Full text of "Propagation of wild birds; a manual of applied ornithology, treating of practical methods of propagation of quails, grouse, wild turkey, pheasants, partridges, pigeons and doves, and waterfowl, in America, and of attracting and increasing wild birds in general, including song-birds"

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New York
State College of Agriculture
At Cornell University
Ithaca, N. Y.

Library

Cornell University Library

SK 353.J6

AT
3 1924 000 088 637

mann

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PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

ILLUSTRATED BOOKS BY THE
SAME AUTHOR

AMONG THE WATER-FOWL

Observation, adventure, photography. One hun-
dred photographs. $1.35, net. Doubleday, Page
& Co., Garaen City, N.Y.

WILD WINGS

Adventures of a camera hunter among the larger
wild birds of North America on sea and land. With
an introductory letter by ex-President Roosevelt.
One hundred and sixty photographs. $3.00, net.
The Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

THE SPORT OF BIRD STUDY

A book for young or active people. Telling how
a man and boy friend had fun learning the birds of
a country town. One hundred and thirty-four pho-
tographs. $1.50, net. The Outing Publishing
Company, New York City. .

HOW TO STUDY BIRDS

A practical guide for amateur bird lovers and
camera hunters. A companion book to the pre-
ceding. Fifty-seven photographs, $1.50,net. The
Outing Publishing Company, New York.

THE BLUE GOOSE CHASE

A camera hunting adventure in Louisiana. A
story for boys. Illustrated. $1.25, net. Double-
day, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y.

SYIOH OF! Suoy}e3 are spoorq Sunod ayy, ‘jsnSny ul YsIeUl eqoWUL] UsOYJIOU UO spIe]TeU PTI

PROPAGATION
OF WILD BIRDS

A Manual of Applied Ornithology

TREATING OF PRACTICAL METHODS OF PROPA-
GATION OF QUAILS, GROUSE, WILD TURKEY,
PHEASANTS, PARTRIDGES, PIGEONS AND
DOVES, AND WATERFOWL, IN AMER-

ICA, AND OF ATTRACTING AND
INCREASING WILD BIRDS IN
GENERAL, INCLUDING
SONG-BIRDS

By HERBERT K. JOB

Economic _Ornithologist in Charge of the Departmem of
Applied Ornithology of the National Association of Au-
dubon Societies, Member of the American Ornithologists’
Union, Formerly State Ornithologist of Connecticut, Se.

Illustrated from photographs
Mostly by the Author

GARDEN CITY NEW YORK

DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1915

ho. V11e
Copyright, 1915, by
DousLepay, Pace & CoMPANY

TO THE FOUNDERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED
ORNITHOLOGY OF THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION
OF AUDUBON SOCIETIES,

FRIENDS AND FELLOW-WORKERS IN THE GREAT CAUSE OF THE
CONSERVATION OF THE WILD BIRD LIFE OF AMERICA,

I DEDICATE THIS FIRST MANUAL OF APPLIED ORNITHOLOGY

A PREFATORY NOTE

THERE has grown up in the United States, within the
past ten years, a widespread interest in birds, the extent
of which has never been equalled in this or any other
country. Along with the desire to acquire more knowledge
regarding the habits and activities of these feathered
denizens of the great Outside has arisen a sense of personal
obligation to aid all movements that tend toward safe-
guarding their lives and prolonging their usefulness. Asa
result, the popular support for the enactment of important
State and Federal laws for the conservation of wild birds
and animals has given profound astonishment to those be-
nighted persons whose custom it has been to accumulate
wealth by the destruction of wild creatures for the markets
offered by the game-dealer and the millinery feather-
merchant. This was well illustrated in 1910, when the
people of New York State arose almost in mass and de-
manded of the Legislature that it pass the Audubon
Society’s bill to prohibit the sale of birds’ feathers; and
again in 1913, when there was pending in the Tariff Bill the
proviso to prohibit the importation of the feathers of wild
birds. More than two hundred thousand letters and tele-
grams of approval poured in upon the desks of the Senators
and Congressmen in Washington.

The enactment of the Federal Migratory Bird Bill, also
in 1913, would not have been possible a few years before,
as numerous unsuccessful attempts had demonstrated.

As a natural consequence of these manifestations of

vii

viii A PREFATORY NOTE

interest on the part of the public, there has appeared an
increased desire to have birds come about the home in
greater numbers. People are wanting more robins on the
lawn, more wrens in the garden, and more bluebirds,
thrashers, and woodpeckers in the neighbourhood.

To encourage the birds to become more familiar thou-
sands of persons in every State are now erecting nesting-
‘boxes for the birds in spring and providing food for them
in winter. Others favourably situated for larger experi-
ments wish to engage in the rearing of wild ducks, or of
quails, grouse, pheasants, and other upland game-birds.

I recall that less than ten years ago I spent much time in
an effort to induce a certain man to begin the manufacture
and sale of nesting-boxes for birds and similar apparatus,
with the view of supplying a demand which I felt was
certain to come. It was with very great difficulty that he
was induced to go into this business. To-day there are
more than twenty well-known manufacturers of bird-boxes
and other bird-attracting apparatus in the eastern part of
the United States alone.

It has not been a great many years since an estate on
which pheasants and wild ducks were reared was a curiosity
and occasioned much local comment. To-day hundreds of
persons are engaging in this pleasant and profitable occu-
pation. Naturally much well-meant effort in this direction
has been ill-directed; and it has become evident that there
is great need of some one highly skilled in the matter of
artificial propagation of birds to give counsel to those de-
siring to undertake an enterprise of this character.

It was to meet this: demand and provide expert advice
for those desiring to begin the raising of game-birds, or to
make bird-sanctuaries of their groves and fields, that I
arranged for the National Association of Audubon Societies

A PREFATORY NOTE ix

to establish, in 1914, its “‘ Department of Applied Ornithol-
ogy.”

After looking over the entire field I felt that the best man
to conduct this important branch of the association’s
activities was Herbert K. Job, a well-known naturalist,
and at that time State Ornithologist of Connecticut. Since
his connection with the association, as well as before, he
has had unusual facilities for investigating the methods of
successful game-breeders throughout the country; and the
broad knowledge thus gained, added to his many years of
practical experience in the hand-raising of upland game-
birds and waterfowl, has qualified him in a most unusual
degree for undertaking the preparation of this ‘‘ Manual”
which undoubtedly will be the standard authority on game
propagation for many years to come.

I have read the pages of the manuscript with great pleas-
ure and profit, and my opinion of its excellence is shared by
Senator George P. McLean, F. C. Walcott, Wallace Evans,
Dwight W. Huntington, and other gentlemen of experience,
who have also read it critically and given it their approval.

T. GILBERT PEARSON.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTORY. THE NEw ORNITHOLOGY .

PART I. METHODS WITH GALLINACEOUS BIRDS,

AND OTHERS

CHAPTER

I. GENERAL METHODS .
II. Quart PRopAGATION METHODS AS A Basis .
II. THe Grouse Famity
IV. THE WitpD TuRKEY.
V. PHEASANT REARING .
VI. OrueR FoREIGN GALLINACEOUS SPECIES .
VII. Prcrons anp Doves
VIII. Controt oF VERMIN

PART II. THE PROPAGATION OF WILD
WATERFOWL
IX. Witp Ducks.
X. Witp GEESE. . . . 2. 1. 2 ee
XI. Swans. . . . .
XII. WADING-BIRDS

XIII. REFUGES AND PROTECTED COLONIES .
xi

103

115
184
192
194
199

xii CONTENTS
PART III. METHODS WITH THE SMALLER
LAND-BIRDS
XIV. PRELIMINARY MATTERS. . . . ..

XV. Arps To NESTING

a. Nesting-boxes .

b. Supplying Nesting Material

XVI. Maxkinc SuRROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE .

a. Attractive Vegetation. . . .

b. Water Supply

c. Suppression of Enemies .

XVII. ARTIFICIAL FEEDING

INDEX

Addenda .

‘

PAGE
203

211
211
233
236
236
246
248
255
267
269

ILLUSTRATIONS

Wild mallards flying from Manitoba marsh_. Frontispiece

FACING PAGE

Ring-neck pheasants on Evans’ Game Farm.

Hatching-coops, State Game Farm, Sherburne, New Vor

Breeding-pen for pair of quails, Storrs, Connecticut.

Typical hatching and rearing coop, Sherburne, New York .

Bob-white breeding-stock before pairing.

Group of young bob-whites feeding

Main holding-pen for quails, Storrs, Connecticut

Quail rearing-field, with covered corral in near corner

Buckwheat left standing for birds.

Nest with twenty-four eggs of bob-whiteinacoop .

Day-old quails and empty egg-shell

Young quail watching a fly .

Bantam with quail chicks ?

Muriel, daughter of author, feeding little habe whites:

Bob-white stock of T. A. Howell in winter quarters .

Ruth, daughter of Supt. Dirks, with California or valley
quails . Soke oe eR ee oe ae ae

Scaled or “blue” Gunite

Young ruffed grouse strutting.

Tame ruffed grouse, captured wild ;

F. N. Manross and young ruffed grouse which he cieed

U. S. Senator George P. McLean oe his young ruffed
grouse : ie a: hee :

Ruffed grouse ghicks

Young ruffed grouse three weeks ald.

Sharp-tailed grouse on nest

Rearing-field and shelter-house for wild turkeys.

xili

16
17
17
17
32
32
33

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

Wild turkey breeding-stock in enclosure .

Pheasant breeding-pens, Evans’ Game Farm

Single pheasant breeding-pen, Sherburne, New York

Pheasant rearing-field . ‘

Breeding-field for pheasants, Clove Walley Club, ‘New York

Fence of pheasant rearing-field and vermin-traps

Hatching-house. Putting out hens tofeed .

Golden and silver pheasants

Feeding young pheasants, Clove Valley Club

Breeding harem of pheasants . i od

Young pheasants caught for shipment

Tinamou, the South American species bred by William
Rockefeller

Gray or ‘‘ Hungarian” papeidees

Mourning dove

Crows shot by a farmer.

Box trap for vermin

Four predatory cats

Skunk in trap

Gray fox caught by front oe

Wild ducks in Texas :

Swans keeping open a hole in fheic ice .

Mallards at feeding time

Young mallards raised at Clove Valley Club.

Mallards and black ducks raised on Evans’ Game Farm

Henry Cook feeding some of his wild ducks .

Mallards raised by a farmer in Connecticut .

Rearing-field for mallards, Clove Valley Club

Our ‘“‘duck farm” in Manitoba wilderness

Canvasbacks in artificial pool .

Wild ducks in winter quarters .

Mr. Heywood’s method of wintering waterfowl,

Canvasbacks at Branchport, New York .

Wild black ducks on Lanier preserve . :

Son of author feeding “wild” ducklings, eatwalls; ste :

ILLUSTRATIONS

Author feeding young wild ducks . i
Evans’ method of rearing young wood ducks.
Ducklings in fenced marsh, Evans’ Game Farm .
Female lesser scaup duck fluttering from nest
Gadwall flushing from nest in prairie grass

Nest of canvasback, seldom seen by whitemen .

Nest of lesser scaup duck ten feet back from shore .

Young canvasbacks, about two weeks old
Young canvasbacks, well grown

Young redheads, Manitoba expedition
Brood of young gadwalls

Young shovellers or ee

Young pintails .

Young white-winged scoter or ‘“‘sea- Pasa a
Young golden-eyes or “‘ whistlers”’

Young ruddy duck . :

Pair of adult ruddy ducks near nee

FACING PAGE
140
I41
I41
144
144
145
145
148
148
149
149
156
156
157
157
160
160

Lesser scaups or “ broadbills” under protection from ce

ing.

Wild geese on 1 Evans? Game Farm.

Great flock of blue geese

Brants in captivity .

Family party of domesticated Canada seesé.
Canada goose incubating on Connecticut farm .
Swans at George D. Tilley’s aviary

Cranes at aviary of George D. Tilley .

Black swans nesting on Evans’ Game Farm .

Young coots or “‘mud-hens” raised from incubator .

Mrs. Bath and her pet coots

Flock of pintails on Louisiana marsh

Black skimmers on Government reservation.
Breeding royal terns under protection

Von Berlepsch-model nesting-box.

Suet basket in position .

Ware-model “swallow box” Seoupied ‘by blucbirds ,

161
176
177
177
180
180
181
181
188
188
189
196
197
197
204
204
205

xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

FACING PAGE

The same bluebird entering

Natural nesting of tree swallow

Tree swallow occupying Ware-model “ plead Boe”
Natural nesting of flicker ;

Flicker using Ware-model festine box

Purple martins nesting in gourds .

An occupied martin house .

Pair of purple martins nesting . ;
Protected nesting-box on Henry Ford fae :

House wren nesting in a tin can

Thorn shrubbery on Ford farm where birds like to eet,
Food-houses and Henry Ford’s bungalow

Grackles and sparrow bathing on sidewalk

Birds’ drinking fountain and bathing pool

Starlings going to roost in steeple . 3
European starling entering stolen woodpecker’ s riest
Female scarlet tanager touched by author é
Blue-headed vireo being handled on nest by author.

Black-throated green warbler feeding young in lap of girl .

Chickadee feeding young on author’s arm
White-breasted nuthatch feeding on window-sill
Tree sparrows at lunch-counter .

Chickadee feeding :

Downy woodpecker eating suet F
Red-headed woodpecker at lunch-counter

Blue-jay at lunch-counter .
Junco or snow-bird eating seed apviviled onsnow .
Magpies on food-shelf .

205
208
208
209
209
224
224
225
225
228
228
229
236
236
237
237
240

‘240

241
241
256
256
257
257
260
260
261
261

INTRODUCTORY

THE NEW ORNITHOLOGY

Applied ornithology may be defined broadly as the ap-
plication of our knowledge of bird life to human welfare.
For our present purpose it may be regarded as the discovery
and explanation of practical methods for the increase
of wild birds, based upon a knowledge of their habits and
capabilities acquired by observation and experiment. It
will include also methods of bringing wild birds into closer
proximity with man, since the sight and observation of wild
life has become an important source of pleasure and educa-
tion. The topics to be considered in this Manual, therefore,
are the best practical methods for attracting, protecting,
propagating, and generally increasing wild bird life within
the limits of each reader’s place and circumstances.

Applied.ornithology is directly in line with modern prog-
ress and with the spirit of the times. Although any science
or knowledge is worth while for its own sake, there is at
present a general feeling that mere learning should not
normally be considered the finality, but that it should lead
to some real benefit to mankind. Hence the phrase ‘“‘ap-
plied science” has become familiar, and special usages of it
havealready appeared—“ applied entomology,” for example,
designating the service entomological science renders to ag-
riculture, forestry, etc.

It was very natural, then, that the term “Applied Orni-
thology” should be given by T. Gilbert Pearson, the Secre-
tary of the National Association of Audubon Societies, to

xvii

xviii INTRODUCTORY

this new branch of science, when the association purposed
to organize a department to prosecute it.

Up to about 1875 birds of all sorts were slaughtered for
food, or sport, or their plumage, with almost utter uncon-
cern. Then it began to dawn upon thoughtful minds that
bird life had economic value, and that, unless the slaughter
was stopped, there soon would be no birds.

A great and successful warfare has been waged for the
protection of bird life, and now public sentiment strongly
demands its restoration to normal abundance. This has
resulted in great good, and the wild bird population of the
whole country has gained in numbers; but much remains to
be done, and more and more persons are conscientiously
trying to advance the beneficent movement.

One of the most interesting developments in public senti-
ment is that an increasing number of persons are discovering
that it affords them pleasure to see wild birds multiply,
particularly as the result of their own efforts; to have them
settled on their own land or home-spot; to see new kinds;
and to have intimate personal contact with these pretty
pensioners.

Louis Agassiz Fuertes, the artist of bird life, once asked
the writer whether he ever felt a sort of rapturous thrill
when in close proximity to a wild bird, especially with a rare
or unusual one. Bless his artistic soul! A thousand times,
yes! It is one of the most entrancing emotions; and the
person is fortunate indeed who knows it from frequent ex-
perience.

Recently I sat for more than an hour on the shore of a
small pond close to several species of wild ducks in all the
glory of their nuptial plumage. The previous season out in
the wilds of northern Manitoba I had hatched these duck-
lings in an incubator, raised them by hand, and had brought

INTRODUCTORY xix

them under my personal care more than two thousand
miles to the spot where Isat. The wonderful canvasbacks
were diving and eating the succulent roots which they
brought to the surface. The light glanced resplendent from
their delicately pencilled backs and gleamed in the fiery
eyes of the males. Was it tedious to sit there so long in the
cold April wind? Nay, rather in my delight I was oblivious
to the passing of time.

Much the same feeling may be kindled when a pair of
bluebirds, wrens, or chickadees accept our hospitality and
raise a brood or two in one of our nesting-boxes; or when
the chipping sparrows and pheebes use the building material
we have put out for them, and nest in the woodbine or un-
der the porch by our very door.

There are also many who, besides enjoying the sight and
presence of wild birds, will utilize the methods hereafter
described to increase or propagate certain species for pur-
poses of food, financial profit, or hunting. These demands
properly met need not diminish the supply of wild birds,
but may serve to increase them. The old adage is becoming
popular, “For every bird you take, put back two.”

The best type of sportsman is not a person greedy for
slaughter. He loves the whole experience of a day afield,
the exhilarating exercise, the matching of his wits with the
keen instincts of the wild creatures. A mere taste of the
game on the table is enough, and he forbears to kill more.
He feeds the game in winter and takes measures to propa-
gate or protect it from natural enemies and dangers. On
many a hunt, when he secures no game, he enjoys the ex-
perience to the full. Such a man saves more than he de-
stroys, and is a real friend of wild bird life, standing for strict
protective laws and the rigid enforcement of them.

The actual propagation of edible species for purposes of

XX INTRODUCTORY

food or financial profit is receiving a great impetus these
days, and is becoming an important industry. Wild ducks
and pheasants are raised in large numbers for the market.
Farmers and youths are beginning to propagate ‘‘game”’ as
2 side line for profit, and in some cases add neat sums to
their incomes. To supply the wide demand for breeding-
stock people here and there are beginning to experiment
with various species, often with considerable success. Such
efforts will also help to extend the range and increase the
numbers of these birds. Farmers can make it a source
of revenue to protect or propagate game on their land
either for purposes of sale or to lease out the hunting
privilege.

The propagation by human industry of wild birds for
food is precisely as legitimate as the farming of domestic
poultry. All the domesticated species came originally from
wild stock, though modified by hybridization and selection.
They have thus been saved from extermination, and have
become of immense value to mankind. The question be-
comes largely one of conservation, of keeping up the supply.
It is now impracticable to allow the sale of wild game, be-
cause modern commercial methods would speedily exter-
minate it. But if it can be multiplied by industry, there is
every reason to encourage such undertakings, and permit
the sale of birds so raised under proper restrictions.

Already there is a considerable demand for men skilled
in the propagation of game-birds and wildfowl, for employ-
ment on game preserves or private estates. Besides raising
game, their work is to protect and feed birds and game, and
to exterminate the vermin that preys upon them.

On some estates the owner allows no shooting, but breeds
game for the pleasure of seeing it about, and also attracts
and protects bird life in general. For such positions men of

INTRODUCTORY xxi

all-round familiarity with birds and game, and versed in
modern methods as defined in this Manual, are desired.

As a result of the protection of migratory birds by the
Federal Government, under authority of the Weeks-McLean
law, men are being employed as Federal wardens under civil
service regulations, andI am informed that preference will be
given to those who. understand the methods of propagation
of game and other practical methods described hereafter,
and can teach them in their districts. Municipalities also
are beginning to employ “bird wardens,” to protect, attract,
and care for wild bird life. No doubtState authorities would
be glad to employ game wardens of this calibre, could they
be found.

These various demands will provide congenial outdoor
employment for many young men who love such things.
One frequent complaint that I hear about game-keepers is
that some are addicted to liquor, are unreliable at critical
times, and are illiterate and unprogressive. It is an honour-
able and important profession, coming rapidly to the fore,
and there is a growing demand in this work for young men
who abstain from liquor, have sufficient education to carry
out experiments and keep proper records, and who know
their business. The number of game preserves and large
estates whose owners propagate or protect game and wild
life is already large, and is constantly increasing. Most of
these either employ game-keepers, or, in employing super-
intendents or assistants, give preference to men who un-
derstand these methods of ‘‘applied ornithology.”’ This is
bound to become an important profession.

The many kindly persons who dislike the idea of shoot-
ing wild birds, whether for food or for any other purpose,
and might be inclined to look askance upon their propaga-
tion for food or sport, may feel assured of an interesting

xxii INTRODUCTORY

tendency which is working out. Many a man who has be-
gun the propagation of “‘game-birds” with the idea of se-
curing better shooting has found so much satisfaction in
such work, and has become so much attached to his
“feathered children” that he becomes disinclined to shoot
them. Humane sentiment is spreading wonderfully, and
we can well afford to leave it to the individual what he will
do with the birds which he raises. At any rate, the result
is bound to be the increase of bird life.

I shall be very glad if applied ornithology serves to
broaden popular sentiment in all classes of bird life. It has
always seemed illogical to me that so many people should
take no interest in any but the common local ‘‘song-birds,”’
and know nothing about others. The fact that it has now
become possible to breed certain species of gallinaceous
birds, and of wild ducks and geese, and have them free on
one’s own premises under easy observation, should tend to
arouse general interest in them and make them almost as
familiar as robins and swallows.

I cannot help feeling that the term ‘‘game-bird”’ is often
overworked and made to imply too much, as if such birds
as quails and grouse, lawfully regarded as game, were owned
only by those who shoot, whereas they are property of all
the people, and there are other legitimate uses for them than
for shooting.

The term ‘‘game-birds,”’ moreover, is loose and unscien-
tific. What birds are game-birds changes from time to time
under varying laws. The mourning dove, for instance, for-
merly legal game in all States, is now protected by law almost
everywhere. Likewise the wood duck, and many kinds of
shore birds, now protected by Federal enactment, are no
longer “‘game-birds.” Even the crow is known to be eaten
in construction camps. The term is convenient where refer-

INTRODUCTORY xxiii

ence is made to birds that are eaten. To the lover of wild
life a bird is a bird, irrespective of whether or not it is edible.
I feel like putting on record here a kindly and well-meant
plea to the public not to be narrow in their sympathies, but
to take a broad interest in al/ wild life.

Speaking of “‘game-birds”’ calls up a point in nomenclat-
ure. Among the hunters it is quite common to use the sin-
gular form for the plural in referring to birds of this class.
One says he saw twenty “quail” or a covey of “‘partridge.”’
But it would sound ridiculous to say a flock of sparrow, a
raft of gull, or a wavy line of goose. So, when I write quails,
it is not exactly through ignorance!

Applied ornithology is so new a field that its development
necessarily remains incomplete. There is no thought of
finality in mind in penning these pages and chapters. Icon-
sider this Manual as merely preliminary, and shall hope
from time to time to revise it, adding discoveries and im-
provements, dropping what may have become superseded,
and trying to keep the matter up to date.

That there is a real demand for such practical information
has been made very apparent by the many letters which
have come to me for several years from all over the United
States and Canada, asking for information, and especially
for literature—hitherto lacking—on these practical sub-
jects.

Owing to this widespread interest, The National Associa-
tion of Audubon Societies has asked me to conduct under
their auspices a Department of Applied Ornithology. This
new department will try to serve as a bureau for practical
advice and assistance to all who desire help in attracting,
propagating, or increasing bird life; and it will provide bul-
letins or other helpful publications. I shall be glad to hear
at any time from such persons in care of the National Asso-

Xxiv INTRODUCTORY

ciation of Audubon Societies, New York City. It will be
of real service if those who are trying practical measures to
increase, attract, or propagate wild birds will acquaint me
with the details of their work, whether successful or other-
wise. Many phases of the subject are yet in the experimental
stage, and by comparison of methods a great deal may be
learned.

I feel myself under deep. obligation to many fellow-
enthusiasts who in various ways have assisted, encouraged,
or inspired me in the prosecution of these studies and in the
preparation of this volume. To these various friends, whose
names follow, my sincere thanks and appreciation are ex-
tended:

The Okeetee Club contributed liberally to the carrying
on of my experimental work at a time when such help was
particularly needed, and the results are in no small degree
due to its generosity. Others who have made it possible
for me to carry out important lines of experiment and re-
searchare Frederic C. Walcott, S. W. Childs, William Rocke-
feller, Edmund C. Converse, H. O. Havemeyer, T. A.
Howell, F. F. Brewster, United States Senator George P.
McLean, T. Gilbert Pearson, and the donors of the fund
for The Department of Applied Ornithology, whose names
are listed in The National Association of Audubon Socie-
ties, “Bulletin Number 2,” to whom I would add the
the name of my Harvard classmate, Philip Dexter. For
these this expression of thanks seems utterly inadequate.

From the following I have received detailed, practical
information of great value, often representing the results of
years of observation andresearch. Let this mention of their
names, in alphabetical order, be the assurance of my appre-
ciation and grateful remembrance: E. Aubry, E. H. Austin,
O. R. Austin, A. M. Barnes, C. William Beebe, A. C. Bent,

INTRODUCTORY XXV

Dr. L. B. Bishop, William Brewster, Henry P. Bridges,
Neil Clark, Henry Cook, John A. Cox, L. S. Crandall, Sam-
uel Evans, Wallace Evans, Dr. George W. Field, William L.
Finley, Dr. A. K. Fisher, Edward H. Forbush, Henry Ford,
A. N. Frey, Amos E. George, John Heywood, Dr. C. F.
Hodge, Frank Hopkins, Dr. William T. Hornaday, F. H.
Kennard, Charles D. Lanier, Rev. William R. Lord, A. G.
MacVicar, F. N. Manross, W.L. McAtee, E.A. MclIlhenny,
Mrs. George H. Mellen, Arthur Merrill, Dr. John C.
Phillips, Harry T. Rogers, Adam Scott, Ludwig Seidler,
C. A. Shaw, Dr. A. F. Warren, Ernest A. Watts, William
P. Wharton, Dr. J. W. Whealton, William Whisker. IfI
have inadvertently omitted other kind helpers, I am no
less grateful to them also. The skilled and patient bac-
teriological researches of Dr. L. F. Rettger, of Yale Univer-
sity, with whom I have been delightfully associated in the
investigation of gallinaceous birds, have proved of great
value in the solution of important problems.

Also I would thank most heartily for the use of photo-
graphs for this volume the following: Wallace Evans,
Thorn L. German, Edward H. Forbush, Henry Ford, John
Heywood, William B. Hoot, Verdi Burtch, W. N. Dirks,
F. N. Manross, George H. Graham, Henry P. Bridges,
Harry T. Rogers, John Winters, Arthur W. Brokway,
Francis Harper, G. Curtiss Job, and the National Associ-
ation of Audubon Societies.

In addition to the above I would mention Dwight W.
Huntington, who has for years been a recognized pioneer
in this movement, and has long codperated with me. His
magazine, The Game Breeder, New York City, is valuable
for all who undertake these methods of propagation. An-
other valued ally in this movement is The American Game
Protective and Propagation Association, whose president,

xxvi INTRODUCTORY

John B. Burnham, has shown me many courtesies, likewise
E. A. Quarles, one of its vice-presidents, and all its officers.

In connection with the scientific expeditions to Manitoba,
I am also deeply grateful to Hon. George Lawrence, Minister
of Agriculture of the Province of Manitoba, and the others
of the Ministry who granted the permits: to Charles Barber,
the chief game guardian; to Samuel Spence, Dr. Gordon
Bell, Dr. R. M. Simpson, Dr. F. B. Cadham, and E. W.
Darbey, of Winnipeg, for valued help and esteemed cour-
tesies; and to Dr. T. S. Palmer, of the United States Bureau
of Biological Survey; Governor Simeon E. Baldwin of Con-
necticut, and Dr. L. A. Clinton, then of The Storrs Agricul-
tural Experiment Station of Connecticut, for further im-
portant assistance.

There is a further debt of gratitude to record. Much of
the material of this Manual is in a sense pioneer work. Lest
it should be said by some, with any show of reason, that it
represented simply the ideas or theories of one man, I have
submitted the material to several experts, all of whom have
approved the book, as far as they have read the manuscript.
What few changes or additions they have suggested, all in
minor details, have been incorporated in every case. Fred-
eric C. Walcott, a Director of the American Game Protect-
ive and Propagation Association, and one of the foremost
experts in America in practical propagation of waterfowl
and game-birds, has carefully read the whole book, and has
gone over most of it with me in person, at the sacrifice of
valuable time. He cordially endorses this material, as
well as my work in general, and has sent such endorsement
in writing to T. Gilbert Pearson. U.S. Senator George P.
McLean has also written endorsement and congratulation
on the success and value of the work and investigations.
The material of Part I has also been read and approved

INTRODUCTORY xxvii

by Wallace Evans, owner of the most successful game
farm in America; by George W. Field, chairman of
the Massachusetts Commission of Fisheries and Game;
and by Dwight W. Huntington, editor of The Game Breeder.
Part III I have gone over in person with Edward H.
Forbush, State Ornithologist of Massachusetts, author of
“Useful Birds and Their Protection.” T. Gilbert Pear-
son has also read and approved the book. The tech-
nical sections in Parts I and II I have read with Alex-
ander G. MacVicar, one of the most expert game-keepers to
be found in America. Dr. L. F. Rettger has approved the
sections relating to diseases. I am deeply grateful to these
gentlemen for setting the seal of their reputation upon the
accuracy and value of this work.

PART I

METHODS WITH GALLINACEOUS
BIRDS

CHAPTER I

GENERAL METHODS

Experimental work has shown that all our wild gallina-
ceous species have very much in common, and that much
the same general methods, varied more or less in minor
details, are adapted to them all. Hence it will be well to
consider at the outset methods which apply to all species.

Natural and Artificial. First, then, we come to the broad
distinction between natural and artificial methods. The
latter signifies the propagation and rearing of birds in
confinement or under restraint; the former that they are
free and propagate in the state of nature, though protected
and assisted as much as possible. Both systems have ad-
vantages and special uses. In some cases one or the other
isimpracticable. In some wild, wooded districts onlynatural
methods may apply. On the other hand, near populous
centres, where birds in the wild state would inevitably suc-
cumb or be driven off, it may be possible to rear them in
large enclosures. Again, circumstances may favour a com-
bination of the two methods, and the birds, artificially
started, may be liberated, and furnish breeding-stock for
natural increase, while some may be retained for artificial
breeding.

Artificial Method Important. There is a way in which
methods of artificial propagation may prove of great im-
portance in naturalizing in a locality gallinaceous birds,
even of new species, which otherwise could not be induced

4 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

to remain. It is notorious that various kinds of such birds,
liberated by proper methods in a locality, raise broods, but
in the autumn leave with their young for parts unknown.
This has repeatedly occurred in America with the Messina
quail of Europe, the gray or “Hungarian” partridge, and
with bob-whites from the South. These southern quails,
for instance, have been shipped North and liberated in
great numbers. They breed, and then usually disappear.
As I have often seen them winter safely in the Northern
States in open enclosures, I do not think that those liberated
die off, but that they migrate. But if we take the eggs and
rear the young artificially, they know no other home and
remain in the locality of their birth. In my experiment on
the William Rockefeller estate, described farther on, we
reared bob-whites from Mexican stock, and these and their
offspring are believed to have established themselves in per-
manentresidence. Had Mr. Rockefeller liberated the original
shipment instead of breeding them artificially, there would
doubtless have been no result. Likewise there would be
far more probability of establishing the gray partridge in
America by this method than by liberating adult birds.

Natural Method. The natural method applies equally to
all species which are found upon the land. Protection from
enemies and food supply are the chief factors involved. If
the tract of land is not of considerable size, the birds will
not stay on it all the time, and will be subject to outside
dangers.

Protection from Shooting. Perhaps the first need will
be to secure protection from shooting. The first step gen-
erally is to post the land. Unfortunately this is not always
effective. It sometimes comes to an issue of respect or con-
tempt for law, and whether or not a man has property rights
in his land as well as in his house. I knew personally of a

GENERAL METHODS 5

case where signs proved ineffective, and the owner published
a request or warning in the local papers. Next night all his
wire fencing around a large farm was cut and ruined, and
his whole season’s work handicapped. People who resort
to such vandalism are in the class with the wild vermin and
should be treated accordingly.

In another recent case, a country town in Connecticut,
Morris, was overrun by ‘‘sports” who came up in autos
from neighbouring cities, slaughtered the game and fish, and
defied every law. The local game-warden did nothing. At
last the farmers organized a Protective Association, posted
nearly the whole town, hired their own attorney, and
rigorously prosecuted every trespasser. After several in-
vaders had been heavily mulcted, the rest of them gave that
town a wide berth. Hunters deplore the closing of private
land, but it is often their own fault, and the innocent, un-
fortunately, have to suffer with the guilty.

Protection from Vermin. A second line of protective
effort lies in the extermination of vermin. A separate chap-
ter will be devoted to this subject, but some things may
here be said about the problem. It is astonishing how
many noxious creatures there are upon the average innocent-
looking tract of land. Following is a list of vermin killed on
the Childs-Walcott estate in Norfolk, Connecticut, from
February, 1911, to September, 1913:

Nine foxes, 24 raccoons, 159 weasels, 7 muskrats, 6 skunks,
81 domestic cats, 39 rats, 5 wildcats, 201 red squirrels, 9
large owls, 4 hawks, 81 crows. In this list the number of
hawks is unusually small, and I know a case where the num-
ber of domestic cats taken was considerably larger. On the
average wild tract, unless extermination of vermin is re-
sorted to, birds can barely hold their own. One of the most
necessary qualities of a keeper is that he be a good trapper

6 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

and well versed in the signs and ways of these destroyers of
bird life.

Food Supply. The maintenance of a supply of food is an
important factor in holding birds upon the land. Under
diverse conditions there will be a variety of berries and food-
plants growing naturally. The ruffed grouse is fond of the
fruit of the sumac, partridge-berry, wild grape, hawthorn,
and in fact of almost every wild berry that grows in the
woods. I have even seen their crops stuffed with whole
acorns. The quail likewise feasts upon fruit and berries,
and is fond of the huckleberry pasture and the blackberry
field during the late summer.

Planting Grain. Of course winter feeding is most im-
portant. The planting of patches of buckwheat, or other
grains such as wheat or millet, and letting it stand is an
excellent practice. The birds frequent such fields in the
fall, and are likely to be held there for the winter.

Feeding Stations. There should also be shelters under
which grain is placed. Whatever form is used, care should
be taken not to have them so enclosed that a fox or other
animal could surprise and catch the birds when feeding.
So there should at least be openings on opposite sides. One
good way is to make a frame of saplings upon low posts,
quite close to the ground, and cover with a thick thatch or
pile of evergreen boughs. Build these in the haunts of the
birds, and do it before the severe weather sets in, so they
will get accustomed to being fed, and will surely go there
when in need. Wheat, corn, buckwheat, barley, or other
small grains, preferably in the shock or on the straw, are
good. Hang up such grain, heads down, so that birds can
reach it, but not the rodents. People often ask whether
the ruffed grouse or partridge will eat grain thus placed, and
I would say that it certainly does so.

GENERAL METHODS 7

Restocking. If the natural stock is entirely depleted,
either birds can be bought and liberated, or else the stock
secured can be made to breed in confinement and the young
allowed to go free where they were raised. This latter is the
surest way of making birds stay. There is a natural homing
instinct in birds, as probably in most creatures, which in-
clines them to remain on or return to the land of their na-
tivity. They are far more likely to stay than are strange
birds.

Liberating Stock. When birds are to be liberated in a
strange locality, the coops should be taken to some attrac-
tive natural cover. at dusk, food placed where they will see
it when they come out, and water if there is none handy.
Open the doors quietly and withdraw, letting them come
out of their own accord. The probability is that they will
stay for the night close by, feed, and perhaps locate there;
especially if food is further provided. If it is feasible to
keep them a few days in a naturally attractive location in a
temporary pen with plenty of cover, and then liberate them
in this manner, there is even more chance that they will
stay. Such method I have found very successful. About
the worst way to manage is to rip off the covers and send
the birds whirring off in great fright. It is probable that
they will not find each other again, and never get back to
the spot, but keep going. Another bad practice is to libere te
them in winter, when they are likely to weaken from cold
and hunger, and to get caught by vermin. If received in
winter, they should be kept in a suitable enclosure, as
described later, and released when spring opens up. Oft-
times, especially with stock imported or shipped from a
distance, the birds are weakened by the journey and are
in no condition to combat the dangers of the wilds. It is
usually a good plan to hold birds a while in comfortable

8 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

quarters and feed them up, to make sure that they are
thoroughly fit.

Fundamentals of Artificial Method. Extensive experi-
ment has shown conclusively that all kinds of wild gal-
linaceous birds can be kept in health in confinement. Most
kinds, however, cannot, with safety, be closely confined in
small quarters, like domestic fowl. Under such conditions
they are very susceptible to various diseases, especially of
the digestive tract, which are likely to become epidemic.
To these the domesticated species have become considerably
immune. Some species require more room and range than
others and cannot stand any crowding. Another matter of
importance is that the same ground surface must not be used
for too long a period continuously.

Hatching and Brooding. For incubation under artificial
conditions there are three possible methods: One, which
is the most artificial, is to hatch the eggsin incubators. This
necessitates raising the young in brooders, with artificial
heat. The other two, which are more natural, are either to
let the birds hatch and raise their own young, which in many
cases they refuse to do, or to set the eggs under hens or ban-
tams and have these brood the young. This last is alto-
gether the best as the general system in the great majority
of cases, though there are possible exceptions. It is, in fact,
the system almost universal among professional game-
keepers.

Incubator vs. Hens. In incubator work, with quail eggs,
LT usually had hatches from 50 to 60 per cent. This is about
a fair average, I think, for most workers. With hens, an
average hatch is 75 to 80 per cent., and quite frequently
all the eggs of a litter hatch. C. H. Shaw, of Eccles, Cali-
fornia, reports incubator hatches of 75 per cent. with eggs
of California quail, but this is exceptionally good. More-

GENERAL METHODS 9

over, the young hatched by natural incubation are likely
to be stronger. Besides, it is easier and safer to raise young
with hens than with brooders. Brooders are a perpetual
care and anxiety. Without incessant care the variations of
temperature are liable to enfeeble and kill the young. One
little mistake or lapse of care will often destroy a whole
batch. The steady heat and close air does not tend to vigour
as does the open-air life with occasional brooding by the
hen. Later the hen can range with the young and care for
them, enabling them also to pick up much insect and other
‘natural food. In short, though the eggs of gallinaceous
birds can be hatched in incubators, and the young have
been reared in brooders, on a small scale, with great care,
the method with hens is by far the better, and the other
should not be attempted.

Failure to Incubate. Many of these birds in confinement
do not, as a rule, care to incubate their own eggs. This
may be in part because they are more or less disturbed and
nervous. So while mating and egg-production are well-
nigh obligatory in nature, the actual care of the family is
less so. There is this advantage, that the birds produce
more eggs than they would if they brooded, and consequent
increase is more rapid.

Quails, I have noticed, are more likely to incubate their
last eggs of the season than those of an earlier period, and
this may be true of other species. In case that a bird at-
tempts to incubate a late clutch, it is best to allow her to do
so. Late broods are always hard to raise, and the natural
mother is likely to succeed where even hens would fail.
Young thus raised are very much shyer than those produced
by the other methods, and are wild, wary skulkers, just as
in nature. It is often hard even to catch a glimpse of them.

Securing Stock. When one has decided to raise birds,

SK) PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

the question is how to secure breeding-stock. In the case
of various foreign species, notably pheasants and the gray
or Hungarian partridge, these are readily purchased. With
native species, however, the case is different. Most States
have forbidden the shipment and saleofnativegame. There
is an occasional game commissioner or chief warden who
grants special permission to secure a few birds for propaga-
tion only.

Though there is a real difficulty at present, the problem
will undoubtedly soon be solved. Laws are being passed
in various states to encourage, under proper supervision
and regulation, the propagation of game as an industry.
Many people are now making small beginnings, and before
long will have breeding-stock for sale. The high prices for
live birds will for some time to come make it more profitable
to sell them for breeding than for food purposes, except with
such common species as the ring-necked pheasant and the
mallard.

Respect Law. It is from every standpoint undesirable
to take eggs or catch birds contrary to law. If every one
should begin doing this it would result in a great decrease
of species already too scarce.

Starting. A start could often be made with birds taken
in the hunting season slightly wounded in the wing. Breed-
ing of the ruffed grouse was begun in this way by F. N.
Manross, of Forestville, Connecticut, who was the first
actually to raise the species artificially in the State. If not
thus used, the birds would have been killed and eaten, and
surely they served a much more useful purpose for propa-
gation and public education than for the pot. The author-
ities granted permission to hold these birds in possession.
Dr. C. F. Hodge secured special permission to take a few
eggs with which to begin his epoch-making experiments.

GENERAL METHODS II

Southern Stock. The traffic in live game-birds from
Mexico has served to furnish material for valuable experi-
mental work. Many of the live quails sold to-day are from
Mexico. I confess that [had supposed that these birds could
not stand a northern winter. They can, nevertheless. Ina
most successful quail-breeding experiment which I conducted
on the estate of William Rockefeller, Tarrytown, New York,
the stock, of several dozen birds, came from Mexico, and was
received late in the fall of 1912. They were kept in a large
fenced enclosure, open dbove, with no buildings, and only
small brush shelters or open frames with roofing-paper.
They survived the winter in splendid shape, the only casual-
ties being one or two that were killed by hawks. The breed-
ing was most successful, nearly two hundred young being
matured without any sign of disease. These, in turn, were
liberated on the estate, and, being fed, survived the severe
winter of 1913-14, and now, apparently, are breeding all over
the estate and vicinity. While naturally we should prefer
indigenous races, it is encouraging that there seems to be
some latitude in the processes of nature.

Sources of Supply. The following dealers in game-
birds, waterfowl, or other wild live-stock are well known,
and have good facilities for supplying whatever breeding-
stock may be available:

WALLACE Evans, Oak Park, Illinois. Mr. Evans raises
much of his stock, as well as buying stock for sale. He has
the largest propagating farm in America, and has made a
great success. He sells his own prepared foods.

I. S. Horne, Horne’s Zodlogical Arena, Kansas City,
Missouri. Mr. Horne does not propagate, but buys and
handles wild game-birds and waterfowl. I have dealt with
him considerably and found him reliable.

Wm. J. MAcKENSEN, Yardley, Pennsylvania. Mr. Mack-
ensen is another large dealer and importer well known. His

12 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

place is accessible from Trenton, New Jersey, a half hour’s
ride by trolley, across the river.

GrorcE D. TILtey, Darien, Connecticut, general dealer
and importer. He is a well-informed naturalist, a good man
to look up specialties.

WHEALTON WILD WATERFOWL Farms, Chincoteague
Island, Virginia. Raises and sells wild geese, ducks, and
swans.

GerorGE J. KLEIN, Ellinwood, Kansas. Wild ducks and
geese.

H. P. Bripces, 1109 Calvert Building, Baltimore,
Maryland. Genuine eastern wild turkeys, pheasants, etc.

Buckwoop PHEASANTRIES, Dunfield, Warren Co., New
Jersey. Pheasants and their eggs.

Joun Heywoop, Gardner, Massachusetts. Eggs of
waterfowl and of pheasants.

Joun W. Tarzot, South Bend, Indiana. Pheasants.

HELEN BartLett, Cassapolis, Michigan. Pheasants,

O. R. Austin, Foster Center, Rhode Island. Game-
birds and waterfowl.

There are many other reliable persons also who are breed-
ing and selling stock on a smaller scale.

CHAPTER II

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS

(Considered as a basis for the breeding and rearing of
gallinaceous species generally)

Bob-white as a Model. Since the methods used for the
propagation of all groups of gallinaceous species are similar,
I shall describe minutely approved methods now in use for
the propagation of one species. This will serve as a model
for all, minor differences being specified in the chapters
dealing with the others. The species selected for this special
treatment is the bob-white or common quail, well known
over a large part of the United States, considered by sports-
men as one of the choicest game-birds, a species valuable
and important to agriculture, and universally beloved.

Further Reasons. Further reasons for making methods
with quails the standard, rather than those for pheasants,
are as follows: The main purpose of this Manual is to pro-
mote the increase of mative birds. Foreign species, however
interesting and valuable, are secondary. Pheasant-rear-
ing, moreover, has been practised for centuries, and is well
known, though I trust that the account farther on of meth-
ods by American experts will be of practical value. Particu-
lar interest has arisen all over this country in the problems
of propagating and increasing native “upland game-birds,”
notably the bob-white. Very many persons are either
working at it or inquiring about it. Realizing this, I have

14 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

devoted much study to the problem, and now for two years
have been able to raise quails in numbers up to a couple of
hundred without disease or more than incidental loss.
As I am personally familiar with every detail of the
process, I felt and have been assured that a detailed mono-
graph on the subject would be of especial timeliness and
value.

Recent Success. The bob-white is without question the
native gallinaceous species to emphasize for further experi-
ments in propagation, especially on a larger scale, as success
has now been secured in a number of cases, and the move-
ment to propagate it is well under way. Among recent in-
stances of reasonable success I would name the following:
Harry T. Rogers, Sherburne, New York, has raised four or
five hundred or more in a season. B. H. Selden, of Rich-
mond, Virginia, is reported to have raised quails in consid-
erable numbers. The Massachusetts Game Commission
raised several hundred of them in 1914, the Connecticut State
Game Farm at Madison about two hundred, and the New
Jersey Commission are reported to have reared about five
hundred. A.G.MacVicar has raised as many as one hun-
dred and fifty in a season in New Jersey. Wallace Evans has
for several years raised them in moderate numbers, not going
into it extensively because it has not been commercially
profitable on account of the cost of the necessary 3-inch mesh
wire. Prices for quail stock have now soared so high that
he has stated to me in person that he would henceforth un-
dertake it on a larger scale, considering it thoroughly practi-
cable. Results of experiments under my own supervision
on the estates of United States Senator George P. McLean
and of William Rockefeller are described elsewhere.

Pioneer Work. It was Dr. C. F. Hodge, then of Clark
University, Worcester, Massachusetts, who first interested

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 15

the public in the possibilities of quail and grouse propagation
by his fascinating experiments, successful on a small scale

His work was continued by the State of Massachusetts.
F.N.Manross first diditin Connecticut. Later the writer and
others took up the work along somewhat different lines.
The early method of confining young birds in small coops was
abandoned, and a new method which has been worked out
is proving successful on a considerable scale. The main thing
has been to learn what precautions are necessary to avoid
the outbreak of epidemic diseases.

Quail Disease. Were it not for the epidemics to which
quails are subject, they could be bred and reared quite easily,
now that we know the methods which coincide with their
habits. The typical quail disease is characterized by a dis-
arrangement of the digestive tract, in which the intestines
and the cceca are ulcerated and bloodshot, with ulcers some-
times on the liver. This disease becomes very infectious,
and usually kills all the birds in a pen where it breaks out.
Dr. L. F. Rettger, bacteriologist of Yale University, worked
with me on this problem in connection with experimental
work at the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station of Con-
necticut. First and last he examined a large number of
quails which had died of this complaint. In cases of a few
adult birds he isolated a virulent bacterial organism, in-
jection of which into healthy birds proved fatal in about
two days. In many other cases of adult birds, however,
no causative organism was found. He also examined and
made cultures from a large series of young quails which had
died of the disease, but not in a single case did he discover
any causative organism. Careful search was also made for
coccidia, both with adults and young, and in no case did he
find enough of these to have caused trouble. A great deal
of time was devoted to this investigation. Although the

16 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

above results are partly negative, in conjunction with other
general observations of the disease, considerable light has
been thrown upon the problem, particularly from the prac-
tical standpoint, and some important negative deductions at
least are possible.

Disease Not Local. The first is that the original theory
of the disease, that it spread from an organism of purely
local origin, is not tenable. Upon this theory was based
the former use of the term ‘‘ Alabama quail disease,”’ which
originated from the fact that the disease was first noticed
in a consignment of live quails shipped from Alabama.
The “infection” was subsequently detected in shipments of
quails from Oklahoma, whither it was supposed to have spread,
But when it was found to exist in bob-whites imported
from Mexico, or from various other points, and, furthermore,
in several other species of quails, and also that other gal-
linaceous species, such as the ruffed grouse and prairie
chicken, were subject toa trouble similar and perhaps identi-
cal, it was clear that the theory was disproved. The fact,
however, that the disease is communicable indicates, ac-
cording to modern scientific conclusions, that there must be
some sort of organism as the first cause, which seems to be
found everywhere. As far as is known at present, it is a
disease of captivity, under artificial conditions and feed-
ing.

Second Causes. Extended observation convinces me—
and this opinion is endorsed by such practical men as Evans,
Rogers, and Horne—that the disease is liable to break out
anywhere under wrong handling or feeding of wild galli-
naceous birds in confinement. The practical problem, then,
is one of prevention, of so handling and feeding these species
under artificial conditions that the system remains in a con-
dition of vigour to resist invasion. We ourselves are said

UIey ouIeN) SSUBAT UO sjurseoyd yOou-3uny
TUBAT anv 44 WoL f YUTVASOJONT 7
ie ERE

Typical hatching and rearing coop, Sherburne, New York

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 17

commonly to carry germs of pneumonia, tuberculosis, and
the like, which are unable to overwhelm the system so long
us it remains normally resistant.

Are Wild Quails Ever Infected. The fear is often ex-
pressed that the quail disease, started from imported birds
or from those having the disease on game-preserves, might
spread among the wild native quails. Of this I do not be-
lieve there is any likelihood. That the disease spreads
among birds in captivity is amply proven by the Massachu-
setts experiments. [hadacaseat Storrs, Connecticut, where
:t invaded from one pen to another and swept off every mem-
ber of a brood, parents as well as young, of what appeared:
to be absolutely healthy and vigorous birds. In another
case, on a private preserve, it seemed that the ground where
there had been disease for several seasons had become so
thoroughly infected as to communicate the disease to birds
confined upon it even after a lapse of a year or two. Iam
aware, however, of no evidence to indicate that wild birds
ranging over even such ground are in any danger. At Storrs,
Connecticut, where there was a bad epidemic among the
propagated young quails kept on a certain tract of pasture,
the wild quails have continued abundant upon that ground
and in the vicinity year after year.

Sometimes Recover in Freedom. Furthermore, infected
birds, when the disease has not progressed too far, some-
times recover when liberated. A shipment of quails was re-
ceived by the Game Breeders’ Association, on Long Island,
New York, and put by the keeper in an old hen-house, which
happens to be one of the surest ways of starting the disease.
As a matter of course the epidemic broke out. After about
half the birds had died the rest were liberated. Most of
them seemed to recover, for the species suddenly became
abundant in the vicinity and raised broods, and the next

18 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

autumn there were more quails on the premises than there
had been for many a year.

Poultry Dangerous. As is true in the case of the domestic
turkey, ground fouled by poultry is likely to introduce the
characteristic diseases among quails or other wild gallina-
ceous birds confined upon it. Hence, care should be taken
to keep the birds away from ground where poultry has been
kept. On the other hand, young quails or grouse do not
seem to contract disease from the foster-mother bantam
when they have proper range. Moreover, quails in the wild
state frequently feed on ground overrun with poultry, and
sometimes feed with poultry, or in barnyards, particularly
in winter, and no evidence has come to light of harm from
this cause.

Analogy of Grouse Disease. In the British Isles a disease
is known to break out occasionally among the wild grouse,
occurring especially after long-continued spells of cold or
wet weather, when the birds had been weakened by priva-
tion or exposure. Examination of many specimens showed
that the intestinal tract was overrun with small, slender
worms, very similar to the hookworms which cause the
well-known hookworm disease in man. These were found
in large numbers in the grouse, attached to the walls of the
intestine or the coecum, often piercing it and causing sceptic
poisoning. In examining some diseased quails at one time,
Dr. Rettger was astonished to find a considerable number
of tiny, wirelike worms, of the genus Strongylus, closely
resembling the hookworm in man, and answering to the
descriptions of those found in the grouse abroad. For a
time it looked as though a new cause of quail disease had
been discovered. Further investigations, however, showed
that other specimens of diseased quails had few or none of
these worms. It has been believed that there have been

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 19

outbreaks of a disease among the ruffed grouse in this coun-
try, at long intervals, but nothing seems to be definitely
known of its nature or cause. By analogy it is supposable
that quails undergoing privation in severe winters might
have a spontaneous outbreak of the quail disease when re-
sistance of the system is weakened. As yet, however, I have
learned of no evidence of any outbreak of the epidemic of
the quail disease of captivity in the wild state. If, per-
chance, it does ever occur, it is evidently rare and not es-
pecially to be feared.

Inviting Disease. It is easy to understand why, in the
past, shipments of quails from dealers have arrived dead
and dying from this infection. Trappers caught them, a
few at a time, and put them in small coops, in poultry
yards, or in pens repeatedly used and fouled. There they
were kept until a sufficient number for shipment were se-
cured. Like as not they were fed on coarse grain without
grit, which they could not properly digest. Then the fright
and close confinement in shipment, sometimes in fouled or
infected crates, did the rest. Quarantine has been pro-
posed, to make sure that the stock is not infected. But the
longer the delay in close confinement, the more likely they
are to become sick. Such a practice would hark back to
the discarded theory of a local disease organism.

Practical Precautions. Since it is important that the
public should be able to purchase healthy breeding-stock
from dealers, with the minimum danger of disease and loss,
I will suggest some practical measures for safety. The
Government, in regulating this traffic, might issue a bulle-
tin of instruction as to the care, feeding, and handling of
birds, place this in the hands of the dealers, and make them
responsible for the carrying out of the instructions by their
agents who capture or buy up the birds. It is for the

20 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

interest of all concerned not to lose valuable property, es-
pecially as much of the loss could be prevented by reason-
able precautions, One firm of game dealers have written
me that they have recently prepared published instructions
for their agents. In brief, the instructions should require
that captured birds should be kept on fresh ground, in en-
closures of fair size, with alternation of pens or change of
the location of these; that the method of feeding prescribed
should be followed; the proper area needed for a certain
number of birds should be defined; and that crates not new
should be cleaned and disinfected before birds are shipped
inthem. The observance of such regulations would do much
to prevent disease in shipments of quails.

Securing Stock. The present demand for quails for
breeding is so great that prices are very high, ruling at two
to three dollars per bird. These rates may lessen when quail
breeding becomes more general and people sell stock that
they raise. Quails are largely monogamous, and should be
bought with sexes in equal numbers. Naturally it is best to
secure stock from as near home as possible, though in view
of some successful ventures with southern birds in the North,
one need not hesitate to buy southern, or even Mexican,
stock, if no other can be secured.

Cooperation from Authorities. Inasmuch as the public
are bound to breed quails, it would be well for such states
as have game farms, in regions where quails are found
naturally, to secure native acclimated stock in their own
locality, breed and rear quails as will be described, and dis-
tribute the stock to persons interested and responsible who
will undertake breeding operations. Proper persons should
be licensed to capture and keep a specified number of quails
under official supervision. Birds are for the benefit of man-
kind, and surely it is, to say the least, as beneficial to allow

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 2i

a person of proper character and knowledge to catch and
breed a few quails, as to allow irresponsible persons to shoot
a much larger number. Supervision of breeders by the
State is far more practicable than the enforcement of a bag
limit.

Time to Acquire. The best time to acquire stock is in
autumn or early winter—when the young birds are suffi-
ciently matured, not too near spring when breeding might
be interfered with. Moreover, those who order early from
dealers are much more likely to get stock, for at present far
more birds are being ordered than can possibly be supplied.
Orders should be placed in spring or summer for delivery
in November or as soon thereafter as possible.

Winter Quarters. In anticipation of the arrival of stock,
winter quarters should be prepared. No expensive or
elaborate outfit is necessary. Quails are hardy, like poultry,
and can easily endure the winter temperatures in their
naturalrange. The most mistaken kindness is to shut them
in a building and give them artificial heat. The most
elaborate shelter they can possibly need is a shed open to
the south. They will do just as well in a yard with generous
piles of evergreen boughs, or frames covered on top with
roofing-paper, with brush or straw under them. Another
good device is to have the north and west sides of the yard
boarded up a little to break the cold wind, and a long wide
board cover, slightly sloping, nailed along the windbreak,
to make a simple shelter. There should be brush or straw
under this, and piles of brush about the yard, as quails are
great skulkers. They are contented when they can hide,
but are always in a state of alarm in an open place.

Holding-pen. Before the ground freezes, select a piece of
fairly level ground, preferably with turf and sheltered some-
what from the north and west, free from defilement by poul-

22 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

try, accessible to the house, yet not too public, and build a
wire enclosure. One of about 30 feet each way will be large
enough for about a dozen pairs of birds. If there are to be
many more birds than this, or other kinds, it is better to
build larger and divide it into the desired number of sections
of about the above size. Posts from small trees cut in the
woods, sharpened at one end and driven with a mallet, will
suffice. For keeping a few birds, it is safest to have the pen
wired on top, as then the few birds will be quite secure. On
large game farms they use larger open fields, with fence at
least 8 feet high. For a small covered pen 6 feet will do,
high enough so a man can spade over the ground if the pen
is not moved.

For small pens use 2-inch mesh wire next to the ground,
for special precaution, and 1-inch size above this, with 13-
inch overhead. The 3-inch wire need extend only 2} feet
from the ground, and the 1-inch size above that. The
wire should be sunk into the ground not less than 6 inches,
to keep vermin from digging under. Some advise having
it also extend horizontally outward underground from 4 to 6
inches, as an additional precaution. This will depend upon
whether rats are abundant or not. Ordinarily trapping
should keep vermin down. Posts should be set about 10
feet apart. Instead of sinking wire under the ground, board
or slabs can be used for the lower part, buried the same as
the wire, having the wire stapled to the top of the board. _

Open Yards. If desired, and the stock of birds is large ~
enough to risk losing a few, a larger enclosure open above
can be used. In this case the fence should be 8 feet high,
the wire of 2- or r- inch mesh 23 feet up, the rest 14-inch mesh.

Birds when pursued will sometimes scramble up 4 or 5
feet, but seldom as high as 8 feet. Plenty of evergreen
boughs, brush, or planted evergreens, and weed clumps are

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 23

good protection against birds of prey, enabling the stock to
hide. An open enclosure had better be at least, say, 60
by 40 feet, as birds are less likely to try to escape from a
roomy place.

Making Fence Vermin Proof. Weasels and rats are
terribly destructive, and are so small that some are said
to get through 1-inch mesh, or even the $-inch size. More-
over, they can climb wire. To make a fence absolutely
impervious to them would require great expense, as follows:
A fence 8 feet high, with 3-inch mesh 23-feet up, then a strip
of tin about one foot high, and above this 13-inch mesh.
Without the tin there would have to be fine wire all the way
up, and an overhang on top, made by nailing an arm of 2 x 4
to the top of each post, and on it a strip of 3-inch mesh a
foot out and hanging down 6 inches. To prevent digging
under, 34-inch wire would have to be buried, running down,
say, 9 inches, and out horizontally 9 inches more. This all
costs so much that few would go to such extreme.

Practical Fence. For ordinary practical purposes most
people will prefer to depend partly upon trapping, and build
a fence that will keep out most vermin, taking some slight
chances. For such a fence to an enclosure open above, I
would suggest 3- or r- inch wire 23 to 3 feet up, and then 5 or 6
feet of 13-inch mesh, without any overhang. It would be
well to buy the rolls of the finer wire not less than 3 feet wide,
and run about 6 inches underground. With traps set along
the wire, and with watchfulness, there will seldom be any-
thing that will dig under. In many cases no burrowing is
ever attempted. It is well to watch for the beginnings of
vermin digging, and set traps. Some persons only run the
wire down perhaps 4 inches, or even not at all, and take
chances.

Change of Pen. The axiom or pivotal proposition

24 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

about raising quails and related species is that the same
ground surface must not be used continuously. Neglect of
this has wrecked many an undertaking. We have not yet
discovered the direct chemical or bacteriological cause, but
the fact is proved without question. Domestic poultry
have become largely immune to the diseases caused by
*‘fouled” ground, but their wild relatives have not. If the
pen is to be used for successive seasons, the ground must be
limed, turned under, and freshly seeded. Otherwise one
should either move the posts and wire to another spot, or
else provide another pen for alternation. Some careful
workers who have plenty of room raise crops for two years
on all land before they use it again for birds. When the
ground is fresh at the start, and is not crowded, and has good
turf, it might be used another season with impunity.

Light Construction. Itis best to build lightly and cheaply.
Do not drive the posts deeper than is necessary for firm-
ness. Drive lightly the staples holding the wire, so that
they may easily be withdrawn. This is so the pen could
be moved, if desired. Permanent buildings or fixtures are
dangerous; the more elaborate, the worse they are. I have
seen a quail house and pen which cost more than $2,000
become a veritable pesthouse.

When Received. When the stock is received, as the birds
are removed from the crate, before being released in the pen,
clip closely the primary quills of one wing, even when the
pen is covered. Do not clip both wings, as the birds will
fly more thus than with the balance uneven. I knew a case
where quails which had both wings trimmed and were placed
in an enclosure open above soon soared over the fence.
There should be plenty of brush to hide under, else they will
dash into the wire and hurt themselves.

Food for Adults. In feeding quails or other species,

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 25

cleanliness and moderation are the keynotes of success. It
is fatal in the end to these wild birds to stuff them with food
when they can get little exercise, or to allow some food to
remain and poison the ground for them.

For a beginner with a few birds to learn how much they
will eat at a feeding, it is a good plan to feed at first in a dish
and note the quantity they consume. The ideal is to give
them only what they will eat up clean at one time, with a
relish, rather than to keep them perpetually ‘“lunching.”
They should have sufficient for full nourishment, yet not
enough to gorge themselves.

Exercise. It is also important, particularly in winter,
that they should be made to exercise by hunting for their
food. Hence it should be thrown into the pen among grass,
leaves, or litter, to make them scratch for it. They will
find all of it they want, never fear. But avoid throwing in
more than they can eat up. In winter have straw or litter
under a shelter and feed in that, and renew it from time to
time. If food is found remaining under it, scrape it up, and
feed less in future.

Food Simple. The food for adults is simple, the chief
staple being a mixture of small or ground grains and seeds,
Nearly any sorts of these are good, including wheat, buck-
wheat, millet, rye, barley, ground oats, cracked corn, hemp,
rape, canary and sunflower seed, and others. The corn ele-
ment should be given sparingly, but more may be given in
winter.

Prepared Grains. For a small number of birds, it is
easier to buy grain and seed mixtures which are sold ready
prepared. While ordinary “‘chick grain” mixtures will do,
in conjunction with the other foods mentioned below, it is
well to get the preparations made especially for game-birds,
which, in addition to a liberal variety of seeds, have a little

26 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

meat and spice added. Both Spratt’s chick-grain and
Evans’s No. 5 pheasant food are good. These are fed dry.

Animal Food. Some animal food is essential to these wild
birds as a substitute for their natural insect food. Itis not
necessary to provide insects for adults, but meat-scrap prep-
arations can be substituted. These must be of a high-
grade quality, and must be sparingly fed. One can easily
kill the birds by giving cheap preparations made from de-
caying meat, or by giving too much, even of the best.
Spratt’s crissel is a standard preparation widely used, said
to be from clean lean meat. If mixed with the grain it
should be used very sparingly, probably not over about 5
per cent. The safest plan is to feed it separately. Some
scald it and give a meal of it, as much as the birds will eat,
twice a week. Others feed it dry twice a week, or keep a
dish of it under shelter before the birds all the time. They
seem to take only what the system craves, and do not over-
load with it. It is dangerous to mix a lot of it in the feed
and force the birds to eat it. Instead of this, a feed of
chopped raw meat or of mealworms twice a week is excellent.

Green Food. Green food is also essential. In summer
the grass and weeds in a proper pen will pretty well supply
this. Clover sown in the pens is a splendid food. In the
fall give them green corn on the cob, elderberries or other
fruit, split apples, chickweed, and the like. For winter
vegetation anything available will answer, such as apple,
ground beet, carrot, turnip, etc., green sprouts or tops,
cabbage in moderation. Some think that cabbage causes
indigestion, and it is well to vary or alternate. In the spring
fresh lettuce, cowslips, or watercress will help to stimulate
laying.

Forcing-food. For this latter purpose most skilled
breeders use for pheasants some sort of forcing-food, to aid

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 27

fertility and early egg-production. Here is the receipt used
by Harry T. Rogers: One third of the whole is shredded
(not mealed) alfalfa; scald this separately, about half an
hour. For the remaining two thirds mix equal parts of
ground corn, ground oats, middlings, and bran, scalding this
also separately from the alfalfa. Wet only crumbly moist,
never sloppy. Then mix the two, and to each pailful, or
twelve quarts, of the mash, mix one quart of dry bone meal.
Rogers begins this from March 15 to April 1, and continues
it through the laying and moulting seasons, to September 1,
substituting it for one of the two daily feeds, preferably in
the morning, as the dry grain feed stays in the crop longer.
This might serve to start quails to breed earlier, but other-
wise they lay well without it.

The game-food dealers also make forcing-foods. Evans’s
is his No. 6 pheasant food, and Spratt’s is called egg manna.
Both of these are to be slightly moistened. Spratt’s cordiac,
which is a peppery stimulant, can be added to any of these
mixtures now and then. These various special foods need
only be used with quails during laying time.

Other Needs. In addition to the above, it is very im-
portant to have fine grit or gravel always before the birds,
otherwise they cannot properly digest their grainfood. With
this mix in some ground charcoal and oyster shells. Rogers
also now and then mixes a handful of sulphur with the food.
He also keeps a stick of sulphur in the water, which preserves
its purity and is good for the birds. It does not dissolve.
Clean water, of course, should be accessible, and be kept in
the shade. In severe winter weather, when water freezes,
they can get along for a while with eating snow.

Mating Monogamous. The bob-white is probably nor-
mally monogamous, though possibly it may become polyg-
amous in captivity to a limited degree. Some workers

28 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

have thought that cocks occasionally mate with two hens.
The few times when I confined a cock and two hens together
in a small pen, no more eggs were obtained than the normal
number laid by one bird. Further experiments should be
tried, or the results published of past experiments not yet
made public.

Privacy Essential. Privacy is of primary importance for
the successful breeding of bob-whites. They are exceedingly
secretive in habits, particularly in mating and breeding, and
skulk nearly all the time under cover, unless convinced that
no observer is near. It is essential that they should always
have abundance of brush or other thick cover, else they will
breed very little. Strangers should be kept away from the
breeding-pens, and even the keeper should approach with
caution and no oftener than necessary.

Breeding in Covies. Though pheasants breed readily
when there are a number together in a field, it is quite differ-
ent with the bob-white. In an experiment which I tried, I
kept six pairs a whole season in a pen 30 feet square, with
half a dozen brush-piles. They produced only two or three
clutches of eggs, and that not until July and August, too
late to be of value. I had other bob-whites also, which de-

‘layed breeding in the same way till I caught them up and
put a male and female, selected at random, together in a
small pen or coop, as described below. Only two out of
eighteen hens failed to produce any eggs, and the rest each
laid from one to three clutches.

A. G. MacVicar, however, has secured a good number of
eggs from bob-whites by both methods. For single pairs he
had pens 10 by 12 feet. For collective breeding he used
enclosures about 35 by 50 feet, about a dozen pairs in each.
One third of the ground space was covered with cedar brush,
and the rest grew to a tangle of orchard grass. It was rarely

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 29

that a bird could be seen, which is exactly what they prefer.
Strangers were kept away, and as little disturbance was
made as possible. At intervals the eggs must be hunted out,
but they are so skilfully concealed that it is hard to find them
all when cover is really thick. In many cases the birds, as
elsewhere stated, fail to incubate their own eggs, and such
eggs, overlooked, will spoil. It complicates matters also to
have the young hatch in the enclosure.

Single Pairs. The way which has thus far proved most
successful is to separate the bob-whites into pairs, and put
each pair by itself in a small pen during the laying season.
With few exceptions any male and female will mate, and
nearly always they produce fertile eggs in abundance if
properly fed and handled.

Breeding-pens. Experience. shows that a little movable
pen 4 by 8 feet is of sufficient size for one pair of quails for
the breeding season. This consists of a simple, rectangular
frame covered with wire above and on the sides. The wire
for the sides should be 23-inch mesh. Around the bottom of
the frame should be a baseboard a foot high, to the inner
edge of which the wire of the sides and ends should be tacked.
This is in case the quails should hatch a brood themselves
or if it should be used for a brood of small young with the
bantam. At first the young can get through 3-inch mesh.
The baseboard keeps them in till they have grown too large
to get through the wire. Tacking the wire, however, to the
outer edge of the board leaves a ledge upon which even small
chicks can scramble and secure leverage to squeeze through.
The board, moreover, shuts off the view from the outside
and makes the adults more contented with the small quar-
ters. For the top of the frame 1-inch mesh will do, which
is just small enough to keep out English sparrows. At each
end there should be a door, one large enough for a man to

30 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

enter, if necessary, the other merely for reaching in to get
the eggs under the brush at that end, as it would be a detri-
ment to breeding to frighten the birds by crawling clear
through.

At each end there should be a thick pile of evergreen
boughs, brush, or straw in which the birds can skulk and
build nests, and it is well if there is some natural long grass
and weeds. Atany rate, the pen should be over green turf.
In this case the grass will grow faster than two birds can
reduce it, and the pen need not be moved during the breed-
ing season. Sod or earth should be banked around it. If
rats or vermin are troublesome, it may be necessary to dig a
slight trench and bury §- or 1-inch mesh wire about 6 inches
in the ground, tacking it to the bottom of the pen.

Over one end of the framemay be tacked a strip of roofing-
paper, which will give the birds a chance to keep dry during
severe rains. Formerly I placed a small coop, with bottom,
against the smaller door, with sand on the bottom and brush
for hiding. This is not necessary, but is very convenient
for moving the birds without handling them. They are
easily driven in, and one can shut the slide and move the
coop. This would be well enough with a few pairs, but ona
larger scale it is well to practise reasonable economy.

Arbitrary Pairing. The latter part of April is the proper
time to separate the birds arbitrarily into pairs for breeding.
Any male and female will mate. Catching them in the
winter penis asimple matter. Make asmall, compact pile
of evergreen boughs in a corner of the pen, so thick the birds
cannot fly out from the top, witha small opening for entrance
oneither side. The quails will hide in this corner. Either
they can be chased out into a scoop-net or sack, or they can
be taken out by hand. Handle them carefully to avoid loss
of feathers, as this seems to put them back in laying.

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 31

Hatching and Rearing Coops. Aside from wire enclosures
with their simple shelters, and the small breeding-pens for
single pairs, the only other equipments necessary to build
are hatching-coops and rearing-coops. These may as well
be exactly the same and be used interchangeably. In any
case there should be no board bottom, and nests or birds
should be directly on the ground, for moisture, in the first
case, and cleanliness in the second.

Another Device. Some build, as for poultry work, a
simple board affair for hatching purposes. There is a
square of boards nailed together, about 5 feet long and 2
feet high. Boards inside this divide it into three or four long
compartments. One end of each of these, a small square
of about a foot and a half, is partitioned off for a nest-place,
the rest being a run for the hen to feed and exercise. A long
hinged cover, sloping down to the rear, protects the nests.
A slide door shuts in hen or chicks. The yard part is cov-
ered with slats. This makes a handy tier of nests and runs.

Construction of Coop. The separate coops should be
about 2 feet square, with the roof sloping to the rear. There
should be a solid door in front to shut the chicks in at night,
and another one with bars or slats to keep the hen in and let
the young run out into the yard. On one side there had
better be another door, hinged, to let the hen and chicks out
to range when desired.

Wire Run. Each coop should have also a small frame for
a yard, just high enough for the hen to stand up in, boards
along the base, 3-inch wire above this on the sides, and the
same or 1-inch size, as convenient, for the top; four feet by
two will answer for this. It will serve for the setting hen to
feed and exercise in, and later for her and the chicks for the
first few days, before they are liberated. For the latter
purpose either there must be a baseboard a foot high, or else

Main holding-pen for quails, and a few single breeding-pens, Storrs,
Connecticut

Buckwheat left standing for birds

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 33

her second set. Something about the artificial conditions
weakens the maternal instinct, the mere production of eggs.
being more nearly automatic. Probably in a good large
enclosure the quail would generally incubate her own eggs.
In my experiments the maximum number of eggs laid by one
quail in a season was seventy-three. This was surpassed in
the Massachusetts experiments, where one hundred and one
hundred and two were secured from one bird.

Taking Eggs. It is well not to disturb the birds by fre-
quent search for eggs. About once a week will answer.
Avoid entering the small pen, but search each brush-pile
from the door near it, and leave a couple of the freshest-
looking eggs in the nest to encourage further laying. Some
eggs, especially at first, may be dropped at random on the
ground. Mark the eggs as taken with number of pen
and the date, and keep careful record of all details, which
will prove interesting and valuable. Keep the eggs in bran
or sawdust, not on the side, but on end, in a fairly cool
place, and turn them each day, the other end up.

Setting Eggs. By all means use hens, and not incubators.
For quails it is necessary to have bantams, as ordinary hens
crush the fragile eggs. Buff cochins are in most general uses
but silkies and white cochins are just as good. Some keepers
recommend Seabrights, which are very light, without the
clumsy feathering on the legs, and later range farther with
the young, getting them more food. Some of them, though,
are rather wild and make the youngso. Cochins and silkies
are sluggish, and the young are more likely to outstrip them.
However, where there are a number of broods, it is often best
to keep the hens shut up much of the time, and these are
better content and quiet. Besides, the cochins and silkies
cover more eggs.

Set on Ground. In setting quail eggs, it is much better

34 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

to have the nests on the ground than on dry boards in
hatching-houses. These eggs are so small and the shells so
thin that evaporation is rapid, and they require much mois-
ture. The nest can be directly on the ground, or made from
a square of sod, set grass side down, hollowed out, and well
lined with soft hay. This slight elevation will keep rain from
flooding the nest. The moisture from the ground is proba-
bly sufficient. If the nest is indoors, the eggs should be
sprinkled daily. Both Evans and Rogers are against
hatching-houses, finding that with wild species results are
better by setting the eggs on the ground in small coops.
The latter, moreover, are easier to keep clean and free from
vermin. Cochins and silkies can cover about twenty quail
eggs, but give the hen only what she can readily cover.

Setting Hens. Before setting the hens, make sure that
they are fully ready to sit, and dust thoroughly with insect
powder. Do this again at the end of the first and second
weeks. Neglect of this is a very serious matter, and is likely
to make the hen desert or die, and cause the destruction of the
brood. Take the hens off each morning to feed, and clean
the nest and eggs, washing the latter as little as possible.
Have the hen go back to the eggs when these begin to feel
cool held against the eye.

Hatching. The period of incubation is normally twenty-
three days, sometimes twenty-four if the weather is cool or
wet. The eggs pip a day or two before hatching. The hen
should then remain off but a short time. When hatching
begins she should not be disturbed. Young quails are ex-
ceedingly small, about the size of the last joint of the thumb,
and are easily crushed.

Finishing with Incubator. Some workers adopt the plan
of removing the eggs when pipped to an incubator running
at 104 degrees, giving the hen a few poultry eggs to hold her.

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 35

After hatching the temperature may be from 100 to 103
degrees. The young are kept in the machine till they are
dried off and lively, and then are replaced under the hen at
night. This doubtless saves some from being crushed and
is all right if one wishes to take the trouble and will keep the
temperature right in the incubator. It is not necessarv,
though, if the hen is kept quiet and in the dark. The egg-
shells should be removed without lifting the hen.

Removal to Rearing-field. Let the hen brood the little
quails until they are a day old ora littlemore. There should
be no hole or crevice through which the young could possibly
escape. Then remove her to a fresh coop and run, out on
fresh turf, and give her the chicks. She should have whole
corn or coarse grain accessible, which will keep her quiet
during this critical period, nor will she be so likely, in eager-
ness for food, to trample the chicks when they are first fed.
Here, again, make sure that the little fellows cannot escape.
They do not yet know the hen’s call and would certainly
get lost. It is well to watch them awhile to make sure that
they know enough to brood when chilly. If the weather is
cold or wet, they should be kept at first shut in the coop;
otherwise they can run out in the little yard.

Food for Young. Young quails and other gallinaceous
species in the wild state are mainly insectivorous, and re-
quire animal food. So it has been a matter of experimenta-
tion to ascertain to what extent artificial feeding could be
modified and yet hold the young birds in health. It has
been found, in short, that they will thrive on various arti-
ficial foods, provided that during the period of growth they
are allowed to range in the open and supplement the artificial
diet by the insects which they catch.

Feed Lightly. Another axiom of successful propagation
of wild birds is to feed lightly. This is especially true of the

36 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

‘young. The poorest kindness and the surest way to kill
them is to deluge them with food and let it stand around sour
or accumulate on the ground. Watch an experienced game-
keeper feed young broods on a pheasant farm. Going from
coop to coop, where usually the hen is shut in and about a
dozen to fifteen young are ranging in the grass nearby, he
throws about three times what he can take up with thumb
and fingers, one throw by the slats where the hen can reach
it, the rest in the grass just beyond. It is just the same for
quails, only they eat less. They find it all, never fear, eating
it up quickly. If some birds are not on hand, hunger will
make them ready next time. Each bird gets just a few
mouthfuls, but it is enough.

How Often to Feed. Feed little and often is the rule at
first. Begin after the chicks are a day old and feed four or
five times a day the first week, and four times the second
week. Then, since they have learned to range actively,
three times a day is enough, and twice a day after they are
two months old. Rogers drops to two feeds a day after six
weeks. This should depend upon the amount of food the
birds pick up. Some feed five times the first few days, while
the chicks are learning to eat, which is all right, as they will
eat very little at a time. I think the chicks get a better
start to eat a little food quite often. They are then less apt
to overeat and start trouble.

Boiled Egg. It is now generally believed that cooked
egg is the most practical first food. Two methods are used
successfully: One is to boil eggs fairly hard, preferably
about five minutes, remove the shell, grate through a sieve,
and mix with fine cracker crumbs, or parched bread crumbs,
just crumbly moist, not wet or sticky, which latter is also
the rule for all mixtures.

Custard. The second method is to make egg-and-milk

Nest with twenty-four eggs of bob-white in a coop

-shell

Day-old quails and empty egg

syoryo jrenb qm weqweg Ap e Suroyem frenb Zun0z

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 37

custard. Use three eggs to a good cup or half pint of milk,
or ten to twelve to the quart. Beat well together, and cook
slowly till the custard is dry and hard, firm enough to be
held like a cake in the hands. The custard that people find
bad for young birds is that which is soft and wet, such as
we would prefer for ourselves. Rub this hard custard
through the sieve, mix some crumbs with it as above, and it
makes a good feed.

Grit and Water. Along with this, from the very first,
there should always be before the chicks a mixture of finely
ground grit and charcoal and clean water in a small drinking
font.

Milk Curd. A supplementary food for very young birds
which is coming into general favour is sour-milk curd or
“cottage cheese.” The experiments of Dr. L. F. Rettger,
with milk, either fresh or sour, as a preventive and cure for
white diarrhoea in chicks are very convincing. Some breed-
ers mix an occasional mash with milk, fresh or sour, thus
using the whey as well as the curd. On the principle of
using dry-moist food, the dry crumbly curd answers well,
and a little can be fed once each day, say one of the meals
during the four-meal period, or every other day for a couple
of weeks. It is the milk food that is effective, not the
acidity, according to Doctor Rettger.

Ants’ Eggs. Another useful early food is the commercial
dried ants’ eggs. There may be some question as to just
how much nourishment these really contain. At any rate,
the young birds are fond of them, and they are supposed to
supply an element of insect food. Being rather expensive,
they would not be practicable for large flocks of young
pheasants, but for a moderate number of little quails or
grouse they are very useful. They are purchased from
dealers, and should be scalded and fed moist, once a day.

38 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Early Regimen. A good regimen, then, after the first
few days, would be four meals, say at six, ten, two, and six
o'clock, mostly egg or custard, perhaps varied with a little
dry curd and ants’ eggs. More food should be given morn-
ing and night, less during the day. For the first few days
give a very little food every two to three hours.

Transition. After a few days’ feeding, the use of prepared
‘pheasant meals” and seed mixtures may be begun. The
idea is to begin gradually to mix in these other foods, and
slowly reduce the quantity of egg, giving very little egg
toward the last, and stopping it when the young are six
weeks old, or even before, as some do. The practice is, in
general, to begin to use the pheasant meal in small propor-
tion with the egg, and eventually to substitute it for the
latter. This article is a balanced ration of cereal, meat,
spice, etc., similar to dog biscuit finely ground. Both
Spratt and Evans supply a good article. Especially for
very young birds it is well to scald the meal separately, and
let it stand for an hour or so to swell. It may be mixed over-
night, if kept cool, but no longer. Beware of food even
slightly soured.

Begin Grain. Since gallinaceous birds feed considerably
on seeds and grain, the chicks should learn to eat such food,
beginning when about a week old. Spratt’s chick-grain and
Evans’ pheasant feed, fine, No. 3, are both excellent mix-
tures of various nutritious seeds, ground grain, and peas,
meat, grit, and the like. Some mix a little with the mash at
first, to get the birds accustomed to it; others give one meal
a day of it clear, usually the midday feed. Rogers finds that
some seeds and grains ferment rather soon when wet, but that
canary seed does not. So he begins by mixing canary seed
in the mash, and soon the chicks, getting used to hard seeds,
will eat the chick-grain dry. After they are two months old

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 39

the mash can be discontinued, and the chick-grain mixture
made the principal food. A. G. MacVicar soaks the chick-
grain while the chicks are small.

Insects. The birds, being reared on the free range plan,
are supposed to secure considerable insect food. It is well
to supplement this by catching insects for the young birds.
They are eager for grasshoppers, and any such food is sure
to do them good. One way to secure insects is to sweep the
grass with a butterfly net. Some striped beetles, however,
Doctor Hodge found to be injurious in any quantity. An-
other plan is to set fly-traps, kill the flies by heat, moisten,
and feed with the eggasmash. This is merely a makeshift.
Moreover, large quantities of flies sometimes kill young birds.

Maggots. Formerly it was believed that birds of this
class could not be reared without maggots. The breeding of
these is disgusting work, and it is fortunate that they are
now found unnecessary. The most successful breeders now
never use them. Evans considers them rank poison when
raised in rotten meat. Inasmuch as he and Rogers and
others raise thousands of birds of various sorts without
them, it hardly seems desirable to incur the annoyance of
producing them.

Green Food. Another important food element is green
vegetation. On range the birds, under favourable condi-
tions, secure this for themselves, browsing on clover and all
sorts of tender growths. In case this is lacking, as in very
dry weather, it is well to throw them a little lettuce, chick-
weed, or other succulent growth.

Dried Meats. For an additional meat element many use
and recommend Spratt’s crissel. Ordinary beef-scrap, un-
less known to be made from fresh meat, is dangerous. Even
crissel is dangerous if fed too freely. It is safe not to begin
it till about the time the egg is left off. Then use it in the

40 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

mash, not over about 5 to 8 per cent. of the bulk, and using it
not oftener than once a day. Some scald it separately.

Later Regimen. When the young are reduced to two
feeds a day, after about eight weeks, the morning food
should be the mash and the evening meal chick-grain.

Other Ingredients. Another article often used with the
mash is boiled rice, in moderate quantity, and not too often,
say every two or three days, when the birds are one to two
weeks old. This is valuable to check or prevent diarrhcea.
Neil Clark at the Clove Valley Club mixes oatmeal with the
egg instead of cracker crumbs. Frank Hopkins, of the
Connecticut State Game Farm, mixes fine grit and charcoal
in small quantity with the mash.

Evans’s Method. Wallace Evans’s great success certainly
justifies his method. In feeding young pheasants or other
species he begins with dry grated custard, as above. At the
age of three to four days he begins to mix in with the custard
his own preparation, called pheasant meal No. 1, a little at
first, and at three weeks he discontinues the custard. When
the birds are about ten days old he begins his seed and grain
mixture, pheasant feed, fine, No. 3, giving it dry, once a day,
at noon, and the custard and mash morning and night. At
three weeks he substitutes coarser grades of the same for
pheasants, Nos. 2 and 4, but for quails the finer grades are
probably coarse enough. After eight weeks, when practi-
cally mature, they have no more mash, only grain mixture,
probably the medium, No. 4.

MacVicar Methods. A. G. MacVicar, who has raised
quails as a side issue with waterfowl and pheasants, gives the
chicks egg-and-milk custard at first, or grated hard-boiled
egg. About the fourth day he begins mixing in Spratt’s
chick-grain, scalded. He scalds it to make it swell before
being eaten, rather than in the tender stomachs, which last

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 4I

he considers a cause of indigestion. Only enough for one
feed should be scalded at a time, as it sours very quickly.
Sometimes he uses instead Spratt’s pheasant meal No. 12,
fine, but prefers the chick-grain for this purpose, and thinks
that breeders are doing this more. He does not use flies or
maggots, believing that they spread diseases; both, he finds,
are going out of fashion. In England they use boiled rabbit,
chopped up, for animal food, mixing it with boiled broken
rice just cooked through, not mushy. Rice has a constipat-
ing effect, and rice-wateris also used to secure this. Chopped
suet he finds good to bring birds to proper condition. He
advises against sudden changes from one food to another.

He is one of the school which does not believe in having
water left standing before young pheasants or quails. He
says he has seen young pheasants drink from a dish of sun-
heated water and fall dead. Until his birds are ten days
old they are given no water except what is in their food.
After that he fills their water dishes twice a day, and empties
them again in a short time. Ludwig Seidler also follows
this plan, and there are others not afew. On the other hand,
Wallace Evans always keeps water before his young gallina-
ceous stock, and raises them by thousands, without any
such trouble.

Table of Feeding. For convenience I give a table for the
feeding of young quails, or other species, rather as a line of
suggestion than to be slavishly followed:

FOOD TABLE FOR YOUNG QUAILS OR OTHER
GALLINACEOUS SPECIES

First Week. Four or five meals a day, or every two
hours in minute quantities:

1. Egg or custard.

2. Same, or curd.

42 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

3. Same or ants’ eggs.

4. Egg or custard, etc.

Always keep before them fine grit and charcoal mixed.
Water should be in fonts which cannot be fouled, and kept
in the shade. Otherwise give it only at meal times. __

Second Week. Four meals a day:

1. Egg or custard, pheasant meal or canary seed or chick-
grain added.

2. Same, or ants’ eggs or insects, or these added to mash
if not enough. Occasionally curd, in which case give the
insects after it, or at another meal.

3. Same as first meal.

4. Same as first meal, a little boiled rice added every day
or second day.

Third to Sixth Week, inclusive. Three meals:

1. Mashas above, reducing egg, increasing pheasant meal,
adding ants’ eggs or insects as convenient.

2. Chick-grain or grain and seed mixtures.

3. Same as first meal, rice every two days.

Seventh Week to Two Months. Three meals, or two if
insects are plenty and birds do not act as if hungry:

1. Chick-grain or small grain and seeds.

2. Same, light feed.

3. Pheasant-meal mash, with crissel.

After Two Months. Same as adults.

Handling of Young. The discussion of feeding has taken us
in advance of the order of our subject, to which let us return.

Move Coop. Each day, or certainly every other day, the
coop and run should be moved to a fresh spot of turf adjoin-
ing, to avoid fouling of the ground. Move either coop or
run while the hen and young are in the other part. Transfer
the hen first, and then the chicks. Make sure that there is
no hole through which the tiny things can escape.

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 43

Free Range. After the fourth or fifth day the young have
learned to obey the call of the hen, and they can be allowed
to run out at large, provided that the weather is good. They
are so small, however, that it is just as well to keep them
shut up the first week. Then they can be let out with
safety, for they will not desert the hen.

The Hen. It is optional whether the hen shall be allowed
to wander with them, or remain shut up and the young run
back and forth through the slats. This is according to cir-
cumstances. If there are a number of broods in adjoining
coops, it is rather necessary to keep the hens shut up, as they
are liable either to fight or to flock together, and mix the
broods or foul the ground. Where feasible, I should let the
brood out with the hen, as they will then range farther and
catch more insects. In large pheasantries it is customary
to let late broods roam with the hen in order to give them the
best chance to get strong and survive.

Other Details. Fencing is unnecessary, provided that
there are no cats and dogs about, and that rats and other
vermin have been kept down. The coops can be scattered
about as convenient, in fields, on lawns, in openings at the
edge of shrubbery or groves, wherever it is fairly level and
grassy, and should be moved every other day. The hen will
not go very far, and will lead the young into the coop at
night or in case of hard showers.

Whether the hen is at liberty or not, there should always
be some pile of brush, evergreen preferred, or clump of weeds
near the coop. The young love to hide, especially if alarmed,
and they must have shade on hot days. Moreover, a hiding-
place is a refuge from hawks or other dangers. If this is
provided they will stay better near the coop.

Fenced Fields. If breeding operations are to be on any
considerable scale, it is best to have at least a couple of

Ruth, daughter of Superintendent Dirks, with California or valley quails,
State Game Farm of California

Scaled or “blue” quails on estate of U. S. Senator George P. McLean

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 45

for single ones. A heap of brush should stand near each
coop. In the areas between lines of coops some shade crop
can be planted, such as corn or sunflowers, or else oats,
buckwheat, or vetch, or a mixture of these. The latter
makes fine shade in late summer, and the birds are very fond
of the seeds when matured in the fall.

Avoid Crowding. At the present stage of the experimen-
tal work with quails we are not yet sure how large a number
can safely be reared in one field. Myself and others have
demonstrated that a few hundred can be raised successfully
on the free-range plan, and where we err on the side of abun-
dance of room. In a five or six acre enclosure at the Clove
Valley Club I saw two thousand young pheasants raised
without danger. But quails would certainly not stand any-
thing like that amount of herding. We do not yet know
how far we can go with numbers and crowding, and this is to
be worked out. Till this is done, it is well to be cautious
with the rearing-field system, using, preferably, fields of
moderate size and more of them. For the present, I should
not try to keep more than half a dozen broods in a field of
half an acre. For other broods it will be safer to scatter the
coops in the open about the estate, preserve, or farm, as
above.

Quail Social. Fortunately the quail is a very social bird
and the young are quite easily managed, owing to their at-
tachment to each other and to their foster-mother. Some-
times, if the hen is not taken away, they will run with
her till late fall or even through the winter. I have laughed
to see a bevy of fully matured quails in winter obediently fol-
lowingalittle yellowbantam. Mr. Rogers considers that the
last crisis is past with quails when the neck feathers, which
are the last to mature, are fully grown out. This is when
they are from eight to ten weeks of age. Beyond this period,

46 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

as with the adults, it is possible to confine them under
proper conditions. Hence the safest way is to give the
young ones liberty till they are fully grown.

Critical Period. The time when young quails are most
liable to epidemics of the dreaded enteritis is from late
August for about a month, when the first fall rains and cool
nights test their vitality. Disease starts with weaklings,
but becomes epidemic, like cholera. If a number were
penned together at the time of such an outbreak, the pesti-
lence would probably sweep the whole flock. Hence it is
safer to wait till they show signs of wandering off before
enclosing them. Also safety suggests putting no partly
grown young with the adult stock or with mature young,
lest they sicken and contaminate those safely raised. Let
the late broods run free with the hens till cold weather, or
else give them separate enclosures, with wings trimmed if '
the pen is not covered. a

Clipping Wings. Another point which needs to be further
worked out is to what extent it is advisable to clip the wings
of young birds like quails which are susceptible to the in-
testinal trouble. Flight is very active exercise and tends to
keep a bird in health and vigour. Depriving it of power
to fly during the growing period might make it less
able to combat contagion when a considerable number are
together. To trim a wing does not harm them when they
have range, but it renders them unable to escape from
enemies.

In the case of pheasants in a rearing-field, Evans is able
to control them through only a slight temporary impeding
of their power of flight by clipping only the first three or
four primaries, as will be explained later. Quails can be
controlled in the same way, but the temptation must be
carefully guarded against keeping too many in the same

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 47

field. Clipping, of course, should not be practised on birds.
intended for liberation that fall, but for only those to be
kept or sold for breeding-stock.

Habits of Young. The young quails, whether at large or
in a rearing-field, grow up in a sort of wild state, shyer than
pheasants, more liable to hide and lie close in the grass and
flush wildly. It is well to keep strangers out of the rearing-
fields, or have them closely follow the keeper if the young are
in shape to fly strongly, as fright makes them flush like
wild birds, and they are likely to bring up hard against the
wire and injure themselves. By themselves, they learn to
avoid the wire, and fly out to feed in adjoining pastures,
returning in the same way to stay with the hen at night.
Usually they follow her into the coop, even when quite
large, but some broods get to roosting outside, especially in
good weather, sleeping on the ground in a ring, tails together
and heads out, after the orthodox quail fashion.

Escaped Young. When the young are with bantams in a
fenced rearing-field and first fly out over the wire they are
soon anxious to return. They do not know enough to fly
back, but run along the wire, peeping plaintively, like lost
chickens. One way to recover them is to open a gate or
slide and drive them in. Another good device, shown me
by Neil Clark, is to have, on each side of the field, a strip of
wire two feet high, and only a few feet long, erected and
meeting the fence at an acute angle. The part nearest the
fence should be bent over to make an arched passage, ending
in a small pocket. The bird or birds, following the fence,
will be guided into this, and can easily be caught and put
back. This gives a good chance to clip slightly the wing of
these more adventurous ones of the flock.

Staying with Hens. When the young are from eight to
ten weeks old they no longer need the hen, as far as brooding

48 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

or mothering is concerned. The hen, however, still has a
useful function, to keep the young from wandering off. In
pheasant rearing it is customary to remove the hens when
the young are about eight weeks, and are old enough to be
confined. Young quails do not stand captivity well till
they are fully matured. Hence it is better to let the hens
stay with them, to hold them out in the open as long as
possible before any are to be caught up. It is an interesting
and an amusing sight to watch a covey of full-grown quails
trooping obediently after a little yellow hen. Young quails
are especially prone to stay with the hen foster-mother.
For example, on the estate of United States Senator George
P. McLean, at Simsbury, Connecticut, at the time of this
writing, in December, the coveys of hand-reared young
quails, fully matured, are still running with the hens closely
about the house. The attempt will be made to hold them
thus through the winter, on free range.

Holding in Vicinity. Everything possible should be done
to induce the young stock reared to remain free in the vi-
cinity under partial supervision and care. Feeding should be
continued as long as possible at the accustomed places. If
it is desired to allow some of the stock to remain free, their
feeding-place should gradually be shifted to a spot suitable
to attract wild birds as well, and grain should be kept there
under covers or shelters, as already described for winter
feeding, using ordinary mixed grain or scratch-feed. Es-
pecial care should be exercised when there is severe cold and
heavy snow. Leaving patches of standing grain is an ex-
cellent practice, as noted above.

Catching up Stock. If it is desired to catch up some or
all of the young stock, this may be attempted when they are
fully matured, which is after the feathers of the neck are
fully grown out. Following are some of the methods which

Photograph from FN, Manross

Young ruffed grouse strutting

Tame ruffed grouse, captured wild

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pareal asno18 payna Zunod Burpaay Uea PW “d 281004) Ioyeuas *s “-) YoY asnoiZ3 payni sunod pure ssoueyy ‘N ‘T
ssspjy fo wbypay “fy aS20an *utoD hg ygv48oj0ud Ssocuvnpy Alf 04f ygvaT0j0yd

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 49

can be employed: The usual and most obvious way, in
case the young still sleep in a coop or yard with the hen, is
to shut the door on them at night. Another way, whether
they are with or without the hen, is to get them accustomed
to feeding inside a wire frame, and close the door when
they have gone in. Grain sprinkled in a line leading up to
the place will help attract them. I have seen Rogers use a
frame entirely open at one end in catchinzg*pheasants. When
the birds were feeding inside he walked up openly, blocked
the entrance with his body, and caught them by hand.
They did not try to run toward him, but retreated to the
farther end. With quails it would be well to have some
brush there for them to hide under.

In cases where a remnant is made shy by previous
trapping it would be well to attach a cord to the door and
pull it shut from a distance. Another way is to use traps.
One type is like a lobster-trap in principal. The birds follow
a line of grain into a funnel which projects back into the
centre of the trap. The birds, once in, run around the sides,
and do not notice the opening in this projection. Still an-
other method is by automatic traps of various sorts, such as
the figure-of-four trap, the “clover-leaf trap,” mentioned
later, and others.

Résumé of Plan. Following is a résumé of the general
plan, based upon my own experience and observation, which
I suggest for the handling of quails on an estate, farm, or
preserve:

1. Secure breeding-stock in late fall or early winter
either by purchase or by capture of a small stock by per-
mission of the authorities.

2. Keep these through the winter in a wire enclosure with
simple shelter from storms and cold winds.

3. In April separate the pairs, having each pair in a small

50 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

pen by itself. Some can remain in the larger pen together,
if there are not enough small pens.

4. Hatch out the eggs and raise the young with bantams.
Do not attempt incubators and brooders.

5. Put the breeders back into the large pen together by
the latter part of July, unless they wish to incubate.

6. In late fall or early winter catch up what young are
desired. The rest can be left wild to breed naturally next
summer. Feed regularly under shelters throughout the
winter, to hold them on the land, as also by planted areas
of grain left standing for them. In severe winter weather
coveys might be shut up and cared for, and let go again.

Such plans, carefully followed, should prove practicable,
and should become an important factor in restoring quails
and other birds of this class.

Quails of Other Species. Several other Western and
Southwestern species of quails are fully as easy to breed and
raise as the bob-white, and in some respects even easier.
Three kinds are of especial interest: The California or
valley quail is a very beautiful species with plumed head,
abundant in California and neighbouring states. It gathers
in large flocks, and is quite gentle and confiding. Gambel’s
quail is similar, and abounds in New Mexico, Arizona,
and vicinity. The scaled or “‘blue quail” is a beautiful,
docile bird, of a pearly gray colour, with a tuft on the head,
and is found from the tablelands of Mexico north to western
Texas, New Mexico,.and southern Arizona. Still another
kind is the mountain quail, of the Pacific Coast region
north of San Francisco, a larger bird than the others,
hardier, but wilder.

Though the scaled, valley, and Gambel’s quails come from
mild and even warm climates, they are remarkably hardy,

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 51

and in open pens with a little shelter survive the tempera-
tures met in southern New England and Long Island. It
will take years of experiment to ascertain whether they can
maintain themselves in the wild state. I was told, however,
by Harry T. Rogers that the scaled quail was propagated on
his father’s place on Long Island, New York, and, in spite of
shooting in the fall, did not disappear for several seasons.
At any rate, it is proved that they breed abundantly and
successfully in captivity.

McLean Experiment. During the season of 1914, on the
estate of United States Senator George P. McLean, at Sims-
bury, Connecticut, I directed experiments with a small
stock of scaled quails and bob-whites. The first thing no-
ticeable is that the former are tamer than the bob-whites,
showing themselves more so, and not skulking so much
under the brush-piles. They laid equally well separated
into pairs in small coops or together in a larger pen, in this
respect also surpassing the bob-white. We raised the young
of both kinds with bantams, on the free-range plan, without
disease or loss. They flew off into the woods and alighted in
the trees, but at night went into the coops with the bantams.
By early September the older scaled quails were fully grown,
and some of them began to stay out nights away from the
hen, though they ran with her by day. Where broods were
of the same age, both kinds associated, and were fond of
frequenting an ash-heap and the tracts of weed around it
close to the gamekeeper’s house. They would all run into
the weeds when closely approached. If further pressed,
they whirred off to the wooded side-hill nearby. The ban-
tams would chase after them, call, gather the broods, and
lead them back to the dump. At night they would go
with the hens into the coops nearby, the broods considerably
mixed. At present writing, in December, they are perfectly

52 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

well and hardy, and not a bird has died of any disease from
the start. They remain with the hens, and stay close about
the keeper’s house. The scaled quails are especially tame,
and persist in following the bantams into the hen-house, or
going in on their own account to forage. The keeper drives
them out, but often in a few minutes they are back again.
The temperature has already been down to 22 below zero,
without harm to them. The Senator has royal good times
with his birds, and is a firm believer in the practicability of
propagating native game-birds. If any one is skeptical on
the subject, I advise them to talk with Senator McLean.
Later Developments. While reading proof of the above,
March 31, 1915, I would add that the bob-whites, though
of southerly stock, have wintered with inconsiderable loss.
They range freely, but return every day for feeding.
The scaled quails did well into January. Then a spell of
alternate heavy rains and sudden bitter cold killed about
two thirds of them. They refuse to sleep, like the bob-
whites, under shelters, but persist in roosting in cedars
near the lodge. During the above rains they became soaked
and chilled. After this spell no more died, and a nice
covey of them are now in fine condition. Yesterday I
flushed them at the edge of the woods close to the house;
they alighted nearby, and stood and watched me. They
stay persistently, refusing to be driven off. If pursued,
they run with great speed. Senator McLean is very fond
of them because they are so docile about the house, and
. considers them remarkably well able to care for themselves.
The main problem is whether they can normally winter
in the Northern States. Apropos of this, A. G. MacVi-
car raised them in New Jersey for three years without
set-back, and wintered them successfully each year. More-
over, it is believed that there is a tendency with birds

QUAIL PROPAGATION METHODS 53

introduced into a colder climate that each new generation
which survives becomes hardier and better acclimated.
Senator McLean’s birds readily enter buildings, and they
could easily have been shut up during the winter. He
will let them breed this summer unconfined, and try to work
out a practical plan. It looks as though coveys of these
birds, started artificially, could be maintained in freedom
with reasonable care and feeding. I have no question
but that the California and Gambel’s quails, which are
likewise docile, could be managed in the same way.

Gambel’s Quail. JI have watched some small experiments
also with the valley and Gambel’s quails, and judge that
they are no harder to breed and raise than the above. The
methods to be employed with each are the same as with the
bob-white, except that the scaled and valley quails seem to
breed well in groups, pairing off naturally. Probably it is
the same with the Gambel’s.

Valley Quail. A very interesting and important propa-
gation experiment with the valley quail is being conducted
by C. H. Shaw, of Eccles, California. He began in 1912,
and raised a few broods successfully. In 1913, using
both bantams and incubators, he raised about 150. Owing
to lack of bantams, he had to resort to artificial incubation.
In 1914, from a breeding-stock of forty pairs of tame, hand-
reared birds, he secured 1,350 eggs. Those which were
hatched under what hens he could muster he reared success-
fully with little loss and without disease. He had remark-
able hatches with incubators, from 220 eggs hatching 184,
and from another of 208 getting 160 chicks, an average of
over 80 per cent. Other hatches averaged about the same.
But the brooder record was tragic, for he raised but very few
by that method. He writes that the problem of propagating
the California or valley quail, at least in its natural habitat,

54 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

is largely one of providing enough broody bantams at the
right time.

Mr. Shaw kept his breeding-stock of forty pairs in an en-
closure, wired overhead, which contained, he writes, only
about 1,000 square feet, having two stunted trees for roost-
ing. The hens laid mostly in nests, but dropped some eggs
around the pen. Several pairs, at last writing, were incu-
bating their eggs in the pen, but these are liable, he says, to
get broken up before hatching, owing to fighting. He keeps
each brood with the bantam in a small coop or run till three
or four weeks old. The ground is sandy and bare, and he
moves them occasionally. Then he releases hen and brood
in a large enclosure. These birds get very tame, almost
domesticated. Some hand-reared birds, which he released
this spring, stay about the dooryard. On twenty acres of
land he estimates that there are about 400 of these quails,
and they are rearing a swarm of young.

The feeding system used by Mr. Shaw has been one feed
of ants’ eggs each day, chick-grain twice or three times, and
clover clippings in the middle of the day. The old birds are
fed entirely on chick-grain, with one feed of clover daily.
They winter in the open, with merely a roof over the roosting-
place to break the heavy rains. Temperature in winter is
never below 20 degrees above zero. The normal egg-laying
season of wild birds is from about May 1 to June 15.

Comparison. From what I have seen of the birds in
captivity on the preserve of T. A. Howell, the habits of the
Gambel’s quail are similar to those of the valley quail.
Mountain quails kept and bred on the same estate, in similar
enclosures, seemed wilder and did not lay so well. One in-
convenience about the species for artificial handling is that
the sexes are almost identical in appearance, though the male
is apt to have slightly longer plumes on the head.

CHAPTER III

THE GROUSE FAMILY

No Inherent Wildness. It is interesting to note how one’s
conceptions about this noble tribe differ when viewed from
different standpoints. The wild, whirring creature of the
forest, self-reliant through its constant battle with innu-
merable dangers, is hardly recognizable as the same when it
learns to know man as a friend. It seems characteristic of
birds of this family to be capable of most remarkable tame-
ness, in contrast to the supposedly incurable wildness of their
nature. From the standpoint of Applied Ornithology they
form a unique and peculiarly interesting group.

Grouse Species. The ruffed grouse, commonly called
“‘partridge”’ in the North, is the best known and most widely
distributed of the group. Next, probably, come the “prairie
chickens’”’—the pinnated grouse of the Middle West, its
nearly extinct relative, the heath-hen, formerly abundant in
the East, and the sharp-tailed grouse of the plains. The
Northern woods furnish the spruce partridge, while the
mossy and rocky barrens still farther on toward the cold
supply several varieties of ptarmigan which change their
mottled garb of summer to blend with the snow, which has
no terror for them. In the far West are the sage grouse and
the dusky or “‘blue grouse.”

Peculiar Birds. The general impression of the whole
tribe, from the standpoint of artificial propagation, is that
grouse are peculiar birds, rather difficult to keep protractedly

56 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

in confinement owing to peculiar habits, and particularly
their decided liability to epidemic diseases.

Ruffed Grouse. Considerable progress has been made
with rearing the ruffed grouse, and it is probable that ex-
periments with the other species will develop interesting
possibilities. Having experimented with the ruffed grouse
myself, with some success, and carefully studied its
habits and peculiarities under artificial conditions, I shall
treat of this species in detail. Dr. C. F. Hodge of
Worcester, Massachusetts, was the first to breed ruffed
grouse in captivity, followed by F.N. Manross in Con-
necticut, who likewise bred them and reared young to
maturity.

Preliminary Notes. Full-grown birds, captured wild, are
at first very shy. Personal care, however, can make them
in a short time so tame that they will eat out of one’s hand.
If they are put in a large pen at first, they remain rather
timid, though not long desperately wild. Sometimes it
happens that hunters capture specimens alive which are
only slightly wounded, and make good breeding-stock.
Owing to the laws, dealers are seldom able to supply them.
State authorities should permit the capture of limited num-
bers of birds by responsible persons who have been successful
with pheasants, or the taking of a set of eggs to start a stock.
When eggs are taken in the early stages of incubation, the
birds will probably produce another litter of eggs, and thus
the wild stock will not be diminished.

A Difficulty. Varied experience has shown that grouse
cannot be kept in health protractedly in a small coop or en-
closure. The quarters provided must be of considerable
size. Even then, unless these are quite large, the birds are
likely not to live out their natural term. Lack of exercise
makes them unduly fat and brings on troubles which have

THE GROUSE FAMILY 57

the symptoms of gout or apoplexy. Mr. Manross has had
birds, after being kept two or three years, plump and ap-
parently healthy, which would go to roost and suddenly fall
off dead.

Pugnacity. Another difficulty is that the males are ex-
cessively pugnacious. Toward spring they begin to fight
terribly, when they are with hens, killing one another, until
only the strongest cock survives, and he may be so crippled
that he is useless. So the only way is to build at least a
fair-sized separate enclosure for each pair. To some extent,
at any rate, the ruffed grouse seems to be polygamous, so the
cock can be put with more than one hen. If there are males
enough, however, it is safer to pair them.

Attacks the Hen. Another of the numerous obstacles to
the propagation of the ruffed grouse in confinement is that
the cock is often brutally severe with the hen in mating;
sometimes she gets scalped or maimed, and even killed.
At times the hen is saved only by removing the cock.
Doctor Hodge believes that the cock should always be re-
moved immediately after mating.

I once witnessed an accident which is very instructive in
this connection. Having found the nest of a grouse in the
woods, I had set a camera for a photograph. The hen re-
turned to the nest and from behind a tree I was about to
pull the thread to release the shutter when suddenly the
male appeared, behind the nest, every feather bristled out
like a turkey gobbler. Stealing around in front, he made a
sudden violent rush at the hen. She flew off the nest like a
shot, and was gone about half an hour. The old rascal with-
drew, waited for her, and tried, with the same result, to rush
her when she returned. Had she been in a pen she would
have been at his mercy. Doctor Hodge believes that one
mating suffices for a set of eggs. He also found that if the

58 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

male in the spring were separated from the female, he would
at once begin ‘‘drumming,”’ even when he had not done it
before.

Probable Polygamy. The above would suggest that the
grouse may be naturally polygamous, and that several hens
might be kept together separate from the male, putting him
with them only for a short time, or a succession of cocks, one
at a time, if there were a number of hens in the pen, then
giving them a chance to lay their eggs in peace. The eggs
could be removed to be set under bantams, and it might be
that the birds, after mutual abstinence, would be more liable
to mate again and produce second layings. I have not had
opportunity as yet to try out these details, but give them as
suggestions for future experiments.

The Pen. I should say that for each breeding pair the
enclosure should be at least 30 feet square. Open ground is
not favourable for grouse, as it is for quail and pheasants.
They are fond of browsing on leaves, shoots, and buds.
Recently I watched one of the young we had raised in cap-
tivity tearing and devouring an oak leaf. The pens should
therefore be built at the edge of the woods, enclosing small
trees and bushes, partly in the shade, but with some grass
and sunlight. The birds should have a wing clipped, so
that they cannot hurt themselves. The pen if open above
should have the fence 8 feet high. Stock is so scarce and
valuable that it is hardly safe, with only a pair or two at
first, torisk hawks and owls, so the top had better be covered,
in which case 6 feet high will suffice. Build as described
for quails. In case the birds are allowed to rear their
own young in the pen, a strip 2 feet high of }-inch mesh
must be at the bottom. It could be attached outside the
other after the birds had laid. It is better, in pens of any
size, to have wire at the bottom rather than boards, as the

THE GROUSE FAMILY 59

latter impede the spread into the pen of insect life, which
is very important for the young.

Second Laying. Usually the ruffed grouse in confinement
lays but one clutch of eggs ina season. From nine to thir-
teen eggs may be expected, though in the wild state I have
known them to lay sixteen. If the clutch is taken soon after
being laid, it is possible that a second may be produced if
the pen is large. Most wild birds which raise but one brood
will lay again if the first eggs are taken while fresh or nearly
so. Such accidents may account for late broods sometimes
found. A plan suggested to me by H. B. Bridges is that the
pens of moderate size be connected with a large enclosure,
open above, and that wing-clipped stock, after having their
first set taken, be turned into the larger area, in which case
they would probably lay again. In a large enclosure the
males would not be so likely to hurt each other.

Privacy. Grouse seem more sensitive to disturbance in
laying time than the quail, and they should be given the
utmost possible privacy. The nest should not be closely
approached nor the eggs touched or removed before the
laying is complete, and not at all if the grouse is to incubate.
Do not allow any stranger to approach. Only the same
attendant should have access to them in nesting time.

Chicks Tame. Where the grouse is allowed to rear her
own young they grow up rather shy. The opposite is the
case when they are raised by a hen. In that case, they are
exceedingly tame. They pay no attention even to a stranger,
and, in their absorbed search for insects, even allow them-
selves to be stepped on. When the chicks are small I have
to watch every step while in the pen. On the whole, the
grouse is rather more likely to raise her brood than the hen
would be, yet even she frequently fails, particularly if the
pen is not large.

60 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Handling Chicks. It is useless to attempt incubators
and brooders. The bantam mother is the best artificial
medium. Twenty-four days is the period of incubation.
Then the chicks should be handled about as young quails.
They are most sensitive to direct sunshine, and must always
have plenty of shade on hot days, else they will die of sun-
stroke. A gamekeeper once, despite my warning, gave a
brood a bare yard, without shade. In the middle of the day
the little fellows suddenly began to stretch up their necks,
stagger, and fall dead. He saved only one, by giving it
shade, and reared it to maturity.

Raising a Brood. An experience that I had in success-
fully raising a brood of ruffed grouse under my supervision is
instructive enough to be worth describing in detail. This
was for Senator George P. McLean. Thirteen eggs were
placed under a buff cochin bantam, and all hatched on June
5th. Some hens, be it said, are naturally careful mothers,
and never hurt their chicks; others are utter blockheads, and
trample their young or rake them in scratching with utter
indifference. A gentleman who had a nice young brood of
sixteen with a hen suddenly saw the hen begin to scratch
vigorously and throw the chicks by handfuls against the
wire, killing a number of them. She finally exterminated
the whole brood. This hen of ours was likewise stupid and
clumsy. In the first four days she crushed five chicks. I
am inclined to think that, in view of the tameness of young
grouse, a light Seabright or part game bantam, with small,
unfeathered feet, would be better.

Grouse Ways. Hen and chicks slept in a small, bottom-
less coop, and ranged about during the day in an open pen,
with a fence 5 feet high. The area was about 60 feet square,
and had in it a small clump of trees, also bushes and grass.
Less than half of it was shaded, but the grass gave consider-

THE GROUSE FAMILY 61

able cover. Now and then the chicks went to the hen to
brood, but a good deal of the time they were scattered all
over the place hunting for bugs. It was not safe to step
anywhere without caution. The grass would move by one’s
foot, and there would be a little yellow and brown striped
fellow, very intent on entomological researches, away in
underneath. They are very deliberate in their movements,
and steal along with slow, measured gait, like some old man.
The sight of a luscious bug, however, puts ginger into them,
and induces a sudden dash, which is usually brief. Old and
young act in about the same way.

Their Food. ‘The keeper fed them on grated hard-boiled
egg and cracker crumbs, presently a little chick-grain, wild
strawberries, and especially insects, which he and his boy
caught with a net. In the pen they also got a good deal of
insect food, and plenty of “‘browse”’ of leaves and shoots. I
had sent the keeper commercial ants’ eggs, which he did
not use for the grouse, as he had plenty of insects. The
feeding was intended to be about the same as for quails or
pheasants.

A Crisis Passed. All went well until they were twelve
days old, when one day the whole eight became sick and
drooped their wings. The weather was good and we could
not ascertain what the trouble was. Possibly they got
chilled during the night. The keeper, Amos E. George, is
a resourceful man. He put the chicks in a basket of cotton
on the shelf over the kitchen stove. For over a day he kept
them warm there, taking them out at frequent intervals,
and feeding them by hand. Two of them died, but the
other six pulled through, though one had become so weak it
could not stand up. That the six grew to maturity is due
to his resourceful meeting of this crisis. Another time, I
should see that they also had an occasional feed of sour milk

62 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

curd, which Mr. Rogers considers almost indispensable in
raising delicate stock of this type.

Growing Up. When about four weeks old, the young
grouse began to fly over the fence. Not wishing to take
any chances, the keeper clipped their wings slightly, and a
covered enclosure, about 100 feet square, was constructed
for them. They slept apart from the hen when about five
weeks old, and had no further brooding from her. In the
new pen was a shelter of boards under which they generally
spent the night. They seemed to have sense enough to go
under it when it rained. Their wings soon grew out again,
and at times they flew rather hard against the wire, so the
keeper hung strips of cheesecloth in the pen, just back
from the wire, to keep them from striking. Probably this
was not necessary, as they seemed to learn in time. They
have grownup normally, and are absolutely tame and gentle,
fearless even of strangers. Their time is spent hunting for
bugs, browsing, dusting, and wandering around in their
leisurely way. Wild grapevines have been transplanted in-
to the pen, and the birds are fond of flying up and feasting
on the grapes. In the autumn, when fully fledged, they
went through the peculiar strutting performance. The
Senator sits on the ground with them, and they are all over
him, begging for food. The ruffed grouse is his favourite
species, and he takes the keenest enjoyment with the birds,
as well as with his hand-raised quail coveys.

Rearing in Open. Young grouse possibly might be raised
in the open, by the same plan as quails. Mr. Rogers had a
brood of five or six one fall, which had grown up on free
range with a hen, and lived in a piece of swamp adjoining a
pheasant rearing-field. A few years before this he had
raised about seventy-five with hens in a large fenced enclos-
ure. It is doubtful if they can be controlled in numbers on

THE GROUSE FAMILY 63

free range as well as quail. Quails are gregarious and social,
keeping together, whereas the young grouse is more inde-
pendent and solitary in temperament. Even when the
grouse hatches her own young, they are pretty independent
of her and soon begin to sneak off alone. When reared
with the hen, I find it characteristic of them to wander on
their own hook, and especially when small they are likely to
get lost. This has been tried out by Donald MacVicar, as
reported to me by his son, A. G. MacVicar. He tried rear-
ing them on the plan used with pheasants, but they wan-
dered off and got lost. In this case the hens were probably
shut in the coops. It would be better to have the hen roam
with them, but even then, from my observation of their ways,
Tam convinced that the hen would lose a good many of them,
especially if they were let out thus at an early age. It is
likely that Mr. Rogers kept the brood above mentioned in
an enclosure for the first few weeks. As they get older they
seem to show attachment to locality and a sense of direction,
and might be able to find their way back. Further ex-
perimentation is needed, and meanwhile the safest plan is
to keep the hen and brood inside a fenced area.

Other Experiments. Doubtless various people are ex-
perimenting with the ruffed grouse. I was told of a man in
the Middle West who had raised seventy-five the previous
season, but I could not secure his name or address. The
American Game Protective and Propagation Association has
raised a number of them for three successive generations on
their game farm at South Carver, Massachusetts.

Tameness a Problem. The tameness of the young when
raised artificially is more of a problem than any supposed
“‘unconquerable wild nature.”” Such docile birds would
naturally fall an easy prey to vermin. They quickly, how-
ever, learn wild ways when free, as Rogers has ascertained.

Rearing-field and shelter-house for wild turkeys of H. P. Bridges

THE GROUSE FAMILY 65

can get it. Almost all wild berries are acceptable. Elder-
berries are easily gathered in quantity, and could be hung
up and dried, and fed to them in winter. They are fond
also of ‘various buds, such as maple, birch, and willow.
Branches could be trimmed off and given them. Ina proper
pen they will find a good deal of this “‘browse.’’ As they are
so largely vegetarian, the food problem is not the main
difficulty.

Reaching Maturity. During the latter part of August the
young birds begin to moult into the adult plumage. When
this is complete, from the middle to the last of September,
they begin their interesting strutting performance, both
males and females. The ruff or black collar is spread about
the neck, the elegant black-bordered tail is extended like a
fan, and every feather stands out. This ‘‘show” lasts till
settled cold weather in November, and begins again, Doctor
Hodge says, with the first springlike days in February, and
during mild snow-flurries, continuing until the middle of
June. The cock begins his remarkable drumming in April,
and continues it about as long as the strutting stunt.

Prairie Chickens. The few small experiments which
have been tried with the prairie hen, and perhaps with
the sharp-tailed grouse, both commonly known as prairie
chickens, indicate that the problem with them is similar
to that ofthe ruffed grouse. These birds, being largely eaters
of grain and seeds, are easily kept, as far as food is concerned,
and they become sufficiently tame. They are, however,
fully as sensitive to disease in confinement as the ruffed
grouse. In spring they go through their peculiar tooting
and strutting performances and lay one set of eggs in the en-
closure. Mr. Rogers says they are polygamous. He has
raised them in the Middle West from wild eggs, with hens,

66 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

as has Mr. Evans. He also says that he found sour milk
curd almost essential in raising them. The young are tame,
like the young ruffed grouse, and act much like them.

Stock Scarce. Hitherto it has been practically impossible
to secure any stock whatever for proper experiments, but
now, owing to the great popular interest in the subject,
State authorities will probably allow this important matter
to be thoroughly studied by competent investigators.

Other Grouse. The same things are probably true of our
other native grouse, about which I am at present unable to
offer definite information. Experiments with the ptarmi-
gans would be of especial interest. It is probable that the
experiments with the ruffed grouse will furnish the clue to
successful measures with the other grouse species.

CHAPTER IV

THE WILD TURKEY

Still Found. The idea seems widely prevalent that the
genuine wild turkey is nearly extinct, and, furthermore,
even if it were not, that it is by nature so hopelessly wild
that nothing could be done with it under the control of man.
Both these notions are mistaken. The noble great birds are
still quite plentiful in various forested parts of the Middle
and Southern States, both in mountainous and in swampy
regions.

Races of Turkey. There is also widespread uncertainty
as to what constitutes a “‘wild turkey,” so explanation may
be desirable. Our Eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo
sylvestris) is a subspecies of the Mexican turkey, which
was the form originally described, and from which the
domesticated race, introduced over Europe and America,
was derived. There are also other subspecific forms now
recognized. The Florida turkey is a somewhat smaller race,
similar to the Eastern form, found in southern Florida.
The Merriam’s and Rio Grande turkeys grade toward the
Mexican form, and are more like it.

True Type Described. The essential and easily recogniz-
able characters of the wild turkey are found in the feathers
of the tail and rump. In the genuine native Eastern wild
turkey the tail is of a dark reddish cast and ends in a tip of
dark brown, never of white or whitish. Also the rump
feathers of the back, above the tail, are dark reddish at their

68 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

extremities, and have no whitish or light buffy emargination.
White margins on tail or rump are characteristic of the Mexi-
can race and the domestic turkey. Buffy shades in these
parts indicate more or less mongrel origin.

Mixture of Stock. This is not saying that such mongrels
are not found in the wild state. F.H. Kennard showed me
a series of skins recently collected in Florida, near the Ever-
glades, about half of which were clearly mongrels. The
designation “wild” is more or less ambiguous, as turkeys
easily revert to the wild state, and “wild” turkeys can be
madeastameasany. All turkeys are great travellers afoot,
and undoubtedly domestic birds often take to the woods
and wander indefinitely, probably breeding with the native
stock.

Tameness No Criterion. Speaking of the possible tame-
ness of the real wild turkey, I recall a recent experience in
South Carolina, on the preserve of the Okeetee Club. See-
ing a flock of domestic turkeys feeding near a house, I
walked up close to examine them. One, a gobbler, was in
full typical plumage of the Eastern wild turkey. Upon in-
quiry, I found that some one had found some wild turkey
eggs and had taken themand raised the young. This ‘‘wild”
turkey was fully as docile as the ‘‘tame” ones.

Mongrels Common. I regret to have to say that most of
the supposed “‘wild turkeys” which I have seen upon pre-
serves and estates are mongrels, and it seems to be very
difficult to actually secure the pure Eastern form. Lest this
form should ever disappear in the wild state, it would be
well to make sure that breeding-stock is the real thing.
The above may serve to put people on their guard against
mistake or deception.

Turkey Disease. The problem of the propagation of the
wild turkey is largely the familiar one of the turkey disease,

Photograph from Henry P. Bridges

Wild turkey breeding-stock in enclosure

YOR Man ‘auinqrays ‘wey suey 21019 32 Usd-Surpeorq s[ZuIs v pur ‘WIE, oe sUueAg ‘suad-ZuIpsciq Jueseayd Jo saliag
SURAT 22vID AY UtOAL SYUgvASOPONT v

THE WILD TURKEY 69

usually known as ‘“‘blackhead.” I have seen it stated.that
the wild turkey is not subject to this like the domestic bird,
which, unhappily, is not true. A distemper, which has the
same symptoms as the well-known trouble, attacks the
young wild turkey under artificial conditions.

This disease is supposed to be caused by an organism
about which specialists differ. It is evidently widespread,
as young turkeys die from it practically everywhere. Adult
birds are better able to resist it. The main hope, as in the
case of the quail disease, seems to be to learn to feed and
handle the stock so that it will keep in healthy condition and
resist infection. Wild gallinaceous birds may habitually
carry various organisms in their systems, as the diseases
seem to break out when they are improperly fed or handled.
In the case of the turkey, the chief danger seems to lie in
close confinement and fouling of the ground through over-
crowding, especially in conjunction with cold, wet weather.
Harry T. Rogers found that sour milk curd as an article of
diet was very important for keeping young turkeys in health.

Woodmont System. To describe adequately the best
methods for the propagation of the wild turkey, the best
thing I can do will be to give in detail the methods used by
Henry P. Bridges, secretary of the Woodmont Rod and Gun
Club, on the preserve of the club and his private farm, both
in Washington County, Maryland, a most picturesque moun-
tainous region along the Potomac River. He breeds the
genuine wild turkey in captivity quite successfully, and also
has a splendid system for attracting and holding large num-
bers in the wild state.

Holding Wild Coveys. The latter undertaking is based
upon planting foods, destroying vermin, and regulating
shooting. The club owns or controls a large tract of land,
principally forest, among the mountains. Bridle-paths run

70 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

through the forest. Here and there, off from these paths, are
cleared open fields, from about five to ten acres each in area.
There are thirty of these in all, and each is sown to grain,
which is left standing for the turkeys and other game.
Wheat is the principal grain sowed, but there are also corn,
buckwheat, and millet. Flocks of wild turkeys frequent
these fields regularly. They feed there in the morning and
in the middle or latter part of the afternoon. They are
very shy, but are surprised in these fields through careful
approach. If they are out in the middle when intruders are
detected, they fly out, making an imposing sight. If near
the edge they run off into the forest.

An Experience. This last I saw a fine flock of at least
fifteen do one September afternoon. Though we crept
up carefully and stood back in the dark woods, the turkeys
detected our presence. In single file, a couple of gunshots
or more away, they ran along the edge of the field, up a high
slope, and disappeared into the forest—noble, great birds
they were. At this season they were not yet resorting much
to the grain, and would not till the frost killed off the insect
life.

Shooting Restricted. Only on certain days, m accordance
with a careful schedule, can shots be fired in a given field.
Each member or guest is allowed to shoot but two turkeys in
a season. About one hundred are said to be taken each
year. Four Presidents of the United States have been en-
tertained at this club: Cleveland, Harrison, Garfield, and
Arthur.

Cleaning Out Vermin. Periodically there is a killing off
of vermin by asystem of poisoning. This is done every year
during January and February. The method used is by
distributing poisoned dead birds along the trails over the
preserve, from 500 to 1,000 at a time. Pigeons are bought

THE WILD TURKEY 71

from dealers for this purpose, or trapped English sparrows
are employed at times. Eight to ten bottles of one eighth
ounce of powdered strychnine are used to each one hundred
birds. As much as is held on the end of the blade of a pen-
knife is placed in the mouth. The flesh of the breast on one
side of the bone is slit and the same dose is inserted. These
pigeons are dropped on the paths, about a quarter of a mile
apart. When English sparrows are used, they are more
readily seen if impaled on a cut-off sprout 8 to 10 inches
from the ground. They are put out at the beginning of the
coldest weather and willkeep. Foxes and other animals will
eat them even if not fresh. Minks and weasels eat only the
head, so it is important to put poison in the mouth. The
fox usually gulps the sparrow down whole. The victims
seem to have no suspicion, and are frequently found dead
nearby. A good way is to put out the bait in two plantings,
half in January, the restin February. Mr. Bridges declares
that no deer or useful birds are affected by the practice, and
it is very effective, making the game uncommonly abundant.
In so wild a region there are no dogs roaming about to be
poisoned. On the other hand, C. C. Worthington is quoted
by F. C. Walcott as having had thirty-four deer on his pre-
serve killed by eating poisoned sparrows, the latter being
found in their stomachs.

Artificial Breeding. The artificial breeding is mostly
conducted on Mr. Bridges’s farm. Dissatisfied with the so-
called ‘‘wild”’ turkey stock usually offered for sale, at large
expense and trouble he finally secured a stock of the genuine
wild turkeys for breeding—forty-six hens and six gobblers.
For that number of hens he now prefers as many as ten
males, or one to four or five, believing that the young have
thus more stamina.

To keep them he has a four-acre fenced field, mostly open

72 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

ground, but with bordering woods, with which is connected
by gates a larger fenced tract of sixty or seventy acres,
mostly woodland. Fences are g feet high, made of ordinary
sheep-fencing, the wires being close together at bottom and
farther and farther apart above. There is a 5-foot strip
of this and a 4-foot strip of coarser ‘mesh above. Owing
to the poisoning of vermin, he does not have to sink the wire
in the ground.

In the smaller field, on a southerly slope, is a modern
poultry-house building, 150 x 15 feet, divided into ten sec-
tions, with connecting doors and open-front arrangement
with coarse wire before the upper half. There are roosts
and a single tier of nests directly on the ground in each one.
This is to shelter the stock in winter. During that season
he gives the turkeys the range of the entire tract. Toward
evening they are driven into the smaller field, and thence
into the shed. At times they are reluctant to enter, and a
strip of wire is run out to guide them. All breeders and
young not intended for liberation are pinioned. They are
shut in at night and on stormy days.

Food for Adults. The food is any grain mixture or scratch
feed, and whole corn. Wheat is sowed in the pen for winter
use, and corn and millet are planted in the spring. The
large enclosure is divided in halves by another fence, which
makes it possible to alternate the birds on the land during
growing and planting times. Thus in spring and early
summer they are kept out of the growing crops till these are
matured.

Laying and Hatching. Plenty of brush-heaps are scat-
tered about the four-acre tract, under which the hens lay
their eggs. Eggs are collected every day, leaving one in the
nest, or a china egg. The eggs are removed with a long-
handled spoon, which mode is thought to be less likely to

THE WILD TURKEY 73

stop the bird from laying there. This is unnecessary with
reasonable precautions. Sometimes, toward the end of the
laying season, the wild turkey is allowed to hatch her own
eggs. Those taken are set either under tame turkeys or
under ordinary hens. At first Mr. Bridges was inclined to
favour the former, as taking the young over more ground to
feed, but now he thinks that a quiet hen is about as good,
and brings up the young tamer. They stay very well with
the hens, even till they are grown up. The eggs are hatched
in ground nests in the shed, where they get sufficient mois-.
ture and yet are protected from the rain.

Local Plans. Eventually it is intended to liberate the
young on the preserve. They are fairly shy naturally
when they grow up in so large a tract. Those that escape
quickly become wild. Owing to the poisoning of vermin,
they have a good chance of survival. At present, however,
they are being held to increase the breeding-stock and to
supply other preserves.

Handling and Feeding Young. After hatching they are
put out in the four-acre field with a fair-sized coop and small
run, and the ordinary pheasant plan is followed, letting them
range in the field, but with the hen or turkey foster-mother.
They are shut in at night and kept in till the dew is off the
grass, as well as in wet weather. When about a month old
they are allowed to roam in the big lot. At first they are fed
on hard-boiled egg, which, after a week or so, is mixed with
pheasant-meal and the chick-grain, following the method of
feeding of young quails and pheasants. Sufficient, green and
insect food is secured in the enclosure.

Success and Failure. The keeper at this farm said he had
in the enclosure at the time of my visit at least two hundred
young wild turkeys. On the club’s preserve they have an-
other keeper and another enclosure of sixty acres. They

74 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

brought from the farm to this latter place wild turkey eggs,
and had six hundred young in this tract. Disease broke out
and swept them all off in the absence of Mr. Bridges. This
disaster was doubtless due to overcrowding. The sagacious
keeper did not inform the owner, saying he was “afraid it
would worry him.” Had he known it at the outset, the
young would have been liberated, and most of them probably
would have survived. This is on the principle coming to
be accepted that these troubles are diseases of captivity,
and that the release of “‘infected” birds does not seriously
endanger the wild stock.

Restocking Projects. Twenty-five young wild turkeys
raised on the above preserve have now been sent to Jekyl
Island, Georgia, for a breeding experiment. This island
may serve as a typical case of southern islands considerably
overrun with snakes, raccoons, hogs, and other vermin.
Mr. Bridges advised in this case to hold such a breeding-
stock in an enclosure of not less than ten acres, to hatch the
eggs under hens, and to let the broods range, on the clear
and protected grounds near the houses, if there were no cats
and rats to attack them. As they grew up they would roam
off and scatter over the island.

On islands and in really wild sections of country it is
probably feasible to propagate the species and stock the
vicinity by the Woodmont plan, especially if vermin are
kept down. In populated regions, however, the wild turkey
is too large and valuable a bird to stand any chance, save
in fenced enclosures. Undertakings of these sorts described
above are interesting and well worth while.

CHAPTER V

PHEASANT REARING

Best for Beginning. The family of the Phasianide, or
pheasants, presents a new realm of opportunity and interest
to those who love to propagate and cultivate wild birds,
One species, the ring-necked pheasant, has become widely
naturalized in many states of the Union, and is as much an
American bird as the English sparrow, withal a much more
useful one. This is preéminently the species for would-be
propagators to begin with. It is easily raised by the methods
described in this book, presenting less difficulties than any
other species of the group. Being wonderfully hardy, it
thrives in spite of severe cold and deep snow, especially if
food is provided. Its flesh is excellent, and it brings good
prices, either dead or alive. At present indications it seems
likely to become one of the principal game-birds of America.

Definition. To avoid confusion of terms, it may be well
to state that another species known as the English pheasant
was imported from western Asia into Europe about the time
of Alexander the Great. It is quite similar to the ring-neck,
the most notable difference being the lack of the white neck-
ring or collar. About a century ago the ring-neck was in-
troduced into England and crossed freely with the other
species, until now there are very few of pure blood, and both
names are applied rather indiscriminately to the same bird.
The pure ring-neck, direct from its native haunts in China,
was introduced into Oregon, beginning in 1880. The

76 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

species is now naturalized and abundant there, and is often
called the Oregon pheasant. It is the true ring-neck, a trifle
smaller than the other, perhaps through inbreeding, but is a
splendid, active game-bird. Harry T. Rogers has used this
strain to breed for stocking New York State.

Other Pheasants. Various other species of pheasants
also are bred in this country. The Mongolian is fairly
popular, a larger bird, and also very hardy. Golden and
silver pheasants, gorgeous in plumage, are also in vogue, but
rather as aviary birds, being less able to withstand cold, re-
quiring at least slight shelter in winter. The Lady Amherst
and Reeve’s pheasants are also well-known aviary species,
and there are various others, likewise brilliant of hue, which
can be cultivated. These fancy kinds are often kept for
ornamental purposes. A lady of my acquaintance raises
them, because of her love of colour, to beautify her lawns.
Some of these species are very easily kept, and stand con-
finement better than the wild, hardy ring-neck. The young,
moreover, can be raised in confinement, whereas those of the
ring-neck must have open range.

The Manchurian eared pheasant, a large species, is nota-
ble for its tameness under artificial conditions. It loses all
fear of man and will eat out of one’s hand. Such a bird is
not adapted to game purposes, but is easy to keep on an
estate wandering around like guinea-fowl.

Methods Similar. The methods described are those used
for the ring-neck, and are similar to those for raising quails,
with modifications. Descriptions in this chapter will be only
of traits and methods which differ from those treated in the
chapter on quail propagation.

Diseases. Though pheasants are subject to diseases and
epidemics similar to those of the quail, they are more resist-
ant to them, as they have been bred in captivity longer and

Photograph by Thorn L. German
Pheasant rearing-field, showing arrangement of coops and mowed runways

Photograph by Thorn L. German

Breeding-field for pheasants, Clove Valley Club, New York

A ea

Photograph by Thorn L. German

Hatching-house. Putting out hens to feed

PHEASANT REARING 77

are further along the road to that immunity which domesti-
cated poultry have largely acquired. For this reason it is
much better for beginners first to learn to raise a few ring-
necked pheasants, after which they will be much more likely
to succeed with quails or grouse.

Stand More Crowding. One main difference is that more
pheasants than quails can be kept in an enclosure. True,
they must have moreroomthan poultry,and theground must
regularly be ploughed or alternated. Yet, rightly handled,
they can be managed in large numbers. Rogers winters a
thousand or so of young birds in a fenced field of five or six
acres. But there is a limit, beyond which is danger.

Starting. Start can be made either by buying eggs from
the increasing number of pheasant breeders or by securing
birds to produce the eggs. The latter method is preferable.
Purchased eggs may come from poor scrub stock. If the
eggs vary in size, shape, and colour, itis a bad sign. In buy-
ing birds, one should insist on having only good stock, and
no lean, ragged runts. Starting with good birds, and giving
them proper care, the eggs should produce strong chicks.
Young from weakly stock lack vitality and are liable to die
off, in spite of all care, thus giving unnecessary discourage-
ment to the beginner. Moreover, eggs raised on the prem-
ises are more likely to hatch than those shipped by express.

Wintering Stock. Secure stock in fall or early winter if
possible, and provide winter quarters much as for quails,
though more birds can be kept together with safety. The
aviary or fancy kinds must have sheds or coops for shelter,
whereas the hardy ring-necks can stand almost anything.
Mr. Rogers says that his ring-necks in large fenced fields
seldom use the coops he has provided, but prefer to roost
out on the most exposed ridge of the fields. They have
withstood safely a temperature of 45 degrees below zero.

78 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Sometimes they are buried several feet under the snow for
days atatime. They dig burrows and eat grass and clover.
When they wish, they can get to the surface. A normal,
full-winged pheasant can fly from soft deep snow like a
ruffed grouse, which it is said that quails cannot do. After
snowstorms, at the New York State Game Farm, they
plough out strips in the pheasant enclosures, and the birds
emerge from the snow and come to feed. Notwithstanding
their hardiness, however, reasonable shelter should be pro-
vided, as all birds are not always in such prime condition.

Prices. As to comparative expense, one can figure it out.
Eggs cost about 25 cents each, or $3 a dozen. Breeding-
stock would be about $2.75 to $3.50 per bird, prices being less
in fall and early winter. Another thing to consider is that
early eggs and chicks are by far the best. Late eggs are
cheaper, but fewer of them may hatch, and the young are
likely to die. Early eggs may cost more, but they are worth
it.

Polygamy. Unlike quails, most pheasants are polyga-
mous. The ring-neck,is notably so. One cock to five hens
seems to be the prevailing practice, though some use one to
three or four. The silver pheasant, and a few rarer kinds,
breed in pairs.

Fighting. As spring approaches there is liable to be some
fighting and chasing on the part of the cocks, which may do
damage unless proper care is taken. Too large a proportion
of cocks in a penis one cause. Superfluous males should be
shut up by themselves. Another preventive is to have the
yard large enough, and plenty of brush-heaps for hiding.
Rogers’s theory is that pheasants are cowardly, skulking
birds and that more often birds get hurt by dashing into the
wire when chased than by actual combat.

Effect on Native Species. This matter of pugnacity raises

PHEASANT REARING 79

the question so often asked as to whether pheasants drive
away quails and grouse from their haunts or destroy them by
attack or breaking up nests. I believe there is no cause for
apprehension. Pheasants are natural cowards, and Rogers
says he has often seen a quail or a sparrow in a pen drive a
pheasant. As to the ruffed grouse, these frequent the woods,
while the pheasant shuns the forest and selects scrub pastures,
swamps, and agricultural land. That pheasants do not de-
stroy quails is indicated by the case of Gardiner’s Island,
New York, where pheasants and quails both abound, neither
being able to fly to the mainland.

Vices. Feather-plucking and egg-eating are other bad
habits in confinement which sometimes break out. It is
recognized that these come from lack of needed animal food.
Increasing this will generally stop the former. In case an
individual persists, it should be removed. Egg-eating is
harder to stop. Devices which sometimes work, in con-
junction with giving more animal food, are as follows:
Eggs should be collected often, and emptied eggs filled with
kerosene and red pepper can be left out for them to try.
Sometimes artificial eggs are placed around the pen. An-
other plan used is to clip off the point of the bill, just to the
quick, to make it a trifle sore, so they will not peck. Birds
that have the habit badly should be removed, especially at
the beginning, for one such bird seems to teach the others.

Preparation for Breeding. Pheasants are early breeders,
beginning to lay usually about the middle of April, or earlier
in mild weather. Mating begins by March, or even Feb-
ruary, and lasts till July. Stock should be put in breeding-
quarters about a month before the laying period, soon after
the snow melts off.

Large Pen Breeding Method. For breeding, two plans
are employed: The first is to keep a considerable number of

80 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

breeding birds in one large enclosure. This may be open on
top, in which case the birds, if not already pinioned, should
have one wing closely clipped. Fences for such breeding-
yards should have at the bottom a strip of 1-inch mesh wire
about 23 feet high to keep out vermin. Above this ordinary
chicken wire, 2-inch mesh, may be used. For large rearing-
fields the same is used, or the chicks do not try to get
out. In case one has only a few pheasants, it is well to
cover the pen above, as one occasionally might scramble out
when frightened, and then there will be no fear from hawks
and owls. Scrambling in or out by birds or larger animals
can be prevented by nailing on top of each post a stout slat
projecting in and out a foot each way, and tacking to these
a 2-foot strip of 2-inch mesh wire, making an overhang.
With this device the fence could be made only 6 or 7 feet
high. It should, at any rate, be high enough to prevent a
fox from leaping over. A plain 8-foot fence, however,
usually answers every purpose. There should be plenty of
brush in the pen.

Numberin Pens. There is no exact rule as to the number
of breeders that can be kept in one enclosure. In general it
is well not to have a very large number running together, not
over 100 in a good large pen, say 200 by 100 feet. If the
birds appear to be crowded and to interfere, and the average
of egg-laying is not good, some should be removed.
Change of ground stimulates laying. Sometimes, when a
pen of birds stops laying, change to fresh ground and good
grass will start them up again.

Harem Method. The other method is to keep each breed-
ing unit of a cock and three to five hens in a separate pen by
themselves. This method seems to produce more eggs,
though it involves more initial expense for apparatus.
Rogers, at the New York State Game Farm, prefers this

syursvoyd JaayIs pure uapjoy

DI 4
We: fyi ‘hk

Breeding harem of pheasants of T. A. Howell

Young pheasants caught for shipment, Massachusetts State Game Farm,
Sutton

PHEASANT REARING 81

method, and generally employs it unless short of small .
pens.

Unit Pens. In working out this method he builds a con-
siderable number of portable pens, without bottoms, and
about 12 x 16 feet, covered on top, and boarded up from the
ground about 3 feet. The ends of tke bottom boards of
the two longer sides are sharpened up, like sleigh runners,
so that a horse can drag the structure to fresh ground.
Along one end inside there is a shelter of boards, some 3 feet
wide, sloping down toward the centre of the pen, for protec-
tion from storm and sun. These pens should be placed on
turf, with a brush-pile in each, and be banked up outside a
little. This will prevent the birds from digging their way
out, while traps and watchfulness must take care of vermin.
The pens need be moved only at considerable intervals,
when the grass is getting used up and the ground shows signs
of becoming fouled. On level ground they can be dragged
slowly, with the birds in them. In these arrangements
Rogers gets from five hens sometimes twenty-three to twenty-
five eggs per pen a week at the height of the breeding season.

The number of eggs produced by each hen pheasant varies
with the vigour of the stock, the feeding, and the surround-
ings. From thirty to fifty per season is a frequent average,
and some birds lay seventy or even over one hundred.
Many of the late eggs, however, are useless, as it does not
pay to set eggs after about the first of July. One large
breeder who had quite a number of small chicks the first
week in August told me that he could not raise over one
third of them. Another expert remarked that he would not
dare to have such birds on the place, as it is very likely to
start epidemics.

Avoid Close Confinement. It is not good for wild birds
to keep them shut up in a small yard indefinitely, as they

82 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

deteriorate from want of exercise. Though pheasants can
exist thus for some time, they will lay less eggs, low in fer-
tility, and producing weaker offspring. At the close of the
feeding season they should have more room for exercise.
Oneway is to catch themand put them in a largefenced field,
if pinioned, or, if not, in a larger covered pen. The flight
feathers are growing during late summer and fall, up to
November. Another method employed by Mr. Rogers is
as follows: His portable pens are made with the bottom
board at the front and rear ends on hinges, so that these can
be raised and hooked up. The pens are dragged together
and set end to end, with these boards raised, making a con-
tinuous run as long as is desired. The hinged boards when
raised just meet, forming a roof, and all that is then needed
is to nail a bit of board to the junctures on the sides. By
this means the pheasants can range together through quite
a long enclosure, and can be kept thus through the winter.
Hatching Pheasants. In the matter of hatching, the only
difference from the quail methods is that the eggs are stout
enough to allow the use of ordinary hens instead of bantams.
Pheasant chicks, however, are considerably smaller than those
of poultry, and the smaller the hen the better. Bantams are
all right for this work, if one has them, only they are not, as
with quail, absolutely necessary. Fifteen to eighteen eggs
should be set under an ordinary hen, and a less number under
bantams, using no more than can be properly covered.
Rearing Systems. Where there are only one or a few
broods, the easiest way is, as with the quail, to give each
brood a coop and let them roam with the hen during the day.
If safe ground is scant, the hen can be shut up in the coop,
and the young kept near by providing shade, food, and
water, and skulking places. In New York State, where set-
tings of eggs are sent out with printed instructions, farmers

PHEASANT REARING 83

and other landowners are instructed to let the brood range
with the hen, like turkeys, and it is claimed that 50 per cent.
from the number of eggs on the average are reared to ma-
turity.

For rearing pheasants on a larger scale almost every
breeder has a method or system which is more or less in-
dividual in some details. It will suffice to describe a few
representative methods which have come under my personal
observation. Feeding and other details not mentioned are
the same as described for quails.

The Rogers System. First I will outline the free-range
rearing, a leading exponent of which is Harry T. Rogers,
superintendent of the New York State Game Farms. Some-
times Mr. Rogers has used large fenced rearing-fields, in
which cases he made no attempt to prevent the birds from
flying out, letting them range as far as they wished. Lat-
terly he has found unnecessary all fences or rearing-fields,
and he now rears about 5,000 young pheasants each year on
open farm land.

Prefers Good Soil. Many people have the idea that any
wild, rough land will do for a game farm. From Rogers’s
standpoint, the best arable land is none too good. Aside
from patches of swamp or outlying woodland, he would
have the whole farm tillable, of light soil to allow of good
drainage, which is a great preventive of disease, and fertile,
so as to raise good crops of grass, clover, and grain. He
plans to raise no birds on the same ground two years in
succession, and to plough and seed down each fall the land
used for rearing during the past season. Or it may be sown
to a grain crop in fall or spring, with grass and clover as an
undercrop. In late summer, when the grain is harvested,
there will be a fine stand of clover, which is splendid for the
pheasants. In fall such renovated land is ready for caught-

84 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

up young or adult stock, or for rearing operations again the
following spring.

Rotation. In this way, every two years, Rogers has the
whole farm turned over, and he has no epidemics. A man
and team with plough can turn over about two acres a day,
and there is the harrowing and seeding besides. It pays,
however, if it makes safe the raising of thousands of birds
worth from $5 to $7 a pair.

Control Methods. Though the birds wander off during
the day, they return at night to feed, particularly in response
to some recognized whistle or call, even when they are quite
large and have left the hens. Rogers begins to catch them
for distribution when they are about two months old, mostly
by enticing them into enclosures to feed. The last ones
become quite shy, and it takes considerable ingenuity to
catch or trap them. Out of some 5,000 he estimates that
about 300 get away and remain in the wild state. These,
however, are by no means wasted, as they breed wild and
help to stock the State, which already, after but a few years
of breeding, has an open season for pheasant shooting in a
number of counties.

Good Method for States. This method is particularly
adapted to the purpose of liberating, by the State, for hunting,
birds that are full-winged, and through freedom are vigorous
and somewhat accustomed to finding their own living and
escaping enemies.

The Evans System. The rearing system employed on the
Wallace Evans Game Farm is likewise successful, and is ideal
from the commercial standpoint, as the birds, while having
considerable and sufficient range, are under full control, and
very few get away. Everything here is raised and kept
inside wire fencing 8 feet high. The fields are large, averag-
ing, I should say, five to ten acres each. Evans has a num-

PHEASANT REARING 85

ber of these, and does not plough to any considerable extent,
but alternates, letting them lie idle for a year to recover.
For three or four years, however, at first, when the land is
new, he finds he can use fields continuously if only a moder-
ate number of birds are kept on the land. He says that
after a time not so many birds can be kept upon the land as
when it was virgin soil. Insect life, moreover, becomes ex-
terminated, and it is important to give this time to recover.

Control. To control the birds and keep them in pens he
trims slightly a wing of each, cutting back only three or four
primary quills. This is not enough to prevent flight, but
just enough to impede high flying, so that they do not get
over the fences. It has to be repeated every three weeks,
or up to about the first of November. The birds become
accustomed to catching, and are reasonably tame. By
erecting strips of wire mesh it is easy to steer them into
pens to catch them up.

At Five Weeks. When they are about five weeks old he
combines two batches of about the same size and puts them
in a fresh field where there is good grass and insect life has
caught up. He uses only half the number of hens, about one
hen to thirty young. These do not then need brooding, but
the hens keep them more contented and lead them into
coops at night. Later he removes the hens.

Other Details. In case a batch in some particular field
do not grow well or some die, he transfers them to fresh
ground, which gives them a new start. It is noteworthy
that certain ground, even though it may produce luxuriant
clover or other crops, is not so good for the birds as some
other land, apparently similar, nearby. Mr. Rogers showed
me some apparently fine plots, with splendid clover, on
which he said the birds, though they did not die, never grew
so fast or did so well. The cause may be the composition

86 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

of the soil, and a scientific analysis would be of interest.
Mr. Evans is fortunate in having a considerable number of
fenced fields for these changes or for alternation. Having
the flight impeded, it is easy to catch the birds when desired
by getting them into covered pens, either by feeding them
there or by driving. Strips of wire netting, temporarily
placed, help to steer them into the enclosure.

Pinioning. In the case of the ornamental or aviary
species, which are not intended to keep in the wild state, he
pinions all his stock when two or three weeks old. This he
does by snipping off with scissors the last joint of one wing.
A thread for ligature is tied just above the cut, to be re-
moved a few days later. At this early stage there is almost
no loss of blood. Pinioning adult birds is a more
serious matter, and one had better see it done by a more
experienced person before attempting it. The main artery,
which is protected between the bones, should be tightly
bound.

Fancy Kinds. The aviary species are kept in fenced
tracts which contain groves of trees. This Mr. Evans finds
is sufficient shelter for them in winter. Ordinarily, it is
desirable to have open-front sheds or coops.

Laying Out Coops. In laying out coops in a rearing-field,
he has them 80 feet apart in the rows, and each row 100 feet
apart, the coops being set in a mowed swathe. Some others
set them nearer, about half the distance, but some hens ki!
chicks that come to them from other coops.

The Clark System. At the Clove Valley Club, near
Poughkeepsie, New York, Neil Clark, in charge of game
breeding, raises large numbers of ring-necked pheasants.

Breeding. The breeding-stock he keeps in good-sized
yards, with plenty of shrubbery and brush-heaps. The
hens average about thirty-five eggs each season. He admits

PHEASANT REARING 87

they would lay more by the Rogers plan, but the ground is
irregular, so the large enclosure method is easier.

Hatching. For incubation he employs ordinary hens, in
a hatching-house, which is quite a model establishment in
its line. The tiers of nests are not along the wall, but across
the house, which is in the shape of a long shed. Opposite
each aisle, with its tiers of nests on both sides, is a door.
Outside the door is a double row of small compartments, or
feeding-coops, as many as there are nests on one side of an
aisle of the hatching-house, numbered to correspond, so that
the same hen will always be put back on the same nest.
They feed the hens on one side of the aisle, then put them
back and use the same feeding-coops for the hens on the
other side.

Cleaning Nests. The nests are constructed in movable
tiers or sections, like sectional bookcases. Back of the
shed is a large tank or cauldron, in which, before each new
hatch, the whole set of three nests is immersed to destroy
all insect life. This radical treatment seemed thoroughly
effective. The eggs, under this system, are sprinkled, which
is ordinarily unnecessary when the nest is directly on the
ground, except perhaps in very hot, dry spells. The nests
built in the boxes are of turf, with a little hay.

Alternation. Rearing-fields are used but one year in
three or four, being employed for farm crops when not for
birds. On my visit three rearing-fields were in use. One
was a large open tract of ten or twelve acres, and had 2,000
young, mostly well grown. Another was also open land,
about half the area, with birds medium size; while for the
third an orchard was used for the smaller broods. In all
there were about 4,000 young birds.

Control. The fences are 1o feet high, and the birds
mostly remain inside the wire. They seemed to me re-

88 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

markably tame, and did not try to fly out. Especially in
the large field they were very little afraid of a stranger, and
came readily to feed while I photographed them. People
are kept away and no one is allowed to frighten them. As
the fields are large, even if the birds fly they are apt not to
go to the wire. Some fly out, but there is so little company
outside that they want to get back, and are caught by means
of the V-shaped spurs of wire netting previously described.

Catching. To catch them in the pen, Mr. Clark builds a
temporary wire enclosure 50 feet long and about half as wide.
He gets them accustomed to feeding inside this, and shuts
up large numbers ata time. This is in early fall, when they
are pretty well grown. The last ones, even in the enclosure,
are rather hard to catch.

For Hunting. They are then confined in pens wired over
the top. A few days before shooting, numbers are taken out
and released in certain areas of swampy woods and meadow
which are naturally attractive to pheasants, where they are
hunted before they scatter very far. A good many at vari-
ous times get away, and they are found for ten miles up and
down the valley, as well as occasionally across the ranges of
hills.

A Pastime. The raising of pheasants may be made a
most fascinating pastime. It is charming to have these
large and brilliant birds roaming upon one’s own land and
to be able to breed and control them. ‘True, they cannot be
depended upon to stay permanently upon the immediate
premises, yet they will to some extent, if the surroundings
are to their liking. But by catching and penning a moder-
ate number of young each year, when they are well grown,
one can always have enough stock to obtain plenty of eggs
and maintain the output. Much can be learned from them
of the ways of wild gallinaceous birds. New species can be

PHEASANT REARING 89

acquired from time to time. From the standpoint of pleas-
ure and recreation it is less arduous to have a rather small
stock, and, after learning methods from ring-necks, to try
different varieties.

An Industry. Pheasant raising can also be made a source
of profit. It is a pleasant way for young people to make a
little money on the side by raising a few game-birds or
waterfowl. With hardly any expense, on the average farm,
a boy could have a few broods of pheasants roaming around
and growing up. What little work there is will seem more
like sport, and the watchfulness required is good training.
After buying the original breeding-stock, the expense is very
light. Little apparatus is required, and the birds are small
eaters. Ring-neck stock will probably cost $5 to $6 per
pair in the late fall. A cock and four hens, say, might cost
from $10 to $15. These should lay at the very least 120
eggs, which are worth usually 25 cents each, or more than
double the cost of the original stock. If even a moderate
number of young are reared and sold, the undertaking
would considerably more than pay. Wallace Evans began
pheasant raising as a boy, and was so successful that it grew
into a large industry.

The demand for live pheasants from the many that are
beginning to breed them is so great that there is an almost
unlimited market at present for them alive.. When this
demand is finally met, there is still an enormous field for sale
for food purposes as wild game. It should be carefully con-
sidered that it is just as proper to sell or eat wild species as
domesticated ones when this product is the result of one’s
own industry, and also that such work is directly an aid to
the increase and protection of wild life. Propagators of
wild game are not only liberating more or less of it to in-
crease the natural supply, but personal interest impels them

go PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

to realize more fully the value and importance of wild life in
general, and to demand its adequate protection and conser-
vation. This new movement, with an emphasis on the
practical side, will come as a mighty aid in the battle against
waste of wild life and the thoughtless cruelty which goes
with this,

CHAPTER VI

OTHER FOREIGN GALLINACEOUS SPECIES

Need Careful Study. Besides pheasants there are other
foreign species which have been experimented with in Amer-
ica, and many more which might be. While the major
emphasis should be placed upon the native birds, there is no
reason why interest should not be directed, in proper ways,
to any other attractive and valuable species of this class.
It should be remembered, however, that of numerous at-
tempts tointroduce foreign speciesin the wild state by merely
shipping them in and liberating them, with only one species,
the ring-necked pheasant, have the attempts as yet been
successful. Large sums of money, both public and private,
have been wasted in such attempts. Before embarking upon
such schemes on a large scale, careful experiments should
first be made, to ascertain whether the bird in question can
be successfully bred and whether it can maintain itself under
the new conditions.

Unsuccessful Attempts. Clearly unsuccessful attempts
at introduction have been made with the following species:
the migratory or Messina quail, red-legged or French part-
ridge, black grouse, and capercailzie, all of Europe, the sand
grouse and chukar partridge of India, and numerous fancy
pheasants and tragopans.

Breeding Tinamou. Probably it would be possible to
breed any of these and maintain them under artificial con-
ditions. This is being done on the estate of William Rocke-

92 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

feller with a South American tinamou. This is a peculiar,
long-legged gallinaceous species of medium size, mottled
brown in colour, which utters loud, prolonged wailing cries.
Tinamous are tame, docile birds, and they do very well in
grassy pens, being entirely maintained upon small grain and
seeds. They breed quite readily, laying good numbers of
very peculiar-looking eggs, of a uniform deep, rich brown
colour, with a gloss as if varnished. The young are easily
raised with bantams, by the same food as pheasants. They
do not appear sensitive to epidemics, and grow up in an
enclosure without complications. They are at least fairly
hardy, and stand winter weather without artificial heat,
with only shelter from storms. Further experimentation
might show that they could be trusted to wander like guinea-
fowl and come home to roost. They are so singular and
quaint that it is decidedly amusing to breed them.

Dangers of Wild State. It is a very different problem,
however, when it comes to introducing these strange species
into this country in the wild state. All sorts of factors
arise to complicate the problem. It is not enough that a
species should be hardy. For example, I was interested
once to watch a little European quail that George D. Tilley
had on his place. It remained all winter in a small yard,
entirely in the open, in deep snow, exposed to cold and
storms, living mostly under a little cedar bush, the only
shelter it had. When attempts were made to introduce the
species through liberation, the birds nested in the vicinity
and raised their broods, but migrated in the autumn, after
their habit, and were never seen again. In this case, the
obstacle was the migratory instinct; in others it seems to
be in securing food, resisting vermin, and the like.

The Gray Partridge. The only other foreign species
which may be discussed at length is the gray partridge of

OTHER FOREIGN GALLINACEOUS SPECIES 93

Europe, usually known in this country as the Hungarian
partridge, because most of the stock imported came to us
from the region of Hungary. A great many thousands have
been liberated in various states, from Atlantic to Pacific,
at a cost of hundreds of thousands of dollars, with very little
thus far to show for it. The species is a valuable one, and
it may yet take hold, as some encouraging reports have
come in.

Experience of Rogers. ‘The case was put to me as follows
by Harry T. Rogers, who, for the States of New York and
Illinois, has liberated thousands of them. In his experience,
though they frequently bred for a couple of seasons, he says
that about half of them disappeared after the first breeding
season, half of the remainder the second year, and the third
year they were all gone.

Unfavourable Habits. This is not altogether due to
foolish modes of liberating, but evidently to the habits of
the bird. Here is a typical case: C.H. Savage, of Storrs,
Connecticut, in 1911 had one pair on his farm with a brood
of young. These were seen frequently feeding in open fields
on a hilltop, where they were quite conspicuous. Their
first mishap was when three or four of them flew into a
wire fence, were more or less hurt, and one was so crippled
that it had to be killed. The others remained about, and
disappeared one by one, till in October there were said to be
only three left. Apparently they were an easy mark for
hawks and vermin. Comparing them with the bob-white,
in confinement, the quail hides upon the approach of danger,
while the partridge runs off squawking, thus exposing itself.
~ Lack of Natural Food. The food supply may be another
important factor. Our Eastern farmers now plant very
little small grain, and the average farm in winter affords
scant food supply. The lands from which these partridges

94 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

come to us are said to be notable for their grain crops. They
are largely eaters of seed and grain, and there live amid the
grainfields.

Conditions in Eastern Europe. An article descriptive of
this region, written by Mr. Larsen, of the game-exporting
firm of Loewith and Larsen, in The Game Breeder is very
instructive. In parts of eastern Europe where many thou-
sands of these partridges are netted for shipment to America,
the following are the conditions: The peasants live in com-
pact villages, not on their farm land, and go back and forth
to work. For miles there are uninterrupted stretches of
grain and crops, no houses to harbour rats or cats, no woods
to shelter foxes. The fields provide abundant food and
shelter. Young broods, undisturbed, grow up in thousands.
Here, on the other hand, they encounter winter starvation
and enemies on every hand combined with indiscriminate
gunning which is there prohibited.

Since the species has been brought here, it will be worth
while to use all possible measures to protect and establish
it, so following are some suggestions for management and
propagation:

Method of Liberating. When stock of this or other species
is to be liberated for natural breeding, there are certain
cautions which should be observed.

1. Birds should not be released in winter, in strange and
rigorous surroundings, when there is every prospect that
they will perish from hunger and cold.

2. They should not be released immediately upon being
received, especially if imported from abroad, or after any
long journey. Keep them and feed them a while, in suffi-
ciently large and comfortable quarters, till they are in good
physical condition.

3. Do not release them suddenly, orin alarm. The poor-

OTHER FOREIGN GALLINACEOUS SPECIES 95

est method is to take them afield, pull off the cover of the
crate, and see them whir off, like a shot fromacannon. The
chances are that they will never find one another and never
return to the desired location.

An Instance. Here is a method I once tried with a con-
signment of gray partridges: For about ten days they were
kept in a covered wire enclosure, in a retired place at the
edge of a suitable huckleberry pasture, bordering the woods.
They had plenty of grass and bushes, and of food and water.
One night, after feeding, I left the gate open, having scat-
tered grain outside. Next morning only a few had gone out,
and these were in the bushes close by. The others had not
cared to leave. They would walk to the gate, look out, and
goback. Finally I had to urge them gently from a distance,
till they stepped out and trotted to the bushes to join their
friends. They remained nearby and came back to the pen
regularly to feed. A field of buckwheat was planted near,
and the grain left to stand for their use in winter. Most of
them remained in the vicinity, and three nests, with from
fifteen to twenty eggs in each, were found in that same pas-
ture the next summer.

Difficult to Breed. Though easy to keep in confinement,
the gray partridge is a difficult species to breed under re-
straint. They are wild and restless by nature, and usually
do not tame at all. Even if kept for years in an enclosure,
they often remain as wild as ever. Whenever any one ap-
proaches, instead of hiding like the quail, they race about
or flutter, uttering their raucous cackle. ‘‘Fool birds” is a
term I have heard applied by many an observer. They have,
however, the virtue of not being very susceptible to the
enteric epidemics.

Hard to Mate. It is almost hopeless to expect them to
breed in a small yard or enclosure. They are very finicky

96 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

about mating, and must select their own partners. Arbi-
trary mating cannot be arranged, as with quails.

Nesting in Large Pen. One way to manage is to put out
a number in a good large enclosure, preferably of an acre or
more, and hardly less than half an acre, and let them mate
and nest there. One trouble, however, is that the males
. are terrible fighters, and another is that the sexes are hard
to tell apart. Generally the males are the more reddish
brown in their markings, but I have found that this does
not always hold, for some males, perhaps younger’ ones,
lacked the reddish markings. Another sign, only discerni-
ble by catching the birds, is that the males generally have the
under side of the wing nearly white and only faintly barred
with gray, while with the female it is more heavily barred.
Some cases, though, are indecisive. The size of the brown
patch on the abdomen is ot a distinguishing character.
So one is apt to get in more males than females, and then
there is no peace.

French System. The approved way of dodging the diffi-
culties is the French system. . In this there is a central field:
as above. Around it are built smaller pens, each of moder-
ate size, say 15 feet square, having a door or slide connected
with the field. In this field place a number of birds, at least
enough for a pair for each side pen, or more. Amid great
fighting the matings are made, and the mated pairs withdraw
into the smaller pens. There they can be shut in to breed,
or be caught and removed to other quarters, to make room
for others. The young can be hatched and reared with
bantams. They are fully as easy as pheasants to raise, and
are quite docile, unlike the parents. The latter, however,
unlike the quail, will usually rear theirown young. Some
breeders allow them to do this, as they do not usually lay
asecond clutch in a small enclosure, though sometimes they

Tinamou, the South American species bred by William Rockefeller

Gray or “Hungarian” partridges

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sty Aq dn Suny pure ‘ynonoeuu0d ul Joule} @ Aq JOYS sMoID jo ,,woosid ppm,, tediourd oy mou ‘sAop Zurmimoyy

OTHER FOREIGN GALLINACEOUS SPECIES 97

do this in a larger fenced field. On the other hand, the
young will thus grow up as shy as the parents. So if it
is desired to secure tamer stock which will breed better in
confinement, and be more inclined to stay on the land where
they were raised, it is well to rear the young with bantams.

German System. In Germany, on game preserves, where
there are plenty of these partridges in the wild state, they
have a very effective system for large increase of their num-
bers. It is also used with another species, called there
‘““wachtel,”’ comparable to our bob-white, and it would be
well worth trying out in America in connection with quail
propagation, especially on Southern preserves where the
birds breed commonly. It was described to me in detail by
Ludwig Seidler.

The unit of the system is a five-acre fenced field. Vermin
has been thoroughly trapped in the vicinity, and a fence 5
feet high is used. The ground should be arable agricultural
land, and it is fully planted with various garden crops best
adapted to supplying both vegetable and insect food to
young birds. While these are growing, nests with eggs are
hunted out afield. Trained dogs are used to locate them
and rewards are offered or finding them. Only fresh sets
are taken, so that the birds willlay again. Itis preferred to
find the nest while the bird is still laying, in which case a
couple of eggs are left in the nest, and the birds will often
continue laying indefinitely, as the eggs are regularly re-
moved. These eggs are hatched in incubators, and the
chicks are then given to bantams which are kept sitting for
that purpose. Of course the bantams could be used to
hatch the eggs if desired, which is preferable if there are
enough bantams on hand

After the young have learned the call of the hen they are
placed with her in a coop in the cultivated enclosure and are

98 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

allowed free range with her. Grain is given to the hens, but
the chicks receive no artificial food. With such rich forage
there is ample natural supply for them, which obviates dan-
ger of disease. When they begin to fly over the fence, they
are put back. Those that get out run along the wire and
are easily caught, especially after dusk, with a little electric
flash-light which blinds them. When they have all learned
to fly out, the bantam gets lonesome and flies over to join
them. They use light-weight, active bantams, which travel
about with the young and care for them on free range, not
returning any more to the rearing-field, which avoids the
danger from fouling the ground. This, of course, would
be impracticable without skilled handling of the vermin.
By autumn the bantams become as wild as the partridges,
and often can be caught only by shooting. In each such
enclosure from 1,000 to 1,200 birds are reared, and losses
are slight. Such fields can be duplicated as desired, but
there must be a keeper for each in attendance. ‘Toward
spring, when the breeding season approaches, in order to
scatter the birds over the preserve and break up the coveys,
the keepers chase them with horses and dogs. The whole
system is worked out thoroughly in every detail. They
know very nearly how many birds there are, and where each
covey is located. In the hunting season they kill only so
many, and leave the desired number for the next season’s
breeding. No wonder that they have game under such
management.

Adaptation to America. Sucha system, with slight modi-
fications to fit local needs, would seem to be an excellent one
for quails. It might possibly be adapted to the establish-
ment of the gray partridge in this country. Occasional
reports give some hope that the species might become nat-
uralized, especially through careful scientific methods, based

Box trap invented by Wallace Evans. Note spring-pan in centre and wire
blocking door

Ly Courtesy of Harry 7. Rogers

Four of the predatory cats shot by Harry T. Rogers after months of watch-
ing, which he estimates cost the State of New York $1,000 in the young
pheasants which they destroyed

Gray fox in steel trap caught by front paw

OTHER FOREIGN GALLINACEOUS SPECIES 99

upon study of the needs of the species. William L. Finley,
recently chief game warden of Oregon, says that it is increas-
ing in his State in the Willamette Valley. Ona large, suit-
able preserve, consisting of considerable agricultural land,
and where grain was planted, with winter feeding and also
trapping of vermin, together with the above method for
them and for quail in conjunction, the thing might be worked
out. Stock properly liberated, as above, would breed in the
vicinity. The nests could be found and the rest of the
method carried out. Young birds raised with bantams and
thus cared for would tend to outnumber the sources of de-
struction and remain upon the land. After a few generations
the species might secure the adaptability to maintain itself,
especially as it is hardy and vigorous.

CHAPTER VII

PIGEONS AND DOVES

Lesson from Passenger Pigeon. What is supposed to
have been the last surviving passenger pigeon on earth died
in the Cincinnati Zodlogical Gardens, September 1, 1914,
and thus another notable species has evidently perished from
the earth. Had “applied ornithology” been in vogue even
thirty years ago this notable bird might have been saved to
posterity. Itwaseasily kept and propagated in confinement.
At the least, it might have been saved like the buffalo,
and with determination even more might have been done.
It is too late, but there are still other species of this Order of
Columbae.

Mourning Dove. The mourning dove is an allied species
so similar in appearance to its extinct relative that many
people still mistake it for the latter. It is still found over
much of North America, though often in small numbers.
Thirty years ago it was a popular game-bird, but the fate
of the passenger pigeon has so alarmed the public that in
many States it cannot now be lawfully hunted. Despite
protection in some quarters, it is evidently shot ruthlessly
elsewhere, or in defiance of law, for in some regions, espe-
cially the Eastern States, it is scarce and waning.

An Experiment. This species could probably be made
abundant artificially if the laws permitted and if the bird-
loving public were encouraged to assist. Recently I talked
with Ernest A. Watts, keeper of the great aviary of Mrs. F.

tao

PIGEONS AND DOVES 101

F. Thompson at Canandaigua, New York. He was breed-
ing successfully a number of foreign kinds of doves and
pigeons, but no American species, because the laws forbade.
As a matter of curiosity he had in time past elsewhere ex-
perimented with the mourning dove on a small scale. Tak-
ing some eggs of this species, he had substituted them for
those of tame pigeons. The birds hatched and raised these
young doves, and he found them just as amenable to artifi-
cial conditions as other kinds. They are fed like other
pigeons on small grain, are hardy, and without doubt would
breed well.

The next stage would be to let some go free, and experi-
ment to see if they could not be made to breed on the prem-
ises in the natural state, holding them to the vicinity by
regular feeding. They are hardy, and might not migrate
if fed. In case they did, the natural homing instinct would
be likely to bring them back.

Other Species. Another interesting species is the band-
tailed pigeon of the Pacific Coast and the Southwestern
States. Itis a large and valuable species, and must be quite
hardy, as it is found as far north as British Columbia. The
terrible slaughter to which it has been subjected has aroused
general indignation. Here is another species notably worthy
of practical interest.

A number of other species, probably less hardy and not
suited to northern climes, are found in southern Florida
and on the Mexican border. The tiny ground dove, which
ventures regularly as far north as North Carolina, is a tame
and gentle little bird, and in the South could doubtless be
readily propagated.

Foreign Species. Various foreign species are bred in
America in aviaries. Wallace Evans, William Rockefeller,
and others breed the wood pigeon of Europe, which is a

102 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

large, hardy species. It is problematical, of course, what
would become of them if liberated.

Elastic Laws Needed. Protective laws are valuable and
important, but should be made elastic enough to encourage
all reasonable and proper efforts to increase wild birds.

CHAPTER VIII

CONTROL OF VERMIN

A Popular Fallacy. A popular fallacy is that all that it is
necessary to do to increase bird life is to set apart a tract of
wild land as a refuge, and prohibit trespass and shooting.
At the start there are probably few birds, and after ten
years there might not be any more. One reason is that the
average wild land abounds with destructive vermin Hawks
and owls, which are the principal natural check upon the
smaller mammals, have been so reduced in numbers that
rats and other vermin abound. True they kill some birds,
but they eat more of the enemies of the birds. Because we
have upset the balance of nature, we have to help restore it
by checking the abnormal increase of vermin.

Practical Suggestions. This chapter does not pretend to
be a complete treatise on trapping, but only is intended to
point out some of the accepted practical methods by which
vermin is controlled on successful preserves and estates.
Traps, guns, and poison are the implements of war which
are effective mostly in proportion to the knowledge and dis-
cretion employed in their use.

Hawk Traps. Notwithstanding the fact that raptorial
birds destroy much four-legged vermin, we cannot sit idly
by if they are actually invading our premises and are de-
stroying the birds we are trying to produce. The easiest way
to catch marauders of this class is based upon the fact that
before pouncing they usually alight upon some commanding

103

104 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

site nearby. Small round steel traps set upon top of poles
by breeding-pens, rearing-fields, or other open places are
very effective. No bait is required. These should not be
set in summer, as they will then catch useful small birds.
Wind the jaws with cloth or rubber, so as not to break the
legs of birds caught. Hawks that are persistent in summer
are quite sure to be nesting in the vicinity. The nests are
platforms of sticks in tall trees in the woods. If these are
hunted out and destroyed, the disturbers will usually depart.

Box Trap. Where there are wire fences, vermin will
usually follow the wire, trying to enter. Where ducks are
kept, which do not get out, steel traps can be set just outside
the wire. This will not do where there are gallinaceous birds
which fly out and try to get back. In this case box-trap ar-
rangements are best. Evans and Rogers both use a similar
device, the principle of which Evans invented. The follow-
ing is the model used by Rogers: The trap is rectangular
in shape, a frame covered with wire. One end is occupied
by a drop door, sliding up and down in metal grooves.
About the middle of the trap inside, extending nearly across,
is a metal sheet, about 6 to 8 inches wide, which is hinged at
the bottom. A piece of stout wire attached to the upper
edge of this, in the middle, is cut just long enough so that
when this sheet or pan is raised, sloping back at an angle of
about 30°, the wire will just reach up to block the bottom
of the door when fully raised. If anything enters and steps
on the pan, forcing it down, this will pull the end of the wire
out from under the door, which will then drop and imprison
the creature. Escaped birds can be caught with this as well
as vermin.

Another. The model in use on the Evans’ Game Farm is
similar to the above, except that when the intruder steps
on the pan, instead of pulling the wire directly from the door,

CONTROL OF VERMIN 105

it releases the bottom end of a vertical rod, which has a hori-
zontal extension from its top to block the door, as with
the other model. From the junction of the vertical with the
horizontal rod a spring is attached and to the back of the
trap. The bottom of the perpendicular rod has a tooth or
groove which is held by the spring against the pan. When
the pan is forced down the lower rod is released, so the
spring can pull back the horizontal rod and let down the
door.

Pitfall. Another device which Evans uses along his wire
fence is a pitfall arrangement. A pit 4} feet deep is dug
just outside the fence. Over the part closest to the wire is
a wooden covered passage. At each approach is a balanced
board weighted at the outside end. These boards meet in
the middle of the passage over the centre of the pit. The
animal gets past the divide and the board tips down and
drops the victim into the abyss, springing back into
place. Outside the passage the pit is boarded over by a trap-
door, through which to remove the captives. Some morn-
ings there are strange collections of uncongenials in the pit—
cats, rats, skunks, and what not, too much scared to fight.

Clover-leaf Trap. Another effective device, which might
be called the “clover-leaf trap,” is used by Frank Hopkins,
A. G. MacVicar, and others. It is a wire mesh labyrinth,
in the shape of a four-leaf clover, the lobes almost meeting in
the centre. At the bottom of one of these indentations
there is a small opening at the ground, just large enough to
admit whatever vermin or birds one expects to trap. It
need be only 2 feet high and about 6 feet across, the wire
being held in place by small stakes. It is covered on top,
but has there a door, through which to reach captives. Bait
is put inside, and for birds a trail of grain is laid to the en-
trance. The victims enter readily, but seldom discover the

106 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

way out. This can be used to capture escaped birds as
well as vermin.

General Trapping. Whether there are wired enclosures
or not, there should be a plan of general trapping carried on.
Burrows of skunks should be hunted out and steel traps set
in them. Skunks and foxes like to run in furrows, and a
plough can be run around and steel traps set in the depres-
sion. A very good way to outwit the fox, so suspicious of
traps, is to select warm spring holes or pools in the woods,
and out in the middle, or about a yard from shore, put a bit
of meat on a stake, just out of water. About a convenient
step from shore set the steel trap just below the surface,
placing on the pan a piece of moss which projects from the
water like a little island. The fox does not like to wet his
feet, and is very apt to step out on the moss to reach the
meat. This might interest Mr. Coon also. The raccoon is
a great destroyer of nests of eggs and young, and is always
hunting for them. If there are coons about, they can also
be hunted with dogs at night.

Mink Trap. Weasels and minks are destructive, blood-
thirsty creatures, destroying for the mere love of slaughter.
If one gets into a coop or pen it may kill everything there
before it leaves. Minks are caught by the professional
trappers, especially along brooks, by setting steel traps under
water by the margin, putting bait of apple or meat handy
on a stick or under a steep bank, arranging matters so that
the animal has to go through where the trap is to reach it.

Weasel Trap. Weasels like to run through holes and
dark passages and are apt to have regular runways. These
can be detected best by their tracks after snowfalls, and
traps can be set. A good way is to pile up some brush and
leave a covered passage or hole through it underneath. A
trap used very successfully on the Childs-Walcott preserve

CONTROL OF VERMIN 107

is constructed as follows: Four rather narrow boards about
a yard long are nailed together to make a narrow conduit or
passage. A board ona pivot, like a teeter, is balanced in the
middle and is set with the end resting down at the front
entrance of the trap, making an inclined walk uphill. Un-
der the near end is a short piece of strong wire, loosely hung,
and lying flat when the board is down. This trap is set in
the tunnel under the brush heap or in the weasel runway,
with a slight fence or obstruction built off on each side.
The weasel runs in up the board, which tilts down when it
crosses the middle, raising the front end of the balanced
board up to the top of the passage, closing the entrance.
The recumbent wire hangs down and keeps the board from
going back. There is wire mesh across the farther end, and
the weasel isshutin. On the above estate they caught with
this device large numbers of weasels.

Hole-in-fence Trap. An excellent adaptation of the
principle of this weasel trap was suggested to me by Ludwig
Seidler, who also introduced the above trap from Germany.
The idea is to cut a hole in the wire fence of the pen or rear-
ing-field leading into a wire chamber. This trap, or one of
larger size, is placed at the entrance to this chamber. Of
course some other box-trap arrangement could_be used in-
stead. A fox following the wire and seeing a box trap set
beside the fence is apt to go aroundit. If Reynard, however,
sees a hole in the fence, he joyfully enters and gets caught.
This device is said to be very effective with all sorts of four-
legged vermin.

Stone-pile Trap. Mr. Seidler has furnished also the
description of another trap in use on German preserves, said
to be especially effective for weasels, rats, and small vermin.
Along hedges, in corners of the preserve, or in woods, are the
places to locate it. Select a slight elevation, or make one,

108 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

only high enough to avoid flooding in rainstorms. Either
out of weather-beaten boards or flat stones, on top of this
elevation, make a rough box or chamber, just large enough
to hold comfortably the sort of animal it is designed to catch.
The top should be broad enough to keep out rain, and should
be removable, either a flat stone or a wide piece of board with
stones on it. Stones are piled around the box, to suggest
an ordinary stone-heap, but there should be passageways
built through the stones leading up to entrances to the
chamber near the top. Chaff is placed on the floor, and a
steel spring-trap is set in this. The animal follows the
tunnel, jumps down into the chamber, which is not deep,
and gets caught. Nobaitisneeded. The trap is examined
by lifting the cover. This will work well also for animals
the size of skunks, if the trap is made large enough. Anum-
ber of such traps should be maintained over the preserve.

Stray Cats. The domestic cat is one of the worst kinds
of “‘vermin” with which one has to deal in increasing birds.
The various devices suitable for such animals will usually
reap a harvest of felines. It is astonishing how many cats
have taken to the woods, and are running wild and raising
wild offspring. On the Howell preserve, in a very remote
and mountainous section of Connecticut, eleven miles from
the nearest large town, Winsted, the keeper, William Whisk-
er, told me he had killed nearly 200 of these semi-wild
cats. Many people would be astonished if they knew how
many miles their pussy, so quiet and demure in the daytime,
had roamed by night, and how much game it had killed in
ayear. °

Humanitarian Movement. The growing movement to
limit and control the number of cats is not a crusade against
pets, but is based upon motives of humanity and mercy.
There are thousands of homeless, hungry cats, in city,

CONTROL OF VERMIN 109

town, and country. These are giving birth to multitudes
more, born to a wretched, suffering existence. Many
people move away and leave their cats uncared for in town
in summer, or abandon them at their summer place when
they return to town. Such practices are barbarous and
reprehensible. Not only are they cruel to the cats, but
they are contributing to the destruction of the valuable
bird life of the nation. It would be eminently proper and
merciful to have cats licensed, the number limited which
a person is allowed to keep, and organized effort made to
put mercifully out of the way the unowned residue.

Rat Nuisance. Another nuisance and menace is from
rats. These have proved the undoing of many an effort
to propagate wild birds. It is hopeless to try where rats
areabundant. Cats have their proper place in the domestic
economy to reduce this pest, yet well-directed trapping and
poisoning can usually be made effective. The time to get
after rats is in winter, when they are driven into buildings
by the cold. In warm weather they scatter out into fields
and woods, where it is next to impossible to catch them.
They prove the despair. of the keeper who does not attend
to them in winter while they can be reached. There are
various good rat traps on the market accessible to all.
A bulletin on the destruction of rats, by E. H. Forbush,
giving full detail of methods of destroying rats, is published
by the State Board of Agriculture, State House, Boston,
Massachusetts. See also Farmers’ Bulletin No. 369, ‘‘How
to Destroy Rats,” by the U. 5. Department of Agticulture,
Washington.

Points from Evans. Wallace Evans made the suggestion
to me that rats often refuse to enter a trap which is out in
plain sight, whereas they would enter if it were covered over
with a pile of burlap or nearly any other obstruction. Be-

110 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

sides their being in buildings in winter, he finds large num-
bers of them in stacks of straw, grain, hay, or piles of rubbish.
When he removes one of these in winter he has his trained
dog on hand and several men with clubs. The rats run out
and are struck or caught by the dog. Sometimes they killa
large number in this way.

Method of Rogers. A good dog is useful to trail maraud-
ing animals to their dens. Harry T. Rogers has such a dog
which is an expert in this line. He finds dynamite also a
good ally, as in the case of persistent weasels, which keep
returning and destroying numbers of his pheasants. The
dog trails the weasel to its hole, which is apt to be near a
tree, with the den usually under the outer ends of the roots.
Estimating where he thinks the den is, with a crowbar he
punches four holes, in a square of about 6 to 8 feet. Ineach
of these he sets off a pound stick of dynamite, and he says
he has never had the animal return after such treatment.
This is usually in summer when the weasel has young, and
thus he destroys the family.

Methods of MacVicar. I was shown by A. G. MacVicar
the methods by which he cleaned up a preserve which had
become infested with rats. In brief, he began in early winter
a systematic campaign, with steel and box traps and ferret.
First he searched out rat-holes, in which snowfalls helped,
revealing the tracks. When the rodents get used to one sort
of trap, he changes to another. His tame ferret proves the
most effective agency of all. He described how, when he
first put it under the house, the rats poured out like a swarm
of fleas. A well-trained terrier he finds very useful on such
occasions. An energetic campaign of this sort, when one
makes a business of it, works wonders.

Get after Vermin. A system for general wholesale poison-
ing has been described in the chapter on the wild turkey.

CONTROL OF VERMIN III

Such a plan should be tried, if at all, only in very wild re-
gions, and not where it is contrary to law. In general, how-
ever, too much stress cannot possibly be laid on the destruc-
tion of vermin. Persistent, unremitting pursuit will yield
surprising results, and will often cause the desired species
of birds or game to become more abundant in a compara-
tively shorter time than one would have believed it pos-
sible.

PART II

THE PROPAGATION OF WILD
WATERFOWL

CHAPTER Ix

WILD DUCKS
a. Methods with Adults

Delight of Breeding Wildfowl. The keeping and breeding
of various species of wild waterfowl, especially wild ducks,
is one of the most fascinating of all forms of applied orni-
thology. Usually these wildfowl are considered so exceed-
ingly shy that nothing more can be expected than a distant
glimpse as the flock, keenly alive to approaching danger,
springs from the pond or marsh, and swiftly vanishes into
the gathering gloom of the evening sky. The high passing
wedge of wild geese, heralded by weird honkings, as in early
spring it passes poleward, seems a thing of mystery, almost
like a glimpse from the spirit-world. Yet these same fright-
ened ducks can be made to swim trustingly and happily
before one on the little pond, and those wild geese to breed
contentedly in the farmer’s meadow and eat corn at his feet.

Feasibility. The simplicity of the keeping of wildfowl is
one of the delightful surprises in store, though it must
be borne in mind that there will be failure unless certain

. fundamental principles are carefully carried out. About all
that is needed is a little pond or brook, especially in a quiet,
sheltered place and with some marshy ground, perhaps a
simple open-front poultry-shed, and a cheap wire fence.
The food also is simple and easy to provide. It is easy to
maintain the birds in health, when properly handled, for

116 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

they are hardy, and seldom have epidemics comparable to
those of the gallinaceous birds, though similar disasters may
occur if the water is allowed to become foul and stagnant,
and reasonable sanitation is not observed. The young also
are comparatively easy to rear. In suitable surroundings,
particularly on large estates, wild ducks can be maintained
in the natural wild state, free to come or go, and yet be
induced to remain and partake of their master’s bounty.
By certain methods the flying wedge of certain varieties of
wildfowl may be made to descend to feed at the owner’s feet,
and later will pair off and lay eggs in their downy nests’in
the grass by his pond, or in the boxes, as in the case of wood
ducks, which he may put up for their convenience.

Any one who has even the facilities of a city backyard,
with a cement basin and a little shrubbery could have a few
pairs of pinioned wild ducks which would breed in happy
contentment. F. N. Manross, of Forestville, Connecticut,
has a little artificial basin under the windows of his factory,
surrounded by some thick low shrubbery and a wire fence.
There a pair of beautiful wood ducks, regardless of noise or
human presence, each year raise a brood of young, and fur-
nish their owner delightful distraction from business cares.
Asteam pipe keeps the water partly open in winter, and there
they live the year round, with no shelter other than shrub-
bery and a small box. In another part of the same yard he
has a couple of pairs of Canada geese, originally wild, which
live there in perfect contentment.

Types of Wild Ducks. At the outset, for the sake of
clearness, it will be well to state that there are two main and
distinct classes of ducks, which have strong diversities and
require somewhat different methods of treatment. The
A. O. U. Check List gives them as River Ducks and Sea
Ducks, though the latter are not confined to the sea nor the

WILD DUCKS 117

former to fresh water. There are also other popular designa-
tions, such as, for the first class, fresh-water, pond, or marsh
ducks, and, for the second, salt-water, bay, or diving ducks.

Classified. Following is a list of our native wild ducks,
classified as above:

River Ducks: mallard, black duck, Florida duck,
gadwall, baldpate, green-winged teal, blue-winged teal,
cinnamon teal (western), shoveller, pintail, and wood duck.

Sea Ducks: redhead, canvasback, greater scaup duck,
lesser scaup duck, ring-necked duck, golden-eye, Barrow’s
golden-eye, bufflehead, old-squaw, harlequin duck, eider,
northern eider, king eider, velvet scoter, white-winged
scoter, surf scoter, and ruddy duck. The latter in habits
partakes of both classes. The scaups are popularly known
as “blue-bills” or “‘broad-bills,” and the scoters as ‘‘sea-
coots.””

Edible Ducks. Of these classes, the first comprises most
of the edible species. In the second category the canvas-
back, redhead, ruddy duck, and scaups are esteemed for food,
especially the first two. The rest are more or less strong
and fishy, though eaten by those who like them. There are
also the mergansers, also called sheldrakes or fish-ducks,
which are in still another class, and are rather dubious for
eating purposes. The river ducks are especially the kinds
to propagate artificially, though beginnings have been made
with a few of the sea ducks, especially the redhead.

Quarters for Wildfowl. A small pond of some sort is
the key to the situation. If only a few ducks are to be kept,
it may be very small, a mere puddle. It is well, however, to
provide for change of water. Stagnant water in hot
weather is not good, and is more likely than anything else
to start distemper, especially if the birds are at all crowded.
An ideal arrangement is a small pond with an inlet and out-

118 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

let. Not only is the water thus kept pure, but the flow
brings in small water-insect life, upon which waterfowl
especially thrive. For a few fowl a section of a brook may
be wired off, together with some surrounding land. In this
case care must be taken to sink the wire mesh in the stream
to the bottom, to prevent the birds from diving under the
wire. Another arrangement may be to dam a stream, and
excavate, if necessary, a small pond. If there is no natural
water supply, this can be supplied by artificial means.
ASmall Pond. For an undertaking to breed or keep wild-
fowl, a ‘small pond is much better than a large one. A large
pond is apt to harbour large turtles, which are death to
ducklings, and even attack ducks of good size. Large fish,
especially black bass and pickerel, and blacksnakes are also
dangerous. A small body of water may be drained off if
necessary, dynamited, or otherwise freed from enemies,
though in such a place enemies are less likely to be found.
With a large area of water it is harder to keep track of the
birds or to find their nests in breeding time. A pond cover-
ing an acre is a good size, and three acres is amply large.
About fifty breeding ducks to each acre of pond is enough.
It is a great advantage if the pond is partly surrounded
by marsh, or at least has some marsh on part of its border.
There should also be growth of long grass and weeds ad-
joining, and also some shrubbery. About two acres of such
to an acre of water is about right. A pond with a moderate
area of reeds or flags growing from the water is a treasure.
The deep-water or diving ducks, such as redhead and canvas-
back, habitually build their nests in such areas, out in the
water, on floating bogs or amid aquatic vegetation, and in
such surroundings they are much more likely to breed. If
there is no aquatic vegetation in the ponds, it is an excellent
plan to transplant it from some other marsh. If natural

gees.

y the Courtesy of Fohn Winter

Photograph 6

Wild ducks in Texas, showing opportunities for protection

Photograph by the Courtesy of Fohn Heywood

Swans in winter on Heywood Estate, Gardner, Massachusetts, showing how
waterfowl keep open a hole in the ice

Photograph by Thorn L. German

Mallards at feeding time, Clove Valley Club

Young mallards raised at Clove Valley Club, New York, 1914

WILD DUCKS 119

duck-feed, like wild rice or wild celery, can be started, so
much the better, though ducks on a small pond are apt to
exterminate it.

Islands. Out in the great wildfowl-breeding country of
the Northwest there is no location more certain to harbour
the nests of wild ducks than islets in lonely lakes, preferably
overgrown with a tangle of low vegetation or thick grass.
On one such grassy island in a large lake in Saskatchewan
A. C. Bent and I found, in June, 1905, over one hundred
wild ducks’ nests. In the grass or under low bushes were
nesting the pintail, mallard, gadwall, baldpate, shoveller,
blue-winged, green-winged, and cinnamon teals, greater and
lesser scaups. White-winged scoters and American mer-
gansers were flying about and certainly had nests. In the
rushes just out from shore we found nests of the canvasback
and redhead, and the ruddy duck also was nesting there-
On the island I saw a brood of young Canada geese with
their parents. So here, on one rather small island, were
nesting sixteen species of native American wildfowl.

Islands are naturally so popular as nesting-sites that in a
pond-for artificial rearing it would be an admirable feature
if there could be,at least one island overgrown with thick
grass and weeds. Where there are no islets, such might be
constructed or some substitute afforded. An ingenious
device is used on the Walcott estate in the main wildfowl
pond. Here and there posts have been driven in the water,
some rods out from shore, and board platforms have been
built, just far enough out of water to be safe from flooding
in heavy rains. Sloping boardwalks lead up from the water.
The platforms resemble islands, being fixed up with corn-
stalks, rushes, grass, and brush. They prove to be popular
nesting-places for both ducks and geese.

Avoid the Artificial, About the worst possible arrange-

120 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

ment for a wildfowl breeding pond is to have the banks
stoned up and steep, and all the surroundings cleared up
for ornamental purposes. Waterfowl like to wade ashore
in shallow water, and most kinds nest in low, thick cover.

Shelter. Atleast part of the pond should be sheltered from
the cold winds, from west to north. Here a protecting bank
is all right. It is well if the pond lies under shelter of woods or
a grove. Otherwise thick hedges, say of evergreen or other
tangle, should be planted, just back from exposed shores.
These should not, however, be continuous, as opportunity
should be given for breeding birds to retire into thick grass
or weeds back from the shore, as some kinds normally nest
in such locations.

Fencing. As would be expected, the area in which the
ducks are kept must be fenced with wire, with a view, in this
case, nearly as much to keeping out vermin as to retaining
the ducks inside. Ordinarily the stock is either pinioned or
wing-clipped, which will be discussed later. There is no
necessity, as with gallinaceous birds, to alternate the ground,
if overcrowding is avoided, so the fence may be permanent.
Though a very low fence will keep in waterfowl, foxes can
jump or climb six feet, and occasionally more. Eight feet
is a good height, though some risk it at five or six. For
other details of fencing, see Part I.

Ground Around Pond. The fence should never be built
close around the pond, but always some distance back,
preferably concealed by underbrush. Various species of
ducks, notably the pintail, shoveller, gadwall, widgeon, teal,
and others, in the wild state nest preferably in thick grass,
weeds, or low brush, well back from the water. On the
Western prairies I have found nests of the pintail in the dry
grass about a mile from the nearest slough. Hence there
should be a good area of open land enclosed with the slough

WILD DUCKS 121

or the part of the pond fenced off. At the very least there
should be 30 feet of long grass and tangle back from the shore,
and 100 feet would be better. Another good plan would be
to have the fence at least 30 to 40 feet back around the
pond, and at one end an acre or two of meadow or pasture
in the same enclosure.

Winter Shelter. During the greater part of the year
waterfowl need no shelter whatever. For the most part
they stay on the water, sunning themselves at times along
the water’s edge. When the pond begins to freeze they
gather in a flock, and, by swimming around at night, keep
open a small area. Ordinarily a duck is comfortable if it
can keep its feet from freezing, and as long as it can stay
in the water it is all right. Some owners of waterfowl keep
their birds entirely in the open throughout the year. Usu-
ally the birds prefer to stay in the water, and will not go
voluntarily to any house or shelter unless driven out of the
pond. When there is an inlet or outlet, and hence a current,
the water does not freeze readily, and the fowl will take ad-
vantage of this and select such a spot to keep the water open.

Extreme Cold too Severe. During some winters, how-
ever, there are very severe spells, during which it is exceed-
ingly difficult to keep ducks from freezing in the ice during
the night. In January and February, 1914, there were two
such spells in Connecticut and elsewhere, when the tempera-
ture dropped well below zero for several days. On several
estates a number of the smaller or weaker ducks perished.
On the Childs-Walcott estate, Norfolk, Connecticut, at high
elevation, where the mercury dropped to 30° below zero,
the shovellers, which have a long fringe of bristles on the
upper mandible, had their bills freeze up every time they
dipped them in the water, and they were alllost. The stock
was kept out in water where a brook flowed into the pond,

122 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

but even here the keeper had to keep breaking the ice to free
the ducks. At the end of the last spell they were nearly ex-
hausted. Wild ducks, starving, came in and died on the
pond. Finally an epidemic of pneumonia broke out, and a
large number died, predisposed to disease by exhaustion and
weakness.

On the seacoast, and in latitudes where the climate is mod-
erate, it is well enough to keep the fowl out on the water all
winter, as they remain hardy and in good condition to breed.
Where the climate is very severe, even though the ducks
come through the winter, their vitality is sometimes so ex-
hausted that it seems to give a setback to breeding.

Learning from Experience. This winter, 1914-5, at Nor-
folk a different plan is being tried. A sheltered paddock has
been constructed, just inshore from where the ducks have
their swimming-hole. A grove backs it to the north and
west, and in addition a high fence of cornstalk thatch has
been made. Close up under this fence, facing south, are low
thatched shelters, with litter on the ground. Nowand then
the fowl] are fed under these shelters, and food is left there for
them. They have learned now to use these of their own ac-
cord in severe weather. The keeper closes the gate at night,
especially to keep out foxes, and, when the weather moder-
ates, breaks the ice for them. Already the temperature has
-been 24° below zero, but not a duck appears to have suffered.

On the estate of E. C. Converse: at Greenwich, Connecti-
cut, the stock of young wild ducks, which stayed out on the
pond through the severe winter of 1914, mostly survived,
but seemed weakened. This winter E. Aubry, in charge, is
treating them like his Pekin ducks. Canvasbacks and all
have learned to go of their own accord into a house, and are
let out to swim during daytime. They are receiving a
stimulating diet, and are looking splendidly.

Wiey sued) SURAT UO pasiel syoNp Yor]q pue spreyyeyy

SUBIT 29077044 ULoLL Yv«Sojzoyd

Henry Cook feeding some of his wild ducks. In this pond at this time
he had nearly 200 ducks, representing twenty-six species

Mallards raised by a farmer in Connecticut, adding to
revenue of the farm

WILD DUCKS 123

Method of Henry Cook. Henry Cook, of Woodbury,
Long Island, New York, who has a fine collection of some
thirty kinds of wild ducks on a small pond, has adopted such
amethod. Finding it hard to chase them out of the water,
especially the diving species, he has, at the north end of the
pond, a stone wall built out into the water, enclosing a very
small area of the pond, only enough to allow the couple of
hundred ducks he has to be all in the water at the same time.
There is a gate connecting with the pond. Before very cold
weather he begins feeding the ducks inside this enclosure.
When the pond begins to freeze he closes the gate when the
ducks are in to feed. Then he can wade out with rubber
boots and drive them all out of the water and into the poultry
house in thesame yard, which faces south. No artificial heat
is used. The ducks are kept in a rather small apartment,
so that they will huddle together. On the floor it is well to
have litter or chaff so that they can protect their feet, which
are the vulnerable parts. In the morning, after the sun is
well up, he breaks and scoops out the ice which has formed
during the night in the small enclosure, and lets the ducks
have their swim during the day. When the weather is
moderate they are allowed to spend the night in the water,
the house being used only for emergency. In this way the
losses in wintering are small. Some such plans as these for
our northerly districts, with their great-extremes of cold, are
doubtless correct.

Delicate Species. Only a few kinds of ducks are unable
to endure low temperatures. Of our native North American
ducks the blue-winged teal seems to be the most delicate,
and the gadwall is rather tender, though with some shelter
it survives Northern winters. Sometimes they get through
the winter if they are housed at night, but they are apt to
die off merely from the cold. “Mr. Cook finds that though

124 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

the adult tree ducks, from Mexico and farther south, are
hardy enough to stand the cold, their full-grown young,
which he raises, sometimes die in severe cold snaps, even in
the house. Other kinds stand the cold quite well.

Of course a house might be arranged so it could be warmed
slightly in severe weather, but ordinarily this is unnecessary,
and such coddling, except for the few tender species, is liable
to be overdone, and to make the stock less hardy. Every-
thing depends upon local conditions whether shelter is
necessary. It is always well, however, to have near the
shore some covered frames or evergreen thatch, in case the
fowl should need to use them.

Securing Stock. Stock should be obtained in late fall or
early winter, if the birds are to breed the following season.
At this season dealers can usually supply moderate numbers
of various kinds of ducks and geese. Mallards are cheapest,
from $3 to $4 a pair, pintails and black ducks a little higher,
other kinds ranging up to $15 or $18 a pair, and occasionally
more. Most of the native stock, except mallards and wood
ducks, consists of adult birds captured wild, which are much
harder to breed than birds raised in captivity. Eggs of wild
ducks hatch well in incubators or under hens or tame ducks,
and the young of most kinds are not hard to raise when one
knows how. All such enterprises should be conducted un-
der lawful regulation, securing more adequate legislation, if
such be needed.

Monogamy vs. Polygamy. Ducks in the wild state are
normally monogamous, so in purchasing stock even numbers
of males and females should be secured. A seeming excep-
tion is in the case of the mallard. The ordinary stock is
distinctly polygamous, and can be bred three to five females
to one drake. This is in common with domesticated breeds
of ducks. Iam inclined to believe that all mallards which

WILD DUCKS 125

are polygamous have in them moreor less of the domesticated
strain. Some English records, according to Mr. Walcott,
indicate that other species also of wild ducks tend to become
polygamous in captivity.

Polygamy Abnormal. Henry Cook and his son-in-law,
A.N. Frey, who have for years kept wild ducks of more than
thirty kinds, including mallards caught wild, and have bred
about twenty species of these, unite in testifying that they
have never observed + single case of true polygamy. Mr.
Frey writes me: ‘‘We have both failed to notice this habit
(polygamy) even among the mallards (birds caught wild).
Like all wild ducks they are strictly monogamous. It may
be that the trait you mention could be developed in our own
mallards under protracted domestication, since it obviously
exists in their distant relatives, the barnyard mallards. On
the other hand, a hybridizing tendency, such as a cinnamon
teal leaving its mate for a wood duck, and females in want
of males of their own species seeking the male of another,
only to be refused, attracted our attention. In short, we
have not noticed one instance of polygamy.”

Receiving Stock. All waterfowl stock will come either
Pinioned or wing-clipped, so there is nothing further to do
in that line. The one caution to emphasize is that for at
least a week or ten days after shipment fowl should not be
turned out on the water. The plumage is then dried out and
disarranged, and it takes some time to restore it to the nor-
mal waterproof condition. If allowed the usual aquatic
privileges at first, the birds are liable to become bedraggled
and chilled. In case they arrive in poor condition, they
should be kept from water for a longer period, sometimes
three weeks, until restored. Give the new stock at first
some extra nourishing food—some mash, scraps of raw meat,
or green food. If they need to clean themselves at first,

126 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

they may have a pan of water on a sunny morning, when not
too cold, and later more frequently, until let out on the pond.

Pinioning vs. Wing-clipping. The problem with water-
fowl hinges upon inducing them to breed under artificial
conditions. Some species have never yet been known to
produce fertile eggsin captivity, even though they may mate.
Anything which would tend to prevent or retard the breeding
function should be avoided. There is no question but that
the operation of pinioning, or removing the last wing-joint
permanently to prevent flight, does this to some extent. It
affects the female more than the male, and often prevents
her from breeding the next season when it does not affect
him. In the case of species hard to breed, it is best to err
on the safe side. The flight feathers are shed and renewed
only in mid-summer. As they keep growing out, it may be
necessary to repeat the clipping. At best catching ducks is
a troublesome undertaking in a pond of any size, so many
prefer to pinion the stock, but there is wide divergence of
opinion in this matter. It makes no difference with the
ordinary mallards, for they are sure to breed anyhow. Some
experimenters who have been successful with various other
species say that by judicious forcing methods of feeding the
bad effects of pinioning can finally be nullified, among whom
are Messrs. Cox and Cook. The young are in no way injured
by pinioning.

How to Pinion. To pinion an adult bird, raise the little
bastard wing or thumb of the wing, and tie a cord tightly
around the bone of the wing at the last joint, well up under
the thumb. Have ready some tannic acid, which is in pow-
der form. With a pair of stout sharp shears or scissors clip
off the bone close below the cord, removing all, or certainly
nearly all, of the primary quills. At once take a pinch of
the tannic acid and press it firmly into the wound, to check

WILD DUCKS 127

the bleeding. Some use boric acid or powdered calomel.
The cord should be removed a few days later, when the
wound is healing. Some advocate removing only part of
the joint so as to leave about half of the primaries, allowing
the bird to fly a little, though not high. This is so it can
escape better from enemies, and is on the theory that it will
feel more contented and be more likely to breed. I confess
to being rather dubious about this, as birds partly pinioned
are more apt to escape and perish.

Pinioning Young. Pinioning the young is a very simple
affair. The best time to do it, if they are in good condition,
is when they are from four days toa week old. Should they
seem delicate, it is better to wait till they are thriving. At
the early period there is hardly any blood in the wing, and
most operators simply snip off the joint, dip the end in the
acid preparation, and let the bird go. Hardly a drop of
blood escapes, and the youngster seems to suffer very little
pain or inconvenience. Some use the ligature as above, and
this must be done if the operation is much delayed.

Trapping. General trapping of vermin in the vicinity
should be carried on, and traps set outside the wire, as de-
scribed in Part I. A few of the posts of the fence should be
continued to the height of about a dozen feet, and small
round spring traps set on top for visiting hawks and owls.
The great horned owl is very destructive of ducks, and one
should get busy at the first sign of his presence.

Food for Adults. All breeders use grain as the principal
food, with some variations, and usually some forcing food
during and before the breeding season. This is frequently
a rather rich mash with some beef or fish dried scrap, or else
some form of fresh fish food, and green vegetation also.
Adult ducks are commonly fed morning and night.

The grain used may be ordinary mixed grain or scratch-

128 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

feed. Components used by various workers are wheat,
barley, buckwheat, whole or cracked corn, kaffir corn, whole
oats,sunflower seed. It is not well to feed corn very heavily,
but more can be given in cold weather, especially whole
cornatnight. Grit should always be on hand, mixed with a
little ground charcoal, and also ground oyster shells.

Care in Feeding. Care should be taken to give only as
much grain as will be eaten up clean when fed. Letting
grain lie around is a very bad practice. It sours and is bad
for the ducks, causing disease, and draws rats from near and
far. Cracked corn sours especially soon, and should be fed
in moderation and kept cleaned up. A good practice is to
feed the ducks in shallow water near shore, at a depth of not
over a foot and a half, where the shoal-water ducks can
reach it by tipping up, and any remaining grain is visible
to the keeper. Though rats can get grain from under water
to some extent, a little there is not so conspicuous as on
shore, and will not attract them so much. It is believed,
moreover, that it is well for the health of ducks to get water
with their food.

Following are some receipts for feeding, or hints from
various sources, which give a good idea of methods in general
use:

Receipts. New York Zodlogical Park: Wheat, barley,
buckwheat, and kaffir corn or ordinary cracked corn, mixed
in even parts. A little chopped raw meat and fish are used,
three times a week, especially in severe winter weather or at
the beginning of breeding. For the meat, any sort handy
can be used, such as liver or other inwards, or, on game pre-
serves, ground-up bodies, such as rabbits, hares, cats, or
captured vermin. On the other alternate days, at such times
a mash of Spratt’s wild-duck meal is used. In winter they
also give cabbage or cooked beet every day if they have

Photograph by Thorn L. German

Rearing-field for mallards, Clove Valley Club, New York

Photograph by G. Curtiss Fob
Our “duck farm” in Manitoba wilderness, the author feeding ducklings
in brooder yards

Wild ducks in winter quarters: Wood ducks, shovellers, canvas-
backs, and pintails. All but the wood ducks are young
raised on Manitoba Expedition

WILD DUCKS 129

enough. A variation on this grain receipt is employed by
Colonel Kuser, Bernardsville, New Jersey, in which during
summer the corn is left out and more buckwheat substituted.
Others use only corn and wheat or barley for grain.

A. G. MacVicar, on the Walcott estate, for a winter diet
is feeding the ducks and geese mostly whole corn for the
grain ration, but gives a change once a week to wheat, buck-
wheat, and barley. Barley he considers an excellent food
for ducks. In the warm season, of course, not so much
corn is used. Besides the grain, he feeds chopped turnip
and cabbage, giving this in the water, so it will not freeze.
In spring he begins giving mash, of barley meal, Spratt’s
pheasant and duck meals, and crissel, the latter not over
ro per cent. These are mixed and scalded together. An-
other mash, used for variety, is of cornmeal, bran, middlings,
and crissel. He feeds the mash mornings and the grain at
night. On cold mornings in early spring he delays giving
the mash until it warms up enough not to freeze. He does
not give crissel separately, nor allow dry mash to stand be-
fore the ducks, thinking that they get too fat.

Henry Cook uses a grain mixture of wheat, kaffir corn,
corn, buckwheat, barley, whole oats, sunflower seed. In
winter he also gives cabbage, and sometimes has ground-up
raw carrots, though they do not care so much for this. He
also gives lettuce in season, watercress, or other succulent
growth. In winter and spring he also gives clear beef-scrap,
scalded and soaked, in a trough, renewing it when eaten up,
and keeping it before them most of the time. If it freezes
he pours hot water on it. They eat only a little at a time
thus, and it never has hurt them.

Neil Clark, of the Clove Valley Club, New York, keeps the
mallard breeding-stock out on a marshy pond and connect-
ing brook all winter without shelter. They pick up a good

130 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

deal of natural food, and he gives them only wheat and
cracked corn in addition.

E. H. Austin, Gaylordsville, Connecticut, from October
and on, gives mixed grain or scratch-feed, sometimes with a
little dry beef-scrap mixed in. The ducks spend the day in
a brook and meadow area fenced off, and in winter are driven
up at night and shut in an ordinary poultry house.

Forcing Foods for Laying. The following are some of the
feeding receipts for help to egg-production. Usually the
change of feeding is begun quite early in the spring, gener-
ally early March. Mashes should preferably be scalded and
left for about half an hour to swell, being mixed only crum-
bly moist.

Mr. Austin’s receipt is: shredded alfalfa, 6 quarts; ground
corn and oats, 2 quarts; beef-scrap (never any but best
grade), 2 quarts; a handful of linseed meal. He keeps this
before them all the time.

The forcing-mash used by E. Aubry, poultryman of
Edmund C. Converse, Greenwich, Connecticut, is as follows:
Ground oats, 100 parts; bran, 50; cornmeal, 20; linseed meal
(old process), 20; gluten, 20; sifted beef-scrap, 25; alfalfa
meal, 25. Two or three times a week he puts in a little
cracked corn, at the rate of a handful for half a dozen ducks.
Unlike most breeders, he gives this mash practically the
year round, but in winter doubles the cornmeal to 40 parts,
reduces the ground oats half, to 50, and reduces the beef-
scrap to 15, in severe weather 20. ‘Too much of the latter at
this season brings on liver troubles. He uses Swift’s beei-
scrap. A. G. MacVicar does not use beef-scrap in winter
at all. The mash is given in the morning, and grain at
night, sometimes only cracked corn, especially in severe
weather. He also makes a practice of keeping always
before the ducks, in troughs on the shore under shelters,

WILD DUCKS 131

this mash in dry form. I have watched the ducks and
noticed that all kinds, even the canvasbacks, at frequent
intervals go ashore and eat a little.

Following is the forcing-mash used in spring by Neil
Clark: Cornmeal, bran, mixed feed (of bran and middlings),
cracked corn, wheat, Spratt’s duck meal, and crissel. Adam
Scott, on the Schley preserve, uses simply ground alfalfa,
scalded and soaked, for extra forcing just before laying time.

Problem of Wildfowl Breeding. In the case of the galli-
naceous species, the most difficult practical problems are in
rearing the young and avoiding epidemic diseases, rather
than of inducing them to breed. With waterfowl the oppo-
site is true. The young are not hard to raise, and, with
reasonable sanitary precautions, epidemics are unusual.
With most kinds, the one troublesome problem is to make
them produce fertile eggs. The mallard, however, is the
notable exception to this rule, for they breed almost as
readily as poultry. The degree of difficulty in this matter
varies with different species or groups, as will be described.

Breeding Mallards. When reference is made to breeding
wild ducks, it commonly refers to mallards, as the great
majority of wild ducks raised are of this species, both in
America and abroad. This species, therefore, truly stands
in a class by itself. The mallard has been bred for genera-
tions, and has become thoroughly domesticated, some strains
having become mere barnyard fowl, unable to fly, fit only
for food and market purposes. There is plenty of stock,
however, which has all the traits, form, and activity of true
wild birds, and yet is easy to breed and control. But con-
stant care must be taken to introduce into a breeding-stock
fresh blood by changing drakes, or it will degenerate into
the clumsy barnyard type.

Mallards captured wild are reluctant at first to breed,

132 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

though I think rather less so than other kinds. But the
usual hand-reared stock breeds regularly and easily.. All
that is needed is the usual small pond, with arrangements
as previously described, including feeding. Any sort of
land around the pond willdo. Dry land is as good as marsh,
and there need not be so much of it as for some ducks. They
will lay almost anywhere, using any sort of shelter, such as
brush-piles, boxes, coops, wicker baskets, logs, stumps, grass,
or other growth, and the like. To some extent they may
drop eggs around the pen, or even in the water. They are
not easily disturbed, and eggs can be collected from the
nests daily, if desired, leaving a couple for encouragement.
With other species nests should not be disturbed until lay-
ingiscompleted. Laying may begin about the first of April
or earlier.

Wood Duck. Another species which it has proved not
difficult to breed is the wood duck, which is one of the most
elegantly coloured of our North American birds. It is a
gentle, docile species, and is very easily kept in captivity.
Strange it is that until quite recently it was bred very little
ini this country, but in large numbers abroad, particularly in
Holland and Belgium, so that nearly all our breeding-stock
for sale came from those countries. American dealers made
trips there, bought up these birds from the farmers, and
shipped them over here. Now they are bred and raised
here quite extensively, yet there is such demand for them
that prices still remain high, and rearing them is very profit-
able.

Breeding Methods. The methods employed for feeding
and breeding them are not different from those with other
species, except in regard to their nesting. In the natural
state they breed in hollow trees, and in captivity in elevated
boxes. The best way is to drive a post out in the water,

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Canvasbacks at Branchport, New York, March 3, 1914

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Canvasbacks at Branchport, New York, March 3, 1914

WILD DUCKS 133

projecting any moderate distance, say two feet. On top of
this the box should be nailed, with an entrance hole in one
end, and a boardwalk leading up to it from the water, with
small cleats nailed across it, to furnish an easy ascent. Some
locate the box on shore, in which case it is well to have the
board leading up from the water, though it may be back
from the shore, especially under trees. ' I advise, however,
placing it out in the water, on the principle that the birds
feel, and doubtless are, more safe there from vermin, partic-
warly the common brown rat. On the same principle, for
most ducks a small island, with thick vegetation, is the most
attractive possible location, for there they feel safe. The
first set should be taken as soon as finished, and set under a
bantam or small hen. Then the duck will usually lay a
second, which she may be allowed to hatch if the pond is
small and free from vermin. These ducks are so docile that
they do not teach the young to be very wild.

If young are allowed to fly, as described farther on, boxes
can be put up in trees, near the edge of groves or woods,
just back from the pond, either plain boxes or the hollow
log of the Von Berlepsch type. Even the pinioned Lirds
will breed in boxes low down in trees, as on sloping willow
trunks near the shore. A number of such are used by wood
ducks on William Rockefeller’s estate.

Boxes should have an opening of about 4 by 43 inches,
which is the right size to admit the wood duck, but will keep
out larger kinds, especially the mallard. The hole should be
near the top of the front. A suitable size for the box is
about one foot square, with hinged lid which slopes a little
to shed rain. This model is employed successfully on the
Walcott estate.

Black Duck. The black duck, sometimes also called.
“black mallard” in distinction from the regular mallard,

134 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

which is often known as ‘“‘gray mallard,” is the common
resident wild duck breeding in Eastern districts. It is of a
naturally shyer disposition than the mallard, and does not
breed as readily in captivity. Black ducks, however, fre-
quently breed when enclosed in a good-sized marsh or swamp,
with plenty of low cover, preferably from two to four acres,
and given almost absolute privacy. Ordinarily wild stock
will not breed under ‘‘civilized” conditions which satisfy
the mallard and the wood duck. It seems to fail to breed
largely because of its shyness, though perhaps partly from
lack of certain food elements.

The Pintail. The pintail is a good example of individual
difference in closely related species. It is very docile in
captivity, and apparently comes next to the mallard and
wood duck, among native species, in readiness to breed. It
needs, however, a little special treatment, especially in the
way of natural marsh and grass, for “grazing” and catching
insects, supplemented by receiving artificially more animal
and other stimulating food. This species, I believe, is des-
tined to become one of the most popular wild ducks to prop-
agate.

Two Main Difficulties. Clearly the two main obstacles
to successful breeding of wild waterfowl are, first, lacks in
natural food elements conducive to fertility,and, secondarily,
docility or mental state. The latter is usually overcome
after a period of captivity, but the other is the real problem.

Mental State. That docility, or mental state, is also an
important factor is shown by the fact, recognized by breeders
of wildfowl here and abroad, that young hand-reared stock
is almost sure to breed under proper conditions. The main
practical need is to get started stocks of hand-reared young
birds of the various species, which would tend to breed more
and more readily through successive generations. In time,

WILD DUCKS 135

no doubt, many species, particularly of the “river ducks,”
could be domesticated like the mallard. In case of some
species, as has been done in Europe, such stock could be
started from wild eggs under legal regulation. Some kinds,
however, nest in rather inaccessible northern wilds.

Wild vs. Hand-reared. An illustration of the difference
in willingness to breed between adult ducks captured wild
and young of the same kind reared by hand is the following:
A single female pintail was hatched by E. H. Austin from a
setting which I sent him by express from the Northwest to
New Milford, Connecticut. This duckling became the
mascot of the farm, flying around at liberty, yet running
after her master like a dog, and never thinking of leaving.
He got a mate for her the next spring, which hurt its leg and
went lame. The duck made a nest in the grass near the
house and laid six eggs, which proved to be infertile. Adult
pintails captured wild, on the other hand, though they have |
in time bred in captivity, have to be managed very carefully.
Under the above barnyard conditions their breeding would
have been inconceivable.

Immediate Problem. The more usual facilities, however,
are through breeding captured wild stock, which can gen-
erally be obtained from dealers. The immediate problem,
therefore, is so to handle and feed such stock that fertile
eggs can be secured. Though wild captured birds do not
breed readily, in many cases, through care and patience
they have been made to do so. Probably all our “river
ducks” have been thus bred on a small scale. The marine
ducks present a harder problem, but the redhead and scaup
have been bred in this country, and the related pochard,
the tufted duck, the eider, according to Mr. Walcott, and
perhaps others, have been raised abroad. No one as yet
seems to have bred the canvasback, but, since it is so similar

136 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

to the redhead, there seems to be no inherent reason why
this may not soon be accomplished. It is best to start with
a small stock, and increase it by careful breeding.

Long-sought Methods. After years of experimentation
methods have been discovered by which wild ducks of vari-
ous kinds have been made to breed successfully. One of
these methods has been demonstrated by the late Wilton
Lockwood, the artist, and by John A. Cox, on neighbouring
estates on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, at South Orleans and
East Brewster respectively, and also in part by Henry Cook,
already mentioned. By this method the ducks are kept on
a natural marshy pond, with aquatic vegetation, preferably
small overgrown islands, and plenty of marsh or pasture land
in the enclosure with the pond. Early in the spring, when
they show signs of mating, they are given minnows or any
small fish alive about twice a week. Wallace Evans feeds
small fish twice a week, two feeds each time. The most ap-
proved method is to give them in a trough, in water. They
can be caught on the seacoast or in rivers or lakes in set traps
or nets. Small-mesh nets are baited, set in shallow water,
and drawn up when the school of fry is after the bait. This
method is also quite frequently employed in England.

Horseshoe Crabs. Besides the minnows, Mr. Cox also
secures, on the flats of Cape Cod Bay, horseshoe crabs,
which he says can at times be gathered by cartloads. In
spring the female crab is full of eggs and other gelatinous
matter. Only females are used. They are cut open under-
neath, and the ducks allowed to help themselves, which they
do eagerly.

Species Bred. This system is so successful that nearly
every species experimented with bred, except canvasback
and lesser scaup, which did not, however, have a fair chance,
from lack of stock. Mr. Cox has bred numbers of the fol-

WILD DUCKS 137

lowing American species of ducks: redhead, pintail, gadwall,
widgeon, shoveller, green-winged and blue-winged teals,
wood duck, black duck, mallard, besides the mandarin duck
and other foreign species. He had but one pair of canvas-
back and one of lesser scaup. The above did not merely
have one brood or an occasional one, but they all bred every
year, and did well. Of some kinds he reared as many as
fifty young in a season. It was not from choice selected
hand-reared birds that he bred, but from ordinary wild
stock, mostly pinioned, which he bought in the general
market from the regular dealers, doubtless wild trapped
birds. The eggs were usually nearly all fertile. A large
percentage hatched, and he raised most of them to maturity
by methods later described.

Pond and Enclosure. The pond and enclosure comprise
about four or five acres. Here the ducks remain outdoors
all winter without shelter other than bushes on the shore.
The climate on Cape Cod in winter is raw and chilly, but the
mercury seldom reaches zero, and there is not much snow.
The pond was partly excavated, and small elevations were
left to form islands. These were planted with a common
yellow garden lily which thrives in moist places and grows
very rank, making admirable cover to conceal nests. The
redheads were fond of nesting under it, just up from the
shore, where they could slip off into the water, as is charac-
teristic of the diving ducks, which walk awkwardly. The
field ducks, such as the pintail, shoveller, teal, and others,
nest well back in the grass. Most of them usually laid a
second set when the first one was taken fresh, though not all.
None of them was known to lay a third set, as domesticated
mallards will do.

Young Valuable. The young he raised were in great de-
mand for breeding-stock. An advertisement in Country

138 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Life in America brought requests from nearly every State
and from abroad, and all he could spare were sold at good
prices. He bred them for a number of years, and each year
the result was about the same.

Methods of Lockwood. Mr. Cox described the methods
and success of Mr. Lockwood as identical with his own.
This was confirmed by a letter from Lockwood, written
shortly before his death, to F. C. Walcott, which Mr. Wal-
cott kindly let me read. He fed the live minnows to his
ducks, like Cox, but did not mention the crabs. The pond
and swamp enclosure, with islands in the pond, was about the
same in size, four acres. He mentioned that the fence en-
closing was 6 feet high, of 1-inch mesh, with an 18-inch over-
hang, to protect the ducks, which were pinioned, from cats
and minks climbing over. He also had traps on poles. He
advised planting areas of cat-tails, and emphasized avoiding
overcrowding of ducks on the pond. All kinds were in to-
gether, as with Messrs. Cox and Cook. Breeding began
about the first of April.

Tank of Minnows. The tank in which the live minnows
were given to the ducks was six feet long and one foot deep.
The ducks, especially the diving kinds, in their eagerness
made the water fairly boil.

Protection. If the pond has no good cover near it, he
advises making an arbour, about 15 feet square, beginning
a couple of feet from the water, covered over with brush.
The ducks use it for shade and to hide from enemies. He
warns against turtles and rats, and advises dynamiting the
pond if it harbours anything which attacks ducks.

Species Bred by Cook. The methods of Mr. Cook are
similar, but his pond is not so good, being without marsh
adjoining it. Hence, the laying is more irregular, and fewer
birds mate and lay, though he has secured at least some eggs

WILD DUCKS 139

from nineteen species of a total of thirty-two in his collection.
Most of those that breed lay their eggs under bushes and
sprouts in a strip of woods, and some kinds, such as pintail,
shoveller, and teal go back of this into a strip of open grass
and weeds, formerly a cultivated field, where they nest.
Mallards, black ducks, gadwalls, and various foreign species
nest in the wooded strip, among bushes, beside stumps or
logs, or in rotted-out hollows in stumps. Redheads lay on
grassy banks close to the water. Wood, mandarin, and tree
ducks nest in boxes or in hollow stumps. Besides the above
species, the following also have bred: green-winged, cinna-
mon, pampas and Garganey teals, red -billed and fulvous
tree-ducks, European widgeon, Bahama duck, rosy-bill,
spotted-bill, and Australian duck.

Live Food. Mr. Cook feeds his ducks some live minnows
in spring. Also at times he brings them watercress and
other pond weed which frequently are covered with water-
insect life. Such insect life he thinks is a considerable fac-
tor in the breeding of wild ducks. He has found that when
captive wild ducks are put in a new pond, where such life
abounds, the laying is materially increased. After a season
or two, unless a stream enters the pond, the insect life is
depleted, and egg-production decreases. He believes that
the breeding of wild ducks is largely a matter of having
proper natural food, especially animal food, which must be
supplied in some form.

Fish Diet as Stimulus. The value of a fish diet as stimu-
lus to reproduction is indicated by an experience of which I
was informed. On a commercial duck farm, where Pekin
ducks were raised, it was the practice in late winter to secure
fish heads and other remains at the wharves where incoming
fishermen dressed their fish. These were freighted by the
barrel to the inland farm, and boiled in cauldrons until the

140 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

bones dropped apart. Then the entire mass was given to
the ducks, who stripped the bones of every vestige of flesh
or skin. It was said that this started the ducks breeding a
month earlier than usual, and the eggs averaged much higher
in fertility than early eggs are apt todo. ‘This resulted ina
stock of early broilers ahead of the season, at highest prices.
The fish diet, however, Wallace Evans says, can be overdone
and cause indigestion. About two good feeds a week seems
the consensus of opinion, but the more green vegetables that
can be grown the better.

Cases of Skipping. For the encouragement of any who
try these methods without immediate success, a few further
suggestions may be of value. Even under the best of con-
ditions some fowl will skip laying, especially the first season.
Mr. Cox found that stock imported from England was harder
to breed than freshly caught wild birds over here. More-
over, some species are probably slower to adapt themselves
to changed conditions than others. Mr. Lockwood wrote,
for instance, that redheads which he purchased usually did
not lay till the second season after. Again, ducks which
have been kept for years without breeding, owing to un-
favourable conditions, may tend to have their sexual powers
atrophied or retarded. Though perhaps unlikely to breed
again, they may do so, as I have known this to occur, even
after a respite of several years.

Retarded Breeding. Furthermore, not all young ducks
raised artificially breed when a year old. A successful
breeder of wood ducks told me that much of his young pin-
ioned stock does not breed till two years old, though broods
hatched early and fed carefully would breed the next season.
Lack of active exercise in flight and of the normal amount
of insect and other food which they would have secured in
the wild state probably causes slower development. Hence

Son of author, G. Curtiss Job, on Manitoba expedition, feeding
“wild” ducklings—gadwalls, redheads, scaups, etc.

Author (eeding young wild ducks in Manitoba, nearly full grown

Photograph from Wallace Evans
Method of rearing young wood ducks on Evans’ Game Farm

Photograph from Wallace Evans
Good-sized ducklings in fenced marshy area on Evans’ Game Farm

WILD DUCKS 141

one should not become discouraged too soon. That hand-
reared ducks of practically all kinds will breed is proved by
experiments in England, as well as by those of Lockwood
and Cox; the natural food, the condition of the water, and
the climate being important factors.

How Overcome. Asa case of ducks breeding after years
of intermission, and of the means of bringing this about, the
experience of Dr. A. F. Warren, of Chicopee Falls, Massa-
chusetts, isinstructive. Doctor Warren came into possession
of about five green-winged teals, which he kept in a city
backyard. To make proper quarters for them, he made a
cement pool, set out shrubbery and various plants around
the shore, and back of this allowed grass-and weeds to grow
rank. Also he had a small shelter-house for winter. For
the first years there was no sign of breeding. Thinking that
animal food might start them laying, he began giving them a
considerable quantity of earthworms. In the fall he ac-
cumulated a quantity of these, kept them in earth in the
cellar, and fed them to the ducks during winter. In the
spring of 1913 a male and female paired and built a nest, but
did not lay. Next year this pair made nests and produced
several eggs which were fertile, but had shells too thin to
stand handling, owing to lack of lime constituents in their
food. The other female would probably have bred, but the
other drakes would not have her, one being vainly infatuated
with the mated female. Doctor Warren watches them for
hours and days from concealment, and he has material for a
wonderfully interesting monograph on the courtship and
mating habits of this species. Barring accidents, he will
probably next season breed and raise wild ducks in a tiny
city backyard, and that, too, adjoining a most noisy indus-
try, well calculated to terrify anything wild.

Keeping Marine Ducks. Certain marine or fish-eating

142 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

species have seldom been kept successfully in this country
for any length of time, such as scoters, eiders, mergansers,and
the like. F.C. Walcott, however, who has visited various
English preserves and experimenters with wildfowl in Great
Britain, tells me that all such species are kept there with-
out trouble, being fed partly on fish and ground-up crusta-
cea and shellfish, and also on grain, which they all learn to
like. Even sheldrakes will eat grain with eagerness. In
feeding grain to mixed flocks of ducks I myself have noticed
that canvasbacks, redheads, and scaups are just as eager
for the grain as any others. Mr. Walcott says that English
experimenters have even bred the eider, though no one has
yet done so with the canvasback, probably owing largely to
inability to secure stock.

Possible Experiments. Doubtless some interesting ex-
periments could be worked out on the seacoast. For ex-
ample, I have heard that on the coast of Maine eiders have
been tamed sufficiently so that they could be let out to pick
up their own food on the sea beaches, along with domestic
ducks. I have no doubt but that any of these maritime
species could be made to breed, certainly after one season of
restraint, by a plan somewhat as follows: Fence in with
wire a few acres on the edge of a fresh or salt marsh near the
coast. If it is on tidewater, some high and dry land should
be included, in case of flood tides. There should either be a
small pond ‘or part of a ditch or creek included. Probably
the best location would be where there was a direct connec-
tion with the sea, to bring in minnows and other sea food.
At any rate small fry could be netted and fed to the ducks in
a pool spaded out in the marsh. Snails, mussels, clams,
shrimp, crabs, and various other food would be easy to get,
also sea-weeds. I have often watched flocks of scoters div-
ing and feeding on submerged mussel beds. They eat small

WILD DUCKS 143

mussels, shells and all, which gives some idea of the varied
diet of these species. The main secret of feeding any of
these marine species seems to be to give them, besides grain,
occasional special feeds of a diversity of animal or other food.
Table scraps would doubtless serve well. The salt in such
will do no harm, but rather otherwise, as marine species, of
course, get considerable salt from the water. Salt now and
then in mash would be good, this being regularly done in
England for sea ducks. Fresh water should be supplied
if lacking. Stock could be secured from the various “‘pen-
sioners” along shore partly disabled by gunners. While
wounded ducks are apt to die in time from the effect of
wounds, many would recover, and probably some, in time,
would breed. Some of Mr. Lockwood’s stock was secured
in this way. Once get a young stock started, especially
some hand-raised females, further success would be quite
probable. Males of wild ducks captured are found to breed
more readily than such captives of the other sex.

Plan Succeeded. Since writing the above I learn from
O. R. Austin that in a salt-marsh pen ona creek, as above,
he bred scaup ducks successfully, and sold the young.
This was in Rhode Island.

Starting a Stock. How matters work out with wild stock
is illustrated by the experience of E. H. Austin with the
black duck. This species when wild has a shy, nervous tem-
perament, and does not breed readily unless'in large, marshy
enclosures. Mr. Austin, after considerable effort, got a few
settings of eggs from captive wild stock in this way, which
he hatched and raised with hens. These young when reared
proved quite tame. Early in the spring, in a poultry yard,
they mated, and one made a nest in the shed. They were
then put out in a meadow and swamp enclosure with a brook,
and laid splendidly. Unfortunately their nests were not

144 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

hunted out in the tangle, and they brought off their own
broods, which were mostly destroyed by turtles or other ver-
min. The safest way is to gather the eggs and rear the
young with hens or tame mallards in safe quarters. The
presence of strangers is apt to keep shy ducks from breeding.
They should have absolute privacy during the mating and
laying period.

Whealton’s Method. J. W. Whealton, on Chincoteague.
Island, Virginia, breeds black ducks by keeping a flock of
them in a paddock of four acres, with small fresh ponds and
marsh. Besides grain, they are given lettuce and eel-grass,
of which they are very fond. The place is a thicket of tall
weeds, grass, and bushes. The ducks breed under the tan-
gle, and are allowed to raise their own young. In common
with the experience of others, he finds that captured black
ducks are of shy and nervous temperament, and that it is
hard to make them. breed save in a large area of this sort.
Vermin are kept down, and usually he raises a good number
of young. One year he tried keeping a pair of Egyptian
geese in the paddock, but the murderous gander hunted out
and killed all the seventy-five young ducks.

Ducklings with Adults. In the case of some ponds, such
as artificial ones where there is little natural food, it
sometimes happens that nests escape observation, and ducks
bring off broods. It is difficult to capture the brood without
frightening the stock and perhaps preventing laying. On
the other hand, the large ducks clean up the food so thor-
oughly that the young are likely to starve. A plan to ob-
viate this is to build an enclosure of 3-inch mesh wire, partly
on shore and partly in the water, and place proper food for
the ducklings within it, close to the water’s edge. They will
learn to go there for food, which is reserved for them, since
the larger ducks cannot get through the wire. Under such

Female lesser scaup duck fluttering from nest on shore of. western lakelet

Gadwall flushing from nest in prairie grass

Nest of canvasback in tract of old sedge built up in water one and one half
feet deep, Manitoba

Nest of lesser scaup duck in rank vegetation ten feet back from shore of
marshy lake, Manitoba

WILD DUCKS 145

conditions, though, it is best to try to gather all the eggs
and rear the young with bantams.

Control in Free Range. Under some conditions it is
possible to maintain wild ducks in freedom of flight, yet
under artificial control. This plan is especially applicable
to large estates, where there is abundant space of water and
marsh, and with species that normally breed in the general
region. Such undertakings are particularly the province of
State game officials, as wildfowl thus raised will naturally
spread to surrounding localities and benefit the general pub-
lic. This mode of procedure is based upon the fact that
young ducks reared artificially, even if allowed powers of
flight, will resort to the places where they are fed, often re-
maining through the winter if any water can be kept open
forthem. Even if attracted away with migrating fowl, they
often return. Most of them tend to remain or return and
breed in the neighbourhood of their birthplace, following the
homing instinct which seems to be strong in most birds.
It is upon this natural instinct that the migratory impulse
seems to be based, causing birds to return to the region of
their birth. The more readily a species is tamed in captivity
the more successfully does it respond to such a plan. The
mallard and wood duck have thus far been most readily con-
trolled, but the plan also works with the black duck, and,
according to Mr. Walcott, with the pintail, and probably it
will be found to with any species which is hardy enough to
winter in the region where the plan is attempted.

How It Works. A bunch, say, of a hundred or more young
mallards, is reared in a large preserve. Their wings are
allowed to grow out, and at the age of three months they are
in full flight. Parties of them fly from one pond or marsh
to another, like veritable wildfowl, but return home at regu-
lar feeding times. ‘Thomas A. Howell has his mallards range

146 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

in this way. They are fed in a covered wire enclosure, to
which at call they come trooping in, and they can be shut
upif desired. In winter they are driven into a shed at night.
As many as are needed for breeders have their wings clipped.
Otherwise the ducks would pair off and mostly breed in the
wild state in the vicinity, if the conditions were favourable
and the food sufficient.

Wood ducks do well by this plan, being naturally docile
and hardy. They fly about in the woods and swamps, but
return to the regular feeding place. Dr. John C. Phillips,
of Wenham, Massachusetts, says that his wood ducks seem
to lose all migratory inclination, and stay on his place the
year round. Obviously such birds perish in winter if not fed.

On the Walcott estate the wood ducks, raised in confine-
ment and allowed to fly, migrate but return and nest in
boxes put up for them along the shores of alake. It is quite
an idea that just as we can have bluebirds and wrens in our
bird-houses, so we can have wild ducks. Moreover, we can
regulate the supply of wild ducks at pleasure, while with the
song-birds other factors largely control the supply.

On this estate young black ducks and mallards were
also liberated. The birds were not banded, and it was not
possible to recognize individual birds. Some left during the
worst of the winter. It was obvious that many of them re-
turned, perhaps with other wild birds, for the number that
returned was said nearly to equal those that had left, and a
considerable number nested in freedom on the estate, some
resorting to the wire enclosures. It is evidently possible to
establish wild ducks breeding permanently in a locality by
such methods.

Wood Ducks on Walcott Preserve. That wood ducks
breeding in the wild state are now established in numbers on
the Walcott preserve in Norfolk, Connecticut, after only

WILD DUCKS 147

two years of effort is a remarkable demonstration of what the
system above described can accomplish. Two years ago
Mr. Walcott bought three pairs of pinioned wood ducks from
Wallace Evans, probably stock raised on the Evans’ Game
Farm. The first season, 1913, forty-five young were hatched
of which twenty-six were raised. The first clutches laid
were hatched under bantams, but the ducks were allowed
to hatch their second layings. Only a few of these were
pinioned. The rest migrated away for the winter, but
mostly returned in the spring, and nested in the woods ad-
joining the lake where they were reared. In the autumn,
1914, about seventy of them were staying about this lake.
I write these words on the Walcott place in mid-December,
1914. The full-winged wood ducks and some of the mallard
and black ducks have migrated away, but there are a good
number of ducks, about two hundred, keeping a hole open
in the ice. Some of them are wild birds which have joined
the flock. Flocks of each kind keep flying up, winnowing
over the frozen lake and the woods, and then splashing back
in showers into the open water, wild birds, too, even when I
am standing but a few rods away.

The Lanier Experiment. It is further possible, by a slight
assistance to nature, to establish the breeding of wild ducks
in a favourable locality, even without artificial propagation,
This has been done in a notable experiment by Charles D.
Lanier, at Westchester, Connecticut. He owns a tract of
some 3,500 acres of wild land, mostly woods and swamp,
in a retired locality. By judicious damming of brooks,
areas of swamp have been overflowed, and a chain of flooded
marshes and ponds created. Timber in the flooded areas
has died and fallen, leaving considerable open water, in which
pond lilies and other aquatic plants have taken a start.
The place, naturally attractive to ducks, has become still

148 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

more so, and wild ducks have resorted more and more to it.
Each year a number of pairs of black duck and wood duck
have raised their young on the premises. This makes quite
a gathering of native ducks by the end of the summer.

In late August each year, or by September 1, systematic
feeding of the ducks is begun, by the placing of quantities of
whole yellow corn in two of the ponds in shallow water and
on the shore. The presence of the native stock contentedly
feeding draws in every other duck that flies within sight, and
‘by October there are literally thousands of them. Espe-
cially early in the morning, when I have startled the assem-
bled throngs, it has seemed that the whole pond was being
lifted bodily as they rose. The owner, who is experienced
with wildfowl, estimates that in the height of the migration
there have been as many as 15,000 ducks on the place at
one time. Large and increasing numbers remain to breed,
mostly black ducks, but also numbers of wood ducks. The
starting of additional duck-food plants would further .en-
hance the effectiveness of such a place.

It is now well proved that the presence of resident or cap-
tive ducks in a suitable locality, such as the above, serves to
attract and even hold ducks in the strictly wild state. On
the Childs-Walcott place each fall and winter the pinioned
ducks on the pond are joined by considerable numbers of
various species. Even wild canvasbacks, redheads, green-
winged teal, and others spent most of the winter there, even
when the water was frozen, except for a small area kept open
by the captive ducks and geese. Many wild black ducks,
wood ducks, and mallards undoubtedly were induced to re-
main and breed in the vicinity, attracted by the captive
ducks and their free offspring which bred all about, as well
as by the planting of wild celery and other food-plants, by
methods described farther on.

Young canvasbacks hatched and raised to maturity by author in camp in
northern Manitoba. Probably the first canvasbacks ever reared artificially

Young canvasbacks, redheads, and golden-eyes, raised by author on Mani-
toba expedition

.\ brood of gadwalls, Manitoba expedition. Of a clutch of thirteen eggs, all
hatched in an incubator, and eleven ducklings were raised to maturity

WILD DUCKS 149

Hence a good way to get wildfowl breeding abundantly .
on a suitable large wild area, properly protected, is to keep
a nucleus of captive ducks, especially mallards, breed them,
and liberate some of the young, which will breed naturally
in the vicinity. This will draw other ducks and induce them
to breed. The captive breeding-stock will be kept strong
by new infusion of wild blood, for wild drakes in the vicinity
will fly into the wire enclosures and mate with the pinioned
or wing-clipped females.

Such estates as the above are doing great public service
in restoring and increasing valuable species of wildfowl in
regions where they have long been on the verge of extermina-
tion. The overflow from these places breed in other suitable
localities, and tend to restock whole States. ,

An English Breeding Method. A remarkably ingenious
method for making wild ducks breed has been worked out
in England through experiments by enthusiasts who have
gone far ahead of us here in America: An account of: this
method is given in The Estate Magazine, published in Eng-
land, November, 1911. Evidently it is well-known in Eng-
land, and it was elaborated for us by Lord William Percy
during a recent visit to this country. Mr. Walcott, during
a recent trip to England, saw the results of it in full opera-
tion. On certain large estates he saw nests galore with eggs
of many species of wild ducks.

The method employed is as follows: In the fall migration
large numbers of wild ducks, even thousands, are caught by
funnel-shaped net traps, into which the flocks of ducks swim,
attracted by bait and live decoys. The wild birds are caught,
one wing is clipped, and they are put for the winter into
fenced enclosures. In these there may be a small shallow
pond, or simply holes dug in the marshy ground, in which a
little water will gather. The flight feathers are renewed

150 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

only once a year, in late summer, but new feathers will grow
out within three to four weeks after the old quill stumps are
pulled out by the roots. The time required for the complete
growth of a new wing quill is usually from twenty-one to
twenty-four days.

The time selected for the operation is, thus, about three to
four weeks before the normal breeding time for ducks, in
England about the middle of March. The ducks are then
caught up, the stumps of the old clipped quills are pulled out
with pincers, and the birds returned to the enclosures.
When the wing has grown out they are allowed to fly over
the fence. By this time the wild migrants have gone north,
the breeding impulse is on them, and they usually remain
and nest in the vicinity.

Sometimes, however, they depart to neighbouring estates,
so the following modification has been devised: The female
only has the stumps of her quills pulled out, and both sexes
are put into a large marshy enclosure. Flight invigorates
the female, usually the more backward to breed in captivity,
so that she is ready to lay. Already she is mated to a male
inthe pen. He cannot fly, but she is unwilling to leave him,
and mates with him and nests nearby, sometimes even in
the enclosure. The ducks usually rear their own young wild,
and no attempt is made to restrain them, or to prevent the
males from leaving when their flight feathers are renewed.
For the next season stock is trapped wholesale, which is less
trouble.

According to Messrs. Walcott and MacVicar, the plan has
been worked successfully in England with the pochard,
tufted duck, gadwall, widgeon, pintail, shoveller, teal, and
perhaps others. That it is based upon traits natural to wild-
fowl is shown that in the wild state uninjured ducks are
sometimes known to refuse to desert their wounded mates,

WILD DUCKS ISI

and breed there out of their normal range. MacVicar has
seen cases of this with black duck, mallard, teal, and Canada
goose. I was told by a fisherman at Chatham, Massachu-
setts, that he had seen a female old-squaw with a brood of
young near Strong Island, Chatham Bay, which undoubt-
edly was a case of this sort.

How the plan works out is indicated by the account by
Mr. Walcott of a shoot one recent autumn on an estate where
this method was employed. More than 1,700 ducks were
killed in one day by eight guns, largely those reared on the
estate. Very few of them were mallards, but mostly the
kinds usually considered hard to breed, such as pochards,
pintails, gadwalls, widgeons, shovellers, teal, and the like.

It is said, however, that the method is not so successful
with wildfowl that are very northerly in their range, at
least for any permanent result in establishing a new breed-
ing habitat for a species, but is especially applicable to
species that normally breed in the same latitude. There is
no reason why these methods should not work in America
as in England, in localities where there are suitable large
marshy areas. There is this difference, however, that in
England it is not so cold, so that some water remains open
all winter. Here in the Northern States everything is likely
to freeze up hard at some time each winter. There the
ducks remain the year round, but here they would be com-
pelled to migrate away, unless artificial methods and feeding
were used. The above method should be employed with the
greatest discrimination and only by experienced persons, and
with the consent of the State authorities, as otherwise it
would be liable to result in much cruelty and waste.

Reasons of Failures. There are many persons fond of
wild waterfowl who for years have kept wild ducks, hoping
that they would breed, but with little result. In most cases

152 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

the causes of failure are not hard to discern. In the first
place, the quarters usually are not suitable. In my various
explorations I have found the nests of twenty species of
American wild ducks, including hundreds of nests. In
every case the nest has been most carefully concealed. Never
is it out in open view, but always hidden with the greatest
care. Seldom have I found the treasures without flushing
the mother bird. She is wonderfully hidden in the tangle
of grass or bushes, and it would take the sharpest of eyes to
discover her. She will sit motionless until almost stepped
on. When she leaves the nest of her own accord to feed, she
covers the eggs with a blanket of down plucked from her
breast, and often, in addition, scratches over them the sur-
rounding debris. When she returns she sneaks through the
grass with the greatest caution, and no eye sees her. If
flushed, she is apt to stay off for hours before she dares to
creep back. Nesting with a wild duck is her most precious
secret. How in the name of commonsense can she be ex-
pected to breed when kept in a prim artificial pond with
elegant stone curbing, the grass around it closely trimmed
and raked, and the shrubbery neatly groomed! After all,
in her desire for privacy she is considerable of a lady!

And, speaking of privacy, how can they get it on a little
pond, with bare surroundings, crowded with ducks, usually
with plenty of tame polygamous mallards that will chase
away every other duck and interfere in all its affairs. An-
other trouble is wrong feeding, insufficient in certain ele-
ments. Wild ducks can exist on a grain diet, but grain
alone is not conducive to fertile eggs.

b. Laying and Hatching

Egg-production. Only one wild native species, the mal-
lard, usually lays eggs at all continuously like domestic

WILD DUCKS 153

poultry. They average about twenty-five to forty eggs
per duck in a season, and individuals go considerably
higher. When it is realized that mallard eggs from pure
wild stock sell readily at 20 cents each wholesale and 25
cents retail, it will be seen that a duck, worth, say, three
dollars, which lays ten dollars’ worth of eggs a season, is not
such a bad boarder! Wood ducks, properly handled, usu-
ally produce two clutches of eggs a season by having the
first laying removed as soon as complete. With other kinds,
at the present stage of progress, we are delighted to get even
one laying, and are overjoyed at two. Wild ducks lay from
seven to sixteen eggs to a clutch, eight to eleven being the
usual numbers. I once found 22 eggs in a redhead’s nest,
in Saskatchewan, but this is extraordinary, perhaps the lay-
ings of two ducks. E. A. McIlhenny, however, has just
informed me that he has bred the blue-winged teal and the
gadwall in captivity and secured eggs in considerable num-
bers, teals having laid as many as sixty eggs in a season.

Date of Laying. Both in the wild state and in captivity
the mallard is a very early breeder. On preserves in the
latitude of New York City they begin laying early in April,
or sometimes in March. ‘The pintail is another early duck.
In the Canadian Northwest I have obtained young pintails
nearly able to fly, nine or ten weeks old, on the 25th of June.
The eggs, therefore, must have been laid in early April,
when it is still winter in that region where ice stays in the
lakes till the middle of May. Next out there comes the
canvasback, with eggs early in May. The teals and shov-
eller begin incubation toward the end of May, the redhead
in early June. The ruddy duck, gadwall, widgeon, and
scaups are late, averaging about June roth, while the white-
winged scoter seldom has eggs before the last week in June.
The wood duck, both wild and captive, usually lays in late

154 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

April or early May in Connecticut. In Mr. Cox’s experi-
ments the black duck and mallard lay eggs beginning early in
April, the wood duck, mandarin, pintail, widgeon, shoveller,
and others late in April or in May, and the redhead and teal
in June.

Incubation. Ordinarily it is not best to allow the ducks
to incubate their own eggs, certainly not the first litter, so
as to make them lay a second one, which is so much clear gain:
With most species it is hard to manage and protect the
ducklings with their natural mother. Of our native species
only the mallard and wood duck breed readily in a small
enclosure. A brood hatched on a large marsh or pond is
in great danger of natural enemies, such as turtles, snakes,
large fish, minks, and others. In the wild state broods are
often seriously diminished by these causes. On the marshes
of Lake Manitoba, where many waterfowl breed, I found the
Indians netting fish, such as pike and large pickerel, in the
stomachs of which were frequently found young ducks,
grebes, and coots, swallowed whole. I have seen broods on
these marshes reduced to one duckling, from these causes or
perhaps the effects of cold storms. A larger number will
usually be reared where they can be controlled. Moreover,
the ducklings raised by the mother are wild and harder to
manage later, whereas it is desirable for future breeding
that they should be as tame as possible, in view of the prob-
lem of shy ducks failing to breed.

In the case, however, of only a pair or two of wood ducks
or mandarins in a tiny pond where there is certainly no
vermin, it is proper to let the ducks raise their second litter,
especially in view of the fact that ducklings of these species
are peculiar and harder than others to raise. The mother
duck, under favourable conditions, is usually able to raise
them, whereas unskilled human efforts often fail. On the

WILD DUCKS 155

other hand, even the mother duck does not always succeed.
‘Dr. John C. Phillips who has raised many wood ducks, usually
letting the ducks rear their own young, informs me that some
years they raise large broods and other seasons almost com-
pletely fail, the cause of which he has not been able to ascer-
tain.

Taking Eggs. Except with mallards, which usually will
lay anyhow, it is best not to disturb a nest or remove any of
the eggs until the duck has nearly completed the set, and till
a sitting hen is ready for them. The chances are that the
mother bird will have incubated a day or two before it is
known that she has finished laying, and this is enough to
spoil the eggs if they are allowed to get cold. In the case of
mallard eggs collected daily, or of others known to be fresh,
they should be kept in a fairly cool place, stood on end in
bran, not touching, and reversed daily. It is best not to
keep them over two weeks, or three at most, before setting.
Ducks’ eggs are fragile, and must be handled carefully.

Transporting Eggs. That wildfowl eggs, even at the most
critical stages of incubation, can be transported a few miles
when carefully handled, I have proved by experience in the
Northwest. On the contrary, I have had no luck at all in
sending eggs by express, or carrying them myself with ut-
most care, on long railway journeys. These eggs I had col-
lected myself, taking only incomplete sets which I knew were
fresh. When set, after the journeys of more than 2,000
miles, not an embryo, in most cases, started. In one case
two eggs hatched, a pintail and a lesser scaup. In one in-
stance I hatched out several blue-winged and green-winged
teals, but they had no stamina and soon died. Furthermore,
eggs of wild ducks are seldom found except by flushing the
mother from the nest, almost always after incubation has
begun, even though it is imperceptible to the eye, and the

156 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

eggs spoil. These experiments I tried out under government
coéperation, and I give these results that the public may
not waste wild life, to say nothing of their time and money.
Game farms, however, with conditions favourable, are able
to make quick shipments of fresh eggs to considerable dis-
tances with quite good results.

Modes of Incubation. There is, fortunately, much more
latitude with incubation and rearing in case of waterfowl
than with the gallinaceous birds. In this case incubator
methods are quite feasible. The first choice, however, is
to hatch and rear with bantams or small hens, and these are
usually considered preferable even to tame ducks, though
the latter are sometimes used. The duck, however, in order
to keep clean, needs frequent bathing, which is dangerous
for ducklings of delicate species, especially in cold or wet
weather. The hen, too, is less likely to kill ducklings of
other broods that may happen to come to her.

Any ordinary hen of medium weight that-is docile will
answer the purpose. Wild or very heavy hens are liable to
crush these fragile eggs. Bantams are rather better for
eggs of wood duck, mandarin, shoveller, teal, or other small
species. For an ordinary hen twelve eggs of the larger
species makes a good setting, or eight for a bantam, but the
number used will vary with the size of the eggs and the hens.
The main thing is never to give a hen more eggs than she can
easily cover. Efforts to cover too many are apt to result in
breakage, as well as failure to hatch.

Moisture. The eggs of waterfowl require so much mois-
ture that it is best to set them on the ground. Outdoor
hatching coops such as have been described may be used.
In the wild state the duck moistens her eggs when she re-
turns from the water. As the hen does not get wet, it is
well to sprinkle the eggs with warm water toward the end of

Young pintails raised by author, Manitoba expedition

Young golden-eyes or “‘ whistlers,”” Manitoba expedition

WILD DUCKS 157

the hatch, even though they are set on the ground. They
could be set on the ground in a shed, provided the ground
under the nest be kept moist. Some breeders of mallards,
however, use tiers of nest compartments in hatching-houses,
construct the nests of sods, and soak them with a watering-
pot each day, which seems to answer the purpose.

Period of Incubation. I had hoped in my experiments in
hatching wild ducks’ eggs in camp in the Northwest to learn
the exact periods of incubation of the various species. The
few incomplete fresh clutches found were shipped East and
did not hatch, and those hatched on the spot were all more
or less incubated when taken. Careful incubation records
of most species are hard to get, but Henry Cook has kindly
supplied a good list from. records of results on his place at
Woodbury, Long Island, New York, as follows: mallard,
27 to 28 days; black duck, 26 to 27; wood duck and mandarin
duck, 28 to 30; gadwall, 28; redhead, 28; European widgeon,
24; shoveller, 22 to 24; all teals, 21 to 23; fulvous and red-
billed tree ducks, 26 to 28 days. Wallace Evans, who has
hatched thousands of wood ducks, says that the above period
_ for this species is correct. Captain Oates, in his book on
mallard breeding, says that the period for this species he has
known to vary, according to conditions, from twenty-three
to twenty-nine days, but that the average is about twenty-
six days. Doubtless there is considerable variation with all
species, according to weather, temperature, closeness of sit-
ting, and perhaps age of the birds producing the eggs.

Artificial Incubation. Though the general practice with
fanciers is to use hens, there are some who use incubators
and brooders. ‘This, in fact, is commonly the method of
commercial duck farms, where Pekins, mallards, and others
are raised in quantities for market. These species are hardy,
eggs are abundant, and it is cheaper on a large scale, even

158 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

if losses are somewhat larger. Different workers claim to
hatch with machines from 60 to 75 per cent. of the eggs set,
or about 80 per cent. of the fertile eggs. In such cases they
usually have large brooding-houses and all facilities. Where
it is a matter of operating single outdoor brooders, with a
moderate number of ducklings, it is safer and far less trouble
to use hens.

There is no question, however, that wild ducks’ eggs hatch
very well in incubators. On two expeditions to Northwest
Canada to experiment with wildfcw’, i had each year a
hatch with Cypher’s incuvdaicis ur gz per cent. of the total
number of eggs, including about a dozen species. These
were eggs of wild ducks gathered in the marshes. Nearly
all were fertile, owing to the vigour of the wild stock, and in
most cases every egg of the set hatched, or all but one. The
young were reared in brooders. It was necessary to manage
in this way, as in the wilderness it was impossible to secure
hens, particularly broody ones.

My method, which is the usual one, was to run the ma-
chine at 103°, raising to 104° during hatching. The eggs
were gathered in all stages of incubation. When a set was
pipped, the eggs were usually transferred to a separate ma-
chine with higher temperature. Some sets, however,
hatched in the general machine at 103° and the young
seemed to do just as well. The eggs were well sprinkled
daily with tepid water which felt slightly warm to the hand,
were turned, and were aired till the temperature felt neutral
when the egg was placed against the eye. Two towels
dripping wet with warm water were at this time placed
in the bottom of the machine.

The German method used by Ludwig Seidler, similar
to others as to temperature, in the incubation of ducks’ eggs
uses all possible moisture, as near to saturation of the air as

WILD DUCKS 159

possible, throughout the process. Two pans of water, be-
sides wet cloths, are used. The hygrometer reading is kept
up to 75° and to go° if possible. The higher the elevation
of the locality, the harder it is to keep up a high degree of
moisture. Before hatching begins, the water should be re-
moved from the bottom of the machine, so that the ducklings
may drop down there and dry off. The tray and shells
should be removed after hatching, and the young left in the
machine for the above-mentioned period. Where hens are
employed, the handling should be as described for gallina-
ceous birds, never relaxing guard against insect pests and
vermin.

The incubator can be used as an adjunct to the hens.
When a set is pipped under the hen, it may be transferred to
the incubator, running at 104°, and the eggs allowed to
hatch. This will save the trampling of the young or their
being crushed against the unhatched eggs. A few poultry
eggs can be given to the hen to keep her sitting.

c. Methods with Young

First Handling. When the hen is hatching she should
not be lifted from the nest, as she is liable, in settling back,
to crush the young. Eggshells should be removed by put-
ting the hand carefully under her and raising her slightly.
If the incubator is used just for the hatching period, when
the ducklings are dried off they should be put under the hen,
so as to learn to brood before being taken to the field. If
several broods hatch at the same time, the young can be
divided equally among the hens. .

The methods in general are similar to those described for
young quails, the coops and apparatus being thesame. The
ducklings are transferred and handled as there described.
If the weather is cold or wet, they should be kept in the coop

160 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

with the hen until it is reasonably safe to let them out.
They need air and exercise as soon as feasible, but they must
not at this early stage get wet or chilled. Three-fourths-
inch mesh wire will keep in ducklings of the larger species,
but for wood ducks and other small species the }-inch size is
necessary. The young of the wood duck and other tree-
nesting species climb, which the others do not, and for these
it is important that the run be covered above at first.

Hot Sun Dangerous. Hot sun is a danger for ducklings
to be avoided as carefully as cold. There must always be
cover so that they can get in the shade, which they know
enough to seek. A surprisingly short enforced exposure to
hot sun will cause sunstroke. Hence in the pens in front
of each coop there should always be either an awning or a
frame covered with foliage, preferably evergreen, or stalks.

Popular Fallacy. Mallard ducklings and those of a num-
ber of other species, especially of the “Anatine” or “river
ducks,”’ are much easier to raise than quails or pheasants,
in that they are not nearly so liable to epidemic diseases and
do not require free range. The process, however, is not so
simple as is commonly supposed. The popular idea is that
young ducks are all right if they have a pond to swim in.
This is a most mistaken notion when applied to ducklings
under artificial conditions. Without the mother duck, their
plumage is not properly oiled, and they quickly get soaked
and die of cramp. Moreover, various aquatic enemies de-
vour them. The practical fact is that water is dangerous,
and it is safest to rear them on dry land, with certain partial
exceptions which will be discussed later. The generally ac-
cepted method, notably with such species as mallards, is to
rear on dry land till the young ducks are about eight weeks
old, when their bodies have become well feathered.

Common Method. At first the young are kept with the

Young ruddy duck, a most peculiar creature, Manitoba expedition

Pair of adult ruddy ducks in marsh near nest, Manitoba

awe} AIIA pue payajoid are Avy} aay ‘eploLy ‘yseag wyeg 32 ‘YWOAA 9yxe] Ul syonp dnvos Jassoyy

WILD DUCKS 161

hen in a bottomless coop with a small yard, preferably on
turf, which should be shifted to a fresh spot frequently, say
every other day. After they are a week old they should
have a pen at least about 8 feet square, better larger, and
the ground should be changed about once a week. If there
are only a few broods, this can be continued for each until
they are old enough to take to the water.

Larger Scale. Another plan, when rearing is on a con-
siderable scale, is to have a rearing-field ‘somewhat on the
pheasant plan. The coops are placed about 4o feet apart,
the hens kept shut in, with frequent change of ground for
the coop, and the young allowed to range about in the field.
It is well to group the coops to have young of the same size
together. Though hens may occasionally peck at ducklings
different from their own, they are not so bad as ducks in this
respect. This field arrangement is excellent for the duck-
lings, as it keeps the ground fresh and gives them exercise.

The following method for young mallards is used by Adam
Scott: Hens and ducklings, six broods, are placed in an
enclosure about 50 by 75 feet in size, using 1-inch mesh wire,
2 feet high, this, of course being simply a section inside a
high fence. The coops are 3 by 6 feet, without bottoms, but
false bottoms are used for the first few days, to prevent the
ducklings getting stepped on in hollows. ‘There is a sliding
slat front for use during the day, and there are ventilating
openings near the top. In quarters of this size no change
of location isnecessary. In 1913 by this system 1,500 young
mallards were raised on two acres of land. New ground is
used each year. The ground used for rearing is thoroughly
limed, ploughed, and seeded down in the fall. At the end
of the third week Mr. Scott removes all the hens, leaving the
ducklings to run together. They have no water standing,
but only what is given them in troughs three times a day.

162 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

They are fed in similar troughs, all being 3 inches deep,
6 inches wide, and 8 to 10 feet long. Feeding troughs must
be cleaned thoroughly. They are fed only what they can
clean up in a few minutes. For shade he uses light tables
in front of each coop, 18 inches high and 3 by 6 feet in area.

This matter of shade for ducklings is of great importance.
In a rearing-field there should be, if possible, some trees and
shrubbery. If not, shade must be provided, either by ar-
bors, awnings, brush-piles, or other such devices. At the
Clove Valley Club the rearing-field is in a sort of open grove,
so there is good shade and sufficient sunlight. For the first
week the ducklings are kept in small yards with the hens.
Then they are allowed to run all together. At night the
keeper evens them up, if too many go to one hen. When
they are two months old they are driven, on a warm morn-
ing, to the pond where they are to mature. It is a flooded
raine, and has little or no natural feed, but it answers the
purpose. At first the ducks get badly soaked, so the first
days they are not allowed to stay in the water long, but are
driven out into an enclosure. As soon as they get oiled up
they stay on the pond nearly all the time, also bask on the
banks, and come to feed morning and night when called.
When they learn to fly they do not leave, especially as the
flock of twelve or fifteen hundred creates a good social nu-
cleus. They fly about some, but are on hand to feed.
They are easily caught by feeding them inside a covered pen.

Brooder Method. Young wild ducks can be successfully
hatched in incubators and reared in brooders, as I have
proven by raising a dozen different kinds in this way. The
keeping of proper temperatures, however, is so exacting a
task, requiring incessant vigil day and night, that I should
never recommend it, or employ it myself, except in case of
necessity, as I did in the wilds of the Northwest where it

WILD DUCKS . 163

was impossible to get broody hens. In case, however, some
one should need the information, I will describe briefly the
procedure with brooders. For the first three or four days
I keep the temperature from 95 to 100°. Then, till the
ducklings are about three weeks old, gradually reduce it to
about 85°. For a week or two longer, or according to the
weather, 80° at night will be enough. In the daytime young
ducks after the first three weeks do not need much or any
artificial heat, unless during cold storms. When they are
about five weeks old, or even younger, if the climate is warm,
they can sleep in ordinary coops. On bright summer days
the danger is more from overheating. Be careful that the
brooders do not get too hot in the sun and smother the duck-
lings. Usually at such times it is best partly to raise the
covers. Brooder lamps should be trimmed and filled every
day with regularity, lest there be accidents by smoking or
going out at some critical time.

Modified Methods. Experiments with various kinds of
wild ducks reveal the fact that something is lacking in at-
tempting to rear certain species entirely without access to
water. Young wood ducks, mandarins, golden-eyes, scoters,
and doubtless most of the sea or diving ducks, are hard to
bring through the early stages by this method. In my suc-
cessful experiments with rearing young canvasbacks I found
that when they began to feather, at the age of about one
month, their growth seemed to be retarded, and they did
better when I gave them even a pan of water. Scoter and
golden-eye ducklings were notably retarded in growth. For
these marine species, also for wood ducks and mandarins,
or any ducklings which do not appear to thrive, I would
recommend judicious and careful use of the following meth-
ods. Even with such ducklings as mallards, whenever their
plumage becomes fouled, it is well to let them bathe in

164 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

a pan of shallow water for a short time on a warm, bright
morning.

Young Wood Ducks. The success of Wallace Evans in
his method of raising young wood ducks is instructive.
These ducklings have sharp claws and are great climbers.
When kept on dry land, at first they appear wild and restless,
paying little heed to the hens, and are continually trying to
climb out of the pen. They seem to worry themselves to
death, and it is common to lose half or even all of
them. With the mother duck, however, even in a small
puddle, they seem perfectly content, and seldom try to
escape. They are constantly dabbling, sifting mud and
water through their bills, and usually nearly all of them
thrive.

Mr. Evans takes the hen and brood to a rearing-coop
placed upon dry land, but near a bit of shallow water, which
is included in their enclosure. Some of these pens were
along a marshy lake, others along a shallow ditch or canal
which was divided off into sections, each yard having in it a
strip of the ditch. They are allowed to take a brief bath
soon after they are placed in the rearing-coop. This must
be only when there is warm sunshine, and in warm marsh
water, also in time to dry off before night. If the first day
is cold, they should bathe only as conditions are favourable.
His theory is that for a time after the ducklings are hatched
their plumage has in it considerable of the natural oil, which
soon dries out if they stay out of the water. The first bath
must be a brief one, after which they are shutin with the hen.
The little ducks should not get bedraggled, and should avoid
getting their backs wet at first. Ifa shower comes up they
are shut in the coop. It is bad for them at first to run
through long wet grass or weeds, as this forces the water
into their plumage. Hence vegetation in the enclosure is

WILD DUCKS 165

kept short. Evidently they oil themselves, and the time
they are allowed in the water is gradually extended.

Another element in this theory is that by dabbling about
and sucking mud and water through their bills, the duck-
lings secure some food element which is important, such as
minute larve, infusoria, and other insect life. This I know,
that Mr. Manross raises almost every one of his annual brood
of wood ducks practically without feeding them. The little
artificial pond in the factory yard is only some 25 feet in
diameter. A little grain scattered on the shore for the old
birds is the only artificial feeding. The young do not touch
it till they are well grown, and live on what they pick up in
this small body of water.

Method with Pan. The soundness of Mr. Evans’s theory
and method was proved abundantly to me by more than
600 young wood ducks nearly grown which I saw on his
place in August, 1914. He considers that he has only just
begun to raise them. He says that if there is no suitable
marsh available, the following method will answer. Place
in the enclosure a good-sized baking-pan. In it lay green
turf, grass side up, and fill it with water just a little over the
roots of the grass. This prevents the young from getting wet
above, but keeps them busy ‘“‘sucking mud” and nibbling
green vegetation. The pan can be removed when it is not
best for them to bathe. This method with the pan was also
habitually employed by Lockwood and Cox, and by others.
During the first few days some fill in the pan with pebbles,
to keep the little ducklings mostly out of the water, so
they can get only their bills in, and gradually remove the
pebbles as they grow older, later substituting quite a deep
pan.

Avoid Chill. The main thing in allowing young ducks
access to water is to do it with discretion and plan things so

166 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

that they do not get soaked and chilled, especially in cold
weather or at night.

Keeping Clean. Another advantage gained by judi-
ciously allowing bathing is that the ducklings are then able to
clean their plumage. One of the most serious difficulties in
raising young ducks on dry land is that they run over one
another and get their backs fouled. In trying to rub it off
they get their necks, heads, and eyes stuck up, and are likely
to die. Sometimes I have spent whole mornings, on warm
days, cleaning ducklings by hand, with warm water. By
the above plan they will attend to their own toilets.

Method of Cox. The method of Mr. Cox in handling
ducklings is as follows: He never lets ducks rear their
young if he can avoid it, but always rearsthem with bantams.
Sometimes he sets eggs under ordinary hens, occasionally
as many as sixteen, and when they are nearly hatched, or
as soon as broody bantams are ready, he gives them to the
bantams, about eight apiece. Thus they are less liable to
be trampled.

At first he keeps the bantam and ducklings in a Hodgson’s
coop No. 5, witha little wire run. In the case of the young
wood ducks and mandarins, which at first are determined
to climb out, this run is covered. In five or six days they
learn the call of the hen, after which they are not so anxious
to leave her. One-half inch mesh is used for these small
ducklings. He has large flower-pot saucers sunk in the
ground, and lets the ducklings bathe from the first. In
cold or wet weather he takes this water away, gives them
drinking-water only in fonts, and mostly keeps them shut
up in the coop.

When they are a few days old he removes the small run
and lets them out in grassy yards about 8 feet square,
one brood in each, using the same coop. He has large sheet-

WILD DUCKS 167

iron pans made to order, about 2 inches or more deep,
which he sinks in the ground and fills with water. Whether
he changes the ground during their growth he does not state,
but obviously it is desirable to do so, certainly as often as
there is any suggestion of fouling and when the vegetation
is consumed. When two thirds grown, say eight weeks
old, they are put, a number of broods together, into an
enclosure at the corner of the pond which has been wired
off for them. Here they are kept till fully matured, when
they are let out into the pond with the older ducks.

In the experience of Mr. Cox, the young ducks usually
breed when a year old, though in a few cases they wait two
years. He notes that the young redheads regularly breed
at the age of one year.

Feeding of Young Ducks. Fortunately, with most species
of wild ducks the matter of the adequate feeding of the
young presents no especial difficulties. The young of all
our nativeAnatine, or river and pond ducks, except the wood
duck, are easily raised, which is also true of some of the
Fuliguline, the sea or diving ducks—namely, the redhead,
canvasback, and the scaups. The others require special
treatment.

In my own experimenting with wild ducks in the West,
I have, by essentially the same feeding method, raised by
hand, from egg to maturity, young of the following species:
canvasback, redhead, lesser scaup, pintail, gadwall, shoveller,
blue-winged teal, green-winged teal, and mallard. The
baldpate, cinnamon teal, black and wood ducks come under
the same category, only I didnot thenhaveany. Following
is the method which I employed:

Preliminaries. When the ducklings are a day old and
are removed to the coop or brooder, it is time for the first
feed. Fine grit, mixed with a little ground charcoal, should

168 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

be before them from the very first, also water in drinking
fonts in which they can dip only their bills. It is astonish-
ing how soaked and bedraggled small ducklings can get with
little opportunity. The ordinary commercial chick fonts
are apt to be too large at first. I found the best way was
to take a small opened tin can, punch two holes on opposite
sides about half an inch from the bottom, fill the can with
water, and stand it reversed in a close-fitting, rather deep
saucer or small dish. The can supplies water in the dish to
the level of the holes in the can, and the ducklings can only
insert their bills.

First Feeding. At the very first I began by giving them,
in a small dish, a little hard-boiled egg, finely ground, mixed
with cracker crumbs or rolled oats, just crumbly moist,
and a little sand. They soon get to feeding. If one picks
up a duckling and sticks its bill in the water, it likes the sen-
sation and will experiment for itself, the others soon copying.
To get them to eating, it seems to expedite matters to stick
some of the egg against the tin water can, about as high as
they can easily reach. Somehow they like to pick at things
which are elevated, and theysoonsample the egg, andusually
are eating in the course of an hour. When they are with
the hen, she will soon instruct them. The hen should be
fed with grain, which the ducklings will not touch, to pre-
vent her from gobbling up the egg. When the young have
learned to eat they can be fed from a dish outside the coop,
keeping the hen shut up behind the bars. Some persons
throw food on the ground, but, especially where the same
ground must be used for some time, it is better to use a
dish or trough, keeping everything clean and sweet, which
is most important.

Feed Moderately. Feeding at the very first should be
often, a little at a time, about five times a day. While they

WILD DUCKS 169

are learning to eat they should be given plenty of time to
get what they want. After a couple of days, when they
have become the little hogs that they are, and fairly shovel
down the food, four meals a day are enough, say at 6 and 10
A. M., and 2 and 6 P. M., which is every four hours. They
should have all they will eat with eagerness. After all begin
to quit, and the weaker ones have had their chance, take
away the dish. Water in the shade, and the grit and char-
coal, should always be accessible.

Subsequent Feeding. When they had learned to eat,
after the first day I fed the following: Mix three parts oat-
meal or rolled oats and one part wild-duck meal, as prepared
by dealers, scald with hot water, only crumbly moist, not
sloppy. Then sprinkle in coarse, sharp sand, say a handful,
or about 8 per cent. of the bulk. Grind up hard-boiled egg,
shells and all, and add a moderate amount of this to the
mixture, perhaps a quarter of the feed being egg. This can
be continued for a week, and then the idea is to reduce and
cut down the egg. When the ducklings are two weeks old
egg can be given only once a day and be discontinued en-
tirely when they are three weeks old.

Crissel. At this time may be begun the addition of crissel
or high-grade beef scrap, at first just a little in the mash, say
a small handful, perhaps 1o per cent., then increasing it
to 15 per cent., giving this but once a day.

Diluting. After the first week the proportion of wild-
duck meal in the mash may be increased, say two parts
rolled oats to one part duck meal. This is on the theory
that it is rather rich undiluted for small ducks. Later, be-
sides the oatmeal, barley meal, bran, and middlings may
be mixed in for economy. Barley meal tends to constipate
and check diarrhoea, and a little may well be used from
the first, the coarse grade preferably.

170 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Ants’ Eggs or Angleworms. Another useful food, espe-
cially for the more delicate species, is the commercial ants’
eggs, which helps to supply the natural insect element. Usu-
ally during the earlier stages I gave the ducklings some
in the mash, on the Northwestern expeditions. When I ran
out of it, however, the ducklings did just as well without it.
It is expensive, so in practice I should use it mainly in start-
ing young broods, and for the species hardto rear. Chopped
angleworms make an excellent food for such purposes, and
are usually easy to get.

Begin Grain. On the expeditions above-mentioned I ran
out of duck meal, but got along all right by substituting
cornmeal and bran, about half and half. Also, when the
ducklings were three weeks old, I began giving them ground
mixed grain, or commercial chick-grain, in the mash, a little
at first, increasing the quantity as the ducks grew.

Green Food. Green vegetable food is also important
from the first. About any succulent foliage or growth will
do, according to what is accessible. Lettuce, or chopped
garden stuff, if available, is always good. When I was in
the wilds I used roots of water plants, the inside stems of
reeds and rushes, and the like, finely chopped. On one ex-
pedition our best source for this supply was when we dis-
covered areas of wild celery in the lake. We gathered this
by bushels, and gave the entire plant to the young ducks,
then half grown or more, in pans of water. They were eager
for it, and devoured every part, from root to blossoms.
This made their mid-day meal, for at the age of about six
weeks they were cut down to three mealsa day. They were
kept on dry land, in pens, and for water had the drinking
fonts, now of large poultry size, always before them, and the
large pan of water, for celery and bathing, in the middle of
the day.

WILD DUCKS 171

Various Receipts. As most kinds of ducklings are hardy
and free from disease, they will thrive on quite a variety of
feeding. The following methods of different successful
raisers of ducks will be of interest for comparison.

Evans. Wallace Evans starts ducklings on egg-and-milk
custard, cooked hard, and grated through a sieve. After a
few days he mixes in his own prepared foods, such as he sells,
finally substituting these entirely for egg. That green
food, grit, and water are supplied, in all these methods, is,
of course, understood.

Clark. Neil Clark uses the following for mallards: At
first he beats up raw egg and mixes this with Spratt’s wild-
duck meal, scalded. When the ducklings are one week old
he adds a little bran and middlings. The egg is left out
after ten days. At two weeks a little cornmeal is added,
but sparingly, for too much is liable to cause convulsions.
At three weeks a little crissel is begun, and increased from
time to time. For green food he has used rape leaves a
good deal, ground up in a hay-cutter, and given in a trough
of water. After three weeks he adds wheat and cracked
corn, increasing these cereals and cutting out the duck meal.
He gets them on to grain when full grown, but gives some
mash until along in the fall. Occasionally he puts grit in
the food, to make sure they are getting enough to aid
digestion.

Rogers. Harry T. Rogers, as with pheasants, starts
ducklings on ground hard-boiled egg mixed with crumbs of
cracker or parched bread. After a few days he begins, be-
sides this, using a mash of middlings, a little bran, a little
cornmeal, corn and oats ground together, and a little cris-
sel, about one sixteenth. ‘This mash he gives twice a day
at first, alternating with the egg, and after a while gives it
entirely, probably at about three weeks.

172 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Cook. Henry Cook for the first week uses stiff, grated
custard as above. During the next week he mixes this with
Spratt’s wild-duck meal. Then he drops the custard, and
feeds only the duck meal, scalded. At three weeks, or
when the first feathers show, he begins to use chick-grain
mixed with the duck meal. In regard to using the com-
mercial duck meals full strength, some consider them too
rich, but more dilute them for reasons of economy, finding
that the ducklings do just as well in this way.

Seidler. Ludwig Seidler begins with a little egg, but
soon feeds on barley meal and Spratt’s wild-duck meal,
half and half. He also adds oatmeal to the mash at two
weeks. At three weeks he grinds up various grains quite
fine, not much corn, not over one fifth, and mixes it with
the mash, also a little crissel. Of the latter he uses a double
handful to a fourteen-quart pail of mash, once a day, in the
morning.

Barley Meal. The use of barley meal as an ingredient
is particularly an English method. F. C. Walcott, on his
visits to the English preserves, found the most successful
breeders and experimenters using this, and very insistent
upon it. They consider it especially important for marine
ducks, and for the young of kinds hard to raise. Captain
Oates in his book says that barley is apt to cause indigestion
unless begun gradually. He suggests at first using four
to one duck meal to barley meal, increasing to half and half,
also diluting the barley meal with 25 per cent. of bran. A.
G. MacVicar advises using the coarse grade, not the finely
ground.

Cox. John A. Cox has a most original method, not gen-
erally applicable from lack of the material. He was very
successful in raising rare kinds of young ducks by feeding
them entirely at first on female horseshoe crabs, raw. These

WILD DUCKS 173

were cut open, and the ducklings greedily devoured the eggs
and gelatinous matter inside—a cheap food, certainly! He
kept the crab always before them, but avoided overfeeding
by not replenishing till they had picked off every last vestige
of meat, which kept them busy and gave exercise.

Finding that the young wood ducks and mandarins did
not digest crab very well at first, he started these with the
firm, grated custard. Ina few days he added Spratt’s meal,
No. 5, which was rather coarse, so he ground it up finer.
When they were about ten days old, he began giving them
crab, sprinkling the custard and meal on the inside of the
crab, and thus he got them eating it. These ducklings seem
harder than most to learn to feed, and he found it helped
them start to scatter a little grated custard on the grass and
weeds, to stick to the stems. They hunt around among the
vegetation, and pick up these bits better than from dishes.
He has tried these methods for a number of years, and finds
them always successful.

Starting Shy Ducklings. To add to his suggestion about
starting ducklings which are reluctant to feed, especially
small ducklings captured wild, I had some interesting ex-
periences on the western expeditions. The young of the
American golden-eye and the white-winged scoter were
harder to start than the others. Sometimes also young
lesser scaups were a little backward. I found it a good plan
to put in with them one or two small ducklings of other
kinds which were tame and had learned well how to eat.
These were not enough to awe the timid ones or monopolize
the food, but usually they soon taught the others proper
table manners, which, for a duck, consist in being as greedy
as possible.

Captured Ducklings. Small ducklings captured wild in
the marshes were often a difficult problem. When put with

174 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

other ducklings, some would learn to eat, but others would
refuse food and exhaust themselves trying to escape. The
young Anatinz, or river ducks, usually got straightened
out, but ducklings of the diving species, if captured when
small, were hard to save. If they were caught older, when
they had vitality to survive a period of ‘‘sulks,” they came
through all right. The best way with such, I found, was to
feed live flies or other insects, especially in a pan of water.
They were not interested, usually, unless the insects moved.
Hence flies captured had to be crippled or soaked, so they
could not take wing. They liked worms also. Sometimes,
however, in the cold, rough weather of the region of Hud-
son’s Bay, it was very difficult to find insects, frequently
at critical times when they were badly needed. It would
be well to keep worms on hand, and also flies in traps.
Ruddy Duck. One kind of duckling, the ruddy duck, I
could do nothing with. This species is in many ways
most peculiar. Though a small species, the eggs are larger
than those of the mallard or canvasback. We hatched out
one small brood and caught young from another. These
ducklings are round, fat, helpless things, almost unable to
stand up on land. During the early stage they seemed
utterly stupid, refusing to eat or to notice anything. If
found with the old duck in the marsh, unlike the spry skulk-
ing young of other species, they made little effort to escape,
and allowed themselves to be picked up. At that time I
had not had experience with these ducks difficult to rear,
and could do nothing with them. They would not take
food, and refused to swallow any that was put down their
throats. I made an attempt to feed them in water, but
had no insects, the weather being bad. Some died from
chill, and none survived beyond the fifth day. Examina-
tion showed the abdominal cavity still full of yolk of egg,

WILD DUCKS 175

unabsorbed. Probably at first they should be kept quiet
and warm, and then be allowed to swim in warm, shallow
water, in which live insects could be put. Perhaps they
might do better with a hen, and with patient handling get
a start.

Food for Delicate Species. Experiment showed that
ducklings of certain species, even when eating heartily, were
not properly nourished by the artificial food which an-
swered well for most kinds. Such species are the white-
winged scoter and the golden-eye. The little black-and-
white fellows, after learning to eat, seemed perpetually
hungry. They would stay at the dish after the others had
finished, and load themselves up. For all that they gained
little. Stunted in growth, some died, and the few that got
fledged were under-sized, and the last died when frost came.
From the voracity of all the young ducks for insects, it is
evident that this was what they needed. When I returned
from the marshes and stepped into the duck pens, my cloth-
ing almost covered with mosquitoes, the ducklings of all
kinds almost mobbed me, eating off the insects. This is
what they live on in the sloughs—insect life, worms, and
aquatic vegetation.

Besides catching insects for such ducklings, worms could
be dug for them. These would have to be chopped up at
first, if large. Maggots could also be raised to get them
started. A little later chopped liver or meat could be fed
to them, and some fish. W. W. Grant, who visited Eng-
lish preserves, writes that the keepers tempted shy duck-
lings with vermicelli in water, which resembles worms. The
ordinary duck foods could also be given to supplement,
finally even grain. Mr. Walcott found that in England,
where experimenters keep various sea ducks, the adults
at least do well on a varied diet, and eat grain and corn,

176 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

even fish-eaters like mergansers, which would indicate that
the young also may be considerably omnivorous.

Raising Eiders. Young eider ducks were raised suc-
cessfully in Scotland for several seasons by Donald Mac-
Vicar, according to his son, A. G. MacVicar. The eggs
were brought from the western Hebrides. He used to go
to the shore, gather limpets and various shell-fish and
crustacea, and pound them up for the young eiders, which
thrived upon them. Doubtless this diet would be equally
effective for other marine species or those hard to raise.

Further Details on Wood Duck. In reference to raising
wood ducks, A. G. MacVicar has some further interesting
details of method. For diet he emphasizes angleworms
and lettuce, especially the former. These ducklings are
nervous in temperament, and should be kept as quiet as
possible, being shut in with the bantam in a covered run for
at least the first week. If their claws are clipped slightly
they cannot climb up boards or posts, though they still
can scramble up wire. After the first week their claws be-
come blunted naturally. He gives the brood a pan of
water nearly filled with sand and pebbles, on warm days
only. They dabble in this, and eat grit, to their good. He
prefers cochin bantams for them, as they are good callers
and keep chattering to the restless young, controlling them
better than other kinds. Silkies, though quiet, are poor
callers and thus not good disciplinarians. Moreover, their
hairy plumage gets soaked from the young ducks, and is
hard to dry.

Further Experiments. Some further details can be
given as based on my experiments with hatching and rear-
ing young wild ducks in Northwest Canada, and subsé-
quently. The species there experimented with, of all of
which eggs were secured, were canvasback, redhead; lesser

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Great flock of blue geese on coast of Louisiana in winter at mouth of Missis-
sippi River. Similar hordes of wildfowl throng on the protected areas

Brants on embankment at aviary of George D. Tilley

WILD DUCKS 177

scaup, white-winged scoter, ruddy duck, golden-eye, mal-
lard, pintail, gadwall, shoveller, green-winged teal, and blue-
winged teal—twelve species. The eggs of all of these
hatched normally, all kinds equally well, averaging 92 per
cent. The young of nine species, all but the scoter, golden-
eye, and ruddy, were easily raised by the same method,
described above.

Peculiarities of Species. The young shovellers and blue-
winged teals seemed rather the most delicate of these nine,
perhaps partly owing to their small size and being trampled
by larger ducklings. On the other hand, the few green-
winged teals were more easily raised, and seemed to have
so much vitality that nearly all grew up, though they were
trampled and plucked almost bare. The pintails were just
as hardy, and in two seasons we did not lose a single one.
The mallards also were very hardy. Gadwalls did well,
and are very nice ducks, easy to raise, though some mortal-
ity in winter made it appear that they are not so hardy as
the three above mentioned. E. A. McIlhenny, however,
is very successful in rearing young gadwalls and blue-
winged teals. The redhead is easy to raise, hardy, and
docile.

Canvasback. As far as I know our young canvas-
backs were the first ever reared in captivity. They thrived
on the ordinary food, were easily handled, and we raised a
good number. Apparently they were of a more shy and
nervous temperament than most of the others, decidedly
more so than their near relatives, the redheads. When once
frightened, it was hard to get them over it. One batch
‘which had a bad fright in some simple way when small
never forgot it, but would have a mad stampede if any one
near them made a quick motion. When care was exercised,
however, they were tame and gentle. During the period

178 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

when they were feathering, they seemed to have a period of
not growing well, and now and then one died from a “going-
light” trouble. A few even of the older young mallards
had it. It was clearly caused by overcrowding, being kept
on the same ground, which got foul, and not having access
to water, these inconveniences being unavoidable through
lack of dry ground and sudden great changes in the level
of the big lake in storms, so that we could not keep the ducks
along shore. The canvasback, with legs set far ‘‘aft,”’ is an
awkward bird on land, being built for the water, and handi-
capped when away from it. They all did well after their
arrival in the East when turned out in ponds.

Other Diving Ducks. The scaup when first hatched is of
a rather restless disposition, and runs around trying to get
out. Itis, moreover, great on the standing jump, and tries
to vault over the fence. In a few days it quiets down and
becomes very tame and docile. The golden-eye is par-
ticularly wild and restless. Like the wood duck and the
southern tree ducks, it has claws especially designed for
climbing, and gives much trouble in scaling fences, espe-
cially up wooden posts. The scoter is a big but mild and
gentlemanly fellow, walking so upright that, in its black-
and-white suit, it makes one think of an auk, or even a
little man. The study of these young ducks is intensely
interesting.

Two Expeditions. It is generally believed, and well
established as a principle, that hand-raised young ducks
of various species are docile and easy to breed. It was with
the idea of securing a breeding-stock for experimentation,
as well as for other studies of hatching, rearing, plumages,
etc., that I made the two expeditions in 1912 and 1913.
One hundred young ducks were brought back the first
time, and two hundred the second. Some fresh incomplete

WILD DUCKS 179

sets of ducks’ eggs were shipped back East as a test, but
none of them hatched. The only sure way was the one
adopted: to hatch and rear the ducks on the spot, and
bring them back in late summer or fall. The journeys
were severe, being over 2,000 miles, and lasting four and
five days. The first year the ducks were brought back when
quite small, and the loss the first week after the journey,
from exhaustion, amounted to nearly one quarter, mostly
of the ducklings under three weeks old. Hardly any died
that were over three weeks old at the start. On the next
expedition the return was not made until late in August, when
most of the ducks were fledged, and the loss was only nine.

The results of the breeding experiment with the first
lot were negatived by the severe winter and imported epi-
demic already mentioned on the Childs-Walcott estate
where the ducks were kept. Most of them were destroyed,
and the survivors enfeebled for breeding the following sea-
son. ‘Those of the second expedition have survived well, and
a few young produced the next season, of pintail and red-
head. I have also learned, from both these experiments,
with confirmation from other sources, that young wild ducks
under artificial conditions frequently fail to breed the first
season, till they are two years old. The shock of the long
journey, and other initial disadvantages, gave a set-back
and made many of them skip laying the first season. Had
the forcing methods previously described been employed, it
might have made a difference. Some accidents reduced
the stock, but the remainder now appear to be in fine
condition, and there should be further results in the future.

d. Other Conservation Methods

Practical Conservation. It is coming to be a great source
of pleasure for lovers of wild waterfowl to prepare a proper

180 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

breeding-pond, keep a choice selected stock, and multiply
these admirable native species. The young will breed even
more readily than did their parents, and with a few gener-
ations the problem will be solved and a great need be met.
Valuable species may be saved from extermination.

Species in Danger. A case in point is the exquisite wood
duck. A decade ago it was characterized in a government
publication as a “‘vanishing game-bird.” Now it is being
reared artificially by thousands, and in some localities it is
again becoming abundant. Would that this could be said
of all our waterfowl! The Labrador duck has long since
become extinct. The species which at present may be most
in danger, perhaps, is the pretty little bufflehead, or ‘‘butter-
ball.” Around Lake Winnipegosis, Manitoba, only a few
years ago they were said to breed commonly. Though the
country still remains wild, the duck is now almost unknown
there, and I was not able to discover a single one. It is still
said to be numerous west of the Rocky Mountains, but
in the middle and eastern sections it has waned notably.

Breeding for Profit. It is a very laudable sort of enter-
prise for people to breed wild ducks for profit, particularly
to be able to sell hand-reared waterfowl of all possible kinds
for breeding-stock. Very many people will wish to be able
to secure such stock, and for a long time prices will be high
enough to make this very profitable. These species are so
hardy and free from epidemics that there is not the risk
found in breeding the gallinaceous species.

Public Responsibility. Owners of large estates suitably
located would find it most fascinating, as well as of public
service, to breed various waterfowl, and, by the methods
described, liberate numbers of the young which they raise,
to breed in the wild state and help to restore these valuable
species. Every State should have at least one suitable

Canada goose incubating on farm of E. H. Austin

3 Photograph by H. K. Fob
Swans and ducks at George D. Tilley’s aviary, Darien, Connecticut

Cranes at aviary of George D. Tilley

WILD DUCKS 181

preserve and propagating farm for waterfowl, which would
result in great good.

Planting Foods. Another very important line of effort
which should be undertaken on large tracts is the estab-
lishing of food plants such as are naturally attractive to
wild ducks. A great deal of interest in this matter is
arising, and many landowners and State officials are ex-
perimenting with various species of water plants. With
some kinds these efforts have already been successful. The
planting of wild rice and wild celery are most in the public
eye thus far, and have proved feasible. On the Walcott
preserve wild celery has been established in at least one
pond. There was trouble in starting wild rice on a pond
where pinioned ducks were kept, as these ate up the seed
before it could get a start. Commissioner Titcomb of
Vermont reports success in his planting wild rice. Mr.
Walcott finds it better to plant the roots in the spring than
to sow seed in the fall.

Authorities. There is such a large amount of detail in
connection with the description of various water plants
which attract wildfowl and of the methods of starting them
that it is impossible here to discuss it thoroughly. Instead
I will refer those interested to two authoritative sources.
Bulletin No. 58 of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, entitled, “Five Important Wild-Duck Foods,” by
W.L. McAtee, describes the Delta duck potato, the wapato
or duck potato, the chufa or nut-grass, the wild millet, and
the banana water-lily. Some suggestions are also given
for propagation.

Clyde B. Terrell, Oshkosh, Wisconsin, has gone very
thoroughly into the subject. His father back in 1895 began
to distribute wild-duck foods. The son grew up in the
business, and has endorsements from Commissioner Tit-

182 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

comb and other well-known people. His publications go
into full detail in directing customers as to the sowing or
planting of all the important wild-duck foods. Among
those which he describes and handles are duck potato or
wapato, wild celery, wild rice, peppergrass or watercress,
American lotus or water chinquapin, nut-grass or chufa,
blue duck millet, and others of the hardy potamogetons or
pond weeds.

Wapato. To refer briefly to a few of these plants which
are best known and of which ducks are fond, the wapato or
duck potato is an excellent food, with its succulent bulbs
and shoots, andspreads rapidly by bulbs, runners, and seeds.
It grows in shallow water or on moist ground which is an-
nually overflowed. It is best started by bulbs or by trans-
planting. Mr. Terrell advises about a thousand plants to
the acre, six feet apart, in water a foot or less in depth.
The proper time to plant is during the summer months.

Wild Celery. Wild celery is an eel grass, growing on mud
or loam bottom in fresh or slightly brackish water from
13 to 8 feet deep. It is a perennial, and produces seed-
pods after the second or third year from planting. It also
spreads by runners. The best time to plant is in the
fall before freezing, the natural time that it goes to seed.
It can also be sown in spring if the seed is always kept moist
and is stored in a cool place to prevent fermentation. The
main reason why people have failed in sowing wild celery
or wild rice is that if the seed of these water plants is ever
allowed to dry, it will never germinate. About two or two
and a half bushels of seed to the acre is Mr. Terrell’s advice.
He also suggests, especially where the bottom is rather hard,
to mix clay with water, make little balls, as of putty, insert
a little seed in each, and drop into the water. Plants, he
says, should he set out about three feet apart, being set in

WILD DUCKS 183

firmly so they will not loosen and float to the top. Waters
moving slowly suit it best, but it will grow in good-sized
ponds where there is motion by the wind. The depth can
be from 2 to 6 feet.

Wild Rice. Wild rice can be sown at 3 to 6 feet deep,
on bottoms where there is from 3 to 6 inches of mud,
using fifty to sixty pounds of seed to the acre, according to
Mr. Terrell. Both grow well in slightly brackish water,
but if the water is salt to the taste it is too salt for wild
rice or celery.

CHAPTER X

WILD GEESE

Readily Tamed. It is a surprise to many who consider
wild geese the type of inherent wildness that in reality they
are tamed more readily than almost any other wild bird,
even than ducks, submitting even in shorter time and be-
coming more absolutely familiar. This is notably true of
the common wild goose or Canada goose. Wing-tipped
geese which are captured will in a short time become so
tame that they will hardly get out of the way.

Anomaly. It is a curious anomaly, however, that while
the Canada goose, as a species, breeds readily in captivity,
all the other species of native wild geese are very hard to
breed, notwithstanding the fact that they all become per-
fectly tame. The snow goose and the white-fronted goose
have occasionally, though infrequently, bred successfully
in captivity. Even when they lay eggs, these are seldom
fertile. The common brant becomes very tame and mates,
but I have never learned of an instance of its even laying
eggs in captivity. If the same analogy holds as with the
ducks, the secret should lie in the matter of feeding and of
furnishing suitable nesting-sites, and it ought to be possible
to solve the problem. It has, however, been suggested to
me as a possible explanation of failure to breed in captivity
that some wildfowl are supposed to copulate habitually in
the air, and thus might not when unable to fly. Such mat-
ters now attract so much popular interest that it is to be

184

WILD GEESE 185

hoped that determined and carefully directed scientific ex-
periments will be made. In view of the fact that pinioning
evidently tends to retard breeding, the best way to begin
such experiments would probably be to secure trapped or
netted birds which have not been injured, and merely clip
the wing, repeating this procedure in mid-summer and after
completing the moult. If young should be secured, they
could be pinioned when small without injury, the same as
ducklings. ,

Keeping Geese. The actual keeping of wild geese is
quite simple. All they need is a small pond, marsh, or sec-
tion of a brook, enclosed with a wire fence. The fence
should have 1-inch mesh wire at the ground about 2 feet
high, to keep out such vermin as minks, which are very
destructive. The rest may be of ordinary coarse fencing,
high enough to keep out dogs and foxes, at least 6 feet in all.
A fair amount of grass land should be in the enclosure, as
geese are great grazers. In fact vegetation and its roots,
especially grass, forms the chief article of diet. They are
also fed grain of any sort, or mixed, and this is all they re-
quire. Each fall plant part of the field where they breed
with winter rye, which furnishes the best food for them and
the young. No animal food is necessary, unless it should
be found so in experiments as suggested above. Nor is
shelter needed, unless it be a hedge or windbreak on shore,
and perhaps a bower to stand under, which, like enough,
they would not care to use. Usually they are able to keep
a hole in the ice open all winter in which to swim, and they
surely can with a little assistance in the worst cold-snaps.
They are the hardiest of birds, and cold and storm have no
terror for them.

Keep Separate. Geese are quarrelsome birds, and
should be by themselves in the breeding season. During

186 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

the fall and winter they can be on a pond with ducks if
there is plenty of room, so the ducks can get out of the way
of the geese. But in the breeding season geese should be
separated by pairs. Particularly will they kill young of
other species, and by their fighting will prevent timid ducks
from breeding.

Breeding Quarters. They can be allowed to breed in
the same enclosure where they winter. Though the ganders
will quarrel considerably, there will usually be no serious
trouble if there is enough ground so that each pair can nest
quite a distance apart. Harry T. Rogers quotes Captain
Bartlett, the Arctic explorer, as saying that in the far north
he has seen geese nesting in colonies, the nests being quite
near together, but these may not have been the Canada goose.
At any rate they should have plenty of room. Ground
such as an ordinary field or pasture will do, adjoining water.

Mating. Geese are naturally monogamous, and generally
mate for life. Nevertheless, captured wild Canada geese,
some of which surely must have been mated, after a time
usually pair. In such cases the female is more reluctant to
breed than the male, and is inclined to delay a couple of
years or more before yielding, whereas the male will gen-
erally breed the following spring. Usually they begin
when three years old, but individuals vary. Occasionally
they breed when one year old, but some delay till the fourth
or fifth year. There are occasionally those which never
mate. They are independent about mating, and cannot
be made to pair by shutting up two together. Naturally
the young reared in captivity make the best breeding-stock.

A. G. MacVicar once sent a pair of Canada geese to Eng-
land which did not breed for eight years, when they raised
a brood of seven. The following year there were three
nests, as some of the young bred when a year old.

WILD GEESE 187

Nesting. Breeding occurs very early in the season, the
date depending upon the latitude. On the coast of Virginia,
J. W. Whealton’s geese are said to lay in February. In
the region of New York City and Connecticut they usually
lay early in April, though sometimes later in the month in
backward seasons. In fact they breed too early, for the
eggs are often frozen or flooded. The pairs are fussy about
selecting the exact locations for their nesting-sites, and
the ganders fight. The first year that geese nest they are
timid, and must not be disturbed while they are preparing
to nest. When once they select a spot, they use it boldly
every year without further trouble. Usually no attempt is
made to conceal the nest, though it may be under a tree or
bush, or beside a trunk or log. I have seen the goose sitting
on her nest out in an open meadow, the most conspicuous
object in the landscape. The gander remains constantly
on guard, seldom going off more than a few yards. Grain
should be placed near him, as some ganders will almost
starve rather than leave, sometimes getting so weak they
can hardly stand up. In case of intrusion they can put up
quite a fight, and they strike powerful blows with their
wings. The eggs are from four to seven, five being the
most usual number.

Evans Method. Wallace Evans breeds a considerable
number of Canada geese. They all live on one good-sized
pond, and make their nests some distance apart, and back
from the shore. They have access to a grove in the rear,
and some of them nest in these woods.

Young. Assuming that the place has plenty of grass and
green vegetation, the goslings require no care or feeding
other than by the parents. Most breeders do not feed
the young at all until they are old enough to eat the grain
given to the parents. At first they do not touch it, but

188 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

begin when they are getting their feathers. In the case of a
pair in a small yard, it would be safe to offer food, the same
as for ducklings, though usually they will not touch it,
unless hard pressed. Their natural diet seems to be largely
from grazing, and they industriously eat grass and dig up
roots. They are hardy, too, and usually thrive without
trouble. There should also be shade accessible, either
bushes or prepared shelters, as without such they are quite
liable to succumb.

Goose Farming. The most successful breeder of wild
geese on a large scale in this country is J. W. Whealton, on
Chincoteague Island, Virginia. This is a large island,
seven by two and one half miles, on a marshy coast, sur-
rounded by shallow bays and sounds which are natural
feeding grounds and are resorted to in fall and winter by
great numbers of fowl. Many years ago Doctor Whealton
picked up some wounded wild Canada geese, as well as
ducks, and started to breed them. In course of time he has
worked out a most interesting and successful system of
wild-goose farming. It is quite unique, but could probably
be duplicated on coastal islands under somewhat similar
conditions. I have not yet visited the island, but this has
been done by C. William Beebe, of the New York Zodlogical
Park, who in the New York Zodlogical Society Bulletin for
October, 1909, has presented a most informing account of
the methods employed, from which I glean the following
information:

The Stock. Beginning with one pair originally, his
stock of Canada geese alone was at that time, 1909, some
450 birds. Inbreeding was avoided by introducing wild
captive ganders from time to time, which breed at once
with the tamed females, whereas wild females might not
breed for years. These geese, in flocks of from four to fifty,

Photograph from Wallace Evans
Black swans nesting on Evans’ Game Farm

Young coots or ‘‘mud-hens,’’ raised on Manitoba expedition

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WILD GEESE : 189

are allowed to roam over this and adjacent islands and
waters. Their principal feeding-ground is out on the bays,
where they eat eel-grass and sea-lettuce, pulling up plants
by the roots at low tide. They get fat on this diet. A
little grain is given now and then to keep them tame. Also
they are supplied with fresh water in winter.

Mating. On the first warm days in March those not
already paired for life secure partners, and there is a general
mating. Geese nest in the same spot every year, so these
performances take place near the fenced pastures where the
goose community is accustomed to breed. They are let in
one pair at a time,.that they may select location with the
least friction, and then they will hold it. There is much
quarrelling, however, and some pairs are broken up. The
geese are fed grain forawhilebeforelaying, till theyare turned
out to roam with the young when these are quite large.
Neither young nor old are troubled with lice, and it is thought
that their feathers contain some element which keeps the
pests off.

Breeding-grounds. The breeding-field or paddock is an
enclosure of 25 to 30 acres, and has around it a board fence
3 feet high. About 75 pairs breed here, and raise 200
to 300 young annually. There are a few small fresh-water
marshes in the enclosure, and here numerous hummocks are
thrown up, which are soon covered with grass and low
brush. These are favourite nest-sites, and five to seven
eggs are laid by each pair. They nest but once each season.
When the young hatch they are pinioned and turned into
another pasture with the parents. If the goose dies, the
gander will rear the young alone, but, curiously, the mother
either cannot or will not rear the young if the gander should
be removed. Some of these birds are already fifty years
old. They breed better when thirty than when even ten

190 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

years old. In spring one familiar with them can tell which
will lay by the condition of fatty deposits visible under the
skin. If considerable yellow fat is visible about the ab-
domen, there is no likelihood of eggs that season.

Young Remain. When Mr. Beebe wrote the article
quoted he stated that the young geese were all pinioned.
F. C. Walcott, however, says that now they are allowed to
grow up without pinioning, and have full power of flight.
Nevertheless, they do not attempt to migrate away, though
flocks of wild geese sometimes associate with them on the
bays where they feed. In like manner it is reported that in
England Canada geese are bred in numbers on large es-
tates, and similarly liberated. They remain there the year
around, breeding in the natural state, and they and their
offspring form large flocks.

When one month old they are given their liberty. Usu-
ally they do not breed until three years old. They mate for
life, and invariably return to the nest occupied the previous
spring. A pair, as a rule, will not allow another pair to
nest within fifty to one hundred yards. Yet they are
erratic in this respect, some letting others nest near, others
being very jealous. In summer they feed mostly on the
land, in small parties, but in winter they seek their living
out on the bays and flats.

On the island foxes are numerous, but do little harm.
Minks are abundant and destructive. Dogs are the worst
pest. In 1908 twenty-six dogs were shot in the act of killing
geese. One year a pair of snow geese hatched four young,
the only instance in which this species had bred successfully.
When these goslings were half grown they were killed by
dogs. Speaking of the snow geese, Doctor Whealton has gota
cross from the snow gander and the common goose, and bred.
back into essentially pure snow geese in several generations.

WILD GEESE IgI

Plucking Feathers. They have a system on this island
of plucking the geese for commercial purposes. This is
done three or four times a year, beginning about the first
of May. All contour feathers, except of the wings, tail,
and neck are taken. The average bird yields one third of a
pound. The down is left, only feathers being used. The
first picking occurs when the geese are tending young. This
mostly stops the fighting which always goes on at this time,
reducing the strength and pugnacity of the birds, besides
making it less easy for combatants to get hold. The first
and last pluckings yield the heaviest feathers, those taken
in mid-summer being lighter. These operations occur about
once every seven weeks.

CHAPTER XI

SWANS

Swans are bred and handled much like geese. Food is
equally simple, consisting only of grain and what they pick
up in grazing. As with geese, under similar conditions, the
young do not need to be fed. There is even more trouble
about fighting than with geese. The males are murderous
fellows. Even a man is in danger from them, and a blow
from a swan’s wing can even break one’s leg. Some might
consider this a joke, but I advise them to take no chances.
Once when I was talking with the owner of an estate where
waterfowl were kept, a swan sidled up to me, and I took no
notice. Suddenly the creature raised its wing and hit me a
rap across the shin that made the bone ache for a week after.
T have an idea that the bone may have been slightly cracked.

Hard to Mate. At best they are troublesome birds to
mate. With some species the sexes cannot surely be dis-
tinguished, and, if two males happen to be secured, there is
apt to be murder. Sometimes swans will not mate at all.
When they do mate, each pair must beconfined in a separate
enclosure, unless the area of pond and shore is considerable.
They are fond of nesting on small islands.

Treatment Simple. Mr. Whealton breeds the trumpeter
mute and black swans, and is reported by Mr. Walcott to
have bred the whooping swan once. They are simply
turned out in pairs, separated from each other. Each en-
closure has plenty of forage, but the birds are fed daily on

192

SWANS 193

wheat and corn. They breed even earlier than the geese.
One year a pair of black swans made a nest in February
when there was snow on the ground and the ponds were
frozen up tight. When the young hatched, a hole in the ice
had to be cut for them, but they survived the icy baths, and
the four young were reared.

Cox’s Method. Mr. Cox bred swans at East Brewster,
Massachusetts, on Cape Cod, raised young, and had quite
a flock. Each pair had to be kept separate, in a fenced area
of meadow, with a brook flowing through it. They fed
mostly on vegetation helped out with grain. The young
were given no food till they joined their parents in the
grain ration.

CHAPTER XII

WADING BIRDS

It is a pity that most birds of this class are not amenable
to artificial aids to increase their numbers, particularly the
Limicole or shore-birds. These birds are largely insectiv-
orous, and all are migratory. The only feasible way to
imcrease them is to secure their adequate protection. In
another publication I have noted my experience with a
captive woodcock. It weighed six ounces, and ate each day
from eight to twelve ounces of earthworms, which was up
to twice its own weight of food a day. Being unable to
spend so much time digging worms, I hired boys, who became
known as my ‘‘worm brigade.” After a month I was glad
to liberate the bird. Imagine raising woodcocks like phea-
sants!

Coot or Mud-hen. One species of wader, however, I
found very adaptable, the American coot or mud-hen. This
bird, of the rail tribe, found in numbers in our marshes, and
breeding abundantly in the sloughs of the West, is the size
of a small duck, and can be handled much in the same way.
It is prolific, laying from eight to sixteen smallish eggs,
dotted with small black specks, in a floating nest of rush
stems, built among the reeds or other water-plants. In the
summer of 1913, in northern Manitoba, as an experiment I
hatched some of their eggs in an incubator and raised a
number of young to maturity in brooders. They are most
peculiar-looking creatures, having black down, with red

194

WADING BIRDS 105

hairs growing out from the neck, and are baldheaded. At
first they are rather feeble, but they soon become nimble,
and are exceedingly tame. They have a raucous voice, and
use it vigorously in demanding food, running at the care-
taker with insistent shrieks, pecking his hands or feet, and
fairly mobbing him. We raised them with the ducks, and,
bold as these were, the coots were always in the forefront
and got all that was coming to them. They have sharp
bills, and in one or two cases hurt small ducklings, though
usually they were harmless. All in all they were very
amusing. They thrived on the same food as the young
ducks, though they were a little harder to start at the very
first, owing to their small size.

When they are grown up they swim in the pond with the
ducks, and are treated as part of the flock. They are hardy,
and stand winter weather in the open as well as the ducks.
Now and then I see a few in collections of waterfowl on
private estates. From what I have seen of them I think
they could be bred and perhaps established in the wild state,
especially should it prove that the young would return after
migrating.

Henry Cook, on his duck pond already described, has a
few of these birds. If the pond were marshy they would
probably breed, for in one case, even as it was, a pair built
a nest of sticks, since there were no rush stems, outin theopen
water by a fence, and laid several eggs, but finally quit. In
a suitable pond, and with proper feeding before the breeding
season, they would probably breed successfully. In such
case they should be allowed to rear their own young. When
the young were large they could be driven into an enclosure
and pinioned or wing-clipped.

Gallinules. Very likely the gallinules, of which we have
the Florida and purple gallinule, could be propagated in the

196 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

same way, though it is doubtful if they could endure a
Northern winter like the coot, though perhaps with shelter
in winter they might do well.

Cranes. The keeping of cranes on estates is becoming
quite a fashion, and it is said that there are nineteen species
known to be amenable to artificial conditions. These birds
are easily tamed and fed, and are of striking and interesting
appearance, as, with dignified carriage, they stalk about.
The usual practice is to pinion them and let them range in
large fenced enclosures. Most kinds are hardy and can
endure cold weather. All they need for shelter is an open
shed or merely a thatch of evergreen boughs, with a wind-
break to the north and west. The food requirements are
simple, merely grain of any sorts. L. S. Crandall, of the
New York Zoélogical Park, recommends also now and then
a feed of raw fish. They also graze a good deal and hunt
for insects.

Breeding. Pinioned cranes, especially if kept in small
enclosures, usually do not breed. When occasionally they
produce eggs these are usually infertile. This is the experi-
ence at the above Park, as stated by Mr. Crandall. One
pair there laid infertile eggs, and an unmated female for
years produced such eggs each season. He states also that
the young are hard to raise, because for about the first three
weeks they will not eat unless fed by the parents, who
catch insects for them and feed them. The only likely way
to make cranes breed is to give them access to a considerable
tract of grass, where they can secure plenty of insect life
and get exercise.

An article by Maurice Portal in the English magazine,
Country Life, April 4, 1914, quotes facts which indicate
that cranes are more likely to breed successfully if kept
unpinioned and given liberty. As they are expensive, few

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WADING BIRDS 197

people care to run the risk. He cites two instances in which
a pair of cranes bred in England and raised young. In one
of these cases, of demoiselle cranes, the young were liber-
ated, but they left the next spring and were never heard
from. In 1906 six Soudan crowned cranes were imported
to England. They were not pinioned and were allowed full
freedom, yet did not. leave, and stood the winters well.
Not until 1912 did one pair breed, producing three young,
which were killed by a weasel. The following year the
same pair again had three young, which died when a month
old, it was thought because insects were scarce.

Herons. The idea sometimes put forth of running heron
or egret “farms” to produce aigrette plumes for market
is simply a fake to deceive the ignorant and serve as a blind
for a cruel and nefarious business, a salve for tender con-
sciences. The enormous appetite of herons for fish would
make the thing commercially unprofitable, even if herons
were induced to breed in captivity. E. A. McIlhenny is
experimenting now with herons in a large flying cage, to
see if they will breed in captivity. He says that each
bird eats 13 pounds of fish a day on the average, and it has
cost $12 per year to feed each bird.

Egret Farm Fake. T. Gilbert Pearson has carefully run
to earth this egret farm my-th, and exposed the sham. He
has secured affidavits from many well-known travellers
and explorers in the tropics who have visited many great
breeding colonies. They unite in testifying that they have
never seen or heard of a bona fide egret farm. The nearest
approach to such a thing was when some men “‘protected”
an egret rookery from other hunters that they might shoot
the birds themselves.

Starting a Heronry. Under suitable natural conditions
it is possible, though difficult, to start a heronry on the de-

198 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

sired tract of swampy land, though it must be said few
would think it worth while, or be willing to go to the great
trouble necessary. The only example of this which I can
cite is that of Mr. McIlhenny, just quoted, of Avery Island,
Louisiana, who is an ardent naturalist. Desiring to havea
heron colony at his home, he took young herons from nests
and raised them by hand. These grew up very tame,
migrated away for the winter, but returned the next spring
and nested in the swamp close to the house. In course of
time others joined them and bred, and an immense colony,
aggregating many thousands of various kinds of herons, has
been permanently established. They build their nests of
sticks and twigs, and so large a number were destroying the
trees. Mr. McIlhenny therefore began to provide them
with building material, and this spring, 1915, he has had
carted in nineteen wagonloads of suitable twigs which the
herons eagerly appropiated. This, however, is a very differ-
ent matter from breeding herons in close confinement so
that they could be caught and have their plumes clipped.
It should also be borne in mind that plume feathers natu-
rally dropped are worn out, “dead,” and are of little com-
mercial value. Even thus they are seldom found. In all
my own visits to egret rookeries I have found just one
aigrette feather naturally discarded.

CHAPTER XIII

REFUGES AND PROTECTED COLONIES

Attracting Water-birds. In conjunction with the heron
colony just mentioned, Mr. McIlhenny has a pond with
pinioned wild ducks and geese as a nucleus. No shooting,
of course, is permitted, and a host of other wildfowl are
attracted in here to spend the winter and feast upon the
hospitality of the owner. Some like it so well that they
decide not to migrate North, but remain to breed. This
sort of thing, in localities naturally attractive to waterfowl,
could and should be done more and more, and this instance
serves as an instructive practical example.

Wildfowl Reservations. Asplendidmovement,which has
gathered momentum in the past few years, is the establish-
ment of reservations on tracts of marsh and swamp land, un-
suited to human occupancy, where wildfowl can gather and
feed in winter and be safe from molestation. Well known
already are the Ward-Mcllhenny tract in Louisiana and that
of Marsh Island, donated by Mrs. Russell Sage. Latterly
comes the vast tract under the Rockefeller Foundation ad-
joining the above in this great marsh region. Together these
comprise some 500 square miles, and extend for 75 miles
along the coast. Already ducks have begun to breed there
in considerable numbers, according to Mr. McIlhenny—
the blue-winged teal, gadwall, black duck, and mallard, and
probably others in time will join them. Similar measures
should be taken, even if on a smaller scale, in every State of

199

200 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

the Union. The wildfowl should also be protected on their
breeding-grounds, wherever these are located. Some breed
in the United States, but most of them in the northwest prov-
inces of Canada, and it is ardently to be hoped that through
treaties with our neighbours, both on the north and south, a
comprehensive continental protection and conservation of
this important and valuable asset may be made possible.

Water-bird Breeding Colonies. This splendid movement
dates its beginning from the activities of the National Associ-
ation of Audubon Societies in protecting the breeding colonies
of water-birds, pelicans, gulls, terns, herons, and others, first
along the Atlantic Coast, and then more widely. The good
work was taken up by the Government, and then protected
colonies were made Government reservations, until now there
are nearly sixty of such areas under Federal protection at the
most strategic points, scattered widely over the country.
Since Government appropriations are often lacking to hire
wardens and secure boats for patrol, the National Associ-
ation of Audubon Societies still furnishes wardens and
boats for the service of the Government. Various rookeries
of egrets and other water-birds which are not Government
reservations are guarded by the National Association and
have been saved from devastation. Thousands of individ-
uals all over the country are now protecting birds on their
own land. The nation is at last becoming awakened to the
value and importance of wild-bird life and the need for its
conservation, though there is yet much more to be ac-
complished.

PART III

METHODS WITH THE SMALLER LAND
BIRDS

CHAPTER XIV

PRELIMINARY MATTERS

Title. There seems to be no very good name for the
class of birds now to be discussed. Some call them song-
birds, but they do not all sing. The term insectivorous
birds is not exact, for many other species eat insects. The
above title at any rate will suggest what is meant.

Birds That Appeal. While certain of these species inhabit
the woods, the great majority are attracted to the haunts of
man partly owing to the greater abundance of food, es-
pecially insects, which they find there, and also to a degree
of immunity from certain natural enemies, particularly
predacious birds and some wild animals. Thus they come
into especially intimate relations with man. They are
the forms of wild life most easily observed, and represent
bird life more than any others to the average person. To
children they are about the only wild animals, except
squirrels or rabbits, that they are apt to see, and, since
every child is naturally interested in wild animals, the birds
can be made to mean very much to them. There are many
adults, especially ladies, who do not go afield, but who watch
and enjoy such birds as are readily accessible about the
house or garden. The average man, rightly minded, enjoys
the presence of wild birds about his home. In fact, within
the last few years there has grown an interest in attracting
and propagating these songsters and others which has be-
come one of the most popular customs of the day. It may

203

204 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

be in part a fad or fashion, but it is much more a mani-
festation of the call of the wild which is fundamental in
human nature.

Economic Value. Even if birds have no such attractive-
ness, it would still be essential to take measures for their
increase because of their vital importance to agriculture,
in destroying and keeping in check the hordes of insects
which otherwise would devastate the land. This is fully |
recognized, and need not be discussed.

Size No Criterion. The point of view should be widely
inculcated that interest in a bird should not be in proportion
to its size. To contemn small birds is the materialistic
attitude of the pot-hunter, who sees nothing in a bird or
wild creature but the amount of meat. Once I was showing
a man a set of coloured photographs of wild birds in action
that I considered especially fine. With each succeeding
picture came the inquiry whether or not that bird was good
to eat. If it was, the man expressed pleasure; if not, he
gave a grunt of disgust. I closed the interview as soon as
possible. Here I would enter a plea for an zntensive interest
in birds. No one is more fond than I am of a wild goose
or a grouse, or a great flight of wild ducks. None the less
some tiny bird gives me just as real a delight. When, say,
searching about in woods or swamp, I flush from its care-
fully hidden nest some rare warbler, a gem of bird life, the
sensation is thrilling. Some such feeling is aroused by close
contact, perhaps at the bird lunch-counter, with some bit of
animated vivacity, like a chickadee or nuthatch, with its
sparkling eyes and quaint call. All forms of bird life are
well worth while, and one will be greatly the gainer to cul-
tivate the faculty of getting pleasure from every bird that
crosses his pathway.

Von Berlepsch Experiment. The notable and classic

Suet basket in position

Photograph by E. H, Forbush
Ware-model nesting-box designed for tree swallows, occupied by bluebirds

The same bluebird entering

PRELIMINARY MATTERS 205

example of success in increasing the smaller land birds is
that of Baron Von Berlepsch on his estates at Seebach, in
Thuringia, Germany, which has become a matter of world-
wide fame. Every one interested in the subject should se-
cure the little book describing the details of his work, which
is entitled ““How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds,” by
M. Hiesemann, English translation, which can be secured
at trifling cost from the National Association of Audubon
Societies, New York City.

The story of the growth of this work is briefly as follows:
Von Berlepsch when a boy noticed that the bird-houses
then put up for birds were seldom occupied, and he began to
inquire the reason and to make careful studies and experi-
ments in methods of attracting birds. These studies led
to journeys all over the world. For years he has been carry-
ing on experiments on his estates with surprising results.
Of about 500 acres, 19 are in a park, 60 are laid out in thick-
ets, and 400 are woodland. There is also a lake which at-
tracts water-birds. In an area of 12 or 13 acres of park up-
ward of soo pairs of birds regularly nest, not including a
colony of over 100 nests of house martinsonabarn. About
300 nesting-boxes in the park are all occupied. In the
woods there are about 2,000 boxes, of which about 90 per
cent. regularly have tenants.

Lessons Therefrom. No one need expect to be able to
go forth and immediately do likewise. This success repre-
sents many years of effort and an evolution in the habits of
birds. Birds are considerably creatures of habit, great
sticklers for custom, natural conservatives. The habits of a
species can be changed only very gradually. Doubtless it
took a long period of years for our “chimney” swift, which
originally stuck its gummy nest to the inner walls of large
hollow trees, to change to its present habit of nesting in

206 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

chimneys, adopted since white men settled in America. A
few individuals tried it, probably, and their young practised
what they had learned. Chimney-nesting evidently proved
safer than in hollow trees, where raccoons, squirrels, or
other enemies ate the eggs or young, and the chimney-
reared birds finally comprised practically the entire species,
despite the fact that there are yet in some sections large
hollow trees in which they could nest. Similarly have
changed the habits of the cliff or eave swallow, barn swallow,
phoebe, and various others, which could be enlarged upon.
Thus, no doubt, the birds around Seebach, after a number
of generations, have been led to alter their primeval habits,
though along lines which have a similarity to nature, and
are not altogether arbitrary.

Another corollary from this is that more and more species
may be expected to change their regular habits through sys-
tematic popular efforts. Some species, of which now only
an occasional individual happens to use a nest-box, may in
time come to use them frequently or regularly. As the in-
dividuals raised in boxes increase in numbers year by year,
the numbers of species and individuals using nesting-boxes
should rapidly grow. Birds normally return from migra-
tion to the neighbourhood of their birthplace; hence in local-
ities where birds are thus raised such habits will tend to
spread rapidly.

Conditions in America. In this country we are in the in-
fancy of attracting birds. Only about four species—the
bluebird, house wren, purple martin, and tree swallow—had
formerly become regularly accustomed to using artificial
nests, and a number of other species have begun to do so.
Including all parts of the country, twenty-seven species
have been known to occupy artificial nest-boxes. If nation-
wide interest and effort can be developed, it is without

PRELIMINARY MATTERS 207

question that in the course, say of even a decade, great ad-
vance will be made. Under reasonably favourable condi-
tions, and with proper care and instruction, people can hope
for some results even from the first, and the chances are that
success will steadily increase. The pleasure and satisfaction
found in such work will be great.

Cautions. At the same time it may be well to call atten-
tion to certain limitations, so that hopes may not be aroused
which are unlikely to be realized. Children especially will
be told how nice it is to attract birds as pets and how easy it
is to put up a large number of boxes and have the garden full
of birds. They begin with enthusiasm, but most of the
boxes may be promptly taken by the English sparrow, and
few or no native birds appear. Then they get discouraged
and abandon the attempt. So there are some other points
to bear in mind, aside from the obvious one of getting rid of
the pests.

Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
called my attention to the obvious fact that, owing to the
limitations of the food supply, only about so many birds of
a kind can live in a given area. Moreover, one pair of
birds of some species are accustomed to preémpt a certain
area of ground as their own private hunting preserve, and
drive off all others of their own kind. The frequent scarcity
of birds below the normal is also a factor in making increase
slow, since there is not enough stock to go around.

Hence people should not be disheartened if the results are
small and slow at first, but should continue patiently. It is
wise to begin on a small scale, and let the “business” have a
normal growth. Yet, on the other hand, there are locations
capable of considerable increase of bird life, though there
are also conditions under which birds can never be attracted
in numbers till these are made better.

208 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Importance of Attracting Birds. Whether or not there
are any large number of birds in any particular garden or
estate, there are various reasons why such efforts to attract
birds are abundantly worth while. Even if only a normal
number of birds were attracted to the grounds of a bird-
lover, these birds would be more likely to rear their young
successfully under protection than under average conditions.
In most cases, however, the number of birds on a tract made
congenial to bird life will be larger than though no efforts
were made to attract them. In every such case a number of
birds are saved from enemies or are enabled to survive the
winter, and one or more people gain a practical interest in
the increase of bird life. Now, make this matter of attract-
ing and feeding birds a nation-wide movement, as it is
becoming, and the local good to a few birds or people is
multiplied by thousands, and becomes an important factor.
Not only are birds increased, but the public are interested
in birds and their conservation, good legislation is more
readily secured and maintained, and the laws are better
enforced.

Coéperation from Game Preserves. The importance of
coéperation in attracting and protecting birds by the owners
of game preserves and by sportsmen’s organizations is
coming to be recognized. It is for the interest of all such to
maintain and increase the supply of the species used as
game. The methods used to protect and increase these
have the same effect upon bird life in general. Most out-
door men and sportsmen worthy of the name, as distin-
guished from mere irresponsible pot-hunters, are glad to see
the smaller birds about, and enjoy their presence. Owner-
ship of land tends to arouse a sense of responsibility, and the
owners of land used for hunting are apt to oppose wanton
destruction. On well-regulated game preserves there is

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Flicker using Ware-model nesting-box

Natural nesting of flicker

PRELIMINARY MATTERS 209

usually some effort to keep down the vermin. Hence many
a shooting preserve really amounts to a bird sanctuary, with
reference to the great majority of species of birds, and even
as regards game-birds there may be more of these owing to
methods employed than there would have been without.
Coéperation in bird protection from sportsmen should thus
-be expected and encouraged.

Survey of Scope. Birds as we deal with them for these
practical purposes may be classified as follows: (a) those
that may be attracted to breed, (b) those attracted by
food in winter, and (c) migrant transients. The scope of
the -work, then, will be to make surroundings attractive
and safe from enemies, to assist birds in nesting, and to
provide food and water as needed. The first two groups
especially are amenable to practical methods, yet the tran-
sients will incidentally receive help and will furnish many
delightful incidents. It is no small satisfaction to see a
passing group of fox sparrows or white-throats eating the
seeds we have thrown out, a hermit thrush enjoying our
shrubbery, or brilliant warblers flitting through the foliage
which we have planted. Migratory birds often linger in
places which they find attractive and safe, but hurry past
those that are undesirable.

Unity of Plan. Just as we have learned to increase the
gallinaceous and waterfowl tribes, it has likewise been
found possible to increase the smaller land-birds. The
problems, of course, are quite different, yet there are certain
similarities. Keeping such birds in confinement or under
restraint is impracticable and unnecessary. The artificial
methods which can be used to advantage are along the lines
of providing facilities for nesting and of feeding in winter
the few species that remain with us. Natural methods are
kindred to those already described, consisting of furnishing

210 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

attractive surroundings and making these safe from enemies.
The main difference is that in the previous cases the matter
of surroundings consisted largely of selecting suitable nat-
ural wild haunts, while in the present effort the environ-
ments of civilization must be restored to certain semblance
of wild nature. ,
In trying to adopt a logical order of treatment the result
depends somewhat upon the viewpoint. While the matter
of furnishing attractive surroundings, as furnishing our
stage-setting for the fascinating drama to be progressively
enacted before us, is obviously fundamental, from the prac-
tical standpoint the public need not wait for years for
trees and shrubs to grow before interesting themselves in
useful practical ways with the birds, and really helping to
increase them. While the surroundings are gradually im-
proving so as to harbour more of them, we can help at least
a few of them to nest and rear their young, and feed those
that in severe winter weather are driven by necessity to our
doors. Hence it may be practical logic to describe first the
matters next to hand. These are the things which every one
can do, and can begin on at once. Every little success be-
comes a triumph. The children are delighted, and learn to
know and befriend the birds. This sort of thing is im-
portant to advance a nation-wide movement already begun
for the restoration of bird life. Every intelligent person
can do and ought to do something. Every household, un-
less in congested city areas, would do well to put up and care
for at least one nest-box for the birds and a little lunch-
counter for winter feeding. Reader, will you not do it?
The detailed plan of what may be undertaken follows.

CHAPTER XV
AIDS TO NESTING
a. Nesting-boxes

Von Berlepsch Type. Many years ago Baron von Ber-
lepsch began his careful experiments to ascertain what sort
of artificial nesting-hollows, if any, would best attract birds.
Examination of chambers dug by woodpeckers and others
revealed the fact that they were all made on one plan. Be-
ginning with an entrance barely large enough to admit the
bird, the tunnel broadened out in the form of a pear, and
narrowed again at the bottom, so that, while there was room
for the parent to sit, the eggs tended to roll together in the
centre. After further effort the Baron was able to have
sections of natural branch excavated by machinery to re-
produce exactly the tunnels of woodpeckers of different
sizes. When he put them up in surroundings such as the
feathered builders would have chosen, the birds did not
perceive any difference from what they were accustomed to,
and from the start took possession in good and increasing
numbers.

Use in America. Here in America for a time these hollow-
limb nest-boxes were imported from Germany. It proved
expensive to do this, and various efforts were made to make
machinery here which would do the work. This has now
been accomplished, and such boxes, ‘‘made in America,”
are now on sale. They are made in six sizes, for wren, nut-

211

212 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

hatch and chickadee, bluebird, flicker, screech owl, and wood
duck, or species of corresponding sizes. The price for the
present will probably average around one dollar, or a little
more.

Von Berlepsch Model Not Essential. As experiments
with nest-boxes in America progress, we are meeting with
some surprises and having to revise somewhat our previous
conceptions. The Von Berlepsch theory of the woodpecker
model for nesting-boxes is being found not to be by any
means of universal application in America. Perhaps the
American birds are bristling with the spirit of independence,
and refuse to follow precedent. At any rate they do not act
just as the esteemed Baron finds that his birds do at See-
bach. We are finding that our birds are quite indiscrim-
inate, within certain limits, in the house-models which they
will accept, and that there are fewer species here than in
Europe which have yet learned to utilize these devices. It
is certainly beyond question that bluebirds and house wrens
will occupy practically any convenient model. Chickadees
like the log-boxes, but they occupy other models appar-
ently just as well. Woodpeckers ought to like log-boxes
made in exact imitation of the apartments of their own
manufacture, but how is it in fact? Most kinds in America
still prefer their own workmanship. The flicker is the
only woodpecker that uses boxes at all frequently, yet it
often uses deep upright boxes made of boards, with
the hole near the top. The purple martin prefers a com-
partment house, being gregarious, and the tree swallow
will use a starch box as readily as a hollow log.

After all, if we want to attract birds, we must give them
what they want, not what we think they ought to prefer.
What we need now is a great mass of detailed data and
experiments on these problems. E. H. Forbush and Wil-

AIDS TO NESTING 213

liam Brewster, for example, have put up side by side both
hollow-log and board boxes, and find that more frequently
the latter are chosen and the former are left unoccupied.

Following is the experience of Mr. Brewster on his sum-
mer place at Concord, Massachusetts, outlined to me in a
letter. Several years ago he put up about ten Von Ber-
lepsch boxes. Of these only one was ever occupied, by
bluebirds. Latterly he has been having boxes made of
boards, also cylinders of chestnut bark. All of such con-
struction that he put up in 1913 were occupied, nine by tree
swallows, two by bluebirds, two by house wrens, also three
pairs of flickers and one pair of crested flycatchers nested
in sections of hollow apple-trunks, boarded up at both ends,
with entrance holes cut in the sides.

Others, however, report considerable success with the
Von Berlepsch boxes. What is needed now is a mass of
detailed data from different localities and under varying
conditions. It would be well if bird-lovers everywhere
would make experiments, keep accurate record of them, and
report in full detail to the Department of Applied Orni-
thology, National Association of Audubon Societies, New
York. It may be found that certain species prefer a par-
ticular type of box. It will be well for all dealers to furnish
several kinds, including the cheaper ones, of such models as
have proved effective.

Mr. Forbush has found that the flicker, which would be
supposed to prefer the hollow-log type as being the exact
reproduction of its own nest, in cases where a log-box and a
board-box were placed side by side, did not seem to show
any decided preference, but used the board-box as readily as
the other. Finding that most birds like the cheap boxes
made from boards practically as well as the more expensive
log-box, and in some cases better, he now uses the former.

214 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Apparatus for Sale. For those who do not care to make
their own nesting-boxes, or other apparatus, the following
list of manufacturers is offered: The Audubon Bird House
Company, Meriden, N.H.; Philip E. Perry, 39 Clarke Street,
Lexington, Mass.; E. C. Ware, Wareham, Mass.; The Sim-
plex Bird Apparatus Company, Demarest, N. J.; Maple-
wood Biological Laboratory, Stamford, Conn.; Greenwich
Bird Protective Society, Greenwich, Conn.; Winthrop Pack-
ard, Canton, Mass.; J. Warren Jacobs, Waynesburg, Pa.;
Charles E.White, Kenilworth, Ill.; Joseph H. Dodson, Evans-
ton, Ill. Besides nesting-boxes, these firms can mostly
supply the various devices for feeding or protecting all
birds.

Species to Expect. It will be of interest and importance
to know what kinds of birds are to be considered possible
occupants of nesting-boxes. This will vary, of course, with
the locality, whether certain species are found there or not.
The following twenty-seven species are listed in Farmers’
Bulletin, No. 609, ‘Bird Houses and How to Build Them,”
issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. I will
classify them as follows:

(a) Species regularly using nesting-boxes: house wren
(the various sub-species), bluebird (Eastern and Western
varieties), chickadee, purple martin, tree swallow, flicker,
violet-green swallow (Western), house finch (Western),
Bewick’s wren (Western).

(b) Species occasionally using boxes: white-breasted
nuthatch, downy woodpecker, hairy woodpecker (rarely),
red-headed woodpecker, tufted titmouse, Carolina wren,
crested flycatcher, screech owl, saw-whet owl, barn owl,
sparrow hawk, wood duck, song sparrow (rarely), dipper
(Western).

AIDS TO NESTING 215

phoebe, barn swallow. Besides these, unfortunately, the
imported English sparrow and European starling occupy
boxes and drive away useful native birds. They should not
be allowed to nest on the premises.

Standardizing Boxes. Knowing what kinds of birds
there are which may accept our hospitality, the next thing
is to make or secure boxes to meet their various preferences.
A great variety of patterns have been used. Boxes for
birds made by schools often show about every imaginable
style. While it is true that birds of the various species do
not insist upon any one particular model, they all evidently
have certain lines of preference which it is important to
follow. Hence in making each box it is well to have in
mind at least some class or type of bird that it is intended
for. To do this intelligently one should have some idea of
what these various types prefer. It is safer to build on
plans which birds are known to accept, rather than to try
all sorts of new things. There would be a further advantage
in standardizing boxes and having their appearance familiar
to birds, that generations born in boxes of similar type
might be expected to form the habit more strongly and recog-
nize and adopt more regularly the nests prepared for them.

A Standard Type. After careful investigation and study
of the subject, I would suggest as the most feasible type, all
things considered, a simple rectangle of plain boards, with
the roof sloping toward the front, or else level, and projecting
out a little to shelter the entrance-hole. Gable roofs and
various fancy fixings are not only unnecessary but unnatural
in their surroundings, and would seem more likely than simple
models to repel timid species, though it might not make any
difference. While it is not necessary to paint them, paint-
ing will make them last much longer. A dull green colour
is most generally used, or a brown stain.

216 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Proportions Not Important. The matter of the exact
proportion of the box thus constructed does not appear to
be important. The main requirement is that the cavity
or chamber should be fairly deep, with a circular entrance-
hole just below the top. Only martins like the entrance near
the floor level, though wrens also will use it thus if necessary.
Most birds which use hollows for nests like to get out of
sight, and perhaps also out of draughts.

Direction of Axis. The preponderance of practice is to
make boxes with the long axis vertical, having them about
twice as long as wide. This is the general shape of ‘the
hollow-log type of the Von Berlepsch model. In fact, a
box made thus of weatherbeaten boards looks considerably
like that type. Experience, however, shows that birds will
use a square box, or even one slightly elongated horizontally.
E. H. Forbush has of late been building his square. On the
Henry Ford Farm, near Detroit, where a couple of hundred
of boxes are put up and mostly occupied, a good many of
them, especially those used by bluebirds, are nearly square,
but slightly longer horizontally. My own theory is, from
observation of hundreds of natural nesting-sites, that this
class of birds usually select a cavity where their nest fills
the entire space at the bottom. They also want to be well
below the entrance-hole. Hence I would have the floor
space of moderate size, preferably about square or round,
and the upright dimension rather long.

Building a Box. As a typical case, here is a plan for
making a nesting-box of the size for bluebirds: Saw out four
pieces of 32-inch board a foot long and 6 inches wide. In
one of these cut out a circular hole, the top of which should
come about 4 inches from the end of the board. This hole
should be 13 to 13 inches in diameter, no more or no less,
because if more the starling can get in, and if less the blue-

AIDS TO NESTING 217

bird will be shut out. Now nail these boards together to
form a tunnel about five inches square inside. Then
nail a piece of board flat on the end farthest from the
entrance-hole to form the bottom, boring a small hole in this
bottom to let out water that might beat in. Have the
roof board a little wider than the box and set it either level
or sloping slightly forward. It should project a couple of
inches over the front, helping thus to shield the entrance
from storms. It should be screwed down, or else, if desired,
put on with hinges, so that access may be.had to throw out
English sparrows’ nests and clean it out in the fall. No
perch should be placed in front, which would give only an
easy lodgement for sparrows, and is not needed by the birds.
Either nail to the back of the box a longer board to fasten
to the tree, or, better, make the back board longer, and nail
through the projecting ends. It can be painted outside, if
desired, or left in the natural wood. In the latter case it is
well to use weatherbeaten boards or else stain it. The in-
side of the boards should not have been planed, so that
young birds can better climb out when the time comes.
This model will be suitable for the majority of hole-nesting
birds, varied only according to the size of the desired oc-
cupant.

Other Models. There are, however, other models pre-
ferred by certain species, as well as other devices acceptable
to the generality of birds. These will be briefly suggested.

Tin Cans. After all, an old tin can with a small hole cut
at one end will suit a pair of house wrens as well as any
elaborate box. Bluebirds also sometimes occupy such re-
ceptacles, a tomato can being large enough for them. Since
metal gets very hot in the sun and might suffocate young
birds thus exposed, such nesting-sites should be placed
where there will be shade when the foliage grows out.

218 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Gourds. These are very popular with wrens, and with
martins in the South. Bluebirds also use them, and prob-
ably others would do.so. In the South I have seen gourds
tied in rows on crosspieces attached to poles, and occupied
by colonies of martins. A suitable hole should be cut in the
side of the gourd, and a small one underneath for drainage.

Starch Box. This is taken as the type of similar ready-
made boxes which can be utilized. Tree swallows use them
readily if placed on poles. The crested flycatcher is as
likely to appropriate them as anything else. Bluebirds and
wrens alsooccupy them. Alwayscut the whole near the top.

Earthenware. Some dealers have put on the market
boxes of earthenware or crockery. While birds may some-
times use them, they are evidently not popular. It would
seem as though the young might have trouble in climbing
out, and that the material would be apt to absorb heat.

Bark Boxes. ‘These can be made from strips of bark, in
the form of a hollow log, with the ends fastened up and a
hole cut. They will hardly last, though, more than one
season, and the stronger board material is doubtless better.
William Brewster, as noted above, has found these very
effective, as also sections of hollow limbs boarded up at the
ends, with a hole cut in the side.

Martin Houses. Purple martins prefer to nest in col-
onies, and like best of all houses built with compartments,
although they will sometimes locate where there are a series
of boxes or gourds. The compartments may each be 6 to 8
inches square. The hole should be near the floor level, say
about an inch or two above it. Most birds prefer a hole
just large enough for them to enter comfortably, but the
martins seem afraid to enter an opening small enough to
have their bodies shut out the light as they enter. Two
and one half inches diameter is the aperture suggested in

AIDS TO NESTING 219

Farmer’s Bulletin No. 609, quoted above, as admitting
sufficient light while the martin enters. In view of the
spread of the starling, which is likely to make trouble for
the martins, a good suggestion is made by Raymond B.
Thompson in Guide to Nature, January, 1915. It is that
the diameter of the entrance-hole be made 13 inches, which
is a close fit for the martin, but will just exclude the starling,
as elsewhere described in this chapter. To allow for the
admission of light, another hole, about } inch in diameter,
is cut just above the entrance-hole. This looks like a clever
scheme, and let us hope that the martins may not object
to a tight fit! The experiment is well worth trying.

Location and Care. The house must be set on a pole out
in the open, away from trees, and should be 15 to 20 feet
from the ground. A very convenient plan often adopted
is to have the pole so that it can be lowered. It is set up
between two short posts or bitts, with two long bolts reach-
ing through all. When desired, the lower bolt can be taken
out, and the pole swung over on the upper one as a pivot,
thus bringing the house to the ground. It should be cleaned
out every fall and all nests and rubbish removed. If left
up, it is wise to stop up the entrances to keep out English
sparrows, which would dirty it during winter and build
nests before the martins returned. A better plan is to take
it down and house it for the winter, putting it up again when
the martins are due, which in the latitude of New York
City would be about the middle of April.

Starting a Colony. Colonies once started usually con-
tinue year after year. The tendency is for the colony to
grow larger and larger, doubtless from the return of the
young. There is not much hope of enticing old birds from
their chosen location, but the young birds are often crowded
out, and may start a new colony if they find a site to their

220 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

liking. It is a good plan to have at least a simple box with
a few chambers ready for possible arrivals which otherwise
might not linger on the premises.

An Instance. Arthur W. Brockway, of Hadlyme, Con-
necticut, after hearing a lecture by E. H. Forbush advising
the putting up of boxes for martins, several days later saw a
pair in his yard, and put up a single box on a pole. The
pair took possession and raised a brood. Next spring sev-
eral came. More boxes were put up and they all nested
there. Each year there were more, and last season, about
eight years from the beginning of the attempt, about one
hundred were nesting, making, it is said, probably the larg-
est colony in Connecticut. Unfortunately, about the first
of July, 1914, a long, cold rainstorm killed a considerable
part of the colony, a calamity which with the martin,
unhappily, is apt to occur, in Northern States, every few
years, wiping out many a hard-earned colony. On the
Henry Ford farm near Detroit the martins are splendidly
started, and in 1914 there were four large colony houses
well occupied. The purple martins at Hadlyme feed their
young chiefly on the larve of the dragonfly, taken from
the meadows of the Connecticut River, going a couple of
miles to and from their chief hunting-grounds. It may be
that this species would give preference to locations in the
vicinity of meadows and marshes.

Covered Shelves. Several species which have become
accustomed to shelter their nests under buildings—the
robin, phoebe, and barn swallow—sometimes will use a
nesting-box of different construction from the others. This
style consists merely of a shelf or a cup-shaped receptacle,
with a roof over it, and open on one or more sides. The
song sparrow has been known to use such a device open
on all sides. It has been suggested that catbirds and

AIDS TO NESTING 221

other species nesting in shrubbery might use such a model
as the latter, but this yet remains to be demonstrated. On
the Henry Ford place robins and phoebes nest in these open-
sided boxes or roofed platforms. These can well be fastened
to the eaves of buildings or to arbours, piazzas, or against
trunks of trees as much protected against cats as possible.

Size of Entrance. In the matter of the size of the en-
trance-hole it is important to be very exact, especially in
reference to protecting certain species using boxes from
the entrance of the English sparrow and the European
starling. These are pests to the native species, and some
sizes of boxes can be made with reference to keeping them
out. Here are the facts: The sparrow can enter a rg-inch
opening, but not the 13-inch size. The starling can get
through the 13-inch size, but not the 13-inch. T. Gilbert
Pearson told me that this had been ascertained about the
starling, and I verified it by further experiments. The
bluebirds can just enter a hole 13 inches in diameter. Hence,
to protect it from the assaults of the starling, the diameter
of the hole should be from 13 to 1% inches, no less or no more.
Most species, however, cannot thus be protected from the
sparrows, except the wrens and perhaps the chickadee. The
wren can enter even a g-inch hole, but the opening may as
well be 13 inches, so that possibly the chickadee may also
have a chance. However, while the chickadee can enter
this, Mr. Forbush thinks that it prefers the 14-inch, as he
has seen one trying to enlarge a 13-inch hole. In some lo-
calities, as in parts of eastern Massachusetts, the house
wren is scarce or absent, and boxes with a very small aper-
ture are apt to remain unused. In such case it is probably
best to adopt the bluebird size as the general type for all the
smaller birds, and make up one’s mind to fight the English
sparrow.

222 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Following is a list of species using boxes, classified as the
proper sizes of the diameter of the entrance-hole which they
require. Where two figures are given they represent the
maximum and minimum sizes which are proper:

(a) 13-inch: house wren, Bewick’s wren, Carolina wren,
chickadee.

(b) 13-inch: white-breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse.

(d) 12 to 2 inches: red-headed woodpecker, hairy wood-
pecker.

(e) 2% inches: flicker, saw-whet owl, purple martin.

(f) 3 inches: screech owl, sparrow hawk.

(g) 4% inches: barn owl, wood duck.

On estates where other ducks are bred and the wood-duck
boxes are accessible for pinioned stock, the opening should
not be larger than 44 inches to keep other larger ducks
from interfering.

Size of Chamber. In deciding the size of the nesting-
chamber, the principle to go on is to make it just large
enough to contain the nest that the species would normally
build, or if, as with the woodpeckers, no nest is constructed,
large enough for the bird to sit comfortably. For upright
boxes the chamber will naturally be round or square. The
height of the passage should be at least twice the diameter
of the chamber. The following dimensions, taken from
the Government Bulletin mentioned above, I should con-
sider about right. In the list of species just cited in refer-
ence to size of aperture, for groups (a) and (b) the diameter
of the chamber may be 4 inches; group (c) 5 inches; group
(d), including also the purple martin and saw-whet owl

AIDS TO NESTING 223

from the next group, 6 inches; group (e), flicker, 7 inches;
group (f) 8 inches; group (g) 10 x 18 inches.

Household Furnishings. For the most part the birds
will furnish the apartment to suit themselves. There is just
one simple thing, however, to be done. Woodpeckers al-
ways deposit their eggs on a layer of fine chips or rotted
wood which they leave in the bottom of the cavity. They
will not nest in a box with bare bottom. Even for other
species a soft layer of this sort is well enough, as they find
it in the natural cavities. Moreover, one cannot tell just
which boxes woodpeckers might choose. Hence, it is well
to put a moderate layer of sawdust in most nesting-boxes,
except martin and wren houses.

Location of Boxes. Where to place the boxes is a most
important matter, since mistakes here may bring all pre-
vious efforts to naught. In general the aim should be to
select the locations with particular species in mind, and to
place the boxes for them in just such situations as they would
naturally select. Here is where a person who has studied
birds and found their nests has an advantage. It is quite
good fun to put yourself in the place of the bird. Just im-
agine you are this or that sort of bird, and you are looking
for a site for a nest on this estate. Would you care to nest
there at all and, if so, just where?

“Thinking Bird.” All my life I have devoted consider-
able attention to the nesting habits of birds. In connection
with species which are quite familiar, there comes to be a
feeling almost of intimacy with their viewpoint. For in-
stance, after finding hundreds of nests of hawks and owls,
when I go into the woods now to hunt them out I have a
sort of instinctive feeling of recognition when I see a place
or site just adapted to this or that species. If I do not find
it there, I merrily criticise, and say that if the bird knew as

224 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

much as I do, it would certainly have nested right
here!

Placing a Bluebird Box. A lady who had been very
successful in attracting wrens, but had not secured any blue-
birds, asked me to indicate some good places on her estate
for boxes to attract the latter species. After looking about,
I found a spot, off from the well-kept lawns, where there
was a bit of natural New England pasture—a couple of
old apple trees, a clump of sumachs nearby, some scattered
bushes, and the grass not cut. On one of the apple trees a
big hollow section had projected toward the south, about
twelve feet from the ground, but had been sawed off. I
should almost be willing to wager that at some time blue-
birds had nested there. I suggested that a box of bluebird
size be nailed to that flat surface. Many a bluebird’s nest
have I seen in exactly such surroundings. If it is not oc-
cupied by bluebirds next season, I am sure it will be because
of scarcity of the species or other local conditions. This will
serve to illustrate the principle on which I proceed. In case
one is not familiar with the habits of birds, it will be well to
consult some local ornithologist, or write to our Department
of Applied Ornithology.

Surroundings for Different Species. In general, it is
well to try to place the boxes in situations as nearly as pos-
sible representing the natural haunts of the species which
may use them. It is true we are trying to induce the birds
to change their habits to some extent, and with some degree
of success. None the less, we shall make more progress by
keeping as closely as possible to the ways of nature. With-_
out taking time to describe the nesting-haunts of the vari-
ous species, some generalizations as to the placing of boxes
may be of interest. In general it is safe to assume that
boxes placed in woods are less likely to be occupied. Wood-

Photograph by Francis Harper
Purple martins nesting in gourds

Photograph by Arthur IW", Brockway
An occupied purple martin house. Note another in distance. About 100
martins were breeding on the premises

$9192905 uognpnyy £0 16022029088 P PLUCIBWAL UWOLL YGVAKOJON :

AIDS TO NESTING 225

peckers would be the leading probability there, but the
downy and hairy woodpeckers rarely use artificial nests,
while the flicker and redhead are just as likely to nest in the
open, especially in large isolated trees or in orchards. Saw-
whet and screech owls are more likely to nest in woods, but
the former is rare and the other not plenty. Wrens often
take boxes fastened to the house, as do chickadees occa-
sionally. Probably, though, the most likely location for
the chickadee is the edge of a grove or in the orchard. The
bluebird is especially partial to the orchard or an isolated
group of trees in a pasture. The crested flycatcher likes
an old orchard or a retired place at the edge of the woods.
The robin and phoebe will nest almost anywhere under
eaves of buildings or in the garden where a platform shel-
tered from above can be provided. For most birds a loca-
tion is most attractive that is not too bare and open, but
near shrubbery and foliage, where food can be found, though
not directly amid these. Houses for martins, however,
must be out in the open, away from foliage, so that the
birds can readily fly in from all directions. Tree swallows
also prefer boxes on poles in the open, but these may be
somewhat more in among trees.

Height from Ground. Most species which use boxes
prefer a location of moderate height.. Eight to twelve feet
represents a good average, not over fifteen. In one case,
in the town of Brookline, Massachusetts, where over one
hundred boxes of the Von Berlepsch type were put up by
forestry men thirty-five to forty feet from the ground, the
great majority were taken by gray, red, and flying squirrels
and English sparrows, and only one by a native species, a
pair of flickers. More than one element, of course, probably
entered into this result. At any rate, it is best to follow the
natural habits of the various species. Woodpeckers are

226 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

more apt to build high, as are nuthatches and owls. But
fifteen to twenty feet is high enough for any of them. Some-
times, however, individuals are known to nest higher up
than ordinarily. E.H. Forbush has noted bluebirds using
a box forty feet from the ground, and martins using houses
raised on high cupolas or on top of city blocks. He once
saw a pair of chickadees nesting seventy feet from the
ground. The exception, however, does not disprove the
rule. Birds apparently seek concealment and protection
from above as well as from below.

Poles vs. Trees. The earlier experimenters with boxes
placed them mostly on trees, when not on buildings. Now
it begins to look as ‘though location on poles or high posts
was more attractive to birds. The experience of Mr. For-
bush on his place at Wareham, Massachusetts, in 1914, is
instructive. Some seasons he has had boxes on buildings oc-
cupied, but this year the four so placed were not used. Of
twelve in trees in various situations, such as by hedges and
on the edge of woods, only one was occupied—by flickers, near
the house. Nine others were mostly on poles, a few on tele-
graph poles or small trees trimmed off, leaving only branches
at the top. Of these eight were occupied, the majority
by tree swallows, the rest by bluebirds. They were put up
too late for chickadees, which usually occupy boxes there.

Wharton Experiment. William P. Wharton has con-
ducted on his estate at Groton, Massachusetts, extensive
experiments along this line which are of great value, the
results of which he has kindly written out for me. There
are two farms several miles apart. One has an area of
eighty acres, mostly open land; the other has about 370
acres, mainly woodland. The former he has owned for two
years, most of the other considerably longer. I quote at
length from his letter:

AIDS TO NESTING 227

“At the larger place I have put up twenty-four boxes
of the Von Berlepsch model and of German manufacture.
These have been in place several years, and on the average
between five and six have been used by birds, mostly tree
swallows and bluebirds. Some of these boxes, however,
are too small in the entrance for birds larger than chicka-
dees. The latter have never occupied but one box, and this
was deserted. The last two years one of the boxes has been
occupied by flickers. It should be remarked here that the
use of creosote in treating the egg clusters of the gypsy
moth inside the boxes may have had a repellent influence
on the birds, since the number of these boxes used de-
creased after the first two years. F. H. Kennard is of
the opinion that creosote does discourage the use of
boxes. Two other types of boxes have been placed on this
larger area—old hollow apple limbs with flat floors, and the
ordinary board box. Without going into unnecessary
detail, I will say that about the same proportion of these
seem to have been occupied by birds from year to year as of
the Von Berlepsch boxes—that is, about one fourth. Creo-
sote has also been used in them.

“Although up to last spring only the Von Berlepsch
boxes had been hung in part on posts, I thought I detected
a preference on the part of the birds for these boxes so
placed, and last spring I had eight new boxes of the plain
board type made, and placed them on the posts of a fence
surrounding asmall made pond. These were stained on the
outside to a weathered colour with a mixture of drop black
and linseed oil. They had not been in position for an hour
when the birds were going in and out of them and finally
four of them were nested in, or 50 per cent.

“On the eighty-acre farm where I live, I first placed
twelve boxes of the Von Berlepsch model made by Mr..

228 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

Bayne’s Company, at Meriden, New Hampshire. The mis-
take was made by buying four or five with holes too small
for the ordinary birds. These have never (two seasons)
been occupied. Of the others, four were used the first year,
and three the second, one of the larger ones having been
occupied by flickers the past season. These boxes are all
on trees. Last winter and spring I hung twenty-four board
boxes, with entrance-holes from 13 to 2 inches in diameter.
These were painted dark green, and twenty-one of them
were placed on poles, which in turn were fastened to fence
posts in a cow pasture at intervals of 50 feet. Of these
twenty-one boxes, twelve were certainly nested in, and in
others unfinished nests were found. There were five or six
families of tree swallows in these post boxes, and the other
species were bluebirds and two English sparrows, the latter
being broken up. Of the three other boxes of this type
hung in trees, two were occupied by bluebirds. Of ten
roofing-paper boxes made by Mr. Winthrop Packard three
were occupied. My five hollow-limb boxes placed in trees
were not used. None of the boxes used on this home farm
has had any creosote put on or in them.

“T ought to say that I have had no success at all with
boxes placed in the woods, and shall put up no more there.
My experience agrees with Forbush’s conclusion that boxes
on poles or posts are more generally occupied than those
on trees—elm generally. The more open and free from
shade the situation the better have been the results. As
far as I can see, the Von Berlepsch model has no advantage
over the plain board box, except perhaps for flickers. I
have had hairy woodpeckers bore into two Von Berlepsch
boxes during the winter, when the regular entrance was
plugged up to keep out squirrels and mice, but as far as I
know, they did not nest in these boxes. They have not

Photograph by George Adams

There are more than too species of hawthorn on Ford Farm. They make
splendid nesting piaces for song-birds

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S7PO41 GB tauc0gsS k9 ydvssojoug

AIDS TO NESTING 220

bored holes in the plain boxes. It is possible that future
attempts to induce the more retiring woodland species to
use man-made boxes may be more successful through the
use of the German model. With the more easily attracted
bluebirds and tree swallows, however, I feel reasonably
sure that the plain board box is fully as effective as the more
expensive type.

‘As to the size of the entrance-hole, I feel it would be a
mistake to put up any more boxes with holes having a
diameter of less than 1} inches. Practically all my boxes
with a diameter smaller than that are doing nothing. If
people are urged to put up many of these, they are likely
to be much disappointed, in this section, at any rate”—
where wrens are scarce.

Poles even without cat-guards make safer locations than
trees, as animals do not climb them readily, especially if
smooth or slender. Metal nailed around them higher
than a cat can jump would assure safety. Mr. Forbush,
however, has never had a cat climb to his boxes on poles.
An especially secure device is one used on the Henry Ford
farm. On 600 acres about 200 boxes had been put up, the
majority of bluebird size. Most of these latter were on posts
about 8 or 9 feet high, to which were bolted flat iron rods
about a yard long, at the top of which the box was bolted.
If an animal should climb the post, it could not get up the
rod. The location chosen was where the nests would be
inconspicuous, near trees or shrubbery, or among scattered
trees. Sometimes they were on the east or northeast side
of the trees, to get the afternoon shade, or, in case of tall
trees, partly under them, but not near enough to branches
for squirrels to jump to the boxes. Most of them were said
to have been occupied. The man in charge had not climbed
up to take any census, and, as Mr. Forbush has suggested,

230 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

birds often roost in boxes and give the impression they are
nesting there. The number occupied was doubtless con-
siderable, mostly by bluebirds and wrens. Flickers and
redheaded woodpeckers used the boxes on trees. In gen-
eral woodpeckers are said to prefer the tree location so they
can readily climb to the nest. The wrens nested almost
anywhere, but the bluebirds, when there was a choice of
boxes, one on a tree, the other on a post, regularly selected
the latter.

The one pair of crested flycatchers which occupied a box
on the place chose one at the top of the pole, I should say
20 feet from the ground. This was close to Mr. Ford’s
bungalow, which was well surrounded by groves. Here
again the birds had a further choice—a board-made rec-
tangular bluebird box at the top of the pole and a Von Ber-
lepsch model just below it on the same pole. They chose
the board box.

A good method of erecting a box on a pole is given by
Mr. Forbush. A fence-post is used as a base. Holes are
drilled, and the pole is bolted to the post by two lag-screws.
To take down the box for cleaning, the lower screw or bolt
can be withdrawn, and the other used as a pivot on which
to lower pole and house, which is similar to the plan de-
scribed for martin houses.

Direction of Entrance. The entrance should face away
from the prevailing direction of storms. Most of the long,
cold storms are from the northeast. The summer squalls
and thunder showers blow from west and northwest. A
generally southerly exposure is proper, say from southeast
to southwest. Some prefer the former, to prevent the
afternoon sun from beating in, if the box is not partly shaded
from the westerly side. This latter is probably not im-
portant, but it does make a difference when it comes to

AIDS TO NESTING 231

northerly exposure. Birds do not like it so well, and might
reject boxes thus placed, though Mr. Forbush has noticed
that they sometimes take a box with northerly frontage if
the cavity is deep. The young, however, are more liable
to perish in storms.

Example from Martin Houses. The matter is well il-
lustrated in the case of martin colonies. Mr. Forbush says
that in a large compartment house they first occupy the
rooms opening south and west, leaving those north and
east to latecomers. In cold storms, when the young die,
the casualties are first in the north and east compartments.
As they require the holes to be near the floor level, they are
more exposed than species using deep holes. Another item
noticed by Mr. Forbush is that other species will occasion-
ally use a box with the hole low down if it faces south and
west, but not if in the other direction.

Not among Branches. People often put up boxes on the
trunks of trees near the junction of one or more branches.
Birds evidently dislike this, for such boxes are frequently
not occupied, unless by wrens. Such branches make good
perches for cats while they reach in and pull out the young.
If on a tree at all, the box had better be fastened to the
trunk away from limbs, and also not up among the foliage
of the tree, where squirrels can jump to it easily.

Not Slanting Back. One of the points made by Baron
Von Berlepsch in describing the proper placing of boxes is
that these should not be set with the bottom projecting,
causing the top to slope back, and leaving the entrance more
exposed to the beating in of rain.

Cleaning House. In autumn, or certainly before spring,
the nesting-boxes should be cleaned out. Old nests should
always be removed, as most birds prefer to build their own,
and seldom occupy a nest the second time. Squirrels and

232 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

English sparrows often lug in a lot of stuff which should all
be thrown out. Wasps or hornets sometimes take posses-
sion, and must be dispossessed—not an agreeable procedure
before cold weather grips them. In localities where the
gypsy moth is found, these pests are very apt to lay their
eggs in nesting-boxes in July and August, so it is important
to give them all an examination, even when they seem to be
empty. Hence covers should always be made removable.

Housing Boxes in Winter. To avoid deterioration by
the elements in winter it is often a good plan to store most
of the boxes under shelter, and put them up again before
their desired bird occupants arrive. Some boxes, however,
should be left up for winter birds to use as shelters and
roosting-places, in accordance with the number that are
staying about.

Inducing Winter Birds to Nest. In at least some cases
shelter and feeding in winter doubtless induce birds to re-
main and nest, notwithstanding the common theory that
birds which remain in winter go North in summer and are
replaced by some southerly individuals of the same sort.
Rev. Wm. R. Lord is said by Mr. Forbush to have proved it
in at least one case, where a chickadee which he could dis-
tinguish both wintered and nested, using the boxes for
roosting during winter nights. Mr. Forbush is convinced
that some individuals of this species, and perhaps others,
are strictly resident, being found both in winter and in sum-
mer. At Wareham he fed a company of chickadees and
believed he induced them to stay. They were very tame,
and he wanted to see if he could make them accept his hos-
pitality. So he cut down all the rotten limbs and stubs
nearby and practically forced them to use his boxes, some-
times on the window-sill. Of course food, particularly suet,
should be kept on hand for them.

AIDS TO NESTING 233

b. Supplying Nesting Material

Two Classes of Birds. While the matter of supplying
nesting material to birds as a means of inducing them to
nest on the premises has been suggested by some authors,
this practice does not seem to have been emphasized as it
deserves, and practically all attention has been given to
nesting-boxes. The latter have a special element of the
spectacular and of popular appeal, yet after all it is largely
immaterial what sort of nests birds use, as long as we can
attract them to nest with us and afford protection to them
and their offspring during the critical period. Only a small
minority of the species use or need the nesting-boxes, while
a much larger number of kinds may be amenable to this
other method. The two should be used in conjunction,
else we may be open to the charge of partiality, as favouring
hole-nesters as against weavers!

Early Lesson. My first lesson in the possibility of sup-
plying nesting material to birds was when I was a small
boy. Mother put out some choice pieces of lace to bleach
on the window-sill at our home in Boston. At night they
were missing, and we never knew what had become of them
until next autumn the oriole’s nest in the big elm near the
window blew down in a gale, and there was the lace woven
into the pretty structure. This gave me an idea, and I used
to put out cotton, cloth, yarn, or string, and watch birds
carry it off. In this way I could trace them to their nests,
which otherwise might not have been built on the premises.

Recent Example. A recent concrete example of what can
be accomplished in this way is given in the experience of
W. G. Taylor of Derby, Connecticut, in the summer of 1914
and previously. He has only a garden of two acres, but by
feeding the birds in winter, and helping them to build their

234 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

nests in spring, he always has unusualnumbersof birds about
and a considerable number and variety of nests on the
premises. Mr. Taylor is a real lover of birds, and has spent
much time in studying the tastes of different species in
reference to nesting material. He finds, for instance, that
the robin likes best of all soft white cotton twine or strips of
cotton cloth about a quarter of an inch wide, cut into
lengths of 8 to 10 inches to prevent the birds from becoming
tangled and hanging themselves. There is some range of
choice in colour between different species. For instance,
the kingbird prefers red, blue, and green, or similar shades.

Studying Adaptation. Finding that the Baltimore oriole
invariably started the nest with the outside fibrous bark
of the last year’s milkweed, Mr. Taylor decided it was be-
cause this bark is very soft and wraps readily around the
twigs, staying where it is put, so hé looked for a substitute.
He found it in a ball of shoemaker’s flax, such as they make
their wax ends of, and cut it up into 10 to 12 inch lengths,
putting it out on the trellis and bushes, as he did the other
material. The orioles at once endorsed the judgment of
their friend and adopted the new invention, even preferring
it to the milkweed bark. The vireos also took it, using it
to suspend their nests.

Other material which he puts out in quantity is horsehair
and cotton batting. The horsehair he gets in quantity from
livery stables and cuts into suitable lengths. No doubt
cotton waste and all sorts of soft material would be accept-
able to birds. Even bits of paper are often used, notably
by vireos, and people with a sense of humour have amused
themselves by furnishing printed legends or advertising
matter of suitable proportions, which the birds displayed
upon their nests. Orioles, chipping sparrows, and wrens,
Mr. Taylor found, were fond of lining their nests with the

AIDS TO NESTING 235

horsehair. One pair of chippies built their nest entirely
of horsehair, and another nest found last season after the
leaves had come off was made of flax and horsehair. Vireos,
wood pewee, least flycatcher, and kingbird liked to line
their nests with the cotton batting.

Mud Pies. For the special benefit of the robins Mr.
Taylor made a mud-puddle, stirred the mud to the right
consistency, and also mixed in dried grass. The robins
went nowhere else for material, and numbers of them nested
on the premises or close by. Barn and eave swallows would
use this if there were colonies in the vicinity. Robins are
also greedy for lace, and it is not safe to leave any around.

Importance. Undoubtedly various birds which nest in
shrubbery and on the ground would use such material and
be attracted by it, besides other tree-nesting species not
mentioned, such as the cedar-bird, purple finch, thrushes,
thrasher, catbird, various warblers and sparrows, goldfinch,
or others. I would emphasize this matter as in a class with
the nesting-box for the pleasure it gives and the advantage
to bird life. There is no question but that the supply of
nesting material in a locality is an important factor in in-
ducing birds to nest there. By all means try it out and
report results.

CHAPTER XVI
MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE

Without surroundings which are pleasing to birds, efforts
to attract them will be uphill work. The matter of vegeta-
tion is the prime factor, which furnishes food, shelter, and
nesting-sites. Where there is congestion, traffic, noise, ab-
sence from vegetation and water, and a host of watchful
cats, one cannot expect many birds. It is a wonder that
birds come at all where they sometimes do, and it furnishes
many a delightful surprise to find a bird responding to the
least possible encouragement. Such a case was when George
Eastman, in his garden, in the heart of the city of Rochester,
New York, had a large thick shrub in a pot taken from his
greenhouse and placed just outside his dining-room window.
Along came a pair of catbirds and built their nest in it, and
Mr. Eastman enjoyed watching them through the glass at
close range when he came to breakfast. Once I had a pair
of indigo-birds nest in my garden in Boston in a thick
syringa bush, a species which would never have stayed there
unless there had been quite a tangle. As already stated,
one can begin with the artificial methods, to enjoy the pres-
ence of at least a few birds, and meanwhile be improving
the surroundings, to make them as attractive as possible.
Methods of doing the latter will now be suggested along
several lines.

a. AttractiveVegetation

No bird prefers an arid desert. Even the birds of field

or prairie, such as the bobolink and meadowlark, are de-
236

Grackles and English sparrow bathing in pool of rain-water on asphalt side-
walk, showing how presence of water attracts birds

Birds’ drinking fountain and bathing pool built by author for Connecticut
Agricultural College

European starling entering nest of woodpecker which it has appropriated

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE = 237

pendent upon the vegetation of their surroundings. The
majority of small land-birds depend upon the supply of
insects, seeds, and fruit, which in turn have plant-life as their
basis. The problem of cover and shelter also has largely
to do with vegetation. Hence abundant and diversified
vegetation is the fundamental necessity, whether of trees,
shrubbery, or smaller growths. These may serve for cover,
food, or nesting.

Evergreen Cover. For purposes of cover it is not of
first importance just what species of trees, shrubs, or plants
are grown. The main thing is to have plenty of places
where birds can get out of sight, and in winter be protected
from cold winds. For all-round purposes of shelter nothing
is better than evergreen of some sort. Hedges and clumps
of evergreen, especially arbor vite and red and other cedar,
should be planted if possible. Norway or other spruce is
splendid, also pine or hemlock. A grove of white pine or
hemlock is a treasure. Moreover, evergreens in winter are
pleasing to human eyes as well as to birds. In my own
small suburban yard are a few Norway spruces. Often do
I find myself scanning them just for the pleasure of it, they
are so restful and fragrant. They are a rendezvous for
birds from the whole neighbourhood. In warbler time I can
often discover one or more of these bird-gems among their
foliage, and in nesting season grackles, blue-jays, robins,
and chipping sparrows have recently nested in them. This
winter, 1915, four black-crowned night herons have roosted
in them through January and February despite street traffic
close by, houses surrounding, and the romping of children
in the yard.

Shrubbery. A reasonable number of trees and frequent
patches or hedges of shrubbery help to make ideal condi-
tions the for largest number and variety of birds. Even

238 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

from the human standpoint, the surroundings of home are
made more attractive by the presence of trees and shrubs.
In the prairie region of the West I have been impressed
with this. On former trips to North Dakota to study bird
life, the little homes stuck out on the bare prairie looked for-
lorn enough. Most of those early settlers planted ‘tree
claims”? and now these have grown up. Those formerly
bleak homes now look cozy and attractive nestling among
groves of trees and ornamental shrubbery. The financial
value of property is enhanced by attractive appearance and
surroundings. F. H. Kennard, the landscape architect,
aptly notes how surroundings can just as well be made at-
tractive as otherwise, and how windbreaks can almost
always be planted somewhere with benefit. Lanes, he sug-
gests, may be bordered with trees and walls covered with
vines without any encroachments upon land needed for
crops.

Food-bearing Species. In setting out shrubbery with a
view to attracting birds, one will naturally give preference
to those species which bear fruit or berries that birds are
fond of. If there is already some shrubbery, note should be
taken of what is lacking, in order to supply the need. Mr.
Kennard aptly suggests the importance of planting so as to
provide a continuous supply of food, and proposes as fol-
lows: for summer supply—cherry, mulberry, raspberry,
blueberry, huckleberry, and the like; for autumn—elder and
the various kinds of dogwood and viburnum; for winter,
plants which hold their fruit longest—hawthorn, buckthorn,
mountain ash, barberry, bayberry, sumach, and wild rose.

A Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, by
W. L. McAtee, on ‘‘ Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Pro-
tect Fruit,” gives a list of food-bearing trees and shrubs in
what is thought to be the order of their attractiveness to the

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE = 239

largest variety of birds: elder, raspberry and blackberry,
mulberry, dogwood, sumach, wild cherry, blueberry, wild
grape, pokeberry, Virginia creeper, bayberry, juniper,
service berry, holly, strawberry, viburnum, hackberry,
buckleberry, haw, spice bush, rose, sarsaparilla, sour gum,
gooseberry, currants, snow-berry. As supplementary are
given: manzanita, barberry, buffalo berry, silver berry,
buckthorn, mountain ash, China berry, California Christmas
berry, pepper tree, magnolia, nockaway, lote bush, and
bluewood. The practice is very well known of planting
fruits which birds prefer to keep them from eating fruits
of commercial value. The white or the Russian mulberry
are most in use for this purpose.

Various annuals are also of value. Note has already
been made of planting patches of small grain which is left
to stand for gallinaceous birds to feed upon, and will an-
swer for smaller birds as well, and the mourning dove.
Kinds most used are buckwheat, millet, and wheat. Sun-
flowers are also planted a good deal, as by Wallace Evans.

Gilbert H. Trafton, in his book on “‘ Methods of Attracting
Birds,” has compiled a table of over thirty kinds of food-
bearing trees, shrubs, and plants, in cross-reference columns,
showing, from various authorities, what species of birds feed
upon the fruits mentioned. He notes that the best all-
round fruit is the mulberry, either white or Russian. This
corresponds with my own experience, for birdsin considerable
numbers constantly resort, nearly all summer, to a white
mulberry tree in my yard, which, nevertheless, bears far
more fruit than they can consume. He quotes E. H. For-
bush as preferring the Charles Downing mulberry, and G.
T. Powell as finding that a row of Governor Wood cherry
trees along one side of his orchard so monopolized the at-
tention of birds that they left the other fruit alone. Prof.

240 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

H. A..Surface is also quoted as stating that the four fruits
he finds most attractive to birds are an early sweet cherry,
the service(June)berry, mulberry, and Virginia creeper.

Species Attractive to Birds. In an article in Bird-Lore,
July-August, 1912, F. H. Kennard gives a list of trees,
vines, shrubs, and herbs bearing fruit or seeds attractive to
birds, which he compiled as a provisional list from which
to choose species for the further development of the bird
sanctuary of the Meriden Bird Club at Meriden, New
Hampshire. He omits from the list the larch or hackmatack
and the Norway pine or spruce for want of direct data.
E. H. Forbush, however, includes these, and I have had these
species on my premises and found them quite attractive to
birds. In the list which follows, taken from a reprint ‘by
the National Association of Audubon Societies, Mr. Ken-
nard has marked with three asterisks, those plants which
are particularly attractive to birds, while those with more
than ordinary attractiveness are shown by two or one.
Those species whose fruits seem to be eaten so seldom as to
make their planting hardly worth while are marked with a
cross.

DECIDUOUS TREES
*Acer negundo, Ash-leaved ***Cornus florida, Flowering

Maple, Box Elder. Dogwood.
**Acer saccharum, Sugar {Corylus americana, Amer-

Maple; and doubtless ican Hazel.

other maples. **Crategus coccinea, White
Betula populifolia, Amer- Thorn.

ican Gray Birch. *Crategus corus-galli, Cock-
Betula lutea, Yellow Birch; spur Thorn; and others

and probably other of this genus.

birches. {Fagus americana, Amer-
Celtis occidentalis, Hack- ican Beech.

berry. *Fraxinus americana, Ameri-
Cercis canadensis, Red- can White Ash; and

bud. probably other species.

Female scarlet tanager being handled as she returned to nest with food

Blue-headed vireo being handled on nest by author

Black-throated green warbler feeding young in lap of girl

Chickadees feeding young on author’s arm

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE

241

DECIDUOUS TREES—Continued

tHicoria sp., Several ‘kinds
, of Hickory.
Ilex opaca,
- Holly.
{Liquidambar
. Sweet Gum.
{Liriodendron
Tulip Tree:
**Vorus rubra, Native Red
Mulberry.
**Nyssa sylvatica, Tupelo.

American
styracifiua,

tulipifera,

Ostrya -. virginiana, Horn-
beam. ~~
}Plantanus occidentalis, Syc-
amore.

‘fPopulus sp. Various species
of Poplars are sometimes
fed upon.

*** Prunus pennsylvanica, Bird

Cherry.
* Prunus pumila, Sand
Cherry.
*** Prunus _ serotina, Black
Cherry.
“Prunus virginiana, Choke
Cherry.
**Pyrus americana, Moun-
~ tain Ash.
{Quercus sp. Several species
of oaks.
Sassafras: officinalis, Sas-
safras.
Ulmus americana, Amer-
ican Elm, and_ other
species.

EVERGREEN TREES

“Juniperus virginiana, Red
Cedar.

and undoubtedly other
species.

**Juniperus communis, Pros- *Pinus rigida, Pitch Pine.
trate Juniper. *-“ — strobus, White Pine.
**Picea alba, White Spruce. *Tsuga canadensis, Hem-
** “© rubra, Red Spruce; lock.
SHRUBS
**Amelanchier canadensis, ***Cornus candidissima, Gray
Shad Bush. Cornel.
*Benzion odoriferum, Spice ***Cornus _ sericea, Silky
Bush. Cornel.
*Berberis vulgaris, Bar- ***Cornus stolonifera, Red
berry. Osier Cornel.
Compionia asplenifolia, **Gaylussacia: frondosa, Dan-
Sweet Fern. gleberry.
Corema conradii, Broom **Gaylussacia_resinosa, Huck-
Crowberry. leberry.
***Cornus alternifolia, Blue ‘**Ilex glabra, Inkberry..
Cornel. ae AS verticillata, Black

242

PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

SHRUBS—Continued

Alder; and probably [lex
levigata, | Winterberry
Black Ilex.
Ligustrum vulgare, Privet.
**Myrica cerifera, Bayberry.

Prunus maritima, Beach
Plum.
*Pyrus arbutifolia, Choke-
berry.
Rhamnus catharticus, Buck-
thorn.
**“*Rhus copallina, Shining Su-
mach.
***Rhus glabra, Smooth Su-
mach.

***Rhus toxicodendron, Poison

Ivy.

***Rhus typhina, Staghorn Su-
mach.

***Rhus venenata, Poison Su-
mach.

**Ribes floridum, Large-flow-
ering Currant.

** Ribes lacustre, Swamp Goose-
berry; and other spec-
ies.

**Rosa, sp. It is probable
that the fruits of all the
native wild roses are
eaten largely by birds.

***Rubus occidentalis, Thim-

***Rubus _villosus,
Blackberry.

*** Sambucus canadensis, Com-
mon Elder.

“Sambucus pubens, Panicled
Elder.

Shepherdia canadensis, Shep-

herdia.

**Symphoricarpos racemosus,
Snowberry.

**V accinium cespitosum,
Dwarf Bilberry.

***V accinium corymbosum,
High-bush Blueberry.

**Vaccinium pennsylvanicum,
Low-bush Blueberry; and
doubtless other species,
including Vaccinium vi-

High

tiside@a, Cowberry.

**Viburnum, alnifolium, Hob-
ble Bush.

**Viburnum dentatum, Ar-
row-wood.

**Viburnum lentago, Sheep-
berry.

**Viburnum nudum, Withe-
rod.

“Viburnum opulus, High-
bush Cranberry.

** Viburnum prunifolium,

Black Haw; and doubt-

bleberry. less V. acerifolium, V.
*“*Rubus strigosus, Red cassinoides, and other
Raspberry. species.
***Rubus canadensis, Low
Blackberry.
VINES
**Ampelopsis —_ quinquefolia, Celastrus scandens, False
Virginia Creeper. Bittersweet.
Aretostaphylos UVa-UTSt, Menispermum candense,
Bearberry. Moonseed.

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE — 243

VINES—Continued
Mitchella repens, Partridge- *Smilax rotundifolia, Bull

berry. Briar.

Vaccinium macrocarpon, **Vitis cordifolia, _—_ Frost
_Cranberry. Grape.

Vaccinium oxycoccus,Dwarf **Vitis labrusca, Fox Grape.
Cranberry. ** “ oul pina, Riverside Grape.

HERBACEOUS PLANTS

**Aralia nudicaulis, Sarsa- Helianthus annus, Sun-
parilla. flower.
Fagopyrum esculentum, **Phytolacca decandra, Poke-
Buckwheat. berry.
**Fragaria virginiana, Straw- Smilacina racemosa, False
berry. Spikenard.
Gaultheria procumbens, Solanum nigrum, Night-
Checkerberry. shade.

Concealment for Nests. Not only is thick foliage de-
sirable for shelter and roosting, but also for nesting pur-
poses. Most kinds of birds desire concealment for their
nests in foliage or vegetation, and are more likely to take
up their abode in surroundings where such concealment is
provided. A number of species find thick evergreen just
what they need. A good evergreen hedge is apt to be a
popular place for birds to nest. Few things are more at-
tractive to birds for nesting than good thickets or tangles.
If one wants an artificial garden, that is one matter, and
every nook and corner will be trimmed and garnished. But
if birds are wanted, some spots should be left to Nature’s
way. Walks may be hoed, but it will not injure the real
beauty of a garden to leave some masses of natural tangle,
which Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright has prettily nicknamed a
“thrashery,” from an incident of a pair of brown thrashers
nesting in such a situation on her premises. Places of this
sort are liable to attract interesting and unexpected bird

244 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

neighbours, such as some unusual warbler. Just let every-
thing grow up naturally, and, if necessary, plant vines or
briars, and have a fine old tangle of everything that will
grow.

Neatness Overdone. The fashion of cutting down shrub-
bery and of general trimming and cleaning up to secure
open spaces has become quite common. It is considered a
mark of neatness and thrift to cut off shrubbery and weeds
along roads or drives. Every dead or hollow limb of a
tree has to be removed. These, however, are the worst
things that could be done from the standpoint of attracting
birds. While a certain amount of cleaning up may be de-
sirable as a concession to neatness, the more that natural
conditions can be approximated the more birds there will
be. Why should a bare roadside be considered more artistic
than the wealth of Nature’s planting? Dead limbs entice
woodpeckers to build, and natural decayed hollows attract
and shelter various birds.

Shelter Woods. One very prominent part of the Von
Berlepsch plan is the proper planting and arrangement of
vegetation of the various types to make natural nesting-
sites for the birds. One of his pet schemes is that of
“‘shelter wood” for birds, based upon his observations of
primitive conditions favourable to bird life in Africa and
America. As it takes about ten years to develop his full
plan of planting and pruning, modifications and suggestions
from it will be more popularly used than the whole scheme
in its entirety. In general, the idea is to plant a copse of
thorn and other bushes to form a jungle impenetrable to
enemies of birds, with occasional trees for partial shade.
Details are fully described in the Hiesemann book.

Whorls by Pruning. In conjunction with this method,
the shrubbery is for several seasons cut back, causing new

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE = 245

branches or shoots to start in bunches or whorls, which make
firm and secure foundations for nests. The birds on the
estate which construct open nests usually choose these sites.
This could be done readily on a small scale with bushes or
clumps of shrubbery. The various thorn bushes are pre-
ferred for this purpose, because the thorns help to repel
enemies of the birds, especially the white thorn, also horn-
beam, beech, dog rose, various gooseberry bushes, privet,
also red cedar and Norway spruce, and others.

Lopping Trees. Another similar plan followed is the
lopping off of branches from the trunks of trees, and allow-
ing clusters of shoots to grow out, which creates excellent
sites for nests. On the estate are large rows or avenues of
poplars treated in this fashion. I have myself noticed in
our Western prairie regions, where there were strips of
timber along streams, how fond the mourning doves, robins,
grackles, and other species were of nesting where the
sprouts grew out from the trunks of the box elders or other
trees, usually 6 to 12 feet from the ground.

Tying Bushes. Still another device which is adopted,
and one which is much more speedy, is the tying together
of branches of a bush, so as to form above the point of junc-
tion a diverging cluster or whorl, making foundations for
nests similar to those formed by pruning. The Baron used
these only as a makeshift while the pruned whorls were
growing. It is stated that out of fifty such tyings made the
first year, forty-seven were occupied with nests that season.

Precautions. The following precautions were also ob-
served: Fallen leaves must be left on the ground, as birds
find food under them and are warned by rustling of hostile
approach. Experiments showed that birds noticeably
avoided places which were carefully raked. Working oper-
ations, wood cutting, and grazing of cattle should be dis-

246 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

pensed with in the nesting season. Pruning and cutting of
shrubbery must not be done in the breeding season, but
early in spring and autumn.

b. Water Supply

Birds Crave Water. Under average trimmed-up urban
or suburban conditions, or even in the typical neat village,
land is all carefully drained, and there is apt to be no pool or
stream where the birds can drink and bathe. A good water
supply in summer is one of the conditions most attractive
to birds. The providing of water will often cause numbers
of them to locate on the estate to breed, and also attract as
visitors many from the general surroundings.

The Main Requisites. The main requisites in providing
water for birds are as follows: The water should be shallow,
so that small birds can wade out in it and take their bath
in bird fashion. The edges should not be steep, and there
should be a gradual slope. It is well if the water is in a
retired spot, somewhat sheltered by shrubbery, the sort of
place naturally attractive to birds. At the same time shrub-
bery or herbage should not be so near the water that con-
cealed cats can spring upon the birds. If it is near, keep
the cats off.

Making a Bird Bath. The simplest devices will answer
the purpose. Even a shallow dish of water out on the lawn,
replenished regularly, is better than nothing, though birds
prefer something which appears more natural. A wide
flower-pot saucer, or something similar, will answer the
purpose. If the affair is quite large, fill in with pebbles
and small stones, having some of them project from the
water for birds to stand upon. Another method, a step
more elaborate, is to dig a slight hollow and make a small
shallow cement basin, which can be filled by hand, by hose,

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE = 247

or by water-pipe. Better have it at least partly in the
shade. If there is no flow of water, it is well to scoop or
sweep it out frequently and fill afresh, which will prevent
the breeding of mosquitoes. Ifa water-pipe can be used, to
provide a constantly changing supply, a hole several feet
deep should be dug close by, filled up with loose rocks, a
small drain-pipe run into this, and earth and turf put back
to cover it. Such a cesspool will keep the surroundings
dry and show no signs of its presence.

The Hodge Fountain. A more ambitious bird font, sug-
gested first by Dr. C. F. Hodge, works very well. I made
one on this plan for the Connecticut Agricultural College,
which proves attractive both to birds and to visitors. The
location is at the side of an orchard, facing a botanical
garden. A trough of cement was made by masons, and
irregular rocks were carted to the spot. These were piled
up in a rustic design, and cement was used to hold them
firm. The structure was made some 4 feet high. A
water-pipe was run to the top, and by the cement a series
of shallow pools was formed, arranged so that the water
would trickle down from one to the other. At the base
there was a cement pool made, about a yard long. Proper
soil and water-plants were brought in, making a nice little
aquarium in which small fish could have been kept. A
vault made as just described kept the surroundings dry.

A Successful Bird Pool. What can be done in this line
is suggested by the experience of Mrs. George H. Mellen
at her home in Newton, Massachusetts. I quote the fol-
lowing from her, nearly word for word: The garden is on
the corner of two residential streets in the city, and is about
100 feet square, with trees and shrubbery. The first season
large earthen receptacles were set on the lawn, but only
three kinds of birds came to bathe. Next year a pool was

248 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

made of irregular shape, and various ferns, vines, plants,
and trees planted near gave it an air of seclusion and woodsi-
ness evidently appreciated, as the first season sparrows,
warblers, vireos, grackles, jays, robins, kingbirds, catbirds,
thrashers, orioles, grosbeaks, chickadees, nuthatches, wax-
wings, humming-birds, and owls visited it. The pool was
planned to give a background of ferns, tall growth at the
head, a tree for perching at the foot, low growth on the
houseside, and vines on the outer edges. The dimensions
are 5 by 3 feet in widest part, 5 inches deep through the
centre, and shelving to irregular border, with stones pro-
jecting into it at intervals. Grackles and jays do most
of their bathing in the deep portions, and flickers invariably
wade out into the centre and march across the 5-inches-deep
spaces.

Much Frequented. Some idea of the extent to which the
pool is used may be gained from the following instances.
One morning in August, between nine and ten, twenty-four
baths were counted, by five species of birds. One afternoon,
about two o’clock, five grackles, five blue-jays, four flickers,
four orioles, two robins, and a sparrow were in the water or
on the rocks about the edge at the same time. A nuthatch
was calling from the trees nearby, and during the carnival
a humming-bird perched on a branch over the pool and
watched the sport.

Certainly there can be no question but that a pool with
natural surroundings is better than a dish, and would be
more readily recognized by birds as offering what they
wanted.

c. Suppression of Enemies

Importance. No matter how attractive to birds a place
may be, or how much is done for them, the presence of
destructive enemies, particularly if abundant, will minimize

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE — 249

or bring to naught much of what has been done. When
surroundings are favourable and birds yet remain scarce,
the probability is that it is overrun with silent yet destruc-
tive agencies. Careful attention and vigilance should be di-
rected to the problem.

English Sparrow. It is almost hopeless to expect many
birds to nest in boxes where this species is abundant.
Though birds of other sorts may not be entirely prevented
from nesting, their numbers will be materially lessened.
On a certain estate I was asked to ascertain why native
birds did not come to occupy the boxes put up for them.
Examination revealed the fact that English sparrows
abounded on the place and had nests in all the boxes.
The first thing I did was to instruct the gardener how to
clean out the sparrows. Baron von Berlepsch fights them
ceaselessly on his estate. His assertion is correct that ‘the
increase of other kinds is in inverse ratio to the decrease of
sparrows.”

European Starling. The European starling, introduced
about twenty-five years ago into New York City, has spread
over most of the Eastern seaboard districts and is con-
stantly extending its range. Probably in time starlings
will be all over the country. They are about the size of
the cowbird and not unlike it in appearance. Adults are
black, with some brownish markings, and a yellow bill, the
young being duller. When you see “‘a blackbird with a
yellow bill” it is the advance guard of the host. In some
localities, in fall and winter, they roam in flocks of hundreds
and even thousands. As with the English sparrow, there
seems to be no check upon their increasing hordes, for they
are equally hardy amd pugnacious. They nest in hollow
trees, holes in buildings, in towers and cupolas, or other such
places. They appropriate all available holes, and drive

250 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

native birds from those they have occupied, destroying
their eggs or young. Even a bird as large as the flicker is
seldom able to defend its nest-hole against them. Within
two blocks of my home I saw one spring five new flickers’
holes which were seized by starlings. I have been told of a
starling being seen in the act of dragging out a young
martin from a nest in a martin house.

Danger of Introducing Species. The case of the starling
is a good illustration of the uncertainties and dangers in-
volved in introducing species to new surroundings. In
Europe the starling is usually liked, and Baron von Ber-
lepsch encourages them to nest in the walls of his castle.
But, introduced into Australia and New Zealand, it has be-
come a pest, as it is already becoming in this country. In
Europe conditions of bird life are somewhat different, and
the valuable species are somehow able to hold their own;
while here the few kinds which nest in hollows are not able
to maintain themselves against this new invasion.

Method of Poisoning. The following method for poison-
ing English sparrows, which is also applicable to starlings,
is described in Farmer’s Bulletin 493, U. 5. Department of
Agriculture, ‘The English Sparrow as a Pest,”’ by Ned Dear-
born. Wheat is preferred as a bait and vehicle for admin-
istering the drug. Put one eighth ounce of pulverized
strychnine into three fourths of a gill of hot water, add one
and one half teaspoonful of starch or wheat flour moistened
with a few drops of cold water, and heat, stirring constantly
until the mixture thickens. Pour the hot poisoned starch
over one quart of small kernelled wheat, and stir until every
grain is coated. This will quickly dry and can be kept in a
glass jar.

The best plan is to bait the birds in advance to a certain
spot. With sparrows this is easy to do in cold weather,

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE — 251

particularly when there is snow. Starlings are more shy and
come less readily, but in severe winter weather they resort to
backyards. Put out the poisoned grain on a dry morning,
since moisture brings out the bitter taste of the strychnine.
Allow about twenty kernels to each bird, as it takes six or
seven to kill quickly. Watch out and kill the birds that
become drowsy but would recover, as these are shy of poi-
son in future, and seem to warn the others. Take care
that the poison is not put out where native birds are accus-
tomed to come.

Trapping. The starling seems rather shy to trap success-
fully, but the sparrow can be caught, cunning as it is, in
large numbers, by certain methods and with proper precau-
tions. The above-mentioned bulletin describes several
devices, with diagrams, and it can be secured upon applica-
tion to Washington. The ‘“‘clover-leaf” trap, previously
described, might be effective with sparrows. However,
E. A. Quarles, vice-president of the American Game Pro-
tective Association, told me of trying a commercial sparrow
trap, by which design the birds entered a small hole and
were supposed to be unable to find their way out, but in
this case they entered and left again with ease. The
‘feathered rat” is nobody’s fool!

Barnes Trap. The following very effective device is in
use by A. M. Barnes, on the estate of William Rockefeller,
at Tarrytown; New York: An enclosure is made similar toa
covered chicken-yard, with wire over the top. The wire
throughout should be 23-inch mesh, to keep sparrows from
escaping. The pen should be high enough for a man to
stand up in, and any convenient size, say 6 by 10 feet, or
larger if one cares to utilize it as a poultry-yard. Suspended
from the overhead wire by the corners should be placed a
board tray or lunch-counter on which small grain should be

252 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

scattered. This should hang about one foot below the wire,
and be made about 2 feet square, with a slight rim to keep
the grain from blowing off, and should be located about the
middle of the enclosure. Over the centre of this tray a
few strands of the wire should be cut, and the ends bent
down, leaving a hole just big enough to admit the sparrow.
Especially in severe winter weather, though also at other
times, the sparrows alight on the wire over the grain, enter
the hole, but are unable to find their way out. Mr. Barnes
has a smaller compartment at one end into which he drives
the birds, to catch them more readily, though in a smaller
trap this is unnecessary. Occasionally juncos, tree spar-
rows, and other native birds get in, but these are liberated
without harm. The arrangement is so like an ordinary
poultry-yard that even the shrewd sparrows do not suspect
harm. Mr. Barnes has already caught several thou-
sand of them. It is well to leave some sparrows in it
always for decoys, and water should be provided for them.
In case sparrows do not go in at first, it is well to catch a few
otherwise and put them in. English sparrows are said to
make good eating, and in this way they might be of use.
Cats. It is almost hopeless to have many birds if a place
is overrun with cats. Notice how easily they scramble up
the trunk of a tree when they really set out to. They can
get almost any nest that is not out on slender branches.
When young birds are learning to fly they are most likely
to be captured. The average garden is a stalking-ground
for cats. The English sparrow is able to increase largely
through nesting in places inaccessible to cats, whereas vari-
ous other species are not so fortunate. Robins and chipping
sparrows are great sufferers, and many a nest in trellis or
arbour, or in the orchard, is despoiled. In many places it
is impracticable to shoot cats, besides being very unpleasant.

MAKING SURROUNDINGS ATTRACTIVE = 253

The best plan is a box trap, such as the Evans trap, in
which the cat pulls a trigger while eating the bait, and the
door drops. A little chloroform will mercifully end a pred-
atory career, and no one is the wiser.

Squirrels. Red squirrels are particularly destructive of
birds’ nests. Grays are ordinarily rather inoffensive, yet
even they become destructive at times, when allowed so to
increase that they overrun the food supply. Especially
is this true in city parks, where they are hemmed in by
traffic and cannot get away. If they are allowed to multi-
ply unduly, they are forced to devour everything edible,
and must be reduced in numbers. Squirrels of all sorts,
including the pretty flying squirrel, are apt to occupy the
nest-boxes put up for birds, often gnawing the openings to
make them larger. Birds dislike a locality where squirrels
are numerous and are apt to shun it.

Other Pests. Rats, the universal pest, must be fought
ceaselessly. Get Farmer’s Bulletin 369, ‘‘How to Destroy
Rats.” Weasels, minks, raccoons, skunks, and foxes are
all after nests and young broods. For methods of trapping
them see Part I, last section. Cooper’s, sharp-shinned,
and pigeon hawks, and the great horned owl are destructive
of bird life. Other destructive hawks, usually rare, are the
goshawk and duck hawk. The other kinds usually do more
good than harm. Though all raptorial species probably
kill some useful birds, the class as a whole fulfils an im-
portant function in keeping down snakes, rodents, and
other vermin, which would destroy more birds by far than
their captors take. Without them we should be overrun,
and ground-nesting birds, including quails, grouse, and the
like, could hardly survive. Even the great horned owl,
destructive as it may be, is a notable destroyer of skunks.
So often does it bear the skunk odour that woodsmen some-

254 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

times consider this the natural odour of the bird. A good
policy is to kill raptorial birds which we know seriously
destroy birds but to give the rest of them the benefit of the
doubt. Crows do some good, but they are great destroyers
of eggs and young birds, and should not be allowed to be-
come too numerous. Blue-jays are not guiltless, but they
are so interesting and handsome that a moderate number
of them may well be spared.

CHAPTER XVII

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING

Why Feed the Birds. Though wild birds ordinarily
prefer their own natural diet, there are often times, in severe
winter weather, when a little artificial aid in obtaining food
will save their lives. It is generally believed that wild
birds, being very warm-blooded, seldom perish alone from
cold, but succumb to the cold when their vitality is low-
ered by starvation. Nearly every winter there are spells
of especial severity, when food is buried in snow or covered
by a coating of ice. At such times the lives of many birds
may be saved by a little care and forethought. It is a
pleasure also to have the birds feeding at our doors and to
be able to study them at close range, to have their enliven-
ing company at a time when there is so little alive in the
cold outdoor world. Certainly it becomes a means of edu-
cation, particularly for the young. Further, it is even a
sport to see what species can be attracted by our efforts,
what ones can be induced to feed from the hand, and what
photographs can be taken of the visitors. The practice
both saves the lives of birds and greatly assists them, and
also furnishes intense pleasure to the donor. It is becom-
ing very frequent and even general in many parts of this
country, and should become more so. Let every one feed
the birds.

Concentrating Bird Life. During winter in any cold
northern climate bird life is bound to be scarce at the best,

255

256 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS .

both as to species and actual numbers of birds. The fact
that individuals which find the food attractive are induced to
locate in the vicinity, and to become frequent or even in-
cessant visitors to the food supply, can serve to make bird
life seem abundant and give a very cheerful aspect to the
wintry surroundings. One very cold winter I had at my
sheltered porch nearly all the time during daylight a flock
of a dozen chickadees and several nuthatches and wood-
peckers. There was always ‘‘something doing,” and vari-
ous happenings proved so interesting that it was often hard
for me to stay away from the window and attend to my
work.

Birds to Expect. The following list will give an idea of
what kinds of birds may be possible guests of our hospital-
ity. Reference is especially to the Northern and Eastern
States unless otherwise specified. It may also be noted
here that these divide themselves into two distinct classes—
suet-eaters and seed-eaters—though some species eat both.
Those that eat suet at all are the easiest to attract within
close range, and will sometimes eat on porch or window-sill,
the others feeding mainly on the ground.

The chickadees, white-breasted nuthatch, and downy
woodpecker are the three especial ‘‘stand-bys” of the aver-
age bird lunch-counter. The hairy woodpecker is often
quite frequent, and the little red-breasted nuthatch not al-
together.a rarity. The brown creeper sometimes stops for
a few bites, but quickly moves on, usually not caring to
tarry. The blue-jay sometimes ventures, especially at a
little distance from the house, though I have seen them come
on a piazza roof. In severe weather crows will work at
meat or bones hung up well back from the house, though I
have seen them attracted thus to suburban gardens.

The usual seed-eaters most apt to be drawn are the tree

Tree sparrows at W. G. Taylor’s lunch-counter

Chickadee feeding

Downy woodpecker eating suet

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 257

sparrow and junco. With these may come occasionally
a song sparrow, fox sparrow, or white-throated sparrow.
Well to the north, the common crossbill, white-winged
crossbill, redpoll, pine grosbeak, evening grosbeak, Canada
jay, and snow bunting have been fed. Ernest Harold
Baynes, at Meriden, New Hampshire, has had most of these.
Farther south, the cardinal, mockingbird, and tufted tit-
mouse are more readily attracted. Just as I write this,
Miss Frances H. Butler, of Woodstock, Connecticut, re-
ports to me, under date of Decernber 18, a mockingbird
which has stayed by the house for some days and eats ber-
ries from the woodbine, so one is always liable to get rarities.

In the category of the more unusual visitors to artificial
feeding are the flicker and myrtle warbler, and Trafton
in his book mentions the following casual records of species
accepting artificial feeding: screech owl, white-crowned
sparrow, rose-breasted grosbeak, pine siskin, red-bellied
woodpecker, goldfinch, gold-crowned kinglet, horned lark,
Lapland longspur, hermit thrush, winter wren, and also,
from farther West, the yellow-headed blackbird, Clark’s
crow, Oregon jay, and gray-crowned rosy finch. In woods
or fields we may also feed the quail, ruffed grouse, and
pheasant, and on the edge of ice on ponds or streams, in
severe cold snaps, various wild ducks.

Kinds of Food. For species which prefer animal food
suet is the best and most attractive article that has been
found. It does not freeze too hard and is easily taken by
birds. The woodpeckers are probably the only ones that
eat suet or meat exclusively. Nuthatches and titmice are
practically omnivorous, as are most of the others. Birds of
the sparrow and finch tribe are more fond of seeds, but they
also eat suet to some extent, and a variety of other sub-
stances. Within certain broad lines it is not necessary to

258 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

try to select certain particular foods for certain species.
This artificial feeding is a makeshift at best, and birds when
hungry are not particular, as long as they secure that which
is capable of affording them nourishment.

Such birds as nuthatches and chickadees are particularly
fond of ground-up nuts of any kinds, and broken squash
and sunflower seeds, also ground-up dog biscuit, doughnuts,
and bread crumbs. These are good also for all seed-eating
birds, though seeds and small grains are easier and cheaper
to provide for those which can use them. Barn sweepings
are attractive to them, and certainly are cheap. Almost
any small seeds will do, such as millet, hemp, rape, canary
seed, and the like, also any ground grain. On the Henry
Ford farm they have bags of (1) hemp, (2) canary and rape,
(3) sunflower seed, (4) ground mixed-grain, with some beef-
scrap. The usual feeding had been equal parts of the first
three, and one fourth as much of the last. It was found,
however, that most birds greatly preferred the hemp and
would eat that first, so the amount of this was increased,
sometimes even to three quarters of the total supply. They
shell the hemp as they eat it.

Seasons for Feeding. Winter is, of course, the one time
when the birds absolutely require food. Yet, while they
can get it at other times, judicious use of it in a small way
can sometimes be made in helping to attract more birds
to one’s own premises. For instance, suet kept up near
the nesting-boxes may induce some individuals which re-
main in winter, such as chickadees and nuthatches, to oc-
cupy them for breeding. The presence of a feeding-tray,
with a variety of attractive food, may induce spring arrivals
to remain there to nest. Mr. Ford maintains such an ar-
rangement on his estate, near his bungalow. It is a long,
flat tray, made of boards, perhaps two feet wide and about

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 259

a dozen in length, with a shallow rim around the edge to
keep the food from blowing or washing off, and built upon
posts about three feet high. Once a week the attendant
puts out six or seven quarts of the mixture described above,
in which time it is nearly all eaten. Robins use it very freely,
also blue-jays and various species of the sparrows and finch
tribe. Among others is the rose-breasted grosbeak, which
many people are trying hard to attract. The grosbeak here
devours the hemp seed with particular relish—a word to
the wise. The large use to which this tray is put shows that
summer feeding can be made of considerable account. It is
pleasing to the owner of the premises to have so many more
species brought under easy observation. The seed diet, of
course, does not interest the strictly insectivorous birds like
warblers or flycatchers, but orioles occasionally come. By
the use of ants’ eggs and such preparations as “‘ mockingbird
food” it might be possible to draw birds of this other type.
Of course, though, we wish them to devote their energies
largely to the insect pests on the premises.

Winter Feeding Methods. The various methods and
devices for feeding birds in winter which have proved suc-
cessful will now be described.

Suet Devices. Suet should be put up where the birds
using it will be secure from cats as they eat. It can be
fastened to a trunk or branch of a tree, and there is no need
of any special perch, as the birds which use it are good
hangers-on, whereas English sparrows will come more if
there is a convenient perch. If merely nailed up it is
liable to split off, so a better way is to tie it on, winding it
around with twine. Still another method is to tack over it
wire netting of rather small mesh, perhaps }-inch size.
Through this the birds can reach in to eat, but cannot take
off large pieces and waste it. Ready-made wire-mesh suet-

260 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

holders are sold by several of the dealers listed in Chapter
XV. It is best to place the suet on the south side of the
tree, preferably in a sheltered place. Otherwise suet can be
placed on a shelf or platform, or as further described.
Feeding Seed. A simple shelf or platform is as good a
place as any on which to place seed and small grain or a
variety of foods for small birds. This is easier to keep free
from snow, and is safer from attacks of enemies. This can
be put in any convenient place, preferably where it is some-
what sheltered from cold winds. It is a matter of pleasure
and interest to place it conveniently near a window, where
the birds can be watched and enjoyed on the coldest and
stormiest days. Just a simple platform, say a couple of
feet square, on a post of convenient height, will suffice.
The tray or platform should have around it a slight rim
to keep the food from blowing off. Only a little food
at a time is needed, replenishing it as is required. After
snowstorms the snow can be swept off and more food
supplied. ¢
Taylor’s Lunch-counter. Such an arrangement is used
by W. G. Taylor, previously mentioned. Mr. Taylor has
the lunch-counter near the kitchen window, and all winter
has a constant procession of hungry birds, thankful for his
hospitality. Nearly every day this kind friend of birds
shells and pounds up fine about a quart of peanuts, which
are gone by night, also various other nuts, seeds, crumbs,
and suet. There are nearly always a crowd of tree sparrows
and juncos, also numerous chickadees, white-breasted nut-
hatches, and downy woodpeckers, as well as some hairy
woodpeckers and jays, and others casually. One winter
there was a mockingbird which took possession of the estab--
lishment and was so selfish in keeping the other birds at a
distance that Mr. Taylor reluctantly drove it off. Even

Photograph by th iltiam B, Hoot
Red-headed woodpecker at lunch-counter

Photograph by Wittiam BR. Hoot
Blue-jay at lunch-counter

\ hi <

Magpies on food-shelf

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 261

crows came into the garden in severe weather and picked
the bones hung up in trees.

Movable Tray. When there is a tree handy to a window,
some bird-lovers enjoy having a feeding-tray or lunch-
counter that can be drawn back and forth on some sort of
trolley arrangement between the tree and the window. If
birds which come are at first a little shy, they can learn to
get their meals out at the tree, and the tray can gradually
be brought nearer, until it is right at the window.

Window Arrangements. Where birds will come to feed
at the window some further plans for their entertainment
and that of the pleased observers may be tried. The sim-
plest thing, of course, is a little shelf or tray to hold the food.
Some go further and build what might be called a window-
box. It is made of glass in a frame, and fits snugly into
the partly-open window, so that no cold can enter, setting
back from the window into the room. The floor of this is
the food-shelf, and the birds feeding are thus brought
practically into the room, separated from the observer only
by the thickness of the glass, to which nearness they soon
become accustomed. It affords fine opportunity to secure
photographs if the window is in direct sunshine on the
south side.

Birds’ Christmas Tree. On the window-ledge a small
evergreen may be placed, with food secured to the branches,
as by the melting process described farther on. This ex-
hibits: the food plainly, and sometimes works very well.
The children are especially pleased, and call this “the birds’
Christmas tree.’ Any such little detail which serves to
interest children in the birds is well worth while, as children
thus trained are apt to gain lifelong interest in birds and
their protection.

Tree Shelf. Small shelves for feeding can be put up

262 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

against the trunks of trees. A simple way is to break off the
front and part of the sides of a small box, drive in a few more
nails to strengthen, if needed, and nail the upright part to
the tree. Any other device will do just as well.

Ground Feeding. Seeds and small grain scattered on the
ground in certain spots will attract birds of the class which
use such food. Barn sweepings are enjoyed, and in the
country are easily utilized. Such species as the junco are
rather timid, and sometimes will feed better when the food
is away from buildings in natural surroundings.

Drawing Pests. Of course putting food around is liable
to draw pests. If rats are brought in by it, the best plan
may be to feed up from the ground. English sparrows are
apt to come, whatever methods are employed. They do
not so readily eat suet hung on a perpendicular trunk,
though they do it to some extent. About all one can do is
to shoot them judiciously and also trap or poison them, as
described above.

Von Berlepsch Designs. The philosophy of Baron von
Berlepsch regarding feeding of birds is that (1) the methods
must be readily accepted by those for which it is intended,
(2) that they can be carried out in all weathers, and (3) they
must be cheap and economical of material. With these
requirements in view he devised the food-tree, the food-
stick, the food-house, and the food-bell.

Food-tree. This represents a tree abounding with insects
and larve, but through artificial means. It is made by
taking a small evergreen, or part of one, and pouring on the
twigs a mixture of various foods in melted suet, which is
allowed to harden. As this destroys the foliage touched, it
is well not to use ornamental trees near houses. ‘‘Christ-
mas”’ trees which have been in warm rooms soon shed their
leaves, and are not so good as those directly from the woods.

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 263

Food Mixture. The following receipt is suggested in
Hiesemann’s book with the proportions in ounces, and is
intended to serve only as a guide, not to be slavishly fol-
lowed: white bread (dried and ground), 43; ground meat-
scrap, 3; hemp, 6; crushed hemp, 3; maw, 3; poppy flour,
13; white millet, 3; oats (ground), 14; dried elderberries, 13;
sunflower seeds, 13; ants’ eggs, 13. About one and a half
times the amount of beef or mutton suet should be melted
and the food stirred in. This can be kept when hardened,
and heated again upon occasion. After several heatings
more fat should be put in to replace the considerable loss
by evaporation when heating. In applying, it is important
to have it boiling hot and to let it settle down among the
needles clear to the branches, to hold it well. Cakes of
this, called ‘food stone,” were said to be on sale in Germany,
and they are also sold by dealers in this country listed
above. :

Food-stick. A modification of the above is the “‘food-
stick.” The plan, as described, is to cut a branch about
2 inches thick and some 8 inches long, bore in it, on one
side, holes j-inch wide and of about that depth. Fill these
holes with the melted preparation, and nail the stick to the
tree, with the holes nearly downward to protect them from
ice.

Food-house. The idea of this is simply that of the
feeding-tray or lunch-counter already mentioned, but pro-
tected from the weather by a roof. It has been tried often
in this country, and works well. The device consists of a
central post which supports the pinnacle of the quadrilateral
roof, and also holds the food-tray. Four other posts sup-
port the corners of the roof, which slopes down on each side
from the point in the centre. The tray is a platform, about
2 feet square, through the middle of which the post runs,

264 PROPAGATION OF WILD BIRDS

placed well up to the height of the eaves. In some models
a rather narrow strip of glass runs entirely around the house
just below the edge of the roof. This makes it possible to
place the tray lower down, in better light, and yet protected
from the weather. Lower down on the post is another
smaller tray, which serves to attract the birds to the struc-
ture, though it is not so well protected. After feeding there
they readily find their way up higher. It should be located
in a warm, sheltered spot, where birds will like to come.

Weather-vane Food-box. Another covered feeding-
place is a box of any rectangular shape with one end open.
This is made to revolve on a rod on a post, with arms or
“wings” extended on each side of the openend. This acts
as a weather-vane, the wings turning the entrance to the
box always away from the wind, so that snow does not drive
in, and birds can always find food.

Food-bell. Still another device is the food-bell, which is
an automatic device somewhat on the principle of the
poultry self-feeders. Seeds and other foods are in a jar
above, and drop down as fast as the birds eat it below. The
exact mechanism is fully described in the Hiesemann book.
It does not appear to be much in use in this country, as the
few birds which we have in winter seem better served by the
other simpler devices. Other curious and ingenious contriy-
ances are also described in the above work.

Other Birds to Feed. Methods for feeding such birds
as quails and grouse in winter have been described in Part
I. In bitterly cold spells when nearly all water surface
becomes frozen except air holes or small openings, and wild
ducks congregate in these, it is a great boon to them to put
out corn on the edge of theice. This is often done by game-
wardens and others, and many valuable wildfowl have thus
been saved.

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING 265

Cooperation and Education. Public codperation in these
practical methods of all sorts described in this volume for
increasing, propagating, attracting, feeding, or protecting
birds goes hand in hand with the education of the public
to the interest and value of bird life. It is important to get
people to do things such as these. They will then become
more interested and will do more and more. Get school
children to make and put up nesting-boxes, or have them
provide nesting-material and watch what the birds do with
it. Organize school squads to feed the birds in winter.
Let bird-lovers see that at least the rudiments of bird-study
and bird-conservation are taught in the public schools. It
is to be hoped that all who read these pages may realize
more fully the great possibilities in many aspects of applied
ornithology. These things are no sentimental fad, but have
come to stay.

It seems as though the inventive ingenuity of man had
reached the limit in the invention of murderous devices to
exterminate the birds, but it is well that now so many are
following the worthy example of Baron von Berlepsch, and
are becoming ingenious and earnest in planning for their
welfare instead of their destruction. The foundations laid
by such organizations as the National Association of
Audubon Societies and other organizations and individuals
in this splendid endeavour have not been in vain. Let the
good work go on.

THE END

ADDENDA

(To be read at end of Chapter IT, page 54.)

Miscellaneous Diseases. Wild gallinaceous birds are
liable to the same troubles to which domesticated species
are subject. I would refer readers to any of the numerous
works on the care of poultry, turkeys, and ducks, and also
to the excellent ““Farmer’s Bulletin Number 390,” “‘Pheas-
ant Raising in the United States,’’ by Henry Oldys, which
has a considerable section on diseases of pheasants.

(To be read at end of Chapter XVI, page 254.)

Tree-guards. Wire arrangements to prevent cats or
other vermin from climbing trees to rob the nests of birds
are sold by some dealers. It is easy, however, to make
suitable contrivances. Two general plans are usually
followed: one is to tack a sheet of metal around the tree.
This should be at least six feet from the ground, and from
one to two feet wide; the other way is to fasten a strip
of wire netting around the tree, like a flaring collar, horn-
shaped, the wider end downward. If there could be a
vermin-proof fence around the premises, these would not
be needed.

(To be read after section on ‘‘Food-bell,” page 264.)
Hanging Feeder. A popular and simple feeding device
is to suspend by a wire—so that animals cannot reach it
—some receptacle, covered on top, such as a hollowed
cocoanut, a tin can, or other object, with a hole in the
side, filled with suet or some food mixture.

INDEX

Acid, boric, 127
tannic, 126
Agricultural College, Connecticut,

247

Agriculture, Massachusetts State
Board of, 109

U.S. Department of, 54, 109, 214,

238

Alternation of ground, 8, 23-24, 83-
84, 85, 87

American Game Protective & Prop-
agation Association, Intro., 63,

251

Appeal of birds, 203

Applied Ornithology, Department of,
Pref., Intro., 200, 205, 240, 265

Artificial method, 3, 8

Attracting birds, 6, 70, 147-8, 181-3,
199, 203-265

Aubry, E., 122, 130

Audubon Societies, National Associ-
ation of, Pref., Intro., 200, 205,

240, 265
Austin, E. H., 130, 143
O. R., 143

Authorities, codperation from, 20
Aviary pheasants, 76, 86

Bantam, 29, 33, 51-2, 98, 133, 147,
156, 166, 176

Barnes, A. M., 251

Barley meal, 171

Bartlett, Captain, 186

Helen, 12

Bath, bird, 246-8

Baynes, Ernest Harold, 228, 257

Beebe, C. William, 188

Bent, A. C., 119

Berlepsch, Baron von, 133, 204-5,
211, 231, 244, 255, 202, 265

Berlepsch, Baron von, boxes, see
Nesting-boxes

Blackbird, yellow-headed, 257

Bluebird, 146, 206, 212, 214, 216,
222, 224, 225, 228, 230

269

Bobolink, 236

Bob-white, see Quail

Bog, 118

Box, see Nesting-box

Breeding, difficult, 95
intermitted, 140
preparation for, 79

* retarded, 140

Brewster, William, 213

Bridges, .P., 59; 71, 73-4

Brockway, Arthur W., 220

Brooders, 8-9, 60, 162-3, 167, 194

Browse, 61

Brush, provide, 24, 30

Buckwood pheasantries, 12

Bunting, snow, 257

Bushes, tying, 245

Butler, Miss Frances H., 257

Calomel, 127
Can, tin, 217, 264
Capercailzie, gt
Captured ducklings, 173-4
Cardinal, 257
Cat, domestic, 5, 43, 44, 108-9, 128,
138, 228, 231, 236, 254-5
~guard, 228, 254
wild, 5
Catbird, 220, 235, 236, 248
Catching stock, 30, 48, 84, 85, 88,
123,126
Cedar-bird, 235
Celery, wild, 148, 170, 181
Chamber, size, 222
se of ground 8, 23-4, 83-4, 85,

Charcoal, 27, 37, 167
Chickadee, 204, 212, 214, 221, 222,

225, 227, 232, 248, 256, 260
Chicken, prairie, 16, 55, 65
Chick-grain, 25, 41-2
Children, 265 :
Childs-Walcott estate, see Walcott
Chill, 164
China, 75

270 INDEX

Christmas-tree, birds’, 261

Clark, Neil, 86-8, 129, 131, 171
system, 86-8

Cleaning plumage, 125-6

Cleanliness, important, 25, 38, 128,

166

Clipping wing, 24, 46, 126, 184

Clover-leaf trap, 49

Clove Valley Club, 45, 86, 129, 162

Cocoanut feeder, 264

Colonies, protected, 200

Confinement, see Crowding

Connecticut State Game Farm, 14,

40
Construction, light, 24
Control, methods, 84, 85, 87-8,

145—
Converse, Edmund C., 122, 130
Cook, Henry, 123, 125, 129, 136,
157; 171, 172, 195
Coop, 31, 42, 82, 86, 161, 167
Coot, or mud-hen, 154, 194-5
Covies, breeding in, 28
Cox, John A., 136, 138, 154, 166, 172
Crab, horse-shoe, 136, 172-3
Crandall, L. S., 196
Crane, 196-7
demoiselle, 197
Soudan crowned, 197
Creeper, brown, 256
Creosote repels birds, 227
Crissel, 26, 42
Critical period, 46
Crossbill, common, 257
white-winged, 257
Crow, 5, 254, 256, 260
Clarke’s crow, or nutcracker, 257
Crowding, 45, 77, 81
Crustacea, 142
Curd, milk, 37
Custard, 36-8, 40-2

Dealers in apparatus, 214
in stock, 11-12
regulations for, 19-20

Dearborn, Ned, 250

Dipper, 214

Disease, 54
duck, 122
grouse, 18-19
pheasant, 54, 76-7
precautions, 19-20
quail, 15-20, 46
turkey, 68-9,.74

Dogs, 43, 97, 110, 190
Dove, ground, 101
mourning, 100-1, 245
Drumming, 65
Ducks, control free, 145
diving, sea, or marine, 116-7, 118,
135, 141-3; 163, 175
edible, 117
river, pond, fresh-water, marsh,
116-7, 135, 174
wild, 115-180, 257, 264
young, or ducklings, 159-179
young in pond with adults, 144
Ducks, species:
Australian duck, 139
Bahama duck, 139
baldpate, 117, 119, 120, 137,
153-4, 167
black duck, 117, 124, 133, 137,
139) 143, 144, 146-8, 153, 157,

107,

blue-bill, or broad-bill, see Scaup
Duck

bufflehead, or butter-ball, 117,
180

canvasback, or canvas-back, 117—
9, 122, 135-7, 142, 153, 163,
167, 176-7

coot, or sea-coot, see Scoter

eider, 117, 135, 142, 176
king, 117
northern, 117
fish duck, see Merganser

Florida duck, 117

gadwall, 117, 119-20, 123, 137,
139, 150, 153, 157, 167, 177

ee 117, 163, 173,175, 177-
17

Barrow’s, 117

harlequin duck, 117

Labrador duck, 180 :

mallard, 117, 119, 124-6, 131,
133,137, 139, 145-7, 149, 152-5,
157, 160, 163, 167, 177-8

mandarin duck, 137, 139, 154,
156-7, 163, 166 :

merganser, 117, 119, 142

old-squaw, 117

Pekin duck, 122, 157

pintail, 117, 119-20, 124, 133, 137,
139, 150, 153-5, 167, 177

pochard, 135, 150

redhead, 117-9, 136-7, 139-40,
142, 153-4, 157, 167, 176

INDEX

Ducks, species—Continued
ring-necked duck, 117
rosy-billed duck, 139
ruddy duck, 117, 153, 174, 176
scaup duck, 142, 143, 153
greater, 117, 119
lesser, 117, 119, 136-7, 155,
167, 173, 176, 178
scoter, 142, 163
surf, 117
velvet, 117
white-winged, 117,
173, 175-6, 178
sheldrake, see Merganser
shoveller, 117, I19-20, 137, 139,
150, 153-4, 156-7, 167, 177
spotted-billed duck, 139
teal, 120, 137, 139, 150, 153-4,
150-7
pewed: 117, 119, 123, 137,
_ 153, 155, 167, 177
cinnamon, 117, I19, 139, 167
garganey, 139
green-winged, 117, 119, 137,
139, 141, 155, 167, 177
Pampas, 139
tree duck, 123, 139, 178
fulvous, 139, 157
red-billed, 139, 157
tufted duck, 135, 150
widgeon, see Baldpate
European, 139, 150, 157
Dynamiting, 138

119, 153,

Eastman, George, 236
Education, 265
Egg-eating, 79
Egg, ants’, 37
boiled, 36, 38, 40-2
distributed, 82
keeping, 33,155
laying, or production, 32-3, 59,
72-3, 81, 132, 152-4, 196
setting, 33
taking, 33, 155
thin-shelled, 141
transporting, 155
Egret, 197-8
Enclosure for ducks, 137-8, 164,
167
Enemies, see Vermin
English system, ducks, 149-51
Enteritis, 46
Entrance-hole, size, 219, 221-2

271

Escape, 47
Evans, Wallace, 11, 14, 16, 27, 40,
44, 46, 65, 109, 136, 140, 147,
157, 164-5, 171
system, 84-6
Evergreens, see Vegetation
Exercise important, 25

Failures, reasons for, 151-2
Farmer’s Bulletins, 54, 109
Farming, goose, 188-91
Feather-plucking, 79
Feeder, automatic, 264
hanging, 264
Feeding wild birds, 6, 70, 95, 181-3,
236-46, 255-65
on ground, 262
seasons for, 258-9
stations, 6
Fencing, 21-4, 43-4, 71-2, 83-4, 87,
120, 138, 160, 166
Fertility, 158
Fields, fenced, 43
Tearing, 43, 161
Fighting, 57, 78, 96, 187, 192
Finch, 259
gray-crowned rosy, 257
house, 214
purple, 235
Finley, William L., 99
Fish, 118, 127, 142, 154
heads, 139
live, 136
minnows, 136, 138-9
raw, 196
scrap, 127
shell-, 142, 176
Flicker, 212-13, 222, 225, 227-8, 230,
248, 257
Flies, 39, 41
Flycatcher, 259
crested, 214, 222, 225, 230
least, 235
Food, animal, 26, 39, 42, 127-8, 130,
143, 168-70, 171, 174-5
-bell, 264
-box, 264
browse, 61, 64, 185, 192
for adults, 24-7, 64-5, 72, 125,
127-31, 136, 138-43
for young, 35-42, 167-177
forcing, 26-7, 127, 130
grain, 255 38, 40, 61, 127-30, 142,
152, 170-1, 185, 192-3, 196, 259

272

Food—Continued
green, 26, 39; 61, 64, 72, 128, 139,
170, 185, 192
-house, 263
ae 39, 61, 64, 97, 139, 174-5,

19
lack of natural, 93
mixture, 263
plants, see Planting
sea, 142, 176
-stick, 263
-tree, 262
Fonts, drinking, 168
Forbush, E. H., 109, 112-13, 216,
220, 228-9, 232, 239, 240
Ford, Henry, 216, 220, 221, 229-30,
25 :
-Fountain, see Bath
Fox, 5, 44, 71, 106, 122
Free range, 43, 84-5, 145-7, 189-90
French system, 96
Frey, A. N., 125

Gallinaceous birds, 3-99, 131
Gallinule, 195
Game Breeder, The, Intro., 94
Game Breeders’ Association, 17
Game, dealers in, 11-12
Came-warden, Intro., 264
George, Amos E., 61
German systems, 97-8, 158-9, 204-
206, 211-12
Going-light disease, 178
Goldfinch, 235, 257
Goose, brant, 184
Canada, 184-91
Egyptian, 144
snow, 184, 190
white-fronted, 184
wild, 184-191
Gourds, 218
Grackle, 237, 245, 248
Grain, see Food
Grant, W. W., 175
Grass, diet, 185
Grebe, 154
Grit, 27, 37, 167
Grosbeak, evening, 257
pine, 257
rose-breasted, 248, 257, 259
Ground, change, 42
Grouse, 253, 264
black, 91
blue, 55

INDEX

Grouse—Continued
dusky, 55
pinnated, 55
ruffed, 6, 16, 55-65, 257
sage, 55
sand, 91
sharp-tailed, 55
Guide to Nature, 219
Guinea-fowl, 92

Harem, 80

Hatching, 8, 72-3, 82, 87, 159
-houses, 34, 87, 157

Hawk, 5, 103, 253
Cooper’s, 253
duck, 253
gos (goshawk), 253
pigeon, 253
sharp-shinned, 253
sparrow, 214, 222
-trap, 103-4

Heat, artificial, 124

Hen, heath-, 55

Hens, 8, 43, 47-8, 60, 87, 156, 159,

161, 166

Heron, 197-8
black-crowned night, 237

Heywood, John, 12

Hiesemann, 205, 244

Hodge, Dr. C. F., 14, 56, 57, 247

Hogs, 74

Holding-pen, 21

Holding stock on land, 48, 69

Homing instinct, 145, 206

Hookworm, 18

Hopkins, Frank, 40

Horne, I. S., 11, 16

Howell, T. A., 54, 64, 108, 145

Humming-bird, 248

Hunting, 88

Incubate, failure to, 9

Incubation, 8-9, 34, 154, 156-9
Incubator, 34, 60, 97, 157-9, 162,

195
Indigo-bird, 236
Industry, birds by, Intro., 89
Insect, see Food
Islands, 119, 133, 136, 137, 138, 192

Jay, blue-, 237, 248, 254, 256, 259,
260

Canada, 257
Oregon, 257

INDEX

Jekyl Island, Ga., 74
Junco, or snowbird, 257, 260

Kennard, F. H., 68, 227, 238, 240
Kingbird, 234, 235, 248

Kinglet, golden-crowned, 257
Klein, George J., 12

Lanier, Charles D., 147
Lark, horned, 257
Larsen, 94
Law, I0, 19-21, 102, 135
Laying, see Eggs

second, 59
Leaves, fallen, 245
Liberating stock, 7, 94-5
Liming, 161
Lockwood, Wilton, 136, 138, 140
Longspur, Lapland, 257
Lopping trees, 245
Lord, Rev. William R., 232
Lunch-counter, 259

Mackensen, W. J., 11
MacVicar, A. G., 14, 28, 40, 63, II0,
129, 150, 151, 176, 186
Donald, 63, 176
Maggots, 39, 175
Manross, F. N., 15, 56, 116, 165
Martin, European, 205
purple, 206, 214, 218-20, 222, 225,
231
Martin-house, 205, 218-19, 231
Massachusetts Game Commission,

14
Mating, 29, 30, 95-6, 184, 186-7,
IQ0, 192
McAtee, W. L., 181, 238
MclIlhenny, E. A., 153, 177, 197-8,

199
McLean, Hon. Geo. P., 14, 48, 51, 60
Meadowlark, 236

Meat, dried, 39

Mellen, Mrs. Geo. H., 247-8
Mental state, 134-5

Meriden Bird Club, 240

Mexican stock, 4, 11, 16

Mice, 228

Milk, 37, 61

Mink, 71, 106, 138, 154, 185, 190
Mockingbird, 257, 260

Moderation, in feeding, 25, 35, 168
Modified methods, 163

273

Moisture, for nests, 235. Also see
Incubation

Monogamy, 20, 27, 124

Moth, gypsy, 227

Mud-hen, see Coot

Muskrat, 5

Native birds, 13
Natura] methods, 3-6, 209-10
Neatness, overdone, 244
Nesting, 32, 96, 97, 120, 137, 152,
187, 193, 195
Nesting-boxes, 133, 211-232
bark, 218
care for winter, 232
cleaning, 231
earthenware, 218
furnishings, 223
height, 225-6
hollow limb, 227
location, 223-31
making, 211, 215-17
placing, 205
roofing-paper, 228
standardizing, 215
starch-box, 218
used in winter, 232
Von Berlepsch, 213, 216, 225, 227,
228
Nesting material, supplying, 233-5
Nests, cleaning, 87, 231
concealment for, 243-4
sites for, 244-5
New Jersey Game Commission, 14
New York Zodélogical Park, 128
Nuthatch, 204, 248, 256
white-breasted, 211, 214, 222, 256,
260
red-breasted, 256

Oates, Capt., 157
Oiling, 160
Oklahoma, 16
Oldys, Henry, 54
Oregon, 75-6, 99
Oriole, Baltimore, 234, 248, 259
Owl, 5, 103, 248
barn, 214, 222
great horned, 253-4
saw-whet, 214, 222, 235
screech, 212, 214, 222, 225, 257
Oyster-shells, 27

274

Packard, Winthrop, 228
Pairing, 29, 30, 95-6, 190
Pan, bathing, 163, 165, 167, 170,
174, 176
Partridge,
chukar, gt
gray or Hungarian, 4, 92, 99
red-legged, or French, 91
spruce, 55
Pastime, 88
Pearson, T. Gilbert, Pref., Intro.,
197, 221
Pens, 21-4, 58, 79, 81, 96
Pensioners, see Wounde
Percy, Lord William, 149
Personalia, Introduction
Pewee, wood, 235
Phasianide, 75
Pheasant, 45, 75-90, 91, 257
English, 75
golden, 76
Lady Amherst, 76
Manchurian, 76
meal, 38, 41
Mongolian, 76
Oregon, 76
Reeves, 76
ring-necked, 75-90
silver, 76
Phillips, Dr. John C., 146, 154
Phoebe, 215, 220, 221, 225
Pickerel, 154
Pigeon,
passenger, 100
band-tailed, ror
wood, 101
Pike, 154
Pinioned, 138, 196
Pinioning, 82, 86, 126-7, 185
Planting grain or food, 6, 70, 72, 95,
181-3, 185, 236-46. Also see
Vegetation
Plucking geese, 191
Pneumonia, 122
Poisoning, 70-1, I10-I1, 250-1, 262
Pole, 219, 227-230
erecting, 230
Polygamy, 27, 57, 58, 65, 78, 124-5
Pond, 115-118, 129, 136, 137, 147-8,
180, 185-6, 195
Portal, Maurice, 196
Poultry, dangerous, 18
Powell, G. T., 239
Preserves, game, 208-9

INDEX

Prices, 78, 89

Privacy, important, 28, 59, 152
Problems of breeding, 131, 134
Profession, new, Intro.

Profit, financial, Intro., 89, 180
Propagation, value of, 64
Ptarmigan, 55

Pugnacity, 57

Pulling quills, 149-51

Quail,
bob-white, 4, 13-52, 93
blue, see Scaled
California, 8, 50, 52-54
European, 92
Gambel’s, 50, 52
Messina, 4, oI
monogamous, 20
mountain, 50
scaled, 50, 51
valley, see California
Quails, 9, 98, 253, 257, 264
Quarantine, useless, 19
Quarles, E. A., 251
Quarters, winter, 21
for wildfow], 117-124, 185

Raccoon, 4, 74, 106, 206
Rats, 43, 109-110, 133, 138, 253
Rearing-fields, 35
Receiving stock, 24
Redpoll, 257
Reservations, protected, 4-5, 199
Responsibility, public, 180
Restocking, 7, 74
Results, immediate, 210
Rettger, Dr. L. F., 15, 18, 37
Rice,
constipates, 41
wild, 181, 183
Robin, 214, 220, 221, 225, 234, 235,
237, 245, 248, 252, 259
Rockefeller Foundation, 199
Rockefeller, William, 4, 11, 91-2, 101,
251
Rogers, Harry T., 14, 16, 27, 38, 49,
51, 54, 62, 65, 77, 79, 80, 82, 93,
IIo, 171, 18
system, 83-4

Sage, Mrs. Russell, 199
Salt, 143
Saskatchewan, 119
Savage, C. H., 93

INDEX

Schools, bird-study in, 265
Scott, Adam, 131, 161
Seidler, Ludwig, 41, 158, 171, 172
Selden, B. H., 14
Separate, 185, 192-3
Setting
BES, 33
hens, 34
Shade 22, 27, 43, 60, 138, 160, 162
Shaw, C. H., 8, 53
Shelf, :
feeding, 259, 260
window, 261
tree, 261-2
Shelter, 6, 21, 22-3, 72, 77, 120-4,
130, 185, 196
woods, 244
Shelves, nesting, 220
Shooting, protection for, 4-5
Shore birds, 194
Shrubbery, see Vegetation
Silkies, 33, 176
Siskin pine, 257
Size, unimportant, 204
Skunk, 5, 106, 108, 253
Snakes, 74, 118, 154, 253
Soil, composition of, good, 83
Song-birds, 203
Souring, bad, 25, 38, 128
Sparrow, 235, 248, 259
chipping, 234, 235, 237, 252
English, 215, 221, 225, 228, 231,
250, 254, 259
fox, 209, 257
song, 214, 257
tree, 256, 260
white-crowned, 257
white-throated, 209, 257
Sportsman, true, Intro.
Spratt, 40, 41
Squirrel,
flying, 206, 225, 228, 231, 253
red, 5, 225, 253
gray, 225, 253
Starling, 215, 216, 221, 254-5
Starting, 10, 77, 143
States, method for, 84
Staying with hens, 47-8
Stock, receiving, 125
securing, 9-10, 20, 56, 77, 124
southern, Ir
Storrs Agri. Experimental Station,
15
Connecticut, 16

275

Strongylus, 18

Strutting, 62, 65

Suet devices, 259-60

Sulpher, 27

Surroundings, making attractive,

236, 254

Swallow, barn, 206, 215, 220, 235
eave, or cliff, 206, 235
tree, 206, 214, 222, 225, 228
violet-green, 214, 222

Swan, 192-3
trumpeter, 192
mute, 192
black, 192

Swimming, 160, 163-7

Talbott, J. W., 12
Tameness, 59, 68
Taylor, W.G., 233-5, 259
Terrell, Clyde B., 181-3
Thinking bird, 223
Thompson, Mrs. F. F., 100-1
Thompson, Raymond B., 219
Thrasher, brown, 235, 243, 248
Thrush, 235

hermit, 209, 257
Tilley, Geo. D., 12, 92
Time to acquire, 21
Tinamou, 91-2
Titcomb, J. W., 181
Titmouse, tufted, 214, 222
Tooting, 65
Trafton, Gilbert H., 239
Tragopan, gI
Trap, 49

Barnes, 251

box, 104-5

clover-leaf, 105

Evans, 104-5

hawk, 103-4

hole-in-fence, 107

mink, 106

pitfall, 105

stone-pile, 107

weasel, 106
Trapping, 5, 103, III, 127, 251-2,

262

Treaty, International, 200

Tree-guard, 254

Troughs, 162

Turkey, Florida, 67
Merriam’s, 67
Mexican, 67
mongrel, 68

276

Turkey—Continued
Rio Grande, 67
wild, 67-74
Turtle, 118, 138, 144, 154

Value, economic, 204
Vegetation, aquatic, 118
attractive, 236-46
deciduous trees, 240-1
evergreen, 237, 241, 243
food-bearing, 238-43
herbaceous, 243
shrubbery, 237-9, 241-2
vines, 242-3
Vermicelli, 175
Vermin, 5, 7, 43, 74, 98, 103-11, 133,
144, 185, 248-54, 262
methods of destroying, 70-1, 103-
III, 250-4
-proof fence, 23
Vices, 79
Vireo, 234, 235, 248

Wachtel, 97
Wading birds, 194-8
Walcott, Frederic C, 125, 135, 138,
145, 149, 150, 151, 171,172,175,
190
estate, or preserve, 106, 121-2,
129, 146-8, 179
Wapato, 182
Warbler, 204, 209, 235, 237, 248,
259
myrtle, 257
Warren, Dr. A. F., 141

INDEX

Water, drinking, 27, 41-2, 143, 161,
166, 168, 236, 246-8
-plants, 181-3
Waterfowl, 115-200
Watts, Ernest A., 100
Waxwing, 248
Weasel, 5, 71, 106-7, II
Weather-vane feeder, 264
Wharton, William P., 226-9
Whealton, J. W., 12, 144, 187-91
Whisker, William, 108
Whorls, by pruning, 244-5
Wildcat, 5
Wildness, 154, 177, 184
Wind-break, 238
Window-shelf, 261
Wintering, 6, 21, 50, 54, 72, 77, 121-4,
137, 141, 259-62
Wire, see Fencing
Woodcock, 194
Woodpecker, 211, 212, 225, 230, 256
downy, 214, 222, 225, 256, 260
hairy, 214, 222, 225, 256, 260
tred-bellied, 257
ted-headed, 214, 222, 225, 230
Woodmont Club system, 69
Worms, 141
Worthington, C. C., 72
Wounded birds, 56, 143, 150-1
Wren, 146, 211, 221, 225
Bewick’s, 214, 222
Carolina, 214, 222
house, 206, 214, 222, 230, 234
winter, 257
Wright, Mrs. Mabel Osgood, 242

Yards, uncovered, 22

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Full text of "Propagation of wild birds; a manual of applied ornithology, treating of practical methods of propagation of quails, grouse, wild turkey, pheasants, partridges, pigeons and doves, and waterfowl, in America, and of attracting and increasing wild birds in general, including song-birds"

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