, the internal and external plantar
interosseous arteries, the accompanying veins of these arteries,
two rudimentary and one principal metatarsal bones.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 99

Name the regions into which the abdominal cavity is divided for study.
Sublumbar, right and left lumbar, suprasternal, umbilical, pre-
pubic, right and left inguinal, hypochondriac, flank, diaphragmatic

and pelvic regions.

At what point in the head would you trephine to open (a) the frontal
sinus, (b) the lower maxillary sinus?

(a) At the point of intersection of a line connecting the superior
borders of the orbital cavities and one parallel to, but about one-half
inch from, the median line.

(b) Just above the inferior extremity of the zygomatic ridge.

Through what tissues do you cut in the operation of median neurec-
tomy?
Skin, sterno-aponeuroticus muscle and antibrachial fascia.

HIstToLoGgicAL ANATOMY

Describe (a) arteries, (b) veins, (c) nerves.

(a) The arteries are cylindrical tubes which carry the blood from
the heart to the various organs of the body. All arteries carry pure
blood with one exception, the pulmonary artery. They originate at
the heart by two great trunks which divide and subdivide until their
size is almost imperceptible (capillaries).

Arteries are more or less rigid and elastic and have three tunics,
viz., an external fibrous (tunica adventitia), a middle (tunica
media), and an internal (tunica intima).

The outer coat is nourished by small blood-vessels, called vaso-
vasorum, which are quite voluminous in the large arteries. Nerves,
vasomotor, from the sympathetic system accompany these vessels.

(b) The veins are likewise cylindrical tubes which accompany
the arteries and carry the impure blood from the distant parts
to the heart; with one exception, the pulmonary veins which carry
pure blood from the lungs to the left auricle. They have two
distinct coats, an internal serous and an external of elastic and
muscular fibres. The walls of veins are thin, semitransparent and
elastic and collapse when empty. Nourishment is provided by vaso-
vasorum.

The interior of veins is remarkable for the presence of valves
which favor the flow of blood. No valves are found in the pul-
monary and portal veins and vena cava.

(ec) The nerves are the peripheral portions of the nervous sys-
tem. They originate in the brain or cord and are distributed to
every part of the body. Their structure is made up of a collection

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100 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

of nerve cells bound together by a delicate connective-tissue net-
work; a number of these collections, united together and covered
by neurilemma, constitute a nerve. Blood-vessels traverse the
connective tissue. On the upper root of all the spinal and on the
track of certain other nerves are masses of nerve cells, ganglia.
The function of nerves is to conduct impulses to and from the
brain and spinal cord.

Describe the structure of voluntary muscle.

Voluntary muscle is made up of a great number of fibres which
are marked by transverse furrows or strix, giving rise to the term
striated or striped muscle. Each fibre is made up of fibrils and
these in turn can be subdivided into fibrille or sarcous elements,
attached to each other end to end. The muscle fibres unite to form
secondary fasciculi which are covered by a connective sheath, the
internal perimysium. The secondary fasciculi unite to form more
voluminous fasciculi which form the entire muscle. The muscle is
covered by a connective sheath, called the external perimysium or
sarcolemma. The nuclei are flat or oval and can be seen on the
inner face of the sarcolemma.

State the difference in structure between striped muscular tissue and
unstriped muscular tissue.

(See answer to preceding question.) Unstriped muscular tissue
has no transverse striz and is found in the viscera. It is not under
control of the will, hence is called involuntary. Its structure con-
sists of fusiform cells, each with a distinct nucleus and bound
together by connective tissue.

Illustrate the difference between mucous membrane and serous mem-
brane as to (a) structure and (b) location.

(a) Both membranes have two layers, the deeper of which are
quite analogous. In mucous membrane, the superficial layer may
consist of epithelial cells only one layer deep, but usually there
are several layers (stratified). Cilia, hair-like appendages, are seen
on the surface of mucous membranes in some parts of the body,
as well as depressions in the deeper layer, giving rise to follicles and
papille. In serous membranes, the superficial layer always consists
of flat polygonal epithelial cells, one layer deep. The free surface
is always smooth.

(b) Mucous membrane is found throughout the inner walls of
the alimentary canal, respiratory channels, bladder, urethra and
vagina. Serous membrane is found within the thoracic cavity,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 101

lining the same and covering the enclosed viscera, as well as in the
abdominal cavity, where it is disposed in a similar manner.

Mention the varieties of connective tissue.
Fibrous, elastic, cartilaginous and bone.

Describe the composition of blood.
Blood contains: liquor sanguinis or plasma, containing in golu-
tion proteids (serum-albumin, serum-globulin, fibrinogen), extrac-
tives, mineral matter and gases; corpuscles, red and white.

Name the structures and coverings of the kidneys, from without inward
to the pelvis and the opening of the ureter.

1, Capsule; 2, cortex, composed of Malpighian bodies, support-
ing connective tissue, vessels and tubules, ete.; 3, medulla, composed
of uriniferous tubules (loop of Henle, convoluted and straight
tubules) ; 4, crest of the pelvis, pelvis; 5, infundibulum of the pelvis
and ureter.

Where is elastic fibrous tissue found?

It is found closely packed in certain organs such as the ligamen-
tum nuche and abdominal tunic, or forming a network in the midst
of connective tissue, as in the walls of arteries. It is also found in
the framework of bone.

Name the different kinds of epithelium. State where ciliated epithelium
is found and give its special function.

Kinds: squamous, columnar, modified and specialized.

Columnar and squamous varieties are polyhedral, pavement, or
tessellated and may be either simple or stratified. Modified epi-
thelium includes the ciliated, goblet and pigmented varieties.
Specialized includes glandular and neuro-epithelium.

Ciliated epithelium is found in the Eustachian tube and parts
of the tympanic cavity ; lachrymal passages; respiratory part of the
nasal fosse, with the communicating sinuses; ventricles of the
larynx; trachea and bronchi; epididymis and first part of the
vas deferens.

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PHYSIOLOGY *

What does the study of physiology comprise?
The sum of the knowledge concerning the function of living
things.

Define excretion. Mention four ways in which waste matter of the
properties of cells.”

All animal and vegetable life is composed of minute structural
elements, called ‘‘cells.’’ Every living organism is derived from
a parent cell, the ovum, which, through endless division and sub-
division, develops into a mature body. Since physiology treats of
the structure and function of living things, it may be truly said

that ‘‘physiology is the study of the properties of cells.’’

What properties does a cell possess?
A eell wall, cell body of protoplasm which includes a nucleus
and a nucleolus. The vital manifestations of a cell embrace
metabolism, growth, reproduction and irritability.

Describe cell division.

Direct cell division, the simplest form, consists of a direct cleav-
age of the cell body and nucleus into two parts.

Karyokinesis, mitosis or indirect cell division, is more complex
and includes a series of changes involving the nucleus, the centro-
somes and the cytoplasm. In this form, the chromatin of the nucleus
arranges itself in a star-shaped skein, the bars of which compose
themselves symmetrically. The two symmetrical parts separate,
followed by a cleavage of the cell body, making two distinct cells
in which the chromatin granules are more or less scattered. The
latter then assume a normal appearance and soon each new cell
prepares itself for division.

Name the eliminative organs of the body and state what each elim-
inates.

Skin: Eliminates water, urea, uric acid, fatty acids, carbon
dioxide, serum albumin, serum globulin, fat, and sodium and potas-
sium salts.

Kidneys: Eliminate water, urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, ben-
zoic acid, phenol, sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides of sodium,
potassium, calcium and magnesium.

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.
102

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 103

Lungs: Eliminate carbon dioxide and water.

Feces consist of the undigested portion of the food which is indi-
gestible, together with that which though digestible has escaped
absorption ; mixed with these are water, coloring substances, mucin,
organic matters, inorganic salts, bile pigment, volatile fatty acids,
remains of digestive fluids, microdrganisms, ete.

Define excretion. Mention four ways in which waste matter of the
body is eliminated.

Excretion refers to the throwing off or ejection of waste matter,
formed in the body, which is not intended to be retained in the
body and if retained would be harmful.

Waste matter is eliminated by the urine, feces, skin and expired
air.

Explain the meaning of four of the following: chordz tendinz, hema-
tin, Goll’s column, bile salts, accommodation.

Chord tendine are the small tendinous cords, attached to the -
free border of the heart valves, which unite the latter to the walls.
Hematin is the iron-containing substance of the hemoglobin.

Goll’s column is the superior median tract or column of the
spinal cord.

Bile salts, two in number, glycocholate and taurocholate, are
formed in the liver by the union of cholalic acid with glycin and
taurin.

Accommodation refers to the power which the eye possesses of
focusing itself for near and distant objects.

Define and illustrate five of the following terms: absorption, chyle,
excretion, ferment, tidal air, phagocytosis, alimentation.

Absorption is the process of taking up fluids or other sub-
stances by the skin, mucous surfaces or absorbent vessels, e.g.,
absorption of chyle by the lacteals.

Chyle is the milky fluid taken up by the lacteals from the digested
food in the intestines.

Excretion is the act or process of eliminating waste matter from
the body, e.g., urea is excreted by the kidneys.

Ferment is a substance which decomposes or causes fermentation
in other substances with which it comes in contact, ¢.g., pepsin
changes proteids into peptones.

Tidal air is the quantity of air taken in and expelled by an
ordinary respiration. In the horse it amounts to about 250 cubic
inches.

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104 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Phagocytosis is the destruction of microdrganisms and injurious
substances by the phagocytes, e.g., leucocytes envelop and digest
bacteria.

Alimentation is the act or process of affording nourishment,
e.g., food in the alimentary canal.

Define the following terms: excretion, secretion, exosmose, decussation,
reflex action.

Excretion: see preceding question.

Secretion is the process of separating from the blood and cells
a substance intended, eventually, to be utilized in the body.

Exosmose is the act of liquids and gases in passing outward
through a membrane.

Decussation refers to the crossing of the fibres of the pyramids of
the medulla from one pyramid to another.

Reflex action is an involuntary movement produced by stimu-
lation of a peripheral nerve.

State the kind of epithelium (a) in the lungs, (b) in the stomach, (c)
in the larynx.
(a) Single layer of polygonal plates, mostly without nuclei and
including groups of small and round cells.
(b) Tall columnar, some of which are the goblet-cell variety.
(ce) Stratified, ciliated, columnar and stratified squamous.

Describe the function of the blood, gland cells and nerves in secretion.
How does secretion differ from (a) transudation, (b)
cedema, (c) exudation?

Secretion is the result of the activity of the protoplasm of the
secreting cell. The inorganic constituents of a secretion are derived
from the blood by osmosis; the organic constituents are the results
of active manufacturing processes occurring within the protoplasmic
cell-contents. Through the impulse conveyed by the nerve, the
glandular blood-vessels dilate and secretion is stimulated.

Secretion differs from transudation, edema and exudation, in
that the latter are merely acts of filtration or osmosis and no glandu-
lar activity is concerned.

Which organ, liver or kidney, receives the greater amount of blood,
and what conditions, anatomic, hydrostatic and circulatory,
contribute to the difference?

The liver receives the greater amount because of its greater size,
more dependent position and greater blood supply; besides the
hepatic artery, the portal vein, draining the whole splanchnic area,
empties into it.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 105

What are the physical properties of bone? How does the chemical
composition of bone vary with age?

Bones are composed of an outer layer of compact tissue and of a
spongy, reticular tissue which forms the interior (marrow). The
compact tissue is traversed by channels called ‘‘Haversian canals,’’
from which radiate numerous canaliculi; the latter are surrounded
by concentric lamelle of bone, separated by spaces (lacunz) con-
taining the bone cells, corpuscles. These lacunse communicate with
the Haversian canals through the canaliculi. The inner spongy tis-
sue contains large marrow cavities. The exterior of bone is covered
by a thin, tough, protective membrane, the periosteum.

As age advances, the bones contain less organic matter and more
of the inorganic constituents.

Give the composition of bone. State how bone is nourished and give
the function of long bones.

See answer to preceding question.

Bones consist of connective tissue, the substratum of which is
osseine (an animal matter which yields gelatin upon boiling),
impregnated with lime salts, chiefly calcium phosphate. Bone is
composed of one-third animal matter and two-thirds mineral mat-
ter. Nourishment is supplied to bone by a nutrient artery which
sends branches into the medullary and Haversian canals.

Long bones serve an important part in locomotion by imparting
rigidity to the limbs and furnishing muscular attachments, as well
as by entering into the formation of joints.

Mention the functions of the articular cartilages.
1. Favor, by their smoothness, the gliding and displacement of
bones.
2. By their suppleness and elasticity, they lessen the violent
shocks to which the articulations are exposed.
3. They resist the wear and deformations of the articular sur-

faces.

Mention with regard to the body (a) the principal secreting organs,
(b) the excreting organs, (c) the vital organs.
(a) Salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas, sebaceous
glands, synovial, mucous and serous membranes, lachrymal glands.
The spleen, thymus, thyroid and adrenals have an internal secretion.
(b) Skin, kidneys, bowels and lungs.
(c) Heart, lungs, brain, intestines, liver, kidneys.

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106 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Mention the elements composing proteids.
Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and varying amounts of
sulphur.

Mention the inorganic constituents of the animal body.

1, Water.

2. Salts, viz., salts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium
and iron in the form of chlorides, sulphates, phosphates and car-
bonates.

3. Gases, viz., oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide,
sulphuretted hydrogen and marsh gas.

Bioop
What is blood?

The blood is the fluid that circulates through the heart, arteries
and veins, carrying nutriment and oxygen to the tissues of the
body. It is a red, opaque, rather viscous fluid with an alkaline
reaction, characteristic odor and saltish taste; specific gravity 1060.

What is the chemical composition of the blood?
Water 81 parts.
Solids 19 parts.

Hemoglobin (0.4 per cent. iron) 13 parts.
Proteids 4 parts.
Fibrinogen
Serum globulin
Serum albumin
Fibrin ferment
Fibrin globulin

Salts 1 part.

Sodium chloride
Potassium chloride
Sodium carbonate
Calcium phosphate
Magnesium phosphate
Sodium phosphate
Potassium phosphate

Extractives 0.6 part.
Fats
Cholesterin
Lecithin
Creatin
Urea

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 107

Hippurie acid
Uric acid
Grape sugar.
Nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide gases are also present.

Describe the composition of the blood with reference to the nature and
the purpose of each component part.

It consists of a colorless liquid, the plasma, containing red
blood-corpuscles (erythrocytes), yellowish, circular, biconcave discs,
containing hemoglobin which carries the oxygen; white blood-cor-
puscles (leucocytes), white spherical amceboid masses of proto-
plasm, having phagocytic powers; blood platelets, small bodies, one-
quarter the size of a red cell, function unknown.

Mention the proteids of the blood.

Fibrinogen, serum albumin, serum globulin, fibrin ferment and
fibrin globulin.

Mention three gases found in the blood. Indicate the relative amount
of each of these gases in arterial blood and in venous blood,
respectively.

Oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. In the arteries, oxygen
is present in a greater amount and carbon dioxide in a lesser
amount than in the veins. The amount of nitrogen is practically
the same in both cases.

State the average amount of blood in the horse.
6.6 per cent. of the body weight. About 66 pounds or 55 pints
in the average horse.

Describe the function of (a) red blood-corpuscles, (b) leucocytes.
(a) Carriers of oxygen.
(b) Take up and digest bacteria and other injurious substances
(phagocytosis).

State how the red blood-corpuscles vary in size and shape in the dif-
ferent animals.
Horse: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 4 to 5 microns in diameter.
Ox: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 3 to 5 microns in diameter.
Sheep : non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 2 to 4 microns in diameter.
Dog: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 5 to 7 microns in diameter.
Cat: non-nucleated, biconcave discs, 5 to 6 microns in diameter.
Camel: non-nucleated, oval bodies, 7 microns long, 4 microns broad.
Fowls: nucleated, oval bodies, 12 microns long, 7.5 microns broad.

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108 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What are the principal differences between arterial blood and venous
blood?

Arterial blood contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide,
more water, fibrinogen, extractives, salts and sugar, fewer blood-
corpuscles and less urea; its temperature is, on the average, 1° C.
lower. Venous blood is darker in color, due to the diminution in the
oxygen-content.

What is the color of the blood in the renal veins? Why?
Dark-blue, same as all venous blood. In its passage through the
kidney, the blood loses oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide, there-
fore, it is venous in character as it leaves this organ.

What salts render the blood alkaline?
The phosphate and bicarbonate of soda.

Describe the process of coagulation of the biood.

The blood first becomes a jelly and then a firm clot. The clot con-
tracts and squeezes out a fluid, serum. As this serum accumulates,
the clot sinks. The substance which brings about coagulation is
fibrinogen, which, being acted upon by the ferment, thrombin,
produees fibrin.

Of what does a blood clot consist? How would you demonstrate the
presence of fibrin in freshly drawn blood?

A blood clot consists of fibrm and blood-corpuscles. Fibrin
may be demonstrated by defibrinating freshly drawn blood. This
is accomplished by whipping the blood with a rod or bunch of
twigs; the fibrin separates rapidly and collects on the rod.

What influences the combination of hemoglobin with oxygen?

The atmospheric pressure of oxygen being higher than the
pressure of the oxygen in the venous blood as it arrives at the heart
may play a very small part in influencing the taking up of oxygen by
the blood; but the strong affinity of hemoglobin and oxygen for
each other is of greater influence. This subject has not been satis-
factorily explained.

How is oxygen carried in the blood and where is it exchanged for
carbon dioxide?
It is carried in the blood united with the hemoglobin, as oxy-
hemoglobin. It is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the tissues.

When serum is used subcutem for therapeutic purposes, what danger
attends its transfer from one genus to another?
Hemolysis, breaking down of red blood-corpuscles and liberation
of hemoglobin, occurs.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 109

What morbid and dangerous states of the blood may be connected with
the suspension of biliary secretion?

Jaundice, intoxication with the waste products of the biliary
secretion (cholesterin and lecithin) and the poisonous products in
the alimentary canal, due to constipation following a lack of the
stimulating action of bile on peristalsis.

What is (a) oxyhemoglobin, (b) methemoglobin, (c) hematoidin?

(a) Hemoglobin charged with oxygen.

(b) A modification of oxyhemoglobin in which the oxygen is
more firmly united than in ordinary oxyhemoglobin. It occurs
pathologically whenever there is a sudden breaking down of the red
blood-corpuscles, ¢.g., aS in azoturia.

(c) A yellow-brown, crystalline, iron-free product, derived from
hematin. It is found in old blood clots.

HEArtT

What is the influence of the vagus nerve on the heart? What would
be the effect on the heart if the vagi nerves were cut?

The vagus (pneumogastric) has a restraining or, as it is termed,
an inhibitory effect on the heart movements. If cut, the inhibitory
action is removed, the heart rate is greatly increased, and the
blood-pressure rises.

Describe the cardiac sounds.

There are really four cardiac sounds, but, as they occur in pairs,
we recognize only two. The first sound is dull, deep, prolonged
and louder than the second, which is short, not so deep and not
so loud. The two sounds are best reproduced by pronouncing
the words ‘‘lubb dupp.”’

What are the cardiac sounds? What causes these sounds?
See answer to preceding question.
The first sound is caused by the closing of the auriculoven-
tricular valves and the contraction of the muscular fibres. The
second sound is due to the closure of the semilunar valves.

Explain the action of digitalis on the heart.

It reduces the frequency of the heart-beat and later excites the
cardiac muscle to a stronger and prolonged systole. It is a cardiac
tonic.

Define (a) systole, (b) diastole, (c) cardiac cycle.

(a) Systole is the term applied to the heart’s contraction. It
occurs synchronously with the first heart sound; by it, the blood is
driven into the aorta and pulmonary artery.

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110 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

(b) The dilatation or stage of dilatation of the heart.

(ce) A cardiac cycle is a complete cardiac movement or heart-
beat. It includes the period from the beginning of one heart-beat
to the end of another, 4.¢., the systolic and diastolic movements with
the interval between.

BLOoD-VESSELS

How do arteries and veins differ in (a) structure, (b) function? What
arteries carry venous blood and what veins carry arterial
blood?

(a) The walls of veins are thinner than those of arteries and
they collapse when empty. They contain less elastic and muscular
material and more fibrous tissue than arteries. Veins are provided
with valves which are not present in arteries.

(b) Veins carry impure blood from the tissues to the heart.
Arteries carry pure blood from the heart to the various parts of the
body. There are two exceptions, viz., the pulmonary artery carries
venous blood from the heart to the lungs and the pulmonary vein
carries pure blood from the lungs to the heart.

How does the internal coat of an artery differ from that of a vein?
Arteries have no valves as do the veins.

Discuss the forces that cause the blood to circulate in (a) the arteries,
(b) the capillaries, (c) the veins.
(a) Force of the heart’s contraction, and the elasticity of the
arterial walls.
(b) Pressure from arteries and elasticity of the walls.
(c) Muscular contractions, valves, gravity, and negative
pressure in veins leading directly into the right heart.

Describe the course of the blood from the right auricle back to the
same point. What part of this circulation is called the sys-
temic circulation?

From the right auricle, blood flows through the tricuspid valve
into the pulmonary artery, to the lungs, returning to the left auricle
through the pulmonary veins, completing the pulmonary circulation.
From the left auricle, the blood begins the systemic circulation,
passing through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle, thence
through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, which divides
and subdivides until every part of the body is supplied. Collecting
in the veins, it is carried through the anterior and posterior vena
cava to the right auricle, whence it started, thus completing the
systemic circulation.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 111

Describe the circulation of the blood.
See answer to preceding question.

Discuss the relative velocity of the blood in the arteries, capillaries and
veins.
Greatest velocity is in the arteries, least in the capillaries, and
rising again in the veins.

Define blood-pressure. Mention (a) factors that increase blood-
pressure, (b) factors that decrease blood-pressure.
Blood-pressure is the tension on the walls of the blood-vessels
derived from the blood current.
(a) Increase in force of the heart-beat and contraction of the
arterioles.
(b) Decrease in the force of the heart-beat and dilatation of the
arterioles.

Where is blood-pressure (a) the highest, (b) the lowest? How is
blood-pressure governed?
(a) In the region of the aorta.
(b) In the region of the periphery.
Blood-pressure is governed by the contraction of the heart and
the resistance offered by the peripheral vessels; all being regulated
by the vasomotor centre in the brain.

Describe the flow of blood in the arteries.

The centre of the vessel is occupied by a column of rapidly
moving red cells, while between them and the vessel wall is a clear
layer in which the white corpuscles move slowly along, occasionally
stopping along the sides, then moving forward once more.

What is meant by the velocity of the blood? State where this velocity
is (a) the greatest, (b) the least.

Velocity refers to the rate at which the blood flows through the
blood-vessels. The velocity varies inversely as the sectional area of
the tubes. Since the total sectional area of the capillaries is greater
than that of the arteries or veins, the velocity is least in the capil-
laries and greatest in the arteries.

‘What causes the flow of blood in the veins?
Muscular contractions, valves, gravity and the negative pressure
in the veins leading directly into the right auricle.

Why is blood-pressure highest at the beginning of an expiration and
lowest at the beginning of an inspiration?

At the beginning of expiration, which is really the height of

inspiration, the intrathoracic pressure is greatest, more blood is

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112

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

forced into the aorta and, therefore, the blood-pressure is highest.
At the beginning of an inspiration, which is really the end of an
expiration, there is a negative intrathoracic pressure, the blood is
aspirated into the right auricle and the blood-pressure is lowest.

Describe the circulation of the blood in the brain.

Supplied by the cerebrospinal branch of the external carotid,
which divides into two branches, the median spinal and basilar, and
the internal carotid, which divides into the posterior communicating
aud the common trunk of the anterior and middle cerebral arteries.

The venous arrangement is very remarkable; the walls of the
veins are composed of the dura mater and portions of the cranial
bones. The veins, or sinuses of the brain, are large cavities which,
because of their unyielding walls, allow the venous blood to return
freely. The cerebral circulation is assisted by the fluid in the ven-
tricles of the brain. This fluid passes from one ventricle to another
and to the spinal cord; therefore, when the external pressure be-
comes greater, the internal becomes less, thereby avoiding any
compression of the brain substance.

Describe the portal circulation.

The portal circulation begins in the small mesenteric, the great
mesenteric and splenic veins, all of which unite to form the portal
vein. The latter, beginning near the great mesenteric artery, passes
through the pancreatic ring and divides in the great posterior fissure
of the liver to enter its structure, carrying the venous blood, which,
after circulating through the liver, leaves it by the hepatic vein.

Describe the circulation of the blood in the kidney.

The blood enters at the hilus by the renal artery, which breaks
up, after entering the organ, into a large number of branches; these
branches run in a nearly parallel direction through the medullary
portion until the cortex is reached, where they diverge in various
directions to enter the Malpighian corpuscles. In these bodies
there is a plexus of capillaries, the glomeruli, and leading from
them are small vessels, arranged similar to the arterial branches,
which unite to form the renal vein.

Give the normal pulse of (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the dog, (d) the

sheep, (e) the cat.
(a) 36-40; (b) 45-50; (c) 90-120; (d) 70-80; (e) 90-120.

VASCULAR GLANDS

Mention the vascular glands.

Spleen, thymus, thyroid, adrenals, pituitary and pineal bodies.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 113

Name two vascular glands. Give the function of each.

Spleen: Red blood-corpuscles are formed in the spleen during
intra-uterine life, but after birth they are destroyed in it. This
organ is thought by some to produce an enzyme which converts
trypsinogen into trypsin and also to produce uric acid. It serves as
a reservoir for the abdominal circulation.

Thyroid: This gland has an internal secretion which is directed
to the nutrition of the body. The nature of this secretion is not
well understood.

RESPIRATION
Describe the process of respiration. Describe the changes that take
place in inspired air during the process of respiration.

The act of respiration is divided into two parts, inspiration and
expiration. The former, by which the chest is filled with air, is a
purely muscular act; the diaphragm contracts and therefore re-
cedes, the ribs are rotated, being drawn forward and outward, their
posterior edges everted, and the intercostal space widened. By
these means the capacity of the chest is increased and the lungs
expand to fill the space, thus causing air to rush in. Expiration is
effected by the recoil of the lungs and the displaced abdominal
organs, the contraction of the abdominal muscles and the internal
intercostals. Through these movements the air is expelled from
the lungs.

During respiration, part of the oxygen of the air is taken up
by the blood in exchange for carbon dioxide which is thrown off.

How are the diameters of the chest enlarged during inspiration?

By the recession of the diaphragm, the anteroposterior diameter
of the chest is lengthened from four to five inches and by the out-
ward rotation of the ribs, the transverse diameter, between the
eleventh and twelfth ribs, is increased one and one-half inches.

Compare inspired air with expired air as to relative quantity of oxygen,
nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
Inspired air contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than
expired air; the amount of nitrogen is the same in both.

Oxygen. Nitrogen Carbon dioxide.
Inspired air ................ 20.96 79.01 0.03
Bxpired.. ail jsveceer gai 03 00-4 16.02 79.01 4.38

Mention the functions of respiration.
Supplies oxygen to the blood and excretes carbon dioxide, solids,
moisture, etc.

8
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114 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give in full the functions of the lungs.
Medium of interchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between
the air and blood.

Name (a) two inspiratory muscles, (b) two expiratory muscles. What
is the normal stimulus to the action of these muscles?
(a) Diaphragm and external intercostals.
(b) Abdominal and internal intercostals.
Inspiration is presided over by a centre in the medulla. Ex-
piration is thought to be a purely passive act.

Discuss the absorption of gas by fluids.

If the atmosphere, containing a mixture of gases, be exposed over
a fluid containing some of these gases dissolved in it, it is found
that if the proportion of dissolved gases in the fluid is less than
their proportion in the atmosphere, the latter pass into the fluid
until the amounts in air and fluid are equal. Likewise, if the
fluid contains more dissolved gas than the atmosphere, gas will pass
from the fluid to the air above until the amounts are equal. This
is a process of diffusion.

Define tidal air and residual air.
Tidal air is the air breathed in and out in an ordinary respiration.
Residual air is that which always remains after a forced expiration.

Give the normal number of respirations per minute in (a) the horse,
(b) the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the hog, (e) the dog.
(a) 8-16; (b) 12-15; (¢) 12-20; (d) 10-15; (e) 15-20.

What is the ratio of respirations to the pulse beats?
About 1: 4.

Describe the lining of the bronchial tubes, touching on epithelium and
glands.
The bronchi are lined with mucous membrane composed of
ciliated epithelium and containing mucous glands.

What is the meaning of each of the following: (a) eupncea, (b) hy-
perpneea, (c) dyspnoea, (d) apnoea?
(a) Easy or normal respiration.
(b) Moderate increase in the respiratory movements.
(ce) Difficult or labored breathing.
(d) Transient cessation of breathing following a forced respira-
tion.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 115

Describe the different stages of asphyxia. How does asphyxia cause
death?

First stage: labored breathing, all muscles of respiration being
brought into play; convulsions; blood-pressure rises.

Second stage: inspiratory muscles less active; expiratory
muscles still powerful; convulsions cease.

Third stage: unconsciousness, occasional inspiratory gaspings,
mouth open, the pupils dilated, pulse imperceptible, blood-pressure
falls. Death occurs from five to six minutes after the beginning of
the first stage.

Asphyxia causes death by creating a deficiency of oxygen and an
excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. Carbon dioxide is a poison
and affects the cardiac centre in the brain, causing death.

Give the composition of normal air and state how it supports life.

By volume. By weight.
OXYGeN soap sciwe se aw dsa dasa ea wee ee 20.96 23.015
NItEOGED nos cnet SO es he ERE eRS ee Baws Mls 79.01 76.985
Carbon dioxide ............ cece eee eee 3° | teresa

Normal air supports life by supplying oxygen which it contains
in an uncombined state.

What animals may, with effort, breathe through a broken long bone?
Why?
Birds, because they have a system of air sacs in the bones which
communicate with the lungs.

DIGESTION

Give the different steps in the process of digestion.
Prehension, mastication, salivation, deglutition, gastric digestion,
intestinal digestion, absorption and defecation.

Give the dental formula for the horse and the ox,

3-3
3-3;
4-4 3-3 Pate
= Pp J33 M 303° Total 40. No canines in mare, total 36.
or
44

44

Horse: I = C

3-3 1-
3-3 1

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116 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

How do horses, cattle and sheep, respectively, take in their food?
Have these methods any bearing on swallowing non-alimen-
tary and harmful bodies?

Horses prehend the food mainly with the lips and thoroughly
masticate it. Because of this thorough mastication, any foreign
body is quite sure to be detected and rejected.

Cattle use their long tongue to convey food into the mouth,
whence it passes directly to the rumen through a thin, distensible
cesophagus, hence foreign bodies are frequently swallowed.

Sheep have a cleft upper lip which enables them to graze closely
and pick up very small objects. They have a delicate manner of
eating and are less liable to swallow foreign bodies than cattle, but,
owing to their method of swallowing their food with little or no
mastication, foreign bodies are more commonly found in their
stomachs than is the case with the horse.

Name the digestive ferments. What digestive ferments act on (a)
fat, (b) starch, (c) proteid?
Ptyalin, pepsin, rennin, trypsin, steapsin, amylopsin, entero-
kinase, erepsin, maltase, invertase and lactase.
(a) Steapsin; (b) ptyalin and amylopsin; (c) pepsin and
trypsin.

What are the physical and chemical properties of saliva?

An alkaline, opalescent, or slightly turbid fluid which readily
froths when shaken. On exposure to the air it throws down a
deposit of calcium carbonate due to the loss of carbon dioxide.
It has a specific gravity of 1005. Microscopically, it consists of
epithelial scales and salivary corpuscles. Saliva consists of a 0.6
per cent. mineral matter and 0.2 per cent. organic matter, the latter
consisting of mucin and small amounts of proteid matter. The salts
are: calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium phosphate, mag-
nesium chloride and magnesium phosphate. It contains a ferment
known as ptyalin which converts starches into sugar. The gases
of saliva are: carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen.

Name four uses of saliva.
Assists in mastication and swallowing; stimulates the nerves of
taste and has an amylytic action. In ruminants, it assists in
rumination.

Describe the cells of the parotid gland when actively secreting.
The granular material passes toward the centre of the acinus or
lumen, leaving each cell with a clear outer edge and the edge next

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 117

the lumen is granular; when the cells are exhausted, they are
smaller and remarkably clear, only a few granules being left on the
inner edge, whilst the lumen is now distinct and large and the
nuclei become large and rounded, showing the nucleoli.

Compare the amount of saliva in the horse with that in the ox. On
what conditions does the amount secreted depend?

It has been estimated that the horse secretes 84 pounds and the
ox 112 pounds of saliva in 24 hours. The amount depends on the
dryness of the food, more being secreted when eating dry than moist
foods.

How is food when swallowed prevented from getting into the posterior
nares and the larynx?
The soft palate prevents food entering the posterior nares and
the epiglottis protects the larynx.

Describe the phenomena of regurgitation in ruminants.

Rumination is a reflex, nervous act and can only be performed
by means of the united action of the diaphragm, stomach walls and
abdominal muscles. It is performed as follows: The churning move-
ment of the rumen throws the food gently against the esophageal
groove, when a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm and abdom-
inal muscles forces some of the liquid content of the reticulum and
the solid matter from the rumen into the esophagus. The funnel-
shaped extremity of the latter contracts and cuts off the bolus, which,
by a reverse peristaltic action, is conveyed to the mouth. After a
thorough mastication, the bolus is reswallowed and passes directly
into the third compartment of the stomach.

Explain fully why a normal horse can rarely vomit.
1. The cardiac extremity of the csophagus is thickened and
contracted.
2. The esophagus enters the stomach in an oblique direction.
3. The dilated pylorus lies close to the contracted cardia, so that
compression of the stomach contents forces them into the duodenum.
4. The mucous coat is thrown into folds over the cardiac opening.
5. Encircling the cardia are muscular loops the contractions of
which keeps the opening tightly closed.
6. The stomach is not in contact with the abdominal wall.

State the function of the stomach.
It thoroughly mixes the food and through the action of the

enzymes, secreted by its walls, converts proteid matter into pep-
tone, thereby rendering it absorbable. In young animals, there is

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118 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

another enzyme, rennin, which curdles milk. In the stomach of.
dogs, free hydrochloric acid is present; it aids in the digesting
of bone,

Give the composition of gastric juice. From what is the hydrochloric
acid derived?
Water, hydrochloric acid, lactic acid, pepsin, rennin, chlorides,
phosphates and iron.
The hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice is thought to be
derived from the gastric glands which form it from the chlorides,
which the mucous membrane takes up from the blood.

Describe the digestion of proteids in the stomach.

Pepsin converts proteids into peptones. This change is effected
through several stages. The intermediate products in the order in
which they occur are:

1. The proteid as consumed, or native albumin.

2. Acid albumin, or syntonin.

3. Primary proteoses.

4. Secondary proteoses.

5. Peptones.

How many stomachs has (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the goat, (d)
the camel?

(a) One; (b), (ec) and (d) one stomach divided into four com-
partments, which gives rise to the common statement that they have
four stomachs. The fourth compartment, the abomasum, is the
true stomach and is practically the same as the stomach of other
animals.

State the condition of food as it leaves the abomasum.
It is a soft, pasty mass with a sour odor and alkaline reaction;
the proteids have been converted into peptones and the starch is
said to have been digested. In the young, the milk has been curdled.

State the extent of the secreting (peptic) mucosa, as compared with
the non-peptic, in the stomach of the horse, hog and dog
and in the fourth stomach of the ox.

In the horse, the peptic mucosa constitutes about two-thirds of
the whole lining of the stomach, the non-peptic the remainder.

In the hog, the peptic mucosa constitutes about one-third, the
remainder being non-peptic.

In the dog, the peptic mucosa extends over the whole extent of
the stomach wall.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 119

In the ox, about the same relation exists between the two as in
the horse, but the glands of the pylorus are poorer in pepsin than
those of the fundus.

Name the different digestive ferments in the gastric secretion of the
mature horse and the different proximate food principles
that they digest. State how this action is affected in each
case by acidity and alkalinity, respectively.

Pepsin acts on proteid matter and can only do so in an acid
medium. The gastric secretion is said by some to contain an
amylolytic ferment; at any rate, the saliva swallowed with the food,
this ferment, or both convert starch into sugar in the stomach and
can only act during the early part of stomach digestion while the
reaction is alkaline.

What produces the sensation of (a) hunger, (b) thirst?

(a) Hunger is referred to the stomach, but the reason why is
not known. The pneumogastric nerves may be divided but the sen-
sation of hunger remains. The stomach may be full or empty and
hunger still exist.

(b) Thirst is referred to the pharynx. A deficiency of mois-
ture in the system is always shown by a dryness of the pharynx and
palate. Nothing is known of the nervous apparatus involved in
thirst.

Describe peristaltic action. How is it accomplished?

Peristaltic action is the worm-like movement by which the ali-
mentary canal propels its contents. It consists of a wave of contrac-
tion passing along the tube, anteroposteriorly. It is accomplished
by the contraction of its circular and longitudinal muscular fibres.

Mention the glands of the intestinal canal and state their function.
Lieberkiihn’s and Briinner’s glands secrete a mucous fluid which
contains enzymes as follows: succus entericus, enterokinase, erepsin,
inverting ferments (invertase, maltase, lactase). These enzymes
have very important digestive actions.

State the difference between chyme and chyle.

Chyme is the liquid mass into which the food is converted by
gastric digestion. It is a yellow, frothy, precipitated, slimy fluid,
which in the anterior part of the intestinal canal possesses a peculiar,
mawkish smell, and in the ileum, a distinctly fecal odor. In the
ileum, the contents are considerably less fluid.

Chyle is the milky fluid taken up by the lacteals from the chyme
in the intestines. It is a turbid, alkaline fluid, containing fat

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120 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

globules. In starving animals it is transparent, owing to the absence
of fat, and in herbivora it is said to be yellowish or yellowish-green,
owing to the chlorophyll in the food.

How does chyle differ from lymph?
Chemically they are very much alike, but chyle contains fat,
which gives it a milky appearance. Lymph contains lymph cor-
puscles and possesses the power of spontaneous clotting.

State the function of the double colon in digestion.
In the colon, bacteria attack the unabsorbed products of proteid
digestion, reducing them to simpler end-products. These end-
products are partly absorbed, but mostly passed out with the feces.

What constitutes the bulk of the faeces? Compare the feeces of her-
bivora with the feeces of carnivora.

The feces consist principally of that portion of the food which
is undigestible, together with that part which though digestible has
escaped absorption.

The feces of herbivora consist mainly of inorganic matter (58
per cent.), and they are acid in reaction. In carnivora, there is
less inorganic matter (20 to 25 per cent.), and they are alkaline in
reaction. The feces of carnivora contain a large amount of lime
salts.

What relation has the portal vein to absorption from the intestines?

The portal vein drains the whole splanchnic area, hence the blood
it carries is charged with substances, absorbed from the intestinal
canal, that are by-products formed during the gradual breaking-
down of the food substances. These substances are those which
are soluble in water, such as salts, sugar, soaps, and peptone. Pep-
tone is probably changed to serum-albumin during absorption, for
peptone in the blood is a poison.

Give the function of the liver.
Secretion of bile, glycogenie function, formation of urea and
a protective function (neutralizes poisons).

Give the blood supply of the liver.
The hepatic artery supplies the nutritive blood. The functional
blood is supplied by the portal vein.

What are the functions of the bile? Show how the secretion of bile
in the equine differs from that in the bovine.
Functions of the bile: Emulsifies fat, stimulates peristalsis and
has slight antiseptic action on the intestinal contents.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 121

Equines have no gall-bladder, hence the bile is poured into the
intestines as fast as it is secreted. Bovines have a gall-bladder and
in this capacious receptacle the bile is stored until required. It
has been computed that a horse secretes 10 ounces of bile, hourly,
and the ox only 4 ounces in the same time.

What is glycogen?

Glycogen is commonly called ‘‘animal starch.’’ It is a carbo-
hydrate from the liver, leucocytes, cartilage and other tissues. It
is formed in the liver from carbohydrates and proteids, being con-
verted into sugar as the needs of the system require, and is carried
away in the hepatic vein.

State the function of the pancreas.
The pancreas secretes a digestive fluid and also has an internal
secretion which, in some way not well understood, governs the
amount of sugar in the body.

Give the composition of the secretion of the pancreas.
The pancreatic fluid is an alkaline, clear, colorless fluid with
a saltish, unpleasant taste and a specific gravity of 1010 (in the
dog, it is viscid). It contains over 98 per cent. water, the balance
being salts, of which sodium chloride is the most important, and
organic matter which contains the active principles of the fluid.
These enzymes are amylopsin, steapsin, trypsin and rennin.

Give the ferments of the pancreatic juice and state the function of each.
1. Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme which converts proteids into
pepsin.
2. Amylopsin is a diastatic enzyme which converts starch into
sugar.
3. Steapsin is a lipolytic enzyme which acts on fats.
4. Rennin is a milk-curdling enzyme.

What is the action of the pancreas on the production of glucose in
the urine and how is this action understood to be brought
about?

If the pancreas be removed, glucose appears in the blood and is
separated by the kidneys, causing glycosuria. If only partly re-
moved, glycosuria occurs but to a lesser extent. It is not known
how this action occurs, but it is considered that the internal secre-
tion of the pancreas acts upon a ferment in the muscles and makes
the decomposition of sugar possible.

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122 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the action of salt in digestion.

Salt increases thirst and causes the animal to drink more water,
which increases the fluidity of the food and thereby aids digestion
and absorption. In the stomach, it forms hydrochloric acid, which
is so essential to gastric digestion.

Describe several conditions that retard digestion.

Improper teeth cause improper mastication of the food, which
hinders the action of the digestive fluids. Improper foods (too hot,
too bulky, too cold, too dry, ete.) retard digestion. Feeding hay
before grain causes a retention of the latter in the stomach, and
disease conditions of any part of the alimentary canal retard or
entirely prevent digestion.

ABSORPTION

Describe the lymph as to (a) appearance, (b) source, (c) function.

(a) A transparent, slightly yellow-colored fluid, alkaline in reac-
tion; occasionally it is a light rose color from the presence of red
blood-corpuscles, and it is often opalescent from the presence of
fat globules.

(b) There are two theories advanced to account for the for-
mation of lymph. The more generally accepted one is the physical
theory. According to this, the lymph is formed from the blood by
the process of filtration and osmosis. The second or secretory theory
is based on the secretory activity of the endothelial lining of the
capillary walls.

(c) Lymph is a sort of mediary material between the tissues and
the blood, by which nourishment is carried from the blood to the
tissues and effete material taken back to the blood. Generally
speaking, the lymphatic system is the drainage system of the body
as contrasted with the blood, the irrigating system.

Describe the lymph-spaces, the lymph-capillaries and the general
arrangement of the lymphatic vessels.

The lymph-spaces are irregular cavities, lined by epithelioid
plates, found in the connective tissue outside of the blood-vessel
walls, into which the lymph passes from the blood. From these
spaces, the lymph reaches the lymph-capillaries. The latter are
the most minute branches of the lymphatic vessels and their lining
is composed of the same epithelioid plates as found in the spaces.
Between these plates, crevices are supposed to exist through which
the lymph transudes.

The lymphatic vessels follow the capillaries. They have, in addi-
tion to the epithelioid lining, a muscular coat and a connective-tissue

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 123

covering. Valves, similar to the ones found in veins, are seen in
their interior. All the lymphatic vessels of the left side of the head
and neck, the left fore limb, the chest, the abdominal cavity and
hind limbs converge toward and empty into a central vessel, the
thoracic duct, which empties into the anterior vena cava; the
lymphatic vessels of the right side of the head and neck and the
right fore limb collect and pour their contents by a separate duct
into the same vein.

What medicinal and other agencies may be employed as lympha-
gogues?

Ingestion of large quantities of water assists in increasing the
amount of lymph. Certain agents, when injected into the circu-
lation, increase the flow of lymph, such as peptone, decoctions of
intestinal wall, liver, ete., crystalline bodies such as sugar and
neutral salts. The administration of sodium citrate by the mouth
increases the general lymphatic circulation.

In what diseases of connective tissue is the lymph specially involved?
In infected wounds and suppurative inflammations.

What forces assist the flow of lymph?
Contraction of vessel walls, aspiration by the diaphragm, con-
traction of the abdominal muscles, peristalsis, and valves in the
lymph-vessels.

SKIN
State the function of the skin.
Protective covering for the body; sense of touch; excretion of
waste matter and regulation of temperature.

Describe the glands found in the skin of domestic animals, noting
the relative number and complexity of these in the different
genera, and the attendant variation of the product in amount
and facility of secretion.

The sweat-glands in the ox are rudimentary, consisting merely
of oval sacs found principally on the muzzle. In the horse, dog,
eat, sheep and hog they are more highly developed, being long
convoluted tubes which pass through the entire thickness of the
skin. The sweat-glands of the horse are quite generally distributed,
but there are certain parts of the skin which sweat more freely than
others, for instance, the base of the ears, the neck, sides of the chest
and the inside of the thighs. Mules and donkeys sweat with diffi-
culty and then principally at the base of the ears. Dogs and eats

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124 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

perspire freely on the foot-pads and but very little elsewhere.
The sweating of pigs is confined to the snout. Sheep are said to
perspire very little or not at all.

The sebaceous glands, racemose in type, are scattered quite gener-
ally over the body, but are more especially developed where there
is an abundant supply of hair, also in the prepuce, ears and eyelids.
The ducts of the sebaceous glands, as a rule, empty into the hair
follicles. These glands are very numerous in sheep and secrete
the oily substance known as wool-fat or lanolin.

What is the difference between sebaceous and sudoriparous glands?

Sebaceous glands are racemose in type; their secretion, sebum,

an oily substance, is formed principally by a fatty degeneration and
breaking down cf the cell-content.

Sudoriparous glands secrete sweat by a true secretory activity
of the cells composing them. The nerve supply to sweat-glands is
more acutely developed than is the case with sebaceous glands. This
is demonstrated by the effect of emotion on the production of sweat.

What is sebum? State where and how it is secreted and give its func-
tions.

Sebum is the secretion of the sebaceous glands; it is a thick,
semifluid substanee, composed of fat and epithelial débris from the
cells of the Malpighian layer. For manner of secretion, see answer
to preceding question.

Sebum saves the epithelium from the disintegrating influence of
water, protects the animal from the elements, especially rain storms;
keeps the skin moist and pliable and maintains a glossy hair coat.

State the effect of a complete compulsory suppression of cutaneous
perspiration.
A loss of body heat followed by death in a few days is produced
by varnishing the skin. Formerly, it was thought that this result
was due to the retention of poisonous products.

Of what does dandruff consist?
Epithelial scales, fat, coloring matters, salts, silica and dirt.

State the difference in structure of hair, fur and wool.

Fur is very fine, closely set hair, and is distinguished from
ordinary hair, which is longer and coarser and generally more or
less present with it. Wool is a modified form of hair, distinguished
by its slender, soft and wavy or curly structure and by the highly
imbricated or serrated surface of its filaments.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 125

Mention the conditions that favor the growth of wool or of improve-
ment in its quality.

Good feeding of a rather high nitrogenous diet; neither too hot
nor too cold temperature; dry surroundings. Salt and sulphur
are thought to aid the growth of wool; at any rate, the former is
indispensable as a part of the diet and should be given regularly ;
the latter is valuable as a mild laxative and, by its general tonic
action, may improve the fleece.

What precautions may be taken to limit the growth of an injuriously
long, thick coat of hair?
Warm quarters and blanketing will cause shedding. Clipping
may be resorted to.

URINE

Give in full the functions of the kidneys.
They are the filtering organs of the body. They exerete urine,
which consists of nitrogenous waste products, salts and other ex-
crementitious substances.

What is the structure of the capsule of the kidney and how does this
capsule affect the progress of the urine through the urinif-
erous tubules, pelvis and ureter?

It is composed largely of fibrous tissue and is rigid and unyield-
ing. The internal pressure, therefore, tends to force the urine
through the various canals.

Describe the cortical layer of the kidney and state where the secretion
of the liquid and solid elements of the urine takes place.
The cortical layer is the essential secreting region. It contains
the Malpighian bodies and convoluted tubules, as well as the be-
ginning of the straight collecting tubules. Beneath the capsule,
also between the cortex and medulla, is a narrow layer in which
no glomeruli are found, otherwise the cortex is filled with them.
In the glomeruli, the water and perhaps the salts are passed
out, while in the tubules the organic matter is excreted.

Give the composition of urine.

Water.

Organic matter: Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, creatine, crea-
tinine, benzoic acid, ethereal sulphates of phenol and cresol, color-
ing matter and mucus.

Salts: Sulphates, phosphates and chlorides of sodium, potas-
sium, caletum and magnesium.

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126 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Compare the urine of herbivora with the urine of carnivora as to its
chemical reaction and give the cause for the difference.

The urine of herbivora is alkaline, owing to the excess of alkaline
salts of organic acids contained in their food, such as malic, citric,
tartaric and succinic. These salts are converted into carbonates
during their passage through the body and appear as such in the
urine. The urine of carnivora is acid in reaction, due to the pres-

ence of the acid phosphate of soda.

Give the reaction and specific gravity of the urine of (a) the horse, (b)
the ox, (c) the sheep, (d) the dog.
(a) Alkaline, 1035; (b) alkaline, 1020; (c) alkaline, 1010;
(d) acid, 1050.

What is the average amount, by weight, of excreta and of urine passed
in 24 hours by (a) the horse, (b) the cow?
(a) Exereta, 24 lbs.; urine, 81% pints.
(b) Excreta, 75 lbs.; urine, 25 pints.

What are the sources of urea?

Urea is a nitrogenous end-product, derived from proteid food
and proteid tissues. These substances, after destruction, are dis-
charged into the blood in the form of ammonia compounds and are
then converted into urea in the liver.

State the causes, racial, dietetic and pathologic, that tend to cause
acidity of the urine.

The urine of carnivora is acid, due to the acid phosphate of soda.

A flesh diet or starvation, when the animal is living on its own

tissue, produces acidity of the urine. If a horse is fed exclusively

on oats, its urine becomes acid, because the acidity increases with

the nitrogen contents of the food; oats are very rich in nitrogen.

The urine of herbivora is acid in fevers when the appetite is lost or
impaired, also in catarrh of the intestinal tract.

NUTRITION

Define (a) metabolism, (b) anabolism, (c) catabolism. What is meant
by the metabolism of nutrition?

(a) The changes occurring in living tissues; the building up
and breaking down of the body tissues.

(b) The building up process or the conversion of matter into
protoplasm.

(¢) The breaking down process or the conversion of protoplasm
into a lower state of organization and ultimately into waste
products.

By the term ‘‘metabolism of nutrition’’ is meant the constructive

ij : eo. th eae
or anabolic metabo Snot erpy fy rocess of assimilation.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS (127)

Name some of the important food proteids. What do green vegetables
contain?
Oats, rye, wheat, corn, barley, brewers’ grains, clover and grass.
Green vegetables contain a large proportion of protein. The
color is due to a green coloring matter, chlorophyll.

Name the classes of non-nitrogenous foods. Give a list of the foods
that come under each class named.
1. Carbohydrates: starch, sugar, gum and cellulose.
2. Fat: the fat part of milk and meat.
3. Inorganic matter: chlorine, potassium, sodium and iron.

Mention the effete materials in the body produced from nitrogenous
foods.
Urea, uric acid, hippuric acid, creatine and creatinine.

What are the ultimate results of proteid foods in the body?
See answer to preceding question.

What is the chief function of fat in the body?
By its oxidation, it supplies heat and energy.

What would constitute a proper diet for a horse weighing 1500 Ibs.
and working every day?

Timothy hay .........- sees eee ee eee eee eee 10 pounds
OBES. eaten s He He S ete gi ae Seu os RRS eS Se Hee 12 pounds
Wheat bran ....... 0... ee cee eee ee eee e eee 4 pounds
COM: shew stids taki iaeasteie testa sash 4 pounds

Give the origin and the destination of glycogen.
Glycogen is derived from the starch in the food. It is stored in
the liver and dispensed to the tissues in the form of glucose.

Discuss briefly the nature and value of a balanced ration.

A balanced ration is one containing all of the food elements in
the proper proportions for the animal’s requirements without in-
curring a loss in weight. The tissues require all of the food elements
but in different proportions. This proportion is approximately one
part of proteid to six parts of carbohydrate and fat.

Give a daily ration containing the proper relative amount of dry mat-
ter, proteids, fats and carbohydrates for a dairy cow that

weighs goo pounds.

Clover hay .......e see eee cece centre erecees 10 pounds
Corn silage ........ eee cece eee eee tenes 35 pounds
Hominy chops .....-.-..sseeeereereerree 2 pounds
Wheat bran ........:ee ee eee eee eet 4.5 pounds
Linseed meal ......... 000s eee ee eee tees 2.5 pounds

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128 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the effects of starvation on the tissue.
The animal lives on its own tissues. The urine of herbivora be-
comes acid. Nitrogen is eliminated rapidly at first, but soon only
a small amount is lost daily. The amount of carbon dioxide excreted
falls in amount and the absorption of oxygen is reduced. The fat
suffers the greatest loss, being nearly all consumed before death
occurs. The central nervous system suffers no loss.

Anima Hat

How is the heat of the body (a) maintained, (b) regulated?
(a) By muscular contraction and tension, glandular activity
and tissue oxidation.
(b) By the heat centres in the brain, which preside over and
maintain an equality in heat production and heat loss.

What is animal heat? What conditions influence the temperature of
the body?

Animal heat is the heat produced in the body by the chemical
changes occurring in the tissues. Four-fifths of the daily heat pro-
duction is generated in the skeletal muscles.

Exercise, feeding, changes in the atmospheric temperature,
variations in the amount of humidity, sweating, defecation, urina-
tion and respiration influence the body temperature.

Give the average normal temperature of the (a) horse, (b) ox, (c)
dog, (d) sheep, (e) swine, (f) cat.
(a) 100.4° F. (38.0° C.).
(b) 101.8° F. (38.7° C.).
(ec) 101.5° F. (88.6° C.).
(d) 104.0° F. (40.0° C.).
(e) 103.3° F. (39.0° C.).
(f) 101.5° F, (38.6° C.).

Why does the temperature vary with external conditions in cold-
blooded animals and remain constant in spite of external
conditions in warm-blooded animals?

Because of the difference in the energy of tissue changes. In
cold-blooded animals the development of heat is so slight that it
is quickly dissipated in a cold atmosphere, whereas, in warm-
blooded animals the amount of heat, on account of the greater
energy of tissue change, is so much greater that it gives up only a
part to the surrounding medium. Furthermore, in warm-blooded
animals, the heat-regulating mechanism is undoubtedly more highly
developed, in fact, there would seem to be no such mechanism in
the cold-blooded animals.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 129

Explain why the temperature does not rise unduly as a result of severe
exercise.
Because the heat-regulating mechanism causes the excess of heat
to be lost through radiation, sweating, etc., and thus a balance is
maintained.

Mention the causes of the variations in the average temperature of the
horse and of the dog.

A rise in temperature may be due to a contraction of the capil-
laries in the skin, following a cooling of the exterior, thus sending
more blood to the deeper internal parts. Exercise and oxidation of
food increase the body heat, therefore there is a daily variation corre-
sponding to periods of activity and rest. When the peripheral
vessels dilate, a greater radiation occurs and the internal tempera-
ture falls. The body temperature is lowest in the early morning
when the vital processes are at lowest ebb.

Describe the chief factors in the regulation of the temperature of the
body.

The heat centres in the brain preside over the heat-regulating
mechanism. Heat loss occurs through radiation and conduction,
evaporation of sweat, evaporation from the mouth and nostrils,
vaporizing of water from the lungs, warming of inspired air, feces
and urine. Heat production occurs through oxidation of tissues,
glandular activity, and muscular contraction and tension.

What is a calorie or heat unit?

A large calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise one kilo-
gramme of water from 0° to 1° C. A small calorie is the amount
of heat needed to raise one gramme of water 1° C. in temperature.
(A horse produces 2.1 large calories per hour for every 2.2 pounds
of body weight and it is estimated that a 1100 pound horse loses
20,684 large calories per diem when at rest, 24,500 at moderate
work and 37,200 at hard work.)

What tissues produce the greatest amount of heat?

The skeletal muscles; four-fifths of the daily heat production
originating in them.

Compare the natural means by which the body of the horse is cooled
in summer with the means by which the body of the dog is
cooled. Explain.

The horse loses heat to a great extent by the evaporation of
perspiration from the skin. The dog sweats but little and that only
on the foot-pads, but by panting, the mouth cavity and respiratory
passages are supplied with a rapidly changing current of air. This

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130 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

causes a rapid evaporation of moisture from these parts, thereby
cooling the body.

Give arguments for and against clipping horses in winter.

Far Against
Less sweating and loss of condition. Require blanketing and warmer quar-
Less liability to effects of cold. ters.

Easier to groom.

Muscuuar SyYsTEM

Define: voluntary muscle, involuntary muscle. Give an example of
each.

Voluntary muscle is one the movements of which are under the
control of the will; nearly always striated; e.g., any skeletal muscle,
such as the masseter, biceps, etc.

Involuntary muscle is one the movements of which are not
under the control of the will; nearly always non-striated, ¢.g.,
muscles of the intestinal walls, bladder, etc.

What peculiarities has the heart muscle?
Heart muscle is striated but is involuntary. Its fibres are
formed by branched, nucleated, quadrilateral cells and it has no
sarcolemma.

What are the functions of muscle? How many kinds of muscle are
there?

Functions: movements of the skeleton, contraction of the heart,
regulation of the blood supply, transportation of ingesta along the
alimentary canal.

Varieties: 1, voluntary, skeletal, striped or red muscle; 2, in-
voluntary, unstriated or pale muscle; 3, heart muscle.

Discuss the phases of a muscular contraction. What chemical changes
accompany muscular contraction?

1. The latent period, which lasts about one one-hundredth part
of a second, is the time occupied by the stimulus to traverse the
nerve and by the muscle in preparing itself.

2. The period of contraction occupies about one-twentieth of a
second, during which time the muscle shortens.

3. The period of relaxation which follows the maximum of
contraction and has a duration of about one one-hundredth of a
second longer than the period of contraction.

Chemical changes accompanying muscular contraction are: in-
creased output of creatine, urea, carbon dioxide, sarcolactic acid;

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 131

production of heat by the oxidation of the carbohydrates, glycogen
and sugar.

Define muscular excitability. What conditions tend to (a) impair
muscular excitability, (b) enhance muscular excitability?

Muscular excitability is the power possessed by muscles to
respond to stimuli. This excitability is independent of the motor
nerve, as may be shown by injecting curare into the muscle, when
stimulation of the motor nerve will not produce muscular contrac-
tion, but if the same stimulus is applied directly to the muscle, con-
traction follows.

(a) Fatigue and lessened blood supply.

(b) By training and ‘‘conditioning’’ the voluntary muscles are
educated to work in the best and most economical manner; their
response increases in rapidity and power and their relaxation is
quickened to prevent loss of time.

‘What changes take place in a muscle as a result of rigor mortis?

The muscle becomes firm and solid, loses its elasticity and does
not respond to electrical stimuli. Its reaction is no longer alkaline,
but becomes acid owing to the sarcolactic acid formed. The proteids
coagulate, carbon dioxide is produced and heat is evolved.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Describe (a) an efferent nerve, (b) an afferent nerve. Give the func-
tion of each.
(a) One conveying impulses from a centre to the periphery.
This impulse may cause contractions and movements of muscles,
blood-vessels and viscera, or, it may be inhibitory in character and
thus slow the heart, retard peristaltic action, etc.
(b) One conveying impulses from the periphery to a centre.
The impulse may be one of the special senses, sight, hearing, smell,
ete., one of pain, heat, cold, ete.

Classify nerves according to function and state the function of each
class named.
1. Afferent or sensory.
2. Efferent or motor.
See answer to preceding question.

Describe the functions of the spinal cord.
1, Conducts impulses from the periphery to the brain and vice

versa.
2. Seat of numerous reflex actions.

3. Takes some part in codrdination.

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182 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What are the functions of the spinal nerves?

The superior roots convey sensory impulses from the whole
body, except certain parts of the face. The inferior roots convey
motor impulses to all of the voluntary muscles, also to the bladder,
uterus, intestines, other hollow viscera, blood-vessels, and sweat-
glands.

What would be the effect of division of one of the inferior nerve roots
of the spinal nerves?
Motor paralysis would follow in the parts supplied by the nerve.

What would be the effect if both nerve roots of the spinal nerves were
cut?
Sensory and motor paralysis would follow in the parts supplied
by these branches.

What is reflex action? Describe an experiment illustrating reflex
action.

Any involuntary action produced by a stimulus that is conveyed
to the central nervous system and reflected to the periphery. If
the foot of a frog, with its brain destroyed, is pinched, the leg will
be drawn away from the irritant.

Discuss the reflex functions of the spinal cord.

In the spinal cord, there are a great number of reflex nerve cen-
tres which are capable of acting independently to a greater or
less extent. Each centre has an afferent and an efferent root and
is able to generate impulses which are carried to the periphery
without any assistance from the brain. This is shown by experi-
ments conducted on a frog with the brain destroyed as described in
the preceding answer.

What is the difference in function between the superior and the inferior
columns of the spinal cord?

Through the superior column, impressions, such as temperature,
pressure and muscular sense, are conveyed to the cerebrum. The
inferior column conveys motor impulses to the body. The respira-
tory and vasomotor fibres also pass through the inferior column.
So it may be said that the superior column is an afferent channel
and the inferior column an efferent channel.

What is the difference between a motor nerve and a sensory nerve?
A motor nerve carries motor impulses from a centre to the
periphery (efferent).
A sensory nerve carries impulses from the periphery to a centre
(afferent).

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 133

State the function of the phrenic nerve.
It is the motor nerve to the diaphragm.

Describe the effect of electric stimulation on a motor nerve.
Muscular contraction follows.

Name and describe the membranes of the brain. Give the function of
each.

The outer membrane, the dura mater, is dense and fibrous and
serves a very valuable protective function. The arachnoid is a
serous membrane applied against the inner face of the dura. It
contains the subarachnoid fluid which equalizes pressure on the
brain and saves it from jar and concussion. The pia mater, the
most internal, is a thin but very vascular structure. It passes
into all the convolutions of the surface of the brain and supplies

it with blood.

State the function of the cerebellum and describe the effect of its
removal.

The cerebellum presides over the codrdination of body move-
ments and equilibrium. If removed, the power of codrdination is
lost, muscular weakness ensues and disturbances in equilibrium
follow.

Locate the medulla oblongata. Mention four centres located in it.
The medulla is located at the upper end of the spinal cord, be-
tween it and the cerebrum, and rests on the basilar process.
Centres located in the medulla are: the respiratory, vaso-
motor, deglutition and vomiting.

Discuss the functions of the medulla oblongata.

Serves as a medium of transmission of motor and sensory im-
pulses and contains centres for mastication and suckling, secretion
of saliva, deglutition, vomiting, dilatation of the pupil, coughing,
sneezing, closure of eyelids, contraction and relaxation of the blood-
vessel walls, cardiac inhibition and respiration. There is also a
centre which controls the glycogenic function of the liver.

State the function of the cerebrum.

The cerebrum is the seat of sensation, reasoning and will. It
contains motor and sensory areas and the centres for sight, hearing
and taste are located in it.

Define (a) coordination, (b) augmentation, (c) inhibition, (d) autom-
atism.

(a) Harmony and rhythm in muscular movements.

(b) The increasing of the action of nerve centres by afferent

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184 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

(c) Arrest or restraint of a process effected by nervous influence.
(d) The power possessed by nerve centres to originate nervous
impulses.
How does the nervous system influence secretion?
Through reflex action, as shown by the secretion of saliva pro-
duced by the presence of food in the mouth, or of the gastric juice
by food in the stomach.

What are (a) voluntary movements, (b) reflex movements?
(a) Movements under control of the will.
(b) Involuntary movements produced by stimulation of a
peripheral nerve.

How many pairs of cranial nerves are there? Give the name and the
function of any one pair.
There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. The first pair, olfac-
tory, is concerned in the sense of smell.

Give the function of the optic nerve.
(The second pair of cranial nerves.) The nerve of sight.

Give the function of the third pair of cranial nerves. What muscles
does it supply?

(The oculomotor.) The motor nerve to the eyeball. It supplies
all the muscles of the eye, except the external rectus and superior
oblique; it also supplies the muscle of the upper lid and sends
fibres to the iris and ciliary muscle.

State the function of the fourth pair of cranial nerves.
(Patheticum.) The motor nerve of the superior oblique muscle
of the eyeball.

State the function of the fifth pair of cranial nerves.
(Trifacial.) This is a mixed nerve, 2.e., both motor and sensory.
It supplies motor power to the muscles of mastication, sensation
to the side of the face, lips, mouth, temple, part of the ear, cornea,
conjunctiva, nasal mucous membrane and anterior two-thirds of
the tongue. It also sends trophic fibres to the eyeball.

What is the function of the sixth pair of cranial nerves?
(Abducens.) Supplies motor power to the external rectus
muscle of the eyeball.

State the function of the seventh pair of cranial nerves.

(Facial.) Motor nerve to the muscles of the middle ear, exter-
nal ear, cheeks, lips, nostrils and orbicular muscles of the eye.
Through its chorda tympani branch, it supplies the anterior por-
tion of the tongue with taste and sends secretory fibres to the maxil-
lary gland, and dilator fibres to the blood-vessels.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 135

State the function of the eighth pair of cranial nerves.

(Auditory.) Sense of hearing and maintenance of equilibrium
through its connection with the semicircular canals.

What is the function of the glossopharyngeal nerve?

(Ninth pair of cranial nerves.) This is a mixed nerve; it sup-
plies motor power to the muscles of the pharynx and sensory fibres
to the posterior third of the tongue, the soft palate, part of the
pharynx, and the anterior surface of the epiglottis. It is princi-
pally concerned in deglutition and the sense of taste on the posterior
third of the tongue.

State the function of the pneumogastric, or vagus, nerve.

(Tenth pair of cranial nerves.) It supplies sensation to the ex-
ternal ear, pharynx, cesophagus, stomach and respiratory passages;
and motor power to the muscles of the pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, esophagus, stomach and intestines.

It is the inhibitory nerve of the heart and contains vasomotor
fibres for the lungs and trophic fibres for the lungs and heart.

What is the function of the eleventh pair of cranial nerves?

(Spinal accessory.) Motor nerve to the sternomaxillaris, mas-
toidohumeralis, and the cervical and dorsal trapezius muscles. By
giving motor fibres to the vagus, it has some control over the larynx
and voice.

State the function of the great hypoglossal nerve.
(Twelfth cranial pair.) Motor nerve to the tongue.

What nerves, afferent and motor, supply the larynx?
Superior laryngeal branch of the vagus is the afferent or sen-
sory nerve. It also supplies motor fibres to the cricothyroid muscle.
The inferior laryngeal, or recurrent, branch of the vagus supplies
all the muscles of the larynx, except the ecricothyroid, with motor
power.

What symptoms would ensue in case of a transverse section of the

motor nerve supplying the arytenoid muscles on one side?

Inspiratory dyspnea, accompanied by a roaring or whistling

sound due to paralysis of the muscles moving the vocal cord. The

cord would hang free in the larynx obstructing the air current.
Paralysis of this kind produces the disease called ‘‘roaring.’’

What are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?
The sympathetic nervous system supplies vasodilator and vaso-
constrictor fibres to the blood-vessels, the viscera with motor and
inhibitory fibres, accelerator fibres to the heart, dilator fibres to the

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136 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

pupil, secretory fibres to the sweat, salivary and sebaceous glands,
motor fibres to the muscles of the hair, and influences the process
of nutrition in general.

Mention the three classes of sympathetic nerve ganglia, giving the
function of each.

1. Vertebral ganglia, afford connection with the cerebrospinal
system.

2. Collateral ganglia, including the cardiac, solar and mesenterie
plexuses which send branches to the various organs, supplying them
with accelerator, vasomotor and secretory fibres, and carrying from
them afferent impulses.

3. Terminal ganglia, fibres originating in the collateral ganglia
and terminating in the tissues, control certain reflexes.

SENSES

Name the appendages of the eye and state the function of each.
Eyelashes: protective function; they give warnings of danger.
Eyelids: two in number, protective covering.

Membrana nictitans: third eyelid, removes foreign bodies.

Meibomian glands: secrete an oily liquid to lubricate the edges
of the lids and prevent the overflow of tears.

Conjunctiva: a mucous membrane which provides a smooth glid-
ing surface between the lids and the cornea.

Caruncle: small, red elevation at the inner canthus, which
directs the tears toward the puncta.

Lachrymal apparatus: secrete and carry away the tears which
lubricate the cornea and inner side of the lids.

Ocular sheath: binds the structures of the orbit together.

What is the function of the iris? Describe the innervation of the iris.
The iris regulates the amount of light passing into the eye. Its
circular fibres are supplied by the third pair of cranial nerves and

its dilator fibres are innervated by the sympathetic.

What structures in the horse’s eye serves the purpose of the human
eyebrow? Describe clearly the position, attachments and
movements of this structure.

The membrana nictitans. It is situated in the inner angle of
the eye, and is continued posteriorly by a strong, adipose cushion
which insinuates itself between all the muscles of the eyeball. When
the recti muscles retract the eye in the orbit, this fatty cushion is
forced outwardly and the membrana nictitans is forced forward
over the eye.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 137

State the function of the corpora nigra (pigmentary bodies of the iris).
Assist in absorbing rays of light.

Describe the process of focal accommodation.

The crystalline lens becomes more convex for near objects be-
cause the rays are more divergent. This convexity is brought about
by the bulging of the lens when the tension on the capsule is lessened
by the action of the ciliary muscle which contracts and draws for-
ward the choroid coat and with it the ciliary processes. A reversal
of this process will produce a lesser convexity of the lens and thus
properly focus distant objects.

What are the functions of the lachrymal secretion?
It lubricates the conjunctiva, keeps the cornea brilliantly polished
and washes away foreign bodies.

Describe fully the function of the auditory nerve.
Special sense of hearing and through its connection with the
semicircular canals assists in maintaining the equilibrium of the
body.

How do the auditory sensations reach the brain?

The tympanum receives the sound wave and transmits it through
the chain of bones (malleus, incus and stapes) to the fenestra ovalis
which imparts an impulse to the perilymph of the labyrinth; the
perilymph carries the impulse through the vestibule and from
here it is carried into the scala vestibuli of the cochlea. The vibra-
tions pass through the spiral-shaped cochlea and set in motion the
membrane of Reissner; this causes the lymph in the cochlear canal
to vibrate and reach the scala tympani. The lymph in this canal
is now set in motion and affects the basilar membrane on which
the organ of Corti rests. The auditory nerve ends in the organ of
Corti, so the impressions are carried from this organ to the brain.

What is the function of the Eustachian tube?
It allows an equalization of pressure on both sides of the mem-

brani tympani.

Name the four primary taste sensations.
Sweet, bitter, acid and salt.

What nerves are concerned in the sensation of taste?

The gustatory branch of the fifth pair of cranial nerves, which
receives fibres from the chorda tympani of the seventh pair, sup-
plies the taste buds on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. The
posterior one-third is supplied by the glossopharyngeal.

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138 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What three sorts of impressions are obtained through the cutaneous
nerves?

Temperature, pain and pressure.

THe Foor

What are the provisions for preventing concussion in the foot?
1. The yielding articulation of the pedal joint.
2. Expansion of the heels when in contact with the ground.
3. The foot-pad, or frog.
4. The slight descent of the pedal bone and sole, when weight
is placed on the foot.

What are the uses of the lateral cartilages?

1. They form an elastic wall to the sensitive foot, and afford
attachment to the vascular lamine.

2. They carry the sensitive lamine outward when the hoof ex-
pands and so prevent any disturbance of the union of the insensi-
tive and sensitive lamine.

3. They provide passage for the blood-vessels and their move-
ments assist the venous circulation.

4. They admit of expansion under the influence of the body
weight.

How does secretion occur from horny structures and what provisions
are made for a freer secretion at given points? Name such
points.

From the lower edge of the coronary substance, white, proto-
plasmic cells are poured out between the papille; these cells are
carried down and pressed between the sensitive leaves. As the
horny leaves pass through the sensitive leaves, the vascular layer
of the latter furnishes them with horny lamella.

The wall is thicker and longer at the toe and quarters than at
the heels because it is at these regions that the greatest wear and
tear occurs. The thinness at the heel corresponds to the yielding
power it possesses, and which is an essential part of the anticon-
cussion mechanism.

Mention the keratogenous tissues of the foot, giving the function of
each.
1. The coronary cushion secretes the wall.
2. The velvety tissue secretes the sole and foot-pad (frog).
3. The laminal tissue secretes the horny lamelle.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 139

State the functions of the sensitive laminz or podophyllous tissue.

It is the seat of tactile sense, secretes horny lamelle and the
horny lamin to cover the pedal bone, thus providing support for
the body weight.

Define physiologic shoeing.

Shoeing of the normal, or healthy foot, as contrasted with the
special shoeing necessary when pathological conditions exist. It
comprises the proper paring of the foot and careful adjustment of
the shoe so that the bearing surface is the same as in the unshod
foot, or in other words, as nature intended.

GENERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
State the function of the testicle.

The production of semen, especially the generative element of
the same, viz., spermatozoa.

Describe fully the development and maturation of a Graafian follicle.

The germinal epithelium covering the ovary grows into the body

of the latter as a long cylinder of cells. These cells become cut off

from any connection with the outside, and one cell (occasionally

two) takes on the appearance of an ovum and the remaining cells

become the membrana granulosa, enclosing it. A connective-tissue

capsule, the tunica fibrosa, forms around this structure, and between

it and the membrana granulosa a fluid, the liquor folliculi, appears.

This whole structure continues to grow and approach the surface
where it remains until ovulation occurs.

Describe the placenta and state its function.

The placenta is a membranous structure within the uterus which
eetablishes communication between the mother and fetus by means
of the umbilical cord. In the mare, it is diffuse, 7.e., the villi which
intimately unite the chorion and uterus are scattered over the whole
surface of the chorion. In the cow, the placenta is cotyledonary,
i.e., the villi are gathered into tufts upon the surface of the chorion,
and these tufts correspond to elevations of the mucous membrane
of the uterus. In the dog and cat, the villi are arranged in a band-
like manner over the chorion with a considerable space on either
side free from villi. This form of placenta is called ‘‘zonary.’’

Describe the decidua vera of the cat and state its function. ,

Zonary type (see preceding answer). It establishes communi-

cation between the mother and fcetus through the umbilical cord.
Give the source and character of uterine milk.

This fluid is secreted by the uterine glands and lies between the

villi of the chorion and the uterine mucous membrane. It is of a

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140 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

white, or rosy-white, creamy consistency and contains proteids,
fat and a small proportion of ash. It takes part in providing nour-
ishment for the fcetus.

Describe the mammary glands of the mare.

The mammary glands of the mare are two hemispherical-shaped
bodies, lying together on the median line in the posterior and in-
ferior abdominal region, in the position of the scrotum in the male.
They terminate below in a small prominence, the nipple, or teat,
which is traversed by several sinuses that communicate above with
the milk reservoir and open on their free extremity by two, three
or four canals. The gland is covered externally by a fibrous coat
which sends prolongations into its interior and over this coat is the
skin. The body of the gland proper is made up of a highly devel-
oped type of sebaceous glands.

Give the average percentage composition of (a) cow’s milk, (b) mare’s

milk.

Cow Mare

Water sis aeceaveaxen casi ce meas x 87.00 91.8
DOGS s-circpoi eesvtaiaac sa eats Oe ea eS 13.00 8.2
PPOCCIES™ ceeig dagen a aus he OAR oa 3.30 2.6

Balt 245 Gang ake maid peek Bae eed neg 4.00 6
WACEOSE: says ior eed ge FG SpE Dm 4.95 47

alts, tas kei Saivaiedee chee wet uenace 75 3

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PATHOLOGY *

Define pathology.

Pathology is that branch of medical science which treats of
the essential nature of disease, especially of the structural and
functional changes caused by disease.

Special pathology deals with the pathologic processes in certain
diseases, organs, or parts.

How do infection, poison and nervous disorder, respectively, cause a
rise of temperature?

Infection by bacteria produces toxins which, being carried
through the blood to the brain, stimulate the heat centres. Poisons
are taken up by the blood and act the same way. Nervous dis-
orders, by disturbing the process of metabolism, cause toxie prod-
ucts, such as albumoses, peptones, or ferments to be found. These
products are carried in the blood to the heat centres.

Define the following terms: infection, disinfection, atrophy, cedema,
immunity, anemia, hyperemia, cystitis, orchitis.
Infection refers to the entrance into the system of a disease-
producing microdrganism capable of self-multiplication.
Disinfection is the process of freeing from, or neutralizing,
pathogenic germs or agents.
Atrophy is a wasting or diminution in the size of a part.
Cidema is a swollen condition of tissue caused by an excessive
accumulation of the tissue fluid, lymph.
Immunity is a condition of an animal or person in which there
is an insensitiveness or insusceptibility to a certain disease.
Anemia is a reduction in the quantity or quality of the blood,
affecting the cellular elements or hemoglobin or both.
Hyperemia is a condition in which there is an excess of blood in
a part of the body.
Cystitis is the term applied to an inflammatory condition of the
urinary bladder.
Orchitis: inflammation of the testicles.

Define primary and secondary lesion and illustrate by example.
A primary lesion is a pathological condition produced at the
point of attack by the causative agent (bacteria, trauma, ete.). If
from this point pathogenic material is carried to other par's of

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

the body and changes are produced there, the later formed lesions
are secondary. For example, from an abscess on the leg (primary
lesion) infection may be carried to the lungs, liver, ete., and produce
abscesses in these parts (secondary lesions).

State what value you would give to each of the following agents in

the development of an infectious disease: microbes, chill,
electric tension, imperfect ventilation, impure water, de-
cayed or indigestible foods, emanations from sewers, cess-
pools or heaps of manure, impaired health or vigor from
previous illness, fatigue, overwork, damp soils, exposure
to hot summer sun,

The first named agent, microbes, and it only, can produce the
disease alone. The other agents can only act as accessory factors in
lessening the resisting powers but none of them alone, or together,
can produce an infectious disease without the causative factor, the
microbe.

What lesions and conditions would indicate that an animal had been

killed by lightning?

Blood is dark and uncoagulated, the muscles dark brownish-red,
the endocardium stained by the altered blood and the heart muscle
shows hemorrhagic infarcts in death by lightning. The tissues may
be lacerated, showing hemorrhages. Branching, tree-like lines of
singeing along the course of the current. Rapid decomposition with
slight rigor mortis.

Conditions aiding diagnosis are: fact of lightning storm; ani-
mal being found under a tree which shows the effects of the current.

What is meant by auto-intoxication?

Auto-intoxication is a poisoning of the organism by substances
which arise in the body itself through its own activity, that is, it
is a self-poisoning. The poisoning is the result of the absorption
of the waste products of metabolism or of the products of decom-
position within the intestines,

Define metastasis. Give examples.

Metastasis is the transportation through the blood- or lymph-
stream of a disease-producing agent and the production of disease
at the point of deposit of such agent, e.g., living cells of tumors may
be carried to distant parts and produce daughter tumors at the
site of lodgement. Vegetable or animal parasites are carried in the
blood-stream from one part to another, producing disease at their
point of lodgement. The movement of emboli in the blood-vessels
is an example of metastasis.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 143

What is anaphylaxis?
Increased susceptibility to an infection or to the action of any
foreign protein introduced into the body following a primary infec-
tion. The opposite of immunity.

HYPERTROPHY AND ATROPHY

Describe (a) atrophy, (b) hypertrophy. Give the causes of each of
these conditions.

(a) Atrophy is a diminution in the size of an organ due to a
diminution in size or disappearance of its individual elements.
Causes: senility, impaired nutrition, pressure, disuse, and neuro-
pathie.

(b) Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of an organ, due
either to an increase in the size or in the number of the individual
elements. Causes: compensatory (overwork), lessened use (as in
hoof or horn), congenital, neuropathic, lessened pressure, inflam-
matory.

DEGENERATIONS

Differentiate fatty degeneration from fatty infiltration.

Fatty degeneration is characterized by the degeneration of
tissue cells and the presence therein of fat droplets, whereas in
fatty infiltration no change occurs in the substance of the cell except
it be from pressure of the fat globules without or inside of the cells.

What is necrosis? Name and define three kinds.

Necrosis is the death of individual cells or groups of cells, as
a result of which their function is forever lost. Coagulation-necrosis
is characterized by the occurrence of coagulation of the fluids about
the cells or of the cells themselves, due to the infiltration of blood-
or fibrin-containing lymph. Liquefaction-necrosis is due to the
necrotic parts becoming dissolved in the fluids present in the tis-
sues. Gangrene is a form of necrosis in which the tissue is putrefied,
showing an appearance similar to that occurring in burned tissues.
There are two forms, dry and moist, depending upon the presence
or absence of moisture.

What is caseation-necrosis? Where does it occur?

Caseation-necrosis is a form of necrosis closely resembling
coagulation-necrosis. It is characterized by either a hard or soft
che8sy appearance in the necrotic area. It occurs most frequently
in tubercular nodules. It is also seen in very cellular tumors and
inflammatory exudates.

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144 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Define cedema and give its causes.
C£idema is an infiltration of the tissues and serous cavities with
a serous fluid, lymph. Causes: obstructions to the circulation of
the blood or lymph, anemia, changes in blood-vessel walls, dis-
turbances of metabolism.

Define (a) anasarca, and (b) calcification.
(a) Anasarca is a serous infiltration (cedema) of the super-
ficial portions of the body.
(b) Calcification is a hardening of the tissues due to the deposits
therein of granular masses of lime salts, particularly phosphates.

INFLAMMATION
Define inflammation.
Inflammation is the phenomena of tissue-reaction to injury.

Describe the process of inflammation. Give the four cardinal symptoms
of inflammation.

Following injury to the tissue, there is an increased flow of blood
to the part; then occurs changes in the vascular walls, exudation of
serum, diapedesis of leucocytes, and proliferation of the connective-
tissue cells. This may be followed by subsidence of the hyperemia,
regeneration, suppuration, necrosis or some other form of degener-
ation.

Cardinal symptoms of inflammation are: redness, heat, pain
and swelling.

State the pathologic blood and tissue changes in inflammation.
See answer to preceding question.

What is productive inflammation?
Productive inflammation is a hyperplastic formation of con-
nective tissue occurring in chronic inflammation. It is seen on
serous surfaces and in certain organs as bone, liver, kidney, lung,

ete.

Define (a) abscess, (b) ulcer, (c) fistula.
(a) A circumscribed collection of pus in the substance of a
part or organ, usually formed by the disintegration of tissue.
(b) An open suppurating wound accompanied by tissue
destruction.
(c) A suppurating duct-like cavity extending into the tissues.

Name four inflammatory exudates.
Serum, fibrin, pus and blood.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 145

Tumors

Classify tumors and give an example of each class.
Connective-tissue tumors, as fibroma and sarcoma.
Specialized tissue tumors, as epithelioma and adenoma.
Mixed tissue tumors, as dermoid cysts.

Describe the pathologic difference between a malignant tumor and a
non-malignant tumor.

Malignant Tumors. Non-Malignant Tumors.
Non-circumscribed. Circumscribed.
Infiltrate neighboring tissues. Do not infiltrate neighboring tissues,
Rapid growth. Develop slowly.
Spread of metastasis. Non-metastatie.
Undergo degenerative changes. Seldom degenerate.
Cachexia present. Cachexia absent.

What is cancer? Name the varieties.

Cancer or carcinoma is a malignant tumor made up chiefly
of epithelial cells. It is characterized by an infiltrative growth
and the formation of metastases. Three varieties: squamous epi-
theliomata, cylindrical epitheliomata, and glandular-cell cancers.

What is melanosis? Give the cause of melanosis.

Melanosis is an abnormal deposit of black matter in various parts
of the body. The color is due to the pigment melanin. This con-
dition, which is seen almost exclusively in old gray horses, is usually
associated with tumor formation. It is thought to be due to the
breaking down of red blood-corpuscles in the spleen and liver,
thus liberating melanin from the hemoglobin.

In what animals are melanosarcomata most commonly found? De-
scribe the gross appearance of melanosarcomata.

Horses, especially gray-colored ones. The tumors usually de-

velop in the region of the root of the tail and the anus, although

no tissue seems to be exempt. They appear as small nodules of a

soft or hard consistency and vary in size from that of a walnut to

a man’s fist or larger. The cut surface is uniformly black or
dark-brown and soils the hands similar to shoe-blacking.

Name the different types of sarcoma. What tissue does sarcoma
resemble?
1. Round-celled sarcoma,
a. Small round-celled.

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146 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

b. Large round-celled.
e. Lymphosarcoma.
d. Alveolar sarcoma.
2. Spindle-celled sarcoma,
a. Small.
b. Large.
3. Giant-celled sarcoma.
4. Melanosarcoma.
Sarcomata resemble embryonal connective tissue.

Define (a) neuroma, (b) angioma, (c) myoma.
(a) A tumor composed largely of nerve substance.
(b) A tumor made up of blood-vessels.
(c) A tumor made up of muscular elements.

Classify cysts and give an example of each class.

1. Retention cyst, as seen in the kidney, sebaceous glands,
mucous glands, etc., due to obstruction of the excretory duct.

2. Degeneration cyst, due to liquefaction of the tissues as in the
brain, thyroids and tumors.

3. Parasitic cysts, as the eechinococcic variety.

4. Foreign-body cyst, seen when a bullet or other foreign body
is encapsulated by connective tissue.

Define cysts and name the varieties.

A cyst is a circumscribed cavity, shut off from the surrounding
tissues, by a connective-tissue membrane or by tissue of a more
complex structure, the contents of which differ in nature from the
capsule. (See answer to preceding question.)

Bioop

Define leucocythzmia, polycythemia, phagocytosis.

Leucocythemia, or leukemia, is a fatal disease, characterized
by a marked increase in the number of leucocytes in the blood, to-
gether with enlargement and proliferation of the lymphoid tissue
of the spleen, lymphatic glands and bone-marrow.

Polyeythemia is an increase in the number of red blood-cor-
puscles in the blood.

Phagocytosis is the term applied to the destruction of bacteria
in the body by the phagocytes. (Phagocytes are certain cells, chiefly
leucocytes, which possess the power of taking up and destroying
bacteria by intracellular digestion.)

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 147

What is leucocytosis? Enumerate the diseases with their stages in
which leucocytosis may be expected.

Leucocytosis is a temporary increase in the number of leucocytes
in the blood. It occurs in:

Pneumonia, variola (suppurative stage), pywmia, septicemia,
actinomycosis, trichinosis, glanders, articular rheumatism (acute),
cerebrospinal meningitis (suppurative stage), endometritis, peri-
carditis, peritonitis, pleurisy, erysipelas, dermatitis, gangrenous
conditions, abscesses of all kinds and situations, ete.

State the relation of leucocytosis to phagocytosis. How may phago-
cytosis be stimulated?
Phagocytosis is accomplished principally by leucocytes, there-
fore leucocytosis greatly augments phagocytic activity.
Phagocytosis may be stimulated by injecting products of bac-
terial growth into an animal.

Define leukemia and ischemia.
Leukemia, same as leucocythemia. See above.
Ischemia is a local anzmia.

State the difference between an ante-mortem and a post-mortern blood-
clot-such as is found in the blood.
An ante-mortem clot is a yellowish translucent mass resembling
chicken fat, clotting occurred slowly. A post-mortem clot is a
dark-red, homogeneous, gelatinous mass; the blood coagulated
quickly before the red blood-corpuscles had time to settle,

BonzESs AND JOINTS

Describe the reparative process of a fractured long bone.

At first hemorrhage occurs in the marrow and at the line of
fracture, then occurs hyperemia and cellular infiltration of the
periosteum, marrow and bone; cell division and proliferation of
the marrow, periosteum and vascular endothelium; deposition of
calcium salts and formation of bone and cartilage. The name
callus is applied to the new-formed tissue, and is distinguished as
periosteal and myelogenous.

Give the pathology of osteoporosis.

The bones, especially those of the lower jaw, are thickened. The
bones of the extremities and articulations are often enlarged. In
some cases the articular cartilages become ulcerated. The bony
cortex is thin, spongy, brittle and easily fractured. There is an
increase in the vascular and fibrous tissues without any increase

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148 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

in bone substance. If cachexia is present, the bone-marrow is pale,
gelatinous, and even watery. Anemia, cachexia and cedematous
infiltration of the body is present. Atrophy and fatty degeneration
of the muscles attached to the affected bones. Recent or old frac-
tures, showing callous formation, may be present.

What are the lesions of arthritis chronica deformans tarsi (spavin) ?

The lesions, confined usually to the articular cartilage of the
cuneiform and of the upper part of the metatarsus, though some-
times the scaphoid and other bones of the hock are involved, con-
sist of ulceration, abrasions, and at the borders of the articular
surfaces, rugged, uneven swellings produced by the thickening of
the articular cartilage which is ossified. Under the microscope, the
intercellular substance is seen to be fibrillated and the cartilage cells
to be undergoing multiplication. The synovial membrane is thick-
ened and vascular. Partial or complete ankylosis of the articular
surfaces and ossification of the ligaments are seen.

What is caries?
The molecular decay or death of bone (teeth) in which it becomes
softened, discolored and porous. It corresponds to ulceration in

soft tissues.

Give the causes of dental caries.

By the fermentation of starchy foods in the mouth, brought
about through the action of bacteria, acids are produced which
soften the enamel and permit the entrance of other bacteria into
the dentin, producing caries.

Define (a) periostitis, (b) periarthritis, (c) arthritis.
(a) Inflammation of the covering of bone (periosteum).
(b) Inflammation of the structures surrounding a joint.
(ec) Inflammation of a joint, characterized by great pain, heat,
redness and swelling.

HEART AND BLOOD-VESSELS

Name lesions that may be found in chronic heart disease.

Thickening of the endocardium, borders of valves, and of the
chorde tendine. Insufficiency of the valves. Heart wall thickened,
solid, and contains grayish-white spots or streaks (scars). Fatty
degeneration of muscle fibres.

Give the causes and lesions of cardiac hypertrophy.
Causes: severe work, disturbance in circulation requiring more
force in the heart action, as chronic interstitial nephritis, lung dis-

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 149

eases, valvular diseases, etc., tumors or adherent pericardium creat-
ing pressure from without, disease of the heart muscle itself.

Lesions: increased volume and weight of the heart; walls thick-
ened, hard and firm.

What pathological changes may follow mitral stenosis?
Hypertrophy of the left auricle, pulmonary congestion, hyper-
trophy of the right ventricle and right auricle; pulmonary edema,
bronchial catarrh and hepatic congestion.

Describe the lesions of pericarditis.

Acute form: fibrinous membranes on the pericardium; fiuid
exudate, clear (or cloudy from pus), in varying amounts distends
the pericardial sac. Passive hyperemia of the lungs and liver and
edematous infiltrations may occur.

Chronic form: connective-tissue proliferation, thickening and
adhesions of the pericardial sac.

What is the difference between active and passive congestion?

Active congestion arises from an increase in the arterial supply
on account of the dilatation of the lumen of the blood-vessels to the
part. Passive congestion arises through a retardation or obstruc-
tion of the flow of blood from the veins and a passive yielding of
the vessel-walls to intravascular pressure.

Define (a) embolism, (b) aneurism, (c) lymphangioma, (d) myocar-
ditis.

(a) The plugging of a blood-vessel by a clot or obstruction
which has been brought to its place by the blood-current.

(b) A sac formed by the dilatation of the walls of an artery and
filled with blood. It may be a true aneurtsm which contains one
or more of the coats of the artery, or a false aneurism in which all
of the coats are absent, the blood being retained by the surrounding
tissues.

(c) A tumor composed of dilated lymphatic vessels.

(d) Inflammation of the heart muscle.

Discuss verminous aneurisms of the cceliac or mesenteric arteries of
the horse.

They are due to the larve of the sclerostoma equinum which
enter the blood-stream from the intestines, are carried to the eceliac
artery and enter the vasa vasorum of the same and cause infarction
in the media of the vessel, and then meso-arteritis, or peri- and
endarteritis. This leads to formation of a thrombus and narrowing
of the lumen of the vessel, providing dilatation is not commensurate
with the diminution in calibre. The inflamed vessel-wall, losing its

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150 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

tone, yields more readily to the internal tension and as a result an
enormous distention and thickening of the wall occurs.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS

What pathologic changes occur in the air-cells during pulmonary
hepatization?

Hyperemia, smaller or larger hemorrhagic foci, extravasation

of blood-serum with white and red blood-corpuscles into the alveoli.

Describe the post-mortem appearance of each stage of pneumonia.

First stage (congestive): Capillaries distended and the alveoli
filled with serous fluid containing endothelial and red blood-cells.

Second stage (red hepatization): Fibrinous exudate and red
blood-cells in the air sacs, coagulation of same; lung is consolidated,
dark-red and friable, does not collapse when thorax is opened and
shows the imprint of the ribs; sinks in water; the cut surface
appears granular from the projection of fibrin plugs.

Third stage (gray hepatization): The red cells are gradually
destroyed and absorbed, and leucocytes predominate, giving the
cut surface a gray appearance.

Fourth stage (resolution): The exudate has undergone fatty
degeneration and liquefaction; the cut surface is smooth and
exudes a whitish fluid; the lung is approaching normal color and
condition.

Give the post-mortem appearance of gangrene of the lungs.

In the anterior and inferior portions of the lungs, gangrenous
foci are found, which appear dirty-brown, red or yellowish-brown,
and consist of a soft mass of a very disagreeable, sweetish, foul odor.
The bronchi contain liquefied or soft masses of a similar color and
smell. The mucosa of the bronchi is slate-gray in color. The
internal surface of the cavities formed is ragged and covered with
a friable, stinking, mushy mass. If the cavity is near the pleura
or breaks through the same, purulent pleurisy may be present.
Between the foci the pulmonary tissue shows a catarrhal or fibrinous
pneumonia.

Describe the post-mortem lesions of pulmonary emphysema (heaves).

The lungs are enlarged, soft, less elastic and paler in color.

Their surface often shows the imprint of the ribs. Air vesicles ean

be seen with the naked eye. Between the vesicles are large air

spaces due to rupture of the walls. These air spaces often produce

bulging of the serous coat in various places when beneath the
pleura.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 151

Give the post-mortem appearance of acute diffused pleuritis.

Hyperemia, surface of the pleura is rough, lustreless and dry.
The exudate composed of blood-corpuscles and fibrin covers the
surface of the pleura like a veil. In some cases a serofibrinous exu-
date covers the surface with a thicker, friable, moist, loose mem-
brane. Purulent and hemorrhagic exudates may be present. The
pleuritic cavity may contain a considerable amount of a serous
fluid which compresses the lungs.

Describe the post-mortem appearance of the lungs in pleuropneumonia.
(It is taken for granted that the interrogator is referring to
contagious pleuropneumonia.) This disease is characterized by
interstitial pneumonia with secondary hepatization of the lungs and
an exudative pleuritis. The cut surface shows a pale yellow net-
work formed by an increase in the interlobular connective tissue;
a clear serous fiuid oozes from the cut surface. Between the network
of connective tissue the lung tissue is hepatized. The bronchial
walls show serous infiltration and their lumen contains a fibrinous
exudate. The pleura is lustreless, injected and covered with a
veil-like exudate of fibrin; a large amount of exudate in the pleural
cavity.

Give the symptoms and post-mortem lesions of hydrothorax.
For symptoms, see diseases of the respiratory organs, page 191.
Lesions: A large amount of a clear, light yellow, or slightly
turbid fluid in the thoracic cavity. The lungs show compression
to an extent dependent upon the amount of the fluid present. The
pleura may be normal or thickened and cloudy. More or less
congestion present.

What is atelectasis?
An airless condition of the lungs seen in the fetus; also seen in
later life due to pressure of a pleural effusion or blocking of the
smaller bronchial tubes with mucus.

Describe the structural changes in the nervous and muscular tissue in
a case of roaring.

The recurrent nerve is reduced in size and gray in color, indicat-
ing degeneration. The posterior crico-arytenoid, the lateral crico-
arytenoid and the transverse arytenoid muscles show pale yellow
streaks and degeneration of their fibres.

Describe the appearance of the lungs in bronchopneumonia.
This is a lobular affection, with scattered areas of consolidation.
These areas are not as firm as in croupous pneumonia. The cut
surface is grayish-red or grayish-yellow and not granular, but
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152 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

smooth and moist; on pressure a frothy serum exudes from the
healthy portion and a grayish-yellow fluid from the diseased areas.
The lobules stand out prominently and may contain pus foci.

ABDOMINAL ORGANS

Describe the post-mortem appearance of the intestines in catarrhal
enteritis.

Acute form: The intestinal mucosa is reddened, swollen and
covered with slimy mucus mixed with dead epithelial cells. Small
hemorrhages may be present. The submucosa is infiltrated with
serum. The villi are swollen and crowded together giving a velvety
appearance. Peyer’s patches are swollen and may discharge pus
and even become ulcerated.

Chronic form: The mucosa is darkly pigmented (sometimes
pale), thickened and covered with an excess of mucus; the thicken-
ing may extend into the submucosa, giving a firm leathery feeling
to the part. The villi are hypertrophied and Peyer’s patches con-
gested and ulcerated.

Describe enteroliths.

These are hard, dense, stony concretions found in the intestines
and range in weight from one ounce to 25 pounds. They resemble
billiard balls, or sometimes are pyramidal in shape from being
worn off on the sides. Their principal constituent is ammonio-
magnesium phosphate which is largely derived from wheat and rye
bran feeds. Enteroliths are important because of obstructions and
erosions which they produce in the intestines.

Give the pathology of peritonitis.

The peritoneum is congested, dull and opaque; fibrinous mem-
branes cover the surface. Serous fluid may be present in large
amounts (40 litres) in the peritoneal cavity; later this fiuid may
be mixed with fibrin flocculi and pus. Acute peritonitis may be-
come chronic with the development of connective tissue under the
fibrinous membrane. In this case the peritoneum becomes thick-
ened and the surface of the organs is covered with thick layers of
connective tissue.

Describe the appearance of a cirrhotic liver.

In atrophic cirrhosis there is an increase in connective tissue
with compression of the parenchyma. The tissue is of a tough,
leather-like consistency and grates when cut. The organ is reduced
in size, the surface irregular and granular or nodular; the serous
covering ig thickened.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 153

In hypertrophie cirrhosis, the liver is enlarged, the eut surface
as well as the outer surface appears smooth or slightly granular
and greenish-yellow in color; the consistency is hard, due to the
increase in the interlobular connective tissue; there is no tendency
toward contraction.

Give the pathology of icterus.

There is a yellow discoloration of the skin and mucous mem-
branes, particularly noticeable in the conjunctiva; the urine is
brownish or greenish in color and all of the organs of the body,
except nerve tissue, may be stained yellow. The bile capillaries
of the liver are distended with bile, and pigmentation of the liver-
cells is noted. Constipation is present and the stools are dry, hard,
pale and fetid.

In what diseases does enlargement of the spleen occur?
Anthrax, Texas fever, piroplasmosis of dogs, and leukemia.

Differentiate an ante-mortem from a post-mortem tympanites in
bovines at autopsy.

In ante-mortem tympanites, the lungs are compressed, dark-red
and full of blood. The veins of the subcutaneous connective tissue
are filled to their utmost with dark-red, possibly uncoagulated blood.
Signs of death from suffocation, such as striate and punctate hemor-
rhages into the serous membranes, especially in the pleura and peri-
cardium, are seen. In post-mortem tympanites, none of these con-
ditions are found. The blood is evenly distributed, except perhaps
a hypostatie congestion in the side on which the cadaver lies,

GENITO-URINARY ORGANS

Define (a) hematuria, (b) hemoglobinuria.
(a) Blood in the urine.
(b) Hemoglobin in the urine without blood-corpuscles.

Name the different varieties of urinary casts and state the conditions
in which each is found.

Casts are albuminous exudates from the blood, with the addition
of transformed or destroyed epithelium. There are six varieties
of true casts: 1, hyaline; 2, epithelial; 3, blood; 4, granular;
5, fatty; 6, waxy.

The first three are found in acute parenchymatous nephritis.
Granular casts are found in chronic parenchymatous nephritis.
Fatty and waxy casts are secondary products and only found in
nephritis of long standing (chronic interstitial).

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154 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the gross pathology of (a) acute parenchymatous nephritis,
(b) chronic interstitial nephritis.

(a) Kidneys are soft, friable and the capsule strips easily. The
cut surface is streaked with hyperemic vessels, especially in the
medulla; in the cortex the Malpighian corpuscles stand out prom-
inently.

(b) The kidney is small and its surface irregular; the capsule
is thickened and strips with difficulty, owing to the productive
growth and extension of same into the substance of the gland.
On section the substance is firm and pale in color.

Give the pathology of a cystic ovary.

In a large majority of cases, cystic ovaries follow peri-odphoritis,
which thickens the capsule and prevents the ovisac from rupturing.
The peri-odphoritis may be caused by extension of infection or
inflammation in cases of endometritis, granular venereal disease,
etc. A small number of cases may be attributed to a persistent
corpus luteum. The enlarged ovary is uniformly rounded and
smooth or it may be marked by irregular bulgings, giving it a lobu-
lated appearance. The organ is very vascular and covered by the
thickened peritoneum. One or more closely adherent cysts of
various sizes, containing a clear, yellow or brownish-red liquid,
may be seen.

What is your idea of the pathology of azoturia?

This disease is due to an auto-intoxication. The lesions are
characterized by the following conditions: The lumbar, psoas and
gluteus muscles appear swollen and gray or grayish-yellow in color
like fish-meat or boiled meat. Occasionally, these muscles are rup-
tured and contain hemorrhages. They are friable and tear easily.
The kidneys show cloudy swelling and even severe parenchymatous
degeneration. The heart muscle shows the same changes as the
muscles but in a lesser degree. The bladder contains brownish-red
or coffee-colored urine. In cases of long standing, lesions of septi-
cemia, due to decubital gangrene, are seen.

Name five diseases that may affect the udder of the cow.
Mastitis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, carcinoma, eczema.

Define (a) oophoritis, (b) orchitis, (c) metritis.
(a) Inflammation of the ovary.
(b) Inflammation of the testicle.
(c) Inflammation of the uterus.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 155

Nervous System
Define (a) phrenitis, (b) meningitis, (c) pachymeningitis, (d) lepto-
meningitis, (e) apoplexy.

(a) Inflammation of the brain.

(b) Inflammation of the meninges, the covering of the brain
and cord.

(ec) Inflammation of the dura mater, the outer covering of the
brain and cord.

(d) Inflammation of the pia and arachnoid membranes.

(e) Paralysis resulting from rupture of a cerebral blood-vessel.

Give the pathologic changes in the brain of a horse suffering with
chronic hydrocephalus (dummy).

There is a dilatation of the lateral ventricles and anterior part
of the third ventricle by an excessive amount of fluid. The base of
the cerebrum and the olfactory lobes have their internal cavity
distended so that they appear like bladders of fiuid. The cerebral
hemispheres are flattened and their convolutions nearly effaced.
There is degeneration and softening of the compressed nervous tissue
and anemia of the brain.

What are the post-mortem appearances of anzmia of the brain?
Meninges are pale and their vessels collapsed. The cortex is
pale and the line of demarcation between it and the white matter
is indistinct. On section, minute points of blood are seen.

What faulty conditions in the food tend to produce paralysis?
Moulds, rusts, smuts and fermentation.

MUSCLES
What parasite affects the muscles of hogs? Name the disease and state
the lesions produced.

Trichina spiralis produces trichinosis. The parasites invade the
muscles and become encysted therein in the shape of an oval which
is grayish-white in appearance. Within this oval body, which is
only one-twenty-fifth of an inch in length, the parasite is coiled up
in a spiral shape. The muscle fibres lose their diagonal striation ;
the sarcolemma is dilated, covering the cyst; the connective tissue
is infiltrated and the capillaries are distended. The cut surface of
the muscle is cloudy, a pale-gray color and transparent.

EyE

Describe the pathologic changes occurring in an attack of periodic
ophthalmia.
The conjunctiva is injected. The injected blood-vessels of the

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156 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

cornea have an aborescent appearance. Back of the cornea and in
the lower part of the anterior part of the eye is a fibrinopurulent
exudate. The iris is swollen and adherent to the lens or cornea,
constituting synechia. There is swelling and tenderness of the
outer rim of the cornea (cyclitis). Infiltration of the lens with
lymph renders it opaque. Exudates beneath the retina detach it
from the choroid. The whole condition is often spoken of as
‘“jridocyclochoroiditis. ’’
SEIN

Give the pathology of acne.

Acne is an inflammation of the sebaceous glands and hair fol-
licles. It appears as small nodules varying in size from a millet
seed to a pea. These nodules may contain serum or pus and the
hair covering them falls out. Scabs may cover the nodules which
upon being removed leave a raw ulcerating spot beneath. Chronic
indurative dermatitis often follows or accompanies this condition.

What is dandruff?
Dandruff is an exudation product, seen as small bran-like scales,
occurring in superficial inflammation of the skin with an excessive
sebaceous secretion.

Name the stages of eczema.
Erythematous, papular, vesicular, moist, pustular and scaly.

Name the pathologic conditions that may affect the equine foot.
Pododermatitis, including corns and canker, navicular bursitis,
fracture of the navicular bone, ossification of the lateral cartilage
(side-bone), necrosis of the lateral cartilage (quittor), laminitis,
inflammation of the ligaments of the coronet joint, ringbone, ete.

Give the pathology of acute and chronic laminitis.

Acute: Hyperemia of the sensitive lamine; exudation, loosen-
ing the hoof from the matrix; the exudate may consist of serum, or
serum and pus. The sole may be ‘‘dropped’’ owing to descent of
the os pedis. Separation of the hoof from the coronary band may
occur and allow the exudate to escape.

Chronic: The hoof wall shows a number of concentric rings,
producing irregularities of same; the sole is ‘‘dropped’’ and the os
pedis displaced downward ; the coronet joint shows abnormal dorsal
flexion. The white line is greatly thickened and a thin purulent
exudate covers its surface. The laminz are not as hyperemic as in
the acute form.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 157

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

What tissue changes may be found in chronic glanders and farcy?

Lesions are most frequently found on the respiratory mucous
membrane, in the lungs, lymph-glands, spleen and skin, and occur
in two forms, (1) as circumscribed nodules with the formation
of ulcers and cicatrices; and (2) as diffuse or infiltrated lesions.

The nodules resemble somewhat the neoplasms of tuberculosis;
they show cell proliferation in nests in a fibrous stroma, varying
in size from a grain of sand upward; have a central degeneration
containing fatty debris; open on the surface forming ulcers, showing
a grayish necrotic centre and surrounded by a ragged border; cica-
trices may form. In the lungs the nodules give rise to a lobular
pneumonia, interlobular and peribronchial inflammation; the cen-
tral mass becomes yellowish and caseated from glandular and fatty
degeneration; the periphery may be bounded by a dense fibroid
envelope or show only an area of congestion. In the skin there
is an infiltration and proliferation of lymphoid cells which cause
an eruption of rounded papules that degenerate and soften and
form superficial ulcers (farey). Sometimes the nodules undergo
fibroid degeneration and fail to ulcerate; diffuse engorgements and
extensive swellings occur in the subcutaneous connective tissue, due
to infiltration of lymph; hyperplasia of lymph-vessels.

The regional lymphatic glands are always involved, showing
hypertrophy, congestion, serous infiltration and cell proliferation,
and often caseated centres. The spleen and liver may be the seat
of nodules.

Describe the appearance of a typical nasal ulcer in glanders.

At the first the ulcers are round, regular and smoothly bordered,
but later, as a result of progressive tissue destruction, they become
irregular with raised borders, ragged edges, pale-yellow, with a
lardaceous base covered with pus and detritus or, eventually, a
brownish crust. Larger ulcers are formed by the coalescence of
small ones. The shallow ulcers may heal without any visible
changes, but the deeper ones, after granulating, leave a radiating,
star-shaped cicatrix.

What are the known lesions of rabies?

Congestion of fauces, pharynx and larynx; cyanosis of the
mucous membrane of the mouth; foreign bodies, but no food in the
stomach, and the mucous membrane of the latter is congested or
actively inflamed. The foregoing conditions are usually found in
all cases of rabies, but cannot be called specific of the disease. The

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

following are specific: brain congestion; Negri bodies in the gan-
glion cells of the hippocampus, and other brain cells; proliferation
of the endothelial cells in the capsules of the Gasserian and plexi-
form ganglia.

What is the pathology of foot and mouth disease?

In mild cases the lesions are slight and may be overlooked.
In more severe cases, hyperemia and cedema are noted. Catarrhal
rhinitis and pneumonia, and dilatation of the heart; the heart
muscle may show degeneration and hemorrhagic infarcts. In
some cases hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis is a prominent lesion;
ulcers in the stomachs of cattle; these ulcers rarely extend deeper
than the mucosa. Vesicles are seen on the feet, between the digits,
and may extend into the deeper structures, causing sloughing of the
hoof and necrosis of the bone.

Describe the appearance of a case of infectious lymphangitis.

(All cases of lymphangitis are probably of infectious origin.
Presuming that the interrogator refers to the so-called ‘‘epizodtic
lymphangitis,’’ the following answer is given.)

It is characterized by red exuberant skin nodules (buttons,
boils) which burst and discharge a thick, creamy, yellowish or
bloody pus. The neighboring lymph plexus swells into corded lines,
with nodules or abscesses at irregular intervals. The infection ex-
tends to, and implicates the lymph-glands of the region affected and
pyemia may follow. The disease is caused by a yeast fungus,
eryptococcus farciminosus, also known as saccharomyces farci-
minosus.

A disease, caused by a sporothrix, called ‘‘sporothricosis,’’ pre-
sents practically the same picture and is frequently mistaken for
the former disease. Epizodtic lymphangitis is unknown in this
country.

Give the post-mortem lesions of Texas fever.

Putrefaction of carcass occurs rapidly. Icterie coloration of
mucous membranes and tissues due to hemoglobinemia. Ticks may
be found on the body and occasionally tufts of hair matted with
blood. Hemorrhages beneath the skin and into the endocardium.
The right ventricle is distended with blood and the left ventricle
contracted. Liver enlarged from congestion; the spleen engorged
with blood; the kidneys edematous and blood-stained. The bladder
is petechiated and contains bloody urine. Congestion of the mucosa
of the digestive tract. The blood thin and watery with hemoglo-
binemia present.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 159

Describe the post-mortem lesions of anthrax.

In rapidly fatal cases, changes in the blood and tissues are often
so little marked, that, after the engorged spleen and infiltrated
internal organs are removed, the carcass appears fit for consump-
tion as food. In more protracted cases, the blood is dark, tissues
brown or yellow, the heart muscle pale; liver enlarged, soft, pale
and hemorrhagic; spleen greatly enlarged or ruptured; lymph-
glands hyperemic; serosa petechiated; the bacterium anthrax is
readily demonstrated in blood smears.

Describe the post-mortem lesions of hemorrhagic septiczemia.

Widely distributed areas of hemorrhage, varying in size from a
pin point to several inches in diameter. Blood extravasations in
the subcutem and intramuscular tissues, in the lungs, stomach and
intestinal walls, lymph-glands, endocardium, myocardium, and peri-
cardial sac. The spleen is usually normal except, perhaps, a few
hemorrhagic areas on its surface. The central nervous system may
occasionally show hemorrhages, especially in the dura. In animals
recently dead, the blood is lighter in color than normal. When
decomposition occurs, the blood is black and tarry, but reddens
after exposure to the air. Cultures from the tissues reveal the
causative factor, bacterium bovisepticus.

What tissues are most commonly affected by tuberculosis?

Lungs, liver, intestines, generative organs and the lymphatic
glands adjoining these organs, especially the mesenteric, portal,
mediastinal and those about the head; serous membranes—peri-
toneum, pleura, meninges and synovial.

Describe a miliary tubercle.

The term ‘‘miliary tubercle’’ was originally applied to tubercles
which approximated in size a millet seed, but now is applied to
various sizes of new-formed tuberculous nodules, larger or smaller,
which show a central necrotic mass of one or more giant-cells sur-
rounded by a proliferation of epitheloid cells and outside of this a
collection of lymphocytes. It appears as a gray, translucent body
and, in properly stained specimens, the tubercle bacillus may be
seen. As the central necrotic mass increases in size, it becomes
caseated or calcified and a econnective-tissue stroma of a fibrous
nature may encapsulate the lesion; it then becomes an old, yellow,

or crude tubercle.

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160 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Name three characteristic lesions of each of the following diseases:
hog cholera, anthrax, glanders.
Hog cholera: button ulcers in the intestines, hemorrhagic areas
and enlargement of the spleen and lymph-glands.
Anthrax: Enlarged spleen, hemorrhages, black tarry blood,
showing little tendency to coagulate.
Glanders: Typical nodules in lungs, ulcers and star-shaped cica-
trices on the nasal mucous membrane, hyperplasia of lymph-glands,

BACTERIOLOGY

Classify bacteria and give the name of the classification used.
Migula’s classification :
I. Lower bacteria.
A. Coccacer.
1. Streptococcus.
2. Micrococcus.
3. Sarcina.
4. Planococcus.
5. Planosarecina.
B. Bacteriacee.
1. Bacterium.
2. Bacillus.
3. Pseudomonas.
C. Spirillaceer.
1. Spirosoma.
2. Microspira.
3. Spirillum.
4. Spirocheta.
II. Higher bacteria.
A. Chlamydobacteriacee.
1. Streptothrix.
2. Phragmidothrix.
3. Crenothrix.
4. Cladothrix.
5. Thiothrix.
B. Beggiatoce.
1. Beggiatoa.
Define (a) spore, (b) flagella, (c) complement.
(a) The reproductive element of bacteria. Spores are very resist-
ant to the influence of temperature and the action of chemical agents.
(b) Whip-like processes attached to the ends of, or all over,
certain microorganisms. They impart the power of motility to the
bacteria.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 161

(¢) A thermolabile substance present in normal blood-serum,
which influences the action of the immune body. (See diagnosis of
glanders by the fixation of the complement test, page 167.)

Differentiate the terms anaerobic and aerobic and give an example
of each.

Anaérobic is the term applied to bacteria that can live in the
absence of air. There are two forms, facultative anaérobic which
live best in the absence of air, but can live in its presence, as
B. typhoid; and obdligative anaérobic which can live only in the
absence of air, as B. tetanus. Aérobic refers to bacteria which live
in the presence of air. As with the anaérobic, there is a facultative
form which grows best in the presence of air but can live in its
absence, as B. anthracis; and an obligative form which can grow only
in its presence, as B. subtilis.

Define the following terms: (a) saphrophytic, (b) pathogenic, (c)
asepsis, (d) sterile, (e) culture, (f) pure culture.

(a) Bacteria that feed on dead organic matter and usually
non-pathogenic; (b) capable of producing disease; (c) free from
sepsis-producing organisms; (d) absolutely free of all germs;
(e) a growth of microdrganisms in suitable fluids or other media ;
(£) a growth consisting exclusively of one species of bacteria,

Name five common culture-media.
Bouillon, agar, blood-serum, potato, milk.

Define antiseptic and disinfectant and give examples of each.
An antiseptic is an agent which prevents the formation of pus.
Examples: corrosive sublimate, phenol.
A disinfectant is an agent which destroys bacteria. Examples:
strong solutions of corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde, actual
cautery.

Name the pus-producing microorganisms.

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, albus and citreous, strepto-
coceus pyogenes, gonococcus and pneumococcus are the most com-
mon pus-producing microdrganisms, although the bacillus of tuber-
culosis, typhoid, coli and glanders may form pus, as well as the
actinomyces and certain yeast and moulds, ¢.g., aspergilli.

What disease is produced by (a) Koch’s bacillus, (b) Nicolaier’s
bacillus, (c) bacillus of Bang?
(a) Tuberculosis; (b) tetanus; (c) infectious abortion.

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162 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Name the channels through which the bacillus of tuberculosis may
enter the animal’s body.
Alimentary tract, respiratory tract, genito-urinary tract,
abraded skin and mucous membranes.

What is an acid-fast organism? Name the organisms belonging to
this group.

An acid-fast organism is one that is not decolorized by dilute
acids after being stained with the usual aniline dyes.

B. tuberculosis, smegma bacillus, leprosy bacillus and the bacillus
of bacterial dysentery of cattle (Johne’s bacillus) belong to this
group.

Describe the bacillus of (a) tetanus, (b) anthrax, (c) tuberculosis.

(a) A slender rod, from 4 to 5» long and generally shows a
spore at one end which, being larger than the bacillus, gives it the
appearance of a pin or drum-stick. It is anaérobic, stains readily
with aniline dyes and produces the most poisonous toxin of any
known bacteria.

(b) A non-motile, rod-shaped organism, 5 to 20u long; a uniform
width of 1; square cut ends; grows in long filaments composed
of a large number of the organisms joined end to end. It forms very
resistant spores and grows best under aérobic conditions.

(c) Straight or slightly curved rods, 1.5 to 3.54 long and
Tom wide, occurring singly or in bunches; does not produce spores,
is acid-fast and difficult to cultivate on culture media until adapted
to such conditions.

Describe the fungus of actinomycosis.

This fungus belongs to the type of higher bacteria, known as
cladothrix or streptothrix. It is eclub-shaped and occurs as minute,
yellow granules in the lesions; varies from 1 to 10u long; can be
cultivated on artificial media and stains feebly with the aniline dyes.
In some varieties, the clubs show long, thread-like filaments attached
to them.

Define (a) mallein, (b) tuberculin.

(a) A liquid extract from cultures of the glanders bacillus used
as a diagnostic agent for glanders. It is prepared by growing
glanders bacilli in a flask of glycerinated bouillon for 6 or 8 weeks;
the growth is filtered off and the filtrate is concentrated by boiling;
a small amount of a preservative, such as phenol, is added.

(b) Tuberculin is a glycerine extract obtained from cultures of
the tubercle bacillus and is used as a diagnostic agent for tuber-
culosis. It is prepared similar to mallein, above described.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 163

What are agglutinins?

Substances in the blood-serum which have the property of
agglutinating or clumping bacteria. These substances are present
in normal serum but are very abundant in the serum of animals
immunized to, or suffering from certain diseases. This property is
utilized as a diagnostic agent.

If unexpectedly called upon to do so, how could one properly collect
tissues in the country for bacteriologic examination?
Procure a fruit-jar with a tight-fitting cover. Boil same for
thirty minutes. Open the animal and, with a sterilized knife, cut out
and carefully place in the jar, specimens desired to be examined;
avoid contaminating with any other objects; seal quickly, using
paraffin over the top.

What is the opsonic index? How is it determined?

The opsonic index is the measure of the power of the blood-serum
of an infected individual to prepare bacteria for phagocytosis, com-
pared with the serum of a healthy individual.

It is determined by mixing a known quantity of bacterial sus-
pension with equal quantities of blood serum and an emulsion of
healthy leucocytes. After incubating the mixture long enough to
permit the opsonins to act on the bacteria and phagocytosis to take
place, slides are prepared and stained, and the average number of
bacteria in a leucocyte determined. (One hundred or more leuco-
cytes should be examined to obtain average.) If 100 leucocytes
take up 400 bacteria when treated with healthy serum, and 100
leucocytes take up only 300 of the same bacteria when treated with
the patient’s serum, that patient’s opsonic index is (400: 300 =
1:X) X = 0.75.

What is the cause of the following diseases: (a) surra, (b) Johne’s
disease, (c) hog cholera, (d) actinomycosis.
(a) Trypanosoma Evansi; (b) bacillus paratuberculosis; (c)
filterable virus, associated with B. cholera suis; (d) ray fungus.

What diseases are caused by the bacillus necrophorus?
The necrosis bacillus causes foot rot in sheep and cattle; necro-
pacillosis of the liver, lips, mouth, vagina, sheath, penis; and various
gangrenous processes.

What is (a) an antitoxin, (b) a toxin, (c) a bactericidal serum, (d)
bacteriolytic serum, (e) exotoxin, (f) endotoxin?
(a) A substance in the serum which binds and neutralizes toxin ;

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164 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

(b) a poisonous product elaborated by microdrganisms; (c) a serum
destructive to bacteria; (d) a serum containing a lysin destructive
to a species of bacteria; (e) a toxin excreted by a microérganism,
and which can be recovered by filtration from a culture without
destruction of the producing agent; (f) a toxin elaborated by a
microérganism within its substance, and which becomes free only
after destruction of the producing agent.

What do you understand by negative phase?

The temporary lowering of the opsonic index, following an
injection of a bacillary vaccine. It is followed by the positive
phase in which the opsonic index is raised and a relief from the
general symptoms of the disease is observed.

What is meant by the optimum, maximum and minimum of tempera-
ture of a germ?
All bacteria grow best at a certain temperature, about 38° C.,
called the optimum. Some will grow at a much lower and some at
a much higher temperature. The lowest point at which the germ
will grow is called the minimum, and the highest point, the maxi-
mum temperature of the germ.

What do you understand by Gram-positive and Gram-negative?

This refers to Gram’s differential method of staining bacteria.
The specimen is first placed in aniline gentian violet, then rinsed
in water and immersed in Gram’s solution of iodine (iodine 1, potas-
sium iodide 2, water 300), again rinsed in water and placed for a
few minutes in strong alcohol, washed again and dipped in dilute
eosin solution. The bacteria that are stained a deep-violet by this
method are called Gram-positive; those that are decolorized and
take on the counter-stain are Gram-negative.

How do bacteria produce disease?
By their irritating local action and by the production of toxins.

Define immunity and give varieties.

A state in which the body is resistant to disease. 1. Natural
immunity, possessed by all the individuals of a class, by reason of
age or racial peculiarity. Cattle are naturally immune to glanders.
2. Acquired immunity, obtained by having overcome an attack of a
pathogenic microérganism (active), or as a result of the injection
of a serum from an animal which has acquired an active immunity
against the organism in question (passive).

What disease is caused by tinea tonsurans?
Ringworm.

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THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE*

GENERAL AND DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

What is meant by (a) diagnosis, (b) prognosis, (c) termination?
(a) Diagnosis is the recognition of a disease by its symptoms.
(b) Prognosis is the art of foreseeing and predicting the course
and outcome of a disease.
(c) Termination refers to the end of a disease, it may be by cure
» (complete recovery), incomplete recovery or death.

What is the difference between an infectious and a contagious dis-
ease? ‘Give examples of each.

Some authorities use these terms synonymously. All contagious
diseases are infectious, that is, due to infection, but all infectious
diseases are not contagious, that is, spread by contact. Tetanus and
black-leg are infectious diseases but are not communicable through
contact (contagion), arising generally from wound infection;
whereas, foot and mouth disease, anthrax and tuberculosis are infec-
tious diseases which are spread by contact.

Describe a hard pulse, a fast pulse, a compressible pulse, a dicrotic
pulse and state conditions in which each occur.

A hard pulse is one in which the arterial wall is firmly distended
and does not yield readily to pressure. Seen in inflammation of
serous membranes (peritonitis, pleurisy), tetanus and acute brain
diseases.

A fast pulse is an abnormal increase in the frequency of the
pulse. It is seen physiologically after exercise, excitement, high
atmospheric temperature ; pathologically in most all severe diseases.

A compressible pulse is one which yields readily to moderate
pressure and does not lift the finger palpating it; seen in diseases
associated with cardiac weakness.

A dicrotic pulse is one in which two expansions can be felt in
one beat of the artery; seen in cases of lowered arterial tension,
associated with weakened heart action, as in long-continued fevers
and in all forms of anemia.

Give the symptoms of internal hemorrhage.

Sudden paleness of the visible mucous membranes, syncope,
rapid heart action, rapid weak pulse, convulsions and death. De-
pending upon the location, special symptoms may be shown. Gas-

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

tric and intestinal hemorrhage may be shown by vomiting of blood
and bloody feces; pulmonary hemorrhage is shown by dyspnea,
coughing and bloody froth from the nostrils. Hsmaturia is present
in hemorrhage of the urinary tract.

What is Cheyne-Stokes breathing? When seen?

A type of breathing characterized by rhythmic variations in
intensity, occurring in cycles. Each cycle consists of a gradual
decrease in the intensity of the respiratory movements, followed by
total cessation for a space of from five to forty seconds; this in
turn is followed by a gradual increase of the respiratory movements
until they reached a maximum and become dyspneeic in character.
This type of breathing is seen in severe cerebral diseases such as
uremic coma and cerebrospinal meningitis.

Differentiate malignant cedema from anthrax.

Malignant cedema may be differentiated from anthrax by its
appearance outside of anthrax districts; by absence of bacillus an-
thracis from the blood; normal size of the spleen; crepitating
swellings; presence of an extensive wound and the characteristic,
causative microorganism.

Differentiate heat stroke (thermic fever) from heat exhaustion.

Heat stroke is manifested by weariness during work, profuse
sweating, great rise of temperature, dyspnea, rapid pulse, dilata-
tion followed by contraction of the pupil, staggering, collapse and
death. In heat exhaustion, there is no fever present, in fact the
temperature may be subnormal; muscular weakness and collapse.

Name the diagnostic tests for glanders.

1. Animal inoculation (Strauss method).
. Subcutaneous mallein.

. Cutaneous mallein.

. Intradermal mallein.
Ophthalmic mallein.
Complement-fixation.

. Agglutination.

. Precipitin.

. Autogenous bacterin.

. Post-mortem.

11. Clinical (physical examination).

CONIA MPwWhD

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State the difference between the agglutination test and the precipitin

test for glanders.
The agglutination test is based upon the fact that blood-serum,
which normally contains agglutinating substances, but in glanders

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 167

a greater amount, will cause the clumping, or agglutinating of
elanders bacilli in suspensions of potato or agar cultures, whereupon
these clumps are precipitated to the bottom of the supernatant clear
fluid.

The precipitin test is based upon the fact that the serum from
a glandered horse produces a flaky precipitate in the filtrate of
glanders cultures, when mixed together.

In a test for glanders, state the relative advantages of the mallein and
agglutination tests.

The mallein test can only be used on living animals. The agglu-
tination test can be applied to dead animals. The former method
is long and tedious and cannot be used when fever is present,
whereas the latter is simple for the practitioner, most of the work
being done in a laboratory ; presence of fever is no hindrance. Mal-
lein is more accurate; agglutination does occur with the serum of
healthy animals and the line of distinction is often close. The mal-
lein test necessitates the confinement of the patient, whereas the
agglutination test allows the horse to continue at work.

Describe the course to be pursued in testing with mallein.

Take three preliminary temperatures, at least four hours apart.
With antiseptic precautions, inject the mallein subcutaneously.
Eight hours later, make a temperature reading and thereafter every
two hours until twenty hours after injection. A reaction consists
of a gradual rise and fall of temperature of at least 2° F., and a
local reaction shown by an cedematous, painful swelling at the seat
of injection, lasting four or five days. Healthy horses are not
affected except, perhaps, by a local swelling which disappears in
twenty-four hours.

The ophthalmic malleim test depends upon a purulent conjunc-
tivitis following from 4 to 24 hours after the instillation of a few
drops of a concentrated mallein solution into the conjunctival sac.

The cutaneous mallein test depends upon a local reaction follow-
ing an intradermal or endermic inoculation with mallein.

Describe the complement fixation test for glanders.

The phenomenon of hemolysis is the fundamental principle of
this test. If the blood-serum of a rabbit is treated with the red
blood-corpuscles of a sheep, antibodies (hemolytic amboceptors)
will be formed. These antibodies have the power to dissolve sheep
red blood-corpuscles in the presence of free complement. This
process is called hemolysis and depends upon two substances; one
of these, the complement, is present in the blood of every animal

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

and can be destroyed by heating the serum to 56° C. for half an
hour. (This is called inactivating the serum) ; the other substance,
known as the immune body, hemolytic amboceptor, or antibody.
By inactivating the serum, the power of hemolysis is lost, because
the complement is destroyed; but this power can be restored by
adding fresh serum which always contains complement, Guinea-pig
serum is very rich in complement and is used in the test.

In horses affected with glanders, the infectious principle, the
toxin, stimulates the production of antibodies. These antibodies,
or bacterial amboceptors, are nature’s fighters against the invading
toxin. For use in this test, this toxin is obtained by making an ex-
tract of an artificial growth of glanders bacilli, and is called antigen.

If the serum of a glandered animal which, of course, contains
antibodies, is inactivated (complement destroyed by heat) and
brought in contact with the antigen in the presence of complement
(supplied by adding fresh guinea-pig serum), the complement will
become firmly fixed by the combined antibody and antigen. This
fixation of the complement is more thoroughly established when the
mixture is placed in an incubator for one hour. If to this mixture,
red blood-corpuscles of a sheep and rabbit serum, containing hemo-
lytic amboceptors, are added, no hxemolysis will occur because the
complement that was added was previously fixed to the antigen by
means of the glanders antibodies.

The serum of a glanders-free horse does not contain antibodies,
so if it is mixed with antigen and complement, the latter does not
become fixed, but remains free; therefore, when the red blood-
corpuscles and the rabbit serum, containing hemolytic amboceptors,
are added to such a mixture, hemolysis occurs.

Positive Reaction. Negative Reaction.

Antigen + serum-containing antibody Antigen-+ normal serum + comple-
+ complement + hemolytic ambo- ment-+ hemolytic amboceptor +
ceptor -+ sheep red blood-corpuscles sheep red blood-corpuscles = hemol-
=no hemolysis. ysis.

The complement unites with the anti- There is no antibody to unite the

gen, through the antibody, hence complement and antigen, hence the
there is no complement to act complement is free to act through
through the hemolytic amboceptor the hemolytic amboceptor on the
on the sheep corpuscles. sheep red blood-corpuscles,

This is not a practicable test for the regular practitioner because
it requires special laboratory apparatus and very accurate technic,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 169

How may strangles be differentiated from glanders?

By purulent submaxillary lymphadenitis; by animal inocula-
tion ; by any of the various glanders tests; in glanders, typical ulcers
are seen in the nasal mucous membranes, similar ulcers are seen
in strangles but tend to heal rapidly; strangles occurs in young
horses and prevails in sale stables.

Make a differential diagnosis between acute nasal glanders and nasal
gleet.

Clinically, it may be difficult to differentiate, a considerable
time for observation being necessary. Usually there are no ulcers
or scars in nasal gleet, and the disease responds to treatment.
Special diagnostic tests for glanders are best resorted to at first to
avoid danger in handling.

Name two diseases that are frequently mistaken for glanders. Name
two laboratory methods frequently employed in diagnosing
glanders.

Strangles and nasal gleet (chronic rhinitis). Agglutination
test and complement fixation test.

Make a differential diagnosis of acute lymphangitis and farcy.

Lymphangitis is a local affection; farcy is a symptom of general-
ized glanders. The former progresses very acutely with fever and
sometimes formation of abscesses in the lymph-glands; the latter
usually progresses slowly, without fever and with but slight par-
ticipation of the glands. The abscesses of lymphangitis have smooth
edges and heal rapidly by granulation, but those of glanders form
erateriform, non-healing ulcers. Special diagnostic tests for
glanders.

Differentiate azoturia from spinal meningitis.
Differentiate by the sudden onset, hard swollen gluteal muscles,
ability to bear weight on the legs, although the fetlocks knuckle;
history of idleness and full diet; black, coffee-colored urine.

Differentiate cryptogamic forage poisoning from lead poisoning.
Forage poisoning develops slowly with paralyses, especially of
the pharynx, little or no fever. Lead poisoning has a sudden onset
(except in the chronic form) ; salivation, convulsions, colics, blue line
around gums, coma and collapse.

Differentiate osteoporosis from osteomalacia.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which the compact bone prolifer-
ates and becomes rarefied (porous), or cancellated. Osteomalacia
is a morbid softening of bone. The former often occurs with the

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD:

latter and predominates. In fact, the two conditions are so similar
that, in view of the lack of information, it is hardly proper to classify
them as independent affections. However, osteomalacia occurs more
frequently in cattle and clinically, in many ways, is not unlike
osteoporosis which is more commonly observed in horses.

Describe the course to be pursued in testing with tuberculin.

Practically the same as the mallein test (subcutaneous), see
page 167, except no local reaction occurs as in glanders.

Give an account of the sources of fallacy in testing cattle for tuber-

culosis and state clearly the precautions that might be taken
to avoid them.

Tuberculin may be of inferior quality. Cattle may have been
tested recently or had tuberculin injected just previous to test,
and therefore do not respond properly. Cattle do not react when
in advanced stages of the disease. Cows, within two weeks of par-
turition, may not react though affected with the disease. Stabling
animals when accustomed to pasture may cause a rise in tempera-
ture. Administration of antipyretics by unscrupulous owners
may cause a mistaken interpretation of results.

Precautions: Use freshly prepared reliable tuberculin; deter-
mine, if possible, the date of last test; observe advanced cases by
clinical examination and exclude them from test; defer testing
pregnant cows near end of term and cows which have recently
calved; stable animals a few days before making test.

Differentiate contagious pleuropneumonia from influenza.

Contagious pleuropneumonia is characterized by the typical
pleurisy and pneumonia which are transmitted with the same pre-
dominating symptoms to other animals. The legs do not swell as
in influenza; it is more severe and fatal; influenza may cause a
croupous pneumonia; is milder in attack; digestive disorders are
common; legs swell; pink-eye is seen.

Give the distinctive symptoms of spasmodic colic and enteritis.

Spasmodic colic shows intervals of ease, no fever, and violent
movements when spasms occur; early recovery. Enteritis is accom-
panied by fever, constant uneasiness, careful decubitus and rising;
gradually grows worse.

What is the difference between septicemia and pyemia? Treatment

for each.
Septicemia is a morbid condition due to the presence of non-
specific pathogenic bacteria and their associated poisons (toxins and
tox-albumins) in the blood. It is accompanied by chills, fever,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 171

sweating and great prostration. Pysmia is a blood-poisoning by
pyogenic microdrganisms and is shown by fever, chills, ieterus and
abscess formation in various parts of the body.

Treatment: Is virtually hopeless. Remove necrotic tissue from
wounds; antiseptic treatment ; quinine sulphate in large doses, inter-
nally; stimulants to sustain heart action.

Give the differential symptoms of acute pharyngitis and acute laryn-
gitis.
Pharyngitis: difficulty in swallowing; no cough.
Laryngitis: no difficulty in swallowing; cough present.
Often occur together.

How can acute nephritis be distinguished from lumbago and lumbar
rheumatism ?
By urinary examination and finding casts, indicative of nephritis.
By tenderness of the kidneys in nephritis, as shown by palpation
per rectum.

What do you understand by diagnostic inoculation?

Diagnostic inoculations consist of the introduction of certain
substances into the bodies of animals for the purpose of determining
either the character of the substance or the condition of the animal’s
health. Hence the substance injected is either a material of known
composition (tuberculin, mallein), or tissue from an animal affected
with an infectious disease, the nature of which is to be determined.

Name three diseases in which you would expect to find a subnormal
temperature.
Parturient paresis, anemia and chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh
in the dog.

Discuss auscultation and palpation.

Auscultation is the act of listening for sounds within the body,
especially in determining the condition of the heart, lungs, pleura
and abdominal organs.

Palpation is the act of examining an organ by feeling with the
hands or finger tips.

How is a positive diagnosis of rabies made?

By miscroscopic examination of the brain and finding Negri
bodies; also by inoculating experimental animals with the brain
tissue of the suspected animal. More recently, the complement-
fixation test has been used and is said to be satisfactory in the
diagnosis of rabies.

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172 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give mode of examining a horse for soundness and a certificate for
same.

Examine the horse in the stable, outside and at work. Record a
description of the animal for the purpose of identification. Hxam-
ine thoroughly every accessible part or organ by inspection, palpa-
tion and auscultation. As very few horses are absolutely sound,
most examiners employ the phrase ‘‘serviceably sound,’’ meaning
that the defects present will not interfere with the animal perform-
ing the required duty.

EXAMINATION FOR SOUNDNESS

PHILADELPHIA, Pa., Jan. 5, 1914.
This certifies, that I have this day examined, at the request of
Mr. John Doe, a bay gelding, 15.2 hands high, 9 years old, white
star and blaze patch between nostrils, clipped foretop, full mane
and tail, all black points, saddle and collar marks, slit in the tip of
left ear.
Notes: ringbone on near fore, chronic arthritis deformans of the
left hock.
From above notes, to the best of my judgment and belief, said
animal is not sound.
Ricuarp Ros, D.V.M.

Nott.—The above examination does not include such obscure
diseases as staggers (epilepsy and immobility), recurrent ophthal-
mia, cribbing without evidence on teeth, etc.

ACUTE GENERAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES

What are the essential causes of hog cholera and swine plague?

According to the results of latest investigators, hog cholera is

caused by an ultramicroscopiec, filtrable virus. Besides the virus,

two species of bacteria, the bacillus suipestifer and the bacillus

suisepticus, play an important part in the etiology of hog cholera.

The secondary affections of the intestines, lymph-glands and lungs

are usually produced by the pathogenic action of these bacteria.
Swine plague is caused by the bacillus suisepticus.

Give the diagnostic symptoms of hog cholera and swine plague.

Hog cholera: Acute form, fever, variable appetite, vomiting,
conjunctivitis, constipation followed by diarrhea which may be
bloody ; reddening of skin on nose, ears, abdomen and on the inside
of the thighs; die after a few hours or a few days’ sickness; simul-
taneous sickness of several members of the herd; may or may not

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 173

be complicated with the respiratory affection of swine plague.
Chronic form, after 1-3 weeks, acute symptoms diminish, appetite
improves, diarrhcea ceases; recovery; others, the appetite remains
irregular, occasional diarrhea, anemia, cachexia, exhaustion and
death after several months.

Swine plague: Often appears as a complication of hog cholera.
Less commonly as a primary affection. Peracute form: high fever,
weakness, anorexia, petechia, symptoms of hemorrhagic septicemia;
die in 12 to 24 hours. Acute form: fever 104°-106° F., nasal dis-
charge, paroxysmal cough, dyspnmwa, pneumonia, tenderness of
thorax (pleurisy), cyanotic membranes, rapid, throbbing pulse;
constipation followed by diarrhwa, anorexia, emaciation, petechix,
die in 1 to 2 weeks; recovery rare. Chronic form follows subsidence
of acute symptoms; coughing and difficult respiration persist;
cachexia; polyarthritis; die in 3 to 6 weeks.

What prophylactic measures and means of extinction should be em-
ployed in an outbreak of hog cholera or swine plague?

Hog cholera: Separate the well from the affected and divide
into small groups; should any of these show symptoms, repeat the
procedure. Destroy affected and thoroughly disinfect premises;
isolate newly-purchased animals for three weeks before introducing
them into herd; quarantine ; immunize and treat with serum.

Swine plague: Separate the well from the affected; destroy car-
casses, thoroughly disinfect, quarantine and immunize with hog
cholera serum. (Hog cholera and swine plague often exist in the
same animal.)

State causes of horse-pox and cowpox.
An ultramicroscopie, filtrable virus, called ‘‘virus of variola.”’

.Give the general symptoms, the sequelz and the best methods of treat-
ment, restriction and extinction of horse- and cowpox.
Horse-pox is very rare and its occurrence is doubted by many
good authorities. A vesiculopustular exanthema in the flexor re-
gion of the pastern of young animals is considered as horse-pox.
This is usually accompanied by a slight elevation of temperature.
Treatment consists of antiseptic dressing of affected part.
Cowpox occurs sporadically on the teats and around their base;
5 to 20 nodules, size of a pea, develop into vesicles, pustules and
rupture, leaving an ulcer, scab and scar, respectively. Duration,
1 to 2 weeks; slight general disturbance, fever, diminished appetite,
irregular rumination, changes in the milk not constant. Scrotum
affected in the male. Sequels: mastitis, wound infection.

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174 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Treatment: Avoid irritating wound; use milk catheter; keep
udder clean and dry; isolate and vaccinate; Epsom salts internally ;
sodium hyposulphite, 1 per cent. solution, or oxide of zinc oint-
ment externally.

Give the accessory causes of tetanus.
Essential cause is the bacillus tetani. Accessory causes: traumas,
especially punctured wounds, castration, amputation of the tail,
pricks in shoeing, parturition, unhealed navel, ete.

What genera are most subject to tetanus? Why?
Solipeds, because they are more susceptible to the action of the
virus and more subject to traumatism.

Give the diagnostic symptoms, prevention and treatment of tetanus.

Symptoms: generalized tonic spasms, ‘‘saw-horse’’ attitude,
head and tail extended, ears rigid, eyes sunken and fixed, protrusion
of the membrana nictitans, nostrils dilated, hyperesthesia, difficult
swallowing, temperature normal or slightly elevated, constipation.

Prevention: Avoid traumatism, especially nail wounds of the
feet. Treat all wounds antiseptically. Tetanus antitoxin, if given
before symptoms appear, in dose of 750 units, will prevent the
disease.

Treatment: Nothing specific. Disinfect the seat of infection;
provide quiet quarters; feed easily masticated, laxative diet; keep
fresh water before patient; empty rectum and bladder at frequent
intervals with the hand; antispasmodics may help in controlling
spasms; phenol, magnesium sulphate, bromides, hydrocyanie acid,
lobelia, tetanus autitoxin, ete., are of disputed therapeutic value.

State the cause of malignant cedema. Name the microbe and give
symptoms and course.
Cause: wound infection by bacillus edematis maligni.
Symptoms: Suddenly appearing and rapidly spreading swelling
which is edematous and crepitates on palpation; hot and tender at
first but later becomes insensitive; if incised, a reddish-yellow or
colorless serous fluid containing air-bubbles is discharged; dyspnea,
cyanotic membranes, colicky pains, tympanites, high temperature;
death may occur in a few hours or, at the longest, three days after
appearance of the first symptoms. Recovery exceptional.

Describe the symptoms of hemorrhagic septiczemia in cattle.
Sudden checking in milk secretion, difficult swallowing, anorexia,
general dulness, high temperature, diarrheal discharge dark in color
or may be bloody; bloody urine and bloody serous discharge from
nostrils; painful edematous swellings about the legs, shoulders and

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 175

under the throat; convulsions; short duration, often found dead in
field. ,

Describe the symptoms and course of anthrax in cattle.

Peracute cases: May die suddenly with no previous symptoms
observed; high fever, bloody discharge from mouth, nostrils and
anus, convulsions and death in a few hours.

Acute cases: High fever, restlessness followed later by depres-
sion and convulsions; small rapid pulse, dyspneea from cedema of
the glottis; tympany, diarrhoea, feces mixed with blood, or clots of
blood may be passed; hot, doughy swellings over the surface of the
body. Cutaneous form, which is characterized by carbuncles
(malignant pustule), rare. Death in 12 to 48 hours.

Subacute cases: Occur in latter end of an epidemic; show rise
of temperature and constitutional disturbance; recover in 2 to 7
days.

Give the symptoms, treatment and general termination of epizootic
cellulitis.

A form of influenza characterized by fever, depression and in-
flammatory cedema of the cutis and subcutis over the dependent por-
tions of the body, especially the eyelids, nostrils, sheath, ventral
surface of the abdomen and the limbs. Appetite may or may not
be impaired; pulse rapid and strong; disinclination to move; con-
stipation.

Treatment: Sodium sulphate may be given in bran mashes
or in drench. Potassium nitrate in the drinking water. Usually
recover uneventfully.

Describe the symptoms of infectious pneumonia (contagious pleuro-
pneumonia) other than the elevation of temperature, in-
creased pulse-rate and respiration.

Ieterus, anorexia, dulness, yellow nasal discharge, cough, crepi-
tation, pleuritic friction at first, later a long horizontal line of dul-
ness on percussion due to exudate; pharyngitis which may be fol-
lowed by inhalation bronchitis and gangrenous pneumonia ; pericar-
ditis, endocarditis and myocarditis; dropsical swellings of the legs
and elsewhere. The symptom of dulness may be followed by stupor,
rolling of eyes, vertigo or paresis of the hind limbs.

Give course, termination and treatment of contagious pleuropneumonia.
See answer to preceding question. Moderate cases in strong,
well-nourished horses begin to improve at the end of one week and
recover in 2 to 3 weeks, convalescence complete in one month.
Severe cases almost invariably succumb in a few days; gangrene

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176 VETERINARY STATE BOARD zi

of the lungs, toxemia, tendinitis and myocarditis are unfavorable
complications.

Treatment: Hygienic and dietetic measures are most important.
In very high fever, give antipyretics; likewise, symptomatic treat-
ment in other alarming conditions such as intestinal antiseptics in
diarrhea, heart tonics in myocarditis, ete. Nuclein, tallianin, col-
loidal silver, bacterial endotoxins and serum therapy are of disputed
therapeutic value. More recently, salvarsan and neosalvarsan have
been advocated as specifics and ‘‘sure cures’’ and the outlook is
most encouraging.

Give the symptoms of foot and mouth disease (aphthe epizooticz).

Fever, redness and tenderness of the buccal mucous membranes
and teats, grinding of teeth, salivation, smacking of tongue, tender
feet, shaking of feet backward; blisters on lips, buccal mucous
membranes, teats and between digits; these blisters may rupture
and leave a raw, inflamed, underlying tissue; separation of horn
from coronary band sometimes occurs; diarrhcea in sucklings due
to gastro-intestinal catarrh. Prognosis favorable in adult cattle.
Recovery in 2 weeks.

Give the symptoms and course of rabies in dogs.

Two forms, furious and dumb. Furious form: More affec-
tionate, dulness alternating with excitement; peculiar howl, due to
paralysis of the throat; depraved appetite, hallucinations, eyes
red and fixed; wanders away from home, biting dogs, persons and
all objects in its path; dribbling of saliva and finally paralysis of
the lower jaw, pharynx and posterior limbs, followed by death.
Course, 2 to 5 days. Dumb form: Usually follows the furious form
and represents the paralytic stage. If present from the first, the
animal is dull, apathetic, shows little or no inclination to bite; no
howling, seeks seclusion and quiet. Paralysis extends and death
follows.

Describe the successive symptoms of a very severe case of distemper
in the dog eventually ending in death.

Fever, vomiting, coughing, nasal discharge which is first serous
but later mucopurulent; catarrhal conjunctivitis, keratitis, ulcers
on the cornea; exanthema; catarrhal bronchitis and pneumonia,
chorea, emaciation and death. May have the nervous form, mani-
fested by chorea, from the first.

Give the causes and symptoms of Texas fever.
Cause: A microdrganism belonging to the protozoa, called piro-
plasma bigeminum, also called Babesia bigeminum bovis.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 177

Symptoms: Acute form, high fever, rapid pulse and respiration,
anorexia, dulness, constipation, icterus, prostration, weakness, de-
lirium, hemoglobinuria, blood thin and pale, diarrhcea, emaciation.
Course, 1 to 7 days. Mild form: Symptoms similar to those in the
acute form, except they are less severe and are prolonged for a
greater length of time.

What is influenza? Give causes and symptoms.

Influenza is an acute, infectious disease of the horse (rarely the
ass and mule), occurring enzodtically and epizodtically, and is char-
acterized by a rise of temperature and a catarrhal condition of the
mucous membranes of the respiratory and digestive tracts.

Cause: Seems to be a specific infection, the nature of which is,
as yet, undetermined. A number of organisms have been found and
described as the specific one, viz., coccobacillus of Lignieres, bacilli,
streptococci, ete. <A filtrable virus seems to have been proven by
recent experimenters who consider the streptococci, bacilli, etc., as
secondary invaders.

Symptoms: Various manifestations and forms; viz., catarrhal
form, pink eye, abdominal form, infectious cellulitis and any number
of combinations of the above. In general, we observe: sudden
attack, anorexia, extreme prostration and weakness, high tempera-
ture, swelling and watering of the eyes, icterus, cough, accelerated
pulse, mucopurulent nasal discharge, pharyngitis, bronchitis,
pneumonia, pleurisy, digestive disorders, and an cedematous swell-
ing of the extremities, sheath, etc. Mild cases may show only a
high fever and prostration lasting a few days. There is a great
variety of internal forms.

Give some of the modern forms of treatment of influenza.

Besides the usual symptomatic treatment followed in pneumonia,
pleurisy and enteritis from other causes, nuclein, tallianine, anti-
streptococcus serum, palyvalent bacterins, mixed infection phyla-
cogens and proprietary vaccines are used.

Give causes and symptoms of purpura hemorrhagica.

Cause: Not definitely known; follows debilitating diseases as a
secondary affection; probably toxins, especially those causing vaso-
dilatation.

Symptoms: Fever; nasal petechie; characteristic, extensive,
abruptly-ending swellings of the skin and subcutis of the abdomen,
sheath and extremities; oozing of serum from the skin; dyspnea
and suffocation may follow from swelling of the nostrils and
pharynx; locomotion is painful; appetite is usually good in the
mild and often in the severe cases.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What is the prognosis and treatment of purpura hemorrhagica?

Prognosis: Depends upon the severity of the attack and the
complications. Average mortality 50 per cent.

Treatment: Hygienic attention is very important; potassium
chlorate as a diuretic; give vasomotor stimulants as potassium
dichromate, quinine sulphate, strychnine sulphate and ergot; inter-
nal antiseptics such as sodium salicylate, salol, calomel, turpentine ;
occasional small doses of linseed oil for its laxative effect, but do
not give strong or drastic purgatives; surgical measures such as
tracheotomy may be necessary.

Define specific infectious disease. Name five of these diseases.

A specific infectious disease is one that is caused by the multi-
plication of a single species of microérganism within the animal
body. This particular organism, and it only, can produce the
disease, ¢.g., anthrax, Texas fever, tetanus, glanders, tuberculosis.

State the period of incubation of a case of street rabies in the dog.

Varies from two weeks to three months. There are cases re-
corded with an incubation period of two years (?). Average, 22
days.

Give the causes and treatment of an epizootic of scours in calves (white

scours).

Accessory causes: Unclean surroundings; open umbilicus; and
hereditary debility. Specific cause: umbilical and intestinal infec-
tion with B. coli communis.

Treatment: As a prophylactic measure, disinfect stables and the
external genitals of the mother before parturition; provide clean
surroundings for parturient animals. Disinfect the umbilical re-
gion; sterilize the milk, feeding utensils, or udder before feeding ;
clear the intestinal tract of irritating matters with castor oil one
ounce, or calomel 2 to 5 grains, and follow with subnitrate of bis-
muth 30 grains; one teaspoonful of a 1 to 4000 solution of formalin,
to each pint of milk, is useful to check diarrhea in artificially fed
calves, but it should be preceded by castor oil.

Give the symptoms of rhino-adenitis. Mention the complications that

sometimes occur in rhino-adenitis.

Rhino-adenitis or strangles is a disease of young horses, mani-
fested by dulness, anorexia, mucopurulent nasal discharge, purulent
inflammation of the submaxillary lymph-glands which leads to rup-
ture and healing; fever; increased pulse. Complications: laryn-

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 179

gitis, pharyngitis, bronchopneumonia, pleurisy, metastatis abscess
formation in the lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, pancreas and other
parts.

CHRONIC INFECTIOUS DISEASES

What genus of animals is subject to Johne’s disease? State the essen-
tial cause.
Bovine. Caused by the bacillus of Johne’s disease, an acid-fast
microérganism which resembles very much the tubercle bacillus.

What are the symptoms of Johne’s disease?
Gradual emaciation and anemia unattended by fever or pain;
a persistent, thin, watery diarrhea, containing gas bubbles; appe-
tite variable; diminished milk secretion; fatal termination. This
disease is also known as ‘‘enteritis chronica paratuberculosa’’ and
“‘chronic bacterial dysentery.’’

State the prevention and treatment of Johne’s disease.
Isolation and destruction of affected animals; thorough disin-
fection of premises; raise offspring on new or uninfected pastures.
No satisfactory treatment is known.

Describe a case of epizootic lymphangitis, giving the history, symp-
toms and prognosis.

(This disease is unknown in this country; the cases so diagnosed
are probably ‘‘sporotrichosis,’’ which is caused by a sporothrix and
presents similar symptoms. )

History: Wound on the leg; unthrifty for past one or two
months; development of multiple, nodular swellings on the wounded
leg; bursting of nodules and a discharge of thick, yellowish, oily
pus; nodules vary in size from a pea to a hen’s egg; scar formation ;
disease gradually extended up the leg, along the lymphatic vessels
to the inguinal lymph-gands.

Symptoms: Buds, ulcers or sores, characterized by exuberant
granulations, fungoid appearance, indurated base and well-defined
edges, discharging yellowish, oily pus; nodules of various sizes; in-
duration of inguinal lymph-glands and swelling of the lymphatics ;
normal temperature and good appetite.

- Prognosis: Usually recover with a resultant pachydermatitis
of the affected leg. Mortality, 7 to 10 per cent.

What is the treatment for epizootic lymphangitis?
Antiseptics; open abscesses; curette; cauterize. Give potassium

iodide internally.
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180 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the symptoms and treatment of actinomycosis in the cow.

Symptoms: Deformity of the head or other parts affected by
the neoplasms; hard, dense and sometimes suppurating tumors de-
velop on the lips, tongue, maxillary bone, pharynx, skin, lymph-
glands, lungs and occasionally in other organs. The symptoms,
therefore, are various. Difficulty in prehension and mastication of
food; teeth loosen; profuse salivation; difficulty in swallowing and
breathing; in a pulmonary affection, the symptoms resemble those
of tuberculosis of the lungs. The disease progresses slowly ; a course
of several years in mild cases; die from inanition due to inability
to eat.

Treatment: Surgical removal of tumors; cauterize the wound
formed and apply tincture of iodine freely. Internally, give potas-
sium iodide in repeated doses until signs of iodism appear, then
discontinue for a time and repeat until a cure is effected.

Give the cause, course and symptoms of glanders.

Cause: Bacterium mallei, also called bacillus mallei.

Course: Acute form, a few weeks; the chronic form, one or more
years.

Symptoms: Variously manifested as nasal, pulmonary and cuta-
neous (farey) forms. Acute form starts with a chill, fever, muco-
purulent nasal discharge which is sometimes mixed with blood; one
or both nostrils swollen, mucous membrane of a dark-red or violet
color ; and contains numerous nodules which after a few days become
eroded, leaving ulcers; submaxillary lymph-glands enlarged, hard
and show little heat or tenderness; cutaneous form (farey) may or
may not be present; this form is characterized by swellings or
nodules (farey buds or farcy buttons) along the superficial lym-
phatics, usually of a hind limb. The throat and lungs may become
involved, as shown by a violent cough and dyspnea. The acute
form runs a rapid course to a fatal termination.

Chronic form: Develops insidiously with nasal lesions, ulcers
or star-shaped cicatrices, a sticky, blood-streaked nasal discharge;
slate-colored mucous membrane; submaxillary lymph-glands hard,
indurated and adherent to the adjacent structures. Appetite vari-
able, gradual loss of flesh; intermittent, slight fever; cedematous
swellings; cough due to involvement of the lungs; farey buds may
be present.

What animals suffer from actinobacillosis? Give diagnosis and treat-
ment.
Cattle and sheep.
Diagnosis depends upon the finding of the bacillus which

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 181

arranges itself in the tissues similar to the ray fungus of actino-
mycosis. The four cases that were observed in Canada, in 1904,
are the only ones ever reported in America. It is a very rare dis-
ease; Symptoms and treatment are the same as in actinomycosis.

Describe the symptoms and course of tuberculosis in cattle.

The symptoms vary according to the course of the disease.
There are two forms, acute or miliary, and chronic. The latter is
by far the more common. Acute form: Rapid loss of flesh, anorexia,
cough, weakness, dyspnea, slight fever, increased pulse, enlarged
lymph-glands; very rapid course terminating in death in a few
months.

Chronic form: Symptoms vary according to location and extent
of lesions. Many badly affected cases show no prominent symptoms.
In general we observe: emaciation (tubercular cachexia), although
the appetite remains good; staring coat; cough, especially if the
lungs are involved. The palpable lymph-glands are painless, hard
and enlarged. Enlarged mediastinal lymph-glands may press on
the esophagus and bronchi, thereby producing tympany and
dyspnea. Indigestion, shown by diarrhcea and constipation, fol-
lows tuberculosis of the stomach and intestines. Enlargement and
hardening of the udder, and changes in the milk are observed in
advanced cases of udder affection. Nervous derangement indicates
involvement of the brain and spinal cord. In tuberculosis of the
bones and joints, the parts are enlarged and lameness is shown.

What is dourine?

Dourine is a chronic, contagious affection of breeding horses,
transmitted by copulation, and is characterized first by local lesions
on the external genitals, such as swellings, ulcers and scars, which
is followed later by an affection of the nervous system, as shown
by hyperesthesia and paralysis.

Give the cause and symptoms of dourine.

Trypanosoma equiperdum, transmitted by contagion and almost
exclusively by the act of coition.

Symptoms: In the stallion, from one week to two months after
infection a cold painless swelling develops on the glans penis,
sheath, scrotum and abdomen; an urethral discharge, vesicles and
ulcers may occur, although not constant; paraphymosis, semi-erec-
tions, slight fever, strangury, paresis of hind limbs, emaciation,
weakness, dementia, decubitus and skin eruption are some of the
various symptoms presented. Course: 2 to 3 months to as many
years, terminating usually by death. In mares: vulvar swelling,

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182 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

leucorrhea, eruptions on the mucosa of the vagina, erections of the
clitoris, straining, inguinal swellings, sterility or abortion, lameness,
trembling, anemia and emaciation, ending the same as in the stallion.

What is the treatment for dourine?
Local antiseptics; arsenical preparations internally. ‘‘Sal-
varsan’’ is being strongly advocated. Prevention: isolate, prevent
copulation, castrate and use sanitary police measures.

What is infectious abortion ?

Infectious abortion is the premature expulsion of the foetus, seen
in cows, less commonly in mares, due to an infectious catarrh of
the uterus transmitted by copulation or contagion. Infectious abor-
tion of cows is due to the bacillus of Bang. Etiology is not fully
determined in the mare.

Granular venereal disease, which is quite prevalent, is frequently
associated with abortion in cows.

‘Name some of the more recent methods of diagnosing infectious abor-
tion.
Agglutination test, complement fixation test and the allergic test
with ‘‘abortin.’’ The allergic test is not reliable at present.

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD AND BLOOD-FORMING ORGANS

‘What is “ swamp fever” or infectious anzmia?
Infectious anemia is a specific infectious disease of the horse
which is manifested sometimes as an acute, at other times as a
chronic, septicemia, and causes a destruction of great numbers of
red blood-corpuscles. It is caused by an ultramicroscopic micro-
organism.

Define anemia, leukemia and hemophilia.

Anemia is a condition in which the blood is deficient either in
quantity (oligemia) or in quality (oligocythemia).

Leukemia is a fatal disease in which there is a marked increase
in the number of leucocytes in the blood, together with an enlarge-
ment and proliferation of the lymphoid tissue of the spleen,
lymphatic glands and bone-marrow.

Hemophilia is a condition marked by a strong and abnormal
tendency to bleeding, or hemorrhage, and is usually hereditary.

State the causes of anemia and give treatment.

Causes: Inanition, unsanitary surroundings, overwork, poisons,
lack of exercise, hemorrhage, persistent diarrhea, long-lasting sup-
puration, copious transudation, chronic diseases, parasites, infec-
tion, ete.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 183

Treatment: Remove cause; correct diet; give tonics such as iron
sulphate or reduced iron, arsenic, etce.; transfusion of blood or
infusion of normal saline solution.

Where is the filaria immitis found? What condition does it produce?

The embryos of this parasite are found in the circulating blood
and the mature worms in the right heart of dogs. Conditions pro-
duced are anemia, emaciation, increased appetite, dropsical swell-
ings due to emboli, heart disturbances, ete. It runs a course of
several years,

Discuss briefly the etiology and prevention of hemoglobinuria.

Give

Give

Hemoglobinuria (azoturia) occurs almost invariably in well-
conditioned, plethoric horses, accustomed to regular work, after
a day of idleness without reduction in the amount of rations. It
is rarely seen in poorly nourished horses. Cold is thought to be an
etiological factor as more cases are seen in winter than in summer.
It is probably an auto-intoxication, the exact nature of which is
undetermined.

Prevention: Give regular exercise and reduce rations when
idle.

the symptoms and treatment of azoturia.

Symptoms: Soon after leaving the stable in apparently perfect
condition, the patient sweats, knuckles over on one or both hind,
rarely in the fore, fetlocks, falls down and cannot arise except to
stand in the knuckled attitude; cerebral excitement may or may not
be present; the muscles of the gluteal region are hard and swollen;
urine is coffee-colored or black; pulse full and accelerated, tempera-
ture normal or slightly elevated.

Treatment: Nothing specific. Quick-acting cathartics such as
arecoline and Epsom salts; hot blankets over the loins may help;
evacuate the bladder regularly; plenty of bedding should be pro-
vided and the patient should be turned over every 4 to 6 hours.
Bromides or chloral hydrate may be given per os, or cannabis
indica, intravenously if the patient is restless. Slings are used by
some but should not be used unless the patient can stand well, in
which case they are needless.

Diseases oF METABOLISM

the symptoms, course and termination of osteoporosis.
Inappetency, lifelessness, stiffness, shifting lameness, ‘‘tied-in’’
gait, stumbling, distortion of the bones of the face and lower jaw,

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184 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

polyarthritis, ‘‘tucked-up’’ abdomen, pleuritic ridge, emaciation,
fractures, tearing away of ligamentous and tendinous attachments,
ete., are among the prominent symptoms of the disease.

Course: Chronic, running several months or years, ending in
death. Improvement may follow under proper handling if taken
early, but relapses are common.

What is the treatment for osteoporosis?
Change of feed and environment. Calcium phosphate, in two-
drachm doses three times daily, may be useful. Best to turn the
horse out in pasture and make him ‘‘rough it’’ for a year.

Give cause, symptoms and treatment for rachitis.

Causes: Hereditary, lack of lime salts in the food, unhygienic
conditions.

Symptoms: Unthrifty appearance, easily fatigued, reeumbency,
stiffness ; tender, swollen joints; enlarged epiphyses, long bones bent ;
brittleness of bones and loosening of teeth; diarrhea.

Treatment: Principally hygienic; provide fresh air and sun-
shine; feed nutritious rations, rich in earthy salts, phosphates, bone
dust, lime water, dilute hydrochloric acid, ete.

Name the different forms of diabetes and give the treatment for each.
Diabetes mellitus is characterized by the passing of a large
amount of urine, containing an excessive amount of sugar.
Diabetes insipidus is a chronic disease marked by great thirst
and the passage of a large amount of urine but no excess of sugar.
Diabetes mellitus is practically incurable; treat by limiting the
amount of carbohydrates and feed more fats and proteids. Car-
nivora may be fed fat meat, eggs, buttermilk. Opium and Carlsbad
salts are said to be helpful.
Diabetes insipidus is unsatisfactory to treat. It is usually due
to chronic interstitial nephritis. Give vasoconstrictors, as ergot,
valerian, ete.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS

Define pyelitis. How diagnosed and treated?

Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney. Diagnosed by micro-
scopical examination of the urine and finding epithelial cells from
the pelvis, blood-cells and pus. Usual symptoms of nephritis.

Treatment: Abundance of pure water, sodium bicarbonate, urin-
ary antiseptics, hot fomentations over loins,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 185

State the more common causes of urinary cystitis. Give diagnosis and
treatment.

Causes: Diuretics, retention of urine, infection, calculi, para-
sites, unclean catheter, adjacent inflammation.

Diagnosis: Cloudy urine, containing shreds of mucous mem-
branes, pus cells, blood and triple phosphates and of an alkaline
reaction ; painful urination; bladder-walls tender and thickened.

Treatment: Disinfect bladder by irrigating with a 3 per cent.
solution of boric acid and methylene blue internally. Give an abun-
dance of pure water. Surgically remove calculi.

Give the symptoms and treatment of urzemic poisoning in the dog.
Occurs usually in connection with acute or chronic nephritis;
dulness, chill, high fever, vomiting, convulsions, paralysis, Cheyne-
Stokes breathing, coma and death. Uriniferous odor to the skin.
Treatment: Venesection followed by infusion of normal saline
solution. Withdraw urine and produce sweating with pilocarpus.
Move bowels; control convulsions with bromides.

Give the common causes and the treatment for acute nephritis.
Occurs most commonly as a secondary disease. May be caused by
cold, drugs, such as arsenic, phosphorus, etc., irritant diuretics,
toxins from specific fevers, infection, suppression of the urine,
calculi, ete.
Treatment: Relieve the kidneys as much as possible by giving
diaphoretics and purges. Give urinary antiseptics as methylene
blue and quiet pain with bromides or chloral hydrate.

What are the causes of polyuria? How treated?

Chronie interstitial nephritis, tumors of the brain, nervous dis-
orders, mouldy feeds, diuretic drugs, cold, habitual constipation,
suppression of perspiration.

Treatment: Remove cause, change food, open bowels; drugs are
useless in most cases.

What are the different steps in the examination of the urine?

A. Macroscopical: Determine quantity, color, transparency,
consistency, odor and specific gravity.

B. Chemical: Reaction, albumin, indican, bile pigments and
sugar. ;

C. Microscopical: Centrifuge unfiltered urine and examine sedi-
ment under the microscope for casts, epithelial cells, blood-cells,
pus-cells and unorganized sediments (uric acid crystals, etc.).

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In what conditions do we find albuminuria?

Nephritis, organic heart disease, emphysema, fevers, pneumonia,
diabetes, anemia, leukemia, hydremia, hematuria, hemoglobinuria,
pregnancy. Often occurs in small amounts in healthy individuals.

Give causes and treatment for hzmaturia.

Nephritis, injuries to the kidneys, irritant plants with diuretic
principle, certain drugs, wounds and inflammation of the bladder,
caleule, urethritis and infectious diseases as anthrax and Texas
fever are among the common causes.

Treatment: Determine the cause and remove it. Give urinary
antiseptics as methylene blue, balsam copaiba, ete.; remove calculi,
irrigate bladder with boric acid solution.

DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY ORGANS

Describe the symptoms of pericarditis in the bovine species.

Usually of traumatic origin. Digestive disturbances, sensitive-
ness to pressure in the region of the reticulum, tympany of rumen
after meals, hurried breathing, groaning, irregular pulse, friction
sounds synchronous with the heart-beat followed later by splashing
or metallic tinkling sound; dropsical swellings in the dew-lap and
sides of sternum; pleurisy and pneumonia may complicate matters.

State the usual causes (dietetic and anatomic) of traumatic pericar-

ditis in cattle and goats. ‘Give prevention and treatment.

Anatomically, the reticulum, into which most foreign bodies are
passed, lies against the diaphragm. On expiration and during
rumination, the diaphragm is brought in contact with the pericar-
dium and the sharp objects are thus directed into the latter.

Dietetic causes: Ruminants swallow food with little masti-
cation; pins, needles, hay-wire, pieces of tin, etc., if in the feed, are
readily swallowed.

Prevention: Avoid the presence of foreign bodies in the feed.
Cut hay-wires in the middle instead of near the joints.

Treatment: Generally useless; give laxatives; stand animal with
front parts elevated. Surgically remove the offending object
through the rumen or chest wall.

Give causes and symptoms of insufficiency of the cardiac valves,

auriculoventricular and semilunar.

Insufficiency may be caused by endocarditis which leaves the
valves thickened and rigid ; cardiac hypertrophy, tumors, parasites,
aneurism of aorta near the heart; overexertion may injure the
valves.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 187

Insufficiency of the right auriculoventricular valve is shown by
a systolic murmur, a feeble pulse, distention of the veins, jugular
pulse and oedema of the extremities.

Insufficiency of the left auriculoventricular valve is accom-
panied by a systolic murmur, passive congestion of the lungs, indura-
tion of the lung tissue, pulmonary cdema, pulse slightly weaker,
dyspneea on exercise.

Insufficiency of the semilunar valve of the aorta is usually accom-
panied by hypertrophy, which gives an increased cardiac dulness
on percussion, a stronger impulse on palpation and a full, strong,
bounding pulse; thrill of the wall of the thorax over the heart; a
diastolic murmur which shows its greatest intensity in the left fourth
intercostal space below the shoulder line.

Insufficiency of the semilunar valve of the pulmonary artery
shows the same as the preceding, except there is no change in the
pulse and it is usually accompanied by respiratory disturbances.

Give the treatment for valvular disease of the heart.
Secure rest for the patient. Give heart tonics as, digitalis,
strophanthus, ete. Slaughter meat-producing animals.

What are the usual causes of dropsy of the abdomen, limbs and beneath
the venter?
Valvular heart disease, cirrhosis of the liver, diseases of the
kidneys, circulatory obstructions which produce venous congestion
as, tumors, aneurisms, etc.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of aneurism.

Causes: Debilitated vascular walls, violence which may rup-
ture the arterial coat, violent exercise, increased blood-pressure,
obstruction by embolus and arteritis.

Symptoms: Depends on the location. In general, we note: a
soft tumor pulsating with the heart; a double rushing sound, palpi-
tation, cardiac weakness, rapid fatigue, vertigo, and venous
congestion.

Treatment: Unsatisfactory. Rest the patient; give a low diet;
apply compression or ligature above and below the aneurism, In-
ternal aneurism, which is seldom diagnosed, is irremediable.

In what animals and at what age is cyanosis liable to occur?
In the new-born animal. It is due to the failure of the foramen

ovale to close.

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188 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS

Define epistaxis and give its causes.
Bleeding from the nose. It may be due to traumatism, violent
exertion, parasites, granulating tumors, ulceration of the nasal pas-
sages, anthrax, glanders, purpura hemorrhagica, haemophilia, ete.

State causes, symptoms and treatment of nasal gleet.

Nasal gleet or chronic rhinitis may follow the acute form or it
may be due to diseased teeth; infection or catarrh of the nasal
sinuses. It is also seen in glanders.

Symptoms: A continuous, unilateral or bilateral nasal discharge
of a thick, creamy consistency. The submaxillary lymph-glands are
hard and enlarged ; ulcers sometimes form on the mucous membrane ;
the temperature remains normal and the patient becomes anzmic
and emaciated.

Treatment: Locally, apply astringent antiseptics, such as nasal
douches with Dobell’s solution. Internally, give tonics.

What parasites attack the throat in solipeds? Give symptoms, pre-
vention and treatment in each case.

Hemopis sanguisuga (horse leech) attaches itself to the walls
of the pharynx and larynx and produces cough, laryngitis, dys-
phagia and epistaxis. Prevent by avoiding waters harboring the
parasite. Treat by throwing salt solution on them and remove
with a dry towel or forceps.

Gstrus larve (bots) are sometimes attached to the pharynx and
larynx. They produce chronic irritation, cough and dyspneea.
Prevention depends upon the destruction of the bots and the mature
fly, the estrus equi. Treatment consists of removing the bots with
the forceps or hands. Laryngotomy may be necessary.

Give the symptoms and treatment of cedema of the glottis.

Sudden appearance of dyspnea and an extensive painless, cede-
matous swelling in the laryngeal region. The temperature is nor-
mal; sweating, an anxious expression and paroxysm of coughing
are observed.

Treatment: Perform tracheotomy and insert tube. Apply
astringent and absorbing agents externally. Burrow’s lotion or
white lotion could be used on cotton and held in place by a throat
bandage.

State the usual causes of inhalation bronchitis and pneumonia.
Faulty methods of drenching which allows medicine to enter the
trachea; dysphagia due to pharyngitis, tetanus, etc. Sometimes

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 189

follows chloroform anzsthesia; inhalation of smoke or irritant
gases; regurgitation of food when in a comatose condition as in milk
fever. May follow tracheotomy operation.

Give the diagnostic symptoms, prevention and treatment of inhalation
pneumonia.

Fevei, anorexia, cough, bronchial rales, dyspnoea, fetid odor to
the expired air, mucopurulent nasal discharge containing shreds of
necrotic tissue; dulness in the lower part of the thorax.

Prevention: Guard against causative factors. Be careful in
drenching and see that no part of the medicine enters the trachea.
Don’t drench cows with milk fever, nor horses with tetanus, pharyn-
gitis or other conditions in which there is danger of inhalation of
the fluid.

Treatment: Antiseptic inhalations of the vapor or eucalyptus,
tar, carbolic acid or turpentine. Intratracheal irrigation with a
1 per cent. solution of hydrogen peroxide in a normal salt solution.
Give stimulants and antipyretics.

What domestic animal is most susceptible to bronchial asthma? Give
causes, symptoms and treatment for this disease.

The dog is most subject to bronchial asthma.

Causes: Nervous origin, reflexly from pneumogastric irritation
due to digestive disorders. The muscle fibres of the bronchi contract
and narrow the lumen, thus bringing on paroxysms of coughing.

Symptoms: Obesity, sluggishness, paroxysmal cough and
dyspnea. Usually have digestive disorders.

Treatment: Antispasmodics per rectum or subeutem ; cathartics ;
dietary restrictions to lessen obesity.

What animals suffer from strongylus rufescens? Name the disease
produced and the symptoms.

The. sheep and goat.

The disease is variously known as verminous bronchitis, bron-
chial strongylosis, hoose, husk and paper skin disease. -_

Symptoms: Occurs enzodtically ; loss of appetite, unthriftiness,
emaciation, fever, dyspnea, fits of coughing, convulsions, anemia
and emaciation.

What is the treatment for verminous bronchitis in calves?
Inhalations of oil of eucalyptus and turpentine, in a vapor of
steam. Intratracheal injection of 15 to 20 ec. of a 5 per cent.

solution of creolin in olive oil. Give stimulants and nourishing food.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of gapes in fowls.

Cause: This disease is due to the presence of the parasite, synga-
mus trachealis, in the trachea.

Symptoms: The bird gapes, sneezes, coughs and discharges
mucus, which often contains the worm, from the mouth; dulness,
drooping of wings, inappetency. Worms may be seen in the trachea.

Treatment: Remove the worm with forceps or a loop of horse
hair.

State the immediate and the remote causes of acute pulmonary conges-

tion. Give the treatment.

The immediate cause is a rush of blood to the lungs. Remote
causes are: fat, plethoric condition; sudden chilling; infectious
diseases; overfeeding; hot weather; heart diseases and venous
stasis.

Treatment: Venesection, counter-irritation over thorax and
friction to extremities; heart stimulants, plenty of fresh air.
Usually terminates in pneumonia or recovery in 24 hours.

Give the distinctive symptoms of bronchitis, pneumonia and pleurisy,

respectively, in the early and fully developed stages.

Early stages: Bronchitis, dry hard cough, normal percussion
sound, bilateral, sibilant rales and dyspnea. Pneumonia (pulmon-
ary congestion), restrained cough, increased resonance on percus-
sion, unilateral crepitant rales, dyspnoea more marked. Pleurisy,
painful cough, tenderness to percussion, bilateral friction sounds,
pleuritic ridge, high temperature.

Fully developed stages: Bronchitis, resonance on percussion,
mucous rales, temperature high. Pneumonia, dulness on percus-
sion, absence of vesicular murmur, temperature high throughout the
attack. Pleurisy, temperature lower, flatness on percussion bounded
by a horizontal line, increased resonance above. Tenderness on
percussion.

Give the symptoms of gangrene of the lungs.

Rapid respiration, moist rales, purulent nasal discharge contain-
ing shreds of necrotic tissue, fetid odor to breath, high fever, rapid
weak pulse and great prostration.

Give the symptoms, course and treatment of acute diffused pleuritis.

Chill, fever, hard pulse; rapid, shallow breathing, patient re-
mains standing, pleuritic ridge, suppressed cough, tenderness in
the intercostal region, groaning when turned sharply, friction
sounds. Later, there appears a horizontal line of dulness, splashing

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 191

metallic tinkling, edemas. Course may run from a few days to
several weeks, depending upon the continuance of the hydrothorax.

Treatment: In early stages, venesection, counter-irritants on
chest, such as mustard plasters, oil of mustard and oil silk jacket;
apply friction to legs and bandage them warmly. Give a laxative
diet. Later, thoracentesis may be advisable to remove the exudate.
Give diuretics and stimulants.

Describe a case of pleurisy in the dog.
About the same as previously mentioned in the horse. Dogs
sit on haunches and pant. In case of effusion, the horizontal line of.
dulness changes with the different attitudes the dog may assume.

Give the cause, symptoms and treatment of hydrothorax.

Caused by pleurisy, venous stasis, heart disease, kidney disease,
anemia, parasites, etc.

Symptoms: Dyspneea, horizontal line of dulness in lower part
of thorax, no fever; general dropsy, if from heart and kidney
diseases.

Treatment: Diuretics, derivatives, thoracentesis, laxative diet
and tonics. Usually incurable.

Describe the symptoms of pulmonary emphysema. Outline treatment.
Double expiratory movement, husky, wheezing cough, dilated
nostrils, dyspnea easily produced by exercise, muggy weather or
a full stomach. Digestive troubles often accompany heaves. Occa-
sionally there will be seen a glairy nasal discharge. Cardiac
weakness.
Treatment: Dietetic measures such as a laxative diet, concen-
trated foods and a restricted amount of hay or straw. Give arsenic
in graduated doses. Belladonna is useful to suppress the cough.

How would you guard against fraudulent attempts to conceal the
symptoms of heaves?

Keep the horse under observation for 48 hours. Give plenty of
hay and water and exercise. The dilated nostrils are hard to conceal.
Adrenalin chloride aggravates respiration and may be an aid to
diagnosis.

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS

Define glossitis and give causes for same.

Glossitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane and sub-
stance of the tongue. It may be due to mechanical, thermal and
chemical agents. Infection should be reckoned with, especially
specific infections, as in foot and mouth disease, lip and leg ulcera-

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192 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What animals and what organs are infested by linguatula tanoides?
Give diagnosis and treatment, both therapeutic and pre-
ventive.

This parasite infests the nasal chambers, turbinated bones, fron-
tal sinuses and pharynx of the dog and occasionally the horse.

The diagnosis is based upon sneezing, coughing, rubbing nose,
dyspnea, epistaxis, convulsions and finding the parasite in the
discharge.

Treatment: Nasal douche of benzene 5 parts, and olive oil 100
parts. Prevent dogs from eating the raw offal of sheep. Destroy
the heads and carcasses of dead sheep containing the larve.

How does vomiting in cattle differ from regurgitation? Where does
the ejected food come from? How is vomiting diagnosed
and treated?

In vomition, there is a greater effort made and the quantity
is so great that it runs from the mouth, whereas, in regurgitation, no
effort is required and the amount is so small that it is retained in
the mouth. The ejected material comes from the rumen. Vomit-
ing is diagnosed by the uneasiness, straining and peculiar smell of
the ejected material. Treatment is seldom called for as the act
relieves the patient and removes the cause. If too prolonged, give
sedatives, such as bromides and chloral and empty the bowels
with liberal doses of Epsom salts.

What parasites affect the gullet of cattle? State other habitats of any
of these parasites.

Spiroptera scutata and the larve of the estrus (hypoderma)
bovis are also found in the stomach of cattle and the gullet of the
horse. Psorospermia oviforme (coccidia) inhabit the mucous mem-
brane of the gullet and various other organs, including the liver,
intestines, etc., of sheep, goats, pigs, rabbits and man. Sarcosporidia
invade the muscles of the ox, pig, sheep and horse.

Describe the symptoms of a case that on post-mortem examination
reveals a ruptured stomach.

The abdomen enormously distended with gas on the left side
under the ribs. Colicky pains, dyspncea, belching of gas, retching
and regurgitation of stomach contents. Sudden paleness of mucous
membranes, syncope and death.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of tympanites in cattle.
Also called ‘‘hoove,’’ ‘‘hoven,’’ and bloating.
Caused by gaseous fermentation of the contents of the rumen.
Overfeeding on green foods, especially clover when wet with dew.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 193

Paresis of the rumen may cause or follow tympanites. Poisons,
spoiled foods and foreign bodies are also causative factors.

Symptoms: Abnormal distention of the left side of the abdomen.
Drum-like sound on percussion, crepitation heard due to gas bubbles.
Suspension of rumination, belching, rapid breathing, frothy foam
from mouth, protrusion of anus and sometimes bloody feces. Death
in 15 to 30 minutes.

Treatment: Puncture the rumen with trocar. Pass stomach
tube and siphon off the contents of the rumen. Administer through
the tube, aromatic spirits of ammonia, oil of turpentine or pepper-
mint. Follow with a large dose of Epsom salts when the tympany
subsides. Any treatment must be prompt and energetic.

Describe the symptoms of jaundice. Name causes.

Icterus or jaundice is characterized by a yellow discoloration of
the visible mucous membranes and skin, and the presence of bile pig-
ment in the urine ; feces are pale and dry and the patient shows dul-
ness and loss of appetite.

Causes are numerous, viz., catarrh of duodenum and bile duct,
gall-stones, compression of bile duct by tumors and overloaded
stomach; acute and chronic hepatitis, rupture of gall-bladder (no
gall-bladder in the horse), poisons, parasites, icterus neonatorum,
severe infectious diseases, etc.

State the relative gravity of jaundice in the horse and in the dog.
Generally ends in recovery in the horse. In the dog, it is more
serious and usually ends in death.

Give the causes and symptoms of acute gastric indigestion.
Overloading, spoiled foods, fermentiscible foods, ice-water, espe-
cially after feeding, previous disease, overwork, defective teeth and
parasites.
Symptoms: Violent colic, bloating of abdomen and under the
ribs on the left side; suppression of peristalsis and passage of feces ;
attempts to eructate and vomit; hurried breathing.

In acute tympanitic gastric indigestion, what is the usual reaction
of the contents of the viscus? What measures, mechanical,
chemical and medicinal, would be especially indicated?

Reaction acid.

Treatment: Pass stomach tube; lavage; puncture the stomach
with a trocar passed through the twelfth or thirteenth intercostal
space on the left side; give 6 or 8 ounces of sodium hyposulphite
in solution. Aromatic spirits of ammonia, turpentine, carbolic acid

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194 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

and other antiferments may be useful. After the acute symptoms
subside, give a full dose of aloes.

Give the diagnostic symptoms of (a) crapulous colic, (b) purely
nervous colic. Give treatment of each.

(a) Crapulous or engorgement colic is manifested by an over-
distended abdomen, dull percussion sound, continuous dull pain
and a ‘‘saw-horse’’ attitude. Rectal examination reveals the solid
ingesta.

(b) Purely nervous or spasmodic colic is diagnosed by the remit-
tent pain, intervals of ease; uneasiness, kicking of abdomen, getting
up and down, increased peristalsis; more or less faeces passed.

Treatment: In crapulous form, give an aloes ball or one quart
of linseed oil or both. Quick-acting cathartics, such as arecoline in
one-fourth grain doses, repeated every twenty minutes. Quiet the
pain with chloral hydrate. Spasmodie colic should be treated with
antispasmodics, such as chloral hydrate and cannabis indica. Empty
the bowels with an aloes ball, salts or oil.

State the cause of diarrhoea in the new-born and prescribe preventive
treatment.

See ‘‘white scours,’’ page 294. This disease may be simple or
contagious. Among the many causes are improper food, bacteria,
navel infection, unclean feeding utensils, cold and weakness. Pre-
vention: Dietary measures; scald feeding utensils; intestinal anti-
septics, such as, bismuth subnitrate, phenol, etc. Sanitary measures
as prescribed under ‘‘white scours.’’

What is intussusception? Give symptoms, prognosis and treatment.

Invagination or telescoping of one portion of intestine into
another.

Symptoms: Obstruction, vomiting, no feces passed; continuous
colicky pains; later, fever appears, weak pulse, sweating and death.
Tubular sections of intestines may be passed. Obstruction may be
felt in the dog.

Prognosis: Usually fatal.

Treatment: Laparotomy and replacement of intestine is the
only available measure. Linseed oil and antispasmodics may relieve.

What genera (equine, bovine, porcine, canine) are most liable to
intestinal invagination? Why?
More common in bovine; less common in canines and very rare
in the equine and porcine.
The spiral arrangement of the intestines and the looser disposi-
tion of the mesentery may account for the more frequent appear-

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 195

ance of this condition in bovines. In the equine, the voluminous
cecum may receive the ileum and the spacious colon, the cecum.
The intestines of the dog and hog are comparatively simple.

Give the symptoms and treatment for lead poisoning in cattle.

Emaciation, shortness of breath, paralysis of extremities, blue
line on the gums and abortion are seen in the chronic form. The
acute form shows blindness, stupor, coma, convulsions or delirious
excitement, torpor of bowels, gastro-enteritis, vomiting, salivation,
suppression of milk and urine and muscular cramps.

Treatment: Sulphate of magnesia or other forms of sulphates
which form insoluble sulphates of lead. Chronic form: give potas-
sium iodide and tonics.

Mention two intestinal parasites of the horse. Write a prescription
for worms in the horse.
Ascaris megalocephala and oxyuris curvula.

R
Antimonii et Potassii tartras .................. Siij
Div. pulv. No. iv.
Sig.—Give one powder in drinking water every six
hours and follow with
B

Sodii sulphatis ......... 0c. cece eee cee reece 5xvj
Sig.—Dissolve in water and give as a drench.

State the factors that produce gall-stones. Give prophylactic and
therapeutic treatment.

Precipitation of biliary solids, bacterial infection, concentration
of the bile due to idleness, and dry feeding; presence of colloid
material as mucus, pus, blood and epithelial cells due to inflam-
mation.

Prophylaxis: Avoid dry feeds; give plenty of water and exercise
and keep bowels active.

Treatment: Give narcotics to lessen pain; cathartics such as
calomel or olive oil; salicylate of soda or salicylic acid as an intes-
tinal antiseptic. Operative removal of stones.

What tapeworms infest solipeds and what is known of their larval
forms?
Tenia perfoliata, tenia mamillana and tenia plicata. Nothing
known of their larval forms.

What symptoms indicate ascaride and what sclerostomata in the
bowels of the horse? How does the prognosis differ in the
two cases?

Ascaride = slight, recurrent colics, ravenous appetite, unthrifti-

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196 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

ness, gastro-intestinal catarrh, passing of worms 6 to 12 inches
long.

Sclerostomata = violent colic, frequent defecation, followed by
arrest, eyes sunken, cold sweating, paralysis of bowels, death.
These symptoms are not due to the presence of the worm in the
bowel but to its embryonic form which lodges in the anterior mesen-
teric artery, causing a thrombus and emboli to form. The latter being
carried to the peripheral arteries of the intestinal walls produce
the fatal results. Otherwise, the mere presence of the mature worm
in the bowels, unless in large numbers, may pass unnoticed. If
abundant the symptoms are similar to those of ascariasis and, in
addition, marked anemia and emaciation.

Prognosis: Good in ascariasis; very bad in case of obstruction
of the mesenteric arteries by sclerostomata (‘‘thrombo-embolic
colic’’).

How may the following be distinguished: sclerostoma equinum,
sclerostoma tetracanthum, oxyuris curvula and oxyuris
mastigodes? State the relative gravity of infestation by
each, giving reasons.

The sclerostoma equinum is larger than the sclerostoma tetra-
eanthum, and its head terminates bluntly, whereas the sclerostoma
tetracanthum has a tapering anterior extremity. Oxyuris curvula
and oxyuris mastigodes are nearly identical except that the female
of the latter is 3 to 4 inches long and of the former only 1 to 1144
inches.

Sclerostoma tetracanthum is comparatively harmless; it sucks
blood and may injure the mucous membrane, producing
unthriftiness.

Sclerostoma equinum is very harmful; its embryonic form enters
the circulation and produces thrombo-embolic colic which ends in
death.

The oxyuride lodge in the rectum and cause uneasiness and
unthriftiness.

What conditions favor the propagation of strongylus (sclerostoma)
equinum and tetracanthum and what measures will pre-
vent their production?

Fecal contamination of water and feed favors the development
of these worms. As preventive measures, clear the intestinal tract
of the worms and destroy the feces containing the parasites and
eggs of same. Prevent contamination of water with faces.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 197

What domestic animals are liable to be attacked by the hookworm
(uncinaria, anchylostoma)? How do such worms enter
the body and what symptoms do they produce? Give
treatment.

Ox, sheep, cat and more commonly the dog. The worms enter
the intestinal tract through the drinking water which contains the
larve.

Symptoms: Digestive derangements, dulness and indifference;
whining, tympanites, diarrhea, loss of appetite, nervous disorders,
nausea, anemia and emaciation.

Treatment: Thymol, 2 to 15 grain doses. Separate the sick
from the well to prevent reinfection. Thoroughly clean and disin-
fect kennels. Supply pure drinking water.

What are coccidia? Name the domestic animals infested by coccidia,
mentioning in each case the organs infested. Give diag-
nosis, prevention and treatment in each case.

Coccidia are a genera of sporozoa, single-celled microdrganisms
provided with a protoplasmic-celled body in which is found a
nucleus.

Cattle, sheep, rabbits, fowls and, occasionally, dogs and pigs
are infested. The intestines are more commonly affected in cattle,
sheep and fowls, whereas the liver is usually the seat of disease in
rabbits, dogs and pigs. Both organs may be affected in all animals.
There are a few cases of diseases of the air passages reported in
cattle, dogs and rabbits, due to coccidia.

Diagnosis: Fetid, hemorrhagic diarrhcea, fever, loss of appetite,
weakness, death, jaundice, when liver is affected; coccidia may be
found in the feces by microscopic examination.

Prevention: Provide pure water ; disinfect feces with 3 per cent.
watery solution of sulphuric acid; destroy carcasses and thoroughly
disinfect.

Treatment: Remove from pastures; give dry foods and intestinal
astringents and antiseptics. Useless to treat the hepatic form.

Describe all the symptoms produced by constipation in the dog.
Small, hard, glazed stools, straining, no stools passed; hot, ten-
der, swollen, bulging anus; colicky pains, tenderness of abdomen,
vomiting, fever, icterus, etc.

What are the symptoms of intestinal parasites in the dog other than
the passage of worms by the mouth or rectum?
Diarrhea, vomiting, emaciation, nervousness, convulsions, anx-
mia, pot-bellied, easily fatigued, whining.
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198 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the symptoms of acute parenchymatous hepatitis in the dog
and give treatment.
Tenderness to pressure over the liver, pain during defecation,
jaundice, fever, constipation and vomiting.
As treatment, give mild laxatives such as olive or castor oil.
Calomel is very good. Intestinal antiseptics such as salol, sulpho-
carbolates, ete., are useful. Restrict the diet, avoiding fats.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of peritonitis.

Causes: Infection, traumatic injuries, operative wounds in the
abdomen, castration, laparotomy, perforating ulcer of the intes-
tines, rupture of the stomach or intestine, perforation of a parturient
womb, rupture of abscesses in the peritoneal cavity, metastasis.

Symptoms: Presence of a wound with spreading swelling,
cedema and tenderness of the abdomen, tucked up abdomen, high
fever, quick, wiry pulse, careful decubitus and rising, short, catchy
respiratory movements, straddling gait, short steps, constipation,
effusion may cause fluctuation and enlargement of the abdomen.

Treatment: Local antiseptics, drainage of wounds, irrigation
of the peritoneal cavity with sterile water; saline laxatives, intes-
tinal antiseptics; stimulants; apply mustard over abdomen.

What is ascites? Give causes of ascites.

Ascites is an accumulation of a serous fluid in the peritoneal
cavity. It is caused by chronic peritonitis, venous stasis due to
obstruction of the portal vein by tumors, indurative hepatitis, ete.
Valvular disease of the heart, kidney diseases, hydramia, tubercu-
losis and heaves are also etiological factors.

Mention the different forms of ergotism in cattle. Give the symptoms
of each form mentioned.

Acute: Gastro-enteritis, ptyalism, vomiting, colicky pains, diar-
rhea, ulcerous stomatitis, labor pains, abortion, prolapsus uteri,
insensibility to pain, paralyses, dilatation of the pupils, muscular
cramps.

Chronic: Necrosis of extremities such as the ears, tail, teats,
claws and lower leg; abortion and sterility.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of distomiasis (liver rot) in
sheep.
Caused by the presence of the liver-fluke parasite, distoma
hepaticum, in the bile ducts.
Symptoms: During the period of invasion of the parasite, lasting
2 to 3 months, the sheep gain in flesh; later, dropsy, emaciation, diar-
rheea alternating with constipation; variable temperature, icterus,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 199

presence of the ova in the feces, usually terminates in death. Some
recover to be reinfected the following year and then succumb.

Treatment: Prevention; drain soils, avoid low, damp, infected
pastures, give common salt in feed, feed well and fortify the system;
tonics, vermifuges. Treatment is unsatisfactory.

State the effects of overfeeding cattle and swine with cotton-seed meal.

May produce garget and mammitis in cattle. Will destroy the life

of swine with symptoms of scurvy and grave constitutional disorders.

In both animals, it may produce diarrhea, lachrymation, abscess for-

mation, ulceration of the cornea, staphyloma, fever, edema of the
legs, congestion of the liver and spleen, and high-colored urine.

DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

What is loco poisoning? ‘Where and when is it enzootic and how can
it be prevented?

Loco poisoning is a disease of animals, manifested by cerebral
disturbances, caused by eating a certain variety of leguminous
plants. After once eating these plants, a desire for more becomes
a veritable craze or neurosis and the patient becomes unmanageable,
vicious and loses flesh.

It is enzootic in the summer and fall of the year in the Rocky
Mountain states and Pacific coast region. To prevent the disease,
do not pasture animals on fields where the plant is present, nor
feed hay and grasses from such fields.

Describe immobility. Give its causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treat-
ment.

Immobility, chronic hydrocephalus, is a chronic disease of the
brain.

Causes: Heredity, congestion of the brain, traumas, venous
obstruction, tumors, insolation, hepatic, gastric and pulmonary
disorders.

Symptoms: Stupid expression, sluggish movements, dulled re-
flexes, slow mastication, failure to respond to commands, standing
with legs crossed or in other abnormal positions for long periods of
time, incodrdinate movements.

Diagnosis: Easy in well-marked cases. The above symptoms,
together with a normal temperature, are almost conclusive.

Treatment: Derivatives, nux vomica, purgatives, potassium
iodide and other drugs may relieve, but the disease is incurable.

Describe abdominal vertigo. Give causes, symptoms, prevention and
treatment.

Abdominal vertigo, stomach staggers, is a complication of gastric
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200 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

and hepatic disorder associated with giddiness and unsteady move-
ments, caused by overloading the stomach, worms and gastro-
intestinal catarrh.

Symptoms: Gastric irritation, colicky pains, eructation of gas,
delirium followed by a comatose condition.

Prevention: Reduce rations and exercise regularly.

Treatment: Give intestinal evacuants; venesection or derivatives
such as arecoline and pilocarpine; laxative diet; chloral hydrate
during the violence of the attack.

Give the symptoms of inflammation of the meninges of the brain.
Phrenitis, encephalitis, pachymeningitis or inflammation of the
brain proper and leptomeningitis, inflammation of the coverings
of the brain usually coexist and are indistinguishable, symptomati-
cally ; they are shown by hyperesthesia, delirium, pawing, plunging,
and violent convulsions, followed by dulness, stupor, somnolence,
muscular weakness, anesthesia, paralysis and coma.

Give the causes and symptoms of gid in sheep.
Caused by the presence of the cystic form of the tenia cenurus
(cenurus cerebralis) in the brain.
Symptoms: Timidity, nervousness, dulness, dilated pupils,
drooping lids, circular movements, pivoting on one foot, plunging
ahead, hemiplegia and paraplegia.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of chorea in the dog.

Causes: Weakness, previous disease, microbian toxic matters
in the blood, hence it usually follows distemper.

Symptoms: Local twitching of one or both fore limbs, neck,
head, maxilla, eyelids, hind limbs, or the whole body may partici-
pate; movements are rhythmical, are less active when recumbent,
and may or may not be absent during sleep.

Treatment: Hygienic measures, fresh air and sunshine, nerve
tonics, such as arsenic and strychnine; nerve sedatives may be indi-
cated if too restless, such as belladonna, chloral hydrate, bromides
and morphine. Usually incurable.

What symptoms would tend to distinguish cerebral anzemia from cere-
bral hyperemia?

Cerebral Anemia. Cerebral Hyperemia,
Loss of consciousness. Cerebral excitement.
Stumbling. Delirium.
Vomiting in dogs. Mucous membranes injected.
Paleness of mucous membranes. Respiratory movements accelerated.
Respiratory movements shallow and

slow.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 201

Give the symptoms of cerebrospinal meningitis.

Often occurs enzodtically. First stages: Sudden attack, fever,
hypersensitiveness, delirium. Later, paralysis of various parts, as
the pharynx, shown by inability to swallow, loss of appetite, unequal
dilatation of pupils, loss of reflexes, decubitus, spasms of various
groups of muscles, opisthotonus. The symptoms vary in different
individuals and no two appear exactly the same.

Describe a case of sunstroke and give treatment.

Insolation or sunstroke comes on suddenly; shown by cessation
of perspiration, dyspnea, staggering and falling down, weak pulse,
high temperature (104°-110° F.), cerebral excitement and loss of
reflexes.

Treatment: Remove to a cool place; apply ice-bags on the head
and give cold water enemas; quiet with chloral hydrate; give heart
stimulants such as ammonium carbonate, camphor, digitalis, ete.

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION

Mention causes, symptoms and treatment of articular rheumatism.

Causes: Infection, retained after-birth, cold and dampness.
Often seen in connection with endocarditis.

Symptoms: Shifting lameness; heat, swelling and tenderness of
one or more joints; decubitus, joints semiflexed, fever, loss of
appetite.

Treatment: Antirheumatics such as salicylic acid or salicylate
of soda in three-drachm doses every six hours; aspirin, antipyrin
and salol are also useful. Locally, apply linimentum saponis, arti-
ficial oil of wintergreen, and heat. Slaughter meat animals.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of muscular rheumatism.

Causes: Infection, cold, dampness, predisposition. Usually
oceurs in well-fed and nourished animals.

Symptoms: Shifting, recurrent lameness; muscular soreness;
symptoms vary, depending upon the muscles involved; thus we may
observe lameness in the shoulder, posterior limbs or neck, difficult
mastication, breathing, ete. Fever is usually absent, although there
may be a slight rise in severe cases. Appetite remains good. Dogs
ery. out when handled.

Treatment: Provide warm, dry quarters, warm blankets and
administer antirheumatics, such as salicylates, quinine, salol, ete.
Give a laxative diet and occasional doses of saline cathartics. A
Turkish bath may benefit dogs.

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202 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What domestic animals suffer most from trichinosis? Give usual
channels of infection, diagnosis and prevention.

This disease occurs most commonly in swine, rarely in dogs and
cats. The infection enters through the digestive tract by eating
meat containing the parasite, trichina spiralis.

Diagnosis: Rheumatoid symptoms; harpoon muscle and obtain
specimens for microscopical examination ; examine the feces for the
adult worm. Hogs often show diarrhea, and during the migration
of the embryos into the muscles, rubbing, scratching, difficult mas-
tication, and painful breathing.

Prevention: Destroy carcasses of trichinous animals. Destroy
rats and mice around slaughter houses as they are frequent hosts
of the parasite.

Describe a case of spasm of the muscles of the hind leg and its treat-
ment.

Usually seen in the femoral region, due to a nervous affection of
the anterior crural muscles. Appears suddenly after standing;
leg held stiffly ; appears longer than its fellow; knuckling at the fet-
lock, resting on the toe; difficulty in moving forward or backward,
dragging of the extremity; anterior muscles rigid

Treatment: Rub stimulating liniment over the stifle; rest the
patient and give a laxative diet.

DISEASES OF THE SKIN

Give the symptoms and treatment of acne.

Acne is an inflammatory disease of the sebaceous glands, charac-
terized by tenderness of the skin, swellings the size of a pea, vesicles,
pustules, exudation, loss of hair, scars and sometimes enlargement
of the submaxillary lymph-glands; absence of fever. Treatment
consists of the application of astringent and antiseptic washes, such
as a 2 per cent. solution of aluminum acetate or acetate of lead.

Describe the symptoms and give the treatment of favus (ringworm).
Characterized by the presence of numerous red spots in the
skin, which gradually enlarge and become covered with a thin, gray-
ish scale under which is serum; the hair breaks off, the circumfer-
ence of the diseased area becomes reddened, the centre, gray-colored
and cupped shape; there is great itching present and the disease
tends to spread over various parts of the body.
Treatment: Scrape or curette deeply; paint with tincture of
iodine or use mercurial ointments.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 203

Give the symptoms, course and treatment of gangrenous dermatitis.
This disease is generally preceded by swelling, redness and
sensitiveness. Then follows discoloration, insensitiveness, putrid
odor; a dry or moist portion of the skin is cast off, revealing a raw,
ulcerative surface.
Course: Progressive, unless properly attended to. May extend
deep into the tendons and ligaments or produce fatal septicemia.
Treatment: Remove dead parts; apply dry dressings of iodo-
form, boric acid or lead preparations.

Give the cause, symptoms and treatment of urticaria.

Urticaria is an inflammatory affection of the skin, characterized
by a sudden development of a serous infiltration of the papillary
bodies and of the malpighian layer of the skin. It often disappears
completely after a short time.

Causes: Digestive derangements, plethora, rich grain feeding,
hot weather, intestinal poisons, bites of insects, individual idiosyn-
erasy, poisonous plants as poison ivy, ete.

Symptoms: Sudden eruption; in a few hours a healthy skin
becomes covered with a uniform eruption of nodules, or blotches,
some of which may coalesce and form large areas. Itching may or
may not be present; individual nodules subside to be followed by
others.

Treatment: Saline cathartics, aloes, alkaline diuretics; allay
itching by bathing with solutions of sodium bicarbonate, phenol or
menthol.

Name the different forms of parasitic skin disease, mentioning the
parasite for each form named.
Sarcoptic mange, due to sarcoptes scabei.
Psoroptic mange, due to psoroptes communis.
Symbiotic mange, due to symbiotes communis.
Demodectic mange, due to demodex folliculorum.
Ringworm, due to trycophyton tonsurans.
Ox warble, due to larva of hypoderma lineata.
Cutaneous coccidiosis, due to coccidia oviforme.
Fleas, lice and ticks occasionally burrow under the skin and
produce irritation.

What parasites are known to produce cutaneous epizootics?
All those mentioned above but more especially the sarcoptide and
demodecide.

Give the cause of poultry acariasis in the horse. Give treatment.
Housing chickeus, infested with the chicken mite (dermanyssus

galling), in or near the stableyi he mates become temporary para-

204 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

sites of the horse, causing pruritus, scratching, rubbing and a rough
coat.

Treatment: Wash with a 2 per cent. solution of creolin, or dis-
solve four ounces of staphisagria in one gallon of boiling water and
use as a wash when cool. Clean the stable thoroughly and use a
whitewash containing carbolic acid.

What are the causes, dietetic, climatic, chemical and traumatic, of
erythema? Give prevention and treatment of each form
of erythema.

Primary erythema is due to external irritants, blows, bites, scald-
ing, burning, sun’s rays, vesicants such as mustard, cantharides,
acids, lye, insect stings, ete.

Secondary erythema is due to infectious diseases, as swine plague
and hog cholera, dog distemper, foot and mouth disease ; also follows
the ingestion of certain foods as buckwheat, clover and distillers’
grains.

Prevention depends upon the avoidance of the above enumerated
causes. Treatment: Cold, astringent applications such as Burrow’s
lotion, Goulard’s extract, etc. Give a laxative diet.

Mention one of the parasites that causes mange in the dog.
Demodex folliculorum causes demodectic or follicular mange,
which is practically incurable.

What animals and what regions of the body harbor demodex follicu-
lorum? ‘Give symptoms and treatment.

The dog and pig. The breast, legs, axillary and facial regions
are usually first affected, later the entire surface of the body and
legs may be involved.

Symptoms: The skin becomes red and thickened; loss of the
hair; extreme pruritus; pustules give the skin a papillated appear-
ance.

Treatment: Unsuccessful; a mixture of gasoline, oil of tar and
oil of cade has given more or less satisfaction; sulphur and lye is
used by some, but the great majority of cases show no improvement
and gradually grow worse, become emaciated and die. Some few
improve and seem to be cured, only to have the disease break out
anew.

Mention the parasites causing scabies in sheep. State the habits of
these parasites.
Sarcoptes scabei, rare.
Psoroptes communis, common scab parasite of sheep.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 205

The psoroptes live on the surface of the skin, eat wool, irritate
and cause the animal to bite and pull out the wool.

The sareoptes burrow under the skin and produce itching and
seabs.

Give the prevention and treatment of acariasis.

Quarantine regulations; separation of well from affected; thor-
ough disinfection ; dipping and isolation of newly-purchased animals
until known to be free from scabies.

Treatment: Lime and sulphur dips, and a tobacco and sulphur
dip are recommended by the B. A.I., Dept. of Agriculture. Coal-
tar products such as creolin, creosote, etc., have given good results.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of the disease commonly
termed “ hunger mange.”

This is another name for chronic squamous eczema.

Causes: Insufficient nourishment, faulty skin hygiene, tender
skin, nervous temperament, chronic wasting diseases, may follow
acute eczema. Long administration of iodides is sometimes followed
by this condition.

Symptoms: Poor condition, dry lustreless hair which contains
bran-like scales of epidermis; falling out of the hair; itching; skin
becomes thickened and occasionally papules and vesicles are seen.

Treatment: Correct the internal disorders; give tonics, arsenic;
careful grooming, and bathing with non-irritating soap. Feed gener-
ously with nourishing foods.

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SURGERY*

Wounps

Define wounds. Give a classification of wounds.
A wound is any injury accompanied by a breach in the continuity
of an internal or external surface.
According to cause, wounds are classified as follows: incised,
lacerated, punctured, contused, stab, gun-shot, bites and caustic.

What is wound infection? Give treatment of wound infection.

The presence of microdrganisms or their toxic products in a
wound. Treatment: Drain, irrigate, disinfect thoroughly, and cover
with aseptic gauze and bandage. Repeat dressing daily. If im-
practicable to bandage, apply a protective covering of dusting
powder.

State the general principles of antiseptic wound treatment.

Remove foreign bodies and necrotic tissue, cleanse wound thor-
oughly and use a non-irritating antiseptic agent. Cover the wound
with antiseptic gauze and bandage. In case of operative wounds,
the site of operation is shaved, washed and bathed with an anti-
septic agent; if possible an antiseptic pack should be applied for
24 hours prior to operating. The operator’s hands, nails and arms
should be scrupulously cleansed with soap, water and a stiff brush,
then with alcohol or ether to dissolve all oily secretions, and, finally,
immersed for ten minutes or longer in the antiseptic agent. The
instruments, suture material, dressings, ete., are disinfected by being
placed in the antiseptic solution for 10 minutes before using. They
should be handled only by the operator’s disinfected hands. After
operation and at subsequent visits, dressings are carried out as
directed above.

State the distinction between antiseptic and aseptic wound treatment.
In antiseptic wound treatment, as described above, there are
many channels of infection overlooked, as from the air, breath of
operator, etc.; furthermore, most antiseptic solutions, if efficient
germicides are irritating to the tissues and retard healing.
Aseptic wound treatment may be defined as the precaution to
prevent infection of the surgical wound, while antiseptic surgery
refers to the method by which the former is accomplished and to

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.
206
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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 207

the treatment of unavoidable infections. So, antiseptic wound
treatment is giving way to the aseptic method. This latter, as its
name implies, aims toward the absolute freedom from septic mate-
rial. This is accomplished by sterilizing all instruments, dressings,
bandages, ete., with steam, hot air, or boiling in a one or two per cent.
soda solution. The wound is cleansed with sterile water or steril-
ized physiological salt solution, but no antiseptic solution, and
covered with the sterilized dressing. The operator’s hands are
cleansed as in the antiseptic method but are rinsed in sterile water
to remove all traces of the antiseptic. Some operators use sterilized
rubber gloves. The operating table, operating field, operator’s
clothes, assistants, all utensils and the air of the room must be
rendered aseptic. This method is impracticable in veterinary sur-
gery for obvious reasons. The antiseptic method with aseptic pre-
cautions is preferred.

Mention and describe the different methods of wound healing.

1. Healing by first intention consists of a direct union of the
margins of the wound through immediate agglutination and without
suppuration.

2. Healing by second intention is characterized by suppuration
and granulation.

3. Healing by third intention consists in the artificial union of
wound surfaces that are already granulating and suppurative. It
is effected by disinfecting and suturing the suppurative granulations.

4, Healing under an eschar is a form of primary wound healing.
The protective coat may be dried blood or a scab produced by actual
cautery, chemical caustics, dusting powders, etc.

5. Healing by abnormal granulation and cicatrization takes
place when great loss of substance occurs, when foreign bodies or
necrosed pieces of tissue remain in the wound, or when continued
infection or irritation occurs in fresh or healing wounds.

State the indications for the use of the continuous suture.

In non-infected wounds where healing by first intention is antici-
pated; in visceral wounds where perfect closure is imperative; and
in cases where temporary retention of dressings in the traumatic
cavity is desired.

Mention the indications for the reopening of wounds.

When infection occurs in the deeper part of a wound as shown
by escape of discharges or swelling; when necrosed tissue or other
foreign bodies are present in the deeper part of the wound. In
wound infection diseases as septicemia, tetanus, ete.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the different methods of arresting hemorrhage.

1. Ligation of the bleeding vessel by grasping the end with for-
ceps and tying with a strong thread. The vessel may be ligated at
a centripetal point.

2. Compression with tampons and bandages, or by an elastic
bandage (Esmarch’s bandage) applied between the wound and the
heart.

3. Torsion, which consists of twisting the bleeding vessel on its
axis.

4. Cauterization of the bleeding parts forms an eschar which
acts as an aseptic bandage.

5. Cold contracts the vessels and narrows their lumen.

6. Therapeutic agents as alum, sugar of lead, tannin, etc., applied
externally, by their astringent action, and ergot, adrenalin chloride,
etc., internally, by their vasoconstrictor action, check hemorrhage.

Give the treatment for lacerated wounds.

Fresh lacerated wounds: arrest hemorrhage, irrigate, disinfect,
provide drainage, suture and bandage. If extensive and healing by
first intention is impracticable, apply drainage tube and suture as
much as possible. Remove drainage tube as soon as practicable and
secure healing by granulation. Old lacerated wounds may be scari-
fied, disinfected and sutured (healing by third intention), and if
this does not succeed, daily dressing and healing should be followed
by granulation and cicatrization.

Give the care and treatment of a deep lacerated wound of the coronet.

See answer to preceding question.

Avoid excessive pressure in bandaging as it favors necrosis in
the region of the coronet. If the coronary band is much swollen, the
horn should be rasped away over an area corresponding to the
swelling. Horn formation should be discouraged until all swelling
disappears. Keep horn soft with .5 per cent. caustic potash solution
until the inflammatory swelling disappears. Irregular cicatrization
should be similarly treated. If abnormal growths of horn occur,
they should be rasped down.

Mention the domestic animals in the order of their susceptibility to

suppuration.
From most susceptible to the least, as follows: horse, ox, sheep,
eat, dog, pig, fowls.

Give the method of arresting hemorrhage after castration in the colt.

Cold irrigation, compression with tampons or ligation may be
employed. Generally, the preference is given to compression with

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 209

tampons, which are held in place by heavy tape sutures for 24 hours
and then removed.

Define (a) abscess, (b) cold abscess. Give treatment for each.

(a) A localized collection of pus in a cavity formed by the dis-
integration of tissues. Treatment: incision and antiseptic irri-
gation.

(b) An abscess of slow development, with little evidence of
inflammation. Often have a thick, fibrous, connective-tissue capsule.
Treatment: Extirpate the capsule, irrigate with antiseptic solution,
suture and drain.

Define (a) septicemia, (b) pyzemia, (c) phlegmon.

(a) A septic intoxication caused by the presence of bacteria and
their toxic products in the blood.

(b) A general wound infection disease characterized by the
presence of pyogenic germs in the blood and the formation of sup-
purative foci of disease in the body. (A septicemia plus metastatic
abscess formation. )

(c) An infectious, serous or suppurative inflammation of the
connective tissue and all its parts, viz., the subcutaneous, subfascial,
intermuscular, periosteal, tendovaginal and interglandular connec-
tive tissue.

What precautions should be taken in case an animal has been bitten
by a rabid animal?
Cauterize the wounds; excise the wounded tissue if possible, and
use strong disinfectant. (Pasteur treatment and quarantine.)

INFLAMMATION
Define infammation.
Inflammation is tissue reaction to injury, characterized by pain,
heat, redness and swelling; and, histologically, by hyperemia, blood
stasis, changes in the blood- and vessel-walls, and exudation.

Name the four cardinal symptoms of inflammation.
1, dolor (pain) ; 2, ealor (heat) ; 3, rubror (redness) ; 4, tumor

(swelling).
Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of inflammation.
Causes: Mechanical, thermic and chemical irritants, and micro-

organisms.
Symptoms: Heat, redness, swelling, tenderness and disturbed

function. :
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210 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Treatment: Rest, heat, cold, massage, counter-irritation, astrin-
gents, antiseptics and operation (amputation, incision, scarification).

Give a classification of inflammation.
According to the character of the exudate: 1, serous; 2, fibrin-
ous, or croupous; 3, suppurative; 4, diphtheritic; 5, hemorrhagic; 6,
necrotic or gangrenous; 7, productive or proliferative; 8, specific
(tuberculosis, glanders, actinomycosis, strangles, anthrax, etc.).

Describe the inflammatory appearances of the blood.

The white corpuscles are arranged next to the vessel-wall, wnile
the red blood-corpuscles oceupy the centre of the stream. The white
cells are seen passing through the walls of the vessels. A transu-
dation of serum also occurs. In purulent inflammation, leucocytosis
occurs.

What are the terminations of inflammations?
1, Resolution; 2, new formations in the form of thickenings,
indurations and adhesions; 3, gangrene and septic infection.

Name five antiphlogistic remedies.
Heat, cold, counter-irritants, massage and antiseptics.

State the indications for heat and for cold in the treatment of inflam-
mation.

Heat is indicated in all aseptic forms, especially subacute and
chronic. It is also used in septic forms to hasten the ‘‘ripening’’
of abscesses.

Cold is indicated in septic, as well as in the first stages of acute
and very painful inflammations.

Describe the condition known as “ lampas.”

A congestion of the hard palate, just posterior to the incisors,
often seen in young animals during the eruption of teeth. Rarely
occurs in mature animals or requires interference. (Often referred
to as ‘‘a disease of the stableman’s mind.’’)

ULceEr, FISTULA AND GANGRENE

Define (a) fistula, (b) ulcer.

(a) A deep, sinuous ulcer, often leading to an internal hollow
organ.

(b) An open sore other than a wound, characterized by a loss
of substance on a cutaneous or mucous surface and a gradual disin-
tegration and necrosis of the tissues. ‘‘A wound that has no
tendency to heal.’’

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 211

Give the causes and treatment of ulcer.

Causes: Continuous inflammatory irritation, foreign bodies,
necrosed bone, cartilage and teeth; constant licking, shaking of ears
and tail; specific causes, as tuberculosis, glanders, actinomycosis,
etc.; microdrganisms.

Treatment: Remove cause; extirpate, curette, fire with hot iron,
or use chemical cauterizing agents. Internally, potassium iodide is
a specific for actinomycosis; glanders ulcers are not treated.

Name ten important fistula in domestic animals.
1. Fistula of lateral cartilages (Quittor).

. Tooth fistula.

. Bone fistula.

Fistula of the spermatic cord following castration.

Fistulous withers and poll evil.

Milk fistula.

. Salivary fistula.

. Ear fistula in the horse (teratomata).

. CGsophageal fistula.

. Vaginorectal fistula.

SOMAAMEWY

es

Define gangrene. Name the different kinds and give treatment.

Gangrene is defined as the death of tissue, due either to direct
destruction of a part by burns, ete., to interference with the circu-
lation, or to insufficient blood-supply.

Kinds: Dry and moist; hot and cold; putrid; circumscribed and
progressive; septic and aseptic; emphysematous; coagulation-
necrosis.

Treatment: Operative removal of the dead part; amputate a
whole organ or part if necessary ; thorough disinfection.

TUMORS

Define tumor. Give a classification of tumors.

A tumor is a mass of new tissue which persists and grows inde-
pendently of its surrounding structures, and which has no physio-
logical use.

Clinical classification: malignant and non-malignant or benign.

Differentiate malignant tumors and non-malignant tumors.
Malignant tumors develop rapidly with a destruction of neigh-
boring tissues, have a tendency toward ulcerative degenerations,
and are especially distinguished for the formation of metastases

and the production of cachexia.
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212 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Non-malignant tumors have a central growth, push the tissues
aside and are usually encapsulated. They do not spread by metas-
tasis and are only harmful when by reason of size or location they
interfere with the body functions.

Give the prognosis and the treatment of epithelioma of the tongue.
Prognosis: Favorable if situated on the anterior extremity. If
on the base, it is best to slaughter.
Treatment. Amputate all of the diseased part and treat the
wound antiseptically.

CoNCREMENTS

What is a calculus? Name the different varieties of calculi and state
where each variety is found.

A caleulus is an abnormal concretion occurring within the ani-
mal body and usually composed of mineral salts.

1. Urinary: Found in the kidney (renal), in the bladder
(cystic), and in the urethra (urethral).

2. Intestinal: Found in the large intestines and rectum.

3. Salivary: Found in Steno’s duct.

4. Chondroids, or arthritic calculi: Found in joints and tendon-
sheaths, mucous burse, and in the guttural pouches.

5. Milk: Found in the milk-cisterns and teats.

6. Preputial: Found in the preputial sac of the horse, commonly
called ‘‘bean.’’

HERNIA AND PROLAPSE

Define (a) hernia, (b) prolapse.

(a) The passage of viscera from body-cavities without an injury
to the skin or mucous membrane; the viscera protrude through an
abnormal opening.

(b) The free passage of viscera through natural or artificial
body-openings without a covering of the skin or mucous membrane.

Classify hernia according to (a) condition, (b) situation.
(a) Reducible and irreducible.
(b) Umbilical, inguinal, scrotal, ventral, femoral, perineal, rec-
tal, vaginal, diaphragmatic, and hernia of the flank.

Bones

Define (a) ostitis, (b) periostitis, (c) osteomyelitis.
(a) Inflammation of a bone, especially of the Haversian spaces,
canals, and their branches.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 213

(b) Inflammation of the covering of a bone.
(c) Inflammation of the bone-marrow or bone and marrow.

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of aseptic periostitis.
Caused by traumatisms acting subcutaneously, such as kicks,
blows, treads, and pressure on the interdental space.
Symptoms: Pain on palpation, lameness, swelling and heat.
Treatment: Moist warmth, massage, absorbing agents as cam-
phor, iodine ointment or mercurial ointment.

What is caries?
A liquefaction necrosis of bone or teeth in which they become
softened, discolored and porous. There is usually associated with it
a chronic inflammation of the periosteum and surrounding tissues,
and an abscess formation which burrows through the soft parts
until it opens externally by a sinus or fistula.

Define fracture. Give the varieties of fracture.
A fracture is a break or division of the continuity of a bone.
Varieties: Simple and compound; complete and incomplete (fis-
sure and green-stick) ; transverse, oblique and longitudinal; simple
and multiple (comminuted).

Define (a) simple fracture, (b) compound, and (c) comminuted frac-
ture.
(a) A fracture of a bone without injury to the skin.
(b) A fracture of a bone accompanied by a skin wound, so that
the bone is exposed and entrance of infection is possible.
(c) A fracture of a bone in which the bone is broken into small
fragments.

Describe the modes of union of fractures.
Regeneration of the periosteum and, to a certain extent, of the
bone-marrow occurs and a granulation tissue is formed, which subse-
quently ossifies.

What pathologic conditions render bones liable to fracture?

An abnormal fragility due to senility, rarefying ostitis, osteo-
malacia, rachitis, caries, sarcoma and tuberculosis of bone. Diseases
of the nervous system, as seen following neurotomy (trophoneurotie
bone atrophy) ; anchylosis which restricts the mobility of the joints.

Describe a method of applying a plaster-of-Paris dressing for fixation
in case of fracture.
After reposition of the broken ends of the bone is effected, the
limb is covered with a pad of cotton, over which a flannel bandage
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214 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

is applied. Over this, the plaster-of-Paris bandages are placed.
These bandages are prepared by dusting with fresh plaster and
soaking for a short time in warm water. After a sufficient number
of plaster bandages have been applied, the outside may be strength-
ened by applying some of the plaster made into a paste.

Make a diagram of the various methods of firing.

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4/17/

JOINTS

Define arthritis. Name the common varieties of arthritis.
Arthritis is an inflammation of a joint.
1, serous; 2, suppurative; 3, deforming; 4, tubercular.

Define (a) anchylosis, (b) corpora libra, (c) arthritis, (d) periarthritis,
(e) synovitis.
(a) Abnormal immobility and consolidation of a joint.
(b) A free body of organic structure occurring pathologically
in joints.
(ce) Inflammation of a joint.
(d) Inflammation of the tissues around a joint.
(e) Inflammation of a synovial membrane.

Give the treatment of an open joint.

In case of a fresh wound, do not probe but irrigate the opening
with the mildest non-irritating antiseptic, or physiologic salt solu-
tion, suture, and apply iodoform gauze and bandage. Cauterization
of punctured openings is often beneficial. Seal with collodion after
thoroughly disinfecting as described above. Suppurating wounds
should be drained, irrigated and packed with antiseptic gauze.
Such wounds are usually incurable. The swelling produced by
blistering is often employed to close wounds around joints.

Define false joint. At what points is a false joint most likely to occur?

A false joint is a permanent movable union between pieces of

bone which occurs when callus formation fails to produce firm union
between the fragments.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 215

Occurs most commonly between the head of the femur and the
os innominata, following fracture of the rim of the cotyloid cavity.
Also occurs on the first phalanx, and on the posterior false ribs.

Define luxation. Give causes of luxation.
Luxation is the displacement of the articular surfaces of one
or more bones of a joint from their normal relation to each other.
Causes: Traumatism, pathological changes (alterations of the
joint from disease, or paralysis of the surrounding muscles), and
congenital malformations.

TENDONS AND TENDON-SHEATHS

Give the causes and the treatment of tendinitis.

Strains, overextensions, and partial ruptures. Predisposing
causes: Too long and too weak fetlocks, low heels and long toes,
abnormal positions, enforced standing. Occurs secondary to infec-
tious diseases (contagious pleuropneumonia).

Treatment: Rest. In acute conditions, cold irrigation and cold
compresses; slight massage and a pressure bandage; shorten the
toe and shoe with high heel calks and no toe calk. Chronic cases
need warmth, blistering and sometimes firing, in addition to rest
and special shoe.

What are the causes of tendon rupture?

Partial rupture occurs in strains. Complete rupture is caused
by traumatisms, overexertion and overstretching, especially when
predisposed by suppurative inflammation, necrosis, contagious
pleuropneumonia, osteomalacia or continued standing on three feet.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of tendovaginitis.

Causes: Traumatisms, infectious diseases (contagious pleuro-
pneumonia, septicemia, articular rheumatism, contagious abortion,
ete.), cold, infection through wounds.

Symptoms: Lameness, more or less pain and local heat; soft,
fluctuating or crepitating swelling in the region of affected tendon-
sheath. In infected forms, abscess formation may appear, accom-
panied by fever. Chronic cases show thickening and adhesions of
the tendon-sheaths.

Treatment: Rest. Moist warmth, pressure bandage. Long-
standing cases require mild blisters, or iodine applications. Severe
chronic cases may be benefited by firing. Infected cases should be
treated with antiseptics. Supply free drainage for pus if present,
not hesitating to open the sheath its full length if deemed necessary.

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216 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What are so-called “wind galls”? State their cause.

An accumulation of a serous fluid in a dilated tendon-sheath,
non-inflammatory and painless. Occur most frequently in the re-
gion of the fetlock. Caused by chronic serous tendovaginitis, result-
ing from continued, severe exertions. Occasionally seen following
contagious pleuropneumonia.

Write a prescription for a blister for bowed tendons.

BR
Hydrargyri biniodidi .........-. esse cece eee ee eee 3ij
Pulv. cantharides ...........0 eee cece cece eee eee 3ij
Ol Adi pis: jee iad ats ase eee eS ee ee ee were Pe 3ij
Misce.

Sig.—Apply with friction to affected tendons.

Muscies AND NERVES

Define myositis. Give causes and symptoms.

Myositis is an inflammation of a muscle.

Causes: Traumatic, infection, cold and parasites.

Symptoms: Pain, swelling and local heat. Symptoms are local-
ized in most cases, as contrasted with rheumatism which has a ten-
dency to shift from place to place and has no definite local boundary.
Special symptoms, such as lameness, corresponding to the part
affected.

Give results of neurotomy when unfavorable.
Fractures, due to neurotrophic atrophy; necrosis of extremity
following infected wounds; neuroma forming on end of cut nerve;
regeneration and restored function.

Give the differential symptoms of paralysis originating in the brain,
cord and periphery.

Brain: Monoplegia or hemiplegia; one or more cranial nerves
often involved; more or less loss of consciousness.

Cord: Paraplegia more common; psychic derangements absent;
cranial nerves unaffected; bladder and rectum simultaneously
paralyzed.

Periphery: Single muscles or groups of muscles affected without
cerebral or spinal complications.

What is “sweeney”? What treatment is indicated?
‘“Sweeney’’ is the term applied by horsemen to the atrophy of
the spinati muscles which follows paralysis of the suprascapular
nerve.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 217

It is frequently incurable. Massage, counter-irritants, subcu-
taneous injections of veratrin, turpentine and Lugol’s solution have
been used with more or less beneficial results.

DISEASES OF BLOOD-VESSELS

Define aneurism. Give the varieties of aneurism.
An aneurism is a sac formed by the dilatation of the walls of an
artery and filled with blood.
True aneurism is one in which the sac is formed by the coats of
the arterial walls, one of which, at least, is unbroken.
False aneurism is one in which all of the coats of the artery are
ruptured and the blood is retained by the surrounding tissues.

Define and give causes of (a) arteritis, (b) phlebitis.
(a) Inflammation of an artery.
(b) Inflammation of a vein.
Causes: Traumatisms, infection, parasites, phlebotomy, emboli
and intravenous medication.

Define lymphangitis. Give causes, symptoms and treatment.

Inflammation of lymphatic vessels. Usually follows wound in-
fection, due to the entrance of pus-producing organisms into the
open lymphatic vessels. Specific infections, as saccharomyces farci-
minosis, sporothrix, ete.

Symptoms: Lymph-vessels stand out prominently as cord-like
swellings, interrupted by nodules (the valves); lymph-glands in
the affected region usually enlarged. Abscess formation along the
course of the vessels, at the seat of valves. Chronic cases show great
thickening of the skin and subcutaneous connective tissue.

Treatment: Cold irrigation. Open abscesses and give free
drainage to wounds. Use antiseptics freely. Hot fomentations
may be useful in long-standing cases. Internal administration of
potassium iodide in specific infections, sporothricosis, epizootic
lymphangitis.

Evsz, Ear anp THROAT

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of acute catarrhal conjunc-
tivitis.

Causes: Cold, traumatisms, foreign bodies, strong gases, smoke,
infection, accompanies certain infectious diseases, influenza, dog
distemper, ete.

Symptoms: Redness, lachrymation, discharge of mucopurulent,
or simply watery, nature. Swelling and closure of the lids which are

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

usually covered with crusts and stuck together in the morning. In
protracted cases, ulcers form on the cornea.

Treatment: Remove foreign bodies; a few drops of a 4 per cent.
boric acid solution in the eye several times daily, or a 1 per cent.
silver nitrate solution may be used. Keep the eye covered with a
pad soaked in borie acid solution, which not only serves an antiseptic
and astringent purpose but rests the eye by occluding the light.

Describe amaurosis and give its causes and treatment.

Amaurosis is blindness, especially blindness occurring without
any apparent lesion of the eye, and due to disease of the optic nerve,
retina, spine or brain.

Causes: Renal disease, diabetes, uremia, cerebral diseases,
reflexly from remote irritation, congenital.

Treatment: Unsatisfactory. May disappear on subsidence of
the causative factor. Eliminate the cause if it can be determined.

Give fully the symptoms, prognosis and treatment in a severe case of

periodic ophthalmia.

Symptoms: Local heat and tenderness, lachrymation, photo-
phobia, arborescent appearance of the injected capillaries extending
from the sclera down in the cornea, fibrinopurulent exudation in
the anterior chamber, iridocyclochoroiditis present. Course, about
two weeks. Patient may be blind in one eye and show synechie in
the other from previous attacks. Atrophy of the globe after two
or more attacks.

Prognosis: Unfavorable. Usually recover from one attack but
several subsequent attacks, at intervals of one to six months, are
inevitable and blindness is sure to result.

Treatment: Rest the eye with atropine. Boric acid, cocaine
hydrochlorate and atropine sulphate make a useful combination.
Keep patient in darkened room. Cover the eye with a pad soaked
in boric acid solution. The use of counter-irritants, blisters and
setons, so commonly employed, inflict useless’ pain. The disease
usually runs a two weeks’ course in spite of any treatment.

Define (a) entropion, (b) ectropion, (c) glaucoma, (d) staphyloma.

(a) Inversion of the eyelid. (b) Eversion or turning out of the
eyelid. (c) A disease of the eye marked by intense intra-ocular
pressure resulting in hardness of the eye, atrophy of the optic disk
and blindness. It is due to obstruction of the lymph circulation.

(d) A protrusion of the cornea or sclera resulting from inflam-
nation.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 219

What animals suffer from contagious ophthalmia? Give the diagnosis
and treatment of contagious ophthalmia.

Seen principally in cattle. Several cattle in the herd show
lachrymation, photophobia, mucopurulent discharge, swelling and
tenderness of the lids, fibrinopurulent exudate in the anterior cham-
ber. In some mild cases, only a conjunctivitis is seen.

Treatment: Eyewash of boric acid solution (4 per cent.) to which
may be added 1 per cent. of atropine sulphate. Protect the eyes
from all bright light. Segregate affected animals.

Define cataract. Name the different forms of cataract and give the
diagnosis.

A cataract is any pathological change in the lens or its capsule
which diminishes its transparency.

Varieties: Congenital, senile, soft, hard, incipient, mature, pri-
mary, secondary, capsular, lenticular, stationary, progressive,
traumatic, ete.

Diagnosis: History of previous attacks of periodic ophthalmia,
or simple ophthalmia; atrophy of the globe; dilate the pupil with
atropia and illuminate the depth of the eye with the ophthalmoscope
when opacities will be more readily detected. Hold a lighted candle
before the eye; in the normal eye, three images are reflected, one
from the cornea, one from the anterior capsule of the lens and one
from the posterior capsule. Any opacities in the lens will cause the
posterior image to become indistinct as it passes over that spot.

What conditions may give rise to cataract?
Impaired nutrition of lens, inflammation of the iris, choroid,
ciliary body and retina, periodic ophthalmia, diabetes, cell prolifera-
tion in the lens.

Give the treatment of lachrymal fistula.
Establish drainage through the lachrymal duct by forcing boric
acid solution through it from below upward under slight pressure.
Curette the fistulous opening and cauterize with silver nitrate.

Describe an operation for enucleation of the eye.

General anesthesia is essential. Wash and disinfect the eye and
surrounding parts. Retract the lids; make the incision through the
conjunctiva around the corneal margin and dissect back the con-
junctiva to the insertion of muscles. With small curved scissors
cut the muscles near their tendinous insertion. Then with strong
curved scissors, cut the optic nerve with one snip. The eye can
then be pried out. Check hemorrhage by packing the cavity with
aseptic gauze for a few hours.

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220 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe otorrhcea of the dog. Give treatment.

An inflammatory condition of the external auditory meatus. It
is characterized by a discharge of a yellowish-brown secretion,
usually mixed with pus, pruritus and shaking of the ears.

Treatment: Cleanse with peroxide of hydrogen, probe and
cotton. Dry with ether and keep dry by dusting lycopodium over
the affected parts. Repeat the treatment daily.

Mention two common causes of deafness in the dog.
Congenital deafness is occasionally met with; in old age, dogs
become more or less deaf; otitis media, inflammation of the middle
ear, is generally followed by deafness.

Give the symptoms and the diagnosis of pus in the guttural pouches.
Intermittent, unilateral or bilateral, nasal discharge. Appears
in considerable quantity at times and then entirely disappears. The
discharge is increased when the head is lowered after being checked
up, when eating off the floor, swallowing and when pressure is
applied over the pouch. Swelling may or may not be marked.
Dyspnea is sometimes produced by the pressure on the larynx.
Similarly, difficulty in swallowing may be present. Diagnosis can

be confirmed by passing the Eustachian catheter.

Describe the Viborg or the Chabert method of opening the guttural
pouch.

Viborg’s method: Secure the patient in lateral decubitus with
the head extended. General anesthesia is advisable. Locate
Viborg’s triangle (the space between the posterior border of the
inferior maxilla, the terminal tendon of the sternomaxillaris muscle
and the external maxillary vein). Shave and disinfect this area.
Draw the skin tense and make an incision, 5 em. long, through the
skin and skin muscle immediately beneath and parallel to the tendon
aforementioned. Force a passage with the finger or blunt instru-
ment through the loose connective tissue to the guttural pouch.

In Chabert’s method, the incision (6 em. long) is made about
1 cm. in front of the lower half of the wing of the atlas and parallel
thereto. The parotid gland is drawn forward and an incision
is made parallel to and through the fibres of the stylomaxillaris
muscle thus exposed. This leads directly into the guttural pouch.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of postpharyngeal abscess.
Causes: Injuries to the pharyngeal walls; inflammation of

same or neighboring tissues; infection following injury by sharp
objects, balling gun, ete. Infection extending from suppurative
parotitis to the subparotid lymph-glands. Often seen in strangles.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 221

Symptoms: Swelling, dyspnea and dysphagia from pressure;
head extended; slight fever.

Treatment: Open through Viborg’s triangle as described in pre-
ceding answer. In case of subparotid abscess, use a blunt instru-
ment or finger to burrow through the parotid gland. Some operators
prefer to make the incision on the median line and dissect through
to the abscess along the lateral wall of the larynx. In all cases,
good drainage and thorough disinfection are necessary. Use trache-
otomy tube to avoid suffocation which may follow the excitement
caused by operating.

Give the treatment of pharyngeal polypi.

Adjust the mouth speculum and attempt grasping and removing
the polypi with the hand introduced through the mouth. If this
method fails, perform laryngectomy, pass hand or ecraseur through
the larynx into the pharynx and remove the growth, preferably
by torsion. If this fails, cut the growth away with scissors or
scalpel.

Give the treatment for choking.

Four methods may be employed.

1, Return the foreign body into the pharynx by manipulations
over the esophageal furrow and with the hand in the pharynx,
or with extracting instruments; emetics such as apomorphine and
veratrine may assist.

2. Reduce the size of the foreign body in situ (soft objects may
be crushed by hand).

3. Force the foreign body onward into the stomach with the
probang. Great caution should be observed in case of sharp objects
as bones, ete. Likewise, a mass of oats may be more firmly impacted.

4. Gisophagotomy. This can only be performed on the cervical
portion of the esophagus and is only practised when the other
methods fail.

Unless symptoms are alarming, it is best to avoid all treatment
in case of impaction of oats, as such cases often remedy themselves
in the course of a few days. In all cases, withhold food and water
until the condition is relieved to avoid the danger of inhalation
pneumonia.

Describe cesophagotomy.

The animal can be operated upon in the standing or recumbent
position. The point of operation is usually determined by the
location of the foreign body which necessitates the operation. Shave
and disinfect the skin. Make an incision 10 em. long through the

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

skin and skin muscle on the left side between the anterior border
of the mastoidohumeralis muscle and the jugular vein. Separate
the loose connective tissue with the fingers down to the cesophagus
which lies between the left scalenus muscle, the trachea and the jugu-
lar vein. Draw the esophagus out through the wound and make
a longitudinal incision in it, sufficiently large for the removal of the
foreign body. The wound in the esophagus is closed by an intes-
tinal suture, i.e., the external coats are drawn together (Lembert
suture). The external wound may be left open, or sutured, and a
drainage tube inserted.

Describe the treatment of choking in the cow.

See answer to the two preceding questions. Choking in cattle is
often accompanied by bloating (tympanites). This should be re-
lieved by puncturing the rumen and leaving the canula in position
until relief is obtained, several days if necessary.

Give the diagnostic symptoms of roaring. Describe an operation for

roaring.

Symptoms: Inspiratory dyspnea, very marked after severe exer-
tion, galloping or heavy pulling without any visible cause. Posi-
tive diagnosis is made by examining the larynx with the laryngoscope
or by introducing a finger through an opening made in the larynx
(laryngotomy). In case of roaring, the left vocal cord lies motion-
less in the lumen of the larynx. Sometimes both sides are paralyzed.

Operation: Secure the animal in lateral recumbency. Shave
a large area in the laryngeal region, disinfect thoroughly. Chloro-
form anesthesia is necessary. When anesthesia is complete, roll
the patient upon its back with the head extended. Make a longi-
tudinal incision, 15 em. long, through the skin, subeutem and muscles
on the median line directly over the larynx. Continue the incision
through the cricothyroidean ligament and ericoid cartilage. Con-
trol hemorrhage with hemostatic forceps. Insert retractors and
carefully dissect out the mucous lining of the lateral ventricle be-
tween the vocal cord and the arytenoid cartilage on the affected side.
This must be carefully done because any remaining portion of this
mucous membrane will secrete mucus and form a mucous cyst.
The object is to grow the vocal cord to the wall of the larynx and
this is accomplished by denuding the opposing surfaces of their
raucous membrane. The after-treatment consists of daily cleansing
of the external wound and complete rest for six weeks. The patient
should be carefully watched for the first 48 hours to see that
dyspnea is not provoked by the swelling in the region of the wound.
In such cases, a tracheotomy tube should be inserted in the opening.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 223

HEAD AND NECK

Define (a) gleet, (b) epistaxis.

(a) Chronic nasal catarrh characterized by a thick, purulent
discharge, ulcers in the nasal cavity, bulging of the sinuses and
enlargement of the submaxillary lymph-glands.

(b) Bleeding from the nose.

Give the causes and the treatment of bleeding from the nose.

Causes: Traumatisms, diseases of the mucous membrane as in
glanders, gleet, etc., tumor formation, fracture of nasal bones, severe
exertion.

Treatment: Remove cause, irrigate the nasal cavity with cold
water to which may be added some astringent agents, as tannin,
aluminum sulphate, zine sulphate, ete. Spray the cavity with adre-
nalin chloride. Plug the nostrils with cotton and keep the head
elevated. Slight, and often severe, hemorrhage will often stop with-
out any measures being employed for its control.

What diseases of the facial sinuses require surgical interference?
Empyzxmia, diseased teeth, tumors and foreign bodies, necrosis
of the bony and cartilaginous walls.

Give the surgical technic of trephining the frontal sinuses.

Operate on the standing animal with the aid of local anesthesia.
Shave and disinfect the region of the frontal bone on a level with
the superior border of the orbital cavity and about 1 cm. from the
median line of the face. Make a circular incision of the desired
size through the skin, subeutem and periosteum, and remove the
encircled mass by separating the periosteum from the bone with
the scalpel. Place the trephine perpendicular to the bone and drill
until the centre bony plate loosens, then pry out the dise of bone.

Give the treatment of pus in the nasal sinuses.

The trephining is carried out in the manner described in the
preceding answer. The point of operation may be at any point,
immediately against the median line from the level of the upper limit
of the superior maxillary sinus to the upper extremity of the false
nostril. Great care must be taken to avoid trephining too deeply
and injuring the turbinated bones which lie close to the nasal bone.
Dilute solutions of hydrogen peroxide can now be injected and
followed by a thorough irrigation with sterile water. This irrigation
should be repeated daily until suppuration ceases.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of nasal polypus.
Symptoms: Stenosis of the nasal passages, dyspneea, chronic uni-

lateral catarrh; in BigarBety® Sogeperation, on, an ichorous, fetid, occa-

224 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

sionally hemorrhagic, nasal discharge with unilateral swelling of
the submaxillary lymph-gland is seen. Polypi may be long enough
to protrude or be seen in the nostril.

Treatment: Operative removal with scalpel, scissors or ecraseur.

What are the diseases for which tracheotomy are performed? De-
scribe the operation.

Dyspneea due to obstructions in the upper air passages from
roaring, tumors or other swellings in the nasal passages, larynx,
upper part of the trachea, etc., foreign bodies in the trachea, diseases
of the larynx, trachea and bronchi which demand intratracheal
irrigation or other treatment.

Operation: Shave and disinfect the skin over the trachea in the
superior third of the neck. Operate on the standing animal, using
twitch. Make an incision, 6 to 8 em. long, on the median line,
through the skin and between the two sternothyroideus muscles
down on to the trachea. Remove a semicircular piece from each of
two adjoining rings (avoid complete severance of the rings). In
an emergency, requiring great haste, two or three rings may be in-
cised but the former method is to be preferred because of the lesser
liability of stenosis following healing.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the lips.

Causes: Injury to the facial nerve where it passes over the
posterior border of the lower jaw. Tumors, pressing on the nerve,
may produce paralysis. Some paralyses are of central origin, 2.e.,
due to cerebral lesions.

Symptoms: Lips are distorted to one side in unilateral paralysis,
and hang flaccid in bilateral condition. Difficulty in prehension
of food is noted. The lips and cheeks are injured by the teeth. In
paralysis of central origin, the upper eyelid droops and the ear
hangs limp.

Treatment: Remove accumulated food from the cheeks after each
meal. Give easily masticated food. A blister may be applied over
the point where the nerve emerges on the upper margin of the lower
maxilla, but its value is questionable. Most cases of peripheral
paralyses recover in 4 to 6 weeks.

Describe caries of the teeth and give treatment.

Caries of the teeth is the term used to describe the process which
results in the gradual destruction of the cement and dentin, the
enamel remaining comparatively intact. Caries is caused by the
entrance of microdrganisms through small openings in the enamel.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 225

Fermentation occurs and acids are formed which attack the tooth
structure.

Treatment: Extraction of the affected tooth. It may be neces-
sary to trephine and punch the tooth out.

Give the causes and the treatment of stomatitis.

Causes: Wounds from sharp teeth, the bit and foreign bodies;
infection, chemicals and hot foods.

Treatment: Remove the cause; file off sharp enamel points; use
an astringent, antiseptic mouth wash; cauterize ulcers with lunar
caustic or paint with tincture of iodine. Provide plenty of fresh
water; cleanse the mouth after each meal.

Describe the appearance of a horse’s mouth at the age of (a) two
years, (b) three years, (c) five years.

(a) The inferior dental arch is levelled at the nippers and
intermediate milk-teeth. The superior nippers stand out from the
gums and behind them is found a moderately sensitive swelling which
is due to the pressure of the permanent teeth on the gums of the
palatine arch.

(b) The permanent nippers, above and below, are level with the
temporary intermediates and corner teeth.

(ec) The mouth is complete, ‘‘full-mouth,’’ 7.¢., all the per-
manent teeth have reached the same level. The anterior borders of
the corners are in wear but the posterior borders are not.

7

Describe the appearance of the mouth of a horse at the age of (a) seven
years, (b) eight years, (c) fourteen years.

(a) Notch on the posterior border of the superior corner teeth.
The nippers are oval in shape and the intermediates are becoming
so. The cups are worn out of the inferior nippers and nearly out of
the intermediates.

(b) The intermediates are oval and show a triangular-shaped
central enamel. The corners are worn and show their central enamel
somewhat concave. The cups are nearly worn out of the inferior
corners.

(c) The nippers are becoming triangular. The intermediates
and corners remain rounded. The transverse arch of the teeth
becomes narrower.

Describe the appearance of the mouth of the horse at the age of (a)
six years, (b) ten years, (c) twelve years, (d) fifteen years.

(a) The nippers are worn and the cups of the inferior pair are

worn out. The intermediates are becoming worn and the corners

are on a level with them, showing their anterior borders worn down.

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226 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

(b) The nippers are rounded, the intermediates are nearly 80,
while the corners are still oval. The cups are worn out of all the
inferiors and the nippers and intermediates of the superior row.

(e) All the teeth are rounded and the central enamel is gone.
The superior corners are levelled.

(d) The nippers are triangular, the intermediates are becoming
so; the corners are still rounded. The dental star is round in all
the lower teeth and is dark and indistinct.

Describe the operation for the repulsion of a diseased upper molar
tooth of a horse.

Shave and disinfect the field of operation. Remove a circular
piece of skin and trephine through the bone and alveolar plate,
immediately over the fang of the tooth. With scalpel and chisel,
separate the bone and soft tissues over the entire area of the diseased
tooth. Apply a punch against the fang of the tooth and give a few
sharp blows with a mallet, directing the force in a line with the
long axis of the tooth, driving it into the mouth. If the tooth cannot
be dislodged in this manner, comminute it with the chisel and mallet
and remove the fragments. Cleanse and disinfect the wound after
each meal, or at least once daily.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of paralysis of the muscles of
mastication.
Symptoms: Salivation, tongue lolling, inability to close the
mouth and take nourishment.
Treatment: (Beware of rabies.) Feed with stomach tube.
Apply electric current to the masseter and temporal muscles,

Give the method of “ bishoping ” a horse.

‘‘Bishoping’’ is accomplished by drilling or gouging out a cavity
in the tables of incisor teeth and staining the cavity black with silver
nitrate or a hot iron. It is a method employed by unscrupulous
dealers (‘‘gyps’’) for the purpose of deception in regard to the
age of a horse.

Mention four diseases and six accidental conditions, or injuries, that
are characterized by a copious discharge of saliva.
Diseases: Pharyngitis, stomatitis, paralysis of lower jaw and
dental caries.
Accidents: Wounds of the cheeks, foreign bodies in the mouth,
a severe bit, injuries of the tongue, bags of spices attached to the
bit, and choking.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 227

Give the treatment of salivary calculi.

Operative removal through the buceal cavity to avoid fistula, if
possible. If the duct must be opened, make a transverse incision
which heals more readily than a longitudinal one. Observe strict
aseptic precautions and obtain healing by first intention if possible.
Withhold food for two days.

Describe causes, symptoms and treatment of salivary fistula.

Causes: Wounds which penetrate the salivary glands or their
ducts.

Symptoms: An opening in the gland or duct through which
there is a continuous flow of saliva, more marked during eating.
The hair is matted or lost and the pigment of the skin is destroyed by
the discharge.

Treatment: Fistule of the gland sometimes heal without treat-
ment. Cauterize with silver nitrate or actual cautery. See that
the opening of the duct into the mouth is free, or provide an arti-
ficial opening, and then close the fistula with a purse-string suture.
If this fails, ligate the duct above the fistula and produce a destruc-
tion of the gland through pressure atrophy. The gland may be
destroyed by the injection of irritating fluids into it but this method
is very painful and far from surgical.

What are the characteristic symptoms of actinomycosis of the jaw
and face in cattle? Give the treatment.

A hard, firm swelling which involves the bone. The teeth become
loosened because of a purulent, alveolar periostitis; mastication is
painful; the skin becomes thick and adherent; perforation occurs
and a thick, yellow pus is exuded in which actinomyces may be
found.

Treatment: Mild cases, if treated early, respond to the internal
administration of potassium iodide until signs of iodism appear.
It is best to dissect away all diseased tissue and, in severe cases,
slaughter.

Describe an operation for poll-evil.

Clip the foretop and mane and shave the crest of the neck over
the diseased area. Make a longitudinal incision on either side of
the median line, and about 2 inches from same, from the top of the
head down to the posterior limit of the disease. These incisions
should be carried through the skin, subeutem and adipose tissue to
the ligamentum nuche. Dissect away all necrotic tissue. Pack the
wound with antiseptic gauze and hold the packing in place with tem-
porary, retaining sutures. Remove pack in 48 hours and use dry

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228 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the prognosis and the treatment of goitre (a) in the dog, (b) in
the horse.

(a) Prognosis is not very hopeful if the growth is extensive.
Treatment is unsatisfactory ; paint with tincture of iodine and give
potassium iodide, internally. Thyroid extract, internally, is reputed
to give good results. The cystic form of goitre can be tapped with a
eapillary trocar.

(b) Prognosis favorable ; seldom causes any inconvenience unless
very large when dyspnea may be produced by compression of the
throat. Treatment, same as in the dog.

Give treatment of cystic goitre in the dog.
Withdraw the contents of the cyst by use of the capillary trocar
and paint the overlying skin with tincture of iodine.

Give the surgical technic of trifacial neurectomy.

General anesthesia. Shave and disinfect an area, 10 em. square,
over the infraorbital foramen. Make an incision through the skin,
subcutem and the levator labii superioris alaque nasii muscle and
expose the nerve. Begin the incision 1 cm. above the foramen and
earry it downward directly over the nerve a distance of 5 to 6 cm.
Pick up the nerve with an aneurism needle and divide it close to the
foramen. Remove about 3 cm. from the distal end. Suture the

wound, observing aseptic precautions.

Mention diseases for which phlebotomy of the jugular vein is per-
formed.
Congestion of the brain; diseases which are accompanied by
plethora such as azoturia, congestion of the lungs, acute laminitis,
ete.; toxemic diseases such as tetanus.

State the various methods of dehorning cattle.
Dehorning shears; sawing off with ordinary saw; application of
caustic potash on calves at the point where the horn will erupt will
prevent the horn from developing.

DISEASES OF THE THORAX

Describe the operation for the relief of hydrothorax.

Shave and disinfect an area, 2 cm. square, in the seventh inter-
costal space on the left side, immediately above tke thoracic vein.
Draw the skin aside and place the trocar at the anterior border of
the rib and, with a sharp thrust, drive it into the thoracic cavity.
Withdraw the stilette and allow the fluid to escape.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 229

Describe symptoms and treatment of a fractured rib.

Symptoms: Hurried breathing; crepitation with each respira-
tory movement; if the pleura is injured, cough may be present. If
the skin is broken (compound fracture), fragments of bone may be
seen,

Treatment: Complete rest and quiet. In compound fracture,
remove pieces of bone and dress the wound antiseptically.

Give treatment for saddle-galls and collar-galls.
Recent formations may disappear under the application of cold
and massage, or by painting with tincture of iodine. Chronic
thickenings and necrotic tissue must be removed with the knife.

Describe fistula of the withers and give treatment.

A hot, painful swelling in the region of the withers is seen.
There may be a discharge of pus through a small opening and the
lymph-vessels in the region stand out as small cords. There is
usually necrosis of the skin, subcutem, burse, fasciz, muscles and
bones in the affected region.

Treatment: Operative removal of all necrotic tissue. Provide
drainage and dress wound daily with antiseptics.

Give the treatment of a case of fistulous withers of three months’
standing.
See answer to preceding question. In a case of three months’
standing, considerable connective-tissue proliferation will have
occurred ; this should be removed along with the necrotic tissue.

DISEASES OF THE ABDOMEN

Describe a surgical treatment of acute gastric indigestion.

Tapping of the stomach: Shave and disinfect an area 2 cm.
square over the point of greatest distention on the left side (usually
between the thirteenth and fourteenth ribs, about one hand’s breadth
from the spinal column). Use a trocar, 8 to 10 inches long, and drive
it in a vertical direction downward into the stomach. Allow the
gas to escape. The passing of the stomach tube would be a surgical
measure to be preferred.

Give the symptoms of rupture of the diaphragm (diaphragmatic
hernia).

Asphyxia from compression of the lungs; symptoms of strangu-
lation of the bowels. It is difficult to diagnose. Tapping the intes-
tines through the thoracic walls and the obtaining of ingesta there-
from will aid in the diagnosis.

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230

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe the operation of rumenotomy in the cow.

Shave and disinfect the skin in the left flank. Introduce a
bistoury through the skin, muscles and rumen wall at the point where
the rumen is usually punctured and make a quick downward
incision, 4 to 6 inches long. The skin incision should be a little
longer than that in the wall of the rumen to prevent food from
entering the peritoneal sac. A piece of cloth may be placed in the
lower angle of the wound for the same purpose. Close the wound
in the rumen securely with catgut or silk, using interrupted sutures.
Suture the abdominal muscles in a similar way and the skin in the
usual way. Some operators draw the skin to one side before making
the incision through it so that the openings through the different
layers do not overlap.

Give the indications for laparotomy in the cow.

Foreign bodies in the rumen or intestines. Displacement of
internal organs. Dystocia, where normal delivery is impossible.
Gut-tie in the ox.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of inguinal hernia.

Symptoms: The hind limbs are moved stiffly, dragging the toes.
The animal stretches out, shows slight colic and draws up the testicle
of the affected side. Strangulation of the incarcerated intestines
may produce violent colicky symptoms. In old-standing cases, the
testicle is atrophied and flaccid. Rectal examination will aid in the
diagnosis.

Treatment: Fast the animal and evacuate the bowels. Place
the patient on its back, chloroform and replace the hernial contents.
Apply active friction to the cord to produce a swelling which will
fill the abdominal ring. (A mild vesicant is often used.) Another
method is to perform castration by means of clamps and the covered
operation. The latter method is to be preferred because this defect
is transmitted to offspring and such animals should not be used for
breeding; furthermore, it is a more satisfactory and surer method.

Describe in detail the surgical method of reduction of an inguinal

hernia in a stallion without resorting to the castration of
the same.
See answer to preceding question.

Give the treatment of an umbilical hernia, the size of a hen’s egg, in

a colt one year old.
Produce an inflammatory swelling of the hernial ring by inject-
ing into it a weak solution of silver nitrate and apply a truss. A!

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 231

better method is the radical operation—herniotomy and suturing
of the hernial ring. Fast the animal and evacuate the bowels.
Chloroform anesthesia is very desirable and more humane. Place
the patient on its back, shave and disinfect the operative field.
Make an incision through the skin, suture the hernial ring with silk
or chromatized catgut, with or without opening the peritoneal cavity.
Close the skin wound and apply an antiseptic dressing holding same
in place with a body bandage.

Describe a case of rupture of the prepubian ligament.

This condition occurs most commonly in pregnant mares. It
appears as an immense hernial swelling on the ventral surface of
the abdomen, extending from the os pubis forward on the abdomen,
giving the animal a much distorted appearance. The mamme may
be drawn anteriorly a distance of 8 to 12 inches from the normal
location. The patient is usually quiet unless strangulation occurs.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of ascites in the dog.

Causes: Obstruction to the circulation from diffuse induration
of the liver, emboli, weak heart, etc., kidney disease, chronic peri-
tonitis and tuberculosis.

Symptoms: An abnormal distention of the abdomen. The
swelling is of a fluctuating nature and gives a dull percussion
sound which is bounded above by a horizontal line. No matter what
attitude is assumed by the animal, this horizontal line remains.
The patient has a pot-bellied appearance, appears dull and becomes
dyspneie upon slight exertion. Diagnosis can be confirmed by
passing a trocar into the peritoneal cavity and recovering some of the
liquid contents. The prognosis is bad.

Treatment: Remove the cause (heart, liver or kidney diseases).
This is usually impossible, so that only temporary relief can be
afforded with palliatives. Saline purgatives, diuretics, heart tonics,
ete., may be useful. Puncturing is often beneficial in relieving

severe dyspnea.

Give the symptoms of intussusception.

The symptoms are mainly those of obstruction of the bowels such
as continuous colicky pains, passing of a few fecal balls at first but
later a cessation of defecation, tympanites, and absence of peri-
stalsis. A manual examination per rectum may aid in making the
diagnosis. The pains may subside in about 12 hours to be followed

by chills and death.
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232 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe in detail the procedure of passing a stomach tube, What
are the indications for the use of this tube?

Secure the animal in the standing position and restrain by
placing a twitch on the ear. Lubricate the tube with saliva or
slippery elm tea. Insert the tube in the floor of the nostril and
push it gently until the pharynx is reached. Move the tube slowly
in and out until swallowing movements are observed. When the
tube passes into the cesophagus, force it gently downward into the
stomach. By the use of a mouth speculum or mouth gag, the tube
can be passed through the mouth.

Indications for use: Gastric tympany or impaction; poisoning;
forced nutrition when the animal cannot swallow, as in tetanus.

Describe enterocentesis and state when indicated.

Shave and disinfect an area 2 cm. square, in the right flank,
equidistant from the last rib, the external angle of the ilium and the
transverse processes of the lumbar vertebre. Place the trocar
perpendicular to the skin and with a sharp blow drive it into the
distended cecum. Withdraw the stilette and allow the gas to
escape.

This operation is indicated in cases of intestinal tympany. It
is occasionally employed to introduce medicines directly into the
cecum.

Name the tissues involved in puncturing the caecum.
Skin, abdominal muscle, peritoneum and cecum.

What are some of the unsatisfactory results that are likely to follow
the operation of puncturing the intestines in the horse, and
describe the technic you would adopt to guard against them?

1. Peritonitis: Strict antisepsis. Have the stilette in the canula
and press the skin firmly against the abdominal muscles when
withdrawing the instrument.

2. Abscess at the site of puncture: Same precautionary meas-
ures as given in preceding paragraph.

3. Hemorrhage: Operate at the proper point and thus avoid
large arteries.

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS

Give the symptoms of urinary calculi in the bladder. What is the
method of surgical procedure?

Frequent urination but passing of small amounts. Blood-

stained urine after exercise on account of injuries of the mucous

membrane by the stone. Examination per rectum will reveal the

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 233

stone as a firm, hard substance. In mares, it can be felt by passing
a finger through the urethra.

Perform urethrotomy at the ischial notch. Extract the stone
with lithotomy forceps. If the stone is too large to be removed
entire, lithotripsy (crushing of the stone within the bladder) must
be performed, and if this fails, dilate the neck of the bladder with
the lithotome. In mares, the stone can often be removed through
the normal urethral opening (cystic calculi are rare in the mare).

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the bladder in
the horse and in the dog.

Causes: Retention of urine, due to calculi, causes overdistention
and paralysis. Hemoglobinuria, spinal lesions and enlarged
prostates.

Symptoms: Urine discharged in small quantities when the de-
trusor muscle alone is paralyzed. If the sphincter muscle is para-
lyzed, an involuntary discharge of urine occurs, especially when
the abdominal muscles are contracted as in defecation.

Treatment: Unsatisfactory. Catheterize frequently in case of
great distention due to paralysis of the detrusor muscle. Give tonics
such as strychnine and arsenic.

Give the treatment of prolapse of the urinary bladder in the mare.
Carefully cleanse, disinfect and replace the viscus. Suture the
wound in the vagina if possible. Prevent straining and recurrence
by injecting lukewarm water into the replaced bladder (local anes-
thetics could be used in the water), and administer sedative.

Give the cause, symptoms and treatment of rupture of the bladder.
Causes: Overdistention, injuries by the catheter, calculi, ete.
Symptoms: Absence of urination; uriniferous odor to the skin,
peritonitis and death soon follows.

Treatment: Useless. Might attempt laparotomy and suture the
yent in the bladder-wall. Remove the obstruction causing overdis-
tention and rupture.

Describe the operation of passing a catheter in (a) the gelding, (b)
the mare, (c) the cow, (d) the steer.

(a) Wash and disinfect the external parts. Grasp the penis
firmly and pass a sterilized catheter, lubricated with carbolized
vaseline, gently upward until an assistant feels it approaching the
ischial notch. It is then guided forward into the bladder. If a
soft-rubber catheter is used, no assistant will be necessary.

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234 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

(b) Wash and disinfect the external genitals. With the fingers
of one hand, locate the urethral orifice and with the other hand
direct the catheter into it and force it gently into the bladder.

(c) Same as the mare. The urethral orifice is a little more diffi-
cult to locate on account of the overlying folds of mucous membrane.

(d) Same as in the gelding. Only the forward end of the
urethra as far as the ‘‘S’’-shaped curve can be catheterized.

DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS

Describe the operation of castration of the male. What ill effects may
follow and how can they be prevented?

The operation may be performed on the standing animal but is
safer for the operator if the patient is cast and secured on its back
or side. Wash and disinfect the scrotum, grasp the testicle, enclosed
in the scrotum, and hold firmly. Make an incision, 8 to 10 em. long,
parallel with and about 2 cm. from the median raphe. Carry the
incision through the skin, dartos and tunics until the testicle pro-
trudes through the opening. Grasp the testicle and gently pull it
out. (By cutting the cremaster muscle, the testicle can be drawn
out farther and easier.) Place the emasculator close up to the
external ring and sever the cord. Leave the instrument in place
for a few minutes to prevent hemorrhage. The wound will usually
heal without any attention.

Hemorrhage may occur, but if the emasculator is perfect and
is left in place for a sufficient length of time, there is little danger.
Blood-clots may form if the external opening is too small. Wound
infection can usually be avoided by careful antiseptic preparation.
Scirrhous cord may result from leaving the cord too long and
exposed.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of scirrhous cord.

Causes: Wound infection following castration. May be due to
a faulty method of castration, leaving the cord too long and exposed.
Infection leads to a chronic inflammation of the stump of the cord.

Symptoms: A firm, hard, and slightly painful swelling in the
region of the scrotum; a fistulous opening, 2 to 4 inches deep, dis-
charging pus. The swelling may extend along the cord into the
abdominal cavity.

Treatment: Remove the diseased part, if external to the abdo-
men. If it extends into the abdomen, nothing surgical can be done.
Potassium iodide, internally, may help.

Name three diseases resulting from castration.
Scirrhous cord, hydrocele, peritonitis.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 235

Mention in order from without inward the tissues cut in the operation
of castration of the male.
Skin, dartos, spermatic, cremasteric and infundibuliform fascie ;
the tunica vaginalis and the tunica albuginea.

Describe paraphimosis and give treatment.

A condition in which the glans penis cannot be retracted into the
prepuce, either because the opening is too narrow, or the glans too
large. More common in the dog than in the horse, because in the
latter the outer folds of the sheath are loosely formed and present
a wide opening. But occasionally the preputial folds become greatly
swollen and prevent the return of the penis. More often the
condition is due to swelling of the penis.

Treatment: Attempt replacement by lubricating with oil and
applying pressure on the swollen penis. It may be necessary to
incise the preputial ring. Apply astringent packs to combat the
inflammation. A suspensory bandage will assist in reducing the
cedema.

Describe a method of amputating the penis.

General anesthesia. Wash and disinfect the penis and preputial
region. “Apply a temporary elastic ligature just above the preputial
ring. Grasp the penis with one hand and with a circular incision,
about 5 cm. in front of the ligature, or immediately in front of the
preputial ring, excise the organ. Ligate vessels which may be
bleeding. Slit the dorsal wall of the urethra for a distance of about
2 em.; spread it fan-like over the surrounding tissues and suture
to the same. A silk ligature can be applied to the corpus caver-
nosum just above the point of excision and allowed to remain for a
few days. Remove the elastic ligature.

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the penis.

Cause: Due to paralysis of the retractor penis muscle. Inability
to retract the penis on account of inflammatory swellings of the
sheath or penis are erroneously referred to as paralysis.

Symptoms: Inability to retract the penis in the sheath or retain
it there when replaced. Insensitiveness of the organ which hangs
limply and swings to and fro when the animal walks.

Treatment: Massage the retractor penis muscle between the anus
and scrotum. Injections of veratrine or strychnine may assist.
Apply a suspensory bandage to prevent injuries and edema. Am-
putation may be necessary as a last resort, or better still, the more
recent method of removing a band-like piece of skin from the penis
(by encircling it with two incisions) equal in width to one-half

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236 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

the length of the protruding organ. Suture the edges of the skin.
Upon healing, the penis will be drawn back nearly in normal position.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of diseased prostate in the
stallion.

Difficulty in defecation and urination. Straining to urinate
and passing of a thin stream or only in drops. Rectal examination
reveals, close behind the bladder, a soft, painful swelling, in acute
conditions, and a hard and painless swelling in chronic inflammation.
Abscess formation may fluctuate.

Treatment: Laxatives and enemas lessen the pressure from the
rectum. Abscesses may be ruptured into the urethra, or evacuated
with a trocar through the rectum. Catheterize regularly until the
condition is relieved. Castration has been recommended.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of orchitis.

Causes: Traumatisms; extension from the urinary passages;
metastatic inflammation is seen in glanders and strangles.

Symptoms: A hot, painful swelling of the testicles. Cidema of
the scrotum if periorchitis occurs. Infectious orchitis is accom-
panied by fever. Hemorrhage may produce a hematocele which is
very readily absorbed.

Treatment: A suspensory bandage; astringent packs such as
Burrow’s lotion. Paint with tincture of iodine when the inflam-
mation subsides. If pus formation occurs, early castration is im-
perative to prevent extension and a fatal peritonitis.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of hydrocele.

Marked swelling of the scrotum, resembling somewhat an in-
guinal or scrotal hernia, but is soft, elastic, painless and non-
inflammatory. Differentiated from hernia, by the fact that the
swelling is confined principally to the lower part of the scrotum
and tapers away as it approaches the upper part. An exploratory
needle puncture will decide all doubt if necessary.

Treatment: Injections of tincture of iodine into the tunica
vaginalis after emptying the same of its watery contents. Cas-
tration is usually necessary.

Describe fully ovariotomy in the bitch, including care and after-treat-
ment.

Fast the patient for 24 hours and give a physie before opera-
tion. Use a general anesthetic. Empty the bladder. Shave and
disinfect an area, 6 em. square, over the linea alba just anterior
to the pubic brim. Make an incision on the median line about 5 em.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 237

long, extending anteriorly from the pubis, cutting through the
skin, linea alba and peritoneum with one stroke. Hold the wound
open with retractors; locate the uterus and grasp it with forceps.
By applying slight traction on the uterine cornua, each ovary may
be exposed and removed by torsion or ligating and cutting. Draw
both cornua, with the ovaries attached, through the opening and
rupture them transversely near their bifurcation. The body of the
uterus may be ligated with catgut and the horns removed by cutting.
Close the skin and muscle wound with interrupted sutures. Paint
the wound with collodion and apply a body bandage. Remove the
skin sutures in about three days and cauterize any exuberant granu-
lations that may have formed. Feed sparingly for a few days after
operation.

Describe vaginal ovariotomy in the mare. Mention the accidents that
may occur.

Fast the patient for 24 hours and give a physic before operation.
Secure the patient in the stocks, bandage the tail and draw it aside,
cleanse the vulva, clitoris, tail and perineal region by serubbing with
soap and water. After washing thoroughly, disinfect the external
parts and for a short distance inside the vulvar lips with a 1: 1000
aqueous sublimate solution. Rinse away the sublimate solution
with a 0.6 per cent. solution of sodium bicarbonate, and fill the
vulvovaginal canal with the same. The operator’s nails, hands and
arms must be scrupulously cleansed and disinfected, and all instru-
ments must be sterilized. ‘‘Balloon’’ the vagina by introducing a
tepid sterile water or salt solution into it. When ballooned prop-
erly, pass the hand with a sheathed knife and push the blade forward
through the vaginal wall and peritoneum, a little above and to one
side of the os uteri. Remove the knife, reintroduce the hand, and
by careful manipulation push the hand through the incision and
locate the ovaries. Pass the ecraseur alongside of the arm, carry
it to an ovary and place the chain over the same. Tighten the chain
and cut the ovary free, removing same with the inserted hand. Re-
peat the same on the other ovary. Keep the patient quiet for five
or six days.

Dangers: Incision in the vaginal wall may be carried into the
rectum, iliac arteries, posterior aorta, or uterine cavity. The
incision may not penetrate the peritoneum and thus embarrass the
operator by forming a large cavity between the vaginal and peri-
toneal walls. Inexperienced operators have removed a ball of fwces
in mistake for an ovary. By faulty technic, infection may be car-
ried into the peritoneum and produce fatal peritonitis.

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238 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the operative methods of treating inversion of the uterus.

Cleanse and suture any wounds. Give two ounces of chloral
hydrate. Elevate the posterior parts and attempt reposition by care-
ful manipulations. Inject lukewarm water to smooth out the folds.
Apply a truss or suture the vulva, if necessary. Keep the hind parts
elevated for a few days. It is better to prevent straining by reduc-
ing the inflammation than to use sutures, ete. If the prolapsed
organ is badly damaged, amputation is the only resort.

Give the treatment of purulent mastitis in cattle.

Apply hot fomentations or poultices. Drain abscesses and dis-
infect. Irrigate the galactophorous sinuses with a four per cent.
solution of boric acid. It may be necessary to amputate one or
both halves of the udder.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of stenosis of the mammary duct
in the cow.

Inability to obtain milk when the teat is compressed or the milk
may escape in a thin stream only. Milking causes pain which is
resented by the patient. A small lump, ‘‘spider,’’ may be felt in
the teat.

Treatment: Pass teat sounds of gradually increasing sizes. If
this fails, use a teat slitter (special instrument) and enlarge the
duct. It may be necessary to amputate the end of the teat where
the obstruction usually is located.

DISEASES OF THE SPINAL COLUMN AND PELVIS

Give the symptoms, prognosis and treatment of fracture of the tuber-
osity of the ischium.

Symptoms: Swelling of the muscles and crepitation in the region
of buttocks. Dragging of the toe. Equal weight is placed on each
foot.

Prognosis: Requires months to unite or heal and sometimes
results in dragging of the toe.

Treatment: Rest for four to six weeks. Massage.the muscles to
prevent atrophy. It may be necessary to make an incision and
remove sequestra of bone.

Give the diagnosis of fracture through the acetabulum of the pelvis.
Severe swinging-leg and supporting-leg lameness. Often accom-
panied by groaning. Crepitation when the leg is moved or weight
is placed upon it. Sinking of the hip region. Examination per
rectum will locate the protruding head of the femur.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 239

Give the prognosis and treatment of fracture of the external angle of
the ilium.
Prognosis is favorable, although a permanent blemish results.
Treatment: Rest the patient for 3 to 4 weeks, and keep in
slings to prevent further injuries or displacement of the broken
pieces by lying down.

What is the object of caudal myotomy? Describe the operation.

The operation is performed for the correction of curved tail.

Confine the patient. in stocks or control with a side line and
twitch. Cleanse and disinfect the tail, and bend it in the opposite
direction to the curvature. Locate the longitudinal furrow be-
tween the levator and depressor muscles on the convex side, and
insert a tenotome at the lower margin of the levator, in the most
prominent part of the curvature. Push the knife through the muscle
to the vertebre, turn the cutting edge upward against the lateral
muscle and sever it completely. Remove the knife and bandage
an antiseptic pad over the wound, leaving the same in place for
24 hours.

Describe an operation for amputation of the tail. When is this opera-
tion indicated?

This operation may be performed by clipping the hair over
the seat of operation and using the docking shears, controlling
hemorrhage by searing the stump with a red-hot iron. The iron
also provides a protective scab.

A more strictly surgical procedure is to make two semi-elliptical
flaps with the scalpel, by cutting through the skin and muscles
in an oblique direction, above and below (over a joint if possible),
disarticulate or chisel through the bone and suture the flaps over
the end of the stump.

The operation is indicated in malignant or incurable diseases
of the tail.

DisEASES OF THE Fore LIMB

Give the diagnostic symptoms of shoulder lameness. What treatment
is employed in shoulder lameness.

Suddenly appearing lameness of a supporting and swinging-leg

type. The leg is held in abduction and little weight is placed on it.

The forward stride is shortened and the toe is dragged. Inflamma-

tory swellings accompanied by increased warmth and pain may
appear over the shoulder joint.

Treatment: Rest is imperative. In acute inflammatory con-

ditions, cold applications are indicated. Later, counterirritants

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240 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

are best. Subcutancous injections of Lugol’s solution, in several
points, over the joint is a good method of applying counterirritation
and leaves no unsightly blemish.

Describe cold abscess of the shoulder. Give cause and treatment.

A sharply defined, slightly painful tumor, lying in or below
the levator humeri muscle as it passes over the shoulder-joint. The
skin is sound and moveable and the thick, hard wall of the tumor
may show a point of fluctuation (pus).

Cause: Infection following bruising by an ill-fitting collar on
a patient doing heavy draft work.

Treatment: Open the abscess, curette the cavity or cauterize
with a white-hot iron. Dress the wound daily with antiseptics.
If the growth is extensive, it may be necessary to remove some or all
of the new-formed tissue.

Give cause, symptoms and treatment of paralysis of the suprascapular
nerve.

Cause: Violent backward movements of the shoulder or leg,
causing overstretching of the nerve. Bruises to the nerve by blows,
collar, ete.

Symptoms: Seapula and humerus are jerked away from the
wall of the thorax when weight is placed on the affected leg.
Atrophy of the paralyzed muscles occurs later. The atrophy is most
marked in the infra- and supraspinati and the two teres muscles.
It is noticeable by the apparent increased projection of the scapular
spine, and is referred to by laymen as ‘‘sweeney.’’

Treatment: Massage and counterirritants such as subcutaneous
injections of Lugol’s solution. Usually requires 6 to 8 weeks and
often months to effect a cure. Some cases never recover.

Describe dislocation of the scapulohumeral articulation.
It is caused by excessive movement of the joint, and appears as
a sudden lameness and difficulty in moving the joint. Passive move-
ment of the joint is interfered with by the swelling and tenderness.
Treatment should be directed to immediate reduction of the luxation.
Apply cold compresses and rest the patient as long as lameness
exists.

Give the etiology and the treatment of shoe-boil (fibrous growth).
Etiology: Bruises of the elbow in lying and arising. Pressure
from the shoe when recumbent is often cited as a cause, but is
undoubtedly a minor consideration.

Treatment: Operative removal with the patient under a general
anesthetic,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 241

Describe the care and the treatment of a shoe-boil of (a) recent origin,
(b) long standing.
(a) Cold applications and astringent lotions. Lf pus be present,
incise and disinfect.
(b) There is a fibrous growth present and it must be surgically
removed.

Give the symptoms, prognosis and treatment of fracture of the ulna.
Symptoms: Supporting-leg lameness; flexion of all the joints
from the elbow downward; displacement of the ulna and severe pain
in this region. Crepitation may be detected.
Prognosis: Unfavorable, best to destroy.
Treatment: Useless. Slings may be tried. Impossible to
bandage.

What are the diagnostic symptoms of complete radial paralysis? Give
method of treatment.

Symptoms: Supporting-leg lameness; the shoulder and elbow-
joints extended, while all the other joints are flexed. The anterior
wall of the foot may be almost in contact with the ground. Inability
to support weight on the leg. The triceps are relaxed and unable
to contract; later atrophy of these muscles appears.

Treatment: Nothing direct can be done. Massage the muscles
and rest the patient. Electricity and counterirritants are of ques-
tionable value.

What are the indications for treatment in a case of “ broken knee”
with synovitis present?

Very carefully cleanse and disinfect the wound and cover it
with an antiseptic dressing. Tie the horse up or use slings to
prevent lying down. Suture the wound if practicable, otherwise
leave open. Change the dressing daily, irrigating the wound with
1-1000 corrosive sublimate solution. Later, dry dressings such as
iodoform and tannic acid are indicated.

Describe the operation of tenotomy as employed in shortening of the
flexor tendons.

Secure the animal in lateral recumbency. Extend the affected
leg and apply an extension splint on the under side, or have an
assistant hold the leg in extreme extension. Shave and disinfect
the skin over the tendon of the flexor pedis muscle in the middle
of the cannon bone on the inner side. Insert a sharp-pointed teno-
tome, with the cutting edge toward the foot, through the skin and
underlying tissues on the anterior border of the flexor pedis tendon.
Push the tenotome through until the point is felt beneath the

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242 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

skin on the opposite side. Turn the cutting edge against the tendon,
which is rendered tense by an assistant, and cut through it. When
completely severed, resistance to extension ceases. Remove the
Imife and bandage the wound. Healing should occur by first inten-
tion if careful antisepsis is observed. Keep the animal standing
and exercise moderately for the first few days following operation.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of inflammation of the flexor
tendons.

Causes: Strains from slipping, improper shoeing (low heels and
long toes), heavy pulling, jumping, continued standing in thoracic
diseases or lameness in the opposite leg.

Symptoms: Supporting-leg lameness. The foot is extended for-
ward or held with the heels raised. Shortening of the last phase of
movement is noted. Local pain, swelling and warmth. In later
stages, there may be shortening of the tendons and continuous volar
flexion together with uprightness of the hoof. Weight is now placed
on the leg. In shortening of the flexor pedis perforatus, the obliquity
of the pastern joint only is affected, the hoof remaining in a normal
position.

Treatment: Rest and cold applications for the first day or two.
Then, moist warmth, massage and infrictions with mild blistering
agents are used. Old thickenings are best treated by firing. Shoe
with a low toe-calk and elevated heel-calks. In chronic cases accom-
panied by shortening, tenotomy offers the only relief. See preced-
ing question.

Give the causes, symptoms, prognosis and treatment of sprain of the
inferior suspensory ligament.

Causes and symptoms are about the same as in tendinitis as de-
scribed in preceding answer. Lameness is not so marked. Tender-
ness is detected by pressing in deep close to the bone and anterior
to the tendons with the foot raised. Chronic cases, accompanied
by shortening, affect only the obliquity of the pastern, the hoof
remains in a normal position.

Prognosis: Favorable.

Treatment: Same as for inflamed tendons. Raising the heels,
however, does no good in this case and cutting of the ligament is not
generally employed.

What is the etiology of splint?
Splints are due to a periostitis which develops between the large
and the inner small metacarpal bones. Rarely, between the large
and outer bone. This periostitis is due to traumatic irritation of

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 248

the interosseous ligament, periosteum and bones. The irritation
may be from blows as interfering, or from unequal distribution
of pressure in the knee which throws an excessive load on the inner
small metacarpus and ruptures the interosseous ligament.

Symptoms: In early stages, lameness is seen which is more
marked at the trot. If high, affecting the carpus, the leg is held in
abduction and extreme lameness is shown. Slight swelling, increased
heat and pain on pressure can be readily detected. When the in-
flammation subsides, an exostosis remains as a blemish.

Treatment: Rest is important and in most cases is the only
treatment needed. If due to striking, correct this fault by proper
shoeing. In young horses, splint lameness often disappears spon-
taneously. Mild blisters and the firing iron may be used in severe
cases. The exostosis called the ‘‘splint,’’ if unaccompanied by lame-
ness, should not be interfered with unless, by reason of its size, it is
struck by the opposite foot, then its removal may be attempted by
chiselling it off.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of fracture of the metacarpus.

Symptoms: Displacement and abnormal mobility of the parts.

Inability to place weight on the leg and crepitation may be noted.

Treatment: Place patient in slings. Replace the parts in proper

position and apply a plaster-of-Paris bandage. Leave the plaster

cast in place for six weeks. Some advocate turning the horse in
pasture after the cast hardens, but quietude is better.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of fracture of the os suffraginis.

Symptoms: Sudden lameness with volar flexion of the fetlock.
Passive rotation of the foot produces crepitation in a complete frac-
ture. In case of fissure, a line of tenderness may be detected on
palpation, but no crepitation.

Treatment: Place patient in slings. Replace the parts in pro-
per position and fix firmly with a plaster-of-Paris bandage. After
the cast hardens, it may be advisable to provide a soft bed and allow
the patient to lie down, thus preventing laminitis or other lameness
in the sound foot by reason of its bearing additional weight.

Define ring-bone. Give the symptoms and the treatment of the same.
Ring-bone is a collective term for various chronic aseptic inflam-
matory processes at the coronary joint, attended with swelling.
According to location, we distinguish two forms, viz., articular, in-
volving the joint, and periarticular, in which the joint is not
affected.
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Symptoms: Chronic enlargement around the coronet joint.
Lameness in which the latter phase of the stride is shortened.
In the articular form, lameness is seen when the patient is turned
in short circles toward the diseased side. Tenderness of the swell-
ing is usually present. The phalanges show volar fiexion, that is, the
fetlock is upright.

Treatment: Shoe with raised heels and shorten the toe, that
is, prepare and shoe the foot so that the pastern lies parallel with
the walls of the hoof. Point firing and blisters are beneficial if the
animal is rested four to six weeks. This failing to remove the lame-
ness, neurectomy is the last resort, but is of value only when
anchylosis has not occurred. In the latter condition, the lameness
is mechanical and may be relieved by the use of a rolling-motion
shoe.

Describe neurectomy of the median nerve.

This operation may be performed under local or general anes-
thesia. The point of operation is opposite the lower portion of
the elbow-joint, immediately behind the upper extremity of the
radius, toward the upper point in the depression between the radius
and the internal flexor muscle of the metacarpus. The nerve can
be exactly located by palpation. Shave and disinfect the skin and
make an incision 5 em. long, parallel to and directly over the nerve,
through the skin and sterno-aponeuroticus muscle, exposing the anti-
brachial fascia. Divide the fascia and, if necessary, remove a small
elliptical piece of the same. Pass an aneurism needle under the
nerve and separate it from the neighboring tissues. Excise a sec-
tion of the nerve 3 cm. long. Disinfect the wound and suture.
(Care should be taken to avoid injuring the brachial vein, as hemor-
rhage from same would be very annoying.)

Mention the diseases in which median neurectomy would be indicated.

Navicular disease, ring-bone, side-bones, chronic sesamoiditis,
splints, chronic ecarpitis. In the latter three, ulnar neurectomy
ought also to be performed. In chronic synovitis (articular and ten-
dinous) with permanent lameness, median neurectomy may be
performed.

Describe the operation of high plantar neurectomy.

Operate on the standing animal, using local anesthesia. The
point of operation is just above the fetlock in the lower third of the
metacarpus, and just in front of the flexor pedis tendon. The exact
point is determined by feeling the nerve glide beneath the fingers.
Shave and disinfect a small area. Make an incision 3 to 5 em. long,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 245

parallel to and directly over the nerve, cutting through the skin
and connective tissue, exposing the nerve. Separate the nerve from
the adjacent tissues and excise a section 3 to 5 em. long. Suture
the wound and cover with bandage. Healing should occur by first
intention. Repeat the operation on the opposite side.

Name three diseases for the relief of which plantar neurectomy is
indicated.
Navicular disease, ring-bone and side-bone.

Describe the relations of the artery, vein, nerve and tendon in the
region of the ergot at the seat of plantar neurectomy.
From before backward, vein, artery, nerve and tendon. The
nerve lies close to the external margin of the tendon.

State your opinion regarding the use of the actual cautery in the relief
of equine lameness.

The direct results which are attributed to the use of the actual
cautery, e.g., strengthening tendons by the formation of cica-
tricial tissue, etc., are considerably overrated. The benefits are
usually derived, indirectly, from the enforced rest following its use.
Nevertheless, the actual cautery is a very valuable therapeutic agent.
Puncture-firing augments local nutritive activity, converting chronic
into acute processes and thus hastens their termination. Firing
operations necessitate protracted rest and cause more or less im-
mobility of the defective organs, both of which are of great benefit
in bringing about a cure.

DISEASES OF THE Hinp Lims

Name the various conditions listed under the category of “hip lame-
ness.” Give the diagnostic symptoms and the treatment
of hip lameness.

1, coxitis; 2, rupture of the ligamentum teres; 3, disease of the
lumbar vertebre, pelvic bones and femur; 4, disease of the muscles
of the hip region; 5, disease of the tendon and tendon bursa of the
gluteus medius muscle (trochanteric lameness) ; 6, inflammation in
the structures surrounding the hip-joint ; 7, lameness due to fracture
or other disease of the external angle of the ilium is often erroneously
referred to as hip lameness.

Symptoms: Swinging-leg lameness; difficulty in advancing the
limb; dragging of the toe. In coxitis, there is supporting-leg lame-
ness, not so in the muscular forms. Lameness is marked in turning
or backing. Muscular atrophy is noted in cases of long duration.

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Hip lameness is best diagnosed by a process of exclusion and is
very difficult at times.

Treatment: Rest is necessary. Apply counterirritants such as
subcutaneous or intramuscular injections of dilute Lugol’s solution.
Setons, blisters and the firing iron are used.

Give the diagnosis and prognosis of fracture of the femur.

Diagnosed by the presence of severe pain, leg abducted when
advanced. Supporting-leg lameness; crepitation. Fracture of the
trochanter is marked by swelling and pronounced swinging-leg lame-
ness, shortening of the forward stride and abduction of the limb.
Weight may be placed on the leg. Fractures into the stifle-joint may
show symptoms of gonitis.

Prognosis: Very unfavorable. Best to destroy. Fracture of the
trochanter is least dangerous.

Give the symptoms and treatment of stifle lameness.

22

The term ‘‘stifle lameness’’ is a collective one. The following
conditions are included under this caption: 1, acute and chronic
gonitis; 2, strains of the patellar ligaments; 3, bursitis prepatellaris;
4, luxations and fractures of the patella. The term is usually
referred to the first named.

Symptoms: Gradually increasing lameness; limb held in a flexed
position, or, if both limbs are affected, they are rested alternately.
In moving, the limb is carried stiffly, the toe dragging or hitting
slight prominences. In acute conditions, a diffuse swelling is seen
and tenderness is very marked. Chronic cases show a distention of
the joint capsule below the patella.

Treatment: Acute conditions call for cold irrigation and com-
presses. Later, a blister may be of benefit. Chronic cases are
usually incurable, although blisters and the firing iron may be tried.

Describe the symptoms and the treatment of displacement of the

patella.

Symptoms: Momentary upward (habitual) luxation may be
overlooked, or the patella may remain fast for a moment and then
suddenly descend with each step, showing a slight check to move-
ment, similar to that seen in string-halt. In stationary upward
luxation, the limb is stiffly extended backward and cannot be
advanced. Inability to flex the limb, and the patella is fixed on
the upper portion of the internal lip of the trochlea. Outward
luxation is shown by inability to bear weight on the limb due
to the loss of function of the rectus and vasti muscles. The limb can
be advanced but the stride is shortened and lameness is shown when

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 247

weight is placed on the limb; excessive flexion of all the joints of the
limb occurs.

Treatment: Immediate reduction of the luxation, using great
force if necessary, should be effected. In upward displacement,
drawing the leg forward with a rope attached to the fetlock region,
or starting the animal suddenly with a whip, will often bring about
reduction. Keep the patient very quiet in slings. A blister applied
over the stifle will help in keeping the limb at rest. If due to general
weakness and relaxation of the ligaments from disease, attempt
building up the general health, Momentary luxation is said to
have been cured by dividing the inner straight ligament
(desmotomy ).

Describe briefly patellar desmotomy (ligament section).

The object of this operation is for the relief of habitual luxation
of the patella, or patellar string-halt, as it is sometimes called. The
operation has been but little tried in this country or elsewhere,
and its value is still swb gudice.

Secure the patient in lateral recumbency with the affected leg
beneath and extended. General anesthesia should be employed.
Locate the internal ligament, running from the patella obliquely to
the supero-internal part of the tibia. Shave and disinfect a suffi-
cient area. Make an incision, 2 inches long, through the skin,
parallel to and directly over the middle third of the ligament,
exposing the fascia. Cut through the fascia, insert a blunt-pointed,
bistoury beneath the ligament from behind forward and sever the
ligament. Suture the skin wound and cover with collodion.

Give the symptoms of ruptured flexor metatarsi tendon.

Lameness when the limb is carried forward; the stifle is flexed
but the hock is excessively extended. The symptoms resemble those
of a broken bone but the absence of fracture is shown by the ability
to support weight on the limb. The symptoms are more apparent
during movement. Swelling and pain may be present over the
anterior surface of the tibia.

Describe cunean tenotomy. What is the object of this operation?

Operate on the standing animal, using local anesthesia and a
sideline on the opposite leg. Locate the cunean tendon by palpation
as it passes obliquely downward and backward over the inferior
median surface of the hock. Shave and disinfect an area, 5 to 6 cm.
square. At a point about 1 cm. below the inferior border of the
tendon, midway between the anterior and posterior borders of the
hock, insert a narrow-bladed scalpel, flatwise, through the skin and

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upward between the skin and tendon, to the superior border of the
latter. Turn the cutting edge against the tendon and by firm
pressure cut through the same. A well-marked depression between
the cut ends can be detected when the operation is complete. Dis-
infect the wound and apply an antiseptic bandage. Healing by first
intention should follow.

Object: Relief of spavin lameness and as an adjunct to peroneal
tenotomy for string-halt.

State the object of peroneal tenotomy. Describe the operation,

Object: For the relief of string-halt.

Shave and disinfect a small area just below the hock on the
outer side, where the peroneal tendon is almost subcutaneous, and.
about 6 cm. above its point of union with the tendon of the extensor
pedis longus muscle. Hold up the opposite hind limb with a side-
line and apply a twitch to the nose. Stretch the skin tightly, insert
the tenotome through the skin and underlying fascia, push it under
the tendon, turn the cutting edge against the same and sever it as
well as the fascia through to the skin. An antiseptic bandage should
be applied and left in position for eight days. The cutaneous
wound should heai by first intention. A rest of one to two weeks
is usually demanded, although some operators claim the best results
to follow immediate exercise.

Mention the various forms of spavin and give the treatment of each.

1. Arthritis chronica deformans tarsi (bone spavin).

Produce anchylosis of the joint by prolonged rest for six weeks
or longer, in connection with deep point firing and blistering.
Cunean tenotomy, as described in preceding answer, is used by
some, periosteotomy by others. Whichever method is used, the
benefits which follow are due to the anchylosis brought about princi-
pally through the enforced rest. As a last resort, anterior and
posterior tibial neurectomy may be employed. Shoe with raised
heels and shortened toe.

2. Bog-spavin (excessive distention of the capsule of the true
hock joint, aue to chronic synovitis).

Recent cases are treated by cold applications and later by blister-
ing. Massage and repeated painting with tincture of iodine may
diminish the swelling. Extensive swelling may be reduced by the
actual cautery. This condition seldom causes lameness and is best. -
left alone.

3. ‘‘Blood-spavin,’’ formerly classified as a variety of spavin, is
no longer recognized as such. It issimply a distention of the saphena

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 249

vein as it courses over the hock. Lameness accompanying its pres-
ence is usually due to an underlying true spavin (arthritis chronica
deformans tarsi) and should be treated accordingly.

Give the pathology of thorough-pin.

Generally due to chronic synovitis brought on by severe exertion.
It may follow an acute synovitis, and consists of a distention of the
capsule of the tendon in the upper posterior part of the hock-joint.
Occasionally this sheath of the flexor pedis tendon communicates
with the capsule of the true hock-joint and hence we may see
bog-spavin and thorough-pin coexisting. Thorough-pin is seldom
accompanied by acute inflammation and hence lameness is rare.

Define curb. Give treatment for curb.

Curb is a thickening of the metatarsocalcanean ligament, result-
ing from inflammation. The term curb is often applied to any
swelling which causes a deviation from the normal straight line
from the tuber caleanei to the fetlock.

Treatment: Acute inflammation calls for antiphlogistic measures
such as cold irrigation, Burrow’s lotion, ete. Later, blistering, or
line firing and blistering with rest, is indicated.

Define “ capped hock” and give causes and treatment of same.

Capped hock refers to any swelling on the point of the os calcis.
It may be due to inflammatory swellings or thickenings in the skin
and subcutis, gravitation of swellings originating above, hydrops
of the subcutaneous bursa of the flexor pedis perforatus tendon, or
swelling of this tendon.

Causes: Kicks, violent exertion, slipping and external injuries
from various sources.

Treatment: Acute inflammatory conditions demand cold appli-
cations. Later, absorbing applications, such as tincture of iodine
or mercuric blisters. Extensive swellings may require antiseptic
puncturing with a hollow needle and the application of a pressure
bandage. Wounds require the usual antiseptic treatment. In
swellings of the skin, massage is beneficial.

Describe anterior tibial neurectomy.

Operate on the standing animal with local anesthesia but it is
better to use general anesthesia with the animal cast and confined.
Locate the furrow between the extensor pedis and the peroneus
muscles. Shave and disinfect an area, 6 em. long by 3 cm. wide,
directly over this furrow and extending upward from a point 6 or 7
em. above the tibio-astragaloid articulation. At a point 8 to 10 em.

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250 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

above the flexure of the hock, opposite the external margin of the
extensor pedis muscle, make an incision, 5 to 6 em. long, through
the skin and underlying aponeurosis. Separate this muscle, first
from the tendinous, then from the muscular portion of the flexor
metatarsi, on the anterior side of the margin of which the anterior
tibial nerve is seen. Pass an aneurism needle underneath it and
remove a piece, 3 to 4 em. long. Close the cutaneous wound with
interrupted sutures and apply a collodion dressing.

Describe posterior tibial neurectomy.

Operate on the standing animal with local anesthesia, side-line
and twitch. Operating table with general anesthesia is better.
Shave and disinfect an area, 10 cm. above the top of the os calcis
and 2 em. in front of the tendon Achilles, on the median side. Make
an incision about 5 em. long parallel to the above-mentioned ten-
don, through the skin. Ascertain, by palpation, the exact location
of the nerve and cut through the fascia over it, exposing the nerve.
Separate it from the surrounding tissues and remove a piece, 3 cm.
long. Suture the cutaneous wound and apply an antiseptic bandage.
Healing by first intention should follow.

DISEASES OF THE Foot

Mention ten diseases of the foot and specify those met with most fre-
quently.

Ring-bone, side-bone, navicular disease, laminitis, pododermatitis
(including corns), and quittor are more frequently met with. Less
commonly, we see keraphyllocele, contracted sole, quarter crack
and canker.

What are the symptoms of fracture of the navicular bone? Give prog-
nosis and treatment.

Symptoms: Foot continually rested and held in excessive volar
flexion. Extreme pain is shown when the coronet joint is passively
extended. Later, an inflammatory swelling occurs in the hollow of
the heel.

Prognosis: Unfavorable. Chronic lameness is very likely to
follow.

Treatment: Complete rest is essential. Apply cold compresses.
Resection of the flexor pedis perforans and removal of the os navi-
culare may be attempted. As this operation is oceasionally per-

formed in case of penetrating street-nail, it would seem permissible
in this condition.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 251

Give the symptoms and the treatment of fracture of the os corona.
Symptoms: Sudden severe lameness; volar flexion of the fetlock
joint and crepitation in the affected region will make the diagnosis
easy. Fissures are harder to detect and require careful examination.
Treatment: Complete fixation in a plaster cast for six weeks.
Lameness following may be removed by median neurectomy. Usually
unfavorable.

Give the pathology and the treatment of side-bones.

Side-bone is a condition in which the lateral cartilages of the
foot are partially or entirely ossified. The causes are excessive
concussion by work on hard roads, shoes with high heel-calks which
prevent the normal frog-pressure, and traumatisms. There is a
congenital predisposition in heavy coarse-bred horses, a large per-
centage of which are affected.

Treatment: Rest the horse, remove shoes and place the patient in
a peat-moss or other soft bed. Thin the wall over the affected
cartilage and apply wet swabs to soften the horn. A special shoe
is necessary when the outer cartilage is ossified and the correspond-
ing quarter is contracted. After the lameness lessens, or disap-
pears, prepare the foot for the shoe by lowering the outer wall more
than the inner. The shoe should be flat, the outer branch broad and
well set out, the inner branch closely fitted, thus giving a wider
supporting surface on the outside. If both cartilages are affected,
a plain open shoe with high calks is best. The bar-shoe is contra-
indicated, as frog-pressure is undesirable in this condition. As
a last resort, perform neurectomy to remove lameness.

Mention the varieties of ring-bone and give treatment of each
variety.

1. Articular: Lameness can only be removed by performing
neurectomy, and then only in case anchylosis has not occurred.

2. Peri-articular: Level the foot and apply a level shoe or
one with the heels raised slightly and the toe shortened. Rest
for six weeks may be enforced by, and benefit derived from point-
firing and blistering. These measures failing, neurectomy is the
only resort.

3. Traumatic and rachitic forms are sometimes noted. These
seldom cause severe lameness. Treat with cold applications or
blisters.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of quittor.

Symptoms: The first symptom is a diffuse swelling in the region
of the coronet and bulb of the heel. Later, abscess formation occurs

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252 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

with a discharge of pus. This may cease and a new abscess form
in a different place, and so on until the whole cartilage is more or less
necrotic. Lameness is usually slight unless the pedal joint is
invaded. In long-standing cases, the wall is thrust outward and
ringed.

Treatment: In the early stages, when the pain is slight and
the patient is able to work, antiseptic injections may be tried.
Caustic agents such as a 10 per cent. solution of zine chloride or
silver nitrate, and corrosive sublimate may benefit. Formalin in a
10 per cent. solution may cause the discharge to cease. Operative
removal of the affected cartilage is usually necessary and is best
performed early.

Give in detail Bayer’s operation for quittor.

Shave the hair from the coronary region up to the fetlock. Serub
the parts with brush and soap. Apply an antiseptic pack and leave
for 24 hours. Use general anesthesia. Apply a tourniquet above
the fetlock. Remove a crescent-shaped piece of horn from the area
over the cartilage. Make a corresponding incision through the sensi-
tive structures, about 14 inch within the incision through the horn;
the ends of the incision are prolonged upward, dividing the coronary
band, ete., as high as the upper margin of the lateral cartilage. The
flap, thus outlined, is dissected away from the underlying cartilage,
and the latter is then removed, either wholly or in part, depending
upon the extent of the disease. Freely curette away all necrotic
tissue. Disinfect the wound and dust freely with iodoform. Suture
the flap, cover the surface with an antiseptic pack and bandage.
Leave this dressing in position for ten or twelve days if no great
pain is shown and no bad odor or discharge is given off.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of chronic navicular disease.

Symptoms: Supporting and swinging-leg lameness. Lameness
is increased by exercise, decreased by rest. Volar flexion of the
phalanges and extension of the foot. Tenderness to pressure over
the navicular bone and to forcible dorsal flexion. The use of
cocaine will aid in the diagnosis. When both feet are affected, the
last phase of movement is shortened and the limbs are carried stiffly
and rapidly forward. Sometimes the lameness disappears after
exercise but more often it is aggravated. A decrease in lameness
follows a long rest. Muscular contraction and hoof contraction
follow disuse.

Treatment: In recent cases, a long rest in a box with peat moss,
tan-bark or soft clay, together with the application of wet swabs

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 253

on the feet, may assist repair. Shortening of the toe and raising of
the heels of the shoe will often relieve lameness to such an extent
that light work can be performed. In most cases, neurectomy is the
only measure that will render the horse serviceable.

Describe pumiced sole of the foot, giving cause, prognosis and treat-
ment.

Pumiced sole is that condition in which the horny sole in the
neighborhood of the toe readily crumbles away and leaves the
sensitive tissues more or less exposed.

Cause: Seen as a complication of laminitis. May follow punc-
tured wounds of the foot or bruises of the sole where exudation from
the secreting membrane occurs.

Prognosis: Favorable if due to wounds or bruises with simple
exudation and separation of the tissues. If due to laminitis with
dropping of the sole, an incurable lameness results.

Treatment: Provide drainage and apply antiseptic dressings to
wounds and bruises. Chronic laminitis calls for special shoeing.
A wall-bearing shoe with thin heels and thick toes and a protective
dressing over the exposed parts are indicated.

What is seedy-toe? Give treatment of seedy-toe.

Seedy-toe is characterized by the separation of the horny wall
from the sensitive lamine at the toe and an accumulation of imper-
fect horn or horn debris in the space formed. It follows an injury
which destroys the sensitive lamine. The modified horn is produced
by the imperfectly regenerated secreting structures. Also seen as
a complication of laminitis.

Treatment: Rasp away the wall over the affected area and re-
move all imperfect horn tissue. Apply antiseptic packs and later
use a tar dressing. A special shoe to protect the exposed toe may
be necessary.

Give the pathology and the treatment of corns.

A corn is the result of an injury to the pododerm in the angle
between the quarter and the bar. The lamin of the bar and quar-
ters and the velvety tissue of the sole may be involved. The primary
injury causes hemorrhage between the pododerm and horn. Unless
infection enters, the only lesions produced are the blood-stained horn
tubules which are exposed by paring away of the horn. This con-
dition is called dry corn. Should infection enter, a suppurating
condition is produced and the pus may work its way upward and
break out between the wall and the coronary band, causing severe
jJameness (suppurating corn).

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In chronic corns, the horn is permanently altered, being either
soft and moist or dry and crumbled. The inner surface of the horn
is covered with horny swellings or nodules and the patient presents
well-marked lameness.

Corns are caused by overparing and thus weakening the horn;
by contracted heels, by improper balancing, and shoeing of the foot;
by neglecting shoeing; by lack of moisture; by direct traumatisms
as from stones, bruises, ete. Ossification of the lateral cartilages
lessens the elasticity and thus increases the effect of concussion when
the foot is brought in contact with the ground. Hence corns and
side-bones are often associated in the same foot.

Treatment: Remove the cause; shorten the toe, lower the quar:
ters and remove all dead horn. Avoid too much paring and expos-
ing of the sensitive lamine. Apply a bar-shoe with leather sole
and pack the foot with tarred oakum. If side-bones are present,
and a bar-shoe is not advisable, a three-quarter shoe may be used
until the parts are normally restored. Suppurating corns should
be freely drained and disinfected until the part is covered with
horn, when a tar dressing and bar-shoe may be applied.

Give the causes, symptoms and the treatment of thrush.

Causes: Standing in filth (soiled bedding, urine, feces, etc.),
excessive paring of the frog, lack of frog-pressure, and hard work
on stony ground are exciting causes of thrush. Among the predis-
posing causes are: navicular disease, contracted heels and scratches.

Symptoms: Increased moisture of the frog, an ill-smelling, dark-
colored discharge which may ‘entirely loosen the frog. Lameness
may be present in severe cases.

Treatment: Remove the cause; provide clean, dry bedding.
Pare away all diseased and ragged portions of the frog. It may be
necessary to remove all of the horny frog. Cleanse and dry the parts
and keep dry by dusting with calomel. After healing occurs,
apply a bar-shoe and tarred oakum, or otherwise provide for frog-
pressure to prevent the contraction of the heels which often follows.

Differentiate thrush and canker. Give prognosis and treatment of

each.

See answer to preceding question.

Canker is a chronic inflammation of the secreting structures of
the foot, due to the presence of an infection (probably specific),
which prevents the growth of healthy horn and produces a greasy
discharge, exceedingly offensive to the sense of smell.

Prognosis: In canker, rather unfavorable. Requires long, con-

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 255

tinued, patient endeavors to effect a cure. Relapses are common.
Thrush usually responds readily to rational treatment.

Treatment: In canker remove all diseased horn and cauterize;
sulphurie acid, nitrate of silver, formalin, zine chloride and tinc-
ture of iodine have been used with good results. Daily cleansing
is imperative. When healthy horn covers the affected parts, apply
a tar dressing.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of laminitis.

Causes: Overwork; long-continued rest; sudden cooling of the
body after perspiring freely; overfeeding, especially when warm;
occurs as a complication of colic, influenza, parturition, and as a
sequel of severe purgation.

Symptoms: Acute form appears suddenly with fever, character-
istic attitude with fore feet advanced and hind feet thrust forward
to relieve weight from the affected members. If all four feet are
affected, all movement is exceedingly painful. Strong pulsation is
noted in the plantar arteries and the feet are warm and very tender.
These symptoms may disappear in from 7 to 10 days, or continue
into the chronic form. Sometimes suppuration occurs and is fol-
lowed by shedding of the hoof.

Chronic form: The soles ‘‘drop’’ and the os pedis is displaced,
shown by the depression around the coronet and the convexity of the
sole. Seedy-toe often appears. The patient travels with the fore
limbs in abnormal dorsal flexion, the heels striking the ground first.
Rings form upon the walls of the hoof, showing the disturbed
nutrition of the same.

Treatment: Acute form: Remove the shoes and supply a soft
bed so that the weight is supported by the soles as well as the walls.
Use cold applications during the first 24 hours. Give a quick-acting
cathartic such as arecoline and draw 6 or 8 quarts of blood if the
patient is plethoric. After 24 hours, use hot applications. Stand
the patient in a tub containing sufficient hot water to cover the
feet. Give one grain of arecoline daily, in divided doses of 4 grain
each. Feed a laxative diet. A blister around the coronet may
relieve the soreness.

In case of dropped sole (chronic case), proper shoeing is the
only measure likely to benefit. An open shoe with a broad web and
a wall-bearing surface only is best. A bar-shoe of the same type
would be indicated if the wall is weak or broken away. Avoid toe-
clips and side-clips if their presence produces pain in the sensitive
structures beneath.

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256 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

State briefly the surgical details in treating a case of penetrating street-
nail.

Carefully pare away the sole around the point of entrance of the
nail and provide drainage for any discharges which may form.
Dress with antiseptics and keep the wound covered with absorbent
gauze or cotton. If the nail has entered the navicular bursa, resec-
tion of the perforans tendon will be necessary.

Describe a method of treating contracted hoof.
Apply a bar-shoe, or a flat open shoe and the Chadwick spring.
Keep the horn soft and pliable by frequent moistening.

Hew would you shoe a horse to overcome forging?

Shorten the toe of the fore foot and roll the toe of the shoe to
facilitate quick ‘‘breaking over.’’ The ends of the branches of the
shoe should be no longer than necessary to protect the heels and
should be bevelled from the hoof surface of the shoe downward and
forward under the foot. The hind foot should be lowered in the
quarters and left long at the toe. It should be fitted with a shoe,
squared at the toe and well rounded on the lower edge in this region.
The shoe should be so fitted that at least three-fourths of an inch
of the wall of the toe projects beyond the shoe. In feet in which
the toe is too short, a low toe-calk may be used to cause slow ‘‘break-
ing over.”’

Describe the treatment of quarter crack in a heavy draft horse. De-
scribe the proper kind of shoe to apply in such a case.

Thin the horn for an inch on both sides of the crack, directly

over the coronary band, to prevent any friction between the sides

of the crack. Immobilize the crack by bandaging the hoof with

adhesive tape. Apply a bar-shoe, Chadwick spring and leather sole.

Describe the shoe you would have applied in a case of contracted per-
foratus and perforans tendons of the hind limb of a draft
horse.

An open shoe with low toe-calk and with heel-calks sufficiently.
high to give the necessary support to the heels.

State the uses of a bar-shoe. When is a bar-shoe contra-indicated?
The bar-shoe is used when frog-pressure is desired as in con-
tracted quarters, contracted sole, chronic laminitis, quarter-crack,
wry-hoof, and frog atrophy ; when it is desirable to relieve a diseased
section of wall from pressure as in corns, ete.
The bar-shoe is contra-indicated when side-bones or navicular
disease are present, or when disease of the frog or subjacent tissues
renders frog-pressure painful.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 257

How would you shoe a horse to afford speedy relief from a bruised
heel?
Use a shoe with heel-calks and long branches which do not press
upon the quarters.

MertHops oF RESTRAINT, CasTiNG, Erc.

Name three common methods of restraint.
Side-line, hobbles and operating table.

Mention three methods of restraint in the standing position and two
in the recumbent position.
1. Side-line, stocks and twitch.
2. Hobbles and operating table.

Describe two methods of casting the horse and ox for operation.

Horse: 1. Adjust hobbles on all four feet. Pass a rope or chain
through the rings in same and draw the feet together, causing the
horse to fall. A soft bed should be provided for the horse to fall
upon (English hobbles). 2. A casting harness may be used. A
strong girth, provided with large rings, is buckled tightly around the
chest close behind the elbows. Hobbles are placed on all four feet
and ropes are run from the same to the rings on the sides of the girth.
When the ropes are drawn taut, the horse falls and is secured by
tying the feet to the girth. A ‘‘figure 8’’ made with the rope on
both hocks will hold the horse more securely.

Ox: 1. Either of the above methods may be used. 2. A long
rope (36 feet) is fastened, by one end, to the horns or head and
carried backward, making three ‘‘half-hitches’’ around the body,
one just anterior to the shoulders, another, just back of the elbows,
and the last around the abdomen, anterior to the external angle of
the ilium. By pulling firmly on the free end of the rope thus
adjusted, the ox will lie down. Hobbles can then be adjusted.

Mention the chief accidents that may occur in casting and securing
animals for operation. State how such accidents may be
avoided.

1. Fractured vertebre. Provide a soft bed for the animal to
fall upon. Prevent violent movements. Be sure the patient is free
from an abnormal fragility of the bones before casting. Don’t
extend the hind limbs too forcibly, by drawing the feet too far for-
ward and upward.

2. Fracture of the external angle of the ilium. Provide a soft
bed. Avoid throwing too suddenly.

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258 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

3. Fracture of the pelvic girdle and femur may be due to abnor-
mal fragility of the bones.

4, Facial paralysis. Avoid by using a hood-wink which will
protect the facial nerve from injury.

What anesthetics are commonly employed in major operations and
minor operations on (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the dog.
(a) Major: chloroform, chloral hydrate, cannabis indica.
Minor: cocaine hydrochlorate, stovaine and alypin.
(b) Major: morphine, chloral hydrate and chloroform.
Minor: cocaine hydrochlorate and stovaine.
(ec) Major: ether and morphine.
Minor: cocaine hydrochlorate and stovaine.

What are the dangers of chloroform anzsthesia? How may these
dangers be avoided?

1. Inhalation pneumonia: Keep the head lowered to allow better
drainage from the nasal cavities. Fast the patient for 24 hours be-
fore administering the anesthetic to lessen danger of regurgitation
of food into the pharynx. Do not prolong the stage of anesthesia
unnecessarily.

2. Syncope: Avoid giving the chloroform too fast and with
insufficient air or over too long a period of time. Patients with
heaves, valvular disease of the heart, or dyspnea from any cause
should be given chloroform very guardedly or not at all.

How would you anesthetize a foot for a painful operation?

By injecting one drachm of a 4 per cent. solution of cocaine
hydrochlorate over each plantar nerve at the point where high
plantar neurectomy is performed. Observe antiseptic precautions
in injecting.

Describe briefly a quick and satisfactory method of sterilizing your
hands and instruments.

If the hands are cleansed thoroughly with soap, water and a
scrubbing brush, then immersed for five minutes in a 4 per cent.
solution of potassium permanganate and, finally, in a 10 per cent.
solution of oxalic acid until the stain of the permanganate of potash
disappears, they will be perfectly sterile. The oxalic acid should
be rinsed off with sterile water.

Instruments may be sterilized by placing in boiling water for
fifteen minutes.

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OBSTETRICS*

OBSTETRICAL ANATOMY

Name the soft organs concerned in obstetric anatomy.
Ovaries, uterus, vagina, vulva and mamme.

What is the pelvis? Name the functions of the pelvis. How many
centres of ossification appear in its early formation?

The pelvis is a bony framework at the posterior extremity of the
trunk, supporting the spinal column and resting upon the posterior
extremities. It contains, sustains and protects a portion of the
genito-urinary apparatus, as well as the terminal portion of the
alimentary canal. It constitutes a most important fulcrum or fixed
point in various muscular movements and supplies a passageway for
the foetus during the act of parturition.

Five centres of ossification appear in each half in its early for-
mation; one for each of the three bones and two complementary
centres, one for the anterior spinous process and spine of the ileum,
the other for the ischial tuberosity.

Make a drawing to show the normal position of the generative organs
of the mare. Show also the kidney, the bladder and the
rectum.f

State how the bones of the pelvis of the mare differ from those of (a)
the cow, (b) the sheep, (c) the goat, (d) the bitch, (e) the
cat.

(a) The pelvis of the cow is longer and less vertical than in the
mare. Because of the greater curvature of the ischiopubic sym-
physis, the floor is concave. The pelvis of the cow is more cylindrical
and less conical than that of the mare.

(b) and (c) The pelvis of the sheep and of the goat is about the
same as in the cow, except, of course, in size. The symphysis is
nearly rectilinear in its direction, and it ossifies at a very much
later period than in the cow or mare.

(d) and (e) The marked angle formed by the sacrum and the
lumbar vertebre diminishes the inlet of the pelvis. The direction
of the symphysis is rectilinear and the pelvic cavity is nearly
eylindrical.

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.
{There are no illustrations in this book, but this drawing would seem com-
paratively simple.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

State the difference between the pelvis of the sheep and that of the cow.

Difference is mainly in size. The coxe of the sheep are more
horizontal and proportionately longer than in the ox.

Give approximately the supero-inferior and the transverse diameters

of the bony pelvis of the cow.

Inlet. Outlet.
Supero-inferior ............--- 8 to 10 inches. 9 inches.
Transverse. nis%o\ses were ew -aara eis 7 inches. 7 inches.

Name the different articulations of the pelvis.

One sacrolumbar, two sacro-iliac, one ischiopubic symphysis,
and one sacrococeygeal.

Name the ligaments connecting the last lumbar vertebree with the

sacrum and the pelvis.
Common inferior vertebral, supradorsolumbar, interspinous,
interlamellar, and capsular.

Describe (a) the iliosacral ligaments, (b) the sacrosciatic ligament.

(a) The superior iliosacral ligament is a thick and short cord
which arises from the internal angle of the ileum and passes back-
ward to be fixed to the sacral spine where it becomes confounded
with the supraspinous, dorsolumbar ligament. The inferior ilio-
sacral ligament is attached by its anterior margin to the upper half
of the sciatic border and the internal angle of the ileum. Its inferior
margin is inserted into the rugged lip on the lateral border of the
sacrum. Its posterior border is united to the aponeurosis covering
the coccygeal muscles, and its external face is in contact with the
gluteus magnus and long vastus muscles. The internal face lies
against the lateral sacrococcygeal muscle.

(b) This is a large membranous ligament situated on the side
of the pelvis between the sacrum and the coxa. It is irregularly
quadrilateral, having four borders. The superior border is attached
to the lateral rugged lateral ridge of the sacrum; the inferior is
fixed to the supracotyloid ridge and ischial tuberosity ; the anterior
aids in forming the great sciatic notch, and the posterior is con-
founded with the coceygeal aponeurosis. Its internal face is covered
with peritoneum. This ligament affords a large area for muscular
insertion as well as serving a means for enclosing the pelvie cavity.

Where is the ischial notch? What vessels and nerves pass through it?

The ischial notch lies between and is formed by the postero-
internal borders of the two ischii as they join at the symphysis.
The artery of the bulb in the male, the perineal artery and the

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 261

artery of the clitoris in the female, all being branches of the internal
pudic artery, pass through the ischial notch, as does the pudic nerve.

Describe the structure of the vulva.

The vulva lies immediately beneath the anus and opens exter-
nally by means of a vertically elongated slit, bounded by two lips
(labia vulve) which meet above and below to form the superior and
inferior commissures. It has two groups of muscles which are
chiefly cireular and are termed anterior and posterior constrictors.
The vulva is lined with mucous membrane, continuous with that of
the bladder and vagina. Within the vulvar cavity, about four inches
from the exterior and lying on its floor, is the meatus urinarius, the
terminal opening of the urethral canal. In the inferior is the clitoris,
an erectile organ two or three inches in length, composed chiefly
of erectile tissue.

Describe the mucous membrane of the vulva and state what kind of
epithelium covers it.

It is continuous with that of the vagina and bladder and is
rosy-red in color. Near the free border of the labia, it often shows
black pigment patches. It contains a great number of mucous fol-
licles and sebaceous glands. The epithelium lining the vulva is of
stratified pavement type.

Give the anatomy of the uterus.

The uterus is a mnusculomembranous sac, situated in the sublum-
bar and pelvic regions of the abdominal cavity. It is related above
to the rectum; below, with the bladder; anteriorly and laterally,
with intestines, and behind, with the vagina.

It presents for study a base and two cornua. The base is con-
stricted posteriorly to form the cervix (or neck) and communicates
with the vagina through a circular opening, the os. The base is
continuous with the two cornua, right and left. The cornua have
a superior or convex and an inferior or concave curvature, a base
continuous with the uterus, and a summit continuous with the
oviducts.

The uterus is supported by two broad ligaments which descend
from the sublumbar region to the sides of the uterus and cornua,
and envelop the ovaries and their ducts; two rudimentary, round
ligaments running from the sides of the uterus to the beginning of
the inguinal canal.

The uterus is made up of three coats, an outer serous, derived
from the peritoneum; a middle, muscular; and an inner, mucous.

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262 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Blood is supplied to the organ by the utero-ovarian and uterine
arteries, and it is innervated by branches from the mesenteric and
pelvic plexuses.

Describe the uterus of the bitch.

The body of the uterus is short, but the cornua are very long
and folded, and float amongst the intestinal convolutions. Its cervix
projects into the vagina. The mucous membrane is very loose and
gathered into folds.) The muscular coat is well developed and
is covered externally with peritoneum.

Give the blood and nerve supply of the uterus.
Uterine and utero-ovarian arteries. Innervated by branches
from the small mesenteric and pelvic plexuses.

Describe the ligaments of the uterus. What are the functions of these
ligaments?

The broad ligaments, two in number, are irregularly triangular
in shape, and are more developed before than behind. They descend
from the sublumbar region to be attached by their inferior border
to the sides of the upper face of the body of the uterus and the
small curvature of the cornua. They sustain the Fallopian tubes
and ovaries. These ligaments are close to each other posteriorly in
the region of the cervix but separate anteriorly like the branches of
the letter V. They suspend the uterus in the sublumbar region.

The round ligaments, two in number, outside of the broad liga-
ments, contain in their folds a small thin muscle. These ligaments
run from the sides of the uterus to the beginning of the inguinal
canal. Their function is to support and retain the uterus in its
proper position.

Describe the glands of the uterus and give their functions.

They are mucous glands and are designated simple and cylin-
drical. The former, most numerous near the cervix, secrete the pecu-
liar transparent mucous found there. The cylindrical, uterine or
utricular glands are closely situated and are often twisted in a spiral
fashion. They resemble other mucous glands with spheroidal epi-
thelium in the bottom of the tube and columnar cells in their ducts.

Describe an ovary.

A small ovoid body, situated in the sublumbar region, with a deep
notch or hilus on its upper surface which receives the oviduct. It
is attached by the ovarian ligament to the uterus and supported by
the broad ligament.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 263

It is covered by a serous coat except at the hilus. Underneath
this coat is a strong fibrous coat and beneath this coat is the ovarian
tissue proper. The latter is hard and grayish-red and is divided
into an external cortical and an internal medullary portion. The
cortex is made up of connective tissue and holds large numbers of
Graafian vesicles or ovisacs which contain the ova. The medulla
is red and spongy and is composed of connective tissue which is
richly supplied with blood-vessels. The ovary receives its blood
from the utero-ovarian artery and is innervated by a branch from
the mesenteric plexus.

State how the ovaries of the mare differ from those of (a) the cow, (b)
the sheep, (c) the goat, (d) the pig, (e) the bitch, (f) the cat.
(a) Much smaller than in the mare, but are identical in form
and structure. See answer to preceding question.
(b) and (c) Same remark applies here as given in (a).
(d) The ovary is lobulated in the pig.
(e) and (f£) Slightly lobulated in aspect.

Describe the mammary gland.

The mammary gland consists of two glandular bodies situated in
the posterior and inferior abdominal region. They are hemispherical
in shape and terminate below in a small prominence, the teat. Ex-
ternally, they are covered with skin, beneath which is a fibrous coat
which sends prolongations into the interior of the gland. The
glandular tissue contains acini which open into lactiferous ducts.
These ducts unite and form canals which, in turn, form two, three
or four sinuses that open by several canals on the teat. The external
pudic artery supplies the gland with blood and innervation is
received from the first pair of lumbar nerves.

Describe the mammary glands of the bitch.

These are ten in number, arranged in two rows of five each,
and extend from the inguinal region to below the chest. They have
no galactiferous reservoirs and the lactiferous ducts unite directly
into a variable number of canals that pass through the teat to pierce
its extremity by from five to ten orifices.

Describe the vesiculz seminales and give their function.

The vesicule seminales are two oval pouches, situated above
the neck of the bladder, and having a body and an anterior and
posterior extremity. The latter is tapering and unites with the vas
deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. The anterior extremity forms
a rounded cul-de-sac partially covered with peritoneum. The walls

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are composed of three membranes: an internal, mucous; a middle,
muscular; and an external, fibrous. The function of these bodies is
to store semen for the copulatory act. They also secrete mucus which
tends to dilute the semen much the same as the secretion from the
prostate and Cowper’s glands.

Are the vesiculz seminales found in all the domestic animals? Ex-

plain.
No. They are not found in the dog and cat.

PHYSIOLOGY

State the four chief functions of the generative system.

Copulation, impregnation, fetation and parturition.

Describe the Fallopian tubes and state their function.

The Fallopian tubes, or oviducts, are two small cylindrical flex-
nous canals, about ten inches long, one of which is lodged in each
broad ligament. They extend in a tortuous manner from the uterine
cornua to the ovaries. The calibre of their canal is very small at
the uterine extremity, scarcely admitting a hair but it enlarges at
the ovarian end where it terminates in a pavilion. The pavilion
is fixed to the external side of the ovary and opens into the peritoneal
cavity. The function of these tubes is to convey the ova from the
ovaries to the uterus and spermatozoa to the ovary.

State what takes place in the ovary during the period of menstruation.

Give the reason for the pitted appearance of the ovaries in
old age.

During menstruation there is an increased blood supply to the
ovary. A certain Graafian vesicle, or vesicles, according to the
species, becomes more voluminous than the others, raises the envelop-
ing membrane of that body and projects on the surface. Around this
vesicle the blood-vessels enlarge, and effusion takes place; the cap-
sule distends and gives way, allowing the ova to escape.

The pitted appearance of the ovaries in old age is due to repeated
rupturing of Graafian vesicles and the shrinkings and cicatrizations
of the same.

Define fecundation, abortion, eutocia, dystocia.

Fecundation is the fertilization or impregnation of the ovum,
which occurs when it is reached by the spermatozoon.

Abortion is the expulsion of a foetus before it is viable.

Eutocia is a normal parturition.

Dystocia is an abnormal, painful, or slow parturition.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 265

Define the corpus luteum. Describe the changes in the ovary after
fecundation.

The corpus luteum, or ‘‘yellow body,’’ is a yellow mass in the
ovary in the place of an ovisae which has discharged its ovum. If
the ovum has been impregnated, the corpus luteum grows and lasts
for several months, usually throughout pregnancy. If impregnation
has not taken place, the corpus luteum degenerates and shrinks.

After fecundation of the ovum, segmentation occurs. The ovum
divides into halves, each half subdivides, ete., forming a spherical
mass known as the morula.

Define (a) a true corpus luteum, (b) a false corpus luteum.

If the ovum has been impregnated, the corpus luteum grows and
lasts for several months and is called a ‘‘true corpus luteum.’’ If
impregnation has not taken place, it degenerates and shrinks and is
called a ‘‘false corpus luteum.”’

Describe the corpus luteum in the cow and the sow.
See preceding answers. The ovisac is filled with lymph and
blood, projects beyond the ovarian surface, and is deep yellow in
color in the cow, and a yellowish-brown color in the sow.

Give the cause of menstruation.

Not definitely known. It is thought to be due to the shedding
of the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the uterus. This ex-
poses the tunic of the capillaries, causing them to rupture because
of their distended condition.

Is the menstrual flow independent of the influence of the ovaries?
Explain.
No. There is a close bond of sympathy between the ovaries and
the uterus, which defies explanation. It is well known that, after
removal of the ovaries, menstruation ceases to occur.

Define embryology, embryotomy, hydrocephalus.
Embryology is the science which treats of the development of the

embryo. _
Embryotomy refers to the cutting up of a fetus to facilitate

delivery.
Hydrocephalus is a fluid effusion within the cranium.

Name the female generative organs and state the function of each.

Ovaries: generate ova.
Oviducts: serve to convey the ova from the ovaries to the uterus

and spermatozoa to the ovary.
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266 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Uterus: place of nourishment and development of the embryo
and fetus.

Vagina: copulatory organ and passageway for the foetus dur-
ing parturition.

Vulva: same as the vagina.

Mamme: supply nourishment to new-born.

Define orgasm.
Orgasm is the crisis of venereal excitement, that is, the time of
ejaculation of semen.

State the organic modifications the genital organs undergo after labor.
The uterus reduces in volume and weight by the oxidation, de-
generation and absorption of the cells of the muscular fibres. The
mucous membrane, which has been enormously thickened, under-
goes fatty degeneration and modification until the uterine interior
presents the appearance it possessed before impregnation. The
eervix contracts, closes and regains its former shape.

Describe the difference between the maternal and the foetal cotyledons.
The maternal cotyledons are dark-yellow in color and their

surface is covered with crypts. The fetal cotyledons are bright-red

in color and on their surface is a multitude of long, branched villi
which are received into the depressions of the maternal cotyledons.

Are spermatozoa always found in the semen? Explain.

No. They are usually absent in cases of eryptorchidism, testicular
tumors, inflammations and degenerations of the testicles. Hydro-
cele may prevent the formation of spermatozoa. The following
conditions—debilitating diseases, overwork and excessive sexual use,
individually or jointly—lessen the abundance of the male fertilizing
element and in some cases may lead to a complete absence of same.

Is the vagina strictly a generative organ? Explain.
Yes. Because it serves as an organ of copulation and as a passage-
way for the fcetus only.

Give the meaning of each of the following terms: uniparous, multi-
parous, primiparous, pluriparous.
Uniparous refers to animals which bring forth but one offspring
at birth, as the mare and cow.
Multiparous refers to animals which bring forth several offspring
at one time, as the bitch and cat.
Primiparous: Bearing, or having borne but one offspring.
Pluriparous: Same as multiparous.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 267

What is the influence of the.pregnant uterus on the neighboring
organs?

The immense volume of the pregnant uterus occasionally disturbs
the neighboring viscera as shown by colic, tympanites, constipation,
cedema, coughing and paraplegia. Pressure on the sciatic nerve is
shown, by cramp of the posterior limbs.

How is the period of menstruation characterized in (a) the cow, (b)
the sow, (c) the bitch, and (d) the cat?

(a) By nervous excitement, restlessness, bellowing and mounting
other animals of its species. There is an increased secretion of
mucus from the vulva and, toward the end of the period, blood-clots
or a slight blood-stained discharge. The period lasts about 2 days
and reappears every 21 days unless impregnation occurs.

(b) The sow manifests rut by restlessness, rooting, squealing,
swelling of the vulva and a sanguinolent discharge therefrom. The
appetite is impaired and she seeks the company of the opposite sex.
The period lasts from 2 to 5 days and reappears in 15 to 30 days,
but usually every month.

(ec) By nervous excitement, restlessness, wandering away from
home, seeking males, swelling and turgidity of the vulva, frequent
urination and a sanguinolent discharge. The appetite is capricious
and thirst is increased. The period lasts from 2 to 3 weeks and
appears twice a year (spring and autumn, as a rule).

(d) By nervous excitement and an over-affectionate disposition.
There is an uncontrollable desire to seek the opposite sex. Rest-
lessness is a notable feature and the movements of rolling and
otherwise betray the prevailing desires. The generative organs are
more or less turgid and sensitive and the urogenital secretions are
increased. This phenomenon appears 3 to 4 times a year.

What is an emmenagogue? Name two of the principal emmena-
gogues.

An emmenagogue is any agent which stimulates or favors the

menstrual discharge. Ergot and rue are well known emmenagogues.

Describe the secretions of the fcetus.

Mucus is secreted by the. glands of the mouth, wsophagus and
stomach. Bile is secreted by the liver, and emptied into the intes-
tines where it is mixed with the fluid thrown out by the glands
there, forming meconium. Urine is secreted by the kidneys, and
the thymus, thyroid, spleen and suprarenal glands are said to be
active in fetal life.

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268 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Name the secretory glands that are active in fetal life.
See answer to preceding question.

State the duration of pregnancy in (a) the mare, (b) the cow, (c) the
sow, (d) the bitch, (e) the ewe.
(a) 330-340 days; (b) 270-280 days; (c) 115-120 days; (d)
58-65 days; (e) 145-155 days.

Trace the journey of the ovum from incipiency to the accomplishment
of fertilization.

After rupture of the Graafian vesicle, the ovum escapes and is
conveyed into the Fallopian tube by means of the fimbriated extrem-
ity of the same. It passes down the tube to the uterus where it is
met by the spermatozoa. This meeting may take place in the
oviduct but the ovum usually continues to descend to the uterus.

Describe physiologically the impregnation of the ovum.

The spermatozoa pass through the outer layer of the ovum
(zona pellucida). The germinal vesicle, or nucleus of the ovum,
disappears and a somewhat opaque, embryonal cell (pronucleus)
succeeds. With the formation of the pronucleus, the vitellus becomes
separated from the zona pellucida and begins to rotate therein.
Then a segmentation of the embryonal cell into two portions occurs;
each of these two portions divide into two, ete. This division and
subdivision continue for a short time (2 or 3 days) until the stage
of morula is reached. At this stage the mass is still spherical, is
surrounded by the vitelline membrane and the zona pellucida, and
contains the mass of cells resulting from the repeated divisions
before mentioned. After this the mass enlarges, changes shape, and
the germinal layers form.

Give the composition of cow’s milk.

Water siaes d aised eNews. < Aen eta Ga Rae ee deletion oe 87

OlIGS. c's aig sind argo amie cccwaiee ae aio eagle eam BH eee 13
AMDUMIN: tee4 cece ae ov adnaesGrckd secs med) wed 3.30
Pats sala cate cee aincnounnee oaas ees dabei ake 4.00
Ta CtOBE®. -akvacdry4h.hahh endsag Os suas Do Mose eens 4.95
ISBUIES:. Canc ianeg aie y Ben ays ae nerd weeeeta oS oa mew anaas -75

State the difference in the composition of the milk of the mare and
that of the cow.
See answer to preceding question.
Mare’s milk contains more water and sugar but less fat and
albumen than cow’s milk.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 269

Average composition of mare’s milk is as follows:

Watet: cecensacmicetsd aas'oule ok new. Gia Gerona 91.8
OMA Bes secions alice mas Rane on tare amnion aah Wile oan eal lea 8.2
AN BUMON! hace wien ae one weak nied ween OF Boas Ges 2.6
WOG> neste as sale Sanaa’ cnauy eae bana beeen a miles atone 6
TlAChOSES co. g.cui Guan data 2 dawns oie een riae atu s 4.7
PO AIUBS «2, cenae chentcnl wnee AiS alon sana ag ase an ated oat 3

What is colostrum? Give the composition of colostrum.
Colostrum is the first fluid secreted by the mammary gland after
delivery. Its average composition is as follows:

Water “no srece dis tahiceaneia te pedacties cleaned 75.8

Albumen and casein ............... 00000000 eee 15.0

CRIES, i aids & celta ENS ae EAE cee IN Sst gtie ts Soaring a ena 2.6

TG CLOSE: Leceacngarn an eke Ae OA oa ils ae ee waded 3.6

DBItS! wuss dese Se ea Aer ogee Sanya ada wie a haan 3.0
PREGNANCY

Describe the physiologic and anatomic modifications that the uterus
undergoes while the foetus is developing.

The uterus assumes a somewhat oblong or globular form. Its
mucosa becomes redder, thicker, more pulpy and vascular. The
serous coat also hypertrophies and the fibres of the muscular coat
increase in number and volume. The uterus, at this time, is more
sensitive to nervous stimuli. The increase in volume and weight
causes it to descend and rest upon the abdominal floor. The os
uteri is firmly closed by the contraction of the circular muscular
fibres of the cervix and is sealed with an albuminoid clot. As par-
turition time approaches, the os relaxes and, when labor begins,
dilates widely.

State what changes take place in the generative organs of the female
after conception.
See answer to preceding question.
In addition to the changes in the uterus, a true corpus luteum
forms in the ovaries, and the mammary glands become activated.

What precautions should be taken in regard to the care and food of
pregnant animals?

They should be regularly exercised and well fed on easily
digested nutritive food which does not constipate. Plenty of pure
water is essential. They should be well groomed and provided
with clean and commodious quarters, especially as parturition

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270 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

approaches. Harsh or cruel treatment and surgical operations
should be avoided if possible. Avoid, also, strong medicines such
as drastic purgatives, powerful narcotics, ete. The milking period
of cows should be limited to seven or seven and one-half months,
to allow the fetus more nutritive material for its perfect develop-
ment.

Name the principal signs of pregnancy.

Absence of estrum, enlargement of abdomen, enlargement of the
mamme, feeling of the foetus per rectum, per vaginam, or through
the abdominal wall, auscultation of the fetal heart-beat, and observ-
ing the movements of the living fetus.

Describe (a) ovarian gestation, (b) tubal gestation, (c) abdominal
gestation.

(a) Ovarian gestation is rare. Apparently it is due to a failure
of the ovum to escape when the ovisac ruptures. The spermatozoa
passes up the oviduct and impregnates the ovum which then pro-
ceeds to develop, as in normal gestation.

(b) Impregnation occurs in the oviduct. The ovum becomes
attached to the walls of the duct and development proceeds. When
the fetus attains a sufficient size, the oviduct ruptures and fatal
hemorrhage may ensue, or the foetus may become attached to or
imbedded in the peritoneal surface, and continue to develop.

(c) Abdominal gestation may follow rupture of the gravid
uterus or the ovum may fall into the abdominal cavity, following
rupture of the ovisac, and become impregnated there. The fetus
becomes attached to the abdominal walls or some of the viscera and
the fetal membranes closely invest the fetal body.

Describe extra-uterine pregnancy.
Extra-uterine pregnancy is the existence, for a greater or less
period of time, of a living ovum outside of the uterine cavity, but
within the abdominal cavity. (See answer to preceding question.)

How are the varieties of extra-uterine pregnancy commonly desig-
nated?
Ovarian, tubal and abdominal gestation. (See explanation
above.)

What are the effects of indigestion on pregnant animals?
Tympanites, constipation and diarrhea usually accompany in-
digestion. These conditions tend to produce abortion through press-
ure, straining and reflexly, respectively. Furthermore, indigestion

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 271

causes inanition and thereby prevents the mother from properly
nourishing the fcetus.

Give the function and describe the early development of the placenta.

The function of the placenta is to establish communication be-
tween the mother and foetus by means of the umbilical cord.

In the mulberry stage (stage of morula), the zona radiata throws
out tufts, the primordial chorion, which unite with the uterine
mucosa. This zone soon becomes attenuated and disappears while
the blastoderm enlarges within it. But this primitive chorion is not
permanent, it is replaced by another, similar, but more efficient
structure.

From the surface of the outer layer of the blastoderm, tufts or
villi grow out to extend into the uterine mucosa. Through these
villi, there is an exchange of nutritive material and waste products
between mother and fetus. This is later supplanted by a permanent
attachment, formed by the tufts of the allantois which grow out
through the amniotic chorion to gain an intimate relation with the
blood-vessels of the uterus.

Describe the phenomena of nutrition in the foetus.

Before the placenta is formed, the ovum is bathed with an albu-
minoid substance which nourishes it during early development.
Later with the development of the placenta, which brings the capil-
lary systems of the mother and fcetus into the closest relationship,
nourishment passes to the foetus by osmosis.

Define (a) zonary placenta, (b) diffuse placenta, (c) cotyledonary
placenta.

(a) A placenta which is band-like in form. In the bitch and
cat, the placenta forms a thick, annular band, or zone, about one
and one-half inches wide, passing around the middle of the chorion.

(b) A diffuse placenta is one in which the chorionic ville are
diffused over the entire surface of the chorion. Seen in the mare
and sow.

(c) A placenta in which the villi are restricted to certain areas
(80 to 100 in number) called cotyledons. Seen in cows and sheep.

Mention the animals in which cotyledons are found.
Cow, sheep and goat.

Describe the umbilical cord and state its function.
The umbilical cord is a collection of vessels which extends from
the placenta to the fetal umbilicus. It is about 35 inches long in
the mare and 15 inches in the cow. It is formed by the allantoic

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

stalk, surrounded by the amnion, and includes the remnant of the
vitelline duct. For convenience of description, it may be divided
into an amniotic and an allantoic portion. The amniotic, the longer,
extends from the umbilicus of the foetus, through the amniotic cavity,
to open into the cavity of the allantois. It contains the following
structures: the amnion, the two umbilical arteries, the two umbilical
veins which are sometimes fused into a single vessel, the urachus,
and the vestiges of the vitelline duct, besides Whartonian gelatin.

The allantoic portion consists, for the most part, of the mass of
umbilical vessels; other structures found in it are the remnants of
the vitelline duct, and Whartonian gelatin.

The umbilical cord forms a bond of communication between the
foetus and the placenta.

Describe the position of the foetus in multiple pregnancy.

Each fetus may have its own amnion and chorion, or each may
have its own amnion, but the same chorion. Occasionally, in twin
pregnancies, one fcetus is more or less enclosed within the body of
the other.

In ruminants (cow and ewe) each of the twin fcetuses usually
occupies one cornua of the uterus and presents with the head toward
the os uteri; although occasionally they present alternately, that is,
one anteriorly and the other posteriorly.

What is the liquor amnii? Give its functions in pregnancy and during

labor.

The liquor amnii is an albuminous alkaline fluid, found in the
amniotic sac, in which the fcetus is suspended. It contains about
99 per cent. of water, as well as albumin, sugar, urea, and other
urinary products, also meconium. The amount of the fluid in the
mare and cow varies from 5 to 6 litres.

During pregnancy, it is useful in: 1. Preserving an equable
temperature for the fetus. 2. Protecting the skin of the fetus.
3. Favoring movements of the foetus by equalizing pressure. 4. Pre-
venting injuries of the fetus from external movements. 5. Protect-
ing the mother from injury by fetal movements.

During labor, it protrudes the membranes and dilates the os uteri,
protects the foetus from violent uterine contractions, and lubricates
the vagina, thus facilitating passage of the foetus through it.

Mention the four stages in the process of sexual generation.

Copulation, fecundation, gestation, and parturition.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 273

Describe the operation of artificial impregnation.

This operation consists of transferring semen from the vagina
of a female, with which the male has recently copulated, to the vagina
of another female. No special apparatus is necessary, in fact, any
ordinary sterile syringe, or the hand will answer the purpose.

Cleanliness must be observed. Allow the male to serve a female
and, promptly afterward, withdraw some of the semen into the
syringe and inject it into the cervical canal of the second female.

Describe an impregnator and state how impregnation is accomplished
by its use.

An impregnator is an instrument designed to keep open the os
uteri during copulation and thus insure a direct discharge of the
semen into the uterus. It consists of a hollow, soft-rubber tube,
3 to 4 inches in length. It is constricted in the middle portion and
flanged at the posterior end to prevent it from falling into the
uterus. Those who advocate its use do so with the belief that sterility
in most cases is due to occlusion of the os. Intelligent breeders
ignore the instrument. Prof. Williams, in his ‘‘ Veterinary Ob-
stetrics,’’ regards the use of impregnators as ‘‘a harmless diversion
which ordinarily will not prevent conception.”’

Mention the changes in position of the neighboring organs during the
development of the uterus in pregnancy.

The vagina is drawn forward except in the last stages of gesta-
tion, when the fcetus protrudes into the pelvic cavity. The stomach
is pushed to the left and the intestines and liver are compressed;
the diaphragm is pushed forward and the abdomen becomes en-
larged, rounded and pendulent.

State the function of the liver in fetal life.
It serves as a blood-forming and blood-purifying organ.

What is the blastoderm? How are its membranes divided?
The blastoderm is the delicate membrane which lines the zona
pellucida of the impregnated ovum. Its membranes are divided into
hypoblast, mesoblast and epiblast.

What do the different layers of the blastoderm form?
The hypoblast forms the epithelium of the alimentary canal and
of the organs connected with it, and that of the air-passages.
The mesoblast develops into the skin and connective-tissue struc-
tures, the bones, muscles, organs of excretion, and internal genitals.
From the epiblast are developed the epidermis and epidermic
tissues, such as nails, hair and glands of the skin, the nervous sys-

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274 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

tem, the external sense-organs, as ear, eye, etc., and the mucous
membrane of the mouth and anus.

What changes take place in the blood of pregnant animals?

There is said to be an increase in the volume of the blood in the
body of a pregnant animal, but a decrease in its corpuscles and solid
constituents. Quite recently, investigators have proven the pres-
ence of a certain substance in the serum of pregnant animals which is
of value in diagnosing pregnancy.

Name the envelopes surrounding the foetus and describe each.

1. Chorion, the outer envelope, is a vast, membranous, closed
sac. It being moulded upon the uterine wall, resembles the uterus
in form, having a body and two cornua. The cornua are unequal in
size, the one in which the feetus lies being the largest. The external
surface of the chorion is studded with small, red tubercles, formed
by the placental villous tufts which join it to the internal surface of
the uterus. The internal surface is lined by the external layer of the
allantois, except at the umbilical cord, where there exists a kind of
conical infundibulum, occupied by the umbilical vesicle. It is united
to the allantois by a layer of mucous connective tissue.

The chorion not only plays a mechanical part in protecting the
foetus and supporting the placental blood-vessels, but it holds cer-
tain nutritive materials.

2. The amnion, the second sac enveloping the fetus, is a thin,
transparent membrane. It floats freely in the interior of the chorion,
but is only united to it at one point through the medium of the
umbilical cord. It is ovoid in shape and contains the foetus which
is attached to its inner face by the vessels of the umbilical cord.
In the early embryonic stage, it closely envelops the embryo but,
later, it is distended with fluid (liquor amnii) and is thus separated
from the fetus. The smooth, internal face secretes the liquor amnii
which bathes the foetus and serves important functions. The exter-
nal face is closely adherent to the inner layer of the allantois.

The amnion is made up of three layers: a very thin, connective-
tissue membrane that adheres to the allantois; a membrane-proper
which is made up of connective tissue and some muscular fibres; and
an epithelial layer which lines the latter.

3. The allantois is a thin membrane which lines the inner face
of the chorion, and is reflected around the insertion of the umbilical
cord to be spread over the outer face of the amnion. By so doing,
it transforms the chorionic sac into a kind of serous cavity with the
amniotic sac enclosed within it. The allantoic cavity communicates

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 275

with the fetal bladder by means of the urachus. The structure of the
allantois is slightly fibrous with an epithelial layer.

Describe the development of the skin of the foetus.

The skin is developed from the middle and outer layers of the
blastoderm (the mesoblast and epiblast). From the mesoblast, the
skin-proper, or derma, is formed, and from the epiblast, the epi-
dermis and epidermic tissues, such as the nails, hair, sudoriparous
and sebaceous glands are formed. Blood-vessels are apparent in
the derma as early as the third month. The horny and mucous
layers of the epidermis are distinguished soon after. As the fcetus
increases in volume, the epidermis exfoliates and its debris is found
in the liquor amnii. Hair is developed in the epidermic lamin
which are prolonged into the substance of the derma. It is seen on
the eyebrows, lips and the joints of the limbs early in fetal life,
and by the sixth or seventh month covers the body.

Trace the development of the nervous system.

The first trace of the central nervous system, the neuraxis, is
found in the primitive groove, resulting from an invagination of the
thickened ectoderm. The groove deepens and the neural folds which
border it increase in prominence until they fuse together above,
making a closed canal, lined by ciliated epiblastic cells. This canal
persists throughout the animal’s life as the central canal in the
spinal cord, and as the ventricles of the brain. The deeper epiblastic
cells in the walls of the canal develop into the nerve-cells of the
cerebrospinal axis. The anterior part of the canal shows three
successive dilatations which ultimately become the various divisions
of the brain. The spinal motor nerves arise from the cord and
the sensory branches appear to be developed from the spinal ganglia
which are separately formed.

Describe the situation of the pregnant uterus in the mare and cow.
The pregnant uterus occupies the floor of the abdominal cavity.
In the mare, it is displaced somewhat to the left by the pelvic
flexure of the colon and passes beneath the latter to the left of the
median line until it reaches the diaphragm. In the cow, the rumen
displaces the pregnant uterus, causing it to pass downward and
slightly to the right of the median line to reach the diaphragm.

Describe the position of the foetus in the ninth or tenth month of preg-
nancy.

The head is directed backward and ventrally in such a manner

that the lower jaw is in contact with the throat, and the mouth

touches the sternal region. The neck lies against the maternal
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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

sacrum. The fore limbs are flexed in such a manner that the knees
are against the middle of the head and the feet, the umbilicus. The
hind limbs are flexed under the body and the pelvic portion of the
foetus is in the bottom of the uterus, near the stomach.

Trace the growth of the urinary organs.

The kidneys arise from the Wolffian bodies. These are glandular
bodies which appear very early in embryonic life, one on each side
of the vertebre and extend from the heart to the pelvis. Each
empties through a duct into the cloaca. These bodies are perhaps
more concerned in the development of the sexual organs than the
urinary. At any rate, early in embryonic life there appears near
the beginning of each Wolffian duct, an outgrowth, or cul-de-sac,
which forms the pelvis of the kidney. From the walls of these sacs,
a number of branching tubules arise to become the urinary tubules
and thus complete the kidney. The posterior part of these sacs
become the ureters which empty into the cloaca. The bladder. is
derived from a dilatation of the abdominal portion of the allantois.
Posteriorly the allantois is constricted to form the urethra. The
extrapelvic portion of the latter is formed by the closing of the
genital furrow of the penis.

ABORTION

What is meant (a) by abortion, (b) by premature birth?

(a) The expulsion of a fcetus from the uterus before it is suffi-
ciently developed to live.

(b) The expulsion of a foetus from the uterus before the proper
time but in a viable condition.

Give the symptoms of abortion.

In many cases there are no premonitory symptoms and often the
first evidence is the presence of the foetus and its membranes. In
other cases, warning is given by the swollen vulva and its muco-
purulent discharge together with enlargement of the mamma. Fre-
quently, there is a secretion of milk for days and even weeks before
abortion oceurs. The act of abortion is brief and is accompanied
by labor pains as in normal birth. For several days following, a
mucous discharge, tinged with blood and often containing particles
of pus and after-birth, is observed. Unless complications ensue,
the mother seems to be but little inconvenienced.

Mention some of the causes of non-contagious abortion.

Mechanical injuries, severe hemorrhage, castration, drugs, cer-

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 277

tain infectious diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease, hog cholera,
ete,

Discuss the etiology of infectious abortion in cows. Describe briefly
the course and symptoms of infectious abortion.

(There are many conflicting opinions on all phases of this
disease. )

Infectious abortion in cows is due to a short bacillus (bacillus
of Bang) which is carried from cow to cow by the bull, although
other means of transmission are recognized. Entering the uterus,
at the time of copulation, or later, it produces a catarrhal endo-
metritis with a fibrinous exudate which causes a separation of the
placenta from the uterine wall and abortion follows. Some authori-
ties think the infection enters by way of the digestive tract and
udder, and is carried by the blood to the cotyledons. In many cases
the infection remains in the system from a previous abortion.

In the majority of cases abortion occurs at about the fourth to
sixth month of pregnancy. It may occur much earlier or very near
the end of gestation. The fetus is usually born dead, or, if alive, it
very rarely survives. A few days before abortion occurs, a yellow,
or reddish-tinged mucopurulent discharge is seen to escape from
the vulva. The latter becomes reddened and swollen. The milk
secretion lessens and finally, with very little straining or apparent
inconvenience, the foetus is expelled. In a great majority of cases,
portions of the after-birth are retained and a mucopurulent, blood-
tinged discharge follows for ten days or two weeks. The infection
remains in the internal genital organs for several months, so it is
quite common for the cow to abort a second time. After the second
abortion, the infection seems to disappear, or at least the animal
is immune to its effects.

What methods should be employed in the control of an outbreak of
infectious abortion in a herd of cows?

Separate the infected from the non-infected. Burn aborted
foetuses, after-births, and soiled bedding. Disinfect stalls and gut-
ters. Irrigate the uterus of each aborting cow with a 1-1000 solu-
tion of potassium permanganate. Wash the external genitals of all
pregnant cows with the disinfectant. Separate attendants should
be assigned to the two divisions of the herd. The sheath of the bull
should be disinfected before and after copulation. A separate bull
might be used for infected and non-infected cows. Precautions

should be observed in introducing new animals into the herd.
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278 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

LABOR

Define (a) presentation, (b) position.
(a) The appearance of some particular part of the fetal body
at the pelvic inlet during labor.
(b) The situation of the foetus with respect to the mother at
appearance of labor.

Mention the normal presentations of the foetus in domestic animals.
Anterior and posterior.

Name the different positions of the foetus during labor.
1, Longitudinal :
A. Anterior presentation :
(a) Dorsosacral position.
(b) Right or left dorso-ilial position.
(c) Dorsopubie position.
B. Posterior presentation :
(a) Dorsosacral position.
(b) Right or left dorso-ilial position.
(ce) Dorsopubic position.
2. Transverse.
A. Dorsal presentation :
(a) Right or left cephalo-ilial position.
B. Ventral presentation :
(a) Right or left cephalo-ilial position.

What are the four principal presentations?
Anterior, posterior, dorsal and ventral.

What is the most favorable and most frequent presentation?
Anterior presentation, dorsosacral position, with both forefeet
and head presenting.

Define (a) eutocia, (b) version, (c) rotation.
(a) A safe, easy, or natural parturition.
(b) The changing of a transverse into a longitudinal presen-
tation.
(c) The turning of a fcetus upon its long axis.

Name four of the most difficult presentations.
1. Anterior presentation with both fore limbs retained.
2. Transverse presentation.
3. Breech presentation with complete retention of the posterior
limbs.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 279

4, Anterior presentation with forward extension of the hind
limbs beneath the fetal body.

Mention two different ways by which the cervix of the uterus may be
dilated.
1. Use of drugs, especially injections of cocaine or stovaine.
2. Mechanical, either by manual or instrumental methods.

Mention the signs and the different stages of parturition.

1. Preliminary stage: Enlargement of mamme; swelling of the
vulva; relaxation of the broad and sacrosciatic ligament.

2. Dilation of the os uteri: Accompanied by restlessness, labor-
pains and presentation of ‘‘water-bag.’’

3. Expulsion of fetus: Pains more severe and frequent; strain-
ing, rupture of ‘‘water-bag’’ and expulsion of fcetus.

4, Expulsion of the membranes. This may occur at birth or soon
after. The uterus contracts and the mass comes away.

Mention some of the causes of dystocia.
Maternal: Pelvic constriction, uterine inertia, torsion of the
uterus.
Fetal: Excess in volume, monstrosities, multiparity, diseases,
faulty presentation.

Name (a) five maternal causes of dystocia, (b) five fetal causes of
dystocia.
(a) Pelvie constriction, uterine inertia, torsion of the uterus,
uterine hernia, atresia of the cervix.
(b) Hydrocephalus, wry-neck, emphysema, double monstrosities,
faulty presentation.

Name two pathologic conditions of the foetus that interfere with par-
turition. State how each of these conditions may be over-
come.

1. Hydrocephalus. This consists of a distention of the lateral
ventricles of the brain with lymph. In extreme cases, the cranium
is distended to two and three times the normal size, and offers a
serious obstacle to parturition. Dystocia due to this congenital
defect is overcome by puncturing the tumor and breaking down the
cranial bones with the chisel.

2. Wry-neck. This deformity of the fetus is characterized by
an abrupt deviation of the head and neck to one side. The cervical]
portion of the spinal column is bent and the muscles so contracted
that the head is held rigidly in this abnormal position.

To overcome the impediment which this condition offers, ampu-

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280 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

tate the head and neck by means of a chain-saw or otherwise, with-
draw the severed member, and then proceed with the remaining por-
tion as in normal parturition.

How would you deliver an anterior presentation in a case of hydro-
cephalus?
See answer to preceding question.

What are the disadvantages under which the veterinary obstetrist
labors in case of dystocia?

He is frequently hampered by being called after some unskilled
persons have complicated matters or done irreparable injury to the
mother and foetus by their crude tactics. Many times the quarters in
which parturient animals are kept are poorly lighted, improperly
ventilated and dirty. Plenty of clean, warm water is not always
to be had. Lastly, the severe straining of such large animals as
cows and mares is fatiguing to the arm of the operator and impedes
his necessary manipulations to a great extent.

‘Mention four different mechanical means for the extraction of the
foetus.
Cords, hooks, forceps, and halters.

How may strong muscular contractions of the uterus be overcome in
case of malpresentation in dystocia?

Many methods have been tried, pressure on the loins, tying a
rope tightly round the body, twitching the nose or ear, ete. The
most humane and satisfactory way is the administration of a
narcotic (opium, chloral hydrate, or, better still, chloroform).

What are the indications for the use of ergot in labor and how should
ergot be given?

Ergot is used in case of uterine inertia when there is no mal-
position of the fetus or mechanical obstruction to its passage.
Very small doses should be given to increase the force of the uterine
contractions without producing spasms of the organ or of the
cervix.

Under what conditions would you use a repeller for the removal of a
calf?

When the foetus, in a faulty position, has become wedged in the
pelvic cavity or is approaching the inlet, it may be necessary to
return it into the uterus to effect a proper presentation and position.
Occasionally, when the foetus is presenting properly and is in a
good position, it is advantageous to repel it in order to attach cords
to some part of its body.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 281

Give the method of delivering an anterior presentation (dorsosacral
position) with the fore limbs retained.

Repel fcetus upward and backward, pass a cord around the
radius, slide it down toward the carpus, correct the deviation and
complete the delivery. If the head has passed beyond the vulva,
decapitation may be advantageous before attempting repulsion.
In some cases amputation of one limb and evisceration may be neces-
sary to reduce the size of the fcetus and facilitate delivery.

Give a method of delivery of the cephalosacral position of the foetus.

In this position, the foetus sits on the floor of the abdomen, the
head directed forward and the withers toward the sacrolumbar
region of the mother. That is, it sits up like adog. By most authori-
ties, this position is considered impossible because of its unstability.
To effect delivery, version must be accomplished. The dorsal pre-
sentation must be changed to an anterior or posterior. Version may
be effected by intra-uterine injections of emollients such as flax-
seed or slippery elm infusions. If this method fails, evisceration
and detruncation of the fetus is the only course to follow.

Describe a method of delivering a right cephalo-ilial position, dorso-
lumbar presentation.
The dystocia from this position is practically the same as in the
cephalosacral position and the method of procedure is the same.
(See answer to preceding question.)

Describe the sterno-abdominal position of the foetus.

This is more accurately termed ‘‘ventral transverse presenta-
tion.’’ The foetus presents with all of the feet in, or near, the pelvic
inlet and the head retained. It lies upon its side, transverse to the
long axis of the body of the mother with the head resting in the
flank in the region of one or the other of the maternal ilia. Hence
there are two possible positions, right cephalo-ilial and left cephalo-
ilial.

Describe Cesarean section in the mare and name some of the compli-
cations that may arise in connection with this operation.

Cesarean section refers to the delivery of a fetus by means of
an incision through the abdominal and uterine walls. The mare
should be placed under general anesthesia. Her forelegs should
be drawn forward and the hind legs backward and securely fastened.
The field of operation being thoroughly cleansed and disinfected,
make an incision in the flank through the skin and muscles, extend-
ing from the level of the external angle of the ilium downward about

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ten inches. The peritoneum is then incised and the uterus withdrawn
through the opening. It should be laid on sterilized gauze which
completely surrounds the wound. Next make an incision into the
gravid uterus which will readily permit the extraction of the fetus
within its membranes. Free the foetus from its coverings as soon
as extracted ; suture the wound in the uterus by means of Lembert’s
intestinal suture with silk. Close the abdominal wound with inter-
rupted sutures, suturing the muscles and skin separately. Place
patient in clean, comfortable quarters to recover from the anesthesia.

Complications to be feared following Cesarean section are:
metritis, peritonitis, abscess at seat of incision, and adhesion of the
abdominal organs to this part. Internal hemorrhage and collapse
are to be guarded against.

(Records fail to show where the life of a mare has been saved,
but a living fetus is often brought forth by this operation.)

Describe the operation of Cesarean section in multiparous animals.

See answer to preceding question. In the sow, bitch, and cat,
the incision can be made in the flank, although most operators prefer
the median line. The technic is the same as in the mare. All the
foetuses can be extracted through the one incision into the uterus.
A body bandage should be applied after the operation. The prog-
nosis is much more favorable than in the mare and cow.

Describe the method of delivering a posterior presentation (lumbo-

sacral position).

Apply traction upon the two hind limbs and hasten delivery be-
cause of the danger of asphyxiation of the foetus from compression
of the cord against the pubic brim. This is considered a normal
presentation by many authorities. Should the hind limbs be
retained, the dystocia is a very difficult one to overcome. Attempt
repulsion and correction of the deviation of the limbs. Forced
extraction is employed by some obstetrists, but it is a barbarous
and unsatisfactory procedure. Embryotomy should be employed,
preferably intrafetal amputation of the two posterior limbs.
Cesarean section is a last resort.

Describe the method of delivery in deviation of both hind limbs,

anterior presentation.

This is one of the most difficult malpositions the obstetrist has
to overcome. Repulsion and correction of the deviation should be
attempted to increase the working space, but this is seldom success-
ful. Remove one anterior limb and detruncate the foetus. Attach

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 283

cord to and repel the posterior half. Deliver the anterior half first
and then the posterior.

Describe method of delivering extreme downward deviation of the
head, anterior presentation.

Attempt replacement of the head by seizing the muzzle or nostrils
with the hand. If this fails, amputate one anterior limb, which
then allows the head to be brought into position. Delivery in the
normal way is then easily effected.

What care should be given the dam after labor?

Clean, comfortable quarters should be provided. Nourishing,
succulent food should be freely given to insure an abundant milk
secretion. Grass is the best diet for herbivora. The mother should
be kept from hard labor for three or four days, and all undue dis-
turbance should be avoided. If the labor is complicated by wounds
of the genital organs, or otherwise, proper treatment should be
given. Otherwise such interference with nature is contra-indicated.
In ease the after-birth is not expelled in the usual time allowed,
means should be employed to remove same.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of uterine inertia in the mare.
The foetus presents normally and in a favorable position, but
there is a deficiency of the expelling powers. The mother is usually
weak, debilitated, and maintains a decubital attitude.
Treatment consists of the administration of stimulants. Ergot
is usually chosen. In addition, traction should be applied and
delivery effected.

Give the symptoms and treatment of torsion of the uterus.

Torsion of the uterus is shown by severe expulsive efforts, colicky
pains, and extreme uneasiness. If death of the fcetus has occurred,
metritis and peritonitis may be present. The diagnosis is confirmed
by examination per vaginam when the hand encounters the spiral
folds of the vaginal walls and os uteri. The prognosis is grave.
Reduction of the twist is very difficult. It may be attempted in
case of slight torsion by inserting the hand and arm into the uterus,
grasping a limb of the feetus, and exerting force on same. If the
torsion is severe, it is impossible to gain entrance into the uterus in
this way. In this case, rolling of the mother in the direction of
the twist is the logical treatment. With the hand in the vagina, the
operator can assist by preventing the uterus from turning when the
mother is rolled. These methods failing, laparatomy should be per-
formed and the torsion reduced by the hand placed within the abdo-
men. Asa last resort perform Cesarean section.

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284 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the treatment of rigidity of the os uteri.

Inject warm, emollient liquids into the vagina. Some authorities
recommend smearing the os uteri with extract of belladonna. Local
anesthetics, such as cocaine and stovaine, might be useful. Manual
or instrumental dilatation of the os is probably the best method to
overcome this condition.

Diseases INCIDENT TO PREGNANCY AND LABOR

Name the most prominent diseases following parturition.

Retention of the after-birth, postpartum hemorrhage, rupture of
the uterus, rupture of the vagina, eversion of the uterus, prolapse of
the vagina, septic metritis and peritonitis, parturient eclampsia,
parturient apoplexy, mammitis and laminitis.

What diseases are incidental to pregnancy?
Osteomalacia, dropsy of the fetal membranes, paraplegia, rup-
ture of the uterus, prolapse of the vagina, metrorrhagia, abortion
(sporadic and infectious).

Name five diseases following parturition in the cow that may prove
serious.
Septic metritis, septic peritonitis, uterine prolapse, parturient
paresis, puerperal septicemia.

Give the diagnosis of dead foetus in utero.

The symptoms may vary, depending upon whether mummifi-
cation or putrid decomposition occurs. In the former condition, no
special symptoms are noted; the cow, to all appearances, is in good
health, she continues to fatten, the abdomen does not increase in
size, the udder fails to develop, and, at the time for delivery, no signs
of parturition appear. Examination per rectum will reveal the
hard, unyielding mass.

Putrid decomposition of the foetus may be manifested by expul-
sion of portions of it through the vagina, an artificial opening in the
abdominal wall, or the intestinal tract. The patient is greatly de-
pressed, refuses food, and shows symptoms of septicemia. Examina-
tion of the uterus per rectum or per vaginam will disclose the
abnormal condition.

Give the causes and treatment of hydrops uteri.

Hydrops uteri, or hydrometra, is a very rare condition. Two
forms are described, viz., edema of the uterine walls and an accumu-
lation of fluid between the chorion and the uterine walls. The
cause is not well understood, but may be attributed to circulatory
disturbances.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 285

Treatment: Evacuate the uterus (removing foetus if one is pres-
ent) and irrigate the cavity with mildly astringent antiseptics.
Build up the general health with tonics.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of hydrops amnii.

The causes of this condition are not well understood.

Symptoms: The most important symptom is the enormous
rotundity of the abdomen. The walls of the same are tense and
give a dull sound on percussion. As the swelling increases, the
patient becomes dull, emaciated, and anemic. Thirst is increased
and appetite decreased. The respiratory movements become labored,
owing to the pressure on the diaphragm. Rectal examination
clinches the diagnosis.

Treatment: Dilate the os, rupture the membranes, and remove
the fetus. Give stimulants and aid involution of the uterus.

Give the causes, prognosis and treatment of antepartum inversion of
the vagina.

Causes: Not well known. It has been observed most frequently
in cows that have been closely confined and overfed on bulky feeds.
These factors depress the general vigor and favor the action of
infective agents, especially in the vagina, which responds by becom-
ing inflamed, thus inducing straining and prolapse. A sloping floor
is often an accessory, if not a direct, causative factor.

Prognosis: A tendency to recur until parturition is completed
makes the prognosis unfavorable; especially is this so when the
organ becomes badly excoriated and inflamed. If delivery of the
foetus can be brought about, the condition is more easily overcome.

Treatment: Cleanse thoroughly with warm, non-irritating, anti-
septic solutions (14 per cent. lysol) and effect reposition of the
prolapsed organ by gentle manual pressure. The replacement
may be more easily accomplished by raising the hind quarters or,
in small animals, by having an assistant hold the patient by the
hind legs. After the organ is returned to its proper position, a
inild, antiseptic agent should be injected; iodoform is very useful
for this purpose, because it is not only antiseptic but slightly anes-
thetic, and therefore lessens irritability and straining. Keep bowels
open by administering cathartics. Straining to defecate and disten-
tion of the intestines tend to cause a recurrence of the prolapse.
If parturition is near, it may be advisable to empty the uterus.
Bandages, sutures, trusses, etc., are of little use unless the cause
of straining is eliminated. Sometimes the bladder is carried out
within the prolapsed vagina (vesicovaginocele). Urine accumulates

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because of the constriction of the urethra, and must be removed be-
fore reposition can be effected.

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of inversion of the uterus.

Causes: Failure of the os uteri to close after parturition, tardy
involution of the uterus, and retained placenta are potent, causative
factors. Sloping floors, close confinement, and overfeeding are
contributory, if not direct, causes.

Symptoms: The prolapse may be partial or complete; that is,
there may be simply a beginning invagination, or the inversion may
be complete with the whole uterus turned inside out and hanging
from the vulva. The walls of the prolapsed organ are continuous
with the vagina and vulva, and there is more or less displacement of
these organs. Occasionally the bladder is carried forward with the
floor of the vagina. Intestines may be forced through the pelvic
cavity into the inverted uterus. The condition may be further
complicated by lacerations, inflammatory degenerations, etc., of the
protruding parts.

Treatment: Carefully cleanse and disinfect the prolapsed organ
with 0.5 per cent. solution of phenol in normal salt solution. Place
the patient in lateral recumbency with the posterior parts elevated.
Remove any adherent portions of placenta and replace the organ by
careful manual pressure. If the uterus is badly congested it may
be very difficult to do this. The congestion may be overcome by
elevating the uterus above the body level and applying a pressure
bandage, beginning at the free extremity. After returning the
organ, push the cornua back as far as possible with the clinched fist
and inject tepid, sterile water to complete the unfolding of the
intussusception. If necessary, administer narcotics to prevent ex-
pulsive efforts. Should the uterus be badly wounded or necrotic,
amputation may be necessary. (See answer to following question.)

What is metrotomy? When is it indicated and how should it be per-

formed?

Metrotomy refers to the incising of the uterus. Metrectomy is
the excision, or amputation, of the uterus. (Many persons incor-
rectly use these two terms synonymously. Believing that the inter-
rogator refers to amputation of the uterus, the following answer is
given.)

Amputation of the uterus is indicated in case of prolapse when
reposition of the organ is impossible; when the organ is badly in-
flamed, necrotic, or wounded.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 287

The prolapsed organ should be carefully cleansed and disinfected.
Make an incision into the uterus to determine whether any viscera
extend into the cavity. Tightly apply an elastic ligature around
the entire organ near the external os. Completely sever the organ
by excising it about three inches from the ligature. Replace the
stump of the organ and irrigate the vagina daily for five to ten
days, when the necrotic stump should come away. To avoid any
danger of the ligature slipping, it is safer to suture the uterus in
such a way that the circulation is cut off from the stump. The
latter is a more surgical procedure.

State the difference between parturient eclampsia and parturient
paresis.

These two diseases usually occur soon after parturition, although
they have been observed at, and shortly before, this act. The prin-
cipal distinction made is the occurrence of tonic and clonic spasms
(especially of the diaphragm) in parturient eclampsia, and of a
comatose condition in parturient paresis. The former disease is seen
most frequently in mares and the latter in cows. It may be noted
that tonic and clonic spasms are sometimes seen in the early stages
of parturient paresis, but they soon pass away, to be followed by
coma.

Give the Schmidt treatment of parturient apoplexy.

The treatment, as originally introduced by Schmidt in 1897,
consisted of the introduction into the udder of a solution of potas-
sium iodide, mixed with atmospheric air. Later investigators found
that the injection of air alone sufficed to bring about the same result.

Observing the rules of asepsis, firmly distend the udder by inflat-
ing it with air forced in by a suitable instrument. The air should
be filtered through sterile cotton or forced through an antiseptic
solution to rid it of any impurities. Asa rule, a few hours after this
treatment the cow regains her feet and appears perfectly normal.
Tf this does not occur after an interval of three to six hours, inflate
the gland again. Some practitioners ligate the teat after inflation,
but this is seldom necessary, as the sphincter of the teat will prevent
the air from escaping.

Give the causes and treatment of puerperal eclampsia in the mare.
The cause of this disease is not known. It is seen following the
act of parturition with no premonitory symptoms. Williams men-
tions the frequent occurrence of the disease in mares which have
been suddenly taken from pasture to stable or put in harness, thus

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causing maternal anxiety and a disturbance of the central nervous
system.

Treatment:—Keep patient with her foal in quiet, comfortable
quarters. Bloodletting is beneficial in early stages. Control spasms
by administering large doses of the fluid extract of belladonna and
cannabis indica.

Define endometritis. Give causes, symptoms and treatment of acute

endometritis.

Endometritis is an inflammation of the mucous lining of the
uterus. It may be acute or chronic.

Causes: Retention of fetal membranes or of a decomposed
foetus; infection of wounds occurring during parturition from em-
bryotomy operations or otherwise ; introduction of infection through
careless manipulations of attendants. The disease very often fol-
lows a prolapse of the uterus for obvious reasons. In the case of a
mare which recently came under the observation of the writer, the
cause was attributed to the repeated attentions forced upon her by
a eryptorchid stallion which consorted with her in pasture.

Symptoms: Fever, tenderness of the abdomen, stiffness of the
gait due to laminitis, which is usually present, a reddish-gray, floc-
culent, fetid discharge from the vulva, a large amount of the same
material in the uterus, thickening of the uterine walls, increased
frequency of pulse and respiration. The patient may remain in a
standing or a recumbent position.

Treatment: Cleanse the uterine cavity by irrigating with warm,
sterile water. Be sure to remove all fragments of placenta and
accumulated discharges; continue the irrigation until the expelled
water is clear. Then inject two or three gallons of a 1-1000 solution
of potassium permanganate. Repeat this medication daily until
the discharge changes to a healthy mucus, then gradually withdraw
treatment. If the condition of the patient requires them, stimulants
and antipyretics such as digitalis, quinine, and alcohol may be given.

Give the symptoms and treatment of leucorrheea.

The term ‘‘leucorrhea,’’ meaning ‘‘white flow,’’ is applied to a
whitish, viscid discharge from the vagina and uterine cavity. It is
symptomatic of chronic inflammation of these parts (chronic endo-
metritis). The discharge is usually intermittent, occurring during
micturition or when straining.

The appetite may be good, but emaciation advances. The mucous
membrane of the genital canal is pale or, in some cases, red and
roughened by granulations.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 289

Treatment: Depends upon the cause. In general, the affected
parts should be irrigated with warm, sterile water until it flows out
clear; then with an astringent, antiseptic solution, such as potas-
sium permanganate, 1-1000, or lysol, 1 per cent. Iodoform is
highly efficient in this disease. A gelatine capsule containing two
or three drachms of this agent can be carried into the uterine cavity
and there opened and the contents scattered over the diseased
membrane. Treatment must be persistent and repeated daily until
a healthy condition is obtained. General tonics are useful.

How may rupture of the uterus during labor be recognized?

Small ruptures may pass unnoticed for a few days after par-
turition, when the symptoms of septic peritonitis lead the operator
to make a manual exploration and discover the opening. An ex-
tensive rupture occurring during labor is often followed by collapse
and death from hemorrhage. The escape of the fetal fluids into the
peritoneal cavity likewise results in collapse and death. If death
is not sudden, the animal ceases straining, the pulse becomes small
and imperceptible, and a cold perspiration covers the body.

Give the treatment of laceration of the cervix uteri.

Small lacerations require little or no attention. Extensive
lacerations should be treated antiseptically. Adjust the vaginal
speculum and with long dressing forceps, holding pledgets of
cotton, remove all discharges. In the same manner swab the edges
of the wounds with proper medical agents, such as Tr. iodine,
iodoform, ete.

Define lochia and give its treatment.
Lochia is the term applied to the uterine discharge occurring for
a period of a few hours or a few days following parturition. It
consists of blood and fragments of the uterine mucosa or of the
placental villi, which must be expelled before the uterus can resume
its normal state. It is a purely physiological condition and requires
no treatment unless infection occurs, when the condition is no
longer normal but pathological.

What is meant by lochia? Is lochia common in domestic animals?
See answer to preceding question. Lochia is common in all
domestic animals, but is more noticeable in some than others. In
the mare and cat it is very scant, whereas in the cow, sheep, and
bitch it is more abundant.

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290 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage.

Slight hemorrhage requires little or no attention. Hasten in-
volution of the organ and at the same time check the hemorrhage
by the introduction of cold water or ice. Remove coagulated masses
of blood and administer ergot or other stimulants to favor involu-
tion. Severe hemorrhage should be treated by an intravenous
infusion of normal salt solution.

Define and describe (a) vaginismus, (b) vaginitis.
(a) A painful spasm of the vagina due to local hyperesthesia.
(b) Inflammation of the vagina.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of vaginitis.

Causes: Injuries during the act of parturition and entrance of
infection; careless manipulations in assisting dystocia cases; irri-
tant drugs used as vaginal or uterine douches; uterine discharges
passing over the vaginal mucous membrane may, and usually do,
irritate the same.

Symptoms: Swelling and inflammation of the vaginal mucous
membrane and a purulent, leucorrheeal discharge. Defecation and
urination are often difficult, owing to the pain in the parts. If
long standing, ulceration and necrosis may be present.

Treatment: Irrigate the vagina with warm, mild, antiseptic
solutions; 2 per cent. phenol or 1 per cent. lysol is useful. In mild
cases use a solution of sodium bicarbonate. In ulceration use silver
nitrate or Ty. iodine.

Describe the symptoms and give the treatment of contagious vaginitis.
Granular venereal disease, or infectious granular vaginitis, is
a disease of cows which is especially characterized by the formation
of small granular elevations in the vulvar and posterior vaginal
mucosa. In addition, swelling of the vulvo-vaginal mucosa and
a mucopurulent discharge is observed. This disease is said by many
good authorities to be the chief cause of the so-called ‘‘infectious
abortion,’’ and to be very extensively spread in this country.
The importance of the disease depends upon its many complications,
which are: abortion, retained placenta, septic metritis, septicemia,
pyemia, pyometra, cystic ovaries, persistent corpora lutea, etc.
Treatment: Separate the well from the diseased; disinfect
stables; cleanse vulva and vagina of all discharges and disin-
fect these parts with a 0.5 per cent. solution of phenol. It would
be a wise prophylactic measure to disinfect the sheath and penis
of each bull which has covered affected cows.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 291

Give the causes, symptoms and the treatment of puerperal septicaemia.

Causes: Septic inflammation of the uterus; retained placenta;

retention of a decomposed fetus; infection of wounds occurring
during labor.

Symptoms: Four or five days after parturition, we notice fever,
rapid pulse and rapid respiration, fetid discharge from vulva, ex-
treme weakness, lessened milk secretion, constipation alternating
with diarrhcea, death in a short time (24 hours to a few days). In
non-fatal cases pyemic arthritis may supervene.

Treatment: Usually fruitless. Thoroughly cleanse and disin-
fect the septic genital tract. Quinine, which stands preéminently
the best drug in septic fevers, should be administered in large doses
(one ounce, twice daily if necessary).

Write a prescription for retained placenta in the cow.
The handling of retained placenta is principally mechanical,
although in cases accompanied by grave constitutional disturbances
the following may be useful:

BR
Dr. Gig tala: cai ava sea mga eden teow Eaweh eae es 5 vj
Quinine sulphatis: ..a..sscescsaareenceescuseernnws 5 ij
(AG SUIPRUPICL & ian dagen Sh ade te Veet ERE aw qs.)
Spts. vini rect. qs. ad. 11... ee eee ee eee eee eee 0j
M.

Sig.—Give one ounce every 4 hours.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of acute mastitis in the cow.

Causes: In practically every case mastitis originates from infec-

tion, which gains entrance through the teats, wounds, or by the

blood- and lymph-stream. As predisposing or accessory factors the

following may be considered: cold, trauma, retained placenta, filthy

surroundings, careless and irregular milking, and inflation of the
udder in the treatment of milk fever.

Symptoms: One or all four quarters of the udder may be in-
volved. Heat, tenderness, redness, and swelling are marked from
the first. There is a suspension of the milk secretion in the affected
quarters. The milk which is present in the gland is clumpy and
may be streaked with blood. Fever, loss of appetite, constipation,
and general depression show the systemic disturbance. Complica-
tions that may aggravate the condition are gangrene, abscess for-
mation, pyemia, septicemia, atrophy of the gland, and pyxemic
arthritis.

Treatment: Hot fomentations and massage increase leucocy-

tosis and are conceded to be the most valuable of all treatments.
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Frequent milking, suspensory bandages, external application of
disinfectants, intramammary injections of same, and many other
measures have their advocates. Increased activity of the alimentary
tract should be stimulated by a laxative diet and the use of areco-
line, or eserine and pilocarpine. Certain drugs, such as camphor
and turpentine, which are eliminated in the milk, are useful because
of their disinfectant action, and may be given in full doses. Abscess
formation and gangrene call for surgical interference.

What are the causes of colic in pregnant animals? Give treatment.

The etiology of ‘‘true’’ colic occurring in pregnancy would be
little different from that in a non-pregnant animal; likewise the
treatment, except that precautions should be taken to avoid drugs
which might empty the uterus. ‘‘False’’ colic may be observed in
torsion of the uterus (q.v.).

Why are rickets and osteomalacia frequently observed in pregnant

animals? Give treatment.

These diseases, in any animal, can usually be traced to a de-
ficiency in the quantity or the quality of the food. A lack of lime
salts, especially the phosphate of calcium, has long been recognized
as a potent etiological factor. Add to this the extra demand made
upon the pregnant animal by the developing fcetus, as well as a low-
ered vitality from prolonged lactation, and it is entirely obvious
why these diseases are frequently observed in pregnancy.

Treatment: Improve the quality and quantity of the food. The
regular administration of calcium phosphate in the food is very
beneficial. In addition, nux vomica and potassium iodide may be
given with good results.

Mention two causes of hernia of the bladder into the vaginal canal.

Give procedure for reducing the hernia.

This very rare condition may occur by reason of a rupture in
the floor of the vagina, or the organ may become everted through
a relaxed urethral opening when the intra-abdominal pressure is
increased by violent expulsive efforts.

In the former condition replace the organ and suture the rent in
the vaginal floor, taking care to bring the peritoneal surfaces of the
wound together. In the latter, gentle pressure should be directed
toward returning the everted organ. After replacement is effected,
allay irritation by irrigating the bladder with warm, normal salt
solution and prevent straining by the use of local or general anexs-
theties.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 293

Give causes, symptoms and treatment of puerperal laminitis of the
mare.

Causes: Occurs in connection with endometritis due to retention
of a part of the placenta. Toxins, formed as a result of the bac-
terial decomposition, are absorbed and laminitis is produced through
metastasis.

Symptoms: Same as acute laminitis from other causes, and, in
addition, the symptoms of endometritis are observed. (See acute
laminitis, p. 255, and acute endometritis, p. 288.)

Treatment: Remove all placental fragments from the uterine
cavity. Irrigate the cavity with mild, antiseptic solutions such as
lysol, carbolic acid, and potassium permanganate. Powdered iodo-
form is useful. (See treatment of acute endometritis, p. 288.)

Name some of the principal causes of sterility in (a) the male, (b)
the female.
(a) Cryptorchidism, idleness and overfeeding, masturbation,
orchitis and epididymitis, hydrocele, and excessive sexual use.
(b) Cystic ovaries, emaciation, overwork, metritis, occlusion
of the os uteri, and senile atrophy of the sexual organs.

What is sterility? Name some causes of sterility and give the treat-
ment.

Sterility is the inability to reproduce young.

Causes: In the male, sterility may be due to cryptorchidism,
previous attack of orchitis or epididymitis. No treatment will over-
come sterility due to these causes. Idleness and overfeeding often
lead to impotency. The treatment for these conditions is sug-
gested by the cause. Onanism may cause sterility. This vice may
be corrected by proper feeding and exercise. A shield, so adjusted
over the sheath as to cause pain when the penis is protruded, will
prohibit erection and thus prevent masturbation.

In the female, sterility is commonly caused by cystic degener-
ation of the ovaries. These cysts are sometimes crushed by manual
pressure, either per rectum or per vaginam, but there is a tendency
to recurrence which leads to a fibrous degeneration. Metritis is an
etiological factor. Acute metritis usually responds to local treat-
ment (antiseptic irrigation with potassium permanganate, 11000),
but chronic metritis, pyometra, requires long-continued treatment.
The og uteri must be dilated and the uterine cavity irrigated daily
with proper antiseptic solutions. The introduction of iodoform
powder in a gelatine capsule is useful. Occlusion of the os uteri is

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294 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

often advanced as a cause of sterility, but in most cases is over-
estimated.

Name three pathological conditions of the ovary which may cause
sterility. 7
Tuberculosis, tumors, and cystic degeneration.

DISEASES OF THE NEW-BORN

Name four infectious diseases of the new-born and four non-infectious.
Infectious: Omphalophlebitis, tetanus neonatorum, white scours,
septic pleuropneumonia.
Non-infectious: Asphyxia, umbilic hemorrhage, umbilical her-
nia, retention of meconium.

Name three diseases of the new-born and give the treatment of each.
See answers to succeeding questions.

Give method of treatment for the resuscitation of an asphyxiated new-
born colt.

Apply traction and relaxation alternately upon the tongue; sus-
pend animal by hind legs to dislodge mucus; induce artificial
respiration by alternately compressing and relaxing the chest;
alternating electric current may be used if at hand.

Give the causes and the treatment of diarrhoea in the new-born.

Causes: Overfeeding, improper food, milk from overheated or
exhausted mothers, unsanitary feeding utensils, and infection. In-
fectious diarrhea (‘‘white scours’’), a specific disease, is due to
infection of the navel.

Treatment: Allow young to nurse frequently. If artificially
fed, sterilize feeding utensils and give food of unquestionable qual-
ity as regards bacterial content, ete. Give a mild, soothing cathar-
tic, such as castor oil, and follow, if necessary, with small repeated
doses of bismuth subnitrate. Lime water and milk in the proportion
of 1:4 is an excellent diet for artificially-fed animals. Clean, sani-
tary quarters should be provided. ‘‘ White scours,’’ due to navel
infection, requires local antiseptic treatment in addition to the
above.

Give the causes of umbilic infection.
The cord may be infected in its passage through the vulvo-
vaginal canal, or later the stump of the ruptured cord may come in
contact with the earth, soiled bedding, urine, etc.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 295

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of umbilic hernia.

Causes: Failure of the umbilic ring in the abdominal floor to
close as it normally should. This condition is a congenital defect
which seems to be hereditary. Rarely is the defect acquired or
accidental.

Symptoms: The presence of a reducible or irreducible, painless
tumor in the region of the navel, which may vary in size from that
of a hen’s egg to a child’s head, or larger. It is usually soft and
fluctuating and can be pushed through the circular or elliptical-
shaped opening in the abdominal floor, but immediately returns
when the pressure is released. If strangulation, which rarely occurs,
is present, the tumor may be irreducible.

Treatment: Many plans have been tried, such as ligation, ban-
dages, trusses, topical applications, clamps and sutures, but the last
named has the preference. Small hernie often disappear spon-
taneously before the animal is three or four months old. Best plan
of treatment is to secure the patient on its back and give a general
anesthetic; shave and disinfect the skin over the hernia; make an
incision through the hernial sac and expose the ring; bring the
margins of the ring together with strong, deeply-inserted sutures
of silk or catgut; close the skin wound and apply an antiseptic pack
over wound, holding it in place with body bandage. Small hernize
may be sutured similarly without making an incision through the
skin, but by passing sutures through the whole sac near its base.
These sutures may be so arranged that the sac is ligated and
sloughed away.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of inflammation of the um-
bilic cord (omphalophlebitis).

Causes: Infection due to contact with soiled litter, feces, urine,
etc. Manipulations of the cord by laymen or others without observ-
ing aseptic precautions. Needless or faulty ligation of the cord.
Flies also carry infection.

Symptoms: The disease, which occurs a few hours after birth,
may remain local (omphalitis) or extend to the umbilical vein
(omphalophlebitis) and result in septicopyemia. If local, swelling
and tenderness of the navel region are noted; a thin, watery, or
blood-tinged discharge which later contains pus exudes; little or no
systemic disturbance is observed. Later, two to ten days, if the
inflammation extends to deeper parts, a sudden, severe, general
disturbance takes place; this is manifested by fever, inappetency,
lameness due to septic arthritis, painful swellings about the articu-

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296 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

lations, abscess formation in various parts, such as the liver, kidneys,
spleen, lungs, etc. Therefore the symptoms may be many and
varied.

Treatment: This disease is more easily prevented than cured.
Local disinfection is the best and only measure necessary. Remove
all necrotic tissue, thoroughly cleanse and apply dry antiseptic
powders to the stump of the cord. If the infection has become
generalized, all treatment is practically hopeless, but local disin-
fection should be energetically effected. The various methods of
increasing the opsonic index by injections of antistreptococcic sera,
vaccines, etc., may be useful.

Give the causes, symptoms and treatment of foal-lameness.
See answer to preceding question.

Give the treatment of imperforated anus.
Make an incision through the skin where the anus should be,
down upon the mass of meconium in the rectum.

Give the symptoms and the treatment of persistence of the urachus.

Symptoms: All, or part, of the urine, depending upon whether
the urethra is open or not, is discharged through the navel. Navel
infection with omphalophlebitis may follow.

Treatment: If the urethra is imperforate, attempt opening same,
then apply desiccating and astringent antiseptics, such as Tr. iodine,
or actual cautery to the navel. If the urethra cannot be opened,
the prognosis is bad, as infection will sooner or later enter the navel
and produce fatal results.

What is cyanosis in the new-born? Give cause and symptoms.
A blueness of the skin and mucous membranes, due to cardiac
malformation causing insufficient oxygenation of the blood.
Cause: Failure of the foramen ovale (a fetal structure, consist-
ing of an opening between the auricles) to close at birth.
Symptoms: Extreme weakness, rapid respiration, and a bluish
coloration of the skin and visible mucous membranes.

Describe the external sexual organs in a case of hermaphrodism.
Varies greatly in different cases. In general, a rudimentary
penis or enlarged clitoris projects backward or downward from the
lower commissure of a vulva. The mammary gland is moderately

developed in its normal position or may resemble a scrotum and
contain undeveloped testicles.

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MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS*

Define (a) materia medica, (b) therapeutics.

(a) Materia medica treats of the derivation, natural history,
physical and chemical properties, physiological actions, doses and
tests of purity of drugs.

(b) Therapeutics is that branch of knowledge which treats of
the application of all means—medicinal or otherwise—to the cure
of disease or relief of pain.

By what modes are medicines introduced into the organism?
. By intravenous injection.

. By inhalation.

By subcutaneous injection.

By intratracheal injection.

By the mouth (orally).

. By the rectum.

By inunction.

TID OB oo No

Compare as to size of dose and length of time required for action, the
following modes of administering medicine: (a) by mouth,
(b) by rectum, (c) by intravenous injection, (d) by hypo-
dermic injection.

(a) One-half the rectal dose, four to six times the intravenous
dose, and twice the hypodermic dose. Absorption more rapid than
from the rectum and slower than by intravenous and hypodermic
methods.

(b) Twice the oral dose. Absorption is slower and more imper-
fect than by the mouth.

(e) One-half to one-third the hypodermic and one-fourth to one-
sixth the oral dose. Absorption immediate.

(d) One-half the oral dose. Absorption quicker than all others
except the intravenous method.

This comparison is made with alkaloidal drugs, as they are the
ones usually given intravenously and subcutaneously.

What is meant by synergistic remedial agents? Describe fully.
Agents which assist or intensify the action of others. Belladonna
promotes the action of nux vomica, mercury and the iodides favor

* Unless otherwise stated all questions relate to the horse.

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298 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

the action of silver as a waste producer, the alkalies favor the
action of sulphur compounds, both chemically and physiologically.

What is meant by (a) the physiological action of a drug, (b) the toxic
dose of a drug, (c) the lethal dose of a drug?

(a) The definite and limited action of a drug upon some part of
the organism, intended to antagonize or overcome a particular patho-
logical condition.

(b) A dose sufficient to produce poisoning.

(c) A fatal dose.

Into what classes are cathartics divided? Name one cathartic of each
class and state how it acts.
: 1. Laxatives: olive oil acts mechanically and slightly stimulates
: ee peristalsis.
: 2. Simple purgatives: calomel stimulates secretion and peristal-
tic action.
3. Drastic purgatives: croton oil greatly increases peristaltic
action and secretions.
4. Hydragogue purgatives: magnesium sulphate abstracts water
from the blood by stimulating secretion.
5. Cholagogue purgatives: sodium phosphate increases the flow
of bile, which stimulates peristalsis.

How do sedatives act? What is the danger of the excessive use of
sedatives? .

Sedatives act by depressing protoplasm and lowering functional
activity. They allay nervous irritability by diminishing the con-
duction of impressions to the brain. Their excessive use may cause
the cardiac and respiratory actions to cease. A long-continued use
of sedatives may lead to alarming nervous irritability if suddenly
discontinued or if the dosage is not increased.

Give the physiological actions and the therapeutic uses of aconite.

Aconite decreases the cardiac rate and force, lowers arterial ten-
sion and temperature. The respiratory centre is depressed. It is a
diaphoretie and diuretic; depresses the functional activity of the
perceptive centres in the brain, the sensory side of the spinal cord,
and the peripheral sensory nerves.

It is indicated in all affections characterized by a high resisting
pulse and an elevated temperature; is useful in acute pharyngitis,
laryngitis, pleurisy, peritonitis, encephalitis, laminitis, enteritis,
and mammitis; also used in acute muscular or articular rheumatism,
and as a sedative in cardiac disturbance.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 299

What are the uses of tincture of aconite? Give the dose of tincture of
aconite (a) for the horse, (b) for the dog. How long should
maximum doses be given?

See answer to preceding question.

It is given in doses of 15 minims to the horse and 2 minims to
the dog, every. 15 minutes for two hours, and afterwards 30 minims
for the horse and 3 minims for the dog, every hour, until the tem-
perature and pulse-rate are lowered. The drug should be used
with caution and the pulse carefully watched. The maximum dose
for the horse, 14 to 114 drachms, for the dog, 2 to 8 minims, should
not be repeated without first examining the pulse and heart.

Give the indications for barium chloride. State the dose according to
the method of administration.
Barium chloride is indicated in obstinate constipation of the
horse and in colics where a quick-acting cathartic is needed.
Dose: 7 to 15 grains, intravenously ; 1 to 3 drachms per os.

Name the drugs that exert the greatest effect on glandular structures.

Pilocarpine, arecoline, belladonna, calomel, potassium iodide,

alcohol, ammonia, antimony and potassium tartrate, aloes, apomor-

phine, ipecac, camphor, opium, spirits nitrous ether, potassium
nitrate, ete.

Name the more common preparations of mercury. State the actions,
uses and the doses of each.

1. Unguentum hydrargyri: Parasiticide, stimulant, antiseptic,
and resolvent. Used externally for mange, lice, ringworm, small
exostoses, ete.

2. Hydrargyri iodidum rubrum: Resolvent and _ pustulant,
counterirritant. Used externally for splints, spavins, ringbones,
chronic tendinitis, enlarged burse, enlarged joints, chronic laryn-
gitis, ete.

3. Hydrargyri chloridum mite: Laxative, cathartic, diuretic,
antiseptic, alterative and vermifuge; externally, desiccant, anti-
parasiticide, and antiseptic. Used in gastritis; icterus due to con-
stipation, catarrh of the duodenum or hepatic congestion; and
influenza. Used in combination with santonin for intestinal worms.
Externally, it is used in chronic eczema, itching of the skin, and
thrush. Dose, 14 to 1 drachm.

4, Hydrargyri chloridum corrosivum: Corrosive, irritant poison,
alterative, antiseptic, and hepatic stimulant. Used externally, in
strength varying from 1-500 to 1-10,000, as an antiseptic for

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300 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

wounds, quittors, fistulous withers, etc. Used as a slonghing agent
in fibrous growths. In endometritis, a solution of 1-10,000 is used
as a douche.

Describe the medicinal treatment of pneumonia.

In the congestive stage, veratrum and aconite in full doses.
Counterirritants such as mustard on the chest-wall may relieve the
patient. Active friction followed with bandages on the legs.

In the stage of hepatization, support the heart with digitalis,
aleohol, ete. Reduce the temperature, if excessive, with aconite,
quinine sulphate, ete. Give mild laxatives, such as Glauber’s salts,
calomel, or linseed oil; alkaline diuretics, as potassium nitrate.

Tn the stage of resolution, give stimulating expectorants, such as
ammonium chloride and ammonium carbonate. The convalescent
period is shortened by the use of tonics, such as nux vomica, arsenic,
ete.

Give the treatment of tetanus.

Surgically remove tissue surrounding the point of infection or
thoroughly cauterize same and treat daily with strong disinfectants.
Phenol is best for this purpose. Keep the patient in a quiet place.
The use of antitoxin as a therapeutic agent is still sub judice. By
most authorities it is considered valueless in this connection.
Attempts to control spasms may be made with potassium bromide,
given in four-ounce doses every four hours. Morphine, chloral,
or lobelia may assist. Rectal or nasal feeding may help in nourish-
ing the patient. Saline laxatives to secure free elimination.

Describe the treatment of influenza in its simple form.

A laxative condition of the bowels should be secured by feeding
bran-mashes and administering calomel. Stimulants such as liquor
ammonium acetatis or ammonium carbonate are valuable. If the
fever is high, quinine, acetanilide and antipyrine are important
antipyretics which can be used. In cedema of the extremities, potas-
sium nitrate is indicated. Support a weak heart with digitalis,
eamphor, or strychnine. Counterirritants on the chest and throat
may be useful. Treat complications symptomatically.

Name four alkalies. Give the action and the uses of alkalies.
Potassium, sodium, lithium, and ammonium.
Actions: The salts of potassium are irritants, caustics, diuretics,
antacids, alteratives, and antipyretics. Potassium nitrate is useful
in dropsical effusions. Potassium bromide is a nerve depressant,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 301

useful in spasms and nervous excitement. Potassium hydroxide is a
caustic used on warts and tumors and to prevent the growth of
horns on cattle. Potassium chlorate is an antiseptic which is useful
in pharyngitis and stomatitis. Potassium iodide is used as an altera-
tive in actinomycosis and other chronic conditions.

The salts of sodum are irritants, caustics, diuretics, cathartics,
and alteratives. Sodium bicarbonate is useful in gastric and intes-
tinal catarrh. Sodium bromide is used same as potassium bromide.
Sodium chloride is used intravenously in hemorrhage, anemia, and
collapse, also in gastro-intestinal catarrh. Sodium sulphate is a laxa-
tive which is serviceable in gastro-intestinal catarrh, serous exu-
dates, and edemas. Sodium hyposulphite is used as an antacid and
antiseptic in gastric tympany. Sodium hydroxide is used same as
potassium hydroxide.

The salts of lithium are diuretics which are used in uric acid
ealeuli for their solvent action; also used in rheumatism.

The salts of ammonium are stimulants, expectorants, diapho-
retics, antipyretics, diuretics, vesicants, irritants, antacids, ete.
Ammonium carbonate is used as an antacid in colic and tympanites,
as a circulatory and respiratory stimulant and a stimulating expec-
torant in the third stage of pneumonia, in bronchitis, emphysema,
and asa heart stimulant in collapse. Ammonium chloride is a stimu-
lant expectorant used in catarrhal bronchitis and pneumonia. Aqua
ammonia is an antacid useful in tympanites and externally in
liniments.

What are the general actions of opium? Give the dose of opium for
the horse, the cow and the dog.

Opium is analgesic, hypnotic, diaphoretic, antispasmodic, and
narcotic; also cardiac and respiratory depressant, after brief stimu-
lation.

Dose of powdered opium for the horse, 20 to 90 grains; for the
cow, 1 to 2 drachms; for the dog, 14 to 3 grains.

State the source and the uses of opium.

Opium is obtained in Asia Minor from the unripe capsule of
Papaver somniferum, or poppy plant, by incision and spontaneous
evaporation of the milky exudate.

It is used as an antispasmodic in peripheral irritation( cough) ;
checks excessive secretions and suppresses peristalsis in acute inflam-
matory affections of the bowels (the bowels should be previously
cleared of the irritant). Useful in pleurisy to check the develop-

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ment of hydrothorax and in peritonitis to prevent ascites. In
catarrhal diseases it lessens the discharge; in cerebrospinal menin-
gitis and muscular spasms to lessen the nervous irritability; to
check premature labor pain and prevent straining in eversion of
the rectum or uterus,

Give the actions and the uses of ergot.

Ergot is a powerful vasomotor stimulant, hemostatic, gastro-
intestinal irritant, and ecbolic. It stimulates and contracts involun-
tary muscular fibres, and hence diminishes the blood-stream passing
through the arterioles; large doses or small repeated doses produce
ergotism, which is characterized by gangrene of the extremities,
due to lack of blood supply to the parts.

Ergot is used as an ecbolic to stimulate weak uterine contractions
and promote expulsion of the foetus or feetal membranes; also used
as a vasomotor constrictor in postpartum or other internal
hemorrhage.

Give the actions and the uses of the iron salts.

Iron in general is a hematinic, stomachie, styptic, astringent,
and hemostatic. The sulphate is a vermicide. The iodide is altera-
tive and resolvent as well as tonic.

Iron is used in anemia, diarrhea, intestinal worms, and as a
valuable tonic in convalescence from debilitating diseases. Locally,
the chloride of iron is used to check hemorrhage and as an astringent
in chronic pharyngitis and laryngitis. Internally, it is used as a
diuretic and tonic in purpura hemorrhagica.

The hydrated sesquioxide of iron is a specific antidote for
arsenical poisoning. The phosphate is serviceable in diseases of bone
(rachitis, osteoporosis) and nervous exhaustion. The sulphate
improves the appetite and abates exhausting discharges in chronic
eatarrhal rhinitis and endometritis.

Give the actions and the uses of cantharides.

Externally, cantharides is irritant, rubefacient, vesicant. In-
ternally, it is irritant, and stimulates the genito-urinary tract,
diuretic and aphrodisiac.

It is used internally (rarely) to produce sexual excitement;
and for incontinence of the urine from paralysis of the bladder.
Externally, it is a valuable counterirritant and vesicant. Used in
sprains, tendovaginitis, periostitis, exostoses, wind-puffs, chronic
laryngitis and pharyngitis, and to stimulate the growth of horn
and hair.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 303

What preparations of arsenic are most used in veterinary medicine?
Arsenous acid, iodide of arsenic, Fowler’s solution, and Pearson’s
solution,

Give the actions and the uses of arsenic.

Arsenic is a gastro-intestinal and respiratory tonic, a stimulant
and alterative, acting especially on the digestive and respiratory
mucous membrane and the skin. It is an antiperiodie, also anti-
spasmodic in nervous diseases, and is a nervine tonic. It increases
the cardiac action, respiratory power, and secretion of the intestines ;
also has a vermicidal action. '

Uses: General tonic after debilitating diseases, especially pneu-
monia, pleurisy, and bronchitis; intestinal worms, chronic cough
(heaves). Used in anemia, chorea, chronic eczema, and periodically
returning fevers.

How should a course of arsenic be administered so as to avoid chronic
arsenical poisoning?

Begin with very small amounts and gradually increase the dose
until the physiological limit is reached (edema and itching of the
eyelids), then gradually decrease the dose. Do not leave off the
administration abruptly. <A tolerance for the drug can be acquired
so that large doses may be given with impunity.

Describe the actions of arecoline hydrobromide and give the dose for
the horse.

Arecoline hydrobromide increases salivation and intestinal
secretions; stimulates peristalsis, slows and softens the pulse. It is
used as a quick-acting cathartic in colics and acute laminitis in
doses of 14 to 14 grain subcutaneously, repeated in 20 minutes. A
single dose of 1 to 1144 grains subcutaneously is given by some, but
fractional doses are safer.

Name the iodine compounds and give their actions and uses.

Liquor iodi compositus (Lugol’s solution), ammonium iodide,
sodium iodide, and potassium iodide are given internally; tincture
of iodine and iodoform are used externally.

Actions: Externally, stimulant, irritant, and vesicant; if used
concentrated, antiseptic, resolvent, parasiticide, deodorizer, and dis-
infectant. Internally, alterative, resolvent, deobstruent, and ex-
pectorant ; stimulates glandular activity and promotes tissue changes
as well as the absorption and elimination of recently formed tissue
and diseased cells. Forms insoluble compounds with lead, mercury,
and other metals and hastens their removal in cases of poisoning.

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304 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Uses: Externally for enlarged glands, periosteal inflammation,
capped hock, curb, chronic synovitis, pharyngitis, and laryngitis;
to stimulate granulations in slow-healing wounds and promote the
growth of hair. Useful to disinfect the skin before operations;
as a parasiticide in mange, ringworm, and favus; iodoform is used
as a dusting powder in suppurative wounds for its bactericidal and
stimulating effect. It also has a slight anesthetic action.

Internally, potassium iodide is most commonly used. It is a
specific in actinomycosis; alterative in chronic bronchitis and laryn-
gitis; antidote for chronic lead poisoning; goitre, scirrhous cord,
botryomycosis, hydrothorax, ascites, cirrhosis of the liver, and
periodic ophthalmia are often improved by the use of potassium
iodide internally. Ammonium iodide is useful to hasten the stage
of resolution in pneumonia.

What effect has acetanilide on the temperature? Give its action and
uses.

Acetanilide has a decided antipyretic effect in fevers, but little
effect on a normal temperature. It is mildly diaphoretic, slightly
antiseptic, diuretic, and depressant to the heart.

It should be used in very high fevers only, especially thermic
fever (sunstroke), in one- to two-drachm doses, repeated not oftener
than every six hours.

State the source and the uses of acetanilide.
Acetanilide is obtained by distilling together glacial acetic acid
and aniline and purifying the residue by repeated crystallization.

(See answer to preceding question. )

Define the following terms: haustus, collyrium, electuary, decoction,
infusion, elixir, emulsion.

Haustus is a draft, or drench, of medicine.

Collyrium is an eye-wash.

Electuary is a medicinal powder, beaten up with sugar, honey,
or molasses to the consistency of thick paste. Electuaries are in-
tended to be smeared on the teeth of animals where they melt at body
temperature and act locally on the mouth and throat.

Decoction is an aqueous preparation, obtained by boiling drugs
in water.

Infusion is an aqueous solution of a drug, macerated in boiling
water without the aid of ebullition.

Elixir is a sweetened, aromatic, alcoholic solution of a drug.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 305

Emulsion is a milky fluid obtained by mixing an oil or resin with
water. The globules of oil or particles of insoluble resin are held
in suspension by some gummy substance, usually acacia. Milk is
a natural emulsion.

What are stimulants? Name (a) a cardiac stimulant, (b) a hepatic
stimulant, (c) a cerebral stimulant, (d) a diffusible, or gen-
eral, stimulant.

A stimulant is an agent which increases functional activity.
(a) Camphor, (b) podophyllum, (c) opium, (d) alcohol.

Name the ingredients, giving the proportion of each, found in each of
the following mixtures: the A.C. E. mixture, the E.C.
mixture.

A.C. EK. = Alcohol 1 part, chloroform 2 parts, and ether 3 parts.
E. C. = Ether and chloroform, equal parts.

What is meant by (a) chemical incompatibility, (b) physiologic in-
compatibility, (c) pharmaceutical incompatibility? Give
an example of each.

(a) Chemical incompatibility occurs when drugs are so mixed
that an unsuitable alteration in their chemical composition takes
place, e.g., calomel with nitrohydrochloric acid forms corrosive
sublimate.

(b) Physiologic incompatibility consists in the union of drugs
possessing antagonistic physiological actions;—e.g., atropine and
pilocarpine.

(c) Pharmaceutic incompatibility results in the production of
an unsightly mixture due to physical change; e.g., resinous tinctures
and aqueous solutions cause the resins to separate.

How do tinctures differ from spirits? Give examples.

Tinctures are alcoholic solutions of non-volatile principles (ex-
cept Tr. iodine), made usually by maceration and percolation of
the crude drug. Examples, belladonna tincture, aconite tincture,
ete.

Spirits are alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. Example,
spirits of camphor.

Describe the preparation of a tincture. Name five official tinctures.
The majority of tinctures are made by percolation. This is
accomplished by packing the powdered drug in a suitable vessel and
depriving it of its soluble constituents by allowing a menstruum, or
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306

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

solvent, to descend through it. The menstruum used is alcohol,
except in two cases, when aromatic spirits of ammonia is used as
a solvent.

Five official tinctures: Tr. aloes, Tr. iodine, Tr. nux vomica,
Tr. gentian, and Tr. opium.

Give the actions and the uses of veratrum viride. State the dose for

(a) the horse, (b) the dog.

Veratrum viride is a cardiac depressant, febrifuge, spinal
paralyzant, emetic, and cathartic. Used about the same as aconite,
but is inferior to same. Employed as an emetic in swine, stomachic
in cattle in indigestion, and for pneumonia and other respiratory
diseases in the horse. Used to lower temperature, relieve pain, and
lessen the duration of acute rheumatic fever. Dose for the horse,
5ss-j., for the dog, gr. +/,,-1.

Give in the metric system (a) the table of weight, (b) the unit of weight,

(c) the unit of measure of liquids.
(a) 10 milligrammes = 1 centigramme,
10 centigrammes = 1 decigramme,
10 decigrammes = 1 gramme,
10 grammes = 1 decagramme,
10 decagrammes = 1 hectogramme,
10 hectogrammes = 1 kilogramme.
(b) One gramme is the unit of weight; it being the weight of
one cubic centimetre of distilled water, at the temperature of 4° C.
(c) One eubic centimetre is the unit of measure of liquids.

Give the actions and uses of quinine sulphate. State the dose for (a)

the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog.

Quinine sulphate is a tonic, antiseptic, antiperiodic, antipyretic,
antiphlogistic, antimiasmatic, stomachic, and antiferment. Small
doses stimulate the heart and brain, large doses depress both. Large
doses lower reflex activity of the spinal cord.

It is used as a bitter stomachic and tonic to improve the appetite
and stimulate digestion. Checks abnormal gastro-intestinal fermen-
tation. Used in anzxmia, septicemia, pyemia, influenza, strangles,
purpura hemorrhagica, and other infectious febrile diseases. It
is of great benefit in distemper of dogs, chorea, and rheumatism;
also used as an antipyretic and stimulant in pneumonia and
bronchitis.

(a) 2 to 4 drachms, (b) 4 to 6 drachms, (ce) 1 to 5 grains.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 307

State the dose of quinine as an antipyretic and tell how often the dose
should be repeated.
Two drachms, repeated every three or fours hours.

What is an anesthetic? Give the uses of anesthetics. Mention
three examples of each of the two great classes of anzs-
thetics. ;

An anesthetic is an agent which diminishes or abolishes. sensa-
tion. It is used to prevent pain and struggling during surgical
operations, in obstetrical operations, reduction of fractures, dislo-
cation and hernias, to overcome spasms and convulsions resulting
from disease or poisons, and finally to destroy aged or sick and
useless animals. Local anesthetics are sometimes used in making
diagnoses of lameness.

Local: Cocaine, alypin, and stovaine.

General: Ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide. (Chloral hy-
drate is often used as a general anesthetic.)

Name three local anzsthetics and describe the mode of application of
each.

1. Cocaine hydrochloride. Dose for the horse, 2 to 10 grains,
hypodermically. Used in 4 to 10 per cent. solution, injected under
the skin.

2. Eucaine hydrochlorate. Used same as cocaine.

3. Phenol. Applied to the skin over the line where an incision
is to be made.

What is morphine? Describe the actions and uses in medicine of
morphine. State the hypodermic dose for (a) the horse,
(b) the dog.

Morphine is an alkaloid obtained from opium. It occurs in
colorless or white crystals, or as a crystalline powder, odorless and
having a bitter taste.

It is hypnotic, anodyne, narcotic, nervous sedative, and anti-
spasmodic.

Used in eclampsia in bitches; useful in painful cough; relieves
pain in spasmodic colic, pleurisy, and dyspnea. Used to prevent
straining in eversion of the rectum or uterus; also used in ‘‘thumps”’
(spasms of the diaphragm) and as an anesthetie for surgical opera-
tions on dogs.

(a) 3 to 5 grains, (b) */1, to 4 grain. For surgical anesthesia

1 to 2 grains are given hypodermically to dogs.
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308 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the composition and the uses of Fowler’s solution of arsenic.
State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog.
Fowler’s solution (liquor potassii arsenitis) is an arsenical
preparation of 1 per cent. strength. Its formula is as follows:

ATsenous ACId «scenes siges come ec ares hme eae Kole es 1 part
Potassium bicarbonate ............-.4 cree eee 2 parts
Compound spirits of lavender ..........++++++0+- 3 parts
Distilled water ........... cece eee renee eee 94 parts

Used as a alterative and tonic in chronic intestinal catarrh,
emaciation, chronic dyspncea (heaves), chorea, chronic skin diseases,
anemia, rachitis, osteomalacia, etc.; as a vermifuge for intestinal
worms; used externally to remove warts.

(a) 2 drachms to 1 ounce, (b) 2 to 10 minims.

What is Pearson’s solution? How is it prepared? Give its uses and
dose.

Liquor sodii arsenatis (Pearson’s solution) is a solution of
sodium arsenate. It is made the same as Fowler’s solution, only
sodium arsenate is used in place of potassium arsenite (potassium
bicarbonate and arsenous acid). It is used for the same purposes
and in the same doses as Fowler’s solution, but is less irritating and
active. (See answer to preceding question. )

Give the principal use of apomorphine for the dog. State how apomor-
phine is administered and mention the dose for a 40-pound
dog.

Used as a prompt and powerful emetic. Usually given hypoder-
mically. Dose for a 40-pound dog, 7/,, grain.

Give the physiologic actions and the uses of belladonna.

Belladonna is a narcotic, mydriatic, antispasmodic, and anodyne.
In small doses it is cardiac, respiratory, and spinal stimulant; in
large doses, a paralyzer of the secretory and motor nerve-endings
and a stimulator of the entire sympathetic system.

It is used to check abnormal secretion in ptyalism, acute catarrhal
conditions, and polyuria. Used as an antispasmodic in colic, tetanus,
cough, bronchitis, and dyspnea. It suppresses the symptoms of
heaves, relaxes a contracted or rigid os, and allows of parturition.
It is useful to relieve congestion in the beginning of acute inflam-
matory diseases, as laminitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy. Used exter-
nally in liniments for muscular pain. It is used in ophthalmology

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 309

to dilate the pupil and paralyze accommodation for purposes of
refraction ; to prevent or break up adhesions of the iris and inflam-
matory conditions of the cornea. Atropine, the active principle
of belladonna, is generally used in this work.

Give the source of atropine and describe its action,
Atropine is an alkaloid obtained from belladonna. It is the chief
alkaloid of this drug and represents its action. (See answer to
preceding question. )

Name five antiseptics for wounds and give the strength in which each
should be used.
Corrosive sublimate, 1-1000 to 1-2000.
Phenol, 3 to 5 per cent. solution.
Creolin, 1 per cent. solution.
Hydrogen peroxide, 50 per cent. solution or undiluted.
Lysol, 4% to 2 per cent. solution.

Mention four preparations of iron and state the dose of each for (a)
the horse, (b) the dog.
Ferrum reductum, (a) 1 to 3 drachms, (b) 1 to 5 grains.
Ferri sulphas, (a) 14 to 1 drachm, (b) 14 to 2 grains.
Tr. ferri chloridi, (a) 2 to 8 drachms, (b) 2 to 20 minims.
Ferri hydroxidum cum magnesii oxide, (a) 8 ounces, (b) 4
drachms.

State how benzoated lard is prepared and give its uses.

Adeps benzoinatus is made by melting lard 1000 parts with
benzoin 20 parts. The melting is accomplished by means of a water-
bath. The temperature should not rise above 60° C., and should be
continued for two hours. After straining, the mixture should be
stirred until cool.

It is used as a base for ointments. The benzoin acts as a preser-
vative to prevent the lard from becoming rancid.

What is (a) a hypnotic, (b) a mydriatic, (c) a myotic? Give an ex-
ample of each.

(a) An agent which produces sleep, without first causing excite-
ment; €.9., potassium bromide.

(b) An agent which causes abnormal dilatation of the pupil;
é.g., atropia.

(ce) An agent causing abnormal contraction of the pupil; ¢.g.,
opium.

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310 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What is strychnine? Describe the actions and the uses of strychnine.
State the hypodermic dose of strychnine for (a) the horse,
(b) the dog.

Strychnine is an alkaloid obtained from nux vomica.

It is a nerve tonic, gastric tonic, stimulates respiration, secre-
tion, and digestion; it increases peristalsis, stimulates both the
motor and inhibitory apparatus of the heart, and raises arterial
tension by stimulating the vasomotor centres, thus contracting the
arterioles; full doses relax the arterioles and thus reduce blood-
pressure.

Used in paralysis, depression of the nervous system, atonie dys-
pepsia, heaves, diarrhcea due to relaxation of the bowels from lack
of tone, in small doses; convalescence from debilitating diseases,
collapse, heart-weakness, chloroform, syncope, narcotic poisoning,
constipation, incontinence of the urine, ete.

(a) One-half to one grain, (b) 1/55 to 1/5) grain.

In what diseases of the horse should nux vomica be prescribed? Give
the dose of the fluidextract of nux vomica for (a) the horse,
(b) the cow, (c) the sheep, (d) the pig, (e) the dog, (f)
the cat.
See answer to preceding question, uses of strychnine.
(a) 1 drachm, (b) 2 drachms, (c) 20 minims, (d) 10 minims,
(e) 2 minims, (f) 1 minim.

What is Goulard’s extract? State how it is prepared and give its uses.

Liquor plumbi subacetatis (Goulard’s extract) is an aqueous

liquid, containing in solution about 25 per cent. of lead subacetate,

prepared by boiling together acetate of lead 180 parts, oxide of lead

110 parts, in 1000 parts of water. It is an active astringent and

sedative. Diluted with three parts of water, this agent is used for

sprains, bruises, cuts, burns, scratches, grease-heel, skin diseases,
eczema, canker of the ear in dogs, ete.

What drugs are used internally and externally to check hemorrhage?
Adrenalin, ergot, digitalis, turpentine, opium, bismuth, lead
acetate, and saline infusions are used internally.
Adrenalin, alum, ferric chloride, ferric sulphate, tannic acid,
lead acetate, bismuth, and ether-sprays are used externally.

Mention the methods by which temperature in fever may be reduced.
Which method is the most rational and practical?

The temperature in fever may be reduced by lessening the heat

production with drugs such as phenacetin, antipyrine, acetanilide,

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 311

quinine sulphate, salicylic acid, aconite, and digitalis, or by in-
creasing the heat loss with alcohol, spiritus xtheris nitrosi, cold,
and purgatives. The former method is better because it strikes
more nearly at the source or cause, and the latter method stimulates
the production of heat.

Give the properties, the uses and the dose of potassium chlorate.

Potassium chlorate occurs in colorless, monoclinic prisms. It
easily explodes on trituration with sugar, sulphur, tannin, and char-
coal. It is soluble in 1 to 16 parts of cold and 1 to 2 parts of boiling
water ; antiseptic, antacid, alterative, sialogogue, diuretic, febrifuge,
and cardiac depressant, and is used in laryngitis, pharyngitis,
stomatitis, and in febrile conditions of a catarrhal nature. Dose,
2 to 8 drachms.

What is oil of turpentine? How is it obtained? Give its medicinal
use.
It is a volatile oil, distilled from turpentine. Turpentine is
obtained from the ordinary yellow pine (Pinus palustrus) and other
varieties of pine. For uses, see following question.

Give the external use and the internal use of oil of turpentine. State
how oil of turpentine should be administered.

Used externally as a counterirritant, rubefacient, or stimulant
in sprains, arthritis, pleurisy, peritonitis, spasmodic colic, ete.

Internally, it is used as an antiferment in flatulency, anthel-
mintic for round- and tapeworms, stimulating and antiseptic expec-
torant in chronic bronchitis, genito-urinary antiseptic in purulent
nephritis, cystitis, and urethritis. Used extensively in internal
hemorrhage and purpura hemorrhagica. Injected intratracheally
for lung worms in calves and lambs.

It is usually administered in oil or milk. (Its irritating proper-
ties are greatly overestimated, however, as it can be given by the
mouth undiluted with no inconvenience to the patient.)

What are alkaloids?
Alkaloids are active nitrogenous principles existing in plants,
extracted by chemical art. They are organic bases of alkaline reac-
tion, forming salts with acids, and as salts are very soluble in

water.
Mention six alkaloids used in veterinary medicine. State the dose and
the mode of administering each.
1. Morphine: Morphine sulphate, 3 grains, hypodermically.
2. Strychnine: Strychnime sulphate, 1 grain, hypodermically.

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312 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

3. Quinine: Quinine sulphate, 2 drachms, per os.

4. Cocaine: Cocaine hydrochloride, 5 grains, hypodermically
or intramuscularly.

5. Atropine: Atropine sulphate, 1 grain, hypodermically.

6. Arecoline: Arecoline hydrobromide, 1 grain, hypodermically.

Name three alkaloids and state the source of each.
Pilocarpine, obtained from pilocarpus (Jaborandi).
Ergotine, obtained from ergot.

Digitaline, obtained from digitalis.

What are the medicinal uses of gentian root? State the dose for (a)
the horse, (b) the ox.
Stomachic in indigestion, debility, and convalescence. Used to
relieve acute and chronic flatulence.
(a) 2 drachms to 1 ounce, (b) 1 to 2 ounces.

What are the medicinal uses of ginger root? State the dose for (a) the
horse, (b) the ox.

Stomachic and carminative in atonic indigestion of horses and
ruminants. Used to aid the action of purgatives and prevent
eriping.

(a) 2 drachms to 1 ounce, (b) 1 to 4 ounces.

What is eserine? State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the ox, (c) the
dog.
Eserine is the principal alkaloid of physostigma.
(a) 1to 2 grains, (b) 1 to 3 grains, (¢) 1/49) to ?/,, grain (hypo-
dermically).

What are the actions and uses of eserine?

Kserine is a muscular stimulant ; it stimulates secretion in general,
excites nausea and vomiting, and is a laxative or purgative by stimu-
lating the muscular coat of the intestines as well as the intestinal
secretion. It also acts as a myotic and decreases intra-ocular tension.

Used in constipation due to torpor of the bowels, in impaction
colic and parturient paresis. Externally, in the eye to decrease
intra-ocular pressure and contract the pupil in periodic ophthalmia,
where it is sometimes alternated with atropine to prevent adhesions
of the iris and diminish pain and congestion.

State the principal alkaloid of the Calabar bean and give its dose and
uses.
Eserine (physostigmine) is the principal alkaloid of Calabar
bean or physostigma. (See answer to preceding questions.)

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 313

What blistering agents are adapted to the different domestic animals?
Cantharides for the horse, cantharides and red mercuric iodide
for bovines, and mustard for dogs and sheep.

What are the indications for the use of counterirritants? Name five
counterirritants.
1. To overcome congestion and inflammation in remote parts.
2. To promote absorption of inflammatory products, locally.
3. To relieve pain.
4. To stimulate the heart, respiratory and nervous functions.
Cantharides, iodine, mustard, turpentine, and red mercuric
iodide.
What is the best antiferment in gastric flatulence? State the dose of
the antiferment and give the method of its administration.
Sodium hyposulphite. Dissolve 4 to 12 ounces in one quart of
water and give as a drench.

What is chloral hydrate? How is it prepared?

Chloral hydrate is a crystalline solid, occurring in colorless,
transparent crystals, having an aromatic, penetrating, and slightly
acrid odor and a bitterish, caustic taste. It is freely soluble in
water, alcohol, ether, and volatile oils.

It is prepared by passing dry chlorine gas into alcohol until the
latter is saturated. It is purified by distillation with sulphuric
acid, and then with lime.

Give the actions and uses of chloral hydrate. What is the dose for the
horse?

It is a local irritant, antiseptic and stimulant. Internally, it has
a primary stimulating effect on the circulatory and central nervous
systems, but secondarily it depresses both.

The drug is used to lessen irritability and produce sleep. Its
principal use is in spasmodic conditions such as colics, coughs,
chorea, tetanus, etc. It is one of the best antidotes to strychnine
poisoning. Used by some as a general anesthetic, but is not as
reliable as chloroform.

Dose for the horse, 1 to 2 ounces. Four ounces are given for

anesthetic purposes.

Give the principal uses of viburnum prunifolium.
It is used as a tonic, antispasmodic, nerve sedative, and anti-

abortive. It is principally used to prevent habitual abortion.

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314 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the treatment of sunstroke.

Remove patient to a cool, shady place; apply ice-bags to the head
and neck; cold water enemas are useful. Give antipyretics and heart
stimulants, acetanilide, 2 drachms dissolved in 1 ounce of aromatic
spirits of ammonia, every two or three hours. Subcutaneous injec-
tions of camphor, ether, alcohol, atropine, hyoscyamine, caffeine,
veratrine, strychnine, ete., have been employed for their stimulating
effect.

Name (a) one powdered diuretic, (b) one liquid diuretic, (c) a blood
tonic, (d) a nerve tonic.
(a) Nitrate of potassium, (b) spirits nitrous ether, (c) iron
sulphate, (d) nux vomica.

Name (a) two general stimulants, (b) three heart stimulants. State
the dose of each.
(a) Alcohol, 2 to 3 ounces; aqua ammonia, 2 to 4 drachms.
(b) F. E. digitalis, 1 drachm; Tr. strophanthus, 1 to 2 drachms;
spirit of nitroglycerin, 14 to 1 drachm.

Describe the effects of the external applications of bismuth salts.
Give the physiological actions of bismuth subnitrate. What
is its dose?

No effect on the unbroken skin. They have a protecting, seda-
tive, astringent, and antiseptic action on raw surfaces.

Bismuth subnitrate exerts a sedative, astringent, aud antiseptic
effect throughout the alimentary canal by reason of its insolubility
and coating action on the walls of the same. It is used in vomiting,
diarrhea, and intestinal fermentation. It is comparatively harm-
less and can be given in relatively large doses. Dose for the horse,
2 drachms.

Mention three iodides and state the dose of each,
Potassium iodide, 2 to 4 drachms.
Sodium iodide, 2 to 4 drachms.
Ammonium iodide, 2 to 4 drachms.

Name two remedies that are used to promote intestinal peristalsis.
Aloes and calomel.

Where are cantharides chiefly obtained? Give the active principles of
cantharides.
Cantharides is obtained from the insect Cantharis vesicatoria, or
Spanish fly, which is found in the southern part of Europe, Ger-
many, and Russia. The active principle is cantharidin.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 315

Give the actions and uses of heroin.

Heroin increases the inspiratory and expiratory force and lessens
the number of the respiratory movements. It is a general motor
depressant and anodyne and exerts a special sedative influence on
the respiratory mucous membranes.

What preparations of copper are used in veterinary medicine and for
what purposes?

Arsenite of copper is used in diarrhea, dysentery, scours, and in
relaxation of the muscular wall of the intestines, also in chorea
in dogs.

Sulphate of copper used internally as an emetic; antidote for
phosphorus, atony of the bowels, diarrhcea, and ascariasis. Exter-
nally, it is used as a stimulant and caustic, syptic in foot-rot, granu-
lar eyelids, conjunctivitis, ete.

Acetate of copper is an efficient vermifuge in ascariasis in the
horse.

Give the properties of pepsin. How is pepsin prepared?

Pepsin occurs as a fine, white or yellowish-white amorphous
powder, or pale yellowish, transparent scales or grains, free from
offensive odor, having a mildly acidulous and slightly saline taste,
followed by a slight bitter taste. It is soluble in about 100 parts
water, but more soluble if the water is acidulated with hydrochloric
acid. It is used in indigestion in young animals. It is prepared by
macerating the mucous membrane of a pig’s stomach for several
days in a weak aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. The pepsin
is precipitated by adding sodium chloride, and is then removed,
pressed, and dried.

Name the active principle of three of the following: aconite, belladonna,
ergot, digitalis and opium.
Aconite: Aconitine.
Belladonna: Atropine.
Ergot: Ergotine.
Digitalis: Digitaline, digitoxin, digitalein, digitin, digitonin.
Opium: Morphine and codeine.

Discriminate between the physiological action of chloroform and that
of ether. Mention the dangers in anzsthesia. How may
these dangers be avoided?

Chloroform is more irritating to the mucous membranes and
causes violent gastro-enteritis if administered undiluted; it is less
stimulating and more depressing to the heart and circulation; for

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316 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

inhalation it requires more air, is less irritating to the respiratory
membranes than ether, is more prompt in action, has a shorter pre-
liminary stage of excitement, causes a more profound narcosis, and
is less nauseating than ether.

(For dangers in anesthesia, see p. 258.)

Give the name and the dose of a vermifuge for (a) the horse, (b) the
cow, (c) the dog.
(a) Tartar emetic, 5i; (b) ferri sulphas, Siss; (¢) areca nut,
2 grains per pound of body weight.

Name some economic antiseptics for veterinary use, internal and
external.
Internal: Phenol, creolin, sodium hyposulphite, salicylic acid.
External: Phenol, creolin, corrosive sublimate, potassium per-
manganate, and boric acid.

Define laxative, saline purgative, drastic purgative, cholagogue purga-
tive. Give an example of each.

Laxative: A drug which slightly increases intestinal action
chiefly by stimulating peristalsis. Example, olive oil.

Saline purgative: A drug which excites peristaltic action by
increasing secretions and preventing reabsorption. Example,
sodium sulphate.

Drastic purgative: A drug which greatly increases peristalsis
and secretion, violently stimulates intestinal contractions, and pro-
duces copious, frequent, fluid discharges. Example, croton oil.

Cholagogue purgative: A drug which stimulates the flow of bile,
causing green-colored stools. Example, podophyllum.

Mention five emetics and state the dose of each for the dog.
Mustard, 3i-ii; sodium chloride, 3i-iv; zine sulphate, gr. v-xx;
apomorphine, gr.*/,—"/,; by the mouth, gr.+/,.—'/,, hypodermically ;
tartar emetic, gr. i-ii.

Mention five different kinds of medicine classified according to their
general action and state what the general action is in each
case.

Strychnine, stimulant.

Opium, depressant and narcotie.
Arsenic, tonic.

Ether, anesthetic.

Belladonna, antispasmodic.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 317

Describe in detail the method by which you would administer a dose of
Epsom salts to a cow.

Dissolve the salts in water and put the solution in a long-necked
bottle. Raise the cow’s head so that the nostrils are on a level with
the eyes, but no higher. Gradually pour the solution into the mouth,
watching carefully for faulty deglutition.

Give the name and mention the use of each of the following: Fe,P,O,,
FeSo,, Fe,Cl,.

Fe,P,O, (iron sulphate) is used in diseases of bone, diabetes, and
nervous exhaustion.

FeSO, (iron sulphate) is used locally as an astringent and inter-
nally as a hematinic and tonic in anemia; also used as a vermifuge
and in chronic catarrhal conditions.

Fe,Cl, (iron chloride) is used as a tonic in anemia, astringent in
chronic pharyngitis and laryngitis, and externally as a styptic.

What is the general action of iodine? State the dose (a) for the horse,
(b) for the dog.
Alterative, resolvent, and expectorant, internally; stimulant,
irritant, vesicant, and antiseptic, externally.
(a) 15 grains to 1 drachm, (b) 2/,, to 1 grain.

Give the source, general action and the dose of podophyllum.
Obtained from the rhizome and roots of podophyllum pellatum
Linne (mandrake or May apple).
General action is a cholagogue cathartic. Dose for horse, 3i-ii.

Name the different kinds of aloes.
Barbadoes and Socotrine aloes are official.
Cape aloes is non-official.

Name two coal-tar products used to reduce temperature.
Antipyrine and phenacetin.

Give the properties and the uses of lobelia.
Lobelia is obtained from the leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata.
Its action depends on its alkaloid, lobeline. It has an acrid, nau-
seous taste and very unpleasant odor; it is expectorant, diaphoretic,
purgative, emetic, antispasmodic, and narcotic. Lobelia is very
useful in asthma in dogs, heaves in horses, and dry coughs in general.

Mention a motor excitant of (a) cardiac muscle, (b) intestinal muscle.
State in each case the dose for the horse and for the cow.
(a) Digitaline: Horse, 4 grain; cow, 14 grain.
(b) Pilocarpine: Horse, 3 to 5 grains; cow, 5 to 10 grains.

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318 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

State the dose and the general physiological action of cocaine.
Dose for the horse, 5 to 10 grains. Not much used internally.
In small doses it is a cerebral, cardiac, respiratory, and nervous
stimulant and diuretic. It is a powerful local anesthetic, and is used
in this connection almost entirely.

Give the source, preparation and uses of adrenalin.

Obtained from the suprarenal glands of the sheep or ox. Pre-
pared by freeing from fat, cleaning, drying, and powdering. Used
to arrest hemorrhage from wounds, mucous membranes, and cavities
of the body. It is used to render the field of operation bloodless
in minor surgery; in inflammatory conditions of the eye and nose.
Employed internally to check bleeding from the stomach, intestines,
lungs, and uterus,

What is the dose of adrenalin for (a) the horse, (b) the dog.
In solution 1-1000, intravenously, (a) 5i-iv, (b) 10 to 60 minims.

What is tar? Give the uses and the actions of tar.

Tar is an empyreumatic oleoresin, obtained by the destructive
distillation of the wood of various species of pines, especially that
of Pinus palustris.

It is an antiseptic, stimulant expectorant. Externally, antiseptic
and parasiticide. Used internally in cough mixtures for chronic
bronchitis and heaves. By inhalation (burning on hot coals) it is
used for its antiseptic and stimulating effects in bronchitis, distem-
per, strangles, etc. Externally, it is used with sulphur and linseed
oil in eczema and mange in horses and cattle. A common hoof dress-
ing for diseases of the feet in horses.

Name three acid tonics.
Phosphoric acid, hydrochloric acid, and nitric acid.

Mention six diuretics and state the dose of each for (a) the horse, (b)
the cow, (c) the dog.
1. Potassium nitrate, (a) % ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 10 grains.
2. Spirits nitrous ether, (a) 2 ounces, (b) 3 ounces, (c) 1%
drachm.

3. F. E. digitalis, (a) 14 drachm, (b) 1 drachm, (c) 14 drachm.
4, Potassium citrate, (a) 14 ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (e) 10 grains.
5. Potassium acetate, (a) 14 ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (¢) 10 grains.
6. Balsam copaiba, (a) 4 drachms, (b) 1 ounce, (c) 14 drachm.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 319

What is cascara sagrada? Give its uses and state the dose for the dog.

Cascara sagrada is an active cathartic obtained from the bark

of Rhamnus purshiana (California buckthorn). It is used in dogs

in doses of 5 to 30 grains to overcome chronic constipation and as a
stomachie.

What is mustard? State its uses in medicine.

Commercial mustard is a powder obtained from Sinapis alba
semina and Sinapis nigra semina, which produce white and black
mustard respectively. It is an irritant or counterirritant, rube-
facient, vesicant, or suppurant, according to the manner in which
it is used. Used internally as an emetic for dogs and pigs. Exter-
nally, it is used as a counterirritant in laryngitis, bronchitis, pneu-
monia, pleurisy, colic, enteritis, peritonitis, ete.

Name (a) a drug that contracts the pupil of the eye, (b) a drug that
dilates the pupil of the eye.
(a) Physostigmine, (b) atropine.

What is the effect of massage? When is this treatment advisable?

Massage exerts many of the effects of counterirritants, and,
moreover, assists in mechanically relieving overloaded lymph-vessels
and veins. It increases metabolism, promotes absorption, stretches
adhesions, and relieves pain.

It is advisable in case of edematous swellings, as in the joints,
legs, and udder -(mastitis) ; also useful in overcoming muscular
atrophy, following azoturia or from other causes, and to relieve pain
in neuralgic attacks.

State the uses, dose and action of nitrate of potash in the treatment of
the horse and cow.

Potassium nitrate is used in pneumonia, influenza, mastitis,
pharyngitis, laryngitis, dropsical conditions, and many febrile con-
ditions of the horse and cow. Externally, as a refrigerant. It
possesses an alterative, febrifuge, diuretic, cardiac sedative, dia-
phoretic, and feebly laxative action.

Dose for the horse, 14 ounce, and for the cow, 1 ounce.

State the actions, uses and dose of sugar of lead.

Plumbi acetas, acetate of lead, or sugar of lead, is astringent,
hxmostatic, styptic, anodyne, local sedative, and desiccant. Used
internally to check hemorrhage, diarrhoea, dysentery, and chronic
eatarrhal bronchitis; externally, to check superficial inflammation,
tendonitis, arthritis, eezema, scratches, keratitis, ete. Dose, 1 drachm.

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320 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

State the physiologic effects, uses and dose of ether.

Ether is anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, anthelmintic; a
cardiac, respiratory, and cerebral stimulant, an anesthetic and a
general diffusible stimulant.

Used in flatulency, spasmodic colic, intestinal worms, and as a
general anesthetic in surgery. Small doses are stimulant to the
heart and nervous system and are useful in collapse, exhaustion, etc.

How are fluidextracts prepared?

Prepared by extracting (percolation) a vegetable drug with
alcohol, or alcohol and water, then concentrating the resulting solu-
tion by evaporation until one minim of the fluidextract represents
one grain of the original drug.

Give the preparations of ammonia, stating the dose of each.
Aromatic spirits of ammonia, 1 ounce.
Ammonium carbonate, 2 drachms.
Ammonium chloride, 2 drachms.

Give the source of ergot and the dose for the horse and dog.
Obtained from the smut (a fungous growth) on rye. Dose of the
fiuidextract: For the horse, 44 to 1 ounce; for the dog, 1% to 1
drachm.

Give the treatment of purpura hemorrhagica.

Both general and local treatment are indicated.

General treatment includes the providing of good hygienic sur-
roundings and proper diet; an easily digested and laxative diet is
best. Most commonly used drugs are: potassium bichromate, potas-
sium chlorate, digitalis, turpentine, camphor, salicylic acid, quinine
sulphate, iron preparations, strychnine, and ergot.

Local treatment is directed toward swellings which threaten
suffocation, and the antiseptic handling of wounds. Tracheotomy
may be necessary. The advocates of serum therapy claim excellent
results with polyvalent vaccines, antistreptococcic sera, ete.

Give the medicinal treatment of rachitis in the dog.
Calcium phosphate, or the syrup of calcium lactophosphate, is
especially indicated. Iron in the form of the syrup of the iodide,
and cod-liver oil are beneficial.

Define (a) diuretic, (b) diaphoretic, (c) hypnotic, (d) aphrodisiac.
Give an example of each.
(a) A drug which increases the secretion of urine, potassium
nitrate.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 321

(b) A drug which increases the secretion of sweat, pilocarpine.

(ec) A drug which produces sleep, potassium bromide.

(d) A drug which stimulates sexual appetite and function, can-
nabis indica.

Name three preparations of zinc and state the uses of each.

1. Zine chloride is used as a caustic in chronic ulcers and fistula,
and as an astringent in wounds; also used in conjunctivitis and
keratitis.

2. Zine sulphate is used as an emetic for dogs and pigs. Its prin-
cipal use is externally as an astringent (white lotion).

3. Zine oxide is used as a dusting powder for wounds and ex-
coriated surfaces. Used in the form of ointment for its desiccating,
astringent and protective properties. Occasionally given internally
in chorea and diarrhea.

Describe tannic acid. Give the source and the actions of tannic acid.

Tanni¢e acid is a light, yellowish powder, odorless, or having a

faint characteristic odor, and a strongly astringent taste. Soluble

in 1 part of water. It is obtained from nut-gall. It is a powerful
astringent, styptic, and coagulates albumin.

Compare the action of morphine on the horse with its action on the
dog. State the dose in each case.

Morphine often causes cerebral and motor excitement, sweating,
and dilatation of the pupil in the horse. In the dog it seldom causes
excitement and sweating, but does cause contraction of the pupil,
nausea, and cerebral depression.

Hypodermic dose for the horse, 3 to 5 grains; for the dog, */,, to
VY, grain.

What is (a) a tonic, (b) an alterative? Give an example of each.

(a) A tonic is a drug which produces a permanent, though
scarcely perceptible, excitement of all the vital functions. Example,
iron.

(b) An alterative is a drug which alters the process of nutrition
and excretion and restores the normal functions of an organ or of the
system; ¢.g., iodide of potassium.

Give the properties, actions and uses of boric acid.
Occurs in transparent, white, scaly crystals; odorless, faintly
bitter taste, permanent in the air, and feebly acid. Soluble in 26
parts cold water, 3 parts of warm water, and in 15 parts alcohol.
It is a non-volatile, unirritating antiseptic, deodorant, and
astringent, and is used in all cases where an antiseptic is indicated.

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822 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Particularly useful as a vaginal and uterine douche and to flush the
bladder in cystitis. Used in conjunctivitis and keratitis, and is given
internally in diarrhcea, dog distemper, and cystic catarrh.

What are expectorants? Name two classes of expectorants and give
an example of each class.
Expectorants are agents which modify the secretion of the
mucous membrane of the respiratory tract, and promote its
expulsion.

Two classes: nauseating (ipecac) and stimulating (ammonium
chloride).

Name three vegetable bitters. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b)
the dog.

Gentian, (a) 1% to 1 ounce, (b) 5 to 30 grains.

Quassia (fluidextract), (a) 1 to 2 ounces, (b) 4 to 1 drachm.

Cascarilla, (a) 14 to 1 ounce, (b) 10 to 30 grains.

These bitters are useful in promoting the appetite in atonic indi-
gestion, chronic gastro-intestinal catarrh, anemia, debility, and
during convalescence from acute diseases, as influenza, pneumonia,
etc. They also possess some vermicidal action, especially quassia,
infusions of which are used as enemas for rectal worms.

They are contra-indicated in acute inflammatory conditions of
the digestive tract, as they are mild irritants.

Name three vegetable cathartics. Explain briefly the action of each.
State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog.
1. Aloes. Stimulates peristalsis and the flow of bile. (a) 8 to 10
drachms, (b) 1 to 2 ounces, (¢) 20 to 60 grains.
2. Oleum lini. Acts mechanically by lubricating the bowels.
(a) 14 to 1 pint, (b) 1 to 2 pints, (c) 14 to 2 ounces.
3. Oleum ricini. Acts by increasing secretions and mechanically.

(a) 1 to 2 pints, (b) 2 to 3 pints, (ec) 4 to 2 ounces. Seldom used
in horses and cows.

Name three drugs that reduce temperature and explain the action of
each,
1, Acetanilide: prevents waste and heat production, by increas-
ing radiation and by depressing the activity of the heat centres.
2. Aconite: causes vascular dilatation, thus increases heat loss
by radiation; retards circulation and thus lessens heat production.
3. Quinine: by its antiseptic properties lessens reflex excitability,
diminishes oxidation, and depresses the heat centres.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 323

Describe the treatment of a case of eczema in the dog, explaining fully.

In the erythematous, papular, and vesicular stages zine oxide

ointment or zine oxide and starch dusting powder may be used.

In the weeping stage 6 per cent. solution of nitrate of silver or some

desiccant powder such as boric acid, lycopodium, or bismuth sub-

gallate is used to check the weeping. Chronic eczema is treated with

oil of cade, sulphuretted potash, Peruvian balsam, or creolin in suit-

able dilutions. Internally, Fowler’s solution of arsenic is of great
benefit.

In all forms dietetic measures are employed; a laxative diet and
occasional doses of sodium sulphate help materially. Cleanliness
is important, and in this connection bathing with a non-irritating
soap and water is paramount.

Describe a treatment for tapeworms in the dog.
Fast the dog for 24 hours. Give oleoresin aspidium, 15 to 60
minims, and repeat this dose in three hours. Nine hours later give
a purgative dose of castor oil. If the head of the tenia is not ex-
pelled, repeat the treatment three to five days later.

What are the actions and the uses of ipecac? State the dose for (a)
the horse, (b) the dog.

A nauseating expectorant, emetic, diaphoretic, hemostatic, ster-
nutatory, stomachic. Used in bronchitis, dysentery, jaundice; also
used to induce vomition in dogs and pigs. Dose (a) 14 to 2 drachms,
(b) as expectorant, 14 to 2 grains; as an emetic, 5 to 30 grains.

Discuss venesection. What therapeutic measures may be used in place
of venesection?

Venesection, or blood-letting, is employed chiefly to rapidly
relieve conditions associated with a high arterial pressure and local
engorgement of some organ. It reduces temperature and relieves
congestion, dyspneea, and cyanotic conditions. Venesection is
employed in plethoric animals only, in acute pleurisy, pulmonary
congestion, acute laminitis, urticaria, acute cerebritis or meningitis,
parturient apoplexy in cows, ete. It is also employed in toxemias
to remove the blood and its contained poison. Four to six and often
eight quarts are drawn from the horse.

Circulatory depressants as veratrum viride or aconite cause a
general reduction of arterial tension and relieve local congestion.
Cathartics, diuretics, and diaphoretics abstract fluid from the blood-
vessels and thus lower blood-pressure. Notable among these are:
arecoline, potassium nitrate, and pilocarpine.

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Compare the action of digitalis with the action of aconite on the heart.
Digitalis slows the heart and increases its force, whereas aconite
slows the heart but reduces its force.

Give the action and the uses of chloroform. State the internal dose
for the horse and for the dog.

Chloroform is irritant, antiseptic, parasiticide, carminative, anti-
spasmodic, and analgesic. Locally in spray and internally by inhala-
tion, an anesthetic.

It is used in dystokia to prevent straining; in chronic diarrhea,
teniasis, spasmodic cough and colic. Externally, in liniments as an
anodyne and counterirritant in muscular rheumatism and sprains;
by inhalation, a general anesthetic in surgical operations.

Dose: For the horse, 1 to 2 drachms; for the dog, 2 to 20 minims.

Describe the treatment of a case of mange in the dog.
Bathe with warm water and green soap to remove all dirt and
scabs. Clip the hair if itis long. Apply daily for four days a mix-
ture composed of Peruvian balsam 15 parts, creolin 5 parts, and
alcohol 80 parts. Bathe again and repeat the application until the
skin appears normal.

Mention the chief uses of areca. Name two constituents of areca and
give their therapeutic uses.

Areca is astringent in small doses, but large amounts induce
catharsis; an effective vermicide for dogs, being destructive to both
tape- and round-worms.

Two of its constituents are arecoline and red tannic acid. Are-
coline is used as a quick-acting cathartic in colic, acute laminitis, ete.

What is the chief value of aspidium? State the dose for the dog.
What precautions must be taken when administering
aspidium?

Chief value is its teeniacide action. Dose of oleoresin aspidium
(male fern) for the dog is 15 to 60 minims.
It should not be given with oils; they aid its absorption.

Give the actions and the uses of cannabis indica. State the dose for
the horse and for the dog.

Cannabis indica is an antispasmodic, anodyne, and narcotic; a
cerebrospinal stimulant and aphrodisiac ; increases mental and motor
activity, stimulates vasomotor nerves, and depresses sensation.

It is used to relieve pain, spasm, and nervous irritability. Ser-
viceable in colic, tetanus, chorea, and irritable cough. Dose of the

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 325

fluidextract: For the horse, 4 to 6 drachms; for the dog, 2 to 10
minims.

Name three anthelmintics. State the dose of each for (a) the horse,
(b) the dog.
Oleoresin aspidium, (a) 3 to 6 drachms, (b) 15 to 60 minims.
Oil of turpentine, (a) 2 to 4 ounces, (b) 14 to 4 drachms.
Santonin, (a) 1% ounce, (b) 2 to 20 grains.

Define (a) rubefacient, (b) sedative, (c) mydriatic. Give an example
of each.
(a) A drug that produces slight redness of the skin, as mustard.
(b) A drug that lessens functional activity of organs, lowers
motility, and diminishes pain, thereby exerting a soothing influence
on the whole system, as gelsemium.
(c) An agent which dilates the pupil, as atropine.

What is tartar emetic? Describe the actions and the uses of tartar
emetic. State the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog.
Tartar emetic (antimonii et potassii tartras) is prepared by
mixing cream of tartar, antimony trioxide, and water.
It is a systemic and local emetic, diaphoretic, cardiac, and arterial
sedative, gastro-intestinal irritant, expectorant, and vermicide.
Used as an emetic in dogs; in the dry stage of bronchitis and for
intestinal worms in horses.
Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) emetic 1 to 4 grains, expectorant

1/,, to 14 grain.

What is pyoktanin? What are its uses?

‘‘Pyoktanin”’ is the trade name for methylene blue, an aniline
dye. It is antiseptic and astringent, and is used in strength of
1-1000 to 1-100 for ulcerated cornea, conjunctivitis, ulcers, and
pus-secreting sores in general. Given internally, it is eliminated
chiefly by the kidneys, rendering the urine blue and exerting an anti-
septic action on the urinary tract, hence it is serviceable in nephritis,
cystitis, urethritis, ete.

Give the source, the actions and the uses of balsam of Peru. State the
dose for (a) the horse, (b) the dog.

Balsam of Peru is obtained in Central America from Toluifera
pereire. It is stimulant, antiseptic, and parasiticide externally;
stomachic, carminative, and antiseptic internally. Used in chronie
eczema, mange, lousiness, ringworm, ulcers, chronic bronchitis, pye-
litis, and cystitis.

Dose, (a) 1 ounce, (b) 10 to 30 minims.

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Describe the treatment of a case of mammitis in the cow.

Give a laxative (Epsom salts, 1 to 2 pounds). After purging,
give potassium nitrate in one-ounce doses, twice daily. Apply hot
fomentations several times daily, and follow each application with a
cooling, astringent lotion, such as Burrow’s lotion, in the early
stages. A suspensory bandage is serviceable to hold packs and afford
relief to the patient. Afterwards, emollients such as camphorated
oil and cocoa butter are indicated. The udder should be milked
thrice daily. If milking is painful, use a milk catheter and apply
ointments containing belladonna extract. If abscesses threaten,
apply poultices to hasten their development, open and use antiseptic
measures. Gangrene calls for amputation at an early date.

Describe permanganate of potassium. Give its actions and uses.

Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusing together caustic
potash, chlorate of potash, and oxide of manganese. It occurs as
needle-shaped crystals of a deep-purple color, disagreeable, astrin-
gent taste, soluble in 16 parts of water.

It is a powerful oxidizing agent, hence it is antiseptic and
deodorant. Full strength it is caustic; diluted it is astringent.

It is used to deodorize and disinfect foul-smelling wounds, nasal
gleet, stomatitis, retained placenta, catarrhal endometritis (1-2000
solution). Used to sterilize hands and instruments. Internally, it
is used in flatulency, puerperal fever, septicemia, and is an antidote
for morphine and opium poisoning.

Name four heart stimulants. Give their actions and state the dose of

each for (a) the horse, (b) the dog.

1. F. E. digitalis: Slows the heart and increases its force. (a)
1 drachm, (b) 1 to 3 minims.

2. Tr. strophanthus: Same action as digitalis. (a) 1 to 2
drachms, (b) 2 to 10 minims.

3. Spirits of glonoin: Accelerates the heart’s action and lowers
blood-pressure by dilating the arterioles. (a) 14 to 1 drachm, (b)
Y% to 2 minims.

4, Spts. ammonia aromaticus: Stimulates the vasomotor centres.
(a) % to 11% ounces, (b) 5 to 60 minims.

What is an emetic? To what animals should emetics be given? Give

examples of emetics, stating the dose in each case,
An emetic is a drug which produces vomiting. Emetics are given
to dogs, cats, and pigs.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 327

Ipecac : Dose for dogs, 5 to 30 grains; swine, 15 to 30 grains; cats,
5 to 10 grains.

Tartar emetic: Dogs, 1 to 4 grains; swine, 4 to 10 grains; cats,
1 to 2 grains.

Apomorphine hydrochloride: Subeutaneously, dogs, 1/3. to */19
grain ; swine, '/,, to+/, grain.

What preparations of arsenic are most used in veterinary medicine?
Arsenous acid, Fowler’s solution, and Pearson’s solution.

Discuss the actions and the uses of the salicylic acid preparations.
Actions: Antiseptic, antirheumatic, diaphoretic, cardiac de-
pressant, antiferment, antipyretic, irritant, and astringent.
Used especially in rheumatism and muscular soreness; also
used in influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagieca, and flatulency.
Salicylic acid is used externally as an antiseptic in wound dressing,

but is too expensive. Salol is used in diarrhcea, cystitis, urethritis,
etc.

Give the source, actions and uses of camphor. State the dose for (a)
the horse, (b) the dog.

Camphor is obtained from the branches and chipped wood of
Cinnamomum camphora, or camphor tree. The wood is exposed to
the vapor of boiling water, and the volatilized camphor is condensed
and refined by sublimation. It is also obtained by tapping the trees
and collecting the exudate.

Actions: Antispasmodic or nerve stimulant, anodyne, antiseptic,
diaphoretic, a stimulating expectorant, a cerebral excitant or nar-
cotic, a gastro-intestinal irritant, a rubefacient, a carminative, a
respiratory and cardiac stimulant.

Used in cough mixtures (electuaries) for acute bronchitis, pneu-
monia, antispasmodic in colic, ‘‘thumps,’’ chorea, ete. Influenza
and dog distemper are benefited by the use of camphor. Given sub-
cutaneously in collapse and exhaustion. Applied externally in lini-
ments and oils for anodyne effect, also to check milk secretion.

Dose, (a) 1 to 3 drachms, (b) 3 to 20 grains.

Give the uses of caffeine in veterinary medicine. State the actions and
the dose of caffeine.
Used as an antidote to opium poisoning; dropsical swellings in
dogs, heart stimulant in collapse.
Its actions are cerebral and cardiac stimulant and diuretic. It
increases blood-pressure. Dose for horse, 7 to 15 grains.

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VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Give the actions and the uses of strophanthus. State the dose for (a)

the horse, (b) the dog. .

Strophanthus slows and strengthens the heart, same as digitalis;
also has diuretic effect by increasing blood-supply to kidneys and
by stimulating the secretory cells of the renal tubules. It is not
cumulative like digitalis. Used in valvular disease of the heart,
ascites, hydrothorax, chronic interstitial nephritis, and as a substi-
tute for digitalis when the latter is losing its effect from repeated use.

Dose of the tincture, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 10 minims.

Give the actions and the uses of podophyllin. State the dose for (a)

the horse, (b) the dog.
Cholagogue cathartic, slow and uncertain. Used in constipation
associated with jaundice and hepatic disorders.
Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 1 to 2 grains.

Give the composition and the therapeutic uses of Dover’s powder.

Dover’s powder, or pulvis ipecachuanhe et opii, consists of ipecae
10 per cent., powdered opium 10 per cent., sugar of milk 80 per cent.

Used as a diaphoretic and expectorant in colds, early stages of
acute bronchitis, and pneumonia.

Discuss pilocarpine with reference to its composition, actions and

uses. State the dose.

Pilocarpus contains two alkaloids, pilocarpine and jaborine.

Pilocarpus is a diaphoretic, sialogogue, cardiac depressant, my-
otic, emetic, expectorant. The alkaloid pilocarpine is used to assist
eserine in its action as a quick-acting cathartic in colic, ete. Pilo-
carpus is used as an expectorant in bronchitis, and as a diaphoretic
to stop chills and abort inflammatory diseases such as pneumonia
lymphangeitis, laminitis, azoturia, etc.

Dose of the fluidextract for the horse, 14 to 1 ounce; pilocarpine,
hypodermieally, 2 to 5 grains.

?

Describe croton oil as to derivation, physical properties, action, uses,

dose, toxic dose and antidote.

Croton oil is a fixed oil expressed from the seed of Croton tiglium.
It is a pale-yellow, viscid liquid, having a slight fatty odor and an
oily, burning taste. Externally it is a powerful irritant, and inter-
nally it is an intense gastro-intestinal irritant, causing drastie pur-
gation. It is used as a counterirritant (cautiously). Internally it
is given for its drastic purgative action to horses and cattle, in
obstinate constipation when other remedies fail.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 329

Dose for the horse, 15 to 30 drops in olive or linseed oil. Toxic
dose, over 30 drops, although smaller amounts may produce gastro-
enteritis with bloody stools and death. Should be given cautiously.

Antidote: Demulcents, opium, and stimulants.

Define cataplasm, counterirritant, fomentation.

A cataplasm, or poultice, is a preparation for the local appli-
cation of heat and moisture.

A counterirritant is an irritant used against an existing irri-
tation or inflammation by reflexly causing contraction of the vessels
in the congested or inflamed underlying parts.

Fomentation refers to bathing parts with plain or medicated hot
water, by means of sponge or cloth.

Define disinfectant, antiseptic, deodorant. Explain the difference in
the action of these agents.

A disinfectant is an agent used to destroy microérganisms caus-
ing infectious and contagious diseases, fermentation, and putre-
faction.

An antiseptic is an agent used to prevent the growth and de-
velopment of the microdrganisms causing fermentation, putrefac-
tion, and disease, more especially the germs producing pus.

A deodorant is an agent which destroys or counteracts a foul
odor.

Disinfectants, as a rule, are used on floors, buildings, grounds,
etc. Antiseptics are less strongly germicidal and are used on or in
the body. Most deodorants are disinfectants and antiseptics.

Give a method of treatment of hemoglobinuria.

Administer a ten-drachm aloes ball, followed by linseed oil if
necessary. Provide plenty of bedding in a warm stable and roll
patient over every four hours. If restless and violent, give chloral
hydrate by the mouth, or cannabis indica intravenously. Evacuate
the bladder and rectum several times daily. Avoid slings unless
patient can stand, in which case they are unnecessary. Enforced
standing is liable to produce muscle rupture and intramuscular
hemorrhage. Feed bran-mashes and supply plenty of fresh water.

Give a method of treatment of lymphangeitis.

Give a ten-drachm aloes ball, followed by one pint of linseed oil
if necessary to purge. Feed bran-mashes and give plenty of fresh
water, but no hay. Cold-water irrigation is indicated during the
first 24 hours, afterwards hot fomentations. Apply Burrow’s lotion

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330 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

after irrigating. Give a diuretic such as potassium nitrate, one-half
ounce three times daily. Exercise is beneficial as soon as the patient
is able to walk. Treat any wounds antiseptically.

Give the treatment of constipation in a hog weighing about 200 pounds.
Mention three methods of administering the medicine.

Warm soap-water enemas will empty the posterior bowel and

stimulate peristalsis. Add one ounce of sodium sulphate to the

feed or drinking water or sprinkle upon the tongue. The stomach-

tube may be used to administer liquid medicines to prevent aspira-

tion of same into the lungs. Three ounces of castor oil may be given

in this way. Subcutaneous injections of eserine sulphate in */,-grain
doses may be useful in removing the impaction.

Give the actions and the uses of resorcin. State the dose (a) for the
horse, (b) for the dog.

Resorein is antiseptic externally, and internally possesses a
slight local anesthetic effect. Used externally in skin diseases,
psoriasis especially. Internally used in gastric fermentation and
indigestion, seldom. Dose, (a) 1 to 2 drachms, (b) 2 to 4 grains.

What are the uses of protargol in veterinary medicine? Describe
fully.

Protargol is a non-official preparation of silver (8.3 per cent.
strength). It is used in acute catarrhal and purulent conjunctivitis
in from one-half to ten per cent. aqueous solutions. It has an anti-
septic and astringent action and is less irritating than silver nitrate
solutions,

Discuss potassium nitrate as to derivation, actions and uses. State
the dose for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c) the dog.

Potassium nitrate is found in the soils in certain regions and
climates (India and Chile). It is made artificially by the putre-
faction of animal or vegetable material in the presence of heat, mois-
ture, oxygen, and alkaline or earthy bases.

It is alterative, febrifuge, diuretic, and feebly laxative in action.
It is also cardiac depressant, mildly refrigerant and diaphoretie,
as well as expectorant.

Used in febrile conditions such as pneumonia, influenza, laminitis,
mastitis, ete. ; dropsical swellings in general. Externally, it is used
for its refrigerant action in local inflammatory conditions.

Dose, (a) % ounce, (b) 1 ounce, (¢) 5 to 20 grains.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 331.

Give the action and the uses of sodium bicarbonate. State the dose
for (a) the horse, (b) the dog. Discuss fully.

Sodium bicarbonate is antacid, alterative, and mildly anodyne
(locally). It increases the flow of the gastric juice and the fluidity
of the bile, and dissolves mucus.

Used in eatarrh of the gastro-intestinal tract, gastric indigestion
associated with flatulency and acidity. Often combined with calomel
for its synergistic action. Dissolves membranes in croupous enteritis.
Externally, it is used in solution to allay itching in skin diseases,
burns, etc., and as an injection for leucorrhea and chronic rhinitis.

Dose, (a) 2 drachms to 2 ounces, (b) 10 grains to 14 drachm.

What are(a) antiphlogistics, (b) antipyretics? Give an example of
each.
(a) Remedies employed to prevent the progress of inflammatory
processes, either local or general, as ichthyol.
(b) Agents which reduce high temperature in fever, as.
phenacetin.

How do acids and alkalies act on the secretions?
Acids lessen the secretion of the gastric juice and increase the
secretion of saliva. Alkalies increase the flow of gastric juice and
diminish the secretion of saliva.

How are medicines classified?

A physiological classification of medicines depends upon their
action, whether general or local. Drugs having a general action
may be subdivided into stimulants, sedatives, tonics, and alteratives.
Drugs acting locally may be classified according to the part or parts
upon which they act; for instance, cardiac stimulants, cerebral
excitants, gastric sedatives, etc.

Name agents that prominently affect the alimentary canal or its con-
tents.
Aloes, calomel, bismuth subnitrate, and opium.

Name agents that prominently affect the respiratory organs.
Lobelia, ipecac, belladonna, veratrum, and ether.

Name agents that prominently affect the follicular or glandular organs.
Pilocarpine, belladonna, eserine, and arecoline.

Name agents that prominently affect the nervous system.
Strychnine, opium, chloral, and ether.

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332

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Name agents that prominently affect the organs of reproduction.

Ergot, cannabis indica, cantharides, and viburnum prunifolium.

Name agents whose actions are prominently chemical.

Acids, alkalies, and caustics.

Name agents whose actions are prominently mechnical.

Linseed oil, petrolatum, and acacia.

Describe saline infusion, three methods of introduction and three indi-

cations for its use.

Saline infusion refers to the introduction of a solution of sodium
chloride into the animal’s body to replace the normal blood-plasma
which has been lost by hemorrhage or has been withdrawn for thera-
peutic purposes. The solution which is used consists of 0.6 of 1 per
cent. sodium chloride in sterile distilled water.

The fluid may be introduced by (1) intravenous injection, (2)
injections into subcutaneous tissues (hypodermoclysis), (3) rectal
injection (enteroclysis), (4) intraperitoneal injection.

Saline infusions are used in cases of excessive purging where a
large amount of fluid is lost; in severe hemorrhage; in certain blood-
poisoning diseases the patient may be bled to rid the body of some
of the toxin present, and the fluidity of the blood restored by this
method.

PRESCRIPTION WRITING

Write a prescription for a purgative.

Jan. 2, 1914.
For Mr. Brown’s bay horse.
BR
Aloes barbadensis ........ ... ee eee eee cues 3x
Hydrargyri chloridi mitis .................... gr. Xxx
Pulveris: zingiberis: 224624098424 sees bed G4 408 3 iss
MORI ACR oa a sla gical d i Scan Se aia atu eae ecenusapes race qs.

M. et fiant bolus No. I.
Sig.—For doctor’s use.
Joun Dor, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a chronic cough.

Jan. 2, 1914.
For Mr. Jones’s gray gelding.
BR
GUalaCOl toes eae cans ee nd Ses Riana eRe 3 iv
Ole Uni: 3 se ve ngs eee Gaetan wes Rew ae eed BE RED 0 ij

M. Sig.—Give one tablespoonful 3 or 4 times daily.
Joun Doz, D.V.M.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 333

Write a prescription for round worms in the dog. Give full directions.

For Miss Smith’s dog. Jan. 2, 1914.
BR

Santonini.

Hydrargyri chloridi mitis .................. 44 grs. iv

Sodium bicarbonatis ..................... 3j

M. et div. pulv. No. viij.
Sig.—Fast dog 24 hours, then give one powder every
hour until all are given.
JOHN Dos, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a two-weeks-old calf suffering from diarrhcea.

For Mr. Jones’s calf. Jan. 2, 1914,
&
Bismuthi subnitratis.
Crete preparate ..............005 ee re 4a 3 iij
M. et ft. capsule No. X.
Sig.—Give one capsule every two hours.
JOHN Dor, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a horse whose temperature is 105°, respiration
30 and pulse 75 but strong, the medicine to be given in liquid

form.
For Mr. Brown’s bay mare. Jan. 2, 1914.
BR

Quinine sulphatis ............ cesses eee eee eee 3 iv
(Ac. sulphurici, qs.)

Tr Gigitalis: scene eac eta ee ey a Kee ead gee ea ane bv
Alcoholis qs. ad. 2.0... eee cece eee eee eens Oj

M. et ft. sol.

Sig—Give two tablespoonsful every six hours.
JoHN Dog, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for half an ounce of a 5 per cent. solution of

cocaine.
4 .
Cocaine hydrochloratis .....--....--eee seen gTs. xij
Aque destillate ....... 00. eee e ee eee eee eee 3 iv

Prescribe for a dog suffering from mange.

For Mrs. Smith’s dog. Jan. 2, 1914.
BR

Balsami Peruviani ........ 00. c cece eee cee eens 3 iiss

Greolini, 26448 xe gs day Poot sais eden Bae ERIS 3 vj

Alcoholis qs. ad. ..... 6-2 eee e eee eee eee ee 0 j

M. et ft. sol.
Sig—Apply a small amount on affected areas once daily

for four days, then bathe and repeat.
Joun Dos, D.V.M.

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334 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Write a prescription for a purgative for a goo-pound cow.

For Mr. Brown’s cow. Jan. 2, 1914.
B

Magnesii sulphatis ................ sees eee eee 5 xxiv

Sodii. chloridi: cascsciscene das nade als wae wes 3 viij

Tr; ZANgibeLIG ssnc vexed eyeas cade bea Ga ene eH ds 3 iij

PQS fee Saad Bes eye conan ENS AN Bee eS O iv

M. Sig.—Give at one dose as a drench.
JoHN Dog, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a horse suffering from spasmodic colic, giving
the directions in plain English.

For Mr. Brown’s bay mare. Jan. 2, 1914.
BR

Spts. ammonii aromatici.

Oléi, teTebINthin®: 2.66 voces eee cee se eee ew mares aa 3j

lel MNT cai gave w was PERSE ee eryes Sea Talon sates 5 xiv

M. Sig.—Give at one dose as a drench.
JouHN Dor, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a tonic for (a) the horse, (b) the cow, (c)

the dog.
(a) B
Liquoris potassii arsenitis ...................00. 5 xij
Tincture gentiane comp. ............. 0. cee eee 3 iss
Tincture aloes. scuisswicce se ces dee saeenssaeaeas 3 ij
Fluidi extracti nucis vomice ..................00, 5 iss
M. Sig.—Give one tablespoonful t. i. d. before meals.
(b) B
Quinine sulphatis ............... 0. cece eee eee 3 vj
Berri. Sul phatis' +. vntccacs Seka cine et Meee wees 5 ij
Pulveris gentine radicis ....,.......... eee eee 3 vj
Pulveris nucis vomice ............. cc ce cee eee ee 3 iss
M. et ft. pulv. No. xij.
Sig—Give one powder on tongue t. i. d.
(c) B
Syrupi ferri, quinine et strychnine phosphati...... § iv

Sig—One teaspoonful t. i. d. before feeding.

Write a prescription for a cough powder for an adult horse.

For Mr. Smith’s brown stallion. Jan. 2, 1914.
BR

Camphore.

Potassii chloratis ........... 0.0.0... cece ee aa 3 j

Pulveris glycyrrhize .....................000, 3 iv

Fl. ext. belladonne ............ 00.0... cece eee 3j

Theriace qs.
Misce et fiant electuarium.
Sig.—One tablespoonful on back teeth t. i. d.
JouNn Dos, D.V.M.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 335

Write a prescription for 15 powders for a tonic containing a simple
bitter, a preparation of iron and a nerve tonic, to be given in
powder form.

For Mr. Black’s gray mare. Jan. 2, 1914.
B

Pulveris gentiane radicis ...............0000- 3 viij

Ferri sulphatigs: 006 ccs cas cdc bee ga ee os eee 3 ij

Strychnine sulphatis ....................00.. grs. xij

M. et ft. pulv. No. xv.
Sig—Give one powder in feed t. i. d.
JOHN Dos, D.V.M,

Prescribe a treatment for chronic eczema in the dog.

For Miss Johnson’s dog. Jan, 2, 1914.
B

Sulphuris sublimati ................220 000s eee 3j

Olei-cadini, 2: coms yes das ees dhs eeamedeasecea Keds 3 iij

Adipis lane hydrosi .............- 2s eee eee eee 3v

M. et ft. unguentum.
Sig—Thoroughly rub in and leave for 48 hours, then
wash and repeat.
JouHN Dos, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a blister, in the form of an ointment. Give
directions for applying the blister and state what precau-
tions should be taken after it is applied.

For Mr. Williams’s bay mare. Jan. 3, 1914.
B

Hydrargyri biniodidi.

Pulveris cantharis ........... cece cece eens 44 3 ij

PG 0 0) (<a 3 iij

M. et ft. unguentum.

Sig.—Clip hair over spavin and apply ointment with con-
siderable friction. Three days later, apply vase-
line over blistered area. Tie horse short to pre-
vent interference by biting parts.

Joun Dog, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a cathartic for a sheep.

For Mr. Black’s sheep. Jan. 3, 1914.
B

Magnesii sulphatis ..........0+- eee eee eee eeees 5 vj

Sodii chloridi ..........-++++eee0 eee ecneceens 6 ij

Misce et ft. pulv. No. I.
Sig.—Dissolve powder in half pint of water and give as
a drench.
JOHN Dor, D.V.M.

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336 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Prescribe treatment for a dog whose temperature is 105°, respiration
50 and pulse 120 but weak, the medicine to be given in liquid

form.
For Miss Brown’s dog. Jan. 3, 1914.
BR
Tincture aconiti .......... 006. c eee ee eee eee 3 iss
Spts. etheris nitrosi ...............--.-- eee eee 3 iv
AqUs G8: Ads sestercs toe tegw eee ede e sees genie es 5 ij

Misce et ft. sol.
Sig.—One teaspoonful every 3 hours.
JouNn Dos, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for scratches.
For Mr. Jennings’s chestnut mare Jan. 3, 1914.
R
Tincture benzoini composite.
Gly cerini:.. ocsisccag se cso ea bvaeeeesee vee eee8 aa § viij
Misce et ft. sol.
Sig—Apply to affected leg t. i. d.
JoHN Dog, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a liniment.
Liniment.
BR
Olei terebinthine.
Aque ammonii.
Complore: oes ses asta u seuss gae aaa wes eae aa Zi
ONS AID 6 eck a celal dd betas Wane wt aaa Sub eae Mavens BY
Misce.
Sig.—Shake well before using.
JOHN Dog, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a cow suffering from actinomycosis.
For Mr. Black’s cow. Jan. 3, 1914.
R
POtassil: LOCAL 2.3356 a a be ede do eal a pune wo 3 xij
Ft. pulv. No. xvi.
Sig.—One powder in drinking water once daily.
JOHN Dog, D.V.M.

Prescribe for a horse suffering from acute indigestion.
Jan. 3, 1914.
For Mr. White’s bay gelding.
B
Sodii hyposulphitis ............. 0.0.0... eee eee 3 xiv
Ft. pulv. No. IL.
Sig.—Dissolve one powder in a pint of water and give
as a drench. Repeat in one hour if necessary.
JoHN Dog, D.V.M.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Aloes barbadensis ................eeee eee eee 3x
Hydrargyri chloridi mitis .................... gr. Xxx
Pulveris zingiberis ...................000000 3 iss

Theriace qs.
M. et ft. bolus No. I.
Sig—Give one hour after drenching.
JoHN Dor, D.V.M.

(Evacuation of stomach by means of stomach tube is best

treatment. )

Write a prescription for ringworm.

BR

For Miss Brown’s dog. Jan. 3, 1914.
Balsami Peruviani ...............-. 0s eee eee eee 3 ij
Adipis benzoinati .............. 0... e ee eee eee 3 ij

M. et ft. unguentum.
Sig.—Apply a small amount to affected parts once daily.
JouN Dor, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for flatulent colic in the horse.

B

For Mr. Smith’s gray mare. Jan. 3, 1914.

Olei terebinthine .............. 0... 5 ij

Spts. ammonii aromatici .....................0.. 3j

Ollel- Hint? qs). ade: fdas o aaj enemies ecadd pees 0 ij
M. et ft. sol.

Sig.—Give at one time as a drench.
Joun Dog, D.V.M.

337

Write a prescription containing at least three drugs for a case of
chronic constipation in the dog.

BR

For John Smith’s dog. Jan. 3, 1914.
Resing® jalape’ ic. ccisscesveaeener vs vee ones gr. vj
Extracti -belladonne.

Extracti physostigmatis ..................-. aa gr. iij

M. et ft. pilule No. xxiv.
Sig.—Give one pill at night.
JOHN Dog, D.V.M.

Write a prescription for a case of chronic cough. Use at least three

drugs.
For Mr. Brown’s bay mare. Jan. 3, 1914.
BR
Fl. ext. belladonne ............. 2... e eee e eee eee 5 ij
Fl, ext. lobelia 2. sac ccsevs eeu serra anueas 3 viij
Acidi hydrocyanici diluti ...................0.. 5 ij
Syrupus simplicis qs. ad. .......... eee eee eee. 0 ij
M.

22

Sig—Give one ounce every 3 hours.
JOHN Dog, D.V.M.

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338 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

ToxXICOLOGY

Mention three poisons, stating the antidote for each.
1. Corrosive sublimate: Antidote, egg-albumin.
2. Arsenic: Antidote, freshly prepared hydrated oxide of iron.
3. Phosphorus: Antidote, sulphate of copper.

What is the difference between antagonists and antidotes? Give an
example of each.

Antagonists are agents which counteract each other in their
physiological actions; for example, strychnine antagonizes the de-
pressing effect of chloral hydrate on the heart. In this respect all
antagonists are physiological antidotes.

Antidotes are agents which counteract the effects of a poison and
render it harmless. They are classified as chemical, mechanical, and
physiological, according to their method of action. Chemical anti-
dotes change the composition of the drug, as starch given in poison-
ing by iodine forms the iodide of starch, which is insoluble and inert.
Mechanical antidotes surround the poison and protect the tissues
from its action, as egg-albumin protects the tissues from corrosive
agents. Physiological antidotes antagonize the action of the poison.

Give the symptoms of arsenic poisoning. Name the best chemical
antidote for arsenic poisoning. :

Acute arsenical poisoning is shown by retching, vomiting, thirst,
purging, bloody stools, colicky pains, gastro-enteritis, rapid weak
heart, hematuria, subnormal temperature, general edema, delirium,
collapse, coma, and death.

Chronic form is characterized by indigestion, thirst, cachexia,
enlargement of joints, chronic eczema, and necrosis of bones.

The best chemical antidote for arsenic poisoning is the freshly-
prepared hydrated sesquioxide of iron.

Name an antidote for Paris green and tell how it should be adminis-
tered.

Same as arsenic (the poisonous action of Paris green is due to the
arsenic it contains). The antidote should be given every fifteen
minutes in doses of 30 ounces to the horse, 40 ounces to cattle, and
1 ounce to dogs, until relief is obtained.

What precautions are necessary in the treatment of skin diseases of
smaller animals?

Care should be taken to avoid poisonous drugs or any drugs in

large amounts because of the danger of absorption and also the

danger of the animal licking the medicine off. Coal-tar products

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 339

often nauseate and cause serious conditions in cats and dogs when
applied externally.

What are the symptoms of mercurial poisoning? Give an antidote to
mercury.

The symptoms of mercurialism (hydrargyrism) are: salivation,
ulcerous stomatitis, loosening of teeth, blue line along the gums,
gastro-enteritis, bloody diarrhea, cough, nasal discharge, often
blood-streaked, weakness, dizziness, trembling, delirium. Acute
form ‘lasts from 10 to 14 days. Chronic form may last several
weeks or even months, and is accompanied by extreme wasting,
chronic eczema, falling hair, and lameness, due to affections of the
joints and muscles.

Best antidote is egg-albumin, which forms the insoluble albu-
minate of mercury. Sulphur or sulphur compounds aiso form in-
soluble compounds with mercury.

Give the symptoms of lead poisoning in the ox. Prescribe treatment for
lead poisoning.

Lead poisoning, also called plumbism and saturnism, occurs in
acute and chronic forms. The acute form is rarely seen, and is
shown by intense gastro-enteritis, salivation, retching, paralysis,
coma, and collapse. The chronic form is characterized by emaciation,
dyspnoea, tonic spasms of the flexor muscles and paralysis of the
extensors of the fore limbs, blue line along the gums, anemia,
cedema, colic, constipation, convulsions, and death.

Treatment in acute form consists of the administration of large
doses of sulphate of magnesia or soda to form the insoluble sulphate
of lead and to hasten the emptying of the alimentary tract. Give
stimulants and apply warmth to the body.

Chronic form is treated with potassium iodide, after having
emptied the alimentary tract. Sulphates may be given in small
repeated doses to assist elimination and prevent reabsorption.

}

Describe the effects of a poisonous dose of aconite.

Muscular weakness, dimness of sight, mydriasis, a slow, small,
and weak pulse, dyspnea, retching, belching, vomiting, salivation,
flatulence, and copious sweating. A peculiar clicking sound is often
observed, due to the irritation of the throat and constant attempts
at swallowing. The temperature falls two or three degrees. Death
is preceded by muscular twitching, loss of strength, and falling, and
is due to paralysis of the heart and respiration.

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How should a case of poisoning by chloroform be treated?

Give hypodermic injections of strychnine or spirits of glonoin
to stimulate the heart. Inhalations of ammonia or amyl] nitrite have
the same object in view. Pull the tongue forward to allow free en-
trance of air. Attempt artificial respiration by rhythmically com-
pressing the chest with the knees, feet, or hands. Allow plenty of
fresh air.

How should a case of poisoning by chloral hydrate be treated?

Use stomach-tube, or emetics in vomiting animals. Give large
doses of strychnine and atropine subeutaneously. Enemas of strong,
hot coffee and alcohol are useful. Arouse patient by shouting and
whipping. Inhalations of ammonia or amy] nitrite, as in chloroform
poisoning, to stimulate the heart.

Give the symptoms of morphine poisoning and state the antidotes.

In the horse, toxic doses of morphine cause considerable cerebral
excitement at first, but later depression, loss of reflexes, coma, cold
sweat, slow heart, dilatation of the pupil (not contracted, ‘‘pin-
point,’’ as in other animals and man), lessened urinary secretion,
and death by suspension of respiration.

Antidotes: Potassium permanganate by the mouth, atropine,
and strychnine subcutaneously, artificial respiration ; arouse patient
by slapping smartly. Emetics should be given vomiting animals.

Give the symptoms and treatment of atropine poisoning.

Rapid pulse and respiration, elevated temperature, dryness of
mouth, mydriasis, excitement, delirium, muscular twitchings, fre-
quent urination. Later the temperature falls, the urine is retained,
convulsions occur, the respiration becomes weak, slow, and irregu-
lar, death occurs from cardiac and respiratory failure. A few
drops of the urine of the poisoned animal placed in the eye of a
healthy animal causes mydriasis and aids in diagnosis.

Treatment: Stomach-pump, emetics, cardiac stimulants. Opium
and pilocarpine oppose its physiological action. Tannic acid should
be administered as the chemical antidote. Apply external heat in
collapse, and give strychnine if respiration fails,

Give a treatment of strychnine poisoning in the dog.
Apomorphine hydrochlorate, */,) to 1/; grain hypodermically,
is the best and surest emetic.
Give potassium bromide 2 to 4 drachms, or chloral hydrate 20
to 40 grains, to control spasms. Tannic acid is a chemical antidote.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 341

SERUM THERAPY
What is serum therapy?

Serum therapy is a method of producing passive immunity. It
consists in the administration, for preventative or curative purposes,
of a blood-serum containing antitoxin (antibodies) or some other
substance which is antagonistic to the bacterium or toxin which
causes the disease in question.

Define immunity. What is meant by natural and acquired immunity?

Immunity is a state in which an animal’s body is resistant or

insusceptible to a certain disease. This state may be natural or
acquired.

Natural immunity is that enjoyed by the animal from birth, and
not a result of any changes during its lifetime. If the immunity
is the result of changes during the animal’s lifetime, it is spoken
of as an acquired immunity.

Acquired immunity may be active,—that is, obtained by an in-
dividual by having suffered from an attack of a pathogenic micro-
organism and having overcome it; or it may be passive,—that is, a
result of the injection of the serum of an animal which has acquired
an active immunity against the organism in question.

In what infectious diseases is immunization of value?

In rabies, tetanus, black-quarter, anthrax, and hog cholera, im-
munization is unquestionably of great value. Considerable experi-
mental work has been done on immunization in the following dis-
eases: hemorrhagic septicemia, influenza, dog distemper, Texas
fever, infectious abortion, glanders, tuberculosis, and foot-and-mouth
disease, but the results have been far from uniform and their value
is still sub judice.

Discuss the antitoxin treatment.

If gradually increasing doses of the toxins of a pathogenic micro-
organism are injected into an animal, the animal not only acquires
an immunity to the particular toxin, but its blood-serum will an-
tagonize or neutralize the latter if they are brought together. If
some of the serum of this immune animal is injected into an animal
which is suffering from the disease caused by this toxin, it will antag-
onize or render inert some or all of the toxin and thus aid in the
recovery of the sick animal. The substance contained in the immune
sera which combines with and neutralizes the toxin is called an
antitoxin.

The treatment of an infectious disease with a specific antiserum
is called serum therapy. Diseases treated in this manner are

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342 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

tetanus and diphtheria. The antitoxin is also used as a prophy-
lactic agent.

Define amboceptors, lysins, complement.

Amboceptors are antibodies in serum which possess an affinity
for both the complement and the cell to be destroyed (a bacterium
or a red blood-corpuscle), and which serves to unite the two, so
that lysis or destruction of the cell may be effected. It is also
called the immune body.

Lysins are specific antibodies, formed in the blood-serum during
bacterial infection, which are destructive to the bacteria of the spe-
cific serum. They are probably identical with agglutinins.

Complement is a thermolabile (altered or destroyed by heat) sub-
stance in normal serum which is destructive to bacteria and other
cells with which it is brought in contact by means of the amboceptor.

(For further details, see Diagnosis of Glanders by Complement-
fixation Test, p. 167.)

Discuss the serum therapy of hog cholera.

It has been found that the serum from a hog which has recovered
from an attack of hog cholera possesses immunizing and curative
properties for susceptible hogs. If the hog which has recovered is
inoculated with the virus of the disease, its immunizing and curative
properties are greatly augmented, although the hog suffers no ill-
ness. This is called hyperimmunization. The hyperimmunized hog
is bled, the blood defibrinated, and a small amount of a preservative
(phenol) is added to insure its keeping qualities.

The use of serum as a curative agent is only of value in the early
stages of the disease. The serum is injected subcutaneously on the
inner side of the thigh in a dose of approximately 40 ¢.c. per 100
pounds of body weight. In recently infected or non-infected hogs
a passive immunity is secured which lasts only a few weeks, but is
sufficient to protect against the effects of a transient exposure, as at
fairs, travelling, ete.

How is hog cholera serum obtained?

(See answer to preceding question.)

Where serum is produced on a large scale, instead of utilizing
hogs which have survived a natural infection, susceptible hogs are
used. These are first given an immunizing dose of the serum as a
protective measure and later injected with gradually-increasing
doses of virus until they become hyperimmune (proven by test on
hogs). They are bled from the tails at intervals of ten days so long
as their serum is potent. They may then be injected with virus and

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 343

brought to the hyperimmune stage again, and so on until, from
repeated amputations, their tails become too short for subsequent
bleedings.

What is meant by the simultaneous method of immunization against
hog cholera?

The simultaneous method consists of the inoculation of a hog with

a protective dose of immune serum and 2 or 3 ¢c.c. of virulent blood

at the same time. This method confers an immunity which will last

six months and possibly one year. But it is not a practicable method

for inexperienced therapeutists, because of the danger of the virus
being scattered.

How is tetanus antitoxin obtained? Discuss its use.

Antitetanic serum is obtained from a horse which has been re-
peatedly inoculated with gradually-increasing amounts of tetanus
toxin, obtained from artificial cultures. Extremely minute doses
of the toxin are given at first, but at the end of several months a
pint or more produces no ill-effect. When, by test on guinea-pigs,
the serum of the horse is of the desired potency, the animal is bled
from the jugular at intervals; the serum is drawn off and aseptically
preserved.

The antitoxin is measured in units; a unit representing the
amount necessary to neutralize a given amount of toxin, as proven
on guinea-pigs.

Tetanus antitoxin is a valuable prophylactic or immunizing
agent. It should be administered in cases of infected wounds when-
ever there is a suspicion that tetanus bacilli may be present. If
given before the symptoms of tetanus appear, 750 units seem to be
sufficient to immunize. This immunity lasts but a few weeks.
There is a great diversity of opinion regarding its value as a cura-
tive agent. If it is of any value in this connection, it should be
given early and in large doses. There is no definite dosage ; as much
as 5000, and even 30,000, units have been given with equally varying
results.

Vaccine THERAPY
What is vaccine therapy?

Vaccine therapy is a method of producing an active immunity by
the injection of bacteria, or the products of bacterial growth, directly
into the patient. The virulence of the bacteria is modified by heat
or otherwise. As a result of their injection, antitoxins are produced
in the body. This is in contradistinction to serum therapy, which
produces a passive immunity. (See above.)

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What is (a) a vaccine, (b) a bacterin.

These two terms are being used synonymously of late, although
a distinction was formerly, and should now be, made.

A vaccine is the modified and attenuated virus of a disease, in-
capable of producing a severe infection, but affording protection
against the action of the unmodified virus. The term is also applied
to emulsions of dead bacteria. Vaccines are designed to antagonize
bacterial infection, either in advance of a disease (prophylactic, as
in black-leg), or after the advent of the disease (therapeutic, as in
the use of vaccines in wound infections).

A bacterin is an emulsion of dead cultures of specific bacteria
in water or a saline solution, administered hypodermically to pro-
duce an active immunity against the particular bacteria.

What is meant by “ autogenous vaccine ”?

A vaccine derived from bacteria taken from the patient infected
and intended to be injected into the same individual. It is far
superior to the ‘‘stock vaceines,’’ which are suspensions of bacteria
derived from any convenient source and are intended to be used in
the treatment of infections due to the same organism in any
individual.

Discuss bacterin therapy.

Same as vaccine therapy, described above.

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SANITARY SCIENCE—MEAT AND
MILK HYGIENE

Define sanitary science.
Sanitary science deals with all measures designed to promote
health and prevent disease.

How can sanitary science be utilized by the veterinarian?
In preventing and controlling outbreaks of infectious diseases by
a systematic inspection of buildings and surroundings with regard
to ventilation, drainage, construction, ete.

Describe a proper method of drainage for a stable.
Stalls should not slope more than one-half inch toward their
centre, and a similar slope from before backward is sufficient.
A shallow gutter running back of the stalls should be conducted
outside and into a trap which empties into the sewer. All drains
within the stable should be on the surface to permit of ready access.

What is the objection to building a stable (a) on a damp northern
slope, (b) in a deep, narrow, east and west slope, (c) ona
springy, hill-foot or on other wet impervious soil?

(a) There would be insufficient sunlight to evaporate the objec-
tionable moisture.

(b) There would be insufficient sunlight and a tendency to
dampness.

(ec) It would be difficult to secure proper drainage, and the
dampness would be detrimental to health.

Mention some of the ways by which impure water may be purified or
made wholesome.
Sand filtration, sedimentation, and boiling.

What precautions should be taken in grain feeding as regards watering
in connection with the grain?

Give the water before feeding grain; otherwise, the stomach

being comparatively small, considerable grain will be washed

through into the intestines in an undigested condition.
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346 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Define proximate principle. Name three proximate principles and
mention a common food substance in which each is re-
spectively contained.

A proximate principle is a substance which is capable of being
decomposed into simpler principles or parts, as distinguished from
ultimate principles which are not capable of further division. For
example, NaCl is a proximate principle and can be decomposed
into Na and Cl, which, as ultimate principles, cannot be further
subdivided.

Starch, protein, and fat are proximate principles which may be
decomposed into C, O, H, ete. A common food substance which
contains these principles is oats.

AIR AND VENTILATION

‘What is the average composition of (a) atmospheric air, (b) air that
has been breathed?
(a) Oxygen, 20.96; nitrogen, 79.01; carbon dioxide, 0.03.
(b) Oxygen, 16.02; nitrogen, 79.01; carbon dioxide, 4.38.

At what stage of chemical impurity does rebreathed air cause oppres-
sion and at what stage does it become irrespirable?
Air becomes oppressive when it contains only 11 per cent.
of oxygen, and irrespirable when the oxygen falls to 3 per cent.

State the minimum amount of air space that should be provided in a
stable (a) for each horse, (b) for each cow.

This all depends on how often the air of the space is changed.

A horse requires 15,000 cubic feet per hour, and cattle slightly less.

The average air space given to a horse is 1500 cubic feet, and to a

cow 1200 eubic feet. In the case of the horse, the air would need

to be changed ten times per hour, and for the cow about twelve
times.

Does air space greatly in excess of the required amount render the ven-
tilation of a stable unnecessary? Give reason for your
answer.

No. The larger the air space, the smaller number of times the
air of that space needs to be changed; but once the impurities are
present, they remain and will only be removed by supplying fresh
air.

Describe the King system of ventilation.
Fresh air enters through openings in the outside wall, three or
four feet below the ceiling, passes up between the outside and the

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 347

inside wall and into the building just under the ceiling. These
intake flues should be 4 inches in diameter and 6 feet apart on all
four sides of the building. Impure air passes out through a large
ventilating shaft, situated in the middle of the building, and ex-
tending from one foot above the floor upward through the ceiling.
One such shaft, two feet square, is sufficient for 30 cows. Its top is
usually provided with an elbow-like hood which keeps out rain and
swings with the wind. The wind creates a suction which favors
the circulation of air upward through this out-take flue. Near the
ceiling there is an opening in the shaft provided with a door, which
is only opened when the temperature of the interior of the building
is too high.
Inrectious DisEasEs
What hygienic measures should be employed to check the spread of
infectious abortion in cattle? a
Segregation of infected animals. Thoroughly disinfect stables.
Wash the external genitals of all pregnant animals daily with a
non-irritating antiseptic, and irrigate their vaginas with same. Burn
all litter, membranes, and expelled foetuses. Cleanse the penis and
sheath of each male which has covered an infected female by irri-
gating same with a 1 per cent. soda solution, or 14 per cent. lysol
solution.

Describe the hygienic and sanitary precautions that should be observed
in a case of glanders occurring in a large livery in a city.

Apply complement-fixation, agglutination, and ophthalmic tests.

Destroy all reactors. Burn all litter and thoroughly disinfect the

stable, harness, utensils, ete. The stable should be quarantined until

tests have been completed. Any animals failing to react should be

kept under suspicion until subsequent tests, applied one month later,
prove them to be free from the disease.

Outline a plan for thoroughly disinfecting stable premises that have
become infected by the presence of contagious diseases.

Cleanse the stable thoroughly by removing manure and piles of
fodder, sweeping the ceilings, walls, and floors, removal of rotten
woodwork and loose boards, especially of the floor, removal of dried
accumulations about mangers, floors, and drains; burn all the
removed material; scrub the mangers, feed-boxes, stalls, partitions,
harnesses, utensils, ete., with hot water and strong soap, lye, or wash-
ing soda. After cleansing, apply a chemical disinfectant with a
brush or, preferably, with a spray pump, which will carry it into
every crevice and over every surface. Bichloride of mercury,

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348 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

1-1000, is the best disinfectant. Gutters and drains may be flushed
with a saturated solution of sulphate of iron. Dirt floors and barn-
yards containing infected material should be excavated to a depth
of six inches and filled in with new earth. Large fields may be
burned over.

Describe in detail your procedure in the treatment of a herd of cattle,
a part of which you have discovered to be infected with
tuberculosis.

Separate the non-infected from the infected and test them every
three months for the first year and thereafter every six months.
All reacting or suspicious cases should be promptly removed. Reac-
tors which show clinical symptoms should be destroyed. Others may
be kept under the Bang system. Thoroughly disinfect the infected
premises,

How should all outbreaks of contagious diseases be handled?
By reporting promptly to the local or State authorities handling
such affairs. By enforcement of proper quarantine and attention to
disinfection.

Describe an effective method of disinfecting a ship that has contained
cattle affected with anthrax.

Send the boat out to sea not less than forty miles from land and,
beginning at the lowest occupied deck, have all excreta, fodder, fit-
tings, etc., brought up and thrown overboard. Then turn live steam
under pressure against every portion of the ship’s interior, touching
every crevice, nook, and corner. The bilge should be pumped out
and disinfected with bichloride of mereury or carbolic acid.

Mention a bacterium that is very resistant to the action of disinfectants.
Give a reason for your answer,
Bacterium of anthrax, because it forms spores which are very
resistant to the strongest disinfectants. These spores under favor-
able conditions develop into virulent bacteria.

Mention five ways in which pathogenic bacteria may be disseminated
from diseased to healthy animals.
By common watering and feeding troughs, by attendants, by
licking one another, by flies, and by an intermediate host (Texas-
fever tick).

Mention some of the contributing causes of contagious and zymotic
diseases.

Low-resisting powers due to previous disease, fatigne, or lack of
nourishment; overcrowding, poor ventilation, wounds.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 349

State the sanitary police measures necessary to prevent the spread of
dourine.

All affected horses should be excluded from breeding again.
Castration would be advisable as a safeguard. Stallions showing
no symptoms but having covered mares affected with the disease
should be similarly dealt with.

Describe the hygienic measures needful for the prevention of cerebro-
spinal meningitis.
Especial attention should be given to the food and water supply.
In case of an outbreak of the disease in a stable, the food, water, and
pasture should be changed immediately. Disinfect stalls, mangers,
etc., which have been used by affected animals.

Mention the measures of sanitary police that would be needed if lung
plague (contagious pleuropneumonia) were landed on our
shores.

Establish quarantine over the infected area. Kill all infected
animals and destroy carcasses by burning. Prevent any movements
of cattle into or out of the quarantined district for at least three
mouths after the last case appears. Destroy, by burning or plowing
under, all contaminated litter, and thoroughly disinfect premises,
as well as all boats, cars, ete., used in transporting infected animals.

Describe your method of procedure in case of an outbreak of anthrax
in a herd of cattle.

Isolate the sick animals. Kill badly diseased ones, but avoid
the shedding of blood. Destroy carcasses by burning, or burying in
quicklime at least five feet under the ground. The grave should be
in porous soil, far from any pond or river, and it should be fenced
off from pastures. Disinfect, by burning, all litter, fodder, manure,
urine, etc., and flame or drench with strong formalin solution all
stalls, and utensils used about the animals. Keep the remainder
of the herd immunized by vaccinating annually until the infection
is known to have disappeared from the premises. The sale of meat,
milk, hides, or other products from infected animals should be
prohibited.

PROPHYLAXIS
Describe the precautions that should be taken by the national and
State governments to prevent the introduction of foot-and-
mouth disease into this country.

A certificate, declaring the non-exposure of each cloven-hoofed

animal imported and a thorough disinfection of all litter, fodder,

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halters, cars, boats, etc., as well as the clothing and the surface of
the bodies of all attendants and animals, should be required in every
case of an importation from an infected country. Such animals
should be held in quarantine for two weeks.

Describe the Bang method of eradicating tuberculosis from a herd of
cattle.

Slaughter all clinical cases. Apply the tuberculin test to the
remainder of the herd. Those reacting to the test but showing no
clinical symptoms are removed to a separate stable. (Perhaps it
would be better to remove the healthy animals to new or non-infected
quarters and leave the reactors in the old stable, which, in either
case, should be thoroughly disinfected.) Promptly remove the off-
spring of reactors from the mother and feed them on milk from
healthy cows or on sterilized milk of the mother. The non-reacting
animals and all offspring should be tuberculin tested every six
months and any reacting animals promptly removed and their
stalls disinfected. Every avenue of infection of the sound herd
must be guarded. Thus a healthy herd may be built up from a
diseased one,

Define disinfection. Name two natural and five chemical disinfectants.
Disinfection is the act of destroying microdrganisms in or on
any substance, or inhibiting their growth and vital activity.
Sunlight and heat are two natural disinfectants.
Phenol, corrosive sublimate, chloride of lime, formaldehyde, and
oxalic acid are chemical disinfectants.

What precautions should be taken in feeding a horse that is kept from
work two or three days on account of lameness or injury?
Why? If such precautions are not observed, what is likely
to occur?

The amount of food should be greatly lessened and a laxative
diet would be advisable, because the vital activities are lessened and
less nourishment is required. Azoturia may follow rest and heavy
feeding in plethoric horses.

What factors do you consider important in the prevention of contagious
and zymotic diseases?
Isolation, quarantine, disinfection, and protective inoculations.

Name five prophylactic serums or vaccines and the disease against
which each is employed.
Hog-cholera serum protects against hog cholera.
Tetanus antitoxin protects against tetanus.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 351

Black-leg vaccine protects against black-leg.

Anthrax vaccine protects against anthrax.

Rabies vaccine protects against rabies.

What precautions are necessary for public safety in an outbreak of
rabies?

Rigid quarantine for 100 days, or longer if necessary. Muzzle
all dogs over a wide area. All stray and unmuzzled dogs should be
shot. All dogs and cats that have been bitten by a rabid animal
should be destroyed or shut up in iron cages for six months under
veterinary supervision.

Mink AND MzEat HYGIENE
Mention the diseases of animals that render their flesh unfit for human

food.

Unconditional. Conditional.
Extreme emaciation. Pregnancy.
Exhaustion. Local inflammatory changes.
Enteritis. Tumors.

Peritonitis. Hepatitis.

Acute nephritis. Chronic nephritis.
Pneumonia. Mammitis.
Pleurisy. Myocarditis.
Leukemia. Endocarditis.
Pseudotuberculosis. Pericarditis.
Anthrax. Anemia.

Rabies. Rachitis.
Glanders. Osteomalacia.
Variola. Parasitic diseases.
Tetanus. Tuberculosis.
Malignant edema. Actinomycosis.
Septicemia. Botryomycosis.
Pyemia. Swine erysipelas.
Black-leg. Hog cholera.
Hemorrhagic septicemia. Foot-and-mouth disease.
Uremia.

Parturient paresis.

Febrile diseases.

Name ten local disease conditions that do not call for rejection of the
meat for human food.

Localized tuberculosis, actinomycosis and botryomycosis; peri-
carditis, benign tumors, chronic nephritis, dermatitis, mange, hemor-
rhage, thrombosis.

How is it determined at slaughter whether a tubercular cow is fit or
unfit for human consumption?

B. A. I. Order No. 150, Section 13, Paragraph 2, Rule A, reads
as follows: ‘‘The entire carcass: shall be condemned—

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““(a) When there is a tuberculous or other cachexia, as shown by
anemia and emaciation.

‘“(b) When the lesions of tuberculosis are generalized. ‘

““(e) When the lesions of tuberculosis are found in the muscles
or intermuscular tissue or bones or joints, or in the body lymphatic
glands as a result of draining the muscles, bones, or joints.

““(d) When the lesions are extensive in one or both body cavities.

““(e) When the lesions are multiple, acute, and actively pro-
gressive. (Evidence of active progress consists in signs of acute
inflammation about the lesions, liquefaction necrosis, or the pres-
ence of young tubercles.)

“Rule B: An organ or a part of a carcass shall be condemned—

““(a) When it contains lesions of tuberculosis.

‘“(b) When the lesion is immediately adjacent to the flesh, as is
the case of tuberculosis of the parietal pleura or peritoneum, not only
the membrane or part affected but also the adjacent thoracic or
abdominal wall is to be condemned.

““(c¢) When it has been contaminated by tuberculous material,
through contact with the floor, a soiled knife, or otherwise.

““(d) All heads showing lesions of tuberculosis shall be con-
demned.

‘‘(e) An organ shall be condemned when the corresponding
lymphatic gland is tuberculous.

“‘Rule C: The carcass, if the tuberculous lesions are limited to
a single or several parts or organs of the body (except as noted in
Rule A), without evidence of recent invasion of tubercle bacilli into
the systemic circulation, shall be passed after the parts containing
the localized lesions are removed and condemned in accordance with
Rule B.

“Rule D: Carcasses which reveal lesions more numerous than
those described for carcasses to be passed (Rule C), but not so severe
as the lesions described for carcasses to be condemned (Rule A), may
be rendered into lard or tallow if the distribution of the lesions is
such that all parts containing tuberculous lesions can be removed.
Such carcasses shall be cooked by steam at a temperature not lower
than 220° Fahrenheit for not less than four hours.’’

What points determine whether a case of tuberculosis is generalized

or local?

The term ‘‘localized tuberculosis’’ is applied to cases where
there is an infection of a single part of the body with the corre-
sponding lymph-glands, or the infection of several parts of the
body without the concurrence of the large circulatory system.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 353

‘*Generalized tuberculosis”’ is a term applied in cases where a
part of the body is affected to which the tubercle bacilli can be
taken by the arterial blood only (e.g., spleen, kidneys, suprarenal
glands, testicles, ovaries, udder, bones, muscle, body lvmph-glands,
central nervous system, eyes, etc.). The presence of numerous
foci in the lungs positively indicates infection of the blood and
therefore is quite indicative of generalized tuberculosis.

What is “ bob veal”? How.is it detected and is it deleterious to human
health?

““Bob veal’? is immature veal (veal from calves under three
weeks of age). The meat is watery, tender, easily torn, and grayish-
red in color; shows only slight muscular development, especially in
the region of the upper shank. The tissue, which later develops as
the fat capsule of the kidneys, is edematous, dirty yellow, or grayish-
red, and tough. The lumen of the navel vein is wide open and filled
with liquid blood. A chemical test will show an abnormal amount
of glycogen present in the muscles.

It is generally considered that calves under three weeks of age
are unfit for human food, and our Federal regulations provide for
their condemnation. Yet, in Germany, calves only three to four
days old are frequently slaughtered for food, are considered a
delicacy, and apparently are not detrimental to the health of the
consumers.

Name ten inflammatory and five non-inflammatory diseases.
Inflammatory : Pneumonia, pleurisy, rhinitis, enteritis, gastritis,
peritonitis, hepatitis, nephritis, arthritis, and pericarditis.
Non-inflammatory: Pernicious anemia, leukemia, chronic hy-
drocephalus, nasal polypi, tetanus.

Give the life-cycle of cystercus cellulose. What disease does it cause?
What disposition should be made of a carcass affected with
this parasite?

The mature form of this parasite is the Tenia solium, a tape-
worm of man. The ova are passed in the feces and become dis-
seminated through the water or food and are taken in by the inter-
mediate host, the hog In the hog’s stomach the ovum hatches into
a six-hooked embryo, which finds its way through the stomach and
intestinal walls and enters the muscular tissues. There it develops
into the larval stage, becomes encysted, and either perishes in time
or is eaten by man. If the cyst containing the living larva is eaten by
man, the larva becomes liberated and attaches itself, by means of its
hooklets, to the intestinal wall and develops into the mature form.

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304 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Pork which contains these cysts is called ‘‘measly pork,’’ and if
badly affected should be condemned. Carcasses showing slight
lesions may be passed for lard.

Where and how would you look for “ measly pork ”?

With the naked eye the cysts may be seen in the intermuscular
tissue of the heart, tongue, larynx, abdomen, diaphragm, flanks,
jaws, neck, sternum, intercostal region, and adductors of the hind
legs. In case of doubt, a microscopic examination will help in ascer-
taining the presence or absence of the larva with its hooked scolex.

Explain the necessity of municipal and State meat inspection.

To prevent the spread of diseases communicable from animals to
man and to safeguard the public from unclean and unhealthy meat.
A considerable amount of our local meat supply is slaughtered
without inspection. One or more properly-inspected municipal abat-
toirs should be conducted in or near every city, where all slaughter-
ing of animals should be performed. State meat inspectors should
look after the smaller localities.

Mention the principal diseases of domestic animals that are com-
municable to man.

Anthrax. Actinomycosis.
Rabies. Botryomycosis.
Glanders. Tuberculosis.
Foot-and-mouth disease. Pseudotuberculosis.
Variola. Septicemia.
Tetanus. Pyemia.

Malignant edema.

Name four physiological conditions that would render beef unfit for
food.
1. Immaturity. 2. Advanced pregnancy. 3. Strong sexual
odor. 4. Within ten days after parturition.

Is a carcass affected with mange fit for human food?
Carcasses which show advanced lesions associated with emacia-
tion should be condemned. Mild cases are passed for food.

What is trichinosis? How detected? State the disposition that should
be made of a carcass affected with trichinosis.

A disease of hogs (and man) caused by the presence of the larval
form of the parasite, Trichina spiralis, in the muscles. (The mature
worm infests the intestinal tract and causes intestinal trichinosis. )

A careful microscopical examination is necessary in order to
detect trichina in pork.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 355

Badly-infested carcasses should be destroyed. Mild cases should
be rendered into lard, smoked, pickled, or salted to destroy the
parasite.

What is cold slaughtered beef and how is it detected?

Cold slaughtered beef is that from a carcass of a dead unslaugh-
tered animal. Fraudulent attempts are made to give the carcass
the appearance of a normally slaughtered animal by performing
the sticking or cutting on post-mortem. This can be detected by the
absence of bloody infiltration of the edges of the wound, improper
bleeding, and perhaps evidence of post-mortem decomposition.

What is your opinion about ante-mortem examination of animals used
for food?

It is very desirable, but should not supplant the post-mortem
inspection. By it many diseases of animals may be detected and
the contamination of slaughter-houses avoided, not to mention the
safeguarding of the public health. Certain diseases, such as scabies,
rabies, tetanus, ete., which show slight or no lesions on post
mortem can be readily diagnosed on ante-mortem examination.

What is the average composition of cow’s milk?

Water: ca ceca eters 87.00 Proteids .............. 3.30
Solids: s<.cs2qcsneaccnsse 13.00 WAG space sas casos sane 4.00
LAClOse. oes ccacda vase 4.95
DALES guna nanny 75

State the hygienic precautions that should be observed in managing a
dairy from which milk is sold daily.
‘¢Cleanliness’’ is the keynote.
Stable: Well drained, ventilated, and lighted.
Cows: Healthy, well fed and cared for, and clean.
Milking: The milkers should be healthy and tidy.
Care of milk: Promptly remove milk from the stable and cool it
to 45° F., and keep it at this temperature.
Utensils: Should be all metal and cleansed daily by washing
and sterilizing with steam or boiling water.
Water supply: Should be of unquestioned purity.

What is meant by certified milk? Mention the conditions in the pro-
duction and care necessary to warrant the certification of
the milk from a particular dairy.

Certified milk is that which is produced so as to conform to the

requirements of a legal contract between a medical milk commission
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356 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

and adairyman. Although subject to slight variations (principally
with regard to the maximum bacterial and minimum butter-fat
content), the conditions are as follows: The milk must be clean and
wholesome and obtained from healthy cows which are kept in sani-
tary quarters, fed wholesome feed, and given pure water. It must be
drawn from clean cows by clean, healthy attendants into clean recep-
tacles and in a clean atmosphere. It must be handled in a clean
manner, cooled quickly, put into sterile receptacles, placed in cold
storage, and iced in transportation when necessary. The bacterial
content must not exceed 10,000 per c.c., and the fat-content must
equal or exceed 4 per cent.

Name some of the diseases that may be transmitted through the
medium of milk.
Typhoid fever, diphtheria, scarlet fever, tuberculosis, foot-and-
mouth disease, actinomycosis, anthrax, cholera infantum, ete.

Describe the dangers of infection to man through the consumption of
cow’s milk, covering (a) infection from bovine, (b) infec-
tion from germs added to the liquid during or after milking.
How may these dangers be guarded against?

(a) Tuberculosis, actinomycosis, foot-and-mouth disease, and
anthrax may be transmitted from the cow to man through the milk.
Strict veterinary supervision of the herd should eliminate these
dangers.

(b) Diphtheria, tuberculosis, scarlet fever, and typhoid fever
may enter the milk during or after milking. To guard against this
danger, the milker and milker’s family should be free from infec-
tious diseases. All bottles or other receptacles returned from houses
holding cases of contagious diseases should be carefully sterilized
or, better, destroyed. Dogs and cats carry disease germs, and should
be excluded from the stable and dairy-house. The water supply
should be pure.

State in what way milk may become a means of transmitting the germs
of typhoid fever.

The milk may become infected with the typhoid bacillus through
flies, dust, contact with human patients suffering from this disease,
cows wading in filth containing bowel and urinary discharges of
human beings and contaminating the udder with germs of typhoid
fever and thus conveying them to the milk; the water supply to the
milk-house; bottles returned from houses holding typhoid patients.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 357

How is milk tested for the presence of (a) boric acid, (b) salicylic
acid, and (c) sodium bicarbonate?

(a) Add toa few drops of milk, contained in a white dish, a drop
or two of hydrochloric acid, and then several drops of a saturated
alcoholic solution of turmeric. Heat the dish gently for a few
minutes, and if boric acid or borax is present, a pink or dark-red
color will appear. Cool, and add a drop of ammonia, when a dark-
blue or green color should be seen.

(b) Add two or three drops of sulphuric acid to 20 ¢.c. of milk
and then shake gently with 20 c.c. of a mixture of equal parts of
ether and petrolic ether. Then, after standing for several hours,
the upper ethereal solution is poured off and the remaining liquid
is evaporated in a porcelain evaporating dish. Add to the residue
a few drops of water, and if salicylic acid is present a violet or
purple color will be produced on adding a drop of a ferric chloride
solution.

(c) Add to the suspected milk an equal volume of alcohol and
two drops of a 1 per cent. solution of rosalic acid. If sodium bicar-
bonate is present, a red-rose color will appear.

Classify milk from the stand-point of its number of harmless bacteria.
Class 1. Certified milk: not over 10,000 bacteria per cubic centi-

metre.

Class 2. Inspected milk: not over 100,000 bacteria per cubic
centimetre.

Class 3. Pasteurized milk: none, or a variable low number of
bacteria.

What is pasteurized milk?

Milk which has been heated to a temperature below the boiling-
point but sufficiently high to destroy all pathogenic microdrganisms
(140° F., or 46° C. for 30 minutes ; 150° F.., or 65° C. for 20 minutes ;
160° F., or 70° C. for 10 minutes). This should be done as soon as
practicable after milking in inelosed vessels, preferably the final
containers, and after such heating immediately cooled to a tempera-
ture not exceeding 50° F., or 10° C.

Give a test to prove that milk has been pasteurized.

Pasteurization cannot be proven unless the milk has been heated
to 170° F., or over, because this temperature is necessary to destroy
the ferments upon which the test depends.

Storch’s test: Add to 5 cc. of milk two drops of a freshly-
prepared 2 per cent. solution of paraphenylenediamine hydrochlor-

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358 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

ide, and then one drop of a 2 per cent. solution of hydrogen dioxide.
Unheated milk gives a blue color when thus treated, but milk heated
to 170° F. gives no color.

Arnold’s guaiac test: Add, drop by drop, a little tincture of
guaiac to a small amount of milk in a test-tube. If the milk has not
been heated to 80° C. (170° F.), a blue zone is formed between the
two fluids; heated milk gives no reaction, but remains white.

Give a test for formaldehyde in milk.

Place about 20 ¢.c. of milk in a small glass vessel, dilute with
an equal volume of water, and add, by pouring slowly down the
inside of the vessel, a small amount of 90 per cent. commercial sul-
phurie acid. If formaldehyde is present, a purple or bluish zone will
appear at the junction of the acid and milk. If no formaldehyde is
present, a faint, slightly greenish ring forms. This test will detect
formaldehyde even if present in as small proportion as 1 in 200,000.

Name the common preservatives used in milk.
Borie acid, salicylic acid, formalin, benzoic acid, potassium
bichromate.

Give the cause for: (a) ropy milk, (b) bitter milk, (c) blue milk, (d)
red milk, (e) suppression of the milk, (f) pus in the milk.

(a) Inflammation of the udder may cause ropy milk, but in the
majority of cases it is due to B. lactus viscosus.

(b) Eating of certain foods by cows (lupines, ragweed, cab-
bages, Swedish turnips); it occurs in old milk due to growth of
germs.

(ce) Bacillus eyanogenus.

(d) A mixture of blood: B. prodigiosus. Rarely due to eating
of pigmented plants.

(e) Mastitis, severe febrile diseases, certain drugs such as bella-
donna, idodine, camphor, alum, etc.

(f) Mastitis. (A small number of leucocytes is often found in
milk from apparently healthy cows.) Prolonged retention of milk
in the udder gives rise to an increased leucocyte content.

Describe briefly: (a) sanitary farm, (b) sanitary barn, (c) sanitary
milk-house.

(a) A sanitary farm is one that is located sufficiently high to
have good drainage, and that is free from germs of infectious
diseases.

(b) A sanitary barn is one provided with good drainage, venti-
lation, and light, and pure water supply; it has the necessary

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 359

amount of air space per animal, and is clean and free from germs
of infectious diseases.

(e) A sanitary milk-house is so constructed that it can be
readily disinfected throughout with boiling water or steam. All
apparatus used in it should be of metal as far as practicable so as to
permit of thorough sterilization. Good drainage, ventilation, and
a supply of pure water are essential. It should be weil fitted with

all apparatus necessary for the proper handling, cooling, and storing
of milk.

How is a quantitative bacterial analysis of milk made?
A cubie centimetre of milk is diluted with sterile water and
mixed with melted nutrient agar. This mixture is poured in a
Petri dish, allowed to cool, and then placed in an incubator for 24
hours. Each bacterium grows and produces one colony. By count-
ing the colonies and multiplying the result by the dilution, the num-

ber of bacteria per cubic centimetre is determined.

What is the significance of the presence of streptococci in milk?

This question is subject to great dispute. Most authorities are
agreed that any number of streptococci in excess of the ordinary
number found in milk calls for an investigation of the dairy supply-
ing the milk, looking particularly for mammitis, and contamination
with dirt, especially manure.

Name the microorganism that causes milk to become sour.
B. lactis acidi.

What is the difference between pasteurized, sterilized and certified
milk?

Pasteurized milk has been heated to a temperature below the
boiling-point but sufficiently high to destroy nearly all living micro-
organisms, or at least to check their growth. (Ninety-five to ninety-
eight per cent. of all bacteria are destroyed by pasteurization.)

Sterilized milk is free from all bacteria and spores. Sterilization
ig usually accomplished by heating the milk to the boiling-point. By
this process the milk is altered in composition and taste, and there-
fore it is objectionable as a commercial product.

Certified milk is produced under such cleanly methods as to
contain a very low number of non-pathogenic bacteria: not over
10,000 per cubic centimetre.

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ZOOTECHNICS

What is zootechnics? What subjects are included in the study of
zootechnics?
Zoétechnies refers to the breeding, keeping and general manage-
ment of domesticated animals. It includes a study of breeds, breed-
ing, feeds, feeding, conformation, type, soundness, etc.

Give a definition for the following terms: protein, fat, carbohydrates,
balanced ration, crude fibre.

Protein refers to the nitrogen compounds in vegetable and ani-
mal foods. About 16 per cent. of protein substances consist of
nitrogen.

Fat is an important constituent of foods. Its presence is deter-
mined by submitting the feeding-stuff to the action of ether, which
dissolves fat. It is often called ether-extract and is found in seeds
more than in coarse foods. Cotton-seed and flax-seed are especially
oleaginous.

Carbohydrates are compounds that are important constituents
of food. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; the
hydrogen and oxygen being in the proportion to form water. They
are non-nitrogenous compounds and are present in large proportions
in all the common fodders, in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose,
ete.

A balanced ration is one which contains the different nutrients
in the proper proportions to meet the physiological requirements of
the animal, with the least waste of nutrients.

Crude fibre is the tough or woody part of plants. It consists
mainly of cellulose and is especially abundant in hay and straw.

What would constitute a normal day’s ration for a 1200-pound horse?

The following rations should meet the needs of a 1200-pound
horse, doing moderate work:

1 2 3
10 pounds hay. 10 pounds hay. 10 pounds hay.
6 pounds corn. 10 pounds oats. 6 pounds oats.
7 pounds wheat bran. 5 pounds wh. bran. 6 pounds corn.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 361

From the following list of hay, grains and concentrates, subdivide those
best suited for dairy cattle, beef cattle, horses, sheep and
swine: Hay—timothy, common red clover and alfalfa;
grains—peas, oats, barley and rye; concentrates—bran, cot-
ton-seed meal, oil cake and gluten meal.

Dairy cattle: Clover hay, alfalfa, barley, bran, cotton-seed meal,
oil cake, and gluten.

Beef cattle: Clover hay, rye, bran, cotton-seed meal, and gluten.

Horses: Timothy hay, alfalfa, oats, bran, and barley.

Sheep: Clover hay, alfalfa, bran, cotton-seed meal, gluten, and
oil cake.

Swine: Clover hay, peas, barley, and bran.

Define the following terms: hereditary, prepotency, in-breeding, cross-
breeding, thoroughbred and grade.

Hereditary refers to diseases or qualities which are derived from
ancestry or obtained by inheritance.

Prepotency is a quality possessed by certain individuals, by
reason of which they have greater power than the other parent in
transmitting inheritable characters to the offspring.

In-breeding is a form of line-breeding which involves the breeding
together of sire and offspring or dam and offspring or of brother and
sister.

Cross-breeding refers to the combining of ancestral lines of two
distinct races, breeds, or varieties.

The term thoroughbred refers to a specific breed of horses (the
English race-horse) which are noted for speed and endurance.

The term grade is applied to an offspring resulting from the
mating of a common or unimproved parent with one more highly
improved, a ‘‘pure-bred.”’

What is atavism? Give an example.
Atavism is the inheritance of characteristics from remote, but not

from the immediate, ancestors. In breeding pure-bred animals we
occasionally obtain an offspring which is off-color or off-type and
resembles a very remote ancestor. The peculiar color or type may
not have been shown in several generations.

Name the various breeds of dairy cattle and wool sheep.
Dairy cattle: Holstein-Friesians, Jerseys, Guernseys, and

Ayrshires.
Wool sheep: Merinos, Southdowns, Shropshires, Oxfords, Dor-

sets, Leicesters, Cotswolds, and Lincolns.
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362 VETERINARY STATE BOARD

What points should be especially considered in the selection of animals
for breeding purposes?

‘We should consider the individual and its ancestry, noting
particularly that the high standard of the ancestors has been main-
tained in each individual in the line of parentage. ‘‘Like begets
like’’; therefore, the desirable, as well as the undesirable, points of
the selected animal are likely to be transmitted to the offspring.

What influence on the offspring does heredity play and what environ-
ment?

Heredity should not be considered from the stand-point of the
individuals mated only, but of the race as a whole. Consider the
ancestors and the desirable characteristics which they uniformly
possessed. From individuals whose ancestry has shown a uniform-
ity of certain characteristics it is reasonable to expect that these
points will be transmitted to offspring. Among the characteristics
inherited are: conformation, type, color, temperament, milk-pro-
duction, wool-production, speed, endurance, style, action, ete.

Environment, likewise, deserves general consideration. The
effect of environment on the immediate offspring is of little impor-
tance. Insufficient food, overwork, and improper care may result
in the production of an individual offspring of inferior size and
development. But the succeeding generation may lack in neither of
these respects. However, if a great number of generations are
kept in the same improper environment, there will be a tendency
toward retrogression.

What is the value of a pedigree and upon what does it depend?

A pedigree is a record of ancestry, and its value depends upon the
reputation of the ancestors. If the ancestors for five or six genera-
tions back have been individuals of a uniformly good character, the
pedigree is valuable, and the individual, which it represents, is
desirable as a breeding animal. On the contrary, if there has been
a lack of uniformity in the previous generations, the pedigree is of
little account, and the individual is more or less undesirable as a
factor in breeding.

An ideal pedigree would be one which contains definite infor-
mation regarding the merits and demerits of the individuals
recorded.

Name the conditions of the tarsus that cause unsoundness.
Arthritis chronica deformans, curb, bog-spavin, and thorough-
pin.

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 363

What unsoundnesses in horses may be regarded as sufficient cause
for disqualification of animals by judges in the show ring?

Some judges disqualify horses which show lameness from any
cause whatsoever. But it would seem more logical to disqualify
only those in which the lameness is due to structural changes in the
limbs, such as ring-bone, navicular bursitis, spavin, curb, splints,
quittor, laminitis, tendonitis, shoulder, hip and stifle lameness, ete.,
and to ignore temporary lameness due to nail-wounds, corns, thrush,
ete.

Other recognized unsoundnesses are: roaring, heaves, periodic
ophthalmia, blindness, infectious diseases (glanders, influenza,
dourine, etc.), osteoporosis, congenital malformations (cryptorchid-
ism, monorchidism, herniz, etc.), chronic hydrocephalus and vicious
habits.

What diseases are hereditary in horses? Mention faulty conforma-
tions that predispose to unsoundness in horses.

The consensus of opinion would indicate that there are few, if

any, hereditary diseases. But there is no doubt about the transmis-

sion of defects in conformation. Among the latter should be

mentioned :
Curby hocks. Base narrow.
Narrow hocks. Toe wide.
Knee-sprung. Toe narrow.
Calf-knees. Narrow, long-coupled back.
Short, upright pasterns. Small, deep-set eyes.
Base wide. Narrow forehead.

These defects predispose to unsoundness.

What are the characteristics of a good milch cow?

Head: Small and clean cut; muzzle large; forehead straight or
concave; small horns; eyes bright and prominent.

Neck: Long and thin.

Body: Soft, fine, thick hair; clean, pliable skin; broad loins
but not thickly fleshed as in the beef type; frame wedge-shaped,
tapering from rump to shoulder ; flank high ; abdomen well barrelled
and roomy.

Udder: Broad, full, extending high up behind and far forward ;
not loose, pendulent, and fleshy ; teats large, evenly placed, and wide
apart; large, prominent milk-veins.

Extremities: Fore limbs short and wide apart; long and power-
ful hind quarters with thin thighs, widely separated ; tail long, slim,
and loosely jointed.

Temperament: Docile; heavy feeder.

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364

VETERINARY STATE BOARD

Describe a properly built stall for a horse. Give its dimensions.

A properly-built stall for a horse should be ten feet long from
the manger and six feet wide. The partitions must be strong and
high enough, especially in front, to prevent quarrelling. The pillars
are rounded and provided with rings, about three feet from the
floor, to which a chain can be attached.

The floor is made‘of concrete or other impervious material and
covered with wood. The slope, posteriorly, should be as little as
possible to secure drainage. One inch lower behind than in front is
sufficient.

Mangers are best made of metal and so constructed as to permit
of thorough cleansing. The hay-rack should be low to avoid the
danger of dust, chaff, etc., falling into the nostrils and eyes.

Windows should be high overhead to prevent drafts and the glare
of light in the eyes.

At what age does the cow, mare, bitch, ewe and cat bear young?

The age at which the various animals arrive at puberty varies in
different species and in individuals of species. Records show that
cows have given birth to young as early as 14 months, mares 22
mouths, bitch 8 months, ewe 13 months, and cat 10 months.

It is undesirable to have a female bring forth young before she
has matured because of the dangers to her health and development.
Therefore breeders, as a rule, do not mate females until they have
reached ages as follows: Cow, 1 to 114 years; mare, 4 to 5 years;
bitch, 1 year ; ewe, 1 year; cat, 1 year.

What are some of the principal causes of sterility in domestic animals?

How may these conditions be overcome?
(See subject of obstetrics, p. 293.)

Name the several external and internal parasites of sheep.

External: Melophagus ovinus (sheep-tick), hematopinus stenop-
sis (sheep-louse), cestrus ovis (sheep gad-fly), sarcoptes scabei (face-
scab parasite), symbiotes communis (foot-seab parasite), psoroptes
communis (common scab parasite).

Internal: Cstrus ovis (grub in head), ecenurus cerebralis (gid),
strongylus filaria and rufescens (lung worms), strongylus convo-
lutus (stomach worm), cesophagostoma columbiana (nodular disease
in intestines), distoma hepaticum (fluke), tenia expansa, alba and
fimbriata (tapeworms). x

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QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 365

Give the process of dentition in the equine from birth to the age of
five (5) years.

At birth or within two weeks after: The colt shows two tem-
porary nippers, above and below, and the first three temporary
grinders.

Four to six weeks: The temporary intermediates appear.

Six to nine months: The temporary corners appear.

Ten to twelve months: The fourth molar erupts.

Two years: The fifth molar erupts.

Two and one-half to three years: The permanent nippers replace
the temporary ones and the first two premolars are replaced.

Three and one-half to four years: The intermediates and third
premolars are replaced by permanent teeth.

Four and one-half to five years: The permanent corners, canines,
and last molars erupt.

What are the characteristics of a seven-year-old mouth?

The tables of the nippers and intermediates are levelled (cups
gone); the ring of central enamel is wider anteroposteriorly and
shorter from side to side; the nippers are oval, the intermediates
becoming so. A notch is formed on the posterior surface of the
superior corners.

State the advantages and disadvantges of a pair of mules over a pair
of horses. ,
Advantages. Disadvantages.

1. Less susceptible to digestive dis- Practically none.
orders, laminitis, azoturia, glan- Many people are prejudiced against

ders, influenza, foot lameness, the mule for no valid reason.
heat prostration, etc. The mule is not adapted to heavy draft
2. Require less elaborate stables. work because of size.

8. Longer period of serviceability.
4, ‘Stand hard usage better.

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INDEX

Abdominal cavity, regions of, 99
organs, pathology, 152
Abducens nerve, 75
functions of, 134
Abomasum, anatomy, 81
conditions of food leaving, 118
Abortion, 264, 276
from ergot, 198
infectious in cows, 182
course and etiology of, 277
methods of control, 277
of diagnosing, 182
symptoms, 277
non-contagious, causes of, 276
symptoms of, 276
Abscess, cold, 209, 240
of shoulder, 240
treatment, 209, 240
defined, 144, 209
postpharyngeal, causes, 220
symptoms and treatment, 220
Absorption, 103, 122
of gas by fluids, 114
Acariasis, poultry, cause of, 203
; treatment, 203
prevention and treatment, 205
Accommodation, 103
process of, 137
A. C. E. mixture, 305
Acetanilide, action, 304
effect on temperature, 304
source and uses, 304
Acetates, 35
Acid, 3
acetic, 35, 38
action on secretions, 331
arsenious, 33
boric, 31

action, properties and uses of, 321

carbolic, source, 37
dibasic, 4
gallic, 34
hippuric, 127
hydrochloric, 318
preparation of, 26
source of, in gastric juice, 118
lactic, 38, 42
mineral, 40
monobasic, 4
nitric, preparation of, and uses, 19
phosphoric, 11, 318 .
sulphuric, 23
graphic formula of, 11, 24
preparation of, 23, 24
tannic, 34
actions and source, 321
tartaric, 38

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Acid, tribasie, 4
uric, 127
Acid-fast organisms, 162
Acne, pathology, 156
s symptoms and treatment, 202
Aconite, dose of tincture, 299
maximum doses, 299
physiological actions, 298
therapeutic uses, 298
Aconitine, 315
Actinobacillosis, 180
animals affected by, 180
diagnosis and treatment, 180
Actinomycosis, 180
fungus of, 162
prescription for, 336
symptoms and treatment, 180, 227
Adrenalin, dose for dog and horse, 318
preparation, source and uses, 318
Adrenals, anatomy, 96, 98
vascular glands, 112
Aérobic, facultative and obligative, 161
term defined, 161
Age, determination of, 225, 365
of breeding, 364
Agglutinins, 163
Air, 20, 346
changes in inspired, 113, 346
composition of breathed, 346
of normal, 115, 346
constituents of, 20

injurious substances added to, in

breathing, 20
mixture not a compound, 20
residual, 114
space requirements, 346
tidal, 103, 114
Anatomy, 44
Albuminuria, conditions found in, 186
Alcohols, absolute, 35
ethyl, 35
methyl, 35
preparation and uses of, 35
Aldehyde, 35
Alimentation, 104
Alkalies, 3
actions of, 300
on secretions, 331
caustic, antidote for, 39
uses, 300
Alkaloid, 38, 311
antidote for, 38
Alkaloids, six common, 311
Allantois, 274
Allotropism, 5
Aloes, action of, 322
Barbadoes, 317
367

368 INDEX

Aloes, Cape, 317
dose for cow, dog, and horse, 322
Socotrine, 317

Alterative, 321

Aluminum, important salts of, 31
sulphate, 31

Alums, 31

Alveolus, 45

Amalgam, 4

Amaurosis, causes, 218
defined, 218
treatment, 218

Amboceptors, 167, 168, 342
bacterial, 168
hemolytic, 167, 168

Ammonia, 19
aqua, 301
aromatic spirits of, dose, 320
sign of danger in drinking water, 19
source and uses of, 19

Ammonium acetate, 35
carbonate, 301

dose, 320
chloride, 19, 301

dose, 320
iodide, 303

dose, 314
nitrate, 20

Amnion, 274

Amorphism, 2

Amphiarthrosis, 52

Amputation of hind limb, 98
of penis, 235
of tail, indications for, 239
of udder, indications, 326

Amylopsin, 116, 121

Anabolism, 40, 126

Anemia, 182, 141
causes of, 182
cerebral, 200

post-mortem appearance of, 155
infectious, treatment, 182

Anaérobic, term defined, 161
facultative and obligative, 161

Anesthesia, chloroform, 258, 315

dangers of, 258
of a foot for operation, 258

Anesthetic, defined, 307
general, local, and uses, 307

Anesthetics, 258
in major operations, 258

in horse, ox and dog, 258
in minor operations, 258
in horse, ox and dog, 258
Analysis, 3

Anaphylaxis, 143
Anasarca, 144
Anatomy, histological, 99

obstetrical, 259

soft organs concerned in, 259

topographical, 98
Anchylosis, defined, 214!
Anchylostoma, 197

‘animals attacked by, 197

Aaehvlostoma; symptoms and treatment,
7
Aneurism, 149
causes, 187
defined, 217
false, 217
of cceliac and mesenteric arteries, 149
cause of, 149
symptoms and treatment, 187
true, 217
varieties of, 217
Angioma, 146
Animal heat, 128
conditions influencing, 128
how maintained, 128
how regulated, 128
in cold-blooded animals, 128
in warm-blooded animals, 128
Ante-mortem examination of food-animals
355
Anthelmintics, 325
Anthrax, in cattle, 175
bacillus of, 172
course, 175
cutaneous form, 175
differentiated from malignant cedema,
166
disinfecting ships, 348
immunization in, 341
method of procedure in outbreak,
349
post-mortem lesions, 158
symptoms, 175
Antibodies, 167, 168
Antidotes, chemical, 39
differentiated from antagonists, 338
for poisoning by aconite, 339
by alkaloids, 38
by arsenic, 338
by atropine, 340
by chloral hydrate, 340
by chloroform, 340
by corrosive sublimate, 338
by lead, 339
by mercury, 339
by morphine, 340
by strychnine, 340
mechanical and physiological, 39
Antimony, 34
Antiphlogistics, 210, 331
Antipyrine, 310, 317
Antiseptic, defined, 161, 329
economic, 316
for wounds, 309
wound treatment, 206
Antiseptics, 24
Antitoxin, 163, 341
tetanus, dose, 343
source, unit, and'use, 343
treatment, 341
Anus, imperforated, treatment, 296
Aorta, anterior branches, common, 64
posterior, branches of, 63
Aphrodisiac, 320

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Aphthe epizodtice, 176
symptoms and treatment, 176
Apnoea, 114
Apomorphine, for the dog, 308
administration and dose, 308
use, 308, 316
hydrochloride, dose, 327
Aponeuroses, 57
Apoplexy, 155
parturient, 287
Aqueous humor, 93, 94
Arachnoid, anatomy, 71
physiology, 133
Areca nut, a vermifuge, dose, 316
use and constituents of, 324
Arecoline hydrobromide, actions, 303
dose, 303, 312
Argyrol, 27
Arsenic, 33
actions and administration, 303
antidote for, 39, 338
compounds of, used in medicine, 38
Fowler’s solution of, 33
Marsh’s test for, 33
poisoning by, symptoms, 338
preparations used in medicine, 303,
327

uses, 303
Arteries, anterior mesenteric, 63

anterior tibial, 65

axillary and brachial, 64

broncho-cesophageal, 63

collateral of cannon, 64

digital, 64

external carotid and iliac, 65

external pudic, 92

femoral, 66

function, 110

gastric, 66

glossofacial, 65

hepatic, 66

histologically described, 99

humeral, 64

iliac, 64

inflammation of, 217

intercostal, 63

internal iliacs, 66
maxillary, 65
pudic, 92

lumbar, 63

middle sacral, 63

perpendicular, 64

phrenic, 63

plantar ungual, 64

popliteal, 65 .

posterior mesenteric, 63
radial, 64

preplantar ungual, 64

renal, 63

small testicular, 64

spermatic, 63, 92

splenic, 66

superficial temporal, 65

369

Arteries, umbilical, 67
uterine, 66
vertebral. 65
Arteritis, causes, defined, 217
Arthritis, defined, 148, 214
deforming, 214, 248
lesions of, 148
ate suppurative, and tubercular,

varieties of, 214
Arthrology, 51
Articulations, 51
atlo-axoid, 52
classes, 51
costochondral and costosternal, 53
coxofemoral and femorotibial, 56
humeroradial, 53
interphalangeal, 55
of the tarsus, 56
of the vertebre, 52
radiocarpal, 54
scapulohumeral, 53
structures entering into, 52
Atrophy, 141, 143
causes of, 143
Ascaris megalocephala, 195
prescription for, 195
symptoms, 195
Ascites, causes, 198
defined, 198
in the dog, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 231
Asepsis, defined, 161
Aseptic wound treatment, 206
Asphyxia, 115
in new-born, 294
treatment, 294
stages of, 115
Aspidium, dose, 324, 325
oleoresin, 325
precautions in administering, 324
value of, 324
Asthma, bronchial, 189
animal most susceptible to, 189
causes, symptoms and treatment, 189
Atavism, 361 *
Atelectasis, 151
Atom, 3
Atomic weight, 5
Atlas, vertebra, 48
articulation of, 52
Atropine, action, 309
poisoning by, symptoms and antidote,
340

source, 309

sulphate, dose of, 312
Auditory nerve, 75

function of, 135, 137
Augmentation, defined, 133
Auscultation, 171
Autogenous vaccine, 344
Auto-intoxication, 142
Automatism, defined, 133
Avogadro’s law, 12

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370

Axis, vertebre, 48
articulations of, 52
Azoturia, 183 . er
differentiated from spinal meningitis,
169
etiology, 183
pathology of, 154
prevention of, 183
symptoms, 183
treatment, 183, 329

Bacillus, 160
Bang’s, 161, 277
Johne’s, 179
Koch’s, 161
necrophorus, 163
Nicolaier’s, 161 .
of anthrax, tetanus and tuberculosis,
162
paratuberculosis, 163 ;
Bacteria, pathogenic, methods of dis-
semination, 348
Bacteriacee, 160
Bacterin therapy, 344
Bacteriology, 160
Bacteriologic examination, 163
collecting tissues for, 163
Bacterium, 160
lactic acid, 42
method of producing disease, 164
Migula’s classification of, 160
resistant to disinfectants, 348
Balanced rations, 127, 360
Balsam copaiba, dose, 318
Peru, actions, 325
dose, source, and use, 325
Bang, bacillus of, 161, 277
method of eradicating tuberculosis,

350
Barium, 29, 30
chloride, 30

dose, and indications for, 299

Bar-shoe, contra-indicated, 256

in corns, 254

in laminitis, 255

in thrush, 254

uses of, 256
Base, 3
Bayer’s operation for quittor, 252
Beef, cold slaughtered, 355

detection of, 355
physiological conditions rendering un-
fit, 354
Beggiatoa, 160
Beggiatocex, 160
Belladonna, actions and uses, 308
Bell metal, 12
Benzoated lard, 309
preparation of and uses, 309

Bessemer process, 32
Bile, 120

functions of, 120

result of suspended secretion of, 109

salts of, 103

INDEX

Bile, secretion in equine and bovine com-
pared, 120
Bishoping, method of, 226
Bismuth, 31
citrate, 31
salts of, action externally, 314
subcarbonate, 31
subgallate, 31
subnitrate, 31
actions and dose, 314
subsalicylate, 31
Bitters, vegetable, 322
Bladder, urinary, anatomy, 89
paralysis of, in horse and dog, 233
causes, syrnptoms and treatment,
233

prolapse of, in mare, treatment, 233
rupture of, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 233
Blastoderm, function of, 273
membranes of, 273
Bleaching powder, 8
Blistering agents, 313
for different animals, 313
Bloating, accompanying choke, 222
in cattle, 192
Blood, amount of, in horse, 107
arterial and venous compared, 108
cause of alkalinity, 108
circulation of, in brain, 112
coagulation of, 108
color of, in renal veins, 108
composition of, 101, 106, 107
defined, 106
flow of, in arteries and veins, 111
forces that cause circulation of, 110
function of, in secretion, 104
gases found in, 107
inflammatory appearances of, 210
oxygen, how carried in, 108
pathology of, 146
pressure, 111
factors that decrease and in-
crease, 111
governed, 111
highest and lowest, 111
proteids of, 107
velocity of, 111
greatest and lowest, 111
vessels, 100
diseases of, 217
pathology of, 148
Blood-clot, 147
ante-mortem and post-mortem com-
pared, 147
Blow-pipe, oxyhydrogen, 15
Blue vitriol, 7
Bones, 44
atlas, 48
axis, 48
blood supply of, 66
carpal, 48
cuneiform, 48
development of, 44

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX 371

Bones, femur, fracture of, 246
frontal of the ox, 45
ilium and ischium, 50
inferior maxillary, 46
inflammation of, 212
lunar, 48
number of, in the horse, 44
of the cranium, 44
of the ear, 137
of the foot, 48
of the fore limb, horse and ox, 47
of the head, 44
of the hind limb, 50
of the pelvis, 50
os innominatum, 50
pathology of, 147
pedal, 48
pisiform, 48
properties of, 44, 105
pubis, 50
ribs, 51
sacrum, 50
scaphoid, 48
scapula, 47
superior maxillary, 45
trapezoid, 48
ulna, 47
unciform, 48
Bob-veal, 353
method of detection, 353
relation to health, 353
Body, excreting organs of, 105
inorganic constituents of, 106
secreting organs of, 105
vital organs of, 105
Borax, 31
Boric acid, 31
Boron, 31
Bots, in throat of solipeds, 188
Boyle’s law, 1
Brain, anemia of, pathology, 155
anatomy, 71, 72
circulation of blood in, 112
hyperemia of, 200
membranes of, 71, 133
function of, 133
Brandy, 35
Brass, 12
Breathing, Cheyne-Stokes, 166
Broken knee, treatment of, 241
Bromine, preparation of, 27
uses in medicine, 27
Bronchitis, inhalation, 188
causes of, 188
symptoms, 189
verminous, treatment in calves, 189
Bronchopneumonia, 188 _
appearance of lungs in, 151
Bunsen burner, 22

Cexcum, anatomy, 83
capacity of, 83
horse and ox compared, 83
puncturing, tissues involved. in, 2

32
igitized by Microsoft®

Cecum, puncturing, unsatisfactory results
in, 232
Cesium, 29
Caffeine, actions, dose and use of, 327
Calabar bean, alkaloid of, 312
Calcification, 144
Calcium, 29
carbide, 22
hydroxide, 11
hypochlorite, 8
sulphate, 30
Calculus, defined, 212
salivary, treatment, 227
urinary, symptoms and treatment, 223
varieties of, 212
Calomel, 28, 299
preparation and properties of, 28
uses, 299
Calorie, large and small, 129
Seno actions, dose, source and uses,

Canal, auditory, 95
Haversian, 105
infra-orbital, 46
inguinal, 62
lachrymal, 45
maxillodental, 46
palatine, 45
Cancer, varieties of, 145
Canker, 254
differentiated from thrush, 254
prognosis, 254
symptoms and treatment, 254
Cannabis indica, actions and use, 324
dose for dog and horse, 324
Cantharides, actions and uses, 302
active principles of, 314
source, 314
Capped hock, causes, definition and treat-
ment, 249
Carbohydrates, 34, 41, 360
differentiated from hydrocarbons, 34,
41

Carbolic acid, 37
antidote for, 40
source, 37
Carbon, 20
allotropic forms of, 21
amorphous, 21
dioxide, 11, 21
effect on health, 20
preparation of, 21
test for, 22
weight compared with air, 22
element of proteids, 106
monoxide, 11
reducing agent, 21
Cardiac cycle, 110
hypertrophy, 148
causes and lesions of, 148
Caries, defined, 148, 213
of the teeth, 224
causes of, 148
treatment, 224

372

Carpus, structures of, 54
Cartilage, articular, function of, 105
development of bone from, 44
ensiform, 49
lateral, 55
function of, 55, 138
of prolongation, 47
xiphoid, 49
Caruncle, 136
Cascara sagrada, 319
dose, source and uses, 319
Cascarilla, actions, dose and use, 322
Casting, accidents in, 257
methods of, in horse and ox, 257
Castor oil, actions and dose, 322
Castration, diseases resulting from, 234
hemorrhage following, 208, 234
in the male, 234
ill effects following, 234
tissues cut in, 235
Casts, urinary, 153
blood, 153
epithelial, 153
fatty, 153
granular, 153
hyaline, 153
in acute parenchymatous nephritis, 153
in chronic interstitial nephritis, 153
in chronic parenchymatous nephritis,
153
varieties, 153
waxy, 153
Catabolism, 40, 126
Cataplasm, 329
Cataract, conditions giving rise to, 219
defined, diagnosis, and forms of, 219
Cathartics, classes of, 298
vegetable, 322
Catheterization, operation of, 233
in cow, gelding, mare and steer, 233
Caudal myotomy, object, 239
Caustic alkali, 3, 39
liquid, 29
lunar, 27
Cautery, actual, 245
value of, 245
Cavity, abdominal, regions of, 99
glenoid, 51
Cell division, 102
direct and indirect, 102
physiology and properties of, 102
Cerebellum, effect of its removal, 133
function of, 133
Cerebral anzemia and hyperemia, 200
Cerebrospinal meningitis, see Meningitis
Cerebrum, anatomy, 72
function, 133
Cervix uteri, laceration of, 289
treatment, 289
Cesarean section, in mare, 281
complications of, 281
in multiparous animals, 282
Chabert method of opening guttural
pouch, 220

INDEX

Chemical action, 5
affinity, 3
calculations, 12, 13
change, 2
equations, 8, 9, 10
prefixes, 8
suffixes, 7
Chemistry, 1, 2
distinguished from physics, 1
inorganic, 2
organic, 34
physiological, 40
Chestnut, anatomy, 95
Cheyne-Stokes breathing, 166
Choke, in the cow, treatment, 222
cesophagotomy in, 221
treatment of, 221
Chorde tendinw, 103
Chorea, in the dog, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 200
Chorion, 274
Choroid, anatomy, 93
Chlamydobacteriacex, 160
Chloral, 36, 313
hydrate, 36
actions, dose and preparation of,
313

compared with chloroform, 36
uses in medicine, 36, 313
Chlorine, compounds of, 26
preparation and uses of, 26
Chloroform, 36
actions and uses of, 324
action of, compared with ether, 315
compared with chloral, 36
dose for dog and horse, 324
preparation of, 36
test for bile in urine, 42
Chyle, 103
compared with chyme, 119
with lymph, 120
Chyme, 119
compared with chyle, 119
Circulation, fetal, 67
of blood in the brain, 112
in the kidney, 112
pulmonary, 67, 110
systemic, 67, 110
Circulatory organs, anatomy, 62
Cladothrix, 160
Clipping, arguments for and against, 130
Clitoris, anatomy, 93, 261
Coal-tar products used in medicine, 317
Cocaine, actions and dose, 318
prescription for, 333
Coccaceze, 160
Coccidia, 197
animals infested by, 197
iar prevention and treatment,

in the skin, 203

oviforme, 203
Cceliac axis, 66
Ccenurus cerebralis, 200

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Colic, a pulots, symptoms and treatment,

engorgement, 194

flatulent, prescription for, 337

in pregnant animals, causes and treat-
ment, 292

me ge symptoms and treatment,

spasmodic, 194
differentiated from enteritis, 170
prescription for, 334
thrombo-embolic, 196
Collar-galls, treatment for, 229
Collargol, 27
Collyrium, defined, 304
Colon, anatomy, 82
double, 82
function of, in digestion, 120
floating, 83
Colostrum, composition of, 269
Combustion, 3, 17
Complement, 160, 167, 168, 342
Complement-fixation test for glanders, 167
for abortion, 182
Compounds, 3
distinguished from mixtures, 9
imorganic and organic, 7
Concrements, 212
Condyle, 51
Congestion, active, 149
of lungs, 190
causes, 149, 190
lesions, 150
symptoms and treatment, 190
passive, 149
difference between active and, 149
Conjunctiva, inflammation of, 217
physiology, 136
Conjunctivitis, acute catarrhal, 217
causes, symptoms and treatment, 217
Connective tissue, anatomy, 101
varieties of, 101
Constipation, in dog, 197
in hog, treatment, 330
prescription for, 337
symptoms, 197
Contagious disease, 165, 347
contributing causes of, 348
disinfecting in, 347 .
important factors in prevention,

350
method of handling, 348
Contagious pleuropneumonia, 175
appearance of lungs in, 151
course of, 175
differentiated from influenza, 170
sanitary police measures, 349
symptoms, termination and treat-
ment of, 175
Contracted hoof, treatment, 256
tendons, 241
operation for, 241
shoe for, 241
Coérdination, defined, 133

373

Copper acetate, 35
uses, 315
arsenite, uses, 315
preparation of, used in medicine, 315
sulphate, 7, 24
preparation of, 24

uses of, 315
Cornea, anatomy, 93
Corns, dry, 253

pathology of, 253
side-bones, relation to, 254
suppurating, 253 °
treatment, 253, 254
Corona, fracture of, 251
symptoms and treatment, 251
Coronary cushion, anatomy, 96
function of, 138
Corpora libra, 214
nigra, function of, 137
quadrigemina, anatomy, 72
Corpus luteum, 265
false and true, in cow and sow,
265
Corpuscles, Malpighian, 97, 112
ret aioe function, size and shape of,
white blood-, function, 107
Corrosive sublimate, 7, 28
antidote for, 39
Corti, membrane of, 137
Cotton-seed meal, 199
effects of overfeeding, 199
Cotyledons, animals in which found, 271
fetal and maternal compared, 266
Counterirritants, 313, 339
indications for, 313
Cow, characteristics of a good milch,
363
Cowpox, causes, 173
extinction of, 173
sequele of, 173
symptoms and treatment, 173, 174
Coxitis, 245
Creatine, 127
Creatinine, 127
Crenothrix, 160
Crith, 5
Cross-breeding, 361
Croton oil, action, 328
antidote for, and derivation of,
328
dose, toxic, 328
properties and uses of, 328
Crude fibre, 360
Cryptorchidism, cause of sterility, 293
Crystalline lens, anatomy, 93
Culture, defined, 161
pure, 161
media, 161
Cuneiform bone, anatomy, 48
Curb, causes of unsoundness, 362
defined, 249
treatment for, 249
Curd, 42

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374

Cushion, coronary, 96
elastic, of heel, 95
plantar, 95, 96
Cyanosis, age liable to occur, 187
causes of, 187
in new-born, cause and symptoms, 296
Cystic calculi, symptoms and treatment
of, 232
ovary, pathology of, 154
Cysticercus cellulose, disease caused by, 353
disposition of carcass, 353
life-cycle of, 353
Cystitis, urinary, 141, 185
causes, diagnosis and treatment, 185
Cysts, defined, 146
degeneration, 146
foreign body, 146
parasitic, 146
retention, 146

Dairy cattle, breeds of, 361
hygienic precautions in, 355
Dandruff, 124, 156
Dartos, anatomy, 92
Deafness in the dog, causes of, 220
Death by asphyxia, 115
by lightning, lesions of, 142
Decay, 34
Decidua vera, function of, in cat, 139
Decoction, defined, 304
Decussation, defined, 104
Degeneration, fatty, 143
differentiated from fatty infiltra-
tion, 143
Deglutition, organs of, 77, 80
Dehorning, methods of, in cattle, 228
Deliquescence, 3
Demodex folliculorum, 203, 204
Dental formula, dog, 78, 79
horse, 78, 79, 115
ox, 78, 79, 115
Dentition, process of, from birth to five
years, 365
Deodorant, 24, 329
Dermatitis, gangrenous, 203
course, symptoms and treatment,
203

Descemet’s membrane, 94
Desmotomy, patellar, 247
object of, 247

Development, physiology, 139
Diabetes, forms of, 184

insipidus, 184

mellitus, 184

treatment, 184
Diad, 4
Diagnostic inoculation, 171
Diagnosis, general and differential, 165
Dialysis, 2
Diamond, 21, 23
Diaphoretic, 320
Diaphragm, anatomy, 61

of the horse and ox compared, 61

rupture of, symptoms of, 229

INDEX

Diarrhoea in new-born, causes and treat-
ment, 194
prescription for, 333
Diarthrosis, 52
Diastole, 109
Diet for a dairy cow, 127
for a horse, 127
Diffusion, 6, 41
of gases, 6
Digestion, action of salt in, 122
conditions that retard, 122
of proteids, 118
organs of, 77
steps in process of, 115
Digestive organs, anatomy, 77
Digitaline, action of, 317
source of, 312
Digitalis, action of, on heart, 109, 326
compared with aconite, 324
active principles of, 315
fluidextract, dose, 318
Diseases, 165
acute general infectious, 172
chronic infectious, 179
communicable to man, 354
contagious, 165
contributing causes of, 348
following parturition, 284
incident to pregnancy and labor, 284
infectious, 165, 347
and contagious differentiated, 165
inflammatory, 353
milk transmission of, 356
non-inflammatory, 353
of the abdomen, 229
of the blood and blood-forming organs
182
of blood-vessels, 217
of circulatory organs, 186
of the digestive organs, 191
of the foot, 250
of the fore limb, 239
of the generative organs, 234
of the hind limb, 245
of the nervous system, 199
of the new-born, 294
of the organs of locomotion, 201
of the respiratory organs, 188
of the skin, 202
precautions in treating smaller
animals in, 338
of the spinal column and pelvis, 238
of the thorax, 228
of urinary organs, 184, 232
rendering meat unfit for food, 351
specific infectious, 178
Disinfectants, 24
chemical, 350
defined, 161, 329
natural, 350
use of formaldehyde as, 25
Disinfection, defined, 141, 350
of ships, 348
of stables, 347

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Distemper in the dog, symptoms, 1
Distillation, 14 leas di
Distoma hepaticum, 198
Distomiasis in sheep, 198

ae symptoms and treatment,

Diuretic, 320
for cow, dog and horse, 318
liquid and powdered, 314
Dog distemper, symptoms of, 176
Dose, lethal and toxic, 298
Dourine, cause and definition of, 181
sanitary police measures in, 349
symptoms, 181
treatment, 182
Dover’s powder, 328
composition and uses, 328
Dropsy of the abdomen, 187
of the limbs, causes, 187
Drugs acting chemically, 332
mechanically, 332
on the alimentary canal, 331
a glandular structures, 299,
1
on the nervous system, 331
on the pupil of the eye, 319
on the reproductive organs, 332
on the respiratory organs, 331
Duct, mammary, 91
stenosis of, symptoms and treat-
ment, 238
Ductless glands, anatomy, 96
Ductus arteriosus, 68
choledochus, 84
venous, 67
Dummy, see Chronic hydrocephalus
Duodenum, anatomy, 82
Dura mater, anatomy, 71
physiology, 133
Dysentery, chronic bacterial, see Johne’s
disease
Dyspnea, 114
Dystocia, 264, 279-284
causes of, 279
fetal and maternal, 279

Ear, bones of, 137
diseases of, 217
E. C. mixture, 305
Ectropion, defined, 218
Eczema, chronic squamous, 205
causes, symptoms and treat
ment, 205
stages of, 156
treatment, in dog, 323
Efflorescence, 3
Elastic cushion of heel, 95
Elements, 6
Electricity, 6
Electrolysis, 2
Electrolyte, 2
Electro-plating, 2
Electuary, defined, 304
Elimination, 102, 103

375

Elimination, four ways of, 103
organs of, 102
Elixir, defined, 304
Embolism, 149
Embryology, 265
Embryotomy, 265
Emetics, 316
animals given to, 326
definition of, 326
Emmenagogue, 267
Emmenagogues, two principal, 267
Emphysema, pulmonary, 191
lesions, 150
symptoms and treatment, 191
in facial sinuses, 223
in frontal sinuses, 223
in guttural pouches, 220
diagnosis and symptoms, 220
in nasal sinuses, treatment, 223
Emulsion, 8, 304
difference from solution, 8
Encephalitis, 200
Endometritis, acute, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 288
eee symptoms and treatment,

Endotoxin, 163
Enteritis, chronica paratuberculosa, see
Johne’s disease
catarrhal, acute and chronic, 152
intestinal lesions in, 152
Enterocentesis, described, 232
indications for, 232
tissues involved in,°232
unsatisfactory results in, 232
Enterokinase, 116, 119
Enteroliths, description of, 152
Entropion, defined, 218
Environment, influence on offspring, 362
Enzymes, 116, 118, 119
Epiblast, function of, 273
Epididymis, 92
Epididymitis, sterility from, 293
Epistaxis, causes, 188, 223
defined, 188, 223
treatment, 223
Epitheliomata, cylindrical, 145
squamous, 145
Epithelium, columnar, 101
histology, 101
kinds of, 101
modified, 101
specialized, 101
squamous, 101
Epizo6tic cellulitis, 175
symptoms and treatment, 175
lymphangitis, 179
symptoms, prognosis and treat-
ment, 179
Epsom salts, 30
administration of, to a cow, 317 |
distinguished from zinc sulphate,
31
preparation of, 30

Digitized by Microsoft®

376

Equations, 8, 9, 10
Erepsin, 116, 119
Ergot, actions of, 302
anatomy, 95
dose for dog and horse, 320
indications for use in labor, 280
poisoning in cattle, 198
forms of, and symptoms, 198
source, 320
uses of, 302
Ergotine, source of, 312
Ergotism in cattle, 198
forms and symptoms of, 198
Erythema, 204
causes, prevention and treatment,
204

Eserine, actions, 312
dose for dog, horse and ox, 312
source and uses, 312
Esmarch’s bandage, 208
Ether, compared with chloroform, 315
dose, 320
effects and uses of, 320
Eupnea, 114
Eustachian catheter, 220
tube, anatomy, 95
epithelium of, 101
function of, 95, 137
Eutocia, 264, 278
Evaporation, 2
Excretion, four ways of, 103
organs of, 102, 103, 105
Expectorants, 322
nauseating and stimulating, 322
Exosmosis, defined, 104
Exotoxin, 163
Exudates, inflammatory, 144
ee es difference from _ secretion,
Eye, anatomy, 93, 94
appendages of, 136
diseases of, 217
enucleation of, 219
muscles, 93
pathology, 155
tunics, 93, 94
Eyeball, anatomy, 93
muscles and structures of, 93
tunics of, 93, 94
Eyelashes, 136
Eyelids, 136

Facial nerve, 75
function of, 135
paralysis, 224, 258
ene symptoms and treatment,
sinuses, 85
trephining, 223
Feces, average amount of, in horse and
cow compared, 126
composition of, 103, 120
of ee and carnivora compared,

INDEX

Fallopian tubes, function of, 264
Farcy, 180
differentiated from acute lymphangi-
tis, 169
tissue changes in, 157
Fats, 41, 360
palmitin, steapsin, and olein, 41
Fatty degeneration, 143
differentiated from fatty infiltra-
tion, 143
infiltration, 143
differentiated from fatty degen-
eration, 143
Favus, symptoms and treatment, 202
Fecundation, 264 ,
Feeding, precautions as regards rest, 35U
watering, 345
Peta, srabeensione obtained through,
1

Fehling’s solution, use of, 43
Fermentation, 34, 103
Ferments acting on milk, 118
on proteids and starch, 116
defined, 103
digestive, 116
of pancreatic juice, 121
Ferrous chloride, 11, 32, 302
uses of, 317
phosphate, 302
uses of, 317
sulphate, 32, 302
dose, 309
preparation of, 32
uses in medicine, 32, 317
vermifuge, 316
Fever, caused by infection, 141
by nervous disorder, 141
by poison, 141
methods of reduction of, 310
Fibrin, composition of, 108
globulin, 107
Fibrinogen, 101, 107, 108
Filaria immitis, 183
conditions produced by, 183
where found, 183
Filtration, 14
Firing, 245
diagram of, 214
Fistula, bone, 211
defined, 144, 210
ear, 211
lachrymal, treatment of, 219
milk, 211
of the lateral cartilage, 211, 251
of the spermatic cord, 211
of the withers, 211, 229
treatment, 229
salivary, 227
poe symptoms and treatment,

Fistule, ten important, 211

Fistulous withers, chronic, 229
symptoms and treatment, 229

Flagella, 160

Digitized by Microsoft®

/

INDEX

Flatulency, gastric, 193
causes and symptoms, 193
treatment, 193, 313
surgical, 229
Fleas, 203
Fluidextracts, preparation of, 320
Foal-lameness, 296
causes, symptoms and treatment, 296
Foetus, dead, in utero, diagnosis, 284
envelopes surrounding, 274
extraction of, mechanical means, 280
phenomena of nutrition of, 271
position of, in ninth month, 275
secretions of, 267
skin of, development, 275
Fomentation, 329
Foods, 127
ante-mortem examination of animals
for, 355
carbohydrate, 127
conditions of causing paralysis, 155
fat, 127
inorganic matter in, 127
non-nitrogenous, 127
effete materials produced by, 127
proteid, 127
ultimate results of, 127
Foot, diseases affecting, 156, 250
physiology, 138
provisions for preventing concussion
in, 138
Foot and mouth disease, 176
pathology, 158
prognosis and symptoms of, 176
sanitary police measures in, 349
Forage poisoning, cryptogamic, 169
differentiated from lead poison-
ing, 169
hygienic measures in, 349
symptoms of, 201
Foraging overcome by shoeing, 256
Foramen, 51
infra-orbital, 45
magnum, 98
mental, 46
ovale, 68, 98
Formaldehyde, use of, in disinfecting, 25
Formalin, used in white scours, 178
Fowler’s solution, 308
composition and uses, 308
dose for dog and horse, 308
Fracture, comminuted, 213
compound, 213 :
conditions rendering bones liable to,
213
defined, 213
modes of union in, 213
of the femur, 246 :
diagnosis and prognosis, 246
of the ilium, 239, 245
prognosis and treatment, 239
of the ischial tuberosity, 238
prognosis, symaptoms and treat-
ment, 238

377

Fracture of the metacarpus, 243
symptoms and treatment, 243
of the navicular bone, 250
prognosis, symptoms and treat-
ment, 250
of the os corona, 251
symptoms and treatment, 251
of the os suffraginis, 243
symptoms and treatment, 243
of the ulna, 241
prognosis, symptoms and treat-
ment, 241
pelvic, 238, 239
plaster-of-Paris dressing for, 213
reparative process of, 147
ribs, symptoms and treatment, 229
simple, 213
varieties of, 213
Frog, use of, 138
Frontal bone, anatomy, 45
Fur, compared with hair and wool, 124

Gall-stones, 195
factors producing, 195
prophylaxis and therapeutics, 195
Ganglion, Arnold’s, 75
ciliary, 75
Meckel’s, 75
ophthalmic, 75
otic, 75
sphenopalatine, 75
sympathetic, 77, 136
vertebral, 136
Gangrene, defined, 143, 211
kinds of, 211
of the lungs, 190
post-mortem appearance of, 150
treatment, 211
Gapes, 190
causes, symptoms and treatment, 190
Gas, calculations, 1
laughing, 18
Gastric juice, composition of, 118
nou of hydrochloric acid in,
11
Generation, four stages in, 272
physiology, 139
Generative organs, changes in, after con-
ception, 269
female, function of, 265
modifications after labor, 266
system, chief functions of, 264
Genitals of the cow, 92
diseases of, 234
Gentian root, 312
action, 322
dose for dog, horse and ox, 312,
322
uses, 312, 322
German silver, 12
Gestation, 269
abdominal, ovarian, and tubal, 270
Gid, in sheep, 200
causes and symptoms, 200

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378

Glanders, 180
cause, course and symptoms of, 180
chronic, 157
tissue changes in, 157, 160
complement-fixation test for, 167
diagnostic tests for, 166-168
differentiated from strangles, 169
from nasal gleet, 169
hygienic and sanitary precautions in,
347
nasal ulcer in, 157
Glands, adrenal, 96, 98
Briimner’s, 119
Cowper’s, 264.
ductless, 96
lachrymal, 94
Lieberkiithn’s, 119
mammary, 91, 140, 263
pituitary, 97
prostate, 92, 264
disease of, 236
salivary, 80
sebaceous, 95, 124
sudoriparous, 124
sweat, 95, 123
thymus, 97, 98
thyroid, 97
vascular, 112
Glass, 12
Glauber’s salt, 7, 29, 300
Glaucoma, defined, 218
Gleet, defined, 223
Globus major, 92
Glossitis, causes of, 191
definition of, 191
Glossopharyngeal nerve, 75
function of, 135
Glucose in tissues, 127
in urine, 121
relation of pancreas to, 121
Glycerine, preparation of, 38
Glycogen, 121
destination and origin of, 127
Glycosuria, relations of pancreas to, 121
Goitre, cystic, in dog, treatment, 228
prognosis and treatment, 228
in the dog and horse, 228
Gold, 27

test for, 27
Goll’s column, 103
Goulard’s extract, 310
preparation and uses of, 310
Graafian follicle, 139
eee and maturation of.
9
Grade, 361
Gram differential stain, 164
negative and positive, 164
Gramme, defined, 306
Granular venereal disease, in abortion,
182
Graphic formula, 11, 24
Graphite, 21
Gypsum, 30

INDEX

Guttural pouch, anatomy, 86
function of, 86
method of opening, 220
Chabert, 220
Viborg, 220
pus in, 220
diagnosis and symptoms, 220

Hematin, 103, 109
Hematoidin, 109
Hematuria, 153
Hemoglobin, 107
combination with oxygen, 108
emoglobinuria, 153, 183
differentiated from spinal meningitis,
169
etiology, 183
pathology of, 154
prevention and symptoms of, 183
treatment, 183, 329
Hemolysis, 108, 167, 168
Hemophilia, definition of, 182
Hemopis sanguisuga, 188
Hair, 95
compared with fur and wool, 124
precautions to limit injurious growth
of, 125
Halogens, 25
Haustus, defined, 304
Haversian canals, 105
Healing of wounds, 207
by first intention, 207
by ErnulaHon and cicatrization,
20
by second intention, 207
by third intention, 207
under an eschar, 207
Hearing, mechanism of, 137
Heart, action of digitalis on, 109
anatomy, 62, 63
disease, lesions of, 148
hypertrophy, 148
causes and lesions of, 148
muscle, 130
motor excitant of, 317
physiology of, 109
sounds, cause of, 109
Heat, 5
animal, conditions influencing, 128
how maintained and regulated,
128
stroke, 201
differentiated from heat exhaus-
tion, 166
symptoms, 201
treatment, 201, 314
ae producing greatest amount of,

unit of, 129
exhaustion, differentiated from heat
stroke, 166
Heaves, symptoms and treatment, 191
lesions, 150
Hematite, 32

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Hemorrhage, 165
drugs checking, 310
following castration, 208, 234
internal, 165
methods of arresting, 208
postpartum, treatment, 290
Hemorrhagic septicemia, 174
post-mortem lesions of, 159
_ , Symptoms of, 174
Hepatitis, acute parenchymatous, in dog,
symptoms and treatment, 198
chronic interstitial, 152
appearance of liver in, 152
Hepatization, gray, 150
pulmonary, changes in air-cellsin, 150
red, 150
Hereditary, 361
diseases, 363
Heredity, influence on offspring, 362
Hermaphrodism, 296
external sexual organs in, 296
Hernia, classification of, 212
defined, 212
diaphragmatic, symptoms, 229
inguinal, symptomsand treatment, 230
irreducible, 212
of bladder into vagina, 292
reduction of, 292
reducible, 212
umbilical, treatment of, 230
Heroin, action and uses of, 315
Histological anatomy, 99
Hobbles, use in casting, 257
Hog, methods of medicating, 330
Hog-cholera, symptoms of, 172
causes of, 163
immunization in, 341
simultaneous method of, 343
lesions of, 160
prophylactic measures in, 173
serum, how obtained, use, 342
Hoof, anatomy, 95
secretion of, 138
Hoose, 189
Hoove, 192
Horns, anatomy, 95
Horse-pox, symptoms and treatment, 173
causes of,"and extinction, 173
Hoven, 192
Humor, aqueous, 93
of the eye, 94
vitreous, 93 .
Hunger, cause of sensation, 119
mange, see Chronic squamous eczema
Husk, 189 : ;
Hydrargyri chloridum mite, 299
actions, dose and uses, 299
chloridum corrosivum, 299
actions, doses and uses, 299
jodidum rubrum, 299
actions, doses and uses, 299
Hydrocarbons, 34, 41
7 differentiated from carbohydrates, 34,
41

379

Hydrocele, sterility from, 293
symptoms and treatment, 236
Hydrocephalus, 265, 279
chronic, causes, symptoms and treat-
ment, 199
pathology of, 155
dystocia from, 279
how overcome, 279
Hydrogen, 13
an element of proteids, 106
compared with oxygen, 17
dioxide, 15, 16
sulphide, preparation of, 23
Hydrops uteri, causes and treatment, 284
amunii, 285
eos, symptoms and treatment,

Hydrothorax, causes and symptoms, 191
lesions, 151
operations for, 228
treatment, 191, 228
Hygiene, 345
meat and milk, 351
Hyperemia, 141
cerebral, 200
differentiated from cerebral an-
zemia, 200
Hyperisotonic, 40
Hyperpneea, 114
Hypertrophy, causes of, 143
Hypnotic, 309, 320
Hypoblast, function of, 273
Hypoderma lineata, 203
Hypoglossal nerve, anatomy, 76
function of, 135
Hypo-isotonic, 40

Icterus, causes and symptoms, 193
pathology of, 153
relative gravity of, in dog and horse,
193
Tleum, anatomy, 82
Illuminating gas, 22
Immobility, 199
causes, symptoms and treatment, 199
Immune body, 168
Immunity, 141, 164, 341
acquired, 164, 341
active, 164
natural, 164, 341
passive, 164
varieties of, 164
Immunization, 341
in infectious diseases, 341
Imperforate anus, treatment of, 296
Impregnation, artificial, 273
Impregnator, use of, 273
In-breeding, 361
Incompatibility, 6
chemical, 6, 305
pharmaceutical, 6, 305
physical, 6
physiological, 6, 305
therapeutic, 6

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380

Index, opsonic, how determined, 163
Indigestion, acute gastric, 193
causes, 193
prescription for, 336
symptoms, 193
treatment, 193, 313
surgical, 229 '
Inertia, eras 283
ymptoms and treatment, 283
Infection, defined, 141
rise in temperature due to, 141
Infectious abortion, causes of, 182
anzmia, causes and characteristics of,
182
disease, 157, 165, 347
agents in development of, 142
disinfection in, 347
Inferior maxilla, anatomy, 46
Infiltration, fatty, 143
differentiated from fatty degen-
eration, 143
Inflammation, cardinal symptoms of, 144
causes of, 209
classification of, 210
defined, 144, 209
process of, 144
productive, 144
symptoms and treatment, 209
termination of, 210
tissue changes in, 144
use of cold and heat in, 210
Influenza, causes of, 177
cellulitic form, 175
differentiated from contagious pleuro-
pneumonia, 170
symptoms, 177
treatment, 300
modern forms of, 177
Infusion, defined, 304
saline, indications for, 332
methods of administration, 332
Inguinal canal, anatomy, 62
Inhibition, defined, 133
Inoculation, diagnostic, 171
Insolation, 201
ae teed from heat exhaustion,
16
symptoms, 201
treatment, 201, 314
Insufficiency of cardiac valves, 186
causes and symptoms, 186
treatment, 187
Intestines, anatomy, 82
age of, in horse, cow and dog,
. small, 82
Intussusception, defined, 194
genera most liable to, 194
prognosis and treatment, 194
symptoms, 194, 231
Invagination, genera most liable to, 194
symptoms, 194, 231
treatment, 194’
Invertase, 116, 119

INDEX

Iodine, 25
compounds, actions and uses, 303
dose for dog and horse, 317
general actions of, 317
preparation and uses of, 26
test for, 25
tincture, uses of, 304
Todoform, derivation of, 36
in chronic metritis, 289
uses of, 36, 304
Tons, 2
Ipecac, actions and uses of, 323
an expectorant, 322
dose for dog and horse, 323
for cats and swine, 327
in Dover’s powder, 328
Tridocyclochoroiditis, 156
Iris, anatomy, 93
function of, 136
innervation of, 136
Iron, 31
carbonate, 32
cast, 32
chloride, 32, 302
uses of, 317
compounds of, 32
occurrence in nature, 31
ores of, 32
phosphate of, 302
uses of, 317
preparation of, 309
reduced, 32
dose of, 309
salts of, uses, 302
sesquioxide of, 302
uses of, 39, 338
sulphate, 32, 302, 309
preparation of, 32
uses in medicine, 32, 317
wrought, 32
Ischzmia, defined, 147
Ischial notch, vessels and nerves passing
through, 260
Ischium, 50
fracture of tuberosity of, 238
notch of, 260
Isomerism, 5
Isotonic, 40

Jaborine, 328
Jaundice, 109
causes and symptoms of, 193
pathology of, 153
neers gravity of, in horse and dog,
Jejunum, anatomy, 82
Johne’s disease, 179
cause, 179, 163
genus subject to, 179
prevention and symptoms, 179
Joints, 51, 214
classification of, 51
false, 214
fetlock, 55

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Joints, hip-, horse and ox compared, 56
open, treatment, 214
pathology of, 147
shoulder, 53
muscles that flex, 58
structures entering into, 52

Karyokinesis, 102
Keraphyllocele, 250
Keraphyllous tissue, anatomy, 96
Keratogenous membrane, anatomy, 96
function of, 138
Kidneys, anatomy, 89
blood supply of, 89
compared with liver, 104
capsule of, 125
circulation of blood in, 112
cortical layer of, 125
elimination by, 102
function of, 125
of horse and ox compared, 89
secretion of urine by, 125
structures of, 101, 125
King system of ventilation, 346

Labor, 278
care of dam after, 283
signs and stages of, 279
Lachrymal apparatus, 94, 136
bone and canal, 94
fistula, treatment of, 219
gland in the ox, 94
of horse and ox compared, 94
sac, 94
secretion, function of, 137
Lactase, 116, 119
Lameness, hip, 245
symptoms and treatment, 245
varieties, 245
shoulder, 239
symptoms and treatment, 239
stifle, 246
symptoms and treatment, 246
trochanteric, 245
Laming, sensitive, 96
function of, 96, 139
Laminitis, acute, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 255
pathology of, 156
chronic, 255
pathology of, 156
puerperal, in mare, causes, symptoms
and treatment, 293
Lampas, defined, 210
Lanolin, source, 124
Laparotomy in the cow, 230
indications for, 230
Laryngitis, acute, 171
differentiated from acute pharyn-
gitis, 171
Larynx, anatomy, 85
cartilages of, 86
epithelium of, 104
motor nerve to, 135
effect of division of, 135

381

Larynx, nerve supply to, 77, 86, 135
sensory nerve of, 135
Lateral cartilages, anatomy, 95
function of, 55, 188
Laughing gas, 18
Law, Avogadro’s, 12
of constant or definite proportions, 11
of multiple proportions, 11
Laxatives, 298, 316
Lead, 28
acetate of, 35
antidote for, 39
chamber process, 24
poisoning, 169, 195, 339
in cattle, 195, 339
symptoms and treatment,
195, 339
sugar of, action, 28
dose, uses, 319
Leech, horse, 188
Lens, crystalline, anatomy, 93
Leptomeningitis, 155, 200
Lesion, primary and secondary, 141
Leucocytes, function, 107
Leucocythemia, defined, 146
Leucocytosis, defined, 147
diseases in which occurs, 147
relation of, to phagocytosis, 147
Leucorrheea, 288
symptoms and treatment of, 288
Leukemia, definition of, 147, 182
Lice, 203
Ligaments, broad, of liver, 83, 84
of uterus, 85, 91
calcaneo-cuboid, 56
iliosacral, 260
of elbow-joint, 53
of femorotibial articulation, 56
of fetlock-joint, 55
of hip-joint, 56
of knee-joint, 54
of liver, 83
of pelvis, 260
of radiocarpal joint, 54
of shoulder-joint, 53
of vertebral articulations, 52
prepubic, rupture of, 231
round, of liver, 84
of uterus, 91
sacrosciatic, 260
suspepsory, 55
sprain of, 242
utero-ovarian, 91
Ligamentum nuche, 53
elastic fibrous tissue in, 101
Light, 5
Lightning, death by, 142
lesions, 142
Lignieres, coccobacillus of, 177
Lime water, 30
Linguatula tenoides, 192
animals infested by, 192
diagnosis and treatment, 192
Linseed oil, actions and doses, 322

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382

Liquid, metric unit ot, 306
Liquor amnii, 272, 274
functions, 272
plumbi subacetatis, 310
preparation and uses of, 310
potassii a le 33
sanguinis, 1
Lithium, 29
salts of, uses, 301
Liver, anatomy, 83
blood supply, 66, 84, 120
compared with kidney, 104
cirrhotic, appearance of, 152
fluke, 198
functions, 120
ligaments of, 83, 85
nerve supply, 84
rot in sheep, see Distomiasis
Lobelia, properties and uses of, 317
Lochia, 289
common in all animals, 289
treatment, 289
Loco poisoning, prevention, 199
when and where enzootic, 199
Lugol’s solution, 303
Lumbago, 171
ae ta from acute nephritis,
171

Lunar bone, anatomy, 48
caustic, preparation of, 27
uses in medicine, 27
Lungs, anatomy, 87
blood supply, 66, 88
congestion of, 190
elimination by, 103
epithelium of, 104
function, 114
number of lobes in dog, horse, ox,
pig, and sheep, 87
Luxation, causes of, 215
defined, 215
patellar, 246
symptoms and treatment of, 246
Lymph, appearance, 122
capillaries, 122
described, 122
forces assisting flow of, 123
function of, 122
involved in diseases of connective
tissues, 123
source, spaces, and vessels, 122
Lymphagogues, 123
Lymphangioma, 149
Lymphangitis, acute, 169
differentiated from farcy, 169
causes, 217
defined, 217
epizoétic, 158, 179
prognosis and symptoms, 179
infectious, 158, 179
pathology of, 158
symptoms and treatment, 217, 329
Lymphatic glands, 70
axillary, 71

INDEX

Hyphae glands, bronchial, 70

iliac,
inguinal, 71
mesenteric, 71
of the thorax, 70
popliteal, 71
posterior cervical, 70

mediastinal, 70

precrural, 71
prescapular, 70

Lymphatics, 69

Lymphoid tissue, 70

Lysins, 342

Magnesium, 29
carbonate, 30
compounds used in medicine, 30
sulphate, 30
administration of, to cow, 317
distinguished from zinc sulphate,
31

preparation of, 30
Magnetite, 32
Mammary duct, stenosis of, symptoms and
treatment, 238
gland, anatomy of, 91, 263
function of, 266
of the bitch, 92, 263
of the cow, 91
of the mare, 140
Mammitis, see Mastitis
Mange, demodectic, 203, 204
symptoms and treatment, 204
disposition of carcass, 354
follicular, 204
hunger, 205
prescription for, 333
psoroptic, 203, 204
sarcoptic, 203, 204
symbiotic, 203
treatment in dog, 324
Malignant cedema, 174
cause and course of, 174
differentiated from anthrax, 166
symptoms, 174
pustule, 175
Mallein, 162
cutaneous test, 167
intradermal test, 166
ophthalmic test, 167
test for glanders, 166, 167
compared with agglutination, 167
course to be pursued in, 167
Malpighian corpuscles, anatomy, 97, 112
Maltase, 116, 119
Marsh gas, 22
Marsh’s test for arsenic, 33
Massage, effect of, 319
indication for, 319
Mastitis, 238
a sequel of cowpox, 173
acute, in the cow, 291
causes, symptom and treatment,
291, 326

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Mastitis, purulent, 238
treatment, 238, 326
Masturbation, cause of sterility, 293 (see
Onanism)
Materia medica, defined, 297
Measly pork, 353
method of detecting, 353
Meat and milk, hygiene, 351
ae a municipal and State,
Mediastinum, anatomy, 88
Medicine, classified, 331
theory and practice of, 165
Medicines, kinds according to general
action, 316
modes of administration of, 297
comparison of, 297
Medulla oblongata, anatomy, 72
functions of, 133
Meibomian glands, physiology, 136
Melanosarcomata, 145
animals found in, 145
gross appearance of, 145
Melanosis, cause of, 145
Membrana tympani, anatomy, 95
function, 95
granulosa, 139
Membrane, Descemet’s, 94
keratogenous, 96
mucous, 100
nictitans, 94, 136
of Corti, 137
of Reissner, 137
serous, 100
tympanic, 95
Meningitis, 155
cerebral, symptoms of, 200
cerebrospinal, symptoms of, 201
hygienic measures in, 349
spinal differentiated from azoturia, 169
Menstruation, causes of, 265
in bitch, cat, cow, and sow, 267
notindependent of ovaries, 265
Mercurialism, antidote and symptoms, 339
Mercuric chloride, 7, 28
antidotes for, 39
properties of, 28
Mercurous chloride, 11, 28
properties of, 28
Mercury, 28
compounds used in medicine, 28
poisoning, antidote and symptoms,
338
preparations of, 299
Mesoblast, function of, 273
Metabolism, 40, 126
diseases of, 183
of nutrition, 126
Metacarpus, fracture of, 243
symptoms and treatment, 243
Metals, 5
alkaline earth, 29
bell, 12
distinguished from non-metal, 9

383

Metastasis, defined, 142
Methemoglobin, 109
Methylene blue, uses, 325
Metritis, 154
sterility from, 293
oe eae indications and operation of,
Micrococcus, 160
Microérganisms, acid-fast, 162
pus-producing, 161
Microspira, 160
Miliary tubercle, 159
Milk, 41
bacterial analysis of, 359
bitter, 358
blue, 358
butter fat in, 42
certified, 355, 359
classification of, 357
cow’s, composition of, 41,140, 268,355
dangers of infection in, 356
diseases transmitted through, 356
hygiene, 351
inspected, 357
mare’s, compared with cow’s, 268
composition of, 140, 269
pasteurized, 357, 359
preservatives used in, 358
pus in, 358
red, 358
ropy, 358
sour, microdrganisms causing, 359
souring of, 42
standards, 42
sterilized, 359
streptococci in, significance of, 359
suppression of, 358
test for boric acid, 357
for formaldehyde, 358
for pasteurization, 357
for salicylic acid, 357
for sodium bicarbonate, 357
typhoid germs in, 356
uterine, 139
Mitosis, 102
Mitral stenosis, changes following, 149
Mixture, distinguished from compound, 9
Molecular repulsion, 4
Molecule, 3
weight, 5
Monad, 4
Morphine, actions and uses, 307
on dog and horse compared, 321
defined, 307
dose for dog and horse, 307
poisoning by, symptoms and treat-
ment, 340
Morula, stage of, 268, 271
Motor oculi nerve, 74
functions, 134
Mucous membrane, 100
compared with serous, 100
location, 100
secreting gastric, 118

Digitized by Microsoft®

384

Mules compared with horses, 365
Multiparous, 266
Muscles, anconeus, 58
anterior extensor of the metacarpus,
58
caput magnum, 58
medium, 58
parvum, 58
cremaster, 92
diaphragm, 61, 114
expiratory, 114
extensor pedis, 58
suffraginis, 58
external flexor of the metacarpus, 58
flexor brachii, 58
function of, 130
gastrocnemius, 59
gemelli, 59
gluteal, 59
heart, 130
humeralis obliquus, 58
iliopsoas, 59
inspiratory, 114
internal flexor of the metacarpus, 58
obturator, 59
involuntary, 130
kinds of, 130
longissimus dorsi, 60
longus colli, 61
masseter, 57
mastoidohumeralis, 57
oblique extensor of the metacarpus,
58

flexor of the metacarpus, 58
obturator externus, 59
of hogs, parasite in, 155
of respiration, 62, 114
of the eye, 57
of the forearm, 58
of the tail, 60
pathology of, 155
panniculus carnosus, 60
pectineus, 59
perforans, 58
perforatus, 58
popliteus, 59
psoas, 59
pterygoid externus and internus, 57
quadratus femoris, 59
sartorius, 59
serratus magnus, 61
small adductor of the thigh, 59
striated, 100
striped, 100
and unstriped compared, 100
subscapulohyoideus, 57
surgery of, 216
temporal, 57
tensor fascia lata, 59
teres externus and internus, 58
triceps, 58
unstriped, 100
vastus externus and internus, 59
voluntary, 100, 130

INDEX

Muscular contraction, 130
chemical changes in, 130
phases of, 130
excitability, conditions enhancing, 131
conditions impairing, 131
Mustard, 319
an emetic, 316
dose for dog, 316
as a blistering agent, 313
Myadriatic, 309
Myocarditis, 149
Myology, 57
Myoma, 146
Myositis, causes, 216
defined, 216
symptoms, 216
Myotic, 309
Myotomy, caudal, object of, 239

Nasal gleet, 169, 188
causes of, 188
differentiated from glanders, 169
symptoms and treatment, 188
Navicular sheath, anatomy, 62
bone fracture of, 250
disease of, 252
symptoms and treatment,
252
Necrobacillosis, cause and forms of, 163
Necrosis, 143
bacillus of, 163
caseation, occurrence, 143
coagulation, 143
liquefaction, 143
Negative phase, 164
Negri bodies, 158
Nephritis, acute, 171
casts found in, 153
causes and treatment of, 185
distinguished from lumbago, 171
from lumbar rheumatism,
171
gross pathology, 154
chronic interstitial, 185
casts found in, 153
gross pathology, 154
Nerves, abducens, 75, 134
afferent, 131
auditory, 75, 185 137
ciliary, 93
cranial, 73-76
described, 99
digital, 76
efferent, 131
facial, 75, 134
function of, in secretion, 104
glossopharyngeal, 75, 135
hypoglossal, 76, 135

median, 76
motor, effect of electric stimulation of,
133

motoroculi, 74, 134
olfactory, 73, 134
optic, 74, 93, 134

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Nerves, patheticum, 74, 134
phrenic, function of, 133
plantar, 76
pneumogastric, 75, 135
radial and sciatic, 76
sensory and motor compared, 132
spinal, 73
effect of division of both roots of,
132
of inferior roots of, 132
functions of, 132
number of, 73
spinal accessory, 76, 135
surgery of, 216
trifacial, 74, 134
vagus, 75, 135
Nervous system, 71, 131
cerebrospinal, 71
development of, in the foetus, 275
influence on secretion, 134
pathology of, 155
sympathetic, 77
function of, 135
Neurectomy, anterior tibial, 249
high plantar, 244
indications for, 245
relation of artery, vein,
nerve and tendon, 245
median, indications for, 244
structures severed in, 99
posterior tibial, 250
trifacial, technic of, 228
unfavorable results in, 216
Neurilemma, 100
Neurology, 71
Neuroma, 146
Neurotomy, unfavorable results in, 216
Neutralization, 4
New-born, asphyxiated, 294
cyanosis, causes and symptoms, 296
treatment, 294
diarrhcea in, 294
causes and treatment, 294
diseases of, infectious, 294
non-infectious, 294
Nitrate of potash, see Potassium
Nitric acid, preparation and uses of, 19
tonic, 318
oxide, 11, 12
Nitrogen, 18
an element of proteids, 106
compared with oxygen, 18
function of, 18
oxides of, 18
preparation of, 18
Non-metal, 9
Nutrition, metabolism of, 126
Nux vomica, dose of fluidextract, 310
uses, 310

Obstetrics, 259
Obstetrist, disadvantage of, 280
veterinary,

385

Oculomotor nerve, 74
function of, 134
Cidema, 141, 144
causes, 144
differs from secretion, 104
of the glottis, 188
symptoms and treatment, 188
of the lungs, cause, 149
Csophagotomy, 221
in choke, 221
Csophagus, anatomy, 80
Cistrus larve, in throat of solipeds, 188
Oils, castor, action and dose, 322
croton, see Croton oil
essential, 34
fixed, 34
linseed, action and dose, 322
Olein, 41
Olfactory nerve, 73
function of, 134
Oligemia, defined, 182
Oligocythemia, definition of, 182
Omasum, anatomy, 82
Omphalophlebitis, 295
causes, symptoms and treatment, 295
Onanisn, sterility from, 293
correction of, 293
Odphorectomy, in the bitch, 237
in the mare, accidents, 237
Odphoritis, 154
Open joint, treatment of, 214
Opium, dose for cow, dog and horse, 301
general actions, source and uses, 301
Ophthalmia, periodic, 155
pathology of, 155
prognosis, 218
symptoms and treatment, 218
contagious, animals affected by, 219
diagnosis and treatment, 219
Opsonic index, 163
how determined, 163
Optic nerve, anatomy, 74, 93
function of, 134
thalami, anatomy, 72
Orchitis, 141, 154
causes, 236
sterility from, 293
symptoms and treatment, 236
Organs, abdominal, pathology, 152
eliminating, 102, 105
genito-urinary, pathology, 153
of secretion, 105
respiratory, pathology, 150
sense, 93
vital, 105
Orgasm, 266
Os innominatum, 50
coxa, 50
Osmosis, 41
Osteology, 44
Osteomalacia, 169
differentiated from osteoporosis, 169
in pregnancy, 284, 292

280
Ocular sheath, physiology, 126) aitized by Microso Argatment, 292
25

386

Osteomyelitis, defined, 212
Osteoporosis, 169
course of, 184
differentiated from osteomalacia, 169
pathology of, 147
symptoms and termination of, 183
treatment of, 184
Ostitis, defined, 212
Otorrhcea of dog, treatment, 220
Ovaries, anatomy, 90, 262
changes in, after fecundation, 265
conditions of, causing sterility, 294
cystic, 293
pathology of, 154
during menstruation, 264
extirpation of, in bitch, 236
in mare, 237
function of, 265
of cow and mare compared, 90
of mare, cow, sheep, goat, pig, bitch
and cat compared, 263
pitted in old age, 264
Ovariotomy, in the bitch, 23
in the mare, accidents, 237
Oviducts, 264
function of, 264, 265
Ovum, impregnation of, 268
journey of, 268
Oxidation, 16, 17
rapid and slow, 17
Oxygen, 16
an element of proteids, 106
compared with hydrogen, 17
compared with nitrogen, 18
how carried in blood, 108
preparation of, 16, 17
Oxyhemoglobin, 109
Oxyuris curvula, 195, 196
prescription for, 195
mastigodes, 196
Ozone, 17

Pachymeningitis, 155, 200
Palmitin, 41
Palpation, 171
Pancreas, anatomy, 84
blood and nerve supply of, 84
functions of, 121
relation of, to glucose in urine, 121
relations of, 84
secretion, 121
Paper-skin disease, 189
Patheticum nerve, 74
function of, 134
Paralysis, facial, 224, 258
food conditions causing, 155
of a in horse and dog,

eae symptoms and treatment,
3

of the lips, causes, symptoms and
treatment,’224

of the masticatory muscles, symp-
toms and treatment, 226

INDEX

Paralysis of the penis, causes, symptoms
and treatment, 235
originating in brain, cord and periph-
ery, differentiated, 216
radial, symptoms and treatment, 241
suprascapular, cause, symptoms and
treatment, 240
Paraphimosis, symptoms and treatment,
235
Parasites, affecting gullet of cattle, 192
in intestines of the horse, 195
of the dog, symptoms, 197
in muscles of hogs, 155
in the throat of solipeds, 188
prevention, symptoms and treat-
ment, 188
of sheep, 364
of the skin, 203
Paris green, 33
antidote for, 39, 338
Parturient, apoplexy, 287
Schmidt treatment of, 287
eclampsia, 287
and parturient paresis differ-
entiated, 287
in the mare, 287
causes and treatment of, 287
paresis, 287
Parturition, 279
diseases following, in cow, 284
fetal conditions interfering with, 279
sign and stages of, 279
Patella, displacement of, symptoms and
treatment, 246
Pathogenic, defined, 161
Pathology, defined, 141
special, 141
Pearson’s solution, 308
dose, preparation and uses, 308
Pedal bone, anatomy, 48
connection of hoof wall with, 96
Pedigree, 362
depends upon, 362
value of, 362
Pelvis, articulations of, 260
bones of, 50
centres of ossification in, 259
defined, 259
diameters of, in cow, 260
diseases of, 238
fracture of, 238, 239
function of, 259
ligaments of, 260
of horse and ox compared, 50
of mare, cow, sheep, goat, bitch and
cat compared, 259
of sheep and cow compared, 260
Penetrating street nail, treatment, 256
Penis, amputation of, 235
paralysis of, cause, symptoms and
treatment, 235
Pentad, 4
Pepsin, 116, 118, 119
preparation and properties of, 315

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Pesiaee composition, determination of,

Periarthritis, defined, 148, 2"
Pericarditis, acute, 149
chronic, lesions, 149
in bovines, causes, prevention, symp-
_ toms arid treatment, 186
Perimysium, 100
Periodic ophthalmia, 155
pathologic changes in, 155
prognosis and symptoms, 218
. treatment, 218, 312
Periostitis, aseptic, 213
ee symptoms and treatment,

defined, 148, 212
Peristalsis, 119
remedies promoting, 314
Peritoneum, anatomy, 84
part of spermatic cord, 92
Peritonitis, 198
causes, 198, 232
pathology of, 152
pulse in, 165
symptoms and treatment, 198
Perspiration, 124
effect of suppression, 124
Petroleum, uses, 37
Peyer’s patches, 70
in catarrhal enteritis, 152
Phagocytes, 146
Phagocytosis, 104, 146
method of stimulating, 147
relation of leucocytosis to, 147
Pharyngitis, acute, differentiated from
acute laryngitis, 171
Pharynx, anatomy, 80
Phase, negative and positive, 164
Phenacetin, 310, 317
Phenol, source, 37
antidote, 40
Phlebitis, causes, and defined, 217
Phlebotomy, indications for, 228 (see Vene-
section)
Phlegmon, 209
Phosphine, 11
Phosphoric acid, 11
Phosphorus, 25
allotropic forms of, 25
antidotes for, 39
occurrence, 25
physical properties, 25
source and uses of, 25
Phragmidothrix, 160
Phrenitis, 155, 200
Physical change, 2
Physics, 1 :
distinguished from chemistry, 1
Physiologic action of a drug, 298
salt solution, 40
Physiology, 102
" a sae of the properties of cells, 102
definition, 102
obstetrical, 264

387

Physostigmine, 319
Pia mater, anatomy, 71
; physiology, 133
Pilocarpine, action of, 317
source of, 312, 328
Pilocarpus, actions, 328
active principles of, 328
composition, 328
_ dose and uses, 328
Pineal bodies, vascular glands, 112
Pisiform bone, anatomy, 48
Pituitary gland, anatomy, 97
vascular gland, 112
Placenta, 139
cotyledonary, 139, 271
development of, 271
diffuse, 139, 271
function of, 139, 271
retained, 291
prescription for, 291
zonary, 139, 271
Planococcus, 160
Planosarcina, 160
Plasma, 101
Plaster of Paris, 30
Pleura, anatomy, 88
Pleurisy, 190
of the dog, 191
lesions, 151
pulse in, 165
symptoms and treatment, 190
Pleuritis, acute diffused, 190
lesions, 151
symptoms and treatment,
190
Plexus, brachial, anatomy, 76
cardiac, 136
lumbosacral, 76
mesenteric, 136
pelvic, 91
solar, 136
Plumbi acetate, 28
actions, dose and uses, 319
Plumbism, see Lead poisoning
Pluriparous, 266
Pneumogastric nerve, anatomy, 75
function of, 135
influence on heart, 109
Pneumonia, broncho-, appearance of lungs
in, 151
gangrenous, 190
post-mortem appearance, 150
symptoms of, 190
inhalation, 188
causes of, 188, 258
prevention, 189
symptoms and treatment, 189
medicinal treatment of, 300
post-mortem appearance, 150
symptoms of, 190
Podophyllum, actions and uses, 328
dose, 317, 328
general action, 317
source, 317

Digitized by Microsoft®

388

Poisoning, ergot, in cattle, 198
lead, 169, 195
differentiated from forage poison-
ing, 169
loco, 199
uremic, 185
Poisons, 38
irritant, 38
neurotic, 38
metallic, 39
Poll-evil, operation for, 227
Polycythemia, defined, 146
Polypi, nasal, 223
symptoms, 223
treatment, 223
pharyngeal, treatment, 221
Polyuria, causes and treatment, 185
Portal circulation, 112
vein, 69
relation to absorption, 120
Position, cephalosacral, 281
obstetrics, 278
right cephalo-ilial, 281
sterno-abdominal, 281
varieties, 279
Positive phase, 164
Post-zygopophyses, 52
Potassium, 300
acetate, 35
dose, 318
alum, 31
bicarbonate of, 29
bromide, 300
chlorate of, 11, 29, 301
dose and properties of, 311
uses, 301, 311
citrate, dose, 318
hydroxide, 29, 301
iodide, preparation of, 26
dose of, 314
uses, 301, 304
nitrate, 7, 11, 29, 300
action, 319, 330
dose, 318, 330
source, 330
uses, 319, 330
permanganate, 11, 326
action and uses, 326
sodium tartrate, 7
Precipitation, 14
Prefixes, chemical, 8
Pregnancy, 269
a and food of animals during,
269
changes in blood, 274
diseases incidental to, 284
duration of, in bitch, cow, ewe, mare
and sow, 268
effects of indigestion, 270
extra-uterine, varieties of, 270
multiple, position of foetus in, 272
ae of neighboring organs during,

signs of, 270

INDEX

Prehension, organs of, 77, 80
in horses, cattle and sheep compared,
11
Premature birth, 276
Prepotency, 361
Prescription for actinomycosis, 336
for acute indigestion, 336
for blister, 335
for bowed tendons; 216
for cathartic, sheep, 335
for chronic constipation, dog, 337
for chronic cough, 332, 337
for chronic eczema, dog, 335
for cocaine, 333
for cough powder, 334
for diarrhoea in calves, 333
for fever in horse, 333
for flatulent colic, 337
for intestinal worms, 195
for liniment, 336
for mange, 333
for purgative, 332, 334
for ringworm, 337
for round worms in dog, 333
for scratches, 336
for spasmodic colic, 334
somes for horse, cow and dog, 334,
5
Presentation, 278
anterior, 281, 282
most difficult, 278
most favorable and frequent, 278
normal, 278
posterior, 281
varieties, 278
Prezygopophyses, 52
Primiparous, 266
Process, basilar, 48
condyloid, 46
coronoid, 46
retrossal, 48
spinous, 49, 51
Prognosis, 165
Prolapse, defined, 212
Prophylaxis, 349
Prostate gland, 92
diseases of, symptoms and treat-
ment, 236
Protargol, 27
uses, 330
Proteids, elements composing, 106
ferments acting on, 116
important food, 127
Protein, 360
Proximate principles, 346
Pseudomonas, 160
Psoroptes communis, 203
Ptomaines, 39
Ptyalin, 116
Ptyalism, causes, 226
accidental, 226
disease, 226
Puberty, 364
in various domestic animals, 364

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Puerperal laminitis in mare, cause, symp-
toms and treatment, 293
septicemia, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 291
Pulmonary congestion, 190
causes, 149, 190
lesions, 150
symptoms and treatment, 190
emphysema, 191
lesions, 150
treatment, 191
cedema, causes of, 149
Pulse, compressible, 165
dicrotic, 165
fast, 165
hard, 165
normal, in horse, ox, dog, sheep and
cat, 112
Pupil, anatomy, 93
drugs contracting and dilating, 319
Purgatives, 298, 316
cholagogue, 298, 316
drastic, 298, 316
hydragogue, 298
saline, 316
simple, 298
Purpura hemorrhagica, causes of, 177
prognosis of, 178
symptoms of, 177.
treatment of, 178, 320
Pus, microérganisms producing, 161
in guttural pouch, 86
diagnosis and symptoms, 220
in nasal sinuses, treatment of, 223
Putrefaction, 34
Pyemia, 209
differentiated from septicemia, 170
treatment for, 170
Pyelitis, diagnosis and treatment, 184
Pyoktanin, uses, 325

Quassia, actions, dose and use, 322
Quinine sulphate, action, 306
dose for cow, dog and horse, 306, 307
uses, 306
Quittor, 251
Bayer’s operation for, 252
symptoms and treatment, 251

Rabies, 176
course and symptoms of, 176
diagnosis of, 171
dumb, 176
furious, 176
immunization in, 341
lesions of, 157
period of incubation, 178 ;
precautions taken in bitten animals,
209
sanitary police measures, 351
Rachitis, cause, 184
in pregnancy, treatment, 292
symptoms, 184
Pestuent 184, 320

389

Radial paralysis, 241
: symptoms and treatment, 241
Radium, 29
Rations, 127, 360
balanced, 127, 360
nature and value of, 127
for a dairy cow, 127, 361
for a horse, 127, 360, 361
for swine, 361
Receptaculum chyli, 70
Reduction, 5
Reflex, action defined, 104, 132
experiment illustrating, 132
movements, 134
Reil, island of, 72
Reissner, membrane of, 137
Rennin, 116, 118, 121
Repeller, indications for use, 280
Repulsion, molecular, 4
of a diseased upper molar, 226
Resection, perforans tendon, indications
for, 256
Residual air, 114
Resorcin, actions, dose and uses, 330
Respiration, Cheyne-Stokes type of, 166
functions of, 113
muscles of, 62
normal number, 114
relation to pulse-beats, 114
Respiratory organs, anatomy, 85
pathology, 150
Restraint, methods of, 257
in recumbent position, 257
in standing position, 257
Reticulum, anatomy, 82
Retina, anatomy, 93
Rheumatism, articular, causes, symptoms
and treatment, 201
muscular, causes, symptoms and treat-
ment, 201
Rhinitis, chronic, causes of, 188
differentiated from glanders, 169
symptoms and treatment, 188
Rhino-adenitis, see Strangles
Ribs, anatomy, 51
asternal, 51
fracture of, 229
symptoms and treatment, 229
sternal, 51
Rigor mortis, 131
changes in muscle in, 131
Ringbone, defined, 243
forms of, 243, 251
symptoms of, 243
treatment, 243, 251
Ringworm, cause, 203, 164
prescription for, 337
symptoms and treatment, 202
Roaring, changes in nervous and muscular
tissue in, 151
operation for, 222
symptoms of, 222
Rochelle salts, 7
Rotation, obstetrics, 278

Digitized by Microsoft®

390

Rubidium, 29
Rumen, anatomy, 81
Rumenotomy, in cow, 230
Rumination, physiology of, 117
Rupture of the bladder, causes, symptoms
and treatment, 233
of the diaphragm, symptoms, 229
of the flexor metatarsi, 247
of the ligamentum teres, 245
of prepubian ligament, 231
of tendons, 215

Sacrum, anatomy, 50
Saddle-galls, treatment for, 229
Salicylic acid, preparations of, 327
actions and uses, 327
Saline infusion, 332
indications, 332
* methods of administration, 332
Saliva, action in stomach, 119
amount in horse and ox, 117
properties and uses of, 116
Salivary calculi, treatment of, 227
fistula, causes, symptoms and treat-
ment, 227
glands, 80
nerve supply of, 77
ducts of, 80
Salol, 37
actions and uses, 327

t,
acid, 4, 12
basic, 12
physiologic solution of, 40
use of, 332
effect of, on growth of wool, 125
Saltpetre, 7
Salvarsan, used in contagious pleuro-
pneumonia, 176
in dourine, 182
Sanitary, barn, farm, and milk-house,
358
science, used by veterinarian, 345
Santonin, dose, 325
Saphrophytic, defined, 161
Sarcina, 160
Sarcolemma, 100
Sarcoma, tissue resembling, 145
types of, 145
Sarcoptes scabei, 203, 204
Saturnism, see Lead poisoning
Scabies, 204
in sheep, 204
Scaphoid bone, anatomy, 48
Scapula, anatomy, 47
Scirrhous cord, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 234
Sclerostoma equinum, 196
tetracanthum, 196
Sclerostomata in bowels of horse, 195
symptoms, 195
Scratches, prescription for, 336
Scrotum, anatomy, 92
Sebaceous glands, 124

INDEX

Sebum, functions of, 124
where and how secreted, 124
Secretion, defined, 104
differs from exudation, 104
from cedema, 104
from transudation, 104
function of blood in, 104
function of gland cells in, 104
function of nerves in, 104, 134
influenced by nervous system, 134
lachrymal, function of, 137
organs of, 105
Sedatives, action of, 298
danger of excessive use, 298
Seedy toe, 253
defined, 253
treatment, 253
Selection for breeding, 362
points considered, 362
Sense organs, anatomy, 93
physiology, 186
Senses, physiology, 136
Septicemia, 209
differentiated from pyemia, 170
puerperal, 291
causes, 291
symptoms and treatment, 291
treatment for, 170
Serous membrane, 100
compared with mucous, 100
location, 100
Serum albumin, 101, 107
bactericidal, 163
bacteriolytic, 163
danger in transfer, 108
globulin, 101, 107
prophylactic, 350
therapy, 341
of hog cholera, 342
Sexual organs, anatomy, 90
Sheep, parasites of, 364
wool breeds of, 361
Shoe-boil, etiology, 240
treatment of, 240, 241
Shoeing, in bruised heel, 257
in canker, 254
in contracted tendons, 256
in contracted hoof, 256
in corns, 253
in laminitis, 255
in navicular disease, 252
in quarter crack, 256
in thrush, 254
physiologic, 139
to overcome forging, 256
Shoulder abscess, cold, 240
cause and treatment, 240
joint, 53
dislocation of, 239
lameness, 239
symptoms and treatment, 239
Side-bones, pathology, 251
treatment, 251
Siderite, 32

Digitized by Microsoft®

INDEX

Silver, 27
compounds used in medicine, 27
German, 12
nitrate, 11, 18
_ test for, 27
Sinapis alba semina, 319
_ Nigra semina, 319
Sinuses, 51
facial, trephining of, 223
feat of horse and ox compared,
galactophorus, 92
maxillary, 45
point to trephine, 99
nasal, pus in, treatment, 223
of the head, 85
Skin, appendages of, 95
diseases of, 202
elimination by, 102
function of, 123
glands found in, 123
parasites of, 203
pathology of, 156
Soap, preparation of, 41
Sodium acetate, 35.
arsenate, 33
bicarbonate, 11, 29, 300
action, 331
dose and uses, 331
borate, 31
bromide, 300
carbonate, 7, 29
preparation of, 29
chloride, 29, 300
an emetic, 316
dose for dog, 316
citrate, a lymphagogue, 123
hydrate, 42
hydroxide, 29, 301
hyposulphite, 300, 313
iodide, 303
dose, 314
nitrate, 18
phosphate, 29
salts, 29
sulphate, 7, 29, 300
Solder, 12
Sole, pumiced, cause, 253
prognosis and treatment, 253
Solution, 8
difference from emulsion, 8
Fehling’s, use of, 43
Fowler’s, composition, 308
dose for dog and horse, 308
uses, 308
Pearson’s, 308
dose, preparation and use, 308
Solvay process, 29
Soundness, certificate for, 172
mode of examining for, 172
Spasm of diaphragm, and treatment,
30

of muscles of hind leg, and treatment,
202

391

Spavin, blood, 248
bog, 248, 362
forms of, and treatment, 248
lesions of, 148
unsoundness, 362
Specific gravity, determination of, 1
of urine, 43
Spermatic artery, 92
cord, structures of, 92
vein, 92
Spermatozoa not always in semen, 266
Spider in teat, 238
: symptoms and treatment, 238
Spinal accessory nerve, 76
d function of, 135
Spinal column, diseases of, 238
cord, anatomy, 72
functions of, 131
inferior columns of, 132
function of, compared with
superior column, 132
reflex functions of, 132
superior columns of, 132
Spinal meningitis, 169
differentiated from azoturia, 169
Spine, acromian, 47
supermaxillary, 45
Spirillacea, 160
Spirillum, 160
Spirits, ammonia aromaticus, action and
dose, 326
definition, 305
difference from tinctures, 305
glonoin, action and dose, 326
nitrous ether, dose, 318
Spirocheta, 160
Spirosoma, 160
Spleen, a ductless gland, 96
anatomy, 97
a vascular gland, 113
blood supply of, 66, 97
diseases in which enlarged, 153
engorgement of, 97
function of, 113
nerve supply of, 77, 97
of horse and ox compared, 97
Splint, etiology of, 242
symptoms and treatment, 243
Spore, 160
Sporotrichosis, 179
Stable, objectionable locations for, 345
proper drainage for, 345
Staggers, stomach, see Vertigo
Stall, properly built for horse, 364
Stannous chloride, 11
Staphylococcus pyogenes albus, 161
aureus, 161
citreous, 161
Staphyloma, defined, 218
Starch, ferments acting on, 116
Starvation, 126
effect on tissue, 128
on urine, 126
Steapsin, 116, 121

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392
Stearin, 41
Stenosis, mammary duct, symptoms and

treatment, 238
mitral, changes following, 149
Sterile, defined, 161
Sterility, causes and treatment, 293
in female and in male, 293
defined, 293
Sterilization of hands and instruments,
method of, 258
Sternum, anatomy, 49
of horse, ox and dog compared, 49
Stimulants, cardiac, 305
cerebral, 305
definition of, 305
diffusible, 305
general, 305, 314
hepatic, 305
Stomach, anatomy, 81
blood supply of, 66, 81
epithelium of, 104
function of, 117
nerve supply of, 77, 81
number of, in horse, ox, goat and
camel, 118
ruptured, symptoms of, 192
staggers, sec Vertigo
tube, indications for use, 232
method of passing, 232
Stomatitis, causes and treatment, 225
Strangles, complications occurring in, 178
differentiated from glanders, 169
symptoms of, 178
Streptococcus pyogenes, 161
Streptothrix, 160
Stringhalt, operation for, 248
Strongylosis, bronchial, 189
symptoms, 189
Strongylus equinum, 196
rufescens, 189
disease produced by, 189
symptoms, 189
tetracanthum, 196
Strontium, 29
Strophanthus, action and dose, 326, 328
uses, 328
Strychnine, actions and uses, 310
antidote, 39, 340
dose for dog and horse, 310
poisoning in dog, and treatment, 340
Succus entericus, 119
Suffixes, 7
Suffraginis, fracture of, symptoms and
treatment, 243
Sulphur, 23
an element of proteids, 106
effect of ingestion of, on wool growth,
125
in disinfecting, 23
properties and uses of, 23
Sunstroke, differentiated from exhaustion,
166
symptoms of, 201
treatment, 201, 314

INDEX

Superior maxilla, anatomy, 45
Suppuration, 208
susceptibility of different animals, 208
Suprascapular paralysis, cause, symptoms,
and treatment, 240
Surgery, 206
Surra, causes of, 163
Suspensory ligament, anatomy, 55
sprain of, causes, prognosis,
symptoms and treatment, 242
Suture, continuous, uses of, 207
Swamp fever, causes and characteristics of,
182
Sweat-glands, 123, 124
in different genera, 123
Sweeney, defined, 216, 240
treatment, 216, 240
Swine plague, 172
prophylactic measures in extinc-
tion of, 173
symptoms, 172
Sylvius, fissure of, 72
Symbiotes communis, 203
Sympathetic nervous system, 77
functions of, 135
Synarthrosis, 52
Syncope in anesthesia, 258
Synechia, 156
Synergistic remedial agents, 297
Synovitis, 214
Synthesis, 3, 6
Systole, 109

Teenia coenuris, 200
mamillana, 195
perfoliata, 195
plicata, 195
solium, 353
Tapeworm in dog, treatment, 323
in solipeds, 195
Tar, actions of, 318
coal, products of, 317
source and uses, 318
Tarsus, conditions causing unsoundness,
362
Tartar emetic, 34, 325
actions, 325
dose, 316, 325, 327
vermifuge, 316
Taste, nerves of, 134, 135, 137
primary sensations of, 137
Teeth, anatomy, 78
at various ages, 79, 225
canine, 78
composition of, 78
incisor, 77, 78
horse and ox compared, 78
modifications in upper and lower
molars, 79
molar, 78
repulsion of diseased upper, 226
Temperature, body, 128
ayenee normal, for different genera,
28

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INDEX

Temperature, causes of the variation in, 129
in cold-blooded animals, 128
in warm-blooded animals, 128
factors in regulation of, 129
result of severe exercise on, 129
rise in, due to infection, 141
due to nervous disorders, 141
due to poison, 141
subnormal, diseases with, 171
of a germ, maximum, minimum, opti-
mum, 164
Tendinitis, causes of, 215, 242
symptoms, 242
treatment, 215, 241, 242
Tendons, bowed, prescription for, 216
flexor, contraction of, treatment, 241
inflammation of, causes, symp-
toms and treatment, 242
metatarsi, rupture of, 247
rupture of, causes of, 215
surgery, 215
Tendovaginitis, causes, symptoms and
treatment, 215
Tenotomy, cunean, object of, 247
peroneal, object of, 248
Termination, defined, 165
Testicles, anatomy, coverings of, 92
function of, 139
Test, agglutination, 166, 167
complement-fixation, 166, 167
for preservatives in milk, 357
mallein, 166, 167
Marsh’s, for arsenic, 33
precipitin, 166
Tetanus, accessory cause, 174
bacillus of, 162
cause and prevention, 174
genera most subject to, 174
immunization in, 341
symptoms and treatment, 174, 300
Tetrad, 4
Texas fever, causes, 176
post-mortem lesions, 158
symptoms, 176
Therapeutics, defined, 297
Thermic fever, symptoms and treatment
of, 201
differentiated from heat exhaus-
tion, 166
Thermometric equivalents, 2
Thiothrix, 160
Thirst, cause of sensation of, 119
Thoracic duct, 69, 123
receptaculum chyli of, 70
Thorax, anatomy, 87 an
diameters enlarged in inspiration, 113
diseases of, 228
of horse and ox compared, 87
organs contained in, 87
Thoroughbred, 361
‘Thorough-pin causes unsoundness, 362
' pathology of, 249
Throat, diseases of, 217
Thrombin, 108

393

Thrush, causes, prognosis, symptoms and
treatment, 254 :
differentiated from canker, 254
Thumps, treatment for, 307
Thymus gland, 97, 98
a vascular gland, 112
Thyroid gland, 97
a vascular gland, 113
function, 113
Ticks, 203
Tidal air, 108, 114
Tincture, definition of, 305
difference from spirits, 305
official, 306
preparation of, 305
Tinea tonsurans, disease produced by, 164
Tissue, collecting for bacteriologic exam-
ination, 163
connective, 101
elastic fibrous, where found, 101
keraphyllous, 96
Tongue, anatomy, 77, 79
Tonic, 321
acid, 318
blood and nerve, 314
Topographical anatomy, 98
Torsion, arresting hemorrhage by, 208
of uterus, symptoms and treatment,
283
Toxicology, 38, 338
Toxin, 163
Trachea, anatomy, 86
Tracheotomy, indications for, 224
in cedema of glottis, 188
structures severed in, 98
Transudation differs from secretion, 104
Trapezoid bond, anatomy, 48
Triad, 4
Trichina spiralis, 155, 202, 354
Trichinosis, 202, 354
animals affected by, 202
channels of infection, 202
diagnosis and prevention, 202
disposition of carcass, 354
lesions, 155
methods of detection, 354
Trifacial nerve, 74
; function of, 134
Trochanter, 51
Trochanteric lameness, 245
Trochlea, 51
Trypanosoma Evansi, 163
Trypsin, 116, 121 A :
Turpentine, oil of, administration of, 311
dose, 325
source and use, 311
Tube, Eustachian, anatomy, 95
epithelium of, 101
function of, 95, 137
stomach-, indications for, 232
methods of passing, 232
Tubercle, crude and miliary, 159
Tubercula nates, 72
testes, 72

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394

Tuberculin, 162
testing with, 170
sources of fallacy in, 170
Tuberculosis, 181
bacillus of, 162
Bang method of eradicating, 350
channels of infection, 162
course of, 181
generalized, 352
handling of infected herds, 348
localized, 352
rules for inspection of carcass, 351
symptoms of, 181
tissues most commonly affected, 159
Tuberosity, 51
Tumors, classification of, 145, 211
defined, 211
malignant and non-malignant, 145,211
Tunica adventitia, 99
intima and media, 99
vaginalis, anatomy, 92
Tympanites accompanying choke, 222
in cattle, 192
ante-mortem and post-mortem,
153
symptoms and treatment, 192

Udder, anatomy, 91
of the cow, 91
diseases affecting, 154
Ulcer, causes and treatment, 211
defined, 144, 210
Ulna, anatomy, 47
fracture of, 241
prognosis, symptoms and treat-
ment, 241
Umbilical cord, function, 271
inflammation of, causes, symp-
toms and treatment, 295
hernia, causes, symptoms and treat-
ment, 295
infection, causes, 294
Unciform bone, anatomy, 48
Uncinaria, 197
animals attacked by, 197
symptoms and treatment, 197
Unguentum hydragyri, 299
actions, doses and uses, 299
Uniparous, 266
Unit, antitoxin, 343
of measure of liquids, 306
of weight, 306
Unsoundness, conditions of tarsus causing,
362

diseases causing, 363
faulty conformation predisposing to,
363

in horses disqualifying, 363
Urachus, 275

persistence of, 296

symptoms and treatment, 296

Uremia, symptoms and treatment, 185
Urea, 43, 127

sources of, 126

INDEX

Ureter, anatomy, 89
Urethra, anatomy, 90
of horse and ox compared, 90
of mare, 90
Uric acid, 127
Urinary organs, 89
fetal development of, 276
Urine, 42, 125
acidity of, causes, 126
albumin in, 186
test for, 42
average amount of, in horse and cow,
126
bile in, test for, 42
blood in, 186
conoposition of, 125
examination of, steps in, 185
of herbivora and carnivora compared,
126
reaction of, 126
specific gravity of, 43, 126
sugar in, test for, 42
Urticaria, causes, symptoms and treat-
ment, 203
Uterine inertia in mare, 283
symptoms and treatment, 283
Uterus, amputation of, 286
anatomy, 90, 261
blood supply of, 66, 262
cervix of, 279
lacerations of, 289
methods of dilating, 279
function of, 266
glands of, functions of, 262
inversion of, 238, 286
causes and symptoms, 286
treatment, 238, 286
ligaments of, 91
functions of, 262
modifications after labor, 266
during pregnancy, 269
muscular contractions of, 280
methods of overcoming, 280
nerve supply of, 77
of bitch, 262
of cow and bitch compared, 90
pregnant, influence on neighboring
organs, 267
situation of, in mare and cow,
275
rigidity of the os, treatment, 284
rupture of, during labor, 289
teen of, symptoms and treatment,

Vaccine, autogenous, 344
prophylactic, 350
therapy, 343
Vagina, anatomy, 91
function of, 91, 266
inversion of, antepartum, 285
eaee prognosis and treatment,
5

strictly a generative organ, 266

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INDEX

Vaginismus, 290
Vaginitis, causes, 290
contagious, symptoms and treatment

ot,
defined, 290
symptoms and treatment of, 290
Vagus nerve, anatomy, 75
function of, 135
influence on heart, 109
Valence, 4
Valves, heart, 62
ileocecal, 83
of veins, 110
Valvular insufficiency, causes and symp-
toms, 186
treatment, 187
Vascular glands, 112
Vas deferens, definition of, 92
Vaseline, source of, 37
Vaso-vasorum, 99
Vegetables, green, 127
Veins, anterior cava, 68
described, 99
dorsal, 68
function of, 110
internal thoracic, 68
jugular, 69
portal, 69, 120
pulmonary, 68
spermatic, 92
superior cervical, 68
valves of, 110
vena azygos, 68
vertebral, 68
Venesection, 323
Ventilation, King system of, 346
relation of air space to, 346
Veratrum viride, actions, 306
dose for dog and horse, 306
uses, 306
Vermifuge for cow, dog and horse, 316
Version, obstetrics, 278
Vertebre, anatomy, 48

cervical, 48
common characteristics of, 49
true, 49
Vertigo, abdominal, 199
causes, prevention, symptoms

and treatment, 199
Vesicovaginocele, causes, 292
reduction of, 292
Vesicule seminales, 92
absent in dog and cat, 264
function of, 263
Viborg method of opening guttural pouch,
220

triangle, 220, 221
Viburnum prunifolium, uses of, 313
Vieussens, ring of, 68
Vinegar, 35
Vitreous humor, 93, 94
Vitriol, blue, 7
Voluntary movements, 134
muscle, 100, 130

395

Vomition in cattle, diagnosis, 192
cig oneiated from regurgitation,
2
rare in the horse, reason, 117
Vulva, anatomy, 93
function of, 266
mucous membrane of, 261
epithelium of, 261
structure of, 261

Washing soda, 7
Water, composition of, 14
decomposed, 14
hard, tests for, 15
lime, 30
purifying, 14, 345
soft, 15
tests for chlorides in, 14
for lead in, 14
for nitrates in, 14
Weight, atomic, 5
metric system of, 306
molecular, 5
of fe supported by hoof, 96,

unit of, 306
Whartonian gelatin, 272
Whey, 42
White scours in calves, 178
causes and treatment, 178
Wind-galls, causes, defined, 216
Wine, 35
Wool compared with fur and hair, 124
conditions favoring growth of, 125
improvement of, 125
effect of ingestion of salt on, 125
of sulphur on, 125
Wounds, classification of, 206
healing of, 207
infection, 206
lacerated, treatment of, 208
of the coronet, treatment, 208
reopening, indications for, 207
treatment of antiseptic and aseptic,
206
Wry-neck, 279

Zine, 31
acetate, 35
antidote for, 39
chloride, 31
uses of, 321
oxide, 31
uses of, 321
sulphate, 31
an emetic, 316
dose for dog, 316
distinguished from Epsom salts,
31
preparation of, 31
uses of, 321
Zona pellucida, 268
Zone of Zinn, anatomy, 93
Zooétechnics, 360

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