H^tt ffloUcgc of Agriculture
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■ Stephens'
Book of the Farm
Wberefore come on, O young hiubandmw !
Learn the culture proper to each kind.
Stephens'
Book of the Farm
Dealing, exhaustively
with every Branch of Agriculture
FIFTH EDITION
REVISED AND LARGELY REWRITTEN BY
JAMES MACDONALD, F.R.S.E.
SECRETARY OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND
AUTHOR OF •
•food from THE FAR WEST,' 'POLLED CATTLE' AND 'HEREFORD CATTLE' (JOINTLY),
'SYSTEMS OF LAND TENURE,' ETC., ETC.
IN THREE VOLUMES
VOLUME III.— FARM LIVE STOCK
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
S 6-7/
(145730 '
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
FABM LIVE STOCK.
Hb^SES.
^airn live ?took'
Breeds of horses
Breeds of cattle
Vild white cattle
Cadzow Park wild white cattle
Chillingbam Park wild white cattle
Other wild white herds
Modem British cattle
Breeds of sheep
Goats
Breeds of swine
The Shire Horse
Origin .
Shire Horse Society
Veterinary inspection
Distribution.
Ground for breeding
Horse-breeding societies
Fees and " iretainera " .
Value of pedigree mares
Pubhc and private prices
Mating
Peculiarities of stallions
Foaling
Forcing young stock ^ .
Characteristics —
Colour
Dimensions and weight
Form . . . ■
Type . .
Legs and pasterns .
Action
Feet ....
A typical Shire
Hair ....
English and Scottish notions
Feeding and management —
Bringing out Shires for show
Bearing foals .
Young horses .
Attention to hair
Attention to feet
I
2
3
4
4
S
6
6
7
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
lo
lo
lO
lO
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
14
14
15
IS
IS
Grooming and han^ng .
Adult animals .
ClydeBdale Horses
Origin
The Clydesdale in tieace and war
Early improvement
Spreading of the breed
Galloway horses - .
The,breed in the Stewartry
The breed in Kintyre
The breed in Cumherland
The breed in Aberdeenshire
The Clydesdale ^orse Sgici^ty
Infusion of Shire ]^op4 •
Admission to Stud-book .
Characteristics —
Ancient types .
Favourite type in 1 850-1880
Prince of Wales
Damley ....
Stock, of Prince of Wales and
Damley
Measurements of Clydesdales-
Sir Everard
Baron's Pride .
Hiawatha . , .
Eoyal Favourite
Measurement of mares
Feajtures of the modem Clydesdale
Markets for Clydesdales —
Export trade .
Export certificates .
Home market .
Clydesdale sales from 1876 to 1508
Management of Clydesdale studs
Brood mares
Foaling
Care of foals
Putting mares dry .
Other classes .
Management of show stock
The Suffolk Horse
Historical .
Characteristics —
Colour
PAGR
IS
IS
16
16
16
16
18
, 18
18
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
22
22
22
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
2S
25
26
27
27
27
28
28
29
VI
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IIL
Form
Measurements .
Action and handidess
Docility and longevity
The Suflfolk Horse Society
Foreign trade .
Leading shows . .*
Management
Brood mares
Thifoal .
Service
Food and care in winter
Stallions .
The Cleveland Bay
Origin ....
Characteristics
Value for crossing
The Yorkshire Coach-horse
Characteristics
Management
The Thoroughhred Horse
Thoroughbreds for hunter breeding
Forcing young stock .
Character
The Hunter .
Type ....
Method of breedmg
Scarcity of mares
Irish hunters
Management of hunters
Winter treatment
" Making " himters .
The Hackney Horse
Historical
Practice of breeding
Characteristics-^
Type . . .
Height .
Colour
Action
For harness and saddle
Soundness
Alterations in form .
Management of Hackneys
Buildings .
The brood mare
Weaning .
Young stock
Stallions .
Ponies.
English and Irish Ponies .
Pony type
Points in pony breeding .
Hackney and Harness Ponies
The Polo Pony
The Dartmoor Pony
The Exmoor Pony .
The New Forest Pony .
The Fell Pony
The Welsh Pony .
29
30
30
30
30
31
31
31
31
31
32
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
34
34
34
35
35
35
36
36
36
36
36
37
37
37
37
38
38
39
39
39
39
39
40
40
40
40
41
41
41
41
41
41
42
42
43
44
44
44
45
45
The Connemara Pony
. 46
Management of ponies —
Size
47
Wintering hill ponies
47
Young cobs
47
Foals
47
Ponies on rough pasture .
47
Training for shows .
48
Limitation of weight of shoes
. 48
Highland Ponies
. 48
Origin
• 48
Galloway ponies .
48
Resuscitation of Highland poni
es 48
Points of Highland ponies .
. 48
Early studs . . . ' .
49
The Atholl ponies
50
Inverness-shire ponies .
51
Jloss-shire ponies ...
SI
Fell and Arab crosses .
. . 52
Island ponies
53
MuU ponies
53
Skye ponies
53
Uist ponies
53
Rum ponies
•. S3
Experiments with Highland pom
es 54
Professor Ewart's experiment
54
The Celtic pony .
54
Mana^ment
54
Shetland Ponies
54
Purity of Shetland ponies .
55
A Norwegian cross
55
A mustang staUion tried
55
Early description of breed .
55
The modem type .
• 56
Ponies in the mines
56
The Bressay stud .
• 56
Pony management on crofts
57
' Management in the Bressay si
ud 57
Points of the breed
57
Distribution.
57
Male ponies for mines .
• 58
"Sheltie" ....
• 58
Management
. 58
The pit ponies
59
The Ass and the Mule
59
Varieties of the ass
59
Uses of donkeys .
• 59
Longevity of the ass .
. 60
Mule breeding
60
Donkeys and mule breeding
Foreign breeds of horses . . .
61
61
Polled Breeds of Catti
E.
Aberdeen- Angus Cattle .
62
Origin
63
Early improvement
62
Mr Hugh Watson . ,.
62
Mr Wm. M'Combie .
62
Sir Gteorge Macpherson Gran
t . 63
Early show successes
63
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
Vll
Characteristics of the breed—
Early improvers .
82
Eeoord as beef-producers .
63
The brothers Colling
83
Eeputation in America .
64
Captain Barclay's pioneer work
83
Eecords in fat stock shows
64
Booth cattle . . ^
83
Carcase competitions
64
Bates cattle
84
Weights ....
65
Later improvers .
84
Prepotency of the breed .
6S
Cruickshank Shorthorns
84
Influence of the breed in Englan
d 6s
The ideal Shorthorn .
85
Early maturity .
65
Mr Thornton's ideal Shorthorn
85
Prices . . , .
• 6S
Attribufes of the breed
86
Points of the breed
66
Beef-production
86
Present position of the breed
66
For crossing purposes
87
In Canada and United States
66
Milking properties
88
In other countries .
66
Shorthorn Society
89
Management of herds .
Bamndalloch herd .
67
Herd-book ....
89
■ 68
Exports of Shorthorns .
89
Pictstonhill herd
68
, Management in Shorthorn herds
89
Mulben herd .
69
In Scottish herds
89-91
Spott and Inverquharity herds
70
In English herds
91,92
Dr Clement Stephenson's herd
70
In Irish herds .
93
Preston Hall herd .
70
Management in daily herds .
93
An Irish herd .
71
The Tiincolnshire Red Shorthorn g4
Galloway Cattle .
71
Origin ...
94
Early lustory
71.
Early improvement
94
Early export to England
72
Later improvement
94
Origin
72
Herd-book ....
94
Improvement of the breed .
72
Characteristics —
Herd-books ....
73
Description
95
Characteristics —
Aims of breeders
95
Milking properties
74
Eobustness of constitution
95
Galloway beef .
74
Elesh-bearing qualities
95
Weights ....
74
Type ....
95
Hardiness
74
Colovir ....
95
Colour ....
75
Weights ....
95
Eor crossing
75
Milking qualities
96
Blue-greys
75
The Burton herd
96
Points of the breed .
. 76
Management
96
Management in Galloway herds
76
Ohapelton herd
■ 76
Hereford Cattle .
97
CastlemUk herd
76
Origin
•97
Broomfield herd
77
Characteristics-
Eed Polled Cattle
. 78
Uniformity of type .
Colour of Herefords .
97 '
98
Origin
The improved Red Poll
78
. 78
General appearance .
Standard description
98
98 •
Establishing a herd-book
. 78
Constitution
98
Standard description .
79
Preedom from tuberculosis
98
The modem types
79
Milking quaUties
99
Colour
Bed Polls in the showyard .
Locality ....
Weights ....
79
80
80
A milking herd
Weights ....
For crossing
In the showyard .
99
99
99
99
Milk yields ....
Management of Eed Polls .
80
80
Management
A milking herd
In the Montford herd
99
100
Eldo House herd
80
100
The Honingham herd
80
Acton Eeynold herd .
81
Devon Cattle
101
Combination of beef and milk
81
Early history
lOI
The Quartly herd
lOI
HoKNBD Breeds op Cattli
The modem Devon
Appearance ....
102
102
Shorthorn Cattle .
82
The milking type
103
Origin of the breed
82
Weights ....
103
▼yj
CONTENTS OF VOLUME HI.
Management of Devons
104
Mr ChicVs herd
104
Mr Hilxtable's herd .
104
Mr Tribble's herd .
104
Soutli Devon Cattle .
105
Early history
105
The Herd-book Society
105
Locality. ....
IDS
Description . . . . ,
. IC36
Points of excellence
106
Becent improvement .
106
The South Devons abroad .
106
Weights, ....
to6
MUlong qualities .
107
Management of South Devons
107
Mr W. J. Crossing's herd .
107
Messrs Whitley's herd
107
Mr B. Luscombe's herd .
. 107
Slessrs Butland's herd
108
Sussex Cattle
108
History ....
108
Early aims . . . > .
108
Locality ....
108
Standard description .
108
Weights and early maturity
109
Sussex bulls for crossing
no
Sussex cattlQ abroad .
no
Management of Sussex cattle
no
Lord Winterton's herd
no
Mr Steven Agate's herd .
no
Mr Hubble's herd .
no
Ayrshire Cattle .
III
Historical ....
in
Early ideals ....
III
Points of the breed
in
Type similar for loo years .
112
Inflision of strange blood
113
Usefill properties-
Milking properties all-importan
t 113
MUk records
113
Milk yields
"3
Beef-production
114
Weights ....
114
Management of Ayrshire herds
114
Milk-selllng herds .
114
Cheese and butter herds .
"5
Stewartry customs .
IIS
The " Bowing " system .
"5
Highland Cattle .
116
Origin
116
Characteristics
116
Points of 'the breed
117
Early improvement
118
Size and early maturity
119
Eor crossing purposes .
119
Temper of cattle .
119
Herd-book Society
119
Management of the breed .
119
The Atholl fold
120
Castle-Grant fold .
120
Welsh Black Cattle .
Historical ....
Characteristics
Hardiness
Rate of maturity and weights
Grazing properties .
QiMiUty of oeet .
Milking properties .
Need for pioneer improvers .
Improvement required
Risk in introducing out-crosses
Selection preferable to crossing
Management of Welsh cattle
Kerry and Dexter Cattle
Origin of the Kerry
Headquarters
Kerries as emigrants .
The typical Kerry
Origin of the Dexter .
The name of Dexter
Type of the Dexter
Characteristics . . .
Improvement .
Weights and measurements
MilMng properties .
As beef-producers
For crossing purposes
Colour ....
Management
jersey Cattle
Origin
Introduction into England .
Improvement.of the breed .
Characteristics
- Scale of points
Weight ....
EngEsh improvers
English Jersey Cattle Society
Milk and butter tests .
Merits of Jersey cows .
Management of Jersey cattle
Example rations
Ouemsey Cattle .
Origin
Characteristics
Scale of points
Milking properties .
Management of Guernseys .
Guernsey Herd-book .
The Dexter-Shorthorn
Origin ....
Weights and measurements .
Other breeds of cattle . 136
Long-homed catMe . . 136
Orkney and Shetland cattle , 136
Foreign breeds of cattle . 137
PoUed Durhams in United States 137
Polled Herefords 137
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
IX
Sheep.
Long- Wool Breeds of Sheep.
The Iieioester Sheep . .138
Bakewell's influence . . .138
Locality 139
Characteristics . . . .139
Clip and weight . . . '139
Management of Leiceaters . . 139
Mr T. H. Hutchinson's flock . . 139
Qainford Hall flock . . .140
Border Iieiceslers 140
Origin — Bakewell's itopravenaents 141
Messrs Culley's flocks . .141
Other early improvers . . 141
The Mertoun flock . . .142
Other noted breeders . . .143
Characteristics ... 143
Value for crossing . . 144
ManagetAent of Border Lmcesters 144
Leaston flock . . . .144
Galalaw flock .... 145
PictstonhUl flock . . .145
Oldhamstocks flock . . .146
Deuchrie flock . . . .146
Whittingehame flock . . 147
Preparing rams for sale . . 147
The Iiincolu Long-wool . 148
Noted early flocks . . .148
Modem records . . . .148
Characteristics .... 148
Clip and weight . . . .149
Early maturity .... 149
Constitution .... 149
Foreign trade . . . .149
Management of Lincoln flocks . 149
Cropwell Butler flock . . 149
Riby Grove flock . . .150
Cotswold Sheep . . . 150
Origin 150
Improvement . . . .150
Characteristics . .' . . 151
Mutton and wool production . 151
Prices iji
Management of Ootswolds . iji
The Devon Long- wool . 152
Early histoiy . . . .152
Characteristics . . . . 152
Clip and weights . . . . 153
Management of Devon Long- wools 153
The South Devon . -153
Origin 153
Characteristics . . . . 154
Description 154
Weight and clip . . . . 154
Management of South Devon sheep 154
Wensleydale Sheep . . .154
Characteristics —
Appearance 155
For crossing 155
Clip and weight . . . . 155
Management . '. . . 155
Kent or Komney Marsh Sheep
156
Characteristics
156
Points ....
156
Clip ....
156
Weights ....
156
Management
157
Roscommon Sheep
157
Improvement of the breed
157
Characteristics .
IS7
Fleece .. -,.
158
Management
158
Half-Bred Sheep .
158
Founding of the breed .
158
Two classes of Half-breds .
159
Distribution of the breed
159
Early lambs from Half-bred ewes
159
Three-parts-bred lambs
160
Increasing popularity .
160
Characteristics —
Appearance ....
160
Weights and feeding qualities
Clip
Sale centres ....
160
160
Management of Half-bred flocks
161
SJiort-Wool and Down Breeds oi hllieep.
The Southdown .
162
Early improvers .
162
Characteristics .
162
Description .
162
Disquahflcations .
162
Types .
. 163
Dead-weight
163
Weight and value of fleece .
163
For crossing ■ » •
163
Management
'63
The Shropshire
164
Origin .
164
Early breeders
164
Early types . . *
164
Modem types
'I6S
Merits of the breed
165
Prolific character .
165
Progress of the breed
165
Weights
165
For crossing
165
Management of Shropshire flock
3 165
Mr T. S. Minton's flock
166
Mr T. A. Buttar's flock .
166
System of ear-marking .
166
Mating rams and ewes .
167
Treatment of ewes
168
Lambing season .
168
Feeding of lambs .
168
Pulped food for sheep
169
Feeding-boxes
169
Young rams .
169
Ewe lambs .
169
Prevention of foot-rot .
170
Solution for foot-rot
170
The Hampshire Down
. 170
Characteristics
. 170
CONTENTS OF VOLUME HI.
Early maturity .
* 170
Prices of wool . . . .
Weight of lambs .
170
Management . . . .
Examples of precocity
171
Dipping
Constitution .
171
Markets
Breeding from lambs
171
Qualifications of a shepherd
Fleece .
172
Glenbuck Blackfaces
Description .
172
Blackface ram-breeding
Shepherds' competitions
172
The Overshiek system
Management of Hampshire flockE
172
Messrs Cadzow's system .
The Oxford Down . '
173
The Wooifords system
Early efforts
.
174
Mr M. P. Eraser's system
Characteristics
174
Cheviot Sheep . . . .
Fleece .
174
Origin ....
Change in type .
174
Early improvement
Pointe in breeding
174
Characteristics . . . .
Location
174
Appearance
For crossing
174
Wool
Show classmcatioi)
175
Crossing purposes
Management
I7S
Improvers of Cheviots .
Mr Treadwell's flock
175
Flock-book
Maisey Hampton flock
176
Management in Cheviot flocks .
The Suffolk ....
176
Newton flock . . . .
Origin .
176
Mowhaugh flock
Characteristics
176
Alton flock . . . .
Scale of points
177
Dalchork, Lairg
ProMcacy .
177
The Exmoor Horn Sheep .
Produce of mutton
177
Characteristics . . . .
For crossing
177
Management . . . .
Management of Suffolk flocks
177
The Dartmoor Sheep .
Mr Herbert E. Smith's flock
177
Characteristics . . . .
The Playford flock .
178
Management . . . .
The Ryeland
178
The Iionk Sheep . . . .
Appearance and weight
178
Origin
Fleece
178
Locality
Management
178
Weight
The Dorset Down
178
Characteristics . . . .
Early improvement
179
Management . . . .
Characteristics
179
Herdwick Sheep . . . .
Early maturity and weight .
179
Characteristics . . . .
Management
179
Management . . . .
The Dorset or Somerset Horr
Welsh Sheep . . . .
Sheep ....
180
Characteristics . . . .
Characteristics
180
Dead-weight . . . .
Fecundity .
180
Crossing experiments .
Early maturity '.
180
Management . . . .
For crossing
181
Kerry Rill (Wales) Sheep .
The Somerset Horn sheep .
181
Characteristics . . . .
Clip
181
OflScial description
Management . . i
i8i
Management . . . .
Mr Samuel Kidner's system
181
Weights
Mr F. J. Merson's flock .
182
Derbyshire G-ritstone Sheep
Badnor Sheep
. 182
Improvement . . . .
Characteristics
. 182
Characteristics . . . .
Management
. 182
Weight
Scale of points . . . .
Mountain and Moorland Breeds of
Sheep.
Management . . . .
The Clun Sheep . . . .
Blackface Sheep .
183
Characteristics . . . .
Distribution of breed .
183
Management . . . .
Characteristics
183
Other breeds of sheep
A typical Blackface sheep .
. 184
The Norfolk . . . .
Weights ....
184
Wiltshire sheep . . . .
Prices of Blackface shei
ep .
184
Masham sheep . . . .
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
XI
Penistone sheep . 204
Shetland sheep .... 204
Other types 205
Iceland sheep .... 205
St Kilda sheep . , . . . 205
Swaledale sheep . . ' . 205
Foreign breeds of sheep . . . 205
Merino sheep .... 205
Goats.
Habitat of goats .... 206
Goats as milkers . - . . . 206
Goats' milk 207
Varieties of goats .... 207
Swiss goats 208
Selection of goats ' . . . . 208
Management of goats ... . 208
Bearing kids 209
Liberal feeding required . . . 209
Objections to goats .... 209
Swine and their Management.
Large White pigs . . . .210
Middle White pigs . . . .211
Large White Ulster pig . . . 212
The Berkshire pig . _ . . . 213
Large Black pigs . ' . . . 214
The Tamworth pig . . . .214
Lincolnshire Ciu:ly-coated pigs . 215
Small breeds of pigs • • • 216
The Small White pig . . .216
Small black pigs . . . .216
Other types of pigs . . .217
The Black Dorset . . . 217
The Improved Dorset . . . 217
The Hampshire pig . . . 217
The Gloucester Spotted pig . . 217
Management of pigs . . 217
Farrowing 217
Period of gestation . .217
Symptoms of farrowing . . 217
Bedding for yoimg pigs . 218
Treatment of sow and produce . 218
The after-birth. .218
Assistance in farrowing . . 218
Pigs biting sow's udder . . 218
Weaningpigs .... 219
Housing brood-sows . . . 219
Prolificacy in swine . . . 2ig
Seasons for farrowing . . . 219
Early maturity in pigs . . 220
Attention to pig-rearing . . 220
Winter farrowing risky . . 220
Hearing and feeding pigs . . 220
Feeding the sow and her litter . 220
Weaningpigs . . . .221
Castrating pigs . . . .221
Feeding young pigs . .221
Feeding old pigs unprofitable. . 222
Exercise for feeding-pigs . . 223
Keep pigs clean . . . 223
Pigs in cattle-courts . . . 223
Rest for feeding-pigs
Bedding for pigs
Nomenclature of pigs
224
224
224
The Pbinciplbs op Stock-breedins.
Heredity 225
"Variations" in breeding
results .
221;
Transmission of acquired characters 226
Other breeding problems . . 227
Telegony 227
Mental impression
. 227
Controlling sex .
. 227
Systems of breeding
. 228
Cross-breeding
. 228
Grading
. 228
Line-breeding
. 229
In-and-in breeding
. 229
The value of in-bred families . 229
In-and-in breeding in pioneer herds 230
Mendel's laws in stock-breeding . 231
Mendel and his work . • 23 1
Mendelism explained . . . 232
Periods of gestation in farm stock . 236
Poultry.
Poultry-rearing
. . 236
New-laid eggs .
?36
Table poultry .
<•
236
Pure breeds
237
Classification .
237
Laying varieties —
Minorcas .
237
Leghorns .
237
Andalusian*
238
Houdans .
238
Anconas .
238
' Cainpines .
238
Hamburgs
238
Scotch Greys .
238
Table breeds-
Dorkings .
238
Indian Game .
238
Old English Game
238
Svissex
238
General purpose breeds
—
Orpingtons
238
Wyandottes
239
Plymouth Rocks
239
Langshans
239
Fancy breeds .
239
Cross-bred poultry .
239
Advantages of pure breed
3
240
Ducks
240
Geese
• 245
Turkeys .
• 245
Pure and cross stocks
■ 245
Housing poultry
■ 245
Fixed houses
246
Cleanliness .
246
Ventilation .
. 246
Movable houses .
246
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IH.
Feeding poultry
Hand-feeding for laying
Fattening.poultry
Feeding chickens .
General points in poaltry^feeding
Incubation . . . .'
Use of incubators
Testing eggs
Artificial and natural rearing
Marketing poultry .
Winter ^gs ....
Early movdting .
Laying competitions .
Co-operative marketing
Preserving eggs
Use of waterglass
Lime-water ....
Cold storage . . ■ .
Essential conditions in storing eggs
Diseases .
Infectious diseases
Vermin
Bird-lice
Mites .
Gapes .
Scaly leg
White co.mb . .
Roup
Liver disease
Tuberculosis
Vices in poultiy —
Egg-eating . " .
Feather-eating
Bee-keeping.
Bee-keeping as a farm industry
Clover for bees
Bees V. Shorthorns .
Produce of hives
Commencing bee-keeping
Improved practice
Cheap and improved appliances
Marketing honey .
Knowledge necessary .
Principles of bee-keeping
Hives
Appliances for special conditions
Study surroundings
Caution in practice —
Obtaining stocks
Bee-fever
Appliances
Hat-veil
Smoker
Hives .
Sections
Crates .
Comb-foundations
Other appliances
Honey extractor
Management — preliminary —
Driving bees
247
247
248
248
249
249
249
250
250
251
251
251
251
252
252
252
252
253
2S3
253
253
253
253
254
254
254
254
254
255
255
256
256
257
257
257
257
257
257
257
258
258
258
258
259
259
259
259
259
259
259
259
259
260
260
260
260
260
New swarms
Another plan
Bapid increase of stocks
Purchasing swarms
Collecting driveirbees .
Wintering —
Secret of success .
Preparing for winter .
Weak hives ....
Bees not shut in .
Experiments . ■ , •
Spring treatment —
Breeding resumed
Supplemeiiting the winter food
Liquid food ....
Stimulating stocks
Continuous treatment .
Summer treatment —
Working for honey
Working for increase of stocks
Extracted or comb honey
The writer's practice .
Controlling swarming .
Securing weU-ripenM hijney
■Produce
Autumn management —
Heather honey
After honey harvest
Bees plundering .
Food for bees-^
Liquid food for bees
Sugar-cake for bees in winter
Spring food ....
Shebp-Dogs.
Origin of collies
Varieties of collies .
Bearded collies . . . . .
Smooth- and rough-coated collies .
Old English sheep-dogs
Other Mnds of coUies .
Training dogs —
Bad training of dogs .
Judicious training
Well-trained dogs
Skill in training .
Sagacity of the collie
Dog trials
260
?6o
260
•260
261
261
261
261
261
261
261
261
262
262
262
262
262
262
262
263
263
263
263
263
264
264
264
264
264
26!
26§
265
266
266
266
267
267
267
268
268
Vakieties of Pood.
Milk ....".. 269
Wheat 269
Damaged wheat for stock . 269
Bran 270
Barley .... . 270
Malt 270
Bothamsted experiments . . 270
Special properties of malt . . 271
Malt-combs 271
As manure 271
Bere and rye 271
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
xiu
Brewers' and distillers' grains .
271
iDried v. wet grains
272
Other distillery food .
272
Oats
372
Bruising^ oats
272
Nutriment in oatmeal .
272
Indian com ....
272
Buckwheat ....
272
Bice
273
Rice-meal ....
273
Dari or Durra ....
273
Beans, peas, and lentils .
273
Vegetable casein .
273
Preparing beans as food
274
Soy beans ....
274
Peas for sheep .
274
Poisonous beans .
274
Lupin
274
Linseed . . . .
274
Preparing and using, as food
Boiling linseed
275
275
Growing flax for fibre and seed
275
Linseed-cake ....
275
Storing linseed-cake .
275
Adulteration of cakes . . '
276
Eape-cake
276
Cotton-cake ....
276
Caution in using undecorticatet
cotton-cake .
276
Uses of decorticated cotton-cake
277
Preparing cotton-cake for feed
ing . . . .
277
Manurial value of cotton-cake
277
Palm-nut meal
277
Cocoa-nut cake
277
Minor oilcakes . . . '
277
Poppy-cake ....
278
Locust- of carob beans
278
Molasses or treacle .
278
Treacle for breeding stock .
278
How treacle is used
279
Turnips ...
279
Advantages of storing .
279
Variation in composition of.
280
Sugar in roots
280
Excess of water in roots
280
Economising turnips .
280
Turnip-tops ....
281
Mangel-wurzel.
281
Advantages of storing mangels
281
Medium v. large roots . «,
281
Sugar-beet ....
281
Beet-root pulp .
281
Carrots
282
Parsnips
282
Kohl-rabi
262
Cabbages
282
Thousand-headed kale . , .
282
Broccoli ....
282
Potatoes
282
Value of potatoes for cattle .
282
Utilising diseased potatoes .
282
Potatoes for horses
283
Water with potatoes . . . 283
Green Jape 283
Furze, whins, or gorse . . . 283
I'urze as winter food . . . 283
Preparing furze as food . . 283
How fed to stock .... 283
Grasses and clovers . . . .284
Composition of passes and clovers
at different stages of growth . 284
Hay-
Loss m hay-making . 286
Damaged hay . . 286
Straw .... . 286
Straw-chaff 287
Preparing and storijagstraw-chafi' 287
Compound cakes and meals . . 287
Condimental foods ... 288
Vetches 288
How vetches are fed to stock 288
Green maize .... 288
Sorghum 289
Lucerne 289
Sainfoin 289
Prickly comfrey .... 289
Sugar 289
Pish products as animal food . . * 290
Composition of foods . . . 290
Animal Nutrition.
Constituents of foods . .291
The functions of food . . 291
Digestion 292
Metabolism 296
Water requirements of animals . 296
Energy value of foods . . . 297
Energy consumed in digestion . 298
Other internal work . . . 298
Foods for maintenance and pro-
duction 299
Albuminoid ratios . . . 299
Food requirements of animals . . 301
The young animal . . . 302
The adult animal .... 302
The working animal . . . 302
The fattening animal . . . 302
The milking cow .... 303
The MAN0RIAL Vaidb of Foods.
Manurial value of foocjs ...
Urine . ....
Solid excreta . . . .
Proportion of food assimilated
and voided ....
Lawes and Gift)ert's tables . 304-308
Theoretical and realised manure
values
Unexhausted value of consumed
food 310
Voelcker and Hall's tables . . 311
303
304
304
304
310
XIV
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IH.
Treatment of Faem-Horses.
Watering horses .... 313
Morning feed 313
Mid-day care of horses . . . 314
Hours of work 314
Work expected of horsey . . . 314
Evening care of horses . . . 314
Grooming horses . . . .314
Brushing and combing . . . 315
Rubbing wet or heated horses . . 315 .
Water-brush . _^ 315
Exercise for horses . . . .315
Breeding horses . . . .315
Wintering young horses . . . 315
Housing in cold districts . . 315
Handling yovmg horses . . . 315
Intelligence of horses . *. . 315
Feeding horses .... 316
Food for horses .... 316
Food requirements of horses . 316
Ration for idle horses . . 316
Additicftial food for work . . 317
Pace and food requirement . 317
Force exerted by horses . . 317
Rations for degrees of work . 317
Winter feeding of horses . . 318
Preparing food for horses . . 318
. Mashes for horses . . . 31S
Oats for horses . . . . 318
Substitutes for oats . . . 318
A group of rations . . . 319
Roots for horses . . . 319
Carrots and parsnips . . 319
Furze for horses . -319
Feeding young horses . 320
Rations for town horses . . 320
Riding and driving horses 320
Quantity of food . . .321
Bulk of food .... 321
Frequency of feeding . . 32 1
Care of horses ih summer —
Pasturing work-horses . . 321
Soiling horses . . . .321
Pasturing young horses . . 322
Pecuharities of the horse in
grazing . . .- . . 322
Horses injured by green food . 322
* Littering horses —
Straw as htter .... 322
Peat-moss litter .... 322
Other varieties of litter . . 323
Exercise for horses .... 323
Rest for horses .... 323
Washing horses' legs . . . 323
Shoeing horses . .^ . . 323
CUpping and singeing . . . 323
Injurious to clip legs of horses . 324
Protection to skin from wet . . 324
Method in stable management . 324
Foaling season .... 324
Insiu'ance against foaling risks . 324
Abortion in mares . . . 324
Care of brood mares
32s
Watching mares at foaUng .
32s
Symptoms of foaling .
325
i!ssistance in foaling .
325
DifiScult foaling .
32s
Reviving an exhausted mare
326
Support to mare's belly
326
Ma,re's udder
326
After foaling
326
Cleansing
326
After-straining .
326
Attention to the foal
326
Reviving weak foals
326
Rearing foals .
327
Troublesome mares
327
Beginning the foal to suck .
327
Nursing motherless foals
327
Rearing foals by hand .
327
Cow's milk for foals
327
Bean-milk and cow's milk .
327
Linseed, bean-meal, and milk
328
Health of the foal
328
Housing mares and foals
328
Working nurse-mares .
328
Weaning foals ....
328
Feeding foals at weaning-time
329
Attention to the mare at weaninj
r 329
The mating season ,.
329
Number of ma.res to one stallion
329
Nomenclature of horses
330
Names suitable for farm-horses
330
Management op Cows and
Calves.
Calving season
Symptoms of pregnancy
lieckoning time of calving
Gestation
Prolapse of the vagina .
Feeding in-calf cows .
Critical period in pregnancy
Calving —
Symptoms of calving
Attendance in calving
Preparation for calving
The calf
Navel-string
Reviving calves .
Extracting a dead calf
' Refreshing the cow
Immediate milking
Licking and rubbing calves
Bulling —
Coming in " season " .
' Too early bulling unwise
Leading cows
Abortion
Sporadic abortion —
Cavises of .
Ergot causing abortion
Prevention
Preventing recurrence of
330
330
331
331
331
331
331
331
331
331
332
332.
332
332
333
333
333
333
333
333
334
334
334
334
334
cont'ents of volume ni.
XV
Epizootic abortion
334
Causes of , ,
335
^atment . . . .
335
Preventive treatment
335
Board of A^icultiire inquiry into
epizootic abortion .
337
Microbe of cattle abortion
337
Microbe of sheep abortion
337
Methods of infection
338
Immunisation of animals .
338
Curative measures .
339
Milking cows ....
340
The udder ....
340
Milking period
340
Hours of milking .
340
Hoiu's of milking and- butter-fat
340
Milk-pails ....
340
Cows holding back milk
341
The milking side .
341
The operation of milking
341
An improved system of milking
342
Milking-machinea
342
Spaying cows
Feeding of cows
343
344
Dairy herds ....
344
Regulating food by milk yield
344
Typical rations .
344
Rations for dry cows
345
Dairy cows in summer
346
Feemng dry and breeding cows
346
Ventilation — effect of temperatur*
s
on milk-yield
346
Experiments with cows
346
General conclusions
348
Calf-rearing . . . '* .
348
Aversion of farmers to calf-rear
ing . . . .
348
Calf-rearing on large farms .
349
Deficiency of store cattle
349
Home-breeding the remedy .
349
Rear more calves .
349
Breed longer from cows
• 349
Breeding from heifers .
349
Are calves nuisances ? .
• 350
Milk substitutes .
■ 350
Rearing or selling calves
■ 350
Housing calves .
• 350
Calf-crib ....
351
Care in letting out calves .
• 351
Calf's first food
351
Composition of biestings .
• 351
Feeding calves —
Reform in caJf-feeding
• 351
Calf-feeding in pure-bred herds
In mixed-bred herds
352
• 352
Suckhng and hand-rearing
• 352
Prevalent methods .
352
Separated milk for calves .
• 352
Artificial food for calves .
352
Preparing food for calves .
• 353
Quantities of milk for calves
• 353
Allowances of other foods
353
North of England rations .
• 353
General notes —
Feeding calves for veal . 353
Danger of gorging calves . . 354
Weaning calves . . 354
Setoning . . . -. ' 354
Castrating . . . -354
Management or Store and
Fattening Cattle.
Preparation of food for cattle . 355
Washing roots . . . 355
Frozen roots . . . 355
Cutting turnips . . . 355
Pulping 355
Economy of pulping . . . 355
Preparing pulped mixtures . 356
Food-preparing compartment . 356
Cooking or steaming . . . 356
Bruising grain . . . 357
Winter housing of store cattle . 357
Fresh air for cattle . 357
Loss from exposure to bad weather 357
Economical rearing of cattle . 357
Houses for cattle in cold districts 358
Cattle-sheds in southern districts 358
Cattle-courts . . . -358
Winter fiseding of store cattle . . 358
Apportioning home-grown foods 358
Economise turnips . . 359
Foods to be bought and sold . 359
Advantage in using home-grown
food 359
Ages of store cattle . . . 359
Care in beginning winter feeding . 359
Turnips and straw for store cattle 360
Feeding hours .... 360
Kinds of roots for store cattle . 360
Boots, cake, meals, and fodder for
store cattle 361
Southern systems of feeding store
cattle .... 361
Pulped food for store cattle . 361
Proportions of pulped mixtures 362
Store cattle on pastures . 362
Give the pasture a good start 362
Overgrowth of pastures in-
jurious .... 362
Changing stock on pastures 363
Mixed stock on pastures 363
Fattening cattle in winter . 363
Early maturity . . . 363
Age for fattening .... 364
Cheaper meat from young animals 364
Lawes on profitable feeding . 364
Methods of fattening cattle . 364
What food is to be used ? . 364
Feeding rations . . . 365
Balancing food properly . . 365
Scottish feeding customs . 365
Daily allowance of turnips . 365
Feeding hours . . . -365
Turnips or cake for breakfast ? . 366
XVI
CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.
Allowance of cake and grain . 366
The pulping system . . . 366
Cattle-feeding in Aberdeenshire 366
Mr M'Comhie's system . . 366
Cattle-feeding in Easter Ross . 367
Anthrax and imported food 368
A popular Scotch " blend " 368
Cattle-feeding in England . . 368
Roots and green food for feeding 368
Hereford examjdes . . . 368
Norfolk systems . . . 368
A Berkshire system . . . 369
^ Frequent feeding . . . 369
Mr M'Oalmont's system . . 369
Potatoes for cattle . . 369
Oatmeal balls .... 369
Feeding without roots . 369
Winter feeding, on fields . 370
Cattle-feeding in Ireland . . 370
Feeding on pastures . . 370
Concentrated food ou pastures . 370
"Soiling" . . . . . 370
Advantages of " soiling " . . ,370
Disadvantages of " soiling " . 571
Utility of the system . . 371
Review of feeding experiments . 371
Increase in live-weight . . 372
Digestible matter fer lb. of in-
crease 372
Digestible albuminoids . . 372
Albuminoid ratio. . . . 372
Influence of age on feeding . . 372
Leguminous fodders . . 373
Prepaeing Cattle for Shows.
Improvement in show stock . . 373
Selecting show stock . . . 374
Good breeding essential ■ . . . 374
Form and constitution . . . 374
Temperament 374
Proper age . ' . . . . 374
Calf-rearing . . . ._ . . 374
Mixed feeding-cakes , . 375
Housing calves . . . -375
Salt and chalk for calves . . .375
Quantities of food and pecnjiarities
of animals .... 375
Value of showyard honours . . 375
Exercising and handling . . . 375
Attention to animals' feet . . 3,76
Grooming 376
Increasing food with advancing age 376
Use of condiments .... 376
Floor Management.
Flock management .... 376
Lambing season . . . 377
Lambing-pens .... 377
Hardiness of hiU sheep . . 377
Lambing hospital . . . 377
Supplementary shelter . . . 377
Shepherd's hut .
Assistance in lambing .
Inflammation after lambing
Assisting lambs in feeding
Cow's milk for lambs .
Mothering lambs .
Stimulants for weak lambs
Carrying lambs .
Cleaning ewes' udders .
The lambing period
After lambing —
Castration
Docking ....
Risks from castration and dock
ing , . . .
A preventive .
Rig or chaser .
Look to the pastures
Shepherding on arable farms
Shepherding liill sheep
Ailments among lambs .
Ailments amongst ewes .
Abortion among ewes .
Unripe roots and abortion
Foot-rot and abortion
Twins and abortion .
Preventive measures
Sbeep in summer and autumn
Ewes and lambs .
Pasturing sheep on arable farms
Summer fattening .
Store sheep in summer
Shifting sheep on pastures
Water for sheep
Salt for sheep .
Maggot-fly
Unchpped sheep falling .
Pasturing sheep on hill-farms
Stocking on hiU-farms
Pasture plants on hilly ground
Heather-bvuning .
Sheep- washing —
Objects in washing .
Opposition to washing
Methods of washing.
Time of washing
Shearing of sheep
Time of shearing
Force at clipping
Wool-shears
Methods of chpping
Shearing lambs
Sheep-shearing machines .
Storing "wool
Weaning lambs .
Treatment of ewes and lambs
^ After-treatment of lambs .
Fattening Jambs
Drafting lambs
Marking sheep
Registering marks
Dipping shefip
Former customs
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IH.
XVIl
Bathing ....
Smearing ...
Dipping ....
Process of dipping , .
■' Construction of dipping-bath
Swimming-bath .
Process of dipping
Plans of bath
Cost of bath . . • .
Stone and wood baths .
Tossing sheep into bath
Plunge-bath .
Dipping mixtures .
Non-poisonous dips
Composition of dips
Time for dipping
Weather for dipping
Dressing for scab
Tupping season .
Flushing ewes .
Fertility in sheep
Management in tupping season
Sheep in ■winter .
Sheep on turnips in winter .
Preparing turnips for sheep
Enclosing sheep on turnips
Nets for enclosing sheep .
Setting sheep-nets .
Shepherd's knot
Wire nets ....
Extent of roots given at a time
Carting turnips to lea land in
wet weather .
Turnips risky for ewes
Draft ewes on turnips
Young sheep on turnips .
Turnip-tops for sheep
Dry food with turnips .
South of Scotland methods
Sheep-fodder racks .
Substitutes for feeding-racks
Supplying fodder
Picking out turnip-shells .
Cutting turnips for sheep
The cutter cart
Cake-breaker .
Oats and hay for hoggs .
Salt for sheep .
Sheep on turnips during snow
Unripe turnips dangerous
Blackface sheep in winter
Sheep in a wooS in a snow-
storm
Kape for sheep .
Shelter for sheep on turnips
Experiments with foods for
sheep on roots
Cost of turnip - feeding for
sheep
House-feeding of sheep —
Feeding sheep in sheds .
A Ross-shire example
Sheep-feeding shed .
387
387
387
387
387
387
388
388
389
389
389
389
389
389
389
389
390
390
390
390
390
390
390
391
391
391
391
391
392
392
392
392
393
393
393
393
393
393
394
394
394
394
395
395
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
397
397
398
398
398
398
Wintering sheep on pastoral farms
" Home- wintering or " sending
away." . .
Wintering sheep in Eomney Marsh
Saving hay for hill-farms
Arable land on sheep-farms
Irrigation on hill-farms
Sheltet on sheep-farms
Stells for sheep .
Outside stell
Sheep-cots or sheds .
Paddocks for sheep .
Forming plantation stells
Size of stells
Concave stells .
Inside stells
Circular stells .
Giving hay at stells .
Gteneral notes —
Bridging rivulets for sheep
Young sheep best for hill-farms
Nomenclature of sheep
British Wool.
Origin, characteristics, and uses
Classification of wools
Long wools —
Lincoln wool .
Leicester wool .
Cotswold wool .
Border Leicester wool
Wensleydale wool
' Fleece of Devon long-wools
Eomney Marsh wool
Short-wool breeds
Shropshire wool .
Other Down wool
Eyeland wool .
Dorset Horn wool
Mountain breeds —
Blackface wool .
Cheviot wool .
Lonk wool ....
Herdwick wool .
Dartmoor and Exmoor wools
Welsh wools
Irish sheep and wools .
MABKBTrNG OP LiVE StOCK AND
DfeAD Meat.
Historical ....
Modern fairs ....
The marketing of dairy produce
Marketing of live stock .
Live- and dead- weight of pigs
Table showing the price per live
weight of cattle
Carcase competitions .
The meat- supply .
Marketing of meats
Farmers as retailers
xvm
CONTENTS OF VOLUME IH.
\
Insect Enemies of Live Stock.
Insects
The two-winged flies .
True gad-flies .
Ox gad-fly .
The cleg
Blinding breeze flies
(Estridae or bot-flies .
Horse bot-flies .
The ox- warble flies
The sheep nostril-fly .
The tsetse-fly
The stable-fly
The common house-fly
The Hue-bottles or meat-flies
The green-bottles
Sheep maggot-fly .
The flesh-flies .
The ked or kade or sheep louse-
The forest-fly
The deer forest-fly
Blood-sucking lice or pediculidse
Biting lice or mallophaga
Acarina or mites ...
Mange, itch, or scab mites .
Scaly leg of the fowl .
Feather-eating mites .
417, 418
418
418
418
418
418
418
419
420
421
421
422
422
423
423
423
424
424
424
42,5
425
426
427
429
431
431
fly
Common sheep scab
Lime and sulphur dip ,
Carbolic acid and son-soap dip
Tobacco and sulphur dip
Ticks
432
433
433
433
433
Ailments of Fabm Live STbcK.
Index of subjects . . . 436
Horses . - 438
Cattle 466
Sheep 484
Swine 490
Dogs 493
Recipes 493
Administering medicine . ". . 496
Fomentation 497
Enemas . . ... 497
Back-racking 497
Poultices . . . " . . . 497
Castration 497
Spaying' 498
Docking . . . . 498
Setoning 498
Nursing the sick .... 499
Table of pulse, respiration, tem-
perature, and gestation of
animals 499
General Index to Volumes I., II., and III.
SOI
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III.
ANIMAL POETEAITS.
HORSES:
CLYDESDALE STALLION .
CLYDESDALE STALLION .
CLYDESDALE MARE.
SHIRE STALLION .
SHIRE MARE .
SUFFOLK MARE
SUPPOLK STALLION
THOROUGHBRED STALLION,
HUNTER GELDING .
CLEVELAND BAY MARE .
HACKNEY STALLION
HACKNEY PONY STALLION")
POLO PONY MARE J
SHETLAND PONY STALLION \
WELSH PONY STALLION J
HIGHLAND PONT STALLION
CONNKMARA P0NY\
PELL PONY J
EXMOOR PONY "j
DARTMOOR PONY >
NEW POREST PONY J
GROUP OP PONIES"!
DONKEY STALLIONJ
No. of
Plate.
9
lO
II
12
13
14
IS
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
CATTLE.
SHORTHORN BULL
•
26
SHORTHORN COW
•
27
LINCOLN RED SHORTHORN COW
28
HEBEPORD BULL
29
HBREPORD COW
30
DEVON BULL .
•
31
SOUTH DEVON BULL
32
SUSSEX COW .
.
33
RED POLLED COW
.
34
LONGHORN BULL
.
35
ABERDEEN-ANGUS
BULL .
36
ABERDEEN-ANGUS
COW .
37
GALLOWAY BULL
38
GALLOWAY COW
39
HIGHTiAND BULL
40
HIGHLAND COW
41
AYRSHIRE COW
42
WELSH COW .
43
JERSEY COW .
. ••
44
GUERNSEY COW
45
KERRY COW ....
DEXTER COW ....
GROUP OP DEXTER SHORTHORNS
WILD WHITB CATTLE
SHEEP.
LEICESTER RAM \
BORDER LEICESTER RAMj
LINCOLN RAM "1
COTSWOLD ram/ '
SOUTHDOWN RAM "|
SHROPSHIRE RAM I
OXFORD DOWN RAM \
HAMPSHIRE DOWN RAMj
BLACKFACE RAMS (GROUP)
BLACKFACE BAM "I
BLACKFACE EWBJ "
CHEVIOT RAM \
HALF-BRED RAMj '
RYBLAND RAM")
SUFFOLK BAM J
DEVON LONG- WOOL RAM")
SOUTH DEVON RAM j"
DORSET DOWN RAM")
DORSET HORN RAMj '
DARTMOOR BAM")
EXMOOR ,^AM J ■
LONK BAM \
WENSLEYDALE BAMj
HERDWICK BAM
KENT OB ROMNEY MARSH BAM
WELSH EWES \
KERRY HILL (WALES) RAMj *
ROSCOMMON RAM ")
DERBYSHIRE GRITSTONE RAM J
S"WINE.
LARGE WHITE SOW ")
LARGE WHITE BOARj '
MIDDLE WHITE SOW \
ULSTER LARGE WHITB BOARj
LARGE BLACK SOW")
BERKSHIRE SOW J
TAMWORTH SOW \
LINCOLN CURLY-COATED SOW f
No. of
Plate.
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54-
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
Note. — The portraits im, the plates are in all cases reprodiuxd from photographs of the living
animals, the great majority of the photographs having been taken Jyy those highly swecessful and
widely known liiifi-stock photographers, Mr C. Meid, Wishaw ; Mr Gf. H. Parsons, Alsayer, Cheshire;
Mr F. Baibage, London; Messrs Brown ds Co., Latmrk; and the Sport and General Illustrations
Co. , London. Excellemt photographs for the work were also received from, Messrs Lafayette, Dtihlin ;
Messrs Oha/ncellor, Dublin; Mr Bt, M'Oeorge, Govpar Angus r Mr 6. Wickens, Bangor; Mr Hay-
worth, Knighton, Radru/rshire ; Mr Marshall, Henley-on-Thames ; Mr Oay, South Brent, South
Devon; Mr Abemethy, Belfast; ami others. Messrs Hislop Jc Day, Edinburgh, gave the utmost
care to the preparation of the plates.
XX
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III.
GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG. PAGE
701. Ponkey mare and foal . . .60
702. Pair of mules . . . .61
703. Shetland cow . . . -137
704. System of ear-marking sheep . . 167
705. Shee^-draWing pen . . . 167
706. Fee'ding-box for sheep . . . i6g
707. Trough and pens for foot -rot
dressing . . . . 170
708. Shetland sheep . . . 204
709. Iceland sheep . . 205
710. Merino ram ..... 205
711. Swis's horned goat and kid . . 209
712. Sties for brood-sows under one roof 219
713. Ring pigs' trough, to stand in a
court ; 223
714. Minorca ceck 241
715. Minorca hen . . - . . . 241
716. White Leghorn cock . . 241
717. White Leghorn hen . . . 241
718. Coloured Dorking cook and hen 242
719. Indian Game cock and hen . 242
720. Old English Game cock and hen . 242
721. Black Orpington hen . . 242
722. While Orpingtons . . . 242
723. White Wyandotte cock . 243
724. Ayhite Wyandotte hen . . 243
725. Plymouth Rook cook ' 243
726. Plymouth Rock hen . . 243
727. Poultry-house on wheels . 244
728. 729. Movable poultry-hotises . 244
730. Coop and run .... 244
731. SJielter-caop 244
732. A colony poultry-farm . . 244
733. Incubator ..... 244
734. Foster-mother for rearing chickens 244
735. Bearded collie .... 265
736. Smooth-coated collie . . . 265
737- Rottgh-coated collie . . . 266
738. Curry-comb, brush, foot-picker, and
mane-comb .... 314
739. Water-brush 315
740.
741.
742,
7*3-
744.
748.
749.
7S0.
75I.
752.
753'
754.
Hand whin-bruiser
Horse-clippers
Bullock-holder " .
Head of timothy with ergots .
Milkiug-stool ....
745. Wallace's milking - machine — teat'
cups and milk-pail
746. Steam food-preparing' machinery
747. Wool-shears . . . .
Hand-power sheep-shearer
Bath-stool for sheep
Dipping-bath. v
English hurdle
Shepherd's knot
Kirkwood's wire sheep-fodder rack
Elder's sheep-fodder rack
755. Trough for turnip sheep-feeding
756.* Turnip-picker
757. Gardner's cylindrical turnip-cutter
758. Elder's turnip-cutting cart
759. Oilcake-breaker
760. Sheep - feeding shed — exterior and
interior ....
761. Outside stell sheltered by plantation
762. Outside stell without plantation
763. Inside stell sheltered by plantation
764. Circular stell ....
765. Liye stock wei^ing-machime .
766. Side of beef ....
Cutting up of a carcase of mutton
Side of bacon .
Carcase of pork
Gastrophilus equi (yellow-brown fly)
The Sheep Nostril-fly .
Ked or Kade or Sheep Louse-fly
Demodex folliculorum (mange mite)
The Harvest Bug .
Sarooptes scabiei (mange mite)
Psoroptes. communis (sheep scab)
(male)
777. Psoroptes. communis (female) .
767
768.
769.
770.
771.
772.
773-
774-
77S-
776.
FAOI
320
324
333
334
341
343
356
3!5
385
387
388
391
392
394
394
394
395
395
395
396
399
401
402
402
403
410
414
415
416
417
419
421
424
428
428
430
432
43.2
THE
BOOK OF THE FARM.
FARM LITE STOCK.
In the number, variety, and character of
its races of farm live stock, the United
Kingdom possesses a source of wealth
that is practically inexhaustible, and that
may for many years go on increasing.
Not only are the numbers of animals
that are maintained exceptionally large
for the extent of territory, but by the
skill and enterprise of the owners and
occupiers of land in this country the
many breeds and varieties of British
farm stock have been raised to a gen-
eral standard of merit that is universally
acknowledged to be unique.
It was vastly to the advantage of early
improvers of live stock in the British
Isles that in the native races they had
the very choicest of material to work
upon. In each of the different classes
of stock there was a variety of type that
seemed almost endless, and not only
this, but the dominant characteristics
throughout all were those represented
in symmetrical formation and high value
for practical purposes.
It is interesting, indeed, to note that
all through the ages of recorded history
this country has been strangely free from
animals, either tame or wild, with
" humps " or with bodies Otherwise
prominently ill - proportioned. True it
certainly is that, long before scientific
breeders got their hands upon them,
British live stock were distinguished for
VOL. III.
the symmetry of their formation as well
as for the robustness of their constitu-
tion. To seek for an explanation of
these characteristics would be difficult
and of little avaiL Not so difficult is it
to account for the almost endless variety
of type represented in the native races of
British live stock. It is by nature's pwn
bountiful design that the fauna as well
as the flora of a country become modi-
fied by environment. Great as was the
variety in the type of British native live
stock, it was no greater than the infinite
variation in the climatic conditions, geo-
logical formation, and general natural
phenomena of the British Isles would
lead one to expect.
In itself this wonderful variety of type
has been an element of inestimable value
in the hands of skilful breeders. In the
raising up of races of stock specially
adapted for peculiar surroundings and for
different purposes, it has enabled them to
reach a higher degree of success than
could have otherwise been attained. ' But
it is also true that the value of that ele-
ment of variety has been vastly enhanced
by the inherent regularity of structure so
characteristic of almost all the numerous
native types of stock.
In nearly all civilised countries British
live stock are being employed in the im-
provement of the native races. The re-
sults obtained are everywhere striking.
FAEM LIVE STOCK
In no respect are they more so than in
an unvarying tendency towards a truer
harmony in formation. Under the influ-
ence of British stock the coarse, ungainly
irregularities of native foreign races dis-
appear with unfailing certainty, often with
a rapidity that is amazing. To students
of heredity this result is not in any sense
surprising. Of all the useful character-
istics possessed by British breeds of live
stock, none are older or more strongly
established than their unique symmetry
of structure ; and so, in obedience to the
beneficent law^ of nature, this valuable
hereditary force exercises a paramount
influence wherever it is employed.
Not only have live stock improvers in
this country guarded with jealous care the
finely proportioned structure and other
valuable properties of our native races of
animals, but have, as the outcome of long
years of skilful breeding and general man-
agement, so developed the general utili-
tarian qualities as to vastly increase their
value for the various practical purposes
for which farm live stock are bred and
reared. And of all this the net result is
that the United Kingdom has come to
be looked upon as the parental stud-
farm for enterprising stock -owners in
all advancing countries.
It is not surprising, therefore, that,
with the greatly depreciated values of
grain in spite of a growing population,
live stock interests bulk more largely now
than ever before in the fabric of British
agriculture. This important develop-
ment naturally demanded, and has re-
ceived, due consideration in the prepara-
tion of the Fifth Edition of The Booh of
the Farm. It was decided that this,
the Third Volume of the work, should
be devoted exclusively to the Live Stock
branch of agriculture, and in order to en-
sure, aa far as practicable, that the volume
shall be worthy of its great purpose — the
promotion of British live stock interest^
— the matter for it has been almost en-
tirely rewritten. In this important work
valuable assistance has been willingly
afforded not only by many leading writers
on live stock matters, but also by a large
number of men who have attained dis-
tinction as breeders of different classes
of farm animals, and to all these the
grateful thanks of the Publishers and
Editor are heartily accorded.
BREEDS OF HORSES.
There are differences of opinion as to
whether the horse had a single or a
multiple origin. The former is the pre-
vailing view, but Professor Cossar Ewart
and others maintain the latter.^ Low
gives the following as the six species of
the "one genus of the tribe — namely,
Equus " : (i) Eqwm asinus — the ass;
(2) Equus zebra — the zebra ; -"(s) Equus
qvagga — the quagga ; (4) Equui Bur-
chellii — the striped quagga or zebra of
the plains; (5) Equus hemionus — the
dziggetai; and (6) Equus cdballus — the
common horse.^ To this classification
Professor Cossar Ewart, in the article
just quoted, adds Equus cahallus celticus
— the Celtic pony.
It is, of course, with the common
horse that we are mainly concerned.
Low thinks it natural to refer the origin
of the horse to the countries of Western
Asia to the southward of the Euxine
and Caspian Seas, but he acknowledges
the probability that the species may
also have been diffused from Africa and
Eastern Asia.
When the horse was introduced into
Great Britain is not known. Julius
Caesar found it here in large numbers
when he invaded the country fifty-four
years before the Christian era. Whether
these early British horses were brought
from the East in a state of domestication
or reclaimed from the wild horses roam-
ing in the wastes of Europe is uncertain.
Little is known of the character of the
horses in Great Britain at the time of
the Boman invasion, but it is believed
that they were of a somewhat coarse,
draught - horse type, strongly built, but
lacking in quality and action. It is
further believed that for several centuries
little change was effected upon British
hoKses, beyond such variation as would
be induced by the differences in their
environment throughout the country. It
was apparently not tiU some time after
the Norman Conquest that the systematic
improvement of British horses had made
1 "The Multiple Origin of Horses and
Ponies." JVoma. High, and Agric. 80c. of
Scotland, 1904.
^ Low's Domesticated Animals of the British
Islands, 1842.
BREEDS OF CATTLE.
substantial progress. Superior breeds of
horses were iutroduced by the Normans
from the continent of Europe, including
the great black horse of Flanders and
Germany; and gradually better classes
of horses were bred in this country.
More marked still were the changes
for the better which were brought about
in British horses by the establishing of
the race of Eiiglish Thoroughbreds in
the time of James I. In the building
up of that noble breed the choicest of
material was drawn from the countries
of the Mediterranean, and still more
effectually from the distant deserts of
Syria and Arabia. Of the influence
exerted upon British horses by the
Thoroughbred, Low writes : " The effect
has been that a breed of horses has
been formed of peculiar lineage and
characters, and been mingled in blood
with the native varieties in every degree.
In this manner the property of blood, as
it is technically termed, has been com-
municated to the inferior races, and
varieties have been multiplied without
limits. Not only does there exist the
diversity of what may be termed natural
breeds, but those further differences by
the greater or less degree of breeding
communicated to individuals. Many
remain with little or no admixture of
the blood of the race-horse, and so may
be regarded as native breeds Or families ;
but others are so mixed with the sup-
erior horses, or with one another, that
they cannot be treated as breeds, but
must be regarded as classes suited to
particular uses."^
It is of the varied material thus de-
scribed that the present-day breeds of
British horses and ponies have been
built up. Some of the mixed " classes "
referred to by Low have disappeared, but
others have been cultivated with such
skill and enterprise that they have de-
veloped into well-established breeds of
great value.'
It is known that the ass existed in
this country in the time of the Anglo-
Saxon kings, but it did not become
numerous for several centuries after-
wards. As the poor man's horse the
ass has long had an established position
' Low's Domesticated Animali of the British
Islands, 1842.
in the British Isles, and especially in Ire-
land it is now kept in large numbers.
The faithful and patient mule is a
follower of the ass, and so useful and
thrifty is it that one wonders it is not
reared to a much larger extent than is
the case in this country.
The Thoroughbred, with as free will
as ever, still stands at the head of British
horses. It is followed by a large number
of races of riding and drivipg horses and
ponies, including the Hunter, Cleveland
Bay, Yorkshire Coach-horse, Hackney,
Hackney Pony, Polo Pony, Welsh Ponies,
Fell Ponies, the Connemara Pony, Ex-
moor and Dartmoor Ponies, New Forest
Ponies, Highland Ponies, and Shetland
Poniea Several of these varieties, not-
ably the Cleveland Bay, Yorkshire
Coach-horse, and the heavier of the
Connemara, Fell, and Highland Ponies,
are used largely for draught purposes,
as well as for riding and driving.
Of draught-horses in the stricter sense
there are now only three recognised
breeds in the British Isles. These are
the Shire, the Clydesdale, and the Suf-
folk breeds. Outside the limits of these
distinct breeds there are numerous var-
ieties of draught-horses of a generally
useful character. They are of mixed
breeding, differing greatly in type and
weight, but, on the whole, well fitted for
their respective spheres of usefulness.
BREEDS OF CATTLE.
AU varieties of cattle, whether wild or
domesticated, belong to the Taurine
group of the Bovine race, the other
groups being the Bisontine — the bison
tribe, and the Bubaline — the buffalo
tribe. As to the early history of the
British varieties of cattle there has from
time to time been much discussion. Even
yet their true origin is to some extent
shrouded in mystery, and it is unlikely
that all uncertainties will ever be fully
cleared up.
Amongst leading authorities the pre-
vailing view is that the breeds of cattle
to be found in the United Kingdom
at the present day all trace their descent
from those two types of the sub-genus
Bos taurus, — the £os urus and Bos
longifrons.
FARM LIVE STOCK,
The Bos urns, known also as Bos
primigenius, was a type that attained to
gigantic dimensions, far in excess of any
living variety of cattle. It ^s recorded
that in specimens of the type the length
of the body, including the head, was
about 1 1 feet, the height at the mane 6
feet 6 inches, the span of the horns 2 feet
2 inches, and the girth of the horns at
the base 14 inches. The Bos longifrons
type was much smaller — often smaller, it
seems, than some of the existing varieties
of cattle.
Except in the matter of size, there was
little if any difiference between the two
types, and thus there are those who re-
gard the Bos urus and the Bos longi-
frons as belonging to the same species.
Low says : " We can, by all the evidence
which the question admits of, trace ex-
isting races to t\e ancient uri which,
long posterior to the historical era, in-
habited the forests of Germany, Gaul,
Britain, and other countries. It is a
question involving an entirely different
series of considerations whether these
uri were themselves descended from an
anterior race, surpassing them in magni-
tude, and inhabiting the globe at the
same time with other extinct species.
While there is nothing that can directly
support this hypothesis, there is nothing
certainly founded on analogy that can
enable us to invallidate it. There is
nothing more incredible in the supposi-
tion that animals should diminish in
size, with changes in the condition of
the earth, than that they should be ex-
tinguished altogether and supplanted
by n^ species. The fossil urus inhab-
ited Europe when a very different condi-
tion existed with regard to temperature,
the supplies of vegetable food, and the
consequent development of animal forms.
Why should not the urus, under these
. conditions, have been a far larger' animal
than he subsequently became 1 We know
by experience the effects of food in in-
creasing or diminishing the size of this
very race of animals. The great ox of
the Lincolnshire fens exceeds in size the
little ox of Barbary or the Highland
hills, as much as the fossil urus exceeded
the larger oxen of Germany and Eng-
land ; and we cannot oonsider it as in-
credible, that animals which inhabited
Europe when elephants found food and
a climate suited to their natures, should
have greatly surpassed in magnitude the
same species under the present conditions
of the same countries." ^
It is believed that the Bos longifrons
was the only type of domesticated cattle
in Britain at the time of the Roman in-
vasion. Many of them, it is said, were
driven with their owners into the remote
regions of the country, where they re-
mained in purity for ages. It has been
suggested by high authorities that the
purest descendants of these cattle are
to be found in the homed breeds of the
highlands of Scotland, of Wales, and of
Ireland. It is further recorded that by
the Romans, the Danes, and others, im-
proved varieties of large cattle were im-
ported into Britain and crossed with the
cattie of the longifrons type, but little is
known as to the particular varieties thus
introduced. It has been held by some
ancient writers that the Bos urus never
was domesticated in the British Isles,
or, at any rate, only to a limited extent.
That it was tamed on the European
continent is well established, and it is
supposed that, amongst other sorts, the
Romans had taken animals of the urus
type with them to Britain. Thus, while
there is much that is obscure in the
ancient history of British cattle, it may
safely be assumed that the breeds of
cattle which now exist in this country
can claim descent from different branches
of the Taurine group.
WILD WHITE CATTLE.
There still exist in this country some
singularly interesting remnants of the
wUd cattle which at one time roamed
in freedom through British forests. The
most notable herds of these old-world
cattle are the Duke of Hamilton's herd
in Cadzow Park, in the county of Lanark,
and the Earl of Tankerville's herd in
Chillingham Park, Belford, Northumber-
land.
«
Cadzow Park Wild White Cattle.
Cadzow Park formed part of the great
Caledonian Forest, and it is believed that
the herd of semi-wild cattle now enclosed
^ Low's Domesticated An/muds of the British
Islands, 1842.
BEEEDS of CATTLE.
s
there are direct descendants of the wild
cattle which,- as late as the sixteenth
century, roamed through that vast pre-
serve of wood and moor. Low states
that all the characters of the Cadzow
Park cattle show them "indubitably to
be the descendants of the ancient race."
He adds : '.' They are of the size of the
cattle of the West Highlands; they are
of a dun-white colour ; the muzzle, the
inside of the ears, the tongue, and the
hoofs are black. They are very wild,
and cautious of being approached ; when
suddenly come upon they scamper oflF,
turn round, as if to smell and examine
the intruder, and generally gallop in
circles, as if meditating an attack. They
are not, however, vicious, though some
of the bulls have manifested the savage
and dogged temper of their race. Some
persons have been pursued to trees. . . .
The females conceal their calves amongst
thickets or long grass, returning to them
cautiously twice or thrice a-day to suckle
them. The little creatures exhibit the
instincts of their race : when suddenly
approached they manifest extreme trep-
idation, throwing their ears close back
upon their necks and squatting upon the
ground. The only method of killing the
older animals is by shooting them." ^
In the main, the Cadzow Park cattle
have been bred within themselves, but
the influence of excessive in-breeding has
gradually impaired their constitutional
strength. In the hope of correcting this
tendency, a bull from the Chillingham
Park Wild White herd was introduced
in 1886 and mated with a number of
selected cows. Most of the earlier crosses
were unsatisfactory in their colours and
were not used for breeding, but in 1888
two bull calves, true in colour to the
Cadz6w type, were obtained, and' through
the use of these and their progeny a
marked improvement was effected in
the stock.
Again, in 1896, a bull was introduced
from the Wild White herd at Vaynol
Park in Wales, and as the result of
these two infusions of kindred yet fresh
blood the Cadzow Wild herd has obtained
a new lease of life.
The Cadzow Park cattle have main-
' Low's Domesticated Animals of the British
Islands, 1842.
tained in a wonderful manner the old-
time features of their race. They are
less timid, but in colour and form there
is little change.
In Plate 49 there are reproduced
photographs of Cadzow Park Wild White
cattle, and of the Chillingham Park
Wild White bull introduced in 1886.
Chillingham Park Wild White Cattle.
The Wild White cattle at Chilling-
ham Park, Northumberland, have been
declared by various high authorities to
be the purest and most characteristic
representatives extant of the aboriginal
wild cattle of this country. They are
more timid than the Cadzow Park cattle,
and they are wonderfully robust in con-
stitution considering the closeness with
which they have been bred for hundreds
of years. There are good grounds for
believing that towards the close of the
eighteenth century a portion at least of
a herd of Wild White cattle, long kept at
Drumlanrig in Dumfriesshire, found its
way to Chillingham Park, and it may
be assumed that the Chillingham Park
herd had gained in constitutional strength
by that infusion.
The Chillingham Park cattle are won-
derfully uniform in their main features.
At birth the colour is almost pure white,
but gradually it changes into a creamy
white. The upper surface of the tongue
is slate - coloured, and the under side
reddish brown ; the horns white, with
black tips ; the ears red inside and
partly red outside; the eyes fringed with
long eyelashes; the hoofs and noses
black. Their general formation is well
proportioned, and it has been said of
them that they have such finely set
shoulders that they can trot briskly and
with the gaiety of race-horses.
As ruling monarch of the herd there
is always a " King Bull," the same animal
holding this high office usually for two
or three years, when, after a fierce fight,
he is deposed by a younger and stronger
sire. Here, as in Cadzow Park, the calves
are secreted by the mothers when born.
When killed, the bulls weigh from about
500 to close on 600 lb. ; the cows about
50 or 60 lb. less, and the steers 10 to 20
lb. more, than the bulls.
In 1875 ■'-'"'■'i Tankerville began ex-
periments in the crossing of the Wild
6»
FARM LIVE STOCK.
cattle with pure-bred Shorthorns. The
trials of a Wild bull with Shorthorn
females did not succeed on account of the
resulting female crosses failing to breed.
The mating of a Shorthorn bull with
Wild females was quite successful, and a
useful variety of cattle has thus been
established. Steers bred in this way have
won third prizes in the Smithfield Fat
Stock Show. One, three years and
eight months old, reached i8j^ cwt.
live-weight, and yielded a carcase of 96
stones. The outward features as well
as the fattening properties have been
improved by the Shorthorn influence :
there has been no loss in hardiness,
little change in colour, except that the
dark colouring of the nose has nearly
disappeared. Shorthorn bulls continue
to be used, as the sires.
As already mentioned, the Chillingham
Park Wild bull taken to CadzOw Park
for crossing with that herd is represented
in Plate 49.
Other Wild White Herds.
Another interesting herd of Wild White
cattle similar to the two already men-
tioned was long maintained with success
in Chartley Park, near Uttoxeter, in the
county of Stafford. The Chartley Park
herd, which traced back to early in the
thirteenth century, ultimately became
seriously affected with tuberculosis and
other ailments, which, on account of
their long-continued in-and-in-breeding,
the cattle were not well able to with-
stand. Partly through deaths, and partly
by the sale of a number of animals to
the Duke of Bedford in 1905, the herd
became reduced to very small numbers.
The Chartley Park cattle were similar
to those at Cadzow and Chillingham,
but black calves occasionally appeared
amongst them.
At Vaynol Park, near Bangor, a herd
of Wild White cattle has been maintained
since 1872. In that year the herd was
founded by Mr G. W. Duff Assheton-
Smith by the purchase of twenty-two
cattle from Sir John Orde of Kilmory,
Argyllshire, the remainder of the Kilmory
herd being taken to Vaynol Park four-
teen years later. The Kilmory herd was
founded by stock tracing from a Wild
White herd which was kept for a time
by the Duke of Atholl, at Blair-AthoU
in Perthshire, and which in 1834 was pur-
chased partly by the Duke of Buccleuch,
Dalkeith Park, Edinburgh, and partly by
the Marquis of Breadalbane, Taymouth
Castle, Perthshire. Crosses of white
West Highland cattle were introduced
at Kilmory, and the beneficial influence
of the West Highland blood can easily
be traced in the thick, well-fleshed, hand-
some cows of the Vaynol Park herd
shown in Plate 49. '
It was from the Vaynol Park herd
that, in 1890, a Wild White heifer was
sent to the Zoological Gardens, London,
where she bred successfully to a Wild
White bull introduced from the herd at
Chartley Park.
MOPERN BEITISH CATTLE.
Not for a long period of time has for-
eign blood been infused into Biitish
breeds of cattle to any considerable ex-
tent. Such changes and improvements
as recent generations of breeders have
effected — and they have assuredly been
remarkable alike in character and value
— have been brought about by skilful
handling of native material. It is doubt-
ful if in the annalS of Agriculture there
is to be found a more striking feature
than the very marked improvements
effected upon British breeds of cattle
since the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury. The nature and extent of these
improvements will be indicated more fully
in the appended descriptions of the differ-
ent breeds. It suffices here to observe
that, with the wealth and variety of
material which has long existed in the
British races of cattle, the skilful breeder
has no need to resort to infusions of
foreign blood.
Breeds of cattle are commonly divided
into horned and hornless varieties. Of
the hornless cattle there are now only
three recognised breeds in the British
Isles — the Aberdeen-Angus, theGalloway,
and the Red Polled breed of Norfolk. Of
the homed cattle there are many breeds
and varieties, the more important being
the Shorthorn, Red Lincoln Shorthorn,
Hereford, Devon, South Devon, Sussex,
Long-horn, Ayrshire, Highland, Welsh,
Kerry, Dexter, Jersey, Guernsey, and
Dexter-Shorthorn.
In addition to these established breeds
BREEDS OF SHEEP.
of cattle there are numerous sub-varieties
and types of crosses which are bred
extensively in different parts of the
country. Some of these might well be
developed into distinctive breeds, but it
happens that the tendency is rather in
the other direction, to allow these mixed
types to lose such individuality as they
possess. In this way several types of
cattle that at one time or other com-
manded attention in various parts of the
country have disappeared either wholly
or partially. Amongst these may be
mentioned the black horned cattle of
the North-east of Scotland, the black
horned breed of the county of Fife, the
Glamorgan and White Pembroke cattle
of Wales, and varieties long associated
with the county of Gloucester.
BREEDS OF SHEEP.
It is generally agreed amongst natural-
ists that the domesticated races of sheep
trace descent from certain wild species
of the genus Ovis. The numerous var-
ieties now existing throughout Europe
are believed to be descended from the
Argali or Wild sheep of Asia and the
Wild musmon of Southern Europe, the
latter being a species almost identical
with the Eocky Mountain sheep of
America. Similarly the domestic sheep
of Africa seem to have been raised
from wild species native to that great
continent.
In ancient history, both sacred and
profane, there is ample evidence of the
useful part played by the sheep in the
life and affairs of the human race even
in its earliest days. Man has always
been keen to appreciate the benefits
derivable from the cultivation of the
Ovine tribes, and it is safe to say
that at the opening of the twentieth
century varied flocks of domesticated
sheep made up a larger proportion of
the gre'at fabric of agriculture than was
the case at any previous time in the
history of the world.
The varieties of sheep established in
Europe at one time or other have been
very numerous. They have also shown
much diversity in form and character.
Broadly speaking, all varieties were
divided into two classes — long - tailed
sheep and short-tailed sheep. The former
were by much the more numerous, the
greater proportion of the flocks in the
West of Europe being of the long-tailed
sorts. In most cases there was a strange
development of fat on the tail, but, except
in a few varieties, this peculiarity has to
a large extent disappeared. Short-tailed
sheep, which were favoured by Slavonic
nations, made their way to northern
parts of the British Isles through the
agency of Scandinavian invaders, but
they were not of sufficient utility to
secure for them an enduring position
amongst the more profitable races of
long -tailed sheep which hold sway
throughout this country.
In the British Islands at the present
day there are to be found a greater
number of races of high-class rent-paying
sheep than are known to exist in any
other country. Alike in size, form, and
outstanding features generally, they pre-
sent variation that is quite remarkable.
To some extent this diversity may be
due to a difference of descent. In large
measure it has arisen from the long-
sustained influence of environment — the
influence of soil, climate, and food. To
a still greater extent the diversity, as
well as the geneml high standard of
merit displayed by the numerous types,
has been brought about by the skill and
the enterprise of British flock -owners
in pursuing the science and the art of
stock breeding.
It is a common practice to classify
sheep according to whether the staple of
their wool is long or short. In the case
of some races there are differences of
opinion as to the class in which they
should be placed. It may be as well,
therefore, to arrange the different breeds
a,nd types into three groups — (i) Long-
wools, (2) Short-wools and Downs, and
(3) Mountain and Moorland sheep.
Of long-wooled sheep the recognised
existing varieties are — Leicester, Border
Leicester, Lincoln, Cotswold, Devon
Long-wools, South Devon, Wensleydale,
Kent and Romney Marsh, Roscommon,
and Half-bred.
The short-wooled and Down races are
— Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire,
Oxford Down, Suffolk, Ryeland, Dorset
Down, Dorset and Somerset Horn, Rad-
nor and Norfolk.
8
FAKM LIVE STOCK.
The Mountain and Moorland sheep
comprise the Blackface, Cheviot, Exmoor,
Dartmoor, Lonk, Herdwick, Welsh,
Kerry Hill (Wales), Derbyshire Grit-
stone, Shetland, &c.
A 'number of other varieties are kept
to some extent in certain districts, but
the more important breeds and types are
enumerated above.
GOATS.
The goat is so closely allied to the
sheep that naturalists have not been in
complete agreement in distinguishing
between the two. The domesticated
goat is generally regarded as being de-
scended from one or more of the cap-
rine groups — most largely, it is believed,
from Gapra xgagrus, but partly also
from Capra ibex, the Alpine ibex, and
probably some of the other varieties of
the tribe.
The goat would seem to have made its
way to the British Isles from the con-
tinent of Europe. The best variety of
goats in this country resemble pretty
closely the more highly-prized goats in
the countries of the Mediterranean. Less
attention is now given to the rearing of
goats in the British Isles than prior to
about 1830; but in Ireland and in some
flther parts they are still cultivated, —
this, too, wifti much advantage to their
owners.
BEEEDS OF SWINE.
The Wild Hog, Sus aper, is universally
regarded as the progenitor of the many
existing domesticated races of swine.
That species was widely distributed
throughout the old continent in early
times, .and still roams in a wild state
through woods and wastes in the Europ-
ean continent and in countries farther
east. Wild swine existed in this country
prior to the Norman Conquest, but that
their numbers were gradually declining
is indicated .by the fact that William the
First passed a law providing that any one
found guilty of killing a Wild Boar should
have his eyes put out. Various writers
refer to wild swine as existing in the
English and Caledonian forests in the
twelfth century, but in course of time, at
a date not definitely known, the species
ceased to exist in this country.
Not only were the native domesticated
swine of this country derived from the
WUd Hog, Siis aper, but at various
times fresh draughts of the pure wild
blood were infused into the tame var-
ieties, which were thereby reinvigorated
to a marked extent.
British races of swine for long con-
sisted mainly of two varieties. The one
was of large size, somewhat ungainly in
form, with long drooping ears, and slow
in fattening. The other variety was
smaller, with short erect ears, more
easily fattened than the larger sort, but
rather coarse and fibrous in flesh. While
these were the only races that were dis-
tinctive enough to be regarded as breeds,
many other varieties of greatly diversi-
fied characters existed throughout the
country.
Happily the British Islands are now
in possession of numerous excellent well-
established breeds and types of swine.
Broadly speaking, almost all these varie-
ties have been built up from the native
breeds by the admixture of strains intro-
duced from the East — chiefly from China
and the Mediterranean countries. For
the production of high -class ham and
bacon at an early age the British swine
have been vastly improved by the influ-
ence^ of these imported races, and from
this excellent material modern breeders
and feeders have attained great success
m the swine-rearing industry.
The leading varieties of swine now
kept in the British Islands are the Large
White, Middle White, Berkshire, Large
Black, Lincoln Curly, Tamworth, and
the Ulster Large White. Several other
sorts .are still ^kept to a certain extent,
the most important of these being the
Small Blacks, Small Whites, and local
varieties reared in Gloucester, Dorset,
Hampshire, and Sussex.
THE SHIRE HOESE.
THE SHIEE HOESE.
For a long period of time the Shire
has been the leading variety of draught-
horses in Eilgland. The breed is widely-
distributed over the country, and is a
valuable source of wealth and power.
Origin.— The Shire horse of to-day is
the lineal descendant of the Old English
War-horse, which, alike for its strength
and courage, excited the surprise and
admiration of the Romans when they
first invaded England. It may not be
the only surviving descendant of that
noble race of horses, but it is now
■generally regarded as the purest living
representative of that earlier type.
In an interesting brochure entitled A
Short History, tracing the Shire Horse to
the Old English Great Horse, Sir Walter
Gilbey states that investigations appear
to establish that the Shire horse is the
closest representative of — the purest in
descent from — the oldest form of horse
in the island. "A thousand years ago,"
says this authority, " this form was
written- of as 'The Great Horse'; and
nearly a thousand years before that we
have evidence which goes to prove that
the same stamp of horse then existed in
Britain^ and that it was admitted by those
who saw it here to be something different
from — and something better of its kind
than — ^what any of the witnesses (of that
day) had seen before : and they had seen
most of the horses of those times."
Name of the Breed. — For a long time
prior to the advent of the nineteenth
century, and for many years thereafter,
the breed was widely known as the Large
Black Old English Horse. It is now
universally recognised by the title of
" Shire," "derived f rom " the Shire conn-
ties in the heart of England," in which,
according to Arthur Young, who wrote -
near the end of the eighteenth century,
the Old English Horse was principally
produced.
Shire Horse Society. — The desira-
bility of taking steps to encourage the
improvement of the old English breed
of cart-horses was brought into public
notice by a paper read by Mr Frederick
Street at the Farmers' Club, London, in
1878. The result was the establishment
of the Shire Horse Society, under whose
fostering care the breed has been vastly
improved, — made more uniform in type
and character, and much sounder in wind
and limb. The Shire Horse Society
issue a volume of the Shire Stvd-Book
every year. The first volume, published
in 1880, contains the pedigrees of 2380
stallions, many of which were foaled in
the eighteenth century. The Society
likewise holds a great Shire Horse Show
in London every spring, and this show
has done much to further the interests
of the breed. The first show was held in
1880, and as many as 862 entries have
been recorded, and as much as _;^222o
in prizes offered at a single show.
The Society's schemes for the improve-
ment of the breed include distribution of
medals, of which the winners may obtain
their equivalent in money if preferred.
Veterinary Inspection. — The Shire
Horse Society adojfted veterinary in-
spection at its shows, and only awards
prizes and medals to animals passed as
sound by recognised veterinary in-
spectors. As indicative of the condition
to which the breed has been brought
by attention to this matter, it may be
stated that in igo8, of 248 horses ex-
amined 237 were passed sound. The 11
which were rejected were cast as follows :
2 roarers, i whistler, i wind, 2 shiverers,
I side-bone, 2 ringbone, i cataract, and
I lame. This is a small percentage, and
clearly proves the wisdom of making it a
condition of showing that hereditary un-
soundness is a disqualification.
Distribution. — The Shire horse is
found in every part of England and
Wales, from Northumberland in the
north to Cornwall in the south, and
from Lincolnshire in the east to Car-
marthen in the west. It is to be seen
at its best in Lincolnshire and the fen
country generally, in the midlands, in
Derbyshire and Lancashire.
Iiand and "Water for Breeding. —
The heaviest lands are the best for breed-
ing heavy horses. Limestone land, such
as exists in Derbyshire, is also greatly
lO
THE SHIEE HOESE.
favoured. The two most famous and
historic parts of England in the breeding
of draught-horses are the fens of Lincoln-
shire and the valleys and flats of Derby-
shire. Shire horses are bred on com-
paratively light soils in the south of
England, but difficulty is experienced in
growing them big enough without forc-
ing feeding. In summer, when the land
bakes and cracks, it is almost impossible
to keep young foals on their joints.
Consequently many stud owners have
established the practice of hiring grazing
in a more suitable neighbourhood for the
summer season.
Breeders are not agreed as to what
constitutes growing qualities in the land.
Many appear to think that the water-
supply has much to do with it. The
writer has had confirmation of this
theory from many sources. Fields on
a particular farm were known to grow
stock much better than others, and the
water for these issued from a different
source. The contention has been put
forth that soft water is an important
element in producing big draught-horses.
Horse - breeding Societies. — ^Horse-
breeding societies have rapidly increased
in number, and the hiring of stud-horses
of good breeding and free from disease
has done much to drive off the road
the "guinea" horse of doubtful parent-
age and poor character, and afflicted with
many of the ailments which horse-flesh
is heir to. There are, however, so many
studs scattered over England where the
use of horses can be conveniently ob-
tained, at reduced fees to tenant-farmers
(frequently involving an option on the
foal), that the establishment of horse-
breeding societies is less necessary than
would otherwise be the case. In the
south and in Wales, however, the move-
ment has made admirable progress.
Fees and " Retainers." — Good horses
can be used at prices varying from 3
guineas to 15 guineas. For tenant-far-
mers the abatement of a 10 guinea fee to
7 guineas is freely made, so that the
smaller owner' of pedigree mares has
every encouragement. The "retainers"
offered by societies vary according to the
class of mares in the neighbourhood, the
wealth of the society, and the enterprise
of the farmer. The Welshpool Society
has frequently hired at 1000 guineas.
Others, again, give a small "retainer,"
usually about ;£^so with a guarantee of
so many mares, say about 80, at* a fixed
fee, generally about 3 guineas.
Value of Pedigree Mares. — It is
probably a correct estimate to assume
that about 85 per cent of the mares
served by pedigree stallions are without
pedigrees. Farmers are realising, how-
ever, that the pedigree mare is a valu-
able asset. Thus, assuming that two
foals are dropped to the same horse —
one from a pedigreed mare, and the other
from an unpedigreed mare— the one may
be worth 100 guineas, and the other from
20 guineas to 30 guineas, while the fee
for the service is the same in both cases.
In this way a saying has come about that
the small farmers of Derbyshire are ac-
customed to sell a foal to pay the rent.
Public and Private Prices. — Many
high prices have been given for Shire
horses in the public sale -ring. Those
reported to have been offered privately
and accepted are : 2000 guineas for the
Lbndon champion two-year-old, "Bear-
wardcote Blaze" ; 2500 guineas for
"Bury Victor Chief," another London
champion. In the public sale-ring the
highest price has been 1550 guineas for
the stallion " Hendre Champion," bought
by Mr Leopold Salomons at the late Mr
Fred. Crisp's sala The Premier horse
" Chancellor " was sold at a Calwich
sale for 11 00 guineas. The highest
priced mare was his Majesty's three-
year-old "Seabreeze," which made 1150
guineas at a Sandringham sale, the late
Sir J. Blundell Map^e being the buyer.
The well-known mare "Hendre Crown
Princess" drew iioo guineas at one of
the late Lord Wantage's sales, Mr Smith
Carrington being the purchaser.
Amongst averages obtained at public
sales the highest was Lord Eothschild's,
;£266, ^48. for 35 head in 1908. More
remarkable still is this figure when it
I is remembered that all the stock offered
were home-bred. The top price was
900 guineas — the highest figure ever
given in public for a yearling colt. Lord
Llangattock's fine average of ;^Z26 for
44 head, and his Majesty's (then Prince
of Wales) of ^^224, 7s. gd. for 54 head,
are likewise landmarks in the history of
the breed. Lord Llangattock's sale was
held in 1900, while the Sandringham
THE SHIRE HORSE.
II
fixture took place in 1898. In 1899 Mr
(now Sir) Alexander Henderson sold 39
head at an average of ^^209, 3& lod.
Mating. — In the mating of mares the
skill of the horse-breeder is tested. To
some extent it is a matter of luck rather
than skill — the use of the nearest horse
mayhap. Otherwise how can the fact
be accounted for that the smallest
breeders, with least pretensions to an
extensive and accurate knowledge of
breeding, occasionally breed a champion 1
The using of a heavy stallion to a mare of
quality is a safe rule. With a big mare
almost any type of horse may be used.
The short-legged, lengthy mare is usually
associated with the "brood" mare type
— i.e., she is that class of mare which in
the majority of cases throws a first-class
foal. When pedigree is a consideration,
back breeding requires to be studied. It
is also invaluable to have a knowledge
of the leading strains of blood.
Peculiarities of Stallions. — ^Eminent
stud-horses have been known to show
marked peculiarities. Thus " Premier "
was known chiefly for the high character
of mares he left ; so was " Royal Albert."
"Lincolnshire Lad 11." produced stallions
which exercised an overmastering influ-
ence on the breed : " Harold " was one
of them. His mares had a name for
lasting well, and his stallions were Lon-
don champions. " Hitchin Conqueror,"
again, stamped his produce with wonder-
ful quality and joints, and imparted
activity to his stock.
Stallions may be foal-getters — i.e., the
young animals are at their best as foals.
Others may produce foals that do not do
well till they attain maturity. Yet, again,
one meets with that class of horse which
brings coarse stock ; others breed them
tod fine. And so the catalogue might be
continued, but enough has been said to
emphasise the importance of a knowledge
of the sire and his breeding.
Shire breeders are accustomed to study
very closely not only the pedigree but
the appearance of an animal. Nowadays
the fact that the dam of a good young
colt or filly is a good sound mare is
sufficient to increase the value of the
progeny materially. It is the custom
with careful breeders to acquaint them-
selves with the character of the dam
before buying a stud horse.
Foaling. — Foals are sometimes dropped
in January, but they are too trouble-
some to favour the general adoption of
a February service. It is found, if they
are good enough for the autumn foal
shows, that they are seldom so big as
those dropped in March and April, which
can go on to grass immediately and suffer
no check in growth. Late spring and
early summer foaling is the rule on most
farms, and it is the most convenient.
Forcing Toung Stock. — The system
of forcing young stock for shows obtains
generally among breeders of pedigree
Shire horses. It is' one of those prac-
tices almost unanimously condemned in
theory but encouraged in practice. It
is impossible to win prizes unless a
young animal is very big and weighty.
It undoubtedly shortens the period of
an animal's usefulness, and may per-
haps in some remote degree affect its
soundness. The cynic has declared the
dominating principle of Shire horse
showing has been " soon ripe, soon
rotten." While far from approving the
contention, the forceful feeding of young
stock must be condemned as laying the
foundation of future trouble.
In few breeds can two - year - olds be
put to service. As a rule, it stunts the
growth, but through the method of forc-
ing young stock to great height and
weight, it is frequently practised by
breeders without ulterior effect upon the
subsequent stature of the mare.
Characteristics.
ColoTir. — As would be inferred from
the use of the title the Old English
Black Horse, black was no doubt at one
time the prevailing colour of the breed.
A large number are still black, but
bay and brown of varying shades pre-
dominate. Many are grey, roan, or
chestnut, but light colours are not, as a
rule, in favour in the market.
Size. — It is undisputed that the Shire
horse is the largest of all the varieties of
draught-horses which exist in this coun-
try, or indeed in any other country.
About 17 hands is a common height
amongst the stallions of the breed, al-
though many attain to 17.1 hands and
17.2 hands.
Dimensions and "Weight. — The dim-
ensions of the Shire horse form an inter-
12
THE SHIKE HOKSE.
esting study. The American system of
weighing heavy horses has not yet been
adopted in this country, but in the course
of time that may come* about. Horses
over a ton weight are far from being un-
common. The well-known horse " Tatton
Friar," owned by the Earl of Egerton,
scaled 25 cwt.
Mr Walter Crosland, agent to Sir
Alexander Henderson at Buscot Park,
Farringdon, has supplied the following
measurements of two Shire horses,
"Markeaton Royal Harold" and "Bus-
cot Harold." They are both champion
winners at London, and " Buscot Harold "
was sired by the former out of the
London , champion mare "Aurea," so
that he has a double dose of champion
blood. Particulars of these measure-
jnents are as follows, those of " Markeaton
Eoyal Harold " being made when he was
five years old, and of " Buscot Harold "
when three years of age, immediately
after each had won his championship
at the London Shire Horse Show :—
Height .
Girth .
Knee
Below knee .
Hound coronet
Hock .
Below hock .
Across foot (fore)
Length of head
Middle of knee \
to ground /
Markeaton
Boyal Harold.
17 hands ^ in.
8 ft. I in.
I ft.
I ft.
1ft.
I ft.
I ft.
2 ft.
8 in.
i^in.
8^ in.
II in.
2 in.
^yi in.
6 in.
Buscot Harold.
17 hands.
7 ft. II in.
I ft. 6;^ in.
I ft. % in.
Lft. 8j^in.
I ft. 10 in.
1 ft. 1.% in.
7^ in.
2 ft. 9 in.
I ft. 9 in. I ft. 8|^in.
Doubtless when he reached maturity
"Buscot Harold" had considerably im-
proved upon these figures.
"Birdsall Menestrel," Lord Eoths-
child's champion stallion at the Shire
Horse Show (represented in Plate 12),
has been measured, and Mr Eichardson
Carr, in response to our inquiry, supplies
the following dimensions : —
BiBDSALL Menestrel.
Height 17 hands.
Width across sole of fore foot
(without shoe) ... 8 in.
Round fore coronet . . . 21^ in.
Below knee . . , . 13 in.
Bound knee .... 19^ in.
Sound fore arm ... 28 in.
Bound hock . . . . 23 in.
Below hock . . . . 15 in.
Girth 8 ft.
Weight at end of 1907 . . 19^ cwt.
The following are the measurements
at ten years' old of the 1550 guinea
horse " Hendre Champion," owned by
Mr Leopold Salomons of Norbury Park,
Dorking : —
Hendbb Champion.
Height . . . .17 hands 1 in.
Width of foot .
8 in.
Bound coronet .
20^ in.
Bone below knee
14 in.
Bound knee
18;^ in.
Bound arm
23 in.
Bone below hock -joint
16 in.
Bound hock
23Xin.
Girth
8 ft. 6 in.
Weight ....
21 cwt.
Form.— When the Sh
ire Horse Society
began its good work, the rank and file
of the breed presented defects which*
materially impaired the value of the
horses for hard work. Chief of these
were short upright pasterns, wide hock
action, unsoundness, and sluggish move-
ment. In all these points a marked
improvement has been eflfected. To one
who, like the writer, has been regularly
attending the London Shire Horse Shows,
the contrast between the general charac- -
teristics of the animals exhibited at the
earlier and later shows is most striking.
Nowadays symmetry is as essential in
a draught-horse as it is in a Smithfleld
champion. It is of little use showing
the fine muscular development of loin,
depth of rib, and beautiful fore end of a
draught-horse if he has not thighs to fill
the breeching. Symmetry is a great thing,
but it does not constitute the alpha and
omega of a Shire horse breeder's cate-
chism. The old type of Shire was
heavy and cumbersome, set on short
legs, but disproportionate in his weight
of top. To-day he is a beautifully
balanced animal, with better feet ajid
action than he had in bygone times.
Type.-^Type may be regarded as the
governing fqfce in horse-breeding.' A
good gelding might be a very poor type
of Shire. As a rule, type is shown as
much in the character of the head as
in the formation of limbs and body.
The gaunt, leggy type of horse is of
little use to any one who wants equine
power concentrated. There are, roughly
speaking, two types — the quality and
the rougher kind of Shire. In-breeding
and the use of pedigree make for qual-
THE SHIRE HORSE.
13
ity : without it stock-breeding could not
prosper. Through its aid the type of
Shire produced in modern times is more
lasting, and will keep on its joints longer
with fewer limb ailments than at one
time were common.
Quality is found most fully shown in
the mares. England is to-day full of
breeding stock of high quality. Occa-
sionally there is a tendency to fine down
the stallions too much. They lack mas-
culine appearance, and begin to lose that
cresty sex-like boldness so characteristic
of the older type. The rougher sort of
horse has his uses. We do not refer to
the round -boned horse whose spongy
legs are the happy hunting-ground of
grease" and divers ailments. But the
stallions whose hair has a tendency to
curl, and whose bone is not of superfine
quality, — in fact, whose appearance is
impressive but will not bear close in-
spection, — that type of horse has his
uses, to correct the effeminacy which
comes from concentrating attention too
much on quality.
Legs and Pasterns. — It is now uni-
versally acknowledged that a short up-
right pastern is an objectionable feature
in a horse, whether for draught or other
purposes. With such a pastern the
shock to the system, in walking, trotting,
or galloping under a burden, must ob-
viously be much greater than with the
"springy" action of a moderately long
sloping pastern. This, point is more
keenly appreciated in England now than
in former times. A long pastern may
be a source of weakness, and the Shire
breeder aims at a happy medium.
Similar remarks would apply to the
general conformation of the legs. The
angle of the hind leg has been very
carefully studied, more so since horses
like "Eoyal Albert" set the fashion.
A common fault is "back at the knee."
It indicates muscular weakness of the
fore limb. The most common of all
faults, however, is lightness of bone
below the knee.
Action. — The unduly wide hind ac-
tion, so prevalent at one time in Eng-
lish draught-horses, is happily becoming
much rarer. A.bent hind leg, set outside
the body, so to speak, is undoubtedly a
source of weakness in a draught-horse.
An animal with limbs of this sort can
have little endurance under hard work.
Wide hind action was one of the most
notable defects in the earlier London
shows of Shire horses. It is rapidly
becoming the exception to find wide
movers. Of course it must be remem-
bered that the Shire horse is much
wider in frame than most other breeds,
consequently the closeness of the Clydes-
dale's action need not be expected, other-
wise we should have a race of "cow-
hocked " animals.
The demand nowadays runs on very
active geldings, and the tendency of the
times is altogether favourable to the
further development of speedy move-
ment in the draught-horse.
Feet. — The foot of the horse is a point
of the utmost importance. It is there
very often that, under hard labour, the
animal first gives way. Flat soft hoofs
cannot be durable, and with the persistent
striving for large sound feet with deep
strong walls, which has been fostered by
the show system, the feet of the rank
and file of Shire horses have greatly
improved. The breeder looks for a wide
and deep heel, and is averse to a too
wide coronet, but more so to a narrow
one. The most wearing type of hoof is
blue, but the advantage of white limbs
for show purposes is too a,pparent to
enable the breeder long to resist the in-
cursion of the white and more brittle
hoof.
A Typical SMre. — What is a typical
Shire? The description given by Mr
Frederick Street, in a paper read before
the London Farmers' Club in 1878, holds
true to-day as it did then. Mr Street
said : " The feet should be firm, deep
and wide at the heel, not too long or
straight in pastern, flat bone, short
between fetlock and knee. A stallion
should not measure less than 11 inches
below knee, and girth from 7 feet 9
inches to 8 feet 3 inches; should not
stand more than 17 hands; should have
wide chest, shoulders well thrown back,
head big and masculine, without coarse-
ness ; full flowing mane, short back,
large muscular development of the loin,
long quarters with tail well set on, good
second thighs (this is a point where so
many fail), large flat clean hocks ; plenty
of long silky hair on legs, — or, to sum up
in few words, a horse should be long,
14
THE SHIRE HORSE.
low, and wide, and thoroughly free from
all hereditary disesise. A main point is
action : he should be a good mover in
the cart-horse pace, walking ; and, if re-
quired to trot, should have action like a
Norfolk col}."
Hair. — Mr Street's reference to silky
hair touches upon a remarkable develop-
ment in the breed. The hair denotes
the quality of an animal as accurately
as anything -else. The suspicion of a
curl in the hair of the limbs, or
"feather," as it is technically termed,
is not looked on with favour. The older
type of Shire was a much befeathered
animal The introduction of fine silky
hair was coincident with the diffusion
of flat bone and the supersession of such
stable troubles as grease and Monday
morning leg. The American buyer likes
as little hair on the limbs as possible.
The English buyer objects to its ab-
sence. Hence we have warring ele-
ments. Whether there is any truth in
the contention that, as with Samson of
old, the hair denotes strength we do not
pretend to assert, but it is a fact that
hair goes a long -way to obscure defects
of knee, cannon-bone, pastern, and hoof.
Snglish and Scottish. Jfotipns. — It
used to be a trite saying that in judging
a horse a Scotsman began with the feet
and legs of the animal, an Englishman
with its top. By this it is meant that
the chief consideration with the Scottish
judge is the feet and legs, and with the
English the body of the horse. Of both
judges there was truth in the statement,
and in these habits both were mistaken.
It is true, no doubt, as the Scotsman
argued, that without good, sound, well-
formed, well-set legs and feet to carry
and propel it, the best body one could
conceive would be of little value. It
is equally true, as the Englishman con-
tended, that a horse with a big well-
formed body will usually fetch more
money in the market than one with a
small weak body. Fortunately they
have differed and agreed — at least the
English breeder has absorbed the whole
creed. If a horse lacks foot he has a
poor chance of recognition in an English
showyard. A short pastern is quickly
detected and condemned. But one thing
the Shire breeder will never part with
is TTCight. He wants the avoirdupois in
the collar to start a load. The Scottish
breeder pits against this the superior
activity of the Clydesdale. Perhaps the
reason for this difference of opinion is
found in the fact that London is paved
with wood, while the large towns of the
north mainly employ stone setts. Weight
is especially necessary where there is a
bad foothold.
FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT.
Bringing out Shires for Show. —
The bringing out of Shire horses for
show is now so much a question of the
expertness of the individual, that direc-
tions, while forming a useful guide,
must be applied with all the skill of an
expert to be successful In the choice
of suitable young animals for show the
" expert " eye is the most necessary
agent. In a foal, a big quantity of hair
right from the back of the knee should
be looked for. The foal that comes out
in a naked condition has very little
chance to win : therefore cultivate hair.
The next things to be looked for are
weight, the naturalness of the joints, the
openness of the hoof heads and the heels,
the quality and set of the limbs. Bad
action can sometimes be corrected by
judicious shoeing; but when the indif-
ferent action is due to a physical defect,
it is impossible by artificial means to
correct it, although it may be improved.
It is sometimes difBcult to determine
when a fault in the action is due to
weakness and when it is inherent. The
writer remembers many occasions when
foals have been penalised because of
their indifferent action, yet coming out
in maturer years with few signs of their
earlier defects. The defects sometimes
vanish when the young animal gathers
strength, when the bones and muscles
become set.
Hearing Foals. — In brief, the first
thing to do is to choose a type and
stand by it. The foal that gives early
promise will do well on mother's milk
if the dam is doing her duty. The
longer that corn-feeding can be staved
off the better, as it has a tendency to
affect the limbs and joints. If the mare,
however, does not nurse the foal well
enough, a feed consisting of crushed
oats, bran, and chaff once or twice a-day
THE SHIRE HORSE
IS
shonld be given. The foal will soon eat
along with the mare. The quantity of
artificial food may be increased as wean-
ing time approaches, usually when the
foal is about five months old. There are
foals one sees at the foal shows which
are dropped in January and February
still looking for mothers' milk. It is a
strain upon the mare to have her foal
suckling too long, and usually those early
foals are difficult to keep correct on their
joints. They do not have a chance for
some months of enjoying a run at vpas-
ture, consequently they are very trouble-
some to the owner. Moreover, they
are almost certain to lose their hair,
and have a stale appearance ere the
September foal shows come round.
Some breeders tsust to the milk-paii,
sweetening cow's milk and occasionally
diluting it. It is a^ penny-wise and
pound-foolish policy. It is never very
difficult to detect a foal that has had
too much of this> kind of treatment.
The foal grows by it, it is true, but it
gets very shaky about the limbs, goes
off its joints, and lacks that fresh brisk
appearance characteristic of younger
foals with harder feeding.
It is well to get the young foal to
start the winter well. A check in the
earlier months is a bad preparation for
the future. It means at least two to
three months lost, and that is a seri-
ous handicap when judges are so pro-
nouncedly in favour of big young colts
and fillies. Give the weaned foal a
companion in the paddock night and
day, with a shed for shelter. As a
rule, they only use it as a feeding-box.
Night and morning a mixture of ground
oats, bran, and hay chaflf may be given
with the addition of hnseed-cake and a
few carrots. It is better to damp the
mixture with warm water prior to feed-
ing. This combination of feeding-stufis
grows bone, assists the coat, and stim-
ulates the appetite. At no time should
more be fed than the foal will clean up
readily.
Young Horses. — If the young stock
are intended for spring exhibition they
may, in December, be brought into a
loose-box and receive a quantity of long
hay as well as the chop mixture, which
should be gradually increased in oats
and bran. The object is to have the
colts handled as much as possible and
to accustom them to confinement, which
they have to undergo at such shows.
It also prevents them taking cold so
easily as they otherwise would.
Attention to Hair. — Particular atten-
tion should be directed to keeping the
hair on. What with rubbing and clog-
ging with mud it is apt to become worn
and fragmentary. A good dressing to
use is equal parts of sulphur, paraffin,
and train - oil, which should be well
rubbed in to get to the roots of the
hair and also to prevent it running ofi"..
The day after the application a sawdust
dusting should be given, otherwise the
hair will mat and even rot with the
adhesions of mud and dirt which young
animals delight to walk in. To walk in
mud no doubt is cooling to the feet, an
important consideration when the food
is heating.
Before the aniflials are brought out,
the hair should be carefully cut away
above the joints with a sharp knife, and
a wet cloth tied round the limb for some
time before exhibition to make the hair
lie naturally. The " feather " should be
carefully washed, and dried with" sawdust,
and brushed freely. The old practices of
soaping and reaining are now not recog-
nised by the Shire Horse Society, so that
the hair must be naturally straight and
silky to do the animal justice.
Attention to Peet. — Another point
that must be carefully looked to is the
paring of the feet. The hoofs have
a tendency to wear down on the out-
side, and rasping must be the remedy,
otherwise the action of the colt may be
interfered with.
Grooming and Handling. — Groom-
ing should be regular some time before
showing, and great care should be taken
to train a young animal to the halter.
Find out his best pace at the trot, and
keep him to it. An indifferent and
slouching walker may need the sharp-
ening of the whip. Again, the action
may be improved by the shoeing, the
calkins being raised and lowered as
desired.
Adult Animals. — In bringing out
older animals, the advantages derivable
from a run at pasture with shoes off
should not be forgotten. A cooling
mash is also freely given. Some
i6
CLYDESDALE HOESES.
exhibitors medicate their horses very
freely to stimulate the appetite, but
the practice is reprehensible. To get
a good coat, sleek and glossy, linseed
or linseed-cake should be used in the
ration. Maize, boiled and flaked, and
saccharine preparations are likewise used
for conditioning.
As already stated, the Shire stallion
" Birdsall Menestrel " is represented in
Plate 12. A portrait of the Shire mare
"Pailton Sorais" is given in Plate 13..
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
The Clydesdale is the native Scottish
breed of draught -horses. The history
of the breed has been often written, and
little that is fresh can be said by any
writer on that subject.
Origin. — All attempts to demonstrate
that the breed sprang from one sire are
destined to failure. No breed owes its
existence to such a cause. Before the
influence of one sire could be regarded
as alone responsible for the success of
a breed it would require to be proved
that the breed had no existence prior to
the advent of the sire.
The broad facts connected with horse-
breeding' in Scotland are not difficult to
state. As early as the fifteenth cen-
tury Scotland was famous for its horses.
It did a large export trade with the Con-
tinent then, and from time to time Eoyal
edicts were issued regulating that trade.
Sometimes exportation was prohibited;
sometimes it was carried on subject to a
heavy export duty; sometimes it was
unrestricted. But however conducted,
the fact stands out clear that Scottish-
bred horses were coveted by Continental
buyers during the long period of the
Stuart dyiiasty. The kings were each
after his own manner patrons of horse-
breeding, but it cannot be said that
this patronage did much to improve
the native breed for draught purposes.
The Clydesdale in Peace and
War. — The Clydesdale as a draught-
horse came into being after wars had
ceased, so that men could without
molestation pursue the arts of peace.
Therefore the history of the draught-
horse is pre-eminently associated with
the rest which the land enjoyed after
the Revolution Settlement in 1690.
This is specially true of the district
from which the Scottish breed takes its
name. Clydesdale is the old name for'
Lanarkshire, just as Angus is the old
name for Forfarshire, and Tweeddale
the old name for Peeblesshire. The
name indicates that the home of the
breed, in its modern. draught type, is to
be found in the valley of the Clyde.
There the internecine warfare of the
later Stuart era was waged with relent-
less fury, and the very places and
parishes associated with the early history
of the improved breed are those which
formed the theatre of many of the most
stirring incidents in the Covenanting
struggle. The arts of peace required a
horse of a different type from that
called for by the exigencies of war.
The era of road-making and the era of
industrial development in Lanarkshire
were contemporary. The industrial de-
velopment demanded a- horse that could
pull as well as carry, and the formation
of roads on which carts could be pulled
created the demand for a heavier horse
than the sure-footed nag on which the
Upper Ward and Avondale farmer had
hitherto relied.
Early Improvement.
Various traditions point to Flemish
stallions having been the instruments
employed in the work of improvement.
There are three traditions of this nature.
One credits the sixth Duke of Hamil-
ton (1742- 1758) with having kept a
dark-brown Flemish stallion at Strath-
aven Castle for the use of his tenantry.
Another speaks of a Duke of Hamilton
a century earlier who kept "six fine
black stallions from Flanders" there;
and a third gives one John Paterson,
of Lochlyoch, on the slopes of Tinto, the
credit of introducing about the year
1720 a black stallion from England
CLYDESDALE HOKSES.
17
named " Blaze,'' which became the
founder of the celebrated breed of
Clydesdale horses. So the chronicler
of these things avers. It may be
accepted, therefore, as truth, that out-
side influences so enhanced the weight
and substance of the native breed in
Lanarkshire that about the beginning
of the nineteenth century they became
noted for their properties as draught-
horses.
Their reputation *■ extended far afield,
and the markets held at Rutherglen,
Lanark, and Biggar were frequented by
dealers from all quarters, south of the
Border as well as north. Mobs of young
colts and fillies were drafted from the
Lanarkshire breeding-grounds into other
areas. The general influence of these
importations was towards the extended
breeding of animals possessing the
Lanarkshire type, so that "Clydesdale"
became the trade-mark of a type of horse
bred in areas far apart. The name
occurs in literature as early as 1823,
and could not have been applied in such
widespread fashion had the type which
it represented not been generally recog-
nised. That type was indigenous to
Lanarkshire or Clydesdale, and was not
imposed upon the horses of the Clyde
valley by any external influence. Such
influences imparted properties which
enhanced the value of the existing type
for draught purposes, but it would not
be true to say that the influence of one
sire, or of six, created a new type within
the Clydesdale area.
An Unfoimded Theory. — Attempts
have been made to connect the entire
modern breed of Clydesdales with one
Lanarkshire tribe in a definite and direct
way. The theory is that a filly directly
descended from the Lochlyoch mares, im-
proved by John Paterson's black stallion
from England, became the dam of Thomp-
son's black horse " Glancer " 335, and
that the whole Clydesdale race can,
through this one link, be connected
with the historic tribe. That the whole
modern race of Clydesdales is connected
with the Lanarkshire race does not ad-
mit of doubt, but a close examination of
the facts, and especially a comparison of
dates, does not warrant the theory that
Thompson's black horse was a son of the
Lochlyoch - descended Lampits mare —
VOL. III.
otherwise the Shotts Hill Mill filly.
This filly was bought at the displenish-
ing sale at Shotts Hill Mill in 1808. It
is assumed in the Ketrospective Volume
of the Clydesdale St'odrBooh (published
in December 1878) that "Glancer" 335,
Thompson's black horse, was her son,
foaled in 18 10. But Thompson's black
horse (" Glancer " 335), on the authority
of one who knew him, was the sire of
Paton's horse of Bankhead, Yoker, Ren-
frewshire. This Paton's horse won second
prize at the Highland and Agricultural
Society's Show at Edinburgh in 1842,
when he was six years old. He was
therefore foaled in 1836, and, if the
entjy in the Stud-Book is correct, his
sire, "Glancer" 335, must have been
twenty-five years old when he was got.
The travelling-card of Thompson's black
horse, which has been reproduced in the
second volume of the Stvd-Booh (pub-
lished in February 1880), is unfortu-
nately not dated, and it tells nothing
about his pedigree. It is, however,
stated in the Introductory Essay in
which that card is embodied (no doubt
on good authority) that "Glancer" 335
died when ten years old. Consequently
the theory that he was the son of a filly
sold at Shotts Hill Mill in 1808 may
be dismissed, along with the fabric of
pedigree which has been built upon that
theory.
Thompson's Black Horse and his
Descendants. — Thompson's black horse
was a sufficiently noted horse in his time.
His service fee was one guinea, with one
shilling additional to the leader. He was
the progenitor in direct line of " Broom-
field Champion " 95, and that horse did
quite notable work in fixing for many
generations the type of Clydesdale horse.
His most noted son was "Clyde," aUas
" Glancer " 153, known as " Pulton's rup-
tured horse," and through him he may be
said to have made the modern Clydesdale
breed.
"Clyde," alias "Glancer" 153, was a
"mickle strong horse." He had seven
sons, which made Clydesdale history.
These are "Baasay" 21, "Clyde," alias
"Prince of Wales" 155, "Farmer," alias
"Sproulston" 290, Erskine's "Farmer's
Fancy" 298, "Muircock'| 550, "Prince
Charlie" 625, and Barr's "Prince
Royal" 647. "Clyde," alias "Prince
B
i8
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
of Wales" 155, "Farmer's Fancy" 298,
and "Prince Eoyal" 647, made their
mark in the showyards of the Highland
and Agricultural Society, and all of the
seven were successful in leaving an
indelible impression on the breed as a
whole.
If the descendants of these seven sons
of " the ruptured horse " were eliminated
from the breed, it would be weak indeed.
They were not all regular in their breed-
ing as sires, and " Prince Eoyal " 647 had
the gift of breeding some of the best as
well as some of the least satisfactory of
stock. It is possible his dam was of
southern extraction. He bred some stock
chestnut in colour, and others having a
tendency to roundness of bone. Gener-
ally, however, the stock descended from
Fulton's " ruptured horse " conformed to
the standard set by his owner, William
Fulton, and were of the "razor-legged"
type. By these seven horses and their
direct descendants, in a marked degree,
was the Clydesdale type which dominated
the show-ring for about thirty years, from
1850-1880, determined.
Other influences began to make
themselves felt from about 1880 and
onwards, and in the end a type, especi-
ally in respect of formation of feet, ob-
liqueness of pastern, and hardness of
bone, was evolved which controls the
Clydesdale world to-day.
Spreading of the Breed.
Other horse-breeding districts were so
influenced by these sires and their de-
scendants, and by other sires imported
from Clydesdale, that the stock reared
within these areas bore the same name.
The Clydesdale influence can be directly
traced in districts so widely separated
as <3alloway, Cumberland, Kintjre, and
Aberdeenshire.
Galloveay Horses. — The native breed
of horses in Gfalloway had a character of
its own — which has obtained renown in
history, poetry, and romance. ' To this
day the town of Inverness is the scene
• I I of races in which horses called " Gallo-
ways " are included. Writers of parish
, , records in the province of Galloway
' have left descriptions of horses bred in
Galloway, prior to the introduction of
the Clydesdale, about the beginning of
the nineteenth century. One of the
most noted of these writers is the Rev.
Samuel Smith of Borgue, whose Survey
of Galloway was published in 18 10.
He writes eloquently concerning the
merits of the old Galloway nag, and
shows how the demands of an improved
agriculture led, by judicious selec-
tion, to the improvement of the native
breed. They were, he says, deservedly
held in high estimation for the purposes
of husbandry. They were "round in
the body, short in the back, broad and
deep in the chest, broad over the loins,
level along the back to the shoulder, not
long in the legs, nor very fine in the
head and neck. Their whole appearance
indicated vigour and durability, and
their eye commonly a suflScient degree of
spirit." Mr Smith admits that they
were inferior in size to the dray horses
of many other districts, but were not
inferior in respect of capacity to perform
labour or endure fatigue. These horses
were, according to Mr Smith, improved
by the use of sires from England, Ayr-
shire, and Ireland, and the Clydesdale
influence from Lanarkshire was imposed
upon the product of this union.
Improving the £reed in the
Stev(rartry. — ^The Stewartry of Kirkcud-
bright began early to improve the breed
of native horses by hiring stallions from
Lanarkshire. Two of the earliest re-
corded sires so hired were "Samson"
1288, foaled in 1827 or 1828, and his
grandsire, "Smiler," which must, there-
fore, have been foaled early in the nine-
teenth century. Since that date, in
unbroken succession, Clydesdale sires
were hired for service in the Stewartiy,
and the breeding of Clydesdales there
received an additional impetus when
representatives of the Muir family mi-
grated from Somfallo, on the slopes of
Tinto, in Lanarkshire, one of them to
Maidland, Wigtown, the other a few
years later to Banks, Kirkcudbright.
The blending of blood taken into Gallo-
way by them produced in a later day
"Lochfergus Champion" 449. A later
blending of the blood of that horse with
that of native mares in the parish of
Twynholm gave the Clydesdale world
" Conqueror " 199, the sire of " Darnley "
222.
Early lmprovem.ent in Wigto-wn-
shire. — Wigtownshire was early engaged
CLYDESDALE H0KSE8.
19
in importing and hiring stallions from
Lanarkshire. The horse "Clydeside,"
credited with being the sire of Agnew's
"Farmer" 292, could hardly have borne
that name had he not been of Clydesdale
origin. The Dumfries Highland Show of
1830 marked an era in the history of the
breed. At it "Farmer" 292 gained a
premium of ^^30 from the Highland and
Agricultural Society. The late Colonel
M'Douall of Logan was a spirited exhib-
itor of Clydesdales at that period. He had
a formidable rival in Mr Kobert Ander-
son, Drumore, Kirkmaiden, who, in 1835,
made a historic tour into Lanarkshire
and Renfrewshire, the history of which
is giveti in the Eetrospective and second
volumes of the Clydesdale Stud- Book.
The Clydesdale of the latter half of the
nineteenth century was the direct result
of the blending of these two streams of
breeding in Galloway. Horses, the pro-
duct and descendants of the Lanarkshire
importations of 1835, travelled in the
Kirkcudbright area for many seasons,
and the strong family likeness and
fidelity to one type of their produce
ensured the success of almost any sire
with which they might be mated. When
the selected sires happened to be bred
very much on the same lines as the
native mares, as in the case of " Dam-
ley" 222 and his descendants, the re-
sults went to the making of Clydesdale
history.
The Breed in Kintyre. — Kintyre en-
joys all the advantages of an insular
position without actually being subject
to its disadvantages. The history of the
importation of the Lanarkshire breed into
the peninsula is fortunately very clear.
The native breed would no doubt be of
Highland origin. The first operating
source of improvement was the importa-
tion of Lanarkshire stock by the laird of
Lee in Camwath parish, Lanarkshire,
who also owned Largie estate in Kintyre.
One horse in particular, bearing the local
title of Lockhart of Lee's black horse,
had quite a good reputation, and the
tradition connected with his name sur-
vived up to the time when tradition gave
place to record by the establishing of the
Ciydesdale Stvd-Booh.
On account of the geographical forma-
tion of the district the record of improve-
ment can be clearly traced. It is prior
to 1878 associated with a succession of
horses, the principal of which are "Far-
mer's Fancy" 298, "Rob Roy" 714,
" Largs Jock " 444, " General Williams "
326, and "Lome" 499. The influence
of these horses for good can be traced
with considerable clearness, as can al^o
their defects. "Farmer's Fancy" 298
had "boxy" feet and upright pasterns,
and that defect long persisted in the
Clydesdales of Kintyre. "Rob Roy"
714 had very good feet and legs, but his
back was hollow, and he was locally
known as the " laigh - backit horse."
"Largs Jock" 444 was a good horse
with excellent feet, but his hind legs
were too straight. He was locally
known as the " straight - legged horse."
" Lome " 499 was a horse with a splen-
did top and well -sprung ribs, but he
lacked spring and length of pasterns.
Other sires came and went to Kintyre
for a season, but the aforementioned
travelled in the peninsula for several
years in succession. Consequently they,
and not the premium horses imported
in later days, dominated the tj^e pro-
duced in Kintyre. As far as prize-
winners are concerned, " Rob Roy " and
" Largs Jock " made the best mark.
The Clydesdale in. Cumberland. —
Cumberland, from its geographical posi-
tion, is a county in which a struggle for
the mastery between the northern and
the southern breeds of draught-horses
might be looked for. To a certain ex-
tent this took place, but when the
matter is examined closely it is found
that there is a much stronger admix-
ture of Clydesdale blood there than of
any other. Good Shire horses have
from time to time travelled in Cumber-
land, but the records of the Clydesdale
Horse Society show clearly that the
Clydesdale element predominated in the
native horses.
The links between Lanarkshire and
Cumberland are clearly established. The
first can be traced back to " Old Bay
Wallace" 572, bred in Ayrshire and
foaled in 1827; "Old Stitcher" 577,
bred in Dumfriesshire prior to 18 15,
probably about 1810; and Pringle's
" Young Clyde " 949, the most impress-
ive of all the old Cumberland sires. He
was bred at Hyndford Bridge, Lanark,
in 1826, and was a horse of great size
20
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
and strength. He lacked depth of rib,
but was big and well coloured, and as he
lived long he moulded the Cumberland
type along Clydesdale lines.
Of Shire horses that travelled in
Cumberland one deserves special men-
tion because of his having also for two
seasons travelled in Ayrshire. This is
"Farmer's Glory," owned in Ayr by
Andrew Hendrie, horse-dealer, and in
Cumberland by John Robinson, Wallace-
field. He won a ;^5o premium at Ayr
in 1857, and left good stock, his felhale
progeny far excelling his males. In this
respect he resembled another excellent
Shire horse, Mr Alexander Galbraith's
"Tintock," which won second prize at
the Highland and Agricultural Society's
Show at Glasgow in 1867, and the
Strathendrick premium. Both of these
horses did good service in improving the
breed, but curiously enough iheir influ-
ence did not continue into their second
season in Scotland.
The Clydesdales in AberdeensMre.
— Aberdeenshire, like Cumberland, had
to some extent a mixed breed of mares
to begin witL Clydesdale sires from
Lanarkshire were taken north as early
as 1823. One of them was "Young
Glancer," supposed to have been a son
of Thompson's black horse, but it is
doubtful whether a rigid application of
the age test would support this theory.
Other horses b,earing names suggestive
of Clydesdale lineage were " Young
Champion of Clyde," foaled in 1840;
"Farmer's Fancy," foaled in 1847; ^^^
"Justice" 420. The Earl of Kintore,
Inglismaldie, and the well-known Captain
Barclay of Ury, were owners of horses
whose reputations survive. The horses
which live, however, and fairly put the
Clydesdale mark on the draught-horses
of Aberdeenshire, were "Grey Comet"
192 and " Lord Haddo " 486. They were
both prize-winners at the Highland and
Agricultural Society's shows, and being
horses of sound constitution, as well as of
true Clydesdale character, they stamped
their own image on the horses of the
northern counties. "
The Clydesdale Horse Society.
The Clydesdale Horse Society was
formed in June 1877, and the first
volume of the Clydesdale Stud- Booh
• was issued in December 1878. These
institutions owe their existence chiefly
to the enterprise of the late' Earl of
Dunmore and Mr John M. Martin, now
residing at Lasswade, Mid-Lothian. The
Earl of Dunmore was instrumental in
securing the support of 100 Life
Governors, who subscribed jC^io, los.
each to the funds of the Society at
the outset, thus giving it a unique
start. Mr Martin was at that time
tenant of Auchendennan Home Farm,
and Hawthornhill, Dumbartonshire, and
owned several of the best Clydesdales
of their time.
The initial work connected with the
Society was carried through by these
gentlemen and a Council and Editing
Committee, on which were the late Sir
William Stirling Maxwell of Keir and
PoUok, Bart., the late Sir Michael R.
• Shaw Stewart of Greenock and Blackhall,
Bart., and other gentlemen keenly inter-
ested in Clydesdales. They had as their
secretary, from 1877 to 1880 inclusive,
Mr Thomas Dykes, who was also Agri-
cultural Correspondent for the Glasgow
News. In the latter year the ^ office of
secretary was filled by the appointment
of Mr Archibald M'Neilage, who has
rendered valuable services to breeders
of Clydesdale horses, and to whom we
are indebted for this sketch of the
breed.
Infusion of Shire Blood. — A prim-
ary difficulty had to be encountered.
For many years prior to 1877 an occa-
sional Shire horse or mare had been
imported from England, and in several
cases, as has- already been indicated,
good results had followed from blending
the two races. A small but influential
body of breeders, led by the late Lawrence
Drew, of Merryton Home Farm, Hamil-
ton, indulged the idea that there should
be but one Stud-Book for the English
and Scots breeds, and refused to join the
Clydesdale Horse Society. They main-
tained an attitude of opposition until the
lamented death of Mr Drew in March
1884.
Standards for Admission to Stud-
Book. — The difficulty was to fix a stand-
ard of admission into the Clydesdale
Stvd-Book, which while conserving the
distinctive character of the Clydesdale
breed, would not disqualify a large num-
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
21
ber of animals, true to Clydesdale type,
in which there was admittedly a strain
of Shire blood.
The standard fixed for the Retrospect-
ive volume, which included stallions
foaled prior to ist January 1875, was
to recognise all stallions reputed to be
Clydesdales, which were dead when the
Stud -Book movement commenced, as
such, and to recognise as Clydesdales all
stallions foaled before the date named
and then living, if got by a recognised
Clydesdale sire or out of a mare got by
such a sire. This disqualified a number
of horses, such as Hendrie's "Farmer's
Glory" and Galbraith's "Tintock,"
already named, because their pedigrees
were given and known as Shire.
For horses foaled on or after ist
January 1875, the standard was made,
registered sire and dam got by registered
sire, and a similar standard was set for
mares foaled on or after ist January
1877. The policy then outlined of pro-
ceeding cautiously, and not making rules
more stringent than Nature admits of
in her reproductive functions, has been
stedfastly adhered to.
For several years the standard has
been registered sire and registered dam,
or registered Sire and dam having her-
self two registered crosses.
Practically the whole of the Clydes-
dale breeding interest now supports the
Stud -Book movement. The member-
ship of the Society in 1908 numbered
about 1500. In the first thirty volumes
of the Stiid-Book there are 14,432
entries of stallions, and 20,650 entries
of mares.
Characteristics.
The Clydesdale has undergone modifi-
cation in type at the hands of man dur-
ing the past century.
Ancient Types. — Portraits of a mare
named "Meg" and a stallion named
" Young Clydesdale," which won at the
Highland and Agricultural Society's
Show in 1826, represent the mare to
have been a big handsome animal with
clean hard bones, good round hoofs, and
well-sprung pasterns. She looks a big
mare, standing possibly 16.2 hands, with
a well-set-on head and neck and high
withers. The feature which distin-
guishes her from the Clydesdale mare
of the present day is her somewhat
" gyp " appearance. "Young Clydes-
dale" appears to be a much lighter
animal, fehown in plough harness. He
would be regarded now as rather much
of a "van" horse.
About the year 1840 and onwards the
demand was for a thick, wide, low-set
horse, with strong forearms and thighs,
broad bones, plenty "feather" on his
legs, and not too much spring of pas-
terns. The feet were always an essential
point in the Clydesdale, and at no time
can it have been a matter of indifierence
with breeders as to the wearing quality
and openness of hoof-head of the Clydes-
dale horse.
Action about the year i860 reached
its highest illustration in the stallion
" Sir Walter Scott " 797, which won
first in that year at the Highland and
Agricultural Society's Show at Dumfries,
and first at the International Show at
Battersea in 1862. In 1870 " Rantin'
Robin" 685 beat "Prince of Wales"
673 at the next Highland Show at
Dumfries. His pasterns were short and
upright, but he had a clear advantage
over his rival in respect of the breadth
and openness of his face, and his grandly
rounded barrel, with deep ribs.
ravourite Type in 1850-1880. —
The Clydesdale stallion of the period
from 1850 to 1880 was generally a horse
standing from 16.2 hands to 17 hands, with
good open-hoofed feet ; pasterns not too
oblique; broad fiat bones, fringed with
plenty of hair ; broad hocks, not too
straight; well - developed forearms and
big knees, broad in front ; good walking
action and moderate trotting action.
Colours were mostly browns, bays, or
blacks, with an occasional grey among
the mares, but chestnuts were anathema.
Only one really good chestnut horse was
seen during that period, "Topsman"
886, and while his breeding on the sire's
side is undoubtedly Clydesdale, dispute
was keen as to his dam. His grand-
dam was bought in Glasgow market in
foal to a horse called " Samson " (so it
was said), but the " Samson " was never
identified. The foal was "Topsman's"
dam.
Prince of Wales. — The sire which
modified this type was ""Prince of Wales"
673, foaled in 1866. He lived until the
22
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
autumn of 1888, when he died in the
possession of his first owner, Mr David
Riddell, Blackhall, Paisley, who bought
him at Mr Drew's disperaion sale at
Merryton in April 1884 for 900 guineas.
"Prince of Wales" was an " upstanding,
tall horse, with rather a hard "Eoman
nose," and somewhat straight hocks. He
was marvellously healthy and sound.
He could trpt like a Roadster, and im-
parted much greater style to the Clydes-
dale than the breed had possessed up to
this time.
Darnley. — His great rival, and in the
end his stable companion, was "Darnley"
222 (1872-1886). He was a more reg-
ular and impressive sire than " Prince of
Wales" 673. If the head of the latter
was rather long and' narrow, the head of
"Darnley" was rather small and pony
like. He had slightly drooping quarters;
but otherwise he was the ideal Clydes-
dale. He was a magnificent walker, but
lacked the dash And vim of the " Prince
of Wales" strain. When on his season
in the year 1882 he weighed a ton
(2240 lb.)
Stock of Prince of Wales and
Darnley. — The "Prince of Wales" mated
with mares by "Darnley" produced
some of the highest priced Clydesdales
on record, including " Prince of Albion "
6178, sold when two years old for;^3ooo
to Sir John Gilmour of Montrave, Bart. ;
his own brother, " Prince of Kyle " 7155,
sold when rising two years old to the late
Mr James Kilpatrick, Craigie Mains, Kil-
marnock, for ^^1700; "Prince Alex-
ander " 8899, sold when a foal, not twelve
months old, to the late Mr James Lock-
hart, Mains of Airies, Stranraer, for
_;^i2oo. Sons of " Darnley " also made
high prices, and many of them were the
best breeding horses of their time. As sires
they bred with greater uniformity than
did the sons of " Prince of Wales " 673.
"Topgallant" 1850 was sold when ris-
ing four years old to the late Sir Michael
R. Shaw Stewart, Bart., for ;^i6oo, and
" Flashwood " 3604 was sold when one
year old to Mr John Pollock, Langside,
for ;^90o.
A New Era — MeamiremenU of
Clydesdales.
Sir Everard. — A new era in Clydes-
dale breeding began with " Sir Everard "
5353, a son of " Topgallant" 1850, and
out of a mare by a son of "Prince of
Wales" 673. He was foaled in 1885
and died in August 1898. He stood
fully 17. 1 hands, girthed, when in low
condition, 8 feet round the heart, and
weighed, in June 1890, 20^ cwt. He
measured round the forearm, above the
knee, 26 in. ; 17 in. round the knee; 11
in. bone immediately below the knee;
1 2 in. bone immediately below the hock ;
11}^ in. from the centre of the knee to
the centre of the fetlock joint; 21}^ in.
from the stifle joint to the point of the
hock; and i8J^ in. from the point of the
hock to the hind fetlock. He mated
very successfully with mares got by
" Prince of Wales " 673, or mares by sons
of "Darnley" 222.
Saron's Pride. — " Sir Everard's "
most celebrated son is " Baron's Pride "
9122, foaled in 1890, and still alive(i9o8).
Without cavil, this is the greatest breed-
ing horse the Clydesdale race has known.
He stands 17.2 hands, and in show bloom,
in 1894, when he was champion of the
show of the Highland and Agricultural
Society at Aberdeen, he girthed 8 ft. 2 in.
" Baron's Pride " is represented in Plate
10. His son " Silver Cup" 11,184, "with
a prize record exceeding that of his sire,
and still alive, stands 17 hands. In
November 1905 "Silver Cup" girthed
8 ft. I in. He measured 17 in. round
the forearm, and 19 in. round the gaskin.
He had then loj^ in. bone below the
knee, and 12 in. below the hock. At
the date named he weighed 2156 lb.
"Baron of Bucklyvie" 11,263, ^^^
first prize aged stallion at the Highland
Show at Aberdeen in 1908, was foaled
in 1900. When five years old he stood
17.2 hands, and girthed (in November
1905) 7 ft. 2 in. Around the forearm,
ij^ in. above the knee, he measured
X5% in., and z?>% in. round the gaskin,
about I ^ in. above the hock. He meas-
ured loj^ in. bone below the knee, 11
in. bone below the hock, and at the date
named, in low condition, weighed 1876
lb. The corresponding measurements
for "Sir Hugo" 10,924, when seven
years old, and in lean winter condition,
were : height 17.1 hands, girth 7 ft. 3 in.,
15^^ in. round the forearm, and 18 in.
round the gaskin, above the hock ; loj^
in. bone below the knee, iij^ in. bone
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
23
below the hookj weight when on his
season travelling in 1905, 1950 lb.
Hiawatha. — Passing from the " Sir
Everard" tribe, to which all of these
horses whose measurements have been
given belong, the most notable show
horse of modern times is " Hiawatha "
10,067 (Plate 9). Four times he won
the Cawdor Cup for the best Clydesdale
stallion at the Glasgow Show, and he
was awarded the supreme championship
of the breed at the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society's Show at Edinburgh in
1899. He belongs to the most modern
type of Clydesdale, and has more of
" Prince of Wales " 673 character in him
than any other horse of his time.
In November 1905 "Hiawatha" stood
17.2 hands, girthed 7 ft. 6 in. in lean
condition, and then weighed 2128 lb.
His bone, below the knee, measured
10 J^ in., and below the hock, 11 in.
His son, "Hiawatha Godolphin" 12,602,
was foaled in 1902, and when three years
and four months old stood 17.2 J^ hands,
girthed 7 ft. 6J^ in., and weighed i960
lb. Below the knee his bone measured
loj^ in., and below the hock 11^ in.
He measured 17 in. round the forearm,
and 19/^ in. round the gaskin above the
hock.
"Marcellus'' 11,110, another son of
" Hiawatha," was foaled in 1898, and in
November 1905 he stood 17. ij^ hands,
girthed 7 ft. 8 in., and weighed 1988 lb.
He had i6}4 in. muscle above the knee,
and ig% in. round the gaskin, above the
hook. He had 11 in. bone below the
knee, and 1234! in. bone below the
hock.
Boyal Favourite.- — Of a different
type and of another line of breeding,
but stUl combining " Prince of Wales "
and "Darnley" blood, is " Eoyal Favour-
ite" 10,630. He was foaled in May
1897, and in November 1905 stood
16.2 J4 hands, girthed 7 ft. 3 in., and
weighed i960 lb. He has 16 in. above
the knee, 18 in. above the hock. Bone
below the knee 10 in., and below the
hock 12 in.
Measurement of Mares. — Mares may
be taken as a rule to measure about 2 in.
less in height, from 15.2 to 16.2 hands
being the average. And in respect of
weight of bone and other measurements,
these are in proportion. " Chester Prin-
cess" 16,371, the champion mare at the
Highland Show for two years, is con-
siderably over these measurements, and
in proportion in* every respect.
Features of the Modern Clydesdale.
A Clydesdale, whether male or female,
must walk close behind — that is, the
points of the hock must be turned towards
each other, and they must not be too
open in the thighs. In front, their legs
should be planted well under the shoul-
ders and chest, and not at all on the
outside, like those of a bulldog. It is a
very bad fault for a Clydesdale to stand
"easy" on its fcwelegs, so that its knees
are shaky.
A true Clydesdale gives the ideas of
strength, spirit, and soundness. Activity
is essential, along with soundness of
wind and limb.
Markets for Clydesdales.
Export Trade. — The Clydesdale has
long been in great demand for foreign
export. As early as the second quarter
of the nineteenth century stallions and
mares were being exported to the Aus-
tralian colonies and to Canada. During
the next quarter of the century Australia
and New Zealand bought many of the
choicest specimens of the breed, and
prices over ^^looo were recorded for
horses like "Time o' Day" 875 ; "Pride
of Scotland" 602, the best two-year-old
colt of 1874 went to Australia at ^^750,
and his son " Bonnie Scotland " 1076
followed in 1878 at ^900.
Many Highland Society first - prize
winners were exported from 1850 to
1880, and although the volume of trade
in any single year might not have gone
much, if any, over a score, the value of
each animal was high.
In 1880 a totally different trade was
developed with the United States and
Canada. Numbers rather than quality
were its characteristic, although this rule
did not universally apply. In 1881 a
large number of the best females at the
shows of that year went to the United
States and founded studs there from
which valuable animals have since been
brought back to Great Britain.
Export Certificates. — In 1884 the
Clydesdale Horse Society began to keep
accurate records of the Export Certificates
24
CLYDESDALE HOESES.
issued, and the following list indicates
what these were : —
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
189s
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
190S
1906
igc.7
No. of
Certificates issued.
500
5H
600
920
1 149
1040
554
349
158
15
56
57
132
250
178
167
266
411
536
653
1317
1 100
Home Market. — With respect to
values in the home market the follow-
ing tables of averages show the rise and
fall in prices over the period from 1876
until 1908. It will be observed that the
average made at the Knockdon sale of
1876 has only once been surpassed dur-
ing the generation that has passed away
since it was held : —
Clydesdale Sales from
[876
to 1908.
The following is a list of the average
prices obtained at the
leading public
sales <)f Clydesdale horses from 1876 to
1908 : —
Place.
Nos.
Average,
1876.
Knockdon ....
22
^209 15 2
1878.
Merryton (partly Shire and
Crosses) ....
50
168 II 0
1879.
Merryton (partly Shire and
Grosses) ....
ss
112 II 0
Auohendennan .
13
"4 S 9
1884.
Auchendennau .
14
161 14 6
Merryton (Dispersion, partly
Shire and Crosses) .
63
152 3 0
Place. Nos. AveragCi
1892.
Montrave (highest, Queen of
the Roses, two - year - old
filly, 1000 gs.) . . .29 ;£'i49 15 o
1893.
Croy-Cunningham . .19 88 12 10
Blau-tummock . . -31 51 I 6
Kippendavie . . -25 48 2 o
1894.
Mains of Airies . . .32
Edengrove and Robgill (Joint) 23
Craigie . . . .20
Seaham Harbour (Draft) . 42
1895.
Eastfield (Stallions only) .
Glasgow Cattle Market
(Mares only) .
Eamock ....
Folmont (Joint) .
1896.
Sinclair Scott's (Glasgow) .
Loohbum ....
Edengrove (Carlisle) .
Blairtummock
Keir (Dispersion)
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
1897.
Moncreiffe ....
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
80 9 I
77 IS 10
26 II 3
36 2 6
38 168 8 10
10
27
39
29
12
16
19
S3
52
10
41
1887.
Whitehill, Sanquhar (Mares
only)
138 18
Kippendavie
South Acomb
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
Overdale (Mares)
Morton Grange .
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
Mertoun ....
1900.
Kippendavie
Balmedie (Dispersion)
Seaham Harbour (25 Foals)
South Acomb
1901.
Milton Ardlethen (Females
only) ....
Mains of Airies (Dispersion)
Morton Grange .
Seaham Harbour (Drrft)
Perth — Montrave
Blairtummock
Rosehaugh
Orchardmains
Glamis .
Sands (FilUes)
Cavens
II
18
61
37
68 19 8
79 5 10
60 15 10
63 5 o
43 5 5
116 19 8
52 3 4
67 II 6
41 12 I
44 10 o
49 5 8
30 48 16 2
38 45 13 o
47 48 II I
7 83 8 o
38 ID 8 o
67 48 II 5
18 45 o 8
83 2 10
no 6 2
52 18 5
40 17 7
II
45
5
8
19
141
7
9
36
74
18
7
53
42
3
II
23
64
16
6
5
61
6
5
10
47
2
II
10
44
4
I
4
45
8
3
2
51
9
0
22
44
2
0
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
25
Place.
Nos.
Average.
1902.
Bellsfield . . . .
6
;f66 10
0
A. B. Matthews (Draft)
4
73 4
9
Seaham Harbour (Draft) .
38
S3 16
0
Millfield . . . .
i6
77 6
I
Seaham Harbour (Draft) .
32
39 IS
8
Lambton . . . .
36
47 IS
2
1903.
Swinton House .
t8
46 lO
6
Orchardmains (Dispersion) .
24
76 9
6
Milton Ardlethen
19
SO I
II
Morton Grange . . «
20
62 4
3
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
43
44 5
7
Drumflower . . ^
9
134 12
8
Garthland .
II
45 II
8
1904.
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
37
45 5
4
Perth — Glamis .
9
56 0
0
Eosehaugh
9
42 0
0
Mertoun ^.
13
38 0
0
Meraehead (Pilkington's) .
19
47 4
0
1905-
Blaoon Point (at Lanark)
30
152 3
7
Charleston .* .
20
38 18
0
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
45
35 I
0
1906.
Perth ....
43
60 16
4
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
39
50 IS
0
Blacon Point (at Lanark
}
Dispersion)
14
216 10
6
1907.
Scotstoun (A. B. Matthews)
5
84 17
0
Challoch (Newton-Stewart)
12
73 2
I
Perth (Gross)
74
83 5
5
Samx Detailed,
—
Harviestoun
15
149 17
5
Bullion
3
107 2
0
Mertoun .
12
67 12
9
Nether Bogside
S
69 I
9
Mains of Edzell
s
55 10
0
Amprior (Yearling
. Fillies) .
s
56 18
2
Lochlane .
2
93 19
6
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
57
3* 1
6
Lambton
. 40
39 8
8
1908.
Ardimersay (at Ayr) .
6
40 IS
6
Perth (Gross)
84
54 5
0
Same Detailed
—
Mains of Edzell
. 3
55 13
0
Jordanstone
2
136 10
0
Ledlanet .
. 12
74 16
3
Dunure Mains .
S
38 8
7
Harviestoun
• 9
120 19
8
Crieff
• 5
26 13
5
Mertoun .
5
24 IS
7
Bullion .
• 4
71 18
6
Seaham Harbour (Draft)
• 53
45 10
6
MANAGEMENT OF CLYDESDALE STUDS.
Th3 system of management pursued
in Clydesdale studs varies to some ex-'
tent according to the district. In the
extreme south-west of Scotland, for ex-
ample, where the temperature is com-
paratively high even in winter, it is
possible to have the animals out in
fields practically all the year round. In
such circumstances all that is required
is a shelter-shed or some such structure
for providing cover in a specially cold or
stormy day. In other parts, on the other
hand, winter-housing to a greater or less
extent is almost a necessity, especially
in the case of mares. Young colts run-
ning rough may do with a warm shed
for use at nights and on cold days, but
mares require comfortable housing at
that season of the year if colds and other
troubles are to be avoided, and the best
foaling and other results obtained.
Apart from this, there is no great
difference in the methods of treatment
between north and south, although
naturally where the winter is open and
grass comes early in the spring, it is
possible to bring out young stock earlier
in the year for show purposes. Open-air
rearing in winter, especially where the
climate is moist, is also a great aid in
the growth of hair. This circumstance
explains to a considerable extent why
young horses reared, say, in Wigtownshire,
have usually a greater profusion of hair
in the spring than those reared in Lan-
arkshire, Perthshire, or Aberdeenshire.
Later in the year the two classes com-
pete on fairly equal terms in this respect.
Brood Mares. — The treatment of
brood mares is perhaps the most import-
ant element in stud management. Where
mares are kept exclusively for breeding
purposes, the artificial feeding should be
of the lightest possible description con-
sistent with keeping them in fresh breed-
ing condition. In one very eminent
stud in Central Scotland the custom a
fey years ago was to give the mares of
this class only one bushel of oats per
head per week mixed with chopped oat-
straw, a few Swedish turnips in the fore-
noon, a pailful of boiled food — turnips,
cut hay, and bran — in the afternoon, and
long oat -straw ad lib: Very excellent
results were obtained on this feeding for
26
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
a considerable number of years, the
mares going out in sheltered fields all
day, summer and winter. Of late years
there has been a tendency to restrict the
boiled food and to give everything cold,
as being less liable to set up colic. In
an equally well-known Fifeshire stud,
where as many as fifteen mares were
wont to be kept for breeding purposes
alone, the custom was, and still largely
is, to give the mares twice daily in
winter bruised oats and chopped hay
along with a few raw Swedish turnips.
The daily allowance of the combined oat
and hay mixture was about 14 lb. per
head, one half being given in the morn-
ing and the other half in the evening
during the period from the end of
September until the grass came in the
spring. In summer the animals got
nothing but grass.
In a Wigtownshire stud, where seven
mares were formerly reserved for breed-
ing purposes, the regulation winter diet
was 6« lb. of crushed oats and i^ lb.
bruised linseed-cake each per day, with
as much timothy hay as the animals
eared to eat, — this being in addition to
what they picked up in a rough pasture.
In this stud rock-salt was always kept
within reach of the mares, and this is a
course that should be generally followed.
Salt not only sharpens the palate of
animals but helps to keep them in good
general health. An Aberdeenshire
breeder gives his breeding mares in
winter i lb. of oats daily along with cut
hay, a boiled mash, and a few turnips ;
while a Forfarshire breeder gives from
the end of October onwards one feed of
oats in the morning and a feed of boiled
barley and beans at night, in addition to
hay and straw and what the mares pick
up on the field during the day.
These instances afford an indication of
the lines followed generally in the feed-
ing of brood mares kept exclusively for
breeding purposes. The important point
is to keep the animals in as fresh natural
condition as possible, so that they may
breed regularly and produce strong
healthy foals.
Possibly the greater number of mares
are kept for working as well as breeding,
and in these cases somewhat different
methods of feeding and management
have to be adopted. A mare that is
working will always require more liberal
treatment than one that is doing noth-
ing. Up to about a month before foal-
ing the working mare can be fed on
pretty much the ordinary horse rations
of the farm — that is, 10 to 14 lb. of
grain can be given along with a few
Swedish turnips, and possibly a bran
mash on Saturday nights, with, of
course, straw or hay as required. Some
people also give an occasional feed of
linseed, while others give a two-ounce
dose of Epsom salts at least once a-week.
About a month before foaling it is usual
to reduce the oats and increase the bran
or linseed ration. Mares in foal must at
all times be worked with special care.
They should be backed as little as pos-
sible, and for two months at least before
foaling they should not be carted. In
chains, however, they can be wrought
quite safely, up practically to foaling
time, provided that they are not hurried
and get their own time in turnings and
other awkward positions.
Mares worked fairly regularly make
the most reliable and satisfactory breed-
ers. They have also, as a rule, the easiest
foaling time, and produce the strongest, .
most thriving, and healthy foals. Idle
mares are very apt to get fat no* matter
what is done to prevent it, and when
such is the case foaling risks are greatly
increased. Working mares, of course,
require careful handling, but where this
is given there are fewer losses, as a rule,
with mares of this class than with those
that go idle. Mares that are hard
worked and mares that are highly fed
are usually the most difficult to settle
in foal. Stallion owners on this account
prefer, where they have a choice, dis-
tricts away from towns, where neither
the work nor the feeding is heavy.
Foaling. — In Scotland, at any rate,
the bulk of the foaling has necessarily to
be done under cover. Several experienced
stud-owners never allow their mares to
foal in the open before the middle of
June in any case. For inside foaling a
roomy loose-box is almost a necessity.
Mares should be sheeted for a day or
two after foaling, and fed on soft, sloppy
food, such as boiled barley, pulped tur-
nips, or cut hay mixed with moistened or
boiled meal. Bean-meal is regarded as
being about the best for this purpose.
CLYDESDALE HORSES.
27
Care of Foals. — Perhaps no young
animal on the farm is more precarious to
handle for the first few days of its exist-
ence than a foal. Immediately a newly-
born foal gets to its legs it should be
taught to suckle its dam. Many mares,
even at best, are poor nurses, and it will
be the business of the attendant to see
that the foal is getting the nourishment
it requires. Mares that foal early and
have little nourishment for their off-
spring should be fed as much as possible
on sloppy food, and given occasionally a
meal-drink. On the other hand, there
are mares which have milk so plentiful
and so strong as to cause diarrhoea in the
young foal. This is an evil to be
guarded against. In such cases the
mare should be at once put upon dry
concentrated food and straw fodder; if
at grass, she should b.e put on the oldest
and driest pasture available, and kept
there until the flow of milk ceases some-
what in volume. In obstinate or rather
over-milky conditions it may be necessary
to systematically drain off some of the
milk by hand.
Great care should be taken in the
choice of a day for turning out the mare
and foal for the first time. The selected
day should be dry and the grass free
from white frost. For the first eight or
ten days, should rain begin to fall, the
mare should be at once sheltered. A
young foal, if exposed in such weather,
may contract joint-ill and other diseases,
and the mare herself may become chilled.
Even after the foal gets older, it is sound
policy never to let it out when there is
hoar-frost on the ground until at any
rate it has had a meal in the house.
Foals are usually weaned when they
are from four to six months old. In
special cases they may be allowed to go
the full six months or even a little longer
with their dams, but that involves a good
deal of strain on the mare if she is again
to have a foal next year, and most
breeders are content when they get foals
eighteen weeks with the mare. Foals
just taken from their mothers should be
put in a field or paddock by themselves
and given a little artificial food,— noth-
ing is better for keeping the flesh on
a foal than a chop mixture of oats, cut
hay, and beans, fed twice a-day. Most
breeders feed both the mare and the foal
before they are separated, for by October,
when most of the weaning takes place,
the pastures are beginning to get dry and
bare. The foal in such cases is accord-
ingly accustomed to eat out of a box
before it is weaned, and thus it takes
readily to the new conditions, and does
not lose condition. If it be important to
keep on the "calf" flesh, it is equally
important, if ground is not to be lost, to
keep on the "foal" flesh. A foal
neglected at weaning time or earlier
never grows to the size that it otherwise
would.
Putting Mares Dry. — As a rule, no
difficulty is experienced in getting the
mare dry, but where such is the case a
doze of 4 drachms of aloes, along with
a pint of linseed -oil, has been found
beneficial. In extra difficult cases part
of the milk should be drawn off at
extending intervals and the udder bathed
with vinegar.
Other Classes. — The " other classes " ,
in a Clydesdale stud will include colts
and fillies of various ages up to three
years, by which time the fillies should be
qualifying for the brood-mare stage. It
is desirable in rearing young horses of
this class to run the colts separately from
the fillies. In each case the fields or
pasture outruns should be equipped with
warm wooden sheds fitted with both
feed-boxes and hay-racks. Where the
animals come into the steading at night
warm sheds can be dispensed with, al-
though shelter -sheds, with their faces
to the south, may still be desirable.
" Chop," as already noted for foals,
forms an excellent winter food for young
horses of either sex, and this should be
accompanied by a few Swedish turnips
^and what long hay or straw they will
take. In some studs as much as 10 lb.
each animal of chop is allowed per day,
but this will depend on the nature of the
weather and the character of the pasture.
For animals that are being pushed on for
showing in the ensuing season, a daily
mash of bran, pulped turnips, and barley
or beans, with a few raw carrots, are
very useful, as are likewise a few green
tares, the young animals eating the latter
even more readily than hay.
Colts that are not good enough for
breeding purposes should be castrated,
at the very latest, before they are two
28
THE SUFFOLK HOKSE.
years old. Preferably, this operation
should not be delayed beyond twelve
to fifteen months. Colts left too long
entire become coarse about their heads
and necks, and too rough about their legs,
to make first-cla-ss geldings. Moreover,
they never settle or thrive so well as
colte castrated earlier. Colts intended
to be left entire require to be boxed at
two years old. By this time, however,
they are usually in the hands of the regu-
lar stallion owners, who have premises
specially suitable for this class of stock.
Although a few breeders put their
fillies to the horse at two years old, the
general custom is to leave them until
they are a year older. FiUies served
at two years old, unless they are extra
big in size, are' apt to become stunted in
their growth, and rarely make such big
mares at four or five years old as they
would otherwise do. At the same time,
many people hold that a filly served at
two years old, like a heifer started to
breed at fifteen months old, breeds more
regularly and with greater certainty in
subsequent years than one that is not
served until she is three years old.
Management of Show Stock.
Showing is to a considerable extent
a business by itself, and in its highest
form at any rate not for the amateur.
To win a prize in important shows, an
animal must, in the first place, be fairly
perfect in shape and correct according
to the ideas of the time in its detailed
points. It must, for instance, be of fair
size, as cleaii as possible in its legs and
ankles, and sound in its feet. More-
over, it ought to be a good, straight
mover, both behind and in front. More
or less' solid reasons can be advanced for
each of these requirements, and in addi-
tion it must be brought out in what is
called show form. The latter, assum-
ing that the fundamental groundwork
is right, is mainly a matter of physical
labour and judicious feeding.
Where the science comes in is in
regard to detailed points. Thus blister-
ing is pretty extensively resorted to for
the growth of hair over the ' hoof heads.
In the same way many animals are made
to stand on soft, prepared stances to en-
courage the growth of their feet. While
most of these devices are perfectly legit-
imate and harmless so far as the general
public are concerned, there is another
practice that has crept in of late years
that cannot be so well defended, — that
is, to force out young animals, colts
especially, with cow's milk. By this
means it is possible to have big lustrous-
looking yearlings with great hair ; but
animals so forced rarely do much good
in succeeding years when the mUk-supply
is not forthcoming, and the custom of
using milk in this way has been blamed
for encouraging the objectionable disease
known as wind-sucking. The rush for
prizes is, however, so keen that expert
show men usually use all means open
to them to present their animals in the
best possible prize-winning form.
The great majority of breeders are
wise enough to avoid all these dubious
methods, and to rely upon more natural
means of embellishment, which, after all,
pay best, and are in every respect most
satisfactory in the end.
Clydesdale stallions are represented in
Plates 9 and lo, and a Clydesdale mare
in Plate ii.
THE SUFFOLK HORSE.
The Suffolk Punch is a distinct type
of horse. It has its headquarters in the
English county of Suffolk ; but although
it has long been held in high esteem
there, it has never obtained an exten-
sive footing beyon4 the south-eastern
counties of England.
Historical. — ^As to the origin of the
Suffolk Punch, various accounts have
been given. Low says: "The colour
distinctive of this variety connects it
with the race widely diffused through-
out the north of Europe and Asia, from
the Scandinavian Alps to the plains .of
Tartary, in which the dun colour pre-
vails. It is believed to have been
THE SUFFOLK HOESE.
29
carried to the eastern counties of
England from Normandy, which yet
possesses many fine horses of this
variety, introduced, it may be believed,
by the Scandinavian invaders." ^
Arthur Young was a native of Suflfolk,
and in his report on the Agriculture
of this county, compiled about the end
of the eighteenth century, he speaks of
"the old breed" of horses as if it had
been specially associated with the dis-
trict long prior to that date. Writing
in 1878, Mr Herman Biddell says:
"Two hundred years ago there were
draught-horses peculiar to the county,
and of standing enough as a distinct
breed to maintain their prevailing char-
acteristics through generations of de-
scendants, long after the original type
had been considerably modified by re-
peated selection, and the introduction
of incidental crosses. How long prior
to Young's time the breed had existed
we have no evidence to show." ^
Continuing, Mr Biddell says : "It clearly
appears that there is scarcely a Suflfolk
stallion in the county, of any note what-
ever, whose pedigree is not clearly to be
traced in a direct male line for seventy
years. The records in the possession of
the association, which relate to a period
between 1790 and 1810, throw some
light on the matter, and point to the
introduction of materials not ill calcu-
lated to bring about the transformation
that has taken place. Infusion of the
Thoroughbred, Flemish, and heavier
blood of native horses, has tended to
exert upon the ' old breed ' the influence
such elements would be likely to produce;
but as far as a careful search through the
lineage of the horses now extant in the
county will show, not one seems to have
inherited the alloy in the male line, all
of which terminate in an ancestry in all
probability tracing back to the old breed
mentioned by Arthur Young."
Since then opinion has been modified.
In a lecture before the Framlingham
Farmers' Club in 1907, Mr Herman
Biddell remarked —
" I have seen over and over again the
statement made that the Suflfolk horse
was the result of a cross from the
' Low's Domesticated Animals of the British
Islands, 1842, 619.
^ Live Stock Journal Alk,, 1878.
Continent. It is said they are de-
scendants of some Flemish ancestry.
I have searched every available source
from which this statement was likely
to have emanated. I have been unable
to find the slightest foundation for this
mythological origin of the Suflfolk sire.
. . . There was a strain of Suflfolks
fifty years ago which came from a
mare imported into the country from
abroad. But the horse that had this
strain in his pedigree could only have
had an eighth of his parentage of this
doubtful origin, but this is the only
instance of authentic introduction of
foreign blood that I could discover."
The most salutary influence on the
modern Suflblk was exercised by a
trotting stamp of horse from Lincoln-
shire, brought down about the middle
of the eighteenth century by a Mr
Blake of St Margaret's, Ipswich. This
blending of " Blake's strain " with the
old county type of horse produced,
in the opinion of qualified authorities,
animals as handsome, or nearly so, as
horses of our own day.
Characteristics.
Colour. — The colour is the most dis-
tinctive feature in the Suffolk breed. It
is a chestnut of varying hue, with lighter
coloured mane and tail. The bright
chestnuts are the favoured colour. It
is a peculiar fact that no breed repro-
duces truer to colour than the Suflfolk.
Silver-haired horses are met with, but
so long as they are not roans they are
not objected to. The mealy colour is
one of the worst.
Form. — Arthur Young apparently had
not a very high opinion of the breed.
He cuts it oflf with this sarcastic touch :
" Sorrel colour ; very low in the fore end ;
a large ill-shaped head, with slouching,
heavy ears ; a great carcass, and short
legs : an uglier horse could hardly be
viewed." Now, however, the breed is
gainly, although it is still a thick,
chubby, or punchy animal, with a body
disproportionately large for the length
of its limbs. Its legs are stout, full of
substance, and now flatter in the bone
than was at one time the case. The
charge that the Suflfolk is a round-
boned horse need not seriously be con-
sidered, for there is a tendency to run
30
THE SUFFOLK HORSE.
to the extreme of quality with, bone of
" razor "-like character.
A great improvement is discernible
at the ground. Up till near the end
of the last century bad feet were com-
paratively common, and while it can-
not be urged that the attainment of
perfection has yet been reached, still
the casual observer who remembers the
earlier appearance of the breed must
admit that there are plenty of open
coronets and good thick feet to be
found in modem Suffolk studs. It is
not the case that the Punch is un-
popular for the London dray trade
because of bad feet. The fact of the
matter is, that he is hardly big or
weighty enough to compete for this
traffic with the strong and massive
Shire, which all but monopolises the
market. But for heavy van work there
is no better horse than the Suffolk.
Measurements. — The limbs of the
Suffolk horse have a naked appearance,
for they carry little long hair. A good
measurement of bone below the knee
for a stallion is loj^ in. It is men-
tioned that Mr Smith's famous sire
"Wedgewood" girthed 7 ft. 11 in., and
measured as much as 10^ in. below
the knee, which must be considered
good, as there was no hair to include.
In point of height, 16.2 hands is about
the limit. Mr BiddeU goes as far as to
say that "unless extremely well put
together, anything over 16.1 hands
should be viewed with suspicion."
Action and Handiness. — The action
of the Suffolk is not the least potent
recommendation of the breed. A fine
agile walker, he uses his joints well,
snapping his knees sharply. For farm
work his speedy and willing service is
much appreciated. When in the early
days of Clydesdale "horse-breeding
by the book," when that breed was
making new supporters in the north of
Scotland, not a little of the opposition
it encountered in Aberdeenshire was
from the Suffolk mares. At the end
of a drill they are speedy and handy to
turn, and give equal satisfaction between
the shafts.
This fine spirit with which the Suffolk
horse goes to work is no doubt inherited.
In the olden days it was the custom in
Suffolk to enter horses in pulling matched.
Prior to the institution of agricultural
shows these pulling matches appeared
to be of the nature of sporting institu-
tions. Sir Thomas Cullum writes of
them thus : —
"A trial is made with a waggon loaded
with sand, the wheels sunk a little in
the ground, with blocks of wood laid
before them to increase the difficulty.
The first efforts were made, as usual,
with reins fastened to the collar, but
the animals cannot when so confined
put forth their full strength; . . . that
they may not break their knees in the
operation, the area on which they draw
is strewn with soft sand."
It requires no stretch of the imagina-
tion to connect the willing service of the
modern Suffolk with the exercise of his
talents in this peculiar way. Although
capable of growing to a ton weight, his
powers of haulage are not entirely to be
measured by the avoirdupois he can put
into the collar. Activity and sustained
muscular effort count for much.
Docility and Longevity. — Docility
and longevity are two points which can
be claimed for the breed. The value of
the former need not be emphasised : it
is apparent.
Many cases of wonderful longevity are
on record. One of these is worthy of
mention. At one of the earlier exhib-
itions of the Suffolk Agricultural Society
there was a mare shown which had en-
tered her thirty - seventh year. More
remarkable still, she was suckling a foal.
The Suffolk Horse Society.
The Suffolk Horse Society was estab-
lished in 1876, and had in igo8 239
members. The chief scheme of the
Society for the advancement of the
breed was that of assisting farmers
to acquire mares, which, by partial
payment and subsequently by real-
ising the foals, became their virtual
property in three years. This scheme
was inaugurated in 1897, when the
Society was empowered to purchase
thirty nominations to approved sires.
The owner from whom a nomination
was bought was asked to restrict the
service of mares to the number of eighty
to the stallion in that year. Tenant-
farmers whose holdings did not ex-
ceed 200 acres were to apply under the
THE SUFFOLK HORSE.
31
scheme, in response to an advertisement,
and if chosen they were required to sign
an agreement to deliver the foal, un-
weaned and free of cost, on a sale day
to be fixed, and to accept ^£15 from the
Society as purchase price, the Society tak-
ing the risk of getting a higher or lower
price. Thirty nominations were taken
up, at a cost of ^^2 each, and fifteen
foals followed in September 1899, which
realised, after deducting the auctioneer's
charges, j^iy each. Each live foal cost
the Society ^^3, 6s. 8d., so that there
was a deficit of ^^i, 6s. 8d. on each of
the fifteen foals.
The main difficulty was to find suit-
able mares, so the Society went one step
further and bought mares for farmers,
who, on getting possession, paid 25 per
cent of the purchase money, the re-
mainder being loaned at 4 per cent. If
the mare proved barren for two years,
or in case of accident, the Society had
the right to dispose of the mare, dividing
the proceeds with the tenant-farmer in
proportion to his indebtedness. The
price agreed on for the delivery of the
foal was raised to ;^i6, los.
Foreign Trade. — The foreign trade
for the breed is considerable. On the
Continent it is popular as a useful cross
for producing a heavy class of artillery
horse. Many go south of the Equator,
but the demand is chiefly from Eussia
and other Continental countries. There
is a possible field for the breed in the
United States, where the draught-horse
type most popular is very much like
the Sufiblk. With their indifferent roads,
the heavy horse with hirsute heels does
not seem to enjoy the same popularity
as the clean-legged type in certain parts
of America.
Iieading Shows. — The chief shows
at which the Suffolk is exhibited are
Woodbridge, Suffolk, Essex, and Norfolk
county meetings, and the Royal Agri-
cultural Society's Show. Suffolks are
also included in the Cart-horse Parade
in London, and fine teams have been
exhibited at the International Horse
Show at Olympia.
MANAGEMENT.
The Suffolk stud does not differ in
respect of management from studs of
other heavy breeds. The same routine
is followed, the same foaling dates
arranged, the same feeding carried out.
Half the management of the stud lies
in the right treatment and mating of the
brood mare. The selection of a stallion,
with the travelling facilities afforded by
railway companies, is not limited to
the horses in the immediate neighbour-
hood, for those farther afield may be
visited.
Brood MareB. — During summer the
brood mare has her foal at pasture and
requires little attention. If she is a
valuable brood mare only the lightest
work sufficient to exercise her should
be given. If she has no particular
claims in the way of pedigree she may
take her share in the work of the farm.
Many are opposed to this working of
mares suckling foals. It is not product-
ive of evil effects, however, if the mare
is not over-driven and heated and the
foal not allowed to suckle when she is
heated. Mares with very young foals
should certainly not be worked.
The FoaL — Early weaning is fav-
oiu-ed by many Suffolk breeders. On
the farm it is an advantage if the foal
can be weaned before the mare is wanted
for the stress of harvest work. It is,
however, a disadvantage from the point
of view of producing a big growthy foal.
Some mares have been allowed to suckle
their foals from seven to eight months,
but that is too heavy a drain upon the
system to be advised. In show studs
the temptation in this way is great when
a foal is doing well, but for not more than
six months, and preferably five months,
should the mare be asked to rear her
offspring.
Foaling time is a more or less anxious
period. There are mares that like the
human presence when foaling, while others
dislike it greatly. The usual indications
of approaching foaling are the uneasiness
of the mare and the waxiness of the
teats. For the first few days after the
arrival of a foal it should be kept in-
doors. Then a sheltered paddock should
be chosen, and in the course of a fort-
night it may be turned out to grass in
the ordinary way. Foaling in the open
is not favoured, because it is more con-
venient to have the mare at hand. It
would, however, avoid the danger of
32
THE CLEVELAND BAY.
contamination arising from the ordinary
foaling -box, which manifests its evil
effects in navel-ill and other troubles.
If the foal is intended for show it should
be kept in good condition by other means
than mother's milk when the supply is
scanty or the quality inferior. Cow's
milk sweetened may be given, but only
as a last resort. Concentrated food,
like com, should also be avoided as long
as possible. The immediate benefit of
extra food of this description may be
apparent, but it only lays the foundation
of future troubla
Service. — Service is usimUy offered
the mare the ninth or tenth day after
foaling. If she fails to respond thus
early the mare is tried again at three
weeks, and thence every fortnight.
Food and Care in Winter. — Extra
rations are allowed in winter, usually
beginning about November. A little
corn, and perhaps hay in rough weather,
will carry the brood mare well through
winter. Work in the chains is beneficial
to the breeding mare. Carting may also
be done up to within a short time of
foaling, provided the mare is not backed.
During the hard wintry weather a more
varied ration is given than at ordinary
times. There should be no frosty roots
fed, and the allowance of turnips in any
case ought to be small. Mares and
draught -horses at work in winter will
do well on a ration of crushed oats, bran,
and a littie bean-meal. A peck of maiae
(soaked) and an equal quantity of bran
with pulped roots night and morning is
another ration that is not uncommonly
fed in Suffolk studs when the price of
maize permits. Flaked maize is good
for conditioning. The prejudice against
maize for horses is well founded, un-
less the feeding is carried out with
discretion. It will speedily find out
the bad -legged horses when they are
not sufficiently worked to throw off the
surplus of the fat-producing material.
Grooming regularly, watering before
meals, and periodical exercise in frosty
weather, are important matters in suc-
cessful stud management. It is a good
plan to giye draught-horses, young and
old, the run of an open court for a time.
They will get the exercise they want in
this way.
Stallions.' — ^The management of stal-
lions has nowadays been reduced to the
simplest of methods. In many studs
they run out summer and winter, being
taken up to the service -shed vrhen
wanted. Shelter-boxes in the paddocks
are necessary as feeding-places, but they
are not much used by horses for the
purpose for which they are erected. It
is a good plan to encourage "constitu-
tion " by allowing stallions to " rough
it " during the winter, taking them
under cover about three weeks prior to
the show at which they are intended to
be exhibited,
A portrait of a Suffolk mare is given
in Plate 14, and a portrait of a Suffolk
stallion in Plate 15.
THE CLEYELAND BAY.
Cleveland Bay horses have played an
important part both in road and farm
work. This is only what would be ex-
pected of a breed of horses of such size,
action, power, and hardy constitution as
the Cleveland Bays can claim. They
are not now so widely used as in the
pre-railway days, but they are still recog-
nised as a very useful class of horses.
At one time the variety bore the name of
the Chapman horse, but it is now known
by the name of the Yorkshire district
■mth which it is mainly associated.
Origin. — The origin of the Cleveland
Bay has exercised the ingenuity of seve-
ral writers, who have puzzled themselves
and their readers in vain efforts to ac-
count for the existence of the Cleveland
Bay by promulgating elaborate theories
of crossing^ between the Thoroughbred
stallion and the cart-mare. It is unnec-
essary to enter into minute detail respect-
ing these theories. The very conforma-
tion of the Cleveland Bay clearly points
put that he cannot be descended from
the cart-horse, the elegance of his quar-
THE CLEVELAND BAY.
33
ters especially showing that there can be
no kinship between them ; whilst the way
in which, as a rule, the Cleveland Bay
breeds to type, both in colour and con-
formation, precludes the possibility of his
being the result of an elaborate system
of crossing between the Thoroughbred
and the cart-horse.
Mr W. Scarth Dixon, to whom we are
indebted for notes on the breed, con-
siders it very probable that the Cleveland
Bay derives a certain proportion of his
courage and endurance from a pretty
large infusion of Eastern blood, which
doubtless did take place in the earlier
years of the Christian era.
It is also possible that the Cleveland
Bay may have been crossed with the
Scandinavian horse during the time that
the Danes effected a settlement on the
north-east coast of Yorkshire.
Cliaraeteristics. — The Cleveland Bay
is a short-legged horse^ standing from i6
hands to i6 hands 3 inches, seldom being
found under the one, and only a few
specimens being met with that exceed,
or even attain to, the other. His head
is rather plain, but is well set on, his
neck is well placed, and his shoulders
generally lie well back. His back is
rather long, from the standpoint of a
riding man, but it is strong and muscular ;
his quarters are long, level, and elegant ;
and his tail is well put on and well car-
ried. He is remarkable for the quality
of bone, which is as clean and flat as that
of a race-horse, and his legs are almost
clear of hair. His action is of a high
standard of excellence, both in a walk
and a trot ; and although he has none of
that knee action so much admired by
the lover of the hackney, he moves his
shoulders and hocks in rare style, and
in a manner highly suggestive of getting
over the ground. In modern times the
complaint is sometimes heard that sub-
stance is being sacrificed to quality.
It is recorded of the famous stallion
"Cleveland" that he measured 16 hands
lyi in. high, 9^ in. round the pastern,
10 in. round below the knee, 21 in. found
the arm, 15^ in. round the knee, and
6 ft. 10 in. round the girth. Cleveland
Bays are excellent workers on farms,
especially on the lighter classes of land.
They are hardy, active, and endurable.
Value for Crossing. — The value of
VOL. III.
the Cleveland Bay tor crossing with other
breeds is difficult to estimate, and to this
very fact is to be attributed in no small
measure that falling off in the numbers
of the pure breed which a few years ago
nearly led to its extinction. It was uSed
in Scotland in the early part of the pres-
ent century to improve the breed of
agricultural horses in that country, and
the results were, as a rule, satisfactory.
Valuable riding and driving horses have
been bred by crossing a short-legged
Hackney sire with a Cleveland mare;
and Cleveland mares crossed with a
Thoroughbred horse have bred some of
the best hunters that ever went out of
Yorkshire.
Great care, however, is required in
the selection of a stallion. The latter
should be of an active, wiry character,
with good shoulders, and a short strong
back, and rather under than over 15
hands 3 inches. Especial care should
be taken to select a horse with short
legs, this being a far more important
matter than size, for great size is to
be avoided, even if the horse is ever
so well put together. The second cross
from a Cleveland mare makes the best
hunter as a rule, retaining the size and
substance of the Cleveland, and naturally
possessing more quality and pace ; but
after the second cross the tendency is for
the breed to lose size and degenerate.
As an instance of the value of the Cleve-
land Bay as a foundation for breeding
hunters may be cited the fact that some
of the best hunters bred by Lord Middle-
ton at Birdsall came third in direct
descent from a Cleveland mare.
THE YOEKSHIEE COACH-HOESK.
The Yorkshire coach-horse is an off-
shoot of thd Cleveland Bay. It origin-
ated in the demand which sprang up in
the earlier years of last century for
big flash carriage - horses. The short-
legged compact Cleveland mare was
crossed with a big, lengthy, and flash
Thoroughbred horse ; the produce,
whether horse or mare, was bred from,
and eventually the Yorkshire coach-
horse, or — as he was sometimes called,
from the locality in which he was prin-
cipally bred — the Howdenshire Cleve-
c
34
THE THOEOUGHBRED HORSE.
land, became recognised as a distinct
breed.
Characteristics. — Possessing the
length and fine level quarters of the
Cleveland Bay, as well as others of his
good properties, the Coach-horse also has
much of the elegance of the Thorough-
bred. He is apt, however, to grow
leggy in the course of a few generations;
what is gained in quality is lost in bone ;
and recourse has to be had to the old
breed to restore that substance which is
so essential in a good coach-horse.
From the Cleveland Bay and the
Coach-horse are bred a large proportion
of what are known in the trade as
London carriage - horses. The larger
and stronger animals are bred from
mares of the former breed, and sired by
either Thoroughbreds or Coach -horses ;
whilst the lighter and lesser horses are
bred from mares of the latter breed, and
sired either by Coach -horses of high
quality or by Thoroughbred, horses of a
coaching type. Efforts made to unite
the two strains were not attended with
success.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of the Cleveland Bay
and Yorkshire coach-horse does not differ
very materially from that of other similar
breeds. The method pursued by Mr
Frank H. Stericker of Westgate House,
Pickering, may be thus described : Brood
mares four or five days after foaling are
turned out into a paJddock a few hours
at midday, being put into weU-ventilated
boxes at night. The time out is increased
as the foal gets older and stronger. The
mare has a liberal diet of bran, oats, and
chopped hay or straw, with the addition
of a few carrots. The foal is haltered
in its early youth, as it saves time and
patience later on. The mare will " do "
the foal better if later on she has the
run of a bigger pasture or seeds and
clover. A good supply of water is
necessary, and so also is the provision
of shelter. The foal is weaned usually
about the first or second week in October.
Mr Stericker holds that brood ibares
are all the better of a little light work.
When near foaling a feed of corn and
bran with hay twice daily along with a
few carrots or swedes is recommended,
the idea being to get her into good
though not high condition.
Foals benefit by running out during
the day and having the shelter of a
covered yard at night. With bran, oats,
and a little boiled food, chopped hay, and
carrots, the youngster will go on thriving,
and gain bone and muscle. Do not house
yearlings too much, but keep them on
pasture as long as possible.
Regularity in feeding is one of the
secrets of successful rearing. When
bringing animals out for show, it is im-
portant to give no more food than will
be eaten up. Exercise should be regular,
and when breaking, a fortnight must be
given with the bit in the mouth, leading
about, and sending the animal round in
a circle. The girth is then put on, and
later the " dumb jockey. " Driving about
in strings should not be neglected, the
mouthing being particularly attended to.
Many accidents are caused and good
horses spoiled by the groom being in too
great a hurry in the early handling.
A typical Cleveland Bay mare, "Wood-
land Briar" 131 8, is represented in
Plate 18.
THE THOEOUGHBEED HOESE.
Properly speaking, the Thoroughbred
is not an agricultural horse. He does
not come within the province of farm
live stock, for the main object for which
he' is bred is speed. The only measure
in which the " blood " horse trenches
upon farm stock-raising is in the pro-
duction of hunters, military horses, or, it
may be, according to the cross, harness
horses. It is therefore from that stand-
point that he must needs be treated
here.
It is unnecessary even to glance at the
history of English horse-breeding as rep-
resented by the rise and development
of the Thoroughbred. It will suffice here
THE THOEOUGHBKED HORSE.
35
to say that it is evident that the modern
Thoroughbred is chiefly indebted to three
great sires for his present position.
These are : the Byerly Turk, the Darley
Arabian, and the Godolphin Arab (which,
by the way, many writers contend was a
Barb).
It is natural that the customs of the
race -course have placed their imprint
upon the character of our Thoroughbred
horses. Thus we find it freely contended
that the Thoroughbred of to-day has not
the stamina of his ancestors, which may
or may not be true. But we do not now
ride such punishing races as formerly,
and doubtless, if the occasion demanded
it, the necessary training would speedily
vindicate the constitution of the modern
Thoroughbred. It is also contended that
breeders have sacrificed speed, which, if
not quite accurate, we may assume to
arise from the fact that the stop-watch
is a more accurate method of Aecking
a performance than was in existence in
the earlier days of racing. One thing
at least can be claimed for the modern
Thoroughbred in which he is superior to
his ancestors — ^he is a bigger horse. His
descent may be assumed to be largely
but not entirely Eastern. The pedigrees
of some of the more famous horses in
the olden time lend colour to the belief
strongly held by several writers that the
stamina of the English native mares,
highly spoken of, was in some degree
responsible for the " blood " horse as we
know him to-day.
Thoroughbreds for Hunter Breeding.
The breeding of the pure Thorough-
bred is not pursued to any extent by the
ordinary farming classes. It is a business
or hobby by itself. The fact, however, is
undisputed that the most valuable animal
in the equine world is a good Thorough-
bred stallioiL
The farmer has his uses for "blood."
He finds it of inestimable service in
the production of hunters endowed with
pluck and stamina. The Royal Commis-
sion on Horse Breeding annually presents
28 King's Premiums, of the value of
_;^i5o each, for Thoroughbred stallilons
which are allotted districts to trave in,
the classes in which they compete. In
later years the selection of stallions has
been partly influenced by their period in
training and their racing performances.
These King's Premiums used to be offered
as the King's Plates for racing, but for
many years have been diverted to the
much more useful purpose of assisting
to stock the country with horses of a
military type.
In the production of the hunter the
Thoroughbred plays a prominent part.
For harness purposes, too, an oblique
dash of blood has been found to give
character, colour, and courage to the
stamp of animal produced; but it is
obvious that a first cross is more likely
to be productive of a saddle than a har-
ness animal.
Forcing Young Stock. — It is the
custom to forcfe young stock, which is
not likely to help the constitutional
vigour of the breed.
Character. — Most people are familiar
with the Thoroughbred type. Centuries
of careful breeding have imparted an
aristocratic air and carriage such as no
other breed possesses. The fine sweep-
ing arch of the neck, the thin nostrils,
the prominent eye and short head, are
familiar features. The shoulders slope,
and are thin at the withers, which rise
high. The deep rather than rounded
rib, powerful loin, and graceful sweep
of the limbs at the trot, no less than
the perfect motion of every joint at the
canter, are as well known to all ad-
mirers of equine style and symmetry as
they are to those most deeply versed in
the points and lore of the breed.
Plate 16 represents the Thoroughbred
stallion "Diamond Jubilee."
36
THE HUNTER.
THE HTINTEE.
Strictly speaking, the hunter is a type
and not a breed. It may in the course
of time, attain to the latter status, but
for the present it is bred in so many
different ways that it cannot even be
considered as the product of a first cross
— ^the dam usually being a half-bred or
nondescript. There is a great field, how-
ever, for the production of horses of the
hunter type. That field may indeed be
considered limitless, in view of the fact
that the hunter misfits are frequently
suited for military purposes.
Type. — The typical hunter is a class
of horse by itself. Usually the classifi-
cation provided at shows divides them
into light weights, carrying up to 12 st.;
middle weights, from 12 to 14 St.; and
heavy weights, from 14 st. upwards. The
Hunters' Improvement Society divides
them into horses for weights not ex-
ceeding 13 St. 7 lb. ; over 13 st. 7 lb.
and under 15 st. ; 15 st. and upwards.
The most valuable horse, as a rule, is
a weight - carrier. Here the difference
between a blood-like weight-carrier and
a heavy-boned hunter without " blood "
characteristics is apparent. The former
is invariably the more courageous and
the faster type of horse, and most fa-
voured by the cognoscenti. The points
of a hunter are good forehand, deep
sloping shoulders, short back, muscular
and flat limbs, a strong loin, and well-
developed quarters.
Method of Breeding. — The Hunters'
Improvement Society hopes ultimately
by the registration of foundation stock
to build up a breed of hunters in the
same way as the Hackney and Cleve-
land Bay breeds have been built and
maintained. There is no reason why
in the course of time this scheme should
not be successful; but ere the breeder
will cross the Rubicon and burn his
boats much prejudice must be conquered,
and a plain, practical demonstration of
the fundamental truths of the Society's
scheme be afforded to all and sundry.
The ha;lf-bred registered sire has still to
win his spurs against the Thoroughbred,
and in the opinion of those who have
grown grey in the study of the many
problems involved, that sire must be
phenomenally successful to do so. Not
the least of the difficulties to be en-
countered is to prevail upon breeders
to keep on for breeding purposes entire
animals whose appearance indicates that
they might sell well as hunters.
Scarcity of Mares. — The chief diffi-
culty at the present time is not altogether
that of securing blood sires up to suffi-
cient weight and with speed and a
racing record behind them. The aver-
age man possessing a half-bred mare
expects with a Thoroughbred union to
have a full-fledged hunter type of off-
spring. He expects too much of the
sire, in spite of the fact that the
Thoroughbred is the most impressive of
all equine breeds. The mares themselves
must first be bred ere the breeding of
hunters can become universally profit-
able.
All too frequently the mares used
in the production of hunters are them-
selves the result of a happy-go-lucky
cross, so that the breeding of hunters
becomes under such circumstances more
a game of chance than skill. Cart blood
is often traceable, and not a few of the
mares mated with the Thoroughbred sire
are either of the light runner type or
simply active cart mares. Under these
conditions the breeder may by chance
breed an animal of the hunter type,
but he is just as likely to obtain a
nondescript. The ideal mare to mate
to a weighty blood sire should herself
have blood characteristics.' Perhaps the
heavy-weight hunter is not always bred
in this way, but it is the surest and the
simplest way of preventing the sportive
tendency of cross-breeding.
Irish. Hunters. — Hunting horses bred
and "made" in Ireland have earned a
wide reputation alike for their build,
quality, stamina, and manners. On the
female side they were mainly descended
from the old varieties of Irish draught-
horses, but they are deeply saturated with
the blood of the Thoroughbred, and are
entirely deserving of their good name.
THE HACKNEY HORSE.
37
The Cleveland Bay mare, as already
stated, is frequently used in the pro-
duction of hunters, the blood stallion
giving the results that are the most
satisfactory.
MANAGEMENT OP HUNTERS.
The management of a hunter stud
may be said to begin with the mare.
Having found a sire that " nicks " well
with the mares in the stud, it is provi-
dent management to stand by him.
The mare should not be turned on to
poor pasture when carrying her foal, as
the brood state entails a considerable
physical strain. The difference between
a high priced and a moderately priced
hunter is often only the difference be-
tween a very light-weight and a weight-
carrier; therefore treat the brood mare
well. When the foal arrives it is not
necessary to artificially feed the mare
and her progeny if there is good grass
available. A little corn will do the dam
no harm if the foaling occurs early in the
year. Towards weaning -time it some-
times happens that the mare's milk is
not sufficient, and neither mother nor
offspring is thriving. A bite of corn
and a fresh pasture are good correctives.
It is as well to teach the foal to eat a
little corn before it leaves the mother,
so that possible loss of condition due
to the severance may be the more easily
•averted.
"Winter Treatment. — In the winter
time a very good ration is 5 lb. of
crushed oats and i ^ lb. of white pea-meal,
divided into two feeds, and fed morning
and night. This, with sweet meadow-
hay and a handful or two of bran, will
bring the young hunter fresh through
the winter. A field provided with a
shelter is all that is necessary, thus
giving the youngster constitution as well
as stamina — which latter is the great
thing aimed at in successful hunter-
breeding. Select a growing rather than
a fattening pasture — land rich in lime
being preferred. If the animals have a
good stretch of land in which they can
exercise there will be little attention
wanted.
" Making " Hunters.— The education
of the hunter really begins about three
years old, although the elementary duties
of teaching the young horse to be readily
handled and accustoming it to the use
of the halter are earlier attended to.
Mounting is most important in a saddle
horse — -equally as important as in a
horse prepared for harness. This being
accomplished, saddling should be taken
in hand and gentle riding exercise given
for about six weeks. They may then
be left to run at pasture till the autumn,
and again put through their exercises.
It is not wise to jump them till later —
say in spring, when the horse attains his
fourth year. The bones are better to set
first ere they are put to the strain which
leaping entails. They can then be gently
ridden to hounds, but on no account
should they be tired out on the initial
journeys.
The work begins in earnest in the
following winter, and they are ready
to market as five - year - olds. The aim
of the breeder should be a heavy
horse capable of carrying at least
14 stone.
A portrait of a famous hunter is given
on Plate 17.
THE HACKNEY HORSE.
The Hackney horse as it exists
to - day is a breed possessing distinc-
tive type and distinctive uses. It was
originally associated with the old Nor-
folk Trotter, and in past days made
many notable performances against time.
Farmers used to employ them as cobs
and hacks, their constitutional vigour
and muscular power enabling them on
occasions to carry to market, not only
the farmer himself, but also his spouse
on a pillion behind. So far as the
history of the breed is concerned, Mr
H. F. Euren's admirable essay in the
first volume of The Ifackney Stvd-Book
still stands as the best epitome of what
38
THE HACKNEY HORSE.
is known of the Hackney in the early
part of last century.
Historical.
The name Hackney, writes Mr Ettren,
came in with the Normans, but the old
Danish name Nag held its own. Hack-
ney was appKcable only to a pacing or
trotting horse, while nag was and is used
as a name for any riding-horse.
Hackneys and Trotters are frequently
mentioned in old farm accounts from the
year 1331 to 15 18 (Thorold Eogers's
History of Agriculture and Prices). In
1340, by 14 Edward III., s. i, c. 19, one
of three Acts passed to regulate purvey-
ance and to make illegal the practice of
sending the " king's great horses " on to
farmers' lands; but there was reserved
to the king's Master of the Horse priv-
ilege of purveyance for "a Hakeney,"
which he might have : in the Paston
Letters, under date 1470 : in Acts of
Henry VIIL— 1535-36, 1540, 1542—
the last named providing that cart-horses
or sumpter-horses were not to be reckoned
as trotting horses : by Blundeville, the
Norfolk parson, who was the first
English writer on horses (a.d. 1558) : by
Thomas de Grey, The Phoenix of our
Times (a.d. 1624), who spoke of the trot-
ting horse as the English breed of horse,
the troop-horse of his day.
The Hackneys of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries trace back, almost
without exception, to one horse, named
"Shales," foaled about the year 1755.
His sire was "Blaze." The sire of
" Blaze " was " Flying Childers," which
horse was a mixture of Barb> and Arab
blood. The dam of "Blaze," known as
"Confederate Filly," had Barb or Turk
blood in equal proportions with English
blood of unknown breeding. The dam
of "Shales," as of "Hopeful," anbther
son of "Blaze," was a trotting mare.
From 1750 to 1780 Barb blood was
freely used in Norfolk on trotting mares.
The horse "Shales" is said in an old
advertisement to have been "the fastest
horse of his day" Through his get,
"Scot Shales" and "Driver," came all
the famous " Shales " and " Fireaway "
stock of the end of the eighteenth
century. Many of the good ones were
bred in the Long Sutton district. The
"Driver" stock first won popularity in
Yorkshire — the " Shales " stock in Nor-
folk; but there was a regular inter-
change of the two strains from the
outset. Their descendants, Burgess's
"Fireaway," Wroot's "Pretender," and
his son, Eamsdale's " Performer," Bond's
(two) "Norfolk Phenomenon," Cham-
berlain's "Marshland Shales," and the
" Norfolk Cob " family, are a few of the
horses existing between the years 1788
and 1850, whose names occur often in
the full pedigree of the horses which have
won the Society's champion honours.
Notwithstanding that examination of
an extended pedigree shows that the
modern Hackney is frequently an inbred
horse, it is claimed for the breed that it
retains its old-time characteristics — good
action, high courage, and great powers
of endurance. M. de Thanriberg, who for
nearly forty years was connected with
the Government studs in France, declared
in 1873 that the Norfolk Trotter had
transmitted these very qualities to the
French horses, and thus established what
is now known as the French coach-horse.
The old custom of trotting against time
and in matches, which prevailed in Eng-
land in the early years of this century,
having been discontinued, the qualities
which won for the Hackney its old repu-
tation are not now so plainly in evidence;
but those who have a knowledge of back-
breeding have no difficulty in selecting
horses which shall transmit the old-time
powers to the progeny.
Practice of Breeding. — The practice
of the breeders of the Hackney, as shown
by records from 1780 to 1820, was that
of using the Hackney stallion on half-
bred mares, the produce of Thoroughbred
stallions and trotting mares. This has
continued to be an almost universal
practice in Yorkshire. In Norfolk there
have been experiments made of using
Thoroughbred stallions on trotting mares,
and the result has not been so satisfac-
tory as is the breeding in Yorkshire, as
regards form, endurance, or action. "The
most experienced breeders are agreed
that the truest mode of breeding Hack-
ney stallions, so as to get a certain
result, is to put the necessary Thorough-
bred blood into the breed through the
mare, and, better still, through her dam.
The examination of hundreds of pedi-
grees received from Yorkshire has shown
THE HACKNEY HORSE.
39
me that in a very small proportion of
cases — certainly not more than two per
cent — Yorkshire breeders have followed
this plan of using Hackney stallions —
putting Thoroughbred blood into the
breed through the mares only.
Characteristics.
Type. — When we come to the con-
sideration of the modern Hackney from
the point of view of type, we are con-
fronted not with one but with several.
The truest Hackney character is expressed
in the animal that does not exceed 15.2
hands. In passing, it may be mentioned
that the Royal Agricultural Society used
to stipulate that the maximum height of
a Hackney admissible under their classi-
fication was 15.2 hands. Beyond that
height it is rare, if not impossible, to
find a Hackney with that sweetness of
character so freely seen in animals of
smaller stature. The true Hackney is a
beautifully built horse. He stands very
squarely on good feet. His limbs are
hard and flinty. He should possess short
cannon-bones, but frequently one sees
them longer than is desirable. There
should be as much substance as the limbs
can conveniently carry without losing
quality. The back should, in the stallion,
be short, the rib round, and the loins
beautifully filled, the quarters more
rounded than in the blood horse, and the
tail carried like a bedecked spike, almost
on a level with the top. The shoulders
should be well laid, thin at the top but
not too sloping. The forehand should
be long, and the crest pronounced in the
stallion. The eye should be bright, and
the head express intelligence where no
vice can lurk. The carriage is every-
thing in a ride and drive horse. There
should be a perfect blend of style and
form, no angles being perceptible. The
"blood" type was at one time more prev-
alent than now. Many breeders would
welcome more "blood," as they agree
that a bigger type of Hackney of better
colour and more style could then be
bred.
HeigM. — Hackneys are bred to a
greater height than formerly. It is quite
common to meet with 15.3 hands and 16
hands mares and stallions, but, as before
remarked, the smallest type is preserved
by animals 15.2 hands and' under.
Colour. — Colour is an important
matter in a harness breed. If the hues
are difficult to match it is only natural
that the value of an animal is reduced.
The most prevalent colour is chestnut,
the shades varying from a light chestnut
to a dark and liver colour. White mark-
ings are very prevalent, being handed
down from stallions which have won
important prizes. They are an undoubted
defect from a harness point of view. The
soundest colour is bay with dark points.
Browns and blacks are also good. Roans
and skewbalds are sometimes met with.
Action. — The commercial value of the
Hackney is determined by one thing —
action. With action the most indifferent
horse will meet a ready market. With-
out it the most perfectly formed horse
will be neglected. The Hackney clearly
excels all other breeds in brilliant use
of its limbs. High, free, and rhythmic
movement is most of all encouraged. At
one time it was more important to move
high, after the style of the funeral horse,
than to exhibit that liberty of shoulder
nowadays demanded. The knee must be
snapped to give style and sharpness to
the movement, while the hocks should
be closely carried, the more nearly parallel
to the belly the better. A first-class
Hackney showing his paces as nearly
represents " the poetry of motion " as it
is possible to conceive.
Tor Sarness and Saddle. — The ques-
tion might be asked. Is the Hackney a
harness or saddle horse, or both ? To
some extent the types conflict, especially
when extravagant action is demanded of
a harness breed. It may be readily con-
ceived that if the ordinary hack, which
represents the acme of comfort in saddle,
derives much of its popularity from its
unattractive action, the free use of the
shoulders, and the propulsive power of
the hocks and loins brought into play in
the type of movement demanded of the
Hackney, would not conduce to a com-
fortable seat. This has led to the aboli-
tion of saddle classes for Hackneys at
many shows, because animals were win-
ning on action which was more suitable
for leather than pigskin. The Hackney
Horse Society provides no class for
Hackneys in saddle, which implies in a
negative way that the real vocation of
the breed is to supply the harness horse
40
THE HACKNEY HORSE.
market. The old Yorkshire type of
Hackney, now rapidly altering, was essen-
tially bred to meet the two markets, but
the tendency of the times is undoubtedly
in the direction of breeding for the car-
riage and harness market generally.
Sotindness. — ^The Hackney is one of
the soundest, if not the soundest, breed
of horses we possess. The charge is
sometimes unjustly made that the mod-
ern type lacks stamina. This may be
dismissed as an idle tale. Some show-
yard animals may not be in a state of
training, for hard work, and to judge
a breed by ' the artificially pampered
specimens trained to show their paces
for a brief period only is to do an in-
justice to the breed. No better proof
of the soundness of the Hackney can
be adduced than the following table,
extracted from The Hachney Stud-Book,
showing the number of rejections under
the veterinary examination at the Hack-
ney Show at Islington : —
Year.
Number
Examined.
Passed.
Rejected
1890
170
161
9
1891
116
112
4
1892
186
179
7
1893
249
241
8
1894
217
204
13
189s
223
219
4
1896
396
379
17
1897
438
415
23
1898
436
407
21
1899
437
379
30
1900
400
382
21
1901
406
418
16
1902
434
401
21
1903
422
392
24
1904
416
.38s
23
4946
4674
241
.iterations in Form. — The appear-
ance of the modern Hackney is vastly
altered from what it used to be. It has
lost some of that depth of frame and
shoulder so common to the old Norfolk
strains. Indeed, the blood cross appears
to have been the dominating influence in
moulding the modern Hackney. The
head is clean cut but sweeter than the
Thoroughbred. The stallion character
is perhaps less marked than in the
blood horse, but head and neck in the
true Hackney should be beautifully pro-
portioned. The muzzle is not so sharp,
the appearance suggesting more docility
than is associated with the Thoroughbred.
The shoulders are sloping more so than
in the riding-horse. In the older type
there was a tendency to loaded shoulder
points, but these have been fined down
in the modern representatives of the
breed.
MANAGEMENT OF HACKNEYS.
In the matter of managing a Hackney
stud there is no specific axiom which can
be laid down as the basis of success.
Successful Hackney breeding is confined
largely to the tenant-farmers, and save
in cases where there are outstanding
horses at the head of studs, it not infre-
quently happens that the breeding of
this type of horse becomes an expensive
hobby. The Hackney is kept very gener-
ally throughout the country. It is mostly
in the hands of farmers, and except where
studs of considerable size are maintained
the ordinary farm buildings are made to
suit the purposes of the breeder.
Buildings. — Those who equip their
farms with expensive buildings are in-
dulging their fancy. To the majority of
Hackney breeders the inexpensive pile
will answer the purpose quite well. The
main buildings should be roomy, light,
and sunny, free from draughts, and with
adequate ventilation. At Mr A. W.
Hickling's stud, at Adbolton, near Not-
tingham, the stud buildings are composed
of wood, strong and serviceable, forming
three sides of a large yard, facing south.
They consist of a range of foaling-boxes,
20 ft. by 20 ft., 12 ft. high to the eaves,
match-boarded under corrugated roof,
weU hghted, with brick on edge or rough
finished concrete floors. Another series
of boxes measures 15 ft. by 12 ft., and is
similar in construction and ventilation
to the foaling-boxes. There are ten
roomy, airy-yards, with open board roofs,
which Mr Hickling says form capital
half-way houses between field and stable
for rough horses. The usual fodder and
saddle rooms complete the buildings.
Close to the stud farm, in the fields
ajround, are several large sheds with cor-
rugated circular roofs and boarded ends,
having long half -drain-pipe mangers down
the centre, which, being boarded to the
roof the entire length, afford protection
from whichever quarter the wind blows.
For the purpose of . training show
ENGLISH AND IRISH PONIES.
41
horses an enclosed level exercise-ground,
oblong in shape, and equipped with a
good sound track, is a great acquisition.
Many people erect riding-schools which
are useful but costly. Young animals
trained in the open do as well as, if not
better than, those which receive their
education indoors.
The Brood Mare. — The management
of the brood mare is of first importance,
particularly when the object in view is a
full-sized Hackney. Mr A. W. Hickling
gives his experience as follows : —
" Brood mares running out the year
round produce better and stronger foals,
and with less risk of accident, than those
kept in yards or mares that have been
going the round of the summer shows.
When within a few days of foaling the
mares are brought into their boxes and
watched at night; then out again by day,
often foaling in the field, with no bad
results. Prompt attention to the newly
born foal's navel is imperative. It should
be tied and thoroughly disinfected, then
for three days the mare should be fed spar-
ingly on oat and bran mashes and chilled
water, the foal haltered and handled. If
all be satisfactory both mare and foal may
go out every day except when wet.
" A frequent change of pasture during
the summer keeps the foal in a forward
growing condition, and until September
no corn is needed. Then a mixture of
crushed oats, bran, and chopped hay is
given to mares and foals in tumbrils
placed in the fields preparatory to wean-
ing in early October."
"Weaning. — Mr Hickling's method of
weaning is to take mares straight from
the foals to an outlying pasture beyond
call, being fed during the winter months
on pulped kohl-rabi and swedes, crushed
oats, and chopped hay. The mare's udder
should receive constant attention. The
foals are better not confined in yards,
but in the open, provided there is a good
shed in the field, under which, however,
they seldom go. Fed on similar lines to
the mares, they usually grow into big and
strong if not fat yearlings. Rock-salt is
recommended within reach of all stock.
Young Stock. — With young stock
Mr Hickling's plan is to arrange for all
young mares and geldings not required
for show to be " boarded " out with
farmers having few horses of their own,
and, where possible, run out not more
than two together on dry sheltered land,
and fed only on good hay or seeds.
Even in winter they can remain out.
By this method a change of pasture is
provided for the mares, and it assists
the vigorous development of the foals.
Stallions. — "Stallions," says Mr Hick-
ling, " require when standing at home a
good-sized airy box, the larger the better
for their health's sake. Adjoining this
should be a covering yard, enclosed and
roofed. From experience, I am opposed
to concentrated heating food for stallions,
even with the prospect of a full season,
finding on good oats, bran, hay, and green
food a greater percentage of foals next
year. Exercise must be regular and not
less than two hours daily ; in summer,
early morning and late afternoon will be
found tlje best times.
" I advocate plain open-air treatment,
with plain living, for all breeding stock."
A Hackney stallion is represented in
Plate 19.
ENGLISH AND lEISH PONIES.
Active public interest in pony breed-
ing was greatly stimulated by the South
African War, while the earlier establish-
ment of the Polo Pony Society — after-
wards styled the Polo and Elding Pony
Society — has been of immeasurable ser-
vice in stimulating and directing the
improvement of the native races of
ponies in this country. There are many
kinds of ponies — ranging from the tiny
Shetland to good-sized polo and harness
ponies. Before briefly considering the
distinctive races, some information may
be given as to what a pony really is.
Pony Tyxit.
The most natural answer to the
question propounded above is that a
42
ENGLISH AND IKISH PONIES.
pony is a small - sized horse. This is
true to some extent; but the bantam
horse — say of the hackney type — can
never, by any stretch of imagination,
be called a pony. If an undergrown
or dwarf hackney constitutes a pony,
it makes an immediate departure from
recognised pony type. Compare, for in-
stance, a harness pony — say a hackney
cross on a Welsh strain — with a pure-
bred hackney that has remained of pony
stature, and the reason for assuming that
a pony is not determined by its inches
immediately becomes apparent. There-
fore let it be conceded that the pony
is a separate and distinctive type of
animal from the horse.
Lord Arthur Cecil, who has taken so
much interest in the rescue of British
and Irish native pony races, speaks
with authority when he thus describes
the true pony type : —
True Pont Type.
Read. — Somewhat small, cars small, pointed
and extremely sensitive.
Eye. — Bright, prominent, and with quite a
distinctive look of intelligent determin-
ation. Very often of a Ught brown or
hazel colour.
Moms. — -Very often thick and coarse, and
often lying on the near side.
Shoulders. — Thick and somewhat wanting at
the withers, but generally fairly deep,
which gives a look of being loEuled at the
point, but they are well laid. This is
specially noticeable in ponies which have
never been under cover, and have had to
stand for hours, or even days, huddled
up under a bush or rock for shelter with
very little to eat.
Knees. — Generally big and strong, but apt
to be rather close together from same
cause as above. Cannon bone very
short.
Feet. — Almost invariably excellent, but apt
in action to be lady toed. This is
almost an universal fault in mountain
and moorland ponies, but of very great
service in feeling their way over bad or
soft ground. Nearly every deer-stalking
pony goes so.
Group. — Low and goose rumps. Faulty
from same cause as shoulders. Disap-
pears with first cross of good breeding.
Hocks. — Always of good shape and sound,
but apt to be turned in at the point,
especially if the pony is in weak con-
dition.
Colour. — A rich brown is a colour which all
the varieties seem to incline to, with a
mealy or tan muzzle. Highlanders and
Fell incline strongly to black, and
Highlanders to dun and mouse colour.
which I have reason to suppose may also
be a very old Welsh colour too. A
bright chestnut is rare, and generally
means a cross of other blood some-
where.'
Points in Pony Breeding.
There is a great field for the extension
of pony breeding in this country. Large
tracts of moorland and fofest — some of
it Government land— are devoted to the
raising of ponies which lead a wild un-
tamed existence. The first point that
the breeder has to consider is how to
keep the stature within limits. It may
be assumed that for harness purposes a
pony should not exceed 14 hands, and
for riding and polo 14.3 hands. The
breeder is naturally confronted with the
problem how to rear his ponies so that
they shall not exceed these limits. In
the polo pony the difficulty is more pro-
nounced than in other breeds, for the
pony to be valuable should reach not
less than 14. i hands and not more than
14.3 hands. Poor land is necessary. A
bare existence is found to be the most
practical method to adopt in early years
and when fitting for show, a few weeks'
preparation prior to the event, until the
animal's stature is fixed by maturity.
HACKNEY AND HARNESS PONIES.
The hackney pony, which is the most
brilliant pony for harness purposes, is
either a variety of the true Hackney into
which out-crosses have crept, and which
have gradually worked into the Stud-
Book, or merely a pocket edition of the
larger breed. It is of two types — ^the
essentially hackney type or little hackney
and the pony type. It is safe to say
that for pure adroit use of the limbs the
hackney pony excels its big brother the
Hackney. It is probably the most profit-
able form of pony breeding.
Not a little of the success of the
hackney pony has been due to Mr
Christopher Wilson of Bigmaden, Kirkby
Lonsdale, whose daring feats in in-and-
in-breeding are now a matter of history.
The modern hackney pony owes much to
Mr Wilson's brilliant sire "Sir George,"
' Farmer and Stoch - Breeder YeoA- Book,
1906.
THE POLO PONY.
43
which on eight occasions won first prize
at the Koyal English Show. He pos-
sessed a strong dash of Norfolk blood.
It is undoubtedly the case that the
hackney pony has inherited his chief
merits from the hackney, which has
exercised a masterful influence in such
crosses as have been made. Thus we
find that Mr Christopher Wilson's success
was founded partly on his selection of
Cumberland mares and crossing them
with the hackney pony stallion. His
experiments in in-breeding were too bold
to be universally adopted, but the breeder
knowing the material with which he
works, there is no room for doubt that
the best means of fixing a type is by
judicious close breeding. In Mr Wilson's
stud the result of the first union with
" Sir George " was again mated with
him, this process being repeated success-
fully a third time. The most curious
fact is that neither constitution nor sub-
stance were lost in this daring experi-
ment in breeding, which seems to imply
that the initial course must have been
more or less violent, though apparently
not sportive.
There is less to be said concerning the
hackney pony than almost any other
type, for it is so closely associated with
the hackney in blood and, shall we say,
in form, that an extended description
would savour of repetition. One thing,
however, may be remarked concerning
the hackney pony, and that is, that it is
usually of a sounder colour than the
hackney. There are fewer mis-marked
animals, more bays, browns, and blacks.
This is probably due to the fact that the
successful show ponies which have in
later years been most fortunate at stud
were themselves of sound colour.
The hackney pony stallion "Bantam
King" is represented in Plate 20.
THE POiX) PONY.
The progress of polo in England gave
birth to the .Polo and Riding Pony
Society, which has done much to foster
the systematic breeding of ponies suitable
for the game. The polo pony is a pro-
duct of no one recognised cross, but the
aims of the Society if carried to fruition
are likely to provide an accepted type to
breed to, and to guide breeders in the
selection of stallions and mares which
are likely in the future to furnish the
right class of animal.
So far breeders have been feeling their
way in a somewhat perplexing manner.
The claims of mountain and moorland
ponies as the progenitors on one side, —
chiefly Welsh, — and the Thoroughbred,
Barb, and Arab stallions on the other,
have been advocated with vigour, if not
with warmth. From the chaos of 'con-
flicting opinions certain facts concerning
the breeding of polo ponies emerge. In
the first place, the limit height according
to the Hurlingham standard is 14 hands
3 inches. Hurlingham and the Polo
Pony Society now see eye to eye. The
type of pony most in demand is the
hunter type with pony character.
With these two salient facts before
them, breeders are asked, so to speak, to
produce the material which wUl enable
the polo player to discard the imported
horse and the pure Thoroughbred in
favour of home industries.
From the breeders' point of view, it is
unfortunate that the margin of height is
liable to create so many misfits in what
is, after all, the progeny of a cross.
Again, unless the breeder is competent
to mouth and train his own stock, he
may produce the best-looking ponies in
the world and be badly recompensed for
the trouble. The value of a polo pony
is dependent upon its stamina, appear-
ance, speed, and training.
It has been estimated that the number
of polo ponies in connection with
Ranelagh, Hurlingham, and Roehampton
is 3500. It is stated in the records of
the Roehampton Club that in one year
no fewer than 6000 ponies passed
through its gates.
The best ponies are bred from mares
which themselves have done real hard
work. For reproductive purposes, prob-
ably, there is no better cross than the
small Thoroughbred or the Welsh pony.
There are acknowledged polo pony sires
which have won prizes at shows in Lon-
don, and their reputation is justified by
the stock they produce. For the average
breeder, however, the first direct cross is
still the only means of production.
A portrait of the characteristic polo
pony mare " Ruby " is given in Plate 20.
44
ENGLISH AND IRISH PONIES.
THE DARTMOOR PONY.
Dartmoor, with its rough range of
20,000 acres of moorland, has long
nurtured a breed of pony which has
distinctive features. Not a little por-
tion of this land belongs to the Duchy
of Cornwall, the rights of common being
let out. Although at one time the
regulation was promulgated that no sire
over 12 hands high was allowed to run
on the moor, that regulation did not
long exist. The one temptation against
which the breeders of the Dartmoor, in
the eyes of the best informed judges,
should fight is increase of stature.
Various' efforts have been made to im-
prove these ponies by the use of the small
Thoroughbred and the Arab. No doubt
numerous crosses, including the old
Devonshire Pack Horse, have crept in,
but there are still pure-bred animals, —
at least in type they approximate to it, —
which show that expressive countenance
which usually stamps the true Dartmoor.
Early improvers of the breed included
a well-known farmer named Eliot, Lord
of the Manor of Brent, Mr John King,
whose herd ran on Buckfastleigh moors,
and Mr Hamblin of Buckfastleigh.
Of the capacity of the Dartmoor pony
to carry weight there can be no doubt.
Its conformation approximates to the
hunter type. Not a few of them,
however, exhibit indifferent heads and
shoulders, no doubt due partly to the
efforts of " improvers," by the intro-
duction of unhappy alien crosses. First
crosses on these ponies, as a rule, are
not very successful.
Nature has made the Dartmoor pony
strong in constitution, and like many of
our hill races, lean fare and inclement
weather have not formed them at the
rumps and hocks as well as might be
wished. The pony never stands with his
head to a storm. The height of the
Dartmoor pony should not be more than
13 hands.
A 'portrait of a Dartmoor pony is
given in Plate 24.
THE EXMOOR PONY.
The Exmoor pony, which is the near
neighbour to the Dartmoor, is equal to
him in stature. History accords to this
pony a lengthy tenure of that great
stretch of moorland. Near the begin-
ning of the nineteenth century Sir John
Knight acquired some 20,000 acres of the
moorland with the main object of rais-
ing ponies thereon. He subsequently
extended his proprietorship by taking in
part of the land owned by Sir Thomas
Acland, and at the same time purchased
the famous herd of ponies which Sir
Thomas had reared. About this time
various crosses were tried, including the
Arab and the Thoroughbred, which had
the effect of raising the stature. Sir
Thomas Acland took a prominent part
in the improvement of the Exmoor
pony, his strains being highly valued
by breeders generally.
The Exmoor is a very hardy, sure-
footed pony, with a rare constitution.
The head is cleaner cut than that of the
average Dartmoor pony, the ears being
sharp and intelligently carried. The
shoulders are finer than in most pony
breeds, the back short and powerful, and
the legs and feet good. The typical
Exmoor pony is very active, as might be
expected of the denizen of a rough moor-
land tract.
Reference to this breed would be in-
complete without mention of the fiction-
famed Katerfelto, whose appearance
amongst the native ponies is supposed
to have exercised a wonderful influence
on their character. This dun stallion, it
is asseverated, was no creation of the
imagination, his mysterious appearance
being assumed to be due to a wreck on
the adjacent coast, whence he escaped
inland.
In Plate 24 a portrait is given of
the famous Exmoor pony stallion " Twi-
light," the property of Mr H. Dyson,
Priory Farm, Pamber, Basingstoke.
THE NEW FOREST PONY.
The New Forest pony is stated to
have held the "field," by which we
mean the Forest, since the times of King
Canute. There are some 70,000 acres of
Crown property yin the Forest, so that
the indigenous race of ponies has had
every opportunity to lead a wild and
roving existence. A society was formed
THE FELL PONY— THE WELSH PONY.
for the purpose of protecting and im-
proving this race of ponies, but its work
is not much known to the public.
The Arab stallion has undoubtedly
exercised a considerable influence on
these ponies, the late Prince Consort
taking an interest in their welfare. Per-
haps to the influence of Arab blood is
due the large number of grey ponies to
be found in this particular race.
The New Forest pony is in some ways
not comparable with the other ponies
of the south-west. In the New Forest
there are many typical ponies, if we
accept the head as exemplifying pony
type, but the original character of the
race has been to a great extent sub-
merged in the multifarious crosses to
which it was subjected. The main at-
tempt on the part of improvers was to
keep up the size, which has gradually
been dwindling since the plantings and
enclosings began in 1834.
A portrait of a New Forest pony is
given in Plate 24.
THE FELL PONY.
The Westmoreland and Fell ponies
have in all probability much in common,
and a very useful class of ponies they
are. This type of pony has been used
to a considerable extent in the produc-
tion of the well-known " Galloway," and
a certain element has percolated through
the famous stud of Mr Christopher
Wilson, Eigmaden, Kirkby Lonsdale,
into the harness pony.
The Fell or Dale pony is very hardy,
and withal has an appearance of breed-
ing. It is nothing if not full of stamina.
It is a larger race than the southern
moorland type, but has the same bright
eye, alert head and ears. The winter
coat is. usually exceptionally heavy, for
the snowstorms are severe. A degree
of sure-footedness is acquired to which
southern breeds, if not altogether alien,
are at least not called upon so freely to
exercise.
The trotter and the roadster blood
have so altered the original Fell pony
that the type has undergone an undesir-
able change on the mountains surround-
ing the Lake District; The aggressive
sheep, too, has been responsible for
45
\
much of the neglect surrounding the
maintenance and improvement of the
Fell pony.
Lord Arthur Cecil mentions as indic-
ative of the stamina of this race, that
one pony which he knew carried eighteen
stone on parade with mounted infantry
every day for a month, " sometimes
doing her twenty miles a-day when she
was only three weeks off grass, in the
month of March, having been out of
doors all winter without a bite except
what she picked up."
The same authority continues : " They
are the kind that carried Kinmont Willie
and Jock Elliot in their Border frays,
and are probably therefore identical, or
at any rate freely crossed, with the old
'Galloway,' probably now quite extinct."
A portrait of a Fell pony is printed
in Plate 23.
THE WELSH PONY.
The Welsh por\y is probably the most
serviceable type of hill pony that we
possess. There is no cob to equal him
either for rough saddle or harness work.
In past times he has been bred without
due regard to the future, and the variety
of types that nowadays masquerade
under the guise of a Welsh cob or pony
is truly bewildering.
Much good was done by establishing
a stud-book, which has led to greater
care and skill being exercised in the
improvement of the breed. The chief
modern influence on the Welsh pony
is the Hackney cross, which is largely
permeating Wales.
The points of a Welsh mountain pony
are thus officially set forth : —
GeneraZ character. — Hardy, spirited, and
pony-like.
Height. — Not exceeding 12 hands 2 in.
Colawr, — Any.
Head. — Small, clean cut ; well set on, wide
between the eyes, and tapering to the
muzzle.
Ears. — Well placed, small, and pointed.
Eyes. — Full, bright, and sensible.
Nostrils. — Prominent and open.
Throat and Jaws. — Finely cut.
Nech — Fairly lengthy, and moderately lean,
with a stronger crest in the case of a
stallion.
Shoulders. — Long, and sloping well back ;
fine at the points, with a deep girth.
46
ENGLISH AND IKISH PONIES.
B<ic]c ami Imvm. — Muscular, strong, and
short- coupled.
Hind (Quarters. — Lengthy and fine ; tail well
set on, and carried gaily, undocked and
long preferable, but the reverse not a
disqualification.
Pore Legs. — Well placed, free at the elbow;
long, strong fore-arm, well-developed
kn^e, short, flat bone below knee, pas-
terns of proportionate slope and length ;
feet well-shaped, and hoof dense.
Hocht. — VfiAe, large, and clean, parallel
with body, and well let down; shank
flat and vertical.
Actum. — Quiet, free and straight from the
shoulder ; knees and hocks well flexed,
with straight and powerful leverage,
well under the body.
The type of Welsh cob suitable for
remount work is thus described: —
Head. — Small and flat, showing pony char-
acter, with fine silky hair under the
jaws when rough.
Neck. — Well defined where it joins the
shoulder, giving the cob a good " look-
out."
Slundders. — ^Well laid and strong.
Bach and Lams. — Back not too long ; loins
muscular and strong ; tail well set on
and not goose-rumped.
Second Thigh. — ^Well developed, not too long
from stifle to hock or from hock to the
ground.
Pore Legs. — Should stand well outside the
body and placed well forward ; big
knees, flat bone, moderately sloping
pasterns, feet round, well-formed, not
"boxed" or too big. When in the
rough there should be a moderate quan-
tity of fine silky " feather " on the back
of the legs. Hard wear and tear fetlock
joint's are absolutely essential.
Action. — Free, true, and forcible, and they
should bend their knees and hocks a£
much as is compatible with pace and
staying powers.
A portrait of the famous Welsh pony
stallion " Greylight " is given in Plate
THE CONNEMARA PONY.
The Connemara pony is a thoroughly
useful type of a small horse. For light
farm work it is well suited ; in most re-
spects it is almost an ideal horse for the
small holder.
A peculiar interest attaches to the
history of the Connemara pony. Low,
■writing of it in 1842, says —
"The horses of Spain have been re-
ferred to as having contributed to form
the mixed races of the British Islands;
but it is not generally known that a race
of horses of Spanish descent, nearly if
not altogether pure, exists in this coun-
try in considerable numbers. They in-
habit the Connemara district of the
county of Galway. The tradition is
that from the wreck of some ships of
the Spanish Armada on the western coast
of Ireland, in the year 1588, several
horses and mares were saved, which con-
tinued to breed in the rugged and des-
olate country to which they were thus
brought. But the aid of tradition is in
no degree necessary to prove the origin
of these horses, since all their char-
acters are essentially SpanisL They are
from 12 to 14 hands high, generally
of the prevailing chestnut colour of the
Andalusian horses, delicate in their limbs,
and possessed of the form of head char-
acteristic of the Spanish race. They are
suffered to run wild and neglected in the
country of mixed rock and bog which
they inhabit, and where they are to be
seen galloping in troops amongst the
rugged rodks <of limestone of which the
country consists. When they are to be
captured, which is usually when they are
three or four years old, they are driven
into the bogs and haltered. They are
hardy, active, sure-footed in a remark- '
able degree, and retain the peculiar
amble of the Spanish Jennet. Any
selection may be made from the wild
troops, after being hunted into the
bogs ; and individuals are obtained at
a trifling expense.
"It must be regarded as remarkable
that these horses should retain the char-
acters of their race for so long a period
in a country so different from that whence
they are derived. They have merely
become smaller than the original race,
are somewhat rounder in the croup, and
are covered in their natural state with
shaggy hair, the necessary effect of a
climate the most humid in Europe.
From mere negleqt of the selection of
the parents in breeding, many of these
little horses are extremely ugly, yet still
conforming to the original type." ^
To Low's interesting sketch of the
' liow's Domesticated Animals of the British
Islands, 1842.
THE CONNEMAEA PONY.
47
Connemara pony little need be added.
The general features of the breed are
still fairly well maintained, though the
variety have lost some of their value
through lack of care or method in breed-
ing and rearing. In later years, mainly
at the instigation of the Irish Depart-
ment of Agriculture, interest in the
breed has been revived to some extent,
and there is reason to believe that
Connemara ponies have a highly useful
future before them.
Chiefly as a result of indiscriminate
crossing, the draught -horses of Ireland
have unfortunately lost all claim to rec-
ognition as a distinct breed, and prac-
tically, therefore, the only distinctive
race of Irish horses are the ponies ot
Connemara. This consideration should
in itself act as a strong stimulus to
Irishmen in their revived efforts to
improve these ponies and extend their
use throughout the country.
By the kind permission of the Irish
Department of Agriculture, a portrait
of a typical Connemara pony is given
in Plate 23.
MANAGEMENT OP PONIES.
The management of ponies naturally
varies with the class of pony kept, the
character of the farm, and the objects
the breeder has in view.
Size. ■ — ■ Generally speaking, the first
thing to be looked to is to treat the in-
dividual so that he or she will not exceed
what is the recognised limit of size.
Taking Hackney ponies as an example,
it is a mistake to keep them on rich
land. They are apt to overgrow, and no
class of stock is harder to sell than an
animal that is too big to be a pony and
too small to be a horse. Hard fare up
to a certain age — say, three or four years
— may therefore be considered good man-
agement on the part of the pony-breeder.
There is a great temptation to run
ponies thickly on the land to keep the
height down, but more than one breeder
has found to his cost that horse-sick land
is a greater evil than over-sized ponies.
Hay in winter is the usual feed.
Wintering Hill Ponies. — In the
mountains and moorlands ponies cost
next to nothing to keep, the chief ex-
pense being wintering. It is the custom
in Wales to bring ponies from the hills in
November and graze them in the low-
lands until March. When snow is on
the ground they usually get a libtle hay,
but often they have to' fend for them-
selves. After the bare living of the hills,
the ponies usually return from the low ,
■winter quarters quite fat and sleek
without having even a handful of hay.
For show purposes special feeding is
necessary, but the average hill pony
mare is all the better if kept in natural
condition.
Young Cobs. — In the rearing of cobs
from 13 hands to 14.2 hands a little
hay and corn may be fed during the
winter. When it reaches three years
old a cob can begin to earn its living,
and it is a good thing to put it to
light work in chains. This makes the
cob more tractable and easy to handle.
Foals. — In the treatment of the foal
the mother's milk comes first. The
youngsters should be handled early, and
at the period of breaking, which should
not be delayed too long, it is advisable
to undertake the work thoroughly. Many
a good cob misses a market because this
precaution has been neglected.
Ponies on Sough Pasture. — One
aspect of the keeping of hill ponies
should not be overlooked. They are
invaluable for eating the rank grass in
a pasture field which bullocks and other
kinds of stock would altogether neglect.
Moreover, they tear up the mossy herbage
which makes it possible to manure effect-
ively. One good authority declares that
ponies and sheep, followed by a good
strong chain-harrow with a little basic
slag, will convert many acres of useless
hill land into good mountain pasture.
Mr Tom Mitchell of Eccleshill relates,
as indicative of the value of the pony on
barren hill-land and the all but costless
system of the keep, that he turned out
twenty mares, chiefly Welsh, to forage
for their living on hill-land in Ireland.
He mated them with a pony stallion by
"Sir Horace." He had 18 foals at the
first foaling-time, and 14 on the second
occasion. When sold as yearlings the
produce averaged ;^2o. This, he pleads,
is more profitable than sheep would be
on such ground.
The moral of it all is — keep ponies on
bare living.
48
HIGHLAND PONIES.
Training for Shows. — With regard
to the Hackney pony and its training for
show purposes, condition in the older
ages is necessary, and it is well to allow
as much com as will give a little extra
stamina to those of younger' years. The
chief thing sought after is to get style
and action. The former is inherent ;
the latter is cultivated in two or three
different ways. The clay-box makes the
pony lift its limbs and develops muscla
Shoeing with heavy shoes has the same
effect, the pony when exhibited being
very lightly shod. Action developers
are also used.
Iiimitation of Weight of Shoes. —
The abuse to which the shoeing of show
horses and ponies has given rise has
compelled the Hackney Horse Society to
take action. It has passed a resolution
refusing to sanction a shoe heavier than
2 lb. on an animal exceeding 14 hands,
and ij^ lb. on animals under 14 hands,
as well as for yearling colts and fillies.
HIGHLAND PONIES.
The origin of the Highland pony is
lost in the mists of antiquity. There is
little doubt, however, that, like the Gal-
loway pony in the ancient province of
Galloway, and the Fell pony in the hilly
parts of Cumberland and northern York-
shire, the Highland pony was the original
general purpose horse of the Highlands
and Islands of Scotland. The three
types partook to a large extent of the
same characteristics. They were all
equally strong and sturdy in the make,
equally sure on the foot, and equally
docile. These characteristics would be
bred into them, through a long process
of selection^ for in the days before the
country was opened up by roads, the
ponies, apart from walking, would be the
only means of locomotion. The other
qualities of hardiness and endurance,
for which all three classes of ponies
were equally distinguished, would be
developed in the same way from the
circumstances of their existence and the
nature of their environment.
Tlie Galloway Ponies.
A good many years ago, as the
result of crossing and the invasion
of their country by other and heavier
breeds, the Galloway ponies ceased
practically to exist. At the present
time scarcely a real Galloway pony
is known to be left; indeed, their old
ground now forms part of the head-
quarters of the Clydesdale draught-horse
breed.
Resuscitation of Highland Ponies.
For a time it looked as if the High-
land pony would also be allowed to pass
out of existence. It had been greatly
crossed and degenerated by other breeds,
and no one seemed disposed to lift even
a little finger to save it. But the out-
break of the South African War, and
the demand for mounted infantry, caused
a fresh view to be taken of the utility of
these hardy medium-sized animals, and
since then Highland pony breeding has
become quite popular, and numerous
men of public spirit have taken up
the work of improvement on systematic
lines.
A "Highland" Committee has been
added to the Polo and Eiding Pony
Society, while classes for the variety
have again been introduced into the
annual shows of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society. Fortunately there is
still a. fair amount of the old original
material left, so that the work of re-
suscitation may now be expected to
proceed on well-ordered lines, to the
benefit of all associated interests.
Points of Highland Ponies.
The points of a model Highland pony
have not been officially defined, but de-
tails which will have to be kept steadily
in view are the size, stamina, and strength
of the animals. In the past. Highland
ponies have not, as a rule, exceeded
14 hands in height. Considerable num-
HIGHLAND PONIES.
49
bers, and these not the least useful, have
been under that limit. The head in the
better class of ponies is small and neat
rather than large and coarse. The neck
is deep and strong without being ab-
normal, and it should run gracefully into
the shoulders, the ridge in the case of
the stallion being slightly arched.
In ponies of the old and unimproved
breeds the shoulders have always been
a weak part. They are inclined to be
too heavy and upright for the tastes of
the modern hunting- or saddle-horse
enthusiast. This heaviness and upright-
ness of shoulder rather detracts' from the
appearance of the animals when walk-
ing pr trotting, and does not permit of
the fore-legs being thrown out, as is
done in the case of breeds fitted with
more oblique shoulders. But, of course,
pace and action were only secondary
considerations with the old Highland
pony breeders. Much more important
matters in their ponies were surety of
foot and the provision of a reliable
seat for their owners when they set out
to make a journey. All the same, some
little modification in this respect will
probably have to be effected to bring
many qf the ponies into line with modern
ideas and requirements. Whether this
can be done by selection within the
breed itself, or by the introduction of
fresh blood as from the Arab or other
source, is a matter that time only can
prove. But whatever is done, care wiU
have to be taken that the useful and
rather, special points of the ponies are
not sacrificed to a showy daintiness
which can quite well be obtained in
other existing breeds.
The back of the best ponies should be
short and muscular and the ribs well
arched. The quarters should be deep
and muscular and carried well down to
the hocks, which should be slightly bent
as in a Clydesdale horse. The legs
should be hard and clean, and well
covered, in winter at least, with a warm
coat of hair. The paisterns should be
of fair length, and the feet fairly wide
and deep. Narrow feet are as objection-
able in a pony as they would be in a
horse of large size : such feet are apt
to develop side-bones and other forms
of disease.
As to colours, there is little doubt that
the majority of the ponies in the early
days of recorded history were greys,
blacks, chestnuts, and duns, the duns
having nearly always an eel-stripe along
the back and down the quarters to the
tail. Indeed there are those who main-
tain that the dun is tlje oldest colour of
the four — the greys and blacks being
of later date, and probably introduced
through alien blood in the days when
cross-Channel traffic with the Continent
in horses was active. But however that
may be, there is no hard and fast stick-
ing-to colours nowadays, although the
majority of the ponies still to be seen
in Highland markets and fairs are of
one or other of the already mentioned
colours. Should Highland ponies ever
be required largely for mounted infantry
work — as they will very probably be — a
further modification in colour is by no
means unlikely to come about.
Highland ponies have the reputation
of living to great ages, and remain
comparatively active and useful up to
the last. •
Early Stvds.
Although the early origin of the breed
is to all intents and purposes unknown,
the history of several of the existing or
bygone studs can be traced back for a
great many years. Thus, as shown by
Mr Thos. Dykes, in an article which he
contributed to the Transactions of the
Highland and Agricultural Society for
1905, the district of Glenorchy — or, as
it was formerly spelt, Glenorquhey, — in
Perthshire, was a great centre of High-
land pony-breeding as early as 1600. In
1609 Lord David, Murray, then Private
Secretary to James I. of England and
VI. of Scotland, writing from Whitehall,
London, to the Laird of Glenorquhey
(Glenorchy), says : " The Prince received
a pair of eagles very thankfullie, and we
hade good sport with theme, and accord-
ing to his promiss he hath sent you a
horse to be a stallion, one of the best
in his stable for that purpose, and com-
mendis him kyndlie to you and says that
seven yeers hence when he comes to Scot-
land that he hopes to gett some of his
breed."
The Royal Mews at that time are
known to have contained many varie-
ties of horses, Barb, Arab, Turk, &c.,
D
50
HIGHLAND PONIES.
all of which were considered to be
superior to our own horses as regards
pace, style, and symmetry. It would,
no doubt, have been a horse of one or
other of these breeds that was sent'
north, and so kindly commended to the
recipient.
Even earlier than this, however, men-
tion is made of the ponies of this district.
Writing of the great snow-storm of 1554,
the chronicler of Finlarig says : " There
was no thaw till 17th January. It was
the greatest snow-storm that was seen
in memory of man living. Many wyld
horses and mares, kye, sheep, and goats
perished and died for want of food in
the mountains and other parts." These
*' wyld horses," as Mr Dykes says, were,
no doubt, the ponies indigenous to the
district.
That the Glenorchy stud at this time
had a considerable reputation even out-
side of the district is proved by the
records of Mr Cosmo Innes, who, writing
of the Thanes of Cawdor, in Nairnshire,
in his interesting work, Scotland during
the Middle Ages, says : " Somewhat more
care is shown of the breed of horses.
Long before this time the lairds of
Glenorchy had introduced English and
foreign horses for their great stud in
Perthshire, and the example was fol-
lowed at Cawdor."
As early as 1638, Duncan Campbell,
writing from Islay to his brother Colin
of Galcantray, says : " I wishe if you
may Cromarties old Spanish horse, pro-
vyding he be of a reasonable prys." In
these days the ponies seem to have been
kept on the hills in droves like sheep.
The following entry, applying to fully a
century later, appears in The Black Book
cf Tayjoov/nt : —
"John, Earl of Breadalbane, lets to
John M'Nab for five years the grazing
hills of Bentechie and Elraig, with the
full accustomed places 'where his Lord-
ship and his predecessors' horses were
wont to pasture in Glenorchy, delivering
to him thirtj]_stud mares either with foal
or having foals at their feet, the one-half
worth 30 merks apiece, as also 100 merks
■ Scots to buy a sufficient stallion not ex-
ceeding five years of age, to be kept with
mares on the said grass; and the said
John M'Nab is to keep the mares and
stallion on his own peril, and to be an-
swerable for them in all cases, excepting
only the case of daylight depredations
and public harrying in a hostile manner,
and to keep the stallion from labour.
To pay the Earl the sum of ten pounds
Scots for each of the lands yearly in
name of tack duty, and at the expiry
of his tack to re-deliver to the Earl the
same number of mares and foals and a
stallion of equal value with these he
received, or to pay the foresaid prices,
for the mares and the stallions which
are awanting. And in like manner ten
pounds for every foal which shall be
short of the number of thirty as above
mentioned, delivering also the Earl's
burning - iron, which he received f pr
marking the horses. — Finxaeig, iiih
June 1702."
The Atholl Ponies.
Another very old stud appears to have
been that at Atholl owned by the Dukes
of Atholl. This stud fortunately is still,
in part at any rate, in existence, and
representatives of it have been seen of
late years at the annual shows of the
Highland and Agricultural Society. In
1904, at the Perth show of that Society,
one of the Atholl ponies, "Bonnie
Laddie," a three-year-old dun-coloured
colt, carried off the president's medal as
the best Highland pony. This pony
(which is represented in Plate 22) was
got by "Herd Laddie," also a very
successful prize-winner. "Herd Laddie"
in turn was got by " Highland Laddie,"
while his dam was " Jeannie," by
"Campbell Lofty." "Bonnie Laddie"
was an exceedingly purpose- like pony.
He stood fully 14 hands high, had deep,
well-filled thighs and quarters, a short,
nicely coupled back, and a handsomely
set on head and neck. His legs were
very clean and strong, with just that
little tuft of hair at the back of the
fetlock joint so characteristic of the old
equine breeds. He looked like a pony
that could travel a long way and do a
big day's work without much trouble.
Unlike many Highland ponies, " Bonnie
Laddie " had comparatively good sloping
shoulders.
Although there are records of mares
which existed befote that time, the first
recorded stallion of the Atholl stud was
"Glentilt," a grey-coloured pony which
HIGHLAND PONIES.
51
was foaled in 1862. This pony was
bought from Mr Donald Cameron, Glen-
garry, Inverness, for ;^i3, los., and sold
to the Earl of Southesk for jQSo. Ac-
cording to a statement supplied by the '
Marquis of Tullibardine to Mr Dykes,
he was the sire of several of the best hill
ponies at Atholl, notably "Lady Jean"
in 1867, afterwards used as a brood
mare. This mare's dam was "Polly,"
a " garron " mare bought from Mr Hal-
ford, the tenant of Foss, who bought
her in a Muir of Ord market.
In reference to the term "garron,"
it is well to remember that although
in recent years it has been used as
descriptive of the heavy mainland type
of ponies, its real meaning is gelding,
and in the early premium lists of the
Highland and Agricultural Society it
was so applied, there being separate
classes for stallions and mares as well
as for "garrons."
At Atholl the ponies are principally
used for hill purposes in the shooting
season. They travel long distances over
the roughest ground, and are invaluable
either for saddle or game-carrying pur-
poses. A number of the ponies also
formed mounts for the Atholl detach-
ment of the Scottish Horse which did
duty in Edinburgh on the occasion of
the visit of his Majesty the King in
1903, and they created a very favourable
impression amongst those who saw and
recognised them, their sturdy make
and hardy-like appearance being novel
features in a great military display.
Inverness-shire Ponies.
A number of first-class studs are
known to have been owned in different
parts of the mainland of the county of
Inverness. At least the remnants of a
few of these still exist.
One of the best of the old Inverness-
shire studs was that at Corriechuille, in
Lochaber, which flourished some time
prior to 1833. It was from this stud
that the Gaick strains of blood so ex-
tensively used by Lord Arthur Cecil and
Professor Cossar Ewart originally came.
The Corriechuille ponies were of all
colours — bays, browns, duns, yellow-
creams, and piebalds. Little is known
of their early history, but judging from
the fact that some of them were taken
to Gaick, and ih&t they have been main-
tained practically pure there ever since,
they must have been of a good class.
One of the best mares in the Gaick
collection was " Gaick Calliag," a black
by " Glentilt,'' which latter was bred
in the near neighbourhood, and after-
wards became principal stud-horae at
Atholl. "Calliag" was purchased by
Lord Arthur Cecil when sixteen years of
age,' and carrying her ninth foal, for
;^64, and afterwards passed into the
New Forest, in Hampshire. At the
same time her son was sold for ^^75 to
Mr Forsyth of Quinish for the Congested
Districts Board, and was forwarded to
Professor Cossar Ewart, who used him,
under the name of "Atholl," in some of
his experiments at Penicuik. Several
descendants of " Calliag " are still at
Gaick, and the outstanding feature of the
stud is its great hardiness. "Calliag"
herself until she went south was never
under a roof, this, too, notwithstanding
the severe winters which were frequently
experienced in Lochaber. At Gaick, as
at Atholl, the ponies are mainly used for
hill-carrying purposes, although they also
do any carting that is required, being
hand-fed only when at the latter class of
work.
To some extent allied to the Gaick
ponies were the Guisachan ponies owned
by Lord Tweedmouth. This stud was
descended from old Highland blood, but
in late years the ponies had been crossed
with outside blood with the view of
getting more quality and style. The
outside ponies used were " Seaham," by
" Lord Derby II.," and " Guisachan
Miracle," by the famous " Little Wonder
II." Both were of Hackney pony blood
to some extent, but that the cross was
successful in producing at least a saleable
pony was proved by the fact that at a
draft sale in 1903 a pair sold at 130
guineas, a single pony at 68 guineas,
and others as high as 50 guineas.
Boss-shire Ponies.
In regard to Lord Middleton's stud at
Applecross,-the following note from Lord
Middleton, in the article in the Trans-
actions of the Highland and Agricidtural
Society already referred to, may be
quoted : —
" The present Applecross stud of ponies
52
HIGHLAND PONIES.
was formed about the year 1878, though
previous to that time my father, the
eighth Lord Middleton, kept and bred
ponies at Applecross. About that time
he came into the possession of a grey
mare, 'Kitty,' which he bought with
the property from the Duke of Leeds in
1861. This mare had been bred by *-he
M'Kenzies of Applecross, who had ponies
at the time on the place, which was
brought from Skye.
" The mare ' Kitty' was a good type of
the Highland pony. In 1878 I bought a
•bay mare in foal from Mr Macrae of
Glenbaragait in Skye. He (Macrae of
Glenvarait) was of the same family as
the Macraes of Camsunary, near Coruisk,
in the Isle of Skye. This mare was a
beautiful type of the Highland pony,
small, . strong, full of mettle. At that
time she was in foal to a pony which took
first prize at the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society's Show. She dropped
a bay filly, and both go respectively
now by the names of the Old Skye mare
and the Young Skye mare. From these
two mares many of my ponies have been
bred.
"In 1882 I bought a beautiful grey
mare, 'Molly' (foaled 1872 or 1873),
at the sale of Lord Dacre's ponies at
Garve, Lord Dacre having then given up
his forest. She was his favourite hill
pony. I bought another, which did not
breed. This mare 'Molly' was larger
than the two Skye mares, about 14 hands,
and strong. She had a family of three
colts and two fillies to 'Glen.' 'Glen's'
sire used to travel in Skye, and was a
chestnut with a white mane. The eldest
colt, foaled in 1884, was a chestnut
with silver mane and tail. I have
ridden him for the last fifteen years,
and have always taken him with me to
Scotland. He is a wonderful pony, very
strong, up to 16 stone, can walk five
miles an hour, is exceedingly wise and
clever, and never makes a mistake. A
sister (grey) was a carriage pony, and is
breeding now. Another sister travels at
Birdsall with the stallions. A brother
goes in harness. The other colt I sold.
"In regard to types and colours, all
my ponies are thick- set, strong, short-
legged, and bred especially for carrying
weights (deer) and for riding on the hill.
Their colours are black, chestnut, grey.
and bay. The chestnut probably comes
in from ' Glen,' as I hold that chestnut
and black are akin.
" In the spring they plough, cart, and
execute the general work of the foresters'
cu>f ts. In the autumn they of course do
the work required of them in the forests.
Some I use as carriage ponies, some also
I use at Birdsall for going messages —
post-office communication and the like —
or travelling as groom's mounts with the
Shire or 'Thoroughbred stallions. All
are brought to Birdsall to be broken.
They usually arrive in a truck with the
Highland cattle. They are then broken
at the Hunter Stud Farm, and used for
the dififerent classes of work alluded to
in order to make them quiet and tract-
able. Those required at Applecross are
returned for work there.
" Some I have successfully bred from
here (Birdsall) to the Arab stallion —
beautiful hardy ponies, fit for polo or
hacks, and I should think just the sort
for mounted infantry. I have all through
tried to keep up the Highland pony hardi-
hood. Here and at Applecross they
only get hay or silage during the snow-
times. Of course during the stalking
season they get a feed of corn daily.
Except those used for carriage purposes,
they are never under cover, and the latter
are only kept up during the period they
are used for carriage work, being turned
out for the winter."
Fell and Arab Crosses.
The first recorded sire used at Apple-
cross was " Glen," a black or brown, bred
by Mr M'Leod, Coulmore, who was a
noted Skye breeder for several years.
Afterwards " Fitz George," a son of Mr
C. W. Wilson's famous show and breed-
ing pony "Sir George," was secured.
The dam of." Fitz George" was a well-
known Cumberland Fell pony. "Fitz
George" himself was a 14-hands grey,
very stout in the make, and with good
action.
The stock of "Fitz George," from the
Highland mares, showed great improve-
ment in appearance and quality, and it
was no doubt some of these that did
so well at Birdsall, Lord Middleton's.
Yorkshire seat. But whether this cross
or others available would be best for
breeding military ponies is a matter-
HIGHLAND PONIES.
S3
that experience in the work alone could
settle. The Arab crosses undoubtedly
have sweeter heads, but they are apt to
lose bone and conBtitution, and it may
be hardiness as well.
Island Ponies.
The ponies of the Islands are legion.
There are the ponies of the Inner and
Outer Hebrides, the Barra ponies, the
Benbecula ponies, the Mull ponies, the
Eum ponies, and the Skye ponies, differ-
ing all more or less in points of detail.
At one time there was a widely prevalent
tradition that the general excellence of
the Island ponies, and, indeed, of many
of the mainland ponies as well, was
entirely attributable to the comparatively
latter-day misfortunes of the Spanish
Armada. While that particular theory
is nowadays greatly discounted, there
seems to be little doubt that Spanish
blood, which of course was Asiatic blood
in some form or other, found its way on
to these Island shores. But the pro-
bability is that the greater part of the
improvement was effected earlier, and in
the ways otherwise mentioned.
Mull Ponies.
None of the Island ponies enjoyed
perhaps a greater reputation in the old
days than the Mull ponies. They were
keen rivals even to the Gralloway pony
in its best days. No doubt the accessi-
bility of the Island, and the fact that
large droves were taken annually to the
Falkirk and other trysts, had something
to do with the preference, but all the
same they were very useful general pur-
pose small horses. They rarely exceeded
14 hands in height, but were so thick-set
and strongly built that they could do as
much general work as horses considerably
larger, while they could exist on very
moderate fare.
An excellent type of the modern Mull
pony was the stallion " Islesman " (253
Polo Pony Stud Book), the property of
Mr J. H. Munro Mackenzie of Calgary,
Mull. With the view of improving the
backs and shoulders of the Highland
ponies Mr Mackenzie crossed the mares
with "Syrian," an Arab hack brought
from Algiers The progeny is being
put to "Islesman," and in this way Mr
Mackenzie is hopeful that he may be
able to effect some improvement in the
form of the animals without deteriorating
them in other respects. The owner of
the Calgary stud is a firm believer in
the theory that it was from the Arab
that the good points of the Mull pony,
and, indeed, of most of the Highland
ponies, originally came.
Skye Ponies.
Skye ponies also had a good reputa-
tion for a great many years. Indeed the
M'Leods of Coulmore, the Macraes of
Glenvarait, and one or two others, kept
their strains pure for a very long time,
and bred many animals which were
taken on to the mainland for breeding
purposes. But in later years, especially
in the southern parts of Skye, there
has been a demand for rather bigger
equine stock, and many of the ponies
have been crossed with horses inter-
mixed with Clydesdale blood. The
result has not been very satisfactory.
Uist Ponies.
The Uist ponies, being farther re-
moved from the mainland, have not
fallen under the same adverse influences,
and here many fine representatives
of the old breed are still to be found.
It was from Uist that the late Mr D.
Stewart, Drumchorry, Perthshire, got
his noted prize-winning stallion. " Moss-
crop," as well as the mare "Heather."
Both were bred at Balranald, and both
had the old Highland characteristics in
a marked degree.
Most of the outer Hebridean ponies
are believed to have been of old Norse
stock Even yet some of the Uist
strains of ponies have white or silver
manes, this being also a characteristic of
the Faroe Island ponies.
Bum Ponies.
Lord Arthur Cecil, who has long been
a champion of pony breeding, has through
various channels made known much in-
teresting information regarding numerous
varieties of ponies. In the article in the
Transactions of the Highland mid Agri-
cultural Society for 1905 before referred
to, his Lordship tells of " nine very good
black ponies coming to Hatfield, which
were said to have been running quite
wild in the Island of Rum." All of them
54
SHETLAND PONIES.
were too wild to be broken except two,
which " w& hunted and drove till they
were twenty-eight or twenty-nine years
old." In 1888 his lordship bought eight
Eum ponies with which he continued the
breed. It was for use in this stud that
Lord Arthur purchased the famous stallion
"Highlan^Laddie^"whichbecame the sire
of tUe Duke of AthoU's " Herd Laddie,"
and which his lordship says was identical
with the Eum ponies in appearance.
Recent Experiments with Highland
Ponies.
Numerous experiments have in recent
years been made by the Congested Dis-
tricts Board in the use of sires of various
breeds in crossing with Highland pony
mares. Strains of the Thoroughbred, the
Arab, the Hackney, the Connemara, the
Fell, and other breeds have all been
tried. The results have varied greatly,
and opinions regarding them differ some-
what. The Arab cross has gained a good
deal of favour, but amongst experienced
breeders there is a growing belief that
in the main the wisest course is to seek
for improvement by the skilful mating
of selected animals of the native types.
Professor Cossar ^wart's Experiments.
In connection with the work of the
Congested Districts Board an interesting
feature was formed by the pony -breed-
ing experiments conducted by Professor
Cossar Ewart of Edinburgh University.
For these experiments animals of practi-
cally all the noted Highland and Island
pony breeds, as well as of such kindred
varieties as the Connemara, Iceland, and
Norwegian ponies, were obtained, and
amongst the out-bred sires used were a
Thoroughbred and an Arab.
The Celtic Pony.
Professor Cossar Ewart has made a
careful study of the native races of High-
land and Island ponies, as well as of other
varieties of horses, and has come to the
conclusion that what he classifies as the
Celtic pony (Eqrnis caballus celticus) is
one of the most specialised of all the
members of the Equidse family. The
typical Celtic pony of the present day
he regards not as a product of artificial
selection, " but as an almost pure repre-
sentative of a once widely distributed
wild species." The considerations which
led the Professor to this conclusion are
stated fully in an interesting paper on
the " Multiple Origin of Horses and
Ponies" which he contributed to the
Transactions of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society of Scotland m 1904.^
Managem,ent.
To a large extent Highland ponies
forage for themselves. It is the usual
custom to turn them on to the hills or
rough pasture out-runs and let them
gather their food. As a rule, it is
only when they are being hard worked
that the ponies get com, and it is
the exception to allow them even hay
when idle. In many cases little or no
house accommodation is provided for
them. What is provided is usually
only partially enclosed.
A Highland pony stallion is repre-
sented in Plate 22.
SHETLAND PONIES.
The Shetland .pohy is unique in at
least one resjject — it is, so far as known,
the very smallest of the equine races of
the world. In some of the islands off
the Swedish coast and in Norway there
are ponies that are not greatly dis-
similar in appearance from Shetlanders,
and at one time there was a belief that
the "Shelties," as they are frequently
called, were introduced into the Shetland
Islands by the Norsemen between 1300
and 1400. But these Swedish and Nor-
wegian ponies are larger, as a rule, than
the Shetland ponies, and the generally
accepted belief now is that the latter
were originally of practically the same
stock as were to be found in the northern
districts of the mainland of Scotland in
1 Vol. xvi., Fifth Ser.
SHETLAlsTD PONIES.
SS
very eai-ly times, and that they were
" ferried " across to the islands at a date
much anterior to the period mentioned.
The long-continued maintenance of the
Shetland ponies at such a small size is
regarded as being due to the hard con-
ditions under which they have been
reared and the struggle which successive
generations, even yet, have to engp.ge in
to obtain a bare existence.
Purity of Shetland Ponies.
The Shetland pony is probably also
unique in respect of purity of blood.
While most other breeds, large and
small, have been more or less the sub-
ject of experimental crossing, the Shet-
lander has probably in most parts re-
mained uncontaminated for hundreds of
years.
A ITorwegian Cross not Successful.
— In the eighteenth century, according
to Goudie, who writes on the early his-
tory of the breed in the first volume of
the Shetland Stud- Book, published in
1 89 1, an attempt was made to increase
the size of the breed by crossing with a
Norwegian pony of the stamp probably
already referred to. But it was never
carried to any great length, for the
reason that the progeny would not have
stood the rigorous conditions under which
the "Sheltie" had to exist. There are still
a few of the crosses in the Dunrossnesa
district, where the land is comparatively
fertile, and where it is the custom to
stable the horses, but they range in size
from 12 to 13^ hands, and are not
Shetlanders at all in the generally ac-
cepted sense of the term. Moreover,
they cannot be registered in the Stud
Book, which is confined to animals 10.2
hands or under.
A Mustang Stallion Tried. — The
same writer (Goudie) mentions that
about the middle of the last century,
on the island of Fetlar — there are nearly
one hundred islands, great or small, in
the Shetland group — Sir Arthur Nicolson
introduced a mustang stallion among the
ponies there. A remarkably fine stock
of ponies was, it is stated, the result ;
but again they got too large, their size
ranging from 12 to 13J4 hands. A
number of them also inherited the excit-
able temper of their feral ancestors and
were difficult to tame, although very
useful in many cases where a little size
over the ordinary Shetlander was desired.
These ponies are still spoken of as Fetlar
ponies, as distinct from Shetland ponies.
With these exceptions, the Shetland
pony has remained undisturbed by
attempts at crossing, and even in the
cases where crossing was attempted it
never made great headway or touched
the real heart of the breed.
Early Description of Breed.
Although several of the early historical
writers make reference to the small
horses of Orkney and Shetland, the first
really good description of the Shetland
breed was given by Brand, whff visited
the islands in 1700. In his book, A
Brief Description of Orkney, Zetland,
Pightland Firth, and Caithness, pub-
lished at Edinburgh in 1701, this author
says :—
"They have [in Shetland] a sort of
little horses, called shelties, than which
no other are to be bad, if not brought
hither and from other places ; they are ,
of a less size than the Orkney Horses,
for some will be but 9, others j o, Nives
or Hand-breadths high, and they will be
thought big Horses there if 11, and,
although so small, yet are they full of
vigour and life, and some, not so high as
others, often prove to be the strongest.
Yea, there are some whom an able man
can lift up in his arms, yet will they carry
him, and a woman behind him, 8 miles
forward and as many back ! Summer or
Winter they never come into an House,
but run upon the Mountains, in some
places in flocks; and if at any time in
Winter the storm be so great that they
are straitned for food, they will come
down from the Hills, when the Ebb is in
the Sea, and eat the Sea-ware (as like-
wise do the sheep), which Winter storms
and scarcity of fodder puts them out of
ease, and bringeth them so very low that
they recover not their strength till about
St John's Mass-day, the 24th of June,
when they are at their best. They will
live to a Considerable Ag&, as 26, 28, or
30 years, and they will be good riding
Horses in 24, especially they'le be the
more vigorous, and live the longer, if
they be 4 Years old before they be put
to Work. Those of a black Colour are
Judged to be the most durable, and the
56
SHETLAND PONIES.
pyeds often prove not so good; they
have been more numerous than now they
are; the best of them are to be had
iiV Sanston and Eston, also they are good
in Woes and Yell, those of the least size
are in the Northern Isles of Tell and
Unst.
" The Coldness of the Air, the Barren-
ness of the Mountains on which they
feed, and their hard usage, may occasion
them to keep so little, for if bigger
Horses be brought into the Country,
their kind within a little time will
degenerate ; and, indeed, in the present
case we may see the Wisdome of Pro-
vidence, for, their way being deep and
Mossie in Many places, these lighter
horses come through when the greater
and heavier would sink down ; and they
leap over ditches very nimbly, yea, up
and down rugged. Mossy braes or .hil-
locks, with heavy riders upon them,
which I could not look upon but with
Admiration. Yea, I have seen them
climb up braes upon their Knees, when
otherwise they could not get the height
overcome, so that our horses would be
little, if at all, serviceable there."
The Modem Type.
With the exception that the height of
the ponies is even less now than then,
and that the colours are not so much
mixed, thanks in large measure to care-
ful breeding, Brand's 1700 description
remains true down to the present day.
The ponies are still exceedingly hardy,
nimble on their legs, and docile and
tractable. Pretty much the same aims
in the matter of the form of the ponies
are also pursued by breeders. It would
still be quite true to say that " some not
so high as others often prove to be the
strongest." The object of the breeders
for many years has been to get as much
power as possible on the shortest legs
possible. This, of course, can only be
got by strengthening the bone of the leg
and widening the bodies and ribs of the
animals.
Some years ago, when there was a
keen demand from America for children's
ponies, an idea got abroad that the very
wide ponies were not the best for this
purpose, as it was said that they led to
cases of rupture. A more slim and
narrowly got-up pony was accordingly in
fashion for a time, but the theory was
never greatly credited on this side of the
Atlantic, and now next to nothing is
heard of it. At the -present time the
wide sturdy-made ponies are almost ex-
clusively the class that are in demand.
The wider the pony is, provided his
legs be strong and he is not too far
from the ground, the more valuable he
is considered.
Ponies in the Mines.
The preference for this class of pony
is no mere fancy. By far the largest
market for Shetland ponies is found in
the coal-fields of Northumberland, Dur-
ham, and the southern districts of Scot-
land. There they are used for under-
ground haulage — principally running the
little waggons of coal to the pit-shafts.
In some cases the ponies have to pass
through workings little higher than
themselves, and in these the gradients
are often fairly stiff. It can easily be
realised, therefore, that a low-sized pony,
and at the same time a powerful one, is
a real necessity.
Shetland ponies were first introduced
into the coal-pits of the north of England
about 1850. In 185 1, according to Mr
Robert Brydon, Mr Hunting, of South
Hetton, than whom there was no better
authority on animals for work in mines,
bought thirty Shetland male ponies — all
three, four, and five years old — at jQ^,
I OS. per head, delivered at the collieries.
Since then the prices have increased
to a great extent. Average yearlings
when the Stud Book was published in
1 89 1 were worth in the north of England
;^i5 per head; two-year-olds fetched
about ;^i8, and older ponies consider-
ably more. These prices continue to be
well maintained. Indeed, very small
ponies are dearer now probably than ever
they were, this partly being due to fancy,
but to some extent also to the fact that
they are suitable for working in thin
seams where large ponies cannot enter.
The Bressay Stud.
Being an extensive coal-mine owner
in Durham, Lord Londonderry would no
doubt have had his attention early dir-
ected to the question of a good supply
of ponies of the proper stamp and height
for use in pits. Early in the 'seventies
SHETLAND PONIES.
S7
of last century his lordship acquired the
grazings on the islands of Bressay and
Noss, and at once began to found a stud
from the best animals that were to be
found in the islands. The most careful
selection was pursued in breeding, with
the result that the Bressay stud soon
attained to a distinguished position.
Indeed for many years it was the acknow-
ledged fountain-head of the breed, and
the annual sales which were held at
Seaham Harbour attracted buyers from
great distances. The stud was dispersed
some years ago, but even to the present
day the blood of Lord Londonderry's
ponies dominates the showyards through
their descendants in the hands of other
breeders.
Pony Managem.ent on Crofts. — The
great aim of those who were in charge
at Bressay was to produce a low-set
sturdy animal which would have great
power on short legs. Accordingly the
stud was managed on somewhat differ-
ent lines from those that generally pre-
vailed among the other breeders. The
average crofter — the Shetland Islands
are composed very largely of small
holdings — simply turned his ponies into
the "scatholds," or common grazings
attached to the crofts, and left them to
mate themselves with whatever stallions
happened to be in the vicinity. The
result of this, and the great privations
which the animals suffered in winter,
coupled with the fact that the foals were
allowed to suckle the mares for a year
or more, was that foals were only pro-
duced, as a rule, once in two years and
often at longer intervals.
Management in tlie Bressay Stud.
— In the Bressay stud a more scientific
, system of selection and mating was
aidopted. About the end of May in
each year the mares were divided into
lots of from a dozen to fifteen and put
into separate enclosures along with a
stallion specially suited- to each lot.
A very perceptible difference soon ap-
peared in both the quality and num-
bers of the progeny, the mares man-
aged under this system seldom missing
a foal every year. The foals were
weaned in November and put on good
pasture which had been saved for the
purpose. They were taught to eat hay
as soon as the state of the weather ren-
dered it necessary, and in this way they
stood the winter better, and reached the
spring much stronger, than foals that
were allowed to suckle their dams all
through the year. The mares also got a
very desirableTest, and were in good con-
dition again by the end of May.
Points of the Breed.
As will have been gathered, the first
and principal point in the formation of
the Shetland pony is its height. Accord-
ing to the rules of the Stud Book, no
Shetland pony can be registered that is
over 10.2 hands high. As a matter of
fact, the great majority of the island-bred
ponies run from 9 to lo hands. The
smaller they can be got without loss of
other essentials the better.
In the best -bred ponies the head is
small, the countenance pleasant and even
intelligent looking, and the neck short,
with a fine tapering in to the throttle.
The back should be short, the quarters
expanded and powerful, the legs flat and
fine, with, however, a comparatively large
measurement of bone below the knee,
and the feet round.
The ribs should be laid on till within
two inches of the hip bone. There
should be great depth and width over
the heart and lungs ; the shoulders
should be well sloped back from the
brisket, and the fore arms and the thighs
strong and muscular. Colours can pretty
well be anything, but the most popular
are blacks, with a considerable number
mouse-coloured and a few dark-brown.
The pyeds or piebalds of the olden
times are not numerous nowadays.
A point of great importance in con-
nection with the breed, and which makes
them extremely valuable as children's
ponies, is that they are practically free
from vice. A naturally vicious Shetland
pony hardly exists. Of course, like
other horses, they can be taught tricks,
but properly treated they become com-
panions and pets, equally willing, as Mr-
Brydon says, to draw a carriage, carry
panniers or saddle, or be led by a rein.
Distribution.
Since the founding of the Stud-Book
in 1 89 1, a good many studs of the breed
have been established in different parts
of Scotland and England.
58
SHETLAND PONIES.
For some time back considerable num-
bers of Shetland ponies bave annually
gone to the United States of America,
principally for the use of children, a few
also going from time to time to the
Continent for the same purpose. Thia
demand from America and the Continent
has been very welcome to breeders, for it
is mare ponies that these outside cus-
tomers usually prefer, and this is the
class which the native breeder has most
difficulty, as a rule, in turning into cash,
male ponies only being used in the
mines.
Male Fouies for Mines. — The pref-
erence of the mine manager for male
ponies implies no reflection on the
capabilities of the mares, which are
quite as strong, hardy, and quiet as
horses. It is due simply to the fact
that in such a limited space as a coal-
mine it is practically impossible to have
mares and stallions working alongside
of each other without trouble and loss
of work. Mare ponies going tO' the
United States command readily from
;^io to about £15.
"Sheltie." — The term "Sheltie" ap-
plied to the ponies is, according to
Mr Goudie, derived from the old form
of the name Hjaltland given to the
Shetland Islands by the Norsemen. But
the word "shalt" or "shelt" has for
many years been used in Scotland to
describe a saddle or other lighter class
horse.
MANAGEMENT.
As already, noted, the Shetland Islands
are for the most part colonies of small
holders, who devote part of their time
to fishing, the cultivation of the land
being mostly done by the women-folks.
Spade labour is still the prevailing
method of tillage, ponies being used
only to a very limited extent for work
on the crofts. Their principal function
is to carry their owners and their families
about as required, and bring home the
peats towards the end of the summer.
At that season of the year it is no un-
common sight to see strings of ponies
coming home from the hill with loads of
peats on their backs, either carried in
baskets, pannier form, or built on to a
shaped frame of wood. These ponies
are usually in charge of youths and
maidens, who gaily mount the ponies*
backs on the return journey.
Most of the small holdings are situated
in townships, and while only three to
four acres may be cultivated, each town-
ship has usually a common hill grazing,
or " scathold " as it is called. This may
extend to a hundred or more acres. The
ponies are usually turned into these
common grazings about the month of
April, and remain there practically all
the summer without further attention.
In- the olden times, the owners being
generally very poor and not over enter-
prising, it was the custom to leave the
serving of the mares to chance — to any
stallion or stallions that might happen
to be in the "scathold." But now that
ponies have become valuable, the thrifty
owner rather turns his stallion pony into
cash than allow it to be used at random
without payment, and in many cases
without thanks. The result is that there
is now a shortage of stallions, and many
mares pass several years without breed-
ing at all. The more enterprising crofters,
however, arrange for a stallion or stallions
on co-operative lines, and this custom is
becoming general.
The mares, except those that have
been brought in and are tethered on the
crofts to foal, remain on the " scathold "
until the crops are off the ground, when
they are brought in and have the general
run of the fields. The fresh clean bites
of grass which have been preserved round
the patches of cultivated land afford the
ponies, and the sheep which accompany
them, an agreeable and much relished
change. _^ The ponies remain there in the
open practically the whole of the winter,
very often in severe weather being re-
duced for sustenance mainly to the sea-
weed which grows on the rocks or is
cast up on the beaches of their storm-
beaten islands. This the pony eats and
thrives upon to a certain extent.
All this time the mares are probably
suckling their foals, as the whole of the
ponies go together in droves. The result
is that, even when the mare is got in
foal next season, the strain is too much,
and nature intervenes in the form of
abortion. Mares kept in this way pro-
duce foals only once in two years, and
sometimes the interval is longer. The
crofters, as a whole, are so poor that they
THE ASS AND THE MULK
59
cannot afford to wean the foals earlier or
to keep the mares better in winter. Such
spare winter food as they have has to be
given to the cattle and sheep, without
which the holders could not exist. While
the school is an excellent one for ensur-
ing hardiness, it has not led to any great
increase in the numbers bred, at any
rate by the crofters. In the studs on
the larger holdings matters have im-
proved considerably.
Nearly all the ponies exported from
Shetland are conveyed by boat to Aber-
deen and Leith, and from these centres
are distributed over the kingdom.
The, Pit Ponies.
The bulk of the male ponies are taken
by dealers to the north of England,
where they are sold to the various
collieries. Mine work is no doubt a
hard life for the ponies, but it is not
so dreadful as might be supposed. The
ponies are well fed and cared for, and
they live under it to old ages. Many
pathetic tales are told of the attach-
ment of the mine boys to their dumb
charges, and vice versd.
A portrait of a typical Shetland pony
stallion is given, in Plate 21.
THE ASS AND THE MULE.
By high authorities the origin of the
varieties of the ass in this country is
assigned to Asinus tceniopus, a wild
species which existed in Abyssinia and
other parts in the north-east of Africa.
The ass, it is believed, was domesticated
before the horse, and this belief is sup-
ported by the fact that in sacred history
it is referred to much more frequently
than the latter.
Varieties of the Ass. — Many varie-
ties of asses are known to exist. While
they have all the leading characteristics
in common, they vary greatly not only
in size but in strength and stamina.
Perhaps the best of the modern day
asses are to be found in Spain, Italy,
Greece, and the old French province of
Poitou. The French or Poitou ass is a
brown breed, with long shaggy coat,
powerful hmbs, great bone and feet,
standing from 13.3 to 14.3 hands high.
Hardly less famous than the Poitou ass
are the Catalonian and Andalusian breeds
of Spain, which are of great merit.
The Andalmsian asses are exception-
ally powerful animals. One prize jack
of tlus breed imported from Spain by
that enthusiastic patron of the ass, Mr
H. Sessions, Wootom Manor, Henley-on-
Thames, measured 15 hands in height
when four years old, and had great bone
and substance in addition. The donkey
stallion, belonging to Mr Sessions, which
is represented in Plate 25, though only
two years old when photographed for
this plate, was then 14.2 hands high, his
girth being 5 feet 5 inches, while the leg-
bone under the knee measured 8 inches.
The Egyptian donkeys, which are
practically all grey in colour, have
neither the strength nor the stamina of
the French or Spanish kinds, and having
little value for mule-breeding, are not
much used out of their own country. .
Sometimes a few are imported into
Great Britain by visitors who have heen
struck by their fine appearance as com-
pared with our native donkeys, and they
do very well for children and for ligtt
classes of work.
A donkey mare of this type with its
foal is represented in fig. 701.
In this country, and particularly in
Ireland, a large number of donkeys are
kept. No systematic attempts have been
made to form distinct breeds, and the
animals are accordingly simply donkeys
and nothing else. They are mainly of
the small kinds found in Eastern coun-'
tries, but long since acclimatised to the
conditions as existing here.
In recent times considerable numbers
of both French and Spanish jacks have
been imported by such enterprising
private owners as Mr Sessions, but
their influence has not yet reached the
common stock.
Uses of Donkeys. — ^The donkey, in
all parts of the world where it is found.
6o
THE ASS AND THE MULE.
is a moat useful animal, especially to the
poor man. There is no kind of work to
which horses are put that cannot be
more or less successfully performed by
the ass. In Ireland it is almost a sine
qud non to the small cultivator. Not
only is it employed to turn over the
small patch, but it is usually the only
power available for carrying produce to
market. In parts of the west of Ireland
especially, the spectacle of the farmers'
wives driving along in their little
donkey-cart is a characteristic feature
of the landscape.
The donkey is also largely used for
market - garden work, and for hawking
vegetables and other produce through
the larger towns. The London coster
would hardly know himself without his
donkey.
Asses are also very largely used by
children, both for riding and driving.
Asses do not appear to know fatigue,
are very easily kept, and, given time,
will get through a great amount of work.
Longevity of the Ass. — Donkeys live
to great ages. In Brettell's Account of
the Isle of Wight, it is mentioned that an
ass for the space of fifty-two years drew
up the water daily from the deep well at
Fig. 701. — Dotiksy mare and foal.
Carisbrooke Castle. The animal might
have continued at the operation for con-
siderably longer had it not fallen over
the ramparts and been killed. It is
stated that up to the hour of its acci-
dental death it was " in perfect health
and strength."
The period of gestation in the ass
varies from 360 to 375 days, being
thus nearly a month longer than in the
horse.
MULE BREEDING.
The fact that the horse and the ass
breed together is proof of the close
affinity that exists between the two.
The oflFspring of this union is a sterile
animal known as a mule. Even did
the donkey perform no other useful
function, it would still be entitled to
consideration as one of the agents in the
production of the highly useful mule.
In this country the mule is not so well
known as it deserves to be. In Spain
it is par excellence the beast of burden.
The larger kinds perform all agricultural
and general draught work, while the
more slender and finer-boned varieties
are extensively used for saddle purposes,
being preferred by the rich, in many
cases, even to horses.
FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.
6i
Mules are also used very largely for
a variety of purposes in the United
States of America. Before the days of
electricity they did nearly all the tram-
haulage, besides being extensively em-
ployed in agricultural and commercial
operations generally. Many of the
American mules are as big and powerful
as horses. In addition to being power-
ful, mules are very hardy and tough,
and give less trouble, as a rule, than
horses, with their legs on hard cause-
wayed streets.
Donkeys and Mule Breeding. — For
mule - breeding only the bigger size of
donkey jacks are of much use. To serve
a mare and get produce of any value the
animal must be fairly upstanding and
have a large amount of bone. In Spain,
Italy, and other countries where mule-
breeding is extensively carried on, the
best mules are considered to be bred
from the jack put to the mare, the
produce appearing to follow the mother
in the external form. Those bred from
female asses are said to be longer in the
ears, of less comely form, and duller in
temperament. Occasionally trouble is
experienced in getting a donkey to serve
a mare, but the difficulty is not insuper-
able, as a rule.
A pair of Poitou mules, which be-
Fig. 702. — Pair of mules.
longed to Lord Arthur Cecil, are shown
in fig. 702. These mules took a full
share of farm work, day by day, along-
side average Clydesdale horses, for a
period of twelve years, and their food
rations were only two-thirds of what had
to be provided to the horses.
FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES.
Comparatively few foreign breeds of
hoi«es are known even by name to British
agriculturists of the present day. The
Arab and Barb races are, of course, fa-
miliar to us, and are deservedly held in
high repute, for they have played a use-
ful part in the formation of the best
varieties of oar saddle-horses.
Amongst draught-horses the best known
are the French Percheron, now the most
highly valued heavy draught breed in
the United States of America, the Bou-
lonnais breed of France, and the Flemish
breed, which has its home in Belgium.
The Flemish breed has contributed its
quota to the improvement of British
draught-horses.
62
ABEEDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE,
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
This breed of black hornless cattle is
native to the north-eastern counties of
Scotland, although within comparatively
recent years it has spread largely
throughout the different parts of the
United Kingdom, and has also secured
a firm footing in many of the cattle-
raising countries abroad. The outstand-
ing feature in the history of the breed is
the remarkable rapidity which has char-
acterised its development. It may in-
deed be safely said that no other breed
of cattle has spread so rapidly to new
homes as has the Aberdeen-Angus since
its existence as an improved race began.
Its rise, development, and progfess form
a most interesting chapter of British
cattle history.
Origin. — Although the origin of our
different races of domesticated cattle can
only be to a greater or less extent
matter of speculation, there is abundant
evidence to show that the Aberdeen-
Angus breed is of great antiquity. The
earliest writings dealing with the agri-
culture of those districts chiefly recog-
nised as the homeland of the breed, and
in which any attempt is made to char-
acterise the different varieties of cattle,
show the existence of a black polled
race. There is existing legal document-
ary evidence showing that in the early
part of the sixteenth century black horn-
less cattle constituted in Aberdeenshire
an important commercial commodity.
Not only in that county, but also in For-
farshire, Kincardineshire, and Banffshire,
where the breed was also retained in
more or less purity in the early days
before its establishment as an improved
race, records of the eighteenth century
contain numerous references to the
"hummel" and "hornless" cattle in
these parts. Many of the present-day
herds can trace their direct descent for
considerably over a century.
Early Improvement.
Mr Hugli Watson. — The first great
improver of the breed was Mr Hugh
Watson, Keillor, Forfarshire. His father
had been a breeder of black polled cattle
as early as 1735, but the systemalfcic im-
provement of the breed may be dated
from the year 1808, when, as a young
man of eighteen years of age, Hugh
Watson entered the farm of Keillor in
the old territory of Angus. There can
be little doubt that the wonderful suc-
cess which was attending the efforts of
the Brothers Colling, especially those of
Charles Colling at Kettcm, in the improve-
ment of the Shorthorn breed, spurred
on the young Forfarshire farmer, who
indeed lived for a time as a student
with Charles Colling. General Simson of
Pitcorthie in Fifeshire was then buying
at great prices some of the products of
the Ketton herd, while the tidings erf the
sale of the Shorthorn bull " Comet " at
Mr Colling's sale in 18 10 for a thousand
guineas must also have proved an in-
centive to Mr Watson to persevere in
the improvement of the native cattle of
his county. He had many co-workers,
such as Mr Bowie, Mains of KeUy, who
was born in 1809 ; Mr Fullerton, Mains
of Ardovie; Lord Panmure, Sir James
Carnegie, and the late Mr Ferguson,
Kinochtry. But it is especially by Mr
Watson's persistent efforts that the
greatest services were done to the in-
terests of the breed while yet in an
embryo state.
Mr ■William M'Combie. — In the
north pf Scotland an outstanding name
in Aberdeen-Angus history is that of Mr
William M'Combie, Tillyfour, who, along
with Mr Watson, took a great part in
the establishment and early development
of the breed. Mr M'Combie was only
three years of age when Mr Watson be-
gan his work at Keillor, but by 1830 he
owned a breeding herd, and about 1848
he gave himself up entirely to the cause
of Aberdeen - Angus breeding, or what
was then styled Polled Aberdeen cattle
as distinguished from Polled Angus,
although the necessity for this differenti-
ation soon passed away. '•
About that time, near the middle of the
nineteenth century, the black polled breed
was threatened with complete extinction,
as the result of the crossing craze which
ABEEDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
63
followed upon the introduction of the
Shorthorn to the north of Scotland. As
a matter of fact, one northern race of
cattle, the Aberdeenshire Horned breed,
entirely disappeared as the direct result
of this new ^system of breeding. Mr
M'Combie is the recognised rescuer of
the polled breed at this jujicture, and by
setting himself to bring out the great
feeding capabilities of the breed, he un-
doubtedly gave it a new lease of life.
From this point the history of the breed
has been one of continuous and un-
broken progress.
Sir George Macpherson Grant. —
In more recent years the central figure
in the improvement of the breed was the
late Sir George Macpherson Grant, Bart.,
of Ballindalloch, who vastly advanced
the cause of Aberdeen -Angus breeding
and perfected the type which had been
evolved by those who went before him.
Early Show Successes. — Although
as early as 1867 Mr M'Combie, after
repeated trials, managed to secure the
blue ribbon of the Smithfield Fat Stock
Show, thereby greatly advancing the in-
terests of the breed, there is little doubt
but that a most important agency
in the spread of the breed was the
French International Exhibitions. These
exhibitions, from 1856 up to 1878, were
taken part in by a number of leading
breeders, such as Mr Bowie, Sir George
Macpherson Grant, Mr Walker, Port-
lethen, and Mr M'Combie; and great
successes were won both for feeding
and breeding stock.
It was in the year last mentioned
(1878) that the greatest victory of
aU was won by the Aberdeen - Angus
breed, and there was no doubt a very
■direct connection between this success
and the great and remarkable demand
which was about that time being experi-
enced from America for cattle of the
"breed. A prize given by the French
<3overnment for the best animals for
"breeding purposes, in the sections other
than French, was won by Mr M'Combie,
and Sir George Macpherson Grant was
reserve. But the greatest trophy of the
«how was in the competition for the best
group of beef-producing animals, when
all varieties. of European cattle competed
i;ogether. The bench of judges, by
twenty-four votes to seven, decided in
favour of the representatives of the
Tillyfour herd, and thus both the fat
stock championship and the champion-
ship of the breeding classes went to the
Aberdeen-Angus cattle. This proclamar
tion to the world of the superiority of
the Aberdeen-Angus breed in the realm
of beef-production gave a great impetus
to the growing popularity of the cattle
not only in this country but likewise in
America,
Characteristics of the Breed.
Record as Beef- Producers. — The
breed possesses valuable dairy qualities,
which are capable of greater develop-
ment. Many strains of the breed are
found to be exceptionally heavy milkers,
and the milk, in the various tests that
have been made, has been found to be
very richi The breed has, however,
been all along cultivated primarily for
its beef-producing properties. The aim
which Mr M'Combie ever kept in the
forefront was the production of size,
symmetry, fineness of bone, strength of
constitution, and disposition to accumu-
late flesh. Keeping these objects in
view, Aberdeen - Angus breeders have
been able to evolve a type of animal
which holds an unrivalled position in the
estimation of feeders and butchers. The
remarkable success of the breed at the
leading fat stock shows of the country
has also tended to greatly increase the
admirers of the breed, and to enhance
the reputation of the cattle as grazers.
Graeiers on a large scale have borne
testimony to the fact that cattle of the
breed give a better return for the same
amount of keep than any other kind of
cattle, and the statistics of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries show that both
in Scotland and England enhanced prices
are paid by butchers for Aberdeen- Angus
cattle and their crosses as compared with
other breeds, while on the London cattle
market it is a generally recognised fact
that this class of cattle sell first and sell
dearest. The reason of this is that the
Aberdeen - Angus produce beef of the
finest quality, and have the best cover of
meat on the most valuable parts. It
may be that the beautifully rounded
form set on short legs may be deceptive
to the eye, and may cause the cattle to
bulk less largely in appearance than
64
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
some other breeds, but the well -filled
rump and loins, the thick cover along
the back, ^and the long well-filled-out
quarters appeal at once to the butcher,
and constitute them his primest favour-
ites. Cattle of the breed are found to
feed very smoothly, unlike some other
breeds which are much more apt to run
into lumps and bumps of fat, which are
absolute waste. The breed holds a
record of 76% per cent of dead- to
live -weight, and in addition to great
returns at the block, butchers find that
the flesh of cattle of the breed is admir-
ably mixed and beautifully marbled
throughout.
A breeder of extensive experience has
put the following on record, speaking of
Aberdeen-Angus cattle : " I may state
that my resolve to keep this particular
breed is the result of having carefully
watched the breeding, feeding, and
general health of cattle for some years.
Having for many years been engaged in
a large veterinary practice with special
opportunities for forming an opinion on
the merits of the different breeds of
cattle from a professional point of view,
and having for a number of years been a
farmer and feeder of stock, I have had
not only my own farming experiences to
guide me, but also the cattle market,
and the health of the large and varied
cattle population of this district — the
result being that I believe this breed of
cattle stands pre-eminently forward both
to the farmer and the butcher as being
hardy and healthy, good milkers both in
quantity and quality, easily fed, good
beef-producers, coming early to maturity,
and highly prized by butchers."
Reputation in AJcaeviea,. — In America
this sanje characteristic has been brought
out, and has led to the phrase " market-
toppers " being applied to the Aberdeen-
Angus cattle. It is a rather striking
fact that for a space of about twenty
years the top price in the Chicago Meat
Market has been made each year by
cattle of Aberdeen - Angus breeding.
Here, too, it has been found that no
other class of cattle put on flesh so
quickly in proportion to what they eat
as Aberdeen-Angus cattle do, and few
breeds can stand the cold winters so
well. They give most satisfactory re-
turns both when rustling on the scanty
herbage of the ranch and when foraging
on the luxuriant pastures of the fertile
farms. A representative of one of the
largest packing firms in America stated
that " in buying cattle for our trade
in the United States, and especially
for export, we give the preference to
Aberdeen - Angus steers. These well
fattened will- dress frpm one to two
pounds more per hundred pounds of live
weight than either Shorthorns, Gtallo-
ways, or Herefords. Although the
Aberdeen-Angus may appear very fat,
they wiU show more lean meat and be
less wasteful for the retail butcher than
animals of any of the other breeds above
mentioned, and the meat itself will show
a better and richer grain, and is more
juicy."
Beeords in Fat Stock Shows. — As
regards the fat stock show record, it will
be sufficient to deal with the two_greatest
shows of the world — the London Smith-
field Show and the International Fat
Stock Show of America, held annually
at Chicago. At the London Show,
where eleven different breeds of cattle
compete, Aberdeen-Angus cattle during
the fifteen years, 1894-1908, won the
championship upon eight occasions, while
a cross showing Aberdeen-Angus lines of
breeding has won it once. On the occa-
sion of the other six shows, the Aberdeen-
Angus breed has provided three reserve
champions, and crosses of the breed have
also produced four reserve champions.
In other words, at these fifteen shows
pure or cross Aberdeen- Angus cattle each
year provided the champion or the re-
serve champion. This constitutes a record
that is quite unique. In the case of the
Chicago Show, which was begun in 1899,
the championship in the first nine years
was won upon five occasions by Aberdeen-
Angus cattle, twice by Herefords, once
by a cross, and once by a Shorthorn.
This, coupled with the equally successful
record of the breed at the other fat stock
shows throughout Britain and America,
demonstrates clearly that the great
popularity attained by the breed has
been built on a sure foundation.
Carcase Competitions. — The breed
has also won many of the higher
honours in the carcase competitions at
fat stock shows, the great return given
by cattle with a dash of Aberdeen- Angus
ABEKDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
65
b'ood in them leading to their being
largely represented in this department
of the show.
Weights. — Animals of this breed at-
tain heayy weights at an early age. At
the Smithiield Show in 1908 the steers
of the breed under two years old weighed
alive from 11 cwt. to 14 cwt., the
exact age of the heaviest animal being
I year and 1 1 months. In the class for
steers between two and three years old
the live -weights ranged from 15 cwt.
I qr. 14 lb. for a steer z years and
9 months old to 16 cwt. i qr. 27 lb.
for a steer one month younger. The
live-weight of a heifer of the breed at
the age of 2 years ahd 11 months was
16 cwt. I qr. 20 lb.
Prepoteney of the Breed. — An out-
standing characteristic of the breed is its
remarkable prepotency in imparting its
properties to its oflFspring. This is seen
in the demand for polled cross oxen for
feeding purposes, and by the extent to
which Aberdeen-Angus blood is repre-
sented in the cross sections at the fat
stock shows. So prepotent are bulls of
the breed that it is found that quite 75
per cent of the calves come black and
hornless, ^ven when the cows belong to
a pronounced horned breed.
A breeder in Ireland writing of the
breed says : " This breed of beef-pro-
ducing cattle has made rapid progress in
the Sister Isle, and its crosses, whether
made with the Shorthorn, the Hereford,
or the native Kerry and Dexter cattle,
are amongst the most useful stores for
the feeder to buy that can be produced."
In the case of a large dairy farm
where Ayrshire cows were kept, the
owner, to improve his calf stock, intro-
duced Aberdeen- Angus bulls. The result
was that 90 per cent of the calves were
black and hornless, and fetched greatly
jenhanced prices when sold. Again, an
American experiment showed that where
an Aberdeen-Angus bull was used on fifty
homed cows there was not a single
horned caH, while 95 per cent of them
were black. Even when used on the
* long-horned Texan cows, bulls of the
breed produce a very large percentage of
black and hornless calves. On the great
ranches of America the breed has proved
to be most prolific.
Influence of the Breed in Ung-
voL. in.
land. — A writer in The Times, in Nov-
ember 1908, in commenting upon the
character of the cattle exhibited at
English fat stock shows, referred thus to
Scottish polled breeds: "The Norwich
[Fat Stock] Show of last week provided
an instructive illustration of the popu-
larity of the hornless black breeds of the
north, especially for crossing with the
English varieties. Of the no head
of cattle stalled at Norwich, 12 were red
polls and 15 shorthorns, and deducting
these 27, which, of course, were exempt
from the influences of the black breeds,
83 remain, and of this number 53 were
either black or blue-grey. Thus, nearly
64 per cent of the exhibits, other than
red poll and shorthorn, revealed the
characteristics of the Scottish black poll
breeds, the Aberdeen-Angus greatly pre-
dominating. The latter influence was as
marked in the county and butchers'
classes as in the others, and it was the
general opinion among graziers present
that the change, as compared with past
years, is beneficial to the eastern coun-
ties, the compact, short - legged, thick-
fleshed bullocks of the present time
being much more economical feeders and
more popular with butchers than the
leggy, plain steers they have displaced."
Early Maturity. — The property of
the breed to mature early has already
been indicated. In the early days Mr
M'Combie brought out this feature, his
champion group of six at the French
Exhibition being with one exception
only two-year-olds. In later times, as
showing that there has been no falling
off in this respect, it may be recalled
that the Aberdeen -Angus is the only
breed that has produced at any of the
leading British fat stock shows a cham-
pion animal at one year old. It is also
a rather interesting fact, in view of the
chief aim of the Smithfield Club to en-
courage early; maturity, that the first
occasion in the history of the Club upon
which the championship was taken by a
two-year-old, the successful animal was
of the Aberdeen-Angus breed.
Prices. — During the twenty-five years,
1882-1907, average prices for the breed
have ranged from_;^23 to £2^^, although
early in the 'eighties, when the American
"boom" was being experienced, the
average was from _2^4S to £,$$. The
E
66
ABEEDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
highest single price in this country at a
pbulic sale is ;^504 for a bull-calf from
BallindaUoeh. In America, a bull bred
by Sir George Macpherson Grant sold
for ;^i82o.
Points of the Breed.
In th« formation of Aberdeen-Angus
cattle, well-defined points are kept in view.
In the case of the bull, there should be
sought both size and quality. The head
should be neatly put on, and the throat
clean. The distance between the eye
and the nose should not be over long,
and the eyes should be bright and prom-
inent, with a good breadth between them
and surmounted by a good, high poll.
The neck should be of good length, and
clean — a little but not over full on top ;
chest full and deep ; legs short, but not
so as to give the animal a dumpy appear-
ance ; bone clean and free from coarse-
ness; shoulders not too full, and top
free from sharpness, but not over broad ;
back level and straight; ribs well sprung;
deep barrel ; well ribbed down towards
hook ; full behind shoulder ; hooks level,
but not too broad for other proportions;
and well and evenly fleshed to tail ; twist
full and long and well fleshed down, but
not protruding behind ; tail of moderate
thickness and , hanging straight ; hair
soft and plentiful; skin of moderate
thickness and meUow to the touch; body
fully developed, and the aiiimal when in
motion to have a blood-like look and
style about him.
A cow of the breed should difier
from a bull in the head in having, in-
stead of a broad masculine-looking head,
a neat feminine-looking one. The ear
should also be of good size, with plenty
of hair in it ; the neck well put on, clean
and straight, and without any prominence
on the top or abrupt hollow where it
joins the shoulder; the top of the shoulder
sharper than in the bulls, and the shoul-
ders themselves thinner.
Present Position of the Breed.
The leading position which the breed
has taken at the fat stock shows, both
when shown pure and in the form of
crosses, has led to a marvellous growth
in the numbers of the breed both at
home and abroad. As indicating the
progress which has been made, the fol-
lowing facts may be mentioned. In the
first volume of the Polled Herd -Book,
published in 1862, there were eighty-
three owners of animals, and in the early
volumes the names of only two English
breeders and two Irish breeders appear.
In 1879 ^ meeting was held for the
formation of The Polled Cattle Society,
— changed in 1908 to The Aberdeen-
Angus Cattle Society, — and at the first
annual meeting in the following year
the membership totalled 56. By 1908
the Society reached a membership of
about 530, of wtich about 120 resided
in England and 70 in Ireland. In vol-
ume xxxii. of the Herd -Book, — which
brought the registered numbers up to
27,662 bulls and 43,173 cows, — there
are 2837 entries.
The Breed in Canada and United
States. — Although the first breeding
herd was established in Canada only in
1876, and in the United States about a
couple of years later, the breed has in
the course of the thirty intervening
years spread widfely in these countries.
As an indication pf the demand for the
breed in the early 'eighties, it may be
remarked that in 1I882 there were landed
on North American soil 104 Shorthorns,
173 Herefords, 222) Galloways, and 586
Aberdeen - Angus. Within a space of
two or three years over two thousand
head of cattle of tlje breed had been in-
troduced into America.
In the first seventeen volumes of the
American Aberdeen- Angus Herd-Book
112,500 animals were registered, and
the 120,000 entries in the seventeenth
volume represent over 2000 breeders.
The American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders
Association was instituted in 1883, and
when the first volume of the Herd-Book
was issued in 1886 the membership was
only 112. It is thus seen that the pro-
gress of the breed there has been very-
rapid.
The Breed in other Countries. —
In several other countries the breed
has secured a firm footing. In the case
of Argentina there is a steadily growing
demand, for this breed is found to be
pre-eminently suitable in the northern
districts on account of the thrifty and
hardy properties which characterise it.
Aberdeen-Angus cattle were first intro-
duced to the Argentine about 1876, and
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
67
there are now a good few herds of the
breed in that country, though for the
most part the bulls of the breed have
been used for the grading up of the
native cattle of the country. In the
pastures of Argentina, cattle of the
breed are found to thrive excellently.
In several of the Australian Colonies
the breed is also largely represented. As
early as 1863 Aberdeen -Angus cattle
were introduced to New Zealand, and
the Aberdeen-Angus is now the second
most numerous breed in that country.
During recent years large numbers of
the cattle have been imported to South
Africa, and recent advices state that
bulls imported into that country, and
€specially into Rhodesia and the Trans-
vaal, are giving excellent results. To
various other countries, such as France,
Spain, Germany, Sweden, Russia, and
even to Demerara, India, and China,
representatives of the breed in small
numbers have been introduced, mostly
for crossing purposes.
MANAGEMENT OF ABEEDEEN-ANGUS
HEEDS.
Systems of management in Aberdeen-
Angus herds vary considerably. They
are influenced to some extent by local-
ity and climate, by the accommodation
afforded by the farm-steading, and also
by the consideration whether the chief
end in view is the rearing of bulls for
sale. Ages of Aberdeen-Angus cattle are
reckoned from ist December, and the
principal calving months accordingly are
December, January, February, and March,
the object being to get the calves as early
in the year as possible. Especially is
this of importance in the case of bull-
<»lves.
Calving. — At the calving time each
cow is placed in a loose-box, or given a
whole stall to herself, all depending on
the accommodation that is available. A
week or two jprior to calving time the
quantity of turnips fed ' to the cows is
reduced, and they are allowed a soft
feed, such as bran, once a -day. The
decreased ration of turnips is continued
for about a week after calving, the bran
mash being also continued, when the cows
are generally placed again on their full
feed of turnips and straw.
Calf-rearing. — The calves suckle their
dams, and in many herds a couple of
calves are put to one cow, the cow sthus
relieved being hand-milked to supply the
ordinary requirements of the farm. The
calves ate, as a rule, tied up beside the
dam, but in several large herds they are
allowed to wander about in the open area
behind the cows, being allowed access to
suckle four times arday. The breeding
byre, unlike the byre for the feeding
cattle, should always be a single one.
When about three months old the
calves are allowed a small supply, of
hay and sliced turnips with a little lin-
seed cake, although in a great many
well -managed herds they get nothing
beyond the dam's milk until they are
put out to grass about the month of
May. The bull- and heifer- calves are
put into separate fields, and where the
pasture is poor, and it is wished to keep
them going on, the bull-calves receive
about 2 lb. of cake per day. When
they are from seven to eight months
old the calves are gradually weaned,
and thereafter put out to grass again
so long as the weather permits.
In any case they are allowed plenty
of room for exercise. In a few cases the
heifer-calves get a little cake each morn-
ing, which is found to be of great value
in helping them to retain the calf flesh.
In the great majority of cases, however,
nothing is given them beyond turnips
and straw.
The bull-calves, where the necessary
accommodation can be got, are put up
two by two in loose -boxes. In large
herds this cannot always be done, and
the practice then is to put them into a
court. Their principal diet consists of
turnips and straw, with about 3 lb. of
cake per day, and a hot mash of bran
and barley twice a-day. But on this
point treatment varies considerably, and
in many cases the allowances are much
less liberal. The bull-calves are sold
off in the spring when about a year
old.
Young Heifers. — The heifers are
kept out all summer, being again, when
the weather becomes severe, housed up
in the open courts or in the byre, accord-
ing to available room. The only feed is
turnips and straw, so as to keep them in
natural condition for breeding.
68
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
The best mating season is about the
month of March, and,, as a rule, heifers
are not served until they are two-year-
olds. Breeders prefer to have all their
females settled in calf before they are
put out to grass.
Stock Bulls. — Stock bulls should be
kept in healthy condition by avoiding
too heating or heavy feeding. They
should be given plenty of exercise, and
it has been found that the most bene-
ficial form of exercise is to walk the
bulls along the hard road for about an
hour each day. Turnips and straw or
hay form the principal foods during the
winter, and as the mating season ap-
proaches an allowance of dry crushed
oats is frequently added.
Ballindalloch Herd.
In the course of his history of the
Ballindalloch herd the late Mr Campbell
Macpherson Grant gave the following
notes on the system of management : —
"The principal calving months are
December, January, February, and March,
although calves are dropped all the year
round. When due to calve each cow is
allowed a double stall, and the calf when
dropped is tied at the opposite side,
while a strong bar, angled lengthwise
down the stall, prevents any risk of acci-
dental injury to it.
Calf-rearing. — " When strong enough
and able to take all the milk the calves
are allowed to move at will through the
byre, their beds being made up for them
behind their dams. A trough with cake
and sliced turnips, as also a rack with
good, sweet hay, is always within their
reach. The bull-calves when at grass
are kept separate from the cow- calves,
and have an allowance of cake daily.
They are gradually weaned when six to
seven months old, and are then, so far
as accommodation permits, placed two
together into loose-boxes with an outside
court for exercise. They are liberally
fed on yellow turnips and hay or oat-
straw, with an allowance of cake, care of
course being taken not to overfeed.
" Heifer - calves are treated in much
the same way, but get no cake on the
grass ; and they run in the covered courts
during the winter, getting a fair allow-
ance of yellow turnips, good oat-straw,
and 2 lb. bruised cake each day.
"Winter Treatment in the Herd. —
"As soon as the nights begin to turn
cold, all the cattle are housed at night
and turned out during the day. When
finally brought up for the winter, at a
date determined by the character of the
season, the cows get a fair quantity of
turnips twice a-day, with plenty of oat-
straw, but get no artificial food except
for a fortnight before and after calving,
when they get 2 lb. of cake daily ; and
during the fortnight after calving, in
addition to the cake, a bran mash daily,
which twice a -week contains a little
nitre. The two-year-old heifers have
nothing but turnips and straw. Except
in quite an exceptional case heifers are
not served until they are two-year-olds."
Pictstonhill Herd.
Mr W. S. Ferguson, Pictstonhill, Perth,
writes': "I aim at having the cows in
fairly fresh condition at calving. This is
done by giving them straw and turnips
in limited quantity, in covered courts,
in autumn and winter aiter the grass is
done. The cows are tied in stalls when
they show signs of calving, and when
the calf comes it is tied not far from the
dam. It is let to her four to six times
a-day to begin with, and afterwards three
times a-day, when the calf takes all the
milk freely. Great care is exercised at
the beginning to take all the milk from
the cow. Some calves cannot take
nearly all the dams can give, and if not
milked dry nature seems to meet the
case by drying up the cow to suit the
requirements of the calf, and the cow
vrill not then come back to milk when the
large, grown caK requires more. One of
the most important matters the cattle-
men have to attend to between calving
and grazing time is to keep the cows in
full milk. Every cow requires different
treatment : some more food and some
less. When a calf is becoming too fat,
as sometimes may happen, it is not per-
mitted to take all the milk from its
dam. After the calves are two months
old they get some cake, meal, and pulped
turnips, but not much, as we rely mostly
on the milk.
Aberdeen-Angus Cows as Milkers.
— " It is a mistake to suppose that Aber-
deen-Angus cows are not good milkers.
They give milk, as a rule, according to-
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
69
the treatment they receive ; and I find
that when passed on to the dairy, as I
sometimes do, they give as good an
account of themselves as any excepting
Ayrshires.
"The cows after calving and up till
grass time get mostly turnips and straw,
along with a drink of bran and meal
once a-day,^^ while if an individual beast
begins to look thin and dry she may get
a bit of cake extra.
Calves. — "The calves go with their
dams at grass. • The heifer- calves get
nothing but their mother's milk and
what they pick up on the field, but
after a short time the bull-calves are
trained to eat cakes and meals. The
calves are weaned when about seven
months old, the heifers going anywhere
at little expense, and the bulls to folds
and boxes to be trained and fed for
sale in the following spring. Accord-
ing to modern ideas it is not easy to
overdo a bull-calf to sell him as a
yearling, but care must be exercised to
keep his feet and appetite always in
good order. This is where the expert
cattleman comes in, for fixed rules are
of little use.
Objections to Forcing. — "But the
modern system of forcing young stock
for showing and selling is a mis-
taken one. By it many young animals
are impaired in growth and health,
and are not in the end as useful as
are animals that are kept in moderate
growing condition. I never put too
much flesh on a calf intended for breed-
ing purposes, and if sometimes I am con-
strained to put a good, young bull in
prime show order I always grudge it I
seldom do it till after he is two years
old, and then he can stand it better.
My efforts — as were those of my father
before me — have been to keep a good,
healthy, presentable herd at as little ex-
pense as possible, and to make the cattle
leave a profit.
" The heifer-calves after being weaned
get a small allowance of cake or meal for
the first winter, along with turnips and
straw. After that nothing in the way
of short concentrated food is given them
until they reach the cow stage. Of
course this does not apply to a few
females now and then put into training
for show purposes. With these few it is
a case of feed as hard as you can with-
out making them patchy."
Mulben Herd.,
Mr John Macpherson, Mains of Mul-
ben, Banffshire, states that his cows,
except an occasional animal for showing,
receive very little artificial food,^ — turnips
and straw during winter, and grass in
the fields during summer, being all that
is necessary to keep them in good
healthy breeding condition. For a week
or two after calving, or if at any time
any animal seems to be down in con-
dition, a little linseod-cake is given.
Calves. — The calves are all suckled,
bull calves singly, and heifer -calves in
pairs on good milking cows. With the
exception of a little cake for a few
weeks at weaning time, the heifer-calves
get no extra keep.
The bull-calves, being intended for
early sale, require more attention. After
the grass begins to fail they are taken
into a court overnight, and get some
tares and a small allowance of linseed-
cake. Bran and feeding-meals mixed to-
gether, and scalded with boiling water,
are fed to them in boxes, the food being
thinly scattered on the bottom until they
begin to eat it. During the day they
go to the field, but they soon learn to
gather about the gate to get in. The
cows are left in the field, and cows and
calves are thus accustomed to be separ-
ated, so that when the final weaning
time comes there is far less noise and
trouble than there would otherwise be.
Heifers. — The earliest and strongest
heifers are served when fifteen or sixteen
months old, so as to get them to calve
when about two years old. Mr Mac-
pherson has found that when the animals
are strong and fairly well kept, although
they may take a little longer time to
mature, the ultimate growth and size of
the heifers thus served are not very
much affected, while their milking quali-
ties are improved.
The stock bulls are well kept and
regularly exercised, and during the mat-
ing season a little extra grain is added
to their feed.
The whole steading is thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected every summer,
and the byres and courts are frequently
sprayed with a solution of Jeyes' fluid.
70
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.
Spott and Iwoerqviharity Herds.
Writing of the management of the
herds at Spott and Inverquharity, Mr
Archd. Whyte states that all cows in
calf go out every day to rough pasture
till the calving time comes on. After
calving they are kept in till early spring,
when the weather becomes favourable.
During winter the cows are fed very
moderately on turnips and straw.
Calves. — As soon as practicable, the
cows and calves are turned out to pas-
ture, the bull-calves being weaned in
August and the heifer - calves a little
later. After weaning time the cows re-
main outside till the end of November,
and then only get shelter overnight.
Bull-calves, after weaning, go out to
clover during the day, being taken in at
night to a bite of hay and cake. There-
after they are put gradually on to tur-
nips, &c., getting out for an hour every
day for exercise. Heifer - calves get
moderate keep. They are out every day,
and are allowed a few turnips, straw,
and a little cake night and morning.
Heifers and Cov7B. — Yearling and
two-year-old heifers get very ordinary
fare — •when on grass only what they can
gather. This applies also to cows with
calves at foot. When on grass they get
nothing extra, and when weaning time
comes round .they are always in fine
condition.
Stock bulls get ordinary fare all the
year round, a little cake being added if
other keep be scarce.
The farms being situated in a very
high-lying district, winter keep is never
plentiful, but cattle keep themselves
in wonderfully good condition on very
small rations.
Dr Clement Stephenson's Herd.
Dr Clement Stephenson, Balliol Col-
lege Farm, Newcastle-on-Tyne, writing
on the subject of herd management,
states that up to a few days before
calving the cows may remain in their
stalls, and for calving should be isolated
in a box or stall. In no case should
a cow be allowed to calve in a byre
beside other in-calf cows.
Calves. — Calves should suckle their
dq,ms, and when in the byre should
be tied up in such a way as to allbw
them to get a fair amount of exercise. A
large piece of rock-salt, and sometimes
chalk also, are kept in the racks, so that
old and young may lick them when they
choose.
As soon as- weather permits cows
and calves are put to grass, the bull and
heifer calves being put into separate
fields. Should the dams of the bull
calves begin to fail in their milk-supply,
the calves should be given a small allow-
ance of cake. Great care should be taken
in the breaking-in and training of the
calves. From weaning time till tuming-
out time in the following spring the
calves should be well attended to, and
their food must be of good quality. They
do not want coddling up in warm places,
but should be kept in covered folds
which are well lighted and ventilated,
and in which they have plenty of room
to move about. Twice a-day they should
be let out into a yard to scamper and
play about. They should be accustomed
to being handled, and kept clean with
brush and comb.
Heifers. — After being turned out at
May-day the heifers need not be brought
into the house again until next Spring,
and then only for service. A shed in the
field into which they can go if inclined,
and oat-straw in the winter, are all they
require, but if it be thought advisable
to give them cake it should be linseed-
cake.
Bulls. — Stock bulls should be well fed
— not made fat, biit kept in vigorous con-
dition. When in free use, their ordinary
diet should be supplemented by stronger,
more nitrogenous food, such.as bean-meal
or crashed oats! The bull-house should
be well ventilated, and have a walled
exercise-yard adjoining.
When in the house a sloppy mash,
sweet hay, and a few turnips are all the
cows require. Cake is not necessary, nor
is it advisable to give it, at any rate
until the cows are again safely settled
in calf.
Preston Hall Herd.
Eev. C. Bolden, Preston Bisset, Buck-
ingham, writes : "I endeavour to get
cows and heifers to calve in December
and January. They lie out in the fields
until within a week or a fortnight of
calving, when they are housed. A week
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
71
after calving they go out for three or
four hours daily in all kinds of weather.
In ordinary seasons yearling heifers are
left out all winter, getting hay when there
is snow on the ground or during hard-
froist. In some seasons I am obliged to
put them in open yards to prevent dam-
age to pastures, as my land in Bucks,
being heavy clay, treads into holes in very
wet weather. I find that yearling heifers
do best lying out all the year, and I
generally manage to keep a field fresh
with plenty of grass for them during
winter.
" Calves are gradually weaned in Octo-
ber, and put into covered yards in
November, the heifer-calves getting hay
and roots and 2 lb. of cake daily. The
bull-calves get more cake with meal, and
are fed on as well as possible with a view
to sale in February, but I object to any
free use of condiments or forcing them
into overfed condition, as this, I believe,
shortens the period of their usefulness as
sires, and in some few cases may render
them uncertain, or possibly useless, as
stock-getters during their first year of
service. My covered yards have a hard
level bottom, either paved or solid gravel.
They are frequently cleaned out, and no
accumulation of muck is allowed in
them."
An Irish Herd.
Mr H. Bland, Kilquade, Greystones,
County Wicklow, Ireland, writes :
" Owing to our exceptional climate it is
possible to keep our cattle under the most
natural conditions. The cows are out at
grass all the year, and only come in, say,
a week before calving. We keep them
tied up after calving, with their calves
behind them, the calves going out daily
in a sunny court. About the first of
May all get to grass. We take up the
calves about the last week of October,
and feed the bulls and such females as
we decide to exhibit. Stock bulls we
keep out all the year unless in very bad
weather.
" Tubeiculosis is unknown, and the
veterinary surgeon seldom visits us. We
keep the byres and boxes in a very
sanitary condition. The cattle always
have access to salt. In hot weather we
spray them with dip to keep off the
warble-fly."
A portrait of a noted Aberdeen-Angus
bull is given in Plate 36, and of a char-
acteristic cow of the breed in Plate 37.
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
Early History. — This breed took its
name from the province of Galloway,
which at the present time includes only
the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wig-
town— at one time known respectively as
the Stewartry and the Shire of Galloway.
At a very early date the term Galloway
was applied to almost the whole south-
west of Scotland lying south of the
Clyde, and the only cattle then kept in
that extensive area were of this polled
breed. Indeed they were often termed
" Carrick cattle," from the title of the
southern division of the county of Ayr.
Ortelius, the celebrated geographer, says :
"In Carrick are cattle of large size,
whose flesh is tender and sweet and
juicy." In very ancient times Cumber-
land was under the same rule as Gallo-
way, and over the northern counties of
England adjoining the Border Galloways
were long the native breed.
Even in the area comprised in the
present restricted province of Galloway
the breed has been to a great extent
supplanted by the Ayrshire dairy breed,
and in the north of England the cosmo-
politan Shorthorns have made a serious
inroad on their territory.
There was a time in the distant past
when sheep and not cattle were the
principal live stock kept in Galloway.
The breed of sheep peculiar to Glalloway
were celebrated for the fineness and
superior quality of their wool. There
is an adage of unknown antiquity —
" Kyle for a man,
Carrick for a cSo,
Ounningham for butter and cheese,
And Galloway for woo'."
72
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
Early Export to England. — What
led to the very early improvement of
the breed of Galloway cattle, and to a
great increase in their numbers, was a
demand for them which sprang up from
Norfolk and other south-eastern counties
of .England. Before this southern trade
for lean cattle developed there was
little demand for beef from a province
so far removed from any great centre
of population. This outlet for the native
cattle had been opened up by the middle
of the seventeenth century ; for the Eev.
Andrew Symson, Episcopal minister at
Kirkinner in Wigtownshire, in his work
entitled A Large Description of Galloway,
published in 1682, states that "the
bestials are vented in England." He
also mentions that Sir David Dunbar
of Baldone kept in his park, extending
to about zyz miles in length, both
summer and winter, about 1000 head
of Galloways of different ages, and that
he was in the habit of selling from
eighteen to twenty score of the folir-
year-olds annually to dealers who took
them to the English fairs. This trade
in lean, cattle led to a great increase in
the breed, for through it breeders re-
ceived large sums — a new experience,
compared with the times when little
money was received for that class of live
stock from any outside quarter. It is
said that there was an old proverb in
Galloway that a good farmer would
rather kill his son than a calf, which
is a strong form of expressing the value
which those engaged in the cattle in-
dustry put on their bovine stock.
This trade had become so large a cen-
tury ago that from 20,000 to 30,000 three-
and four-year-old Galloways were annu-
ally sent in late summer and in autumn
from Dumfriesshire ,. and Galloway to
England — ^principally to the counties of
Norfolk and Suffolk. They were taken
on foot in droves, iron plates being put
on the hoofs of such as proved tender-
footed during the long journey. They
were finished on the rich pastures in
these counties, and disposed of in the
London market.
The Norfolk purchasers, tiring of pay-
ing so much money to Scottish farmers
for lean cattle, adopted the plan of
extending their own breeding herds ;
and as they wished to have them after
the type of the Galloways, they took
South Galloway bulls of a colour similar
to that of their own native red polled
cattle. In this way the present excellent
breed of Norfolk Ked Polled cattle claim
descent from the Galloways on the one
side.
While this extensive and lucrative trade
led to a great increase in breeding in the
south-west of Scotland, it also gave a
powerful stimulus to the improvement
of the breed. In fact, the Galloway was
among the first, if not the very first,
breed which was actively and system-
atically improved in Great Britain. The
quickened demand and the greatly en-
hanced prices naturally induced the
breeders to strive energetically to sup-
ply their southern customers with an
improved type of beast which would re-
spond to the richer and more generous
keep they got in the south.
Origin. — The origin of the breed is
lost in the mists of antiquity. But no
authority of any weight has ever thrown
a doubt on the claim that it is a pure
breed, and that the improvement was
not brought about by the introduction
of alien blood from any quarter. Alton,
in his View of Ayrshire, written for the
Board of Agriculture in 18 10, says that
"the breed was brought to its present
improved state by the unremitting atten-
tion of the inhabitants in breeding from
the best and handsomest of both sexes,
and by feeding and management."
Improvement of the Breed.
Early Improvers. — No man stands
out conspicuously among his fellows as
having been chiefly instrumental in im-
proving the Galloways at the early period
of their history. Smith, in his Survey
of Galloway, written in 1810, says :
" Among Galloway farmers have arisen
no enthusiasts in the profession, none
who have studied it scientifically, or
dedicated their talents almost exclusively
to this one object. No Bake wells, no
CuUeys, no Collings have yet appeared
in Galloway, who with a skill, the result
of long study and experience, have united
sufficient capital, and by the success of
their experiments have made great for-
tunes and transmitted their names to
the most distant parts of the kingdom."
That the production of the same ideal
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
73
type of Galloway was aimed at a century
ago as at the present day is proved by
oomparing the points or characteristics
of a typical animal of the breed given in
Alton's work, published in 1810, and the
statement of characteristics which was
drawn up by the Council of the Gallo-
way Cattle Society in 1883 and which
is given below. It is somewhat remark-
able that there is a very close resem-
blance between the two descriptions.
Iiater Improvement. — The improve-
ment effected since the commencement
of the second quarter of the nineteenth
century has been great, and it was the re-
sult of much enterprise and skill. Land-
owners and tenant-farmers vied with each
other in this commendable work, and the
latter received great encouragement and
assistance from the former. In many
instances on both sides of the Border pro-
prietors purchased the best bulls which
could be got and gave the use of them
to their tenants. Sir James Graham,
Bart., of Netherby, the celebrated states-
man, had a novel but influential method
of encouraging and assisting his tenants
in their efforts after improvement. In-
stead of money or medals, bull-calves
from his own very superior select herd
were given as prizes to the tenant who
showed the best lot of five yearling Gal-
loways and as many two years old, the
choice of the prizes in kind being given
to the winners according to their order in
the prize list. This was recognising past
and contributing to future success in
an admirable manner.
There is one man who stands out as
having bred a number of bulls by one
sire from which are descended almost all
the best Galloways in the Herd-Book —
namely, Mr George Graham, a tenant-
farmer at Riggfoot in Cumberland, who
has been called by " The Druid" in Field
and Farm the " Black Booth of Cumber-
land and the Border Counties," from his
having done for Galloways what Booth
did for Shorthorns. The sire above
alluded to was "Cumberland Willie"
160, bred by Mr Sproat, Borness, in Kirk-
cudbright. There were bull sales by
auction established at Lockerbie and
Castle-Douglas at the middle of last cen-
tury which were the means of diffusing
the best blood in all districts where pure
Galloways were bred. Males of the
choicest lineage and of the greatest in-
dividual merit were entered for these
sales, and the introduction of railways
provided a ready means of getting them
conveyed to their respective destinations.
About this time the rapid extension
of dairy farming and the great increase
in Ayrshire cattle threatened, if not to
completely supplant the breed in Gallo-
way, at ail events to restrict its numbers
as well as to endanger its purity. What
has been termed " a dairy wave '' swept,
over the south-west of Scotland, to the
detriment in various ways of the native
polled breed.
Herd-Boohs.
The improvement of the breed has
been greatly promoted by the estab-
lishment of the Galloway Herd- Booh.
From the outset the editor of the Herd-
Book has been the Very Eev. John
Gillespie, LL.D., Mouswald, to whom
we are indebted for information on the
breed, and who has rendered to its
breeders services of the highest value.
The first four volumes of the Polled Herd-
Booh, published by Dr Eamsay of Banff,
included pedigrees of both Aberdeen-
Angus and Galloway cattle. But in 1877
a Gralloway Cattle Society was estab-
lished which purchased the copyright of
the Galloway portion of the Polled Herd-
Booh and published it as the first volume
of the Galloway HerdrBooh, twenty-eight
volumes of which had been issued in
1908. About 20,000 females and one-
half of that number of males have been
registered in it.
Owing to a misunderstanding a sub-
stantial section of breeders in the north
of England hived off from the parent
society, and, joined by a number of
breeders of pure-bred Gralloway cattle,
who had not registered their animals,
formed a new organisation called the
English Galloway Cattle Society. They
had issued four voliimes when, in igo8,
negotiations took place between the two
societies, which resulted in each of these
being dissolved and a new body, called
the Galloway Cattle Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, being formed and
registered under the Companies Acts.
This new organisation includes in its
membership breeders in all parts of the
United Kingdom, and it bids fair to
74
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
conduce to the extension and prosperity
of the breed.
Galloways have been exported in large
numbers to North America, and in the
American Galloway Herd -Book there
have been registered at least as many
of the breed as in the Herd-Book of
Great Britain and Ireland.
Characteristics of Galloways.
Milking Properties. — It is not
claimed for GJalloway cows that in gen-
eral they are deep milkers, although
there have always been individuals which
have been good at filling the pail. Their
milk, however, ranks very high in respect
of richness in butter-fat.
Galloway Beef. — It is as beef- pro-
ducers that Galloway cattle are most
highly esteemed. The quality of G!al-
loway beef is exceptional!^ high. This
fact has long been acknowledged, but it
has been strikingly demonstrated in con-
nection with the carcase competitions at
the Smithfield Fat Stock Show. For
years after these carcase classes were
instituted the Galloways regularly, year
by year, carried off the lion's share of the
prizes against all other breeds. " The
Druid," the well-known H. H. Dixon,
author of the Koyal Agricultural Society
of England's Prize Essay on Shorthorns,
published in 1865, says, "There is no
better or finer mottled beef in the world
than the Galloway and the Angus, and
so the Smithfield prices show." Mr Wil-
liam M'Combie, the celebrated Aberdeen-
Angus breeder, testifies that " there is
no other breed worth more by the pound
weight than a first-class Galloway."
A Natural Breed. — Galloways arrive
at maturity at difierent ages, according
to the way they are kept when young.
They are essentially a natural breed, and
have been kept as such, never having
been pampered in any way. In the low-
lands they come to maturity early, though
it is not claimed for them that in an ex-
ceptional degree they are early maturers.
In the uplands, where many of them are
bred and reared, the climate is cold, the
fare scanty, and little or no artificial
food is given ; the progress they make is,
as might be expected, not rapid, although
when Galloways so reared are taken to
the lowlands they comeaway amazingly,
after being put on more generous keep.
Weights.— Where there is so much
diversity in the way they are kept and
fed, only an approximation can be made
of the average weight of Galloway cattle
at different ages. The following may be
taken as a fair estimate of the live- and
dead-weights respectively of good well-
fed cattle of this breed': —
Age. Live-weight, Dead-weight,
1 year 3 monthe, , . 900 lb. 540 lb.
2 years 3 months, . 1400 „ 840 „
But far heavies weights are reached where
the diet has been fairly generous all along,
and where an effort has been made to
force forward individual animals. At
the Smithfield Fat Stock Show in 1883,
a pure-bred Galloway steer, when 2 years
10 months 3 weeks old, weighed 19 cwt.
o qrs. 20 lb, — that is, he turned the
scales at 2148 lb. when 1055 days old,
which makes an average daily increase of
2 lb. in live-weight.
At the Smithfield Show in 1908, a
Galloway steer i year and 9 months old
gave a live-weight of 11 cwt. 2 qrs. 18
lb., and a steer 2 years and 11 months
old a live- weight of 15 cwt.
A Hornless Breed. — The Galloway
has always been a hornless breed. If a
member of the breed shows the slightest
trace of a horn or even a scur, there is
reason to suspect its purity. The pre-
potency of the breed is remarkable when
crossed with other breeds, but in no respect
so much so as in the matter of obliterat-
ing horns. Even when mated with the
majestic horned West Highland variety
of cattle, it is very rarely indeed that
the produce has any trace of horns, and
certainly it is no mean achievement to
get quit of any trace of such horns as it
were at one single •stroke.
Hardiness. — With the exception of
the shaggy picturesque West High-
lander, the Galloway is admitted on all
hands to be the most hardy among British
breeds of cattle, and the difference be-
tween the two breeds in the possession
of this characteristic is very sflght, if it
exist at all. This outstanding quality
is highly prized, and is sedulously sought
to be preserved. For this end the class
of skin and coat is regarded as of no
little importance. A moderately thick
but mellow skin is preferred, and a
typical Gfalloway should have two coats
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
;s
of hair — an outer coat and an inner —
the former moderately long, but soft and
not curly, and the under coat should be
thick, mossy, or woolly. It is the latter
■which is the more valuable in retaining
the heat and keeping out the cold. The
manner in which the cattle are reared
conduces to their exceptional hardiness.
The young ones generally pass the
winter in the open air. The Druid
says, " The sky and the hills of the glen
are their only winter shelter, and how-
ever deep the snow may be they are kept
out in the field." As the same authority
puts it, "Unsheltered bullocks come to
hand quicker in the spring than if they
have the shed option." It is claimed
for Galloways that, as a result of their
being kept so much in the open air,
they are in a special degree free from
tuberculosis. A few years ago 80 were
exported to the United States in one
lot, and when the tuberculin test was
applied to them by the Republic's
veterinary inspector, every one of them
passed the ordeal successfully.
Colour.— Until about a century ago
there was much variety in the colour of
Galloways. While the great majority
were then black, some were brindled
and dun, while a few were belted — that
is, white round the middle, as if a white
sheet had been fastened round them.
During the last one hundred years al-
most aU of them have been black — those
of that colour being reckoned the most
hardy. "Black and all black" is what
is insisted on, but a very few belted and
dun ones are still to be met with.
For Crossing. — Galloways have long
enjoyed the highest reputation for cross-
ing with other breeds. Their remarkable
prepotency makes them valuable for this
purpose, and while crosses bred from
them are superior beef animals, they
have the invaluable quality of hardiness
to an extent which is a strong recom-
mendation of them in this severe and
variable climate. Pure Galloways have
been crossed with Ayrshires, Herefords,
and representatives of other breeds with
success. In the south-west of Scotland
Galloway bulls are mated extensively
with Ayrshire cows in the dairy herds,
and the produce are well thought of
for the production of both beef and
milk.
Blue-gre,ys.
One of the most fashionable and highly
prized class of beef cattle in this country
is a first cross between the Galloway and
the Shorthorn— these being widely and
favourably known under the name of
"blue-greys." They have that appear-
ance in respect of colour from the coat
having an almost equal admixture over
the entire frame of black and white hairs.
The districts where these are most exten-
sively bred are the northern counties of
England — especially Cumberland, North-
umberland, and Westmoreland. They
are larger in frame, come very early to
maturity, and their beef is as choice as
any put on the market. Some breeders
mate the Shorthorn bull with the Gallo-
way cow, while others follow the plan of
using the Galloway bull and the Short-
horn cow. It is impossible to say which
of these systems of mating produces the
better animal.
The use of the Galloway cow is pre-
ferred by many on the well - founded
ground that she can be kept decidedly
more cheaply than the Shorthorn, and in-
deed the pure black female will thrive on
poor land and in high altitudes where the
more tender and dainty -feeding Short-
horn might experience difficulty in living.
White Shorthorn bulls are chosen, pref-
eifebly those of a white family, because
they leave produce of more uniform colour
than where the sire is a coloured Short-
horn. Blue-greys are almost invariably
hornless in whatever way they are bred.
Many specimens of this cross have
been prominent prize-takers at fat stock
shows. In 1892 a steer out of a Gallo-
way cow by a Shorthorn bull was supreme
champion at Smithfield in the hands of
Sir John Swinburne. At three years and
five months old he weighed 2276 lb.
In 1897 a steer by a Galloway bull out
of a Shorthorn cow was champion at
the same show after being champion
at Norwich and Birmingham. At two
years and ten months old he weighed
1800 lb. He was bred by Mr Parkin-
Moore of Whitehall, Cumberland. In
1907 the champion ait York Christmas
Show, a blue-grey, turned the scales at
2310 lb., and was sold for ;£72.
' Great auction sales of these "blue-
greys " are held at Carlisle in the early
76
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
summer and autumn, as many as 3000
head of them being sold at the two
auction marts on a single day at each
season of the year. The estimation in
which they are held may be judged by
the fact that they often realise up to 5 s.
per cwt. live-weight more than animals of
equal weight of any other pure or cross
breeding. By far the largest number of
blue-greys are first crosses. Galloway
bulls have been successfully used in Ire-
land for producing blue-greys.
Points of the Breed.
The following statement of the points
of a typical animal of the Galloway
breed was drawn up by the Council
of the Galloway Cattle Society of Great
Britain and Ireland in 1883 : —
Colour. — Black, with a brownish tinge.
Head. — Short and wide, with broad forehead
and wide nostrils ; without the slightest
symptoms of horns or scurs.
Eye. — Large and prominent.
Ea/r. — Moderate in length and broad, point-
ing forwards and upwards, with fringe
of long hairs.
Neck. — Moderate in length, clean, and filling
well into the shoulders ; the top in a
line with the back in a. female, and in
a male naturally rising with age.
Body. — ^Deep, rounded, and symmetrical.
Shoulders. — Pine and straight, moderately
wide above ; coarse shoulder-points and
sharp or high shoulders are objection-
able.
Breast. — Full and deep.
Bach and Rwmp. — Straight.
Ribs. — Deep and well sprung.
Loin amd Sirloin. — Well filled.
Hook Bones. — Not prominent.
Hind Quarters. — Long, moderately wide, and
well filled.
Flamk. — Deep and full.
Thighs. — Broad, straight, and well let down
to hock ; rounded buttocks are very ob-
jectionable.
Legs. — Short and clean, with fine bone.
Tail. — Well set on, and moderately thick.
Skim. — Mellow, and moderately thick.
Hair. — Soft and wavy, with mossy under-
coat ; wiry or curly hair is very ob-
jectionable.
MANAGEMENT IN GALLOWAY HEEDS.
For the most part the system of man-
agement pursued in herds of Galloway
cattle is natural and simple. The cattle
are so hardy that they spend a great deal
of their time in the open fields, even
throughout the winter months.
Ckapelton Herd.
The following system prevails in the
choice herd of Messrs Biggar & Sons, at
Chapelton, Dalbeattie : —
Calves. — The calves are dropped as
soon after ist December as can be se-
cured. Each calf is put to its dam
three times a - day until grass time.
Calves then go out to pasture with their
dams, where they remain until Septem-
ber, when they are weaned. After being
weaned the calves get a mixture of
about 2 lb. of oats, maize-meal, and lin-
seed-cake. This is increased later on.
The calves are wintered out in fields.
Cows. — Cows lie outside until calving
time. After calving they get roots and
fodder — 3 lb. of mixed oats, bran, and
bean-meal, vrith chaff — until the grass
comes. After the grass is suflBciently
forward they get no artificial food.
The heifers are never in a house. In
summer they have to depend on the
pastures alone. In winter they get from
3 to 4 lb. of concentrated food, with a
few roots and hay during the first year,
and straw afterwards. Heifers are put
to the bull at two years old.
Bulls. • — Young bulls, after being
weaned in September, are put on to
clover-grass till about the ist of Novem-
ber, getting 2 lb. per day of cakes and
meals. After ist November they are
shifted on to old pasture, and the artifi-
cial food is gradually increased to 4 lb.
per day, with, in addition, roots and a
little hay.
The stock bulls run with the cows in
summer. In winter they go out and in,
getting cake, bruised oats, maize, and
bran, with a liberal supply of roots and
hay.
Messrs Biggar do not believe in pam-
pering their cattle, and keep them out of
doors as much as possible. They find
that if they look after the young stock
pretty well during the first year (after
weaning), the animals can look after
themselves thereafter. No yeld cow or
heifer in the house ever gets any concen-
trated food.
Castlemilk Herd.
In Sir Eobert Buchanan-Jardine's herd
at Castlemilk calves are dropped from
December to April. It is found, how-
GALLOWAY CATTLE.
77
ever, that those dropped in February and
March generally do best.
Calves. — The cows are allowed to
calve in a box, and the calf is left with
the dam for a week. Afterwards the
calves are taken from their dams and
led out to suckle three times a -day.
AYhen the calves get "the cud" (at
about three weeks or a month after
birth) they receive a small quantity of
hay with an allowance of pure linseed-
cake. The cake is broken very small,
and given in a trough immediately after
the calf has finished sucking. This pre-
vents them sucking each others' ears, &c.
Cows. — Cows that are extra good
milkers suckle two calves. Cross-bred
calves are got for this purpose, the cow's
own calf being put on first to receive the
largest share. In May the cross calves
are weaned, and the cow and the pure-
bred calf are turned out to pasture,
and are allowed to run together until
August.
When the cows go dry they are fed on
straw and turnips. After calving they
receive an allowance of ground oats, bean-
meal, and bran, with roots and meadow-
hay. As the cows suckle their calves
there is no record of the yield of milk
which they give. One, having lost her
calf, was milked by hand, and gave i8
quarts daily. This, however, was excep-
tional, and cannot be taken as an average
yield for the breed. Probably about 13
quarts may be set down as a fair average
when the cows are in full milk.
Heifers. — Heifers after being weaned
are kept all winter in a small field, with
an open shed for shelter, and are fed
with hay and turnips and a daily allow-
ance of 2 lb. each of linseed-cake. Dur-
ing the second winter they lie outside
with no shelter, and are fed on hay and
turnips alone. Heifers are put to the
bull at two years old.
Bulls. — Young bulls have the same
treatment as heifers when suckling.
During the first winter they are kept
in field, with hedge or plantation shelter.
The 2 lb. of cake allowed to the heifers
is supplemented by from 2 to 4 lb. of
meal (bean and Indian in equal parts).
Young bulls are generally sold at from
12 to 15 months old. Any kept over
this age receive the same treatment as
stock bulls.
From the beginning of November, or
a month before service is expected to
begin, stock bulls are allowed about 4 lb.
of bruised oats daily. After the season
is finished they get grass during summer
and straw and roots in winter.
Broomfield Herd.
In Mr F. N. M. Gourlay's herd at
Broomfield, Moniaive, the undernoted
system is followed : —
Calves. — The calves are dropped in
January and February. All calves are
suckled by their dams morning and
evening until the grass comes, which is
generally (in this neighbourhood) about
the middle of May, when they are
turned out with their dams. All calves
get meadow -hay and about ^ lb. of
small linseed-cake daily. While in the
byres the calves are taken to the cows
on halters.
Heifer -calves when weaned are put
on meadow stubble, or young grass if
available, and given i lb. of linseed-cake.
When grass fails they are put into a
well-sheltered field and wintered there
on good bog-hay, cut swedes, and linseed-
cake. When grass comes the heifers
run on the hill among the sheep untU
November, and are again wintered out
on hay and roots. Heifers are put to
the bull at two years old.
Bull-calves are treated in the same
manner as heifer-calves until about the
November term, when the allowance "of
concentrated food is gradually increased.
Crushed oats, bran, and Indian meal mixed
with cut hay, are given, in addition to
linseed-cake, cut swedes, and bog-hay.
Stock bulls run out in a quiet, well-
sheltered field, and are given hay and
roots in winter. No cake or meals of
any description are given.
Cows. — The cows run along with
their calves on hill-land from the middle
of May until October, when the calves
are weaned. The cows are housed at
night about the middle of November,
and run out in a rough field every day,
except for a week after calving. Gtood
meadow-hay and a few turnips are given,
but no meals or cakes except in special
circumstances.
Preparation of Animals for Shows.
— Animals for exhibition are generously
fed, great care being taken never to
78
RED POLLED CATTLE.
surfeit. Special attention is paid to
punctuality in feeding. All young stock
are washed as often as may be neces-
sary to keep the akin clean and the
hair in good order, and are regularly
haltered and led on these occasions.
Cows are served before being turned
out to grass with their calves, as if
not settled before leaving the winter
quarters they are very apt to miss the
bull altogether.
Mr Gourlay keeps his Galloways on a
sheep farm where he has good meadows,
but practically no arable land.
A portrait of a handsome two-year-old
Galloway bull is given in Plate 38, and
a portrait of a typical Galloway cow in
Plate 39.
RED POLLED CATTLE.
The Red Poll breed of cattle is native
to East Anglia. The counties in which
the breed was cradled are Norfolk and
Suffolk.
Origin. — The cattle of this breed bear
a close resemblance to the polled cattle
of Scotland, and from the fact that in
former times Scottish cattle were in large
numbers transported to Norfolk for fat-
tening, it is assumed that this like-
ness in form arises in some part from
kinship in blood. Be this as it may,
the Red Polled breed can be traced as
a distinct and well-defined variety far
back into the eighteenth century. In
his Review of Norfolk, published in 1782,
Marshall states that the native cattle of
tlie county were "a small hardy thriv-
ing racej fattening as freely at 3 years
old as cattle in general do at 4 or 5.
They are small - boned, short - legged,
round-barrelled, wcU-loined, the favourite
colour a blood - red, with a white and
mottled face."
Writing twelve years later, Arthur
Young says the Suffolk breed of cattle
"is universally polled — that is, without
horns ; the size small, few rise when
fattened to above 50 stones (14 lb.);
the milk-veins remarkably large; cows
upon good land give a great quantity of
rich milk."
The. Improved Red Poll.
The improvement of this breed may
be said to date from the year 1846, when
the Norfolk and Suffolk types became
merged. In that year the East Norfolk
Agricultural Association established sep-
arate classes for Norfolk Polled cattle.
Descendants of the winning animals at
that show, exhibited by Mr G. B. George
of Eaton and Mr T. Edwards of Hatton,
were registered in the first volume of the
Red Polled Herd -Boot; in 1874. The
amalgamation of the Eastern and Western
Division Societies in Norfolk and Suffolk
gave a strong impetus to the improve-
ment of Red Polled stock. Then in 1847
Mr T. Crisp of Butley Abbey, Suffolk,
won at the Norfolk Show ^ith his two
bulls. The struggle between the two
counties continued with varying success.
In i858 the late Mr Clare Sewell Read,
M.P., before the British Association at
Norwich, declared that "as a set-off
against the loss of the Devons we have
to commemorate a grand revival of the
Polled Norfolks as a numerous and dis-
tinct breed; . . . horns and slugs are
studiously avoided, and milking pro-
perties well cared for. They possess a
uniformity of character, style, and make
that would do credit to many pf our
established herds."
In July 1862, Mr Ellis at an agricul-
tural meeting declared that "there is
much in your native breed which is de-
serving of your notice, and which your
forefathers knew was valuable. ... I
have never heard in Norfolk of the
existence of a herd-book of stock; . . .
there is a great deal in a herd-book.
... I can only express my astonish-
ment that as you have animals of such
a class and of so good a stock you have
not done more."
IjStablisliiiig a Herd-Book. — Eleven
years after Mr Ellis urged the establish-
ment of a herd-book, a meeting was held
at Norwich and a Society formed. The
late Mr C. S. Read was president. It is
RED POLLED CATTLE.
79
a fact worthy of note that those respon-
sible for the Herd -Book instituted the
system of recording tribes. Thus the
" A " group consisted of Elmham stock.
Here the cows known to be of the old
Elmham stock were registered ; secondly,
the cows for a long period in the posses-
sion of the tenantry ; and, thirdly, recent
additions. Tribes were thus associated
with groups, and the system is still in
operation.
Standard Description.
What is a Red Poll ? The answer to
this question was settled when the Herd-
Book was instituted. The standard de-
scription is as follows : —
Essentials.
Colour. — Red. The tip of the tail and the
udder may be white. The extension of
the white of the udder a few inches
along the inside of the flank, or a small
white spot or mark on the under part
of the belly by the milk-veins, shall not
be held to disqualify an animal whose
sire and dam form part of an estab-
lished herd of the breed or answer all
the other essentials.
Form. — There should be no horns, elugp, or
abortive horns.
Points op a Scpemob Ahimal,
C6lov/r. — A deep red, with udder of the same
colour, but the tip of the tail may be
white. Nose not dark or cloudy.
Form. — A neat head and throat. A full eye.
A tuft or crest of Fiair should hang over
the forehead. The frontal bones should
begin to contract a little above the eyes,
and should terminate in a comparative-
ly narrow prominence at the summit of
the head.
This interesting description has the
merit of brevity and terseness. But
that, in one sense, may be regarded as
its weakness. It may be advisable, there-
fore, to supplement it with a pen-picture
of a modern Red Poll.
The Modem Types. — It is necessary
to refer in the plural to the types of Red
Poll. A breed which has won its way
largely by reason of its milking qualities
must necessarily be also a good feeder if
it is to find support amongst East Anglian
farmers. As might be expected, the Nor-
folk— or larger type of Poll — is the
class of animal we find in the open courts
laying on flesh for Christmas markets.
Norfolk is the paradise of the feeder,
there being a virtue in Norfolk roots
unequalled by the produce of any other
county out of Scotland. So much so,
indeed, is this the case that animals can
grow fat on roots and hay.
The larger type of Red Poll is usually
the showyard favourite. It is hardly
necessary to remark that when a milking
type meets a beef-producing type in the
show-ring the odds are in favour of flesh.
A big, well-grown, level-fleshed animal is
the Norfolk Poll. Occasionally we find
a lack of sweetness in the females, but
a typical Norfolk cow may be thus de-
scribed: A neat head with a befringed
poll, which distinguishes it from the
Aberdeen-Angus type, is well set on a
clean-cut neck. The eye is prominent
but not bold. The muzzle broad ^.nd
free from specks. The shoulders should
be well laid, and not pointed. The dew-
lap is square, but the width of breeds
such as the Shorthorn is absent. The
ribs spring well from the back, and carry
a good covering of flesh, a large propor-
tion of lean to fat. The back is level,
the pin-hooks are smoothed over with
flesh in the male, but prominent in the
female. The tail should be moderately
thick, and fall at right angles to the
back. The hind quarters are not square,
but slightly rounded. The underline is
lengthy, and fills the hand at the flanks.
The vessel in the cow is not exceptionally
capacious in appearance, but the teats are
well placed and large.
In the milking or Suflblk type there
is less flesh, smaller stature, and a larger
vessel.
Colour. — The colour should be an
attractive red not too dark, without
suspicion of yellow, and not too bright.
The yellow shade is very insidious, and
hard to breed out. It is frequently
accompanied by white markings, which
are a distinct objection. It is an old
fancy, probably founded on fable, that
cows of a yellow shade are specially good
milkers. The truth of the statement is
not borne out by observation.
Red Polls in the Showyard. — The
showyard has a tendency to run a dual
purpose breed to flesh. This tendency
is sometimes observed in the Red Poll.
There can be no doubt that the fattening
qualities have been greatly improved,
but the primary aim of a Red Poll is to
produce milk. That, at all events, is the
8o
EED POLLED CATTLE.
chief reason why the breed has found a
home in counties far removed from those
of its birth.
Locality. — The breed flourishes in
Norfolk and Suflfolk. There are also
herds in Essex and the neighbouring
county of Herts. In Shropshire there
is one very thriving herd, while in far-
away Ireland there is a colony of ad-
mirers. The foundation of the Irish
demand was laid about the middle of
the nineteenth century. Lord Dartrey
was one of the pioneer importers into
Co. Monaghan as far back as 1861.
Animals have also been sent into Wales,
and there is a considerable export trade
to North and South America.
"Weights. — The breed has for many
years been classified at Smithfield and
East Anglian fat stock shows. As in-
dicative of the weights to which good
bullocks will grow, it may be stated that
a prize steer, aged i year 11 months 2
weeks, scaled alive 12 cwt. i qr. 16 lb.,
which would be a very good average for
prize fat stock. A two-year-old steer
in 1908 reached a live-weight of 16 cwt.
2 qrs. 23 lb. at 2 years 10^ months
old, — rather a greater weight than the
average, which may be stated at about
I- cwt. less.
Milk Yields.
Illustrative of the excellent milk-
yielding capacity of the Ked Poll, refer-
ence may be made to the very com-
plete records which are kept in Lord
Eothschild's herd at Tring Park. In
1907 there were 40 cows in the herd
throughout the whole year. These pro-
duced a total of 262,859 lb. of milk,
averaging 6571}^ lb. per cow. The
highest individual yield was obtained
from "Clarissa," whose 12,005 ^- '^^^
spread over 303 days, making the
very high average of 39.61 lb. daily
while in lactation. The best yield of
the first-calf cows drafted into the herd
was obtained from " Parody," calved on
March 5, 1904. She gave 7150 lb. in
332 days, — a remarkably good result for
a three-year-old.
In the Hon. A. E. Fellowes' herd at
Honingham, near Norwich, the average
for twelve cows and heifers, averaging
284 days in milk, was 6300 lb., one
cow giving 11,833 ^- ^^ 3^9 days.
The average milk yields recorded in
Sir Walter O. Corbet's small herd at
Acton Reynold, near Shrewsbury, are
as follows : —
Tear
Number of
•
Average yield
cows.
in lb.
1903
9
6434-33
1904
9
7236.72
190S
12
7753-45
1906
8
8073-75
1907
9
7363-77
MANAGEMENT OE EED POLLS.
Feeding occupies a prominent place in
the management of a Red Polled herd of
dairy cattle. Each owner has his own
method.
Eldo House Herd.
Mr A. H. Cobbald of Eldo House,
Bury St Edmunds, who has kept up-
wards of sixty cows for several years,
has tried numerous rations with varying
results. He believes in the cheapest
kind of corn ground into fine meal,
allowing from one to two gallons daily,
with chaffed hay and straw mixed, and
about half a bushel of pulped mangels.
A shredder, preferably to a mincer or
pulper, is used in preparing the food.
In addition to this, the cows get about
10 lb. each daily of long hay in racks
over their mangers, and an iron pan
filled with clean water is provided be-
tween two cows.
Cows. — From ist May to ist Novem-
ber the cows lie out in the open, and grass
is the chief food. Only about half a
gallon of meal mixed with chaffed hay is
given daily while they are being milked.
From ist November to ist May the cows
are tied up in a shed, with stalls about
7 feet wide to hold two cows. The cows
are turned out for exercise every day
except on very cold wet days. During
these months their food is increased to
the rations first mentioned.
The Hmdnghcum Herd.
In the herd of the Hon. A. E. Fellowes,
the cows are turned out to pasture in
the ordinary course in the summer
mouths. They have lucerne in the open
HED POLLED CATTLE.
8i
yards when they come up to be milked.
During the winter months they are
turned out upon pastures daily for some
time to exercise, no matter how cold. If
wet, or snow is on the ground, they go
out for a little time. The remainder
of the time they are kept in partially
covered yards made of corrugated iron.
Their food chiefly consists of chopped
oat-straw and hay mixed, with a little
long hay. At milking they have one
bushel of kohl-rabi, with bran and oats,
and a small quantity of cake daily when
in full milk.
Calves. — The calves are taken off the
cows when a week old and placed in
calf pens. They are then fed on new
and separated milk to which linseed and
oatmeal are added. When old enough
they get crushed oats, bran, linseed,
and cake in small quantities. In par-
ticular cases the calves are kept upon
the cows for some weeks to bring them
up fit for exhibition. When the calves
are able to take their food freely they
are turned into open yards during winter
and summer, it not being the custom to
turn them out to pasture until they are
from ten to twelve months old. Calves
are not allowed to remain out in damp,
cold nights, nor in the heat of the day
if the flies are troublesome. At the
same time they receive hay, lucerne, and
artificial food.
Heifers. — The heifers are not put into
service at Honingham until they are
about a year and ten months' old. They
are generally allowed some time before
being put to service after the first calf,
as otherwise they would not develop
sufficiently.
The steers are readily bought by
butchers, who give 6d. more per stone
for them than for other local breeds.
Their weights as dressed carcases are
surprising, having little offal. They can
be kept in courts without danger, as
they are peaceable feeders.
Acton Reynold Herd.
In Sir Walter Corbet's herd at Acton
Eeynold, near Shrewsbury, the plan of
putting two calves on a foster mother
is adopted. Mr Eeginald Astley, the
agent, says: "The foster mothers gen-
erally cost about ;^i4 or ;£^i5. After
the calf that is on them when bought
has been sold, they are always sent
to some bull in the neighbourhood,
and they sell very well when they
calve." The ordinary cows in the Acton
Keynold herd calve in January, Feb-
ruary, or March.
Young Stock. — In the following
September the training and education of
the young show stock commences. Only
the best bull-calves are kept, the others
being made into steers and fed. The
heifers not intended for exhibition are
kept in roomy yards where they get
exercise, and are fed on hay ad lib., two
feeds of roots, and about V/^ lb. to 2 lb.
of cake and meal daily. In summer
they are turned out to pasture, remaining
there the following winter, and getting
from 3 to 4 lb. of cake and meal daUy,
three feeds of roots, and hay ad lib.
The heifers go to the bull at from six-
teen to eighteen months old, but the
exhibition heifers go to the bull in Nov-
ember or December, so that they may
not be too heavy in calf when exhibited.
Mr Astley says : "It is most important
that all heifers should be got in calf
before being exhibited as two-year-olds,
as otherwise there is a very great prob-
ability that after being fed up, which
is absolutely necessary if they are to
have a proper chance of winning, they
will not hold to the bull and be ruined
for breeding purposes."
Combination of Beef and Milk. —
With regard to the combination of
beef and milk, an instance is furnished
by an Acton Reynold cow, which aver-
aged for «ix years 10,039 ^- ^^ milk, and
was the dam of two Smithfield Breed cup
winners, the weights and ages of which
were —
Heifer, 2 years 5 months 27 days ; 16 owt.
2 qrs. 14 lb.
Steer, 2 years 5 months 9 days ; 15 cwt.
3 qrs. 18 lb.
Mr Astley believes that Eed Polled
cattje will, better than any other breed,
fulfil the condition of producing both
milk and beef in the same animal.
A portrait of a noted Eed Polled cow
is given in Plate 34.
VOL. III.
82
SHORTHOKN CATTLE.
SHOETHOEN CATTLE.
It is acknowledged by all that the
Shorthorn has abundantly earned the
right to the premier position amongst
British breeds of cattle. It is by far the
most numerous, as it is the most widely
diffused. . More wealth is bound up in it
than in any other variety of the bovine
race. In the development of the live-
stock industry of the United Kingdom it
has played a great part, far exceeding
that of any other distinct class of animals.
And the breed has done more than de-
velop wealth at home. It has gone in
vast numbers to foreign countries, bring-
ing in exchange foreign gold to British
farmers, and creating wealth, and pro-
moting agricultural prosperity wherever
it has been given a habitation. The
breed which has done all this — and is as
busy at work as ever, widening its field
of operations from time to time — well
merits a word of homage from the live-
stock historian.
Origin of the Breed. — Extremely
little is known of the foundation ele-
ments of the Shorthorn breed, and next
to nothing of the moulding influences
exerted by breeders during the seven-
teenth century. Even for the period
between 1700 and 1750 there does not
exis£ much of a practically useful char-
acter in the form of breeding records.
The breed was probably in more or less
complete possession of Durham and
North Yorkshire for two or three hun-
dred years before it began to attract the
attention of outsiders. Some writers
have associated the early history of the
breed with Holland, but there is now
a general agreement that it is not of
Dutch origin. Further, it is fairly well
established that the occasional importa-
tions of Dutch stock referred to by
GuUey, William Ellis, and others, had
comparatively little influence on the
Durham or Teeswater breed duringj the
first forty or fifty years of the seven-
teenth century. Later alloys of Gal-
loway and Highland blood were rather
incidentals than disturbers of the breed's
course. The main elements were power-
ful enough to assimilate such factors
without betraying outward signs of the
blending.
Mr James Cameron, to whom we are
indebted for information regarding the
breed, states that in the early decades of
the seventeenth century the Teeswater
cattle were mostly large-framed, yellow-
ish-red, red-and-white, and white stock,
odd specimens being of a " mealy-roan "
hue. Old Northumberland traditions
also had it that numbers of the cattle
showed dark noses and patches of blue
on the skin, such markings being no
doubt due to previous crossings with the
native black cattle of surrounding dis-
tricts. Persistence of "unfashionable"
noses and a dull blue slatey-roan may
thus be accounted for, but to what ex-
tent the occasional blue or blackish tips
in horns are due to very old out-crosses
it is impossible to say.
With reference to the blood-red colour
which is now so much -prized, there is no
evidence to show that it was common in
the early part of last century. It is to
all intents a relatively modern evolution,
the result of careful and persistent selec-
tion.
Early Improvers.
Among Shorthorn improvers of the
earlier part of the eighteenth century,
high positions must be given to Smith-
son of Stanwick; the brothers George
and Matthew CuUey of Winton ;' John
Maynard of Eryholme ; Waistell of Great
Burdon; John Hunter of Hurworth —
breeder of the remarkable bull "Hub-
back " 319; Stephenson of Ketton ; John
Charge of Newton Morrell, well known
as a friend of Bakewell ; Jolly of Wor-
sall ; and Michael Jackson, who bred the
sire of Maynard's cow, "Favourite."
Those men, and large numbers of their
contemporaries, were of untold benefit
to the Shorthorn interest. They pre-
pared admirable materials for the great
breeders, the brothers Charles CoUing
of Ketton (i 750-1836) and Robert Col-
ling of Barmpton (1749 -1820), both
frank admirers of Bakewell, and ready
appreciators of his selective and mould-
SHORTHORN CATTLE.
83
ing methods, — Charles having, indeed,
lived with Bakewell as a pupil.
The Broth.ers GoUing. — With in-
tuitive knowledge of animals while such
were still "in the making," the brothers
Colling purchased all round their own
neighbourhood, and then proceeded to
fix their ideal type by means of in-breed-
ing. They were, at the same time, judi-
cious advertisers of their own cattle.
The "Durham Ox" of the one and the
" White Heifer " of the other— both by
"Favourite" 252 — ^turned the attention
of a larger public to the merits of the
improved Shorthorn. In short course,
the CoUings had high prices for bulls
and cows. On the wonderful cattle bred
by the brothers or owned by them, the
best being full of "Hubback" blood,
there is no need to dilate here. The
bull " Foljambe " 263, grandson of
"Hubback" and sire of "Phcenix";
" Old Cherry," " Old Daisy," " Duchess "
by "Favourite," and dam of Bates'
"Duchess ist"; "Bed Rose," "Favour-
ite," or "Lady Maynard," the 216
guineas "Lady," and many others, are
easily called to remembrance by students
of shorthorn history.
Charles Colling's sale at Ketton in 1 8 1 o
was the first great event of its order. At
that disposal 29 cows and heifers aver-
aged_;!^i4o, 4s. yd., while 18 bulls reached
an average of ;£ii6g, 8s. The marvel of
the time was the sale of the light roan
bull "Comet" 155, at 1000 guineas, to
Messrs Wetherell, Trotter, ' Wright, &
Charge. Eight years later Robert Col-
ling had the astonishing average of
^128, 9s. lod. at Barmpton for 61
head, although agriculture was then in
a depressed condition. Looking back, it
is practically impossible for any student
of Shorthorn affairs to over-estimate the
^ importance of the work done by the
brothers Colling.
Among the many gifted' men who took
up Shorthorn breeding at the end of the
eighteenth or beginning of the nineteenth
century were Christopher Mason of Chil-
ton, Robertson of Ladykirk, Thomas
Booth of Killerby and Warlaby, and
Thomas Bates, whose name will always
be associat/ed with Kirklevington, which
he purchased in 181 1. For his founda^
tion materials Mason went to Maynard
and Charles Colling. On the male side
he relied upon Colling bulls, and so
great was his success as a breeder that
the Booth family and Thomas Bates,
while at the opening of what proved to
be lifelong forms of animosity, agreed
that Mason had blood to suit the two
"rival houses."
Captain Barclay's Pioneer "Work.
— In the north of Scotland the pioneer
breeder of Shorthorns was that remark-
able man. Captain Barclay of Ury, who
at the dispersion of the Chilton herd in
1829 acquired the grand three-year-old
cow "Lady Sarah" for 150 guineas.
She was then said to be in calf to
Mason's " Monarch " 2324, and at Ury
she produced a bull - calf, which was
named "Barclay's Monarch" 4495. She
bred, further, the notable " Mahomed "
6170, "Pedestrian" 7321, and "Sover-
eign " 7S39, and the females " Julia,"
"Cicely," and "Helen."
Bootli Cattle. — Reverting to the
Booth family, the steadfastness of pur-
pose shown by that race of breeders for
well over a hundred years is probably
without parallel in the whole world of
stock-breeding. Thomas Booth and his
two sons, John and Richard Booth, were
of one mind in regard to type, but the
remarkable matter is that their tastes
should hold such overpowering domin-
ance over strong minds of the third
generation. The Booths fixed on a type
which in the main showed a pronounced
tendency towards beef-production. Milk-
ing powers were cultivated to a reason-
ably full extent, and when capabilities
at the pail came easily and naturally
they were always welcomed. Still, the
beef - carrying carcase was the family
ideal.
In the time of John and Richard Booth
it was wont to be said that the Warlaby,
Killerby, and Studley cattle lacked gaiety
and style. The representative bulls had
frequently round, strong, forward-staring
or slightly high -set horns, big curly
heads, wide crops, very deep fore-quarters,
arching ribs, and usually fairly long and
deep hind-quarters, but they did not walk
with the easy dash of animals showing
something of the " racehorse shoulders "
and less compact knitting of frame. To
a very great extent the old criticism on
the Booth cattle retained force until the
end of the nineteenth century.
84
SHOETHOKN CATTLE.
Bates Cattle. — Bates, with his more
artistic nature, was captivated by style,
while, on the practical side, his leanings
were strongly towards milking powers.
He was a great admirer of a beautiful
head. His bulls, with their flat and
generally well-set horns, broad foreheads,
large staring eyes, nicely chiselled faces,
expansive nostrils, long, clean, arching
necks, high and rather narrow shoulders,
and general length and "liberty" of
frames, cut a dash while on parade. Op-
ponents of the Bates' cult were not loth,
as a rule, to note such defects as bare
shoulder-blades and flat fore-ribs, nor did
they hesitate at times, even during the
life of the old man of Kirklevington, to
hint that constitutions were in danger,
and that milk was departing from one or
two ultra-fashionable families.
The Booth and Bates' partisanships
lasted for well over thirty years, and
during the period of faction the Short-
horn breed lost many friends in the
English tenant-farmer ranks. A com-
plete break-down of the unfortunate petty
divisions did not come until the early
'eighties of the past century. Before
that time Lord Dunmore had two great
sales and fortunate "escapes" with
cattle, mainly of Kirklevington descent
— first in 1875, when 30 cows and
heifers averaged ^^576, 5 s. 6d., and 9
bulls and bull-calves ;iS^992, i6s. 8d. ;
and, finally, in 1879, when 54 head
realised _;^i3,ii8, 14s., an average
of ;^24i, 14s. 3d. The sensation of the
1875 sale was the disposal of the two-
year-old bull "Duke of Connaught"
33,604 to Lord Fitzhardinge at 4500
guineas. At the 1879 ^^^> "Duchess
114th," her yearling daughter, and her
bull-calf, " Second Duke of Cornwall,"
made a total of £,TS°li i°s. "Duchess
117th" and " Duchess 114th " passed to
Sir Henry Alsopp at 3200 guineas and
2700 guineas respectively.
Later Improvers.
While the Booth and Bates' fashions
were running their course, work of great
excellence on behalf of the Shorthorn
was overtaken in England by such men
as Sir Charles Knightley, Colonel Towne-
ley, and Wilkinson of Lenton ; in Ireland
by W. T. Talbot Crosbie and others ; and
in Scotland by Captain Barclay — who
never really experienced the bitterness
of the contentions — and after him by
Amos Cruickshank, Sittyton ; Wm. Hay,
Shethin; Sylvester Campbell, Kinellar;
Wm. S. Marr, Uppermill; the Duthies,
and others.
Cruicksliank Shoirthorns. — Amos
Cruickshank, to whose memory world-
wide homage is now paid, purchased his
first heifer in Durham. That was in
1837. In the following year he weflt
south to Nottingham, and returned home
with about a dozen heifers. From that
stage onwards for many years he and his
brother Anthony were constantly on the
outlook for good animals at reasonable
prices. The first sires used were of Ury
blood, and these were followed for about
a quarter of a century by bulls of high
repute from many herds, such as those of
Torr, Wiley, Eichard Chaloner, Colonel
Towneley, Smith of West Easen, Wilkin-
son of Lenton, Foljambe, Pawlett, Willis,
Sir William Stirling Maxwell, and the
Duke of Montrose. Looking backwards,
the existing race of breeders are struck
by the apparent want of system in the
Sittyton selections. One is forced to
the conclusion, however, that Amos
Cruickshank was never really able
during those years to reach his ideal.
Booth blood preponderated in the sires
which he selected, but his search was for
a good animal. He paid little regard to
pedigree.
A turning-point in the history of the
Sittyton herd was reached at the fall of
1858. Cruickshank was in need of a
young red bull for use during the follow-
ing spring. He applied to Wilkinson of
Lenton, and was strongly recommended
to take "Lancaster Comet" 11,663, *
fleshy short-legged roan over eight years
old, and in -bred to the remarkably
prepotent sire " Will Honeycomb."
This "Comet" was not liked by some
of Cruickshank's neighbours, on account
of his long "Highland-looking" horns.
After limited use, he left about a dozen
calves, two of these being " Champion of
England" 17,526, which was used in
the herd for nearly twelve seasons, and
" Moonshade" 18,419, which passed into
the Inverquhomery herd. When the
merits of "Champion of England " as a
sire were clearly seen, his blood was
gradually worked through the whole
SHOETHOKN CATTLE.
85
stock by means of sons, grandsons, and
other descendants. This concentration
of blood gave the Sittyton cattle great
uniformity of character and singular
impressiveness.
In the year 1889, when Amos Cruick-
shank was in his eighty-second year,
the whole herd was purchased by Mr
Eobert Bruce for Messrs James Nelson
& Sons, the aim being exportation to the
Argentine. The great South American
country, however, was then passing
through financial trouble, and most of
the cattle had to be disposed of privately
in this country. Mr William Duthie,
Collynie, and Mr J. Deane Willis, Bapton
Manor, fortunately for the interests of
the breed in general, secured a large
number of the best animals.
Cruicksh.ank Cattle in Ilngland. —
In the 'seventies and 'eighties of the
past century Amos Cruickshank had
excellent customers for his best bulls
and spare heifers in North America, but
the prejudice against his cattle was still
strong in England. The hiring of the
Sittyton-bred "Field-Marshal" in 1884
for the Windsor herd was considered a
rash step. From about 1890, however,
a gradual change in favour of the Sitty-
ton type began to set in all over the
United Kingdom. South America also
began to patronise Cruickshank cattle
strongly, and since that time stock of
Sittyton descent have gone everywhere
in pure form, and have 'blended ad-
mirably with Booth, Bates, Knightley,
and other strains. Many of the finest
cattle to be seen in the English show-
yards of the present day are of Booth,
Bates, or other old southern descent,
with two or three Cruickshank top
crosses. History is prone to repeat itself.
The. existing danger is that good cattle
may be neglected because they are not
quite in the fashion.
The Ideal Shorthorn.
The type of perfection in Shorthorns,
as in other stock, has varied slightly
from time to time. There is now a
tendency towards the breeding of a
rather smaller and more closely - knit
Shorthorn than was common prior to
the closing decade of the past century.
In the main, also, the beefy type wins
most prizes at the open shows, but
sensible attention is paid to milking
properties in heifers and cows.
In the ideal Shorthorn bull of to-day
the horns should be flattish, with a wide
space between the roots, rich in colour,
and free from black or blue at the tips ;
the forehead should be broad, the eyes
prominent and gentle, with expressive
chiselling under them ; the length from
eyes to nostrils should be moderately
short, and the nose should be perfectly
free from black spots or even faint
bluish stains. Free from throatiness,
yet robust looking and with a fair crest,
the neck should taper gradually into
fairly wide well-covered shoulders and
crops, and the brisket should perfectly
fill the space between the fore legs. A
broad chine or back, arching ribs, great
heart girth, strong well -covered loins,
neatly turned hooks or hips, long, smooth,
and deep quarters, squarely set-on tail,
straight hind legs, flat bone, mellow hide
well clad with mossy hair, and jaunty
easy carriage complete the picture.
In a female, more refinement of face,
neck, and shoulders are of course looked
for, and the hips are more on the square,
but still they ought not to be unduly
prominent. Some representative Cruick-
shank bulls were rather plain in horn,
and although they had grandly covered
backs, their quarters were relatively
short or wanting in finished appearance.
Their thick shoulders and general com-
pactness of build were also to some ex-
tent against liberty of movement.
In most parts of the United Kingdom
fairly strong efforts have been put forth
to breed out light, "washy" roans and
gaudy reds-and-whites, because the ex-
porting demand has been much set on
rich roans and blood-reds. Eepresenta-
tive herds are consequently a good deal
darker in colour than they were a
quarter of a century ago. In practice
it is found advisable to make occasional
use of white bulls for the purpose of
preserving a balance of mellow roans.
Mr John Thornton's Ideal Short-
horn.— The typical characteristics of the
breed were thus described by the late Mr
John Thornton, the celebrated Shorthorn
auctioneer : ^ " The breed is distinguished
' Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Britain.
By John Coleman. Horace Cox, Field Office,
Breams Buildings, London.
86
SHOKTHORN CATTLE.
by its symmetrical proportions and by
its great bulk on a comparatively small
frame; the offal being very light and
the limbs small and fine. The head is
expressive, being rather broad across the
forehead, tapering gracefully below the
eyes to an open nostril and fine flesh-
coloured muzzle. The eyes are bright,
prominent, and of a particularly placid,
sweet expression ; the countenance being
remarkably gentle. The horns (whence
comes the name) are, by comparison with
other breeds, unusually short. They
spring well from the head with a grace,
ful downward curl, and are of a creamy
white or yellowish colour ; the ears being
fine, erect, and hairy. The neck should
be moderately thick (muscular in the
male), and set straight and well into the
shoulders. These, when viewed in front,
are wide, showing thickness through the
heart; the breast coming well forward,
and the fore legs standing short and wide
apart. The back, among the higher-bred
animals, is remarkably broad and flat;
the ribs, barrel like, spring well out of
it, and with little space between them
and the hip-bones, which should be well
covered with flesh. The hind quarters are
long and well filled in, the tail being set
square upon them ; the thighs meet low
down, forming the full and deep twist;
th^ flank should be deep so as partially
to cover the udder, which should be not
too large, but placed forward, the teats
being well formed and square set, and
of a medium size ; the hind legs should
be very short, and stand wide and quite
straight to the ground. The general
appearance should show even outlines.
The whole body is well covered with
long, soft hair, there frequently being
a fine undercoat ; and this hair is of
the most pleasing variety of colour, from
a soft, creamy white, to a full, deep red.
Occasionally the animal is red and white,
the white being found principally on the
forehead, underneath the belly, and a
few spots on the hind quarters and legs ;
in another group the body is nearly
white, with the neck and head partially
covered with roan ; whilst in a third
type the entire body is most beautifully
variegated, of a rich, deep purple' or
plum - coloured hue. On touching the
beef points, the skin is found to be soft
and mellow, as if lying on a soft cushion.
In animals thin in condition a kind of
inner skin is felt, which is the ' quality '
or 'handling,' indicative of the great
fattening propensities for which the
breed is famous."
Attributes of the Breed.
Enough has already been said to in-
dicate that the Shorthorn can claim
attributes of the very highest order.
It is universally acknowledged that in
the production of beef and in general
utility combined the Shorthorn is un-
surpassed. It may be excelled by some
other varieties in special aptitude for
peculiar purposes or for certain limited
districts; but for a combination of all
the more useful properties of domestic
cattle, as well as adaptability to varying
conditions of soil, climate, and treatment,
there is no other breed of cattle that can
equal the Shorthorn.
Beef-ProdwAi<m.
It was perhaps most largely by its
remarkable beef - producing properties
that the Shorthorn gained its early
fame. " From the very outset the
improved Shorthorn took up a position
of pre-eminence as a beef - producer,
which it has ever since maintained.
Its fame was won by its rapid feeding
properties at a time when there was a
keen struggle between various breeds to
supply an improved type that would
meet the growing requirements of the
public. No doubt, at first size was the
main consideration, though in sending
round the country the 'Durham Ox'
and 'The White Heifer that Travelled,'
the object of the CoUings was to arrest
attention to these as specimens of what
the breed was capable of accomplishing,
rather than as the sort of animals vhich
they wished farmers to keep and breed.
Shorthorns of less imposing size and
fatness were more suitable for ordinary
purposes, but for years before and after
the CoUings the various breeds were
recommended by the abnormal speci-
mens they could produce. Very soon
quickness of growth and ripening, re-
duction of waste, and finer bones and
choicer quality were required, and the
Shorthorns were found not only to
supply these requisites themselves, but
to stamp them on the inferior races with
SHORTHORN CATTLE.
87
which they were crossed. In converting
the herbage of the farm into whole-
some nutritious food for the increasing
population of the country the Shorthorn
was unsurpassed, and when to this was
added the good milking properties of
the cows, which soon made up when
dry into a thoroughly good carcass of
beef, the claims of the breed received
wide recognition." 1
In the annals of the breed there are
instances of great weights attained by
individual animals. A twin heifer
slaughtered at three years of age
weighed in carcase 980 lb. A three-
year-old ox, slaughtered off 'the pasture,
yielded a dead-weight of 1330 lb. Many
cows give from 1000 to 1200 lb. of car-
case. For two-year-old Shorthorn steers
dead-weights of from over 800 lb. are now
by no means rare. It has become quite
common to fatten off steers of the breed
at from eighteen to twenty months old,
and by that age they attain wonderful
weights and show well-matured carcases.
The live-weights recorded in the shows
of the Smithfield Club are worthy of
note. Average live-weights for Short-
horns there are — steers under two years
old, 1400 lb. ; steers over two and under
three years old, 1830 lb. ; oxen over
three years, 2250 lb. ; heifers under
three years, 1730 lb.; and cows over
three years old, 1900 lb. The average
daily gain in live-weight for Shorthorn
steers under two years at the Smithfield
Show has been about 1.93 lb., "for steers
over two and under three years 1.67
lb., and for heifers under three years
1.58 lb. At the Smithfield Show of
1908 twelve Shorthorn steers, whose
average age was 223^ months, gave an
average live-weight of 12 cwt. 2 qrs. 14
lb., the lightest being ioj4 cwt. and the
heaviest 14 cwt. 19 lb.
Shorthorns have taken creditable posi-
tions in the competitions at the Smith-
field Show for carcases. An animal of
the breed has yielded no less than 73.75
per cent of live-weight in carcase.
For Crossing Purposes.
Another outstanding attribute of the
Shorthorn is its unequalled value for
' Bistory of Shorthorn Gattle. Edited by
James Sinclair. Vinton & Co.", Limited.
crossing purposes. " No variety of cattle
fits itself more easily and readily to
varying conditions of life than the im-
proved Shorthorn. This undoubtedly is
one of the most valuable attributes of
the breed. Without it Shorthorns would
have made but little headway in foreign
countries, where they are now doing good
work. In both Scotland and Ireland
they have thriven admirably, — nearly £is
well, indeed, in the cold dry climate of
the north-east of Scotland, with close
house winter feeding, as in the mild,
moist climate of the south of Ireland,
with daily field exercise all the year
round. In both countries there are
numerous pure -bred herds of high in-
dividual merit, a few of them ranking
among the finest in the kingdom. The
Aberdeenshire Shorthorn has attained a
well-recognised type — somewhat deficient
in high-class Shorthorn character perhaps,
but, at the same time, broad, deep, well-
fleshed, and thoroughly useful. Then as
to well-bred and well - cared - for Irish
Shorthorns, who has not been struck
by their rich, soft, natural touch and
beautiful, rank, glossy coats of hair, as
well as by their attractive character
ge'herally ?
"But while the breed reared in its
purity has maintained a high charac-
ter in these countries, it cannot be
doubted that in crossing with other
varieties of cattle it has achieved still
more remarkable results. Shorthorns
have been crossed freely with all the
local races and sorts of cattle, and have
everywhere and upon every sort effected
marked improvement. In all that adds
value to cattle, improvement has followed
in the wake of the Shorthorn— -in size,
form, quality, rapidity of growth, and
aptitude to fatten at an early age.
Among the small, scraggy, old-fashioned
Irish cows. Shorthorn bulls have pro-
duced results truly wonderful. Stock
from an ordinary Irish cow and a good
Shorthorn bull will, it is estimated,
reach maturity at least a year sooner
than unimproved cattle — at two and a
half or three, instead of from three and
a half to four years old. Moreover, the
cross, besides being far superior in qual-
ity, will also show an increase in weight
of from I to ij^ cwt. per head. It is
certainly within the mark to place the
88
SHOETHOKN CATTLE.
increase in the value of one-year-old
Irish cattle due to the use of Shorthorn
bulls at from £^2 to £,j, a-head on an
average. In many instances it has risen
as high as ^^5, and in few cases has it
failed to reach £,2 — that is, above the
value of the corresponding class got by
native or cross-bred bulls.
" In Scotland the experience of the
breed has been equally satisfactory. The
stock of native cows *in Scotland are, as
a rule, larger and finer than those of
Iceland, and therefore the contrast be-
tween the native cattle and the improved
crosses has generally been less marked
in the former country than in the latfer.
In some parts of Scotland, however, where
the native cattle were small and slow
in growth, the transformation efiected
by Shorthorn bulls has been quite as
remarkable as in Irelahd." ^
Milking Properties.
The milking properties of the Short-
horn are of a high order. Sure evidence
of this is found in the great predominance
of Shorthorn features in cross-bred dairy
herds throughout the country. In many
of the pure-bred herds large yields of
milk are recorded, and this too from
cows which produce fattening stock of
the highest merit. " The late Mr E. C.
Tisdall, of the Holland Park Dairy,
Kensington, who long cultivated a
Shorthorn dairy herd, reported, among
the records of many years' experience,
an average of 885 gallons apiece yielded
by twenty-five cows of this breed during
the ten or eleven months of the year
when they were in milk, and ten selected
cows had yielded as much as 1200 gallons
apiece in the same time. The yield of
butter by the Shorthorns has been ex-
ceeded by other breeds, but the returns
of milk and butter together have not.
There is a record of a cow having pro-
duced 1650 gallons of milk between May
20, 1888, and April 7, 1889, which is,
of course, an exceptional quantity. The
cows in the Duke of Westminster's dairy
herd gave an average yield, in 1^90, of
714 gallons each. Others report yields
over the whole herd of 885 gallons, and
single cows have given 1050 gallons
annually for several consecutive years.
At the London Dairy Show, for ten
years the milk produced by Shorthorns
averaged 43.13 lb. per day, and the total
solids showed a percentage of 12.87,
of which 3.73 was fat, and 9.14 other
solids. Taking a later period of five
years the averages are — age 6 years and
I month, days in milk 42.8, daily milk
yields 49.2 lb., fat 3.91 per cent, solids
other than fat 9.08 per cent, total solids
12.99 per cent. The breed standard of
the British Dairy Farmers' Association
for Shorthorns is 8500 lb. of milk, and
pure butter fat per diem 1.25 lb. ; and
with respect to other fat, the Shorthorn
has the same weight assigtied as the
Jersey and Guernsey, the Dutch being
put at 1. 00 lb.
" In recent years, careful records have
been kept of the milk yields in a number
of Shorthorn herds. Lord Eothschild's
herd, at Tring Park, is a noteworthy
example, the statistics being published
annually by Mr Richardson Carr, the
agent. Several cows in the. herd have
records of over 10,000 lb. of milk per
annum. The average yield in a herd
of thirty-eight cows for the year ending
September 30, 1905, was 7031 lb. per
annum. 'Decentia 24th,' 371 days in
milk, gave 10,069 lb. For fifty-seven
cows in the year ending September 29,
1906, the average was 6706 lb. per
annum. 'Wild Queen loth,' 364 days
in mUk, gave 10,044 lb. 'Darlington
Cranford 3rd,' in the herd eight years,
gave a total of 60,524 lb., or an average
of 7565 J^ lb. per annum. 'Darlington
Cranford 5th,' in the herd six years,
gave a total of 59,921 lb., or an average
of 99865/6 lb. per annum. 'Lady Eose-
dale,' in the herd eight years, gave a
total of 69,018 lb., or an average of
8627^5^ lb. per annum." 2
Shorthorn cows in the herd of Mr C.
E. W. Adeane, Babraham, Cambridge,
have for some years given an average of
over 7500 lb. of milk per annum, one
cow yielding 8507 in one year. In the
herd of Bates Shorthorns owned by Mr
George Taylor, Cranford, Middlesex, the
average yield of several cows is from
five to six gallons per day when in full
' From a Paper by James Maodonald in the
Jour, of the Soy. Agric. Soc. of Eng., 1883.
2 Hiatory of Shorthorn Cattle. Edited by
James Sinclair. Yinton & Co., Limited.
SHOKTHOKN CATTLE.
89
milk. A number of cows have exceeded
10,000 lb. in a year, and one reached a
total of 12,320 lb.
Shorthorn Society and HerdrBooks.
The interests of the breed are well
looked after by the Shorthorn Society
of Great Britain and Ireland. The so-
ciety was founded in 1875, and in 1908
had over 1600 members. The Short-
horn Herd-Booh was established in 1822
by George Coates, and the work still
bears the name of its founder. Volume
xxxvii. of Coates' Herd -Book, contain-
ing the lists of births for 1890, had 1834
entries for bulls and 3920 for cows
with produce. Volume liii., published in
1907, and consequently containing a
record of the births for 1906, shows a
registry of 3800 bulls and 6760 cows
with produce.
In the United States of America there
is an enterprising Shorthorn Society
which issues a Herd -Book for the
breed. In the seventieth volume there
are entries of 8299 bulls and 12,000
females. Yet there is no evidence to
show that the States had even one
Shorthorn previous to 1811. Canada's
first importation was in 1832, when some
animals of the breed were introduced
from the States. Then the fourth vol-
ume of the Argentine Herd records 1084
bulls and 1173 female animals.
Exports of Shorthorns.
The trade in the exportation of Short-
horns continues to be large. From 1882
to 1890 the Shorthorn Society of Great
Britain and Ireland issued certificates
for the exportation of 3131 animals of
the breed, while from 1891 to 1908 the
certificates issued numbered close on
16,000.
For a quarter of a century the Argen-
tine has been by far the best foreign
customer for our high-class Shorthorns,
but many fine animals have also been
taken by Chili.
3ltA.NAGEMENT IN SHOETHOKN HEEDS.
No very hard and fast rules as to
the management of Shorthorns can be
laid down. Much depends on the dis-
trict in which the herd is situated, on
the object the particular owner has in
view, and the outlet there may be foi;
young stock. In Scotland, generally
speaking, no one need attempt to raise
Shorthorns successfully who has not
comfortable buildings for winter. The
same holds good to a considerable extent
also in England and Ireland, although
in the southern districts of both these
countries it is possible to winter young
cattle at any rate almost wholly in the
open. Shorthorns also require a fairly
liberal dietary all through the year. In
most districts they will do quite well on
grass alone during summer, especially
where the calves suckle their dams, but
in winter they must be liberally hand-
fed, even when running on the pastures.
In dairying districts where Shorthorns
are used for the production of milk they
have to be fed like ordinary dairy cows
— on cake, bean-meal, or other material,
in addition to grass, at least during the
latter part of the grazing season.
North of Scotland Methods.
The northern counties of Scotland
have achieved notable distinction in con-
nection with Shorthorns. The manage-
ment here is on rather special lines sa
far as other parts of the country are
concerned, although it does not differ
greatly from that of other classes of
cattle kept in the same district. In
Aberdeenshire, and the north of Scotland
generally, it is necessary owing to the
severity of the winter to house cattle
for five if not six out of the twelve
months of the year.
During this time the cows are tied up
in byres and have everything brought
to them. In former days it was quite a
common thing for the animals to stand
there right through the winter without
once being turned out. But of late
year^, since the tuberculin test was dis-
covered and the prevalence of tubercul-
osis has been more fully recognised, most
breeders try to give their cows a turn out
every day, if it is only into the yard.
In justice to the old plan, it should be
stated that the byres, as a rule, are airy
and comfortable, and give a fair amount
of cubic air space per cow.
Heifers and young bulls are usually
accommodated separately in partially
covered courts. Stock bulls frequently
stand in the end of byres alongside the
90
SHORTHORN CATTLE.
cows, although in the larger herds they
are usually housed in loose-boxes.
Feeding Methods. — Feeding in the
north of Scotland follows the general
custom in consisting for the most part
of turnips and straw. North - country
turnips have a feeding value of their
own, and are fed in quantities which
may surprise those who are not familiar
with the local conditions. Thus, when
the crop is a good one, they are fed
three times a-day — morning, noon, and '
evening, — cows consuming from 25 to 35
lb. per head at each feeding-time. When
the crop is a short one, the quantity is
either reduced over the three periods or
otherwise turnips are Vholly omitted at
mid -day, arid a meal of cake, bruised
grain, bran, or other artificial food sub-
stituted, with, of course, what straw the
animals require.' But there is no food
that cattle, in this part of the country at
any rate, do better on than turnips and
straw, and all breeders grow a regular
quantity of turnips every year for their
cattle.
The young animals in the boxes are
fed on pretty much the same lines as the
cows, except that they usually have
fewer turnips and more artificial food.
A common allowance of turnips in the
case of young growing heifers and bulls
is 50 to 60 lb. per day. Linseed-cake
is a good deal used for young stock,
although cotton-cake also has its patrons.
In the case of both, they are almost in-
variably fed before the turnips, as this
is thought to prevent "hoven" and
troubles of that kind.
Yellow turnips in Aberdeenshire and
a-djoining counties keep perfectly fresh
up to March and April, when they are
succeeded by swedes until the grass
comes. In the case of swedes, it is
usual to slice them, but to all except to
animals rising two years old yellows are
fed whole without much risk of choking
or bolting.
While turnips are very wholesome as
a rule, they should never be fed when
in a frosted state, especially to in-calf
cows. Cattle fed largely on turnips will
not usually drink much water, but all
the same, it is customary where water is
not always available to give them the
offer of it at least once a-day.
Calving. — Not having dairy exig-
encies to contend with, northern breeders
usually aim at having calving-time ar-
ranged for the months of January, Feb-
ruary, and March. Odd calves will
come at other times, but the bulk of the
calves have these months as their birth-
dates. One advantage of this is, that
when the cows go out to grass in May
they have comparatively strong calves
at foot. Calving usually takes place
where the cow stands during the winter, ■
although many breeders aim at having
special accommodation for this purpose.
When the cow calves, the calf is usually •
tied up beside the cow in a double stall.
UntL. the calf is able to take all her milk,
the cow is regularly milked by hand, the
calf sucking at the same time, so as to
encourage the cow to let down her milk.
Feeding Calves. — Many of the fre-
quent and discouraging losses among
young calves are believed to be caused
by the allowance of too much milk at a
tender age. It is better to keep the
calves hungry than to allow them to
gorge themselves for, at any rate, the
first three weeks of their existence.
Scouring, indigestion, the formation of
wool balls in the stomach, and other
evils, arise from too liberal or irreg-
ular feeding. When the cows go to
grass the milk generally increases, and
sometimes it is again necessary to resort
to hand-milking to take away the surplus.
After the calves are weaned, such of the
cows as require it are also regularly
milked. But this is only necessary, as a
rule, in the case of extra heavy milking
cows. Cows bred on beef lines, as they
generally are in the north of Scotland,
do not usually have more milk, unless
shortly after calving, than the calf is
able to utilise. With an extra heavy
milking cow the expedient is sometimes
adopted of putting on a second calf to
suckle her along with her o^ti calf.
In this part of the country suckling is
the almost universal method of rearing
Shorthorn calves. The calves are trained
to eat oil-cake and sliced turnips as soon
as possible, and are weaned at seven to
eight months old.
The young bulls which are to be sold
in autumn or spring get some oil-cake in
the fields during the latter part of sum-
mer • but heifer calves, as a rule, depend
entirely on their mothers and the grass.
SHORTHOEN CATTLE.
91
Age for Breeding. — Heifers are gen-
erally put to the bull so as to calve at
from 20 to 26 months old. This early
breeding tends to reduce size, but this
can usually be counteracted by a little
extra feeding. The danger of putting off
breeding until another season is that
permanent infertility may ensue. A
year's rest at three or four years' old
generally enables an early -bred heifer
to come to her full size.
Treatment of Bulls. — In the late
Mr Cruickshank's herd at Sittyton, when
the cows had calved about six or seven
weeks, they were turned out with the
bull every day, and in summer the bull
grazed regularly with the cows. Eunning
pretty constantly with the bull, it was
thought that the cows came into use
sooner than they would if separated from
him, and were in no danger of being
missed. On the other hand, one bull
under this system does not usually beget
so many calves as if kept alone and used
sparingly. On this account many breeders
adopt the alternative plan of keeping
their bulls wholly in the house, and only
bringing them out as required. When
kept in this way bulls are fed on green
tares or cut grass, with the addition of
a feed of bruised oats, linseed-cake, or
other artificial foods two or three times
a-day. Exercise in such a case is given
by the attendants taking the animals
out for an hour or so each day.
Methods in South of Scotland and North
of England-
In the central and southern districts
of Scotland management is on pretty
much the same lines as farther north,
except that turnips are not quite so ex-
tensively fed. In a few cases hay is also
substituted for part of the straw, the
straw farther south not always being so
valuable from a feeding point of view as
it is in the north.
Alnwick Park System. — The system
followed in the south of Scotland and
the northern districts of England, outside
Cumberland, is well illustrated by what
is done in the Duke of Northumberland's
extensive herd at Alnwick Park. Here
the method of management is substanti-
ally as follows : Eoots, hay, and straw
constitute the principal winter food, with
the daily addition of not more than 3 lb. of
linseed- or cotton-cake, for each breeding
cow or heifer. When turnips are scarce
or not available at all, mashes of ground
oats, barley, beans, and maize and bran,
are given, or a liberal supply of linseed-
and cotton-cake is used along with the
hay and straw. The food of the stock
bulls in winter is usually turnips and
hay, ground oats, and about 3 lb. of lin-
geed-cake per day. In summer they get
grass and tares in lieu of hay, with the
same quantity of ground oats and lin-
seed-cake. Bulls kept in the house get
exercise every day.
The majority of the calves suckle their
dams. As soon as the 12th of May
comes round, and the weather is favour-
able, all the breeding animals are turned
out to pasture, their calves with them,
until late autumn. The cows get no
artificial feeding in summer, but a corner
is railed off somewhere to which only the
calves can have access, and here they
get a little cake once or twice a-day.
As the season advances, the cows with
early bull-calves are separated from those
having heifer-calves. An effort is always
made to have a good aftermath field for
the bull-calves and their dams. This
not only gives a nutritious feed to the
dalf, but increases the flow of milk in
the cow.
Housing time depends on the weather.
October, however, is the general month.
When housing does take place, most
of the cows are tied in byres, and the
strongest calves — bulls and heifers — put
in batches into separate folds. Such
calves are allowed to suckle their dams
twice a-day u{5 to weaning time. Cows
with very young calves are put into
boxes together. By the time the wean-
ing of the calves begins they have been
taught to eat cake and possibly cut
turnips. The check from the milk is
therefore scarcely felt.
At Alnwick Park, any more than in
the north, it is not found that the suck-
ling system prevents the cows from com-
ing early into use after calving, though
occasionally heifers which have had their
first calf while still very young are long
'in taking the bull in the same season.
Indeed they often take a considerable
rest before having a second calf. Cows
in the Alnwick Park herd breed regu-
larly up to twelve or thirteen years old ;
92
SHORTHORN CATTLE.
a few 'will go on even to sixteen or
seventeen.
Cumberland Methods. — In Cumber-
land and Westmorland a somewhat dif-
ferent system of management prevails.
There,' the cattle are mainly in the hands
of tenant-farmers, and are kept chiefly
for milking purposes. , The management
is more economical than it usually is in
the case of costly hercia in the hands
of wealthy owners. The Cumberland
and Westmorland farmer hand-milks all
his cows, and feeds his calves by pail.
The calves get a small allowance of new
milk for a time, but gradually they are
turned on to skim-milk, to which is added
porridge made of linseed and maize-meal
when the animals are old enough to take
such food with safgty. When they begin
to nibble, dry food, consisting of broken
cake, bruised corn, or bran, is placed
within their reach.
In these parts cows lie out all sum-
mer and autumn. Their winter food
consists, as a rule, of turnips and straw,
although some breeders are rather more
liberal, and give a moderate allowance
of crushed oats and decorticated cotton-
cake along with the pulped roots and
oat-straw.
Young bulls which are being fed for
sale receive extra keep in the shape of
linseed-cake and bruised oats. They are
usually kept in well-ventilated sheds, so
that they have abundant coats of hair.
In spite of their economical system of
feeding, the Cumberland and Westmor-
land farmers often turn out remarkably
good .Shorthorns, and this from farms
ranging in height from 700 to 800 feet
above sea-level.
South and West of England Systems.
Different systems of management pre-
vail in the southern and western districts
of England. Cattle here can be kept
much more in the open, and they do
with less substantially built houses than
farther north. At Morgenau, South
Wales, for instance, Mr Morgan Richard-
son's cattle are sometimes in the field
as late as the middle of December, and
return to them again as early as the'
middle of March.
In these districts, as elsewhere, manage-
ment depends on the particular object
of the owner. Should the herd be a
specially valuable one, d.nd devoted to
bull-breeding and beef-production, the
cows, as in the north, are timed to calve,
as far as possible, in the three first
months of the year. For most of the
leading shows, as well as for the Herd-
Book, ages are reckoned from the ist of
January in each year, and if the calves
are born much outside the first three
months they are apt to be out-classed
for the first season, if not for succeeding
seasons also. The aim of the breeder is,
therefore, to have the calves as early in
the year as the climatic and other con-
ditions of his district will permit.
Morgenau Herd. — A good example
of the system in a bull - breeding and
showing herd is that followed in the
Morgenau herd already referred to. In
this herd no corn or cake is ^ven
to the breeding cows. In winter they
get ' nothing but hay and chopped
straw, with roots and cabbage. Mr
Richardson says that at one time he
tried milking his cows by hand and
feeding calves by pail, but he found
it unsatisfactory, and now his cows
suckle their calves. Under this system
there is sometimes a difficulty with a
young bull that has been suckled for
six or eight months, and whose dam is
getting well forward in calf again. But
in such a case the calf cap usually be
induced to draw from another cow and
allow his own dam to go dry. Mr
Richardson, like most breeders who bring
out young animals for show purposes, is
a great believer in the virtue, in such
cases, of milk, and plenty of it. Nothing,
he affirms, will grow bone, muscle, and
hair like milk, preferably suckled by the
young animals as they require it.
Those who give attention to the ques-
tion of sustained progress in young
Shorthorns will be interested to know
that at Morgenau a system prevails of
taking the girth of calves every fort-
night. Every bull-calf is expected to
girth not less than 2 feet 6 inches at
birth, and to make an average increase
of I inch a-week until he is six months
old, and about ij^ inch per fortnight
between the ages of six and twelve
months. A bull-calf, in Mr Richard-
son's experience, should measure no less
than 4 feet 6 inches at six months old,
and 6 feet at twelve months old.
SHORTHORN CATTLE.
93
Busoot Park Herd. — Similar methods
are pursued in Sir Alex. Henderson's
herd at Buscot Park. The cows are out
at grass all through the summer. Some
of the best milkers, and especially those
that are rearing calves, have a small
allowance of feeding cake, crushed oats,
and mangolds, but otherwise they have
to provide for themselves in the fields.
The cows are brought up twice, a-day
for milking, or to suckle their calves.
The winter feeding consists of an allow-
ance of about 7 lb. of meadow -hay
twice a-day, mangel pulp, and oat-straw
chaff ad lib., with, in addition, S to 6
lb. of linseed or other cakes, crushed
oats, and patent foods. The bulls are
fed in a similar way. The best bull-
calves are allowed to run with their
dams until they are five or six months
old. As soon as they will eat they have
some sweet meadow-hay given them, and
some finely-ground linseed-cake, crushed
oats, and a little bran and hay-chaff.
Methods in Ireland.
Except that the animals can be kept
out' of doors longer than even in the
south of England, the management of
Shorthorns in Ireland does not differ
materially from what is practised on
the English side of the Channel. If
the rainfall is heavier, the general con-
ditions otherwise are not unfavourable.
In the case of bull-breeding herds calves
arrive, as in Scotland and England,
during the first three months of the
year. Dairying herds, on the other
hand, have their calves arriving all
through the year, to suit the require-
ments of the milk trade. Where turnips
are not largely grown their place is
taken by cabbages, hay, mangels, or
artificial food.
Calves, as a rule, are pail -fed here,
unless in the case of heifers with their
first calves, these being allowed to suckle
their calves. Some years ago breeders,
in order to save new milk in rearing
calves, adopted the plan of boiling down
whole flax-seed into a mucilage and
adding it to milk. The flax seemed
to do well enough for a time, but ulti-
mately it was found to set up disease
of the kidneys, and is not now used to
any large extent. Linseed and maize-
meal is now the general partial substi-
tute for milk, although various kinds of
calf -foods are also used. Young stock
in the south of Ireland especially can go
out practically all the year round.
In Irish herds the usual practice is for
heifers to drop their first calf when they
are about two or two and a half years
old.
Management in Dairy Herds.
Where dairying is the principal object
different times of calving have necessarily
to be adopted. In some cases it takes
place all over the year ; in otherS, mainly
in the autumn.
In the Shorthorn dairy herd kept at
Kelmscott, Lechlade (by Mr E. W.
Hobbs), cows go to grass all summer,
those giving 20 lb. of milk daily being
allowed 4 lb. of cotton-cake. In winter
they are tied up in sheds and fed vrith
one meal of hay and chopped straw,
with about 56 lb. of mangels or cabbages,
about 8 lb. meal and cake (mixed dried
grains, soaked maize, germ meal, and
decorticated cotton-cake). The stock
bulls are kept loose in boxes as much
as possible, having cut grass in summer
and hay and straw chaff with pulped
mangels in winter. Young bulls for
sale have, in addition, linseed - cake,
crushed oats, and bran.
Calves go with their dams until they
are fourteen days old, when they are
taken away, taught to drink, and given
milk for a few days. As soon as pos-
sible they are turned on to some cream
equivalent. This is continued for twelve
or thirteen weeks, after which they are
allowed 2 lb. linseed -cake, hay, and a
few roots. The linseed -cake is con-
tinued when they are turned out to
grass in May. By September they are
taken into the yards and given one
meal of hay, straw-chaff, mangels, and
2 lb. meal, in addition to straw at nights.
The following spring they run on grass
with no additional feeding, and most of
them run out all the succeeding winter,
coming into the yards for hay, which,
if short, is given sparingly, and 3 lb. of
cotton-cake added.
Bulling is begun in December, so as
to ensure a winter supply of milk in
the following year. The ordinary cows,
however, calve from ist September to
ist June.
94
THE LINCOLNSHIEE RED SHOKTHOEN.
Milk is also the principal considera-
tion in Mr C. R W. Adeane's herd at
Babraham Hall, Cambridgeshire. Here
the cows are kept- in sheds during
winter, but go out three or four hours
arday on the grass, while in summer they
stay out the whole time on the pastures.
When grass is short, mangels, kohl-rabi,
swedes, and oat- chaff with a little hay
are given. Cotton-cake and crushed
oats are the principal artificial foods in
winter. Bull - calves in this case are
taken from their dams when three days
old and brought up by pail, having milk
for about six weeks to two months.
Young stock, as soon as they eat, have
crushed oats, linseed-cake, bean-meal, and
bran. The cows, not including heifers
with their first calf, will average from
650 to 700 gallons of milk per annum.
A portrait of a characteristic bull of
the Shorthorn breed is reproduced in
Plate 26. A noted Shorthorn cow is
represented in Plate 27.
THE LINCOLNSHIRE RED SHORTHORN.
Origin. — The Lincolnshire Red Short-
horn has since 1890 attained to the status
of a distinct type, if not a distinct breed.
It is sometimes referred to as a " sub-
variety " of the Shorthorn. Yet, while
the Shorthorn has been used successfully
in forming the modern type of the Lin-
colnshire Red cattle, it is known that for
over a hundred years red shorthorned
cattle have been associated with the
county of Lincoln. The cattle were then
of enormous size but of slow growth.
The growth has been accelerated by
modern improvements.
Early Improvement. — The date of
the improvement of the Lincoln Reds is
first traceable to the year 18 10, when
three bulls were sent into Lincolnshire
from Charles CoUings' sale.
Mr Thomas Turnell's Herd. ^Prob-
ably the most potent factor in producing
the breed as now known, was the herd
owned by Mr Thomas Turnell at Reasby,
near Wragby, towards the close of the
eighteenth century. Arthur Young says
that " Mr Turnell has a breed of cattle
which are not surpassed by any in the
county for points highly valuable, or
their disposition at any age to fatten
rapidly. His bull covers at a guinea
and has many cows sent to him. This
breed originally came from the neigh,
bourhood of Darlington." He further
describes these cattle as of medium size,
but he preferred the larger ones.
There are no minute records available,
but the fact that the Reasby herd at-
tained to considerable eminence is made
clear by the acknowledged influence
which the "Turnell Reds" exercised.
The fine rich cherry -red colour which
has been the fashion in all ages was one
of the special features of these cattle.
The scale Mr TurneU reduced, aiming at
more flesh and quality than they appar-
ently then possessed.
Iiater Improvement.- — At a later
time, approaching the middle of the
nineteenth century, herds owned by Mr
Coulam of Withern, Mr Baumber of
Somersby, and Mr Oliver of Eresby did
much to extend the county reputation
of the Lincoln Reds. Mr Cartwright
of Tathwell had likewise a celebrated
herd whose dispersion in 1844 scattered
good blood throughout Lincolnshire.
Again the name of Chatterton stands
high in its association with the breed,
and by the use of the Coates' Shorthorn
was partly responsible for altering the
character. The "Old Welbourn Reds,"
too, had a fine reputation, Messrs Burtt
of Welbourn being amongst the oldest
supporters of the race.
Records of herds exist for a period of
100 years, the type of cattle gradually
conforming to one colour.
Herd-Book. — Volume i. of the Lin-
colnshire Red Shorthorn Association was
issued in 1895, and contains, besides herd
histories in brief, a record of 293 bulls.
The Association has been conspicuously
successful in bringing the Lincolnshire
Red Shorthorn to the front, by offering
prizes at leading shows and in other
ways' serving the best interests of the
THE LINCOLNSHIRE RED SHORTHORN.
95
breed, -wliich stands under a separate
classification at the Royal -English Show.
Cliaracteristics.
Description. — It is unnecessary to
elaborate a description of the breed.
There is no oflacial standard, save that
the cherry red is the acknowledged
colour, and white markings are no dis-
qualification, althouigh looked upon with
disfavour. By taking a good type of
Shorthorn with a little more than aver-
age size and robustness we have the
model for the Lincoln Red.
Aims of Breeders. — To thoroughly
understand and sympathise with the
objects Lincolnshire breeders have in
view, it ia necessary to remember that
Lincoln is a county where the ideal of
the breeder is to produce big stock.
The land is capable of carrying large-
sized animals, therefore why not make
the most of it ! Perhaps this point
may be presented with greater emphasis
if it is borne in mind that the Lincoln
sheep is amongst the weightiest and
sturdiest of the ovine race; the Shire
horse associated with Fenland is the
weightiest type of that breed ; the curly-
haired pig, one of the latest recruits to
pedigree, is deemed to be about the
largest and heaviest of the porcine tribe
in this country. Moreover, Lincolnshire
markets can assimilate heavy stock.
Robustness of Constitution. — The
Lincolnshire Red Shorthorn cattle owe
much of their popularity .to the robust-
ness of their constitution. Breeders de-
clare that while they have to house
their Coates' Shorthorns, they can leave
their Lincoln Reds on the fields to look
after themselves. Any one with a know-
ledge of the flat lands where they are
wintered in the southern parts of the
county will readily grant that only ani-
mals of great constitution could " rough
it " as the native Reds do there during
an inclement season.
Size, therefore, is one of the chief
distinctions between the Lincoln Red
and the Coates' Shorthorn. The second
point is that they have superior consti-
' tutions.
Flesh-bearing Qualities. — No doubt
as long as there is a north and a south,
Lincolnshire breeders in extremes of the
county will never quite agree as to the
correct type. There will be large cattle
and medium-sized cattle — the latter still
larger than the average Shorthorn. The
use of Coates' Herd-Book bulls has done
much to increase the flesh-carrying quali-
ties of the modern type.
At one time it was commonly noticed
that many of the show cattle lacked
finish and wealth of flesh. To-day, how-
ever, breeders are more experienced, and
show their stock with as great a wealth
of flesh as almost any other breed. Flesh-
bearing properties can be bred into stock
as well as cultivated by skilful feeding.
The fact that Coates' Herd- Book bulls
have been freely used with success, and
that the best cattle are now well got
up for show, will undoubtedly afiect the
flesh-bearing character of the produce.
Type. — There is less divergence in
type to-day than at any time in the
previous history of the breed. Gradu-
ally the thick, short -legged, wealthily-
fleshed Red Shorthorn type is prevailing.
There is a greater size of frame than
is noticeable in the Scottish stamp of
Shorthorn, and breeders, in their efforts
to keep to a type denoting quality, are
not likely to forget that if they do not
maintain tjie scale they are losing a
potential characteristic of the breed.
Colour. — The colour favoured is a
cherry red. Faded reds and reds of
yellow shade are often met with, but
they are rapidly disappearing from the
best herds. Bulls of incorrect shade
find few buyers, and the prices obtained
speedily impress upon the breeder the
necessity of keeping the rich cherry red
in view. A few white marks on the
vessel or underline are not a disqualifi-
cation, although if they get as far as the
dewlap they are a distinct objection.
"Weights. — The weights to which the
breed will grow are remarkable. Bulls
scaling over 23 cwt alive have been
known. Stall-fed show cattle will weigh
up to 24 cwt., while grass-fed three-year-
old bullocks average from 8 to 10 cwt.,
scaling much more when fat. Lincoln-
shire is essentially a grazing county, and
a large number of cattle are fattened
there as three - year - olds. Good root
crops and rich pasture are" obtained in
return for caking animals on the land
— a system locally known as " begging
keep."
96
THE LINCOLNSHIRE RED SHORTHORN
No. of
' Cows.
Milking Qualities. — As a rule, the
system of rearing in Lincolnshire herds
is to allow the calves to suckle the cows.
This does not encourage a high yield
of milk. Yet the reputation which the
breed has established outside of the con-
fines of the county is to aU intents and
purposes that of a fine milking race.
The Burton Herd. — The eminence
of the Burton herd, owned by Mr John
Evens, and situated close to the county
t9wn of Lincoln, has provided another
feather in the cap of the breed. For
over twenty-three years Mr Evens has
kept exhaustive milk records. His aim
he tersely describes as "milk combined
with size, quality, and constitution."
He began showing at the London Dairy
Show in 1887, and since then he has
had one long record of success. The
following comparative statement of the
annual yield, of milk by cows in his
herd is interesting : —
Average yield
Year. per Cow.
Gallons.
31 1890 740
35 1891 720
34 1892 795
38 1893 732
39 1894 834
43 1895 » 867
43 1896 889
36 1897 88i
38 1898 824
34 1899 860
36 1900 785
48 1901 758
40 1902 776
42 1903 780
43 1904 842
54 190S 816
48 1906 802
* Individual yields have been very large.
Thus in 1906 ten cows out of forty-eight
gave over 1000 galls., the highest being
1602 galls., an average daily yield while
in milk of 32 lb. One of his cows holds
the record for the largest yield in twenty-
four hours at the famous Tring milking
trials.. She gave 7)^ galls.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of herds varies ac-
cording to the aims of the breeder —
whether the -primary object is milk or
bull-breeding. Mr John Evens believes
that " like produces like," and has saved
his bulls from deep milking cows. The
female calves are kept in natural con-
dition, the best being always retained in
the herd. Mr Evens is of opinion that
the bull has more influence in transmit-
ting dairy qualities than the dam. He
buys one or two of the best pure-bred
dairy cows in order to breed his own stud
bulls, thus procuring a change of blood.
Treatment of Cows. — The methods
of cow-feeding pursued by Mr Evens are
well planned and are carefully carried out.
In May or June, if the grass is plenti-
ful, the cows are given 2 lb. cotton-cake,
and later, if the grass is scarce or dried
up, about 3 or 4 lb. of mixed meal or
bran per day with it, and either cabbages
or lucerne thrown in the fields. Towards
the autumn a change of pasture is pro-
vided if possible, usually grass " eddish." ^
The winter daily rations are 4 lb. cotton-
cake, 2 lb. malt coombs, 2 lb. dried
grains, 2 lb. bran, and 3 lb. mixed meal,
generally oats and wheat. lu autumn,
40 to 50 lb. cabbages, and later, 40 to 50
lb. swedes, are provided ; after Christ-
mas, 40 lb. mangels, when ripe, good oat-
straw, long hay once a-day, water always
before them, a trough between two cows.
In his method of preparing the foods
Mr Evens steeps the dried grains and
malt coombs for twenty -four hours.
Then these wet grains, coombs, bran,
and meals, with a very few pulped roots,
are mixed with good oat -straw about
'twenty hours before using. A few hand-
fuls of salt are thrown in. The mixture
must not be allowed to ferment, other-
wise it will taint the milk. Cows re-
ceive two feeds per day, and one feed of
long hay at night. This latter is neces-
sary to enable them to raise the cud. The
cake is given dry — roots and cabbages
being fed twice, morning and afternoon.
Mr Evens milks his best cows, two
or three calves being suckled on cows
nojp intended for use in the herd. The
heifers are calved just under three years
old. His land is not capable of growing
them big enough to admit of a calf
being taken earlier.
General Methods. — Cattle in Lincoln-
shire are usually housed from the middle
of October to the end of April to protect
them from the cold east winds an4 to
tread down a large quantity of straw.
' Aftermath.
HEKEFOED CATTLE.
97
The usual method of managing a herd
in the county is to suckle one or two
calves on a heifer and sometimes a third
on the cows. The cows are either fed
off or sold lean after the third calf. The
young stock are allowed to. grow in
store condition. The heifers are put
to the bull at two years old. The steers
are brought out fat from two to three
years old, and if well done from birth
will finish about 60 st. (14 lb.) beef from
two to two and a quarter years.
The cattle are wintered out of doors.
The wind-swept, bleak countryside is no
nursery for the delicate constitution, but
the cattle do fairly well with a little hay.
Lincolnshire is a corn-growing county,
and manure must be made and trampled.
Open yards are usually provided on Lin-
colnshire farms, which while they may
not improve the quality of the manure,
at least ensure healthy stock Large
numbers of these bullocks go in spring
at about two to two and a half years old
to the better pasture lands of the county
to fatten off during summer. These will
kill about 60 st., and if kept on to the
following autumn will " die " up to 80 st.
A typical Ked Lincoln Shorthorn cow
is represented in Plate 28.
HEKEFOED CATTLE.
There is no other breed in this country
comparable with the Hereford in its
happy combination of commercial beef-
making qualities and picturesque appear-
ance in the field. It is unsurpassed as a
grazier's beast j indeed, grass-fed Here-
fords sell better than any other class of
cattle in the fat markets of the midlands
of England.
Origin. — The generally accepted opin-
ion as to the origin of improved Hereford
cattle is, that they trace directly from the
aboriginal cattle of the county of Hereford
and adjoining districts. The improve-
ment was begun far back in the eighteenth
century, by the Tomkins family. There
is abundance of evidence to show that, as
early as 1766, it was taken up in a sys-
tematic manner by Benjamin Tomkins,
who continued the work with great energy
and success until his death in the year
1815. For four years after, his herd was
maintained by his daughters, and when it
was dispersed by public auction in 1819,
one yean after the famous Barmpton sale
of Shorthorns, twenty-eight breeding ani-
mals realised an average of ;^ 149 per head
— four adult bulls bringing j£26'j, 15s.
each, and two bull-calves ^181, 2 s. 6d.
each.
Other early breeders of skill and enter-
prise took up with commendable spirit
the work which had been so well begun
by Tomkins, and to their successful efforts
the Hereford farmers of to-day are in-
voL. m.
debted for a valuable race of rent-paying
cattle. ^
It is generally considered that infu-
sions of foreign blood have contributed to
some extent to the building up of the
improved Hereford. In the history of
this breed,! it is mentioned that in the
seventeenth century cattle had been im-
ported into Hereford from France by
Lord Scudamore, and that in later times
there have been introductions of stock
into Hereford from various parts of Eng-
land and from Wales. Undoubtedly,
however, the dominant ingredient in the
improved Hereford is the aboriginal race
of the county — the same race of cattle
which under different conditions of soil,
climate, and management, have given
us such breeds as the Devon and Sussex.
The white face has been well described
as the " tribal badge " of the Hereford,
and we are told that this distinctive
mark is traceable to the infusion of foreign
blood referred to.
Many animals of the breed were at
one time grey or spotted in the face, and
even yet there exists a strain of Herefords
known as " Smoky-faced Montgomerys."
Characteristics.
Uniformity of Type. — No other
breed has more clearly defined character-
' History of Hereford Cattle, by Macdonald
and Sinclair. Vinton & Co., Limited, London.
98
HEREFORD CATTLE.
istics than the Hereford. It is certainly
a nniqae tribute to its wonderful con-
stancy in breeding — and thereby one of
the strongest proofs of the purity of its
ancestry — that the markings should be
so clearly and persistently maintained in
successive generations.
Colour of Herefords. — The colour
of the Hereford is the first thing that
strikes the observer. The white clean
face, the white shoulder tops, the white
dewlap, the rich red hue, all go to form
a striking picture. In the matter of
colour it is worthy of note that dark-
reds are not favoured, neither are light-
coloured cattle. The red that does not
contain even the suspicion of a black
hair, nor the suggestion of a yellow one,
has always been associated with th6 best
animals in the showyard. The rich
curly coat is as sure a sign of a truly
bred Hereford as the white face and
clean muzzle.
Gteneral Appearance. — The typical
Hereford is a fine massive animal. Its
broad back, deep ribs and well-lined
flanks, square quarters and well-built-out
rumps, undeniably indicate the prime
teutcher's animal. Ko other breed pos-
sesses such a rare wealth of dewlap,
such conspicuous spead over the top,
nor in tiie average such well-rounded
ribs. The typical Hereford is levd in
flesh, bulky in form, and built nearer td
the ground than almost any other breed.
Standard Description. — In 1905 the
Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association
issued a standard description of the
breed. It is pointed out that there are
difficulties surrounding a scale of points
for the breed, as breeders' ideas are so
much at variance. The circular remarks:
"It is a common saying that beef does
not grow on horns, yet a breeder who
aims to produce fine breeding stock
would fail in his purpose if he neglected
to place full value upon the shape and
colour of the horns." The description is
as follows : —
"The bull should have a moderately
short head, broad forehead, and horns
nearly resembling the colour of wax,
springing straight out from the side of
the forehead, and slightly drooping;
those with black tips or turning upwards
are not regarded with favour. The eye
should be full and prominent, the nose
should be broad and clear. A black
nose is objectionable. The body should
be massive and cylindrical, on short legs,
the outline straight ; chest full and deep,
shoulder sloping but lying well open at
the top between the blades ; neck thick
and arched from the head to the
shoulders, ribs well sprung, flanks deep,
buttocks broad and well let down to the
hocks; the tail neatly set and evenly
filled between tJie setting of the tail and
the hip bones, which should not be pro-
minent. The whole carcass should be
evenly covered with firm flesh ; the skin
should be thick and mellow to the touch,
with soft curly hair of a red colour ; but
the face, top of neck, and under parts of
the body should be white.
"The same description should apply
to the cow, excepting that she should be
grown upon more feminine and refined
lines, the head and neck being less
massive, and the eyes should show a
quiet disposition."
The circular embodying the above
description, which, curiously enough, does
not refer to colour, concludes as follows :
^'The Hereford is essentially a beef
breed, and reaches maturity at an earlier
age and at less cost than any other
breed; the steers readily fatten at two
years old on grass alone, and in the
summer months they "command the top
price in the London market."
C<»istitution. — ^At one time the Here-
ford was used as a beast of burden, in
the sense that it bore its share in the
tillage work of the fann. To this is no
doubt attributable the strength of its
frame and its constitutional vigour.
Nowadays it is employed in a more
peaceable and equally useful manner,
turning a profit from the fine grazing
lands in the midlands of England. '
Freedom from VubercnloBis. — A
noteworthy feature in the Hereford
breed is its freedom from tubercular
disease. Shipments of cattle to the
number of one hundred have been sent
abroad, not one of which reacted to the
tuberculin test. >■ This advantage has
not been purchased at the expense of
aptitude to fatten. It is attributable,
in the first place, to the constitution
built up in the early days at the plough.
That vigour has not been assailed by a
j>ampered system of rearing. The Here-
HEREFORD CATTLE.
99
ford is a grass fattener, aod the open air
is the finest antidote to tuberculosis that
we have yet discovered. Fattening at
grass or finishing in the open court, the
Hereford has access to the open air. In
the case of stall-fed bullocks the confine-
ment implies less fresh air, and providing
disease with a lodgment where it can be
communicated.
Milking Qualities. — The Hereford
has won so great a reputation as a beef-
producer that probably few people out-
side of the circle of breeders would
associate it with milk-production. There
are milking strains, however, which give
no mean results. The majority of Here-
ford breeders do not wish to breed for
beef alone, without recognising the im-
portance of the cow's ability to rear her
own calf. This is the prevailing practice
in Hereford herds. Admittedly, this is
not the means to be used if milk is to be
encouraged as a commercial asset, but no
one is likely to take the Hereford cow
for milk - production when he can do
better with breeds like the Shorthorn.
The assertion is sometimes made, how-
«ver, that the show Hereford is purely
an animated block of beef. Milk secre-
tion is deficient ' Doubtless it is in
many cases, but the fact should be borne
in mind that Mr William Tudge of
Summer Court, Kington, has bred cows
that have won prizes at dairy shows.
A miking Herd. — In the herd owned
by Mr White of Zeals, Wilts, attention
is particularly devoted to the cultivation
■of milking qualities. The calves are
.allowed to suckle the dams for a week,
and are then reared by hand, too much
condition not being favoured. Mr White,
from eighty cows, sent in two months.
May and June — this being an ordinary
•extract from his records — 5400 gals, of
milk to the factory, from which 5444 lb.
of cheese was made. This is no mean
performance, considering that it was only
part of the milk. In 1905 the eighty
cows at Zeals Park produced 38,500
gals, of milk. Although this does not
seem an exceptionally high average, it
must be borne in mind that the cows
had no artificial food during the year
•except in the spring and after calving.
A fair sample of May milk was submitted
for examination, and it averaged 4.3 per
•cent of fat.
"Weights. — Good grass -fed Hereford
steers weigh alive from 10 cwt. to 12
cwt., handy weights, which are much
appreciated by Midland butchers. At
Smithfield Show a class of nine steers
under two years averaged over 13 cwt.,
and in the class between two and three
years old the weights averaged close
on 17 cwt., which is clear proof of the
breed's aptitude to fatten rapidly.
For Crossing. — The Hereford is per-
haps, considering its fine beef-producing
qualities, not so much used for cross-
breeding as could be desired. Probably
it is thought best to keep its grazing
qualities unalloyed. Abroad on the
prairies of the new hemisphere, on the
bare lands of the veldt, and on the sun-
burned pastures of the antipodes the
Hereford flourishes. It is no mere trite
observation to say that it thrives under
these conditions better than any other
breed. One of its chief claims to the
support of the foreign buyer is that it is
the best of all foragers when circum-
stances compel it to seek for its living.
A large export trade is carried on to
North and South America, to South
Africa, and Australia.
In the Showyard,
Hereford cattle do well in the show-
yard. There is no lack of herds in the
bull-'foreeding business, and that being
so, there are numerous exhibitors. For
a time breeders seemed to attach almost
undue importance to quality, sometimes
at the expense of scale and weight,
favouring very short, compact, thick ani-
mals. There is, however, a greater dis-
position now prevailing to give substance
and size their due, recognising that in
breeding it is easier to lose weight than
to regain it.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of Hereford breed-
ing herds does not vary much. In Mr
Allen E. Hughes' herd at Wintercott,
Leominster, the practice is to run the
cows at pasture with the heifer - calves
during the summer months. The bull-
calves are separated from the dams, being
suckled night and morning.
Treatment of Cows. — When the
cows come into the yards in the autumn
lOO
HEEEFOKD CATTLE.
they get out straw and " rowings " (the
chaff and riddlings from the straw when
threshing) until they produce their calves.
Then they have pulped roots and chaff
once a-day. The cows are allowed to run
in a meadow for a few hours daily, 'and
later on in the spring they have hay
until turning out to grass. The natural
plan of keeping the cows out in the
open yards all the winter is followed.
When they are ready for calving they
are put into loose-boxes, and are in them
for a few weeks, and then turned out in
the open yard, coming in to suckle their
calves night and morning.
Treatment of Calves.; — Mr Hughes
tries to get his cows to calve after ist
January. He takes the calves from the
cows when about eight months old. The
heifer - calves receive about ijS^ lb. of
oat-flour in the morning with chaff, finger-
sliced roots twice a-day and hay. The
bull-calves during the summer have
mixed flour and cake, and run out at
grass. After they are weaned they are
put in boxes and have flour, roots, and
hay.
Management of a Milking Herd.
— ^As an example of management under
different conditions — i.e., with milk as
a prime object — Mr White's system at
Zeals Park in Wilts may be summarised.
The herd has a run of i8o acres grass-
land, of which one - third is mown for
winter consumption. The cows are kept
throughout winter on oat-straw. They
are allowed the run of pasture until" a
fortnight prior to calving, when hay and
straw -chaff with roots are given them,
with the addition of 4 lb. of cotton-cake
per day. The calving season is in April
and May, when the grass begins to be
plentiful The calves suckle the cows
for a week, and are then hand-reared,
most of them being sold for veal, which
in Mr White's opinion is more profitable
than keeping them on for beef. Several
bull-calves are saved, however, and are
sold for use in dairy herds as far south as
Cornwall. The heifer-calves to be kept
in the herd are reared by hand, receiving
about a gallon of milk daily, till they
can eat a little cake and other artificial
food and hay. They run on the grass
throughout the summer, receiving a little
linseed-cake. In winter they are trans-
ferred to a sheltered field and subsist on
hay only.
The bull is put to the yearlings about
the end of July, so that they may breed
at two years old in April. This early
breeding is encouraged in the belief that
the udders developing early do better
before the natural beef-making qualities
of the breed begin to assert themselves.
The cows are generally at their best as
milkers with the third calf. The cows
are milked up to the day of calving. Mr
White's experience is that they are
difficult to dry off, while the heavy milk-
ing does not in any way mitigate their
natural aptitude to fatten. They pro-
duce the milk more cheaply in this way,
and cost nothing in artificial food to
fatten them.
Management in the Montford Herd.
. — Mr T. S. Minton, Montford, Shrews-
bury, believes that in rearing bulls it
pays to be liberal with them, provided
the breeder is careful not to surfeit.
Discussing the question when to take a
calf* he says : " Many breeders differ in
opinion as to the time a heifer should
have her first calf. I think it is at two
years two months, which would be March
if she was calved in January. Her calf
would then be ready to take all the milk
by grass time. The dam would not have
lost her milk by calving too long before
grass is ready, which is often the case
with heifers. The plan of heifers not
having their first caK till three years old
is very prejudicial to their milking pro-
perties. If you ■ want a good - looking
herd have your first calf at two years
two months, and then rest your cow,
having your second calf at four years."
In Plates 29 and 30 portraits are given
of a noted bull and cow of the Hereford
breed.
DEVON CATTLE.
lOI
DEYON CATTLE.
The Devon breed has played an im-
portant part in the history of beef-pro-
duction in England. It is kept in a
circumscribed area in the south-west
from Dojset to Cornwall, and on the
north bounded by the Bristol Channel.
There are a few herds to be found farther
afield, but if we except the royal herd at
Windsor, they have not played a pro-
minent part either in the public ring or
in racial improvement. The history of
the Devon, or " Kuby " as it is sometimes
called, goes back far into the past. The
red lands of the south-west have reared
for generations red-coated cattle, and a
singularly brilliant, active, and useful
agent the breed has been in the agricul-
tural evolution of Devonshire and the
surrounding counties.
Early History. — Of early breeders of
note information is provided by Arthur
Young's Chronicles. In his famous re-
port of 1776 the agricultural historian
of two centuries ago makes prominent
mention of the old Quartly race of cattle.
Mr Quartly of Holland was the most
celebrated of breeders in North Devon
in the time of Arthur Young. The ob-
jects which Quartly and other breeders
had in view were thus described by
Young : —
"The points they have aimed at in
breeding have chiefly been to gain as
great a width as possible between the
hips; to have the hip-bones round and
not pointed; that the space from the
catch to the hips should be as long as
possible ; the catch full, but not square ;
that the tail should fall plumb, without
a projection of catch and rump ; to have
the tail not set on high — not to rise —
but be snug, and the line to be straight
with the backbone — no pillow just below
the cross - line from pin to pin ; to be
thick through the heart under the chine ;
that the shoulder-point be not seen — no
projection of bone, but to bevel off to the
neck, all elbowing out being very bad.
All the bones to be as small as possible ;
the rib-bones round, not flat ; the leg as
small as possible under the knee ; not an
atom of the side to have any flatness.
In respect to size, if other points be the
same, he prefers a small cow rather than
a large one for breeding a bull, because
it is very rare to se6 any Very large one
handsome; but to breed oxen, a large
cow. To have them sharp and thin from
the throat to the nose ; in the throat the
cleanest have small variations from the
perfect snake ; though fat there, it should
not bag. To be thin under the eyes and
tapering to the nose, which should be
white, but the original breed was yellow.
Between the eyes to be rather wide ; eyes
themselves to be very prominent, like
those of a blood-horse, and no change of
colour round them. The horns to be
white, with yellow tips ; thin at root and
long, spreading at the points. The
breast or bosom should project as much
as possible before the shoulder and legs ;
and the wider between the fore legs the
better. To have the line of the neck
from the horns to the withers straight
with that of the backbone. The belly
to be light and rather tucked up ; if fat
before the udder, it is a sign of a good
milker."
The Quartly Herd. — Any one who
knows the Devons of to-day would readily
recognise in the ideal cattle thus por-
trayed the true progenitors of the im-
proved breed. Intelligent breeders with
so clear an ideal, so well-defined a model,
and the relation of all important points
so well reasoned out, could not fail to
leave an almost indelible stamp upon
the race on which they operated. No
wonder that the fame of the Quartly
Devons still lives, for the efibrts of Mr
Quartly must have done much to mould
the . breed into the 'strongly set type
which it now displays. Young tells us
that the points which he describes so
fully are the points which these gentle-
men considered desirable to breed for in
Devon cattle, which "they consider as
the best in England " ; and he adds, " Of
their fattening qualities they observed
that the Somerset graziers are the
judges, who are known to prefer them.
For working none can excel them. As
milkers they are represented as possess-
I02
DEVON CATTLE.
ing much merit. They had two cows
that gave each 17 pints at a meal, and
would make in general loj^ lb. of butter
per week in the flow of the season." The
systematic improvement of Devon cattle
as a breed begail with this Mr Quartly.
He stated to Young that his fathfer had
begun breeding Deyons about twenty
years earlier — twenty years prior to 1776
—and that he thought the breed there or
elsewhere was no better then, or at any
rate " two years ago," than it was when
his father commenced, so little progress
had there been made by aiiy one in im-
proving the breed. About this time,
however, the demand for Devon cattle
began to incr«!£ise, giving a stimulus to
the good work so systematically taken in
hand by Mr Quartly and a few other men
of " light and leading."
Down to this day the Quartly. strains
are held in high esteem by all the lead-
ing breeders.
Tlie Modem Devon.
The modern Devon embodies two
diflferent types — ^the North Devon and
the Somerset Devon. This distinction
has gradually come to be recognised.
The former is the smaller of the two,
and, on the whole, we may aptly term it
the sweeter. . Of late years a disposition
has been manifest to increase the size
without sacrifice of quality. It is felt by
breeders that a little more weight would
not come amiss, provided the " waste "
of the carcase could be reduced. It has
been amply demonstrated that to carry
beef, bone and muscle are necessary, and
in Devon cattle there may have been a
tendency tb run to the extreme of
quality. At all events, there was a great
temptation to produce a pretty little
beast which, on some of the strong lands
which carry Devon . cattle, could not be
fed so profitably as Devons of larger
scale. It has come about in the show-
yard that the larger type is winning
most of the honours, and what the show-
yard says to-day all Devon breeders
must agree to to-morrow.
The old type of mottled Devon is still
met with, but there arc fewer of the old
drooping-horned cattle than were at one
time seen. Indeed, the tendency in this
respect is rather in the other direction,
and who shall say that the horn grace-
fully curving upwards does not make as
neat and pretty a head as any ? At the
same time, there is often a lack of sweet-
ness and femininity in the heads and
horns seen in the modem showyard.
The Shorthorn type of head is ndt in-
frequently met with, the "form" being
as shapely and symmetrical as ever.
The complaint is all too frequently
heard, "We can't win with the little
things nowadays." But there is room
for the two types, although one of them
must become the predominant partner,
if we may judge from the manner in
•which events are shaping themselves.
It should be borne in mind that on the
higher-lying lands the Devon has to
find a living, and very often the smaller
cattle are, under these conditions, the
more profitable to rear.
Appearance. — ■ There is no ofiicial
description of the Devon breed. In
appearance it is of a rich uniformly red
colour. Symmetry is a strong point.
The frame should be well balanced, the
flesh being carried right dowp to the
hock joint. The typical Devon is built
near to the ground. His head should
be well set on a clean-cut neck. The
horns curve outwards, then . upwards,
and should be fairly open. The head
is wide at the base, the eye prominent
and kindly, the nose short, and the
muzzle broad and free from dark spots.
The neck should 'fit into the shoulders,
which should be free from coarseness at
the points. The top of the shoulder
should be broad, the chine of the Devon
being essentially built for beef-carrying.
The dewlap should be well developed
and hang at a right angle. The ribs
should be well hooped, so that a deep
roast can be carried. They should also
be deep, the flank forming the lower
side of a parallelogram. The quarters
should be long from the pin to the tail
head, and any tendency to shortness of
second thigh, although a somewhat com-
mon fault, should be condemned. The
legs should be well placed outside the
body. No white patches should be
noticed on the skin, which should be
mellow and thick under hand. Level
flesh is a feature of all fattening stock
of pronounced merit, and it is hardly
necessary to say that it is as important
iu the Devon as in any other breedl
DEVON CATTLE.
103
As a, Sho'w Beast. — As a show animal
there are few equally attractive breeds.
It is true that there is a tendency to
uneven fleshing at the summer shows,
perhaps still more apparent at the fat
stock meetings, but this is due to the
feeding as much as to anything else, A
really well ripened Devon is remarkable
for two things — plumpness and good
killing qualities. In the smaller types
so ripe ' are they that on parade they
have a tendency to waddle like a well-
fleshed duck, but that must be regarded
as a tribute to their wonderful width and
flesh-bearing qualities.
On the Farm. — On the farm Devons
are kept either as grazers or feeders.
Many of the south country feeders re-
"plenish their courts with Devon steers,
which move off rapidly, enabling three
batches a-year to be fitted for the butcher.
At one time they were popular with east-
ern feeders in Norfolk and elsewhere, but
as a rule the Norfolk beef-grower prefers
an animal of greater scale.
T/ie Milking Type.
Devon cattle are not devoted to beef
production alone. There are milking
strains which find much appreciation in
Dorsetshire, where herds are kept for
the express purpose of supply -mUk for
town consumption. It may be asked
why keep Devons of a milking type
when the Shorthorn is available ? The
reason is that when a breed becomes
acclimatised and retains its ability to
put on flesh when dry, its capacity to
adapt itself to the locality is worth a
good deal in size and substance. The
milking type of Devon is a beautiful
animal, with a good vessel and all the
breed characteristics in form, character,
and quality. Perhaps in some cases
they are not quite such a deep red in
colour, but their form and qualities are
essentially dual purpose — milk and beef.
Few particulars can be obtained of herd
yields.
Devons in a Yorkshire Dairy. — Mr
G. J. B. Chetwynd, who has established
a herd near Doncaster, has a very high
opinion of them for the purposes of a
private dairy. He picked the best blood
in Dorsetshire, and has some beautiful
cows as his foundation stock. The chief
points to be remembered in choosing a
breed such as this are that it is capable
of milking well and giving richly in
quality. They have been so long bred
on uniform lilies that they throw their
young stock very true, and when the
calves are not wanted for milk purposes
they fatten rapidly either for veal or
young beef.
Mr Chetwynd considers the milking
Devon one of the dairy breeds of the
country. They are moderate eaters,
and in return are rich milkers. In Mr
Chetwynd' s belief, if the breed had been
run on milk records, classes would have
been provided at the dairy shows. The
milk testing in the Wyndthorpe herd is
for butter-fat in carefully mixed samples.
Each cow's milk is tested monthly, be-
ginning one month from the date of
calving. An extract from the results
recorded in these tests is interesting, as
the following will show : —
Date
tested.
Date
calving.
1 6th Deo. 1 6th Jan.
19th M 19th M
26th II 26th n
Per cent
fet
Quantity
of Mill^
per day.
32.25 lb. 4.4
30 lb. 4.4
30.75 lb. 4
Anothen cow was giving 35 lb. of milk
daily only three weeks cS calving.
Classes have recently been established
for milking Devons at the Bath and
West shows, and doubtless as they be-
come better known they wiU extend
their radius of influence.
Antiquity of Milking Type. — The
milking type is of course no product of
the new century. It goes back more
than a hundred years. In the year 1808
Vancouver mentions a cow which, three
weeks after calving, yielded in seven suc-
cessive days 17^ lb. of butter, averag-
ing 14)4 pints of milk daily. Another
cow, Mr J. G. Davis's "Cherry," gave
2 lb. 5 oz. of butter from 33 pints of
milk. Instances are on record of 2^ lb.
of butter per cow being made daily from
the rich milk of this breed.
Weights. — The popular London handy
weight Devon is probably from i to 2
cwt. lighter than most of the larger
breeds. It is a popular fallacy to assume
that because the breed's reputation has
chiefly been built up by the Devon of
smaller scale, animals that weigh well
cannot be found. At Smithfield Show
in 1907 the heaviest Devon steer was
104
DEVON CATTLE.
1 8 cwt. 12 lb., the age being 2 years
10 months 3 weeks. Steers under two
years averaged 10 cwt. 3 qrs. 9 lb., while
the class of major age varied in weight
from 12 cwt. 24 lb. to 18 cwt. 12 lb. A
good weight for fat show heifers is about
13 cwt., although from i to i J^ cwt. less
is often recorded.
MANAGEMENT OF DBVONS.
The management of Devon herds
may best be described in the words
of breeders themselves.
Mr ChicMs Herd.
Mr W. J. Chick of Stratton, Dorches-
ter, who is an advocate of the milking
Devon, says that the " dairies " in Dorset
are let to dairymen at jQii to _;^i2 per
cow annually, the owner finding house
and premises for the dairyman's use,
and food for the cow.
When let, the calving season is dur-
ing the months of January to April.
" As a rule," says Mr Chick, " the cows
first fat their calves, but those required
for breeding purposes are taken from
their dams at a week old and reared by
hand on skim-milk. During the winter
and spring the cows in milk stay in at
night, and are fed on hay with some
corn or cake, and by day run out on the
pastures. During April or May the cows
'go on fresh pastures, and stay out at
night, the cake and hay then being
stopped.
" By this time most of the calves are
fattened, there being a good supply of
milk if the separator is not used. Best
cheese or butter and blue cheese are
made. The buttermilk and whey are
given to the pigs. The cows are dried
off about 22 weeks after service, are fed
on straw in the yards, with a run out at
pasture until they calve again.
" The best cows give from 40 to 50 lb.
of milk per day, but not many in a herd
will keep up this quantity. When man-
aged as a letting-dairy, I have known a
herd that made 180 lb. to 220 lb. butter
per cow, the average being taken from
12 to 14 consecutive years. When the
herds are managed by the owner, the
milk, as a rule, is sold. Then the
cows are calved from September to
April."
Mr Evxtahle't Herd.
Mr J. L. Huxtable of Overton, Bishops ^
Tawton, writes: "The cow is generally
dried off from six to eight weeks before
being due to calve. She is put on not too
rich pasture in summer. In winter she
is fed on roots and oat- straw or hay.
After calving, the food is usually light
and digestible, such as bran and a few
mangolds and a little hay for two or
three days. A plentiful supply of water
is at hand, the chill first being taken off.
It has been my practice for 27 years to
give a cleansing and cooling drench when
necessary, and I have had only two bad
cases of milk-fever, and both speedily
recovered.
"Methods of rearing calves vary.
Some run with the dams, and others
are kept indoors and allowed to suckle
the cow morning and evening. More
generally, however, the calf is taken
from the cow at from two to three
weeks old, and fed on skim or separated
milk with a little calf-meal mixed with
it. Bruised oats, cake, hay, and roots
are also given.
"In summer fattening, the cattle are
put on pasture with an allowance of
cake. In winter, they are either yarded
or tied in stalls with an allowance of
roots, hay, and cake or meal. Cattle
not kept for breeding are fattened at
from two to three jears old, their weights
varying according to age from 30 to 40
scores (of 20 lb. dead). I have sold one
two years and eight months old for
;^25, about 44 score."
Mr Trihble's Herd.
Mr Abram Tribble of Halsdon, Hols-
worthy, North Devon, says that the heifers
in calf generally run durihg the summer
months on the moor-ground or common
pasture-land attached to most farms, and
are wintered in an open shed, where they
are given hay night and morning, with
free access to some old grass by day. '
The in-calf cows are generally milked to
within six weeks to two months of calv-
ing, and during that time have ordinary
rations ; in winter, hay twice, roots twice,
out during day, and perhaps a little
crushed oats or pulped roots with chaff
once.
" The method of rearing calves for the
SOUTH DEVON CATTLE.
105
commercial market is to wean after ten
days old, and feed twice daily on separ-
ated milk, to which should be added a
calf-meal or boiled linseed. They are
given hay from the rick, and a little
cake, crushed oats, and cut roots. When
old enough to eat more the allowance
of food is gradually increased. Wean
off the separated milk at from three to
four months. To rear bull calves for
show purposes let them suck from three
to five months old. The steers are usu-
ally sold at two years old for fattening
and grazing up-country. Many go to
Chichester from here. These usually
make ;^iS at two years old, The cows
and calves chiefly go to Exeter Cattle
Market to supply the dairies around
there, and the calves come back again
and,, are reared here.
" Devon cattle are practically free
from tuberculosis. I have never had
an animal which has failed under the
tuberculin test."
The portrait of a characteristic Devon
bull is given in Plate 31.
SOUTH DEYON CATTLE.
The South Devon breed of cattle may
best be described as the antithesis of the
Devon. The "South Hams" or "Eed
Devons," as they have been variously
called, have a, lengthy and historical
connection with the county.
Early History. — The early history of
the breed has not been brought together
into concrete form, but here and there in
early literature of a purely agricultural
character and otherwise it is referred to.
Thus, in 1700, Prince in his Worthies
of Devon singles out the breed as dis-
tinct from any other in England. It
was then located between the Teign and
the Tamar, being described as of great
size, and peculiarly adapted for tilling
the steep hills that are found in that
neighbourhood. In these early days
the largest calves were kept for stock
purposes, the thick-backed, fleshy young-
sters being sent into the veal market.
The reason given for sending these latter
calves to market so early was that they
would not in all probability grow tall
enough for the " collar " work, which was
then an important part of the duties of
the breed. It thus came about that size,
which is to-day a distinguishing feature
of the South Devon, was one of the
earliest points cultivated by the breeder.
Old breeders refer to a famous ox,
owned by Mr Toms of Coyton, Ivybridge,
dibout the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, which, when killed, weighed 16
cwt. He is said to have shown a fine
carcase, thickly fleshed, with no waste.
That was, of course, in the time of
work-oxen. Mr William Treneman of
Burraton also brought an ox to the
block which vreighed over 16 cwt;-
dressed. Other cases are recorded of
oxen, without artificial food, scaling
14 cwt. in the carcase. It was only in
the latter half of the nineteenth century,
when the work of the farm was trans-
ferred to the horse, that the early
maturing qualities of the breed were
considered, and amongst the pioneers in
this direction Mr John Wroth of Knowle
deserves honourable mention.
The Herd. -Book Society. — In the
olden days it was the custom for farmers
to breed from the same class of stock for
generations. The stock-bulls were kept
at farms "perhaps two or three miles
apart, and breeders drove their cows to
these " custom places," as they were then
termed. All this was altered by a period
of, depression and by the inroads of the
Shorthorn in the " 'fifties " of the last
century. Consequently, to maintain
purity in the best and smallest breeding-
herds, a herd-book became a matter of
necessity.
Ijocality. — The breed has not pene-
trated beyond the area of the south-
western counties of England — Devon
and Cornwall — but with the establish-
ment of a herd - book it has certainly
very efiectually captured the farmers of
the south-west, who, having tried Short-
horns, found them less satisfactory from
a rent-paying point of view than the
io6
SOUTH DEVON- CATTLE.
South Devons. From Exeter to Lands
End may therefore be considered the
home of the breed.
Descrijption.
No standard of points has been fixed
by the Herd-Book Society. Those who
have seen this breed at home on the
fine pasture-lands of the south-west or
in the showyard are never likely to
forget their characteristics. The recog-
nised colour is described by breeders
somewhat indefinitely as a "medium
red." The North Devon red and the
type of curly coat found in that breed
are two things which are strictly avoided,
for there is not a little rivalry between
the two breeds.
The "points of excellence" are thus
described : —
" Eich medium red in colour, hide of
moderate thickness, loose and mellow,
well covered with soft curly hair, straight
over the back and runfp, deep and full
in gii'th and full at the chest, shoulders
covered at the points and flat on the
teJp, bone of moderate size, tail com-
mencing from line of back and hanging
below the hock with a good brush, pins
fairly wide but not very prominent,
flanks deep, forming straight underline,
full and deep in rounds, rump well filled
and straight from peg to pin, ribs wide,
deep, and well back to the pin, nose
white and wide.
"Bulls. — -The head massive and
broad in the forehead, but not coarse,
long from eyes to nose and well covered
with curly hair, eyes wide apart, nose
white and wide, horns white or yellow,
wide at base, and tapering with down-
ward tendency.
, " Females. — ^The head broad and of
medium- length, eyes full, horns white or
yellow, wide at base, tapering, and fairly
straight, the udder well forward and
projecting behind, not too fleshy, teats
of fair size, regular, and well distrib-
uted."
Kecent Improvement in the Breed.
— -These "points of excellence" somewhat
inadequately describe the appearance of
the South Devon. In the first place, it
may be explained that the "South
Ham " cattle are without doubt the larg-
est and heaviest of our bovine races. The
improvement that breeders have effected
since about i8go is marvellous. In the
early days they were hard-fleshed cattle,
if we judge them by the standards set
up by other breeds. To-day they are
big, wealthy, symmetrical animals of an
eminently rent-paying kind. " No mora
sneering at symmetry," said a well-
known breeder, and he was right. In
the bulls there is immense sap and very
thick flesh, with an evenness of fleshing-
which is altogether remarkable in ani-
mals of such great weight. Occasion-
ally we meet with a lack of style, and
sometimes an absence of quality, but the
preference as exhibited in the showyard
is undoubtedly towards quality, although
those breeders whose ideas were nur-
tured on the older type of cattle need-
lessly deplore a distinct preference in
that direction. There is sometimes a
lack of «econd thigh and weakness of
fore rib, but these defects are found in
every breed. Certainly the most re-
markable development in modern times
has been in the way of thicker fleshing,
greater symmetry, and more quality.
The cows are fine milkers, and a
thousand gallons are not infrequently
yielded in the course of the year.
The South Devons Abroad. — The
breed has enlisted many supporters
abroad. The fact that it is capable of
imparting great size to the progeny is a,
strong point in its favour. South Africa,
the Antipodes, Jamaica, and many other,
countries have been purchasers, and
there is every appearance of a great
development in this direction in the
future.
Weights. — When dealing with the
weights of this breed, reference must
first be made to Mr W. J. Crossing's
champion bull "Good Gift," which «as a
six-year-old turned the scale at 27^^ cwt.
Bulls of mature age not infrequently
scale from 23 cwt. to 26 cwt. A good
fat steer was " Jumbo," which won a fat
show championship in the south-west
of England for Mr W. M. Eoberts of
St Germans. He turned the beam at
22 cwt. I qr. 27 lb. As an illustration
of rapid maturity and great weight for
age, reference may be made to a younff
steer shown at Smithfield in 1894 by Mr
J. Sparrow Wroth of Coombe, Aveton
Giflbrd. This steer, aged €68 days,
scaled 1833 lb., giviug an average daily
SOUTH DEVON CATTLE.
107
gain of 2.74 lb. The-weight of the dressed
carcase was 1190 lb., and the average
daily gain of carcase 1,78 lb. There
■were 120 lb. of loose fat and 113 lb. of
hide. The bntoher's report was alto-
gether favourable to the quality of the
flesh and the profitable nature of the
carcase. The kidneys were remarkably
fine; one of the "nobs" weighed 17 lb.
cut straight across. Similarly, in the
competition for the best carcase at the
London Smithfield Show, the South
Devon breed has on occasion won highest
honours.
MiTking Qualities. — ^In South Devon
there are many cows which give £ and
6 gallons daily in the full flow of milk.
At the London Dairy Show in 1906 the
cow "Iris," 150 days in milk, shown by
Mr Cundy, yielded in twenty-four hours
63.15 lb. milk, from which 2 lb. Yz oz.
of butter were made. The second cow,
"Primrose," yielded 50.4 lb., 153 days
in milk; and "Sally IL" gave 48.1 lb.,
136 days in milk.
MANAGEMENT OF SOUTH DETONS.
The systems of management pursued
in herds of South Devon cattle vary to
some extent. They are usually natural
and fairly liberal.
Mr W. J. Crossings Herd.
In the herd of Mr W. J. Crossing
of Woodford, Plympton, the calves are
weaned from the cow at a week old and
then reared by hand. No heifer is
timed to calve under three years old,
the object being to prevent a check in
growth which seriously afiects perfection
in the cow. The herd numbers from
25 to 30 cows, and some of them yield
from 20 to 24 quarts of milk daily, the
average being about 12 quarts.
Each cow is kept in the herd till she
produces about four calves, although
some of them produce six or seven.
For fattening cattle linseed-cake and a
mixed cake are used at the rate of
about 10 lb. daily, and in winter hay
and roots are given in addition. The
carcase weights would be from 7^ to
10 cwt., and in some cases more.
Food for the milking cows varies.
Crushed oats, dairy meals, maize-meal,
bran and cake mixed, are used. Mr
Crossing adds, " The quality of the milk
obtained is all that can be desired."
Messrs Whitley's Herd,
Messrs Whitley of Primley Farm,
Paignton, Devon, keep their herd at
grass throughout the summer, giving a
small allowance of corn or cake once
a-day when the cows are milking heavily.
They supply a large quantity df milk
and cream to the town of Paignton. The
cattle are kept out in winter unless the
weather is exceptionally severe. Thus,
in the winter of 1907-8, the cows were
taken in only on six nights.
The food consists of hay, roots, com,
or cake. The best cows will average
about 20 quarts of milk daUy. The
calves are taken from the cows at a week
old and fed on scalded milk and linseed
until they are old enough to pick up a
living for themselves, when they go out
to graze.
The steers are fattened for beef at
about two to two and a half years old,
and generally realise from ;^i8 to
;^28, los., the live-weight being from
12 to 16 cwt. Messrs Whitley add,
" We have had a steer at two years and
eleven months old weigh 19 cwt. and
make ;^4i, its dead-weight in beef being
12 cwt. 3 qrs. 6 lb."
The best heifers at Primley are kept
for breeding purposes. At seven or eight
years old the cows are fattened off, sell-
ing at from ^20 to ;^3o.
The bulls grow to an enormous size,
some weighing up to 30 cwt. " We
measured one of ours the other day in
reference to an inquiry we received,"
write Messrs Whitley, "and the follow-
ing are the particulars : —
Height ^t shoulders . . 5 ft. I in.
Height at croup, . . . . 5 „ i ,,
Length of body from top of shoul-
der to root of tail . . . 5 „ 4 , ,
Length of neck from top of
shoulder to centre of horns . 2 ,, 7 >,
Girth behind shoulder . . . 7 ,, 6 ,,
Mr B. Luscombe's Herd.
Mr B. Luscombe of South Langston,
Kingston, Kingsbridge, does not sell
milk, but makes use of the separated
milk on his farm for feeding calves. He
adds a little cake and crushed corn for
this purpose as soon as the calves are
io8
SUSSEX CATTLE.
old enough to take it. His cows have
yielded up to 7 gallons daily. Animals
intended for exhibition are allowed the
use of a courtyard with a shed. They
are fed in the shed on roots, hay, corn,
and cake. Mr Luscombe adds : " The
live-weight of beasts in this neighbour-
hood runs froin 14 to 18 cwt. by the time
they are ripe for slaughter ; but in many
cases they turn the scale at a ton. Some
of the heaviest are from 24 to 26 cwt."
Messrs Bviland's Herd.
Messrs Butland Brothers of Leigham,
Plyinpton, milk about 50 cows and send
the milk to Plymouth. They average
from 2 to 3 gallons per head daily, and
that includes cows that are getting on in
calf. "The largest quantity," Mr B.
Butland writes, "I ever knew a South
Devon to give in one day was 32 quarts,
but we have several that will give from
20 to 25 quarts per day." The cattle are
out by day in winter, and have turnips
in the field. By night they are under
cover, and have mangels, crushed oats,
dairy meal, maize meal, bran, and a little
linseed-cake. In summer a little cotton-
cake with linseed and bran is fed. The
general weight of fat beasts is from 8 to
12 cwt. "We rear our own calves by
the stall cows," adds Mr Butland. " We
cannot allow them more than 2 to 3
quarts of milk per day, but we get them
to take a little linseed-cake as soon as
possible."
In Plate 32 a portrait is given of a
typical South Devon bull.
SUSSEX CATTLE.
The Sussex breed is one of the old
indigenous varieties of cattle. It has
remained, so far as England is concerned,
a purely local breed.
History. — The history of the breed
has been comparatively uneventful. It
has come through no sensational periods,
either in the show or sale -ring, but
breeders can point to a record of solid
useful work. As far back as 1795,
Arthur Young, writing in the Annals of'
Agriculture, declared that the Sussex
cattle were recognised as a well-estab-
lished breed of high repute. He refers
to an experiment in feeding which proves
the cattle at that time to have shown
a tendency to very early development.
He sums up their merits thus : " Sussex
oxen are as remarkable for the fineness
of their hides as they are for the close-
ness and delicacy of their flesh."
Sarly Aims. — One of the chief ob-
jects of breeders in the early days was
to breed Sussex oxen for the plough.
They were largely used for multifarious
draught purposes. They were able,
owing to their wonderful size and
weight, to move heavy loads, and on
account o^ their steady pull they made
few breakages. Probably the local de-
mand for oxen for this purpose did not
suggest to breeders a wider market than
the mere slavish work of the farm and
estate. But it is not too much to say
that they thereby laid the foundation
of a magnificent constitution, which has
been inherited by the modern represent-
atives of the breed.
Iiocality. — To - day the red - coated
Sussex cattle are found on the wealden
clays of Sussex, Kent, and Surrey. These
counties comprise all qualities of grazing
land, poor, thin soil, and stiff clays. On
the poor lands the breed was at one time
raised, and finished ofif for the butcher
on the stronger lands. There are few
herds outside of the counties of its
birth.
Standard Description.
It was as far back as 1855 that
the Sussex Herd-hook was established.
During the period of its existence it
has witnessed a radical alteration in
the type of the breed and the objects
which the breeder has in view. The
work -ox has all but gone, and in his
place has come the early maturing steer.
The following is the standard of excel-
lence as adopted by a general meeting
of members of the Sussex Herd-book
Society in 1907 : —
SUSSEX CATTLE.
109
BvUs.
Registered pedigree.
Head, — Masculine and fairly long.
Forehead. — Broad.
Eyes. — Bold.
Ears. — Of medium size and thickness, fringed
with fine hair, and clear flesh-coloured
inside.
NoM. — Broad, flesh-coloured, and free from
dark spots.
Horns. — Clear, not coarse, starting at right
angles to the head and slightly curved
inwards, with dark tips.
Throat. — Clean.
Neck. — Muscular and of medium length,
spreading out to meet the shoulders,
which should not be coarse but neat ;
sloping, well covered, and showing no
projection at the point when looked at
from the front.
Chest. — Broad and deep.
Eack. — Straight, not rising above the top of
the shoulders, and level thence to the
setting on of the tail.
Loins, — Broad and full.
Mips. — Moderately wide and on a level with
the back.
Eibs. — ^Well sprung and nicely arched.
Sumps. — Full and level.
Himd Quarters. — Deep, thick, and square.
Tail. — Set in the back, level with the top
line, and hanging at right angles to the
back ; to be of medium thickness, show-
ing strength but no coarseness.
Underline. — To be as nearly as possible par-
allel with the top line.
Arms and Thighs. — Muscular.
Zegs. — Short, good quality bone, with flat,
strong, clean hocks, and to be squarely
placed when viewed behind.
Mesh. — Even.
Shin. — Moderately thick, mellow to the touch,
and covered with an abundant coat of
rich, soft, red hair (preferably dark) ;
a little white in front of the purse is
admissible but not desirable, and must
not extend beyond the navel or appear
on any other part of the animal, but
a few grey hairs are no disqualifica-
tion.
General Appearamce. — Masculine and active.
Cows.
Registered pedigree.
Mead. — Feminine character, moderately long.
Forehead. — Broad.
Eyes. — Bright and prominent.
Ears. — Thin, fringed with fine hair, add
clear flesh-coloured inside.
Nose. — Broad, flesh-coloured, and free from
dark spots.
Moms. — Clear, not coarse, starting at right
angles to the head, well balanced and
spreading, with an even, graceful curve
slightly upwards, with dark tips.
Throat. — Clean.
Nech. — Of medium length.
Shoulders. — Not coarse but neat and sloping
and well covered, showing no projection
at the point when looked at from the
front.
Chest. — Broad "and deep.
Back. — Straight, not rising above the top of
the shoulders, and level thence to the
setting on of the tail.
Loins. — Broad and full.
Mips. — Moderately wide and on a level with
the back.
Eibs, — Well sprung and nicely arched.
Rwmps. — Full and level.
Mind Quarters. — Deep, thick, and square.
UdiJj^r. — Square, not fleshy, teats set evenly
apart.
Tail. — ^Set in the back, level with the top
line, hanging at right angles to the back,
and to be of medium thickness.
Underline. — To be as nearly as possible par-
allel with top line.
Legs. — Short, good quality bone with flat,
strong, clean hocks, and to be squarely
placed when viewed behind.
Flesh. — Even.
Skin. — Moderately thin, and mellow to the
touch, and covered with an abundant
coat of rich, soft, red hair (preferably
dark) ; a little white about the udder
is admissible but not desirable, and must
not extend beyond the navel or appear
on any other part of the animal, but a
few grey hairs are not a disqualification.
General Appearance, — Smart and gay.
There is nothing to add to the above
description, -which accurately paints the
type of Sussex animal which breeders
are aiming to produce. The most
common fault of the breed is a short-
ness of second thigh, more accurately
described as "hamminess." The breed
is very even in flesh, and is deeply
fleshed over the back and ribs,
"Weights and Early Matxirity. — The
weights to which the breed grow are
clear and convincing evidence of suc-
cessful breeding for early maturity.
Perhaps this is best exemplified by an
examination of the Smithfield Show
cattle for a number of years. Over a
consecutive period of eight years the
class of steers under two years of age
has averaged 678 days old and 1422 lb,
weight, equivalent to an average daily
gain of 2 lb, 1.55 oz. Taking the
heaviest beast each year, they averaged
over eight years a daily gain of 2 lb,
8^ oz., while the average of the lowest
in the class was i lb, 12,90 oz. In the
two-year-old class over eight years the
average age was 1024 days, and the
average daily gain i lb. 11.93 o^- The
no
SUSSEX CATTLE.
best steer each year averaged a daily
gain of 2 lb. 2.28 oz., -which must be con-
sidered a remarkable tribute to the early
maturing propensities of the Sussex
cattle. Thie heifers averaged 2 lb.
2.02 oz. for the best in eight success-
ive years, while the class average was
I lb. 10.72 oz. daily. It is worthy of
special note that the fine ^ young steer
which made the highest gain in 1902 —
viz., 2 lb. 8.34 oz. — killed 68.02 per cent
carcase. The highest known yield of
carcase to live -weight was recorded in
1888, when, a steer weighing 1422 lb.
killed 71.67 per cent.
Sussex Bulls for Crossing. — In
many ways the Sussex bull might with
profit be more widely used for cross-
breeding purposes. In 1900 two crosses
were exhibited at the Smithfield Show,
but a third prize was the highest prize
won, although the carcases were very
meaty. In 1899 a first prize was won
with a heifer.
Sussex Cattle Abroad. — The breed
should be very useful in those countries
where a draught type of ox is required.
A number have been taken to Egypt.
In America the breed is appreciated.
One purchaser in Tennessee, who has
supported the Sussex breed for many
years, declares that " the introduction of
the Sussex breed has proved an unquali-
fied success, and the breed has stood
the crucial test of yielding a reasonable
return over the cost of production. . . .
The domiciliation of {he Sussex in this
country is an accomplished fact, and in
Tennessee, its peculiar haMtat, is doing its
full share in tJie improvement of native
cattle."
MANAGEMENT OF SUSSEX CATTLE.
There is little specially to record as
peculiar to the management of Sussex
herds. Mr A- Heasman says that the
most successful way of breeding is to
calve the cows down in October and
ifovember, to let them have their own
calf through the winter, weaning in
spring, and thereupon putting another
calf to the cow. By this method one
cow rears two calves. It may be added
that the Sussex cow is only a moderate
milker, the chief use of .the breed being
beef-production.
Lord Winterton's Herd.
Mr W. Massie, agent to Earl Winterton,
says : " We find the best results are ob-
tained from calves dropped as early as
possible in January. The calves are
allowed to run with their mothers during
the summer months, one cow sometimes
bringing up two calves. The average
time of suckling is nine months. The
cattle are usually wintered in open or
covered courts, their feeding consisting
of crushed oats mixed with roots and
hay. In the following summer they are
fattened off the grass ■with the assistance
of linseed- and cotton-cake, and are all
sold to the butcher before they are
twenty months old. The best average
price I have been able to make under
these conditions is ^£^24, 8s. for fourteen
head sold during summer."
With regard to weights of commercial
animals, Mr Massie adds : "We frequently
get them to weigh from 100 to I'lo stones
(14 lb.) per bullock at twenty months
old, which at the present price of 4s. lod.
in Guildford market would be ;£'24, 3s.
4d. for the 100 stones. I find that I can
generally get from 2d. to 4d. per stone
more for them than for cross-breds."
Mr Steven Agates Herd.
Mr Steven Agate of Horsham usually
lets the calves run with the cows until
October. They ar6 then weaned and
put on rations so as not to lose the calf-
flesh. They are fed according to their
requirements, some doing so much better
than others. Mr Agate generally makes
his beasts fit for the butcher at two years
old, weighing then between 90 and 100
stones.
The cows are run in the yards dur-
ing winter, before calving, and have a
little hay but no roots. After calving
they get what meal and roots they can
clear up, as the better the cow does the
more satisfactory is the calf's progress.
Mr Agate believes in plenty of exercise
for all stock, keeping them as clean and
comfortable as possible, and, in the
matter of feeding, giving salt with their
chaff and roots.
Mr HvhhUs Herd.
Mr H. T. Hubble of Maidstone owns
a half Sussex, half Aberdeen - Angus
AYRSHIRE CATTLE.
Ill
herd. His method of rearing is to allow
the calves to run with the cows in the
meadow until the autumn, and then
separate the steer calves from the heif-
ers, giving them meal, cake, and hay,
and, following the old plan, giving a
few swedes in the mid-day ration. Mr
Hubble says : "I find a cross with an
Aberdeen- Angus bull on the Sussex cow
produces good quality of beef. I have
this year taken some first and second
prizes with this cross, and sold them for
;^27, p^28, and ^£50 at 20 and 21
months old."
In Plate 33 a portrait is given of a
well-known Sussex cow. '
ATESHIEE CATTLE.
The Ayrshire breed of cattle affords a
striking example of how the farmers of
Oreat Britain have in years past grad-
ually developed classes of live stock to
suit the physical features of each distinct-
ive district of the country. The breed is
native to the poorer arable land of Ayr-
shire, Renfrew, and Lanark. There the
farms have always been small, and the
surroundii^ circumstances were such as
to point to dairying in preference to
the raising of store stock or the pro-
duction of beef. Of necessity, the cows
nad to be small in size and hardy of
«onstitution. Before dnaining became
general and artificial manure was avail-
able, the Ayrshire had no land of
Goshen to enjoy life in, and -clearly the
Itreed was evolved long before tte
advent of either of these aids to the
advancement of agriculture.
HistoricaL — The breed must have
originated in the local cattle of the dis-
trict referred to. What these were no
one can tell with any degree of confi-
dence. There is, however, fairly conclu-
sive evidence that for at least a hundred
years the Ayrshire cow has not varied
much in character.
£iarly Ideals. — In the minute-book
-of the Kilmarnock Farmers' Club there
is a report, dated 7th August 1795, of
a discussion opened by Gilbert Burns
(brother of Robert) on "What may be
further done to improve the cattle in
tim country." The summiiig up of that
paper ran thus : " That although much
has been done of late in this country in
selecting proper individuals of the species
to breed from, yet much remains to be
•done. That particular attention ought
to be given to the whole form of the
animal as well as to its colour and horns.
That much attention also ought to be
given in the selection of the cow as well
as of the bull. That young cattle, while
in a growing state, ought to be more
liberally fed than they too generally are
in this country ; and that as great a pro-
portion of succulent food as possible
ought to be given them in winter whUe
they are calves, and thereafter plenty of
rye-grass hay each spring."
Something more specific than these
generalities was forthcoming at a discus-
sion held shortly thereafter on "The
particular form of cattle the Ayrshire
farmer ought to select to breed from."
The result of this discussion is thus
summed up in the minute : " Long and
small in the snout, small horns, small
neck, clean and light in the chops and
dewlap, short-legged, large in the hind
quarters, straight and full in the back,
broad above the kidneys and • at the
knuckle bones, broad and wide in the
thigh, but not thick-hipped, a thin soft
skin of the fashionable colours, whatever
these be, and the mother carrying her
milk pretty high and well forward on
the belly." It would seem that this
description is intended to apply to both
the male and female form.
Points of the Breed.
In 1884 it was submitted, to a com-
mittee of tibe Ayrshire Agricultural Asso-
ciation " to revise the points indicating
excellence in the Ayrshire breed of cattle,
and to consider other matters connected
therewith." The following is the finding
of this committee : —
112
AYESHIKE CATTLE.
Points.
1. Head short, forehead wide, nose fine
between the muzzle and eyes,
muzzle large, eyes full and lively,
horns wide set on, inclining upwards lo
2. Neck moderately long, and straight
from the head to the top of the
shoulder, free from loose skin on
the under side, fine at its junction
with the head, and enlarging sym-
metrically towards the shoulders . 5
3. Fore quarters — shoulders sloping, with-
ers fine, chest sufficiently broad and
deep to ensure constitution, brisket
and whole fore quarters light, the
cow gradually increasing in depth
and width backwards ... 5
4. Back short and straight, spine well
defined, especially at the shoulders ;
short ribs arched, the body deep at
the flanks 10
5. Hind quarters long, broad, and straight;
hook bones wide apart, and not over-
laid with fat ; thighs deep and
broad; tail long, slender, and set on
level with the back ... 8
6. Udder capacious and not fleshy, hinder
part broad and firmly attached to
the body, the sole nearly level and
extending well forward, milk veins
about udder and abdomen well de-
veloped. The teats from 2 to 2%,
inches in length, equal in thickness,
the thickness being in proportion
to the length, hanging perpendic-
ularly; their distance apart, at the
sides, should be equal to about one-
third of the length of the vessel,
.and etcroBs to about one-half of the
'breadth 33
7. Legs short in proportion to size, the
bones fine, the joints firm . . 3
8. Skin soft and elastic, and covered with
soft, close, woolly hair ... 5
9. Colour, red, — of any shade, brown or
white, or a mixture of these, each
colour being distinctly defined.
Brindle or black and white is not
in favour 3
10. Average live- weight, in full milk, about
10^ cwt 8
11. General appearance, including style
and movement . . . .10
Perfection . 100
Thereis a later pronouncementthanthis
on the part of a committee appointed by
the Ayrshire Cattle Herd-Book Society
and adopted by the latter in 1906.
Though much the same in effect as the
Agricultural Association's schedule, it is
hardly so much to the point. The Herd-
Book Society devote a separate schedule
to the bull. The Society's schedule
allows for the udder maximum marks of
20 compared with the 33 set aside by the
Association ; and the desirable size for
teats is " 2}^ to 3j^ inches, and not less
than 2 inches." Under head of colour
brindle alone is stamped as undesirable.
" Black and white " passes. Escutcheon
gets I (in the case of the bull this is
stretched to 4). Weight gets 4 only,
but the newer schedule standardises the
weight of the cow at maturity from 800
to 1000 lb. This we suspect is nearer
the mark than the loj^ cwt. stated
above. And the increase in length of
the teats in the later schedule indicates
the recent breaking away from the small-
ness of teat which fashion unfortunately
upheld in the closing quarter of last
century.
Type Similar for 100 Years. —
— ^There seems, as we have said, to be
little difference between the ideal Ayr-
shire of to-day and that of over a hun-
dred years past. In little, indeed, except
as regards horns is there any real differ-
ence. A hundred years ago the Ayrshire
cow, as old engravings show, had smaller
horns than now, and they curled inwards
on the forehead instead of standing out
wide apart and pointing upwards as on
present-day cows. Colour does not seem
to carry many marks with it. Even
the Kilmarnock experts of a century
ago allowed this point to be ruled by
fleeting fashion. At present, judging
from the cattle one sees at shows, it
would appear that the breed will ere
long be colourless. The majority of these
are white, with a splash here and there
of red.
In the fields, however, the rank and
file of the breed are considerably diver-
sified in this respect, as one would ex-
pect from the terms of the foregoing
schedule. Black, though slightly unpop-
ular in the judging ring, is by no means
uncommon in the field. But in common
with the recognised red and brown over-
lays the patches thereof are unmixed.
Black is indeed understood to be the
original ground of the Ayrshire's coat,
and at Ayr show there has been of late
a special class for animals with black
markings.
In this connection it may be noted
that the nondescript cattle of the district
(those which, unlike the Ayrshire, the
West Highlander, and the Galloway,
AYRSHIRE CATTLE.
113
had never been differentiated from the
common herd, but had drifted on in ac-
cordance with casual circumstances) are
spoken of in the minute-book above re-
ferred to as black cattle, to distinguish
them from the Ayrshires proper.
Infusion of Strange Blood. — There
are instances on record towards the end
of the eighteenth century and the be-
ginning of the nineteenth of Shorthorn
blood having been introduced into the
Ayrshire strain. Dutch or Holstein blood
is said by some of the writers on agricul-
tural subjects about that time to have
been used too. But it would appear
that in both cases this new streamlet
soon became toned down and lost in
the general current. As regards the
Shorthorn breed, however, this may have
brought the change of colour which distin-
guishes the modern from the old Ayrshire.
Otherwise, the Ayrshire has little in com-
mon with the Shorthorn. And, luckily,
the Dutch or Holstein dash of blood has
not interfered with the established grace-
ful lines of the Scottish breed of dairy
cattle, however it may have helped to
improve their milking powers.
Useful Properties.
Milking Properties All-important.
— ^The regrettable custom of recent years
of judging Ayrshire cows solely on their
physical points, giving as much as 33 per
cent of total points for awell-turned udder,
without the slightest reference to the
most important matter of all in the why
and wherefore of the existence of the
cow, has begun to be understood by the
practical farmer, and he is looking around
for a remedy. This is not so easily found,
however, although the Highland and
Agricultural Society is peeking to give a
lead in this respect which is now being
accepted by the Herd -Book Society of
the breed.
Milk Eeeords. — In 1903 the High-
land and Agricultural Society began a
movement with the object of inducing
owners of dairy herds to keep careful
records of the quantity and quality of
milk given by each cow, it being recog-
nised by that Society that only by such
means can even the most experienced
man obtain reliable knowledge of the
milking qualities of his stock. The
National Society instituted local societies
VOL. III.
in several districts to conduct the keep-
ing of . records, and the work gained so
rapidly in favour with dairy farmers that
in 1908 the direction of the movement
was taken over by the Ayrshire Cattle
Herd-Book Society. In the year i9o>8
records were kept in thirteen centres,
embracing over 8000 cows.
Value of Milk Becords. — Although
the points of the Ayrshire cow are on the
lines clearly indicative of high milking
power, an animal may approach very
closely upon excellence, as defined by the
schedule, and yet be poor in contributing
to the milk-pail. But with the advent
of record - keeping there is less chance
of this state of matters occurring often.
The symmetrical cow is at any time of
more value than the comparatively un-
sightly one. When, however, in addi-
tion, the former can show a good record
that can be relied upon, her value is in-
creased considerably. And the same, of
course, applies to a cow less pleasant
to look upon. A good-service testimonial
of the kind will always make such a cow
easy to sell.
Care will, however, need to be taken
that the Ayrshire cow is not unduly
pressed in this connection. There is a
limit of her milk-yielding powers beyond
which it is unwise to seek to press
her if we wish to maintain her pres-
ent desirable stamina. There is room
and to spare in raising the average by
equalising (levelling up rather) as far
as we can the individuals of the herd.
It would not be wise to endeavour to
build up a herd of " freak " milkers
altogether; but the average will stand
considerable augmentation without ap-
proaching the "freak" stage.
Milk Yields. — In many Ayrshire
herds the annual average yield of milk
does not much exceed 550 gallons.
But gradually, as a result of selection
in breeding and greater liberality in
feeding, the yield is being increased, and
there are now a large number of herds
that substantially surpass 600 gallons
on an average. Individual cows often ,
yield from 750 to 1000 gallons, and in
the milk records conducted by the High-
land and Agricultural Society there are
several yields between 1000 and 1200
gallons. Ayrshire milk is of medium
quality.
114
AYRSHIRE CATTLE.
JBeef-Produotion. — Ayrshires are not
famed as beef-producers. Animals of
the breed have not the right kind of
frame for the accumulation of beef. Irre-
spective of this, however, individuals of
the breed seldom get the chance of show-
ing what they can do in this respect.
Generally speaking, only the bulls are
rounded off in body in readiness for the
butcher. The bulls have served their
turn earlier in life than the cows ; after
three years' service the best of them are
face to face with their own offspring, and
a change must be made. A well-fed bull
of the age this implies affords at the best
but third-rate beef. The younger repre-
sentatives are hardly so coarse. -As a
rule, moreover, the cast bulls are fed off
in a somewhat haphazard manner.
The cows are seldom specially prepared
for the butcher. They are kept pretty
scraggy as milk - suppliers, and ' when
they show signs of permanent failure
in this respect they are passed on for
slaughter as they stand. Youngish ones
may pass muster in a way in the
shambles; but the sinewy matrons can
hardly be otherwise disposed of than
in the mincing-machine. And when we
add that the calves over and above the
number required for stock purpose are
slaughtered almost as soon as dropped,
it will be allowed that the Ayrshire
breed of cattle does not directly contrib-
ute much to the meat -supply of the
country, and what it does contribute is,
on the whole, of a poor description.
The Ayrshire is in her sphere match-
less as a milk - supplier ; she may be
excused, therefore, in failing to do
much as a beef - producer. Now and
again it is suggested that the type so
admirable of its kind should be modified
so as to increase the bulk and square up
the frame of the Ayrshire, and in this
way get more beef on the carcase. It
is doubtful, however, if it would be
prudent to attempt much in this direc-
tion.
■Weights. — Cattle of the Ayrshire
Jareed attain moderate weights. For
cows, when full-grown and in good
milking condition, common live-weights
are 8 or 9 cwt., some exceeding 10 cwt.
Bulls run from iij^ to 14 cwt., fat bul-
locks about II to 12% cwt, and heifers
about I cwt. less.
MANAGEMENT OF AYESHIRE HEEDS.
The management of herds of Ayrshire
cattle varies not only with the character
of the districts in which they are kept,
but also according to the purposes for
which the milk of the cows is utilised.
In many herds the main object is the
selling of fresh milk in Glasgow and
other centres of consumption ; in others,
cheese-making is the mainstay; in others,
again, it is partly butter-making and
partly cheese-making ; while some dairy-
farmers engage to a certain extent in all
three methods. Obviously, the seasons
for calving, methods of feeding, and gen-
eral treatment must be varied to suit the
peculiarities of these different systems of
turning milk into hard cash.
Housing Cattle. — ^The general custom
is to tie up cows in houses throughout
the winter, taking them in when the
grass fails and the weather gets cold in
the autumn, and letting them out again
in the late spring when grass is avail-
able. In most cases the cows get out
for a time every day when the weather
permits. All through the grazing season
cows are usually kept on pasture.
Calving Season. — Where the main
object is the selling of fresh milk, the
great aird is to have calves dropped so
that the supply of milk may be as nearly
as possible equal in quantity throughout
the year. In cheese-making and butter-
making herds calves are mostly dropped
early in spring, so that the cows may
be in full milk throughout the grazing
season. 1
Feeding in Milk -selling Herds. —
In milk-selling herds the system of feed-
ing must be liberal, and costly feeding-
stuffs must be used to a considerable ex-
tent. In the grazing season the cows,
as a rule, go to the pasture fields daily,
and as additional food they may get
moist mixtures of distillers' grains and
meals. In summer the allowance of con-
centrated food varies from about 4 to
7 lb. each per day, the quantity varying
with the supply of grass, and is generally
increased as autumn approaches. In
many cases the cows get a small quantity
of freshly cut grass — about 20 to 25 lb
— per day during the summer, in addi-
tion to what they eat in the fields.
In winter the allowance of grains and
AYRSHIRE CATTLE.
"5
meals is substantially increased, in some
cases reaching about lo or 12 lb. of
grains and 6 or 8 lb. of meals per day.
The meals usually consist most largely of
the meal of beans, peas, or Indian corn,
but they vary according to market
prices. In addition, the cows get hay,
oat-straw, and turnips or cabbages, and
in some cases mangels in succession.
The quantities of these allowed varies
greatly in different herds, common allow-
ances being 8 to to lb. of hay, 5 to 7 lb.
of straw, and 25 to 35 lb. of roots.
In other cases in winter less is given
in the way of grains, and the daily quan-
tity of meals (including bruised oats) is
raised somewhat, probably to 10 or 12 lb.
per head. Bran is also used, and so is
treacle, the latter at the rate of,i or
1% lb. per day.
On a good many farms the practice of
giving turnips or other roots to dairy
cows has been abandoned. In these
cases quite the maximum quantities of
concentrated foods mentioned are given.
As would be expected, these systems
of feeding pursued on milk-selling farms
entail heavy outlays. For the full year's
keep the cost per cow cannot be much
under ;^ir to £12. For the winter
months it may cost about is. per day.
Feeding in Cheese- and Butter-
making Herds. — In herds where the
main objects are the making of cheese
and butter the cows can usually be kept
through the winter at less expense than
in milk-selling herds. In the former
herds most of the cows are wholly or par-
tially dry in part of the winter season,
and in that condition they are fed quite
sparingly. If giving milk in winter, these
cows are fed similarly to those in milk-
selHng herds, the daily allowance of con-
centrated food being perhaps rather
smaller.
In the grazing season cows in cheese-
and butter-making herds often get little
in the way of extra food unless grass is
deficient, but as autumn advances con-
centrated food is given in gradually in-
creasing quantities, beginning with per-
haps not more than i lb. per day.
Stewartry Customs. — In the counties
of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown, where
large quantities of turnips are grown, and
where cheese-making is the main object
-with dairy farmers, the system of feed-
ing pursued has its own peculiarities.
There turnips enter largely into the diet-
ary of the cows. Indeed it is in many
cases calculated that there ought to be
from 5 to 7 tons of turnips available for
every cow in the herd.
In the early part of the winter season
the cows in these Stewartry cheese-
making herds get little or nothing but
turnips and straw. In spring, after
calving, the cows get a mixture of dried
grains and cotton -seed meal or some
other meal, at the rate of from 4 to
6 lb. per day. This mixture is most
likely made into a sloppy condition by
hot water, and it is given to the cows
in a warm state. Oat-straw is given in
moderate quantity — about 12 to 16 lb.
— also turnips at the rate of from 50 to
80 lb. per day. In summer in these
herds cows generally live entirely on
pasture. The cost of keeping a cow for
a year in cheese - making herds is esti-
mated at from ;£?> to about ^10, los.
Calves. — A large proportion of Ayr-
shire calves are sold soon after birth to
be consumed as veal. Those that are
reared usually get fresh whole-milk for
a few weeks, skimmed -milk or butter- -
milk being gradually substituted. When
the calves are about 8 to 10 weeks old
gruel made of oatmeal and linseed is
added to the milk, and they are taught
to eat broken linseed or other cake. If
still in the house, the calves get a little
hay, and when the grass is ready and
the weather favourable they go to the
pastures.
Heifers. — During the grazing season
heifers are kept entirely on pasture. In
winter, in the colder parte, they are
housed most of the time, getting turnips
and straw, or instead of roots hay, and
a small allowance — not over 2 lb. per
day — of such foods as meals, cake, and
bruised oats.
Boiled Food. — The practice of giving
boiled food to cows was at one time
largely followed in Ayrshire herds, but
it has lost favour in most parts. The
more general custom is to have the con-
centrated foods scaled with hot water,
and fed when slightly warm.
The " Bovsring " System. — Under
what is known as the "Bowing" system
the farmer lets his cows to a " Bower "
at a rent of from about _;^i2 to _;^i5
ii6
HIGHLAND CATTLE.
a-year per cow, the farmer replacing any
cow whose yield of milk falls below a
standard agreed upon. The farmer pro-
vides house accommodation and all food
for the cows, certain quantities of meals,
&c., being stipulated for. The " Bower "
milks the cows, and disposes of the milk
to his own advantage. It is mainly
Ayrshire cows that are ^pt under this
system.
A characteristic cow of the Ayrshire
breed is represented in Plate 42.
HIGHLAND CATTLE.
This singularly handsome breed of
cattle, often spoken of as the "Kyloe,"
has its headquarters in the Western Is-
lands of Scotland and on the high-lying
grazing farms of the counties of Argyll,
Perth, and Inverness. Amongst all the
varieties of British cattle there is none
more striking in appearance than the
typical Highlander. It is quite as hand-
some in form as the most improved
Shorthorn, is almost as large in size, and
with its long shaggy coat of hair, wide-
spreading, gracefully-turned horns, hardy
muscular appearance, and defiant gait,
throws all other varieties of cattle into
the shade in picturesque beauty.
Origin. — -The prevailing opinion as to
the origin of Highland cattle is that
they are descended, and that in a direct
line, from the ancient native cattle of
the districts still regarded as the home
of the breed. Indeed it is generally
considered that the wild white cattle of
Chillingham, the wUd cattle of Hamilton
Park, the useful little Kerry of Ireland,
and the Highland cattle of Scotland, are
the purest representatives that we now
have of the ancient cattle of the British
Isles.
In the early days of the breed — and
to this is no doubt due the fact that
many people still put West before their
name — there appears to have been two
classes of Highland cattle. There was
the West Highlander, which was largely
an Island race, and the ordinary High-
lander, which was more a mainland
breed. The latter being kept, as a rule,
on better fare than the Island cattle, were
usually bigger in frame, although the
Island cattle had the advantage in the
matter of hair. But although there was
this distinction at one time, it has long
since disappeared. So far as both the
name and general position of the breed
are concerned. Highland cattle have for
many years been Highland cattle wher-
ever they have been bred. The breed
society is called the Highland Cattle
Society, and all cattle coming within
its purview are judged by one standard
of points.
The term "Kyloe," as applied to the
breed, is believed by many to be simply
an adaptation , of the word kyloes or
ferries which separate the Western Isles
from the mainland of Scotland. This
fits in with the theory that the name
was first applied to Island cattle. On
the other hand, some maintain that the
name is a corruption of the Gaelic word
which signifies ."Highland," and if this
be its proper derivation the term would,
of course, lose significance.
Ghajracteristics.
The outstanding characteristics of
_^Highland cattle are their wonderful
'hardiness and their ability to adapt
themselves to varying conditions. Mr
Andrew S. Grant, to whom we are in-
debted for information ^on this and
other breeds, states that Highland cattle
can live and do well in altitudes and
climatic conditions in which few other
varieties of cattle would survive. Taken,
on the other hand, to the richer pastures
of the low grounds, they will yield almost
as good a return for their keep as any
other class of stock. Nothing sells better
than a well-fleshed steer of the Highland
breed, and for many years they have been
in excellent demand for stocking gentle-
men's parks and purposes of that sort.
Coat and Colour. — Owing to the
comparatively hard conditions under
which they have to exist in their
native districts, a first essential in a
HIGHLAND CATTLE.
117
Highlander is a good thick although
soft skin, and a good coat of hair. Hair
is of importance, not only for keeping the
animal warm but for throwing off moist-
ure, of which it is hardjy necessary to
say the Western Highlands have always
a full share. The coat, as in the case
of a Blackface sheep, should be of the
jacket and vest order — that is, there
should be long but not too dense outer-
growth and a short close covering next
the skin. The outer hair should always
be of fair strength, but free from harsh-
ness and dryness. The colour of the coat
is not of so much importance, although,
as a rule, it is easier to get the strength
of hair required in a dark-coloured animal
than in a very light- coloured one. In
the early days of the breed wholly black
animals were much run upon as being
believed to be hardiest. Indeed, there
is a tradition that almost the whole of
the Island cattle were originally black,
and that the lighter-coloured sorts came
for most part from the mainland, and
Perthshire in particular. Even yet, not-
withstanding a slight tendency to harsh-
ness of hair on the part of many of them,
some people still have a favour for blacks,
although the majority of the cattle that
one sees nowadays are either brindled,
red, yellow, or dun. Very light yellows
are rather apt to be associated with soft
woolly hair; but apart from that no
objection can be taken to them, as they
frequently make good feeders and the
cows capital milkers. In the case of
bullocks, red is possibly the most popular
colour, while as to bulls there seems to
be a preference for brindles, with here
and there a few reds and occasionally
yellows.
Points of the Breed.
It cannot be said that the points of
Highland cattle, apart from hair and
horns, differ greatly from those of most
other beef -breeds. The back should
be straight and wide and the quarters
weL carried down to the hock. This
latter is, and always has been, a point
of great importance with Highlanders.
It is believed to have been their fine
quarters, combined with their excellent
coats of hair, that first attracted the
attention of the late Mr Thomas Bates
to them as a possible source of improv-
ing material when he was building up
his noted strains of Shorthorns. In
late years some people have seen a tend-
ency to neglect length and depth of
quarter in favour of some other points,
although it can be said with truth that
good quarters are still a strong feature
of the Highland breed.
The legs, both before and behind,
should be short and strong, the bones
strong, broad, and straight, the hoofs
well set in and large, and the legs well
feathered with hair. The importance of
a good hoof, especially in a bull, should
be emphasised ; many people will not
buy an animal that is not well equipped
in this respect, as they hold that it is
one of the surest indications of stamina
and constitution. The hind legs should
be hooked a little rather than straight
up and down. The underline should be
as straight with the back as possible,
and both this and the thighs should be
well covered with hair.
In olden days Highland breeders liked
their cows to be wide between the hook-
bones. This is stiU a sign of a good,
robust animal, although it should not
be overdone, extra wide hooks being
frequently associated with bareness over
the loins. The head should be short and
broad in front rather than narrow, the
brow being covered with a long fringe
of hair hanging over the eyes and with-
out curls in it. The eyes should be
prominent and clear — even to the extent
of having a slight "staring" appearance
when the animal is at attention.
In both the bull and the cow the horns
are important, not only as enhancing the
appearance of the animal but as an indica-
tion of breeding and constitution. They
should be wide apart at the roots and
show mellowness and "sap" to the
points. A clear, hard, " shiny " horn is
apt to be associated with slow-feeding
qualities. Black -tipped horns are not
liked except in black and dun animals.
In the case of a brindle it is always a
recommendation to have a waxy-yellow
tinge right out to the end of the horns.
As to the carriage of the horns, they should
in the case of the bull come level out of
the head, slightly inclining forwards, and
also slightly rising towards the points.
Some do not care for this rise, though
any drooping is considered to be a very
Ii8
HIGHLAND CATTLE.
bad fault when between the crown and
the commencement of the curve. On
, the other hand, when the hornB rise
directly from the crown they detract
from the appearance of the animal.
Two styles of horns are commonly
seen in cows. In the first case they
come squarer out from the head than
in the male, rise sooner, and are some-
what longer, though they preserve their
substance and reddish-yellow appearance
to the very tips. The other taste is for
horns coming more level from the head,
with a peculiar back-set curve and very
wide sweep. A large number of breeders
prefer the latter style, which gives pos-
sibly the more graceful appearance.
An old fault in Highlanders is a tend-
ency, to flatness on the fore rib. The
ribs should spring well out from the back-
bone, and should not only be rounded
but deep. In the bull the neck should
be of fair length and nicely arched, with a
fringe of long hair hanging from the top.
Finally, the animal should be wide-set
between the fore legs, and should move
with great dignity and style, the move-
ment of a Highlander being of great im-
portance as an index of true and careful
breeding.
Early Im/provetneiht.
Although the Highland breed never
had its Bakewell or its Watson or
M'Combie, it still had its own crop of
distinguished early improvers. Amongst
the earliest that are known to history
were the Macneils of Barra and the Mac-
donalds of Balranald, families that are
known to have had large folds ^ in the
Long Island from tipae immemorial.
Although the former fold was dispersed
when the last Macneil sold his property,
the produce of many of his cattle were,
up to a cpmpwatively recent date, to be
found in the Long Island. The Balran-
'ald fold is still as extensive as ever, and
has had a widespread influence for good,
especially in the Islands.
Other great early improvers were the
brothers Donald and Archibald Stewart,
who went from Grarth, in Perthshire,
' Berda of Highlwnd oattle are apohen and
written of as "folds," the word "fold" being
a legacy from the far bygone days of cattle-
lifting, when, for protection, cattle had to he
folded at night.
about the beginning of last century, to
the farm of Luskentyre, in Harris. These
gentlemen started a fold which, from the
care bestowed upon it, and the skilful
selection of bulls from the leading folds
in Perthshire, soon became known as
one of the most famous in Scotland.
Mr Donald Stewart was the father of
the late Mr John Stewart of Ensay, and
through that distinguished breeder, in
the later years of the century, the cattle
became even better known at the High-
land Society and other shows, Mr Stewart
being almost invincible, especially with
bulls.
On the mainland, the Duke of Suther-
land in the extreme north, the Earl of
Seafield in the county of Moray, the
brothers Stewart of Auch, Cashlie and
Chesthill in Argyll and Perth, and the
Marquis of Breadalbane likewise in the
latter county, also rendered great service
to the breed. Indeed, the Taymouth
sale of the Marquis of Breadalbane is
one of the landmarks in Highland cattle
history. It was held in 1863 and ex-
cited extraordinary interest. One of
the bulls sold — viz., "DonuU Euadh,"
a two-year-old — ^made jQii(>. Cows sold
up to iQsT ; three-year-old heifers to
£12^ ; two-year-old heifers to ^^i ;
yearling heifers to £,^() ; and three- and
four-year-old bullocks to ^^43. These,
of course, were remarkable prices for
the time, and they held the record for
Highland cattle up to the dispersion of
the Earl of Southesk's Kinnaird fold in
1905, when 78 head of breeding animals
made the splendid average (for High-
land cattle) of ;£,^9>, 12s.
Several of the finest of the Taymouth
cattle of 1863 were bought by the Duke
of AthoU, and they became the founders
of the famous Atholl fold, which has
produced so many noted animals in late
years. Other breeders, in addition to
the Duke of Atholl and the Earl of
Southesk, /who have rendered special
service to the Highland cattle cause in
recent years, have been the late Mr
Smith of Ardtornish ; the late Lord
Malcolm of Poltalloch ; Sir Wm. Ogilvy
Dalgleish, Bart. ; Mr Turner of Kil-,
chamaig ; the Countess Dowager of
Seafield ; and the brothers, Mr Duncan
M'Diarmid, Camusericht, and Mr Eobert
M'Diarmid, Castles, Loch Awe.
HIGHLAND CATTLE.
119
Size and Early Maturity.
A much debated question of late years
has been whether Highland cattle have
been kept up to the size that they used
to display in the old days of the Tay-
mouth fold. A good many people hold
that they have not, although it would
not be diflScult to show that they have
been improved in other respects, notably
in the quality of their hair and in their
ability to fatten quickly. In the olden
days steers were not considered ripe
until they had reached four or five years
old. Now three years old is the most
common age at which to fatten them oflF,
while many are made fit for the butcher
at two and a half years old.
The cattle have also been greatly im-
proved in their flesh-carrying capacity.
At Smithfield Show in 1907 the younger
steers averaged 12 cwt. 62 lb. live- weight
at practically thirty -two months old,
while the older steers averaged 16 cwt.
20 lb. at forty-four months old, individual
specimens of course scaling considerably
more. These are weights that could
never have been attained at the age in
the olden days. All the same, it has been
becoming increasingly difficult of late
years for the Highlander to hold his
own, in face of the difficulty of pajdng
rent, and the advance of the more quickly
maturing breeds into various of the
straths and glens once occupied almost
exclusively by Highland cattle.
Per Crossing Purposes. — Cattle of
the Highland breed are well adapted for
crossing with other races. They in par-
ticular produce excellent results when
crossed with Shorthorns. The most
general practice is to mate the Shorthorn
male with the Highland female. The
resulting crosses are usually animals of
handsome proportions and excellent beef-
producers.
Temper of Cattle. — Notwithstanding
the rather ferocious-like appearance which
Highland cattle sometimes present, they
are not naturally vicious or evil-disposed.
Indeed, the majority of Highland bulls
are as easily managed as the bulls of any
other breed. A Highland cow will cer-
tainly defend her young with vigour, but
left to herself she is usually much more
docile than her appearance would war-
rant. The general good character of
Highland cattle in this respect is be-
lieved to be due to the weeding out
of ill-tempered animals, which had of
necessity to be done in the old days
when there were few marches and fewer
fences, and when it was dangerous to
the owner's pocket, if not'to his person,
to have a doubtful animal roaming about.
When high-strung cows or bulls are met
with they should not be bred from, the
former being very apt to become trouble-
some at calving-times. For the same
reason it is always well to know that the
buU in use is of as placid and evenly-
tempered a disposition as possible.
Herd-Booh Society.
A Herd-Book Society in connection
with the breed has been in existence
since 1884. The Society has been very
successful, and has published some four-
teen volumes of the Highland Herd^
Boole, the last one bringing the pedigrees
of bulls up to 2217, and of females up to
7142. In addition to keeping the pedi-
grees of the animals the Society holds a
sale of pedigree animals twice a-year at
Oban — that for bulls taking place to-
wards the end of February, and for cows
and heifers in October.
The Breed Abroad. — In recent years
Highland cattle have been exported to
both North and South America, as well
as to New Zealand and one or two other
countries. But so far the outside demand
has not been so great as the decided merit
and adaptability of the cattle for special
situations would, have led one to expect.
MANAGEMENT OF THE BBEED.
The management of the Highlander
is simplicity itself compared with what it
is in the case of some other breeds of
cattle. Even on the mainland many
Highland cattle go out practically all
the year round, having only a shed or
suchlike protection in winter. On the
islands it is not even customary, unless
in the case of specially valuable animals,
to take in cows at calving-time. This is
done, as a rule, on the mainland, and the
custom is quite a good one, for in addi-
tion to the saving of casualties at this
important period, the housing of cows at
calving-time enables both cows and calves
to be hanilled more or less. ' Calves
I20
HIGHLAND CATTLE.
treated in this way are not so apt to be-
come wild or untractable as those born
and reared wholly in the open.
As to feeding in winter, a few turnips
and a little straw or hay are about the
most that the average stock requires.
Even in the ease of housed cattle this is
usually found sufficient, although a little
cake or corn can, as a rule, be fed with
profit where it is desired to bring the
animals specially well forward for spring.
Newly weaned calves must be kept on
good fresh pastures so as not to let them
lose their first flesh.
It is a good plan to hand-strip the
cows after the calves are taken from
them. Many breeders do this regularly,
and believe that cows so treated do
better in the following year. Although
exceptional Highland cows will rear two
calves at a time, the general plan is to
have only one calf suckling a cow. Con-
sidering the rough pasture on which
many of them exist, they pay their way
well enough when they rear one calf per
season and do it well.
Young stock, after the weaning stage
has been got over, usually give little or
no trouble, and with a little hay or straw
and a few turnips on the pasture in
winter will make a wonderful existence.
It is, however, a mistake to suppose
that Highland cattle will exist on iiext
to nothing. They will certainly live on
poor fare compared with most other
breeds, but starvation can only have one
result.
In most regular folds the surplus
young stock are sold in lols at the
Oban, Inverness, Stirling, Perth, or other
markets in the back end, usually Octo-
ber. In 1908, at Oban, three-year-old
bullQcks were making up to ;£\'], los.
per head, two-year-old bullocks to ^^14,
15s., and stirks to £12, one specially
fine lot selling at ;^iS, los. per head.
Tlie Atholl Fold.
The following notes, kindly supplied,
in regard to management in the Atholl
fold, will be of interest : —
The fold of Highland cattle kept by
the Duke of Atholl at Blair Castle is
limited in number. The cows, of which
there are not at any time more than
fifteen, begin calving about ist January.
The calf is left with the cow for about
twenty-four hours, when it is placed in a
loose-box at the end of the byre, and
thereafter let with the cow only twice
daily — morning and evening. As soon
as the calf is able to eat it gets turnips
and meadow-hay.
The cows are all kept in their natural
condition, and are not taken to shelter
until within about three weeks of calv-
ing, unless during severe storms, when
they get oat-straw. They get nothing
but what they are able to gather when
on rough pasture.
The erection they are housed in when
near calving is in the form of loose-boxes
with outside pens or runs. The loose-
boxes are each 10 by 8 feet, and the out-
side runs 25 by 8 feet. There they are
fed twice daily on turnips and meadow-
hay, with a plentiful supply of water.
In spring, when turned out on low-
lying pasture the cows and calves get
together, and there they are allowed to
remain until the hill-pasture, which is a
month later, is able to support them.
They are sent to the hill (part of the
Atholl Forest) about ist June, depend-
ing upon the season, and are left there
until the middle of October, when the
calves are weaned.
Heifers drop their first calf at fou»
years old. The young stock are never
housed. They are fed once a -day on
meadow-hay and turnips, getting the hay
in haiks in an open shed or shelter, the
turnips spread on the pasture. In winter
the newly -weaned calves are kept by
themselves, and the two- and three-year-
olds in other enclosures, getting the
same feeding as the younger animals.
All the spare stock are sold in autumn.
Castle-Grant Fold.
Owing to the very severe winters in
Strathspey the cattle in the fold kept
by the Dowager Countess of Seafield at
Castle - Grant, Grantown - on - Spey, are
housed from the last week of November
till the first week of April. The cows
are tied two in a stall and do not get
out during the day. The young cattle
are all out together every day from day-
light till dark, and are housed at night
in loose-folds according to age and size.
All are fed on turnips and oat - straw
only, the cows getting one feed per day
of bruised oats from the time of calving
WELSH BLACK CATTLE.
121
till they go out in April. When they go
out they get turnips and ensilage till
they have grass, which usually keeps
them by the second or third week of May.
Summer feeding consists of permanent
grass, at 750 feet above sea-level.
The bull runs with the cows and
heifers at ist of April when they go out.
Heifers are served at three years old.
The feed of bruised oats has been found
to bring the cows earlier to the bull, as
they are in better heart when put out.
The early calves are suckled till the end
of August; the late ones, a month or
two longer.
The bull-calves when taken 'from the
dams are housed in separate boxes with
open pens in front, and they get a run to
grass (separately) for several hours every
day till sold.
For the summer shows only the cow
or cows to be exhibited get cake. The
heifers get nothing but the grass. For
the fat shows the steers are housed all
the winter and summer previous to the
show, and are sold rising three years old.
A heifer or two, usually the worst of the
age (three years old), are kept from the
bull and fed also.
The home farm at Castle -Grant is
worked as an ordinary arable farm, the
housing of all cattle for four months and
the feeding of steers and heifers provid-
ing a large supply of manure. Sheep
are grazed and fed on the rotation pas-
ture, and the cattle grazed on the per-
manent pasture.
Plate 40 represents a handsome High-
land bull, and Plate 41 an equally typical
cow of the breed.
WELSH BLACK CATTLE.
Welsh Black cattle as they exist to-
day have perhaps departed as little from
the original type as any of our British
breeds. During the early part of last
century there were several distinct varie-
ties, all of which appear to have had a
common origin. Most of these have now
practically disappeared, having been re-
placed by other breeds from across the
English border. For example, the old
Glamorgan breed, which was at one time
much esteemed both for the production
of beef and milk, is now almost extinct,
and the White Pembrokes exist in such
small numbers as to be negligible.
Historical.
Of these old varieties the Castle
Martins, or Pembrokes, and the Angle-
sey breed are the only ones which re-
main. For the last century or more
these have been described by all writers
as similar in character, and there can be
no doubt that they, at any rate, sprung
from the .same stock. Such differences
as do exist, or have existed, are mainly
due to environment, and are not greater
than are to be found in Shorthorns bred
and reared under varying conditions.
In describing the Castle Martins
Youatt said : " Great Britain does not
afford a more useful animal. . . . They
combine to a considerable degree, and as
far perhaps as they can be combined, the
two opposite qualities of being very fair
milkers with a propensity to fatten. The
meat is generally beautifully marbled.
It is equal to that of the Scotch cattle,
and some epicures prefer it. They thrive
in every situation. They will live where
others starve, and they will rapidly out-
strip most others when they have plenty
of good pasture. . . . Great numbers of
them are brought to the London market.
They stand their journey well and find a
ready sale, for they rarely disappoint the
butcher, but, on the contrary, prove
better than appearance and touch in-
dicate." Further, Youatt said that
Castle Martin cattle were essentially
the same as those of North Wales, but
finer in the neck, head, and breast than
the Anglesey beasts.
For a good many years the North
and South Wales breeders had each
their own herd-books, but in 1904 the
two Societies amalgamated, so that now
the Welsh Black Cattle Society repre-
sents the interests of all breeders of
Welsh cattle.
122
WELSH BLACK CATTLE.
Characteristics.
In appearance Welsh have a greater
resemblance to the Sussex than to any
of the other English breeds of cattle.
The only recognised colour is black, but
a little white on the udder or scrotum
is not objected to. The horns, which
are of a creamy colour with dark tips,
are long, and are bent slightly forward in
the males, in the females they usuaEy
incline forward and upward. There are
frequent complaints that the high-pitched
horn, so characteristic of the breed, is
giving place to a shorter horn, which in
many cases would seem to indicate doubt-
ful parentage. As a rule, the cattle are
short in the leg, with long bodies, are
occasionally inclined to be rough on the
shoulders, and are not always straight in
the top line. They are deep in the ribs,
which are better sprung than formerly.
They are not so wide across the hips as
the Shorthorn, and are more rounded in
the hind quarters. The skin should be
of moderate thickness, as experience has
shown that animals with thin skins are
not hardy .enough to withstand the
varying conditions of climate which are
experienced in many parts of Wales.
In the best Welsh herds most of the
cattle have lost the high-set tails which
were universal a generation ago. They
are also stronger at the heart girth,
and, generally speaking, are more reg-
ular in outline than prior to about
1880.
Hardiness. — One of the main char-
acteristics of the breed is its hardiness.
In this respect they are equal to the
Highland (Scotch). They will live under
conditions in which most of our breeds
could not exist. In the lowland districts
many cattle are wintered out and receive
no food except the grass they pull, unless
the ground be covered with snow, when
they usually get a little hay. In the
mountain districts the shelter provided
is not usually of the best, and as the
stock of hay, which is always poor in
quality, is limited, it is only given to the
cattle when the weather is very severe.
The hardy character of the breed has
always been recognised by the large
graziers in the Midland counties of Eng-
land, 'who buy the best of the store
cattle, which, though forward in condi-
tion, will live out even in March and
continue to improve.
Bate of Maturity and Weiglits. —
Welsh cattle have been subjected to
criticism on the ground that they are
slow feeders. This is certainly true of
some of the cattle which have been
reared so hard as to become stunted in
their growth, but that it is true of Welsh
cattle as a whole there is no evidence to
show. The contrary, indeed, can easily
be proved. The Live Stock Journal pub-
lishes annually particulars of a large
number of the cattle exhibited at the
Smithfield Show and afterwards slaught-
ered. Thfe following figures for the years
1900 to 1905 relating to cattle under
two years old, indicate the position
which Welsh occupy with regard to
other breeds : —
No of
Average
Average
Breed.
Entries.
age
(days).
daily gain
(lb.)
Aberdeen-Angus . 37
678
2.12
Devon .
• 33
679
1. 81
Galloway-
• 25
663
1.65
Hereford
• 30
672
2.14
R«d Poll
. 20
644
1.87
Shorthorn
• 33
677
2.17
Welsh .
• 35
70s
2.08
From these figures it would appear
that Welsh cattle are little, if at all, be-
hind the Aberdeen-Angus, Hereford, and
Shorthorn, when considered from the
standpoint of early maturity.
Grazing Properties. — The figures
quoted above refer solely to stall-fed
animals, but it is as grazing stock that
the Welsh show to greatest advantage.
They are for the most part in the hands
of small fanners, who have, unfortun-
ately, in order to secure a little more
money, been induced to sell to English
graziers many of their best animals, with
the result that many inferior animals
have been kept at home for breeding.
Quality of Beef. — As producers of
beef of high quality the Welsh occupy a
position very near to that of the Aber-
deen-Angus. They furnish beef in which
the fat and lean are well mixed, and
which generally is of that marbled char-
acter so much sought after by those who
can afibrd to pay the best prices. The
carcase competitions at the Smithfield
Show provide a remarkable testimonial
to its quality. During the five years
1 90 1 to 1906 Welsh Black cattle won in
WELSH BLACK CATTLE.
123
these classes, in addition to minor prizes,
6 first prizes and i Championship prize.
They are looked upon by Scottish
breeders, who have always been suc-
cessful exhibitors in these classes, as
their greatest rivals. As they also yield
a high proportion of carcase to live-
weight, they are always regarded with
favour by butchers. This is nowhere
more evident than at the Smithfield
Show, where all the Welsh cattle are
invariably sold on th'e first day of the
show.
Milking Properties.! — Although
chiefly known outside Wales as beef-
producers, Welsh cattle are able to hold
their own as dairy stock. It is open to
question if the returns in the form of
dairy produce obtained from Welsh cows
by the small holders of Wales are ex-
celled in any part of Great Britain.
Dairy records are almost unknown in
the country, and the only figures at hand
relate to the Madryn herd of 30 cows,
the property of the University College
of North Wales, which are not above the
average as dairy cattle. In this herd the
milk and butter sold from each cow have,
during the five years 1903-8, produced
on the average from jQti to £,20 per
year. In addition to this, all the cows
have, with one or two exceptions, reared
their own calves.
As may be inferred, the conditions
under which the produce is disposed of
are not unfavourable, but any advantage
in this respect is possibly more than out-
weighed by the fact that many of the
cows are essentially beef-producers and
do not give much milk. While it cannot
perhaps be said that, taken all round,
Welsh are equal to Shorthorns as dairy
cattle, it is no doubt true that on many
Welsh farms the milk yield from the
dairy cows averages from 500 to 600
gallons a-year.
On stock-raising farms two, and fre-
quently three, calves are reared for every
cow kept. The returns of the Board of
Agriculture show that in no part of the
country are there more cattle on a similar
area than in the county of Anglesey,
where from forty to fifty young cattle
may often be found on the farm on
which they have been reared, and where
not more than six or seven cows are
kept.
Need for Pioneer Improvers.
It is evident from what has been said
that Welsh cattle appear to have retained
the characteristics for which they have
long been famous. No less an authority
than Bakewell thought that, next to the
breed with which he commenced his
operations, the Welsh approached his
ideal more nearly than any other. It is
perhaps surprising that a breed which
occupied such a prominent position in
Bakewell's time should have made so
little progress. It must be remembered,
however, that they have known no im-,
provers in the ordinary sense of the term,
and would have been unable to hold their
ground but for the good qualities which
are inherent in the breed. A more active
policy must be pursued if the breed is to
keep its place in the front rank, not to
speak of extending its boundaries both
at home and abroad.
Where Improvement is Required.
In these days no breed can hope for
wide popularity if it is lacking in sym-
metry, and in this respect, says Professor
Winter, Welsh cattle are apt to be want-
ing. They are also frequently rough in
the shoulders and flat on the ribs, while
in many of them there is more than a
tendency to bareness on the rumps.
If Welsh breeders can improve their
cattle in these particulars without mate-
rially changing the character of the breed,
they will accomplish work which cannot
fail to be of service to the country, and
which, at the same time, is certain to
bring profit to themselves. They must
see to it, however, that the breed main-
tains its hardy character, and continues
to produce beef of the quality which is
now so much prized. Further, it is
absolutely essential in the districts in
which Black cattle are found that the
cows should be at least fair milkers.
More Enterprise Esquired. — It is
feared that these improvements vtdll
take long to accomplish unless more en-
terprise is shown. In purchasing bulls
farmers must set up a high standard, and
make up their minds that they will not
be satisfied with anything which falls
short of it. It may be urged that a
small farmer cannot afibrd to pay much
for a bull to serve half a dozen cows.
124
WELSH BLACK CATTLE.
This must be admitted, but where a
number of farmers join together the
difficulty disappears.
There are many circumstances which
seem to indicate that there is a great
future in store for Welsh cattle, and
that those who register their cattle in
the volumes of the Welsh Black Cattle
Society and continue to breed on sys-
tematic lines will have no cause to regret
their action.
Bisk in Introducing Out-crosses.
— It has been urged that, in order to
secure well -sprung ribs and highly de-
veloped hind quarters, resort should be
had to a Galloway or even a Highland
cross. Such a course is open to the
gravest objections, and there is reason
to expect that its adoption would be
more likely to produce deterioration than
improvement. The crosses suggested
would most probably produce good ani-
mals in the 'ijst generation, but there
would be a great likelihood that for
many years afterwards the country would
be flooded with mongrels. There are
no worse cattle in the whole of Wales
than in the regions which lie between
the Welsh Black cattle areas and the
districts which are monopolised by the
English breeds. These cattle are the
results of indiscriminate crossing and
changing over a long series of years.
Selection Preferable to Crossing. —
A good breed is never formed by casual
crossing, but by long perseverance in
breeding from similar animals until a
uniform class of characters is acquired
and rendered permanent. For this reason
it is generally better to adopt a good
breed already formed than to atternpt
to produce a new one by a mixture of
the blood of dissimilar animals. W« are
confident that by careful selection and
the exercise of good judgment the de-
fects which now exist in Welsh cattle
can be bred out. The late Mr William
Housman, in his report on cattle ex-
hibited at the Koyal Show, Windsor,
said : " Welsh cattle have unquestionably
vast capabilities of both milk and beef
production, and their rude health is
an important recommendation. Where
hardy, active cattle are required — cattle
which can live roughly, yet answer to
keep and care, grow beef of the first
quality and, under favouring conditions,
great in quantity — the Welsh breed
should claim a trial, and they would
doubtless prove ready to adapt them-
selves to districts and countries to which
hitherto they have been strangers."
A Higli Standard to be Aimed at.
— -In order to realise these vast capabil-
ities breeders of Welsh stock must take
a wider view of the situation than they
have done in the past, and be satisfied
with nothing but the best for breeding
purposes. At the present time nearly
all the bull-calves in many of the leading
herds in Wales are steered, as breeders
find that good young .steers are worth as
much money as, and can be reared at
much less cost than, young bulls. There
can be little doubt, however, that as
the demand for good stock increases
the breeders of pedigree cattle will be
prepared to meet it by supplying in
increasing numbers such animals as may
be required.
MANAGEMENT OP WELSH CATTLE.
In a country in which the climatic
conditions are so varied the systems of
management must necessarily difier
widely. The following particulars re-
lating to the herd of the University
College of North Wales indicate broadly
the methods pursued in the management
of most of the herds on the best lowland
farms. The College herd in point of
numbers is one of the largest in the
principality. It is kept at the College
farm, Madryn, near Bangor, and consists
of about thirty cowsiand their offspring.
Calf- rearing. — All the calves are
reared ; a few of the males are kept for
buUs, but the majority are castrated.
Those that are intended for show pur-
poses suckle their dams, the rest are fed
on new milk for about three weeks, after
which separated milk and boiled linseed
are gradually substituted, until at five or
six weeks old the new milk has been en-
tirely replaced. All calves, except those
on their dams, are fed from the bucket
until they are at least four months old.
The feed usually consists of separated
milk and boiled linseed; but oatmeal
and, to a certain extent, wheat-flour are
also used.
As soon as the calves will eat they are
given small quantities of crushed oats
KERRY AND DEXTER CATTLE.
125
and linseed-cake, with a little sweet hay,
and during the autumn and winter a few
sliced swedes. The quantities of these
are gradually increased, so that by the
time the calf is six months old it is
receiving from a pound to a pound and
a half of concentrated food per day. All
calves six months old or over are turned
out to grass about the middle of May.
The concentrated food is continued for a
time, but if grass is plentiful no concen-
trated food is given after the first fort-
night. Shelters from the heat are always
provided where possible.
About the middle of August the calves
are brought in in the evenings, but con-
tinue to run out during the day until
the end of October, and often through-
out the winter when the weather is
favourable. From October onward they
are given hay and a small quantity of
crushed oats and linseed - cake, and as
soon as the grass begins to fail, pulped
roots and chaflfed hay and straw in
addition, the quantities of prepared
foods being gradually increased as the
winter advances.
Young Stock. — During their second
summer the young stock get nothing
except what they pull from the pastures.
If the weather is favourable and there
is plenty of grass, they are kept out
until December, when they are brought
in at nights and given a feed of pulped
roots and chaffed hay and straw night
and morning, with long straw in their
racks.
Fattening Stock. — The bullocks are
fed off for the butcher at from two to
two and a half years old.
Breeding Stock. — Heifers are put to
the bull so as to calve at from two and a
half to three years old.
The cows run out all the year round,
but are housed at nights from November
to April During the winter they receive
a moderate supply of roots and long hay.
Those in milk get, on the average, about
4 lb. of concentrated food (the bulk of
which is cotton-cake) daily throughout
the year. Some of the milk is sold, and
the rest is made into butter.
A portrait of a Welsh cow is given
in Plate 43.
KEERY AND DEXTER CATTLE.
Of the different native varieties of
cattle that have from time to time been
reared in Ireland, the Kerry and its sub-
variety the Dexter-Kerry alone remain.
The Kerry and the Dexter -Kerry are
now, by most people, looked upon as
practically separate breeds; but there
are those who still think it more accu-
rate and preferable to regard the Dexter
as a sub -variety of the Kerry. Both
varieties have earned good names for
themselves in England as well as in
their native country.
Origin of the Kerry.
It is generally acknowledged that no-
where in the British Isles is there a purer
representation of the smaller varieties of
the aboriginal cattle of Northern Europe
than is provided in the Kerry cattle of
Ireland. They are the smallest of the
many varieties of British cattle, and
none possess more distinctive features
or more certain marks of purity of de-
scent. Their individuality is indeed very
striking, and although small in size and
slow in maturing, they are most useful
cattle in their own proper sphere.
Headquarters. — The breed has its
headquarters in the bleak steep hills of
county Kerry, where it has had to sub-
sist upon scanty fare, exposed to wind
and rain, with little artificial shelter or
attention of any kind. This untoward
treatment has of course told its inevit-
able tale. It has cramped the stature
of the cattle, and made them slow in
maturing ; but it has also endowed them
with a sound constitution and exceptional
hardiness, as well as the rare and useful
faculty of existing and feeling happy on
small fare.
Kerries as Emigrants. — Proverbially,
Irishmen make the best of emigrants.
A similar property can be claimed for
the Irish national breed of cattle ; for the
126
KEERY AND DEXTER CATTLE.
little Kerry " adapts itself readily and
agreeably to change of scene, and seems
as much at ease in the wooded parks of
England as on the rocky heights of its
Irish home. " As already indicated, Kerry
cattle have been largely introduced into
England, where they are found specially
useful on poor land and in small family
dairies.
The Typical Kerry.
In outward form Kerry cattle are
somewhat similar to the cattle of Brit-
tany, fully as high, but rather more
slender and deer - like. The Kerry is
active and graceful, long and light in
the limb, head small and fine, throat and
neck slight and clean, eyes prominent and
keen, horns turned upwards, and white
with black tip ; shoulders thin and slop-
ing, and sharp on the top ; chest fairly
wide, back straight but rather narrow;
ribs fairly well sprung, barrel not deep,
hooks wide, quarters long but often un-
even; tail -head sometimes rather high,
tail slight and long, thighs thin; udder
large in size and well shaped, being
full behind and carried well forward ;
milk-veins full and well defined, skin
moderately thick and mellow, colour
usually black, but some have white spots
underneath, and now and again a red
Kerry is seen.
The bull is thick, straight, fine in the
skin, with good masculine head and
neck. Many of the animals have curi-
ously "cocked" horns, first projecting
forwards and then taking a peculiar
turn backwards — caused, says an Irish
wag, by the strong winds the cattle have
to face in mounting the Kerry hUls !
Origin of the Dexter.
The origin of the Dexter variety, so
distinct from the typical Kerry, is en-
veloped in uncertainty. There is general
agreement in regarding the Kerry breed
as the main parental stem. As to the
development of the sub-variety different
theories are put forward. One theory is
that the variety was established by the
interbreeding of carefully selected Ker-
ries of a low-set thick type, without the
aid of any extraneous blood. A more
general belief is that' the Dexter sort
was originated by mating thick, short-
legged Kerry cows with bulls of a similar
type belonging to another breed, most
probably the Devon.
This latter is the view put forward by
Professor James Wilson in an exhaustive
paper on the subject submitted to the
Royal Dublin Society in November 1908.^
There are authentic records of the intro-
duction of Devom, cattle into the south
of Ireland early in the nineteenth cent-
ury, and, on the whole. Professor Wilson
seems to be well justified in stating that
the probability "that Dexter cattle are
descended from black Kerries and red
cattle of Devon type is very high." He
adds : " If further proof were wanted, it
can be found by setting a red Dexter
cow side by side with a red Devon. The
only difference between them is that the
Devon cow is now slightly larger — a
matter that can be accounted for by the
Devon having been much better cared
for and increased in size during the last
hundred years."
Origin of the name of Dexter.
The origin of the name as well as of
the variety itself has long been the sub-
ject of speculation. Less or more directly
it would seem to be associated with a
Mr Dexter who, about the middle of the
eighteenth century, went from the south-
west of England to act as land agent to
Lord Hawarden in Tipperary. Arthur
Young in his Tour in Ireland, published
in 1780, refers to Mr Dexter as a stock
breeder, remarking that "there have
been many English bulls introduced for
improving the cattle of the country at a
considerable expense, and great exer-
tions in the breed of sheep : some per-
sons, Mr Dexter chiefly, have brought > > i
English rams, which they let out at
seventeen guineas a season, and also at
I OS. 6d. a ewe, which indicates a spirited
attention."
To that Mr Dexter the credit was
given by Low of having founded the
Dexter variety of cattle.^ Others, includ-
ing Professor Wilson, doubt whether Mr
Dexter reaUy founded the variety. They
believe that the Dexter type was de-
veloped in Co. Kerry, not so far from
the home of the Kerry breed as Co. Tip-
^ " The Origin of the Dexter-Kerry Breed of
Cattle." Eoyal Dublin Soc, 1908.
^ Low's Domesticated Animals of the British
lelands, 1842.
KEURY AND DEXTER CATTLE.
127
perary, and they account in another way
for the thick, squat Kerries getting to be
known as "Dexters." As Arthur Young
indicates, Mr Dexter was a distinguished
breeder of sheep. Sheep bred by him
became known in the south of Ireland as
, " Dexters " ; they were thick and short-
legged, and it is said that in course of
time the habit grew of applying the term
"Dexter" to all animals, and even to
men abnormally short in stature and
thick in the body.
Ti/pe of the Dexter.
The Dexter is an animal of a very dif-
ferent type from its parent the Kerry —
much shorter in the leg, thick and plump
in the body ; indeed, in all respects ex-
cepting that of size, an admirable sample
of a beef - producing animal. If less
elegant and "milky" looking than the
typical Kerry, the Dexter is decidedly
more symmetrical ; and if increased in
size, as by selection in breeding and
liberal treatment it might soon be, it
would be found to be a very profitable
class of stock. The Dexter is very
hardy and docile, easily fattened, and
produces beef of the very choicest
quality.
Deformed Dexter Calves. — A tend-
ency in the Dexter variety of cattle to
occasionally produce deformed calves has
long been a cause of perplexity to breed-
ers. Sometimes the calf is dead born,
and in other cases it may be alive but is
so misshapen as to be of no value. The
occurrence of this misfortune became
more frequent after herd-book registra-
tion required the Dexter variety to be
bred within itself, no longer permitting
the use of Kerry buUs. To thoughtful
breeders this tendency in the " Dexter "
has been the subject of interesting and
earnest study. It is generally looked
upon as "proof positive" of the " hybrid"
origin of the " Dexter." That the de-
fective strain can and will be bred out is
not doubted, but skill and perseverance
will be required. In the meantime it
is suggested that breeders of Dexters
should be permitted to make occasional
fresh infusions of Kerry.
Characteristics of Kerries and Dexters.
The general body of farmers in Ireland
have never given anything like so much
attention as they might, with advantage
to themselves bestow upon the breeding
and rearing of Kerry and Dexter cattle
as pure breeds. The breeds certainly
possess characteristics which, mth care-
ful cultivation, would earn for them an
excellent reputation as rent-paying stock.
They are specially adapted for high, cold
situations where food is not too plenti-
ful. As dairy cattle they have gained a
good name. Indeed it may be doubted
whether there is any breed of cattle in
this country which will beat the Kerry
in the return in milk and butter from
a given quantity of food. Youatt gave
the Kerry cow a high character, and yet
he was well justified in what he said :
" Truly the poor man's cow, living every-
where, hardy, yielding for her size abun-
dance of milk of a good quality, and
fattening rapidly when required."
Improvement. — Early in the closing
quarter of the nineteenth century a
number of enterprising breeders, prom-
inent amongst which were the late Mr
James Robertson, La Mancha, Malahide,
Co. Dublin ; Mr Pierce Mahony of Kil-
morna; and Mr Richard Barker, St Ann's
Hill, Co. Cork, organised efforts for the
systematic improvement of Kerry and
Dexter cattle, and from these efforts
great benefit has been derived. A Herd-
Book for Kerries and Dexters was pub-
lished by the Irish Farmers' Gazette in
1887, and it was soon after taken in
hand by the Royal Dublin Society,
which has done much to improve and
popularise the breeds. An English Kerry
arid Dexter Herd-Booh was established in
1900 by the English Kerry and Dexter
Cattle Society, which was founded in
1892.
"Weights and Measurements. — Since
the systematic improvement of the breed
set in the weights of Kerry cattle have
somewhat increased. The following are
the live-weights of animals in Mr Ma-
hony's herd at Kilmorna : Bull, 2 years
8 months and 2 weeks old, 8 cwt. i qr. ;
bull, 15 months old, 5 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb. ;
bull, 12 months old, 4 cwt. i qr. 15 lb. ;
bull, 8^ months old, 4 cwt. 2 qrs. ; cow,
aged 4 years, 6 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb. ; heifer,
2 years and 2 months old, 6 cwt. 21 lb. ;
heifer, 14 months old, 4 cwt.
Mr James Robertson's famous prize
cow "Rosemary" was one of the most
128
KEREY AND DEXTER CATTLE.
handsome Dexters ever seen. Her
height at the shoulder was only 3 feet 4
inches, and yet behind the shoulders she
girthed 5 feet 7 inches, her length from
the shoulder-top to the tail-head being
3 feet 9 inches; and what is more re-
markable* still, her udder when in full
milk girthed no less than 34 inches.
Milking Properties. — In regard to
milking properties, Kerry cows occupy
a high position. They often excel both
the Jersey and Guernsey breeds in
quantity, and are not far behind either
in the quality of their milk. In the
milking trials at the London Dairy Show
Kerry cows have in different years aver-
aged from about 28 to 40 lb. of milk per
day, with percentages of butter fat rang-
ing from about 3.50 to 4.50. Cows of
the breed have exceeded 1000 gallons in
a year. Dexter cows are only to a slight
extent inferior to the Kerry in milking
properties. Many Dexter cows give from
25 to 35 lb. of milk per day, and the
butter fat usually reaches 3.30 to close
on 4 per cent.
Kerries and Dexters as Beef-Pro-
ducers. — • Though more valuable for
dairy purposes than for beef-production,
Kerry cattle are not deficient in fatten-
ing properties. When well treated with
food they take on condition speedily,
and the quality of the carcase is well
spoken of by butchers. But as beef-pro-
ducers Dexters stand decidedly higher.
They not only mature early but they
take on a remarkably thick, firm, level
cover of meat of the choicest quality, the
cut being exceptionally deep on the
parts where the most valuable meat is
carried. For its size there are few better
or handsomer butchers' beasts than a
well-finished Dexter bullock.
For Crossing Purposes. — Both Ker-
ries and Dexters are well adapted for
crossing with other breeds. For dairy
purposes they are often crossed with
Channel Island and Ayrshire breeds, and
for general purposes with other breeds —
Shorthorns in particular. By skilful
crossing with the Shorthorn a valuable
breed of Dexter-Shorthorns, described in
page 135, has been buUt up at Straffan,
Co. Kildare.
Colour. — Black is the predominating
colour of both" breeds. Kerry bulls
should be pure black, but a small
amount of white on the organs of gener-
ation and a few white hairs in the tail
are permissible. Cows and heifers of
the Kerry breed should be pure black,
but there may be a small extent of white
on the udder and in the tail. Dexters,
both male and female, may be either
black or red with little streaks or patches
of white.
MANAGEMENT.
Little need be said here regarding the
management of herds of Kerries and
Dexters. As a rule, the methods pur-
sued are simple in the extreme. The
hardy character of the cattle enables
them to live largely in the open air, and
they are singularly frugal in their fare.
They can subsist on poorer pastures than
any other of the pure breeds of this
country. On moderate pastures they
need little and seldom get any extra
food.
When kept in houses, Kerry and
Dexter cows are fed similarly to other
dairy cattle, but the allowances are
smaller than for animals of larger size.
The statement is often made, and it is
well founded, that no other variety of
cattle in this country can be depended
on for a better return for a given quan-
tity of food in either milk or beef or
both combined than is usually obtained
from a good class of Kerries and Dex-
ters. Better testimony than that need
not be asked on behalf of any race of
stock.
A portrait of a characteristic Kerry
cow is given in Plate 46 ; an equally
typical Dexter cow ia represented in
Plate 47.
JERSEY CATTLE.
129
JERSEY CATTLE.
Jersey cattle, which are the most
numerous of the Channel Island breeds,
have long been recognised for their
beauty of form and excellent dairy quali-
ties, especially in the economic produc-
tion of butter.
Origin. — -The origin of Jersey cattle
is somewhat obscure, but some writers
are inclined to think the breed analogous
to the small cattle which abound in
Brittany and Normandy. In vol. i. of
the English Jersey Herd-Book, the late
Mr John Thornton directed attention to
this view.
As far back as 1763 measures were
taken on the Island to keep the breed
pure, an Act being then passed by the
States of Jersey prohibiting the import-
ation of cattle from France.
Introduction to England. — At what
period Channel Island cattle were intro-
duced into England it is hard to say, but
at the close of the eighteenth century
they were shipped in small numbers to
this country. In 1794, in A General
View of the County of Kent, by John
Boys, farmer, of Betteshanger, a descrip-
tion is given of an experimental test
between a " home-bred cow," probably a
Suffolk, and a small "Alderney" (as
Channel Island cattle were then gener-
ally termed), in which the Alderney cow
produced twice the quantity of butter
per gallon of milk yielded.
The year 181 1, however, marks the
opening of the English trade. In that
year Mr Michael Fowler visited Jersey
and commenced exporting. His practice
was to take the animals to the various
fairs in England for the purpose of sale,
and in that way he was greatly the
means of popularising the breed.
Improvement of the Breed. — The
original type of Jersey was not all that
could be desired in point of beauty, but
by dint of careful breeding and manage-
ment the animals at the present day
have been brought to a high standard
of perfection both in their form and
produce. The late Colonel Le Couteur
did much for the breed on the Island,
and was followed by Colonel Le Cornu.
VOL. III.
In 1834 the Island Society published
detailed scales of points for judging
bulls and cows; in 1852 farmers' clubs
were started in Jersey, and in 1871
separate classes were established for
Jersey cattle at the show of the Eoyal
Agricultural Society of England at
Wolverhampton.
Characteristics.
Jersey cattle are the smallest in size
of the Channel Island varieties. They
are mostly fawn or greyish fawn in
colour, a few having patches of white,
the majority being whole-coloured — that
is, without any white on them.
The males are generally of a darker
hue, and in both sexes extreme dark
colours are occasionally found, a few
being nearly black. They are gener-
ally described, for registration in this
country, as whole- or broken -coloured,
the former being more sought after for
exhibition purposes.
Their attractive appearance and gentle
character render them an ornament for
the park, and their abundant and long-
sustained supply of rich milk is a valu-
able asset for the dairy.
Scale of Feints. — The scale of points
adopted by the Boyal Jersey Agricultural
Society is as follows : —
Cows.
Points.
1. Head fine, face dished, cheek fine,
throat clean ..... 4
2. Nostrils high and open, muzzle en-
circled by a light colour . . 2
3. Horns small and incurving, eye full
and placid ..... 2
4. Neck straight, thin and long, and
lightly placed on shoulders . . 5
5. Lung capacity as indicated by width
and depth through body immedi-
ately behind the shoulders . . 3
6. Barrel deep, broad and long, denoting
large capacity ; ribs rounding in
shape ...... ID
7. Back straight from withers to setting
of tail ; croup and setting on not
coarse ...... 6
8. Withers fine and not coarse at point
of shoulders ..... 4
9. Hips wide apart, rather prominent and
fine in the bone .... 2
ISO
JERSEY CATTLE.
io. Hind legs squarely placed when viewed
from behind and not to cross or
sweep in walking .... 2
11. Tail thin, reaching the hocks, good
switch 2
12. Udder large, not fleshy, and well
balanced lo
13. Fore udder full and running well
forward ..... 10
14. Rear udder well up, protruding behind
and not rounding abruptly at the
top 8
15. Teats of good uniform length and size,
wide apart and squarely placed . 7
t6. Milk veins large and prominent . ' 3
17. Richness as indicated by a yellow col-
our on horns, escutcheon and inside
of ears ...... 3
18. Skin thin, loose and mellow . . 4
19. Growth ...... 3
20. General appearance : denoting a high-
class and economical dairy cow . 10
Perfection . . 100
Bulls.
Points.
1. Head broad, fine ; horns small and in-
curving ; eye full and lively . . 5
2. Muzzle broad, encircled by a light
colour ; nostrils high and open ;
cheek small ..... 5
3. Neck arched, powerful and clean at
the throat ..... 7
4. Withers fine ; shoulders flat and slop-
ing S
5. Lung capacity as indicated by depth
and breadth immediately behind
the shoulders .... 8
6. Barrel deep, broad and long, denoting
large capacity ; ribs rounding in
shape ...... 12
7. Back straight from withers to setting
of tail ; croup and setting on not
coarse ...... 10
8. Hips wide apart, rather prominent
and fine in the bone ... 5
9. Loins broad and strong ... 5
10. Legs rather short, fine in the bone,
squarely placed and not to cross or
sweep in walking .... 5
11. Rudimentary teats squarely placed
and wide apart .... 5
12. Tail thin, reaching the hocks, with
good switch 2
13. Well grown according to age . . 3
14. Hide thin, loose and mellow . . 5
15. Showing a yellow colour on skin and
horns ...... 3
16. General appearance : denoting a high-
class male animal, typical, and of a
class suitable for reproduction . 15
Perfection . . 100
Weight. — The average ■weight of
Jerseys is well under 900 lb. At the
English Jersey Cattle Society's Show
at Kempton Park in 1890, the only'
exhibition solely for Jersey cattle ever
held in England, all the animals were
weighed. Twenty - four English - bred
animals 5 years 8 months old weighed
on an average 826 lb. live -weight,
while thirty Island-bred, each 5 years
4 months, averaged 735 lb. live-weight.
These figures show that the Island-
bred animals are about one -ninth
less in weight than those bred in
England.
English Improvers.
The efforts of Colonel Le Couteur
and Colonel Le Cornu on the Island
to improve the condition and milking
qualities of the breed were seconded
in this country by several breeders.
Mr Philip Dauncey founded his celeb-
rated herd at Horwood, Winslow, Buck-
inghamshire, about 1825. The herd
usually numbered about fifty cows, and
14 lb. of butter weekly were often
obtained from one cow; in June 1867
the fifty cows gave an average of over
loj^ lb. of butter in one week. Mr
W. G. Duncan of Bradwell, whose herd
was started in 1849, ^nd Lord Chesham,
who began his at Latimer, Chesham, in
1850; Mr Palmer of Stewkley, Buck-
inghamshire; Mr Edward Marjoribanks,
Watford; Mr Selby Lowndes; and Sir
Walter Gilbey, Bart., were among the
earliest English breeders ; also Lord
Braybrooke at Audley End, and Mr
Archer Houblon at Great Hallingbury,
Essex.
English Jersey Cattle Society.
At Mr George Simpson's sale in 1878,
at Wray Park, Reigate, a Committee
was formed to establish a Herd-Book
for Jerseys in England. The late Mr
John Thornton was appointed Honorary
Secretary, and the first volume of the
English Herd-Book was issued in 1880,
an exhaustive history of the breed being
published in that volume. From that
date a steady improvement proceeded
in England.
In vol. xix. of the English Jersey
Herd-Book, published in 1908, there are
346 entries of bulls, and 1252 entries
of females.'
Milk and Butter Tests. — Milk and
JERSEY CATTLE.
i3»
l)utter records were kept by some of
the leading herds and printed in the
Herd-Books and Supplements. In 1886
the late Mr John Frederick Hall, then
living at Erleigh Court, Reading, sug-
gested that public butter tests should
be carried out under the auspices of
the Society at the various agricultural
shows, and he conducted the first one
personally at the London Dairy Show
in that year. From that time till
1908 no fewer than 2476 Jersey cows
were tested at the leading agricultural
shows, and the results give an average
of I lb. io}4 oz. of butter from 31 lb.
13 oz. of milk 112 days after calving,
— a record that reflects the highest
credit on the breed.
These tests have had great influence
on the improvement of the dairy quali-
ties of Jersey cattle.
Records of Dr Herbert Watney's herd
at Pangbourne, Reading, one of the most
successful in these competitions, have
been published in the Herd-Books since
1899. The average weight of butter per
head in 1898 was 373 lb., whereas in
1907 it was 404 lb.
Accurate accounts of milk yields have
also been kept of Lord Rothschild's herd
at Tring Park, Herts. In 1907, eighteen
cows that had been in the herd during
the whole year averaged 7455 lb. of
milk.
Merits of Jersey Cows. — Mr Ernest
Mathews, in a paper on "The Jersey
Cow," read before the British Dairy
Farmers' Association, in Jersey, 1905,
stated : "A Jersey cow will give as good
a return to her owner, where milk is sold,
as the larger breeds of English cattle,
since her live-weight, which has some-
thing to do with the quantity of food
she consumes, is considerably less than
theirs, her period of lactation is much
more prolonged, while the quality of her
milk is so much richer that not only a
liigher price can be obtained for it, but
there need never be any fear of legal
proceedings on the ground that 3 per
•cent of fat and 8.5 per cent of solids
other than fat are not present in the
milk."
The Jersey cow is to be found in all
parts of the world — large numbers being
exported annually to Denmark and the
United States.
MANAGEMENT 01' JEESEY CATTLE.
The feeding and management of Jer-
seys vary somewhat according to the
constitution of the animals and the local-
ity in which they are situated. "The
majority of English breeders regard home-
bred Jerseys as stronger in constitution
than those bred on the Island, while the
minority consider that Island-bred cattle
if taken care of the first two winters
eventually become as hardy and profit-
able as the English-bred animal." ^
With regard to bulls, breeders agree
that they should have had good dairy
ancestors for two or three generations,
and that individual appearance should
be closely studied.
In the Island of Jersey a masculine-
looking bull is preferred, but in England
by some breeders a bull of feminine ap-
pearance is selected.
It is the general practice to turn the
cows out during the day excepting in
very inclement weather.
A breeder in Hertfordshire writes :
" If a herd of Jerseys is to be kept solely
for dairy purposes, regardless of showing
and appearance, I should turn the cows
out during the day from about the middle
of May if the weather is suitable — as the
nights get warm." ^ A breeder in Kent
"turns out all the animals daily, and
considers it a matter of great importance
if you desire a healthy herd."
A shed should always be provided
where the animals can take shelter in
wet or stormy weather, — the object
being to keep the animals in a healthy
comfortable state.
In the feeding of Jerseys the peculiar-
ities of the animal have to be considered.
In order to keep up her flow of milk the
cow should receive just as much food as
she can properly digest, care being taken
to avoid a diet too rich in albuminoids.
The best and most natural food is the
early grass in the spring of the year,
which generally lasts till June, when
lucerne, rye, trifoHum, sainfoin, and
other rotation crops can be ready. The
flow of milk can be maintained by such
' Jersey CatUe : Their Feeding and Manage-
ment. Published for the English Jersey Cattle
Society by Vinton & Co., London.
'^ Jersey Cattle : Their Feeding and Manage-
ment.
132
GUEKNSEY CATTLE.
feeding until later in the year. When
this food becomes coarse, roots may be
substituted.
For milk-production cabbages, carrots,
swedes, mangels, grains, both wet and
dried, crushed oats, bran, cotton- and
linseed -cake are recommended. F6r
butter - production swedes and turnips
are to be avoided, and carrots, parsnips,
cabbage, and kohl-rabi are recommended.
Example Bations. — The following
four examples of feeding ^rations are
given in the English Jersey Cattle
Society's Handbook on the Feeding and
Management of Jersey Cattle : —
Example I,
Carrots ....
Chaff, oat-straw
Chafi, good hay
Decorticated cotton-cake
Crushed oats .
Coarse wheat-bran .
Hay, good
Example II.
Drumhead cabbage, inner leaves
Chaff, as in Example I. .
Linseed-cake ,
Crushed oats .
Bran ....
Good meadow-hay .
Example III.
Mangels .
Chaff, as above
Decorticated cotton-(
Maize-meal
Hay, good
Lb.
per day.
12
S
S
2
2
2
12
lO
2
2
2
7
cake .
14
10
3
3
7
Example IV.
Lb.
per day.
Mangels
■ 14
Chaff, as above
10
Decorticated cotton-cake .
2
Maize-meal ....
2
Malt, sprouted
2
Hay, good ....
7
The number of feeds are naturally
fewer when the animals are turned out.
In the Channel Islands it is the custom
to tether the cows on the pasture fields,
the animals being moved every two hours
or so. They are in some cases milked
three times daily.
Care of Bulls. — Bulls should be kept
in good hard condition; an addition of
crushed oats and linseed-cake with the
ordinary feed of roots and chaff is good.
In summer they should have grass,
lucerne, and cabbages, but vetches are
not recommended. Generally speaking,
the bulls are in service from one to four
years old.
Calving. — The cows are usually dritfd
off from four to six weeks before calving.
As soon as the calf is born, if left with
its mother, it should be rubbed over
with a little salt, which induces the
cow to lick the calf. The cow should
be kept warm and free from draughts,
and milked frequently, a little being
drawn off at a time.
Heifers, as a rule, produce their first
calf when two years old.
A portrait of a beautiful Jersey cow is
given in Plate 44.
GUERNSEY CATTLE.
The origin of Guernseys, like that of
other Channel Island cattle, is not defin-
itely known, but it may be assumed
that they are a branch of the Normandy
breed. In his work on Domestic Ani-
mals (1845) Professor Low remarks that
Guernseys deviate from the ordinary type
of Channel Islands cattle, and present a
greater aflinity to the races of Normandy.
In common with other Channel Islands
cattle, which were at one time generally
termed "Aldemeys," they have long
been valued for their dairy qualities.
Being of a larger frame than Jerseys,
bigger in bone and more prone to fatten,
they may be considered more of a dual
purpose type. Their flesh makes excel-
lent beef,' but being of a high colour like
Jerseys, with yellow fat, is not popular
with butchers in this country.
Early in the last century it was pro-
posed in Guernsey to allow cattle to be
imported from France and other neigh-
bouring countries with the object of
reducing the price of butchers' meat and
increasing the export trade, but this was
negatived by an act of the Eoyal Court,
and all cattle now landed are slaughtered,,
GUERNSEY CATTLE.
133
the only exception being Guernseys that
have been sent to England for exhibition.
In the year 181 1 Mr Michael Fowler
began importing from the Channel
Islands, and from that period a steady
trade has , increased for Guernseys in
England.
Ckaracterutics.
Guernseys generally range from about
900 lb. live-weight to 1200 lb. and up-
wards. Their colours vary from a bright
fawn to a reddish fawn, with more or
less white about the body. The head is
long and well formed, with well-shaped
horns; eyes large and prominent, and
general appearance and character docile.
The present scale of points, adopted in
October 1905 by the English Guernsey
Cattle Society, is as follows : —
( !•
o
a
b
B
Points.
C14. Skin yellow in ear, on end of
tail, at base of horns, on
udder teats, and body gener-
ally ; hoofs amber-coloured . 10
Cow&.
Points.
Head fine and long ; muzzle
expanded, with wide open
nostrils ; eyes large, with
quiet and gentle expression ;
forehead broad; horns curved,
not coarse .... 5
Long thin neck ; clean throat ;
backbone rising well between
shoulder blades ; chine fine . 5
Back level to setting on of tail ;
broad and level across loins
and hip ; rump long ; thighs
long and thin ; tail fine, reach-
ing to hocks ; good switch . 5
Ribs amply and fuUy sprung,
and wide apart ; barrel large
and deep, with strong muscu-
lar and navel development . 1 5
Hide mellow and flexible to
the touch, well and closely
covered with fine hair . . 5
Hair a shade of fawn, with
or without white markings ;
cream-coloured nose . . 3
Size — Cows four years old and
over, about 1000 lb. . 10
Escutcheon wide on thighs,
high and broad, with thigh
ovals ..... 2
Milk veins prominent, long and
tortuous, with large and deep
fountains .... 8
Udder full in front ... 8
Udder full and well up behind 8
Udder of large size and capac-
ity, elastic, silky, and not
Total
Bulls.
I '■
o
a
a
>>
03
aT
.S
m
Head fine and long ; muzzle
expanded, with wide open
nostrils ; eyes large, with
quiet and gentle expression ;
forehead broad ; horns curved,
not coarse ....
Long masculine neck ; clean
throat; backbone rising well
between shoulder blades ;
chine fine , . , ' .
Back lev«l to setting on of tail;
broad and level across loins
and hip ; rump long ; thighs
long and thin ; tail fine, reach-
ing to hooks ; good switch
Ribs amply and fully sprung,
and wide apart ; barrel large
and deep, with strong muscu-
lar and navel development .
Hide mellow and flexible to
the touch, well and closely
covered with fine hair .
Hair a shade of fawn, with
or without white markings ;
cream-coloured nose • .
Size — Bulls four years old or
over, about 1500 lb. .
^v a[ ^' General appearance : vigour,
I a "J style, alertness, and carriage ;
ftS^f,! hind legs not to cross or
^ M m I, sweep in walking .
IS
IS
IS
Teats well apart, squarely
placed, and of good and even
size .....
I S I 9. Rudimentaries squarely and
.§ g < broadly placed in front, and
a'S I free from scrotum . . 10
g>^ ^ I 1°. Skin yellow in ear, on end of
S g ~ ^ J tail, at base of horns, and
g-HE| bodygenerally; hoofs amber-
Sq S I coloured . . . .10
o >. '
Total . lOO
The heifers generally drop their first
calf when about two years old, and fre-
quently continue breeding and milking
to the age of twelve years and over.
The bulls become very heavy when old,
and readily fatten for the butcher.
Milking Properties.
Guernseys are excellent dairy cattle,
yielding a large quantity of milk rich in
butter-fat. The butter produced is high
in colour and excellent in quality. In
134
GUERNSEY CATTLE.
voL iii. of the Royal Guernsey Society's
Herd-Boole an official teat, dated May 28,
1885, states that the cow "Vesta 6th"
(625), born November 20, 1881, yielded
13 lb. 15^ oz. of butter in one week.
Since tne general inauguration of
butter tests in England in 1866 there
have been numerous examples of the
value of Guernseys for the dairy, and
in competition with other breeds in the
open butter tests they have obtained
many awards. The following records of
Guernseys, tested at the London Dairy
Show from 1895 to 1907, appeared in the
Journal of the British Dairy Farmers'
Association for 1907 : —
Tear.
No.
tested.
Average
days In
Milk.
Average
Butter
yield.
Average
Ratio
= lb. of Milk
per Ib.Butter.
189s to
1900
1
23
71^
lb. oz.
I '9%
21,86
1901
.
8
81
1 su
21-43
1902
I
17
1 5U
21.46
1903
S
s? ,
I I
27.77
1904
3
98X
I ID
20.65
1905
3
i6s?^
I 63/
19.66
1906
2
i3«
I 3X
27.00
1907
2
82
I 12)4
18.90
The following are the average results
of tests carried out during the five years
1904-8, which have appeared in the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
of England : —
^**''- tested.
days in
Milk.
Ratio.
SI
18.61
55
41
25.29
20.28
123
13s
22.35
19.89
Average yields.
Milk. Butter,
lb. oz. lb. oz.
1904 I 46 4 27^
1905 4 3^ 5'A I 8X
1906 2 35 3 I 11^.
1907 4 35 4;^ I 9'A
1908 I 35 12 I 12^
MANAGEMENT OF GUERNSEYS.
The systems of management of Guern-
seys are necessarily those specially
adapted for dairy cattle. Tethering is
generally practised on the Island, but
not in this country. The cattle are
considered fairly hardy after becoming
acclimatised. Like other milch breeds,
they should not be exposed to inclem-
ent weather, although they should have
plenty of air and exercise, even in winter,
care being taken to provide a shed where
they can take shelter when necessary.
From May to about the third week in
October they are ■ generally allowed out
in the fields night and day if the
weather is fine, but it is considered
that the flow of milk is retarded by ex-
posure to cold and damp. The comfort
of , the animals should therefore be
assured.
In Aldemey, where cows and heifers
have been in past years imported from
Guernsey, and from whence cows and
■ heifers are now exported to Guernsey,
mixing with the breed and being en-
tered in the Herd-Book, the custom is
to allow the animals out in all weathers.
This, no doubt, tends to harden them,
but in the general treatment of milch
cows warmth and comfort are essential.
The supply of food should be ample
and of a kind that promotes good
butter-yielding qualities, too sloppy food
having a tendency to afiiect the con-
stitution although increasing the flow
of milk. The individual digestive cap-
acities of the animal should be studied.
In spring and summer the early grass,
followed by such succulent crops as
clover, lucerne, sainfoin, &c. (and maize
where it can be grown), form ' a very
good diet.
During autumn and winter, cabbage
as well as the root crops — carrots, tur-
nips, mangels, kohl-rabi, and parsnips —
may be given, but for butter production
turnips are usually avoided.
An old breeder in the south of Eng-
land considers that " the quantity to be
given depends on the cows; a good
herdsman finds out far better than fol-
lowing any set rule." He recommends
the following daily ration : —
Good meadow-hay chaS, according to what the
cow will clear up.
Bran, l^ lb.
Crushed oats, 3 to 4 lb.
Linseed -cake, I lb.
Half the quantity to be given in the
morning and half in the evening. For
roots he recommends carrots, parsnips,
a small allowance of mangels, not more
than about a pailful in all.
Guernsey HerdrBook.
The first volume of the English
Guernsey Cattle Society's Herd -Book
was issued in 1885. The Society has
done much to improve the dairy quali-
ties of the breed by giving prizes for
THE DEXTEK-SHORTHORN.
135
dairy tests at the various shows in this
country. In the twenty-fourth volume
of its Herd-Book, issued in 1908, there
are 99 entries of bulls and 376 entries
of females.
Guernseys are frequently exported
abroad, especially to the United States
of America and the Colonies.
A portrait of a representative Guern-
sey cow is given in Plate 45.
THE DEXTER-SHORTHOEN.
This is a new variety of cattle of quite
a distinctive type. About 1880 it was
founded by Major Barton of Straffan,
Co. Kildare, Ireland, by the mating of
a Shorthorn bull with a red-coloured
Dexter heifer. It was believed that,
by the judicious mating of Shorthorn
sires with the female descendants of
this cross, a useful class of cattle could
be established, and the results attained
have even more than fulfilled early ex-
pectations, high as these were.
For a period of about thirty-five years
the only sires used on the Dexter-Short-
horn females were registered Shorthorn
bulls of a thick, compact, well-fleshed,
short-legged type, chiefly red in colour.
AH through that period the male calves
were castrated, and no heifers were bred
from that showed objectionable colours
or did not conform to the desired thick,
short-legged, well-fleshed type.
By the end of the thirty-five years,
during which Shorthorn sires alone were
used — ^that is, in the closing decade of
the nineteenth century — the progeny
were eligible for entry in Coates's Short-
horn Herd- Book. The object of the
owner, however, being to establish a
distinctive race of cattle, the use of
Shorthorn sires was discontinued, and
from that time onwards the new variety
of cattle has been bred strictly within
itself.
A more complete or harmonious blend
than is the Dexter-Shorthorn of the two
parent strains could hardly be conceived.
How long the blood of the Shorthorn
and the blood of th6 Dexter have been
running in separate channels no man can
tell. Whether the two races had a com-
mon origin in the Bos longifrons, or
whether the Dexter has come down to
us from that species, and the Shorthorn
from the more gigantic Bos wrus, must
ever remain a mystery. The fact, how-
ever, is well established that the Dexter
and the Shorthorn breeds have had a
distinctly separate existence for many
hundreds of years. That the two breeds
should blend well is by no means a far-
fetched idea^ Many is the time the
writer has heard typical modem Dexters
described as miniature Shorthorns. A
good red Dexter cow seemed to want
Uttle but size to enable her to rank as
a model Shorthorn.
It was a happy idea which led to the
two breeds being blended as they have
been at Strafian. By Mr Thomas Milne,
manager at Strafian, the new variety
has been tended from an early period
in its existence with a parental care
that is pathetic, and in association with
his public - spirited employers he has
attained marked success in the building
up of what is already entitled to rank as
an established race of cattle.
The Dexter-Shorthoms differ from the
parent breeds only in that they are
larger than the one and smaller than
the other, and that in colour the black
of the Dexter is never repeated, while
the whole white of the Shorthorn rarely
shows itself. The pure Dexter cow is,
for its size, one of the best milking
cows in this country. The cow of the
new breed retains that characteristic to
the fullest extent, giving usually from
18 to 22 quarts of exceptionally rich
milk per day. In the production of
high-class beef at an early age, the new
breed comes quite up to the highest
Shorthorn level in proportion to size.
In constitutional stamina the Dexter-
Shorthorn is all that could be desired.
Outstanding features are the thickness
of the body and the shortness of the leg.
For the most part the cattle are red or
dark roan in colour.
136
OTHEK BREEDS OF CATTLE.
No females of th6 new breed have
been sold, but for bulls there is an
active demand. They are specially ad-
apted for mating with cows on small
holdings, and have been used with ex-
cellent results amongst the native cattle
in Shetland. Numerous direct and in-
direct descendants of the StraflFan Dexter-
Shorthorna have won prizes in fat stock
shows.
At the London Smithfield Show in
igo& the cup for the best animal in the
classes for " Small Cross-bred Cattle "
was awarded to Sir Walter Gilbey for a
Dexter-Shorthorn steer bred at Straffan.
At the age of two years and eight months
this steer reached a live- weight of 1496 lb.,
showing a daUy gain of 1.53 lb.
Plate 48 represents a group of Dexter-
Shorthorn cattle. The following are the
ages, weights, and measurements of the
three heifers named in that group: —
Daisy.
DOR\.
TiDT Bell Sbd.
Age . . . . .
5 years.
4 years.
5 years.
Live-weight
10 cwt. 2 qrs.
10 cwt.
lo cwt. I qr.
Height
3 ft. ID in.
3 ft. 11 in.
3 ft. lo in.
Girth 1 .
7 . 0 „
6 „ 8>^in.
6 „ 8 „
Length 2 .
6 » 3 ,,
6 „ 6 „
6 „ 2 „
Fore leg » .
I >. 6 „
I ,. 10 „
I >. 10 »
From dewlap to ground
I >. I »
I ,, 3 ..
I ,. 4 »
1 Behind shoulder. 2 From i
^ot of horn to square
of tail. 3
From arm-pit to gro
OTHER BREEDS OF CATTLE.
LONG-HORNED CATTLE.
This ancient and characteristic breed
of cattle, once numerous and widespread
in England, has become reduced to very
narrow limits and to quite a few herds.
It was the first breed upon which Bake-
well, the great, pioneer breeder of farm
live stock, began his experiments in the
improving of cattle. Those experiments
were begun as early as 1755, and from
that year dates the breeding of farm
live stock in this country upon scien-
tific principles.
The Long-horned cattle at One time
existed in large numbers throughout
England, chiefly in the Midland counties.
They were also introduced into Ireland,
but long ago they have been supplanted
at one point after another by the Short-
horns or some other variety, and now
the last few remnants of the breed are to
be found in the Midlands of England.
The Long-horns are big, long-bodied,
rather ungainly cattle, with long droop-
ing horns, which are often so shaped as
to make it diflScult for the animals to
graze short pasture. The cows are fair
milkers, and the bullocks attain great
weight. In the general properties of
rent -paying stock, they are surpassed
by most other improved brepds. Yet,
partly on account of the unique his-
toric interest attached to the breed,
one delights to know that it is still
being maintained in all its purity and
antique character by a few devoted
breeders.
A portrait of a typical Long-horn buU
is represented in Plate 35.
ORKNEY AND SHETLAND
CATTLE.
The native cattle of the Shetland and
Orkney Islands are quite distinct in
character from the races in the main-
land. They show a considerable resem-
blance to the Kerry cattle of Ireland,
and, like these hardy animals, are well
adapted to their surroundings.
They are small in size, and, as a rule,
not of a high character. The true Shet-
land cow, however, is a fairly handsome
animal of a dairy type, with fine brown
mellow skin and silky hair. On the
FOREIGN BREEDS OF CATTLE.
137
poor scanty feeding which she generally
obtains she gives a wonderfully rich
yield of milk.
Fig. 703 represents a Shetland cow.
FOREIGN BREEDS OF CATTLE.
The foreign breeds of cattle best
known in this country are those which
occupy prominent positions on the con-
tinent of Europe. In these countries
there are breeds and varieties of cattle
almost without number. At the Paris
International Exhibition of 1878 there
was held the largest and most widely
representative show of farm live stock
that has ever taken place. In that dis-
play there were sixty -five distinctive
races and sub -races of cattle, besides
thirty different crosses. The United
Kingdom claimed eleven of the breeds,
winning the Champion Prize for the
best group of beef-producing cattle with
a group of the Aberdeen- Angus breed.
The other breeds and crosses came from
continental countries. France itself con-
tributed close on thirty varieties, the
most noted being the Norman, Flemish,
Charolais, Limousin, and Brittany breeds.
Dutch or " Holstein-Friesian " cattle,
Fig. 703. — Shetland cow.
favourably known in this country and
in America for their deep milking
properties, were well represented at
the Paris Exhibition, and so also
were the cattle of Belgium, Denmark,
Switzerland, Portugal, and Italy.
Polled Durhams in the United States.
A peculiarly interesting class of cattle
in the United States of America is known
as the "Polled Durham" breed. The
cattle are in reality Shorthorns minus
the horns. Some of the strains are
pure-bred Shorthorns, descended directly
from British-bred stock, the loss of the
horns in these cases having apparently
arisen originally through the exercise
of nature's inherent power to give forth
variety. Animals belonging to these
strains are eligible for both the American
Shorthorn Herd-Book and the American
Polled Durham Herd-Book. Other strains
of the polled breed trace from American
native hornless cows. Shorthorn bulls
being the sires continually used.
Polled Herefords.
Equally interesting is a tribe of polled
Hereford cattle which has been estab-
lished in Canada. Originating no doubt
in a " spontaneous variation," the " horn-
less whitefaces " have been cultivated so
skilfully that they now breed to the polled
type with wonderful regularity.
138
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
THE LEICESTER SHEER ,
The Leicester sheep has been described
as the parent long-wool. At one time
it was commonly known as the Dishley
sheep, and has probably occupied a
larger space in ovine history than any
other single breed. This is due to
Bakewell's association with it.
BakewelVs Influence.
Bakewell's great influence in the his-
tory of live-stock improvement of this
country first asserted itself towards the
close of the eighteenth century. He
began his life's work in the year 1755,
and in the height of his success, some
thirty years later, rented three Leicester
rams for 1200 guineas. In the year
1789 he let seven rams for 2000 guineas,
and in the same year the Dishley Society
hired the remainder of his rams for 3000
guineas. <
It is diflBcult to follow Bakewell's
methods, for he was careful to let the
public know little aljout them; but by
his selection of big sheep, and having
the eye of a genius for form and pro-
portion, he undoubtedly brought the
Leicester to its highest pinnacle of
fame.
According to CuUey, Bakewell began
by making a tour of selection amongst
neighbouring flocks. In Lincolnshire,
which was not far removed from his
farm, he had the assistance of Mr Stow
of Long Broughton, who was the pur-
chaser of many of his sires. Even in
these early days, about 150 years
ago, they were noted for their fine
sheep in the Fen country ; and that they
were jealous of that reputation, the hire
of one of Bakewell's tups for 1000
guineas by four Lincolnshire breeders
for a season is more than prima facie
evidence.
CuUey, the authority already men-
tioned, expresses the opinion that prior
to Bakewell's time there was no criterion
in sheep but size. Before Bakewell's
improvements, the description of the
sheep then generally found is interest-
ing " They had," says CuUey, " a large
hollow behind the shoulders, upon the
top as well as the side, now known by
the technical name fore flank, which in
a fat sheep now not only fills up the
former defect, but even projects beyond
the shoulder and gives a great roundness
to the form of the carcass."
There was a great air of mystery about
Bakewell's improvement of the Leicester.
In these days of Flock-Books and public
registration, no doubt many of hia
methods would be condemned, though
the results of his handiwork were undeni-
ably successful. He was supposed to
have a black ram in the background
for one thing. Sir John Sebright was
moved to pTrotest in the Fai-mer's Magor
zine of 1827 against "the mystery with
which he [Bakewell] is well known to
have carried on his business. The vari-
ous ways which he employed to mislead
the public induce me not to give that
weight to his assertion which I should
do to his real opinion could it have been
ascertained."
Then the Bakewell Eam Club con-
sisted of twelve members pledged to
absolute secrecy. One of the conditions
was that "the much dreaded members
of the Lincolnshire Society should not
have a ram unless four joined and paid
200 guineas for him."
Youatt, in his well-known volume,
says that Bakewell selected sheep "of
the most perfect symmetry with the
greatest aptitude to fatten, and rather
smaller in size than the sheep then
generally bred." He did not object to
use "near relatives." Referring to the
supposition that Bakewell created the
new Leicester by crossing difierent " sorts
of sheep," Youatt remarks, " There does
not appear to be any reason for believing
this, and the circumstances of the new
Leicesters Varying in their appearance
and qualities so much as they do from
the otlier varieties of long-wooUed sheep
can by no means be considered as prov-
ing that such was the system which he
adopted!"
THE LEICESTER SHEEP.
139
Locality.
The Leicester is chiefly found in the
more northerly parts of England, on the
bleak wolds of Yorkshire. There they
feed very quickly, and have the constitu-
tional stamina to resist the inclement
weather to which they are so freely
exposed.
Characteristics.
In appearance the Leicester sheep has
a bold head and the rams are slightly
Boman-nosed. The head is broad at the
poll, which is sometimes covered with a
forelock and sometimes not. The lips
and nose are black. The back is broad
and level, the breast deep and wide, carry-
ing a fuU bosom. A good sheep must
be deep through the heart, the ribs
being well -sprung, the loins wide, and
the dock carried level with the spine.
The fleece, which is a valuable portion
of the sheep, should be free from black
hairs. The sheep should stand squarely,
with a leg at every corner.
In the Flock -Book Mr Joseph Crust
writes as follows: "The Leicester has
during the last few years made rapid
strides towards perfection. ... By con-
tinuous and judicious crossing with other
sires of large size and heavy fleeces, a
class of sheep has been produced of cor-
responding proportions, with a fulness
of wool, yet retaining the original pro-
pensity to fatten. They are hardy and
well adapted for any climate and soil,
during the severe winter months being
folded on turnips in the open fields on
the bleak wolds of Yorkshire, where
they feed quicker than any other class
of sheep that have been wintered in the
same situation, requiring less artificial
food, and suffering a minimimi propor-
tion of loss; they are also remarkably
sound in their feet, being seldom attacked
with foot-rot."
Clip and Weight.
The Leicester is known to clip and
weigh well. It is not surprising to learn
that fleeces of 21 lb. to 28 lb. of washed
wool from rams are not uncommon. A
good flock average would be about 12
lb. The breed attains to heavy weights
up to 240 lb. As long ago as 1793 a
ewe at Mr Paget's sale, in Leicestershire,
scaled 36 lb. per quarter. She had i6J^
lb. rough fat, and including the offal
weighed 177^ lb.
For Crossing. — The Leicester has in
the past been particularly favoured by
colonial and foreign buyers for cross-
ing purposes. Its aptitude to fatten is
a strong point in its favour. In New
Zealand the rams are highly esteemed in
the production of freezers. They are
also much used as ordinary commercial
sheep in the north of England, where
their freedom from foot -rot enables
them to do well in rough country.
It would be ungracious not to recog-
nise the part played by the Leicester in
the improvement of other breeds. From
the time that Bakewell gave it a pre-
ponderating influence in the work of
English sheep-breeding, it has been used
in the evolution of the present-day type
of the following breeds : Lincoln, Wens-
leydale, Kent or Eomney Marsh, Border
Leicester, South Devon, Devon Long-
wool, and Cotswold. •
MANAGEMENT OF LEICESTERS.
In Leicester flocks the system of man-
agement is exceptionally systematic and
skilful The method of feeding is liberal,
and this is well justified by the yields of
wool and mutton obtained from the
breed. The general practice in the lead-
ing flocks is well indicated by the fol-
lowing notes received from Mr T. H.
Hutchinson, Manor House, Catterick,
Yorkshire, who has long maintained a
very celebrated flock of the genuine old
English Leicesters : —
" I keep a flock of pure-bred Leicesters,
which I find to answer my purpose better
than any other breed. My aim is to
produce as much wool and mutton as
possible from the produce of my farm,
and to keep the land in a very high state
of cultivation.
" I annually put 200 ewes to the ram,
and generally average about ij4 Iambs
to a ewe. The ewes are put to the ram
in the last week in September.
" Besides the lambs I breed, I buy from
150 to 250 to ' turnip ' during the winter.
As I cannot buy pure Leicesters, I gener-
ally buy 'north' lambs — that is, lambs
bred from Cheviot ewes with three crosses
of the Border Leicester. These do re-
I40
LONG-WOOLLED BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
markably well on turnips, and go off fat
in February and March, weighing from
1 6 lb. to 22 lb. per quarter.
Feeding of Ewes. — "The ewes run
on the grass in autumn, and have roots
with cut oat -sheaves given in addition
before lambing, also hay if I can spare
it. After lambing, the ewes get roots
with a mixture of malt-combs, linseed-
cake, bran, oats, and cut hay, until the
pastures are good enough to keep them
going.
Feeding Iiambs. — " The lambs are
weaned in July either on to some after-
grass or good old pastures, until cabbages
or thousand-headed kale are ready. After
that they go on to Fosterton Hybrid
turnips, then finish on the swedes. As
soon as the lambs go upon cabbage, &c.,
they are allowed a mixture of crushed
tail corn, linseed-cake, malt-combs, bran,
&c., made into a kind of lamb-food. I
prefer a mixture to cake alone. When
put upon turnips the roots are all cut,
the turnips all being stored in October
and early part of November. Hay and
straw are also given. I find nothing like
plenty of dry food for sheep on turnips.
"A piece of rock-salt should always
be kept in a trough, for the sheep to go
to when they like.
"The lambs and ewes are all dipped
after clipping, and again in autumn.
" The rams for show purposes are kept
as well as possible, and get the best of
everything likely to do them good.
"You ask me what quantity of tur-
nips or other food should be consumed
per day. I am sorry to say I cannot
tell you. I always let the sheep have
plenty to go to, and fancy they are
better judges than I am as to the quan-
tity they require; at any rate, I Ifeave
it to them to decide."
Gainford Hall Flock.
In Mr George Harrison's well-known
fiock of Leicesters at Gainford Hall,
Darlington, lambs'are dropped in March
and weaned in July. For some time
before weaning the lambs get a mixture
of cake and oats in a pen from which
the ewes are excluded. After weaning
this mixture is continued to the lambs
on clover or other foggage. A number
of fat lambs are sold for killing in June,
July, and August, the prices ranging
from 3SS. to 40s. each. Fat hoggets are
sold in the following January at from
50s. to 60s. each.
Eam breeding is a special feature in
Mr Harrison's flock. He sells ram
lambs in September and October for
the getting of lambs for early fattening.
He also sells a number of shearling rams
for stud purposes. Young rams are put
on clover, thousand - headed kale, cab-
bages, turnips, and swedes in succession,
and get a mixture of cake and corn in
addition. This fioQk has taken a lead-
ing position in showyards, and rams for
it find their way. not only to all parts
of this country where Leicesters are
kept, but also to many foreign lands,
including New Zealand, Australia, Tas-
mania, France, Denmark, and South
America. •
During the winter the ewes in this
flock get plenty of good hay, a run on
grass, and a few roots after Christmas ;
after lambing, for about a month or six
weeks, they get a mixture of cake and
oats with plenty of roots. During the
other parts of the year the ewes depend
entirely on grass. They drop their first
lamb when they are one year old.
A portrait of a Leicester ram is given
in Plate 50.
BOKDEE LEICESTEES.
It is only since about the year i860
that the Border Leicester breed of sheep
has been known by this name. Prior to
that, although its distinct characteristics
had become well established, it was
classed along with the English sheep
descended from the same source, and
termed the Leicester, or the Improved
Leicester. The Border and the English
Leicesters were so widely different in
their form and wool, that it became im-
possible they could compete satisfactorily
in the same classes, as the judges in the
showyards, however carefully chosen,
could not be otherwise than biassed.
When the majority happened to be
breeders of the English variety, the
premiums went very naturally to the
type they favoured, and vice versd. If
the judges were solely on one side, then
a grave injustice followed. The position
became the more acute as in the course
BOKDEE LEICESTERS.
141
of time the differences apparent in the
two varieties widened ; and at length it
was found necessary to have distinct
classes for the variety under notice,
which has since been known as the
Border Leicester. Down to 1868, all
Leicesters, whether from the Midlands
of Engle^nd or the Border counties, were
forced to compete in the same classes at
the shows of the Eoyal Agricultural
Society of England; but next year, at
the Manchester meeting, they were
divided as in Scotland.
Origin — Bahewell's Improvements.
Both varieties had their origin at
Dishley, near Loughborough, where Mr
Robert Bakewell began to improve the
sheep he 'found around him in or about
1755. The precise method adopted by
Baiewell is unknown, as a certainty. It
is believed by some that he crossed the
sheep of his shire of Leicester — " said to
have been large coarse animals, with an
abundance of fleece and a fair disposi-
tion to fatten " — ^with other long-wooUed
breeds, probably possessing smaller
frames and more symmetrical propor-
tions. Another and highly probable
theory is, that without going beyond
the sheep at his hand, he boldly adopted
this material, and by breeding from
selected animals of close affinities, and
continuing this system as far as was
advisable, he managed to establish a
distinct breed, the main characteristics
of which were large yet symmetrical
frames, carrying heavy flesh upon fine
bone ; decided aptitude to fatten upon a
moderate quantity of food ; and capable
of being brought early to maturity,
while bearing a fleece of large weight
and superior quality.
It is evident that the materials which
Bakewell used must have been very
plastic, since his improvements were
quick in displaying themselves. So
early as 1760 he commenced letting his
rams for a guinea for the season's use.
The reputation of the Dishley flock in-
creased by " leaps and bounds," rising to
such a pitch that twenty years after he
commenced to let rams, Bakewell re-
ceived no less than _;^3ooo in hire fees
in a single season. In 1789 it is stated
that he netted ;^6ooo by the letting of
his tups. So general was the rush for
improvement in sheep stock about this
time that it was computed no less than
_;£ioo,ooo were annually spent by Mid-
land agriculturists in procuring sires.
Large although this sum is, it is not
altogether improbable, considering -that
in 1789 Bakewell received from ^1000
downwards for the season's use of a
single ram.
Such being the condition of sheep-
breeding in the Midlands, it need not be
marvelled at that agriculturists in far off
shires, even in those days of slow, tedious,
and imperfect communication, should
have desired to share in the results which
others had accomplished.
Messrs Gulley's Flocks.
When Bakewell commenced his im-
provements, two brothers, George and
Matthew CuUey, were farming at Denton,
not very far from Darlington. In 1762
and 1763 the brothers visited and be-
came intimate with Bakewell, and from
Dishley they brought rams with which
they crossed the native Teeswater sheep,
which then stood in high favour as a
long-woolled breed. Proceeding in this
manner, they were not long in forming a
flock of their own, which was transferred
to North Northumberland in 1767, and
they took farm after farm until they
paid an aggregate rental of about _;^6ooo
a-year. After having bred sheep in North
Northumberland for nearly forty years
the Culleys retired in 1806, when their
sheep were sold off.
Other Early Improvers.
Mr Robert Thomson, who, like one of
the Culleys, had been a pupil with Bake-
well, also took a leading part in the in-
troduction of the breed. He farmed at
Lilbum, and afterwards at Chillingham
Bams ; and his flock, long known as one
of the very best on the Borders, was bred
directly from Bakewell's. It was at LU-
burn that the first sale by auction of
Bakewell sheep took place in the north.
At Chillingham Barns Mr Thomson held
annual lettings, and there, in May 18 14,
his entire flock was dispersed.
A part of Mr R. Thomson's flock
passed into the possession of Mr James
Thomson, Bogend, Duns, who had also
formerly obtained rams from the Culleys
and from Chillingham Barns ; and it may
142
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
be stated that this flock was until com-
paratively recently still in existence,
being owned by Mr James Thomson,
Mungo's Walls, a grandson of the tenant
of Bogerid. Having been bred by the
Thomsons for upwards of a century, the
Mungo's Walls flock formed the most
perfect connection between the time of
Bakewell and the present day in the
history of the breed. It seems there
were in Bakewell's flock two types of
sheep, known as " blue-caps " and " red-
legs," the latter being much the hardier
of the two ; and from what the writer
has been able to learn Mr Thomson's
sheep were of this hardier sort.
Eama from the flocks of the CuUeys
and Mr Thomson must have been very
early and very generally used in the dis-
trict around them as well as north of the
Tweed, since flocks had multiplied to a
wonderful extent at the time of the dis-
persion of the Culley sheep. Whether
these other breeders obtained ewes of the
improved breed or "bred in" from the
ordinary country stock with Dishley rams
it is difficult to determine satisfactorily
at the present day. Yet this question
affects the purity of the breed in later
times to a grave extent, and certainly
gives weight to the prevalent impression
that there is much Cheviot blood in the
Border Leicester. It is next to an im-
possibility that all of the Tweedside,
Glendale, and "Barmshire" breeders
could have obtained their stock ewes
and gimmers from Thomson and the
CuUeys so quickly and to the extent
necessary to account for the size and
number of the flocks in 1806. Besides,
these pioneer breeders were chary of
parting with females.
The subject is a difficult one to treat
of satisfactorily, and is referred to here
only in a suggestive way. One thing is
most evident : that flocks of " improved
Leicesters," whether pure — relative
though the term may be — or not, sprang
up, like the proverbial mushrooms, in
North Northumberland, from which they
quickly spread into Berwickshire and
Koxburghshire.
In later years the breed has spread
widely over Scotland, and although the
counties of Eoxburgh and Berwick may
still -be said to be the headquarters of
the breed, Border Leicesters are bred as
successfully in the north as in the south.
Indeed, the late Mr David 'Hume, whose
flock was located in Forfarshire, was
invincible for several years for shear-
ling rams at the annual shows of the
Highland and Agricultural Society.
There are also very good flocks of the
breed as far north as Sioss-shire, and even
in the county of Caithness.
The Mertoun Flock.
To a large extent the history of the
Mertoun flock is the history of the breed,
in Scotland at any rate. It was founded
by Mr Hugh Scott of Harden, grand-
father of the present Lord Polwarth,
in 1802, and for over forty years was
entirely a self-supporting flock, not a
single animal, male or female, having
been introduced from any other flock
during all that time. The system on
which Lord Polwarth worked was to
carefully select animals from the dif-
ferent strains of blood existing in his
flock and mate them together on pre-
arranged lines, and in this way it was
possible, not only to minimise the risks
of in-and-in-breeding, but at the same
time to secure a uniformity of type and
character in the flock that could hardly
have been obtained in so large a measure
by any other method of breeding.
Lord Polwarth was careful to note
the breeding qualities of rams which
were bought fronj the flock, and never
hesitated, whatever the price asked, to
buy back for use in the parental flock
any ram which bred specially well and
which seemed likely to be of advantage
in the flock. Sheep brought back in
this way, it was thought, answered to a
certain extent the same purpose as intro-
ducing new blood, for their stay for
some time under different conditions as
to soil and climate was believed to have
an effect upon them which enabled them
to exercise a reinvigorating influence
upon the parent stock.
There is no doubt this system was
very successful for a long period of
time. Towards the close of the last
century few breeders of Border Leicesters
considered their flock properly equipped
without a "Polwarth" ram as principal
sire. Many first-class breeders would
hardly buy anything else for ram-breed-
ing purposes. At that time Lord Pol-
BORDER LEICESTERS.
143
■warth was accustomed to get very higli
prices for his annual draft of tups sold
at Kelso, thirty sold in 1890 realising
■within a few pence of £^4 per head,
while one sold at ;^iS5. A few years
later one very fine ram was sold to Mr
Lee of Congalton for ;^275, which up to
1907 was the record price for a ram of
the breed.
Since the advent of the present
century other breeders have been get-
ting a larger share of patronage from
buyers of high-class rams for stud pur-
poses. The Mertoun flock continues to
show the remarkable gaiety and strong
family likeness which so long character-
ised it, but there are those who incline
to the belief that it would be benefited
by the infusion of fresh blood.
Other Noted Breeders.
The rising popularity of a consider-
able number of other flocks of Border
Leicesters has been a gratifying feature
of the Kelso ram sales in recent years.
At these sales in 1907, Mr Matthew
Templeton, who is a tenant on the Mer-
toun estate, obtained an average of
jQ^o, 53. for each of his best " cut " of
twenty-five shearling rams, one ram
bringing ;^i6o. On the same occasion
Messrs Smith, Leaston, Upper Keith,
received an average of £a, 13s. for
«ach of eight shearling rams, one of
these rams breaking all previous " re-
cords " by realising the handsome sum
of ;£^28o, the buyer being a New Zea-
land fiockmaster. Another ram from
the same flock was sold for ;£^2oo in
1908. It is much to the advantage of
all interested in the breed that so many
flocks of it of the highest character and
quality exist throughout the country.
Characteristics.
As already stated, there were two
families in Bakewell's flock, the " blue-
caps " and " red-legs." Formerly " blue-
caps " were pretty common on the
Border, but for a long period the " red-
legs," owing to their greater hardiness,
have held possession. Their representa-
tives of the present day are admirably
described by Mr John Usher, in The
Border Breeds of Sheep, thus : " The head
■of fair size, with profile slightly aquiline,
tapering to the muzzle, but with strength
of jaw, and wide nostril; the eyes full
and bright, showing both docility and
courage; the ears of fair size and well
set; the neck thick at the base, with
good neck vein, aUd tapering gracefully
to where it joins the head, which should
stand well up ; the chest broad, deep,
and well forward, descending from the
neck in a perpendicular line ; the
shoulders broad and open, but showing
no coarse points; from where the neck
and shoulders join to the rump, should
describe a straight line, the rump being
fully developed ; in both \ arms and
thighs the flesh T(?ell let down to the
knees and hocks ; the ribs well sprung
from the backbone in a fine circular
arch, and more distinguished by width
tlian depth, showing a tendency to carry
the mutton high, and with belly straight,
significant of small ofial ; the legs
straight with a fair amount of bone,
clean and fine, free from any tuftiness of
wool, and of a uniform whiteness with
the face and ears. The sheep ought to
be well clad all over, the belly not ex-
cepted, with wool of a medium texture,
with an open pirl, as it is called, towards
the end. In handling, the bones should
be all covered; and particularly along
the back and quarters (which should
be lengthy) there should be a uniform
covering of flesh, not pulpy, but firm
and muscular. The wool, especially on
the ribs, should fill the hand well"
Mr Usher's description is still gener-
ally accepted as on the whole accurate.
No doubt many of the best sheep in
most flocks are occasionally flesh-coloured
in the muzzle, but it is regarded as an
evidence of hardiness to have it perfectly
black ; therefore in any general descrip-
tion this point ought to be emphasised.
The ears should be of moderate length,
and boldly set, but thickness, even at
the base, in shearUng rams as well as in
ewes should be a disqualification. Again,
the ear should neither be too much flesh-
coloured, nor blue nor purple. A darkish
— not a brownish — skin, covered with
fine white hair, is most to be preferred,
although black spots, when distinct and
separated from each other, are not at all
objectionable. Then the face should be
covered with short white hair ; and on
no account should there be any blueness.
Corded or scored faces are specially to be
144
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
avoided in females and shearling rams.
These are considerations of primary im-
portance. The legs, from where the wool
ceases to grow, should be covered with
short white hair ; the " cluits " should
be black, and the pasterns as upright as
possible.
The "blue -caps" of by -past times
have been described by the late Mr John
Grey, Dilston, as having " blue faces,
generally bare on the scalp, and red when
lambed ; and when mature, easily broken
by flies ; on which account they were not
favourites with the shepherds. They
were good feeders, but light of wool"
It is evident that what are now termed
English Leicesters are the representatives
of this Bakewell family, although time
has both modified and accentuated their
former characteristics. The English
sheep is not such a large-framed sheep
as the Border Leicester, and is consider-
ably shorter in both neck and legs ; but
it is much more compact, wider through
the heart, and heavier in front in propor-
tion to its size. It is also a much deeper
sheep, and carries a heavier fleece. The
bone, too, is finer, and the amount
of mutton yielded, size considered, is
greater than that usually carried by the
Border Leicester.
Value for Crossing.
Except as ram-breeding flocks, Border
Leicesters are not now kept to the same
extent as they formerly were, the mutton
being too coarse in its texture, and the
fat too much of the consistence of tallow
to be put to a profitable use, or please
the palate. These are drawbacks to the
general utility of a breed which has few
rivals in reaching early- maturity, and
which produces a great weight of mutton
and wool in a given time. Its outstand-
ing merit lies in its pre-eminent suit-
ability for crossing vrith the Cheviot,
Blackface, and other varieties. The
cross vrith the Cheviot is the most
popular, the produce being the Half-
bred variety now largely reared. On
most turnip and grain farms a stock of
Half-bred ewes are kept, which being
again crossed with the Border Leicester
ram, produce three -parts -bred lambs:
These quickly develop, and being fed at
high pressure, are generally in the fat
market before they are a year old.
MANAGEMENT IN BOEDER LEICESTER
FLOCKS.
Leastoti Flock.
The management of Border Leicester
flocks follows fairly general lines. In
the well-known flock of Messrs A. & J.
K. Smith at Leaston, Upper Keith, lamb-
ing takes place, as a rule, from the 12 th
of March to the end of April. Weaning
takes place about the beginning of
August. Single lambs before weaning
get no extra feeding; twins get about
J^ lb. of a mixture of compound cake,
bruised oats, and locust -meaL After
weaning ram lambs are put on clean
pasture or foggage, and the extra food
continued. In addition they get cut
tares daily to begin vidth, followed
by cabbages, white turnips, and yellow
turnips, as they are in season. Ewe
lambs are also put on clean grass after
being weaned. No box food is given in
the case of the ewe lambs, although they
may get a few cabbages and then
turnips.
Bams are sold as shearlings in Sept-
ember and October at from £^, los.
upwards, one, as already stated, having
brought ;^28o in 1907. Surplus gim-
mers are sold in September at from ^5^3
to ;^io per head, and cast ewes in
October at from _^4 to ^^ also per
head.
Ewes after being settled to the tup
are kept on rough pasture until the
middle of December — sometimes till the
end of the month. Then they get five
hours daily on turnips, with a run off on
a grass field, and as much hay as they
can eat. If the frost should be hard
fresh turnips are laid out daily on the
pasture. Nothing in the owner's experi-
ence is worse for in -lamb ewes than
frosted turnips. At Leaston box-feeding
is begun ten days before lambing, the
practice being to give i lb. each of a
mixture consisting of bran, oats, and
compound cake. Ewes with single
lambs get no extra feeding after lambing.
Ewes with twins are fed up to the end
of May with the mixture already men-
tioned.
Lambs about this time are shed off
from the ewes every morning and get
their extra feed. As a rule, a comer
BOEDER LEICESTERS.
145
of the field is railed off for this purpose.
With this exception grass is the staple
food all through the summer. Good
breeding ewes are sometimes retained
in the flock until they are ten years
of age.
The ram lambs are fed on yellow tur-
nips, and get the concentrated food
already mentioned up to about the
middle of February, when they get swedes.
The concentrated food is also changed
at this time to a mixture of linseed-
cake, bran, bruised oats, and locust-meal.
All through the winter the young animals
get the best of hay, and have access to
rock-salt, getting also a little common
salt in their concentrated food. As soon
as young grass is ready they are put upon
it. Tares are begun about the middle
of June, and cabbages in August. Some-
times thousand-headed kale is used. The
extra food is increased daily, bran being
stopped on -grass, and peas and Bombay
cotton-cake substituted.
A Border Leicester flock requires very
careful attention, and involves much hard
work, especially where considerable num-
bers of rams are turned out annually.
The annual output of these from Leaston
is about two hundred. A close study
has to be made of the mating of the
ewes to suit the different rams. When
a ram is bought he is not given many
ewes the first year, but his produce is
carefully watched, and ewes drawn to
suit him for the following year. Messrs
Smith like to run their pure-bred sheep
thinly over the pastures. No class of
sheep, in their experience, do well heavily
stocked.
Galalaw Flock.
Lambing in the Galalaw flock, belong-
ing to Messrs J. & J. R. C. Smith, takes
place in March and on to the middle of
April, the lambs being weaned in the
latter half of July. During summer the
lambs get a little box-feeding — lamb-food
not more than ^ lb. daily, the lambs
being run off from their mother for this
purpose. After weaning they go for
three weeks on clean old grass, and have
the box -feeding continued. The ram
lambs are carried on to the shearling
stage and then disposed of at Kelso,
prices running from ;^S upwards, the
highest being £1^° V^^ head. Ewe
VOL. III.
lambs are drawn in the spring, when
they weigh from 18 to 20 lb. per quar-
ter. Those not required for breeding
purposes are sold at about 8d. per lb. as
a rule.
The ewes in this flock get ten weeks
turnips before lambing, and a little box-
feeding and "hay as lambing time ap-
proaches. The box-feeding is continued
until June. Ewes with twin lambs get
young grass ; those with singles the two-
year-old grass. After weaning ewes are
all the better of a change off the farm to
higher-lying land if possible. They re-
turn to their own pastures a few weeks
before the tups go out. This change
helps to ensure a good crop of lambs,
and admits of the cleaning up of the
home ground.
Ewes have their first lamb at two
years old, and may either go on for four
or five years or be cast at two and a half,
as the appearance of the ewe or her pro-
duce warrants.
Eam lambs are brought through the
autumn on seeds, with tares (if available)
or cabbage. Hay foggage is valuable,
but not always easy to get. In Novem-
ber they go on to turnips, and get cut
turnips, hay, and a little box -feeding
during winter. The sooner they get
young grass in the spring the better ;
and they depend upon it,-with tares in
addition as the sales draw near. Any
change of food is made gradually, and
surfeiting is avoided. Stock rams are
kept among the ewes, except for two
months before tupping time, when they
are kept by themselves, and get a little
extra keep in the way of box-feeding.
Pictstonhill Flock.
In Mr W. S. Ferguson's flock at Picts-
tonhill ewes are kept from the end of
May until August with their lambs on
nothing but grass. The lambs are
weaned in August, and ewes go on the
grass fields until the following March,
when they are taken in to lamb. In an
open winter the ewes require little more
than they pick up, but when frost and
snow prevail they get a small quantity
of turnips daily (not ad lib.) and hay.
If the snow continues long i lb. of oats
and cake per day is given. When turnips
are scarce, oats, cake, and hay bring them
through the winter quite as well as, if
K
146
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
not better than, roots, but at greater
cost.
At PictstOnhill the ewes lamb in March
and April. A l&rge lambing shed is avail-
able, but is used as little as possible;
sheltered fields and dyke-sides are better
if the weather be at all favdurable. The
ewes after lEtnlbing are liberally hand-
fed to keep thenl in milk, the quantity
of food varying with the weather. Cut
turnips, mostly yellows, are given. The
time turnips are given and the quantities
depend efttirely on the Spring and the
grass. Nothing in Mr Fergustjn's ex-
perience will piit ewes and lambs into
sound health and thriving condition like
the first flush of young grass.
The ewes and lambs get a little hand-
feeding until about the middle of May ;
after that, grass and nothing else. When
lambs are weaned they get the best of
the grass, cabbages, and J^ lb. of hand-
feeding. When ram and ewe lambs are
separated in September the rams are
continued on cabbages, turnips, and
grass, along with the ^ lb. of h&,nd-
feeding, while the ewe lambs get the
run of grass, and if turnips are added
the cake is taken away. About ist
December the rams are generally folded
on turnip land for the winter and cut
turnips fed to them in boxes, and hay
given. The hand - feeding may be in-
creased to I lb. a-day, but more is seldom
given at any time except for a month
before the September sales, when the
allowance is doubled if the rams will
take it. They get some cut tares on the
grass in July and August, but only if
the grass is insufficient.
Rams in summer have always to
gather their food, and so make them
muscular and active. If all the food is
taken to a Border Leicester ram so that
he can lie and feed and sleep at grass in
summer, Mr Ferguson thinks that it is
all the worse for the man who buys him.
At Pictstonhill' rams are never housed
except in rough days in early spring
after clipping. The owner is strongly of
opinion that the modern artificial bloom
put on rams for sale through house-feed-
ing is doing harm to* the breed. It was
never done in the old days. This, how-
ever, does not apply to the few animals
drawn out for shoW-training, but even
■With these the practice at Pictstonhill
has generally been to walk the sheep on
a hard road for at least a quarter of a
mile to a bit of pasttire every good day.
OldhamistocJcs Flock.
In Messrs Clark's old-established flock
at Oldhamstocks, Cockburnspath, lamb-
ing begins^ as a rule, about the ist of
March, and the lainbs are weaned in the
beginning of August. From the begin-
ning of December the ewes in this flock
are allowed every day a cart-load of
white turnips to every' seventy, and
about y^ lb. each per day of cake and
oats. As soon as the turnips are finished
ewes with double lambs get an extra
allowance of the artificial food. After
weaning the ewes are put for the first
fortnight on to the poorest pasture on
the farm. A few weeks before the tups
are let out they are put on to better
pasture.
Messrs Clark feed a considerable num-
ber of half-bred lambs which they buy
in August. In Siddition to tdrnips the
lambs are allowed daily about % lb. of
cake and oats. The lambs are generally
sold about the end of May in the follow-
ing year as soon as they are clipped.
The better half of them by this tjme will
run from 80 to 100 lb. of mutton per
carcase, and they realise about 503.—
fully I OS. per head less than they fetched
a few years ago.
Females of the pure-bred flock "have
their first lamb when about two years
old. They are usually cast about five
years old. When the tup lambs are
weaned in the beginning of August they
are put on to foggage if there be any on
the farm. If not, they get tares on a
clean pasture. Whenever the turnips
are ready they get a few of these, bring-
ing them gradually on to as many as
they will eat, with an allowance of cake.
Stock rams on the farm receive no extra
feeding except when at service.
Deuchrie Flock.
Mr Jeffrey at Deuchrie, Prestonkirk,
has the lambs arriving from the second
week of March onwards. They are
weaned about the beginning of August.
Twin lambs get a little lamb-food before
weaning; single lambs nothing but the
milk and grass. After being weaned the
tup lambs are put on foggage if there be
BORDER LEICESTERS.
147
any available. Ewe lambs are kept on
first-year's grass.
Shotts of the tup lambs are sold in
spring in the fat market, making, in
1908, 538. The others are kept on until
shearlings and' sold at the Kelso, Edin-
burgh, and Lockerbie sales. Ewe lambs
are drawn at the same time as the tup
lambs, and the best only kept for breed-
ing purposes.
Ewes before lambing are generally on
turnips for several hours every day, and
run off on to heather at night. When
nursing they are grazed in the fields,
getting about ^ lb. each of some feed-
ing mixture, not always the same. When
the lambs are weaned the ewes are turned
on to the hiU or poor pasture, and are
brought in a week or two before the tups
are put Out. Ewes, as a rule, have their
first lamb at two years old, and they are
cast after having four crops.
Young rams are managed as ordinary
feeding sheep until clipping time, after
which they are allowed some extras in
the way of green tares and cabbages in
preparation for the ram sales. Stock
rams are generally wintered among the
ewes, and do not call for special care,
as they generally get fat enough v^ithout
any extra feeding.
Whiitingehame Flock.
In the Whittingehame flock of Border
Leicesters, belonging to the Eight Hon.
A. J. Balfour, M.P., lambs are dropped
between 15 th February and ist April.
No extra food is given to the lambs before
weaning. Before lambing the ewes get
yellow turnips and straw ; after lambing,
swedes, with a mixture of cake, bran,
and oats until pasture grass is ready.
After weaning, about the end of July,
the ram lambs to be kept for breeding
purposes are put on to young grass, where
they get cake, or a mixture of cake,
Indian corn, and bran. This mixture
is continued until September of the fol-
lowing year, — about i lb. per day is the
full quanity, but less is given at first.
In winter, when the pasture is done, the
young rams get turnips and hay.
PREPARING RaMS POS SALE.
Messrs Smith, LeastoUj have been
good enough to supply the following
information regarding their method of
preparing Border Leicester rams for sale.
They begin clipping about the ist of
April. All new wool is left on, but
on no account do they leave old wool.
Sheep are never washed when newly
clipped. The grease that there is in
the wool makes the sheep less liable 'to
catch cold. The animals are kept in a
well-ventilated dry shed, and are let out
for a run daily. When warmer weather
comes, say about the middle of May, the
sheep are washed with soap and water
and made to swim through cold water.
When dry and coats thoroughly set, the
sheep are dressed all over. In a week's
time they are dipped with fairly strong
dip, which helps the growth of the wool.
Nothing more is done until the second
week in July, when the rams are again
washed. Great care must be taken not
to rub out the curl in the wool ; indeed,
they should not be rubbed at all — just
clapped with the hand. When the coat
is set (a full week is usually given)
dressing is again done. This is the
most important dressing of the year.
Backs are well taken down, coats squared
out at the rump, tails dressed to set off
quarters, wool left full between hind legs,
necks close taken in and tapered off to
front of breast. The sheep are then
dipped again in strong dip. Care is
taken not to let the sheep out in strong
sun for a few days after.
As the sales come on generally in the
second week in September, the next
washing, &c., is done two weeks before.
This time dipping is done before wash-
ing, this being to give the sheep a nice
rich bloom after they are washed. They
are again washed a week before the sales,
and carefully gone over with a pair of
shears. Care is taken to show the sheep
in first-class bloom, but it is very difficult
to do, especially if the weather be wet
and when such large numbers have to
be dealt with.
The rams' heads are capped during
the later part of summer. This helps to
prevent them fighting, and also keeps
away the flies. In very hot weather
they are sometimes kept in the house
during the day and let out at nights —
the select lot at any rate. The Leaston
sheep are carefully classed to suit the
different markets. The best breeders'
148
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
sheep are sold at Kelso — viz., those with
nice curly wool, well covered white heads,
well-set ears, strong loins, stylish walkers,
with good flat bones. For Edinburgh
the rams are of the same style, but closer
in coats, as most are sold for crossing
with Cheviot ewes for breeding half-bred
lambs. The rams for the Perth sales
must have very strong curly coats; the
character of the head is not so important,
as the Perth rams are used for crossing
with Blackface ewes. Sheep used for
this purpose must be active on their
legs. The remainder are sold privately
at home.
A portrait of a Border Leicester ram
is given in Plate 50.
THE LINCOLN LONG-WOQL.
The Lincoln Long- wool sheep is native
to the county from which it takes its
name. It is one of the oldest of our
breeds, being known in Lincolnshire for
upwards of 150 years. Many of the
chief flocks are, so to speak, family
heirlooms handed down from one genera-
tion to another.
Lincolnshire has always been noted
for the size of its stock. It produced
the Fen type of Shire* horse, the red
variety of Shorthorn cattle, the Long-
wool sheep, and the curly-coated pig —
every one of which stands out in respect
of size and substance.
Doubtless, in the earlier days, the
Leicester was employed to get fleece
and form ; but not a few hold that the
Leicester is much indebted to the
Lincoln, yet perhaps not so much as
the Lincoln to the Leicester.
Noted Early Flocks.
There are records in existence tracing
the descent of flocks in the present day
as far back as 160 years. Thus Mr
J. E. Casswell's flock at Laughton,
Folkingham has been in the hands of
the family since 1740, and that of Mr
Tom Casswell at Pointon since 1755.
Other well-known flocks can claim
almost as ancient a record — notably
that of Mr Henry Dudding at Riby
Grove, which for so many years was
maintained by his father at Panton.
The names of Clarke, Kirkham, Need-
ham, Smith, Cartwright, Howard, and
Wright, are prominently identified with
the development of the Lincoln sheep.
It is interesting to note that Mr Henry
Dudding's grandfather was one of four
who hired a Bakewell ram for a season
at the record price of 1000 guineas.
In the olden days ram-lettings were
great institutions, but in modern times
they have been superseded by auction
sales. As far back as 1837 Mr G.
Casswell, the grandfather of Mr J. E.
Casswell, let a ram for £<)o. The
averages made in the middle of last
century indicate that" the very high
prices paid in recent years are founded
on a long period of high figures. In
the old Biscathorpe flock (Mr Kirkham),
for instance, the average of 150 sheep in
1864 was £22, i2s. 4d. This flock also
averaged in 1872 ;^25, iis. 6d. for 120
head ; while in 1873 the average was
£zSi 17s. 7d- for 70 sheep.
Modern Records.
All previous records, of course, sink
into insignificance before the 1450 guinea
sheep at Mr Dudding's salt in 1906.
That sheep was purchased for the Argen-
tine. Mr Dudding has on two other
occasions realised 1000 guineas for a
single ram, and in the year 1907 the
top figure at his auction was 900 guineas.
In 1906 Messrs Wright of Nocton Heath,
Lincoln, sold their flock to be exported
to the Argentine. The buyer was Seflor
Cobo, and the total sum paid is said
to have been in the neighbourhood of
;^40,000.
Gha/racteristics.
The Lincoln is a big, bold type of
Long-wool. One of its chief sources of
value is its matchless fieece. A sheep
of fine symmetry, it carries a strong
head on a thick neck. The ears should
be wide set and carried forward. The
eye should be bold, the nostrils broad
in the ram, and the muzzle shapely.
There should be no spots on a white
face. The sheep should stand squarely,
be broad in the back, with no weakness
of rib to be detected under hand. The
rump and loin should be well filled, and
the dock carried high. A low-set dock is
a sign of weakness. The leg of mutton
should be full — a point in which defect is
THE LINCOLN LONG-WOOL.
149
most frequently seen. The limbs should
be white — a grey leg being a bad fault.
The fleece should be as nearly as
possible of one quality all over the
body, and extend down to the hoofs
behind. The staple is very broad and
wavy. A shearling will sometimes grow
locks of close on 2 feet long. The cod
should be well covered, otherwise there
is likely to be a scarcity of belly wool.
The forelock is a strong point in a
show sheep.
Clip and "Weight. — There are in-
stances on record of exceptional clips,
such as 32 lb. of washed wool. Well-
grown rams commonly clip 25 lb. of
washed wool Probably the best flocks
, will average 14 lb. of wool, though 12
to 13 lb. is a good figure.
Mr Henry Smith, jun., of Cropwell
Butler, Nottingham, says that "a flock
of well-bred ewe hoggets will yield a
stone of wool each; rams much more.
I believe that the 350 guinea ram sold
by Mr John Pears in 1896 to Messrs
Kirkham of Biscathorpe and Cartwright
of Keddington clipped 31 lb. This was
an unusual weight certainly, but many
go over 20 lb."
The breed is the heaviest in England.
It has produced phenomenal weights at
Smithfield. Mention might be made of
the winning pen of three wethers in
1907, which weighed 10 cwt. 6 lb at
21 months 3 weeks and 4 days. An
analysis of Smithfield weights shows
that the average gain of lambs in live-
weight is about 11^ ounces daily,
though it is sometimes as high as 125]^
ounces. The wethers gain about 8J4
ounces, the best turning 9 ounces daily.
Mr Henry Smith, jun., writing of his
champion pen in 1896, says that they
averaged 219 lb. when dressed, and the
butcher reported that they were "very
good fleshed sheep."
Early Maturity. — The breed ^s very
free from foot -rot and matures early.
Sheep of the Lincoln type are kept
largely for crossing purposes, the Down
cross being much favoured.
Constitution. — A strong point is
made of the constitution of the Lincoln
sheep. It is kept in a natural state,
although the show specimens are brought
out in a condition of obesity. In winter
the flock makes its living on turnips.
Foreign Trade. — ^Without the foreign
demand the Lincoln flockmaster could
not boast of high prices. Several breed-
ers are their own exporters, but most of
the business in high-priced sheep is done
through agents. At the present time the
Argentine is the chief market, although
in former years New Zealand and Aus-
tralia were splendid customers. As in-
dicative of the strength of the demand,
it may be mentioned that the Lincoln
Long-wool Sheep Breeders' Association,
founded as late as 1892, issued in 1905
4855 export certificates. In 1906 the
number was 6928, and in 1907 3566.
MANAGEMENT OF LINCOLN FLOCKS.
The management of Lincoln flocks does
not vary greatly in the leading flocks.
As befitting sheep of large size, carrying
exceptionally heavy fleeces of wool, ths
system of feeding is liberal in all sue
cessful flocks.
Cropwell Butler Flock.
In Mr Smith's celebrated flock or
Lincoln sheep at Cropwell Butler, near
Nottingham, the majority of the lambs
are dropped in the month of February.
The ewes are kept on pastures till about
Christmas. On the approach of bad
weather they are given in troughs a
mixture of different foods, such as cotton-
cake, oats, offal peas, and barley, with as
much chopped straw as they care to eat,
additional fodder being supplied in racljs.
Between Christmas and lambing time the
ewes get white turnips or kohl-rabi, with
plenty dry food. After lambing they go
on to good pasture, and get mangels with
some extra food if required. The ewes
drop their first lamb when two years old,
and are kept on as long as they continue
to breed well, some of them till they are
nine or ten years old.
The earlier ram lambs are weaned early
in June, the others after midsummer.
The ewes and lambs are penned with
"creeps," which admit the lambs to
boxes containing mixtures of crushed
linseed-cake, cotton-cake, and oats. After
weaning the lambs go on to vetches till
the clover " eddish "^ has grown. To-
wards August the lambs get Enfield
^ Aftermath.
ISO
LONG.WOOLLED BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
Market cabbages spread to them, and
afterwards they are penned, first on ox
cabbage, then on kohl-rabi, and at a later
stage on swedes. None of the lambs in
the Cropwell Butler floek are castrated.
The best of them are sold for breeding
purposes, many of them being exported
to various countries. The '^ culls" are
shorn in March or April when about 13
or 14 months old, and are sold at the
Nottingham fat stock market. In April
1907 a clipped hogget from this flock
brought 6 IS. for slaughter, while its
fleece of 20 lb. realised is. per lb.-=-in
all, -£4, IS. for a hogget under 14
months old.
Th^ female hoggets are grazed on
pastures without extra food during the
summer. The best of them are added
to the home flock, and the others are
sold for breeding purposes elsewhere.
Young rams are clipped in April. They
are kept on *' seeds " and " clovers," with
swedes, mangels, Enfield Market cabbage,
and vetches in succession, supplemented
by concentrated food, such as cake and
corn, as may be required.
Jiiby Grove Flock.
In Mr Henry Budding's famous flock
at Eiby Grove, StalHngboro', Lincoln-
shire, lambs are dropped during Feb-
ruary, March, and April, and are weaned
in May or June. For some time before
being weaned the lambs get a mixture
of oats and cake and a few cut swedes.
When taken from the ewes the lambs are
put on to new " seeds," where cabbages
and mangels are thrown out to them.
As soon as turnips are ready the lambs
are folded on them.
Ewes are kept on pasture till turnips
are ready, when they are folded on the
roots, getting cut straw and a mixture
of cake, oats, and peas. After lambing
the ewes go on to grass, where they get
roots and the same dry fpod. Ewes are
two years old when the first lambs are
dropped, and they are cast when their
teeth give way.
Young rams are treated similarly to
lambs after weaning, the allowances of
concentrated food being gradually in-
creased. They get vetches in racks.
Stock rams are kept on pastures till
they go amongst the ewes.
Phenomenal prices have been obtained
by Mr Budding for the produce of his
flock — up to 1450 guineas for a shearling
ram, and 260 guineas for a ram lamb ;
shearling ewes, 15 to 30 guineas, and 10
to 15 guineas for ewe lambs. Earn lambs
weigh about 25 lb. per quarter.
A portrait of a Lincoln ram is printed
in Plate 51.
COTSWOLD SHEEP.
The Cotswold breed of sheep is to be
found chiefly in Gloucestershire and the
neighbourhood of the Cotswold hills.
Origin. — The early history of the
breed ascribes the name Cotswold to
" the range of oolite hills running from
north-east to south-west, and occupying
the eastern division of Gloucestershire."
That point, however, is in dispute — the
other suggested derivation of the name
of the breed being "cotes," buildings,
and "wold," the wild open country.
The manufacture of cloth in the Cots-
wold neighbourhood by the Eomans im-
plies the presence of sheep, so that there
is some ground for the assumption that
the Cotswold is one of the oldest breeds
of which we have record.
Improvement.
The improvement of the breed since
the early times of last century has been
very marked. From a large slab-sided,
long-limbed, and heavily coated animal
the modern well-ribbed, clean-cut type
of sheep has been evolved. In the dkys
of Bakewell, no doubt, the Leicester
was used for grading up; and amongst
the names conspicuous in the advance-
ment of the breed in the early days
are Game, Hewer, Large, Lane, Barton,
Gillett, Fletcher, and others. About the
middle of last century, when agricul-
tural shows began to play a strong
part in live-stock br^ding, the excel-
lence of the breed attracted widespread
attention. Earn sales were established,
and the Cotswold was dispersed all over
the British Isles — particularly to the
southern and midland counties. They
were certainly very adaptable sheep, and
were capable of making themselves at
home under every condition of soil and
climate. In 1847 Mr E. Smith, in the
course of a prize essay, mentions that
COTSWOLD SHEEP.
151
Cotswold rams were " jnUPh SPijight after
for crossing witli short - wooljed lireeijs,
and with good effect."
The breed has always been a tenant-
farmer's sheep, and- its earlier successes
are therefore all the more creditable.
The Oxford Down is perhaps the niost
pronounced example of the value of the
Cotswold for cross-breeding. The old
name of this type was Dpwn-Cotswold,
it having been directly descended from
the Cotswold on the one hand Rpd the
Hampshire Down on the other,
About fifty or sixty years ago in
Gloucestershire it was estimated that
5000 rams were sold and let in a season
at a total revenue of _;^5 0,000. A good
export trade prevailed to America, Aus-
tralia, and the Continent.
Gharacteristies.
In appearance the giodern Cotswold is
a noble sheep. The head is a fine index
of a sire. In the ram it should be
masculine, wide between the eyes, the
eye full and prominent but kindly. The
nostrils should be well expanded and
somewhat broader thai; the face, the
colour of the nose being dark. The
cheek should be full and covered with
white hair, a slightly blue tinge on the
pheek and round the eye being an at-
traction rather than otherwise. The ear
should be fairly long, not too thick, and
well covered with hair. They should be
well carried, and a dark spot or two on
the tips is not an objection. The fore-
lock of wool should be plentiful and full
from the top of the head, which should
be free from coarseness. Grey fg,ces are,
of course, not fancied, although difficult
to breed out entirely, In the ram the neck
should be big and muscular, and 3hould
be long enough to enable the sheep to
carry his head with gaiety. The heck
should fit into the shoulders, which
should lie well back, The point of the
shoulder should have a, good covering of
flesh, which should be well spread over
the chine. The ribs should be well
sprung, the hips broad and well covered,
the fleshing deep. The frame should be
square, the legs set on straight and lyell
outside the body. Long lustrous wool is
looked for, the wool being regarded, as in
all breeds, as an indication of tbe char-
acter of the flesh.
Hutton and "Wool FypiJuotion. — The
Cotswold is a ready mutton and wool
producer. It can be brought to market
at from 9 to 12 months old, with ordin-
ary feeding, at from 90 to 112 lb. dead-
weight, and not infrequently the best
flocks will turn out sheep froiji 120 to
130 lb. at that age. It is on record that
a Mr Cotljer of Middle Aston killed a
sheep aged 3 years and 9 months, weigh-
ing 336 lb, or 84 lb. per quarter, one
of the legs of mutton weighing 54 lb.
Good Smithfield live-weights for pens
of three lambs, 9 months and 3 weeks
old, are 5 cwt. 14 lb., and for three
wethers, 20 months and 3 weeks old, 7
pwt. 3 qrs, I lb. Another good pen of
three scaled 8 cwt. 2 qrs. 20 lb., at 21
months and ij^ weeks. The show of
Cotswolds at Smithfield has fallen to
very small dimensions, however.
In good flocks, from 9 to 11 lb. of
washed ^ool will be clipped.
Pripes. — The old prices and averages
obtained at Cotswold ram sales are merely
memories nowadays. There is a restricted
home demand due to the advance of
other breeds, although the foreigner takes
a number, chiefly to North America,
where there is K big trade for the Cots-
wold type of sheep. As a matter of
history, it piay be interesting to mention
that in 1861 Mr E. Lane's average at hjs
ram sale was j^34, los. 8d. ; in 1873
Mr R Game averaged j£,22i, i6s. 4d.
In 1864 Mr W. Lane of Broadfield
bought one of Mr W, Hewer's rams for
230 guineas. Prices are very much
lower to-day, the best figures being made
privately.
MANAGEMENT OF COTSWOLDS.
The following plan of management is
pursued by one of the largest, most
prominent, and successful breeders. He
mates his ewes in August so as to get
as many lambs as possible in January
and February, but the mating is con-
tinued so long as the lambs will be born
by April, The ewes are put ^on grass
or mixed seeds after mating, untjl the
middle of November if the weather keeps
open, and then on roots, which are fed
sparingly, with a liberal allowance of
hay. If the weather is very wet the
flock ewes are run on pasture with hay
IS2
LONG-WOOLLED BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
only. In January the first ewes are
brought to the lambing - pen. They go
on pasture during the .day, and have
roots carted to them. At nights, in the
pen, they have as much hay as they
can eat.
As fast as the lambs are born the
twins are separated from the singles,
the ewes with doubles being allowed a
supply of Egyptian cotton-seed-cake and
oats. The lambs are encouraged to eat
oats and linseed-cake. The single lambs
are treated in the way of feeding like the
doubles, but the ewes are not given cake.
The show lambs are selected when a
fortnight old, and put by themselves
with their dams. They receive oats, old
split beans, linseed-cake, and a proprietary
cake. The ewes are given a liberal allow-
ance of cotton-cake and oats, with plenty
of roots and the best hay. The lambs
have pulped roots and hay. Pasture by
day and the shed at night is the rule.
About the ist of May the lambs with
their dams are put on pasture, and the
roots are carted to them. Weaning takes
place about the middle of May, but the
show lambs are not weaned till they go
to the first exhibition, usually the Bath
and West. All ewes- and lambs are
brought into the sheds at night, till the
end of March or thereabouts. There
are about two-fifths twins.
Ewes are only discarded when their
breeding days are over. One ewe, for
instance, was breeding until she was
fourteen years old. Karely are any
marketed but old culled ewes. The
yearling rams and ewes, and ram and
ewe lambs, are sold principally for breed-
ing purposes, a number going to Canada
and the United States, — the remainder
going for crossing purposes, only a few
of the best being sold to home breeders.
When the lambs are weaned they go
on young mixed seeds, sainfoin or vetches
(tares), till roots are ready in autumn.
About fifty of the best yearling ewes
come into the flock every year.
The sysstem of management described
above is typical of the Cotswold ram-
breeding flock. The principle upon
which flockmasters go is to get lambs
early, so that they will be well grown
by the autumn, to feed them well, using
the. lamb-creep to enable the lambs to
have the freshest bite. Culling is done
in the summer, young sheep not up to
the standard bemg (Uspensed with, and
the good breeders kept as long as pos-
sible. Sainfoin is the popular legume
for Cotswold sheep. The store lambs
have turnips and hay in September, and
come on to swedes about Christmas.
The culls are sold fat to the butcher.
Those fit to be kept for shearlings are
retained. About two-thirds of the ewe-
lamb crop are drafted into the flock.
A portrait of a Cotswold ram is repre-
sented in Plate 51.
THE DEVON LONaWOOL.
The Devon Long-wool is one of four
ovine tribes found within the confines
of the county of Devon. It is a very
ancient breed, although in point of char-
acter there is a great resemblance between
three of the types common to Devon-
shire.
Early History. — The early history
of the Devon Long-wool is somewhat
obscure. It is maintained that it is
descended from the old Bampton Nott
sheep which were marketed in the town
of Bampton in large numbers. Bell's
Gazeteer in 1836 refers to these sheep as
" of large size and an uncommonly fine
quality from the excellence of the pas-
tures." A little later Professor Wilson,
writing of the Bampton Nott, remarked
that " it is very difficult to find a pure
Bampton unmixed vdth other blood, a
few only remaining in Devonshire and
West Somerset."
There is no doubt that in the time of
Bakewell and since, Dishley Leicester
blood was Used to improve the fleeces of
D6von Long-wools, and there is equally
little doubt that Lincoln blood was like-
wise introduced. The South Hams rams
from Totnes district were also used, so
that flockmasters freely borrowed from
the best sources in evolving the modern
type of sheep.
Characteristics.
It is apparent that at the present day
the Devon Long-wool has much in com-
mon with other Long-wool breeds of the
Lincoln and Leicester type. It is a
big framed sheep, with a plenitude of
bone and substance. It is rather bolder
THE SOUTH DEVON.
153
in the face than the Leicester, being
larger in the head. It is wide at the
base of the skull, and the nostrils in the
ram are full and well developed. The
ears are a good length, and a gOod tuft
of wool should grow on the forehead.
In appearance the Devon Long-wool is a
bulky sheep, with a broad back, good
loin, and strong dock. The leg of mutton
is sometimes deficient. The skin is a
nice pink. The coat should be uniform,
the fleece being one of the important
recommendations.
It may often happen that Long-wool
sheep show great variety in the class of
wool in a flock, and any tendency in the
individual sheep to have coarse breech
wool should at once be noted and that
ram discarded for breeding purposes.
When the writer inspected several of the
leading Devon Long-wool flocks about
the time the Flock Book was established,
he was most struck by the lack of uni-
formity in the fleeces. That defect, how-
ever, is rapidly improving under the
critical eye of the showyard judge and
the flockmaster. The coat is often curly,
in which respect it more resembles the
Leicester than the Lincoln.
The flesh of the breed is of excellent
quality, and should touch well under
hand. Breeders have very carefully and
successfully bred for "form," and the
fact that so much success in the produc-
tion of the fat lamb is attained in Devon,
Somerset, and Cornwall from this breed,
is independent testimony to the high
character of its flesh.
Clip and "WeigMs. — The breed clips
and weighs well The clip of a shear-
ling ram would be from 18 to 24 lb.,
and perhaps exceed that figure. The
ewes will produce to 12 or 13 lb. of
wool, but 8 or 9 lb. is the average, and
the lambs when shorn about 3 lb. and
over. The breed is largely used for
crossing with the Dorset Horn, the Dart-
moor, and the Exmoor. It develops
rapidly. In from 10 to 12 weeks fat
lamb will dress to 10 lb. a quarter. The
wethers are mostly sold as yearlings,
dressing from 22 to 24 lb. a quarter.
MANAGEMENT OF DEVON LONG-WOOLS.
Earns are usually put with the ewes
about the middle of September. When
the tups are sound on their feet and
vigorous, about fifty ewes may be allot-
ted to each of them. In Mr E. K. Berry
Torr's fiock at Instow, North Devon, it
is the custom after the rams have started
work to take them in each morning
and give them a few white peas and
oats. The ewes are run on the best
pastures, and a little cake and corn are
given to them during the critical time.
In Mr Berry Torr's flock rather over 50
per cent of twins are thrown by this
treatment. The lambs come from the
end of January to the middle of Febru-
ary. In the ^bove-mentioned flock roots
are avoided as far as possible for the
ewes, the grass run being assisted by hay
and straw chaffed and a few pulped
roots. Just before lambing a little
crushed oats or dried grains are given
with the chaff and pulp.
The fembs from the best ewes are
selected for rams, and the ewe Iambs
retained to keep up the flock. Of the
remainder the fattest are sold when they
reach about 9 or 10 lb. per quarter.
Those not getting fat Mr Torr keeps
on for turnips and sells them with others
bought in about Christmas, when they
scale from 18 to 20 lb. per quarter.
As soon as the lambs are born the
ewes are dotted about in small lots on
old pasture, and given a few roots with
cake and corn; and when the lambs begin
to pick up they are put on seeds, with
the usual lamb creep, the youngsters hav-
ing access to linseed-cake and lamb food,
or home-grown oats and a few crushed
beans or peas. For later comsumption
cabbage, rape, and kale are grown, and
the flock maintained in a thoroughly
healthy condition.
A portrait of a Devon Long-wool ram
appears in Plate 58.
THE SOUTH D]:\ X.
The South Devon sheep is bred chiefly
in South and Mid Devon. In Cornwall
it may be termed the leading ovine breed
kept by farmers. There is a great simi-
larity amongst the long-wool breeds of
the south-west if we except the sheep
that roam on the moors.
Origin. — The origin of the South
Devon is difficult to discover, but there
154
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
can be no doubt that the modern
type of sheep has been produced by
the aid of Leicester and other Long-
wools. They are supposed to have
originated in the vale of Honiton, and
descended from the South Hams Nott
sheep, whose origin is wrapped in
obscurity.
Characteristics.
In the early days they were described
as having been inferior and badly
shaped sheep, with heavy and coarse
fleeces, but like most of the stock in the
south-west of England, coming to gres.t
weight. They had brp^n faces and legs,
which seemed to suggest a Devon aflBn-
ity. The characteristics, however, were
very materially altered by union with
the Leicester.
Description. ^— The South Devpn
ghould carry ^ well-balanced hea4, broad,
and rather long, apd well covered on the
upper portion with wool. The nostrils
should be open and of a dark colour.
The muzzle should be broad. The ears
should be fairly long and of medium
thickness, covered with hair, and are
■often spotted. The neck is strong apd
of medium length. A straight and level
back from the withers to the setting on
of the tail gives a symmetrical turn to
the sheep. The shoulders should be flfit
and well covered, and ribs well sprung.
The loins should be broad and the bosom
deep. The sheep should stand squarely,
with the legs well on the outside. The
tail should be thick and fill the hand, tlje
hind quarters being well filled and squg,rp.
The skin should be pink and mellow.
The fleece should be thick and eyen, of
great length of staple, curly, and freie
from kemp or hair.
The South Devon is a sheep of nice
symmetry, well grown, with plenty of
bone and muscle. It thrives well on
poor land, and responds very r3,pidly to
generous treatment. Like most of the
lii^tre long-wools jjt can grow fat when
desired, but its strength pf bone ensures
that there is a good percentage of lean
meat.
Weight and PlJ-p.-r-It is on record
that a seven months' old lamb of the
breed weighed 234 lb., which is exegp-
tion%l for any breed. The fleece on the
average would wpigh abput 9 lb.
MANAGEMENT OF SOUTH DEVON SHEEP.
In the present day the South Devon
sheep has attained a wonderful degree
of perfection in symnjetry and the weight
of mutton carried. Th§ efiprts pf the
flockmaster in management are therefore
tp a considerable exteiit concentrated on
the improvement of the fleece. The
importance pf the fleece can be realised
when, even with wopl on the down grade,
the better class of flocks were able to
realise from j4d. to id. per lb. more on
their clips than was paid for ordinary
wool in the district. In Messrs Tippett
& Sons' flock at The Barton, North
Petherwin, Eglpskerry, the ewes g,verage
about 14 lb. of wopl, whilst the rajas clip
from 26 to 33 lb. unwashed wooL
In the winter months hay, chaff, find
roots are given on the grass, most pf, the
flocks being kept in a. natural state.
Fattening is generally accomplished on
roots and rape with artificial food. Fat
lamb is one pf the objects for which
the breed is kept, and they attain good
weights by Christmas. The ewes are
very gopd mothers.
Mating takes place ifi September and
October, but in the earlier flocks they
put the rams tp the ewes in August.
Lambs arrive as early as the first few
days in January, but February and March
are the usual lambing months.
When the larnbs are eight weeks old
they can command from 4ps. to 42 s.,
making about lod. to is. per lb. When
sold by weight at a little over three
months old, lambs spale abput 68 lb.,
and later in the season they weigh up
to 81 lb. They make the highest priges,
as they carry a lot of flesh.
Ewes are drafted after the fourth
lambiug, but in the Barton flock favour-
ites have been kept until ten years old.
A South Devon ram is represented in
Plfttg 58.
WENSLEYDALE SHEEP.
The Wensleydale sheep is a product of
Yorkshire. It is descended from an old
breed called Mugs which were introduced
into Wensleydale about the middle of
the eighteenth century, and which were
apparently a variety of the old Tees-
wensleydAle sheep.
155
water sheep. The Wensleydale doubt-
less resulted from a cross of the Leicester
on this breed, and has ts^ken on a^ dis-
tinctive character,
The dark countenance of the breed is
in a good measure due to the use of a
celebpated ram called "Blue Cap," whose
sire was a Leicester raro. This shgep
was shown at the Eoyal Agricultural
Society's Show at Liverpool in the year
1841.
At a later period the Lincoln ram was
used, but the success of this cross is
doubted by breeders, who had the ram
trade, rather than the grazier, in view.
Characterdstics.
Appearance. — The Wensleydale ram
is strong boned, with great length of side,
and a big proportion of lean flesh. A
scale of points has been drawn up by the
Wensleydale Long-wool Sheep Breeders'
Society, as follows : —
Points.
Head. — Face (lark ; ears dark and well set
on ; head broad and flat between the
ears ; muzzle strong in rams ; a tuft
of wool on the forehead ; eyes bright
and full ; head gaily carried . . 20
NecTc. — Moderate length, strong, and well
set on shoulders . . . . ip
Shoulder. — Broad and oblique ... 5
Cheat. — Wide and deep .... 10
Wool. — Bright lustre, curled all over body,
all alike in staple . . . .10
Bach and Loins. — Ribs well sprung and
deep; loin broad and covered with
meat ; tail broad ; flank full . . 20
Legs and Feet. — Straight, and a little fine
wool below the hock ; fore legs well
set apart ; hind legs well filled with
mutton 20
Shm. — Blue, soft, and fine . . . S
ipo
For Crossing. — The Wensleydale
sheep depends to a large extent for its
prosperity upon the demand for rams for
crossing purposes. As far back as 1847
the tup breeders of the Dale presented
Mr Macqueen of Crofts, in the south of
Scotland, with ^i silver snuff-box " as a
token of estpem for his encouragement
of the breed." The rams are chiefly used
on the Scotch Blackface ewe, on which
they have been particularly successful,
producing what is known in Yorkshire
as the Masham sheep. One of the
reasons of their success is that the Wens-
leydale mutton, unlike the mutton of
many other long -wool breeds, is hard
and firm to the hand. As a hill sheep,
too, it is active, ajid the Wensleydale
ram never fails to keep up with its
quarry, be it a mountain ewe or one
of the larger breeds.
Interesting Crosses. ^-In certain
trials carried out at Newton Eigg in
Cumberland, the Wensleydale ram cross
on the Border half-bred ewe (Cheviot
Border Leicester) came out very satisfac-
torily. The experiments of 1904-5 en-
abled the verdict to be parsed on this
cross that it produced the fastest grow-
ing lambs, although less capable of fatten-
ing as they grew: " It would appear tliat
these lambs fatten easiest when near
mature growth. The lambs were not
allowed to arrive until the herbage came,
and they were not weaned till four
months old. They are run at grass and
fattened on turnips in the early part of
the year, being killed and sent to the
London market.
Clip and Weiglit. — A good Wensley-
dale flock of ewes will clip from 9 to
10 lb. of wool. The rams will produce
from 14 to 21 lb. A celebrated ram,
" Royal Darlington," clipped 20 lb.
The breed is kept at an altitude of
from 700 to 1400 feet above sea-level,
and such weights as 30-stone rams are
not unknown, although the general
run of shearlings is from 18 to 25
imperial stones.
MANAGEMENT.
In the management of a Wensleydale
flock well defined lines are followed.
In the choice of a sire most breeders
have a leaning towards a twin ram, — ■
some, indeed, will not use a single in the
belief that precocity and prolificacy can
thus be bred into the flock. The ewes
are excpUent nurses, and it is therefore
not surprising that as many as two
Iambs to the ewe should occasionally be
a flock average. The ewes themselves
are capable of rearing, and do some-
times rear, as many as three -lambs in
a season.
Previous to turning the ewes to the
ram a gentle system of flushing by
change of pasture is adopted. Not only
do the sheep take the ram earlier in con-
156
LONG-WOOLLED BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
sequence, but a better crop of lambs is
believed to result.
The ewes, owing to the lateness of the
district, are not put to the rams until
October. Early lambing has no ascrib-
able advantages. On the contrary, to
face even a month of short-keep with a '
big crop of lambs does not appeal to the
average flockmaster on the uplands of
the north of England.
Little hand-feeding is done in a mild
and open winter, but when necessity
compels, as the severity of the weather
frequently does, the simplest extra fare
suffices. A little oats and hay will easily
pull the flock through. At lambing, oats
or cake are provided with dry fodder in
tiie form of hay. When the turnips
last they are also given, but not every
farmer has a large enough breadth of
arable land to grow them in sufficient
quantities.
Shelter is provided for the ne-vS'-born
lambs, which are drafted out into the
fields as the accommodation becomes
limited.
A portrait of a Wensleydale ram ap-
pears in Plate 6i.
KENT OE EOMNEY MAESH
SHEEP.
The Kent or Komney Marsh sheep
belongs to a race that is not of yester-
day's creation. It is peculiar to the
Eomney Marsh district, where it thrives
as no other breed could.
Sir Charles Whitehead has declared
through the -Journal of the Boyal Agri-
cultural Society that some one had sug-
gested "that the aboriginal Kent sheep
posed as the model of the cube upon four
legs representing sheep in toy Noah's
arks, and as toy manufacturing has long
been carried on in the low countries,
perhaps the breed, like hops and other
good things, was fetched from Flanders."
There is a certain similarity between
the sheep of the Netherlands and this
breed. Mr Arthur Finn has recorded,
in a lecture delivered before the Eye
Farmers' Club, the formation of a town
flock at Lydd as long ago as 1572. This
flock was founded in return for certain
people giving up rights of common land.
No doubt, about Bakewell's time, the
Improved Leicesters were extensively
used in the Marsh, and the type of
sheep grazing there was materially
changed in consequence.
Characteristics.
The breed has a very hardy constitu-
tion. This can be readily understood
from the nature of the land on which it
thrives without the assistance of artificial
food. In their native county reclaimed
pastures are not uncommonly found side
by side with the poorest and barest lands
sparsely covered with vegetation. On
the one the breed rapidly fattens, and on
the other it can find sustenance.
Points. — The chief points of the breed
may be considered as follows : The head
should be wide ; the ears should be thick ;
there should be no dark hair on the
poll, on which a covering of wool is
looked for. The head is white and the
nose black. In form the typical Kent
sheep is very thick, and shows great
width of chest. It stands on very short
legs, with thighs, loin, and rump well
developed. The fleece should be of one
kind, without coarse breech wool, the
staple being good and thick on the pelt.
The breed is essentially a mutton one,
the favourite cross being the Hampshire
or Southdown.
A good crop of lambs would be i^
per ewe, although Mr Arthur Finn, in
his flock at Westbroke, Lydd, records a
fall of 519 lambs from 300 ewes on one
grazing occupation.
Clip. — The clip of good ewes would
be from 8 to 10 lb., the former figure
being about the average. A good flock,
in which the ram lambs are shorn,
would average from 6j^ to 7 lb. per
fleece. These weights are for washed
wool, in some flocks washing being per-
forrned twice.
The Kent sheep is wonderfully im-
mune from foot -rot, and is inured to
the fluke trouble which visits most'
marshy lands.
A foreign trade of considerable dimen-
sions has sprung up since the Flock Book
was established.
Weights. — An average weight for fat
wethers fed on gfrass would be from 10
to II stone. Taking the Smithfield
Show weights, loj^ oz. daily is a very
high gain for lambs, the average being
EOSCOMMON SHEEP.
157
9.8 oz. per day. The wethers average 6.9
oz. daily increase.
MANAGEMENT.
Breeders of Kent or Romney Marsh
sheep are to some ejjtent divided in
opinion as to the type of ram to use.
Some of them endeavour to grade the
flock to a level, and thereby obviate the
necessity of using a strong or coarse tup
to correct the fault of too much quality.
Mr J. B. Palmer of New Shelve Manor,
Lenham, does not believe in having
coarse or fine rams to mate with ewes
of opposite character, but to fix the type
and draft all ewes that do not conform
to it. His plan is to flush the ewes for
about a week before admitting the rams,
as by so doing he considers that he gets
a greater crop of lambs. When the rams
are taken from the ewes he keeps the
latter in fair condition. It is important,
however, that they should be in good
condition when they drop their lajnbs.
Last year his ewes had quite 50 per cent
of twins.
The general management of a flock on
the Marsh is not an elaborate matter, as
sheep can live there without extra food
except in very severe weather. Early
maturity is not a strong point with Kent
sheep-breeders. In some of the flocks
the policy carried out is to mate the old
rams with the young ewes, and the year-
ling rams with the ewes of more mature
age. The matrons showing symptoms of
a weak constitution are drafted out after
weaning. The limit age in the ordinary
flock is four years. At times the best
of the old ewes are retained for a special
reason, and are kept perhaps a year
longer. It is not advisable, however, to
keep ewes too long in the flock, for
grazing on good pastures and coarse
grass makes long and therefore loose
teeth. When Ihat happens the ewes
are likely to come to weaning -time in
very poor condition.
Mr F. Baker of Manor Farm, Frinds-
bury, Rochester, does not think that the
crop of lambs is so large as formerly.
"This," he says (1908), "I attribute to
the fashion of putting up the yearling
ewes to such a useless extent. Some
thirty years since the increase of 25 to
30 per cent of lambs to ewes tupped was
not unusual, but now it only amounts to
5 or 10 per cent, and in the starvation
years of the 'Nineties one lamb to each
ewe was scarcely weaned."
The fleeces are becoming more uniform
and better in quality, from 7 to 7^ lb.
being a good flock clip.
Mr Baker estimates that the average
weight which the ewe flock attains is 9
stone in the first year, 10 stone in the
second, and 11 stone of 8 lb. in the
third.
A ram of the Kent or Romney Marsh
breed is represented in Plate 62.
ROSCOMMON SHEEP.
Of several native varieties of sheep
which at one time existed in Ireland the
only breed now surviving is the Roscom-
mon Long-wool. The breed is believed
to have been reared in the province of
Connaught for centuries, though it is
doubtful if it was distinguished for either
good looks or high merits till weUnigh
the middle of the nineteenth century.
It appears that strains of the race kept
on the higher and poorer lands were of
an inferior character, but that the bulk
of the breed kept on the lower and richer
parts were big useful sheep, though lack-
ing in symmetry.
Iinprovem,eiit of the Breed. — In due
time the improvement of the breed was
taken in hand by the more enterprising
of its supporters, and partly by the mod-
erate infusion of the blood of English
long-wooUed breeds, notably of the Leices-
ter, and partly by skilful selection within
the breed itself, a marked change for the
better was introduced. To a large ex-
tent this improvement was effected dur-
ing the third quarter of the nineteenth
century; but since then, by careful se-
lection and liberal and judicious treat-
ment generally, much has been done not
only to enhance the appearance of the
sheep, but also to raise to a higher level
their characteristics from a rent-paying
point of view.
Characteristics.
The Roscommon sheep of the present
day where well kept are large -sized,
handsome sheep, hardy in constitution,
and excellent grazers. They do not
iS8
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
mature quite so rapidly as some of the
other long--woolled breeds, the explana-
tion of this being the fact' that Ros-
common sheep have from time imme^
morial had to pick up their living from
pasture-lands, and have only in quite
exceptional cases had the forcing feeding
applied to most other breeds. With
moderate time to mature, Roscommon
sheep attain he&,vy heights. Hams three
to four years old have yielded from
300 to 380 lb. of carcase. Mr Matthew
FlanagaUj Tomona,- Tulsk, Co. Roscom-
mon, usually sells his wedder hoggfetS
for killing in November and December,
when about eighteen months old, their
carcase weights running frofli 27 to 32
lb. per quarter. The price obtained is
always the highest rate in the markets
at the titne. Indeed, the Roscommon
mutton is superior in quality to that of
most of the other long-wooUed breeds.
The Roscommon is a hornless breedj
carrying a long, lustrous fleece ; the head
is well shaped and well posed ; face long
and white, sometimes with and sometimes
without a tuft of wool on the forehead ;
the ears fine, white, and of medium
length, with perhaps a pinky tinge ; the
muzzle strotig in the ram ; the tail Well
hung and broad ; abd the legs StroUg.
Fleece. — ^The Roscommon wool has a
good reputation amongst Wool^bUyers.
The fleece is very vrhite and bright in
colour, and lustrous. From Shfeep kept
entirely on pastures the fleece wfeigns
from 8 to 11 lb., and from she6p that
are partly hand-fed and generally well
cared for the weights will rise to from
12 to 16 lb.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of Roscommon flocks
is usually simple in the extrema As
already indicated, the sheep are, in the
main, left to forage for themselves both
in winter and summer. It is only in a
few flocks where ram-breeding or feeding
for early maturity is pursued that any
hand-feeding is resorted to.
March and April are the lambing
months, and the lambs are weaned about
the second week in June.
Mr Flanajgan, already iBentioned, gives
his ewes about i lb. each per day of a
mixture of cake and oats for a short
time before lambing, and for a similar
time after lambing about 2 lb. daily of
linseed-cake and crushed oats. Through-
out the rest of the year there is no hand-
feeding. Mr Flanagan sells a number of
young rams for breeding purposes, get-
ting from ;£•] to _;^i2 each when they
are about eighteen months old. The
ram lambs are taught to eat cake along
■with their mothers in spring, and they
get a small allowance of this food up
till the selling time.
The portrait of a Roscommon ram is
given in Plate 64.
HALT*-BRED SHEEP
This is the name usually given in Scot-
land and the northern districts of England
to the first cross between the Border Lei-
cester ram and the Cheviot ewe, and the
produce of these crosses when mated
together. Strictly speaking, the Half-
bred is not a breed at all, but a variety
or typBi Yet the liame has, through use
and wont, come to be specially identified
With this particular cross, and nowadays
Half-breds are looked upon almost in the
light of a breed. Half-bred sheep have
had separate classes at the shows of the
Highland and Agricultural Society, and
at other leading shows in Scotland, for
many years, and although they have no
flock book or breed society, they are
as carefully bred, and have as clearly
marked characteristics, as most of our
registered breeds.
Founding of the Breed.
Northumberland is entitled to the
credit of having been the county where
Border Leicester rams were first system-
atically put to Cheviot ewes, the pioneers
of the cross being generally believed to
have been Mr John Borthwick of West ,
Newton, his son Mr Charles Borthwick,
also Of West Newtoti and Mindrum, and
the late Mr Elliot of Lamberton. Each
of these gentlemen is known to have
bred Half-breds from a Border Leicester
ram and a Cheviot ewe many years ago.
Mr John Borthwick, indeed, had a reg-
ular flock of Half-breds early in, if not
before, the opening of the Victorian era.
At that time it was customary ta breed
Half-breds through the medium only of
HALF-BEED SHEEP.
IS9
the first cross. But as the merit and
grfeat value of the sheep for general pur-
poses became more widely known and
appreciated, and as they began to spread
over the Border districts, breeders took
to mating half-bred to half-bred, in the
first instance at any fate, as a means
of getting up numbers quickly and
cheaply. Good Border Leicester rams
in these days were not so numerous as
they are now, and the half-bred to
half-bred system enabled their influence
to be darried further in a short period
of time.
The practice of putting half-bted to
half-bred is still pursued to a consider-
able extent, and therfe is a good deal of
difference of opinion among the followers
of the two systems as to which is the
better. Those who give attention to
showing and tup-breeding adhere almost
exclusively to the first cross. They
maintain that a sharper-headed and finer-
boned animal can be got in this way than
through the second generation of the
cross. They also hold that the white
hair on the face is purer, as a rule, in the
case of a first cross than in the produce
of subsequent crosses, the wool being
also usually closer and denser on the
body. On the other hand, the females
of the second and subsequent crosses
usually grow to bigger sizes than first
crosses of the same class, while they feed
f lilly as quickly.
Two Classes qf Half-hreds.
Writing some years ago on the differ-
ence between the two classes of Half-
breds, Mr Andrew Elliot, Newhall, Gala-
shiels, who has been a prominent breeder
of half-breds for many years, said — •
" In some minds there is a prejudice
against the half-bred and half-bred breed,
but in every instance where the rams are
selected with judgment and care, they
can be bred in this way for any length
of time without deteriorating in size,
style, or value. In this part of the coun-
try we have many instances of flocks
that have been bred in this way for the
last twenty-five yearsj and have not only
been successful but are growing daily
more in favour. Although it is usual to
have the rams of the first cross, I am
quite convinced that it is perfectly prac-
ticable to breed them pure half-bred and
have even better sheep if done ■With the
skill of a judge. There might be a pre-
judice against them for a time, but I feel
confident that the Result *ould be a
success. As shotv anilnals the ewes got
by half-bred rams will always beat those
of the first cross (that is to say, if they
be bred with care and skill), as they
show so much greater weight, which is
always an advantage if you have quality
along with it."
Practically the same views are held
to the present day, and it is not very
wide of the mark to say that nearly
One-half of the Half-breds, in Northum-
berland in particular, are of the half-
bred to half-bred cross. Although the
one class — unless for special purposes
— sells as readily as the other, it is
usual at sales, especially in the case of
breeding girhmers, to intimate whether
they are of the first or the second cross.
Distribution of Breed.
For a good many years Half-breds were
confined to Northumberland and the
arable districts of the south of Scotland
adjoining the Border. But in course of
time they spread widely over the country,
and large numbers are now bred as far
north as the counties of Sutherland and
Caithness. Indeed, Sutherland and
Caithness Half-breds, like Cheviots from
the same localities, have a special place
in the market, and are very popular
in the feeding districts of the Lothians
and elsewhere. Although many fairly
high-lying farms in Berwickshire, and a
good part of the lower slopes of the
Lammermoors, are under Half-breds, the
breed does not attain its best results on
very high grounds. Half - breds are
essentially a low -ground sheep; they
require plenty of food of a good quality,
and do best in association with turnip
husbandry. Properly managed, no sheep
have paid better in recent years than
Half-breds.
Early Lambs from Half-bred Ewes,
Half-bred ewes are very prolific, pro-
ducing usually on the average from one
and a half to two lambs apiece per
season. They are also good mothers,
milking excellently as a rule. In addi-
tion to their value for ordinary Half-bred
breeding. Half-bred ewes have a special
i6o
LONG-WOOLLED BREEDS OF SHEEP.
value for crossing with other breeds.
Thus, in late years they have been exten-
sively crossed with Oxford and Suffolk
rams for the production of fat lambs.
Lambs of these two crosses grow to big
sizes very early ; indeed, lambs from
Half-bred ewes and Down rams now
constitute fully one-half of the early
lambs bred in Scotland.
Three - parts - bred Iiambs. — Half-
bred ewes are also to a large extent used
for the production of what are called
three-parts-breds — that is, sheep having
three parts of Border Leicester blood to
one of Cheviot, the Border Leicester
being again the ram used. This was a
very popular animal in East Lothian
and one or two other districts before
the Down crosses became so popular,
and it is still bred by many in prefer-
ence to all others, especially where the
animals are intended to be fed off as
lambs or in the hogget stage.
Increasing Popularity.
Since crossing with Down rams for fat
lambs became general, Half-breds have
increased still further in popular favour,
and may now be said to be used in one
or other of their forms from one end of
Scotland to the other. They have also
greatly increased in numbers in North-
umberland, where, owing to their suit-
ability for being fattened on turnips,
they are now the prevailing low-ground
sheep.
Characteristics.
Appearance. — From the way it is
bred it is hardly necessary to say that
the Half-bred is a white-faced breed.
It is also hornless. The head of a well-
bred sheep should be well covered with
pure white hair. The ears should be
erect and mobile, with a slight inclina-
tion forward, and also well covered with
white hair. ,The eye should be bold,
bright, and prominent ; the forehead
should be wide and open; and the
muzzle black, like a Border Leicester,
and fairly wide, with good open nostrils:
The neck should be strong and well set
on the shoulder; the chest should be
wide, and the ribs well arched. It is
a strong point in favour of a sheep to
be thick through the heart. Indeed,
with many judges sheep that are not
thick through the heart stand little
chance of getting notice in the show-
ring.
The back should be straight and well
carried out to the rump, with quarters
wide and deep. The wool should incline
more to the Cheviot than the Border-
Leicester in closeness, and should be
very fine in staple and uniform all over
the body. Finally, the animal should be
well set on fine flat-boned legs, should
carry its head well, and be a good
walker. The last is a point of great
importance, and is never overlooked by
a careful capable judge.
Weights and Feeding Qualities.— r
From a commercial point of view there
is nothing to excel a good class of Half-
breds. They grow to big sizes,* come
early to maturity, and, whether as hog-
gets or hoggs, make excellent butchers'
sheep. The weights to which Half-breds
can be brought may be judged from the
facts that at the Scottish National Fat
Stock Show in Edinburgh in 1907, a pen
of three wedders of the breed under
two years old scaled alive 865 lb. — an
average of 288 lb., and a pen of three
ewes 708 lb., an average of 236 lb.
Cheviots on the same occasion scaled an
average of 244 lb. for wedders and 217
lb. for ewes — these weights, however,
being rather exceptional for Cheviots.
Clip. — Half-breds are also very goo,d
wool - producing sheep. A ewe flock
should clip from 5^ to 6 lb. of wool
per sheep, and where hoggs are included
a little more. Half-bred wool realises
practically as much as Cheviot wool
when the sheep have been well fed and
are of a good class.
Sale Centres.
The great sale centre of half-bred ewes,
gimmers, and lambs is St Boswells, al-
though finely bred half-breds can now
also be bought at Eothbury, Perth,
Inverness, and other centres in Scotland
and the north of England. Earns in the
same way are mainly sold at Eelso, al-
though sales are also held at Lockerbie,
Edinburgh, and other places.
Being purely commercial sheep, half-
breds have not the aristocratic support
which is frequently extended to other
breeds. Both rams and females, how-
ever, sell very well, and occasionally
HALF-BRED SHEEP.
l6l
realise comparatively high prices. A
half-bred ewe stock will usually realise
from 40s. to 75s. per head acpording to
age, while rams make anything up to
^40, specially choice ones occasionally
going as high as ;^So. In 1906 ten
specially fine Half-bred rams from Mr
Jeffrey's flock at Deuchrie, Prestonkirk,
averaged as much as;^i9, 13s. per head.
The highest price in 1907 was ;£4o,
again for a Deuchrie ram.
MANAGEMENT OF HALF-BKED FLOCKS.
The general management of Half-bred
flocks does not differ materially from
that of- Border Leicesters. Both are
essentially low -ground sheep, and if
they are to give ihe best results they
must be liberally treated. No one, for
example, who has not a fair supply of
young grass in the spring need hope to
breed Half-breds very successfully.
Ewes of the breed rarely average under
ij4 lambs per head. A good supply
of milk in the spring is therefore a
first necessity, and in no way can it
be got or kept on ewes more easily
than through a good supply of suc-
culent young grass.
With either Border Leicesters or Half-
breds it is also very desirable to have
at call a fair quantity of turnips.
Nothing makes better winter food, and
supplemented with a little cake, corn,
or hay, the roots will bring the ewes on
to lambing in first-rate form, and carry
them on to the , grass. With Half-bred
ewes, particularly when they are crossed
with rams of the Down breeds, lambing
begins earlier than it does in the case of
Border Leicesters. Many aim at having
the lambs arriving as soon after the
New Year as possible. In such cases
it is possible to have the lambs ready
for the market by the end of April
or the 1st of May. Lambs bred in
this way usually fetch from 353. to 44s.
per head.
On regular Half-bred farms, where
breeding for the ordinary breeding and
feeding market is the object aimed at,
lambs arrive from March onwards.
Such lambs are usually drawn and
sold during the month of August. Ewe
lambs suitable for breeding purposes will
then realise quite readily 40s. per head,
and occasionally a little more. Wedder
lambs usually realise slightly lower
figures, and are bought either for feed-
ing off on turnips during the ensuing
winter, or for keeping on to the shear-
ling stage.
Cast ewes are usually drafted out
after they have nursed their fourth crop
of lambs. Ewes of this age are sold
towards the end of September or early
in October, and are largely bought for
putting to a Down ram, the ewe and the
lamb going away together, fat, as early as
possible in the ensuing spring. Eams
are sold in September, and go amongst
the ewes early in the following month.
In special cases where exceptionally
early lambs are wanted the rams are
turned out earlier.
Half-bred ewes do not, as a rule, give
much trouble at lambing time, being
hardier than Border Leicesters. All the
same, they require close attention on the
part of the shepherd at this time if the
best results are to be obtained. Lamb-
ing, as in the case of the Border Leicester
and other low-ground sheep, takes place,
as a rule, in specially prepared pens,
near the steading, the ewes being kept
in adjoining paddocks for some days
both before and after they lamb.
With many of the outlying parts of
farms being laid down to grass, Half-
breds have the prospect of having an
even extended sphere of usefulness.
A portrait of a Half-bred ram is given
in Plate 56.
VOL. HI.
1 63
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEER
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
THE SOUTHDOWN SHEER
The doyen of the short-Wool breeds of
sheep is undoubtedly the Southdown.
It holds amongst these the same estim-
able position that the Leicester does
amongst long - wools. It is native to
the range of hills which rifns through
Sussex. There can be no doubt that
it has been largely Used in the building
up of other breeds, such as the Shrop-
shire, Oxford Down, and Suffolk.
Early Improvers.
In the early times of Arthur Young
speckle faces were common, but to-day
the demand runs on a nice mouse-brown
colour. Ellman of Glynde was one of
the earliest improvers of the breed. He
brought his flock to a high pitch of ex-
cellence. We know little or nothing of
Ms methods, bjit it has been suggested
that he may have introduced a dash of
Leicester blood.
Arthur Young states that the " Ellman
flock of sheep is unquestionably the first
in the country. . . . He has raised the
merit of the breed by his unremitting
attention, and it now stands unrivalled."
According to YoUatt, the Ellman type'
of sheep, as exemplified in the head, was
as follows : " The head small and horn-
less; the face speckled or grey, and neither
too long nor too short ; the lips thin, and
the space between the nose and the ears
narrow ; the under jaw or chops fine and
thin ; the ears tolerably wide and well
covered with wool, and the forehead also ;
and the whole space between the ears
well protected by it as a defence against
the fly; the eye full and bright but not
prominent."
When Ellman sold out, in 1829, his
ewe flock of 770 head averaged
£iZt IS. 6d. ; 320 lambs averaged 36s. ;
32 ram lambs iios. ; 360 rams of mixed
ages 125s. ; and 241 wethers 21s. These
were big prices in those days. Francis
Duke of Bedford gave Ellman 300
guineas for the hire of a tup for the
two seasons of 1802 and 1803.
Subsequent improvement was brought
about by Jonas Webb of Babrahanf,
whose ram-lettings were famous.
Characteristics.
The eharacteristics of the Southdown
are first flesh, second Wool. The breed is
recognised as the finest mutton-producer,
the great aim being to make it the sheep
of the epicure. The Southdown Sheep
Society, an amalgamation of two pre-
existing societies, has approved the fol-
lowing descriptive scale of points :^-
Description and Scale of Points.
Points.
Chwracters. — General character and ap- .
pearance ...... 10
ffead.—'WidB, level between the ears, with
no sign of elug or dark poll . . 8
Face. — Full, not too long from the eyes to
nose, and of one even mouse colour,
udt approaching black or speckled ;
under jaw light .... 4
Syesj-^hssrge, bright, and prominent . 2
Em's. — Of medium size, and covered with
short wool ..... 2
NecJe, — Wide at the base, strong, and well
set on to the shoulders ; throat clean 5
Shoulders. ^Well set, the top level with
tte back 7
Chest. — Wide and deep .... 5
Baek. — Level, with a wide flat loin . . 10
Hiis. — Well sprung, and well ribbed up,
thick through the heart, with forS and
hind flanks fully developed . . 7
Rwm/p. — Wide and long, and well turned . 4
Tail. — Jjarge, and set on almost level with
the chine ^ . . • . . . 4
Legs of Mutton. — Including thighs,
which should be full, well let down,
with a deep wide twist . . .10
Wool. — Of fine texture, great density, and
of sufficient length of staple, covering
the whole of the body down to the
hocks and knees and right up to the
cheeks, with a full foretop, but not
round the eyes or across the bridge of
the nose ...... 10
Shim. — Of a delicate bright pink . . S
Carriage. — Corky, legs short, straight,
and of one even mouse colour, and
set on outside the body ... 7
100
Disqualifications.
Judges at Breeding Stock Shows are advised
not to award a prize to othervrise good
sheep on which are to be seen — [a)
horns, or evidence of their presence ;
(6) dark poll ; (c) blue skin ; [d) speckled
face, ears, and legs ; or (e) bad wool.
THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP.
163
Types. — It would perhaps be errone-
ous to say that therfe are two types of
Southdown — one the original small, com-
pact hill type, and the othei* a larger
and weightier sheep. The fact is that,
when the Southdown is taken on to
very good mutton - producing land, it
has a tendency to reach greater weight,
•which can be counteracted only by the
use of small sires. Grey faces and
muzzles are frequently met with, some
of the best types otherwise having that
lightness of countenance which breeders
profess to avoid.
Mr Ellis of Summersbury, Shalford,
had a famous flock which won many
honours in the showyard. On the ques-
tion of type in the Southdown sheep
he declared his opinion as follows :
" When I first began breeding (and look-
ing at the judgments passed, especially
at the fat stock shows), it may be said
that Lord Walsingham's sheep were
greatly in favour. They were large,
well fleshed, but somewhat coarse. They
were not of the type of the Ellman flock,
nor ha;d they the symmetry of the Duke
of Richmond's or the Throgmorten
sheep. At that time there was nothing
like the disparity in price which now
exists between the coarser and the finer
carcases of mutton, and small joints
-were not so much in request. ... I
have always stuck to the finef type
whatever the judgments of the year
may have seemed to favour." Speaking
of the different types he says ; " Some
may be delicate and too refined, with ex-
tremely small bone, but generally with
good wool; others, again, high on the
leg, with poor legs of mutton and narrow
in the chest ; while others, withbut being
in any way coarse, are of the square,
blocky, short-legged type. I think there
is no doubt that soil and climate do
affect and alter the type of sheep as
of other alnimals. Without wishing to
dogmatise on the matter, I think that
Southdpwns removed fronl the south of
Englarid, especially if on rich land, tend
to' inci'ease in size, and at the same time
lose some of the especial characteristics
of the breed. I am bound, however, to
say that there are exceptions. I have
always aimed it a sheep very low on the
legs and very square, with the legs Well
-outside of it and width between the fore
legs, giving plenty of room ftir the vita;!
organs. I have never finished judging a
sheep until I haVe turned him up. Then
the wool should be short, close, and
hard as a board. Such fleeces always
weigh well, besides being splendid non-
conductors of heat and cold."
Dead Weight. — A good shearling
wether will kill about 20 lb. a-quarter,
and lambs well ddne vifill reach about
15 lb. The smaller type of lainb kept
in the hill district will probably di'eSS a
50-lb. carcase if well fattened. It may
be mentioned that the Southdown kills
very light of offalj as much sts 6^ pei? cent
6f dead to live weight beitig commoh.
"Weight and Value of Fleece. —
The clip on the Downs is probably in
the neighbourhood of 4 to 4j4 lb. In
the eastern counties, where there are
many good flocks, from 5 to 6 lb. is
shorn. The wool is exceptionally fine,
and easily earns the top price in the
fliarket— next to Merino.
For Crossing. — The Southdown has
been more used as a parent cross in the
production of other breeds than for
crossing purposes in ordinary commercial!
flocks. It is very popular abroad, par-
ticularly in the United States, France,
and the Antipodes. By its use good
carcases for freezing are produced. The
Southdown his impressed eiperimenters
more by the quality than by the quantity
of its produce.
MANAGEMENT.
In the Course of a lecture which he
delivered in 1865 before the Royal
Agricultural Soeiety, Ellman mentioned
that the one great point to bear in mind
was that the Southdown should be made
to graze pastures closely and thus pre-
vent the growing up of coarse herbage.
The supplementary forage crops he used
included rape sown in the early part
of hay and vetches, while sainfoin was
considered particularly Suitable for fat
lambs. These views are practically those
of the flo(dt-lnasters to-day.
The m^iiagement of a Southdown flock
may be divided into two elasses — hill
flocks and those occupying the lowel'
and more fertile lands. As a typical
instance of the latter we rtiay take the
method pursued in Mi* 0. Adeane's noted
1 64
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
flock at Babraham, near Cambridge. The
breeding ewes have the run of grass as
their sole food from October till the end
of Noyember. Their night fold is on
the arable land. In the early part of
December a little clover or grass-hay is
given every evening in addition to -wh&t
they graze. Should the vreather be very
cold, the rations are further supplemented
and varied by folding on a small portion
of white turnips. The belief, however,
prevails that when carrying their lambs
it is better for the ewes to have as few
roots as possible. About ten days prior
to the time when the lambs are expected
the ewes receive a little cake or other
artificial food.
The lambs usually begin to arrive early
in February, the breeding season extend-
ing over two months. After the lambs
arfive the ewes are allowed as many
turnips as they can consume on grass.
If a grass field does not lie convenient
to the temporary lambing-pen, the lambs
when three or four days old go with the
ewes to the fold on a turnip field.
Mr Webb, the agent at Babraham, is
convinced that it is preferable before
lambing to give long hay, a run at
grass, with very few turnips, to feeding
oat -straw chaff and a liberal allowance
of roots.
A good crop of lambs to rear would
be about 125 or 130 to each 100 ewes.
The ewes are culled in the autumn,
the retention of the flock ewes being
largely determined by a system of re-
cording the pedigree and the produce*.
The peculiarities of ewes, some breeding
females better than male lambs, and vice
versd, can by this means be accurately
studied. Mr Webb also finds it a great
help when deciding which lambs to save
for rams.
About half the males are saved for
rams, about one -third of these finding
buyers as ram lambs. In the autumn
the number of ram lambs is reduced to
70, the culls being killed for mutton.
The ewe lambs are wintered as stores,
and about 80 of them are drafted into
the flock when nearly sixteen months old,
the remainder being disposed of as year-
ling ewes for breeding purposes.
On the hills the lambing date is later
than on the lowlands, the end of March
being a favourite time, although the
tendency is towards an earlier period.
Prior to lambing a little cake and hay
are given. Running the newly lambed
ewes on rape sown in August, and later
on vetches, is a common practice. Suc-
cessive sowingp of rape are made, so
that at weaning in July the lambs may
pass on to an April -sown green crop.
Other green foods popular in the south
are sainfoin and a mixture of white
clover, tr^/oil, and Italian rye-gra^.
Drafting takes place before tupping,
most of the flOcks being in three ages.
The usual practice is to use shearling
and .two -shear rams, but ram lambs
are more frequently brought into service
now than they at one time were.
A portrait of a Southdown ram ia
given in Plate 52.
THE SHROPSHIRE.
The Shropshire breed is common to
the county from which it derives its
name. In stature and weight it fills a
place midway between the Southdown
and the Hampshire.
Origin. — The origin of the breed is a
much-disputed question. Some contend
that it is the result of a cross on the
Morfe Common sheep which led an un-
tamed existence on that stretch of land
near Bridgnorth. Others, again, believe
it to be a cross on the original Long-
mynd or old Shropshire sheep. Yet a
third party holds to the belief that its
foundation was laid on a breed known
as the Whittington Heath sheep. From
conflicting views, it is difficult at this,
late period to arrive at an accurate
judgment. Those who assert that, it i&
a cross-bred mention the Leicester, the
Cotswold, and the Southdown as prob-
able crosses. Possibly a dash of the
Merino was also infused.
Early Breeders. — Two of the earliest
and foundation breeders were Mr Samuel
Meire and Mr George Adney. In 1858
Meire stated at a farmers' meeting that
it was not his intention to deny that the
Shropshire was a cross-bred sheep, and
that the Southdown had been used ta
get rid of horns.
Early Types. — When the Shropshire
was first afforded separate classification
at the Royal Show at Gloucester in
THE SHROPSHIEE.
I6S
1853, the description then given of the
breed mentioned faces and legs of grey
or spotted colour. The head was well
carried on a thick neck. The back was
straight, the breast deep and broad,
though the hind quarters were hardly as
wide as the Southdown' s. The dead-
•weight of the tegs would average from
80 to 100 lb. each. The fleece was
described as more glossy and longer
than that of other short -wools, the
weight of it being about 7 lb.
Modern Types. — It is a far cry to
1853. Now the Shropshire is a beauti-
fully formed sheep with a soft thick
fleece, well covered head muffled to the
nostrils. It stands on short legs, is very
lengthy in frame, and kindly to the
hand. The skin must be pink — a strong
point in breeding — and there must be no
suspicion of black hairs in the wool, or
incipient horns at the poll.
There are two types of sheep — the
breeders' apd the farmers'. For con-
venience the latter are usually termed
pasture - rangers. The farmer requires
a larger, and what the pedigree breeder
would probably call a coarser, type of
sheep than would be used in the pro-
duction of a Royal Show winner.
Merits of the Breed.
Mr Alfred Mansell of Shrewsbury thus
epitomises the good points of the Shrop-
shire sheep : —
Prolific Character. — 150 to 175
lambs per 100 ewes is the usual crop.
In 1896, 11,666 ewes reared 168 lambs
per 100 ewes.
Shropshire ewes are excellent nurses.
Nature has endowed them with great
milk-yielding properties.
The Shropshire sheep cuts a heavy
fleece of the most marketable descrip-
tion, being of good staple, fine in texture
and dense, with small loss in scour.
The Shropshire sheep is ubiquitous,
being found in the Highlands of Scot-
land, the humid climate of Ireland, the
mountainous districts of Wales, and is
frequently found at an altitude of 1000
feet over sea-level.
If well cared for, wethers are fit for
the butcher at ten to twelve months old,
and that on a moderate consumption of
food. Shropshire lambs mature very
early as fat lambs.
The breed is notoriously sound in con-
stitution, and capable of withstanding
extreme variations of heat and cold. A
Shropshire ewe nineteen years old, still
hale and hearty, had reared 33 lambs,
and enjoyed immunity from foot -rot
during the whole of that period.
The quality of the mutton is rich in
flavour, contains a large proportion of
lean flesh, and commands the highest
price in the London, Manchester, Liver-
pool, and other markets of Great Britain.
The Shropshire is placid and contented,
not given to roaihing and trampling down
pasture.
The Shropshire-Merino is preferred by
many who have tried it to any other
cross. The half-bred is a deep square
sheep, well covered with a fine close
fleece, which gives a high percentage of
clean scoured wool. The sheep are hardy,
and fatten to nice handy weights at a
very early age.
Lambs from Clun ewes by a Shrop-
shire ram have realised 49s. each at the
Shrewsbury Easter market.
Progress of the Breed. — Some evi-
dence of the progress of the breed may be
obtained from the great displays it has
made in leading showyards. In i860,
when the Eoyal Show was held at
Canterbury, there were no fewer than
192 entries. All records, however, were
beaten when the Shrewsbury Eoyal Show
took place in 1884. No fewer than 875
Shropshires were exhibited by sixty
breeders hailing from fifteen counties.
The breed has continued to hold its
own, having a remarkable export trade
to the United States and the Antipodes.
■Weights. — Shearling wethers kill
from 22 to 24 lb. per quarter, and the
clip will vary from 8 to 10 lb.
For Crossing. — The Shropshire is
largely used in the Midlands for cross-
ing with white-faced sheep. It is also
extensively employed for crossing with
difierent native breeds in Scotland and
Wales. Its most signal triumphs, how-
ever, have been recorded abroad — in
Australasia in particular.
MANAGEMENT OP SHEOPSHIKB FLOCKS.
Shropshire sheep are capable of repay-
ing liberal treatment, and they usually
receive it. A niggardly system in respect
i66
SHOET-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
to fgo4 would be unwise with shfeep
tlj^t yield so well as the Shropshires do
in both wool and mutton.
The methods of management pursued
generally in Shropshire flocks in England
are fairly well indicated by information
which, in response to our request, Mr
T. S. Minton, Montford, Shrewsbury,
has been good enough to supply as to
the systejin followed in his own flock.
Lambs.
The lambs are dropped in February
3,nd March. They are weaned near the
end of June. For a time before wean-
ing the lambs are allowed to run on
clover ahead of the ewes, through hurdles
that let lambs pass but hold back ewes,
and there they receive 2 to 3 oz. each
daily of a mixture of split-peas, linseed-
cake, and bran. The " lamb-hurdles "
are moved every three or four days.
After weaning, the lambs go on to
thousand-headed kale for two or three
hours daily, and receive mangels qii
clover aftermath.
Young Rams.
MQst of the ram lambs are kept for
breeding purposes, and are sold when
shearlings. The majority are bofight by
home breeders, but many of them are
exported to the United States, Canada,
South America, Russia, Japan, &c. The
cast ram lambs are fattened and sold to
the butcher, yielding from 76 to 80 lb.
dead-weight when a^out twelve mpnths
old.
In the rearing of young rams a care-
ful system is pursued to ensure steady
growth and vigorous constitution. When
thousand-headed kale and mangels are
finished, which usually happens about
the end of August, the young rams are
hurdled -on root-land and receive wbite
turnips cut intq finger-pieces : here they
remain till Christmas, when they get cut
swedes, at the same time receiving clover-
hay ad lib. in racks. They also get J^ lb.
per day of a mixture of corn and cake,
this allowance being gradually increased
till it reaches i lb. by the month of April.
The best of the rams, which may be
intended for showing, are clipped in
March, the others being clipped later.
After being clipped they are housed at
night for two or three weeks, but as soon
as the weather permits they are turned
on to " seeds," with plenty of roots, being
housed in very wet weather.
Ewes.
A number of the best of the ewe lambs
are every year added to the flock, and
they drop theif first lamb when they are
two years old. Ewes that are specially
good breeders are often retained in the
flock till they are seven or eight years
old. Before being put to the ram, ewes
are "flushed" by feeding on reserved
clover • leas, and they remain on ' these
leas till near lambing time. As soon as
grass begins to fail, or frosty nights set
in, the ewes receive a good feed of clover-
hay in racks, care being taken to have
plenty of racks to prevent crushing.
A week or two before lambing the
forward ewes are drawn out in turn, and
receive about i lb. per day of a mixture
of bran, oats, and clover -chaff. After
lambing the ewes receive a very few
roots, either swedes or mangels, on grass-
land. Ewes and lambs are not put on to
'' seeds " until the lambs have begun to
graze.
■' Mr Alfred Mansell, who has done much
to promote the interests of Shropshire
breeding, dealt exhaustively with the
management of breeding flocks in a
paper read at the Ninth Interiiational
Conference of Sheep - Breeders at New-
■ castle-on-Tyne in June 1908. Young
breeders would do well to peruse that
interesting paper.
Mr T. A. Buttar's Flock
Mr T. A. Buttar, Corston, Coupar-
Angus, Forfarshire, has at our desire fur-
nished the following description of his
methods of management : —
1 keep a flock of about 260 pure-bred
Shropshires, fully pedigreed and regis-
tered in the Shropshire Flock Book.
I find them a very hardy, thrifty breed ;
they can be run thickly on the ground,
and they produce the best class of mutton
and wool.
The flock was started in 1870 by my
father, and the pedigree of each indi-
vidual has been carefully kept.
System of Ear-marhing.
Each ewe in the flock has a separate
and distinct ear number, and her lambs.
THE SHEOPSHIRE.
167
when one day old, are ear-marked, so that
there is no chance of making mistakes.
I adopt a cipher system of ear-notching,
as shown in fig. 704. Metal ear-tags are
Left ear.
Fig. 704. — System of ear^marking sheep.
Diagram a shows the system whereby the numbers
are marked on the ears, the units being on the left
and the tens on the right ear. Numbering up to other
2oq could be obtained by forming another hole near
the middle of the right ear. Diagram B shows the
marliing for No. 126, and Diagram a for No. 379.
not satisfactory ; they often cause fester-
ing, and are apt to be tdrn out, when of
course the pedigree of the sheep cannot
be traced. It is not necessary to use
large ear-notches, as these disfigure the
ear. Small notches, ^ inch wide, are
never noticed, and yet sufiice for the
purpose.
Mating Sams and Ewes.
I consider this one of the most im-
portant duties of the careful ram-breeder.
Having culled all old and indifi^erent
breeding ewes during the early autumn,
and their places in the flock being now
taken by about 50 of my best shearling
ewes, I proceed to mate about ist Octo-
ber, so that the bulk of the lambs will
arrive in March. For 260 breeding ewes
I generally use about 8 stud-rams.
I erect a pen, with a division for every
stud-ram, as is shown in fig. 705.
■About 30 ewes at a time are driven
into the central pen ) each ewe is caught
in turn, her pedigree, general type, and
form examined, and she is put to the
stud-ram which is strongest in her weak
points, and which we consider will make
the best match.
A robust ram will easily serve 60
ewes : some of my rams get 60 and
others only 20— according to the suita-
bility of tfee mating. It is only by
careful mating that a uniform flock — all
of one type — can be bred.
It is also important to adhere to the
same line of blood, which can be done
without in-breeding. Violent out-crosses
are dangerous, and rams, the produce of
...r 1 ,-
GATE \
\ /
GATE;
/ 8
z 1
3 y^
6 \,^
i'lg. 705. — Sheep-drawing fen. '
such, are not likely to be impressive selected group of ewes is sent to a
sires. separate pasture-field.
After mating, each ram with his All the rams have their briskets
i68
SHOET-WOOL AND DOWN BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
smeared first with "yellow" paint, so
that the ewes will be marked on the
rump when served ; when a third of the
total number of ewes are marked yellow,
" red " paint is used, and when two-
thirds are served, " blue " paint is sub-
stituted.
This changing of colours serves a
double purpose : it is only necessary to
take in one-third of the ewes at a time
to the lambing-fold in the order in which
they were served, and it also shows if the
rams are settling their ewes. If the
ewes turn twice they must be given to
anotl^er ram that is a sure stock-getter.
All the ewes ought to be settled in
lamb in four or five weeks, but I leave
the rams with them till about ist Dec-
ember in case of any late ones turning.
Treatment of Ewes.
The ewes have the run of the pastures
all winter. About ist January, or earlier
if the weather is severe, I begin to give
them a few fresh Aberdeen-yellow turnips
on the pasture. The turnips are driven
out and cut into finger -pieces with
Allan's turnip-cutting cart. I find when
they are thus cut that fewer turnips are
required; the ewes thrive much better,
and live longer, as their teeth become
badly broken with whole turnips, especi-
ally in frosty weather.
Each ewe also gets from }^ to ^ lb.
of a mixture of distillers' dried grains,
bruised oats, and linseed-cake, also clover-
hay in racks.
It is a great mistake > to let ewes in
lamb have too many turnips ; they should
rather be encouraged to eat a larger
proportion of fodder or dry food. They
should never get more than 20 lb. each
per day, or say i ton to 130 ewes.
In-lamb ewes ought to be treated so
that they will come to the lambing-
fold in fine, healthy, r(j,bust condition, —
neither too fat nor too poor,- — and it is
important for the flockmaster to watch
the general condition of his ewes as the
lambing season draws near, because in
some cold, changeable, wet winters ewes
require more extra keep, whereas in fine,
dry winters they are apt to get too fat.
It is by constant care and observation
that success is attained, »and by lack of
it that so-called "bad luck" during the
lambitig season occurs.
Lambing Season.
Ewes carry their lambs on the average
21 weeks, and a day or, two before the
first ewes are due to lamb, I draw out
all those marked " yellow " and put them
in a clean pasture as close to the lambing-
shed as possible. The lambing-shed is
large enough to hold 100 ewes comfort-
ably at night, when they can be conveni-
ently and thoroughly attended to by the
shepherd. The ewes run out all day, and
are only housed at dark, — getting all
their <f eed outside.
When a ewe lambs, she and her lambs
are shut up in a small pen, 6 feet square,
for a day or so, till they are seen to be
going on all right, and the lambs getting
plenty of milk, when the lambs are ear-
marked, as already explained,- and they
are turned out to another field with
natural shelter if possible. I do not
believe in housing them again .if the
weather is at all moderate; if lambs
are getting plenty of milk they wUl
stand severe cold.
I keep the ewes with twin lambs in
separate fields from those with single
lambs, when the doubles can be better
done to. When I get about 30 doubles
out, they are sent on to a more distant
field to make room for a younger lot,
and so on. Lambs thrive much better
when in small lots.
Strict attention should be paid to
cleanliness in the lambing - shed, and
plenty df disinfectants and antiseptics
used.
After lambing, the ewes get as many
cut turnips as they will eat, and their
concentrated food is also increased to i
lb. per ewe. This treatment is continued
till there is plenty of grass, when the
trough-food' is considerably reduced, as
the ewes get too fat.
Lambs are weaned about ist July;
the ewes are put on the worst pasture
in order to reduce them somewhat, till
about ist September, when they again''
get better keep to bring them into proper
condition for the rams.
Feeding of Lambs.
The lambs, on the other hand, are put
on the cleanest and best pastures, and
get about J^ lb. each of a mixture of
linseed-cake, bruised oats, and bran. It
THE SHROPSHIEE.
169
is very important to keep lambs at
this time from getting affected with
stomach and lung worms, and there is no
"better preventive than changing their
pastures frequently and keeping them as
much as possible on young pasture. Old
pastures should be avoided. Every en-
deavour must be made to keep lambs
growing and improving.
About ist August the ram lambs,
having by this time been separated from
the ewe lambs, are folded on vetches or
€arly cabbage for part of the day, run-
ning on clover aftermath at night.
When the pasture fails, they are kept
folded on cabbage, and later on thousand-
headed kale, with an allowance of con-
centrated feeding-stuff and hay.
About ist November, before the kale
is finished, they get a feed of pulped
roots and chopped hay, and they are
gradually worn on to a full feed of pulp
as the kale becomes exhausted.
They are fed entirely on pulp during
the winter and spring.
The most convenient and economical
mode of consuming vetches, clover, cab-
bage, thousand - headed kale, ifec. , by
sheep is by using folding hurdles (fig.
121, vol. i. p. 117). These hurdles are
placed close up against a row of cabbage,
^c, and the sheep eat through the bars
of the hurdles, thus getting their feed
clean and not being able to trample on
and soil it. One row is eaten at a time,
and a man will easily move 50 of these
hurdles in 10 minutes.
The ewe lambs get the run of the best
pastures till about ist November, when
they also are fed on pulped roots and
chopped hay, with an allowance of %
lb. each concentrated food mixed in the
pulp.
Pulped Food for Sheep.
One very important advantage gained
by pulping food for sheep is that the
sheep always get a clean, fresh feed in-
stead of a bellyful of cold, watery tur-
nips, which are often dirty and frozen in
the ordinary way of folding. Turnips,
which are a most expensive crop to grow,
are economised, and a larger proportion
of fodder is consumed, thereby making
the ration more natural and richer in
feeding value.
Nothing is wasted, and more sheep can
be kept on the same quantity of turnips.
The percentage of deaths is very much
less.
Feeding-boxes.
Feeding - boxes should be regularly
shifted a few yards every day, so that
the whole ground is equally manured.
The best feeding-box for sheep is made
of a pentagonal shape, as in fig. 706.
At one of these boxes 10 large sheep or
15 hoggets can feed comfortably; the
food is not thrown out and wasted, as it
often is with long, narrow troughs ; and
Fig. 706. — Feeding-box /or sheep.
the sheep cannot crush each other, which
is an important consideration in the case
of ewes heavy with lamb.
Young Hams.
About ist March I commence to shear
my young rams ; they are then kept in
large, airy sheds till the wool grows
sufficiently so that they can be turned
out to grass about ist May.
The swedes being by this time nearly
exhausted, the young rams get a feed of
pulped mangels instead, and when young
clover and vetches are ready to cut they
are gradually turned on to them for
summer feeding.
Five Lambs.
About 50 of the best ewe lambs are
selected to be put into the flock, and
these are not shorn till ist May. The
170
SHOET-WOOL AND DOWN BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
remainder are tre9,ted in much the same
way as the rapas, and are sold through-
out the summer and autumn. Many
of them go to foreign and colonial
buyers ; whilst a large number of the
rams are sold for crossing with Border
Leicester, Cheviot, Half-bred, Cross-bred,
and other ewes, with which they pro-
duce the best quality of fat lamb and
butchers' sheep.
Prevention of Foot-rot.
In the prevention of foot - rot much
depends on the shepherd. On seeing a
sheep go lame he should at once ex-
amine and carefully 'dress the affected
feet to keep the disease from spreading,
and if several show signs of lameness,
the whole flock should immediately be
passed through a shallow trough contain-
ing a solution of arsenic — i lb. to 3
gallons of water, or a solution of sulphate
of copper — I lb. to i gallon.
Solution for Foot-rot.
Boil 2 lb. of arsenic with 2 lb. of
potash (pearl-ash) in i gallon of water
over a slow fire for half an hour ; keep
stirring, and when like to boil over pour
in a little cold water ; then add 5 gallons
of cold wate'r.
Put this solution to the depth of i
to ij^ inch, just sufficient to cover the
hoofs of the sheep, in a trough 12 feet
Fig. 707. — Trough and pens for /ootToi dressing.
1 Trough.
2 Fence.
3 First pen. s Gates.
4 Second pen.
long, by 18 inches wide, and aboiit 6
inches deep^the trough to be set per-
fectly level along the side of a wall or
other fence in some place out of the way,
with a good waterproof lid on it, and
secured by a padlock to prevent danger
from the poison which might be left in
it. A convenient arrangement for this
trough is shown in fig. 707. There
should ftlsQ be a wooden fence on the
other side of the trough, carried out a
little at one end to conduct the sheep
into the trough as indicated in the
figure. .
Before the sheep are passed through
the trough their feet should be well
pared ; then walk them quietly through, .
and let them remain in the second pen
twenty minutes or so before taking them
back to their pastures.
THE HAMPSHIEE DOWN.
Amongst contemporary breeds there is
no more striking evidence of progress
recorded than in the Hampshire Down.
This sheep is for the most part quartered
in Wiltshire and Hampshire, although
it exercises influence over a wide area
beyond these counties. The first step
forward made by breeders collectively
was in 1 86 1, when they induced the
Eoyal Agricultural Society and the
Smithfield Club to provide the breed
with a separate classification. Prior to
that date J Southdowns were the only
breed thus honoured, the other Downs
being shown in an inclusive class.
The Hampshire Down is largely reared
on the high-lying and barren uplands
'of chalk in the south-western counties,
where the flocks, as a rule, are large,
numbering from 1000 upwards. Where
the custom of the district is to keep
smaller flocks than the figure named, it
will generally be found that the Hamp-
shire Down flocks are in excess of the
other breeds in point of numbers.
Characteristics.
Early Maturity. — The great claim
which breeders make, and have rightly
established, on behalf of the breed is
that it matures early. Indeed there is
no Down or other breed which has so
much advanced the cause of speedy
maturity, and therefore of quick turn-
over. The pioneer work of the late Mr
A. de Mornay must be remembered in
this connection.
Weiglit of Hampsjiire Lambs.-—
A well-bred Hampshire lamb on good
keep will grow at the rate of ^ lb.
daily, and will weigh 113 lb. on May
31. Calculating the carcase - weight at
THE HAMPSHIKE DOWN.
171
60 per cent of the live-weight, we get
an average of 17 lb. per quarter. That
figure Ls very frequently exceeded, and
20 lb. at the time of sale a little later
in the season is not uncommon. The
chief claim made on behalf of the breed
is that it progresses with amazing rapid-
ity. The facfl that the lambs come to
such heavy weights in July and August
is striking testimony to the progressive
policy of breeders.
Examples of Precocity in Breed-
ing.— The late Mr A. de Momay, iji the
course of an article in the Farmer and
Stochhreeder Yea/r-Booh, gave the follow-
ing instances of the precocious instinct
in the Hampshire Down : " Three ewes,
each having two lambs by their side,
were tupped by one of the lambs in" the
flock, which could not have been more
than three months old. They gave birth
to six more lambs in August, onje having
three lambs.:
"Another example of this precocious
and prolific instinct may be mentioned
in the case of a ewe which gave birth
to two lambs in January. She lambed
again early in July, when she gave
birth to two more lambs, and in Jan-
uary following had again two lambs,
making in all six lambs in twelve
months. The first two were ram lambs,
and were sold at Oxford Fair for 14
guineas. The two young lambs were sold
at Wallingford market for ;^4, and the
lamb ram of the last couple was also
sold at Oxford, and brought 6 guineas,
making ^2^ for five out of six lambs.
The sixth, being a ewe lamb, was saved
for stock."
Constitution. — No doubt need be
entertained concerning the constitution
of the Hampshire Down. Prima fade
evidence of capacity to endure hardship
is afiforded by the bare and somewhat
bleak downs which they have made
their home. Eeverting to the very
severe winter of 1894-95, it may be
pointed out that the tegs from nine to
twelve months old lived through that
time on partially rotted turnips and hay
without the aid of supplementary feed-
ing of any kind. Flocks are frequently
brought through the winter without loss
by death, and save at the troublesome
time pf lambing, losses are seldom en-
countered.
It is the usual custom to sell ewes
at four and a half years old, or in the
early autumn when they have borne
their third set of lamhs. There are
favourite ewes in most flocks, however,
and they continue fruitful up to fourteen
years old, cases of the latter age being
on record.
Breeding from Lamhs.
Mating. — Lambs of six or seven
months old are preferred by flockmasters
as sires, and ewe lambs may be put to
the ram to produce lambs as yearlings.
This is one of the means adopted of
breeding early maturity into the flock.
At the same time, it involves a certain
amount of risk. As a rule, the lambing
is more difficult, and the ewe's growth is
stunted.
One method favoured by many breeders
is to breed from a twin lamb. They
have the reputation of being .more fruit-
ful, and unlike the custom with some
other breeds, a large percentage of twin
lambs is encouraged. Probably a correct
estimate of the lamb-producing capacity
of the Hampshire Down would be a lamb
and a quarter.
Early and Rapid Breeding. — With
regard to the possibility of getting lambs
from ewes in the first year of their exist-
ence, and the possibility of getting two
crops of Iambs in the year from the
whole flock of ewes, the late Mr de
Mornay's views are interesting. " It
may," he writes, " in general terms be
said that on the same area of land a
saving would accrue in the reduction of
the flock of ewes, the ewe tegs being
productive the first year and the ewes
producing a second crop of lambs. A
saving would be effected in consequence
of the rapid growth and feeding of the
second crop of lambs, which would be
reared in the summer on the succulent
green crops and fed with little cake and
corn. On the other hand, account would
have to be taken of the extra amount of
food required to nourish the tegs during
the period of their gestation.
"It is difficult to get at the exact
amount of artificial food given to the
different flocks on the farm ; but, as near
as I could ascertain it, in regard to the
ewe lambs it amounted, for the eight
or nine months from their birth to the
172
SHOET-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
time the ram lamb was introduced, to
about 28s. per lamb, and during the
period of gestation from 5 s. to 6s. per
lamb ; and in regard to the ' wether
lambs until they were fat, about 35 s.
per lamb, according to the quality of
the hay. With good hay less aytificial
food is required."
For Crossing. — The Hampshire Down
is one of the parents of the Oxford Down.
It has been singularly successful when
used for crossing. The ram trade is to
all intents and purposes a lamb trade,
large numbers of ram lambs being sold
in the Midlands and the eastern counties
of England to beget stock for supplying
an immense business in fat lamb. One
of the first to demonstrate the possi-
bility of the Hampshire Down for cross-
breeding was Mr Thomas Bush, whose
series of successes with lambs and
wethers of the Hampshire-Oxford Down
cross at Smithfield and other fat stock
shows did much to popularise the use
of both breeds.
Mutton. — The quality of the mutton
is of the very best. Nothing handles
more kindly than a well-nurtured lamb
fatted for the fat stock shows. Dark
mutton is always in request.
Fleece. — -The wool of the Hampshire
is of medium length. It is dense, and
fills the hand well. Tegs will clip from
12 to 14 lb. of unwashed wool, the ewes,
of course, yielding a smaller return.
Description.
A well-set Hampshire Down is a
smart, even gay sheep. It carries a
dark strong head, free from horns or
"slugs." Speckle faces are not recog-
nised. The poll is well covered with
wool, which should intrude upon the
forehead. The neck must fill the hand
in the case of a sire. Many breeders
insist on two strong points in the Hamp-
shire— a big neck and a strong dock, the
latter indicative of well- sustained ver-
tebrae. The carcase is symmetrical and
square, not cylindrical. The ribs must
be well arched, and the loin flat and
well packed. The rump should be wide,
and the legs of mutton well carried
down. The skin should be pink. The
following is a scalfe of points drawn up
by the 'Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders'
Association : —
ScaU of Points. poj^^g.
Head, — Free from horns or snigs ; face and
ears of a rich dark brown — approach-
ing to black- — absolutely free from
white specks and well covered with
wool over the poll and forehead ; in-
telligent bright full eye ; ears well
set on, not drooping, fairly long and
slightly curved towards tip. In rams,
a bold masculine head is an essential
feature ...... 20
Neck and Shovlders. — Keck of strong mus-
cular growth, not too long, and well
placed on gradually sloping and closely
fitting shoulders . . . .20
Ca/rcase. — Deep and symmetrical, with the
. ribs well sprung, broad straight back,
flat loins, full dock, wide rump, deep
and heavily developed legs of mutton
and breast 30
Legs and Feet. — Strongly jointed and power-
"ful legs of the same colour as face, set
well apart, the hocks and knees not
bending towards each other ; feet
sound and short in the hoof . . 15
Wool. — Of moderate length, close and fine
texture, extending over the forehead
and belly, the scrotum of rams being
well covered ... . . .10
Skm. — Of a delicate pink and flexible . 5
Total 100
Shepherds' Oompetitions.
One of the contests inaugurated is that
for shepherds. Prizes are offered to those
shepherds rearing the largest number of
lambs. In 1906 thirty-two entries were
received, involving a total of 15,248 ewes
and 17,742 lambs. The gross number of
lambs reared was 116.35 P^'' ^°° ewes.
The gross average loss of ewes (including
barren or other ewes sold to be killed)
was 1.77 per cent. The highest percent-
age of lambs reared was 132.25.
In another competition twenty-seven
shepherds reared their flocks without
loss of tegs and shared the prizes. The
entries numbered fifty, the ewe tegs
aggregating 9180 and the total loss 37,
equivalent to a percentage of .40.
Plock-Book. — The Hampshire Down
Sheep Breeders' Association was estab-
lished in 1899, when it issued its first
Flock-Book.
Toreign Trade. — ^A foreign trade has
been established, and from several parts
there is a growing demand.
MANAGEMENT OF HAMPSmRE FLOCKS.
The system of management pursued in
flocks of Hampshire Downs is fairly well
THE OXFORD DOWN.
173
indicated by the following notes relating
to Mr H. 0. Stephens' famotls flock at
Cholderton, Salisbury, kindly supplied
by the manager, Mr James G. Kerr.
The ewes begin dropping their lambs
about the ist of January, and by the end
of the month the bulk of the ewes have
lambed, a few late lambs coming in the
first and second weeks of February. The
lambs are weaned on the 12th of May,
or as near that date as possible. The
flock being a ram-breeding one, the feed-
ing of the lambs is commenced as soon
as ever they will eat out of a trough,
and by the time they are weaned they
are able to eat ^ lb. per day of a
mixture of feeding - stuff consisting
of linseed - cake, peas, and pea -chaff.
After weaning beans and locust-beans
are added to the above mixture, the
quantity being gradually increased until
sale time, when they will be consuming
2^ lb. feeding-stuffs per day.
The ewe lambs, after weaning, get J^
lb. each per day of a mixture 0$ linseed-
cake and peas. At Michaelmas this is
changed to y^ lb. cotton-cake, which they
have all through the winter and spring,
and is discontinued after shearing in
May. After this they get no more feed-
ing till they lamb down in the following
year.
With the exception of a few that are
sent to the butcher, all the ram lambs
are sold for breeding purposes. Breeders
of Hampshires prefer to use ram lambs,
and at Cholderton all the ram, lambs
to be sold are sold before they become
shearlings. The average price realised
in 1908 for all male animals sold, includ-
ing those sent to the butcher, was jQ%,
4s. I id. each, the number sold being
339, the male produce of 612 ewes.
The ewe lambs are all wintered, and a
great number are sold for exportation as
shearling ewes, at prices ranging from
£,S to _;^iS each, according to the selec-
tion of the purchaser. The ewes up to
the first of December are penned on
arable land, generally on a piece of dfeib-
bage, and running on the down for exer-
cise during the day. During December
they are removed to a grass lea where
cabbages are carted to them, and they
still go to the down by day for exer-
cise.
About Christmas Day the early lamb-
ing ewes get J^ lb. linseed-cake each per
day, which produces a nice flow of milk
and helps wonderfully in lambing. As
the ewes lamb they are divided into
three flocks, consisting of single ram
lambs, single ewe lambs, and the twin
lambs. The mothers of the single ram
lambs receive y» lb. decorticated cotton-
cake and ^ lb. bran each per day. The
mothers of the single ewe lambs receive
y^ lb. decorticated cotton-cake each per
day. The mothers of the twin lambs
receive ^ lb. decorticated cotton-cslke,
^ lb. linseed-cake, and J^ lb. bran each
per day. In addition to the artificial
feeding-stuffs, the ewes have hay, man-
gels, cabbage, kale, rape, vetches, win-
ter barley and rye, each in its season.
After weaning the ewes go to the downs
during the day, and at night they are
put into pens after the lambs to clear up
anything the lambs have left.
, The ewes drop the first lamb when
they are two years old, and are cast
when they have reared their fourth lamb.
This is not, however, the general custom.
Most breeders only take three lambs, as
by this system they get a better price for
their cast ewes. But on the Cholderton
flock it is found that the old ewes pro-
duce the best lambs, hence an extra crop
of lambs is taken from them.
Young rams kept for breeding in the
Cholderton flock get i lb. of cotton-cake
each per day, with roots and straw chaff,
and as soon as they are shorn they are
turned out into a pasture and receive no
further feeding. The old stock rams when
they come from the ewes are turned out
into a pasture, and only receive a little
hay in bad weather. If they were given
extra food they would get too fat and
heavy, and be useless for stock purposes.
Only such old rams are kept as have
proved exceptionally good stock-getters.
A portrait of a Hampshire ram is
given in Plate S3-
THE OXFORD DOWN.
The Oxford Down, like most of our
other breeds of farm live stock, is of a
composite type. Its origin is not wrapped
in obscurity. It is the result of a direct
cross between the Cotswold and the
Hampshire Down. A few breeders may
m
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN" BREEDS OF SHJIER
have' used the Southdown, but the
dominant force in the cross was ad-
mittedly the Hampshire sheep. After a
long series of years of pure breeding, it
preserves to this day the characteristics
of both parents. The carriage and foita
of the Cotswold are apparent, whilst the
influence of the Hampshire is seen more
in the mutton-producing properties.
Early Efforts. — Early last century
the possibilities of the Cotswold cross on
the Hampshire ewe first impressed Mr
Twyman of Whitchurch, Hants. He
was undoubtedly the chief of an able
band of pioneer breeders, which included
such names as HoBbs, Treadwell, Bryan,
Stilgoe, and others familiar at the pres-
ent time. The constitution of the Cots-
wold sheep has been a particularly valu-
able asset to the breeder of Oxford
Downs.
Characteristics.
The characteristics of the Oxford
Down sheep may be thus briefly de-
scribed. In the ram a bold, masculine
head is looked for, with slight inclina-
tion to a Roman nose. The neck should
be strong and the poll well woolled, with
a prominent top-knot. The face should
be uniformly dark -brown, the deeper
colour being more and more favoured
by breeders. There should not be any
'black wool behind the ears. The eyes
should be prominent and the ears a good
length. The shoillders should be wide
set, the back level, the dock strong. The
ribs ought to be Well sprung, the barrel
thick and lengthy. The underline must
be well clad. The legs ought to be short
and dark in colour. Spotted legs are
objectionable. The sheep should stand
squarely on his limbs, which should be,
so to speak, at every corner, with twist
well developed. The skin should be a
healthy pink in colour.
Fleece. — The wool should be dense
and of good texture and free from open-
ness, and without spot or patches of
black. Short wool should extend down
the legs. Rams will clip 14 to 15 lb.
and ewes about 8 lb.
Changes in Type.^That the present
day Oxford Down is of a different type
from that prevailing thirty or forty yeai's
ago is evident from the impressions of
one of the oldest breeders, Mr John
Treadwell. He rectiUects an old breeder
saying that "the Oiford should have the
Cotswold fleece and the Down mutton."
That, however, soon got Out of date.
The close fleece was then favoured, and,
has continued to be one of the primary
objects of the breeder. In the olden
days the Oxford Down was quite as big
a sheep as it is now, but it was "fatter
natured." Breeders nowadays look for
sheep with more bone than they used to
possess, this being probably the most
effective antidote to the formation of
excessive fat.
In the 'thirties and 'forties of the
nineteenth century the common name
for the breed was the Cotswold Downs.
This was changed to New Oxfords ; and
finally, when the Breed Society was estab-
lished in 1888, the modern designation
was formally adopted.
Points in Breeding. — The modern
tendency is to dispense as far as possible
with black wool. As this is usually
associated with dark-skinned sheep, the
importance of the colour of the skin can
be readily appreciated.
IiOCatiou. — The Oxford Down is true
to the county which gave it birth.
Flocks ai?e to be chiefly found in Oxford-
shire and C-louceStershire. It has, how-
ever, gone wide afield. Its most valu-
able market is the south of Scotland,
where it is a prime favourite with
owners of whitefaced sheep for crossing
purposes. The cross has been unusually
successful. Germany takes a number, but
the trade with the Continent is fitful.
For Crossing. — The Oxford Down
ram lamb is a favourite in the Mid-
lands of England for crossing puf^oses.
It produces not a little of the fat lamb
th%t finds its way to the chief centres
of population. Some experiments were
carried out in the north of England
by Mr W. T. Lawrence of Newton
Rigg. The produce of the Oxford Down
on the Scotch half-bred ewe (Cheviot-
Border Leicester) lambed in March
weighed in thirteen weeks 70 lb. live-
weight. This weight was attained by
double lambs, the singles turning the
scales at a similar weight in ten weeks.
In 1904 and 1905 further comparative
trials were instituted^, the competing
breeds being Oxford Down, Wensley-
dale, and Border Leicester. The out-
THE OXFORD DOWN.
175
standing feature of the Oxford cross
was that the lambs grew so quickly
from birth.
Show Classifloation. — The Royal
Agricultural Society and the Smithfield
Club afforded separate classification for
the breed in 1862.
MANAGEMENT.
In Oxfordshire rams are put to the
■ewes on grass-land in August, so as to
get early lambs, and it is believed that
early lambs are less subject to scour
than later arrivals. Clovers are avoided,
as they have a tendency to cause ewes
to return to the ram. Towards the last
month of the year grass-lands by day
and root by night, or the reverse, is
the rule. Prior to lambing the flock
spend the night in the yards. The
lambs are drafted on to grass-lands, and
are given a few oats, bran, and easily
digested foods. Weaning takes place in
June, when rye and vetches are ready.
The flock is folded on forage crops, the
ewes following the lambs from fold 'to
fold.
Mr Treadwell's Flock.
Mr John Treadwell, Upper Winchen-
don, Aylesbury, Bucks, favours us with
the following notes as to the manage-
ment of his famous flock of Oxford
Downs : " This flock being entirely de-
voted to ram-breeding, is in many re-
spects managed differently from an ordi-
nary flock kept for mutton-producing.
Management of E-weS.^" About the
middle of August the ewes are separ-
ated into lots, according to their suit-
ability to the different rams to be used ;
and as many of the sires used are home-
bred ones, care has to be taken as to the
different pedigrees, as well as to size,
wool, and symmetry. This adapting the
rams to the different ewes is considered
the most important factor in the whole
matter of breeding.
" This farm containing a large propor-
tion of grass-land — two-thirds — -enables
the ewes to be placed in lots as they
are drawn in the different pastures.
"About the beginning of November
when the ewes are all served they are
put together, and clear up mangel-tops,
stubbles, seeds, or anything there is for
them. When this is done they are again
drafted into smaller lots about the pas-
tures, until they come up to the lambing-
pen for lambing.
"Rather a large number of rams are
used, as some have only a very few ewes
and others have a fair number, varying
from 10 to 70 to a ram.
"When the ewes come up to the
lambing -pen they get a little hay or
straw, according to the weather and
their condition ; and they run on pas-
tures by day. As soon as they have
lambed they return to the pastures, and
have about 2 pints of cake each, and hay
if they require it. The oats are con-
tinued until April, when they are grad-
ually taken off, as the grass comes on.
"They are shorn about the end of
May, and the lambs are generally weaned
in June — the ewes being put to vetches
or clover, or a rough pasture, or any-
where where they can be kept cheaply
until tupping-time.
" The draft ewes get better treatment
at this time. They are fed on the pas^
tures, sometimes getting some cake and
corn until they are sold off fat or put
to roots or cabbage to finish. These
get to very heavy weights if put on
roots and brought out in January. They
will average about 16 to 18 stone when
well finished. Sometimes some of the
best of them are sold to breeders in
the autumn to keep on another year
or two.
Treatment of liambs and Hams. —
"The lamb^ when weaned are separated,
the ram lambs getting a little cake and
corn at once. The ewe lambs do not
get anything with the grass, as a rule.
" The ram lambs have their cake and
corn increased slightly as the season
advances, but do not get much atten-
tion until aftef the shearling rams are
sold in August, when they are put on
to the arable land as soon as some rape
or turnips or something can be got for
them. They then follow on to swedes
and mangels until about the beginning
of April, when, if the weather permits,
they are shorn, kept in for a few nights,
and out in the day, but left out en-
tirely as soon as possible. They get on
to rye, and then to vetches, with which
they receive mangels until the cabbages
come, when these take theii" place.
176
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
"These rams grow very fast and get
big by the first Wednesday in August,
when about 60 of the best of them are
annually sold by auction at home, when
buyers from almost every county in Eng-
land and from many distant countries
attend. A few of the rams are sold
privately to foreign buyers, chiefly Ger-
mans. Then every year a number of
rams are sent to the Scotch sales at
Edinburgh and Kelso, where there is a
great demand for them for crossing pur-
.poses — the Oxford ram on the Half-bred
ewe answering better than anything else.
" The ewe lambs generally go off the
pastures on to rape in October, and then
on to turnips, with which they get a
little cotton-cake. In the spring about
half are selected for the flock, and they
are fed on vetches or seeds or pasture
until turned into the ewe flock,, when the
rams are put amongst them. The draft
ones are put into the pastures, and sold
during the summer for ^stock or to the
butchers, the majority now going to Ger-
many and other countries for breeding
purposes. The stock rams are not highly
fed."
For many years Mr Treadwell was the
leading prize-winner in the Oxford Down
classes at National and other shows, but
soon after the advent of the new century
he discontinued exhibiting. Since then
the demand for Mr Treadwell's rams has
increased, and so also has the run of
prices for them. At the Jubilee Sale in
1907 the average for 58 shearling rams
was £,2T, — with a top pfice of 150
guineas.
Maisey Hampton Flock.
In the well-known prize-winning flock
of Oxford Downs belonging to Mr James
T. Hobbs, Maisey Hampton, Gloucester-
shire,, lambs are dropped between the
I St of January and the middle of March.
For some time before lambing the ewes
get a limited supply of roots and plenty
chopped hay and straw. After lambing
they get a liberal allowance of roots and
good hay, with i lb. of com each per
day. After the lambs are weaned the
ewes are kept on grass, and they clear
up behind the lambs.
The lambs for some time before being
weaned are allowed to run in front of
their mothers, where they get a little
linseed-cake and. crushed oats and bran
in boxes, sliced roots and hay being also
given. After weaning the lambs are
usually started on young " seeds " until
vetches are ready for them, the concen-
trated food being continued, with the
addition of a little split peas, the quan-
tity allowed being about i lb. each per
day.
Ewes drop their first lamb when two
years old, and are usually cast when they
have reared four crops of lambs.
Young rams in winter get roots and
hay, with about i lb. of corn each per day.
They are put on to rye and vetches in
spring and summer, their allowance of
corn being gradually increased till it
reaches 2 lb. each per day. They are
generally sold in August.
An Oxford Down ram is represented
in Plate 53.
THE SUFFOLK
The Suffolk breed of sheep has come
to the front very much during the closing
years of the nineteenth and opening of
the twentieth centuries. It is kept in
its native county, a few flocks being
found in Essex, Norfolk, and Cambridge.
It is chiefly in the hands of tenant-
farmers.
Origin. — The origin of the breed is
not difiicult to trace. It was evolved
by a cross of the Southdown on the
Norfolk horned sheep. The horns were
in course of a few generations eliminated.
It is curious to note how the predominant
features of the old Norfolk breed have
asserted themselves. The Suffolk has
all its leanness of flesh and darkness of
limb and face. It has kept the size of
its Norfolk progenitor, on which it has
grafted the quality of the Southdown.
The cross was made early last century,
in the middle of which the breed was
commonly known as the Southdown-Nor-
folks. It was in 1859 that the breed
was finally christened the Suffolk.
Characteristics.
The Suffolk is a bare polled sheep,
with greater length of limb than most
of the other short-wools. It is very dark
in, the face and on the limbs, jet-black
in fact, a characteristic inherited from
THE SUFFOLK.
177
its Norfolk ancestry. The eye is bold,
the nose fairly long, and the muzzle
square. The ears come forward parallel
to the poll, and should not droop. In
the ram the neck should be very full,
and fill the hand when gripped. The
back should be broad, and touch kindly
under hand. Length of frame is neces-
sary to carry flesh. The whole appear-
ance of the sheep differs from other Down
breeds in its bareness of limb and poll.
It suggests activity.
Scale of Points.
The following scale of points has been
adopted by the Suffolk Sheep Society: —
Points.
Bead. — Hornless ; face black and long, and
muzzle moderately fine — especially in
ewes (a small quantity of clean white
wool on the forehead not objected to) ;
ears a medium length, black and fine
texture ; eyes bright and full . , 25
Neeh. — Moderate length and well set (in
rams stronger, with a good crest) . 5
Shoulder. — Brpad and oblique ... 5
Chest. — Deep and wide .... 5
Back and Loin. — Long, level, and well
covered with meat and muscle ; tail
broad and well set up ; the ribs long
and well sprung, with a full flank . 20
Legs and Feet. — Straight and black, with
fine and flat bone ; woolled to knees
and hocks, clean below ; fore legs well
set apart ; hind legs well filled with
mutton ...... 20
Selly {also Scrotum of Jtams). ■ — Well
covered with wool .... 5
Meece. — Moderately short ; close fine fibre
without tendency to mat or felt to-
gether, and well defined — i.e., not
shading off into dark wool or hair ■ 10
Skin. — Fine, soft, and pink colour . . 5
Total . . . .ICO
Prolificacy. — The Suffolk is a prolific
breed. It is on record that one ewe
dropped no less than eight healthy lambs
in the brief space of i2j^ months. It is
interesting to note, as indicative of the
prolificacy of the breed, that since 1887,
when returns were first made to the
Suffolk Sheep Society by the owners of
registered flocks, the numbej of lambs
reared has been 132.25 per 100 ewes.
Koughly speaking, therefore, one may
conclude that the breed is capable of
producing a lamb and a third a-year.
Lean Mutton. — The Suffolk- more
than any other breed has distinguished
VOL. III.
itself since the carcase contests were in-
stituted at Smithfield Show. No doubt
the quality already referred to — the large
proportion of lean to fat — has enabled it
to excel when the block is the objective.
As a show sheep the Suffolk has not
quite the width, depth, and wealth of
some of the others, hence its absence
from representative honours in inter-
breed contests.
Produce of Mutton. — Experiments
carried out at the Hollesley Bay College
with a Suffolk on Merino ewes resulted
in a lamb and a half per ewe. This
lamb, slaughtered at 15 months, weighed
94 lb. live-weight, and gave a dressed
carcase of 54 lb. — equal to 60.64 P^i"
cent. The washed fleece weighed 6.65
lb. The winning carcase in the short-
wool wether sheep class at Smithfield
Show in 1907 was a Suffolk, and so
was the second. Weighing 208 lb. on
arrival and 640 days old, the carcase-
weight was 133 lb., this showing the
highest daily gain in the class. The
first, second, fourth, and fifth prizes in
the short-wool lamb class were also won
by Suffolks. The winner scaled 144 lb.
265 days old, killing 92 lb. Still further
triumphs, including the championship in
the carcase competition, fell to the breed
at the Smithfield Show of 1908.
Por Crossing. — The breed has been
exploited; for crossing purposes, particu-
larly in the south of Scotland, where it
finds patronage for mating with the
whitefaced ewe.
MANAGEMENT OF SUFFOLK FLOCKS.
In, the best of the Suffolk flocks a
liberal and thoroughly up-to-date system
of management is pursued. That this
is the case is clearly shown by the rapid
progress which the breed has made in
regard to early maturity and mutton-
producing properties generally.
The majority of the Suffolk flocks are
kept on land of poor quality, and in
these flocks March is the principal lamb-
ing month. The general system of
management here is less expensive than
in ram-breeding flocks.
Mr Herbert E. Smiths Flock.
In the well-known Suffolk flock owned
by Mr Herbert E. Smith, The Grange,
M
178
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
Walton, the lambs are dropped in
January and February, and they are
weaned about the first of June. Beforo
lambing the ewes run on grass during
the day, and are folded on turnips at
night, getting also a little hay. After
lambing they are folded on turnips, cab-
bages, &c., and run out on rye; later on
they go on to mixed grasses, and get a
small allowance of mangels.
After weaning the lambs get about
J^ lb. per day of mijed cake and oats,
are folded on tares and rape, and have a
daily run on clover or sainfoin. The
draft ewe and wedder lambs are sold
about the second week in July, realis-
ing about 50s. each. The ram lambs
are sold in August and September,
and bring about ;^20. Young rams
are fed well on cabbages, rape, and
sainfoin, getting in addition about
^ lb. per day of a mixture of corn
and cake.
The. Play ford Flock.
In Mr S. R. Sherwood's valuable flock
at Playford, Ipswich, the ewes for about
a month before lambing get ^ lb. each
per day of linseed-cake and crushed oats
and bran, mixed in equal proportions.
The lambs are dropped in January and
February, and are weaned in April and
May. For a time before weaning the
lambs run through " creeps " in front of
their mothers, and get as much as they
care to eat of the same mixture, with
cracked peas and beans. Lambs run on
turnips, rye, savoys, swedes, and trifolium
in succession.
The culled ewe lambs are sold in July
at about 508. to 55s. each, the best heing
retained for breeding. Ram lambs are
sold in August, September, and October,
at an average of about ;£i 2 each. Young
rams are pushed on from the start,
getting swedes and savoys mixed, and
as much cake, crushed oats, bran, and
cracked peas as they will eat.
After weaning ewes are kept for a
time on moderate food, but they are
gradually put into good condition for
tupping in August. Just before tupping
they are " flushed " on cole-seed or good
grass and stubble. Mr Sherwood doe^
not breed from ewe lambs.
A portrait of a Suffolk ram is given in
Plate 57.
THE RYELAND.
The Ryeland breed is one of the oldest
English breeds, although perhaps it has
not contributed much to the ovine history .
of the country. It is found chiefly in
Herefordshire and Worcestershira Orig-
inally it had an extensive run on the
Welsh Borderland, being prized for its
wool.
The modern Ryeland is a vastly im-
proved sheep. It can hold its own with
any breed for sjonmetry, closeness of
fleece, and firmness of flesh. Breeders
freely advertise its suitability for fat
lamb production.
Appearance and Weight. — In ap-
pearance the Ryeland has something in
common with the Shropshire in quality
and symmetry, although of course its
colouring is a dull white, and it is not
so severely muffled on the face. It carries
a close, thick fleece of excellent quality.
In weight it scarcely attains the scale of
the Shropshire, but lo-month-old lambs
will turn out as high as 18 lb. per quarter,
and wethers at 16 or 17 months will kill
22 lb. per quarter. The old Ryeland
breed was a sheep of much smaller
frame, and did not fatten so readily as
the modern type, which has been in-
creased in weight to the extent of 6 to
8 lb. per quarter, age for age.
Fleece. — A still greater improve-
ment is noticeable in the weight of the
fleece, which has been advanced from
about 3 lb. to close on 8 lb. in a well-
bred flock. The wool of the Ryeland
is said to be the best for carding pur-
poses produced in England, and doubt-
less the competition of foreign wools'
has affected the popularity of the breed
in England.
Management.' — There is little that is
exceptional in the management of Rye-
land flocks. They are treated with
enterprise and care.
A Ryeland ram is represented in Plate
57-
THE DORSET DOWN.
This breed, which supports a flock
book established in 1906, is native to
the south of England. Its origin was
THE DOKSET DOWN.
179
a cross between the Southdown a,nd the
Berkshire, Hampshire, and Wiltshil-e
ewes.
Early Improvement. — The earliest
exponent of this cross was Mr Thomas
Homer Saunders of Watercombe, near
Dorchester, who created a type of sheep
known as the "Watercombe Breed of
Improved Hampshire Downs." He and
his son, Mr T. Chapman Saunders, were
closely identified with it.
Contemporaneously with the work of
Messrs Saunders was that of Mr Hum-
frey of Chaddleworth, near Newbujry.
His method was to procure a Webb
Southdown ram and cross with the
Hampshire and Wiltshire ewes. These
sheep were known as "West Country
Downs," and were exhibited at the
Koyal shows at Chester in 1858 and
Warwick 1859.
Characteristics.
The Dorset Down is closely related to
the Hampshire -Down, but is of finer
bone and often of lighter colour. A
good Dorset Down should be free from
coarseness, have a long, full, clean face
and under jaw, a bold eye and full
muzzle. The ears should be thin, fairly
long, pointed, and whole-coloured, being
carried well above the level of the eyes.
The bone should be fine. The fleece
should be dense, growing well down to
hocks and knees, round the cheeks, be-
tween the ears, and on the forehead.
Wool under the eyes or across the bridge
of the nose, on the ears, or below the
hocks and knees, should be avoided.
The face and legs should be of a brown
colour. There should be no tendency
to' legginess.
Early Maturity and "Weiglit. — The
breed matures early. The ewes ' are
capable of producing sucking lambs
weighing from 40 to 48 lb. at 10 to
12 weeks old, or a well-finished carcase
at from 8 to 9 months of from 66 to
72 lb. mutton,
MANAGEMENT.
Flock management in the south of
England implies early lambing. The
average Dorset Down flockmaster is well
content if he rears just over a lamb to
the ewe. In the Forston flock Mr Cecil
Boatswain writes that, from 400 breed-
ing ewes, in 1908, he reared 385 lambs.
Mr G. Wood Homer of Bardolf Manor,
Dorchester, reckons that his flock of
580 ewes rear rather more than a lamb
apiece.
The mating in Dorset Down flocks
takes place early in July, and the lanfbs
are dropped from December onwards.
The lambs run with the ewes until
not later than the beginning of May.
A Dorset Down ram lamb will serve
from 70 to 100 ewes. Mr Wood Homer
estimates that not more than 8 per
cent require second service, and 2j4
per cent a third service. There should
not be more than i per cent of barren
ewes.
Prior to lambing, ewes fed on grass-
land get a few turnips and hay. The
increased acreage of land laid down
enables flockmasters to keep their flocks
op grass. The hay-q(ibs should be out
early in October, and about J^ lb. of
hay given to ewes forward in lamb. '
The quantity is gradually increased,
being given in two portions — jnorning
and evening.
Wheij the lambs are a week to ten
days old they are put on turnips. The
best lambs are pushed forward with
cake, and are ready for the first draft
early in May, when about four months
old. They realise up to about 36s. per
head. The second draft comes on in
July, making about 33s. The off-going
ewes are fit for market in May, making
over 50s., and weighing as much as
100 lb. dead-weight.
It is of the highest importance to
provide adequate shelter, otherwise the
cold winds cause heavy losses. Shelter-
hurdles are commonly used for this
purpose.
In the ram-6reeding flocks selection of
the rams takes place about March, and
those chosen . are pushed forward with
extra food. The ewes should be care-
fully drafted about August.
Mr Wood Homer considers that his
couples, Chilver hoggs and fattening
sheep, run to about 2j^ sheep to the
acre on light hill-land. This, however,
is possible only by the liberal use of
artificial food.
A Dorset Down ram is represented in
Plate 59.
i8o
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
THE DORSET OR SOMERSET
HORN SHEEP.
TheDorset Horn sheep appears amongst
the earliest records of pastoral husbandry
in the south of England. As far back
as 1 75 7, in his Observations in Hus-
bandry/, Edward Lisle records that in
the course of his journeys into Dorset-
shire between 1693 and 1772 he was
struck with the fecundity of the native
horn sheep. He remarks "that his
tenant, Farmer Stephens, had ewes which
brought him lambs at Christmas, which
he sold fat to the butcher at Lady Day,
anno 1 707 ; and at the beginning of June,
thinking his ewes to be mutton, they
looked so big, he went to sell them to
the butcher, who handled them, and
found their udders springing with milk
and near lambing, and they accordingly
did lamb the first Breek in June."
Again, William Ellis, in his Shep-
herds' Guide, published in 1749, de-
scribes the west country sheep as white-
faced, with white and short legs, broad
loins, and fine curled wool, " the Dorset-
shire variety being especially more care-
ful of their young than any other."
There is probably no better or more
continuous record of a breed being
associated for a long period with a
county than this.
Another name for this breed is the
Somerset Horn sheep.
Characteristics.
This is a whitefaced horned breed.
It is essentially a meat sheep, in some
respects not, unlike the Cheviot in form,
but longer in frame.
The head should be broad, the nostril
full and open, the poll well wooUed to
the brow, the face white, the nose and
lips pink. The ears are of medium size
and thin. The teeth are flat, chisel-
shaped.- The neck is short and round,
well sprung from the shoulders, and in
the ram strong and muscular. The
chest is well forward, full, and deep.
The fore flank is full, with no depression
behind the shoulder. The shoulders
must be well laid and compact.
The back and loin should be broad,
long, and straight, with deep' well-sprung
ribs. The quarters must be full, broad.
and deep, and fleshed to the hocks. The
tail should be well set in a line with the
back, wide, firm, and fleshy. The legs
must be well planted at the four corners,
with plenty of bone, arid well wooUed to
or below the knees and hocks.
The fleece should be compact and
firm to the touch, of good quality and
staple.
The rams should have a bold mascu-
line appearance, carrying a handsome
head, with strong and long horns well
apart at the crown, springing out in a
straight line with each other, and com-
ing downwards and forwards in graceful
curves as close to the face as may be
without involving the necessity of hav-
ing to be cut. '
The ewes should have feminine char-
acteristics and a more delicate set of
horns.
It is a distinct objection to have a
spotted skin or fleece. Markings on the
horns are also disliked, while the tend-
ency to grow the horrife back is viewed
with strong disfavour. The legs should
be free from coarse hair.
In the Sho-wyard. — The breed was
first aflForded separate classification at the
Battersea meeting of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society in 1862, the judges report-
ing limited competition but superior
quality. The breed was again exhibited
three years later at the Plymouth Royal
Show, and subsequently at the Oxford
and Cardiff meetings in 1870 and 1872.
Mock Book. — The Flock-Book was
established in 1892. The volume for
1907 contains entries of 69,577 sheep.
recundity. — As already indicated,
the outstanding characteristic of the
Dorset Horn breed is its fecundity. The
ewes receive the male as early as April
or May, and the lambs are born in Sept-
ember, October, and November, the
Royal Agricultural Society classifying
them to be born ist November. The
lambs are produced early for the Christ-
mas trade. The produce of a flock varies
from 130 to 180 per cent of lambs, and
in warmer countries two sets of lambs
a -year have been bred. Occasionally
this is done in this country, but the
practice is not favoured.
Early Maturity. — About a ewe and
a half are kept to the acre, varying with
the quality of the land. The lambs re-
THE DORSET OR SOMERSET HORN SHEEP.
i8i
main with the ewes until May, The
general lambing time is about two
months in advance of other breeds, the
flock ewes dropping about Christmas.
The earlier lambs receive good feeding,
the object being to fatten them as
quickly as possible. October or Nov-
ember lambs, well nurtured, will be
leadj' for the butcher at from ten to
twelve weeks old, averaging from lo
to 14 lb. per quarter. They find a
market in London at prices reaching up
to 50s.
Dorset ewe lambs have been bred from
under twelve months old, the rams being
used on them in November and Decem-
ber. Their produce is fit for the butcher
by midsummer.
For Crossing. — The Dorset Horn has
not been used extensively for crossing.
The most general cross is the Horn ewe
and a Down ram, producing a very good
grazing sheep, which may be fattened off
pasture at eighteen months to kill from
20 to 25 lb. per quarter.
Where tlie Breed Thrives. — The
breed is of course native to Dorset. It
flourishes on the chalk farms of the Isle
of Wight and Isle of Purbeck, and from
Dorchester to Bridport, Crewkerne, and
into the richer lands of Somerset and
Devon. In the west of England it pro-
duces the early " house " lamb. Morton's
Cyclopaedia of Agriculture mentions the
Horn sheep of the west of England as
one of the oldest and best of the upland
short -wool led Horn races. The breed
has also, on a small scale, been tried in
Scotland and Ireland.
The Somerset Horn Sheep. — This
sheep was at one time bred on divergent
lines to the Dorset, although they are of
common parentage. Somerset breeders
claim to have introduced the pink nostril
as opposed to the dark. The Somerset
sheep, in the earlier times was lankier
than the Dorset variety, but by judicious
crossing greater plumpness and better
form have been gained. Spooner says :
" The Somerset sheep is a variety of the
Dorset, possessing the same peculiarities
and differing from it in being larger and
taller, and having more arched profiles
and heavy pink noses instead of black
and white."
Clip. — The lambs clip from 2^ to
3 lb. of wool; the ewes from 5 to 7
lb., and the shearling rams from 10
to 14 lb. The particular virtue of the
wool is its whiteness and the fine point
it possesses.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of a Dorset Horn
flock is naturally determined to some
extent by the period when the lambs are
marketed. If very early lambing is the
case, say in October and November,
naturally Christmas lamb is the chief
object. In the main, however, fat lamb
is turned off from the month of April up
till Christmas. A general lambing time
is in November and December. This
necessitates early ram sales, which take
place in summer. One of the objects of
the Dorset Horn flockmaster is to get his
lambs forward to the London market
before the Down breeder is ready with
his consignments.
The winteving of the flock is very
much like that of flocks of other breeds
in the south. The root crops — mangels
and turnips — play an important part,
with plenty of hay to counteract the
watery character of the roots. The twin
ewes are specially fed, as they have a
larger family to bring up, cake and corn
being the chief ingredients of the arti-
ficial food mixture. Peas and old beans
are also used, Mr James Attrill, who
has a flock in the Isle of Wight, declares
that " nothing fattens a lamb so quickly
as plenty of milk." It pays, therefore,
to look well after the ewes.
Mr Sarrmd Kidner's System.
In Somersetshire the system prevail-
ing may be described in the words of
Mr Samuel Kidner of Bickley, Milver-
ton : " The breeding flock," he says,
" consists chiefly of three ages, but a few
of the best are retained for the fourth
crop. The percentage of twins dropped
would be about 66 per cent, with a few
triplets last season, 3 per cent. The tup-
ping begins about the first week in July, a
few lambs being born in the last week of
November, but the chief crop through
December. None of the lambs are fat-
tened, but are kept in a healthy grow-
ing state. The twins are kept separate,
with more liberal treatment.
" Weaning takes place in about three
l82
SHORT-WOOL AND DOWN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
months from birth, when those to be kept
for rams are selected. The lambs are
then kept on cut swedes until we have
green food for them, some linseed-cake
being given. The over-age ewes are put
forward as early as possible, being usu-
ally fit for the butcher when their lambs
are weaned, there being always a de-
mand for this class of sheep Up to Lady
Day.
" The wether lambs are maintained in
store condition through the summer, in
early autumn kept better, and sold at
from twelve to thirteen months old, fat.
The ewe_ lambs are selected fot the flock
in the autumn, there generally bdng a
demand for the draft lots for breeding
purposes. The rams are Sold in their
wool as yearlings about the second week
in May."
Mr F. J, Mersmi's Flock.
Mr Frank J. Merson of North Pether-
ton, Bridgewater, ihates his ewes twice, as
two tooths and four tooths. Thereafter a
few of the best are retained in the flock as
six-tooth ewes. The latter are put to the
ram about the end of May to bring fat
lamb, the progeny being fattened along
with the ewes. The Chilver lambs from
the younger ewes go into the flock, and a
few of the best ram lambs are kept as
tups. After lambing the flock is kept
on grass for about six weeks, with cake,
corn, and hay ; and then on roots, rape,
kale, and cabbage ; finally, white turnips
and cut swedes. The ram lambs run
forward through "creeps." Fat lambs
generally make from 35s. to 40s., fat
ewes from 50s. to S5s., and fat hoggs
up to 66s. There are about 50 per tent
of twins. The ewes clip about 6 lb. and
the ewe hoggs 7 lb., lambs 3 lb.
A Dorset Horn ram is represented in
Plate 59.
RADNOR SHEEP.
This breed is associated with the
county after which it is named. It has
extended farther afield than that, how-
ever, being found on the Montgbmery
arid Merioneth hills. The type has not
been constant, being subject to extran-
eous influences which have altered it con-
siderably.
Characteristics.
In point of colour some of the Radnor
sheep are tan, some grey, and some
speckled iii the face. At one time their
faces were yellow or, as they prefer to
call it lobally, tanned. Their fleeces
were short and close, and they were
built on short legs. They were well
suited to resist the rough climate of
the hills.
When the Radnorshire hills were
fenced ofi^, and the plough invaded what
was hitherto the domain of the sheep,
an efibrt was made to increase the size
of the breed, Shropshire blood being
introduced. This produced a har4y,
clean-limbed, somewhat long-faced sheep,
rather darker in Visage. Latterly the
Kerry Hill ram has been used exten-
sively, and the time does not seem far
removed when it will be diflBcult to
distinguish between the two.
In appearance the modern Radnor is
black of countenance,' though some are
tanned or grey. The rams are homed
and the ewes should be polled. They
are short-legged sheep, somewhat slow
feeders, but their mutton is of excellent
quality. When three or four years old
the wethers will weigh" from 14 to 15 lb.
dead-weight per quarter, and clip from
4 to 5 lb. of wool.
The ewes are good nurses, and are
largely used in the rearing of fat lamb.
MANAGEMENT.
At one time it was the custom to sell
off the wethers when three or four years
old, the wool p^ng for the sheep's
keep. The cost of feeding was small
Nowadays the wethers are sold off at a
year and a half to go on to Midland
pastures, where they rapidly fatten and
command a good price. The drafting
of the ewe flock is done annually, and
two- and three-year-old ewes are much
in demand in September for the pro-
duction of fat lajUb.
The ewe flocks kept are much larger
than formerly, owing to the dispoM of
wethers at an earlier age.
MOUNTAIN AND MOOKLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
183
MOUNTAIN AND MOOKLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
BLACKFACE SHEEP.
The early history of the Blackface
sheep is pretty much a matter of con-
jecture. One eminent writer^ Dr Walker,
supposes that it is of foreign origin, and
that the forest of Ettrick was selected as
its first locality in Scotland. He men-
tions that a flock of 5000 sheep was
imported by one of the Scottish kings,
and from that stock the whole of the
Blackface race, it is supposed, succeeded.
Other writers maintain that it origin-
ated among the mountains of Cumber-
land, Westmoreland, and Lancashire.
Spme people hold, on the other hand,
that the Blackface had its rise among
the mountains of southern Scotland.
One Hector Boethius, writing about
1460, and speaking of sheep in the vale
of Esk, says : " Until the introduction
of the Cheviots the rough-woolled black-
faced sheep alone were to be found."
It is therefore pretty certain that from
time immemorial it has held undisputed
possession of the hills of southern Scot-
land and north of England.
The introduction of the breed tp the
Highlands of Scotland, , which took place
about the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury— when black cattle began to give
way to sheep — was not altogether wel-
comed. In the Highlands a-t that time
was a small white brteed carrying a fine
fleece, and its admirers felt sa,dly grieved
over the inroads of the hardy Blackface.
A Dr James Anderson, writing regarding
the improvement of wool in the northern
counties, says : " The coarse - wooUed
sheep" (meaning the Blackface) "have
been debasing the old breed under the
name of improving it, so that I am in-
clined to believe that in the mainland
of Scotland the true unmixed breed is
irretrievably lost." Since the beginning
of last century, when flockmasters began
to direct attention to the improvement
of the breed, many defects have been
removed. In modern times a healthy
emulation and enthusiasm have taken
possession of sheep-farmers to raise the
value of their flocks, and of recent years
a marked improvement in the character
of the Blackface has been accomplished.
In many parts of the country the
Blackface has been supplanted by the
Cheviot, owing to the better price ob-
tained for the wool of the latter.
Distribution of Breed.
The localities most noted for this breed
are Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Mid-Lothian,
Perthshire, and Stirlingshire, Lanark-
shire may be said to be the nursery of
the Blackfaces, thousands of lambs being
transported annually from this county to
be reared upon the extensive pastures of
the more elevated districts.
The southern districts of Scotland, as
a rule, raise the best stock, being the
districts in which the spirit of improve-
ment has been longest and most actively
at work. In the .counties of Lanark,
Ayr, Dumfries, and Mid-Lothian great
pains and attention have been bestowed
on the breeding process for a long period.
The northern counties, though at one
time behind, have been rapidly coming
to the front during recent years.
In the more northern districts of Scot-
land extensive tracts abounded uncon-
nected with any breeding farms, upon
which the stock of wethers were main-
tained by buying in lambs.
Towards the end of last century, a de-
mand having arisen for younger mutton,
the grazing of three years became unprof-
itable, and the land had to be devoted to
other purposes.
In the southern districts a ewe or
breeding stock prevails ; while in central
and northern Scotland a mixed stock,
ewe and wether, is the general rule.
Characteristics.
Strongly defined and distinctive char-
acteristics and peculiarities distinguish
the hardy Blackface. The general form
is robust, muscular limbs with wide
chest, body short and well barrelled,
face and legs black and white or en-
tirely black in colour. Endowed with
great animation, the slightest alarm
rouses them to action. Both sexes have
1 84
MOUNTAIN AND MOOKLAND BREEDS OF SHEER
horns, — large and spirally-twisted in the
male, small and flattish and standing
more out from the 'head in the female.
The wool is long and wavy, somewhat
coarse, inclining to hairy.
Wild and restless in their habits, the
nature of the sheep is to climb the
highest hills. Eemarkfe,bly hardy of
constitution, they endure hunger and
cold to a wonderful degree, boldly win-
tering it out where other breeds would
succumb, and working with their feet
among the snow for a bare subsistence
with an energy and determination truly
surprising. Their powers of endurance
under the most trying Circumstances is
marvellous, instances being on record
where some of the breed after- being
buried under snow-drifts for three or
four weeks came out alive and appar-
ently wonderfully well.
Strong in maternal or "homing" in-
stinct, with a special attachment to a
certain locality, ewes have been known
to travel long distances so as to produce
their offspring at the favoured spot.
Their mutton is so delicate and finely
flavoured that it is preferred to every
other.
An important property of this breed
is its adaptation to heath lands; and it
is this property that has rendered it so
suitable to the extensive tracts of heath-
covered hills throughout the country
where it is acclimatised. There are
many extensive Blackface .sheep-runs,
ten to fifteen thousand acres not being
uncommon, with flocks of from five to
eight thousand.
A Typical Blackface Sheep.
The following points are considered
essential in a good specimen of the
breed : Broad muzzle with strong aqui-
line nose and wide nostrils; forehead
wide and full ; the colour of the face
to be either entirely black or black and
white distinctly defined ; both face and
legs to be clean and free from all dun-
ness or tuf tiness ; horns hard and free
from blood-red, inclined to be wide set
and not rising high on the crown, but
coming out level with the top of the head,
assuming a spiral formation; shoulder
broad, with wide chest; straight broad
back, not drooping behind ; erect on hind
legs, which should be well apart. The
flow of the wool should almost reach to
the ground.
The Blackface ewe is in good demand
for crossing purposes — that with the
Border Leicester proving very successful.
The lambs, the result of this crossing,
are excellent feeders, coming quickly to
maturity, and yielding mutton of a high
character and fine flavour.
■Weights. — A well - known breeder
gave the following as the average dead-
weight of the various classes of Black-
face sheep taken off the hill : —
3-year old wethers from 14 to 16 lb. per qr.
2-year old do. 11 12^ n 14 11 n
2-year
Yeld ewes
Gimmers
Cast ewes
" 13 " IS
ti 12 II 13^ <■ "
II 10 II 12^ fi II
Prices of Blackface Sheep.
The following are the general prices
for Blackface wethers and cast ewes in
each of the years 1893-1907 :-^-
Wethers.
Oast
jwes.
s.
d.
s.
d.
s.
d.
s.
d.
1893
21
0 to
37
0
12
0 to 24
0
1894
20
0 II
37
6
14
6 1
26
6
189s .
23
0 II
41
0
16
0 1
, 28
6
1896
19
0 11
35
4
13
0 1
1 24
0
1897
21
0 II
36
6
IS
0
1 25
6
1898
22
0 II
37
0
16
0
1 26
6
1899'
20
0 n
33
6
13
0
1 24
0
1900
23
0 II
36
0
z6
0 1
1 26
0
I90I
20
0 II
35
0
14
0
< 25
6
1902
18
6 .1
34
0
12
0 1
, It
0
1903
21
0 II
36
0
15
0 1
0
1904
23
0 II
38
6
18
0 1
30
0
I90S
21
6 1.
37
0
19
0 I
■ 31
0
1906
23
0 M
38
0
20
0 1
■ 33
0
1907
21
0 II
33
6
17
0 p
28
0
Prices of Wool.
The following are the prices per stone
of 24 lb. of unsmeared wool of Blackface
sheep for the years 1893-1907 : —
s.
d.
s.
d.
1893 from
ID
0 to
12
0
1894 1,
10
0 II
12
0
1895 „
ID
0 II
II
6
1896 .1
10
0 II
II
6
1897 "
10
6 II
12
0
i8g8 .1
10
0 II
II
6
1899 II
8
6 II
9
6
1900 11
8
0 II
9
6
1901 II
8
0 II
9
0
1902 II
8
6 1,
9
6
1903 "
II
6 II
12
6
1904 II
14
0 II
15
0
1905 "
15
0 II
16
0
1906 ti
16
0 M
17
6
1907 II
16
0 II
17
0
BLACKFACE SHEEl^
185
MANAGEMENT.
The management of the Blackface is,
generally speaking, pretty much the same
all over, varying little from north to
south. On most farms the flocks are
allowed to roam at free will. There
are some farms, however, on which the
flocks, are divided into what are termed
hirsels, each hirsel being confined to a
certain portion of the farm.
The ewes have their first l9,mbs at two
years old. The rams are put to the ewes
between 20th and 30th November, and
the lambs are dropped towards the end
of April.
During winter these Blackface sheep
live on rather scanty fare, — auxiliary
feeding being resorted to only when the
ground gets covered with frozen snow to
such a depth that they are unable to get
at the herbage by scraping with their
feet. Flockmasters in high exposed dis-
tricts consider it necessary to keep a
supply of hay in reserve against a pro-
tracted storm, as judicious feeding at
such a time becomes indispensable.
The male lambs are castrated when
about eight or ten weeks old, the best
being left uncut for sires.
The fleece is removed in the months of
June and July, the male and yeld portion
of the flock coming to clipping condition
earlier than the breeding ewes.
It is the custom on many farms to
wash the sheep before clipping them.
In the shearing operations mutual assist-
ance is frequently given. Neighbouring
shepherds help.each other during the clip-
ping. The sheep are generally branded
or marked with tar after the fleece is
removed.
The fleeces are rolled up and packed
ready for sending to market. The aver-
age weight of the fleece is between 4 and
5 lb. The wool being inferior in quality
to that of other breeds is chiefly used in
the manufacture of carpets and the
coarser fabrics. The clip is consigned
to wool-brokers in the large towns, who
dispose of it by auction, at prices ranging
over a series of years, from 4d. to 8d.
per pound. America is a good customer
for this class of wool.
Within recent years there has been a
tendency to favour the production of
large, heavy fleeces of strong wool, al-
though some breeders lean to the opinion
that the advantage to the animal lies
with the thick-set soft wool evenly dis-
tributed.
The lambs are weaned about the second
week in. August. The ewe lambs, with
the exception of what have to be re-
tained to keep up the numbers of the
stock on the farm, are sold for breeding
purposes. The wether lambs are dis-
posed of according to the nature of the
farm. Where a mixed stock is kept the
best of the wether lambs are retained
till two or three years old. Only the
inferior class, or what are called shotts,
are sold. Where only a ewe stock pre-
vails the whole of the wether lambs are
sold. They pass into the hands of low
country and arable farmer's, who, after
feeding them for a few months, generally
dispose of them at remunerative prices.
* Hoggs on the majority of grazings are
sent sometimes long distances to the
country for wintering. This proves an
expensive item in the economy of sheep-
farming, the cost averaging from 7 s. to
8s. a-head.
The old or cast ewes — that is, all above
five years or so — are drafted in October,
and sold for rearing a crop of cross lambs,
after which they are fattened for the
butcher.
Sipping. — The process of dipping hill
and other sheep is universally practised,
being for a time made compulsory by
legislative enactment. It consists of a
bath composed of certain ingredients,
administered twice a-year. This is for
the purpose of destroying parasites and
the prevention of skin diseases, promot-
ing the general health and comfort of the
animal, as well as enhancing the quality
of the wool.
Markets. — The principal markets for
the sale. of the Blackface are the various
auction marts throughout the country,
the once famous Falkirk Trysts now
being a thing of the past. A sheep and
wool fair is held at Inverness in the
month of July. This market is unique
of its kind, there being neither a sheep
nor a fleece on view, all purchases being
based on previously proved character.
Qualifications of a Shepherd. —
Farmers place their flocks under the care
of trustworthy and capable shepherds.
At all seasons interested shepherds can
186
MOUNTAIN AND MOORLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
by care and judgmerlt do a great deal i'n
imJ)roving tlje condition of flocks. Mr
Little, a. writer on the subject, gives the
following qualifications of a mountain
shepherd : " The she^jhetd should be hon-
est, active, carefulj and, above all, calln-
temperpd. A shepherd who at any titne
gets into a passion with his sheep not
only occasionally injures them, but acts
at a great disadvantage both in herding
them and working >mong them. A good-
tempered man and a close-mouthed dog
will effect the desired object with half
the time and trouble that it gives to the
hasty, passionate man. The qualifications
of a shepherd are not to train his dog to
running and hounding, but to direct the
sheep according to the nature of the soil
and climate, and the situation of the
farm, in such a manner as to obtain the
greatest quantity of safe and nutritious
foods at all seasons of the year. Those
shepherds who dog and force their flocks
I take to be bad herdsmen' for their
masters and bad herdsmen for the neigh-
bouring farmers."
Glenbuck Blackfaces.
Mr Howatson of Glenbuck has been
good enough to supply information re-
garding the management of his famous
flock of Blackfaces.
Age of Draft Ewes.^— Mr Howatson
takes only four or five crops of lambs
from his ewes before parting with them,
as he finds that better and stronger
lambs are bred from robust young ewes
than from exhausted old ewes, and that,
as a matter of course, five-year-old draft
ewes sell better than ewes a year older.
The draft ewes are sold early in October,
and the whole remaining flock is then
dipped, the dipping being repeated as
weather permits to meet the wants of the
Board of Agriculture's Regulations.
Early Iiambs. — Mr Howatson lets his
rams to the ewes in the second week of
November, which is about a week earlier
than the general custom. The best lot of
rams go first, and then in about three
weeks the remainder of the rams are put
amongst the ewes so as to pick up those
not already served.
Bam Lambs.— Mr Howatson has so
much improved his flock that he finds
a ready demand fOr his ram lambs fot"
breeding purposes, so that few of them
are castrated. He retains a few of the
choicest of the ram lambs to bring out
for shearlings, from which the best are
again selected for home stud purposes,
and the remainder, with the spare ewe
lambs, are sold at sales in August, Sept-
ember, and October. The System of
selling ram~ lambs, so successfully inaug-
urated by Mr Howatson about 1870, is
growing in favour, as thereby the pur-
chaser gets possession Of the young sire
which he can feed and treat as may seem
best to suit his purposes.
Mr flowatson is opposed to the early
clipping of rams fdr sale or breeding pur-
poses.
Ewe IiambB. — The Glenbuck ewe
lambs are weaned in August. The
ewe lambs selected to be retained jn
the flock are dipped and sent back to
the hill till the second week in October,
when they are despatched to the low
country, where they are wintered at a
cost of from 8s. to 8s. 6d. pter head.
Clipping. — Clipping begins in the
second week of June with the ewe
hoggs. At this time care is taken to
mark for sale any of the ewe hoggs
which may not in every respect be satis-
factory for breeding purposes, special
attention being given to the fleece, in
the improvement of which Mr Howatson
has been very successful. Mr Howatson
thinks it advantageous to delay clipping
ewes until the new wool is well raised,
and the clipping of them is therefore
postponed till the latter part of July.
BLACKFACE BAM-BREEDING.
The breeding of rams for sale to other
flock-owners has become an important
industry with many of the leading
owners of the Blackface breed. With
skilful and careful management the
returns are usually substantial, the
prices obtained for young rams of choice
quality and character generally reaching
high figures. For single shearling rams
as much as from ;^iSo to ;^2oo has been
realised at auction sales.
Information on the systems of manage-
ment pursued in the breeding and rearing
of Blackface rams has been kindly given
by a hmnber of owners of well-known
flocks, including Mr Howatson of Glen-
buck; Mr Archibald, Overshiels, Stow;
BLACKFACE SHEEP:
187
Messrs Cadzow Brothers, Borland and
Stoneyhill, Carstairs; Mr Hamilton,
Woolfords, Cobbinshaw; Mr Eraser,
Bankinston, Ayr, and others.
Mating. — Special care is taken in the
mating of ewes and rams so as to secure
stock of the highest merit. The best
ewes in the flock 'are naturally chosen
for ram-breeding, but however good a
ewe may be her lamb is not selected for
stud purposes unless it is itself satisfac-
tory in every way. In all judiciously
managed flocks the breeding character
of every strain is well known, and this
knowledge assists greatly not only in the
mating of ewes and rams, but also in the
selecting of lambs, both male and female,
to be retained for breeding purposes.
The few Selected stud ewes are, as a
rule, kept by themselves in fields where
the pasture is good, and for the most
part it is from these ewes that the
successful show sheep are obtained.
Still, in many cases the rams sold for
stud purposes are bred from ewes that
run with the general flock excepting at
the time of tupping, when each tup is
isolated with the ewes allotted to him,
The Overshiels System.
Feeding Young Bams. — Mr Archi-
bald, Overshiels, writes : " The lambs to
be kept as rams are weaned about the
middle of August, when they are put
on clover - foggage or cabbage, and
taught as soon as possible to eat arti-
ficial food, such as linseed - cake. A
good plan is to confine the lambs in a
small enclosure where they can get
nothing but cabbage, which they will
eat greedily in a few days; then give
them access to no cabbage except what
are cut into troughs, and on the cut
cabbage sprinkle linseed-cajje and locust-
meaL In a day or two the lambs will
eat this food readily, and thereafter they
will feed out of troughs and eat cabbages
oflf the ground like older sheep.
"The ram lambs are put into the
house not later than the first of October.
There in some flocks they get a feed in
the morning of a mixture of boiled barley
and bran, with a pinch of salt. At mid-
day and again at night they get a dry
feed, consisting mostly of linseed- cake.
Care must be takeh not to give too
much. At first ^ lb. is ample, the
quantity being gradually increased as
the lambs get bigger, and it is found
they can eat it with safety. Always
have a rack fllled with natural hay and
a trough of fresh water within their
feach. In course of time the lambs will
come to eat over 2 lb. each per day of
the concentrated food. In some cases a
little cod-liver oil mixed with treacle is
given in each boiled feed. Young rams
intended for exhibition are by some con-
sidered the better of getting new milk
twice a-day. Few of the animals can be
got to drink the milk, so it has to be
poured down their throats from a bottle.
An ordinary cow will give enough milk
for five or six shearling rams.
" After the grass comes, usually about
the middle of May, the young rams
should be put out a short time during
each day, and put back to the house
overnight and fed on green food, such
as grass and tares, till the cabbages are
ready. They should be well treated in
this way up to the show or sale.
"The young rams should be clipped
along the bellies and half-way up the
ribs as early as possible jn November,
and the rest of the body should be
clipped in December.
" The wool often gets so long that the
animal is apt to pull it out of its breast
by its feet and knees when rising; to
avert this some tie the wool with tape
in tassels about the thickness of four
fingers. It is also a good plan to sew a
sheet along the back to prevent the sheep
from rubbing and spoiling the fleece.
" Rams that are out- wintered get the
same treatment as the ordinary hogs.
These out-vdntered rams should be
clipped if possible about the beginning
of April, and if the farm is high and
exposed they require to be housed for
about six weeks, or until the weather
gets favourable."
There has from time to time been
much discussion over the question of the
high feeding of rams. In theory high
feeding is almost universally condemned,
yet it is the practice of flock-owners to
give the preference to highly fed rams in
the sale-ring.
Messrs Cadzow' s System. - ,
Messrs Cadzpw Brothers write: "In
entering upon the breeding of rams, we
i88
MOUNTAIN AND MOOELAND BKEEDS OF SHEEP.
in the first place made up our minds as
to the ideal type to produce, for all prac-
tical purposes, and have kept that ideal
before us all the time without the
slightest deviation. Our ideal is a sheep
wide in the back and ribs, walking freely
and straight on not lodg but strong well-
planted legs, and carrying a thick coat of
.wool, not hair. Our system of breeding
is to mate our females with sires of a
masculine type embracing all the charac-
teristics'of our ideal, strictly avoiding
in-breeding, and purchasing fresh blood
whenever we see suitable animals for
sale, more especially when we can get
animala which may excel in those points
which nfeed correcting in our own flock.
In mating, we at all times see that the
males are strong in the points in which
the females may be lacking.
"The lambs are dropped from the
middle of April till the middle of May.
The ewps get nothing but pasture during
summer, the lambs being weaned about
the middle of August.
"The ram lambs when weaned are
put on hay and stubble or foggage till
about the mj^dle of October. They are
then housed. Their winter food consists
of from an eighth of a pound to half a
pound of boiled barley mixed with good
bran, and from an eighth to a pound of
a mixture of linseed-cake, Indian corn,
and oats once a -day, with as much
meadow-hay as they can eat, and plenty
of good water.' For showing we clip a
few of the rams in January, but most of
them are clipped in February and March.
They are put to grass in spring, and get
from half a pound to one and a half
pounds of the raw mixed feed till the
time of the sales in September."
The, '\foolfords System.
Mr Hamilton, Woolfords, writes : —
' " Before the ram sales, in fact all the
year round, I try to find out the weakest
points in the breeding ewes, and if pos-
sible keep and buy rams strong in these
points. At about the 15 th November
the ewes are all handdrawn to the rams,
and each lot put into different fields for
about 34 days.
"The ewes here have to be carefully
drawn, with regard to pedigree as well
as points, as there are always some home-
bred rams used, and tWy have half-
sisters and other near relatives in the
stock. I have never gone in for close
breeding, but I like a fittle of the same
blood when practicable ; of course when
a ewe has done well with a sire one year
she is put back to the same ram again.
"Each ram's lot of fewes are keeled
dififerently, and when dropped in the
spring the lambs are ear-marked with a
diflFerent mark for each individual sire.
Thus the sire of each ram and ewe on
the farm is known.
" The ewes during winter are all kept
on the hill pasture, and get nothing
extra in the way of feeding except in
time of heavy snow, when they get hay,
on which 4;hey do very well. It never
pays to let them get lean, aa with fhe
lot of twins here the loss in lambs and
ewes would be great.
"When the twin lambs are able to
walk they are driven down into fields,
but do not get any extra feeding until
weaned, o unless when they are on very
old grass; in that case the mothers get
a little hand feeding during April and
May. The single lambs get no extra
feeding until weaned. If the forcing is
commenced before weaning the lambs
are apt to get coarse, and it is not good
for the stock ewes.
"In the first place, as to the lambs
that are to be sold as ram lambs at the
ram sales in September and October,
when weaned generally in the first week
of August, they are put on to the best
foggage on the farm, and get in addition
lamb food and cabbages, as much as they
will eat until sold.
" The ram lambs that are to be win-
tered and sold next year as shearlings
are weaned at the same time and put
on to clean grass, sometimes foggage has
to be taken from home, the one object
being to keep them growing steadily.
They are put into the house about the
middle of October, and are commenced
with a little boiled barley mixed with
bran, treacle, and salt for one feed, and
lamb food or other mixed grains for the
other meal. In about a fortnight they
are getting ^ of a lb. of barley in a
boiled condition, and ^ of, a lb. of lamb
food, this feeding being gradually in-
creased until they get up to exactly
double the quantity by the month of
March.
CHEVIOT SHEEP.
189
" The rams are clipped in January or
beginning 'of February, and are pftt out
whenever there is grass for them in
April. They are kept thriving steadily
until the beginning of August, when
they are put on to cabbage and as much
corn as they will eat, to give them a
flush for the sales. The important thing
is to keep them steadily thriving from
the day they are born until sold, with an
extra flush in the last six weeks."
Mr M. P. Eraser's System,
Mr Eraser, Kankinston, Ayr, writes : —
"The ram lambs are weaned in the
beginning of August, and put into fog-
gage fields on the farm, where they are
taught to take a feed of oats, Indian
corn, and cake. About the middle of
October they are put into houses (15
to each house or division), and in a few
days they will have taken kindly to
their winter rations.
It is very advisable at this time to
carefully examine the sheep and see that
they are free from foot-rot, because when
once they commence to thrive, any back-
set from the above cause, or from , an
overdose of feeding, may lead to a mal-
formed turn of the horns. The lambs
are fed at 6 A.M. on oats, Indian corn,
and cake ; at i p.m. on boiled barley and
Indian corn, with oil - cake and beans ;
and at 7.30 p.m. on oats, Indian corn,
and cake. They receive a fresh supply
of hay twice each day, and water is
always before them. The amount of
feeding is gradually increased till by
December each lamb will be eating i lb.
of raw food and J^ lb. boiled food per
day.
"With the exception of a few show
rams that are clipped in the middle of
Decifember, all are clipped after the New
Year, and their feeding is altered to a
boiled feed night and morning and a
raw feed in the middle of the day.
"About the beginning of May the
shearlings are gradually accustomed to
the grass, the boiled feed is stopped and
the raw feed increased, till by June they
will be eating 2 lb. of oats, Indian corn,
and cake. There is not the same danger
of giving them an over-feed on the grass
as there was in the house. Towards the
end of July the cabbages will be ready
and may be given freely to the shear-
lings. From now to the September sales
it is just a ste^y plodding on upon
these lines. With this feeding I have
practically no losses from deaths between
weaning and selling."
In Plate 54 portraits are given of a
group of rams bred by Mr Howatson of
Glenbuck, the group being arranged to
represent the development efiected in the
type of Blackface rams between the years
1869 and 1894.
Portraits of a Blackface ram and ewe
are produced in Plate 55.
CHEVIOT SHEEP.
What the Blackface is to the heathery
hills of Scotland and the extreme northern
districts of England, ,the Cheviot is to
the grassy hills and uplands of the same
range of country. The Cheviot at one
time, indeed, was a serious rival to even
the Blackface on what are known as the
black hill sheep-runs.
In the early 'twenties of last cen-
tury, and perhaps a little earlier, when
the finer wools were rising in value, many
heather-clad hill farms in Dumfriesshire
and Ayrshire, and even as far north" as
Perthshire, Argyllshire, and Inverness-
shire, were denuded of their Blackfaces
to make way for Cheviots. But some
years after this a number of very severe
winters were experienced, and the new-
comers were not found to stand the
stress so well as the Blackfaces did, and,
indeed, many were killed out. There
was, accordingly, a reversion on most of
these farms to the original stock, and
since then Cheviots have for the most
part been confined to the Cheviot range
on both sides of the Border, to Dumfries,
Selkirk, and Roxburgh shires close by,
and to the more luxuriant of the grassy
slopes of Inverness, Boss, Sutherland,
aild Caithness shires in the far north.
« Origin:
There is little doubt that Cheviots
are natives of the Cheviot range, still
to a large esrtent the headquarters of
the breed. How long the breed ■ has
occupied these towering grassy heights
it is impossible to say ; but it was there,
and apparently flourishing, when, in the
interests of the British Wool Society,
igo
MOUNTAIN AND MOOELAND BKEEDS OF SHEEP.
Sir John Sinclair visited the locality in
1 791. Not only did Sir John report
very favourably upon the breed irom a
■woolrgrowing point of view, but he was
so much impressed with the merits of
the sheep that he introduced them into
his own county of Caithness, where
they have ever since remained. After
a time they also got a firm hold in
the neighbouring county of Sutherland,
which they have likewise succeeded in
retaining. Indeed Caithness and Suther-
land shire Cheviots have long enjoyed
quite a fame of their own. No doubt,
owing to the deeper and heavier land on
which they are kept, they grow larger
than the South-country Cheviots, and on
this account are very popular for feeding
purposes, especially on turnips. Caith-
ness or Sutherland Cheviot wedders
nearly always realise a shilling or two
more per head than South-country bred'
Cheviots of the same class bring.
But, on the other hand, there seems to
be something in either the soil or the
climate of the south-east country which
produces a finer type of bone and wool
than the north does. As a consequence,
nearly all the most noted fiocks of the
breed are in the south, and even the
north country breeders have to come
there from time to time for fresh sup-
plies of rams to maintain their stocks.
Early Improvement.
In the early improvement of the
Cheviot breed Lincoln blood seems to
have been used in smaller or greater
quantity. One specific statement is
that " Mr John Edminstouu, late of
Mindrum, Mr James Robson, then at
Philhope, and Mr Charles Kerr, then
at Bicaltoun, went to Lincolnshire about
the year 1756, and bought fourteen rams
with which they crossed their sheep
with great success. " ^ Substantially the
same statement is made in the Farmers'
Magazine, published some considerable
number of year's before. There it iS
stated that these Lincoln tups so im-
proved Mr Eobson's stock as to give
his sheep a decided superiority over
those of his neighbours, and for many
years after making this cross "he sold
^ Douglas's Survey of Boxbm-ghshire, pule
lished in 1876.
more tups than one -half of the hill
farmers put together."
All this happened a good many years
prior to Sir John Sinclair's visit to the
Borders. The introduction of the Lin-
coln blood would, no doubt, have had an
important eflFect in improving the quality
of the wool remarked upon ,by Sir John
Sinclair, but of what other advantage it
could have been to such a sheep as the
Cheviot — much smaller as a rule than
the Lincoln — it is not easy to see.
It has also been stated that Cheviots
were crossed with the Border -Leicester
type of the Dishley Leicester shortly
after this breed was introduced into the
Border districts from Leicestershire, but
of that infusion such definite records do
not seem to exist. Still, one can readily
imagine that a dash of the improved
Leicester blood would have been advan-
tageous to the Cheviots of that period,
when in many cases sheep of the breed
were lacking in symmetry, and were in-
clined to be brownish in hair in parts
and not nearly so white generally as at
the present time.
Characteristics,
The Cheviot sheep as it exists to-day
is one of the most handsome and vigor-
ous-looking animals of the whole ovine
T&ce. Entirely white in appearance, it
is very active on its legs, carries itself
with great dignity and courage, and
when put into a tight corner will make
a bold dash for lib^ty even against con-
siderable odds.
Appearance of Bams. — According
to the first volume of the breed Flock-
Book, which was published in 1893, the
Cheviot tup should weigh alive at matur-
ity when fat 200 lb. His head should
be of medium length, broad between the
eyes, and well covered with short fine
hadr. His ears should be nicely rounded
and not too long ; they should be well
up from the eye and rise erect from the
head. Low-set or drooping ears are a
decided fault. At the same time, they
should not be what are called "hare-
lugged " — ^that is, too near to each other.
This indicates a narrow face, which gen-
erally denotes a narrow body. The neck
should be short and strong, and in the
ram well arched. The nose should be
arched and broad, and the nostrils black,
CHEVIOT SHEEP.
igi
full, and open, and the, ribs well sprung
and carried well back towards the hook
bones. Though occasionally a ram will
appear that has rudimentary horns, the
breed on both the male and female side
is a hornless one.
A long weak back is about the worst
fault a Cheviot can have. The back
should be broad and well covered with
mutton, the hind quarters full, straight,
and square, and the tail well hung and
nicely fringed with wooL The legs must
stand squarely from the body ; bent
hocks, either out or in (the latter espec-
ially), are looked upon as a weakness.
The bone should be broad and flat, and
must be covered with short, hard, white
hair. The wool should meet the hair at
the ears and cheeks in a decided ruffle.
Bareness there or at the throat is inad-
missible, and the wool should grow nicely
down to the hocks and knees. The belly
and breast ought also to be well covered.
Appearance of £iv(res. — The same
description suitably modified will> also
apply to ewes, which usually weigh alive
from loo to 150 lb.
Wool. — The fleece of the Cheviot
ram should weigh about 10 to iz lb., of
the ewes about 4j4 lb., and of the
wethers about 5 lb. Although the
Cheviot is an excellent mutton sheepi its
outstanding feature is the high quality
of its wool. Cheviot wool is of a close,
dense, beautifully fibred type, and has
always been . in great demand for the
production of the best class of tweeds.
Indeed, it was Cheviot wool very largely
that made the name and fame of the
Hawick, Gralashiels, and other Border
district tweed manufactures.
Crossing Purposes. — ^In addition to
its other merits the Cheviot is of great
value for crossing with the Border Lei-
cester. Cheviot ewes put to Border
Leicester rams give the popular half-bred
— one of the most valuable commercial
sheep that is to be found in Scotland.
Half-breds are extensively used on arable
farms all over the south of Scotland, and
they make not only excellent grazing
sheep but first-class .stock for fatten-
ing on roots. It has been stated that
half-breds pay more rent in the arable
parts of the south of Scotland than any
other breed or class of sheep, and the
claim is believed to be well founded. They
are also most extensively used in North-
umberland, and are found as far north as
Aberdeen. From the half-bred, again,
by the use also of a Border Leicester
ram, is bred the very plump three-parts-
bred — one of the quickest maturing of
the sheep t»ibe, and greatly run upon for
feeding rapidly off foggage or turnips.
Improvers of Cheviots.
One of the first and most noteworthy
improvers of Cheviot sheep in compar-
atively modern times was Mr James
Brydon of Moodlaw and Kennelhead, in
the county of Dumfries, who held bi-
ennial sales of rams at Beattock from
185 1 to 1881. Mr Brydon favoured
what was known at the time as the
west-country type of Cheviot — that was,
a sheep with more length and substance
than the original east-Border kind, but
neither so stylish nor so dense in the
character of its wool. It has been said
that Mr Brydon introduced Border Lei-
cester blood, and that he got the extra
length in this way; but however this
may be, his sheep had a great run of
success for many years, both in the
showyard and at his biennial sales. At
the latter he was accustomed to average
from ;^i5 to ;^i7 per head for from
150 to 180 rams — figures which could
hardly be excelled even at the present
day.
Individual prices were much higher.
In 1867 Mr John Miller of Scrabster,
Caithness, gave no less than 185 guineas
for one specially good ram, "Craigphad-
rig " by name. This, it is noteworthy,
was the record price in Scotland for rams
of any breed for several years ; indeed it
was not exceeded until 1873, when Messrs
Clark gave ^195 for one of Lord Pol-
warth's Border Leicester rams from Mer-
toun. Successful as they were for many
years, Mr Brydon's sheep latterly gave
way to softness, and to a considerable
extent lost their pre-eminent position.
For this result some people blamed
the introduction of Border Leicester
blood, while others alleged that the soft-
ness was due to the winter house-feeding
of rams which was introduced in Mr
Brydon's day. While both may have
been predisposing causes, some part of
the trouble may also have been due to
the fact that attempts to raise mountain
192
MOUNTAIN AND MOORLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
breeds of stock above their natural size
have practically always ended in failure.
At any rate, where Mr Brydon met
with failure, success was attained by Mr
Thomas Elliot, Hindhope, Jedburgh, who
had been working almost contemporane-
ously with the east-country and smaller
type of sheep. Mr EUiot took the place
which was. gradually vacated by Mr
Brydon, and his type of sheep as repre-
sented by the Hindhope flock — which is
now carried on with great success by
his son, Mr John Elliot — is still the
dominant type of the breed.
Floch-Booh.
In 1 89 1 the Cheviot Sheep Society
was formed and flock-books with a reg-
ister of rams have been published an-
nually since 1893. The secretary is Mr
John Robson, Newton, BeUingham, Nor-
thumberland, himself a noted breeder of
Cheviot sheep.
MANAGEMENT IN CHEVIOT FLOCKS.
The management of Cheviot flocks is
comparatively simple. Except ^ in the
case of rams intended for sale for breed-
ing purposes, little housing or special
feeding is resorted to.
Newton and other Flocks.
Mr John Robson, Newton, Bellingham,
whose valuable and old-estabUshed flock
of Cheviots has for several years taken
a leading position in the showyards, has
favoured us with some notes relating to
the management of his own and other
similar flocks. His flock is entirely home
bred. He casts ewes 6 years old. West
of the Carter Fell ewes are sold at 6
years old, north of it generally at 5.
Selling Yoimg. — Wether lambs used
to be hogged on the farm, and kept till
3 or 4 years old, then sold fat — or in
plentiful turnip years, for turniping.
Now, on account of bad seasons, increase
of sickness, and low price of wool, they
are mostly sold as lambs, to go to better
land to be fed off as shearlings; or if
kept on hill farms, they are sold at 2
years old.
"Weights. — Ewes weigh when sold
probably 60 lb., wethers, 72 lb. ; but,
of course, when very fat they greatly
exceed these weights.
Hirsels. — On the Cheviot Hills a farm
is generally divided into two hirsels.
Ouf large farms the number of hirsels
is of course multiplied indefinitely. But
take a sixty-score farm — the ewe hirsel
will contain three ages of twelve scores
of ewes each, 3, 4, and s years old ; the
hogg hirsels, two ages of about twelve
scores each of i- and 2-year-old sheep.
At clipping time the 2-year-old ewes or
" young ewes " are brought from their
"hogging" and put amongst the ewes,
their ground being hained till the end of
July, when the ewe lambs are weaned
and taken to it.
Iiand "tired, of Hogging." — Thus
lambs never follow lambs, the ground
always getting a year's rest from lambs,
as they are allowed to remain till 2 years
old. If lambs follow lambs too often,
the land is apt to get " tired of hogging,"
which, if continued, means that the hoggs
either die freely of sickness or of poverty.
Age for Breeding. — When farms are
managed on this system, the gimmers are
not, except on the very best low-lying
farms, expected to bring lambs ; only a
few of the strongest are put to the tup.
"West -country System. — The other
or West-country system is to allow the
ewe lambs to follow their mothers — none
but those on the draft ewes being weaned,
and those only for ten days, when they
are put back to their mothers. Here the
gimmers in good seasons are expected to
bring lambs ; all but a few of the worst
get the chance of the tup, and the ewes
are generally sold at 6 years old.
On land addicted to louping-iU this is
much the best way, as there is less change ;
but on the healthy and stormy Cheviot
Hills the former plan has this advantage,
that it provides a stock for the harder
and higher ground which would not keep
ewes, and also allows of the hoggs being
better looked after in a storm.
Feeding in a Snowstorm. — The only
difference between winter feeding and
summer is, that if a snowstorm comes
which blocks up the ground so thor--
oughly that little or no natural food can
be got, the sheep are given hay. About
I lb. each is the usual quantity once
a -day, as early in the morning as
possible. Great care should be taken to
keep sheep in as small " cuts " as pos-
sible— 100 is about the best number^
CHEVIOT SHEEP.
193
and every farm .should have a stall for
every cut of sheep.
Hand-feed judioiously. — Hay should
only be given to prevent hunger, as on
some land sheep which have been heavily
hayed do not thrive next summer so
satisfactorily as those which have not
been so much pampered. Corn or cake
has also the same tendency, and ewes
which have been hand -fed one winter
always look for the same indulgence
afterwards.
Wethers on Turnips. — ^Wethers are
mostly kept on turnips about 20 weeks
the first winter, and 6 or 8 weeks the
next.
Extra Pood with Turnips. — As a
rule, no additional food is given to sheep
on turnips, but sometimes when turnips
are taken by the week sheep get hay or
straw ; feeding-stuffs are rarely given.
If a hill-farmer has turnips of his own,
he is generally a generous feeder, giving
cake or corn and hay to fattening sheep,
and hay or straw to hoggs. In a storm
all sheep get hay, but seldom corn or cake.
Bams. — The rams are usually kept
amongst the other sheep during summer.
In winter they get turnips, and when
being prepared for sale a little cotton-
cake.
Price and Quantity of Turnips. —
Turnips for wethers cost about 5d. or 6d.
per week ; for hoggs, 3d. And as an
acre of fair turnips is said to winter a
score of hoggs, it may be supposed that
the same quantity will keep 20 wethers
ten weeks. Probably an acre and a half
will be required to feed 20 wethers.
There is now a greater tendency to
treat Cheviots as park sheep than there
was prior to 1890. Owing to so much
of the worn land being now stocked with
blackfaces it is possible to give Cheviot
ewes more indulgence in the spring than
they used to get, seeing that they have
good land to return to. This change in
management probably accounts for the
greater demand for larger sheep than
was the case formerly. And this was
also helped by a cycle of good seasons
which Border farmers have experienced
after the disastrous 'eighties. Now prac-
tically all the wedder lambs are sold to
feeders, none being left for breeding
farms. A few wedder flocks are still
left in Sutherland, and some shearling
VOL. III.
wedders are fed off in parks on, turnips,
but none are now left on the hill pastures
of the Borders.
Mowhaugh Flock.
In Mr J. E. C. Smith's flock at Mow-
haugh, Yetholm, lambing begins usually
about the 20th of April and extends on
until about the end of May. Ewe lambs
are weaned about the 20th of July, and
wedder lambs from the 12 th of August
onwards. After being weaned ewe lambs
get three weeks' change to a freestone
country, and then go on to their winter
hirsel. They do tot, however, follow
their dams. Cheviot lambs sold in
August realise from 14s. to 20s. apiece.
In the spring the same lambs should
weigh from 48 to 56 lb., and be worth
from 36s. to 45 s.
Cheviot ewes in the flock depend
almost entirely on their hill grazing,
getting hay in very stormy weather.
Ewes of this breed bring their first
lambs, as a rule, at 3 years old, and
are drafted out at from 51^ to 6J^
years old.
Rams are sold at 2 years old, and
are lightly fed the -first year, getting a
limited allowance of turnips but plenty
of hay and ^ lb. box-feeding per day.
In the second winter they require better
feeding in preparation for the sale-ring.
• Alton Flock.
Lambing in Mr Michael Johnstone's
flock at Alton, Moffat, begins, on i8th
April, and weaning takes place about
the beginning of August. When running
with their mothers the lambs may get a
chance of a little oats or Indian corn,
but they get nothing but grass after
weaning. All lambs are sold at Locker-
bie Auction Mart. In 1908 top wedder
lambs realised 15s. 3d., and mid ewe
lambs 15s. 6d. Ewes on the hUl get
nothing but what they gather. Any lean
ones are brought in to the fields. Ewes
to be mated with Border Leicester rams
are kept in the fields, and get turnips,
oats, and hay, beginning in the month
of February.
Ewes drop their first lamb at 2 years
old and are cast at 6. Young rams are
run on " seeds " after being weaned, and
are wintered on cut turnips and corn.
Stock rams are summered on the hills ;
N
194
MOUNTAIN AND MOOE1.AND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
in winter they are brought down to a
field, and get hay and cut turnips.
Mr Johnstone brings his Cheviot ewes
from the hill when they are 6 years
old. They are run in the fields all
winter, and a half-bred lamb taken off
them. The following summer they are
sold in the market, generally to go to
Ireland. Half-bred lambs bred in this
way usually begin to arrive about the
26th of March. These lambs are also
sold at Lockerbie, ..realising for the best,
in 1908, 25s. Ewes, after nursing half-
bred lambs, fetch up to 23s. apiece.
Dalchorh, liairg.
A good example of the management
of Cheviot flocks in the North is afforded
by the system which prevails in Messrs
W. and C. Mundell's flock at Dalchork,
Lairg, Sutherlandshire. Here the lambs
arrive from the 20th of April until the
28th of May. They are weaned about
the 8th of August. No extra food is
given to the lambs before weaning, but
after weaning the wedder lambs are sold,
and they usually get extra food almost
as soon as they arrive at their destinar
tions. No extra food is given to the ewe
lambs until October, when they go to
Eoss-shire to wintering, and the worst of
them get turnips in the spring.
Lambs in this flock, like those in most
other flocks in the North, are sold- at the
Inverness wool market and are delivered
about the 8th of August. The price real-
ised in 1908 was about £1 per head for
the tops. " Shott " lambs are put on to
foggage after being weaned, and are sold
about a month later at Inverness. In
1908 they realised i6s. per head. Ewes
are disposed of at Lairg sale in the end
of September, averaging in 1908 32s. 6d.
Shearling tups are sold at Dingwall, the
average price in 1908 being ^1.
The ewes of the flock receive no arti-
ficial feeding of any kind except about
sixty of the worst, which get, for about a
month before lambing and until the grass
comes on the hill, about i lb. of whole oats
and bran and the run of a good park.
In very bad winters all the ewes get
hay, but only when theycannot have suf-
ficient natural food. Ewes bring their
first lamb at 2 years old, and are cast at
5 years old.
Tup lambs after being weaned are sent
to a farm in Eoss-shire, and remain there
until the end of April. They are grass
wintered up to the ist of January, when
they are put on to turnips for about a
month. After that they get cut Swedish
turnips and good hay.
Stock rams are sent to Eoss-shire also
when they come from the ewes, and are
put on to turnips and get good clover
hay.
In addition to the other classes men-
tioned, Messrs Mundell sell every year
about two hundred gimmers (shearling
ewes), those disposed of in 1908 making
40s. to sss. per head. These gimmers
are a little more liberally fed than the
gimmers that are kept for stock pur-
A Cheviot ram is represented in Plate
56.
THE EXMOOR HOEN SHEEP.
Sir T. D. Acland, writing in the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society
in 1850, describes the horned flocks
which run on the Somersetshire hills,
He mentions that the ordinary sheep
of the country when fat do not weigh
above 10 or 11 lb. per quarter. "Where
pains have been taken to improve a
flock, they may reach on the average
16 to 18 Jb. per quarter, and some are
brought up to 24 lb. per quarter, fed
on Bridgewater marshes."
The Exmoor Horn sheep is stated by
some authorities to have a common origin
with the Dorset Horn — a belief which
may not be far wide of the mark, seeing
that there is a similarity in appearance.
Cliaracteristios.
A fine open curly horn decorates a
white head of pleasing appearance.
The fleece is close, and the wool comes
right up to the cheeks. The appearance
of the breed is not unlike the Cheviot in
formation of top, loin, and quarters. The
wool is of medium length, superior in
quality, and the fleece is so dense as to
defy the storms which so frequently cover
them over in winter for days at a time.
The ewes are prolific, producing from
30 to 50 per cent of doubles. Eecord is
made of one ewe, owned by Mr Tom
El worthy of Simonsbath, which had 25
THE DARTMOOR SHEEP.
195
lambs, having reared 24, and was then
nursing twins.
As indicative of the hardy character
of the breed, a writer chronicles that
Iambs reared on the Wiltshire Downs
from Exmoor ewes at three months old,
without artificial feeding, realised 388.,
the land being so poor in quality that
its rent was only is. per acre. Breeders
aim to produce a wether which at six-
teen to eighteen months old will give
a carcase,- matured at small cost, of from
16 to 18 lb. per quarter. Such sheep,
carried on for Christmas, would kill 30
lb. a quarter.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of Exmoor flocks, as
a rule, is of the simplest. The ordinary
grazing is at times supplemented with
artificial food. , In the best flocks green
food is specially grown to keep the
young sheep thriving. In the flock of
Mr D. J. Tapp of Highercombe, Dulver-
ton, weaning takes place about the
middle of June — the lambs being turned
on to the best ' grasses, pasture and
clover. Water is available. If any ap-
pear to pine or do not thrive well, they
are removed to vetches and mustard, which
are grown expressly for the purpose.
This is continued till they go on roots,
when they get a little hay, and the
wethers a little cake and oats. They
are grazed the following summer on
rape. When fat, they vary from 60 to
72 lb. per carcase.
After weaning, the ewes are drafted —
the drafts being kept on poor enclosed
land till they are sold in August. The
breeding ewes are turned out on poor
common land, where they stay till about
the middle of September, when the rams
are put to them. They have to subsist
on grass up to Christmas, when the year-
ling ewes and weaker ones have hay and
a few roots carted to them. The stronger
ewes come after the hoggs on roots, and
get a run on grass till the middle of
February, when the lambing ewes are
selected to get a few mangels and go
on the best pasture. At that time there
is usually plenty of rough grass.
After lambing, the ewes with single
lambs are put on the worst meadows,
-and a few oats and perhaps cake are
given. This is continued till May, when
they go on to clover.
The number of Iambs reared is about
four lambs to every three ewes. If the
season is fine, there is a larger crop —
the number depending to a considerable
extent on the weather. This can be
understood when the altitude at which
they are reared is remembered.
An Exmoor ram is represented in
Plate 60.
THE DARTMOOR SHEEP.
This picturesque breed of sheep is
named after the fine open tract of coun-
try in Devon and Somerset in which it
is reared. It is one of the old local
breeds of England, dating far back. In
late years the hand of the improver can
be traced. Like all breeds which have
the open moorland or the hill for their
home, it . thrives amazingly on wild
herbage.
Characteristics.
Description. — No doubt the Lincoln
and the Leicester have been used to get
substance as well as strength and weight
of fleece. The old hardy character of
the breed, however, is still maintained.
To live on the bare expanse of Dartmoor
a sheep of great constitution is necessary,
and this the native breed possesses.
When the additional fact is mentioned
that the rainfall is excessive, averaging
over 60 inches in the year, the import-
ance of having a breed of sheep sound in
hoof and liver will become apparent.
In size the Dartmoor of to-day is
difierent from the little Moor -dag of
olden "times. The fact that in the best
flocks a fleece of close on 14 lb. (in the
grease) is clipped, implies a sheep of
some substance and stature. The fleece
is thick, strong, glossy, and curly, grow-
ing long, after the moorland type. It is
the custom to shear the Iambs.
Appearance. — In form, symmetry is
much looked for, and lean flesh has not
been bartered for fat. Good sheep
should carry themselves well, and gaiety
of carriage comes from good vertebrae
and a strong neck. The head is bold,
the face broad and somewhat coloured,
the eyes full and bright, and the nostrils
196
MOUNTAIN AND MOOKLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
black (in the ram prominent). The ears
should be thick and well covered with
clean smooth hair. A small horn is not
objected to, as it is supposed to indicate
strong constitution.
As kept on the moorlands the Dart-
moor was a whitefaced sheep, horned,
and somewhat coarse in the fleece. The
wethers were kept on the moor all the
year round, and in the olden times were
expected to yield a 'profit out of their
wool. They were then hand-feeders.
The other type of D£||ftmoor, the grey-
face, mottled with black spots on a grey
face, the legs being similarly marked, is
found only on the moor duripg summer.
They are very ready fatteners,and respond
well to a cross for fat lamb.
Xiambs and "Wetliers. — The ewes are
good mothers, giving abundance of milk
even on inferior pasturage. The ram is
usually put to the ewes towards the end
of September. The Down cross is fre-
quently resorted to for the production of
lambs suita|)le for fattening, the South
Devon ram also being used for this pur-
pose. The wethers are usually fed from
one to three years old, and at the latter
age they come to from 80 to 100 lb.,
the weights ^respectively representing the
old-fashioned whiteface and the modern
grfeyface. The ewes are prolific. Mr J.
R T. Kingwell of Great Aish, S. Brent,
records a crop of 166 lambs from 112
ewes.
Clip. — Good fleeces are borne by the
Dartmoor. Ewes in good condition will
clip from 10 to 11 lb. each, and wethers
from 12 to 14 lb. J rams sometimes
up to 30 lb. It is recorded that Mr
F. Ward of Burnville, Tavistock, once
clipped 33 lb. of wool from a ram — the
wool, of course, being in the yolk.
MANAGEMENT.
Dartmoors are generally fed on grass
and turnips, to which a little corn or cake
is added as the sheep draw near market-
ing. The wethers are advantageously
used to graze bullock pastures in the
autumn and winter months in Somerset
and elsewhere. The change is highly
beneficial, as they grow very rapidly.
They also resist fluke better on those
pastures than most breeds.
The moorland sheep have never a very
rich pasture. For the most part they
find their own living, but when 'hard
pressed in winter are supplied with hay
made from coarse moor herbage. Occa-
sionally they may have a few turnips,
but the heavy rainfall and wet soil often
prevent the carriage of roots when most
wanted.
Chief Markets. — Amongst the chief
markets are Tavistock, Brent, Plympton,
Okehampton, and Mortonhampstead.
A portrait of a Dartmoor ram is given
in Plate 60.
THE LONK SHEEP.
The Lonk is a breed of sheep of a type
peculiar to itself. It is found in York-
.shire, Lancashire, and Cumberland. It
is a hill-breed with a fine presence, par-
ticularly when arrayed in full fleece.
Origin of th.e Ifame. — The derivar
tion of the name Lonk is somewhat
obscure. Probably it is an obsolete
provincial term. According to Holloway's
Dictionary of Provincialisms (1839) Lonk
means Lancashire sheep. From another
source we derive the information that
Lonk means a Lancashire man, also a
Lancashire sheep. In Lowland Scotch
Lonker means a hole in the dyke through
which sheep pass. Then, again, Lonk is
another word for lank or leggy.
Ijocality. — The Lonk exists at a great
altitude. It lives on poor land which
is valuable mainly for shooting. The
main force of the breed is found in the
hill districts of Lancashire and the West ■
Riding of Yorkshire — on Longridge
Fells, Clitheroe, Whiterwell, Pendle Hill,
Craven, and other districts, besides on
the hills of the county Palatine.
The breed is chiefly in the hands of
small farmers, and is largely used for
crossing purposes, chiefly with the Scotch
Blackface sheep, resulting in a heavier
weight of mutton and a better class of
wool.
Weight. — The usual age at which
Lonk sheep afe fattened for the butcher
is three years. A good four-year-old
would average about 65 lb., and a top
weight probably 80 lb.
They are a very hardy breed, and have
some affinity with the Scotch Blackface,
sheep. '
HERDWICK SHEEP.
197
Characteristics.
Seen in full fleece, the Lonk sheep
has a very commanding appearance.
Breede^:s look for size. The body is
long, thick, and deep. The tail must be
long for protection, stout, and straight.
The colour of the legs and face is clear
black and white streaked, making a dark
face. The legs should not be as black as
the head. The horns should be waxy in
colour, strong and curled, very much like
those of the Scotch Blackface mountain
breed. They should be equally set in
the head, not too close.
The head should be large, a good
strong face being a point aimed at.
The nose should ' be thick, deep, and
heavy, the eyes full and large, and the
ears long. On the forehead a tuft of
-wool is cultivated. The legs should be
thick and full of bone, although a trifle
"shanky." They should be wide set,
and rather short from the knee to the
pastern. The hoof should be sound.
The chest must be wide and deep, the
back long and rather narrow at the
lumbar region. A thick, full fleece is
cultivated with a long staple. The fleece
should be carried down to the knee and
hock, and should be free from kempiness.
Clip. — In a Lonk flock the average
clip is from 9 to 10 lb., although a
shearling will sometimes produce as
much as 17 lb.
MANAGEMENT.
• The management of a Lonk flock may
be said to pursue an even course. There
is a great similarity in the methods
adopted in all hill breeds. The average
Lonk flock will drop from i yi to, in the
case of the smaller flocks, 2 lambs per
ewe. For instance, in the flock of
Mr David Hague of Copynook, Bolton
by Bowland, in the year 1908, 79 lambs
were born from a total of "40 ewes.
The ewes are turned to the ram about
the end of September, lambing in March
and April. They winter on grass, except
in very rough weather, when they have
the assistance of hay. The practice of
giving roots before lambing is not
favoured, but after they have lambed
a little corn - and - root ration is an
advantage.
Towards the end of April the show
stock are separated from the others,
which are turned out to pasture. The
ram and ewe lambs intended for show
are housed in October and :^ed on cake,
corn, and roots.
Mr Hague sells his draft ewes at home.
The ram lambs go into the Fells to cross
with the Scotch Blackface ewes. The
draft ewes are sold to farmers, who cross
them with other breeds, of which the
Wensleydale is as popular as any. The
half-bred sheep-raising business engages
much attention in the north of England,
and the size, substance, and springy
coat of the Lonk are favoured, as they
give the progeny a fine bulky appear-
ance.
A Lonk ram is represented in Plate 61.
HERDWICK SHEEP.
Probably the hardiest of all British
breeds of sheep is the Herdwick, whose
ancestral home is. the cragland of Cum-
berland and Westmorland. These sheep
lead a roving life, exposed often to very
inclement weather, and living on what
they can pick up on the mountain-tops
even in winter. Like other breeds, it is
reputed to be a descendant of a number
of sheep which came ashore from Spain's
Grand Armada. Be that as it may, it
is a useful breed, livipg where others
would starve. It is said to be a cher-
ished tradition with the best breeders
that sheep of the breed refuse even hay
in winter.
The flocks are usually taken over from
the landlords at valuation, succeeding
tenants keeping the same blood.
ChMrofiteristics.
In appearance the breed is small, the
head is light in colour, open horns spring-
ing from the base of the skull. The
fleece is very strong.
The breed has a reputation for the
quality of mutton, which has that epi-
curean flavour associated with mutton
raised on the lean fare of the moun-
tains.
One peculiarity of the breed is that
the lambs are born with black heads and
shanks, the ears, however, being tipped
with white. The colour gradually lightens.
jpS
MOUNTAIN AND MOORLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
until as three-year-olds they are either
white or hoary in appearance.
In the words of Mr James Bowstead,
a Herdwick sheep should have " a heavy
fleece of fairly fine wool, disposed to be
hairy on the top of the shoulder and
growing down to the knees and hocks ;
poll and belly well covered; a broad,
bushy tail, and a well defined topping;
head broad ; nose arched or Roman ;
nostrils and mouth wide; teeth broad
and short ; jaws deep, showing strength
of constitution and determination; eye
prominent and lively, and in the male
defiant ; ears white, fine, erect, and
always moving, as has been said, 'like
a butterfly's wing.' There should be no
spots or speckles, nor any token of brown
on the face, as these are considered sure
tokens of a cross. Horns in the ram are
desirable but not essential They should
rise out well at the back of the head, be
smooth and well curled. White hoofs
are much preferred. The females are
polled."
MANAGEMENT.
The breed is unique in its " late " ma-
turity. At four and a half to five years
old they are ready for the butcher, and
when fattened on the mountains they
kill from lo to 12 lb. per quarter. They
do not take kindly to rich food. The
ewes are put to the ram when from two
and a half to three years old.
May is the usual lambing time, and
the , time for mating the ewes is reg-
ulated to suit the lambing period. The
tups are in some parts turned to the
ewes on the Fells in order that lambs
may fall early in May. The gimmer
• shearlings are bratted, or " clouted " as
it is called — i.e., a piece of cloth is tied
over their tails to keep them from ser-
vice. When the ewes are kept on bare
fare the percentage of twins is negligible,
but on slightly better pasture the doubles
may be reckoned up to 20 per cent.
Mr James Todd of Rougholme re-
members showing a number of draft
ewes at Ambleside Fair, 13 of which
were sold to a farmer in the Ulverston
district. These 13 ewes dropped 27
lambs in the following spring.
The ewes are not drafted at any par-
ticular age, that process being deter-
mined as much by constitution as any-
thing else. On the average, from 4 to 6
lambs will be taken from the ewes before ,
being drafted. The ewes disposed of
usually go for crossing.
The wethers are now usually sold off,
either as Iambs or one or two years old.
At one time they were kept until full-
mouthed or four times clipped. They
are usually turnip-fed, and have been
known to bring over 30s. direct from
the Fells. The hoggs are put out to
winter in October on better land than
they occupy in summer, costing from
5s. to 6s. each till they are returned in
April.
A Herdwick ram is represented in
Plate 62.
WELSH SHEEP.
This breed is widely distributed
throughout Wales. It is one of the
oldest types in the country. It is, too,
a well-defined type, although the efforts
of improvers and the variation in the
quality of pasture are liable to alter
the old-fashioned Welsh sheep and pre-
sent it in different sizes. Thus we find
that the eastern slope of the Berwyn,
Merioneth Hills, and Plynlimmon is de-
cidedly superior to the western in pas-
turage, and the sheep grown thereon are
larger and possess finer wool.
The mountainous portion of Wales is
divided into sheep-walks, and flocks
vary in size from 200 to 4000. Here
the thorough acclimatisation of a flock
is said to be worth to the owners from
5s. to 8s. per head over the market
value.
Characteristics.
Type. — The Welsh Flock-Book Society
has determined the type of sheep that it
wishes to encourage. The head of the
ram should be wedge-shaped and taper-
ing towards the nose. A broad forehead,
black muzzle, face slightly tanned or
white; horns strong and well curved,
but not too close at the roots ; eyes
prominent ; ears small, thin, and ob-
liquely set ; scrag strong and thick ;
brisket prominent ; back straight ; loins
strong ; tail long, strong, and bushy; legs
short, white, and slightly tanned; skin
pink ; wool short and thick ; handling
WELSH SHEEP.
199
firm ; a smak proportion of kemp per-
missible practically completes the quali-
ties of the Welsh mountain sheep.
Infusion of Alien Blood. — Efforts
have been made by the introduction of
Cheviot, Dorset Horn, and Kerry Hill
blood to breed a bigger sheep, but the
results have not been whoUy satisfactory,
although in Breconshire the Cheviot
cross is favourably spoken of. It is
■worthy of note that the Cheviot cross
has made itself pronounced in succeeding
generations in the character of the fleece
and the shape and colour of the head.
The influence of the Dorset Horn, too, is
noticeable in a big collection of show
sheep such as one witnesses at the Welsh
National Show at Aberystwyth. The
writer remembers a prize-winning ram
which had almost every characteristic of
a pure Cheviot, and yet had only a
twelfth of Cheviot blood in him. Prob-
ably the most satisfactory results will
be obtained by such a mild cross as the
exchange of rams from different local-
ities— such, for instance, as Cader Idris
and Plynlimmon.
Dead-weight. — Welsh sheep have a
deservedly high reputation in the Lon-
don market. Wethers at from three to
four years old kill from 9 to 1 1 lb., but
greater weights are got on good pasture,
although the hill breeder protests that
the name of Welsh mutton must in the
future be maintained by small sheep.
A real typical Welsh leg of mutton
should run to about 5 lb. in weight.
Wethers were at one time kept till
four years old, but the lamb trade has
developed much of late years. Wethers
off the poorest pastures will kill when
ripe up to 35 lb. October-sold sheep,
caked and corned in spring and summer,
weigh in carcase up to 45 lb., and excep-
tionally well- wintered sheep up to 55 lb.
Crossing Experiments. — Experi-
ments in crossing have been conducted
at several centres. At the University
College of North Wales, Madryn Farm,
Wiltshire and Southdown rams proved
very successful. Contrasting the Wilt-
shire and Southdown cross, one dealer
remarks that "the difference between
the Wiltshire and the Southdown cross
is that for Salford market and for over-
head sale I prefer the Wiltshire, as they
look bigger in the pens, but for selling
and retailing in the shop on the coast
Southdown crosses give most satisfac-
tion."
In some experiments conducted by
Mr D. D. Williams of the Aberystwyth
College with Welsh ewes the average
weight of the Shropshire cross lambs
was 56 lb., the Kerry Hill crosses 68 lb.,
and the pure Welsh 46 lb. Taking the
weight of lamb per ewe — i.e., including
twins — the Shropshire averaged 68 lb.,
the Kerries 96 lb., and the Welsh 61 lb.
MANAGEMENT.
The management of Welsh mountain
flocks has not varied much for genera-
tions. The same strains of sheep iave
been kept on the different sheep-walks
for many decades, the incoming tenant,
as a rule, taking the flock over at valu-
ation. During the severity of winter
the flocks are removed from the uplands,
those inhabiting the higher altitudes
usually leaving their summer habitations
from October till April.
It is the custom to sell the wethers at
three or four years old, when they are
either disposed of in their coats in June,
or are, in the month of October, sold to
be caked on roots. The change from
the bare mountain fare to the rich
lowland lands effects a wonderful trans-
formation, and they fatten very rapidly.
The tendency of the breed, however, is
to grow naturally on the hillside, and
forced feeding generally results in a
somewhat fat carcase.
Latterly farmers have endeavoured to
get their lambs fit for the market early,
but obviously this must be accomplished
on the lowlands, the youngsters being
immediately after birth transferred to
the more hospitable pastures. When
failure to fatten early has resulted, it has
been due to inability to appreciate the
fact that the ordinary hill grazings are
not the most suitable lands to push
young stock forward. The most com-
mon practice is to run lambs on good
pastures through winter and spring, en-
abling them to be fattened in the follow-
ing summer or early autumn. They then
command the top market price. In the
poorer districts, and where the full
severity of the climate is felt, instead of
being fattened the young sheep are sold
200
MOUNTAIN AND MOORLAND BEEEDS OF SHEEP.
in May or early June for grazing during
the summer months.
Wool. — Welsh mountain ewes will clip
from I J^ to 2)^ lb., and rams up to 6 lb.
On most Welsh sheep farms mutual help
is provided at shearing time.
Plate 63 contains a group of Welsh
shearling ewes.
KERRY HILL (WALES) SHEEP.
Many people have a confused notion
that this breed hails from the Emerald
Isle. It has nothing whatejer to do
with Co. Kerry, being named after the
range of hills in Montgomeryshire. It
has Jfttterly come into prominence, as a
result no doubt to the fact that many
hill -sheep farmers have been revising
their notions concerning the size and
weight of mountain sheep. Greater
weight is now being aimed at.
Cliaracteristics.
The Kerry Hill breed is speckle-faced
(black and white), not too dark. The
head is broad at the base and tapering
to the muzzle. Wool should cover the
poll, and a tuft of wool should decorate
the forehead. The cheeks should be
clean, but the jaw-bones are covered
with wool. The ears are short, thick,
and speckled. The symmetry of the
sheep should be preserved, the points
aimed at being the production of a
mutton sheep with broad back, full
brisket, well-packed loin, and full thighs.
The tail should be fleshy and well set
on, the legs squarely planted, speckled,
and free from wool below the knee.
The skin should be pink, although a
red skin is not objected to. A tinge
of blue is, however, a bad fault.
Official Description.
The following is the ofl&cial description
of a Kerry Hill sheep : —
Head. — Fairly long, not too broad, tapering
to noae, well covered with wool on top
between ears, brown or black objection-
able, with bunch or tuft of wool on
, forehead.
PoAse. — A good speckled face, black and
white — the colours clearly defined and
riot mixed — the black not too dark, but
inclined to dark grey ; clean cheeks, well
wooUed to jawbone.
Eyes. — Prominent, bright, and bold looking.
Etvra. — Fairly short, thick, well set, and
Scrag. — Strong and muscular, and well set
into shoulders.
Throat. — Well wooUed, free from loose or
banging skin, well sloped to brisket.
Brisket. — Should be very wide, deep, and
well covered with wool.
Shoulders. — Blades wide and flat, blending
with neck ; shoulders full of flesh down
to arms.
Ribs. — Well sprung and deep, giving a
straight underline from arm to thigh,
with plenty of heart-girth.
Back. — Strong, level, with plenty of length
,from hip to tail.
Loins. — Wide and strong.
Hind Q,iui/rters. — Wide and deep, well cov-
ered with flesh to hocks.
TaU. — A long tail well set on fleshy, large
dock, with plenty of wool to point.
Legs. — Four good^hort legs, set four-square,
with large bone, speckled, and free from
wool below the knees and hocks.
Under parts. — Well covered with wool.
Skin. — ^A nice pink or red skin free from
black or blue spots — a blue-tinged skin
is objectionable.
Wool. — A tight, close fleece of good length
and pure white wool, showing a little
fledge on face, coarser on breech and tail.
Size. — This should b? kept within reasonable
bounds — large sheep are apt to lose
hardiness and activity and become less
fitted for living on the hUls ; smaller-
sized sheep are more saleable.
MANAGEMENT.
In the drafting of ewes greater care
is now exercised than was at one time
common. When ewe lambs are numer-
ous they are culled more rigorously.
The stock ewes are generally brought
down from the hills about September
and the early part of October, mating
taking place in the latter month, or
earlier if early lamb is desired. The
flocks are kept at an altitude of from
500 to 1500 feet in summer. When the
majority of the ewes have been served,
they are sent to the hills again with a
ram in case any should return for second
service. They are kept there as long as
the weather permits. When too severe
they are brought back to the. lowlands
and have hay given to them.
HUl breeders are not dissatisfied if,
when the season has finished, they can
count a lamb to the ewe. On the lower
lands, however, there would be about a
lamb and a half to the ewe.
DERBYSHIRE GRITSTONE SHEER
20 1
Clip. — Shearing usually takes place in
June. Ewes will clip from s to 7 1^).,
yearling wethers from 6 to 8 lb., rams
from 10 to 14 lb., and lambs from i
to lyi lb.
"Weights. — The wethers are chiefly
fed off as shearlings, being sold from
May to October. They will average
about 14 lb. per quarter, though many
will weigh from 16 to 20 lb. per quarter ;
a,nd fat lambs will average from 10 to
12 lb. dead-weight.
The ewes are fine mothers, and if
given cake and corn, are fit for the
butcher simultaneously with the lambs.
The breed is very largely used for
cross-breeding, and has a great future
before it.
A Kerry Hill ram is represented in
Plate 63.
DERBYSHIRE GRITSTONE
SHEER
It may be taken for granted that these
sheep, indigenous to the mountainous dis-
trict which forms what is known as the
" Peak of Derbyshire," are as old a breed
as can be found in Great Britain. Doc-
umentary evidence to prove all this ha?
not yet come to light, but traditions
amongst the hills aver that from time
immemorial these sheep have existed
where they flourish now. The breed
has been preserved in yeoman families
whose antiquity rivals that of the sheep
themselves, and preserved without in-
trusion of alien blood. The mountain-
ous chain locally known as " Axe Edge "
— the home of the Gritstone sheep —
extends from Cheshire, through the
Peak of Derbyshire, and away into
Yorkshire ; but the Peak is recognised
as the central home of the breed.
Improvement. — "The Derbyshire
Gritstone Sheep Breeders' Society,"
founded on October 15, 1905, and
now an influential body, has set itself
most commendably to the task of
securing pedigree for the breed, as an
addition to the local habitation and
name of which these sheep have long
been in possession. The distinguishing
appellation, "Gritstone," is appropri-
ately derived from the " millstone grit "
which forms the geological basis of a
large portion of the district to which
the sheep belong. Similarly, in the
southern portion of the Peak country,
where carboniferous limestone prevails,
the sheep — of the Leicester type— -are
locally and generically called "Lime-
stone" sheep.
The secretary of the Society, Mr W.'J.
Clark, says that in some localities a con-
siderable amount of alien blood has been
introduced, " and still the Gritstone char-
acter of such crosses strongly predomin-
ates "; and he aptly adds that " the sheep
have been for many generations bred
pure, or otherwise their characteristics
would have almost disappeared " from
the districts in which the crossing has
taken place. This prepotency may be
taken to indicate not only antiquity of
breed but also vigour of constitution.
The alien blood introduced in recent
years has been that of the " Lonk," the
Scotch "Blackface," and the "Lime-
stone" sheep. The hoped-for improve-
ments do not appear to have been real-
ised, and as the infusions of alien blood
have had but small apparent influence in
modifying the type of the Gritstones,
so it is doubtful if they will effect any
marked improvement.
riooks of Antiqmty. — The breed is
of high antiquity in the valley of the
Goytj near Buxton. A well - known
breeder there, Mr W. Truman, can trace
back to the middle of the eighteenth
century the possession of these sheep
by members of his own family, during
which long period the breed has been
kept pure and undefiled against alien
blood.
Characteristics.
Hardiness. — There can be no doubt,
indeed, in the mind of him who has
seen these sheep in the wilder parts of
the Peak country, amidst the furze and
the ling, the rocks and the boulders,
that they are exceptionally wiry and
sound, possessing immunity from certain
ills that lowland sheep are heir to and
the energy that is characteristic of
denizens of the hills. Hence their
physical prepotency when crossed with
other breeds of sheep, — prepotency, it
will be noted, that is exercised wholly
by the ewes of the Gritstone breed, to
which rams of other breeds have been
202
MOUNTAIN AND MOOKLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
introduced by way of experiment and
in hope of good results.
It must be understood, -however, that
there are many pure - bred flocks of
Gritstone sheep in the great districts
over which the Society's scope extends.
The Society's object is not only to estab-
lish pedigree on a sound and readily
ascertainable basis, but to secure the
identity of pure-blooded animals alive
today, and to encourage and systematise
the propagation of pure blood through-
out the wild and mountainous district
whose short commons and rigorous
climate have made these sheep what
they are.
race-colour, 'Wool, and "Weight. —
The Gritstone is not a white-faced, or
black-faced, or even brown-faced breed,
but " mottled," with irregular patches of
black on a white ground,, on faces, ears,
and legs alike. Their fleeces, however,
are free from black spots ; free also from
hairs and from roughness of "skirt."
The wool is fairly long and dense, and
of texture that is considered fine.
Fleeces of ewes average about 4 lb.,
of yearlings 6 or 7 lb., and of rams
up to 9 or 10 lb. The mutton is said
to be of the best qjiality, and ■ the
dressed carcasses average 14 or 15 lb.,
but sometimes running up to 20 lb. a
quarter or more in exceptional cases.
From the parasitic disease known as
" liver rot " the Gritstones enjoy envi-
able immunity, though the land on the
mountains, where they roam is in many
places water - logged. These sheep, in-
deed, have thriven and multiplied for
centuries, unimpaired, where white-faced
breeds of the lowlands would perish in
a year.
Scale of Points.
The first volume of the Flock -Book
was published in 1907, and has entries
of 67 rams and 1306 ewes.
The following is the standard tjrpe
and points .for the breed adjusted by
the Society of its breeders : —
Points.
Face. — Black and white mottled . . 10
Head. — Fairly long, polled, free from wool,
and wedge-shaped . . . .10
JEyes. — Bright and prominent, and set wide
apart ...... 5
Ears. — Black and white mottled, and car-
ried slightly forward, butf not pricked
or drooping ..... 5
Neck. — Medium length, well set , on and
nicely fleshed, and woolled nearly to
the head ...... 10
Body. — Rather long, with well - placed
shoulders, good quarters, well-sprung
ribs, good top and bottom outlines,
well and evenly covered with flesh
and wool ...... 20
Wool. — Fairly dense, of medium length and
^ fine texture, free from black spots and
hairs, and not rough in the skirt . 20
Skm. — Bright and clear pink and free from
spots ...... 5
Zegs. — Mottled black and white, free from
wool, with good bone, joints, and feet,
well placed at each corner of the body
and set wide apart . . , .10
Tail. — Fairly high and well set on ; in the
rams long, in the ewes docked . . 5
MANAGEMENT.
The Derbyshire Gritstone sheep belong
to the still existing grass -land breeds.
They are yet, to all intents and pur-
poses, gramineous sheep, even in the
lower foot-hills of the range. It follows,
therefore, that their feeding and man-
agement are characterised by simplicity
and economy to a degree that cannot be
surpassed elsewhere. Grass — commonly
enough of the coarsest — is the natural
food, year in and year out, of these
sheep; and it suits them exactly, for
they are proof against flukes and foot-
rot, and make a good living on bleak
and water - logged soils of which even
rabbits fight shy.
The less domesticated flocks of the
Gritstone tribe still inhabit the wild
moors for the most part, picking up a
livelihood where any breed of sheep to
the south of them would perish. These
are in the semi-wild and wholly natural
state which has been the lot of the breed
for centuries. The chief trouble with
them is to persuade the'" roving blades"
to keep within reasonable limits of dis-
tance from the respective homesteads
down below to which they belong.
There are, however, many domesticated
flocks of Gritstone sheep away down in
the valleys. Some of these have been
trained into a fair degree of docility and
contentment within boundary fences, but
still without extraneous feeding. Grags
is the staple food everywhere, with hay
in the bitter snowstorms of winter when
grass is buried out of reach beneath the
snow. They know not the taste of corn.
THE CLUF SHEEP— OTHER BREEDS OF SHEEP.
203
or even of turnips, and still they breed
and thrive to all satisfaction.
The Gritstones are independent of
lambing-sheds, however severe the storms
of spring may be. Young lambs just
born are sometimes taken, with their
dams, into sheltered spots, or perchance
under an open shed, until they get well
on their feet. But commonly enough
the lambs are born out in the snow,
and are "all alive and kicking" when
the shepherd comes on his round in the
night. But even then the ewes do not
receive any extra food except hay.
It is probable, however, that on some
of the valley farms ewes are gradually
and experimentally being trained to the
taste of concentrated foods as a pre-
paration for coming parturition. This
is so indeed, if anywhere, a practice
where cross-bred flocks are kept. So
far, however, as pure -bred flocks are
concerned, all sorts of stimulating foods
are considered unnecessary.
A ram of the Derbyshire Gritstone
breed is represented in Plate 64.
• THE CLUN SHEEP.
The Clun or Clun Forest sheep is
chiefly at home in South Shropshire,
Radnorshire, and Montgomeryshire.
There is a similarity in type of the
various races of sheep found on the
Welsh Borderland.
C/iaracteristics.
The Clun sheep may be fawn-coloured
or mottled, and black in feature. At
one time it was a small breed, like most
of the other ovine inhabitants of the
hills, producing a 3-lb. fleece and killing
a dressed weight of 12 lb. per quarter.
Bigger sheep were demanded, however,
and through the influence of the Rye-
land ram the modern type was probably
evolved.
The ewes are much in demand for
crossing purposes, the large sales estab-
lished at various centres in Shropshire
being attended from all quarters. The
Shropshire cross is one of the most
popular. The lambs mature early, and
produce mutton of first-class quality.
Properly speaking, the Clun sheep is
a type rather than a breed, originating
with the intermingling of the Ryeland,
the Shropshire, and Welsh breeds. Little
information of a definite character is
available concerning the earlier history
of the Clun.
Prof. W. J. Maiden, writing on Clun
Forest sheep in the Journal of the Roycd
Agricultural Society (vol. iii., 1892), says
that the Clun "perhaps does not show
the effect of the skill of the breed-maker
as do some older established breeds, yet
there is undoubtedly in it those charac-
teristics which can be moulded by skilful
hands into a sheep which would be hard
to beat. The excellence of the meat and
wool cannot be denied; while the shapely
well-covered head, with slightly Roman
nose, the bold scrag, and the free im-
perious step, denote a robustness with
which the breeder may take liberties in
order to produce a more rapid maturity
without being afraid of rendering it
effeminate or weakly. The horns are
being bred out." In a good flock the
clip will average about 4^ to 5 lb.
MANAGEMENT.
In Clun flocks the rams are put to
the ewes from about September 20 to
the middle of October, producing on the
average about a lamb and a quarter.
The ewes are generally drafted out of
the flock after two crops of- lambs have
been taken. They are then sold to go
to the lowlands usually to breed lambs
for the fat market. The reason why no
more than two crops of lambs are taken
on the hills is that the mutton value
of the ewe depreciates after the second
lamb. The wethers and ewes are gener-
ally sold when three or four years old,
but earlier drafts are made as yearlings
and two-year-olds. They vary in price
from 35s. to 50s.
During the winter months the flock
subsists chiefly on grass, with the addi-
tion of hay and clover in bad weather.
OTHER BREEDS OF SHEEP.
The Norfolk.
The Norfolk breed of sheep, one of
the most ancient and a parent of the
Suffolk, is nowadays in few hands. The
204
MOUNTAIN AND MOORLAND BREEDS OF SHEEP.
Earl of Leicester and the Executors of
the late Colonel M'Calmont both own
flocks.
In appearance the Norfolk breed is
of coal-black visage and horned. It is
a very active sheep, but a slow maturer.
The hoggs will clip from 8 to g lb., and
the ewes from 5j^ to 6 lb. wool As a
rule, the wethers are not mature till two
years old, when they kill about 30 lb. a
quarter.
The breed is prolific, the flock at
Cheveley averaging about a lamb and
a half to each ewe. Owing to the
difficulty of obtaining fresh blood, the
breeding of these sheep is naturally
close.
Wiltshire Sheep.
The old Wiltshire horned breed of
sheep was at one time more kept than
now in its native and adjoining counties.
They are not, perhaps, such ready feeders
as some of the more improved breeds.
Fig. 708. — Shetland sJi^ep.
The breed is homed, with white face and
legs. For crossing purposes there is a
demand for rams from Wq,les.
Masham Sheep.
A variety of sheep known as the
Masham is freely encountered in York-
shire. It is the product of a cross of
the Wensleydale ram on the Scotch
Blackface ewe. The Yorkshire Society
at one time provided classes for this
eminently thrifty type of sheep.
The lambs run with the dams on the
high moorlands, the ewes only coming to
a lower altitude to lamb, and staying
till the young lambs find their feet.
They are then sent back to the moors,
where they remain, with the exception of
dipping and clipping times, till weaned.
The wether lambs find their way to
lowland farmers for feeding on turnips.
The best of the ewe lambs are drafted
out and again crossed with the Wensley-*
dale, producing a three-parts-bred sheep.
With this double cross of Wensleydale
the best feeding sheep are produced.
They are good mutton sheep, and their
clip weighs almost as well as the pure
breed's. York is a big market centre.
No doubt the name Masham arose from
the fact that at one time it was the
great centre for the disposal of this type
of sheep.
Penistone Sheep.
This type is found on thp borders of
Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire.
It is, however, dying out. In appear-
ance the sheep are white-faced, with
wool of medium length and rather
harsh, clipping about 4 to 5 lb. a
fleece. No doubt the name is de-
rived from the town of Penistone.
Shetland Sheep.
Amongst the Island varieties of
sheep one of the most useful is the
Shetland breed. It is a small sheep,
not weighing much more when fat
than 30 lb. The colour varies
greatly, some being black, some
white, some brown, and many
strangely mixed, as in fig. 708.
The body is thick and well set
upon short clean legs, the head
attractive, and eyes prominent ; tail
short and fine at the point.
The rams usually have horns ; the
ewes, as a rule, are hornless, and are
excellent'mothers. Exceptionally hardy,
the sheep thrive well on poor pasture
and exposed situations. The wool of
the Shetland sheep is of remarkably fine
quality, and is turned to admirable
account by the natives in the celebrated
Shetland'shawls and other similar fabrics.
The fleece weighs only about 2 lb. The
sheep are not clipped, the wool being
pulled off by hand.
The breed crosses well with rams of
improved breeds.
FOREIGN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
205
Oth&r Types.
The sheep of Iceland are well suited
for the conditions under which they are
Fig. 709. — Iceland sheep,
reared, but are not of great value for
any part of the mainland. They are
small-sized, hardy sheep, some of them
with strangely shaped horns, as seen in
fig. 709.
The St Kilda breed of sheep is a
characteristic one, very hardy, with dark-
coloured mutton. The wool is fine in
texture. Some of the sheep have four
or even six horns, growing out from the
head with fantastic irregularity.
In different parts of the British Isles
there are numerous other types of sheep
which are bred to a lesser or greater
extent. Amongst these may be men-
tioned the Swcdedale sheep of York-
shire, &c.
FOREIGN BREEDS OF SHEEP.
Of all the foreign and colonial breeds
of sheep the best known in this country
is the Merino, a Spanish breed that has
played a great part in improving the
wool-production of sheep in many parts
of the world. The outstanding feature
of the breed is its remarkable fleece.
Every inch of the Merino, from its nose
to its hoof, is densely coated with wool
so fine as to number up to almost 50,000
Fig. 710. — Merino ravi.
fibres to the square inch. And as if to wrinkles, giving the animal quite the
increase the number of square inches, strangely unique appearance shown in
the skin develops into great folds and fig. 710, reproduced here by permission
2o6
GOATS.
from the Live Stock Journal Almanac,
1909.^
A large quantity of white greasy oil
' gathers in the Merino fleece. From ewes
the fleece weighs 15 lb. or more, and from
rams 20 to 25 lb., exceptional animals
yielding considerably heavier fleeces.
Merinoes were introduced into England
from Spain by King George III. in 1792,
and during the first quarter of the nine-
teenth century the breed was tried to a
considerable extent in crossing with
several English breeds, including the
Southdowns. An improvement was ob-
served in the wool, but the quality of
the mutton was deteriorated, and grad-
ually the Merino lost the moderate hold
it gained in this country.
In the multitude of other varieties of
foreign sheep there are scarcely any
whose reputation has extended to this
country.
At the great show of live stock in
connection with the Paris International
Exhibition of 1878 already referred to,
there were in all fifty different races
and sub-races of sheep, about forty of
them being from European countries.
Not one of the foreign breeds other
than the Merino showed merits that
would attract the attention of British
flock-owners. Amongst a large number
of interesting crosses the best from
a British point of view were those
bred from the Leicester and Merino
races.
GOATS.
The goat has not unfittingly been
called the "poor man's cow." In wide
districts of Central Europe, in the north-
ern regions of Africa, and in other parts
of the world, the peasantry have little
else to depend upon -for their daily
supply of fresb milk and cheese.
Habitat. — Goats are natives of the
mountainous countries of the East, not-
ably Asia and Africa. Few domestic
animals have so wide a range as the
goat. While seeming to thrive best
under an ardent sun, they are never-
theless to be found in considerable
numbers as far north in Europe as
Norway.
At one time goodly numbers of goats
were kept in this country, the majority
of them being run on the hills like sheep.
But this form of rearing, except in Ire-
land and in some parts of Wales, has
now all but ceased. The few goats that
are now to be seen in the country dis-
tricts are kept for most part in opes and
twos for milking purposes, and are treated
pretty much as a small cow would be.
They suit this purpose exceedingly well,
and the wonder is that more of them are
not kept by cottagers and others having
small patches of pasture land.
' Vinton & Co., London.
Gl-oats as Milkers. — The improved
class of goats are excellent milkers : in-
deed there is no class of animal of its
size that will give a better return in milk
for the food consumed than a well-bred
goat. ■ Mr Woodiwiss, an English fancier,
had a Swiss goat which gave daily for
several days in succession 10 lb. 5 oz.
of mUk, or more than a gallon per day.
At the time of the test the little
animal had been in milk for more than
five months. In another case a herd
of five goats, owned by another English
breeder, Mr C. A. Gates of Guildford,
gave over 3 tons of milk in a year, equal
to about 140 gallons each. These goats
were also bred from Swiss stock. No
doubt yields like these are exceptional,
but there are said to be several breeds of
goats in the Alpine regions of Switzer-
land which give regularly during their
milking period 3 and up to 5 pints of
mUk in a day.
In Switzerland the goat is such an
important animal that the Government
gives a subsidy to selected and approved
"Billies," pretty much as in other parts
of the Continent and in Ireland premiums
are given for bulls. This policy, com-
bined with the skill and enthusiasm of
the small owners, has had a most grati- ■
fying result, and nowadays most of the
GOATS.
207
milch goats which are to be seen in this
country — at the dairy shows in London
and elsewhere — are bred from stock
■which has been imported from Switzer-
land or other parts of the European
continent.
On account of the restrictive legisla-
tion on the importation of live animals
into this country it is not easy to import
goats, but a few selected specimens for
stud purposes can usually stiU be passed
in through the agency of the British
Goat Society. In any case, most of
the well-known strains are already rep-
resented in this country in herds estab-
lished prior to the practical shutting
up of the ports.
Goats' Milk. — Not only is the milk
yield of goats surprisingly large in quan-
tity, but it is exceptionally rich in quality.
It is not usual for it to fall below 3.50
per cent in fat, and very frequently it
reaches 6 or' 7 per cent. In 1879 Dr
Voelcker, F.RS., reported on samples of
goats' and cows' milk to the effect that
they contained respectively 7.02 and 3.43
per cent of pure butter-fat, and 5.27 and
5.12 per cent of sugar. In a later com-
parative analysis (the cow in this case
having won the champion milking prize
at the London Dairy Show) the figures
stand as follows :—
Goat's milk.
Cow's milk.
Water ....
Butter-fat . .
Casein ....
Milk-sugar . .
Ash. . .
83.21
7-30
4.18
4.ro
1. 21
87.56
3-63
- 8.81
100.00
lOO.OO
There is still in many minds a slight
prejudice against goats' milk on the
ground that it has an unpleasantly strong
flavour. That prejudice in nearly every
case has arisen through drinking the
milk of goats kept in a semi-wild state.
Where they are kept in captivity and
fed on grass, hay, or other low-ground
foods, goats' milk has no unpleasant
flavour whatever ; indeed, were it not
for its exceptional sweetness and rich-
ness, it would hardly be possible, under
these conditions, to distinguish it by
taste from cows' milk.
The milk of the goat has the import-
ant advantage, that it can be guaranteed
practically free from the tubercle bacilli.
While as a breed goats are not be-
lieved to be entirely immune from the
fell disease of tuberculosis, cases of the
trouble have occurred so rarely amongst
them that it may be said to be practi-
cally non-existent. On account of this
consideration many people have in late
years taken to keeping goais for the
supply of milk for children.
Mr Bryan ilook states, in his book on
goats,^ that he adopted the plan of taking
a couple of goats with his family to the
seaside on the occasion of their annual
holiday. The goats were given the run
of a little yard behind the house. Their
breakfast, given while they were being
milked, consisted of a good half-pint of
oats or scalded maize, with a double
handful of coarse bran, to which was
added any available kitchen-refuse. At
mid-day they received each an armful of
weeds or grass cut from a disused piece
of garden, and in the evening they fol-
lowed members of the family to the
beach, where they ranged the neighbour-
ing waste lands for what they could pick
up. Their supper consisted, like their
breakfast, of corn and bran. The goats
did very well with this treatment. At
the end of the holiday of six weeks
one of them was giving 6 lb. 14 oz. of
milk, or nearly 5^ pints per day. On
the basis of the cost of cows' milk this
goat gave during the six weeks produce
to the value of ^2, 7s.
Varieties of Goats.
There are a great many varieties of
goats throughout the world. In Swit-
zerland alone there are said to be sixteen
practically distinct kinds. There are
also the huge shaggy - haired Pyrenean
goats, the pigmy g8at of Sumatra, the
Surats of India, the short-haired reds of
Southern Spain, the Nubian goat, and
several others besides. While several of
these have leading characteristics in com-
mon, they vary a good deal in size and
colour, as well as in being horned and
minus horns.
The common goat which one sees up
and down the country, on railway em-
' Vinton & Co. , London.
2o8
GOATS.
bankments and the libe, is mainly of
Irish origin, or a cross between the Irish
goat and one or other of the imported Con-
tinental breeds. Occasional Irish goats
prove good milkers, but the majority
have little to recommend them except
their comparatively small price. An ob-
jection to the Irish goat from the point
of view of those who keep goats for milk
is, that they can rarely be induced to
breed except as their half-wild nature
prompts them. They are therefore of
little use for winter milk. Irish goats
are nearly always small in size, with long
shaggy coats and large horns.
Of the crossed British goats the most
successful have been bred from Nubian
or Abyssinian strains. The Nubian goats
are hornless, and black and tan in colour.
The females are, as a rule, good milkers.
Closely resembling the Nubian goats
are some of the Indian varieties that
have occasionally been brought to this
country. While some of these have also
proved good milkers, they -were not found
to stand the climate so well, and have
not been largely used.
Swiss Goats. — For milking purposes
in this country probably no other kind
of goats surpass the Toggenburg and
Alpenzell varieties of Switzerland. It
was from goats of these breeds that
were obtained the large yields of milk
already referred to. Both are big-sized,
handsome varieties, the Toggenburg
especially giving a large yield of milk
In their native districts these goats are
takpn out and in for milking just as
a herd of dairy cows would be in this
country. They respond readily to liberal
treatment, and cheese is freely made
from their' milk. Both of these goats
are hornless, and both are white in
colour, except that the Toggenburger
has usually markings on the head.
One of the most Beautiful varieties of
Swiss goat is the Schwartzhals, which
runs for most part at large in the moun-
tains. This breed has short horns, and
is black and white in colour. Its flesh
is much appreciated by those who like
goat meati but it is not such' a good
mUker as the other two varieties named.
Selection of Goats.
Whatever variety of goat one fancies,
it is wise to be careful in making the
proper selection. A milch goat should
be large, and her udder should correspond
to her size. It is found from experience
that a large-sized udder means plenty of
milk ; indeed, in good milkers the udder
usually reaches far back between the
thighs, and causes the goat to walk with
an awkward gait. A good milking goat,
too, has prominent eyes, and ears which
are rather large ; while the horns in the
horned breeds should be short and fairly
upright in the females, and longish and
gracefully turned back in the case of the
males. But most of the best milking
goats are altogether without horns.
The coat in the case of the native
stocks is usually shaggy and rough ; in
most of the finer imported breeds it is
close and short, with a glossy appearance
on the surface.
Like the sheep, the goat has no in-
cisors on the upper jaw. There are,
however, light incisors on the lower jaw,
and these assist the buyer in selecting
a young animal. The first pair of in-
cisors fall after the goat has reached a
year old; the second, third, and fourth
pair after each succeeding year has
passed. These young teeth are followed
by permanent incisors, which fall out
one by one when from seven to eight
years has been reached, a good deal de-
pending upon the nature of the food
which the animal has been consuming.
A goat may be said to have a full mouth
at five years old.
In selecting females for breeding, care
should be taken to have them Mgh at
the shoulder, wide across the loins, and
well sprung in the ribs.
MANAGEMENT ■01' GOATS,
The normal period of the year for
mating in the goat is the end of Sept-
ember to the ist of March, but it may
be possible, where the animals are house-
fed in winter and have in them a dash
of Oriental blood, to get them to breed
out of the ordinary season. In this
way, where numbers are kept, kidding
can be done at different periods of the
year and a continuous supply of milk
kept up.
The period of gestation in the goat is
149 to 154 days, two kids, as a rule,
being dropped at each parturition.
GOATS.
209
Goats live well on grass or other rough
pasturage in summer. In winter the best
foods are hay, oats, maize, crushed wheat
and barley, bran, and occasionally a few
ground peas or beans. Turnips are quite
suitable where available, and acorns also
make a very acceptable food, but they
are not always cheaply and easily ob-
tained.
Rearing Kids. — When kids are reared
by hand they should be allowed to take
milk from the udder during the first three
days : thereafter it will be found better
to draw it off by hand and teach the kid
to drink. If the milk should be too
rich, it may be slightly diluted with
skim-milk or water. At the end of ten
to fourteen days g, little well -cooked
linseed gruel may be added to the milk,
the quantity of which should be reduced.
In two or three days further the quantity
of gruel may be increased and the milk
again diminished, and so on until at
twenty days the young animals com-
mence to feed. A female should not be
allowed to breed until she has reached
the age of eighteen or, better still, twenty
months.
Liberal Feeding Kequired. — Goats,
like cows, if they are to milk well, should
Fig. 711. — Swiss homed goat and kid.
be liberally fed. Their food should be
varied as much as possible, and only hay
of the soundest kind used. In the hilly
districts, where they are run like sheep,
the animals have to depend mainly on
what they can gather, getting only a
little JiS'y or straw in winter.
Goats' Hair and Skins. — The hair
of goats has a considerable value for
upholstery work, and goat-skin rugs are
also very useful for carriage and house-
hold purposes.
Objections to Goats. — One objection
to keeping goats, at any rate in confined
quarters, is that the male goat usually
has a rather pronounced and penetrating
smell, especially in autumn and winter.
VOL. III.
This is the quality which commends
"BiUy" to owners of pedigree cattle
for running with their cows as a pre-
ventive against abortion. Whether it
has this effect or not is uncertain, but
many people still believe it has, and a
"Billy" goat is still part of the equip-
ment of several well-known pedigree
herds.
When kept on grass the smell of the
"Billy" is not so offensive as when he
runs wild. In any case, it does not apply
to "Nanny" goats, as the females are
generally called. These can be kept
under confinement all the year round
without the least trouble or objection.
Owing to the pugnacious inclination of
o
210
SWINE AND THEIK MANAGEMENT.
many of the animals, it is usually ad-
visable to keep them tied up by the
neck in little stalls., A goat will live
in about as much accommodation as
will suit a medium-sized St Bernard or
other large dog.
The country with the largest goat
population is India, which has over
24,000,000, Caucasian Bussia coming
next with over 6,000,000.
A Swiss horned goat and kid are
shown in fig. 711.
SWINE AND THEIE MANAGEMENT.
LAEGE WHITE PIGS.
The most universally kept and the
most popular of English breeds of pigs
is admittedly the Large White. Other
breeds have been exported, and have
assisted to build up the marvellous por-
cine resources of such countries as the
United States, but in Europe, wherever
pig-breeding has received prominent
attention, the Large or Middle White
breed has formed the basis of improve-
ment. Germany, Denmark, Scandinavia,
Eussia, Austria - Hungary, and other
countries have freely imported White
pigs from England, and on the strength
of the improvement effected have they
built up a wonderful bacon trade chiefly
with Britain.
Historical. — There are few points in
pig-breeding so obscure as the origin of
some of our best-known breeds. The
improvement of the White pig of Eng-
land, and indeed the basis of the modern
white breeds, is universally credited to
Yorkshire. The Neapolitan and the
Chinese crosses are spoken of as effect-
ing a partial transformation of the race.
Suffice it to say that the Windsor Koyal
Show of 1 85 1 first set the seal of excel-
lence on the Large White or Improved
Yorkshire.
There were several breeders who exer-
cised their skill in this process of evolu-
tion, none more prominent than the
weaver, Joseph Tuley, and Mr Wainman
of Carhead, Yorks. In their days the
local shows in the counties of the Rose
drew a magnificent entry from small
pig-keepers. The extremes of the Large
White and the Small White were freely
met with in the north of England, and
it was not surprising that out of the
chaos of conflicting fancy the Middle
White should appear.
The Large White pig was then a mon-
ster of great excellence, and so long as
the public taste was ripe for heavy
sides of bacon, breeders continued to
supply them.
Type and Characteristics.
The type of pig in demand is regulated
by two important factors — the commer-
cial market or bacon factory and the
show-ring. We rarely see a pig weigh-
ing up to 90 stones nowadays. The
tendency is to clear them off at handy
weights, for it is more profitable to feed
to 8 score than to 16. The Large White
as we know it to-day is a different type
from that prevailing thirty or forty years
ago. All coarseness has been elimin-
ated. The thickness of shoulder has
been fined down. The capacity to feed
to big weights is dormant, not discarded,
for substance is too important in any
breed to be lightly dispensed with. The
general idea which the breeder has kept
in view has been to reduce the cost of
feeding the pig by refining those parts
where the cheapest pork is grown, and
steadily aiming at an early maturing
pig of a good bacon type. The follow-
ing is a description of the breed as
approved by the National Pig-Breeders'
Association : —
Large White.
Colour. — White, free from black hairs, and
as far as possible from blue spots on the
skin.
Head. — Moderately long, face slightly dished,
snout broad, not too much turned up,
jowl not too heavy, wide between ears.
Ears. — Long, thin, slightly inclined forward,
and fringed with fine hair.
MIDDLE WHITE PIGS.
211
Keek. — Long, and proportionately full to
ahouldera.
Cheat. — Wide and deep.
ShovMers.- — Level across the top, not too
wide, free from coareenesB.
Legs. — Straight and well set, level with the
outside of the body, with flat bone.
Pasterns. — Short and springy.
Feet. — Strong, even, and wide.
JBaei. — Long, level, and wide from neck to
rump.
Loin. — Broad.
Tail. — Set high, stout and long, but not
coarse, with tassel of fine hiur.
Sides. — Deep.
Bihs. — Well sprung.
Belly. — Full, but not flabby, with straight
underline.
Flank. — Thick, and well let down.
Quarters. — Long and wide.
Hams. — Broad, full, and deep to hooka.
Coat. — Long and moderately fine.
Aetitm. — Firm and free.
Skin. — Not too thick, quite free from
wrinkles.
Large-bred pigs do not fully develop
their points until some months old,
a pig often proving at a year or
fifteen months old a much better
animal than could have been antici-
pated from its appearance at five
months, and vice versdj but size
and quality are most important.
Oljections. — Black hairs, black spots, a curly
coat, a coarse mane, short snout, in-bent
knees, hollowness at back of shoulders.
Blue spots have not been entirely oblit-
erated, but they are more infrequently
met with than used to be the case.
Weights. — The carcase contests at
Smithfield Show afford the clearest
evidence of the killing qualities of
different breeds, assuming of course
that the ancient prejudice arising from
the colour of a breed is discarded. In
these contests the preparation of the
animal approximates very closely to
feeding for an ordinary market. Pigs
are shown of three weights. The
youngest age is for pigs not exceeding
loo lb. live-weight, equivalent to about
four- score dead. Generally they rather
exceed this proportion, killing about
8 1 or 82 per cent. In the middle age
from 100 to 220 lb. live-weight ; in 1907
one Large White weighed 193 lb. alive
and dressed 153 lb. The daily gain
in live -weight was 12.2 oz. In the
class for big pigs between 220 lb. and
300 lb. live-weight, the Large White
and Large Black cross was successful,
making the very rapid daily gain in
live -weight of i lb. 3 oz., and dress-
ing a 236 lb. carcase from an arrival-
weight of 288 lb.
Prolificacy. — The Large White is a
prolific breed, and the sows are good
mothers. Litters of twelve to sixteen
are not uncommon.
A boar and a sow of the Large White
breed are represented in Plate 65.
MIDDLE WHITE PIGS.
Many breeders whose views carry
weight unhesitatingly aflSrm that they
have found the Middle White the most
profitable type of pig.
Origin. — ^The Middle White is un-
doubtedly a compound of the joint
excellencies of the Large and Small
White breeds, both of which were com-
monly kept and shown in Yorkshire and
Lancashire many years ago.
The Middle White has come to be
regarded as a distinct type. It is occa-
sionally found creeping out in the Large
White, particularly at fat stock shows.
To the Yorkshire breeder is attributed
the originating of the Middle White,
and at a Yorkshire show it first found
.separate classification. The breed is not
so well diffused as the Large White, and
fewer opportunities are afforded by agri-
cultural societies for its exhibition.
Characteristics.
The Middle White pig occupies a
position that is diflScult to maintain.
In the first place, we frequently meet
with rather large-framed pigs with de-
cided Middle characteristics of counten-
ance and type. Conversely we are more
frequently confronted with under-sized
pigs, the chief difficulty being not to
strike but to maintain the happy
medium whiph justifies the breed's ex-
istence. In some ways the Middle is
a White Berkshire. They have points
in common, save that a little more size
than is common in the White breed is
favoured in the Blacks.
Scale of Points.
The approved points of the Middle
White pig are thus indicated by the
National Pig-Breeders' Association: —
212
SWINE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.
Colour. — White, free from black hairs or blue
spots on the skin.
Head. — Mo4erately short face dished, snout
broad and turned up, jowl full, wide
between ears.
Ears. — Fairly large, carried erect and fringed
with fine hair.
Neck. — Medium length, proportionately full
to the shoulders.
Chest. — Wide and deep.
Shoulders. — Level across the top, moderately
wide, free from coarseness.
icgis.-:-Straight and well set, level with the
outside of body with fine bone.
Pasterns. — Short and springy.
Feet. — Strong, even, and wide.
Booh. — Long, level, and wide from neck to
rump.
Loin. — Broad.
Tail. — Set high, moderately long, but not
coarse, with tassel of fine hair.
Sides. — Deep.
Sibs. — Well sprung.
Belly. — Full, but not flabby, with straight
underline.
Flank. — Thick and well let down.
Q.ua/rters. — Long and wide.
Hwms. — Broad, full, abd deep to hocks.
Coat. — Long, fine, and silky.
Aetixm. — Firm and free.
Skfvn. — Fine, and quite free from wrinkles.
Objektions. — Black hairs, black or blue spots,
a coarse main, in-bent knees, hollowness
at back of shoulders, wrinkled skin.
Weights. — The chief merits of the
Middle White are its capacity to fatten
readily, its docility, and prolificacy. It
is particularly well suited to produce the
8-score pig now so much in demand.
Breeders are seeking a lengthy pig, as
the middle piece with its wealthy cut
of streaky meat is the most valuable
portion of the pig.
Prolificacy. — The prolificacy of the
Middle White is a strong point in its
favour. Litters run from ten to thirteen
in number, and will average double
figures. No doubt the reason for the
superior prolificacy of the White breeds
is that at one time an extra pair of
teats was cultivated as being a strong
point in a sow.
A Middle White sow is represented in
Plate 66.
LARGE WHITE ULSTER PIG.
Of the multiplication of breeds, like
the making of books, there seems to be
no end. The Royal Ulster Agricultural
Society has established a Register of the
native breed of pigs in Ulster known
as the Large White Ulster. Classes are
provided for the breed at the Belfast
Spring Show.
Scale of Points.
The following is the official scale of
points of the breed : —
Points.
Sead. — Moderately long, wide between the
ears 5
Ears. — Long, thin, and inclined well over
the face 6
Jowl. — Light 5
Neck. — Fairly long and muscular . . 2
Chest. — Wide and deep .... 3
Shovlders. — Not coarse, oblique, narrow
plate ...... S
Legs. — Short, straight, and well set, leveH
with the outside of the body, with \^
flat bone not coarse | ^
• Pasterns. — Straight j
Bach. — Long and level (rising a little to
centre of back not objected to) . 12
Sides. — Very deep 10
Sibs. — Well sprung ..... 5
iom.-;-Broad ...... 3
Quarters. — Long, wide, and not drooping . 8
Hams. — Large and well filled to hocks . 12
BeUy and Flank. — Thick and well filled . S
Tail. — Well set and not coarse . . i
Slan, — Fine and soft \
Coat. — Small quantity of fine silky hair J
Total . .100
Objections.
Head. — Narrow forehead.
Ears, — ^Thick, coarse, or pricked.
Coat. — Coarse or curly ; bristly mane.
CdUmr. — Any other colour than white is a
disqualification.
The breed has for many years been
reared vdth success in the north of
Ireland, and in recent years a good
deal of attention has been given to its
improvement. In form and character-
istics generally it resembles the Large
White English breed, which has been
used to a considerable extent in its
development.
An outstanding difference between the
Ulster and Large White breeds is in the
length and formation of the ear, the
Ulster pig having exceptionally long
ears.
A portrait of a Large White Ulster
boar is given in Plate 66.
THE BERKSHIRE PIG.
213
THE BERKSHIRE PIG.
The Berkshire pig has greatly ex-
tended its sphere of influence since the
nineteenth century entered upon its
closing quarter. The origin of this, as
of most of our other breeds of pigs, is
a matter of conjecture, and it is im-
material whether or not the Neapolitan
Black pig was used in its production.
Certain it is that the Berkshire pig,
as it is known to-day, is a very different
animal from the Berkshire of the early
half of last century.
Characteristics.
It is sometimes a fault of the show-
yard that it is liable to emphasise minor
and fancy points to the detriment of
commercial qualities. If it has not alto-
gether succeeded in doing so with the
present-day Berksliire, it has at least ex-
ercised an influence that has not always
been for good.
Many breeders deplore the extent to
which the markings of the breed hold
sway in the minds of show judges. Any
one acquainted with leading herds of
Berkshires knows that many of the very
best pigs have practically to be discarded
because they lack a white hair in the
tail, or because a few white hairs appear
on the tip of the ear.
Scale of Points.
The British Berkshire Society has
drawn up the following revised stand-
ard of excellence : —
Oolowr. — Black, with white on face, feet, and
tip of tail.
SHn. — Fine, and free from wrinkles.
Hair. — Long, fine, and plentiful.
Head. — Moderately short, face dished, snout
broad, and wide between the eyes and
ears.
Ears. — Fairly large, carried erect or slightly
inclined forward, and fringed with fine
hair.
NkTc. — Medium length, evenly set on shoul-
ders ; jowl full and not heavy.
Stiouldera. — Fine and well sloped backwards,
free from coarseness.
Sack. — Long and straight, ribs well sprung,
sides deep.
Hams. — Wide, and deep to hocks.
Tail. — Set high, and fairly large.
Fla/nk. — Thick and well let down, making
straight underline.
Legs and Feet. — Short, straight, and strong,
set wide apart, and hoofs nearly erect.
Objections.- — A perfectly black face, foot, or
tail ; a rose back ; white or sandy spots
on the body ; a white ear ; a very coarse
mane ; or in-bent knees.
Size. — There is no doubt that the
Berkshire pig has deteriorated in size.
In the days of the old Berkshire, when
sandy spots were not uncommon, pigs
grew to greater weights than they do
nowadays. Breeders, however, aflSrm
that the trade for very heavy pigs is
merely local, and that medium weights
find the readiest markets. The pig that
kills 8 score under njne months old can
command a good price. At the Smith-
field Show of 1907 the champion in the
carcase section was a Berkshire which,
at 255 days old, weighed 190 lb. alive
and 158 lb. dead, equivalent to a daily
gain of close on ^ lb. If the Smithfield
carcase contests teach anything, it is
that the Berkshire can mature quite
as rapidly as, if not more rapidly than,
other breeds.
Distribution of Berkshires. — The
Berkshire pig is in full strength in the
county from which it takes its name.
It is found all over the south of Eng-
land, where a black pig seems mostly
favoured. The counties south of the
Thames afibrd it most encouragement.
No doubt the fact that a black pig is
less liable to blister than a white pig has
something to do with its popularity.
The Berkshire is not quite so hardy
as the Large White.
Changes in Type. — Changes in the
type of pig favoured are not infrequent.
They vary according to the accepted
notions of breeders. Most of them ob-
ject to a very pug face and prominent
jowl, the chief difference of opinion
arising over the length of snout. The
necessity of maintaining the dish face
is not disputed, as it is characteristic.
A longer type of pig is more favoured
than was the case some years ago.
Breeders recognise that to have a bacon
pig of the highest standing in the
market length of side is necessary.
For Crossing. — The Berkshire is one
of the most valuable breeds for crossing.
A point that should be noted, however,
in connection with this breed is the
danger which some believe exists in
214
SWINE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.
using in a pure herd a boar which has
been employed for crossing with white
pigs. They say it will almost inevitably
result in badly marked litters.
Prolificacy. — Although not so pro-
lific as the Large White, the Berkshire
rears a good litter, averaging about
eight pigs reared. Breeders reckon that
ten is a very good litter for a mature
sow to rear.
A portrait of a Berkshire sow is pre-
sented in Plate 67.
LARGE BLACK PIGS.
The Large Black pig has risen from
comparative obscurity to rank as one of
our most useful registered breeds.
Progress. — The Large Black Pig
Society was established as recently as
1899, but during its brief existence it
has contrived to bring the breed very
much under notice of the public.
At one time an excellent farm-scav-
enger, the breed has risen to a higher
point of excellence than merely grub-
bing for a living. In' the showyard
nothing has been more remarkable than
the progress made by breeders in bring-
ing out their stock. Experience has
enabled them to bring out their exhibits
in condition more in keeping with the
standard adopted in other breeds.
Characteristics.
The Large Black is designed as a
bacon pig. It has been conclusively
shown that in point of flesh -making,
attested by the weighbridge, this breed
can hold its own. Perhaps it pro-
vides most profit for the feeder as a
10 to II score carcase pig. In the past
some great weights have been achieved,
as much as 190 lb. per side dead. At
the present tiii;j the breed is used more
for the production -f heavy than early
and handy weights, Lut as early maturity
becomes more recognised as the best and
cheapest form of bacon production, we
may expect the feeder to turn over more
capital by keeping more sows and short-
ening the store period in a pig's life.
The proportion of lean to fat is con-
siderable, and the prolificacy of the
breed one of its strong features.
Scale of Points.
The following is the scale of points
drawn up by the Breed Society : —
Points.
Head. — Medium length, and wide between
the ears 5
Ears. — Long, thin, and inclined well oyer
the face
Jowl. — Medium siie
Neek. — Fairly long and muscular
Ohest. — Wide and deep .
ShovZders. — Oblique, with narrow plate
Sack. — Long and level (rising a little to
centre of back not objected to) .
Sidet. — ^Very deep ....
Sibs. — Well sprung ....
Zoim,. — Broad
Qumters. — Long, wide, and not drooping
Swma. — Large, and well filled to hocks
TaH. — Set high, and not coarse
Legs. — Short and straight
Bdly amd Flank. — Thick and well filled
Skin, — Fine and soft
Goal. — Moderate quantity of straight, silky
hair
6
3
3
I
12
10
S
5
8
lO
3
5
8
4
Total
Disqualification.
Colowr. — Any other colour than black is a
disqualification.
Objeetions.
Head. — Narrow forehead or "dished nose."
Ea/r». — Thick, coarse, or pricked.
Coat. — Coarse or curly; briptly mane.
■Weights. — If evidence were required
of the great weights to which this breed
can and does grow, the reader might be
referred to the figures of the Smithfield
Show catalogues.
Ijocation. — The breed is located
chiefly in Devon and Cornwall in the
wesi, in Suffolk and Essex in the east,
p.nd in Sussex in the south. A number
of pigs have been sent abroad, and the
demand for them continues to expand.
A Largs Black sow is represented in
Plate 67.
THE TAMWORTH PIG.
The Tamworth is one of the old breeds
of pigs handed down to the present
generation from the time of forests and
unenclosed lands. It is distinct from
every other breed of pig that we possess
— distinct in colour, form, and character.
Origin and Progress. — The Tam-
LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-COATED PIGS
215
worth pig is a native of the Midland
counties of England, where it is fre-
quently seen running at pasture and
about homesteads. Nature designed the
Tamworth to be its own forager. It is
remarkably active, and during the past
twenty or thirty years has undergone
some change, doubtless chiefly owing to
careful selection and mating.
It is under the fostering care of a
special Breed Society, although for many
years, along with the White breeds, its in-
terests were looked after by the National
Pig-Breeders' Association. The colour
favoured is a beautiful golden russet.
It is not an easy matter keeping to the
correct hue, and sometimes equally diffi-
cult to discard the spotted skin.
Scale oj Points.
The standard of excellence adopted on
behalf of the breed is as follows : —
Colour. — Golden red hair on a flesh-coloured
skin, free from black.
Bead. — Fairly long, snout moderately long
and quite straight, face slightly dished,
wide between ears.
Ears. — Bather large, with fine fringe, carried
rigid and inclined slightly forward.
Neck. — Fairly long and muscular, especially
in boar.
Cheat. — Wide and deep.
Shovlden. — Pine, slanting, and well set.
Legs. — Strong and shapely, with plenty of
bone, and set well outside body.
Pasterns. — Strong and sloping.
Feet. — Strong, and of fair size.
Bach. — Long and straight.
Loin. — Strong and broad.
Tail. — Set on high and well tasselled.
Sides. — Long and deep.
Hihs. — ^Well sprung, and extending well up
to flank.
Belly. — Deep, with straight underline.
Flank. — Full and well let down.
Q,uarters.^-hong, wide, and straight from hip
to tail.
Hams. — Broad and full, well let down to
hocks.
Coat. — Abundant, long, straight, and fine.
Action. — Firm and free.
Oljections. — Black hair, very light or ginger
hair, curly coat, coarse mane, black spots
on akin, slouch or drooping ears, short
or turned-up snout, heavy shoulders,
wrinkled skin, in-bent knees, hoUowness
at back of shoulders.
Porm and Fattening Properties. —
Great progress has been made in grading
up the fleshing qualities of the breed.
The best Tamworths of to-day are deeply
fleshed, with a greater width of top than
was at one time discernible. It is emi-
nently a bacon pig, and for a judicious
mixture of flesh and fat no breed can
show a finer side of bacon.
Fresh Blood Wanted. — One of the
leading breeders has declared that un-
less fresh blood can be imported from
America the progress of the pure-bred
Tamworth is impossible. Undoubtedly
breeders work under great disadvantages.
Those in the front rank who stand
high in the show-ring are very few, and
the difficulty of securing an out-cross of
blood is a serious matter.
Character. — As a farmer's pig the
Tamworth perhaps lacks depth, but it is
a good farm-scavenger. It is in all prob-
ability not the sweetest - tempered of
our breeds, and is given to rooting ; but
those who have had most experience of
it declare that it grows to weight well,
finds a ready market for bacon purposes,
and crosses well with the Berkshire.
A portrait of a Tamworth sow is given
in Plate 68.
LINCOLNSHIRE CURLY-
COATED PIGS.
Lincolnshire has its own breed of pigs
which have attained to a separate and
corporate existence.
Characteristics.
The Lincolnshire Curly-coated pig has
some points in common with the Large
White, from which, however, it is essen-
tially difierent. It is a quick-growing
variety, with more capacity to turn out
prime fat pork than bacon. Those who
have had most experience of it declare
that it has no rival in the Fen county
for early maturity.
To understand the Lincolnshire far-
mer's point of view, it must be remem-
bered that the native live stock of all
descriptions are of exceptional scale.
The Shire horse, the Red Shorthorn, and
the Lincoln sheep are all of remarkable
stature. The Curly-coated pig harmon-
ises with accepted local ideas in live-
stock breeding. It is descended from
earlier times when the yeoman families
in the county were more numerous than
now.
2l6
SWINE AND THEIR MANAGEMENT.
On the fen lands and marshes pigs
are largely kept, frequently mustering
herds to the number of loo head and
over. They run in the open, thus ac-
quiring constitutional vigour and strength
of frame. The latter is doubtless at-
tained from the soil and climate. It is
a custom of the county to allow the
labourers a measure of pork in lieu of
wages, consequently there is a strong de-
mand for fat pork locally.
Appearance. — In appearance the Lin-
coln Curly -coated pig is white, with
curly or wavy hair, with blue spots not
infrequently found on the skin. The
head should not be too long, the nose
must be straight, without the suspicion
of a dish, the ears thick and pendent
but not obscuring the eyes. The body
should be square and symmetrical, the
shoulders wide set and deep, the belly
parts thick and close to the ground, the
legs straight, and the weight of bone
pronounced.
It is only natural in these days, when
pedigree is the great directing force in
stock-breeding, that a breed or distinct
variety with which Youatt was familiar
should be placed on a registered basis.
A society was formed in 1906 at Boston,
and the first Herd Book issued in 1907.
Scale of Points.
This society drew up a scale of points
as follows : —
Points.
Colour. — White.
Face and Necle. — Medium length and wide
between eyes and ears ... 5
Ewrs. — Medium length and not too much
over face 10
JoviL. — Heavy 3
Chest. — Wide and deep .... 3
Shoulders. — Wide . . . . -15
£aci:. — Long and level . . . .10
Sides. — Very deep and ribs well sprung . 10
Loin. — Broad ..... 5
Quarters. — Long, wide, and not drooping . 5
Hams. — Large and well filled to hocks . 15
Tail. — Set high and thick ... 3
Iicgs. — Short and straight ... 5
Belly and FUmk. — Thick and well filled . 3
Coat, — Fair quantity of curly or wavy hair 8 '
Total . . 100
It is objectionable to have a narrow
forehead and thin ears. If the ears are
pricked, the nose dished or long, the
coat coarse, strong, or bristly, or the
colour of the hair other than white, the
pig would be practically disqualified.
■Weights. — ^At from 9 to 12 months
pigs weigh up to 30 imperial stones. The
sows are stated to be good mothers, and
are usually fed after producing one litter.
At 20 months old they weigh from 40
stones upwards. As indicative of the
capacity of this breed to grow weighty
pigs, an interesting contrast is made of
the two winning gelts at the Lincoln
County Show at Gainsborough in 1906
and the weight of the champion cup
winners at Smithfield in the same year.
The former at 10 months 2 weeks 2 days
old weighed 8 cwt. 15 lb.; and the latter,
a cross-bred pen, at 11 months 2 weeks
2 days old scaled 7 cwt. 2 qrs. 27 lb.
A Lincoln Curly boar is represented
in Plate 68.
SMALL BREEDS OF PIGS.
The star of the small pig breeds has
set. There is not now that demand for
very fat small pigs that at one time ex-
isted, consequently the Small White and
the Small Black breeds as commercial
assets on the farm are all but non-existent.
■ The Small White.
The Small White variety is still kept
as a " Fancy " pig. It has been brought
to a wonderful state of perfection. It is
a pure white in colour, with a dished
head and broad turned-up snout. It is
very full about the jowl, -and breadth
between the small erect ears is a charac-
teristic feature. Its shoulders are wide,
chest full, back broad, and sides deep.
It is set on short legs, is small in stature,
and ought to be free from wrinkles.
Small Black Pigs.
The Small Black is closely allied to
the Black Sufiblk, the black pigs of the
neighbouring counties of Essex and Suf-
folk having much in common both in
form and character.
The Small Black is a very straight
symmetrical pig, set on short legs, very
fine in bone. The snout is short and
slightly dished, but essentially different
in point of character from the full squat
face of the Small White. The coat of the
Small Black is somewhat strong.
OTHER TYPES OF PIGS— MANAGEMENT OF PIGS.
217
This breed is an easy and rapid fat-
tener, and this property, coupled with
greater size than is apparent in the Small
White, makes the Suffolk cross appre-
ciated by farmers. The Small Black is
decidedly prolific, the litter usually
reaching double figures. Its chief defect,
apart from lack of size, is a tendency to
produce too great a proportion of fat to
lean in the carcase.
OTHER TYPES OF PIGS.
Apart from the recognised and reg-
istered breeds of pigs there are many
porcine types associated with different
counties.
The Black Dorset, for instance, has a
long-established local reputation. It is
credited with a good charactei: for ordin-
ary farm purposes.
The Improved Dorset, as it was
known in later years, was probably a
cross on the native breed.
In Sussex there is frequently found on
farms a black pig, which enjoys a good
reputation locally. It is almost slate-
coloured. It has length of body but is
lacking in quality. This type is largely
used in the production of " four-score "
pigs for the neighbouring markets.
The Hampshire Pig has points in
common with those kept in the neigh-
bouring counties.
The Q-loucestershire Spotted Pig
is largely reared in that county. In the
Midlands black and white spotted pigs
are also to be found.
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS.
Farrowing.
There is as much diversity of opinion as
to the best system to adopt with a sow
at the time of farrowing as there appears
to be on most other points connected with
the management of pigs. Some persons
advise that the sow should be left en-
tirely to herself whilst she is farrowing,
and others just as strongly m:ge that the
sow ought to have some one in attend-
ance on her.
There is much to be said in favour
of both systems, — everything depending
on the temperament of the sow and the
manner in which she has been previously
treated.
Many of the common " anyway- bred "
country sows, whose time is spent in a
strenuous search for the bare necessaries
of life, and whose aim is to give as wide
a berth as possible to every human being
lest they should meet with the punish-
ment they have already deserved (or
most likely will, at some future time,
deserve) for their predatory habits, re-
sent the presence of an attendant when
they are farrowing. At such a time
sows of this class are naturally in a
somewhat excited condition.
On the other hand, the well-bred,
carefully tended sow, whose experience
of man is of an exactly opposite nature,
appears to like rather than dislike the
attendance of the person who is in the
habit of feeding and looking after her.
It would, of course, be most unwise to
have a stranger to attend to the sow at
such a time. In most of the leading
piggeries it is the custom for the pigman
to be with sows at the time of farrowing,
and it is only in exceptional cases that
sows give serious trouble with their tem-
pers if they are kindly and carefully
treated.
Occasionally a sow, when farrowing
her first litter, becomes rather excited,
especially when the newly -born pigs
happen to come near her head in strug-
gling on to their legs in search of "the
teat. The wisest course is to gently
remove the pigs as farrowing proceeds,
and thereafter return them to the sow,
when the excitement will most probably
have passed away.
Preparation for Parrovsring. — It is
a good plan to have the sow placed in
the sty or house where it is intended
that she should farrow, at least a fort-
night before her time is up.
Period of Gestation. — The period of
gestation with sows is as nearly as
possible sixteen weeks. Some aged
sows, and yelts with their first litters,
will often farrow a day or two before
the four months have elapsed ; whilst
the more robust sows will as frequently
carry their pigs one hundred and fifteen
or eighteen days, and in a few cases ev-en
a little longer.
Symptoms of Farrowing. — The pig-
man will easily foretell J;he arrival of the
2l8
SWINE AND THEIK MANAGEMENT.
litter. The sow will be restless, her
udder will become swollen and heated,
and on the teats being drawn, moisture
of a sticky glutinous nature, and some-
times milk, will be found at least twelve
hours before the little pigs arrive on the
scene; the vulva will become enlarged,
and the muscles on either side of the
tail will give way.
Bedding for Young Pigs. — ^It is not
advisable to allow the sow to have much
long straw for bedding during the first
few days after she has pigged, or the
little pigs may become entangled in it,
and get lain upon by the sow. Some
persons give their sows at this time long
cut chaff for bedding, but the best
material for the purpose is the wheat
screenings or " cavings " from the riddles
of the threshing-machine. This is both
short and soft, and has no sharp ends
such as are found in cut chaff.
Treatment of the Sovir and Produce
in Farrowing. — When the sow com-
mences to farrow, the attendant should
have ready a three -dozen size hamper,
three -parts filled with wheat -straw, and
as the little pigs come into the world
they should be wiped with a cloth, placed
to a teat so that they obtain a few drops
of milk, and then put into the hamper,
where they will rest contented and warm
until the sow has finished farrowing —
unless it be a very prolonged case. In
the latter event the piglings should be
taken out of the hamper and placed near
the udder of the sow, when they will
soon begin to forage about for that which
nature almost invariably provides for
them.
After the sow has suckled the pigs it
will be advisable to again place them in
the hamper and to give the sow a little
slop composed of bran and sharps stirred
with tepid water or skim -milk. The
sow will then soon lie down again, when
the pigs may be placed with, her, and the
family party will generally rest comfort-
ably until the return of feeding - time.
In cold weather it is better to cover the
hamper with a sack or cloth, as the little
pigs are easily chilled before they have
become dry.
The After-birth. — In some cases the
sow is allowed to eat the placenta or
after-birth. This should be carefully
avoided. The placenta ehoiild be re-
moved from the sty as soon as it is clear
of the sow.
It will be found advisable to walk the
sow out of the sty the day after she has
farrowed. The little exercise will gener-
ally cause her to relieve the bowels and
the bladder.
Assistance in Farrowing. — It is not
often that the sow requires any assistance
in farrowing, but it will occasionally be
necessary to give her help. Sometimes
the little pig will present itself crosswise.
At other times there may be a double
presentation, or the foetus be abnormally
large. There is seldom any great diffi-
culty in relieving the sow. The great
essentials are patience, care, and a plenti-
ful supply of lard. The hand and arm
of the operator should be small and well
smeared with grease. After farrovring,
2 oz. of sulphur and ^ oz. of nitre should
be given to her in a pint of skim-milk or
thin grueL She will readily drink this,
and generally it will be all the medicine
needed.
Pigs Biting Sow's TTdder. — It will
sometimes be found that when the newly
born pigs are placed with the sow, they
will fight for the teats to such an extent
as to bite the udder of the sow, which at
the time is especially sensitive. The sow
will jump up in a hurry, and should no
steps be taken to prevent the youngsters
injuring her, she will often lie flat on her
body and refuse to suckle the little pigs.
This occurs more frequently when the
sow carries her pigs beyond the usual
period of sixteen weeks. The eight
tusk -like teeth of the piglings will be
found abnormally long, and generally of
a dark colour at the root. Old-fashioned
pigmen were wont to say that "these
black - teethed pigs are never any good,
and are sure to pine away and die." In
this they were doubtless correct, unless
the simple remedy of breaking off these
offending teeth was applied. If this were
not done the pigs would naturally be-
come more hungry, and consequently
more combative, whilst the sow's udder
would become more sensitive and in-
flamed owing to the milk not being ex-
tracted. The usual result would be that
the pigs would be starved to death from
want of their natural food, and the sow-
would suffer from inflammation of the
udder.
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS.
219
The remedy, a most simple and eflSca-
cious one, is to remove the pigs out of
hearing of the sow, and to cut off the
teeth of the piglings well into the gums
with a small pair of cutting - pliers. If
the pigs are then placed with the sow no
further trouble will be experienced.
Each pig will soon settle down to its
selected teat, which it will make its
headquarters for obtaining lacteal nutri-
ment until it is weaned.
'Weaning Pigs. — This shoqid take
place when the pigs are about six weeks
old, if in summer, and about eight weeks
old in the colder months. The weaning
should be done gradually, by extending
the time during the last eight or ten
days of keeping the sow from the pigs.
Fig. 712. — Sties yor hrood-sows under one roof.
a b Two sties, y^ by 12 feet,
c d Two sties, 7K by 8 feet.
eeee Wooden partitions.
//Four doors of sties.
g ggff A feeding-trough in each sty.
A Area from which to overlook the aties
and to fill the troughs.
k Outer door of sties.
I Window for the sties.
Housing Brood-sows. — In the section
on Farm Buildings in vol. i. information
is given as to the construction of house
accommodation for pigs (see vol. i. p.
184). Fig. 712 represents an arrange-
ment of four sties or compartments for
brood-sows, all under one roof, and com-
municating with a compartment in which
the attendant may provide a bed for
himself. It is a great advantage to
■have stout battens fixed along the sides
of that part of the sty on which the
bedding is laid. The battens require
to be from ij^ to ij^ inch thick, and
from 4 to 6 inches broad, depending
somewhat on the strength and nature
of the wood. They should be firmly
fixed with their under surface from 8
to 9 inches above the level of the floor,
and should be at least 4 inches distant
from the wall.
Galvanised iron tubing zyi inches in
diameter may be used instead of the
battens, and is considered better from a
sanitary point of view, but the iron is
cold. The wood is much more comfort-
able for the pigs.
This arrangement is a useful protection
to the young pigs, as they can creep in
between the mother and the wall and
obtain a share of the maternal warmth
without running the risk of being over-
laid. The expense incurred will soon be
repaid in the saving of the lives of the
young pigs.
Drains proceed from all the sties to
the nearest liquid - manure drain ; and
the apartment is rendered comfortable
by having the ceiling and walls plas-
tered, a ventilator placed on the roof in
connection with the ceiling, and the floor
of brick. When two sows only are kept,
the other two sties may be occupied by
the weaned pigs.
Prolificacy in Swine. — In the dif-
ferent varieties, and even in the different
strains or families of each breed of pigs,
there is a marked difference in the pro-
lific powers. This is most noticeable in
those strains which have been bred for
a number of years for showyard points
alone, without due regard to those more
useful and general - purpose qualities
which are the only really valuable ones
for the pig-breeder to study and cultivate.
We would not for one moment wish to
be understood as expressing the opinion
that prolificacy, utility, and ability to
win prizes are not to be found combined
in several families or tribes of the dif-
ferent kinds of pigs. There are, indeed,
numerous instances of such a happy
blending, but it is undeniable that the
rule is "the other way about."
Sows are capable of breeding— that is,
of conceiving — when about seven months
old ; but it is imprudent to begin at such
an early age. About the eighth month
is quite soon enough to mate a sow with
the boar.
A good breeding-sow will produce and
nurse two litters in a year.
Seasons for Farrowing.
In former times it was the prevailing
custom for farmers to fatten pigs during
220
SWINE AND THEIE MANAGEMENT.
autumn and winter only rather than
through the year. This was a mis-
taken practice, for it is well established
that a feeding-pig will make consider-
ably greater increase in condition from
a given quantity of food fed to it in cool
quarters during the summer months than
in cold weather. Moreover, the average
price of pork in the months of July,
August, and September is higher than
in the winter months.
These considerations, together with
changes in methods of bacon - curing
and in the tastes of the consuming
public, have led to the abandonment of
the old custom, and to the introduction
of the practice of .carrying on the fatten-
ing of pigs throughout almost the whole
year.
An inevitable accompaniment of these
changes has been the extension of the
farrowing season over at least ten of
the twelve months; and the greater
difficulties to be encountered in the
rearing of very young pigs in the cold
season of the year render it more im-
portant now than ever that pig-men
should be well trained for their duties.
Early Maturity in Pigs. — In no
other class of stock does "early ma-
turity " pay the feeder better than with
pigs. Young pork commands a readier
sale and higher price than old. Then
the saving of food is important. It is
generally considered that a pig of loo lb.
weight requires about 3 lb. of corn per
day simply to keep the animal machinery
going — merely to supply animal heat
and repair the natural waste in the body.
It therefore follow^ that if, by judicious
feeding and attention, a pig can be made
to realise as much at seven months old
as one managed after the old-fashioned
plan would at the age of twelve months,
the gain in food alone must be substan-
tial. And, in addition to this, there
would be a saving in the cost of attend-
ance and risk.
Attention to Pig-rearing. — There
are thus several important circumstances
which favour the feeding of pigs in sum-
mer and autumn rather than in winter.
Economy in pig-feeding should have as
careful consideration as economy in any
of the more important operations of the
farm, yet it is well known that, as a rule,
farmers give but little thought to the
management of pigs. Too often pigs
are looked "upon as little else than the
scavengers of the farm. This is a great
and unfortunate error, for with proper
management pigs generally pay well.
Indeed it may be doubted if any other
variety of stock will give a better or
quicker return for kind and judicious
treatment and liberal feeding than may
be obtained from a good class of pigs.
The pig assuredly deserves more atten-
tion from the general body of farmers
than it has hitherto received. An im-
portant point, we have seen, in the profit-
able management of pigs is the season of
the year in which the fattening is mainly
carried out. Swine are more susceptible
of cold than either cattle or sheep ; and,
upon the whole, it is desirable that far-
mers should aim at fattening the ma-
jority of their pigs (except . porkers for
home consumption) between March and
October.
Winter Farrowing Risky. — Litters
of young pigs are troublesome and risky
in winter, and are to be avoided except
where the delicacy of roast sucking-pig
is desired at the Christmas dinner. But
although the feeding of pigs should be
carried out mainly in the warmer months,
there will always be less or more pig-
feeding in winter — ^perhaps a few pigs
of late litters to finish off, or it may
be only two or three young porkers
for home consumption during winter and
spring. For information on the feeding
and general management of swine we are
mainly indebted to Mr Sanders Spencer,
Holywell Croft, St Ives, who has made
the profitable breeding and rearing of
pigs a life-study.
Rearing and Feeding Pigs.
In the methods of pig-feeding pursued
throughout the country there is great
variation, much depending upon the
foods most economically available, and
the purposes for which the animals are
being prepared.
Feeding the Sovsr and her Litter. —
It may be assumed that six is a fair
number for a young sow or yilt, and ten
to twelve for an aged sow, to rear at
each litter. These numbers may be
larger in the summer months, but it will
be found most profitable not to attempt
too much in pig-breeding any more than
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS.
221
in most other things. From the time
the piglets are three days to about four
weeks old, the sow should be fed twice
a-day with just about as much as she
will clear up at once of thoroughly stirred
slop, composed of seven-eighth sharps,
thirds, or randan, and one-eighth broad
bran. By this time, or even before, the
little pigs will begin to lick round the
trough, and show signs of a desire to be-
come less dependent on their mother for
the necessaries of life. This natural
want must be satisfied either by allowing
the sow to have a run on the grass field
or in the straw-yard for an hour or two,
or, if the weather is too rough and cold,
letting the little pigs into an adjoining
place, and there feeding them with a
little sharps, or oatmeal stirred with
mUk ; or a small quantity of oats, peas,
or wheat will be thankfully received and
turned to good account by the now
hungry " squeakers."
This system of feeding may be con-
tinued until the pigs are weaned, the
only variations being a gradual addition
to the food given to both sow and pigs,
and the warming of the milk or water
with which the food for the little pigs is
mixed during the cold weather.
"Weaning Pigs. — The little pigs will
be best left on the sow in the summer
months until they are seven or eight
weeks old, and in the winter months a
week or two longer. The weaning should
be effected gradually, by letting the sow
remain away from the pigs a little longer
time each day until the flow of milk
gradually ceases, and the pigs think more
of the arrival of the pail than of their
mother. By adopting this plan the
sow's milk will be no trouble, and the
sow will desire to receive the attentions
of the boar within two or three days
after the pigs are weaned.
Castrating Pigs. — Those little pigs
which are not required for breeding pur-
poses should be attended to when they
are about five or six weeks old. This is
by no means a difficult operation, but
it is better to employ a competent cas-
trator, especially with the sow pigs, or,
as they are variously termed, hilts, elts,
yilts, yelts, gilts, or gelts.
Feeding Young Pigs. — After the
pigs are weaned, their food should be
very similar to that on which they had
been previously fed, with the addition of
a few more peas. As the pigs reach the
age of three months, a proportion, amount-
ing to one-sixth, of barley-meal may be
added. This may be gradually increased
until it becomes the principal food of a
five-months-old pig.
Cocoa - nut Meal for Pigs. — We
have of late years used a considerable
quantity of cocoa-nut meal, and have
found it a most economical food to use
with the barley-meal. From experiments
carried out at our wish, it was proved
that not only was pork made at a less
expense by the introduction of cocoa-nut
meal to the extent of about one-eighth
of the whole allowance of food, but the
quality of the flesh was superior, and the
appearance of the carcase much im-
proved.
Cod-liver Oil for Pigs. — Owing to
the high price charged until recently for
cod-liver oil, its use for stock has been
very slight ; but it may now be procured
at such a reasonable price as to come
within the limit of profitable foods
for young growing pigs, if not for those
in the fattening stage. The flavour of
the pork is affected if the oil be used
within a month of the pig being killed,
but we can recommend it with every
confidence for newly weaned pigs and
young stores. During one winter we
have given it to some two or three hundred
young boars and gilts which were being
reared for the spring trade, and the result
was most satisfactory.
A Golden Rule in Pig-feeding. —
If it be desired to rear and fatten pigs
at a profit, one " golden rule " must not
be lost sight of — never allow the pigs to
become poor. Keep them ever in a pro-
gressive state, and if this is done prop-
erly, they will be fit for the butcher a
month or two earlier than is the rule,
while the pork will be of better quality,
and the loss from disease will be reduced
to a minimum. Should illness attack
any of the pigs, they will thus be always
fit for the knife, and realise pretty nearly
their full value.
Variety of Pood. — Variety of food is
as beneficial and as welcome to pigs as
to human beings. It may not be prac-
ticable to change the course of feeding to
any great extent, but it will certainly
be beneficial to give the fattening and
222
SWINE AND THEIK MANAGEMENT.
even the growing pigs a mixture of
meals.
Meals for Pigs. — Barley-meal has
been proved to be the best single food
for fattening pigs, and to a great extent it
is necessary for the manufacture of a high
quality of meat. Maize-meal may be used
somewhat largely at the commencement
of the fattening, but if used extensively
at the latter stage, the pork is not so
saleable. Instead of maize a small
quantity of bean-meal, or even better
still, pearmeal, may be given with great
advantage. Upon this the older pigs
will thrive well, and the pork prove firm
and sweet in flavour. Oatmeal will gen-
erally be found too expensive for pig-
feeding. It may, however, be profitably
used if the pigs are required to be made
ripe at an early age, and exceptionally
high quality of London porket - pig
desired. The use of some condiment
with fattening pigs of a restless disposi-
tion will be found of great benefit.
Condimental Pood for Figs. — Some
object to the use of condimental food for
pigs ; but the experience of others is that
for fattening-pigs, and for pigs that are
newly weaned, some good well-manufac-
tured stimulating food is of very great
benefit, and is withal most profitable.
Cooked Food for Pigs. — There
has been considerable discussion as to
whether or not the cooking or steaming
of meal as food for pigs is an advan-
tage. Some writers on pig management
strongly recommend the practice; but
Mr Sanders Spencer states that his ex-
perience is decidedly against it. He has
given it fair trials, and in every case
where the experiment has been fairly
and thoroughly carried out, it has been
found unprofitable to cook or steam the
meal for the pigs. In very cold weather
it is advisable to mix the meal with tepid
water, so that the food is given to the
pigs at about the temperature of new
milk. But a better plan even than this
is to feed the pigs on dry meal, and to
give the water to them in a separate
trough. The pigs may be much longer
in eating their food in this way, but it
will be more thoroughly masticated and
mixed with saliva, so that it is more
fully digested; and the pigs will then
only consume as much water as nature
and the weather render needful. There
is certainly no need to warm the food in
summer; but in winter there is an
undoubted benefit in having the food
warmed.
Experiments on this question have
also been carefully carried out at differ-
ent agricultural colleges in the United
States of America, and in almost every
case it was proved that the cooking of
the food resulted in a considerable loss.
Upon many farms potatoes form a
large part of the food of. pigs. The
potatoes should be steamed or boiled.
Kitchen "Slops" for Pigs. — The
"slops" of the kitchen are turned to
good purpose as food for swine; but
great care should be taken not to give
pigs any liquid in which salt meat has
been boiled or to which soda has been
added. We have heard of several cases
of death amongst pigs owing to their
having been fed on such "slops" or
boilings. The safest system to use house
or hotel slops is to steam it, let it cool,
and remove the fat which rises to the
surface. The soup will in this form be
far more valuable for pig-keeping, especi-
ally for young pigs. The "pig's-pail"
should always be at hand to receive
food-refuse from the kitchen.
Skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey are
extensively used as food for pigs. These,
of course, do not require cooking.
Feeding Old Pigs Unprofitable. —
The fattening of old boars is, as a rule,
unprofitable. One cannot afford to con-
vert good food into pork which sells at
from i^d. to 3d. per lb., and even this
only when not made very fat. The im-
portation of low-priced foreign meat, and
the great reduction in the price of lard,
have rendered the manufacture of in-
ferior, or very fat, meat a losing game.
And a word of caution here may not be
out of place as to the making of the
bacon pigs too heavy and too fat. The
well-fed, meaty pigs of 160 lb. dead-
weight will realise much more per lb.
than can ever be obtained for the over-
fat pig of double the weight.
Green Pood for Pigs. — Many pig-
keepers seem to forget that the pig is
naturally a graminivorous animal, and
that in a state of nature it lives for a
great portion of the year on grass, or the
roots of certain plants, which it unearths
by the use of its long snout ; whilst its
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS.
223
chief food during the remainder of the
season consists of beech- mast, acorns,
chestnuts, or similar tree-seeds. Those
■who are generally most successful in the
feeding of our domesticated animals are
those who study most carefully the
natural habits of the animals in their
charge.
To make pig-feeding a complete suc-
cess, it is imperative that a certain
amount of green food should be sup-
plied to those pigs which are confined
in close quartera It does not appear to
matter much what this vegetable food
consists of, whether it be grass, clover,
lucerne, beet, mangels, swedes, turnips,
cabbages, or kohl-rabi. All seem to have
a beneficial efiect on the health and
progress of the pigs ; whilst great num-
bers of pigs are fattened on cooked
potatoes, and a little meal stirred with
buttermilk or whey.
Pigs which are not allowed their liberty
should also have an occasional supply of
small coal, cinders, or even a lump of
earth or mould. This will greatly tend
to keep the pigs in health, and cause
them to settle and thrive much better.
Sseroise for Feeding-pigs. — It is
sometimes found necessary to allow
highly bred pigs a certain amount of
exercise during the short time they are
shut up in close quarters at the latter
part of the fattening period. This diffi-
culty, if it may be so termed, is not often
experienced with the common-bred pig,
whose spirit of imrest forces it to take a
sufficient amount of exercise to keep the
Fig. 713. — Ring pigs' trough^ to stand in a co-urt,
a h Hollow hemispherical trough, 30 inches diameter,
c Eight subdivisions within it, 9 inches high, converging and meeting at a central pillar.
various organs of the body in good work-
ing order, and for the formation of that
lean meat and muscle which is the natu-
ral result of a free use of the locomotive
powers.
Keep Pigs Clean. — Pigs are ac-
cused of dirty habits, but the fact is
otherwise. The accusation really applies
more to their caretakers, who oblige
them to be dirty, than to the animals
themselves. When constrained to lie
amongst dirt, and eat food fit only for
the dunghill, and dealt out with a
grudging hand, they can be in no other
than a dirty state. Let them have
room, choice of clean litter, and plenty
of food, and they will keep their litter
clean, place their droppings in one corner
of the court, and preserve their bodies
in a wholesome state. The pig-house or
pig-yard should be cleaned as regularly
as the cow-house, and kept in a fresh
wholesome condition.
It is the duty of the cattle-man to
supply the store -pigs with food, and
clean out their court-yard ; and this part
of his duty should be conducted with
as much regularity as feeding the cattle.
Whatever food or drink is obtained from
the farmhouse is usually brought to their
court by the dairymaid.
Pigs in Cattle-courts. — Pigs often
get the liberty of the large courts,
amongst the cattle, where they make
their bed in the open court when the
weather is mild, and in the shed when
cold. Though thus left at liberty, they
should not be neglected of food, as is
too often the case. They should be fed
regularly, and in addition to other food
many give them sliced turnips in troughs.
Pigs, when not supplied with a sufficiency
224
THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDING.
of food, will leap into the cattle-troughs
and help themselves to turnips ; but this
dirty practice should not be tolerated,
and it can arise only from their keeper
neglecting to give them food.
A convenient pigs' trough, adapted for
standing in the middle of a court, is
represented in fig. 713. The divisions
have a convexity on the upper edge, to
prevent food being dashed from one com-
partment into the other. This trough
stands upon the top of the litter, is not
easily overturned — the cattle cannot hurt
themselves upon it, while it is easily
pushed about to the most convenient
spot.
Rest for Feeding-pigs. — When pigs
are fattening, they lie and rest and sleep
a great deal, no other creature showing
"love of ease" so strongly in all their
doings ; and, in truth, it is this indolence
which is the best sign of their thriving
condition. The opposite effects of activ-
ity and indolence on t;he condition of
animals are thus graphically contrasted
by Liebig. "Excess of carbon," says
he, "-in the form of fat, is never seen in
the Bedouin or in the Arab of the desert,
who exhibits with pride to the traveller
his lean, muscular, sinewy limbs, alto-
gether free from fat. But in prisons
and jails it appears as a puffiness in the
inmates, fed as they are on a poor and
scanty diet ; it appears in the sedentary
females of oriental countries ; and, final-
ly, it is produced under the well-known
conditions of the fattening of domestic
animals ; " ^ and amongst these last the
pig may be instanced as the most illus-
trative.
Bedding for Figs. — Wheat -straw is
best suited for this, especially for the
breeding -sow and her litter of young
ones. In the cattle-courts, the pigs, of
course, make litter of whatever is used
for the cattle.
N'omenclature of Pigs.
The denominations of pigs are the fol-
lowing : When new-born, they are called
suckincf pigs, piglings, piglets, or simply
pigs; and the male is a boar pig, the
female sow pig, hilt, elt, yilt, yelt, or gilt.
A castrated male, after it is weaned, is
a shot or hog. Hog is the name mostly
used by naturalists, and very frequently
by writers on agriculture ; but to avoid
confusion with the name given to young
sheep (hogg), it is convenient to use the
terms pig and swine for the sake of dis-
tinctioiL The term hog is derived from
a Hebrew noun signifying " to have
narrow eyes," a feature which is charac-
teristic of the pig. A spayed female is
a cut sow pig or gelt. As long as both
sorts of cut pigs are fat and young,
they are porkers, porklings, or London
porket-pigs. A female that has not
been spayed, and before it bears young,
is an open sow or hilt, elt, yilt, yelt,
or gilt ; and an entire male, after being
weaned, is always a boar or brawn. A
cut boar is a hrawner. A female that
has taken the boar is said to be served
or lined; when bearing young she is
an inpig or brood-sow ; and when she
has brought forth pigs she has littered
or farrowed, and her family of pigs at
one birth form a litter or fa/rrow of
pigs.
THE PRINCIPLES OE STOCK-BREEDING.
The breeding of farm live stock is pur-
sued with varying degrees of method or
with no method at all. Far too many
still mate their stock in a haphazard
manner, availing themselves of the
cheapest sire within reach, and practi-
cally leaving everything to chance. It is
amazing that, at this time of day, there
' Liebig's Ami. Chew,., 89.
should be this lack of care in the breed-
ing of stock, for to all who keep their
eyes open the advantages obtained by
giving due regard to the underlying
principles of systematic stock-breeding
must be clearly apparent.
Few men have risen to recognition as
great breeders. The essential gifts and
opportunities are not widely spread.
But while there may not be many who
THE PRINCIPLES OF 8T0CK-BEEEDING.
225
can attain fame as breeders, it is quite
within the reach even of men of aver-
age intelligence to accomplish good
wotk in the production of improved
farm stopk if only they will give care-
ful heed to plain lessons taught by
the experience of others. To set forth
some of these lessons clearly, and in
as few wor^s as possible, is the object
of these notes.
Heredity.
The subject of heredity in animal and
plant life has engaged the minds of
many of the ablest naturalists and scient-
ists who have ever lived, and yet some
of its problems still await solution.
Enough, however, has been made known
regarding the laws of heredity in animals
to afford valuable guidance to the intel-
ligent breeder of farm live stock. In
the old familiar saying that " like pro-
duces like," there is a simple interpreta-
tion of hereditary force in plants and
animals. This " hereditary force " may
be for good or it may be for evil, accord-
ing to the character of the parental
stock. The object of the breeder is to
select as parents, stock or plants which
he has reason to believe are likely to
possess hereditary tendencies in the
direction of the characters desired in
the produce.
The universality of its application is a
valuable property in hereditary force. It
is not merely in conformation and out-
ward appearance generally that heredity
makes its influence felt, although it is in
these features that its effects are most
familiar to casual observers. The influ-
ence of heredity applies to the phys-
iological, pathological, and other condi-
tions of animals — to every one, indeed,
of the parts and properties in animals
which the breeder desires to develop or
control for the good of mankind. Thus,
whatever may be the particular object
of the breeder, the careful study of the
mysteries of heredity is to him a matter
of the highest importance.
Over and over again it has been found
in experience that by the skilful manip-
ulation of hereditary forces possessed by
individual strains or families, or even by
individual animals within families, cer-
tain features can be "bred out" and
others developed if not actually created.
VOL. III.
Unpopular colours in breeds of horses
and cattle have been obliterated or
lessened in the frequency of their oc-
currence. Tendencies to constitutional
weakness or certain forms of disease in
particular families may be partially or
entirely removed. In like manher, desir-
able qualities or characteristics can be
fixed and strengthened, and thus through
the influence of heredity transmitted to
the family or tribe generally.
For the breeder it is well to bear in
mind that, as already pointed out, her-
edity applies to the psychological as well
as to the physiological characters. Of
this fact there is proof in the transmis-
sion of the wonderful instincts possessed
by some animals. Not infrequently it
has been found that vicious tempers can
be weakened in certain strains," just as
in other strains different characters and
instincts have been developed.
It is equally important for breeders to
keep in view the significant fact that
pathological conditions are likewise
affected by hereditary forces, and that
unless care be exercised, strains of stock
hitherto quite healthy may become
tainted with or rendered predisposed to
diseases the occurrence of which had
originally been merely accidental. The
safe course is to avoid breeding from
animals known to be either actually
affected by, or to be predisposed to,
disease of any kind.
Variations in Breeding Results.
Fundamental and powerful as are the
laws of heredity in the raising of both
plants and animals, it is well known that
they are by no means absolute or unfail-
ing in their application. To the surprise
of the breeder — it may be to his grati-
fication or it may be to his disappoint-
ment— they are now and again found to
have been quite unavailing, to have been
for the 'moment pushed aside, as it were,
by some other mysterious force, which
displayed its influence in the production
of a " variation " or a " sport," as it is
differently called. Sometimes this " vari-
ation " may be merely a " reversion " to
a type at one time characteristic of the
ancestors on either side or both. Just
as likely it may be I, true " sport " dis-
playing features entirely strange to the
family and the tribe. It accords with
226
THE PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BEEEDING.
the experience of breeders to say that
the tendency to variation is contributed
to by change of environment — ^by change
in habits, in the uses to which animals
are put, in the climatic conditions under
which they, live, and, in particular, in the
methods of feeding, which are nowadays
much more of a forcing character than
in olden times. It is probably true that
the more highly artificial the conditions
of animals have become, the greater is
the liability to unexpected " variations "
in type. The tendency to variation is
also increased by indiscriminate crossing
di£Perent strains.
But while these no doubt are the pre-
vailing views regarding unlooked-for re-
sults in breeding, there are those who
believe that their occurrences are just
as surely the product of laws of nature
as are the typical progeny of rejated
parents. To give forth variety, it is
claimed, is an inherent power in nature,
a provision not really antithetical but
rather beneficently complementary to
those other natural laws which lead men
to look for like begetting like as the
normal condition of things.
"All. the organs and tissues of which
an individual is compounded possess
the power of independent variation.
Every single cell may possess this power.
. . . Every variation, when once it has
started, may be looked upon as a struc-
ture capable of independent variations in
an almost infinite number of directions,
regressive and progressive. . . . Two
forces are constantly at work in nature —
Natural Selection and Eeversion. The
former causes progressive evolution, the
latter regressive evolution. They are
opposed, but one would be inadequate
without the other. They are warring
forces, but their resultant is a near
approach to perfection." ^
But be the causes what they may, it
is well that "variations" do occur with
moderate frequency. They have played
a useful part in the development of
stock-breeding. Indeed, it is by the skil-
ful cultivation of adventitious "varia-
tions" that some of the most valuable
improvements in British live stock have
been brought about.
Transmission of Acquired Characters.
There has been much discussion and
sharp differences of opinion as to the
extent to which abnormal and acquired
characters may be transmitted to future
generations. Prior to the 'eighties of the
nineteenth century it was the belief of
many eminent biologists that "sporting
variations," as well as modifications in-
duced by sustained treatment, or aris-
ing as the result of accident, might be
so "bred into" strains of stock as to
ensure transmission to future generations
like hereditary characters in a family
current. Herbert Spencer wrote that
" change of function produces change of
structure. It is a tenable hypothesis
that changes of structure so produced are
inherited." That doctrine, however, was
to a large extent set aside by the publi-
cation of Weismann's elaboration of Gal-
ton's Germ Plasm theory of heredity,^
which in course of time claimed the sup-
port of most of the leading biologists.
It was declared by Weismann that the
germ cells concerned in reproduction are
distinct from, and quite independent of,
the body or soma cells; that while the
germ or reproductive cells are " housed "
and nourished in the body, they do not
absorb. transmissible characters from the
body, but reproduce only those characters
conveyed to the germ cells from the two
parents in the act of fertilisation.
The continuity of the germ plasm may
be admitted, but it does not necessarily
follow that it is not subject to any modi-
fication by its successive hosts in its
progress from generation to generation.
Indeed, it is admitted by some of the
foremost living biologists that the vital-
ity and stamina of the germ cells are
affected by the nourishing body for the
time being, and with that admitted, and
having also in mind the acknowledged
inherent power of "independent varia-
tion " possessed by " all the organs and
tissues of which an animal is com-
pounded " (Eeid), it is permissible for
the breeder to assume that he is not
so absolutely devoid of the power of
initiative as a strict interpretation of
the Weismann doctrine would suggest.
' 7%e Principles of Heredity.
dall Reid.
By G. Arch-
" The Germ Plasm : A Theory of Seredity.
Walter Scott, Ltd., London.
THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING.
227
Is there not reason to believe that the
inherent power and tendency in organs
and tissues to* give out variety may be
usefully stimulated by "the play of
forces from the environment " ? How
far the form or tendency of the "varia-
tion " may be guided by the breeder is
matter of doubt. That he has exercised
substantial guiding influence in the pro-
gressive evolution of the cultivated races
of stock does not admit of denial, at-
tested as it is by living testimony that
is unmistakable.
" The discriminating sense of the fox-
hound as he distinguishes on the moist
earth the fresh track of the fox, or of the
bird-dog that is insensible to the fox
tracks, but becomes immediately excited
in the proximity of birds, is an interest-
ing phenomenon. The Scotch collie seems,
a,s a result of long - continued breeding
and training, instinctively to know how
to assist in the handling of domestic
animals, but is utterly foolish in its at-
tempts to catch rats. Most terriers, on
the other hand, are tremendously in
earnest in their frantic efforts to tear up
wooden floors or undermine buildings for
the sake of securing a rat, but as stock-
dogs are utterly useless. The wonderful
productive capacity of the modem dairy
cow, producing ten thousand or even
twenty thousand pounds of milk in one
year, and the transmitting of these qual-
ities to her offspring, are recognised facts
among dairymen. Families of horses
hkve acquired speed at the trot and
transmitted this quality with considerable
certainty." ^
There is no reason for breeders being
in anyway discouraged by the spread
of the Weismann theories of heredity.
Whatever the governing scientific prin-
ciples may be, the fact remains that the
useful features and properties of plants
and animals are constantly undergoing
important modification and development
at the hand of man, — developments and
modifications many of them indubitably
influenced by the play of environment.
Other Breeding Problems.
Telegony. — Amongst many knotty
problems which have troubled breeders
' P. B. Mumford in Cydopadia of American
Agrictdture. The Macmillan Co., Loudon.
of high-bred stock, what is known as
Telegony demands mention. It is be-
lieved by not a few breeders that occa-
sionally a calf, a foal, a pup, or other
animal resembles or " takes after "
neither its mother nor its own sire, but
another sire mated with its mother at
some former time. By Darwin it was
stated thait "the influence of the first
male by which a female produced young
may frequently be seen in her future
offspring by different sires," and numer-
ous instances have been mentioned which
it was believed supported the idea that
an early sire had so " infected " a female
as to influence her future progeny by
other sires. In later times the belief
in " telegony " has lost ground, and few
breeders now pay any attention to it.
Professor Cossar Ewart, who has con-
ducted many experiments on the subject,
gives it as his opinion that the doctrine
is not well founded. Be the facts as they
may, the wise course to pursue in the
breeding of valuable stock is to avoid
even the occasional use of any sire whose
" infectious influence " could be to any
extent or in any way detrimental to the
strain.
Mental Impression. — Another dis-
puted question is the part which mental
impression on the part of the dam is
supposed to play in determining the col-
our or other character of the progeny.
Ever since Jacob peeled wands and stuck
them up before Laban's stock and his
own, in order to increase the proportion
of spotted and speckled produce which
fell to him, this doctrine has continued
to receive some little attention in stock-
breeding. It has been the practice of
certain breeders of black cattle to avoid
keeping light - coloured animals within
sight of their black cows when the latter
are conceiving or are in the early days
of pregnancy. At the same time, it is
generally held by scientists and natural-
ists that mental impression is not a
factor of any significance in the breed-
ing of stock. It is of course known
that unborn young may be seriously
affected by extreme nervous shock sus-
tained by the mother, and it is desirable
that pregnant animals should be as far
as possible protected from the risk of
such occurrences.
Controlling Sex. — Much attention
228
THE PKINCIPLES OF STOCK-BKEEDING.
has from time to time been given to
the controlling of sex in stock. Various
theories have been propoimded. It has
been held by some that if service takes
place early in heat the produce will be
a female, if late in heat^ a male. An-
other theory is that ova are alternately
male and female, and that if an animal
has produced a niale, and a male is
wanted again, the female should be
served not in her first but in her second
heat. Yet another idea is that the sex
of the produce will ceorrespond to that of
the parent that preponderates in stamina
and general vigonr at the time of mating.
Some, again, believe that sex can be
regulated by food. Little success has
attended the prosecution of any of these
or of 'Other theories that have been ad-
vanced for the same purpose. Fortun-
ately, it would seem that the controlling
of the sex is one of nature's secrets not
to be brought within the ken of man.
SYSTEMS OF BREEDING.
Four main systems are pursued in the
breeding of live stock. These are gener-
ally known as (i) Cross-breeding, (2)
Grading, (3) Line-breeding, and (4) In-
and-in-bre^ing.
Cross-JBreeding.
This term is applied to breeding from
animals of different species, breeds, or
varieties— to a mixing of strains as dis-
tinguished from systems of breeding in
which the main purpose is the concen-
tration of breed or tribal currents.
Sometimes the word crossing is applied
also to the interbreeding of different
families of the same breed, but this is
not in accordance with the general under-
standing of the term.
The general experience of breeders is
that judicious crossing has a stimulating
effect on the more useful properties of
animals. There is often an increase in
size, in vigour of constitution, in fecun-
dity, and in rate of maturing, as well as
in improved fattening properties in meat-
producing stock. It has thus come about
that by cross-breeding the rent-paying
qualities of farm live stock have been
enhanced substantially.
But there are some effects of crossing
to which breeders must give careful
heed. Crossing, as already stated, has
a tendency to break up family currents,
and unless great care is exercised in the
introduction of an out-cross into pure or
well-established strains, much injury may
be done to their breeding properties,
particularly in respect to regularity of
type. As already indicated, the tendency
to " variation " is increased by cross-
breeding.
In the selecting of animals for cross-
breeding, there is ample room for the
exercise of care and judgment. Care is
required in choosing varieties or breeds
that blend well together, and also in
selecting sires well adapted for mating
with the females in the stock. The most
general practice is to use on mixed-bred
females pure-bred sires of well-established
character. It is in this way that the
quality and value of the produce can be
most speedily and economically improved
and maintained.
The first cross between two pure breeds
is usually the most successful of all
kinds of crosses. It is not very often
that first or subsequent crosses give
satisfactory results when thoughtlessly
bred together. There would, as a rule, in
these cases seem to be such a breaking up
of the forces of heredity that the charac-
ter of the progeny becomes a mere matter
of chance. Family currents 'of any con-
siderable strength cannot be established
by indiscriminate breeding such as this.
Students of Mendel's laws of heredity
are of opinion that a full acquaintance
with the operation of these laws would
enable breeders to make use of the prin-
ciple of cross-breeding in the improve-
ment of their pure-bred stock without
incurring the risks hitherto believed to
be involved. To this important question
fuller reference will be made presently.
Gradinff.
This is an American term which very
aptly describes the practice of raising
improved races of stoek by mating pure-
bred sires with females erf mixed breed-
ing and secondary or inferior character.
Pure-bred sires from the same breeds,
respectively continue to be put to the
progeny for a greater or lesser number
of generations, and in this way there
may be established different types of
animals of high utility, and possessed of
SYSTEMS OF BEEEDING.
229
fairly reliable breeding properties. In
the building up of several of the existing
pure-bred races this method has been
largely pursued.
Line-Breeding.
This term implies the mating of ani-
mals that are related to each other. It
differs from " in - and - in - breeding " in
that the mating is not restricted to near
relations, but, as a rule, applies rather to
animals not closely related though mostly
claiming some measure of blood-relation
"with the same family. The tendency of
line - breeding is to concentrate and
strengthen hereditary force. Here lies
its advantage over crossing, the influence
of which is in the opposite direction. It
is further claimed for line-breeding that
it is safer than in-and-in-breeding, in
that it is not so liable as the latter is
alleged to be to lead to an impairing of
the fecundity and constitutional vigour
of families. In the vast majority of
pure-bred stocks line - breeding is pur-
sued to a lesser or greater extent, and it
is unquestionable that the judicious use
of this method has done much to estab-
lish the high character of British pure-
bred stock, alike in regard to stability of
type and practical utility.
In-and-in-Breeding. ,
This system is the mating of closely
related animals. It embraces the breed-
ing "together of animals of various degrees
of relationship, no very distinct line of
demarcation being drawn between it and
line-breeding.
Over the merits and demerits of in-
and-in-breeding there has been endless
discussion. It is undeniable that its
power for good is great. It is the surest
and speediest of all methods for estab-
lishing character and fixing family type.
The forces of heredity are more intensely
concentrated by this system than by any
other. As would be expected, therefore,
in-and-in-breeding has been a predomin-
ating influence in the building up of
most of our many distinctive breeds and
tribes of live stock.
On the other hand, it is known that
persistent close in-and-in-breeding tends
to loss of size, fecundity, and constitu-
tional vigour. Weaknesses and other
defects are just as surely intensified by
it as are good points, and unless con-
ducted with consummate skill and care
it is not likely to be long followed with
impunity.
The Value of In-hred Families.
In discussing thp systems of breeding
pursued amongst herds of Aberdeen-
Angus cattle, the authors of the History
of that breed expressed the opinion that it
was very desirable more attention should
be given to the. building up of distinct
well-defined families of as pure line-
breeding as might be found practicable.
" It seems to us," they continued (and the
remarks have a general application to all
breeds), "that it would be well for the
interests of the breed if there existed
several herds or strains which could be
regarded as refined and reliable fountains
of that mysteriously beneficial influence
which may be generated by skilfully
concentrating and assimilating the ever-
present forces of heredity. Without
entering upon a discussion of the ques-
tion of in - and - in - breeding, we may
remark that we believe it to be a most
powerful .agent either for good or eviL
In competent hands it is perhaps the
surest and shortest pathway to the high-
est pinnacle of a breeder's success. Un-
wisely employed, it becomes simply the
broad road to ruin. We would not,
therefore, desire that in-and-in-breeding
should be pursued by the general body
of breeders. We would, however, rejoice
to see a few of those best able, intellect-
ually and financially, to undertake the
work, following the example of Thomas
Bates, the Booths, and other noted
Shorthorn breeders, and establishing dis-
tinct line -bred families, We should'
like to see a few families reared in
such a way that they would not only
be uniform in shape and character, but
would also be possessed of one strong,
unbroken, unadulterated, unvarying
family current. We believe in the
doctrine that ' like begets like ' ; but if
we breed from composite animals — ani-
mals containing several conflicting family
currents, perhaps the living influence of
dead ancestors — we can have little con-
fldence in the result. We cannot know
which likeness may be produced — that of
the immediate or of more remote ances-
tors. Practical experience and scientific
230
THE PRINCIPLES Of STOCK-BREEDING.
reasoning both teach that no animal is
so likely to reproduce an exact copy of
itself as one that has been in-bred, or, in
other words, one that contains one domi-
nant, all-prevailing family current. We
therefore think that the existence of a
few well-defined in-bred families of really
high individual merit would help greatly
to maintain, and even still further im-
prove, the high character of the breed
generally. These families would be, as
it were, strong springs of rich, pure
blood, from which fresh draughts might
be drawn from time to time for the
refining and ameliorating of mixed
herds." 1
In-and-in-Breeding in Pioneer Herds.
To Professor James Wilson, Royal Col-
lege of Science, Dublin, we are indebted
for the notes which follow on the use
which pioneer breeders of cattle made of
in-and-in breeding in the establishing
of their herds. It is a striking and re-
markable fact, he says, that the opera-
tions of our greatest stock-breeders have
always been accompanied by the same
three phenomena in every case. The
breeders themselves have been unparal-
leled judges ; they took enormous pains
to secure the highest quality of stock for
their herds, and, having done so, they
bred from remarkably close relations.
There is also strong presumptive evid-
ence that they have all been masters of
the art of culling or elimination. And
these phenomena were to be observed,
not only among the pioneers to whom
breeds were indebted for their start in
life, but also among subsequent workers.
It is well known how Bakewell, in the
middle of the eighteenth century, scoured
the country, going as far afield as West-
morland and Warwickshire for cattle,
Yorkshire and Lincoln for sheep, and
Holland for horses. Then, having secured
the best stock, and afterward finding
none so good as the progeny which he
had bred himself, he put his own stock
to his own for successive generations.
The following diagram showing the
pedigree of Bakewell's bulls " Twopenny "
and "D," and of "D's" son "Shake-
speare," bred by Mr Fowler, of Rollright,
in Oxfordshire, will show Bakewell's
method : — ^
A Westmoreland bull
A cow
Warwickshire
itmoreland bull v,^ __ , „-,. Twopenny (1765)^^ t, , , ^ «
from Canley in > Twopenny (1765) ■> Thei? daughter > ^ (i772) X Shake-
-- -- J Twopenny s dam "^ * >speare
IroX^ds?^i> '^'^^ daughter/(i'778)
Similarly we know how the brothers
Colling and Hugh Watson, vrith far less
trouble, became possessed of the best cattle
in Durham and Forfarshire respectively,
how they mated their cattle as Bakewell
had mated his, and how from their efforts
the Shorthorn and the Aberdeen-Angus
breeds of cattle were set upon the track
which they have since pursued. That
these great breeders should have followed
the example of Bakewell was not astonish-
ing, since one of the CoUings (Charles) had
visited Bakewell, and Watson was intim-
ately acquainted with the CoUings' suc-
cessors. A Colling and a Watson pedigree
will suffice to show their methods : —
A CoLLiNft Shokthorn Pedigree.
Foljambe (1786) ..^ Lord Bolingbroke ^
Young Strawberry ^ (1789) '\
Foljambe (1786) ^ Phoenix .
Lady Maynard ^^
Favourite (1793).*.^ Comet
^Favourite (1793)^^:^*^°"™? ^i793;"^ Comet
/Phcenix "> Young Phoenix >* (1804)
A Watson Aberdeen- Angus Pedioree.
Black Jock 3rd (1827) ^ Q Breasted Jock (1833) ^ g''«y Breasted Jock (1833) ^ Qld Jock
Old Favourite -^ Old Favourite > Favourite ^ (18^2)
^ History of Polled Aherdeen-Angus Collie.
By James Macdonald and James Sinclair.
Vinton, London.
' The figures attached to bulls in these dia-
grams indicate, approximately in the case of
pre-herd-book animals, the dates of their birth.
MENDEL'S LAWS IN STOCK-BREEDING.
231
If the latter of these pedigrees were
traced still farther back it would still
show close breeding, although less close
than in the diagram.
The greatest of all the non-pioneer
breeders, and perhaps the breeder whose
work is of most educative value, was
Amos Cruickshank, who in 1837, about
fifty years after their type was first
established, began to breed Shorthorns.
Of all the great breeders, Bakewell
alone perhaps excepted, Cruickshank
took the greatest trouble to secure for
his herd the kind of stock that ap-
proached his ideals and to reject those
that did not. Indeed, the story is al-
most pathetic. For more than twenty
years he travelled up and down the
country, securing occasionally a cow or a
bull good enough in character and pedi-
gree, but especially in character, to add
to his herd. These were put upon trial,
as it were, and retained or discarded
according to the stock they produced.
But in 1859 Cruickshank had the fortune
to secure a bull, "Lancaster Comet,"
which produced him a bull - calf,
" Champion of England," which ap-
proached so near to his ideals that only
one or two more bulls were bought in.
Then he used "Champion of England,"
"his sons, grandsons, and great-grand-
sons, until at the time the herd was sold
(in 1889) every pedigree was saturated
with 'Champion of England' blood."
The following diagraphic pedigree of
Cruickshank's great bull " Cumberland "
will show this : —
Champion of >^ Grand Monarque V o ii jj t. • i
England ('8S9)> (x86l) \ Scot and , p„,^ ^^_^^ ^^ ^^^
Pure Gold -> Golden Days '
Chimpion of ^ Grand Duke of v , ^ ,
England (1859) > Gloster (1868) N^"??! °"^t °K
ChLpipior^^„,.^„,„„ / Glo.ter(:87o)\
\
Cumberland
(1880)
England (1859) >^;'^"'"^ ,„
Champion of Eng- >^ „ . t, ,
land (1859) '^ > Princess Royal
i Custard
Between the intense in - breeding of
Bakewell and Hugh Watson and the
milder form pursued by Amos Cruick-
shank there is a large gap ; between
Cruickshank's system of mating and
that of the ordinary breeder qf high-
class stock there is another gap which
is often by no means large. In many
cases, indeed, because of the incomplete
manner in which pedigrees are usually
set forth, animals are much more closely
related than is generally supposed.
MENDEL'S LAWS IN STOCK-
BEEEDING.
It is believed by many that a new era
is to be opened up for breeders of both
plants and animals by the application of
what are known as Mendel's Laws of
Heredity. In vol ii. (pp. no - 114)
information is given as to experiments
with these laws in the improvement of
grain. That information is transcribed
from a paper by Professors Wood and
Punnet of Cambridge in the Tramac-
tions of the Highland and AgriculUtrai
Society of Scotland for 1908.
Mendel and his Work.
From the paper just mentioned the
following note is taken regarding Mendel
and his work : " We begin to under-
stand many of the mysterious things
that happen when crosses are made
among animals and plants — why a
character often skips a generation, why
the type is often broken to give rise
to new forms, and what is the mean-
ing of reversion. The foundations of
this knowledge were securely laid by
Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, in the
garden of the monastery of which he
afterwards became the head. Mendel has
(1908) been dead for nearly thirty years,
and it was as long ago as 1865 that his
discovery was first given to the world.
But his ideas were in advance of his
time; they excited little interest and
were soon forgotten. It was not until
1900 that his paper on the pea was un-
earthed, and scientific men began to realise
what a far-reaching discovery this was
232
THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDING.
that Mendel had made so many years
ago. As a -young man he had studied
the natural sciences in Vienna^ and had
become interested in the problems of
heredity. On returning to his monas-
tery he devoted much of his leisure to
carefully investigating the manner in
which characters are transmitted in the
common pea. ' From the results of his
experiments he deduced certain prin-
ciples which he found to hold for all
the various characters he studied. Dur-
ing the past few years these principles
have been confirmed and extended, not
only for many plants but for animals
as well."i
Mendelism Explained.
The following notes on the application
of Mendel's laws to the breeding of live
stock are from the pen of Professor
James Wilson, Royal College of Science,
Dublin :—
In explaining Mendelism we shall take
our examples chiefly from cattle, because
more is known in regard to them than
in regard to other farm stock.
When red cattle are bred together
their progeny are red, and when white
cattle are bred together their progeny
are white. But when red cattle are
crossed with white their progeny are
roan ; and
(a) When these roan crosses are bred
together their progeny are 25 per ceqt
red, 50 per cent roan, and 25 per cent
white ;
(6) When they are crossed back again
with red cattle their progeny are 50
per cent red and 50 per cent roan ;
and
(c) When they are crossed back again
with white cattle their progeny are 50
per cent roan and 50 per cent white.
A similar series of phenomena occurs
when absolutely pure- bred black cattle
are crossed with white, excepting that
in this case the crosses are blue roans
instead of red.
Mendel's conception ^ which explains
these phenomena is that an animal, at
its very start, receives from its parents
the determinants of its future character-
' Trams. Sigh. omA Agric. Soc. of Scotland,
1908.
* Mendel worked with plants, but his theories
are applicable to animals also.
istics in respect of colour, size, length of
Umb, length of horn, presence or absence
of horns, mental powers, and so on ; that
these determinants are made up of^two
halves; and that they are passed on to
the next generation through the sperms
of the male and the ova of the female.
But through each parent passing on a
determinant and the young requiring
only one, a half of each parental deter-
minant is dropped in the melting-pot of
fertilisation, and the young starts off
with one only, the two halves of which
are derived one from each parent.
This can be made clear by a diagram.
A red Shorthorn carries a determinant
for redness which may be represented by
two small filled circles, thus _ ; a white
Shorthorn carries a determinant for
whiteness which may be represented by
o
two small unfilled circles, thus
O"
When a red Shorthorn is bred to a
white, either of the two halves of the
red determinant may meet eithej- of the
two halves of the white, thus : —
X
'•F — ^
->o
and the young starts off with a deter-
minant which is half white, half red,
thus ; and, as we know, its colour is
roan, a mixture of white and red.
When two roan animals are bred to-
gether, either half determinant of each
parent may meet with either half of the
other, thus >< ; and there
O^l^so
are four chances : one that a red will
meet a red, two that a red will meet a
white, and one that a white will meet
a white. Thus, over a sufficient num-
ber of calves from roan parents 25 per
cent are red, 50 per cent roan, and 25
per cent white.
When a roan is bred back to a red or
to a white, the chances are that half the
young will be roan and the other half
MENDEL'S LAWS IN STOCK-BREEDING.
233
red in the one case, and half the number
roan and the other half white in the
other case, thus :
roan) gives either
\^ (red by
(red) or (roan),
and pc (white by roan) gives
either (white) or _ (roan).
In cases like the above, although it is
possible eventually to change the colour
of a breed from one colour to another
by the continued infusion of that other
colour, it is not possible to change the
shade. There is no chance of gradually
turning a white breed black by breeding
each successive generation of a darker
and darker shade.
But there are cases in which the first
crosses are not intermediates with regard
to one or more determinants, but are all
like one of the parents. This happens,
for instance, when absolutely pure black
breeds are bred with red breeds. The
first crosses are all black; and when
they are bred together some of their pro-
geny are black and others red; while
when they are bred back to either par-
ent race their progeny are all black in
the one case, and some are black and
some red in the other. Mendel's explan-
ation is that these first crosses are not
pure but impure blacks : they carry both
determinants, but the black has its way
and dominates or hides the red.
Let us put it graphically, using letters
instead of' circles, with capitals for the
dominant and small letters for the hidden
or recessive 1 colour.
Black crossed by red gives an impure
black cross, thus : —
B,X,/"-°°"'r,
' Mendel called the one kind "dominant,"
the other " recessive. " " Subdued " would be
a better word than "recessive."
in which the animal carries both deter-
minants, but black hides the red.
When these crosses are bred together,
75 per cent of their progeny are black
and 25 per cent are red; but of the black
ones only one in three is pure black, the
other two being impure, thus : —
In . ^^ there is one chance in
r4^ — 2!^r
•g
four of the young being -p, two chances
■p
of them being , and one chance of
r B
them being : and those that are
r r
are impure black like their parents.
When these crosses are crossed back
to pure black cattle all their progeny
are black, but only half of them are
pure, the other half being impure blacks,
thus: —
B
B.
^B
\^^ . , B ,B
^X^ gives only -r, and
in equal proportions.
But when these same crosses are bred
back again to red cattle, half the yoimg
are impure blacks and the other half
reds, thus : —
B<;
N/-
^r
y^ gives only and
in equal proportions.
Because of these phenomena it is
possible, by crossing black and red
breeds, to turn the red breed black and
the black breed red, the latter being
easier.
It will be noticed that the red cattle
producedfromthe above crosses are always
pure. Animals carrying recessive char-
acters are always pure for that character.
Thus to turn a black breed red it is only
necessary to cross them with a red breed,
breed from the first crosses, and keep
the red calves they produce. If it were
too expensive to sacrifice all the black
calves, then by always putting red ones
234
THE PRINCIPLES OF STOCK-BREEDIlirG.
to black ones, the black ones would
gradually become so few that their sacri-
fice would be comparatively inexpensive.
The following table shows the percentage
of both colours that might be expected
if this method were followed : —
Black
calves.
Bed
calves.
per cent, per cent.
(1) I CO absolutely pure black cows croBsed by red bulla would give . .100 o
(2) 100 black first cross cows, e.g., crossed by first crosses, would give . 75 25
(3) 100 black (75) and red {25) of the second cross generation crossed by
red bulls would give ; . . 50 50
(4) 100 cows of the third generation crossed by red bulls would give . 25 75
(5) 100 cows of the fourth generation crossed by red bulls would give . I2j^ 87^
(6) 100 cows of the fifth generation crossed by red bulls would give . . 6!^ 93^
and so on.
And this process has actually been em-
ployed to turn the old black Highland
breed red. The result is masked by the
presence of other colours — brindle, dun,
and yellow, — but when these other col-
ours are eliminated, a breed that less than
a hundred years ago was nearly all black
is now nearly all red.
In the second volume of the High-
land Herd -Booh — the first in which
cows and their progeny are entered —
(published in 1887), the proportion of
red calves registered as compared with
black ones was 1.63 to i, whereas in
the fifteenth volume the proportion is
as 7.8 to I.
The process of turning a red breed
black — that is, from a recessive to a
dominant colour — is only slightly dif-
ferent, the added diflSculty being that,
unlike the red ones, the black cattle are
not all pure for their own colour, and
thus, although the continued use of the
black colour will eventually eliminate the
red, the process may take longer, and
will be accompanied by the appearance
of red calves — "reversions," — the num-
ber of which, however, will gradually
decrease. But the process could be
hastened by testing the black cattle for
purity and making use of those that
come through the test : which is to breed
the black ones to red ones. Those whose
calves are all black are themselves pure
for blackness.
And just as the Highland breed is an
example of turning a black breed into a
red one, so there are other breeds which,
if they are not examples of turning red
into black, can be quoted as examples
which show the intrusion of red and the
diflSculty of its el 'vination, unless system-
atically taken in hand.
The Aberdeen - Angus is one of the
breeds in question. Like all the other
black breeds, it absorbed some red blood
at some time in the past, and a red calf
still appears occasionally. These red
calves are really "reversions," and they ap-
pear in this way : The intrusion of the red
cattle produced a number of impure black
cattle
a.
and although these have
grown gradually fewer, there are still
some in the bree^, and when two meet
their progeny have one chance in four of
being red, thus : —
X
V^p. =^T
. B B r ^ r
gives -r, T, and
,, _ ^ B, r, B, r
A very famous Aberdeen - Angus cow
completely lost her character by giving
birth to a red calf. It will be seen from
the above that the bull was equally to
blame.
Besides the above cases of colour, a few
more instances in which a breed or a
race of cattle has been similarly aflfected
by another might be quoted : —
(a) The long-legged, light - bodied,
black Kerry cattle were crossed a century
or more ago by short - legged, stout-
bodied, red cattle Of Devon type from
the south of England, and there was pro-
duced the short - legged, stout -bodied
Dexter Kerry, which is sometimes red,
but more often black, the breed not
being fixed as yet for one colour or the
other. This is a case of shortness of leg,
stoutness of body, and blackness all being
dominant.
(5) A number of white -faced and
finch -backed cattle were brought to
England from Holland and the neigh-
MENDEL'S LAWS IN STOCK-BEEEDING.
235
bouring countries in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, and through
them these- markings were handed on to
many cattle in England, Scotland, and
Ireland, and they still occasionally occur
as "reversions." The Herefords still
retain the white face, which is dominant
over other face colours, and the Long-
horns the finch-back.
(c) Hornlessness, which in all proba-
bility came to Britain from Scandin-
avia, and is now common to several
breeds, is dominant to hornedness, and
can be handed on to horned cattle.
There are hornless Shorthorns and
Herefords in America. By the reverse
process horns could be put upon polled
cattle.
(d) Nearly two thousand years ago the
Bomans brought cattle to Britain, whose
long, wavy horns were handed on to
many English and Scots cattle.
It is clear, therefore, that where a
character is found dominant to another,
either can be transferred from family to
family and from breed to breed, and in
this way a new variety can be produced.
The importance of this will be realised if
we mention a few pairs of characters
which we should like to have under con-
trol, and which we should like to be
able, as the case may be, to impart to or
eliminate from our stock. The char-
acters we will mention are such as there
is hope to believe may be Mendelian,
viz. :
High-milking and low-milking qual-
ities.
A high and a low power of producing
fat in milk.
Fatness and leanness.
Straight and tilted horns.
Black noses and white noses in cattle.
Short legs and long legs.
Hairy and non- hairy legs in cart-
horses.
Long wool and short wool in sheep.
Stiff wool and soft wool.
And, to take only a single case, if
much milk and fatness are found to be
, Mendelian characters, it will at once be
possible to combine the two characters
in any breed of cattle : not, however,
in some breeds without crossing with
others.
The light which is thrown upon the
methods of various breeders by Mendel-
ism is already possessed of considerable
illuminative capacity, which will in-
crease as our observations, which have
been confined so far almost to colour
alone, pass on to other less obvious but
more important characteristics. Mean-
time, let us make use of the knowledge
now at our command.
The extreme methods of breeders are
crossing and in -breeding. It is well
known that stock-breeders can usually
tell what to expect when two breeds are
crossed, but that when first crosses are
bred together or to some strange breed
their progeny are very irregular, some
being like their parents, some like their
grand - parents, others like breeds now
extinct, others like no animal ever
known. The explanation is that when
breeds are mixed up the determinants
for colour and other things are also
mixed up, and shake themselves down in
any possible manner. A good example
may be taken from Highland cattle.
Four races have gone to the making of
this breed, — a black race, a red, a light
dun, and a brown or donn ; and through
the intwbreeding of these, five new
hybrid colours have been produced —
namely, yellow and dun and black brin-
dle, red brindle and dun brindle ; and if
three brindle bulls — a ^lack brindle, a
red brindle, and a dun brindle — were put
to a large herd of brindle cows, every
'one of all the nine colours would appear
in their progeny.
And if this kind of thing happens
with colours, and similar things may
happen with other characteristics, we can
readily understand why careful stock-
breeders are so very chary of cross-
bred animals. In-breeding, on the other
hand, brings together fewer determinants,
eliminates the unexpected, and produces
a breed which is more and more regular
in all its characteristics — those, at any
rate, that are dominant and "recessive —
the longer it is persisted in. Most of
our breeds of stock have been built up
from mixed foundations, and it was only
by in-breeding that regularity and some
part of what is vaguely called "pre-
potency" was achieved.
In line-breeding, again, the phenomena
usually attendant upon crossing are
avoided, although steadiness to type is
not got in this way as it is got by in-
236
POULTRY.
breeding— a matter that is of less moment
in a breed that has already been steadied
by in-breeding.
These points could all be illustrated
fully if only the work of breeders who
are still alive, and of others recently de-
ceased, could be referred to, but every
stock-breeder knows how very tentatively
and tenderly the greatest of his own
colleagues proceed in the introduction
of "fresh blood" or "out-crosses," and
how very frequently, unless they can be
graded up by being always mated to the
breeder's own type, the descendants of
these out-crosses have to be ehminated
from the herd.
PERIODS OF GESTATION.
The periods over which the females
of the various classes of live stock carry
their young are as follows : —
Mare .
48 weeks
Cow
40 II
Ewe and goat
21 II
Sow
16 II
Bitch .
9 "
The egg of the goose hatches in 30
days, of the turkey, duck, and pea-fowl
in 28 days, of the pheasant and part-
ridge in 24 days, and of the barn-door
fowl in 21 days.
POULTRY.
Poultry-rearing as a rural industry has
not yet taken the position it ought to
occupy in this country. In particular,
as an adjunct to other branches of agri-
culture it should receive a great deal
more attention than has hitherto been
devoted to it. To realise that there is
much room for extension in the raising
of eggs and table poultry, one has but to
look at the official returns showing the
vast sums of money sent over the seaS
for eggs and table fowl to meet the
demand in this country for these choice
and popular articles of food.
In tlie belief that an "extension in
poultry- rearing is much to be desired
amongst agriculturists of almost all
classes, whether their holdings be small
or large, it has been thought well that
in this edition of TJie Book of the Fcurm
the section dealing with Poultry should
be entirely rewritten with that import-
ant object prominently in, view. For
this new matter the editor is indebted
to Mr Alex. M. Prain, who has had much
successful experience in the rearing of
poultry.
New-laid Eggs.
A glance at the monthly and yearly
returns of the imports of commodities
for the food of the people will indicate
that, especially in the production of new-
Ijiid eggs, there is room for great develop-
ment in this country. For these there
will always be a ready demand at prices
far higher than can be offered for foreign
eggs, which at the best cannot be placed
in our markets under ten days' old — at
which age, though they may be perfectly
fresh, yet they cannot be regarded as
net04aid.
A very considerable proportion of the
imported eggs have been preserved in
lime, and these are used for cooking and
for confectionery purposes. With such
an unlimited demand from our large
cities, the British farmer has every ad-
vantage over his foreign rivals, and it
should be his privilege to supply the
demand for the top quality of new-iaid
eggs, leaving the foreigner to supply the
second and third qualities if he likes.
The benefit is a mutual one, shared
equally by buyer and seller. The aim
of poultry-rearers in this country should
be to put a large supply of newly laid
eggs on the market all ilve year round.
Table Poultry.
As with eggs so it is with fat poultry.
But the average farmer has yet to learn
that the surplus cockerels and old hens
require to go through a process of fat-
tening before being put on the market.
The fattening is to a large extent in the
POULTRY.
237
hands of a few large firms, who buy
the young birds at from three to four
months old, put them through a three
weeks' process of fattening, during the
latter half of which they are crammed,
and then sell them at very high prices.
PURE BREEDS.
In the breeding of poultry, farmers as
a rule seem to have very hazy notions.
No definite system could possibly be
traced from the appearance of an aver-
age flock of farm fowls, unless the mix-
ing up of as many breeds as possible in
the composition of the flock could be
called a system. Considering that cer-
tain well-defined rules guide the breeding
of other classes of farm stock, such as
horses, cattle, and sheep, it is surprising
that totally different ideas should prevail
in regard to poultry. Apart from the
breeding of exhibition stock, every owner
of a flock of fowls should have a definite
object to strive for, — either the produc-
tion of the greatest possible value in
eggs or the best table fowls.
Now, to mix up indiscriminately lay-
ing breeds and table breeds in one flock
is to court failure in both purposes, for
it is recognised by all authorities on
poultry-rearing that mongrels are econ-
omically unprofitable. Seeing that there
are now available so many pure breeds
having certain characteristics clearly
established, it is a matter for surprise
as well as regret that mongrels are still
so common.
Classification of Pure Breeds. —
These pure breeds, which are the result
of the most careful breeding and selec-
tion, may be divided into four main
groups, as follows : (i) Laying Breeds,
(2) Table Breeds, (3) General Purpose
Breeds, and (4) Fancy Breeds.
Among the best known and the most
useful in each section are —
Laying or Non-siUing.
Minorcas. Aiiconas.
Leghorns. Campines.
Andalusians. Hamburgs.
Houdans. Scotch Greys.
Table Breeds.
Dorkings.
Indian Game.
Old English Game.
Sussex.
General Purpose Fowls.
Orpingtons. FaveroUes.
Wyandottes. Langshans.
Plymouth Rocks.
Fancy Breeds.
Modern Game Bantams,
(some varieties).
Laying Varieties.
A short description of each of these
breeds is given here, with a note of their
main characteristics.
Minorcas. — There are two recognised
varieties of the Minorca breed, the Black
and the White, but the latter are very
rarely seen. The breed is one of the
Mediterranean family, believed to have
been imported into this country from
the island of Minorca. It has all along
been a favourite, more especially in
certain districts of England.
The plumage is beetle -green black,
with brilliant red comb and wattles, and
smooth white ear-lobes. The carriage
should be sprightly and stylish, with
nice long body carried on legs of
medium length. For size and quality
of eggs no breed can beat them, and,
if kept from severe frost and cold vnnds,
they will lay well all the year round
except during the moulting period. ^ It
is a general characteristic of all the non-
sitting or laying varieties that they will
not lay well during winter in very ex-
posed situations or in periods of severe
frost — that is, of course, unless suitable
shelter is provided for them.
The Minorca is justly regarded as one
of the oldest and most reliable of all the
breeds of poultry. Fig. 714 represents
a Minorca cock, and fig. 715 a Minorca
hen.
Leghorns. — The Leghorns are also
of Mediterranean origin, and are now
divided up into a great many sub-
varieties. The best known of these are
the Whites, Browns, Buffs, Duckwings,
Piles, Cuckoos, Blacks, and Blues.
The Whites are the largest in body,
but all have the same main points —
namely, a very graceful body carriage,
with bright, clean, yellow legs, and a
very active foraging disposition, which
makes them economical to feed and
238
POULTKY.
easy to rear. All varieties are capital
layers of good-sized white eggs. A White
Leghorn cock is shown in fig.' 716, and a
White Leghorn hen in fig. 717.
Andalusians. — ^The Andalusians are
another of the Mediterranean group.
They are slate-blue in ground-colour,
with a purple-black lacing round each
feather in the hen, and the same colour
on the neck, hackle, and back of the
cock. The body is rather slim, with
fairly long legs, and the head -points
less fully developed than in either the
Minorca c* the Leghorn.
Houdans. — The Houdan is a French
breed once very popular, but not so
common now. It is of largg size, "broad
and massive, mottled black-and-white
plumage, and a full round head-crest.
The legs are short, pale in colour, free
from feathers, and carry a fifth toe.
Anconas. — This is a comparatively
new variety. It has brilliant beetle-
green plumage, each feather being tipped
with white. In style it resembles closely
some of the smaller Leghorn varieties,
the hens being excellent layers, inclined
to be small in body, but very hardy and
precocious.
Campines. — This is considered the
great egg-producing breed of Belgium.
Except in comb, it resembles our Pen-
cilled Hamburgs. The body is small,
but they are fairly hardy, and excellent
layers.
Hamburgs. — There are two distinct-
varieties of these lovely fowls, the Pen-
cilled and the Spangled. The Pencilled
were probably imported from Holland,
where they were known as the Ever-
lasting Layers. The Spangled and Black
varieties belong to this country.
The plumage of some of the varieties
is truly magnificent, and the well-shaped
bodies show it to every advantage.
Though all varieties are good layers,
they are not so strong in constitution
as some of the other breeds mentioned,
and the eggs are rather too small to
realise the highest price.
Scotch Greys. — ^This is a very old
typical breed, very hardy, and capital
layers of large-sized eggs.
Table Breeds.
Dorkings.— The Dorking is one of
the oldest and best known of our
truly English breeds. There are several
varieties — Darks, Silver Greys, Cuckoos,
Whites, and Eeds. The first two are
by far the most popular. In fig. 718
a coloured Dorking cock and hen are
represented.
The Dorking is essentially a table
breed, the flesh being pure white in
colour and very delicate in texture.
The body is large and deep, and, looked
at sideways, should appear almost
square. The legs are short, pure white
in colour, and carry the characteristic
of the breed — the fifth toe. They attain
a very large size on favourable soils,
but some breeders think the chickens
are delicate to rear.
Indian Game. — This is truly a valu-
able breed for table purposes. Though
somewhat heavy in bone, they carry a
large amount of flesh on the breast.
The head is broad and massive, neck
arched, the body very broad across the
shoulders and wide in chest, legs rich
orange colour, medium in length, and
set well apart. For crossing with other
breeds the Indian Game is even more
valuable than as a pure breed. Fig.
719 represents an Indian Game cock
and hen.
Old Bnglish Game. — Though smaller
than the Indian Game, the Old English
Gfame are of superior quality of flesh,
which is close in texture and pure white
in colour. There are a good many sub-
varieties, but the white-legged ones are
preferred. The body is medium in size,
broad in breast, close, compact, and
hard in feather. It is a very hardy
breed, suitable for almost any climate.
Fig. 720 shows an Old English Game
cock and hen.
Sussex. — The Sussex is a very large
squard^bodied fowl, resembling the Dork-
ing in type though not in colour, and
without the fifth toe. The flesh is of ex-
cellent flavour and very white in colour.
General Purpose Breeds.
Orpingtons. — This is one of the best,
if not the very best, of the general pur-
pose fowls ever introduced. There are
now a few varieties of this deservedly
popular breed — Blacks, Buff's, Whites,
Jubilees, and Spangled, the best knovra
being the first three. All are of the
same blocky type, — full round breasts,
POULTRY.
239
very deep in body, short in back, and
short on leg, — perfect models of sym-
metry and shape. The chickens grow
rapidly, and are extremely hardy, being
suitable for any climate. As winter
layers no breed can excel them, and the
eggs are of fine shape and brown in
colour.
For general farm fowls the Buffs and
Whites are hard to beat. A Black
Orpington hen is shown in fig. 721.
Fig. 722 represents a pen of White
Orpingtons.
Wyandottes. — This is a breed of
American production, and is a credit to
our cousins across the ocean. It has
taken an extraordinary hold on poultry-
breeders in this country, and has been
a source of great profit to them. There
is no need to describe all the varieties
of the breed. It will be sufficient to
enumerate the best known of them. The
Silver, Golden, Blue -laced. Buff- laced,
White, Partridge, Silver - pencilled, and
Black are all as distinct in colour as
their names imply, though in shape and '
general characteristics they are much
the same. They stand on longer legs
than the Orpington, and are not so heavy,
but they have much of the same com-
pact cobby build of body. All have
rosecombs, and rich yellow legs.
For egg-production they are equal to
the Orpington, and the egg is about the
same shade of colour, though rounder in
shape. An excellent aU-round fowl it is.
Fig. 723 represents a White Wyandotte
cock, and fig. 724 a White Wyandotte
hen.
Plymoutli Bocks. — The Plymouth
Eock is another American production,
and the favourite breed of that country.
The barred variety is the most popular,
though there are Buffs, Whites, and
Blacks as well. The Bocks are a very
large, rather heavy -boned breed, with
clean, rich yellow legs, and a constitu-
tion so vigorous that they can stand the
most exposed situation. Jhey lay a
rich brown egg of good size, and come
earlier to maturity than some of the
other breeds. A Plymouth Rock cock
is shown in fig. 725, and a Plymouth
Rock hen in fig. 726.
Langsbans. — These are jet black
fowls of Chinese origin, with long,
slightly feathered legs. In recent years
the modern type has developed suck
length of limb as to make it ungainly,
though the original fowls imported from
China were a most useful breed, and
grand winter layers of large deep-brown
Fancy Breedi.
The " fancy " breeds — those kept
mainly for showing — need not be de-
scribed in detail here, as they are not
suitable for farmers, though a great inter-
est is taken in their production by other
classes. The breeds of poultry mentioned
and briefly described above are the best
known, and probably the most profitable
from the utility point of view ; and,
speaking generally, it will be found
much more advantageous to keep one
or other of them only, or a first cross
between two of them, than to keep a
mongrel stock. Keepers ■ of poultry
should study and settle definitely what
they mean to breed for. If eggs are
likely to give most profit, then by all
means keep a variety, or varieties, suited
for that purpose, and not such a breed
as Indian Game. If, on the other hand,
table fowls are desired, then choose one
or other of the table breeds. Where
good egg-production combined with good
table qualities is wanted, then one of
liie general-purpose fowls will suit best.
Cross-bred Poultry.
Regarding the raising of cross-bred-
poultry, excellent results in eggs will be
got by crossing Brown Leghorns with
Buff Orpingtons, or White Leghorns
with White Orpingtons, or indeed any
of the Leghorn or Minorca breeds with
any of the Orpington, Wyandotte, or
Plymouth Rock breeds. For table pur-
poses nothing can be much better for
qustlity than a cross between the white-
legged Old English Game cock and the
Dorking, Sussex, or Buff or White
Orpington hen, though by using the
Indian Game cook with the same hens
or with Faverolles bigger chickens will
be got. The latter cross is, however,
rather coarser in bone and bigger in
thigh. The chickens of either cross will
be found extremely hardy, will grow
rapidly, and will be ready for the table,
weighing from 3 to 4)^ lb. each at
from thirteen to fifteen weeks old, at
240
POULTEY.
•which period they are at their beat. If
allowed to grow beyond this age, the
frame, especially in the cockerels^ begins
to rush lip, the first real feathers begin
to come in, and the birds have to be
kept till full grown, and moulted before
they will fatten properly. If they are
kept, however, till from eight to ten
months old, they will be grand speci-
mens, with plenty of beautiful breast
meat, and weighing from 7 to 10 lb.
each.
Advantages of Pure, Breeds.
While crossing can be strongly recom-
mended for certain purposes, there, are
still a great many advantages in keeping
the breeds pure. The first is, that a
better price can be got for any surplus
stock which has to be disposed of. The
best of the pure cockerels can usually,
with a little judicious advertising, be
sold for breeding purposes at from 4s. to
I OS. each, and the pullets, particularly
of winter-laying breeds, can be easily
sold in the autumn at from 3s. to 4s. 6d.
each. These prices are by no means
overstated, and no account is taken of
any birds which might be good enough
for the show pen. For these any price
may be got, according to their quality.
Another advantage erf pure breed^ is
the uniformity of the' eggs as regards
shape and colour, and even this point
tells in the marketing. Still another
-benefit is that in the spring of the year,
when eggs get cheap commercially, a fair
trade can be done in selling sittings for
hatching purposes at from 23. 6d. to los.
per sitting, according to the quality of
the stock birds. Nothing of this can
possibly be done with mongrels, and all
the time the pure birds are eating no
more, neither are they costing any more
to manage.
Numerous instances could be given
where the fowls kept on the farm or at
the. cottage are of one pure breed, and
where trade of the kind indicated is
profitably carried on. Large sums of
money frequently pass from the big
exhibitors to the small careful breeders
for the pick of their season's chickens.
For small crofts or holdings, or even
cottages, the greatest profit will un-^
doubtedly come from a carefully selected
stock of a single pure breed.
DUCKS.
The principal breed of ducks is the
Aylesbury, which are of large size, with
long, deep, straight keel, pure white
in colour, and of pronouncedly rapid
growtL The name is taken from the
Vale of Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire,
where the breed flourishes remarkably
well, and from which a very large busi-
ness is done with London in the duck-
ling trade. This, then, is the variety for
early maturity, the ducklings coming up
to 4 lb. weight at eight to ten weeks
old. Bouen ducks are in plumage al-
most identical with the Mallard or Wild-
ducL This variety grows to a larger
size than any other variety, but it
matures slowly, and so is more suited
for winter fftttening. When fully
matured^ some specimens attain from 9
to II lb. eacL They lay well, the
flesh is of fine quality, and they are ex-
tremely hardy.
Pekin ducks are of Chinese origin,
'and have been largely used for crossing
purposes to give stamina to our home
breeds. Though as a pure breed it does
not equal in usefulness the Aylesbury
or the Eouen, unless in that it is a
slightly better layer, still the progeny
of the cross between it and either of
these breeds will mature with greater
rapidity, and attain greater weight than
the Aylesbury or Eouen, and it is
for the purpose of crossing that the
Pekin is most largely used. The colour
is a very pale shade of canary, and
the carriage is upright, somewhat re-
sembling that of a penguin. The legs
and bill are a deep orange, and the
body is profusely feathered.
Indian Eunner ducks, the great egg-
producing variety, are noted also for
their great foraging habits. They are
in many respects an ideal farmer's breed,
for, though small in size, they yet make
a fair appearance on the table, and they
may be said to be, in suitable places,
everlasting layers. The colour is most
attractive, being a mixture of fawn
and white, and they very seldom go
broody.
A first cross between the Indian
Eunner and Aylesbury makes an excel-
lent all-round duck, combining both
laying and table qualities.
241
,- Ac-
Fig. 7i4.^.1//«.'rt,j av/.-.
i-li 7,5.-.)//,
IJ/iTfuti-sa^ii?
t^£as!ir.;^iifcs*^
Fig. 716. — U'/iitc Lfg/torn cock.
Fig. 717.-1/ .
VOL. III.
P 2
242
Fig. 720. — uid hiigLisJi Game cock and hen.
Fig. 71Q. — Indian Celine coc/c nii,i In
F,g. 7;i. -BuuKO.fu.i,:,.nlu
Fig. 72i. — White Orj'iiigtons.
243
Fig. 7;j.-//'A//. Wyandotte cod;
rig. 7-4.- /( I 1
Fig, j2^. — r/y'n0!ith Rock cock.
Fig. j^i'.—Pij'iuoutli Ko,t,'icu.
244
POULTRY.
245
GEESE.
Geese might well be more numerously
kept than they are. They forage so
well for themselves that the cost of
keeping is not large. Whether they
will be profitable or not depends on
the situation of the farm. On waste
or marshy ground they will practically
require no feeding. Geese always com-
mand a ready sale at Christmas time.
There are two main varieties of geese,
— the Toulouse or Grey, and the Emb-
den or White.
Toulouse Geese. — The Toulouse is
the more common variety, and has a
most solid substantial appearance, being
short in leg and very square and massive
in body. In colour it strongly resembles
the grey-lag wild goose, with bill and
feet a dark orange. It lays wonderfully
well, and, as a rule, is a non-sitter. This
variety is slow in maturing, though it
finally attains a great weight. When
growing the frame develops rapidly, but
very little flesh is put on till the body
is full grown. This variety is thus not
suitable for killing as green or Michael-
mas geese, its special use being for the
Christmas trade.
Embden Geese. — This variety is
white in plumage, and of more upright
carriage than the Toulouse. It also
matures much earlier, and is thus ready
for the autumn demand. The quality
of flesh is about equal in both varieties,
and very often they are crossed for gen-
eral purposes. The white feathers of
the Embden are of value, so it has this
advantage over its rival. The Embden
is an excellent sitter and mother.
TURKEYS.
It is now generally admitted that our
domestic turkey is descended from the
wild species of North America.
American Bronze Turkeys. — The
American Bronze is the most common
variety, as well as the largest and
handsomest. The colour is a dazzling
lustrous bronze on the back, neck, and
tail, with black breast and body, which
is pencilled with white. The flavour of
the flesh is said not to be so delicate
as that of our English breeds, but this is
compensated for by a much greater size,
VOL. in.
some specimens weighing up to 50 lb.,
though 35 lb. is a very good weight for a
cock and 20 lb. for a hen. An additional
advantage of large size is that more is
given per lb. for the weightier birds.
English Turkeys. — The Cambridge
variety is common in some parts of
England, and so is the Norfolk or
Black turkey; but both are smaller
than the American Bronze, and also
somewhat more delicate to rear.
Pure and Cross Stocks of Dvehs, Geese,
and Turkeys.
To ducks, geese, and turkeys the
same general remarks apply in regard
to pure breeds as apply to poultry.
In every case much of the ultimate
success depends on the judicious choice
of a breed or breeds. For that no
hard and fast rule can be laid down,
so much regard must be paid to soil,
climate, situation, distance from markets,
&c. Each individual breeder must there-
fore choose for himself : first, whether
eggs or table fowls shall be made the
first consideration ; and secondly, which
breed or cross will suit his special cir-
cumstances best. • 1
Some are reluctant to take up pure
breeds because of the initial expense
and trouble incurred, but these objec-
tions are very easily overcome.
One very cheap and easy method of
changing a stock is to buy a sitting or
two of eggs from a reliable breeder of
the new breed selected, the following
spring buy a few more sittings of the
scrnie breed, meantime selling the old
stock off gradually, and in a few years
a complete change will thus be efiected.
Another easy plan is to buy a cockerel
and five or six pullets, and hatch only
the eggs from this pen. This means
separating them from the rest of the
stock, but that can be very cheaply and
easily done with some wire-netting and
a movable house.
In any case, no initial trouble should
be spared to get a start with the best
varieties — that is, the valrieties which
will be the most profitable.
HOUSING POULTKY.
In no department of poultry-keeping
has so much change taken place as in
Q
■2if6
POULTKY.
that of the housing of the birds. Old
ideas of warmth for the fowls, \vhich
usually meant overcrowding and no
ventilation, have been entirely given
up, and more hygienic methods have
been introduced. There is still, how-
ever, far too little attention paid to
this important matter. Hen-houses at
farm - steadings are too often in the
very worst position possible. It is not
uncommon to see a cart-shed, implement-
shed, or tool-house with a nice sunny
southern exposure, While the hen-house
is facing the north. In looking broadly
at the subject, housing may be consid-
ered under two heads — " fixed houses "
and "movable houses."
Fixed Houses.
As regards fixed houses, it will be
better to indicate a few general prin-
ciples which should apply to them rather
than lay down hard and fast rules.
First, then, all houses should have
light. There is nothing which can purify
or warm the air of the house like the
light of the sun, and this should be
admitted freely by a large window set
in the wall so that the light can reach
the floor and walls. So much the better
if the window is fitted on the inside of
the wall, and made in two halves to slide
fully open each way. With wire-netting
over the outside to keep out unwelcome
intruders, the window can be left open
night and day in summer.
The perches should be all on one
level, about 2 feet from the ground, 18
inches apart, and easily movable. Each
perch should be about 2 inches broad,
and rounded at the edges. Nest-boxes
should also be easy to move, and set
quite low, about a foot from the floor,
and not made fixed in tiers right up
to the top of the wall. The reason for
movable perches and nest -boxes is to
make the process of cleaning out as easy
as possible. By removing everything to
the door it is a simple matter to go over
walls and floor thoroughly. This should
be done, and fresh chaff put in, 4 to
6 inches deep, at least once a -week.
Where the floor is of cement a hose-pipe
can be used to scour the whole place
out properly at intervals.
QleanlineBS. — Cleanliness is of the
utmost importance. The house should
be brushed out once a-week or so, and
the walls should, at least once a^year, get
whitewashed with hot lime, to which a
little carbolic acid has been added.
Cleanliness applies to more than the
house : it applies to all drinkingTvessels
and food-troughs, and to the birds them-
selves. Very few would believe the
number of insects which may be found
on a hen of any average flock. This can
be remedied by providing a good dust-
bath, roofed over, but quite open to the
front, with a board nailed up aboiit 8
inches to keep the material in. Good
sharp sand and ashes mixed make a
capital dust-bath, and should be always
available.
Ventilation. — About ventilation in
poultry houses some curious ideas are
entertained. Some people cannot dis-
tinguish the difference between a current
of air being allowed to blow straight in
on the birds and proper ventilation.
Ventilation means the proper regulation
oi. a current of fresh air getting into the
house, with equal means for the bad air
to get out. This can be secured in
several ways which are well known, ,
and which need not be detailed here.
It is sufiicient to state that abundance
of fresh air should be provided, for there
is no more frequent cause of disease
than vitiated air.
These, then, are the main principles
of housing — Light, Cleanliness, and Ven-
tilation. They are not mere details, as
some think, but matters of the very
utmost importance, because on their
observance depends the health of the
birds, and it is folly to expect good
laying results unless the fowls are in
perfect health.
Movalile Houses. — Movable houses
are becoming more and more in evidence
every year. The " colony system," as it
is called, of dividing up the fowls into
small flocks, of from 15 to 30 or 4.0
birds in each, has practically revolution-
ised poultry-keeping. The houses used
with this system are usually made in
sections to bolt together, so that they
can be readily taken down and put up
again. For convenience in moving from
field to field or for changing to a fresh
piece of ground, a great many of the
houses are. on wheels (as in fig. 727),
or bn slides (as in figs. 728 and 729).
POULTRY.
247
Each house has a shelter of some kind
for bad weather, either under the raised
floor of the house or as part of the
house itself. Shelter-coops such as are
shown in figs. 730 and 731 are also used
largely. Fig. 732 gives a general view
of a colony poultry-farm, photographed
with the camera looking northwards.
In every case there is light and ample
ventilation. Some of the newest designs
are almost entirely open-fronted, beipg
only boarded up about 2 feet, the whole
of the rest of the front being lined with
wire-netting. With both sides and back
solid, all fear of draught is avoided, and
the birds seem to do excellently.
Such a system as this has everything
to recommend it. The fowls are in a
natural state, living in healthy surround-
ings, and picking up a large share of
their own food. After harvest it is
usually a profitable plan to stock the
stubble-fields with groups of young
birds. The grain is there in plenty, —
grain which would otherwise go to feed
the multitude of wild-fowl, and small
birds of all kinds, and it is noteworthy
how plump pheasants and partridges
usually become from just this kind of
feeding. Besides gathering the grain,
which would otherwise be lost, and
turning it into profit, the fowls consume
a very large number of insects. This,
with the open free life, builds up such
a constitution that disease is almost un-
known in well-managed " colonies." The
cost of attendance is also reduced to a
■minimum.
Not only on stubbles can this system
be practised, but on pastures as well.
Oftentimes the houses are put beside
some natural shelter, such as a clump of
trees, a hedgerow, or dyke; and no doubt
some natural shelter is desirable from
bad weather, and from the sun as well.
Were it not for foxes this system would
be much more widely adopted than it is.
Feeding Poultry. .
It is undesirable tcf prescribe very
definite rules regarding the feeding of
poultry, because ideas are always chang-
ing, and there is still a good deal to
learn. Chemistry has been of the
greatest value in .determining the com-
ponent parts of the various foods, but
experience only can teach the action of
the dififirent foods on the body. By
combining the knowledge chemistry has
put at our disposal with the experience
gained from observation of the suit-
ability of certain foods, we are able to
compose a properly balanced food.
In the feeding of ordinary laying
stock, the point to be aimed at is to keep
the hens up to full laying limit and yet
keep their bodies properly nourished
without running to fat.
Much, naturally, depends on the con-
ditions under which the birds are. kept,
and the quantity and nature of the food
which they can find for themselves.
Birds kept in confined runs must have
their bill of fare much more carefully
selected than those running out on pas-
ture or stubble - fields, where worms,
slugs, and snails can be picked up
freely.
Hand - feeding for Laying. — The
usual plan of feeding ordinary laying
stock is to give a hot meal of soft food
in the morning, and grain for the
evening meal. For the preparation of
the soft food it is very convenient to
have a stock-pot, into which are put all
the house scraps, such as beef bones,
meat or fish scraps of any kind, crusts
of bread, potato or vegetable leavings, —
in fact, anything of the food kind left
over from the table. Cover over with
water and boil the whole at night. In
the morning it has only to be heated
to be ready to mix with the meals.
In mixing, a handful of common salt
should be added, and once a- week, or
once a -fortnight, Epsom salts should
be substituted for the common salt.
The meals to be used should vary with
the season of the year, the heat-giving
and fat-forming meals being discontinued
or reduced in quantity in the warmer
months.
Meat in some form is now considered
imperative. Where large quantities of
fowls are kept, raw horse-flesh is the
cheapest and best form in which it can
be supplied. In the case of cattle and
sheep that have died, it is better to boil
the flesh for fear of disease, and this also
holds with butcher's oflfal, which should
be cooked till it is soft.
Fresh-out bone will take the place of
meat to some extent, but it is expen-
sive to buy, and though there are hand-
248
POULTEt.
machines for cutting it, the work is
rather stiff. When neit&er flesh nor
bone can be got cheaply or easily, meat-
meal should be used. This should con-
tain 70 per cent of albuminoids,, and for
small stocks of poultry it is cheaper and
involves less trouble than other kinds of
flesh.
Twice a -week is often enough to
supply a flesh diet if the fowls get as
much as they can eat. The price of
meat-meal is about 14s. per cwt. The
principal meals are sharps, oatmeal,
barley-meal, Indian meal, pea-mea,l, and
bran. For summer feeding to mix with
the contents of the stock-pot, assuming
that meat-meal is used instead of flesh, a
fair ratio would be —
2 parts sharps.
2 parts meat-meal.
1 part oatmeal.
For the afternoon feed of grain, 2
parts oats to i of wheat.
For winter feeding —
3 parts sharps.
2 parts meat-meaL
I part Indian or pea-meal.
I part oatmeal.
For the afternoon feed —
3 parts maize.
3 parts wheat.
4 parts oats.
These, of course, may be altered to
give variety, as, for instance, rice boiled
in milk for summer, and boiled wheat
or maize in the winter time. Vegetables
ought to be freely used; swedes, man-
gels cooked or raw, also chopped clover
and cabbages. In summer, clovers, green
pea-haulm, lettuce, or any garden vege-
table may be given. Cooked turnips
are excellent for mixing with the meals,
and so are potatoes occasionally, but not
regularly.
Grit. — Grit is so essential that it
might almost be considered a food. A
considerable variety of this material
should be constantly available, such as
road scrapings, broken brick, coal -ash,
lime or mortar, broken crockery, oyster
and other shells. From the grit fowls
get mineral matter, so that it is really
something more than a mere aid to
digestion.
Fattening Poultry. — The fattening
of poultry is now a specialised industry.
In this case the feeding adopted is
largely Sussex ground oats, with mUk
and fat added. The birds are usufl,lly
finished by a period of "cramming,"
which leaves the flesh very white in
texture and delicate in flavour. " Hopper
feeding " is now extensively adopted in
America and some parts of this country.
The idea is to have constantly before the
birds a supply of food -vWiich they can
eat at will These hoppers, which are
made of wood, consist of a reservoir
with sloping lid, and a tray below into
which the fooli falls. As the birds eat
more comes down, so that the action is
automatic.
Biscuit meals of various kinds are also
extensively used in feeding, either alone
or in combination with other meals.
Feeding Chickens. — Chicken-feeding
may be said to be an industry by itself.
Each system has its group of adherents.
The system of "Dry Feeding," which
originated in America, has many advo-
cates, though its opponents say that the
chickens so reared never attain the same
size of frame as those which have had
soft food supplied to them.
The dry chick feed consists of small
seeds such as the seeds of dari, lint, and
hemp, with wheat, groats, and rice. The
commonest feeding for chickens is usu-»
ally dry stale bread-crumbs, oatmeal, and
hard-boiled eggs.
Another kind of feeding is a custard
made with eggs and milk. As the un-
fertile eggs can be used in this way, it is
cheap and certainly gives good results.
Another system is to give nothing but
fine grit and water for the first two days,
and then begin with stale bread-crumbs
soaked in skim-milk and squeezed fairly
dry. After this the dry chick feed is
partly adopted, along with soft food
cooked with milk.
Many specially prepared chicken meals-
are also most successfully used, either by
the'mselves or in combination with other
The greatest care has to be taken for
the first f ortJiight or three weeks, as the
heaviest losses occur during the first
week through over and improper feeding.
Tainted ground, body lice, and dirty
drinking-vessels are also frequent causes
of mortality. Clfeanliness is absolutely
essential, and milk given freely to drink
is a splendid source of nourishment.
POULTKY.
249
Q-eneral Points in Poultry - feed-
ing;— The whole qaestion of poultry-
feeding is of absorbing interest, and de-
mands careful Study. Different breeds
require different treatment. Mediter-
ranean non-sitting varieties can stand a
richer diet than the hUavier, less active
sitting varieties. It is a good plan for
poultry-feeders to make frequent experi-
ments with different materials and
rations.
INCUBATION.
The first essentials for the securing
of good hatching results, whether by
natural or artificial means, are the health
and stamina of the stock birds from
which the eggs are gathered. Eggs
from birds properly mated, and enjoy-
ing their liberty, as they do when the
" colony " system is pursued, afe very
little trouble to hatch, and the means
used for hatching are of secondary
importance. The natural and artificial
methods have each their followers.
Often both systems are used together
with excellent results. With the spread
of non-sitting varieties, broody hens are
getting every year more diflScult to
obtain when wanted, and so the manu-
facture of incubators has gone up by
Jeaps and. bounds.
When eggs are being kept for hatch-
ing it is wise to turn them every other
day, and not to set any over one week
old if possible. " Both the very large and
very small eggs should be discarded for
hatching purposes, and only the well-
shaped ones free from all blemish
selected.
Hatching Nest. — When hens are to
be used the nest should be formed on
a turf or sod, cut about 18 inches
square, and from 4 to 6 inches • thick.
From the under side of the sod scrape
away a little of the earth and then turn
it back, green side up, and press it down
in the centre to form a hollow big
enough to hold the eggs. Cover this
with chopped hay, straw, or chaff, and
the nest is ready for the eggs.
A coop of some kind should be used
in the early months — one made with
the front hinged near the bottom, so
that it will fold down, is very con-
venient for the hen leaving or return-
ing to her nest.
Little more need be said about the
care of the broody hen, except that her
food should be of hard grain, that she
should be taken off once a-day and have
fresh water to drink and a dust-bath to
clean herself in. Before the chickens are
due, both the hen and the nest should
be dusted over thoroughly with insect
powder.
Use of Incubators.
The use of incubators is now very
general. They are practically a necessity
in order to get chickens when they are v
wanted. The principle of artificial in-
cubation harks back to the ancients of
Egypt and China. Large ovens were
used for the purpose in those days, "and
it is really remarkable under what cir-
cumstances a strongly fertilised egg will
hatch.
Many years of careful study and ex-
periment have brought artificial incuba-
tion to a very high standard of perfection.
In the machines now most popular there
are two methods of supplying the heat.
In the one the heat is supplied from a
hot -water tank, and in the other by
means of hot air. Both have their ad-
vocates, the hot -water machines being
more common in this country, and the
hot-air machines in America. Fig. 733
shows an incubator made by Phipps.
If the temperature of the room in
which the machine is working be liable
to great variations, then the hot-water
principle will probably work the better,
but so much really depends on the oper-
ator that it is unwise to discriminate
too closely.
Moisture in Incubators. — The reg-
ulation of moisture to the eggs during
hatching is one of the problems which is
not yet finally settled. The quantity of
moisture in the air is constantly chang-
ing, and this complicates the problem.
In hot-air machines there is no direct
supply of moisture, the theory being that
the ingoing air is raised in temperature
in the heater, and gains moisture as it
gains warmth, till the degree of humid-
ity of the warm air is relatively equal to
that of the outside air. After the air is
heated in the heater, it„is passed into
the top of the machine, whence it travels
by diffusion through a felt diaphragm to
the egg-chamber, and finally, still travel-
250
POULTRY.
ling downwards, it is ejected into the
fresh-air inlet of the heater.
With hot-water machines the moisture
is supplied from a water-tray placed im-
mediately under the egg-draw*. The
moisture-tray is covered with canvas, and
the heat of the tank draws the air up by
way of the ventilation holes in the bot-
tom of the machine through the moist
canvas to the eggs.
Much of the success of hatching de-
pends on the regulation of the moisture.
Some operators believe in dispensing
with the water-tray altogether, or in put-
ting it in about the eleventh day.
The room in which the incubators are
to be worked should be thoroughly well
ventilated, as the air in the egg-drawers
must be constantly renewed for the proper
development of the embryo in the egg.
Temperature in Incubators. — The
temperature in incubators should vary as
little as possible. Cellars are very often
utilised as incubating- rooms, but it is
usually difficult to get such places pro-
perly ventilated. Probably the safest
temperature for the incubating-room is
about 60° Fahr., and, as has been said, it
should remain as uniform as possible.
The incubator must be set level, and
on such a solid foundation that vibration
will be avoided. The usual temperature
recommended for the egg-drawer is 103°
or 104°, but many operators now keep
the drawer at 102° for the first week,
103° the second week, and 104° the third
week, putting in the moisture - tray at
about the eleventh day.
All well-made incubators are perfectly
simple to work, regulating their heat
quite automatically, so that no possible
obJBction can be taken to them on that
score.
The lamp must of course have atten-
tion. It must be kept perfectly clean
and free from smell, but that is really
a detail.
necessity for Incubators. — The
development of the poultry industry to
meet modern demands can only be pos-
sible by an extended use of appliances.
Early pullets are a necessity to supply
the demand for fresh winter eggs, and
spring chickens and ducklings must be
hatched before the natural brooding
time of hens arrives. Incubators are,
therefore, bound to be more and more
required, and improvements in their con-
struction may even yet be possible.
Testing Eggs. — The testing of the
eggs is a matter of economy as well as
of necessity. This can be easily done
after the fifth day of incubation, and the
sooner it is then done the better. Testing
lamps are simple and cheap, so that even
the novice can, with a few lessons, detect
the germ in a fertile egg. The removal
of the infertile eggs leaves more room
in the drawer, which can be filled up if
desired, so long as the fresh eggs are not
allowed to touch the older ones till they
have been heated up, and this is easily
avoided by putting a strip of cardboard
in a piece of flannel between them. The
infertile eggs can also, if removed before
they have been too long in the machine,
be used as food for chickens. One
method of utilising them, as has already
been mentioned, is to boil them into a
custard with milk, this being really a
capital food for newly hatched chickens.
When the chickens are hatching, the
machine should only be interfered with
occasionally to remove the chickens to
the drying -box. The less disturbance
the better. After each hatch, the water-
tray, egg -drawer, and canvases should
be thoroughly washed and disinfected
before another lot of eggs is ■put in.
Rearing Chickens Arti&ially. —
Artificial rearing is the natural sequence
to artificial incubation, and there are now
a very large number of rearers and foster-
mothers for this purpose, such as is re-
presented in fig. 734. The rearers are
again worked on the two principles of
hot-air and hot-water heating. There is
a sleeping chamber, well ventilated, and
warmed by a hot-water tank or hot air.
This sleeping chamber usually occupies
about one-third of the whole rearer, the
rest being without floor and wire-netted
in the front. They can be used outside
in all weathers, and are of simple design
and easy to manage.
Artificial and N'atural Kearing com-
pared. -■ — Chickens artificially hatched
and reared do quite as well as those
reared by the hen, and are not in the
least more delicate, although a prejudice
stiU prevails against that practice. Many
claim that having no contact with the
hen keeps the chickens free from vermin,
which is in itself a great consideration.
POULTKY.
251
and also that the chickens get the full
benefit of the food provided for them,
and not the hen as often happens.
Then with a machine there are no
broken eggs or cases of desertion at
a critical period. For convenience and
economy, also, the balance is in favour
of artificial methods.
MARKETING POULTRY.
There is often a great deal of vi^aste
through the want of a proper system of
marketing. In the usual stock of farm
fowls there are generally two kinds, the
profitable and the unprofitable.
Unprofitable Hens. • — It may be
taken for granted that the young hens
are paying their way, but too often there
are a good many old hens which are
not only unprofitable in themselves but
which are eating away the profit the
others are making. The question to
decide, therefore, is : When does a hen
cease to be profitable 1 Generally speak-
ing, the answer is, after her second
laying season is completed.
Assuming that a hen is hatched in
March, she should in ordinary circum-
stances be marketed before the beginning
of the August after she completes her
second twelve months. The proper time
is just after she has completed her period
of laying, probably during June or July,
and just b^ore she begins to go into
moult. To make sure a system of this
kind is carried out, it is vrise to mark
each year's chickens with a ring on the
leg. A brass, copper, or india-rubber
ring does quite well, rings being made
for the purpose.
The 1st of August Sees the wild-fowl
in season, and by the middle of the
month the shooting is in full swing, so
that fat hens are at a discount. The
London markets, which really rule the
prices all over the country, also invari-
ably fall after August, so that there is
nothing to be gained by keeping the
hens over till Christmas. If this is done,
the hens moult and fall into poor con-
dition; they have to be fed up again
while meantime laying no eggs, and
Christmas markets are always glutted
with foreign frozen poultry of all kinds.
Moreover, these moulting hens are tak-
ing up the room of the younger birds,
and, owing to cold and other causes, a
good many of them contract disease,
which is easily spread, and a few always
succumb.
Chickens for Christmas. — For the
Christmas markets it is an excellent
plan to bring out a batch of chickens
about July and August, which can be
put out to the stubbles to grow. These
chickens pick up a large part of their
food in the corn-yards during and long
after the stacking of the corn crops.
With a little extra food before Christmas,
the young birds always command a very
good price, and leave a handsome profit.
For this purpose the Game - Orpington
cross can hardly be surpassed.
Winter Eggs.
Just as there is a right time to market
the old hens, so there is a correct period
for hatching. Winter eggs are a sure
source of profit if they can be got, and
that is now largely a matter which can
be controlled. Taking advantage of the
winter-laying varieties of poultry we now
possess, beginning hatching operations
about the middle of February, and con-
tinuing till the end of April, there will
be no difficulty, under proper manage-
ment, in securing a good supply of
winter eggs.
Grown under ordinary conditions, with-
out forcing in any way, pullets will nat-
urally begin to lay at from six to eight
months old. Pullets hatched in Feb-
ruary, March, and April will therefore,
as a matter of course, begin to lay in
September, October, and November, and
they should continue laying till spring,
when they will have earned a rest.
Early Moulting. — Another distinct
advantage accruing from the hatching
of pullets in the months mentioned is
that they will moult early, probably in
July and August, and so be ready for
laying again in the winter months. It
is quite possible to induce the moulting
process by keeping the birds on short
rations for two or three weeks, then
shutting them up in an open -fronted
shed, and supplying them with heat-
giving food, such as hemp and linseed.
The period of moulting is also shortened
by such special treatment.
IiEiying Competitions. — A great deal
of good has been done by the laying
252
POULTEY.
competitions which have been carried on
from year to year. It is most satisfac-
tory that the period of competition is
now extended over a whole ypar. What
is equally satisfactory is that a grant
has been obtained from the Board of
Agriculture towards the expenses of
these competitions, thus for the first
time gi'rtng them the advantage of
■ official recognition.
These laying competitions have not
only established facts regarding winter
laying, but have indirectly yielded a vast
amount of information on the different
methods of housing and feeding.
Co-operative Marketi^.
In the marketing of eggs this country
still lags far_ behind some of her Con-
tinental neighbours, more particularly
Denmark. Individual marketing, with
all its inconveniences and losses, is still
unfortunately the rule. Co-operation is
slow to spread, even though our markets
are practically controlled by eggs from
other countries marketed on that system.
A great awakening must take place
in this country before long if we are
ever to attempt to supply our own
markets with home-grown eggs. Were
this country organised as Denmark is
organised, the consumers who are willing
to pay for them — and there are plenty of
such — could depend on having on their
tables every day guaranteed new-laid eggs
not over three days old. With individual
marketing, and the eggs passing through
so many middlemen's hands as they do
without organisation, the consumers do
not know what they are buying. It is
not to the credit of the British farmers
that they allow their own markets, the
best in the world, to be so largely at the
mercy of the foreign producer when, by
agreeing to combine, they could greatly
improve this state of matters.
Co-operation in marketing poultry is
not something new which has to be ex-
perimented with and tried with caution.
It is already an established principle,
ruling and guiding purchase and sale
with manifest advantage to all poultry-
rearers who have availed themselves of
it. Under co-operation the eggs are col-
lected, frequently tested for freshness,
graded into sizes and colours, and mar-
keted direct to the consumer. There
can be no comparison between the in-
dividual and co-operative methods irt
dealing with the distribution of eggs.
In poultry - keeping British farmers
have an ideal industry awaiting develop-
ment. It is not from large farms de-
voted entirely to poultry-raising that our
egg-supplies are likely to be obtained.
It is from small flocks at every farm
and croft in the country. The industry
is eminently suited for cottagers with a
small piece of ground and for small hold-
ings, and every one of these should have
poultry as part of their regular stock.
There is no soil so poor, no climate so
bad, no situation so exposed, as to render
impossible the keeping of hens, ducks,
geese, or turkeys ; and, as has been pre-
viously pointed out, there are plenty of
each of these classes of poultry to choose
from. Poultry, however, must get atten-
tion, and it is urged that the same
intelligence and forethought which are
devoted to other kinds of farm stock
should be given to them. Old ideas
must cease to dominate this brknch of
agriculture, just as they have been super-
seded in other branches.
PKESEKVING EGGS.
Use of "Waterglass. — T}ie advent of
waterglass has rendered the ^process of
preserving eggs so simple and cheap that
it is now adopted in very many house-
holds. Waterglass is an alkaline silicate
which effectually closes the pores of the
shell, rendering it perfectly air-tight.
There can thus be no evaporation, and
the contents of the egg are preserved for
months in a fresh state. When the eggs
are taken out of the preservative and
wiped with a clean cloth, they look as
fresh and marketable as new-laid eggs.
It is advisable that all the water which
is to be used to dilute the waterglass
should first be boiled to kill the germs.
Almost any kind of vessels are suitable
for storing the eggs, but probably wooden
barrels or earthenware jars are the best.
The liquid must fully cover all the eggs, ■
and a cool place is best for storage.
Full particulars for mixing the liquid
are printed on each tin, and it is uni-
versally sold.
Iiime - virater. — Lime - water used to
be the common preservative for eggs.
POULTEY.
253
and it is still very largely used on the
Continent and in this country too where
large quantities are dealt witl^. A use-
ful recipe for the lime - water is : 2 lb.
lime, I lb. salt, 2 oz. cream of tartar,
and 6 quarts of water.
The lime-preserved eggs are almost ex-
clusively used for kitchen and cooking
purposes, but it is claimed that by the
waterglass method the eggs can be kept
in a state fit for use on the table as
boiled eggs. To prevent the shell of
eggs thus preserved from cracking when
being boiled, it is usual to prick the
thick end of each egg with a needle.
Cold Storage. — Cold storage is also
well adapted for preserving eggs, though
evaporation is not prevented by the
process. This method is, however, suit-
able only where very large quantities are
handled. Both in the cooling down of
the eggs and in the returning to the
natural temperature a good many of the
shells are apt to get broken.
Essential Conditions in Storing
Eggs. — With all methods of preserving
eggs the observation of the following
rules is essential to success : —
1. The eggs must be perfectly fresh
when put in.
2. Only eggs infertile and without
flaw of any kind should be selected.
Thin -shelled eggs should never be
preserved.
3. Store in a cool place, as free from
vibration as possible.
DISEASES.
In dealing with diseases of any kind,
it cannot be too strongly emphasised or
too often reiterated that " prevention is
better than cure." Particularly is this
so with poultry, because very often the
disease is too far gone for cure before
it is found out.
At farms where the fowls have their
liberty and plenty of scope to roam, with
healthy surroundings and a good supply
of natural food, disease should practically
be non-existent. Almost every outbreak
that occurs can be traced to bad manage-
ment in some form or other. Common
causes are —
(a) Cold, damp, badly ventilated, and
dirty houses ;
(b) Over-feeding on too nutritious or
fat -forming foods, such as maize and
potatoes, and impure water;
(c) Overcrowding in a bad atmo-
sphere ;
(d) Want of healthy exercise, due to
an improper system of feeding ;
(e) Injudicious in-breeding.
Infectious Diseases. — In an ordinary
farm stock, where the birds are not
worth more than a few shillings each,
by far the cheapest and most e^ectual
plan is to kill off any bird which .shows
the slightest signs of having contracted '
an infectious disease, and one of the
first precautions against disease break-
ing out is to see that every bird that
is being bred from is in sound healtL
Further, if the principles laid down in
the foregoing pages relative to the
cleanliness and ventilation of the houses
and the feeding of the fowls are adhered
to, the chances of disease breaking out
are remote in the extreme — more partic-
ularly if the colony system of housing is
adopted.
Vermin. — Some of the worst plagues
of the poultry-yard can scarcely be de-
scribed as diseases, and one of the com-
monest of these is vermin. Unless fowls
are minutely examined, particularly round
the rump and under the wings, it is im-
possible to believe how badly infested
they may be with "insects. The presence
of insects is a serious cause of loss both
directly and indirectly. The constant
irritation to the skin set up by these
active workers is very often the cause
of broody hens breaking their eggs;
and further, the growth of the young
stobk is much retarded and the system
so reduced that the way is paved for
Bird-Lice. — Probably the most preju-
dicial kind of poultry parasites are the
bird-lice. Eight species of these are found
on the fowl, four on the duck, five on the
goose, and three on the turkey. They
may be said to spend most of their lives
on their hosts, though certain species may
live in the nests part of the time. These
lice do not suck the blood, as is some-
times supposed; but they have a true
biting mouth by which they gnaw away
at the roots of the feathers, the scales,
and the skin itself. On chickens these
lice have a most injurious effect, and
naturally the tender skin of the chicken
254
POULTKY.
is chosen for their attentions rather than
that of the adult hen.
The simplest way to check the ravages
of these insect pests is to have a dust-
bath, as already described, alwayS handy,
with some strong insect powder mixed
in it. Finely divided gypsum mixed
with a small quantity of paraffin or car-
bolic acid is very effective for these dust-
baths, and soon gets rid of any insects
which the birds cannot reach.
Broody hens should always be treated
before being put on the eggs, and also
before hatching, and so should each in-
dividual member of the flock occasionally.
A strong insect-powder such as Keat-
ing's, or two parts of that to one of
powdered sulphur, well dusted into the
feathers — more especially round the tail
and under the wings — will effectually
kill all insects. This treatment, how-
ever, has to be repeated, because the
eggs of the insects are laid mostly round
the roots of the downy feathers, to which
they are attached by numerous fine
threads, and in six to ten days the
eggs develop into young lice.
Mites. — Mites are another source of
trouble, but their haunts are the cracks
and fissures of the perches, ngst-boxes,
&c. Hence the necessity for lime-wash-
ing all the wood -work regularly, and
painting over with kerosene or spray-
ing with dilute carbolic acid.
A very small tick - like mite also
att9,cks the heads of chickens, and this
attack can be met by a very small
dressing of mercurial ointment or white
precipitate, or by dressing with olive-oil
to which a few drops of paraffin have
been added.
Gapes. — Gapes is perhaps the worst
scourge in the poultry world. It is
due to the presence in the windpipe
of a number of very small worms, which
kill the affected fowl either by wasting
or actual suffocation. The symptoms are
yawning and stretching of the neck, a
wheezing cough, and a frothy saliva
oozing from the mouth. The surest
preventive of this fatal disease is to
use fresh ground every year for the
rearing of the chickens, and to colour
the water two or three times a -week
with permanganate of potash.
When the disease does occur, the
ground very soon becomes contamin-
ated and the whole flock may bo
affected. One remedy is to put the
"affected chickens in a box and fumi-
gate them with the fumes from car-
bolic acid. The vapour from burnt
sulphur is also fairly effective. A little
camphor added to the drinking-water
is also a safeguard.
The disease is frequently connected
with a large insect found on the heads
of newly hatched chickens; and it
seems to be established that gapes will
not break out if the chickens', heads
are anointed with the ^following oint-
ment : mercurial ointment, i ounce ;
pure lard, i ounce; flowers of sulphur,
y^ ounce; crude petroleum, J^ ounce.
The ointment is gently rubbed in after
being warmed to semi - fluidity. On
clean dry ground, however, the disease
seldom appears.
Scaly Leg. — Scaly leg is another
common disease for which there is little
excuse, as it is so easily cured. It is
caused by an insect burrowing under
the scales of the leg. The treatment
is to wash the legs thoroughly in
warm water, using carbolic soap and a
hard nail-brush to get well under the
scales. After drying thoroughly, rub
well in sulphur ointment or creosote
and lard ointment (i to 20). Another
cure is to boil equal parts of paraffin
and water, and add a little soft-soap,
rubbing this, in under the scales after
washing as described.
Wliite Comb. — ^White comb, or favus,
is another noxious disease, often caused
by overcrowding in a dark, damp house. '
It attacks the comb, wattles, head, and
neck, which appear crusted with a whit-
ish-like growth. The method of treat-
ment is to bathe Ihe infested parts with
warm water and soft - soap ; then apply
either red oxide of mercury ointment
(i part of mercury to 8 of lard) or
sulphur ointment with a few drops of
benzine, just enough to moisten the
sulphur before mixing it with the lard,
lodiije is also said to be successful.
Koup.— Roup and diphtheric roup are
the most troublesome and loathsome
diseases with which the poultry-keeper
has to contend. The symptoms are
easily detected, as there is an offensive
smelling discharge of white cheesy like
matter from the nostrils and mouth, and
POULTRY.
255
the bird is highly fevered. There is also
often a swelling round the eyes.
As this disease is highly contagious,
the first thing to do is to isolate at once
any bird affected, and disinfect the drink-
ing-troughs, &c., it has been using.
In diphtheric roup, which is really
distinct from common roup, the inside
of the mouth and round the tongue will
have small patches of matter growing
which have to be scraped off with a quill
or blunt knife, and the place anointed
with an antiseptic such as salicylic acid.
The mouth must be washed out by using
cotton wadding attached to a small stick
of wood dipped in peroxide of hydrogen.
Sometimes hard white spots are found,
to remove which lunar caustic will have
to be used. To reduce the swelling
round the eye, foment with hot water
and drop into the eye a little powdered
borax. Sometimes in bad cases the
swelling has to be opened and the cheesy
matter extracted.
The general treatment is to keep the
bird in a warm, dry, airy room, giving a
laxative in the form of half a teaspoonful
of Epsom salts or castor-oil. Give the
soft food seasoned with a little cayenne
pepper, and administer a copaiba capsule
a few hours after the laxative.
Specially prepared roup powders are
now sold by most poultry chemists, and
if these are given as directed on the first
symptoms appearing, further trouble is
often avoided. A few days' quarantine
after cure is essential.
Liver Disease. — Liver disease, though
more often associated with the larger
breeds of fowls, is yet common to all,
and is generally brought on by injudici-
ous feeding on such heavy foods as
Indian corn and potatoes, with insuffi-
cient exercise. The symptoms are
moping, and a dark purple colour about
the head. If the bird is handled it feels
heavy, and if held head down for a
minute or two, it will turn almost black,
sometimes collapsing altogether.
A simple cure for a hen affected by
this disease is to give her a sitting of
eggs to hatch and let her rear the
chickens. The fat in the body gets
reduced, and in a manner the whole
system renewed.
The treatment is to provide as much
space and exercise as possible for the
affected birds. A good dose of Epsom
salts should be given. If given dry, in
crystal form, which is the best way, a
piece about the size of a marble to eaclj
bird is a good dose.
The following recipe by a well-known
authority can be strongly recommended :
"Get one pennyworth of gentian root,
ditto of powdered rhubarb, ditto of
bitter aloes, ditto of black Spanish, ditto
of best cayenne. Add the above to one
quart of water, and simmer down to a
gill. Then strain through a fine sieve
and let it cool. Boil till the nature is
out of the herbs, when it is ready for
use. Give eight to ten drops in a table-
spoonful of water three times a-day for
a week. Give also plenty of green food
and grit, and a few cod -liver oil or
chemical capsules."
A stock of birds affected with liver
disease should not be bred from. It is
far better to kill them and have a fresh
lot put in. This is a disease for which
there is no excuse, as it is so easily
avoided by proper feeding.
Tubercidosis of Poultry.
In regard to tuberculosis, which is one
of the most common diseases of fowls,
turkeys, pheasants, and other birds, the
following useful information is given in
Leaflet No. 78, issued by the Board of
Agripulture ; —
Symptoms. — Affected fowls become
anaemic, thin, emaciated, and they lose
weight. Their appetite is impaired, and
erratic feeding is noticeable. The comb
and wattles and mucous membranes be-
come pale, and there is usually persist-
ent diarrhoea. As a result of extreme
emaciation, which is the most noticeable
symptom, the bones become very prom-
inent.
Post - mortem Appearances. — The
flesh is scanty and the muscles pallid.
The liver is dotted all over with small
pale spots, or larger patches of a white,
grey, or yellow colour. The spleen is
usually enlarged and beset with small
or large tubercles. The intestines and
the lymphatic glands of the mesenteries
may be also the seats of tubercular de-
posits. Tubercles may likewise occur
on the skin. There are very rarely small
tubercles in the lungs.
Cause. — The exciting cause of the
256
POULTKY.
disease is a bacillus which may be con-
sidered a variety of the bacillus of mam-
malian tuberculosis. It gains entrance
jpith the food, fouled by means of drop-
pings of affected birds.
Prevention and Bemedy. — i. The
most frequent source of infection is the
poultry - house or yard, ■which receives
the droppings of the affected birds, these
droppings containing bacilli. Damp,
dirt, and absence of sunlight greatly
favour the spread of the disease. It is
necessary that there should be good
ventilation and strict cleanliness in the
runs and sheds.
2. All diseased birds should be killed
and«buried in lime. The house where,
they have been should receive several
applications of disinfectant, and the
tainted run should be dug over and
heavily dressed ■ with quicklime.
3. Many months shoUld elapse before
birds are put back in old quarters that
have been cleaned. It is best to clear
off all stock where this disease breaks
out, and make a fresh start with new
stock later. Strong and healthy birds
should be carefully selected and put into
a new house and run, and if any show
indications of disease, they should be
removed at dhce and the house dis-
infected with chloride of lime (^ lb.
to I gallon of water). In this way a
disease-free stock may be obtained, and
until this is accomplished all that can
be done is to observe aU possible sani-
tary precautions.
Vices in Poultry:
.Poultry have, unfortunately, a few
vices which are as troublesome as the
diseases.
Egg - Eating. — The habit of eating
eggs is a common vice not easily detected
or stopped. The habit is usually ac-
quired from the devouring of a broken
egg, thus creating an appetite for more.
If the criminal (for there is usually just
one real culprit) can be caught, the best
cure is to twist its neck. The absence
of grit, oyster -shell, and lime is given
as a cause of egg-eating, and certainly
these should be supplied in plenty. But
the vice will appear even where there is
no want of these substances.
A simple preventive of egg- eating is
to have a good many nest-eggs lying
about, so that these may get the atten-
tion of the culprits and disgust them.
Another plan is to blow the contents out
of an egg and fill it up with mustard,
alimi, and cayenne-pepper, so as to give
a lesson to the hen which breaks it.
Nests are also constructed so that the
egg when laid rolls out of sight, but with
big flocks the surest and best way is to
execute the criminal.
reather-Eating. — Teather -eating is
a much commoner vice, though more
prone to occur where the birds are
cooped up. Probably the habit is caused
in the first place by insects, but other
causes are usually at work as well A
feverish state of body, through want of
a plentiful supply of green food, or a
craving for animal food, are undoubtedly
predisposing causes. The cock often
suffers, too, through the hens pecking,
at his comb and wattles till he is a piti-
able object.
The treatment for feather-eating is to
isolate any bird attacked, and s§e that
the flock gets a regular supply of green
food; also twice a-week, at least, some
animal food, either raw or cooked flesh
or green bone. The affected parts of the
birds attacked should have carboKsed .
vaseline well rubbed into them. This
will cure the wounds, and at the same
time prevent any more feathers being
pulled out.
There are, no doubt, other simple and
complex troubles which arise in the path
of the poultry-keeper, but there is now
an ample supply of literature available
on almost any specific subject. No
better medium of information can be
wished than the weekly penny journals
specially devoted to this subject, through
whose columns information on any partic-
ular matter affecting poultry can be had
for the asking.
BEE-KEEPING.
257
BEE-KEEPING.
The keeping of bees is not only, as a
rule, a profitable industry where it is
conducted with skill, but is also one of
absorbing interest and fascination. Ori-
ginally the following notes on the sub-
ject were prepared for this work by the
late Mr William Eaitt, Beecroft, Blair-
gowrie. By another capable bee-keeper
they have been revised for this edition.
Bee-keeping as a Farm Industry. —
It is undoubtedly the case that bee-keep-
ing ought to receive more attention as a
farm industry than has hitherto been
devoted to it. In many instances it has
been cultivated as such with the" best
results. It is an industry peculiarly
adapted for a place on the farm, as is
indicated by the ancient and sacred as-
sociation of "milk and honey." The
same pastures yield both — though, alas !
the latter is too often left to waste its
sweetness on the air.
In America and many Continental
countries bee-keeping already occupies a
prominent place among rural industries,
and is generally most successful when
associated with farming. A few regions,
like San Diego County in California,
the Basswood tracts in other States, and,
to a degree, our own heath -clad hills,
afford unlimited natural honey- yielding
bloom.
Clover for Bees. — But more generally
success depends on the neighbourhood
of clover-fields. Than these there are no
better pastures for bees, as every farmer
must perceive when he hears the joyous
hum of other people's bees rollicking
amongst his clover heads.
These " small cattle " are so independ-
ent of fences, that in a notice of the sale
of an apiary there was added after the
inventory of hives the words, " with un-
limited right of pasturage." But just
because these cattle are so small, they
are often neglected. One forgets, how-
ever, that what they lack in bulk they
compensate for in energy and in strength
of numbers, so that the results of their
united labours are, under proper con-
ditions, out of all proportion to their
"stature."
Bees V. Shorthorns. — Some years ago
the jvriter was at tea in the company of
several farmers, who chaffed him not a
little on having a "bee in his bonnet."
Their talk was of shorthorns. "I'll tell
you what it is," said I, " I have a single
bee at home that has this year put more
money into my purse than the best short-
horn cow you have has put into yours."
I of course referred to the queen-bee of
one of my hives, the mother of all its
inhabitants. It so happened that I had
that season taken from that stock no less
than 130 lb. of first-class honey, in such
splendid condition that I sold it to a
dealer, after winning a handsome prize
besides, for ;^io, i6s.
Produce of Hives. — It is but fair to
say, however, that that result was excep-
tional, though I have several times greatly
exceeded it in quantity since. For in-
stance, I had in one season from a single
hive 204 lb. of bottled honey of first-class
quality, and an almost equal amount
from a hive the year before, and all
without killing the bees or interfering
with their necessary winter stores. These
figures indicate the possibilities that lie
in bee-keeping — though, taking one sea-
son with another, I should estimate the
average produce of a well-managed apiary
at from 30s. to 40s. per hive.
Commencing.
The times are propitious for commenc-
ing this industry.
Improved Practice. — A great revolu-
tion has taken place in the practical
management of bees since the "seven-
ties " of last century. The old straw
skep and brimstone system have been
improved away, and the new humane
and profitable movable comb system has
taken its place.
After many years' experiments with
mixed success, the best form of hive and
system of management became pretty
well fixed. The era of experiment is
past, at least to a large extent, and every-
thing has been greatly simplified.
Cheap and Improved Appliances. —
Not only so, but while in former years
258
BEE-KEEPING.
new hives and appliances were rather
expensive articles, they are now very
moderate. I remember when no hive
was considered good for anything under
^1 or 30s. Now they can be had for
half the amount, and simpler forms for a
good deal less — so simple, that with one
as a pattern any handy man can make
his own hives.
Marketing Honey. — Moreover, the
chief initial diflBculties connected with
making a market for honey are over-
come. It has become a staple article of
trade in the best shops of all our large
towns. To be sure the price, like that
of all other sweets, has come down
in late years ; but even yet it has not
fallen to the price that used to be
considered a fair one for old-fashioned
skep honey, and it is not likely to
come lower.
Bee Information. — And lastly, infor-
mation is now more easily attainable
than ever it was before. Besides weekly
and monthly journals entirely devoted to
bees, most agricultural and horticultural
weeklies have columns devoted to the
industry and to the queries of corre-
spondents. And special handbooks and
more elaborate volumes are easily ob-
tained.
Exhibitions illustrative of the whole
art -and mystery are held annually in
connection with the shows of most of
the leading agricultural societies in the
three kingdoms, and at many local shows
besides. Then almost everywhere a
handy man can be picked up who will
be delighted to tell all he knows, and
give all the help he can to intending
beginners.
Knowledge necessary. — Bee-keeping
as much as sheep-farming and other rural
employments requires the application of
a good deal of acquired information.
One may, however, commence practice
and the study of principles at the same
time^— that is, commencing on a small
scale, and increasing one's stocks as one's
knowledge and ability advance. The
limits of space here forbid anything more
than a digest of the knowledge any one
may easily acquire more fully from books
and experience.'
In regard to books, beginners should
be careful to get only the latest editions
of the latest published works. The be-
ginners should on no account allow
themselves to become enraptured over
any particular form of hive recommended
by the maker. Study the latest infor-
mation obtained from a disinterested
quarter, and then judge for yourself
what would best suit the object you
have in view in the way of system and
appliances.
After having ' thus formed a decided
plan of operations, there need be no
objections to reading any good works
on bees, with a view to obtaining more
scientific knowledge than most handy
manuals can afford to give. Much also
may be at the same time learned, and
more especially in the art of handling
bees, by a visit to some successful bee-
keeper.
Principles of Bee - keeping. — As
some guide towards judging as to the
suitableiiess of any reading that may he
undertaken, we give the following con-
densed summary of what we consider
ought to be learnt from it : that modern
bee-keeping is an art founded on strict
scientific principles ; that it can be de-
pended upon, weather alone permitting,
for yielding certain fixed results, as
surely as can any other industry about a
farm ; and that to enable one to use his
scientific knowledge to advantange, hives
must be adopted that give every facility
for controlling all the operations of the
bees, and for assisting them by the use
of comb-foundations and other modern
aids.
Hives. — Such hives are variously called
bar -frame or movable comb -hives, and
the tendency is towards great simplicity
in these. The books and dealers' lists
may, with great plausibility, recommend
costly hives with elaborate fittings and
adjuncts ; but for profit and convenience
none excel those that consist of simple
box bodies fitted with plain frames with
roof and floorboard. To allow of tier-
ing up, with a view to the production
of either comb or extracted honey, the
bodies should all be exactly alike, and so
fitted as to sit accurately one over an-
other. That is, one may have any num-
ber of bodies or stories in use as a hive
or stock, though with only one roof and
floorboard. Hives with fixed legs should
specially be avoided, any plain stand
being substituted.
BEE-KEEPING.
259
AppUaiLoes for Special Conditions.
— Tlie student ought also to learn that,
in certain localities and under certain
circumstances, it may be better to adopt
appliances specially with a view to pro-
ducing comb-honey, this especially where
heather is plentiful ; or that it inay be
better to work for extracted honey, as
may be in most demand ; or to work for
both — say for clover -honey to be ex-
tracted, and for heather - honey in the
comb.
Study Surroundings. — At the same
time he ought to have his observing
powers at work, more especially notic-
ing the favoured bee-flowers peculiar to
his neighbourhood, and their period of
bloom. This knowledge will greatly aid
him in forming his plan, for one of the
great secrets of success is in having one's
stocks in the very best condition, just
when the prevailing honey-flow comes
on, and not either still weak from spring
neglect, or what is almost as bad, weak-
ened by swarming after having been
strong. The peculiarities of his location
as to climate and exposure also merit
attention. And as a result of all, he
must make up his mind whether he can
afford tt) give his bees the necessary time
and attention, and in what particular
direction he shall go to work.
Caution in Practice.
Obtaining Stocks. — Should such pre-
liminaries chance to occupy him during
the winter or early spring months, he
piay at once look out for the needful
stocks. If these are already on hand,
even though domiciled in ancient straw-
skeps, so much the better ; otherwise he
may easily obtain by purchase one or
more such. These are usually to be had
so much cheaper than stocks in modern
hives, and the experience gained in the
course of working them into the new
system is so valuable, all the more so
because it compels him to " go slowly,"
that on the whole we generally advise
beginners to commence with such.
By exceptional diligence in gathering
information, and with that knack of
managing live stock that many have as
a peculiar gift, it might be safe enough
to embark boldly in a wholesale fashion
at first, but generally we recommend
caution.
" Bee - fever." — Few become really
successful bee-keepers until they have at
least one whole year's experience, and it is
better to try and control the " bee-fever "
than to let it run riot, to the imminent
danger of collapse and misfortune.
Appliances.
The needful appliances are by no
means so numerous or costly as some
of the many large and finely illustrated
price-lists issued by dealers may suggest.
To begin with, at any rate, one's wants
may be sufficiently met by the posses-
sion of a hat-veil, a smoker, a supply of
hives, with the necessary frames, crates,
and sections, and a stock of comb-foun-
dations.
Hat-veil. — The veil is simply a yard
and a half of black hexagon net, sewed
up one seam with an elastic band, to go
round a broad-brimmed hat, the lower
edge to be tucked away inside the vest.
Smoker. — The smoker is a bellows
contrivance for burning rags, brown
paper, or touchwood, in such a way as
to permit of directing a stream of smoke
upo^ tlie bees when they are to be
handled. A loosely tied roll of rag
(corduroy or moleskin is best) may serve
a turn instead, or the fumes of tobacco
may be utilised by those who can use
the pipe. This frightens and quiets
the bees.
Hives. — The hives, as already hinted,
should be of simple construction, each
body made to hold not more than eleven
frames.
The frames should be of the standard
size used in the neighbourhood, hung in
the hives, so that ten of them occupy a
space of i4j^ inches, that being also
the dimension of the hive the other way.
We prefer eleven frames, so that our
hives inside measure 14^^ x 16 inches,
and are deep enough to hold the frames
suspended, with the necessary bee-space
below and around.
This size of hive is just about right
for, permitting ordinary-sized crates of
sections to be piled up inside the upper
storeys.
Sections. — Sections are those neat
dovetailed boxes to hold one or two
pounds of, honeycomb, and are generally
imported from America, and sold by
dealers very cheaply.
26o
BEE-KEEPING.
Crates. — Crates are the bottomless
boxes or trays in which the sections are
arranged in groups of 2 1 or less, accord-
to their size.
Comb - foundations. — Comb-founda-
tions are sheets of bees'-wax impressed
with the exact form of the cells as made
by the bees. These are turned out by
special machinery, and are a great help
both in supplying the bees with material
of which to build combs, and in com-
pelling them to build them straight in
the frames or sections where wanted, at
the same time putting it in the power of
the bee-keeper to limit the production of
useless drones.
Other Appliances. — A f%w other
minor appliances might be found useful,
though not absolutely necessary, such as
a queen cage or two, some queen-exclud-
ing zinc, bottle - feeders, and a honey-
knife. The cast carpets or blankets
about the house will supply all the
quilts needed for a commencement.
Honey Extractor. — The question of
having the rather expensive machine for
emptying combs without breaking them
— called the honey extractor — ^may be
deferred till experience warrants the
expense.
Management — Preliminary.
Driving Bees. — The first concern of
those commencing should be, as soon as
may be best, to get their bees domiciled
in the new frame-hives. It is quite easy
for experts to transfer both bees and
combs from the one to the other at al-
most any season. The bees are "driven"
into an empty skep, according to direc-
tions in the book referred to ; the combs
are then cut out, and 'pieced and tied
into the new frames ; these, with the
bees, are then placed in the new hive,
when they soon fix all nicely up.
But we advise rather to await the
natural sw^ming season, when either
swarms may be allowed to come off or
the plan afterwards described adopted.
ISew Swarms. — If natural swarms be
got, they should be treated thus : the
first that comes off should be placed in
the new hive on the stool where the skep
stood, the latter being removed to a new
location. This causes many more bees,
accustomed to the old place, to join the
swarm and strengthen it. The likelihood
is that the skep will not swarm again.
Should it do so, the swarm should be
returned, and more ventilation given, as
a preventive, till the 21st day from first
swarming, when all brood will have been
hatched out.
A second good bar-frame stock can
now be had by driving all the bees and
transferring any comBs found straight
and sweet. On no account would we
advise more than two stocks to be made
from one.
Another Plan. — The other plan is to
set the skep when crowded with bees
on top of a new hive fitted with comb-
foundation, compelling the bees to work
downwards through a 6-inch hole in the
quilt, by closing their old entrance. If
it be done at the right time, the bees
will generally have some combs worked
out below within a week, when an ex-
amination should be made of these to
see whether the queen has gone below.
The presence of eggs in the cells may
generally be accepted as proof sufiicient,
but we should prefer in all cases to see
her majesty. This being so, the skep
may be lifted off and set in a new locar
tion, to be afterwards treated as if it had
swarmed naturally, as before desciribed.
Kapid Increase of Stocks.^ — To those
anxious to increase their stocks as much
as possible, it is a good plan to rear or
purchase spare queens, so as to be able
to introduce one into each skep as soon
as it has been removed from its old place
and queen. In that case the same pro-
cess of stocking new hives may be carried
out at the rate of one every fortnight or
three weeks during the honey season.
In backward and ungenial seasons less
must be expected, and, indeed, it is com-
mon to leave the skep in place on the
first hive until all its brood is hatched
out, when it is taken and treated as a
honey super.
Purchasing Swarms. — Some may
prefer, or have no alternative but to
make a start by purchasing swarms
wherewith to stock the new hives. These"
should be secured as early as possible,
say by the first week of June in the south
of Scotland, and a fortnight later in the
north. They ought to weigh not less
than 4 lb., an ordinary top skep swarm,
though 6 or 7 lb. are usually had in a
swarm from a good frame stock.
BEE-KEEPING.
261
Collecting Driven Bees. — Still others
may adopt the more economical though
more troublesome plan of gathering up
driven bees in the autumn, and by join-
ing these into large colonies, and feeding
rapidly with bottle syrup, get them into
good shape before winter. Any one hav-
ing learned the art of "driving," and
having the soft side of cottagers who are
going to brimstone their bees, may gen-
erally have them for the trouble of driv-
ing, though in most localities the cot-
tagers are getting too knowing to give
away what they may as well learn to use
to their own benefit.
In whatever way obtained, let us sup-
pose the reader to have in the autumn
several good stocks of bees in modern
hives. We would now indicate in the
order of the seasons the systeni and treat-
ment we consider best for him to adopt.
Winterinff.
Secret of Success. — The great secret
of successful wintering is in keeping the
bees in as quiet a state and as constant
a temperature as possible. Of course
abundant supplies are the first considera-
tion to this end, the next is careful pack-
ing and ventilation, and the third is to
let them rest free from the least disturb-
ance till the first of spring.
Preparing for Winter. — A warm day
late in November is our chosen time for
arranging hives for the winter. If made
very comfortable long before this, the
bees incline to fly too much and to
dwindle. But left just as they were
after the honey harvest, they have free
ventilation and plenty of room, never
get too warm, and stay more at home.
As steady cold weather approaches we
need not be so afraid, and so we choose
such a day as mentioned to make all
trim and comfortable.
Armed with smoker or other quieting
agent, a bag of chaff, a quantity of extra
pieces of carpet or other quilt materials,
and some flat cakes of "bee-candy," we
set to work. Hives still containing bees
on every comb, or nearly so, we do not
disturb further than to lay a cake on
top of frames, cover closely with sev-
eral thicknesses of quilt, and over all, if
the make of the hive permits, pour a
few inches of loose chaff, or stuff in a
chaff cushion. The doorway is left full
VOL. III.
width, or at any rate not under six
inches long.
The candy is given not solely to in-
crease the supply of food, but because it
supports the coverings, so that when
eaten away there is a nice warm ckvity
left that forms the best kind of winter
passage from one frame space to another.
"Weak Hives. — Weaker hives, contain-
ing bees on six frames only, or under, are
contracted by removing all the outside
beeless combs, inserting division-boards
next the remaining combs, and filling
the spaces with chaff. Otherwise they
are treated as before.
Very small stocks are united two and
two, though this should have been done
in autumn.
For the rest, no further attention is
required till spring, unless one chooses to
keep the snow well cleared away from
the ground in front, and to watch on
sunny days when the snow is soft, keep-
ing the bees at home by heaping soft
snow over the entrances. This shades
and cools the hive, and affords the neces-
sary water to the bees that are trying to
get out to find it.
Bees not shut in. — On no account
should bees be actually shut in, as they
often get into such a state as to suffocate.
Only tempt them to stay at home when
it is dangerous for them to be out.
Experiments. — Quite probably the
experiments we are conducting in the
line of cellar -wintering, or by burying
the hives in pits or clamps, may result
in an improved system in that direction,
which is so much in favour in America.
Spring Treatment.
Provided all goes well in wintering,
there is really no necessity for disturbing
the bees during early spring.
Breeding resumed. — ^They naturally
recommence breeding about the New "
Year, and their stores thereafter more
rapidly diminish ; but they ought to have
sufficient left them in autumn to carry
them through till the first new honey is
to be got, or tiU gooseberry and fruit-
trees are in bloom.
Supplementing the "Winter Tood.
— ^Wherever there is any doubt as to the
supply of food, it is our custom to take a
peep into all stocks on the first fine day
when bees are flying. We are loath to
R
262
BEE-KEEPING.
distorl; the vrinter packing, which is of
most value when the bees are breeding
with diminished numbers in spring. We
therefore simply raise the packing and
quilts along the back edge of the comb^
when it is possible to see whether there
remains still a quantity of sealed comb in
at least the most of the frames. If so, all
is well so far as food is concerned, and it
is too soon to inquire into other matters.
Where there is an evident deficiency
in food, there must be a more thorough
examination, and any want supplied,
either by giving back any combs of
honey reserved for this purpose, or by
laying & cake of candy under the quilt.
Iiiquid Pood. '-^Liquid food should
not be given unless in desperate cases,
when it may be pouted into empty combs
and hung in the hive.
SUmiilatiiig Stocks.-^Later on, say
when willows are in bloom, it will be of
advantage to contract the brood^nest by
removing all beeless combs and closing
in the di'Vision boards, though many
think it better to leave them alone. All
depends on whether the district is one
for very early honey, makings it necessary
to stimulate the bees by every means, so
as to come to full strength before the
honey season opens. With us the clover
is the main harvest, commencing on an
average about the 15th June, and our
average stocks usually come to swarming
strength by that time without any special
stimulation, and thus the energies of the
queen are conserved for keeping up the
poptilatlon tillthe close of the harvest.
Stocks stimulated to undue exertions
early in the season are more apt to swarm
excessively, and thus to imperil the honey
returns.
Continuous Treatment. ^^ As i the
bee-keeper's summer may be considered
as commencing with the swarming season,
or say from June 1st, we may add that
whatever style of treatment may be
adopted, in view of getting hives filled
with bees and brood, should be continued
without intermission till that period ar-
rives. That is, care must be taken to
see that once the bees have got started
in earnest to brood-rearing there should
be suffered no check from want of food
or room. Both should be given in moder-
ation, yet continuously; when plenty of
natural stores are coming in, leave well
alone, but supplement these either bj
bottle-feeding whenever the weather is
unsuitable for outdoor work, or by Bn-
capping portions of their sealed stores
every day or two.
Fea^meal may be given as an equivalent
or supplement to natural pollen when
that is defi(»ent, the meal being sprinkled
on shavings in an old skep set to face the
sun in a sheltered comer. Boom need
only be given where combs have previ-
ously been removed, by adding one at a
time in tiie centre of the brood-nest, as
the bees are able to cover all closely. So
soon as the hive is full of bees from ^de
to side, with brood in every frame, the
summer treatment should begin.
SuTnmer Treatment.
It should previously be matter for
consideration and decision whether the
various stocks are to be worked for (i)
increase, or (2) honey.
Working tot Honey.^^If the latter,
it has to be decided whether it is for ex-
tracted or comb honey. Every prepara-
tion should be made accordingly. New
hives, ready fitted to receive swarms,
should be prepared beforehand, upper
storeys filled with spare combs or founda-
tion lot extracting purposes, and crates
ready fitted with guided sections for comb
honey.
Working for Increase of Stocks.—
If increase foe wanted, some such plan
should be followed as indicated on pre-
liminary management
Extracted or Comb Honey.'-^As to
whether one should aim at getting ex-
tracted or comb honey, each must dis-
cover for himself which is likely to be
more saleable in his district. We may,
however, indicate our opinion that, genei>
ally, extracted honey is likely to be more
in demand than comb. They are rapidly
approaching each other in price, the
former being obtained with more ease
and certainty, and in perhaps a third
greater quantity. It is in demand all
the year round, while comb unfortunately
has its "season."
The "Writer's Practice.-^Our own
practice, adopted after many years' ex-
perience, is as follows : We work for
honey, but allow a moderate natural in-
crease, partly to ensure our having old
queens replaced by young ones, partly to
BEE-KEEPING.
263
keep up our stock, so as to permit of
doubling up weak colonies, and partly to
allow the bees a little of their own way,
which seems to keep them in better
heart for work. That is, we do all we
can towards getting honey, and in doing
so to prevent swarming; but as occa-
sional swarms will come off in spite of
us, we do not try to thwart the bees by
returning these, but make the best of
them, by giving them a good start on
combs ready built, or on combs of brood
and foundation.
If second swarms issue, we cut out all
royal cells and return the swarm.
By placing first swarms on the old
8to(^ they are made stronger by the old
bees returning to their accustomed place,
and the removed stock is so weakened
that it does not often swarm a second
time. Sometimes we break up the
latter, giving nearly all the bees to the
new swarm, and dividing the combs of
brood amongst those not yet at full
strength. Of course we cut out royal
cells, in case they may tempt the other
stocks to swarm.
Controlling Swarming. — To prevent
swarming, or at least reduce it to the
lowest as a natural impulse, we find it
generally enough to see that the bees
have plenty of doorway and plenty of
room for storage and for clustering in-
side.
This room we give them by tiering on
upper storeys of combs for extracting,
or of crates of sections, and this as long
as the honey season seems to warrant.
That is, from experience we know about
what date the honey - flow, say from
clover, usually ceases, and we take care
not to give more accommodation than is
likely to be made use of.
This is important when finished comb
honey is wanted, though of little conse-
quence if extracted honey is the object.
The latter can be taken at the close of
the season, whether in full-finished combs
or not.
Securing well-ripened Honey.— To
get either extracted or comb honey well
ripened and sealed, we require at least
two upper storeys or two crates of sec-
tions to each hive. As soon as the first
put on is well forward, and the bees
need more room, we raise it, placing the
empty one between. If the latter have
foundation only, the bees are compelled
to store all their honey for a day or
more in the upper story, which generally
ensures its being well finished.
Produce. — Towards the close of the
season we place the empty tier upper-
most, as the other has more chance of
being finished off when left next the
brood-nest. By careful calculation, and
with favourable weather, we thus get
from good stocks from 50 lb. to 100 lb.,
and often more, of nice comb honey
each, and from others 150 lb. to 200 lb.
of extracted honey.
For details of how to manipulate the
bees and combs when harvesting the
honey, or of using the extractor, and
preparing the honey for show or market',
and for other minute matters, the reader
must seek in books and journals apeoially
dealing with bees.
Autumn Management.
In many districts the autumn treat-
ment includes part of the honey harvest
— viz., the heather.
Heather Honey. — Usually a week or
ten days intervene between the close of
the clover season and the time that
heather yields. Where this most mag-
nificent of all honey is to be had, special
pains must be taken to secure it.
The secret is, barring the weather, to
have only strong stocks, and to make
them warmer by soft coverings than
during the earlier season. Where swarm-
ing has been allowed ad libitwm, neither
swarms nor old stocks are fit to do much
in the way of surplus. Stocks previ-
ously worked for extracting are best of
all. They have always more bees left
than those which have been worked for
comb.
There should be some change in the
plan of working these — that is, comb
honey only should be sought from
heather. Heather honey will not leave
the combs in the extractor, but has to be
broken up and pressed ; nor does it sell
so well as in the comb.
There should be no more room given
than the bees can crowd comfortably
into, as the nights are chilly, causing
them sometimes to desert the supers.
After Honey Harvest. — The general
autumn treatment for stocks after the
honey harvest consists mainly in doing
264
SHEEP-DOGS.
all one can to keep the bees quiet, and
so prevent robbing.
Bees Plundering. — Not a drop of
honey or bit of comb should be left any-
where within their reach, for if once
started, the bees get on at 'once for
plunder; and so vicious do they then
become, that the apiary is a place to be
dreaded by man and beast. As soon as
all surplus honey is taken, and that
under every precaution, all hives should
be closely though not warmly covered,
doorways contracted a little, and left
alone till early winter.
Necessary operations should be done
towards evening, when flying bees have
all gone home. If food be needed,
either as a result of a poor season, or of
the honey having nearly all been stored
in supers, it should be given rapidly as
soon as the supers are taken away, and
before the time of dearth and robbery
has come.
Queenless stocks should be attended
to, weak hives united till strong, and
all left to settle till the time for winter
treatment arrives.
' Food for Bees.
liiquid Food for Bees. — Boil to-
gether 5 lb. white sugar and i quart of
water; a few minutes' boiling will
suffice. It is improved by boiling with
it a pinch of cream of tartar. This is
the proper food for autumn. Spring
food may have a half more water, and
the tartar omitted.
Sugar-cake for Bees in Winter. —
Boil together 5 lb, white sugar, less
than a pint of water, and a pinch of
cream of tartar, until a drop cooled on
a plate stiflfens so as to draw out as a
thread. Take off the fire and set in
a cool place, or in cold water, stirring
briskly until the mass begins to cool and
turns white and thick. Then pour out
on thin sheets of paper laid in flat
dinner - plates. When cold, the cakes
should be white and flrm, yet not hard.
Spring Pood. — For early spring food,
a handful of flour for each pound of
sugar may be stirred in shortly before
pouring out. These cakes should be
slipped under the quilts, paper side up.
SHEEP-DOGS.
The collie dog is well entitled to men-
tion amongst the live stock of the farm.
He is a faithful and worthy servant,
absolutely essential upon sheep farms.
Origin of Collies. — The origin of
collies is not very clear. Darwin has
stated that the type approximates more
closely to the old feral type than does
any other of the domesticated varieties
of dogs. But it is extremely probable
that the collie as we know it to-day is
a created race, although the work of
moulding the different types must have
taken place very early — before probably
some of our other breeds of dogs were
much known, or even in existence.
The name Collie is believed by many
to have been derived from the associa-
tion of the dogs with certain Highland
sheep which were known at one time as
coUeys on account of the black colour of
their faces and legs. Others have held
that Collie is simply a variation of the
words Cooly, CoUey, or Coley, signifying
"black." Webster, in his dictionary,
gives the derivation as from the Gaelic
cuilean, a whelp, puppy, or dog.
Whatever may be the exact signifi-
cance of the name, there is little doubt
that collies in the early days of their
history were specially associated with
Scotland. Even yet in many parts of
England it is customary to hear collies
spoken of as Scotch collies, in contra-
distinction to the Old English sheep-dog,
sometimes also called the hob -tailed
dog, on account of his short, stumpy tail
Collies now hold, with fox-terriers, the
distinction of being the most widely dis-
tributed breed of dogs that we have. In
addition to the large numbers that are
kept and used on farms, and by herds
and drovers, many collies are now kept
for fancy purposes and as pets.
SHEEP-DOGS.
36s
VARIETIES OP COLLIES.
Broadly speaking, there are three
•varieties of collies — rough-coated dogs,
smooth-coated dogs, and bearded dogs.
If one included the Old English dog
already referred to, which is well en-
titled to be included amongst sheep
dogs, there would be four. Practically
all of the different kinds of collies or
sheep-dogs which one sees up and down
the country, both in England and Scot-
land, as well as in Ireland, are bred
from one or other of these types, or a
mixture of them.
Bearded Collies. — Of the three first-
mentioned varieties the beardie is per-
haps as distinct a type as any. This
class of dog is a sort of combination of
the ordinary collie and the Old English
sheep-dog. Beardies are nearly always
dark or hazel grey in colour, roughly
haired over the upper part of the face
and eyes, and rather pronounced in the
hook of the hind leg. This class of dog
is very intelligent, but some years ago, on
account of their generally bigger size and
heavier weight, they became less popular
with hill shepherds than the smaller
class of collies. This, however, was
followed by efforts for their reintro-
duction which have been attended
with a considerable amount of suc-
cess, and one now sees more of them
than formerly. It is a tribute to the
beardie that he is often seen in the
hands of drovers — a class of men who
waste little sentiment, as a rule, on
their dogs, but usually put points of
utility and usefulness in the forefront.
From the point of view of the hill
shepherd, however, the smaller collie
has its advantages. Being lighter in
weight, its feet are not so apt to get a
torn or frayed by rough heather roots
or stumps.
A good specimen of a Bearded Collie
is represented in fig. 735.
Smootli- and Sough-coated Collies,
— Although they differ in their coats, the
other two classes of collies mentioned have
many points in common. They are made
pretty much after the same model, are
equally varied in colour, and have the
same general cast of features. In recent
times the rough-coated class have been to
a large extent spoiled for work through
the crossing which has taken place for
fancy showyard points. A long sharp
nose and a narrow contracted forehead
has been practically the be-all and end-
all with fancy breeders, the result being
that much of the old intelligence of the
dogs has been lost
I''ig* 735 — Bearded collie.
On this account, for practical pur- ,
poses, many prefer the smooth - coated
breed which has not been crossed to the
same extent, or a cross between the
smooth- and the rough -coated varieties.
Many of the smooth - coated dogs are
exceedingly valuable either for hill or
field work. They are usually much more
cautious than the rough-coated dogs and
Fig, 736. — Smooth-coated collie.
are easier trained, but are not, as a rule,
so swift when a special spurt is required.
In fig. 736 a portrait is given of Mr
Robert Chapman's famous smooth-coated
bitch "Young Trim." A modern repre-
sentative of the rough -coated type is
shown in fig. 737.
Rough -coated dogs, like dogs of the
smooth-coated type, may be of almost
any colour or combination of colours,
although, as a rule, they are black and
266
SHEEP-DOGS.
wMte, black and tan, and black and tan
and white, or variations of these. Sable
has for several years been a popular col-
our in the case of " fancy " (show) collies,
but few of these are to be met with in
the possession of shepherds or farmers
who keep collies for working purposesi
Old English Sheep-Dogs. — ^The bob-
tailed dog, as he is frequently called, is
not the least handsome of the four varie-
ties. He makes a first-ciass companion,
and by many is even preferred to the
ordinary collie fox working purposes.
Indeed, on account of his sagaeity and
utilityy he is often spoken of as the
Smithfield or Drover's dog. Some
people hold that the bearded collie of
Scotland is a cross between the Old
F>£ 737* — Rough'coated collie.
English sheep-dog and the ordinary
collie. In both the head is squarish,
in place of being long and narrow, as
in the case of the ordinary collie. The
two types are certainly different, in re-
spect that the one has a long tail and
the other a short tail, but in most other
respects they are not greatly dissimilar.
The colour most sought after in the
English dog is some shade of blue or
grey, with white markings. In many
specimens the white predominates, but
grey, grizzly blue, or blue merle, with
or without white markings, are typical
colours. The coat in both this and the
bearded variety must be abundant, hard
in texture, and shaggy, without, however,
any great tendency to curliness. The
under coat — this, however, applies to
collies of all classes — Inust be very dense
and waterproof. The usual height of a
bob-tailed dog at the shoulder is about. 2 2
inches ; bitches measure, as a rule, about
20 inches. The short tail and shaggy
coat of an English sheep-dog gives him a
distinctly bear-like appearance, and makes
him easily identified wherever seen.
Other Kinds of Collies. — In late
years two or three more or less distinct
types of coUies have been evolved by
selection from particular specimens.
One of the beat known of these is the
marled or marbled collie of Wales and
different counties of England. This is a
bluish-coloured dog, very much after the
type of an ordinary smooth-coated collie,
but much more mixed in colour. The
best specimens are very good workers,
and Welsh shepherds use them largely
in their daily avocations^
In the same way in late years, in
the south-east of Scotland and north-
ern districts of England, shepherds
have produced what is, practically a
distinct breed. This is a medium-
sized black and white dog, with sharp,
pricked ears, and a rough rather than
smooth coat. These dogs are specially
bred and trained for sheep - herding
purposes, and are greatly valued by
those who own them.
Training Dogs.
Bad Training of Bogs. — The nat-
ural temper of the shepherd may be
learned from the way in which he works
his dog among the sheep. When an
aged dog is observed making a great noise,
bustling about in an impatient manner,
running fiercely at a sheep and turning it
quickly, and biting at its ears or legs, it
may safely be assumed that the shepherd
who owns it is a man of hasty temper.
Most young dogs exhibit these character-
istics naturally, but it is the business of
a competent man to curb them and not
allow the dog to do as he pleases. A
man who allows his dog to deal with the
sheep in the manner described is culpably
careless of his flock. If, on the other
hand, a shepherd be observed allowing
his dog, whether old or young, to take a
range round the fences of a field, driving
the sheep as if to gather them, it may be
concluded that he is a lazy fellow, more
ready to make his dog bring the sheep to
him than to walk his rounds to see them.
SHEEP-DOGS.
267
tireat harm may accrue to sheep by
working dogs in Uiese ways. Whenever
sheep hear a dog bark that is accus-
tomed to hound them every day, tih^y
will instantly start from their graziog,
gather together, and run to the farthest
fence, and a good while may elapse ere
they settle again. And even when sheep
are gathered, a dog of high travel, and
allowed to run out, will drive them hither
and thither, without an apparent olyeot.
This is a trick practised by lazy herds
«very morning when they first see their
flock, and every evening before they take
up their quarter^ for the night, in order
to count them with what th^y deem to
be the least trouble to themselves.
When an imperfectly trained dog is
allowed to run far out, it gets beyond
the control of the shepherd ; and suxsh a
style of working among sheep of any
ckss puts them past their feeding for a
time : with ewes it is very apt to cause
abortion ; and with lambs, after they are
weaned, it is apt to overheat them and
induce palpitation and high breathing.
Whenever a sorting takes place ■among
sheep, with such a dog they will be
moved about far more than is necessary ;
and intimidated sheep, when run into a
corner, are far more liable to break oflF
than those treated in a gentle manner.
Judicious Training. — A judicious
herd works his dog in quite a different
manner. He never disturbs the sheep
when he takes his rounds amongst them
at morning, noon, and night — ^his dog
following at his heel as if he had nothing
to do, but ready to fulfil its duty should
any untoward circumstance arise, such
as breaking out of one field into another.
When he gathers sheep for sorting, or
catching a particular one, the gathering
is made in a corner, to gain which he
will give the sheep plenty of time,
making the dog wear to the right and
left, to direct the sheep quietly to the
spot; and after they are gathered, he
makes the dog watch, and, with an occar
sional movement, prevent any sheep
breaking away. When a sheep does
break away, and must be turned, he does
not allow the dog to bite it, or even to
bark, but to circle well in front of it and
thus turn it back. Some single sheep
are very obstinate to turn, and in such a
case a snap by the dog at the animal's
ear may be justified, but unless in
extreme cases "teething" of the sheep
ought to be forbidden.
A thoroughly good shepherd only lets
his dog work when its services are
actually required, he bestowing his own
labours ungrudgingly, and only demand-
ing assistance from his dog when he
cannot do it so well by himself. At no
time will he allow his dog to go beyond
the reach of his immediate control.
WeU - trained Bogs. — Dogs, thus
gently and cautiously trained, become
very sagacious, and "will diligently visit
every part of a field where sheep are most
apt to stray, and where danger is most to
be apprehended — such as a weak part of
a fence, water-runs, deep ditches, or defep
furrows into which sheep may possibly
fall and lie await or awkwardr—oa. the
broad of their back, unable to get up.
Many dogs are so sagacious as to assist
in raising up sheep lying await by seiz-
ing the wool at one side and pulUng
with all their power till the sheep get
upon their feet.
Experienced dogs also know when
foxes are on the move, and give evident
symptoms of uneasiness on their ap-
proach to the lambing - ground. They
also hear footsteps of strange persons
and animals at a considerable distance
at night, and announce their approach
by unequivocal signs of uneasiness. A
shepherd's dog when «,t active work is
incorruptible, cannot be bribed with a
bite of food, and will not permit even a
known friend to touch it or its charge
when intrusted with an act of duty.
Skill in Training. — Most shepherds
profess to train young collies. In this
delicate work many shepherds display
little knowledge of the nature of the
breed, and of the aptitude of the par-
ticular individual for its peculiar work.
Hence many dogs are rendered unfit for
useful service. Every collie-pup has a
natural instinct for work amongst sheep ;
nevertheless, they should be trained with
an old dog. Their ardent temperament
requires subduing, and there is no more
effectual way of doing this than by keep-
ing them in company with an experienced
dog. A long string attached to the pup's
neck, in the hands of the shepherd, is
necessary to make it become acquainted
with the language of the various evolu-
268
SHEEP-DOGS.
tions connected with work. With this
contrivance it may learn to "hold away
out hy," " aome in," " come in behind,"
"lie doum," "be quiet," "bark," "get
over the dyke," " wean-," "heel," "hep." It
will learn all these terms, and others, in
a short time. It is said that the bitch
is more acute in learning than the dog,
though the dog will bear the greater
fatigue. Of the two, the quietly disposed
shepherd prefers the bitch as a rule, and
is chary of working her when in pup.
Sagacity of the Collie.
Much may be said of the sagacity and
faithfulness of the collie. "If he be
but with his master," observes Youatt,
" he lies content, indifferent to any sur-
rounding object, seemingly half asleep
and half awake, rarely mingling with his
kind, rarely courting, and generally shrink-
ing from, the notice of a stranger. But
the moment duty calls, his sleepy listless
eye becomes brightened, he eagerly gazes
on his master, inquires and comprehends
all he has to do, and, springing up, gives
himself to the discharge of his duty with
a sagacity and fidelity and devotion too
rarely equalled even by man himself."
"If we consider," says Buffon, "that
this animal is superior in instinct to all
others; that he has a decided char-
acter, in which education has compara-
tively little share; that he is the only
animal born perfectly trained for the
service of others; that, guided by nat-
ural powers alone, he applies himself to
the care of our flocks — a duty which
he executes with singular assiduity,
vigilance, and fidelity; that he conducts
them with an admirable intelligence,
which is a part and portion of himself ;
that his sagacity astonishes at the same
time that it gives repose to his master,
while it requires great time and trouble
to instruct other dogs for the purposes to
which they are destined, — ^if we reflect on
these facts, we shall be confirmed in the
opinion that the shepherd's dog is the
true dog of nature, the stock and model
of his species."
The Ettrick Shepherd truly says that
"a single shepherd and his dog will
accomplish more, in gathering a flock
of sheep from a Highland farm, than
seventy shepherds could do without
dogs; in fact, that, without this docile
animal, the pastoral life would be a
blank. It would require more hands
to manage a flock of sheep, gather them
from the hills, force them into houses
and folds, and drive them to markets,
than the profits of the whole flock would
be capable of maintaining. Well may
the shepherd feel an interest in his dog :
he it is indeed that earns the family
bread, of which he is himself, for the
smallest morsel, always grateful and
always ready to exert his utmost abil-
ities in his master's interests. Neither
hunger, fatigue, nor the worst of treat-
ment will drive him from his side, and
he will follow him through every hard-
ship without murmur or repining."
Dog Trials.
Notably since the advent of the
twentieth century, competitive trials
for working collies have become an
interesting feature in many rural dis-
tricts. Prizes are given for the best
working dogs over a stated course.
Three or more sheep are usually penned
in the distance, but in sight of the
shepherd competitor. The sheep are
liberated when the competitor takes
his stand at the appointed place, and
the dog has then to be run out and
bring them to his master. Stakes are
frequently erected through which the
sheep have to be passed in a stated
way. One or two of the sheep have
usually to be separated from the others
and held close at hand for a stated
time by the dog. Finally the whole
of the sheep have to be penned, the
shepherd being permitted to assist- the
dog in this operation. Otherwise he
is supposed to direct the dog only by
words, signs, or whistles. The prizes are
awarded not only on a basis of time, but
on the exactitude with which the dif-
ferent operations are performed and the
general behaviour of the dog, rough usage
of the sheep being an almost fatal fault.
These trials are objected to by many
sheep-farmers, on the grounds that the
operations performed at the trials are
not such as are met with in ordinary
sheep-farming practice, and that a good
deal of harm is inflicted upon consider-
able numbers of sheep by excessive
driving in the process of training the
dogs for the competitions.
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
269
YAEIETIES OF FOOD.
The farmers of tke United Kingdom
have ample choice of materials for the
feeding of their different classes of stock.
A fairly substantial home supply is aug-
mented ■ by ever - increasing imports of
moderately priced foods of good quality
from colonial and foreign countries, and
in order that farmers may be assisted in
deciding from time to time as to the
kinds of food which, at the current
prices, can be most economically em-
ployed, full information is here pre-
sented as to the composition and char-
acter of the feeding -stuffs available in
this country.
Brief notes regarding the different
materials used as food for farm live-
stock are given here. Detailed analyses
will be found on page 290.
MUh.
Milk has a good right to rank first
amongst foods. It is the most perfect
and most natural of all foods for young
animals. As already observed, there
must be a proper mixture of the nitro-
genous constituents or albuminoids along
with the non-nitrogenous (carbo-hydrates
and fat), to form a perfect food. A per-
fect illustration of this mixture is found
in milk, the first food upon which the
young animal is expected to subsist. It
contains, ist, casein or curd, which is a
substance of the same class as \h.& fibrin
or lean part of the flesh ; 2nd, fat in the
shape of butter; 3rd, sugar, the most
easily digested of all carbohydrates ; and
4th, certain substances which are con-
verted into the earthy part of the bones,
and the saline matter of the blood. The
saline or earthy portion of milk consists
of the phosphates of Ume, magnesia, and
iron, chloride of potassium, and common
salt.
In its ordinary state the milk of the
cow consists on the average of about 3j^
per cent of casein or flesh-forming matter,
2,]/2 per cent of butter -fat; 41^^ per
cent of sugar ; % per cent of saline
matter; and 87^ per cent of water.
Ev^ything, therefore, which is required
to promote the development of the grow-
TOL. III.
ing animal is contained in the milk,
blended together in proportions suited
for the purpose.
Wheat. •
Wheat is a very starchy food. In the
form of flour it is not suitable for stock ;
but as it leaves the straw with the bran
and other coats, it is a fairly well-balanced
food, coming pretty near to the album-
inoid ratio of i to 7.
Damaged Wheat for Stock. — Wheat
which has been damaged by wet in
harvesting is sometimes turned to good
account in feeding stock. It should be
first kiln -dried and then mixed with
chaffed hay or straw.
Feeding Value of Wlieat. — When
wheat was selling at from 40s. upwards
per quarter, it was too expensive to be
used in feeding stock ; but when it sells
at not more than about 30s. per quarter,
it may in some cases be employed for
this purpose with advantage. Mr John
Speir, Newton Farm, Newton, Glasgow,
has used wheat with vfery satisfactory
results in the feeding of dairy-cows. He
points out, however, that to be a success-
ful feeding - stuff by itself it would re-
quire much more oil than it possesses,
and considers that the addition of one-
fourth of linseed or one-third of linseed-
cake would much enhance its feeding
value. He says that to cattle — mixed
with an equal proportion of decorti-
cated cotton-cake and peas or beans, all
ground into rough meal (not flour) — it
has given excellent results. It is better
boiled and given whole than ground into
flour, but as rough meal it is better than
either, as then it never gets into the
doughy state, and it mixes freely with
chaff and pressed or sliced turnips.
Wheat for Sheep. — Experiments con-
ducted by the Royal Agricultural Society
of England at Woburn showed wheat in
a favourable light. It was tried along
with linseed -cake, decorticated cotton-
cake, and barley. The best results were
got from decorticated cotton-cake, wheat
coming next. The wheat was given
whole.
270
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
Bran.
Bran, which in milling wheat for use
as human food is usually separated from
the flour, is much used as food for live-
stock. It is sometimes given in the form
of mashes, and at other times mixed
with other kinds of foods. When used
by itself, or mixed with cold water, it has
a slightly laxative effect, which renders
it useful in preparing horses for physic,
and in some cases may so act as to
obviate the necessity of giving purgative
medicine. The ash of bran contains a
large proportion of {ftiosphates, much
larger than the ash of barley or oats.
Hence it is particularly useful as part
of the food given to milch cows, when
such are " in profit," or full milk — milk
being rich in phosphatic constituents.
Bran acts beneficially in counteracting
the heating properties of maize and other
similar meals.
Barley.
Barley is exceedingly rich in the fat-
tening constituents of food. It is seldom
— and never should be — given in its dry
whole state as food for stock ; but in the
form of rough meal, or cooked, it is fed
very extensively. Like wheat, it has
fallen in price, and its home consumption
has increased proportionately.
Cooked Barley. — When barley is
being cooked, it must be allowed to
simmer slowly twelve hours, until the
whole forms a mass of ,rich pulpy matter,
perfectly free from whole grains. The
greatest care must be taken to prevent
the barley from becoming burned, by
adhering to the boiler in which it is
prepared. When thoroughly cooked, it
becomes a most valuable ingredient in
the food of fattening animals. Horses
thrive remarkably well upon it — so much
■ so, that a course of boiled barley given
at least once a-day will very soon reno-
vate horses that have been worn out with
hard work.
Boiled barley is used by some of the
most successful exhibitors of Shorthorns
in the preparation of their cattle for the
showyards. Along with a little oilcake,
it gives that finish — ^brings out that mel-
lowness in handling — which is so much
desired in such cases.
Steeping Barley. — Whole barley
should be steeped in water at least
twenty-four hours before being' given to
stock ; but the more common practice
now is to grind it or to crush it into
rough meal. Some think it advisable to
steep the ground barley in water.
Malt.
Barley is converted into tnalt by being
first steeped and then allowed tb germ-
inate, the original object of this process
being to prepare the barley for distillers
and brewers. As to the simple question
of the relative feeding merits of malted
and unmalted barley, there was a lively
and long - continued controversy. For-
merly the duty now levied directly upon
manufactured spirits, ales, and porters
was imposed upon malt, and then farmers
could not malt barley for feeding stock
without paying the malt-fluty. This was
a momentous grievance to farmers, on
whose behalf it was urged that malt
was much more valuable as food for
stock than unmalted barley. Human
nature is a little curious in some of
its moods, and it is just possible that
the barrier which formerly existed to the
use of malt as food for stock may have
had something to do with the high
opinion then expressed as to its value
for that purpose. Be that as it may,
the duty was removed from the malt,
and now that farmers can make malt for
their stock as freely as they desire, much
less is heard of its alleged special feeding
virtues than when they had no such
liberty. Indeed, malt has almost en-
tirely ceased to be used as food.
That malt is a valuable and palatable
food there is no doubt whatever. The
contention that it is superior food to
unmalted barley has not been borne out
by practical experience.
Rothamsted Experiments vrith
Malt. — Sir John Bennett Lawes carried
out an elaborate series of experiments
upon the use of malt in feeding various
kinds of stock. In all these experiments
he compared a certain weight of barley
with the same weight of barley converted
into malt. Given to cows,. he found that,
the same quantity of milk was produced,
but the quality was better with unmalted
barley. In a feeding experiment with
twenty cattle, the ten getting unmalted
barley increased more in weight and were
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
271
more even in condition than the ten
which got malt. In his experiments
on sheep and pigs, the results were also
rather in favour of the barley unmalted.
Special Properties of Malt. — It has,
however, been proved that malt does
possess certain useful properties in the
feeding of stock which are not possessed
to the same extent by unmalted barley.
The late Mr Richard Booth, of Warlaby,
considered that malt was superior to any
other article for feeding cattle up to the
very " tip-top " condition to which they
require to be brought when they are
intended for the showyard. Malt has
been used with good results in rearing
young pure-bred bulls.
The truth probably is, that such special
value as malt possesses is to a great ex-
tent a condimentary value. Just as cattle-
spices are valuable for imparting a relish
to diets in which straw-chafiF or poor hay
predominates, so malt, owing to its sweet
and appetising flavour, may impart a
relish to food that may be of value.
But it by no means follows that a food
which best puts the finishing touches
on an abnormally fat animal (which is
rarely produced at a profit) is to be
regarded as, on that account, an econom-
ical article of diet for profitable meat-
production. As a matter of fact, the
balance of evidence is in the opposite
direction, and is confirmed by so little
being heard of the use of malt for com-
mercial animals in recent years.
It usually costs close on 2s. pei; quarter
to convert barley into malt.
Malt-conibs.
When barley is converted into malt,
the effect of the steeping process is to
cause the grain to throw out young
shoots, just as the seed does when put
in the soil. These young shoots are
afterwards separated from the malt, and
are known as " malt-comhs," or " cum-
mins," or " malt-dust." The combs are
used as feeding-stuff, and have been found
useful, along .with other articles, as food
for milch cows. Sir Charles Cameron
says that the composition of this food
indicates a high nutritive power, but
adds that it is probable that its nitrog-
enous matters are partly in a" low degree
of elaboration, which greatly detracts
from its alimental value.
Malt-combs for Cows. — The late Dr
A. Voelcker considered that malt-combs
possessed high milk-producing qualities,
and that the food might be given with
great benefit to dairy-cows.'
Malt-combs as Manure. — Malt-combs
are also used as manure, but the late Dr
A. Voelcker considered it wasteful to
apply them directly to the land ; they
should first be passed through the ani-
mal's body.
Bere and Eye.
In feeding value these are very similar,
but slightly inferior, to barley. Rye is
generally used in this country in a green
state- when given to cattle. The grain is
useful for feeding purposes, although
somewhat inferior to barley.
Rye-meal is given with advantage to
milch cows.
Brewers' and Distillers' Grains.
Brewers' grains, or "draff" as the
article is called in some parts, consists of
the refuse malt after it has undergone
mashing. The grains left in the distil-
lation of spirits are usually slightly
richer than those left in brewing ale or
porter. Both are now very extensively
used as food for different classes of stock,
and the results are, on the whole, very
satisfactory.
Dried Grains. — A process of prepar-
ing grains by drying and other modes of
manipulation has been invented, and the
article so prepared is sold under the
name of "Dried Grains." The grains in
this state are more concentrated than
they are in the ordinary state, and may
be given to all kinds of live-stock. For
horses it is a frequent custom to sub-
stitute at first 3 lb. of grains for 3 lb. of
oats, and increase the proportion until
half the feed is composed of grains. For
cattle the grains may be mixed with
other food, and should be damped where
oilcake is used. The animals should be
supplied with water when equal parts of
grain and cake are used. For cows it is
usual to damp the grains with boiling
water, and allow them to swell ; 8 to 12
lb. per day may be given. To sheep the
grains may be given alone, or with an
equal weight of corn or cake. For pigs,
' Jour. Royal Agric. Sac. Eng., xiv. 248.
37?
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
damp well with boiling water as much as
will be required for a day's use.
Dried v. Wet Grains. — A ton of
dried grains would be equal to be-
tween three and four times its weight of
wet grains. The drying chiefly effects
economy in carriage. But when a brewery
or distillery is within easy reach, it is,
of course, more economical to use wet
grains than the artificially dried, and
therefore somewhat more costly, article.
Grains for Dairy-eows. — Grains are
a particularly favourite food with cow-
keepers, as they produce a large flow of
milk — more remarkable, however, for its
abundance than its richnesSj that is,
where grains are the preponderating
food.* When mixed with a fair pro-
portion of other richer concentrated food,
such as cake or grain, the grains form
an admirable article of diet for cows in
milk.
Difference in Composition. — The
average of the analyses of a large num-
ber of samples of the two varieties,
'conducted in the Edinburgh College of
Agriculture (1908), gave the percentage
of oil in distillery grains as 5.96 and in
brewers' grains as 4.99, the percentage
of nitrogenous matter as 18.75 ^^^ 20.61
respectively, and the percentage of sol-
uble carbohydrates as 54.37 and 48.85
respectively. In price the distillery
grains are usually higher in comparison
with brewers' grains than the difference
in analyses would seem to justify.
Otlier Distillery Pood. — Useful feed-
ing material is found in other distillery
by-products, such as the "wash" or
" burnt ale " of malt distilleries and the
" dreg " of the raw grain distilleries.
Oats.
No other variety of grain is so exten-
sively used in this country as food for
live-stock as are oats. And in the form
of meal it is a very wholesome food for
man, still used very largely — but not
so extensively as in former times — in
Scotland. It was Dr Johnson who de-
scribed oats as " the food of men in Scot-
land, and horses in England." It was
probably a Scotchman who retorted, —
" Ay ; and where will you find such
men and such horses 1 "
Oats are highly favourable to the for-
mation of muscle. Their nutritive value,
however, is by no means regular, some
varieties being one-third more nutritive
than other kinds.
Bruising Oats. — Oats ought gener-
ally to be bruised before being given to
animals, as the food then becomes not
only more thoroughly masticated, but
also much less liable to produce inflam-
matory action, which sometimes arises
from the over -liberal or inconsiderate
use of the whole grain.
Nutriment in Oatmeal. — In the form
of meal it is seldom used as cattle-food,
except as nourishing drinks or gruel ; but
when ground into meal, the more thor-
oughly it is sifted the more nutritious it
becomes. This is exactly the reverse of
what takes place in the case of wheat-
flour, because a large proportion of the
flesh-forming and also of the fat-forming
substances contained in wheat is removed
in the bran. In fine oatmeal there is
much more oil than in fine wheat-flour,
and in the former one and a half times
as much albuminoids as in the latter.
There is no need to enlarge here upon
the merits of a food which is so gener-
ally esteemed for this purpose as oats
are.
Indian Corn.
V
The prevailing cheapness and high
nutritive properties of Indian corn or
maize have brought it into extensive use
as food for farm live stock.
This food is very rich in starchy
matters. Given by itself, or in large
proportions, it has a heating and binding
tendency ; but it does well with other
foods, such as linseed-cake. On the whole,
maize is usually about the cheapest form
in which starch for feeding purposes can
be purchased in this country, and it is
therefore one of the most extensively
employed articles of food for all kinds of
farm live-stock, including poultry. For
all stock except poultry maize should be
bruised or kibbled.
Bv/ihwheat.
This plant is comparatively little grown
in this country, being easily susceptible
of injury from frost, especially if the seed
is sown earlier than the middle of May.
The crop is sometimes cut green, and used
for soiling. The grain is used chiefly for
feeding game or poultry.
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
273
In Ireland the term " buckwheat " is
sometimes locally applied to some of the
varieties of common wheat, with which
the true buckwheat has no connection.
, Bice.
Rice is sometimes used as food for
poultry, and is of a very fattening
nature. It is exceptionally high in
starchy matter.
Rice-meal.
Much more important than rice, as a
feeding-stuff, is the so-called " rice-meal,"
which consists of the ground refuse left
after dressing or trimming rice for human
food. This rice-meal consists mainly of
the coating of the reed (or bran), with
more or less of the adherent starchy
matter.
Kice-meal contains a fair quantity of
albuminoids, and is rich in oil, and is in
much request for pig-feeding. It is also
used as food for cattle, and the experience
of it has, on the whole, been satisfactory.
Mr Garrett Taylor, Trowse House, Nor-
wich, has used it largely both for dairy-
cows and young store-cattle, and he speaks
of it very favourably.
Care should be taken to obtain the
genuine article, as this food is sometimes
adulterated with ground rice shudes — the
outer husks of the rice — which have very
little nutritive value, but consist mainly
of a silicious woody fibre.
Dari or Durra.
This is the seed of the plant called
Indian millet or Guinea corn, which is
largely cultivated in India, China, Africa,
Italy, the West Indies, &c., where it is
used for feeding horses, pigs, and poultry.
It weighs upwards of 60 lb. a bushel,
is of the size of a large millet-seed, is
covered with a husk or envelope, and
gives, when crushed, a beautiful white
flour.
Ground into meal, this grain is an
excellent fattening food for cattle. Dr
Voelcker remarked : " It contains an
appreciable amount of ready-made fat,
and a large proportion of starch, which
is with ease transformed into fat in the
animal economy; buj; it is rather deficient
in albuminoids, and for this reason Dari
meal should be given to stock in con-
junction with cake, beans, or peas, or.
speaking generally, with food rich in
albuminous compounds." '
Dari grain is also good food for poultry;
Beans, Peas, and Lentils.
These leguminous plants closely re-
semble each other in their composition.
From their nature they are better suited
to be used as a portion of the food of
working or growing animals or milch
cows, than of those which are being fat-
tened for the butcher. At the same
time, when used along with other kinds
of food, particularly such as are of an
oily nature, they may be given with
much advantage to fattening stock.
Lentils are chiefly imported, but they
may be profitably grown in this country
^on light, dry, sandy, or calcareous soils.
Vegetable Casein. — It is worthy of
note that the albutninoids in these three
seeds (and also in other leguminous
seeds) are in a form somewhat similar
with the casein of milk, and hence
termed "vegetable casein." It is on this
account that meals made from these
seeds form useful ingredients in mixtures
for calves.
' Beans for Dairy-eo-ws. — Bean-meal
is by many recognised authorities as-
signed the very highest position as an
article of diet for dairy-cows. Mr John
Speir, Newton Farm, Newton, Glasgow,
gave it as his opinion that " for the pro-
duction of butter or cheese of the best
quality, no other feeding - stuff ever
gained or so long maintained so high
a reputation as beans " ; and he adds,
"They are also very palatable to all
stock of the horse, sheep, and cow kind,
although swine are not so fond of
them."
Beans, like the other leading legumin-
ous foods, have a high albuminoid ratio,
and, therefore, are well suited for mixing
with other foods rich in carbohydrates,
such as turnips, potatoes, oats, rice, straw,
and hay.
Mr Primrose M'Connell says that
" beans have made a name for them-
selves as food for dairy-cows, but prices
and handiness make it more desirable
to use something else." He adds that
he gives his cows a mixture of crushed
beans, oats, and bran.
' Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng., xiv. 247.
274
VAEIETIES OF FOOD.
Preparing Beans as Food. — ^Beans
should invariably be ground into ro^gh
meal before being given to stock, but
should not, as is sometimes done, be
steeped in water before being mixed
with the other foods, as then, on account
of its highly albuminous nature, the meal
is apt to get into a doughy, indigestible
mass. Bean -meal holds the premier
place as a milk-producer ; but being so
highly albuminous, it requires to be
mixed with < some more bulky food in
order to keep its particles apart, and
allow the juices of the stomach and in-
testines to dissolve them. Mixed with
cut hay or straw, the meal becomes one
homogeneous mass of such a porous na-
ture that each atom of its constituents
can separately be attacked by the juices
of the digestive organs ; whereas if mixed
in water alone, the bulk of it is voided
undigested, if it does not also produce
indigestion by the way.
Soy Beans. — The Soy bean {Soya
hispida) is a leguminous plant exten-
^vely cultivated in China, Japan, and
Manchuria, where it is an important
article of human food. Large qiiantities
of the bean are now coming to this
country, where it is used as an oil seed,
most of the oil being expressed, and the
remaining cake is a valuable addition to
our cattle foods. The Soy cake is a
highly concentrated food, equalled in
richness in albuminoids only by de-
corticated cotton-cake and decorticated
earthnut-cake. There is little starch in
Soy beans. Being so exceptionally rich
in albuminoids. Soy beans are best suited
for use in mixed foods.
Feas for Sheep. — Peas are capital
food for sheep — along with linseed-cake
there is perhaps no better as a concen-
trated food. In a series of experiments
conducted at Woburn by the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England, pea -meal
was contrasted with barley -meal and
malt as food for sheep, each along with
turnips, hay and straw, chaff and lin-
seed-cake. In summing up the results,
which were favourable to the pea-meal,
Dr A. Voelcker stated that " linseed-cake
and pea-meal in equal proportions, and
used at the rate of }^ lb. each per head
per day, in conjunction with some hay
and straw, chaff and swedes, given ad
libihim, is a better food for young sheep
than either a mixture of linseed - cake
and barley -meal, or linseed -cake and
malt." 1
Poisonous Beans. — ^Inthe years 1905
and 1906 deaths occurring amongst
dairy-cows in Scotland were attributed
to eating Java beans ( FJiaseolus lunatui),
which were found to contain prussic
acid. The Java beans were ascertained
to be the most dangerous, but traces
of the poison were also observed in the
Burma variety.^
There is a large variety of beans in
existence, and great caution is necessary
in using kinds not thoroughly well
known.
■Lupin.
The seeds of the lupin contain a larger
proportion of flesh -forming substances
than either beans or peas or lentils.
The cultivation of the plant is quite
simple, and it grows well on poor, sandy,
and gravelly soils. It is cultivated ex-
tensively in the northern parts of Ger-
many, and it is grown to a small extent
in England. The sten)^ make excellent
hay, and the seeds are found to be very
superior food for sheep. They are also
given to horses and cattle, mixed with
oats or beans; and lupin-meal is given
with milk to calves.
Linseed.
Linseed has not inaptly been described
as the sheet-anchor of the stock-feeder.
He is now less dependent upon it than
when he first began to use concentrated
foods extensively. But although many
other useful articles of food for farm live-
stock have been brought into notice in
recent years — thanks in a large measure
to the application of science to the ques-
tion of economical stock-feeding — it is
Still true that for almost all cksses of
stock linseed is a feeding material of the
highest value.
There are a great many varieties of lin-
seed, some kinds being much richer than
others. Linseed of fine quality, weigh-
ing 52 lb. per bushel, readily yields from
II to 12 gallons of oil per quarter of
8 bushels, weighing 9 lb. per gallon, or
about 25 per cent of its weight.
^ Jour. Royal Agric. Soc. Eng. , xix. 430.
' Trans. High, cmd Agric. Soc., 1907.
VAKIETIES OP, FOOD.
275
Preparing and using Iiinseed as
Food. — Linseed is an exceedingly rich
food, especially in oil. It is therefore
not advisable to use it in its natural
state, as, when so used, a considerable
proportion of the seeds will be found to
pass undigested. Being of a laxative na-
ture, it requires to be used with caution,
and in combination with other articles
which have a counteracting effect.
The seed is sometimes boiled in order
to prepare it for use as the food of ani-
mals, but a better mode of preparation
is to grind it. When this is done, chaff,
or the husks which are separated from
oats, in the process of milling, should be
passed through along with the linseed,
as either of these articles helps to pre-
vent the linseed from " clogging " the
millstones; and besides, they absorb a
portion of the oil which exudes from the
seed in the grinding, and thus they be-
come useful articles of food, although
they are of little value in their natural
state.
Linseed chaff also makes excellent
food.
Boiling Iiinseed. — Meal made of pure
linseed may be given in combination with
other kinds of food, such as bean-meal,
barley-meal, Indian-meal, (fee, but it is
also frequently prepared for use by boil-
ing. When the seed is prepared in this
way, it is generally steeped for some
hours in hot water and then boiled, but
it is very apt to burn during the process
of boiling unless it is carefully watched.
In order to prevent burning, it has been
found better to raise the water to the
boiling-point before putting in the lin-
seed, instead of putting the linseed into
cold water and then boiling it. When
the linseed is put into boiling water, add
a littfe cold water, and then let it again
come to the boil, and allow it to remain
boiling for twenty minutes, stirring it
occasionally.
Iiinseed for C%lves. — Linseed - oil
commands a price for other uses, which
renders it too costly for fattening com-
mercial stock. The cheaper residue of
the crushers' trade — linseed-cake — con-
tains sufficient oil for most feeding pur-
poses, but for calf -rearing no kind of
food surpasses linseed, and in conjunc-
tion with cheaper commodities, it is very
largely employed for this purpose.
Growing Flax for Fibre and Seed.
— As has been shown in another part of
•this work (vol. ii. p. 391), flax is grown
extensively in the north of Ireland for
the production of a fine class of fibre,
which is incompatible with a large crop
of seed. If the value of the seeid as a
fattening material were inculcated more
strongly than it has been by those who
advocate the extension of flax-cultivation,
it is probable that flax -growing would
be more largely practised throughout the
kingdom than it is at present. As it is,
this country has to depend upon foreign
sources of supply for the linseed required
for various purposes.
Linseedrcake.
Linseed-cake consists of what is left
of the seed in the process of extracting
linseed-oil. Formerly from 12 to 14 per
cent of the oil usually remained in the
cake ; but the means now employed in
extracting the oU do the work so effici-
ently that less oil is left, although
linseed-cake with high percentages of oil
can still be got.
HiglL Reputation of Linseed-cake.
— ^Enough oil still remains to impart
great value to linseed -cake as feeding
material. It is suited for all kinds of
farm live-stock. For fattening cattle no
othef food has such a high reputation as
the best home or Bussian linseed-cake.
In fact, owing to the consensus of prac-
tical opinion, it almost always commands
a higher price than its analysis seems to
justify. Horses become extremely fond
of linseed-cake, and 3 lb. per day has been
given to farm-horses with good effect.
Linseed -cake is crushed into small
pieces before being given to stock.
The dung of cattle fed on linseed-cake
is very rich, nearly half the weight of the
ash of linseed-cake consisting of phos-
phate of lime; and one result of giving
cake to cattle or sheep feeding on grass
land during summer and autumn is to
improve the pasture, besides hastening
the fattening of the animals.
Storing Linaeed-oake.— The late Dr
A. Voelcker remarked — and this is a
point of the very greatest importance
— that "the nutritive value of feeding-
cakes depends not merely upon their
proximate composition, but likewise
upon their physical condition. Like all
276
VAKIETIES OF FOOD.
other perisliable articles of food, linseed-
cake, ■when kept in a damp or badly
ventilated place, rapidly turns mouldy,
and after some' time becomes unfit for
feeding purposes." ^
Linseed -cake should be stored in as
dry a place as can be found. The floor
should be a wooden one if possible. If
it be of plaster or concrete it is advisable
to lay some old timbers on the floor,
forming a stool, and pile the cakes in
stacks thereon, about 8 or 10 inches
from the walla, so that a current of air
can get round. The < cakes should be
packed in such a way that the air can
get through the pile and come in con-
tact with all the edges of the cake.
The ventilation of the store should be
good, and as much air as possible al-
lowed to get inside when the atmosphere
is dry, but the doors and windows should
be closed when it is damp.
The same remarks are applicable to
the storing of cotton-cakes, but these
cakes do not keep well beyond a month
or six weeks.
When good linseed - cakes, manufac-
tured without the use of water, are
stored in the manner thus described,
they have been known to keep for
12 months without any' appreciable
deterioration.
Adulteration of Cakes. — Unfortun-
ately, it has become so much the practice
to adulterate cakes of all kinds in the
process of manufacture, that the greatest
caution is necessary in purchasing any
article of the kind. Impurities also
exist in the seed, varying from i^ per
cent to 70 per cent ; and, these im-
purities are sometimes added artificially.
Farmers are now well protected against
loss in this way by the Fertilisers and
Feeding Stuffs Acts, the provisions of
which all purchasers of feeding - stuffs
should study carefully.
Hape-cake.
Rape-cake, when pure, is a valuable
food for cattle. In albuminoids it is
richer t^an even the best of linseed-
cakes.
It is not much relished by cattle at
first, but if care is taken to prevent it
from getting damp and mouldy they
' Jour. Royal Agno. Soo. Eng., ix. 3.
will take to it by degrees. If the
animals refuse to eat it in its fresh state
by itself, the difficulty may be got over
by covering the cake for some time with
sawdust, chaffed straw, or any substance
that will prevent it from becoming damp
or moulded.
Preparing Bape-cake for Cattle. —
The cake is of course crushed, and it is
of advantage to pour boiling water over
the crushed cake, and allow the mixture
to stand for a time before it is, used.
Steaming the cake along with chaffed
straw is also a good mode of preparing
it for cattle ; and in so preparing it
bean-meal or bran is added, in the* pro-
portion of 4 lb. of cake to 2 lb. of bran
or I lb. of bean -meal. With these
articles, 16 lb. of chaffed straw should
be blended before steaming.
Impurity of Indian Sapie-cake. —
On account of the amount of wild
mustard or charlock (Sinapis arvensis)
it usually contains, it is not safe to use
Indian rape -cake as food for stock.
Dr A. Voelcker stated that' from )^ lb.
of Indian rape - cake he obtained
enough essential oil of mustard to
convince him that half a cake of it,
if n6t a smaller quantity, might kill
a bullock.
Even the best rape, when mixed with
linseed - cake, imparts a turnip -like
flavour to the latter, which of course
reduces its value.
CottoTV-caJce.
This cake is made from the seeds of
the cotton-plant. There are two varieties
of it in use — the decorticated, from
which a portion of the husks has been
removed, and the undecorticated, which
contains the whole of the dark-brown
husks of the seed.
As in the case of linseed - cake, the
improvements in the crushing machinery
have greatly reduced the percentage of
oil in decorticated Qotton-cake.
The decorticated variety is of a uni-
form yellow colour, while the presence
of the dark-ibrown husks in the unde-
corticated at once indicates its nature.
Caution in using TJndecortioated
Cotton - cake. — • The undecorticated
variety is not only less valuable than
the other, but it is also apt to produce
inflammatory symptoms in the animals
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
277
fed upon it, and death has frequently
been the result. This arises from the
quantity of cotton which adheres to the
seed, and from the harsh nature of the
husk. Although undecorticated cotton-
cake may be employed as food for cattle
when used cautiously, it is generally
safer to use the decorticated variety,
which, as will be gathered from the
analysis, is also superior as a feeding
material.
In the eyes of graziers, the unde-
corticated cake has a special value
owing to its astringent properties,
which render it useful to obviate any
scouring tendency amongst cattle or
sheep when on young or luxuriant
pasture.
Two varieties of undecorticated cake
very extensively used are Egyptian and
Bombay cake, each of which has well-
known characters.
Uses of Decorticated Cotton-cake.
— Decorticated cotton-cake is very rich
in flesh-forming matters, as well as in
phosphates, or " bone - formers," and is
therefore specially adapted for growing
stock and cows giving milk. , For calvfes
and lambs it is not so suitable — indeed,
for these young animals it is somewhat
dangerous — on account of its aptitude to
give rise to digestive trouble. It should
be given to them only in very small
quantities.
"Value of TJndeeortieated Cotton-
cake. — Undecorticated cotton-cake has
gone on gaining in public favour as an
ingredient in feeding mixtures. Numer-
ous experiments by Mr John Speir and
others have shown its high value as a
food for cows in butter - making herds,
and for other classes of stock. In al-
most all fattening experiments it is put
on trial, and almost invariably it gives
a good account of itself.
Preparing Cotton-cake for Feed-
ing.— Some think it better to have the
cake ground into meal than merely
broken by the usual cake - crusher. If
the cake is to be merely crushed, it
would be useful to have this done some
time, perhaps ten or fourteen days, be-
fore giving it to cattle, so that it might
absorb moisture, and thereby get soft-
ened and more easily digested.
It is important in buying undecorti-
cated cotton-cake to avoid hard rock-like
samples, and accept only cake that is
oily and soft.
Manixrial Value of Cotton-cake. —
Cotton-cake imparts an exceptionally
hfgh value to the manure of the animals
fed upon it. As will be shown presently,
in dealing with the " Manurial Value of
Foods," it stands above most other foods
in this respect.
Palm-nut Meal.
Palm-nut meal is made from the cake
which remains in pressing the oil out of
the palm -nut. There are some very
inferior kinds of palm-nut cake or meal
in the market, and these have been used
in adulterating linseed - cake — not so
much lately, on account of the vigorous
and commendable efforts that have been
made to put down the adulteration of all
feeding-stuffs as well as of manures.
Palm -nut meal has been found an
admirable food for calves, but it is not
extensively used. For calves it is pre-
pared by being steeped in hot water. It
is also well suited for cows in milk —
increasing both the quantity and quality
of the milk. It gives good results in
feeding pigs, if used with such other
foods as barley-meal, Indian meal, beans
or peas. An equal mixture of palm-nut
meal and decorticated cotton-cake is
equivalent in feeding properties to lin-
seed-cake, and considerably less in cost.
Cocoa-nut Cake.
Cocoa-nut cake is manufactured from
the cocoa-nut palm. It is a wholesome
food, and cattle take to it readily. It is,
however, inferior to pure linseed-cake.
The ordinary cocoa - nibs, as sold by
grocers, are occasionally employed as a
feeding material for young calves. The
nibs are boiled over a slow fire for two
or three hours — 6 or 8 quarts of water
to I lb, of nibs. They are then strained
out, and the liquid is mixed with milk
and given to calves when it is milk-
warm.
Minor Oilcakes.
Other cakes prepared from oil seeds
of which a considerable amount is used
are niger-cake, earthnut-cake, sunflower-
cake, and hemp-cake. All of these are
residues left after the corresponding seed
is crushed for oil. Earthnut - cake is
278
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
specially rici in albuminoids. When it
is made from the decorticated seed it
surpasses even decorticated cotton-cake
in this constituent. A considerable
amount of it is made, however, with
the husk only partially removed or not
removed at all. When the husk or
pod is crushed with the seed, the cake,
like undecorticated cotton-cake, contains
much fibre.
Cotton-cake, rape-cake, and all the
minor oilcakes like earthnut-cake, niger-
cake, cocoa-nut cake, poppy-seed cake,
are much used in the preparation of
compound or mixed cakes, which are
now very common. Many cakes which
are comparatively seldom used by farmers
under their own names are largely used
when made up into special compound
cakes and meals.
Poppy-cake.
Poppy-cake must be used when quite
fresh, 'as the oil is apt to become soon
rancid. When fresh, it is a useful feed-
ing material.
There are two varieties of poppy-cake,
—one a light-coloured or whitish cake,
made from white poppy ; the other a
dark or brownish cake, made from com-
mon poppy-seed.
Locust or Carob Beans.
These are the beans or pods of the
locust-tree (Ceratonia siliqua). The
locust-meal contains fully half its weight
of sugar, but it is deficient in albumin-
ous compounds or flesh - formers ; con-
sequently it should be given to stock in
combination with peas or bean-meal, or
with decorticated cotton-cake. The pods
are either roughly crushed or ground
into meal, and either way are much
liked by cattle and sheep.
Molasses or Treacle.
Used with skill and care, treacle is an
exceeding useful feeding commodity.
Treacle risky for Breeding Stock.
— It is pretty generally believed that
food excessively rich in saccharine
matter, while highly valuable in the
fattening of stock, is unsuitable for
breeding animals, in that it tends to
impair their procreative powers. About
60 per cent of the weight of molasses
or treacle consist. of sugar, so that it
lies very specially under the above con-
demnation.
In his instructive paper on " The Ee-
productive Powers of Domesticated Ani-
mals " contributed to the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England,
the late Professor Tanner laid great
stress upon the detrimental influence of
"sugary" foods upon the reproductive
powers, and considered it very doubtful
if aqy stock which have been fed for
a length of time upon food largely mixed
with molasses ever regain their breeding
powers.
These extreme views have not been
universally accepted, but there is no
doubt that the general drift of the con-
tentions emphasised by Professor Tanner
are well founded.
Useful Properties of Treacle. —
Treacle possesses special properties of
considerable value. Diluted with water,
and sprinkled over layers of food-
mixtures, it renders the material more
palatable to the stock, and its laxative
characteristic makes it a useful ingredient
in many mixtures with an Opposite tend-
ency. Then its own intrinsic properties
in laying on fat are very high ; and there-
fore, properly and carefully employed,
treacle is of considerable service to
stock-owners.
Professor Tanner acknowledges the
high fattening properties of treacle, and
remarks that it has "the efiiect of sup-
pressing these periodical returns of rest-
lessness which prevent heifers feeding as
well as steers " ; and adds that, " whilst
avoiding it for breeding animals, we may
encourage its employment when cows or
heifers have to be fattened." ^
Treacle for Young Bulls. — There is
no doubt that, in spite of all the warn-
ings that have been given, treacle is
still used extensively for breeding stock,
notably in forcing young bulls and heifers
into blooming condition for show or sale.
It is included in the feeding mixture for
young bulls in several of the leading
herds of the day ; but in almost all these
cases there is a skilful hand at the helm,
and the tasty but dangerous treacle is
given sparingly and judiciously, so as to
benefit the animals without impairing
' Jow, Royal Agric. Soc. Eng. , sec. eer. , i.
267.
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
279
their fecundity. Unfortunately, there is
too good reason to believe that in some
cases harm is really being done to the
breedipg properties of young animals,
bulls more largely than heifers, by the
too liberal and imprudent use of treacle.
Ho-w Treacle ia used. — Treacle is
often given to sickly animals mixed with
bran or gruel, and it is sometimes
put amongst milk for calves. Owing
to its highly laxative nature, from 2 lb.
to 3 lb. per day is the most that can be
given with advantage even to full-grown
beasts, and from ^ lb. to i lb. to a calf,
according to the age of the animal. The
late Dr E. Thomson of Glasgow found
that about 3 lb. of molasses mixed with
9 lb. of barley -meal, and given along
with 25 lb. to 30 lb. of hay, kept milch
cows in full milk, and did nearly as well
as 12 lb. of either linseed-cake or bean-
meal. A few ounces per day, diluted
with hot water, and sprinkled over the
dry food of horses or of fattening sheep,
will be found beneficial.
There are now on the market spme
prepared foods which contain a good
deal of treacle, and for which it is claimed
that they overcome its laxative and de-
pressing qualities. These foods are well
spoken of by many stock-owners, and are
not so highly appreciated by others.
Most experienced feeders prefer to mix
their own foods, just as they think it
best to mix their manures for them-
selves.
Turnips.
In the winter food of cattle and sheep
roots bulk largely. To a smaller extent
they are also used for horses and pigs.
Turnips, with the swede as the chief
variety, supply the largest proportion of
this description of food.
Variation in Nutritive Value of
Hoots. — The nutritive value of turnips
varies with the variety, the climate, soil,
and also the manures used in their culti-
vation, so that any description of their
constituent elements can be regarded as
only an approximation to the truth, even
in the case of the same kind of turnips if
grown under diflFerent circumstances. All
the varieties of the turnip contain a large
percentage of water — namely, from 86 to
94 per cent, leaving only from 6 to 14
per cent of dry matter. Turnips grown
in some parts of the kingdom, particularly
in the north of Scotland, will, with the
aid merely of fresh oat-straw, be found
to fatten cattle without using much arti-
ficial food of any kind; whereas large
quantities of cake and hay must be given
along with the same kind of turnips to
effect that object, when such turnips are
grown in some other districts. This is
more especially the case with turnips
grown in the south and east of England.
Advantages of Storing Turnips. —
Turnips become more nutritious after
they have been stored for some time than
they are when taken fresh from the field.
By storing they lose a proportion of the
water which they naturally contain ; and
there are also some chemical changes
which take place in them tending to
render them more nutritious.
When turnips are allowed to remain in
the field until the leaves begin to put
forth a fresh growth, as they will be
found to do early in spring, a decided
deterioration in their quality is the result,
owing to certain of their elements be-
coming changed into indigestible woody
fibre. Hence the necessity for storing
turnips at the proper season, say in
November and December.
Composition of Turnips. — The fol-
lowing table gives the average composi-
tion of five varieties of turnips, as de-
duced by Cameron from the results of
the analyses of Anderson and Voelcker: —
Swedes.
White
Globe.
Aberdeen
Yellow.
Purple-top
Yellow.
Norfolk
Turnip.
Water .
Albuminoids ....
Sugar, &c. . . .
Fibre, , ...
Ash
89.460
1-443
5-932
2.542
0.623
90.430
I-I43
5-457
2-342
0.628
90.578
1.802
4.622
2.349
0.649
91.200
1. 117
4-436 :
2.607
0.640
92.280
1-737
2.962
2.000
1. 02 1
100.000
100.000 '
lOO.OOO
100.000
100.000
280
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
The means of the analyses of 6b differ-
ently grown lots of roots, mimberitig in
all nearly 3000 bulbs of Fosterton hybrid
turnips, gave the late Dr Aitken^ the
following results on soils at Pumpherston
and Harelaw rSspectively : —
Pampherston.
HareUw
Water
91-3
92.6
Dry matter
8.7
7-4
Composition of dry matter : —
Albumen . ' 7.7 7.5
Fibre . . . 10.8 11.7
Ash ... 5.8 6.4
Carbohydrates (sugar),
&c. . . . 75.7 74.4
loo.o 100.0
The mean results of 27 somewhat more
detailed analyses of Aberdeen yellow
turnips, comprising about 800 roots,
grown with a great variety of manures
at Carbeth, Stirlingshire, gave Mr David
Wilson, jun., the following figures : ^ — -
In fresh
■roots.
In dry
matter.
Water .
91.09
Sugar .
Fibre .
Albuminoids
4.72
1.03
0-54
52-94
11-54
6.06
Non-albuminoid nitro
gen X 6. 25 . 0.60
Extractive matter free
6.76
of nitrogen
Ash .
1.36
0.66
15-23
7-47
100.00
100.00
Variation in Composition of Tur-
nips.— The quantity of nutritive matter
in the same variety of the turnip varies
greatly. In white turnips it may vary
from 7 to II per cent, and in the yellow
turnip from 8 to 13 per cent.
In an interesting paper contributed to
the Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society for 1906 by the
Society's chemist, Mr James Hendrick,
much useful information is given regard-
ing the variation in the composition of
turnips, and also dealing with the in-
creasing of the sugary contents of roots.
Sugar in Roots. — Inasmuch as feed-
ing-roots are essentially sv^ar crops, the
^ Trans. Sigh. Agric. Soc, xvi. 1884.
i" Ibid., xviii. 1886.
sugar they contain, is very valuable for
meeting the respii-atory requirements of
sheep and cattle, also for fat-forming
and for milk-production. The following
table, based on the experiments of Sir
John Bennett Lawes and Sir Henry
Gilbert at Rothamsted, records estimates
of the approximate average percentages
of dry matter, and of sugar, in the kinds
of roots mentioned : —
Bry
matter.
Sugar per cum.
In fi-esh
roots.
In dry
matter.
White turnips .
Yellow turnips.
Sipedish turnips
Mangel . . .
per cent.
8.0
9.0.
II. 0
12. 5
per cent.
3-5 to 4-5
4.0 to 5.0
6.0 to 7.0 ■
7-5 to 8.5
per cent.
44 to 56
44 to 56
55 to 64
60 to 68
A bushel of turnips weighs from 42 lb.
to 45 lb.
IBxcess of "Water in Koots. — In feed-
ing with roots farmers are sometimes apt
to forget or overlook with how much
water the feeding matter in the roots is
associated. Unless an animal gets some
dry food as well as roots, it is forced,
in order to obtain sufficient solid nutri-
ment, to consume a very large quantity
of water — very much more, in cold
weather, than is necessary for it. This
water when swallowed has to become
warmed at the expense of the heat of
the animal, which has simultaneously to
be replaced by fresh heat — so that part
of the sugar, &c., of the roots, instead of
going to fatten the animal, is wasted in
furnishing fuel to warm the superfluous
water swallowed in the root-substance.
Desirability of Sconomising Tur-
nips.— Over and over again, in various
parts of this work, prominent reference
is made to the great and avoidable waste
which thus takes place in the old-fash-
ioned and time-honoured system of tur-
nip-and-straw feeding. It is needless here
to reason out the point at great length.
The above statement as to the deleterious
influence of the excess of cold water the
animal has to swallow in a full meal of
roots vdll suffice here for that part of the
subject. It is also unnecessary to enter
into any lengthened arguments to show
that other reasons exist which make it
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
281
very desirable that the more economical
use of roots in the rearing and feeding
of stock should be practised. The root
crop is a very costly one to grow, and
unfortunately its cultivation is attended
with great risks of loss from unfavour-
able weather, and fungoid and insect
attacks. In dealing with the practical
work of feeding the different kinds
of stock, special attention is given
to the question of how turnips may
be most effectually and satisfactorily
economised.
The avoidance of this waste is the
great plea in favour of giving sheep in
the turnip-fields a small daily allowance
of cake or corn. They will then eat less
of the roots, but will turn what they do
eat to much better account.
Turnip-tops. — As a rule, it is better
to leave turnip-tops on the field, for they
possess considerable manurial value, and,
except when other food is scarce, will
give a better return in that way than
used as food. Still, they contain more
nutritive matter than some would im-
agine, and are useful when scattered on
a green field for the use of young cattle
or sheep. They should, however, be
given with caution, for when eaten too
freely they are apt to produce scour.
The ash of turnip-tops contains a large
quantity of phosphate of lime and
potash. ,,
Mangel-wurzel.
This is a most valuable root, grown
extensively and with great success in
England and Ireland. It needs a warm
climate, and is grown in Scotland only
to a very limited extent. The orange
globe and long yellow kinds have been
found to contain a larger amount of the
respiratory or fat-forming elements than
the long red variety, which agrees with
the practical results obtained by the use
of those varieties in feeding cattle.
Advantages of Storing Mangels. —
The tendency in fresh mangels'^ to pro-
duce scour when these are given to cattle
is well known to all who have used them,
and so also is the fact that this property
disappears after the roots have been
stored for two or three months. Like
good wine, mangels improve by keeping,
and it is desirable, as a rule, to delay the
consumption of them till spring.
In comparison with turnips, it has
been considered that 75 lb. of mangel
are equivalent in feeding value to 100
lb. of turnips ; but the two varieties vary
so much in nutritive value that these
proportions cannot be relied upon. The
leaves of the mangel are also useful,
especially for mUch cows, but have a
scouring tendency.
The solid matter in mangels ranges
from 10 to 16 per cent, but about 12 per
cent is general.
Medium v. Iiarge Roots. — It is to be
borne in mind, with reference to both
turnips and mangels, that moderate-sized
roots ar^ commonly more nutritious than
very large ones. The huge over-sized
roots often seen ak root-shows are com-
monly watery, and such dry matter as
they do contain is intrinsically less valu-
able than in normal ro'ots.
Sugar-beet.
Sugar-beet has given excellent results
in the feeding of dairy-cows, but as food
for stock it is cultivated only to a very
limited extent.
Considerable attention has been given
to the cultivation of sugar-beet for the
production of sugar, and the late Dr A.
Voelcker published the results of some
very elaborate investigations made by
him as to the composition of sugar-beets
grown under different circumstances. -"^
ITutritive Value of Sugar-beet. —
Dr A. Voelcker considered that the farmer
"will run very little risk in trying the
experiment to grow sugar-beets instead
of common mangels ; for although he
may not get so heavy a crop as he does
when he plants common mangels, it has
to be borne in mind that 1 ton of sugar-
beet is equivalent, in nutritive qualities
as cattle-food, to at least i}4 ton of good
common mangel."
Beetroot Pulp.
Beet -root pulp is the refuse left in
extracting the sugary juice from the
beet-root. It is much esteemed on the
Continent for its fattening properties.
It is, however, deficient in flesh-forming
compounds, and requires the addition of
some cake or meal to supply this de-
ficiency. Cotton-cake is recommended
^ Jour, Soyal Agric. Soe- Eng,, vii., see. ser.
282
VAKIETIES OF FOOD.
for this purpose. Milch cows fed on
beet-root pulp and a fair allowance of
bean-meal or cotton-cake produce abund-
ance of milk of good quality. Pigs also
thrive on the pulp if they get some
bean-meal or pea-mieal mixed with it.
Dr A. Voelcker considered beet -root
pulp at I2S. a ton a cheap and valuable
food.
Carrots.
The carrot does not contain any ap-
preciable quantity of starch, but this de-
ficiency is counterbalanced by its having
about 6)4 per cent of sugar. Carrots
are excellent food for horses, and are
greatly relished by them.
Carrot-tops are admirable food for cows
giving milk. v
Parsnips.
Parsnips contain more starch, but less
sugar, than carrots. The starch in pars-
nips exists only in the external layers of
the root, none whatever being found in
the heart. There is nearly double the
quantity of solid matter in parsnips of
that in turnips ; so that i ton of pars-
nips ought to go as far, as a fattening
material, as 2 tons of white turnips.
KoM-rahi.
Kohl-rabi is a valuable food, especially
for milch cows. It i^icreases the yield of
milk, but does not impart to At any par-
ticular flavour of a disagreeable kind,
such as is produced by turnips. The
leaves of kohl-rabi form an excellent
4escription of food for cattle and sheep.
Callages.^
Cabbages are not cultivated anything
like so extensively as they deserve to be.
Cabbages are excellent food for sheep
and other stock, and few other crops
will give as good a return per acre.
Thousand-headed hale oi the cabbage
variety is most valuable as a green food
for sheep or cows in autumn, early winter,
or spring. Sprouting broccoli and winter
greens are also cultivated for similar pur-
poses.
Potatoes.
The demand which exists for potatoes
as human food, generally renders them
too expensive to be employed largely in
feeding animals, although as food for
most kinds of stock they are valuable.
Value of Potatoes for Cattle. — It has
been stated that when potatoes can be
purchased for ;^i, los. or ^£2, los. per ton,
they will pay to be employed in feeding
cattle. This, however, will depend upon
circumstances which are liable to varia-
tion, such as the market price of other
foods, and the selling price of beef.
Second and small-sized potatoes are as
useful for feeding purposes as larger
tubers; and as the potato is a bulky
and therefore an expensive article to
send a long distance to market, those
who grow potatoes to some extent in
remote districts will be able to turn
their crops to better account by con-
verting the small tubers into meat than
by selling the entire crop in its natural
state. It is necessary to give potatoes
to stock with caution, as the excess of
starchy matter, unless counteracted by
other foods, may injure the health of
the animals.
There are many farmers who have an
objection to potatoes as food for cattle.
The late Mr M'Combie of Tillyfour said :
"I would rather throw potatoes to the
dunghill than give them to a store bul-
lock, though I would give them to my
fattening bullocks." He would never
give them to animals intended to be
afterwards grazed. ^
The albuminoids, or flesh-forming mat-
ters, in potatoes are deficient, but there
i^ an exceptionally high percentage of
the respiratory or fat-forming elements,
which constitute the largest part of the
dry matter. For cattle, therefore, pota-
toes should be used in combination with
such other foods as cotton-cake, bean-
meal, or peBrmeal.
TJtilising Diseased Potatoes. — When
the potato is attacked with disease, it is
the albuminoids, or flesh -forming con-
stituents, that are destroyed : these are
partially converted into ammonia and
other volatile matters, and hence the
offensive smell which is emitted from
diseased potatoes. The starch, &c., re-
mains intact, and advantage is taken of
this by employing diseased potatoes in
the manufacture of starch.
' Cattle and OattU-Breeden, p. 13.
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
283
Diseased potatoes may, for the same
reason, be turnedf to account for feeding
animals, particularly swine. In order to
do this, it is necessary to thoroughly
cook the potatoes either by boiling or
steaming — the latter, when practicable,
being the better way — and then pack
the cooked potatoes into flour -barrels
or casks, ramming them well down, and
sprinkling some salt occasionally through
the mass. When the barrel or cask is
filled to the top, it must be closed from
the air, and the potatoes will keep for
some time fit for use.
Potatoes for Horses. — Potatoes are
often fed to horses, but when freely
given in a raw condition, they are liable
to produce colic.
Water witli Potatoes. — Water should
not be given to animals fed on either raw
or cooked potatoes, for some time after
the meal.
Green Rape.
Rape in a green or growing state is
usually fed off with sheep, or cut and
used as soiling food for house-fed cattle.
It is a nutritious and valuable plant
for these purposes, and for spring and
autumn food it should be grown much
more extensively than it is.
Furze, Whins, or Gorse.
Like many other useful and beautiful
plants indigenous to this country, furze
— in some parts called whins, in others
gorse — ^is not so highly esteemed as it
ought to be, perhaps on account of its
being so common, and of its tendency to
grow where it has not been sown and is
not wanted. Nevertheless, as food for
cattle, sheep, and horses, it possesses very
considerable value, and for this purpose
it may be grown in any part of the
• country with success, financially and
otherwise.
Furze as Winter Pood. — The chief
value of furze is as a green food for the
winter months. It should be cut at
least once every year, so that the plants
may not be allowed to become too woody
and hard. When sown thickly on fairly
good land the shoots come up fine and
juicy, growing to a length of from 2
to 2^ feet. The crop may be cut with
the scythe, or with a strong mower
past its best for regular harvest work '
— generally with the scythe.
Preparing Furze as Food. — Before
being given to stock the furze should be
cut into short pieces by a strong chaff-
cutter, or, better still, bruised and cut by
a machine which has been specially de-
signed for the purpose, aptly named the
"Masticator," and made by Mackenzie &
Sons, Cork. This useful machine may
be driven by horse, water, or steam
power. •
Some think it desirable to chop or
masticate the furze daily as required ;
but others perform this work twice a-
week, and find that the chop keeps well
enough.
How fed to Stock. — An agriculturist,
who had thirty years' experience of furze
as food for stock, said : " Cut up the
furze with hay for milking cows, and
you will make first-quality butter, but
pale — with hay for horses, but do not
feed too heavily ; add 3 or 4 lb. mangels
to counteract a resin the furze contains.
Young stock thrive amazingly upon it.
Furze-fed cattle are hard to be fattened
on other food ; oaten straw, with cut
furze for them."
Mr R O. Pringle stated that horses
may be kept through the winter on furze
without hay, and only a moderate allow-
ance of oats ; and the furze gives the
horses a fine coat of hair. An acre of
well-grown young furze, which is regu-
larly cut, will keep four or five horses or
cows during the winter and early spring
months with very little assistance in the
shape of hay or roots. For hard-working
horses it should be accompanied by a
liberal allowance of bruised oats or other
concentrated food. Both horses and
cattle take to it readily, but sheep do
not eat it willingly except when there
is snow on the ground. When grown
as food for sheep, the crop is not cut,
and in a snowstorm a few acres of
young juicy furze are most valuable
for sheep.
Composition of Furze. — That furze
should, in practice, prove to be a useful
food, will not surprise any one when it
is considered that it contains about 3.20
per cent of albuminoids and about 9.40
of sugar, digestible fibre, &c. Its pro-
portion of water is about 72 per cent,
and fibre 13.33 P^"^ cent.
284
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
Grasses and Clovers.
It may seem strange, but it is never-
theless true, that farmers possess less, reli-
able knowledge as to the relative cropping
and feeding value of the various grasses
which cover their pastures, than as to
that of any of the other leading^ crops of
the farm. A good deal of fresh know-
ledge as to the habits and characters of
our grasses has, no doubt, been gained
in recent years, but investigations and
experiments must ,be prosecuted much
further before it can be said that we
know our pastures and our hay crops
as well as we do our crops of roots and
grain.
There are special circumstances which
render the investigation of this subject
very difficult. Root and grain crops are
usually matured, or almost so, before they
are fed to stock, and thus it has been
comparatively easy to obtain reliable
information as to the average composi-
tion of food-mixtures consisting of these
commodities. With grasses, however,
especially those which are constantly
grazed, the case is different. They are
eaten at all stages of their growth, in
extreme youth, full bloom, old age, and
all the intervening stages. It is well
known that the nutritive properties of
plants vary at different stages of the
development of the plants ; and it does
not follow that all grasses which show
a useful composition when fuUy grown,
are equally useful and suitable for
grazing by stock in the . earlier periods
of their growtL Again, plants which
would not stand well in an analysis of
hay, may be extremely serviceable as
an element in pastures to be regularly
grazed.
The determining of the amount of
nutrition — the grazing value — possessed
by the different plants which compose our
pastures, sown and natural, temporary
and permanent, is thus at once a matter
of the greatest difficulty and the utmost
importance. No subject could more
worthily engage the attention or employ
the resources of the leading agricultural,
societies ; and it is a matter, too, in which
a great deal of good might be done by
private experiment and investigation by
farmers who have opportunities of study-
ing their pastures,, and watching the pro-
gress of the animals which feed upon
them.
CompoBition of Q-rasses and Clovers
at DifiFerent Stages of Growth. — In the
'Eighties of the last century the most
extensive investigation ever carried out
in this country regarding the nutritive
value and produce of British - grown
grasses was conducted by Mr (now Dr)
David Wilson at Carbeth, Stirlingshire.
Much valuable information on the sub-
ject is afforded in lengthy reports on
these investigations which appear 'in
the Transactions of the Highland and
Agricultural Society for the years 1886
and 1889. From the later of the reports
are taken the tables on page 285, giving
(i) the Average Composition of Grasses
at Different Stages of Growth, and (2)
the Average Composition of Clovers at
Different Stages of Growth.
Feeding Value of Clovers. — As to
the clovers, which occupy a prominent
place in pastures as well as in hay, they
are well known to possess high feeding
properties.
Alsike clover, which is much esteemed
for damp soils, and is siDecially suited
for meadows, shows a rather higher
nutritive value than either of the other
clovers.
In composition, lucerne and sainfoin
closely resemble the clovers.
Composition of Grasses. — Mr Martin
John Sutton's valuable work, Permanent
and Temporary- Pastures (the first edition
of which was issued in 1886), contains a
series of analyses of the principal agri-
cultural grasses, made specially for the
purpose by Dr John A. Voelcker. A
precise and clear description of .each grass
accompanies the analysis, and this, with
the beautifully coloured illustrations of
grasses, and Mr Sutton's practical direc-
tions as to the formation and treatment
of temporary and permanent pastures,
renders the work one of remarkable
value.
Dr' J. A, Voelcker explains that each
variety thus analysed was grown separ-
ately and was perfectly pure — the sample
being taken, in every instance, as nearly
as possible at the time when it would have
been cut for hay. And the analysis of
each grass is shown in its natural state and
dried at 212° Fahr. — that is, until noth-
ing but the solid or dry matter remained.
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
28s
(i) Average Composition of Gbasses at Deeterbnt Stages op Growth.
Number of
Analyses
Averaged.
Is
go
Composition of 100 Parts Dry Matter.
11
§2
as
•^ o
« t- g
-fi;SJa
•Sd.
J"?
CM^ o
la
a 'Is
gv-O S
30 u
ft* C-*^
Toung undergrowth ,
Longer undeTgrowth, J
before shooting \
Shot,butbeforebloom, t
one ortwo beginning i
to show bloom (
Coming into bloom and /
till full bloom \
After bloom till seed/
fUU-sized \
Seed full-sized till ripe-!
21 complete 1
6 complete
II partial^
11 complete
12 partial 8
9 complete
6 partial *
2 complete
5 partial B
13 complete
7 partial 8
74- so
74.92
76.26
72.59
67-33
65.66
13.66
9.08
7-93
8.30
5-77
5.29
3-13
2. 80
2.84
2.56
1.24
4.64
'■55
3- 02
2.34
1.49
2.27
46.23
47-71
47.«5
47-53
52.78
48.51
11.43
10.31
9.07
8-47
6.85
7-95
20.91
27-55
29.49
30.80
31.87
34.76
18.6
23-5
26.3
23- S
17.7
18.7
60.1
60. T
52.6
S5.8
44.6
83
The analyses of the following cuttings of grasses were
averaged to obtain the above mean composition for each
stage of growth : —
1 3d cut of cocksfoot, foxtail, tall fescue, meadow fescue,
sweet vernal, golden oat, timothy, perennial rye-grass, wood
meadow, rough -stalked meadow, crested dogstail, hard
fescue, fine-leaved sheep's fescue, various-leaved fescue,
smooth-stalked meadow, Hungarian forage grass, floating
sweet grass, reed canary, wood fescue, and ist cut of fiorin
and floating sweet grass.
2 ist cut of timothy, Hungarian forage, reed canary, and
wood fescue, zd cut of various-leaved fescue, smooth-
stalked meadow, Hungarian forage, floating sweet, reed
canary, and wood fescue. 3d cut fiorin. ist cut floating
sweet. 2d cut fiorin, various-leaved fescue, smooth-stalked
meadow, floating sweet, and reed canary.
' ist cut of cocksfoot, tall fescue, meadow fescue, golden
oat, P. rye-grass, rough-stalked meadow, crested dogstail,
tall oat, and various-leaved fescue, ad cut of hard fescue
and fiorin. 3d cut of tall oat. ist cut of wood fescue.
2d cut of cocksfoot] tall fescue, meadow fescue, sweet
vernal, timothy, P. rye -grass, rough - stalked meadow,
crested dogstaU, hard fescue, and Hungarian forage.
* ist cut of foxtail, sweet vernal, wood meadow, hard
fescue, fine-leaved fescue, and smooth-stalked meadow.
2d cut of lough-stalked meadow and tall oat. ist cut of
fiorin, Hungarian forage, and reed canary. 2nd cut of fox-
tail, golden oat, tall oat, and wood fescue. '
5 2d cut of cocksfoot, tall fescue, meadow fescue, and '
golden oat. ist cut of timothy and various-leaved fescue,
ad cut of wood meadow.
^ 2d cut of foxtail, sweet vernal, timothy, P. rye-grass,
wood meadow, crested dogstail, fine-leaved sheep's fescue,
ist cut of cocksfoot, foxtail, tall fescue, meadow fescue,
sweet vernal, golden oat, P. rye-grass, wood meadow,
rongh-stalked meadow, crested dogstail, hard fescue, tall
oat, and smooth-stalked meadow.
(2) Average Composition of Clovers at Different Stages of Growth.
Number of
Averaged.
So
COMPOSITIOK OF icx:
Parts Dry Matter.
III
III
-1
III
ill
Comparative
Value of Dry
Mitter. Cocks-
foot, istcut=ioo.
§1
il
lis?
B
a 0
It
9
Ill
a §
■«i~
1
S
Very young leafy
growth .
I complete 1
86.78
23-75
4.02
5.12
40.16
11.07
15.88
14.5
66.5
201
Toung growth before
bloom
6 complete 2
80.92
15.70
4.36
3-74
47.60
11.41
17.19
21.7
67.3
156
In bloom . . . -|
7 complete \
6 partial 3 f
79.71
13.46
3.87
2.96
47.18
10.93
21.60
22.3
63.2
137
After bloom
2 partial*
81.51
10.66
29.86
116
The analyses of the following cuttings of clovers were
averaged to obtain the above mean composition for each
stage of growth :—
1 ist cut of perennial red clover 1885.
2 3d cut of perennial red clover 1885 ; 1st and 3d cuts
perennial red (1887), 3d cut Dutch (1887), ist and 3d cuts
alsike (1887).
VOL. III.
3 ist cut perennial red 1885, 2d cut and ist and 2d cut
perennial red (1887), ist cut Dutch (1885), ist and 2d cut
and ist and 2d cut Dutch (1887), ist cut alsike (1885), 2d
cut and lat and 2d cut alsike (1887).
4 2d cut and 2d cut perennial red (1885).
286
VAKIETIES OF FOOD.
The following analyses of four of the
grasses, taken from this volume, will
indicate the great value of the work to
practical farmers : —
Cocksfoot.
Meadow Foxtail.
Ryx-Gbabs.
Meadow Fescue.
Grass in
natural
state.
Dried
at 213°
Fahr.
Grass in
natural
state.
Dried
at 212°
Fahr.
Grass in
natural
state.
Dried
at 212*
Fahr.
Grass in
natural
state.
Dried
at 212*
Fahr.
Water ....
Soluble albuminoids '
Insoluble albuminoids ' .
Digestible fibre
Woody fibre .
Soluble mineral matter ' .
Insoluble mineral matter ■*
Cblorophyll, soluble car-
bohydrates, &c. .
' Containing nitrogen
' Containing nitrogen
Albuminoid nitrogen
Non-albuminoid nitrogen
Total nitrogen
' Containing silica .
* Containing silica .
60.74
■25
1.50
11.30
16.24
2.04
.91
7.02
".62
•3.81
28.78
41.36
5-19
2.32
17.92
55-58
2.56
14-22
16.42
2.58
.94
7.20
I-I3
5-75
32.01
2.11
16.23
62.01
2.06
7.98
17.71
2.90
• -78
6.18
1. 00
5-38
21.01
46.62
7.64
2.0s
16.30
71.04
I-13
8.91
12.51
I. OS
.64
4-72
3V88
30^77
43^ 19
3^62
2.21
'^■33
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
.04
.24
.10
. .61
.08
.41
.18
.92
.06
-33
.16
.86
".'18
"'.'62
.28
.18
-.11
■ -49
•30
1. 10
.67
^38
1.02
1.00
■a8
".62
.46
1.17
-79
1-77
-77
2.02
-36
1.24
•35
•51
.89
1.29
-37
•52
-83
1.17
•05
•32
■M
■39
1-35
ffay.
Loss in Hay-making. — ^In consider-
ing the feeding value of hay it must be
borne in mind that the analyses of fresh
grasses cannot be relied upon as a key to
the nutritive properties and value of hay
made from these grasses. If hay were
simply dried grasses and clovers, then
there would be no loss of nutriment and
no deterioration in feeding value — water
only would have passed away. But in
farm practice it is impossible to secure
this. In hay-making, even in the best of
weather and under the most careful man-
agement, there always will be some loss
of feeding material.
Damaged Hay. — Here it will suffice
to state that in the process of making,
hay may be so much spoiled as to be
almost worthless as food for stock. In
experiments at Kothamsted it was found
that sheep would increase in weight on
well-inade hay alone; but in experi-
ments conducted by Dr A. Voelcker,
and lasting three months, it was shown
that, fed wholly upon hay which had
been damaged by wet weather in
making, sheep actually lost in weight.
This result proves at once the great
importance of exercising skill and care
in hay-making, and the imprudence of
attempting to maintain stock solely on
damaged hay.
_ It thus becomes apparent that, in
giving hay to stock, the physical con-
dition as well as the original quality of
the hay must be carefully considered,
and the quantities of it and accompany-
ing other foods regulated accordingly.
Feeding Value of Hay. — In average
years the price which good hay com-
mands for use as food for horses is
usually too high to admit of its exten-
sive employment in the feeding of cattle.
If the better qualities of hay are used
for cattle at all, they are generally given
sparingly. Secondary qualities, espe-
cially of meadow-hay, are fed largely to
both cattle and sheep.
Straw.
Even yet the value of straw as food
for stock is not fully understood and
VAEIETIES OF FOOD,
287
appreciated by the general body of
farmers. In recent years more prom-
inent attention has been given to the
subject, and much good will be done if
farmers are induced to exercise greater
care in the utilisation of straw. A large
quantity of straw must no doubt be used
as litter for cattle and horses ; but in
many cases, especially when hay is scarce
and dear, it will be found advantageous
to substitute, say, peat -moss as litter,
and utilise the straw, at least oa«-straw,
which is the most easily digested, for
feeding purposes. In any case there
should be no waste — no more straw
under the cattle than they can effect-
ually convert into manure, and — ^what is
still more unsightly — no loose bundles
or handfuls of straw lying about the
steading where no straw should be.
Feeding Value of Straw. — The
value of straw as a feeding material
depends not only on the kind of grain
to which it belongs, but also on its
condition as regards ripeness when it is
harvested, and on the land and climate
where it is grown. The straw of grain
which is cut just as the grain is ripe,
while there still remains a tinge of green
in the straw, is much more nutritious
than that which has been allowed to
become over-ripe. Strong, coarse straw
is, of course, not so much relished by
cattle as that which is finer in the
growth.
The preference which is given to oat-
straw as food for stock is fully justified.
Fine oat-straw, cut before the crop has
become quite ripe, is relished alike by
cattle, sheep, and horses, and is given
extensively to all, especially in the
northern parts where the oat is the
prevailing cereal. Indeed in many
parts of Scotland good oat-straw (given
with a small allowance of roots and per-
haps a little cake) forms the main por-
tion of the winter food of young store
cattle and dry cows. In pea- and bean-
straw it will be seen there are also high
feeding properties ; while wheat- and
barley - straw, although less nutritive,
likewise possess considerable value as
food for stock.
Straw-ohaff". — When straw is used as
feeding material, it is given either in
its natural state, as it comes from the
threshing-machine, or it is cut into very
short lengths by a machine constructed
for the purpose, in which state it is
known as straw-chaff or chaffed straw.
The latter method is by far the more
economical, as by it the amount of waste
may be reduced to a minimum. In
order to render straw-chaff more palat-
able to animals, it is either moistened
with treacle mixed with water, or it is
employed to absorb a quantity of lin-
seed-meal gruel. The dry chaff is also
mixed with the oats given to horses, as
such admixture has the effect of causing
the horses to masticate their oats more
fully than they might otherwise do.
Then in pulped mixtures straw-chaff is
very extensively employed; and it has
been clearly proved by experience that
by the economical and careful use of cut
straw and concentrated foods a greatly
increased stock of cattle and sheep may
be kept.
Preparing and Storing Straw-
chaff. — There is perhaps no better way
of turning straw to good account than
by cutting it into chaff and storing it for
a few months in large quantities with a
slight admixture of chaffed green food,
salt, and perhaps ground cake. By this
system straw remaining over from the
previous winter is cut into chaff in
spring or summer and stored in barns
till the following winter, when it is con-
sumed ; thus enabling the farmer to hold
over a quantity of the fresh straw for
similar treatment next spring or sum-
mer. The system is pursued with great
success by many farmers, and particu-
larly when roots are scarce the straw-
chaff thus prepared will be found most
valuable.
Some now use pulped mangels instead
of vetches or rye for mixing with the
dry straw-chaff as it is being stored, and
get better results therefrom.
Compound Cakes and Meals.
Compound or mixed cakes and meals
are, as already mentioned, very largely
used. Nearly all manufacturers now
make a number of such cakes and meals
for various purposes, just as manure
manufacturers make up special mixed
manures for various crops. Thus we
have compounded cakes and meals for
fattening animals, for dairy cows, for
young stock, for pigs, and so forth.
288
VAEIETIES OF FOOD.
In the manufacture of such cakes, oil-
cakes, like cotton-seed cakes, rape-cake,
earthnut-cake, and the minor oilcakes
are largely used. These are mixed with
various cereal by-products like rice meal,
dried dreg, and various wheat and maize
by-products, and with sweetening ma-
terials like locust bean and treacle.
Strongly-flavoured spice seeds, like ani-
seed, fenugreek, dill seed, &c., are also
generally introduced in small quantity to
give an appetising odour and flavour.
Such mixed cakes are of various
qualities. Unfortunately it is easy to
mix inferior materials with such good
food substances as those mentioned
above, and it is difficult to detect ad-
mixtures of such valueless substances as
ground oat -husks, sweepings, ground
screenings of cereals, and such other
substances. Purchasers should always
be careful to buy mixed cakes and meals
on analysis, and they Ihould in partic-
ular look to it that the percentages of
albuminoids and oil are high, and that
the percentage of fibre is low. They
should also see that the analysis does
not show the presence of more than a
very small proportion of sandy matters. ,
Condimental Foods.
In modern times remarkable ingenuity
and enterprise have been directed to the
production of "condimental cattle foods"
and appetising spices for all kinds of
farm live stock. No attempt will be
made to describe the composition and
individual characteristics of these condi-
mental foods. It may be well, however,
to advise farmers never on any account
to purchase any of these foods without
receiving therewith a warranty as to
its freedom from adulteration, and a
guaranteed analysis of its chemical com-
position, in full accord with the pro-
visions of The Fertilisers and Feeding
Stufifs Acts. With this analysis before
him, and a reference to what is said in
this work as to the elements of nutrition
in cattle foods, the farmer will be able
to form a tolerably correct idea as to the
value of the food. A sample of the food
may be analysed for a mere trifle, and
if it should fall short of the guaranteed
analysis, the vendor is fully responsible
for the deficiency.
Vetches.
Of all green forage crops, the vetch
is the most extensively grown in the
United Kingdom. In almost all kinds
of soils it can be grown easily, and at
comparatively little expense.
Vetches cut when in full bloom, and
before seeding, are much relished by all
kinds of stock, and it is desirable that
this crop should be grown much more
extensively than it is.
How Vetches are Fed to Stock. —
Vetches contain an exceptionally high
proportion of albuminoids, and they are
thus very suitable for giving to stock
along with starchy foods, such as rice-
meal and Indian corn-meal. For this
same reason it is not desirable to give
highly nitrogenous foods, such as de-
corticated cotton-cake and beans, along
with vetches, for then the food would
be badly balanced — there would be an
unprofitable, even a dangerous, excess of
albuminoids. Vetches should be sown
in successive patches, so as to afibrd a
continuous supply of fresh food. When
cut just before becoming fully ripe,
vetches make excellent hay or silage.
Vetches are also largely consumed on
the land by sheep.
Green Maize.
Maize has never been grown to any
great extent as a forage crop in this
country. It would be a gain to British
farmers if it could be successfully accli- ,
matised, for maize is capable of pro-
ducing an enormous yield of succulent
food, which is much relished by cattle,
and which is well adapted for feeding in
a fresh condition along with other foods,
such as chopped hay or straw and de-
corticated cotton-cake, or for converting
into silage for winter feeding.
For use as a forage crop, maize is cut
green, and before the cobs have formed.
Its chemical composition in this form has
been found to vary greatly.
Green maize is not a rich food. Its
merit lies in the great quantity of palat-
able succulent food it produces per acreC
It is deficient in nitrogen, but along with
highly nitrogenous foods such as decorti-
cated cotton-cake it is most suitable and
acceptable to all kinds of« stock. It has
VARIETIES OF FOOD.
289
teen found that 120 lb. of green maize
and 2 lb. of decorticated cotton-cake
made an excellent food for dairy-cows.
In a dry summer, when grass is scarce,
green maize, chopped and mixed with
chaffed straw or hay, will be found to be
a valuable food for cows or young cattle.
A sprinkling of crushed decorticated
cotton-cake — ij4 or 2 lb. per head —
would make this a nutritive mixture for
cows giving milk.
Sorghum.
/Sorcfkum saccharai'imi is a tall-growing
plant, similar in appearance to maize, but
finer in the stem. In warm climates it
grows with great luxuriance, and when
cut green, forms excellent forage for
stock. It is hoped that hardy varieties
of it may be raised, so that it may be
successfully cultivated in this country.
As yet experiments have been confined
to the south and centre of England, and
so far the experience has been variable.
Sorghum is exceptionally rich in sugar,
and is therefore specially suitable for
feeding along with decorticated cotton-
cake. Fed alone to cows it has a tend-
ency to cause looseness; but 2 lb. of
decorticated cotton-cake to 100 lb. of
green sorghum corrects this, and makes
an excellent . daily ration for cows in
milk.
Lucerne.
Lucerne is exceptionally rich in al-
buminous matters, and is' even more
nutritious than red clover. It affords
a large yield, under favourable circum-
stances sometimes close on 20 tons per
acre ; and is most useful when sown in a
small patch near the steading, to be cut
as required for consumption.
Young lucerne given alone, or as the
principal food, has a tendency to cause
the animals to become blown ; but this
danger is avoided by giving it along with
straw, the two being. chaffed together —
£^n excellent method of turning straw to
good account as food.
Sainfoin.
Sainfoin is peculiarly valuable in sheep-
farming districts, and seems to sustain
little or no permanent injury by being
grazed by sheep. Unlike lucerne, it has
no tendency to cause blowing in cattle.
Sainfoin is less nutritious than lucerne,
and does not give nearly so large a yield
per acre.
Prickly Comfrey.
There is much difference of opinion as
to the value of prickly comfrey as a
forage crop. It is a hardy and prolific
plant; and in good soil, well manured,
will afford a large yield. There is prob-
ably no forage - plant that has made
warmer friends or more bitter enemies
than prickly comfrey. It is a somewhat
coarse watery food, not much relished
by cattle at the outset, but useful as a
green food for dairy-cows.
Dr Augustus Voelcker considered that
prickly comfrey "has about the same
feeding value as green mustard, or man-
gels, or turnip-tops, or Italian rye-grass
grown on irrigated lands."
Sitgar.
In animal economy sugar and starch
perform similar functions, and experi-
ments conducted by the late Sir John
Bennett Lawes^ showed that, "whether
for the purpose of supporting the func-
tional actions of the body, or of minister-
ing to the formation of increase, . . .
starcji and sugar have, weight for weight,
values almost identical. . . . Starch and
sugar, therefore, as foods, appear to be
equivalent ; or, in other words, a pound
of one, properly used, can produce no
more increase in our stock than a pound
of the other."
Remarking upon the exaggerated value
which had been placed upon sugar as a
food for stock. Sir John Bennett Lawes
stated that it is nevertheless an excellent
food ; and that the only question is, what
price is sugar worth (in comparison with
other foods) for feeding purposes ?
Sir John considered that it would not
be advisable to use sugar with such foods
as cereal grains, maize, rice, roots, or
even meadow-hay, as all these are some-
what low in nitrogen ; and to dilute the
nitrogen that exists still more, by the use
of sugar, would tend to waste it. On
the other hand, foods containing a large
amount of nitrogenous substance, such
as leguminous seeds— especially lentils,
tares, and beans — as well as linseed-cake,
' Jowr. Royal. Agric. Soc. Eng., vii. 388.
290
VAEIETIES OF FOOD.
cotton-cake, and clover -hay, might be
safely diluted with sugar.
Fish Products as Animal Food.
The frugal farmers of Norway turn
fish-offal to use as food for cattle. Their
custom has been to boil down the heads of
cod-fish into a kind of soup, which they
mix with straw or other fodder and give
to cattle, and by the means of this cheap
and nutritious food many Norwegian
farmers have been able to maintain 1 a
much larger stock of cattle than would
have been otherwise practicable.
From the refuse of herring a cattle-
feeding meal of a useful kind is also
made in Christiania. Various trials with
it were made in this country, but it did
not come largely into use.
Fish guano has useful feeding pro-
perties, but it has never been used as
food to any appreciable extent.
COMPOSITION OF FOODs".
The composition of the common foods
used for farm live stock is shown in the
following table taken from Waringtoh's
unique little volume entitled Chemistry
of the Farm : ^ —
Pbeoentage Composition of Obdinart Foods.
Nitrogenous
substence.
Soluble
Food.
Water.
Fat.
carbo-
hydrates.
Fibre.
Ash.
Albu-
Amides,
minoids.
&c.
Cotton-cake (decorticated) .
8.2
43-2
1.8
13-5
20.8
s-s
7.0
II II (undeoorticated)
I2.S
20.7
1-3
S-S
34-8
20.0
s-2
Linseed-cake
II. 7
26.9
I.I
11.4
33-2
9.0
6.7
Bape-cake .
10.4
28.1
4.6
9.8
29.1
10.3
7-7
Earthnut-cake
"•5
45.1
1-9
8.3
23.1
S-2
4-9
Beans .
14-3
22.6
2.8
1.5
48-S
7.1
H
Peas .
14.0
20. p
2-5
1.6
53-7
S-4
2.8
Wheat
13-4
10.7
I.3
1-9
69.0
1-9
1.8
Bye .
13-4
10. s
1.0
1-7
69-S
1-9
2.0
Oats .
13.0
10.6
0.7
5-4
57.3
lO.O
3-0
Barley
14-3
10.2
0.4
2.1
66.0
4-5
2-S
Maize .
II. 0
9.8
0.6
5- 1
70.0
2.0
I-S
Malt sprouts
lO.O
16.6
7-1
2.2
44-1
12. 5
7-S
Wheat brail
13.2
12. 1
2.0
3-7
56.0
7-2
S-8
Brewers' grains
76.2
4-9
0.2
1-7
10.7
S-i
1.2
11 M (C
Iried)"
9-5
19.8
0.8
7.0
42.3
iS-9
4-7
Rice meal .
10.3
"■3
1.0
12.0
47-8
8.6
9.0
Oat-straw .
14-5
3-S
O.S
2.0
37-0
36-8
S-7
Barley-straw
14.2
3-2
0.3
i-S
39-1
36.0
S-7
Wheat-straw
13-6
3-
3
1-3
39-4
37-1
S-3
Pea-straw .
13-6
9-
3
1.6
33-7
35- S
6.6
Bean-straw .
1S.4
8.
I
I.I
31-0
36.0
S-4
Pasture grass
76.7
2.9
I.I
0.9
10.9
S-2
2.3
Clover (bloom beginning) .
81.0
2.6
0.8
0.7
8.0
S-2
1.6
Clover-hay (medium) .
16.0
10.5
2-S
2-S
37-2
25.0
6-3
Meadow-hay (best)
15.0
10.2
1.8
2-3
39- S
24.0
7-2
II II (medium)
I5-0
8.0
1.2
2.2
42.0
2S-4
6.2
n II (poor)
14.0
6.3
0.5
2.0
41. 1
31-0
S-i
Grass silage (stack)
67.0
3-3
1-5
I-S
13-2
9-7
3-8
Clover silage (stack) .
67.0
3-3
2.7
2.2
10. 5
11.9
2.4
Maize silage
79-1
I.O
0.7
0.8
II. 0
6.0
1-4
Potatoes
75-0
1.2
0.9
0.2
21.0
0-7
i.o
Cabbage
8S.7
1-7
0.8
0.7
7-1
2.4
1.6
Carrots
S7.0
0.7
o-S
0.2
9-3
1-3
1.0
Mangels (large)
89.0
0.4
0.8
O.I
7-7
1.0
1.0
II (small)
87.0
0.4
0.6
O.I
10.2
0.8
0.9
Swedes
89.3
0.7
0.7
0.2
7-2
I.I
0.8
Turnips
91-5
0.5
o-S
0.2
S-7
0.9
0.7
' Vinton & Co., Ltd., London.
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
291
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
In order to understand the value of
foods to the animal it is not sufficient
to know their chemical composition,
some account of which is given in the
immediately preceding pages. The use
of the food to the animal, and the part
which its different constituents play in
animal nutrition, have also to be taken
into account. For the appended notes
on these subjects the editor is indebted
to Mr James Hendrick, B.Sc, F.I.C.,
chemist to the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society of Scotland.
Constititents of Foods.
The chief constituents of the dry
matter of foods may be divided into
four classes : (i) proteins, (2) fats, (3)
carbohydrates, and (4) ash constituents.
In addition to these, foods contain more
or less water, and a number of minor
constituents such as amide bodies,
organic acids, &c.
The essential substances which all
animals require to consume in their diet
are: (i) water, (2) proteins, (3) fats and
carbohydrates, and (4) ash constituents.
In the analysis of feeding-stuffs it is
usual to state (i) the moisture or water,
(2) the albuminoids, (3) the oil, (4) the
soluble carbohydrates, also often called
the non - nitrogenous extract, or the
starch, sugar, gum, &c., (5) the fibre,
and (6) the asb. In this statement the
term albuminoid generally means the
protein substances, together with a
greater or less percentage of other
nitrogenous bodies, such as amide sub-
stances. In concentrated foods the
so-called albuminoids are composed
almost entirely of true protein bodies,
but in some of the -bulby foods, such
as turnips and mangels, a large part of
what is commonly called albuminoids con-
sists of the much less valuable amides.
The term oil in a food analysis indi-
cates, or should indicate, fatty oils or fats.
The fats in vegetable foods are gener-
ally liquid fats, and hence the rather
vague term oil is commonly applied to
them. In a feeding-stuff the term oil
should be synonymous with fat.
The substances classed as soluble
carbohydrates, and as fibre in a food
analysis, are practically all carbo-
hydrates. Some of the carbohydrates,
such as starches and sugars, are easily
dissolved, and these form the soluble car-
bohydrates; while other carbohydrates,
like the celluloses, are very difficult to
dissolve, and these form the main part
of what is called fibre, or sometimes,
quite wrongly, "indigestible fibre," or
"woody fibre," in a food analysis.
The ash constituents consist of a
variety of more or less valuable mineral
The Functions of Food.
The functions of the food of an
animal are (i) to build up the body
itself, (2) to supply the body with a
source of energy, and (3) to form fat
in the body.
The bodies of animals are composed
of (i) water, (2) nitrogenous matters,
(3) fat, and (4) ash or mineral con-
stituents. Water is, except in the case
of very fat animals, the constituent
which is present in greatest quantity.
It usually forms over half the weight
of the body and, except in the case of
fat animals, over 60 per cent of the
weight.
The nitrogenous matters of the body
consist mainly of proteins, but various
nitrogenous bases are also present in
smaller amount. The muscle and nerve
fibres, the blood cells, the skin and,
generally speaking, the working mech-
anism of the body, are built up mainly
of protein substances.
The fat of the body is essentially a
reserve material, which is stored up
from excess of food as a reserve supply
of energy - producing material, to be
drawn upon when the food-supply is
deficient. The store of fat is com-
paratively small in the working animal.
When an animal is starved for some
time his fat store may be almost or
entirely exhausted. On the other hand,
highly fed animals which have not any
great amount of work to do lay up large
292
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
stores of fat, especially in the case of
those animals in which the tendency to
store up fat has been specially cultivated
in order that they may be used for
human food.
The ash constituents of the body form
a comparatively small proportion of the
total weight. They include potash, soda,
lime, phosphoric acid, chlorine, sulphuric
acid, and other constituents in lesser
quantities. They are found in aU parts
of the body. The bones are specially
rich in ash, which consists mainly of
lime and phosphoric acid ; but the blood,
nerves, muscles, skin, &c., also contain
mineral constituents.
Carbohydrates are also found in the
bodies of animals, but only to a small
extent. They are not built up in any
large quantity into the tissues, but
merely form a small floating reserve
of material, which can be immediately
drawn upon for the supply of energy.
Proteins and ash constituents must be
present in the food in order to supply
material for the building of the body.
Every animal requires a certain mini-
mum of these two constituents in its
food. It has been pointed out above
that the essential parts of the body are
built up of protein substances and ash
constituents, together with water; only
protein substances appear to be capable
of building up the nitrogenous tissues,
and a supply of potash, lime, phosphates,
&c., in suitable forms of combination, is
essential for building up the bones, and
contributing the necessary ash constitu-
ents to the other tissues.
A supply* of common salt is also
essential to the carrying on of certain
functions of the body, such as digestion.
Fats and carbohydrates cannot build
up the essential parts of the body, but
are useful as sources of energy. It is
only the smaller portion of the food
which is necessary for building up the
body and repairing its waste ; the greater
portion is used as a source of energy.
Energy is the power or capacity to do
work. The body is constantly engaged
in doing work. Even where no external
work is done, internal work is constantly
being done by the heart, respiratory
system, digestive system, &c., and some
source of energy is required to enable
this work to be done. In the food the
body obtains supplies of potential energy,
which are capable of being turned to
kinetic energy, or energy of motion,
when the food undergoes oxidation in
the animal The use of carbohydrates
and fats to the animal is to act, so to
speak, as fuel which can be consumed in
the body to supply power of doing work.
Any excess of these materials which is
not required for the immediate produc-
tion of energy may be stored in the body
as fat, which is reserve fuel.
The organism is constantly ez^ending
energy on internal and external work,
and in maintaining the body tempera-
ture. It may be said that to supply
energy is the function of food. In the
last resort most of what has been used in
building up the body itself will be con-
sumed as a source of energy. If the
organism is not supplied with food it
soon exhausts its stores of energy and
runs down, and food has constantly to
be supplied to maintain the store of
energy.
Digestion.
It is only that portion of the food
which is digested, that is taken into the
blood stream, which is really of use to
the animal. Strictly speaking, it is only
what is digested that is really food.
The digestive system is a somewhat
complicated apparatus for grinding and
dissolving the food so as to get it into a
fit state for absorption. The food under-
goes both mechanical and chemical pro-
cesses during digestion. It is ground up
by the teeth. In ruminants it is soaked,
reground, and sifted through the ruminat-
ing apparatus before it is fit to proceed
to the true stomach, which is commonly
called the fourth stomach.
It is acted upon chemically by the
saliva, the gastric juice, the pancreatic
juice, and the bile. All of these con-
tain substances which assist in breaking
up the constituents of the food and
rendering them soluble. These dis-
solving substances are chiefly what
are called enzymes or unorganised
ferments. Thus the saliva contains an
enzyme, ptyalin, which, like the diastase
of malted grain, dissolves staiFch and
changes it into sugar.
Much of the material which composes
food is in an insoluble state. In the case
ANIMAL NUTEITION.
293
of fibrous foods like hay and straw the
greater part of the carbohydrates is in
forms which are very difficult to break
down and dissolve. The digestive sys-
tem of animals which naturally live on a
tough fibrous food is large and elaborate,
so as to enable them to deal with such
food. This is particularly the case with
ruminants, which are able to live upon a
much more fibrous food than the pig or
even than the horse.
The carbohydrates of the food are
changed into sugar before they are re-
sorbed. Whatever is the form in which
the carbohydrate is taken into the mouth
of the animal, whether as sugar, starch,
cellulose, or mucilage, it is taken into the
blood as sugar. The protein substances
are also broken up into the more soluble
and simpler proteoses and peptones before
they are resorbed. To a certain extent
they are broken up still further into
amides during the digestive processes.
The fat which is digested is first changed
into an emulsion, and to a certain extent
saponified, that is, turned into soap, by
the bile.
In addition to the processes already
mentioned, the food undergoes a certain
amount of fermentation due to bacteria.
Such action takes place especially in the
long and complicated digestive systems
of animals which feed on fibrous food.
Owing to these fermentative actions much
cellulose is broken up and some of it
rendered available for digestion. At the
same time a large amount of gas is pro-
duced, as well as other substances such as
butyric and acetic acids. The gas which
is produced in the intestines is excreted
and is really an addition to the matter
excreted in the dung. It contains much
methane. This subject will be referred
to again later.
The portion of the food which is not
digested is excreted in the dung. The
dung of herbivorous animals consists
almost entirely of the undigested part of
the food. The digestibility of food is
determined by weighing the food and
subtracting from it the weight of what is
excreted as dung. This is not quite
accurate, (i) as part of the digestive
secretions of the animal are contained in
the dung, and (2) on account of the gas
which is excreted from the intestine,
which is not weighed with the dung. In
the case of herbivorous animals this gas
may cause a very serious error, and
therefore special means of measuring it
have been devised.
In Warington's table, ^ given on p. 294,
the digestibility for ruminants of a num-
ber of the most common foods is given.
These figures express the percentages of
the total organic matter, and of the chief
constituents, nitrogenous matters (prc-
teins and amides), fat, soluble carbo-
hydrates, and fibre which are digested.
Such figures are sometimes called diges-
tion coefficients. They are obtained by
weighing and analysing the food eaten
by animals over a period, and weigh-
ing and analysing the dung excreted
over the same period, and calculating
the digestibilities of the total organic
matter and its difiierent constituents from
the difference between the amount eaten
and the amount excreted in the dung.
The figures in the table are averages
taken from German experiments. Very
little investigation into the nutrition of
farm animals and the digestibility of
their food has been done in this country.
For information on such subjects we are
almost entirely dependent on foreign, and
especially on German, work. In recent
years much work on the nutrition of
farm animals has been done in the United
States also.
It is to be remembered Ijiat some
of the digestion coefficients, given in
tables derived from foreign investigations,
may not apply strictly to foods grown in
our climate. For instance, straw grown
in the cool moist climate of Scotland may
differ materially from straw grown in the
drier and warmer continental climate of
Germany or the United States.
As the table (p. 294) shows, the fibre
of a food is by no means indigestible to
ruminants; and, on the other hand, it
shows that the soluble carbohydrates,
fat, and nitrogenous matters are far from
being entirely digestible. Generally
speaking, the more fibrous a food the
lower is the digestibility. But the lower-
ing of the digestibility is not confined to
the fibre, but is exhibited by the soluble
carbohydrates, fats, and nitrogenous
matters. The more fibrous a food the
' The Cliemiatry of the Farm, Vinton & Co.,
Ltd., London.
29n
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
lower is the digestibility of the total
organic matter, including the proteins,
fats, and soluble carbohydrates.
In the natural fibrous foods of rumi-
nants, such as hay and straw, the fibre is,
generally speaking, almost as well digested
as the other constituents. For instance,
in a sample of hay of medium quality, a
ruminant digests about 60 per cent of
the total organic matter, and also about
60 per cent of the fibre. So in a sample
of oat-straw a ruminant digests about 50
per cent of the total organic matter, in-
cluding quite 50 per cent of the fibre.
Another illustration of the effect of
fibre is seen by comparing the digesti-
bilities of decorticated and undecorticated
cotton - cakes. Undecorticated cotton-
cake is much more fibrous than the
decorticated cake, and while 76 per cent
Experiments with Cattle, Sheep, and Goats. (Warington.)
Pood.
Digested for 100 of each constituent supplied.
Total
organic
matter.
Nitrogenous
substance.
Fat.
Soluble
carbo-
hydrates.
Fibre.
Pasture-grass
74
74
64
77
69
Meadow-hay (best)
67
65
57*
68
63
II II (medium)
61
57
53
64
60
II II (poor)
56
50
49
59
56
Clover-hay (best) .
61
62
60
70
47
II II (medium)
57
55
51
65
45
Lucerne-hay (bloom beginning)
62
77
39
70
43
II II (full bloom)
S6
70
39
63
42
Maize silage ....
62
48
85
68
56
Oat-straw
48
?-°
33
44
54
*Barley-straw
S3
20
42
54
56
♦Wheat-straw ' . .
43
II
31
3!
52
*Bean -straw . . ...
SS
49
57
68
43
*Cotton-oake (decorticated) .
81
87
95
76
? -
* II II (undecorticated)
54
74
90
51
16
*Linseed-cake
80
86
90
80
5°
*Peas .
90
89
75
93
66?
. Beans .
89
88
82
92
72?
Oats .
71
78
83
77
26
*Barley .
86
70
ll
92
?
*Maize .
91
76
86
93
58
Kice meal
75
63
.85
86
26
Wheat bran .
71
78
72
76
30
Malt sprouts
81
78
50
86
85
Brewers' grains
62
70
82
63
39
Potatoes
88
66
!
93
?
*Mangels
88
77
?
96
1
*Turnips
88
62
?
99
?
These results are derived from a few experiments.
of the soluble carbohydrates of the decor-
ticated cake are digestible, only 51 per
cent of the same constituents in the
undecOtticated cake are digestible.
Generally speaking, concentrated foods
like grains and cakes, and succulent
foods like roots, are more digestible than
coarse fibrous foods like hay and straw.
Of the cakes and grains about 80 to 90
per cent is generally digestible. Simi-
larly nearly go per cent of the organic
matter of roots has been found digestible.
On the other hand, in straws generally
from 40 to 55 per cent of the total
organic matter is digestible, and in hays
generally from 55 to 65 per cent is
digestible. In succulent green herbage
from about 60 to 75 per cent of the
total organic matter is generally di-
gestible.
The digestibility of any food will vary
according to the kind of animal which
ANIMAL NUTEITION.
295
eats it. Thus the horse has not so
powerful a digestive apparatus as a
ruminant, and therefore the digestibility
of foods, and particularly of fibrous
foods, is lower for the horse than for
the ruminant.
In the case of concentrated foods there
is less difference in digestibility. Thus
the digestibility of the organic matter of
medium meadow-hay for the sheep was
found to be 59 per cent, but for the horse
only 48 per cent. In the case of oats, how-
ever, the sheep digested 71 per cent and
the horse 68 per cent, while the digesti-
bility of maize was found to be 89 per
cent for both sheep and horse.
The following table, from "Waring-
ton's work,! shows approximately the
amount of digestible matter obtained
by ruminants from 1000 lb. of
material in the case of a number
of the best known feeding - stuffs.
DioESTiBLB Matter in iooo Lb. op Vabious Foods.
Nitrogenous
Total
substance.
Fat.
Soluble
carbo-
Fibre.
organic
matter.
Albu-
minoids.
Amides,
&c.
hydrates.
Cotton-cake (decorticated)
691
374
18
128
158
13
II II (undecorticated)
422
150
13
50
177
32
Linseed-cake ....
65s
230
II
103
266
45
Peas
747
175
25
12
499
36
Beans
733
196
28
12
446
51
*Wheat
786
92
>3
15
656
10
Oats
600
81
7
45
441
26
Barley
71S
70
4
19
607
15
Maize
786
73
6
44
651
12
Eice meal
612
67
10
102
411
22
Wheat bran
585
90
20
27
426
22
Malt sprouts
681
114
71
II
379
106
Brewers' grains
137
34
2
14
67
20
11 II (dried)
529
136
8
57
266
62
Pasture grass .
156
19
II
6
84
36
Clover (bloom beginning) .
123
17
8
5
63
30
Clover-hay (medium)
440
47
25
13
242
"3
Meadow-hay (best) .
511
60
18
13
269
151
II II (medium)
485
40
12
12
269
152
II II (poor) .
460
29
5
10
242
174
Maize silage
124
I 7,
7
75
34
Bean-straw
412
40
6
211
15s
Oat-straw ....
381
7 1 5
7
163
199
Barley-straw
426
4 1 3
6
211
202
Wheat-straw
351
4
4
150
193
Potatoes . ^ .
213
5
9
I
195
3
Mangels (large) .
89
I
8
%
74
6
(small)
109
2
6
K
96
5
Swedes
87
2
7
I
71
6
Turnips ....
68
I
S
I
56
5
In the absence of experiments, it is assumed that wheat is digested like other foods of the same class.
The actual amounts digested will vary
somewhat with the quality of the food,
and with the personal peculiarities of
the animal. The figures shown in the
table are averages calculated from a
number of experiments upon sheep
and oxen with foods of different quali-
ties, and with different quantities of
foods.
The figures in this table are as impor-
tant as those in tables of composition
in indicating the true nutritive value
of foods. The nutritive value depends
upon digestibility as well as upon com-
position.
' The Cliendstry of The Farm. Vinton &
Co., Ltd., London.
296
ANIMAL NUTEITION.
Metabolism.
The blood nourishes all the tissues
of the body. It carries to them the
digested food from the constituents, of
which the tissues are built up. It also
carries to them the oxygen of the air
taken in through the lungs. This
oxygen combines with and oxydises
materials in the tissues, producing oxy-
dised waste products, and at the same
time setting free kinetic energy, which
enables the muscular tissues to do work,
or which appears in the form of heat.
These changes by which the tissues are
built up by materials from the blood,
and subsequently undergo oxidation and
degradation, are known as changes of
metabolism.
The oxydised waste products, which
are the resultants of metabolism, are
chiefly carbonic acid gas, water, urea,
and salts. These are collected by the
blood, and excreted through their several
channels. The carbonic acid gas is car-
ried by the venous blood to the lungs,
and there given off with the expired
breath. The waste water is partly
removed in the moisture contained in
the expired air, partly evaporates from
the surface of thg skin, and partly
escapes in the urine. The nitrogenous
waste of the body is chiefly urea, though
other substances, such as uric acid and
hippuric acid, are also excreted.
Herbivorous animals excrete a con-
siderable proportion of their nitrogenous
waste in the form of hippuric acid. The
nitrogenous waste is collected from the
blood, together with the waste salts, by
the kidneys in solution in water, and is
excreted in the urine. The amount of
nitrogen in the urine therefore measures
the nitrogenous waste of the body. The
amount of carbonic acid gas expired by
the lungs measures the waste of carbon-
aceous matter in the body.
Fats and carbohydrates consumed in
the body are completely oxydised, and
yield carbonic acid gas and water just
as if they had been burned in oxygen
outside the body. On the other hand,
nitrogenous substances, whether proteins
or amides, are not completely oxydised.
They are only partially oxydised, and part
of their carbonaceous material is excreted
as carbonic acid gas, but their nitrogen
is excreted in the incompletely oxydised
forms of urea, hippuric acid, uric acid,
<fec. These are capable of undergoing
further oxidation, and they remove from
the body a certain amount of potential
energy which has not been utilised in
doing work or producing heat.
Water Bequirements of Animals.
Along with their food animals always
require a large proportion of water.
Water is required since in digestion
the great part of the food is absorbed
in solution, -since the food is carried by
the blood mainly in the form of a solu-
tion, since the waste products are col-
lected in solution, and in the urine and
perspiration excreted in solution, and
since not only do the tissues contain
a large percentage of water, but the
changes which take place in them
demand the presence of much water.
Much water is also excreted in the dung
of animals, especially in the case of
animals like the ox, which consume
much fibrous food, and yield a bulby
wet excrement.
Generally speaking, animals require
2 to 5 parts of water by weight for
I part of dry food. Sheep require only
about 2 parts of water to i of dry food ;
horses, 2 to 3 parts to i ; and cattle, 3 to
4 parts to I. The proportion of water
required is increased by a very fibrous
diet, or by a diet rich in protein matters.
It is also increased by hot weather, which
increases evaporation from the body.
Excess of water is wasteful. Unless
the water is given warm, heat is con-
sumed in raising it to body temperature
and, as the excess is excreted at body
temperature, this heat is wasted. This
means waste of food used up as fuel
to heat the water. Increased consump-
tion of water also leads to increased
waste of nitrogenous matter in the body.
The excess of water cannot be passed
through the body and excreted without
causing increased oxidation of protein
matter, the nitrogenous waste of which
is excreted by the urine.
In the case of sheep fed upon turnips
alone the excess of water consumed is
very great, and in consequence quite a
large proportion of the dry matter con-
sumed is wasted in heating this excess
of water and pumping it through the
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
297
system. It therefore tends to economy
of food to give sheep dry food along
■with turnips.
Energy Value of Foods.
It has been shown above that foods
are mainly valuable to the animal as
sources of energy. One method of com-
paring the values of foods, therefore, is
to compare their energy values — ^that is,
their values as means of producing heat
and work. To do this we measure the
fuel value of the food or the amount of
heat which it produces when burnt in
oxygen. Later, the amount of this fuel
value which is recoverable in the animal
will be considered.
The heat value of fuels is measured by
the calorimeter. In this instrument a
given weight of the substance under ex-
periment is burnt in oxygen and the
amount of heat produced accurately
measured by suitable means. The fuel
values of coals, oils, and other combus-
tibles are constantly measured in this
Way for industrial purposes, and similarly
the fuel values of all ordinary foods and
food constituents have been measured.
It is especially to German and American
investigators that we are indebted for
our knowledge of food calorimetry.
The unit of heat employed is called
the "calorie," and it represents the
amount of heat required to raise i gram
of water 1° Centigrade in temperature.
For ordinary purposes the " Great
Calorie" or "Calorie," which is a theu-
san4 times as great as the " calorie," is
employed. It represent the heat neces-
sary to raise i kilogram of water 1° C.
The fuel value of i gram of fat is
about 9.4 calories, of 1 gram of protein
about 5^ calories, of i gram of carbo-
hydrate about 4 calories, and of i gram
of urea about 2^2 calories. It will thus
be seen that the fuel value of fat is much
greater than that of proteins, more than
twice as great as that of carbohydrates,
and nearly four times as great as that of
urea.-
Since fats and carbohydrates are use-
ful to the animal only for fuel purposes
their comparative values entirely depend
on their fuel values. In the case of pro-
teins it is otherwise. The fuel value
which is recovered in the calorimeter is
not entirely recovered in the animal, for
the nitrogenous matter is excreted as
urea, which has a fuel value of 2^ cal-
ories. The fuel value of the urea ex-
creted has therefore to be deducted from
the fuel value of the protein. As a
matter of fact, a greater fuel value than
is represented by the equivalent of urea
has to be deducted, for a portion of the
nitrogen is excreted in forms such as
hippuric acid which have a greater fuel
value than urea.
On the other hand, the proteins have
a special value to the animal which fats
and carbohydrates have not, for they are
essential for the formation of the nitro-
genous tissues. They have also a special
value to the farmer apart altogether
from their use in the nutrition of the
animal, for their nitrogenous waste
which is excreted in the urine has a high
manure value. On the other hand, noth-
ing of manure value is derived from fats
or carbohydrates. The actual value of
nitrogenous substances, therefore, does
not by any means depend entirely on the
fuel value.
Energy Value of Foods to the Animal.
As has been shown, only digested food
is of any value to the animal. The
energy value of this has been measured
in a large number of cases with much
accuracy by Continental investigators..
For this work the respiration calorimeter
is needed. It is only in the German
and American experiment stations that
respiration calorimeters are to be found.
It has been shown that the law of con-
servation of energy holds true for the
animal as for less complicated machines.
Fats, carbohydrates, and proteins pro-
duce the same amount of energy in the
animal as they do when oxydised to the
same extent outside the animal So that
if we deduct from the digestible food the
energy value of the incompletely oxy-
dised nitrogenous substances excreted in
the urine, and the energy value of the
methane and other gases excreted from
the intestine, we obtain its true energy
value to the animal.
The table on p. 298^ shows the heat
values found by actual experiment for
the digestible organic matter of a num-
^ The Chemistry of the Farm. Vinton & Co.,
Ltd., London.
298
ANIMAL NUTKITION.
ber of foods by Professor Kellner in the
case of the ox.
It will be seen from the table that
though straw has as great a total calor-
ific value as hay, owing to the greater
loss of gas from the intestine during its
digestion, the actual calorific value re-
covered by the animal is less for wheat
straw than for hay.
Energy Consumed in Digestion.
The total energy value of the digested
food which can be recovered in the ani-
mal is not available for productive pur-
poses. In order to digest the food a
certain amount of energy has to be con-
sumed, and it is only the balance which
is left over after this is supplied that
is available for other purposes. The
energy consumed in digestion may be
very great. It depends mainly on the
mechanical condition of, and on the
amount of fibre in, the food, The harder,
coarser, and more intractable a food is,
the more energy must be expended on
chewing it and reducing it mechanically
to a fine state of division.
In the case of coarse fibrous food sucli
as wheat-straw, the amount of energy
spent on its digestion is so great that
little is left over for any other purpose.
In the case of a horse, which extracts
Pood.
Fuel
Value of
I gram
Digested
Organic
Substance.
Losses of Combustible Matter.
Actual
Heat Value to
the Ox.
In the Urine.
As Methane.
Total.
Earthuut oil
Wheat gluteu .
Starch
Meadow-hay
Oat-straw .
Wheat-straw
Cals.
■ 8.8
5-8
4.1
4-5
4.5
4-5
Per cent.
18.7
8-5
4-7
S-6
Per cent.
lO.I
10.3
12.2
20.0
Per cent.
...
18.7
10. 1
18.8
16.9
25.6
Cals.
8.8
4-7
3-7
3-6
3-7
3-3
less from such a food than a ruminant,
and does it with greater difficulty, it has
been shown by experiment that the
amount of nutriment extracted from the
straw may not be sufficient to supply
energy for the digestion of the food. The
results of experiments show that in no
case can a horse extract sufficient nutri-
ment from wheat-straw to supply energy
to carry on the internal work of the
body, and therefore a horse if fed on
wheat-straw will starve even if it has no
external work to do. On the other hand,
an ox can live on wheat-straw and have
a balance of energy over after performing
the work of digestion and the internal
work of the body.
Generally speaking, only a small pro-
portion of the available energy of the
digestible matter of such concentrated
foods as cakes and grains is required
to do the work of digestion itself: the
proportion required is l^ger in foods
such as hay, and still larger in straw.
Other Internal Work
In addition to the energy consumed
in the digestion of the food itself, there
is a continual consumption of energy for
such necessary internal work as that of
the heart and of the respiratory system.
The circulation and respiration and
other functions of the body go on con-
tinuously whether the animal is doing
any useful work or not. Even when an
animal is apparently at rest it is con-
stantly at work internally. A certain
amount of food has constantly to be
consumed to supply energy for this in-
ternal work. This non-productive work
has constantly to be done before the
animal can utilise any of its food for a
productive purpose, such as the perform-
ance of external work, or the production
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
299
of increase of flesh and fat, or the pro-
duction of milk.
All the internal work, whether mechan-
ical or chemical, appears ultimately as
heat, and therefore helpfi to maintain
the body temperature. The bodies of
farm animals have to be maintained at
a temperature considerably above that
which is normal to their surroundings.
So long as the heat produced in internal
work is not in excess of that necessary
to maintain the body temperature it is
not wasted. If sufficient heat is not
developed by internal work to maintain
the body temperature at its normal,
food has to be oxydised in the system
merely to maintain that temperature.
On the other hand, if the heat produced
in the body by internal work is in excess
of that required to maintain the normal
temperature of the body, the excess is
merely run to waste.
It will thus be seen that the energy
used for digestion and other internal
work, though it is useless for any pro-
ductive purpose, is not valueless for
maintenance purposes, as it serves to
maintain the body heat, and if the body
heat were not maintained in this way,
food-materials would have to be oxy-
dised in the body to maintain iti
Values of Foods for Maintenance and
for Production.
Foods may have very different relative
values for maintenance and for productive
purposes. Thus Kellner showed that in
the case of a fattening ox the heat value
of the increase of flesh and fat obtained
in the animal was about 42 per cent of
the total available heat value of the
digested food in the case of meadow-
hay, but only about 38 per cent in the
case of oat-straw, and only about 18 per
cent in the case of wheat-straw. The re-
mainder was consumed in non-productive
internal work, physical and chemical
The table 1 (p. 300) shows approxi-
mately the comparative values of ordinary
foods for ruminants.
All the foods are calculated to their
equivalents as starch, on the assumption
that the energy value to the animal
protein is 1.25 times th%t of starch, of
^ The Cliemistry of the Farm, Vinton & Co. ,
IjiA., London.
amides 0.6 times that of starch, of fat 2.3
times that of starch, and of fibre and
other carbohydrates the same as starch.
Of course only digestible constituents
are taken into account, and it has been
shown by experiment that these com-
parative values approximately represent
their real energy values to the animal.
The values of all the foods are cal-
culated both for maintenance and for
production. The valuation of foods for
maintenance does not involve special
difficulties, but the valuation for pro-
ductive purposes is more uncertain, as
the basis of accurate experiment on
which the calculations are founded is
as yet very incomplete.
It is to be remembered that the value
of starch itself is not the same for
production as for maintenance. Kellner
found that for the fattening ox digestible
starch had a value of 3.7 calories per
gram for maintenance, but only of 2.2
calories per gram for production.
The table (p. 300) shows that while
concentrated foods and succulent foods
have, in terms of starch, nearly as great
values for production as for maintenance,
fibrous foods, and especially straw, have
very much lower values for production
than for maintenance.
The calculation of the comparative
values of foods by the methods here
adopted is very much more accurate and
valuable than the crude method often
adopted in this country of calculating
what are called "food units." In cal-
culating these food units digestibility
is, as a rule, left out of account, and
the fibre is treated as if it had no food
value at all. The number of food units
is commonly calculated by multiply-
ing the sum of the albuminoids and oil
by 2j^ and adding the soluble carbo-
hydrates. Such a calculation is of little
real value.
The comparative food values given
in the table apply only to ruminants.
Many of the foods, and especially the
fibrous foods, have very different values
if calculated for horses.
Albwninoid Ratios.
As the protein constituents of a food
have a peculiar value as building con-
stituents for the body of the animal, and
as a certain amount of protein matter is
300
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
necessary in the diet of every animal,
the ratio of protein to non-protein mate-
rial in a food is of some importance. To
obtain such a ratio it. is necessary to
reduce all the non-protein organic matters
to a common value. They are, therefore,
generally reduced to their equivalent in
starch. The ratio then obtained between
the protein and non-protein nutrients is
called the nutritive ratio or the albu-
minoid ratio.
The old rough method of calculating
the albuminoid ratio was to multiply the
total fat or oil hj 2^ and add this to
the total soluble carbohydrates, and then
get the ratio between the total nitro-
genous or albuminoid matter and the
sum so obtained from the fat and soluble
carbohydrates. This method is still often
used in this country. It is very inac-
curate, and the ratio so obtained is of
little or no value. It is only digestible
CoMPARATrw! Values of Ordinary Foods for Oxen
AND Sheep.
For Maintenance.
For Production.
Value of
Quantities
Value of
Quantities
1000 lb. ex-
equivalent to
1000 lb. ex-
equivalent to
pressed as
I lb. of
pressed as
I lb. of
starch.
starch.
starch.
starch.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Cotton-cake (decorticated)
944
1.06
826
1. 21
Maize ....
859
i.i6
825
1. 21
Wheat ....
823
1. 21
783
1.28
Linseed-cake .
842
I.18
733
1.36
Barley ....
7SS
1.32
721
1-39
Rice meal
758
1.32
713
1.40
Peas
796
I.2S
702
1.42
Beans ....
786
1.27
670
1.49
Oats ....
676
1.48
626
1.60
Wheat bran
63s .
^•57
578
1-73
Brewers' grains (dried)
634
1.58
S33
1.88
Malt sprouts .
69s
1.44
518
1-93
Cotton-cake (undecorticated)
S19
- 1-93
442
2.26
Meadow-hay (best) .
536
1.87
359
2.79
ir II (medium)
506
1.98
337
2.97
Clover-hay (medium)
459 ,
2.18
319
3-13
Meadow-hay (poor) .
479
2.09
294
3-40
Bean-straw
421
2.38
252
3-97
Oat- and barley-straw
412
2.43
207
4-83
Potatoes ....
212
4.72
202
4-95
Mangels (small)
108
9.26
99
10.10
Wheat-straw .
357
2.80
96*
10.41*
Maize silage
131
7-63
92
10.87
Clover (bloom beginning) .
131
7-63
92
10.87
Mangels (large)
It
11.49
76
13.16
Swedes ....
86
11.63
75
13-33
Turnips
68
14.71
59
16.95
These figures are the production values actually obtained in Kellner's experiments.
nutrients which are of value to the
animal as food. Only digestible nutri-
ents, therefore, should be considered.
Further, since digestible fibre has a real
food value to the animal, especially for
maintenance purposes, it should be in-
cluded in calculating nutritive ratios.
In the table given on p. 301 ^ the
nutritive or albuminoid ratios are cal-
' The Chemistry of tJie Farm.
Ltd., London. ■
Vinton & Co.,
culated from digestible constituents for
ruminating animals, and the digestible
fibre is taken into account. The non-
nitrogenous matters are calculated into
their equivalent in starch by multiplying
the fat by 2.3 and adding this to the
sum of the digestible carbohydrates and
fibre. The first column of figures give*
the ratio of the total digestible nitro-
genous matters to this sum of non-
nitrogenous matters.
It has been clearly.shown in numerous-
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
301
investigations that the amide substances
which occur in food have not the same
value to the animal as true albuminoid or
protein substances. Though the amides
may to a certain extent save protein in
the organism, it cannot take its place.
Therefore, to calculate a true nutritive
ratio between the real flesh-building sub-
stances or proteins, and the constituents
which are only of use to the animal for
fuel purposes, the amides should be re-
duced to their equivalent in starch and
added on to the non-nitrogenous matters.
This has been done in the second column
of figures in the table below by multiply-
ing the amides by 0.6 and adding the
result to the sum of the fat, carbo-
hydrates, and fibre reduced to their
starch equivalent. This column gives
the nutritive or albuminoid ratio in its
best ,and most accurate form.
Cotton-cake (decor. ) .
„ (undeoor.)
Linseed-cake
Beana
Peas .
Brewers' grains
Malt sprouts
Wheat bran
Red clover (bloom be-
ginning)
Oats .
Pasture
Meadow-hay (best)
Wheat
Clover-hay (medium)
Barley
Bean-straw
Rice-meal .
Maize .
Meadow-hay (medium)
(poor)
Potatoes
Swedes
Mangels (small)
Oat-straw .
Turnips
Mangels (large)
Barley-straw
Maize silage
Wheat-straw
» „ s
1.2
2.0
2.3
2-3
2.8
3-3
2.8
4.6
4.2
6.5
4-5
5-8
6.7
5-3
9.0
8.7
9-7
8.6
13-2
143
8.8
12.8
31-5
10.6
9.0
61.0
15-6
88.1
52
" §
■§9
.9 3
"si
1-3
2.2
2.4
2.8
3-3
3-5
4-9
5.8
6.4
71
7-4
7-7
7-7
8-S
9-S
10. 1
10.5
11.4
15.2
41. 1
41.8
52-9
54-4
66.3
86.0
107.2
129.3
A far greater value was formerly
assigned to the albuminoid ratios of
foods than is warranted by the results of
experience and of experiment. Precise
albuminoid ratios were laid down for
working animals, for fattening animals,
for milking animals, and so on, and it
was supposed that close adherence to
these ratios was necessary in order to
secure the best results.- The modern
view is that albuminoid ratios can be
treated with much more freedom than
was formerly supposed. While they
have a certain value in indicating, with-
in certain limits, whether a diet is likely
to be suitable to the animals we are feed-
ing and for producing the results we
wish to obtain from them, the ratios
may have in most cases a considerable
amount of elasticity, and may be varied
through fairly wide limits without neces-
sarily interfering with the results which
are desired.
Thus, in the case of fattening cattle, it
was at one time supposed to be necessary
to provide a ratio of 1:5 or 1:6, but it
has been shown that cattle may be
rapidly fattened with a much wider ratio
— say I : 16, provided a sufficient excess
of digestible food be supplied to build
up fat in the body of the animal.
On the other hand, it is still recognised
that young animals which are rapidly
building up their nitrogenous tissues, and
milking cows which are yielding a large
quantity of the highly nitrogenous secre-
tion, milk, must have a diet with a com-
paratively narrow albuminoid ratio, as
well as a liberal diet, if the best results
are to be obtained.
It is to be remembered that the true
albuminoid or nutritive ratio of a food is
not the same for difiisrent animals with
different powers of digestion. Thus
meadow -hay of medium quality may
have an albuminoid ratio of i : 9 for an
ox and of 1:12 for a horse. This is
because the ox is able to digest more of
the fibre and carbohydrates of the food
than the horse.
FOOD EEQTJIEEMENTS OP ANIMALS.
The food constituents required by
animals vary according to the age of the
animal and to the use which the animal
is to make of its food.
VOL. III.
302
ANIMAL NUTRITION.
The Toung Animal.
The young animal requires a diet rich
in those constituents which build up the
nitrogenous tissues and bone. It follows
that it requires a diet containing a con-
siderable proportion of protein, and
therefore of narrow albuminoid ratio.
It also requires a sufficiency of suitable
mineral constituents, like phosphate and
lime, in its diet. Such a diet is provided
by nature in the milk of the mother.
Cow's milk has a nutritive ratio of
about 1 : 3.7.
As the animal becomes older and more
active it requires more food for merely
fuel purposes, and the nutritive ratio
may therefore be gradually widened.
But a young growing animal should al-
ways receive a considerable proportion of
protein substance in its food, as well as
a liberal and digestible diet, if the best
results are to be obtained.
The young animal requires more food
per 1000 lb. live- weight than it does at
a later stage. As the animal increases
in size the amount of food consumed
increases, but the amount of food con-
sumed per 1000 lb. live - weight
diminishes. ,
The Adult Animal.
The adult animal which is merely being
maintained, and which is neither working
nor increasing in weight, requires food to
do internal work, to maintain the body
temperature, and to make good the waste
of the body and form hair, horn, hoof,
&c. For these purposes a poor diet,
containing comparatively little nitrogen-
ous matter, is sufficient. The nitrogenous
matter is required only to form hair,
hoof, &c., and to repair the small amount
of waste of nitrogenous tissue in the
body. Carbohydrates and fat can "be
used for all fuel purposes, to maintain
the body heat and to supply energy for
internal work. A wide albuminoid ratio
is therefore sufficient.
It has been shown, for instance, that
oxen can be maintained with a diet hav-
ing a ratio as wide as i : 15. Experiment
has shown that to maintain an ox of
1000 lb. live -weight about 6.5 lb. of
digestible organic matter, reckoned as
starch, is the minimum required.' This
should contain about 0.6 lb. of digestible
protein. These requirements would be
met by a diet of about 13 lb. of meadow-
hay of medium quality.
The Working Animal.
If external work has to be done the
quantity of food required increases
rapidly with the amount of work. A
working animal therefore requires much
more food than a mere maintenance
diet.
Work is not done at the expense of
the nitrogenous tissues of muscle as was
at one time supposed, but at the ex-
pense of fuel materials consumed in the
muscle. Such fuel may be supplied by
any of the organic constituents of food,
whether proteins, fats, or carbohydrates,
and therefore a highly nitrogenous diet
is not required in order that work may
be done. What is required is sufficient
digestible food in excess of that required
for mere maintenance, to supply fuel
materials for consumption in the work-
ing tissues. If that be not supplied the
work will be carried on at the expense
of the tissues themselves, and the animal
'will rapidly lose in weight and condition.
While it is not essential to supply
food of narrow albuminoid ratio for a
labour diet, it is generally advisable to
supply working animals with a consider-
able amount of digestible protein. It is
found that a diet fairly rich in protein
causes the animal to be more active and
to work with more spirit. Large horse
users generally provide working horses
with a diet having an albuminoid ratio
of about 1:7.
The Fattening Animal.
Fat may be formed from any excess
of organic nutrients over what is re-
quired to repair the body and to pro-
duce heat and work. Fat is not neces-
sarily formed from the fat or oil in the
food. The fat stored up in the body is
not the same as the fat given in the »
food. Thus, if an animal is fed with
linseed-cake it does not store up linseed-
oil in its. fatty tissues.
In . the case of our farm animals fat
may be formed from carbohydrates or
from proteins, and probably any excess
of food may go to form fat. The diet of
fattening animals does not therefore
need to be a highly nitrogenous one.
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
303
At one time it was usual in laying down
standard rations for fattening animals
to insist on narrow albuminoid ratios.
These are by no means necessary. In-
deed, a fattening diet for an adult animal
may have a wider albuminoid ratio than
a maintenance diet.
So long as there is excess of digestible
food the animal will fatten. It has
been shown in Continental experiments
that adult animals may fatten rapidly
on a diet having an albuminoid ratio
wider than i : 20 provided plenty of
digestible food is given. Similarly in
feeding experiments carried on in this
country animals have been equally well
fattened on diets having very narrow
and very wide albuminoid ratios.
At the same time, it is generally con-
venient and economical in farm practice
to feed fattening animals on a diet of
moderate albuminoid ratio. There are
various reasons for this. Most of the
nitrogen of the food of all animals is
excreted and returned to the farmer in
the urine and dung of the animals. If
foods rich in nitrogen, and therefore of
narrow albuminoid ratio, are used, the
farmyard manure is made richer and
more valuable, and the farmer recovers
a considerable part of the value of his
foods in the manure. Further, a diet
containing a moderate amount of proteins
and of oil is better digested and utilised
by the animal than one consisting mainly
of carbohydrates, and for this reason also
a certain amount of protein and oil in
the food of fattening animals is generally
economical. Still, there is no necessity
to have the albuminoid ratio of the food
of adult fattening animals narrower
than about i : 10.
The Milking Cow.
Milk is a fluid rich in nitrogenous
matter, and if the excess of nitrogenous
matters necessary to produce it be not
supplied in the food, the animal will take
them from her own nitrogenous tissues
and will rapidly lose in condition. A
cow giving the quantity of milk which
is expected from a good dairy animal is
returning far more organic matter in the
milk than a fattening animal produces
in his increase of weight. Thus a cow
giving 3 gallons of milk per day gives
about 26 lb. of dry matter per week, of
which about 7.6 lb. consists of proteins.
On the other hand, a fattening ox in-
creasing 2 lb. per day produces about
10.6 lb. of dry matter per week, of which
only about 1. 1 lb. is protein.
The milking cow therefore requires a
plentiful and digestible diet of narrow
albuminoid ratio. If properly fed, the
milking cow gives a much bigger return
for the food consumed than a fattening
animal A milking cow giving, a large
yield of milk, say 3 gallons per day,
does not require more digestible food
per 1000 lb. live-weight than a fatten-
ing ox. But it is advisable to supply
her with food of narrower albuminoid
ratio. It is also advisable to feed her
largely on such foods as are easily
digested, and which do not require a
great consumption of energy in their
digestion.
The amount of food given to a milk-
ing cow should be proportional to the
quantity of milk yielded. The album-
inoid ratio may safely vary from about
1:6 to 1:8, provided plenty of food
be given.
THE MANUEIAL YALUE OF FOODS.
The value of animal excreta as a manure
has been recognised perhaps as long as
we have any records of agriculture.
It is learned from chemistry that —
apart from mere mechanical effects on
the texture of the soil — this value is due
to the presence of nitrogenous and min-
eral compounds, of which latter the most
important are the compounds of potash
and of phosphoric acid. Seeing that,
directly or indirectly, all the constituents
of animal excreta are derived from the
food con.sumed, it is at once reasonable
to suppose that the composition of the
food must influence that of the excreta
derived from it — that food, rich in nitro-
304
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
gen and in phosphates, for example,
should produce manure rich in these
materials; and that food comparatively
poor in these respects should produce
manure comparatively poor in them.
TJrme. — The urine is the richest part
of animal manure, for it is the means
whereby is eliminated from the animal
system the waste nitrogenous materials
which have undergone digestion and
served their purpose physiologically. It
is rich also in soluble salts of potash
and phosphoric acid.
Solid Excreta. — The solid excreta
consist only of those materials which
have passed through the animal undi-
gested; and if an animal could be fed
on theoretically perfect principles, they
would possess hardly any manurial value.
But practically, an animal always con-
sumes more nitrogenous and phosphatic
food than it really digests, and the ex-
cess thus consumed gives value to the
solid excreta, although this value is
generally small compared with that of
the urine if the animal is properly fed.
Proportion of Pood assimilated
and voided. — An animal in order to
gain a given increase in live -weight
has to consume an enormously greater
quantity of food than would be required
to produce that increase alone, for the
mere sustenance of life involves a large
daily consumption of food-material. What
becomes of the carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen that is consumed by the animal
beyond what it stores up as increase,
does not here concern us ; but it is essen-
tial that^ we should know what is the
destination of the nitrogen and of the
mineral matters in the food consumed.
Much attention has been devoted to
this point at Rothamsted, and careful
inquiry has shown that, of every lo lb.
of nitrogen consumed by an animal in
its food, not more than about i lb. vidll
be stored up as increase of live-weight.
except by a very young animal, the
remaining 9 lb. or so being voided
in the manure, partly as undigested
matter, partly as soluble nitrogenous
compounds, which readily become con-
verted, first into ammonia, and then
into nitrates, when applied to the soil.
Similarly, only from about one-fifth to
about one-tenth of the phosphates in
food are stored up by the animal, and
a still smaller proportion of potash salts,
the great bulk of both going to enrich
the manure.
The actual proportion of any of these
fertilising ingredients retained in any
given case will depend upon how liber-
ally the animal is fed, and also upon
whether it is a growing animal, having
to build up its bony frame and muscles,
or whether it is an already adult animal
adding little but fat to its carcase-
weight; or whether again it may be a
cow having to produce its calf, and yield
a flow of milk, which will make a heavier
demand on the food than will the mere
fat -forming processes going on in the
case of a stall-fed ox.
Iiawes and Gilbert's Manurial
Tables. — Taking one case with another,
however, it is possible to arrive at an
average which shall in no case err very
widely ; and the careful experiments and
calculations made at Eothamsted have
furnished us with the following classical
tables, indicative both of the original
proportions of the chief fertilising in-
gredients contained in the various foods,
and the proportions of these which vidll,
on the average, be voided by animals,
consuming, say, a ton of any of them.
These tables were first published by
Sir John Bennett Lawes and Sir Henry
Gilbert in the Journal of tJie Royat
Agricultural Society of England in 1885,
and were subsequently revised by them
and brought up to date in 1897 and
1898.
[Tables.
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
305
LAWES AND GILBERT'S TABLES (1897) OF COMPOSITION AND
MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
TABLE I. — AvEEAQE Composition, Per Cent and pee Ton, op Cattle Poods.
No,
Foods.
Per Cent.
Pee Ton.
Dry
Matter.
Mineral
Phos-
Phos-
Nitrogen.
Matter
(Ash).
phoric
Acid.
Potash.
Nitrogen.
phoric
Acid.
Potash.
per
per
per
per
per
lb.
lb.
lb.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
1
Linseed .
90.00
3.60
4.00
1-54
1.37
80.64
34-50
30.69
2
Linseed-cake .
88.50
4.75
6.50
2.00
1.40
106.40
44.80
31.36
3
( Decorticated )
\ cotton-cake , J
90.00
6.60
7.00
3.10
2.00
147.84
69-44
44.80
4
Palm-nat-cake
91.00
2.50
3.60
1.20
0.50
56.00
26.88
11.20
S
■ Undecorticated )
cotton-cake )
87.00
3-75
6.00
2.00
2.00
84.00
44.80
44.80
6
Qocoa-nut-oake
90.00
3.40
6.00
1.4D
2.00
76.16
31-36
44.80
7
8
Rape-cake
Peas
89.00
4.90
7-50
2.50
1.50
109.76
56.00
33.60
85.00
3.60
2.50
0.85
0.96
80.64
19.04
21.50
q
Beans .
85.00
4.00
3.00
I.IO
1.30
89.60
24.64
29.12
10
Lentils .
88.00
4.20
4.00
0-75
0.70
94.08
16.80
, 15-68
11
12
Tares (seed) .
Indian com .
84.00
4- 20
2.50
0.80
0.80
94.08
17.92
17.92
8.29
88.00
1.70
1.40
0.60
0-37
38.08
13-44
13
Wheat .
85.00
1.80
1.70
0.85
0.53
40.32
19.04
II. 87
14
Malt .
94.00
1.70
2.50
0.80
,0.50
38.08
17.92
11.20
IS
Barley .
84.00
1.65
2.20
0-7S
0.55
36.96
16.80
12.32
16
Oats
86.00
2.00
2.80
0.60
0.50
44.80
13-44
11.20
17
Eice-meal ' .
90.00
1.90
7.50
(0.60)
(0.37)
42.56
(13-44)
(8.29)
18
iq
Locust-beans 1
Malt culms
85.00
1. 20
2.50
26.88
90.00
3-90
8.00
2.00
2.00
87.36
44.80
44.80
20
Fine pollard .
86.00
2-45
5.50
2.go
1.46'
54-88
64.96
32.70
21
Coarse pollard
86.00
2.50
6.40
3-50
1.50
56.00
78.40
33-60
22
23
Bran
Clover-hay
86.00
2.50
6.50
3.60
I.4S
56.00
80.64
32.48
83.00
2.40
7.00
0.57
1.50
53-76
12.77
33-60
24
2'i
Meadow-hay .
Pea-straw
84.00
1.50
6.50
0.40
1.60
33.60
8.96
35.84
82.50
1. 00
5-5°
0-35
I.OO
22.40
7-84
22.40
26
Oat-straw
83.00
0.50
5.50
0.24
I.OO
11.20
5-38
22.40
27
Wheat-straw .
84.00
0.4S
5.00
0.24
0.80
10.08
5-38
17.92
28
Barley-straw .
85.00
0.40
4.50
0.18
I.OO
8.96
4-03
22.40
29
^0
Bean-straw .
Potatoes
82.50
0.90
5.00
0.30
I.OO
20.16
6.72
22.40
25.00
0.25
I.OO
0.IS
o-SS
S.60
3.36
12.32
^I
Carrots .
14.00
0.20
0.90
0.09
0.28
4.48
2.02
6.27
^2
Parsnips
16.00
0.22
I.OO
0.19
0.36
4-93
4.26
8.06
'^^
Mangel-wurzels
12.50
0.22
I.OO
0.07
-**,
4-93
1-57
8. 96
■»
SweSsh turnips .
11.00
0.25
0.60
0.06
0.22'
5.60
1-34
4-93,
Yellow turnips '
9.00
0.20
0.65
(0.06)
(0.22)
4.48
(1-34)
(4.93)
36
White turnips
8.00
0.18
0.68
0.05
0.30
403
1. 12
6.72
1 In the case of neither rice-meal, locust-beans, nor yellow turnips, have records of ash analyses been
found. For rice-meal the same percentages of phosphoric acid and' potash as in Indian corn, and for yellow
turnips the same as in swedes, are provisionally adopted ; but in all the Tables the assumed results are given in
parentheses. For locust-beans no figure has been assumed, and the columns are left blank.
3o6
THE MANUEIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
TABLE II. — (1897) Showing the Data, the Method, and the He-
OF Cattle Food* •
Nitrogen.
Fattening In-
crease in Live-
weight (Oxen
In Fattening
or Sheep).
In Pood.
Increase (at
In Manure.
1.27 per cent).
0
Descbiptiow of Food.
'A
Food
to I
In-
crease.
In-
From
Per»
cent i)f
Total
remain-
Nitro-
gen
Value of
Am-
per ton
of food.
cent.
Per ton.
ton of
Food.
lb.
total
con-
sumed.
ing for
Man-
ure.
monla.
monia
at^d.
per lb.
lb.
7.
lb.
'L
lb.
lb.
£ s. d.
I
Linseed .
5-0
448.0
^6o
80.64
S-69
7.06
74-95
91.0
I lo 4
2
Linseed-oake .
6.0
373-3
4-75
106.40
4-74
4-45
101.66
123-4
2 12
3
( Decartloated cotton- 1
I cake ]
6-S
344-6
6.60
147.84
4-38
2.96
143-46
174.2
2 18 I
4
Palm -nut cake.
7.0
320.0
2.50
56.00
4.06
7.25
51-94
63.x
110
S
( Undeoorticated cot- 1
( ton-cake J
Cocoa-nut cake
8.0
280.0
3-75
84.00
3.56
4.24
80.44
97-7
I 12 7
6
8.0
280.0
3-40
76.16
3-56
4.67
72.60
88.2
I 9 S
7
8
Eape-cake . <■
Peas
(10)
(224)
4-9°
109.76
2.84
2-59
10^:92
129.8
233
7.0
320.0
3.60
80.64
4.06
5-03
76.58
93-0
1 11 0
9
Beans
7.0
320.0
4.00
89.60
4.06
4-53
85-54
103.9
I 14 8
10
LentUs .
7.0
320.0
4.20
94.08
4.06
4-32
90.02
109.3
I 16 S
II
12
Tares (seed)
Indian corn
7.0
320.0
4.20
94.08
4.06
4-32
90.02
109-3
I 16 S
7.2
311. 1
1.70
38.08
3-9S
10.37
34-13
41.4
0 13 10
13
Wheat .
.7-2
311.1
1.80
42- 3f
3- 95
9.80
36-37
44-2
0 14 9
'4
Malt
7.0
320.0
1.70
38.08
4.06
10.66
34.02
41-3
0 13 9
IS
Barley .
7.2
31 1. 1
1.65
36.96
3-95
10.69
33-01
40.1
0 13 4
lb
Oats
7-5
298.7
2.00
44.80
3-79
8.46
- 41.01
49-8
0 16 7
17
Eice-meal
7-5
298.7
1.90
42.56
3-79
8.91
38.77
47-1
0 IS 8
18
19
Locust-beans .
Malt ctdms
9.0
248.9
1.20
26.88
3.16
11.76
23-72
28.8
097
♦ 8.0
280.0
3-90
87-36
3.56
4.08
83.80
101.8
I 13 11
20
Fine pollard .
7-5
298.7
2-45
54.88
3-79
6.91
51.09
62.0
108
21
Coarse pollard .
8.0
280.0
2.50
56.00
.3-.56
6.3s
52.44
63-7
I I 3
22
23
Bran
Clorer-hay
9.0
248.9
2.50
56.00
3- lb
S-64
52-84
64. z
I I s
14.0
160.0
2.40
53-76
2.03
3-78
51-73
62.8
I 0 II
24
25
Meadow-hay .
Pea-straw
15.0
149-3
1.5°
33-60
1.90
S.65
31.70
38.S
I 12 10
16.0
140.0
1. 00
22.40
1.78
7-95
20.62
25.0
084
2b
Oat-straw • .
18.0
124.4
0.50
11.20
1.S8
14.11
9.62
11.7
0 3 II
27
Wheat-straw .
21.0
106.7
0.45
10.08
1.36
13-49
8.72
X0.6
036
28
Barley-straw .
23.0
97-4
0.40
S.96
1.24
13.84
7-72
9-4
032
29
30
Bean-straw
Potatoes .
22.0
101.8
0.90
20.16
1.29
6.39
18.87
22.9
078
60.0
37-3
0.2s
S-60
0.47
8.39
S-I3
6.2
021
31
Carrots .
8S.7
26.1
0.20
4.48
0-33
7-37
4- IS
5-0
018
■i'^
Parsnips .
Maugel-wurzels
75-0
29-9
0.22
4-93
0.38
7.71
4-55
5-5
0 I 10
33
96.0
23-3
0.22
1-13
5-60
0.30
6.09
4-63
5-6
022
34
Swedish turnips
109. 1
20.5
0.2s
0.26
4.64
5-34
6.5
0 1 10
35
Yellow turnips
133-3
16.8
0.20
4.48
0.21
4-6q
4.27
5-2
019
3b
White turnips .
150.0
14-9
0.18
4-03
0.19
4.71
3-84
4-7
017
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
307
suLTs OP THE Estimation of the Original Manuke Value
AFTER Consumption.
Fhosphobic Acid.
Potash.
•s
c
-■S-s
In Fattening
In Fattening
In Food.
Increase at
In Manure.
In Food.
Increase at ■
In Manure.
Itg
(0.86 per cent).
(o.ii per cent).
III
Total
Total
Per
cent.
Per
ton.
Fl-om
I
ton of
Food.
^-1
re-
main-
ing for
Man-
ure.
Value
at 2d.
per lb.
Per
cent.
Per
ton.
From
I
ton of
Food.
0 -d
ill
n
re-
main-
ing for
Man-
ure.
Value
atij^d.
per lb.
g|8
r
'L
lb.
lb.
7.
lb.
s. d.
7.
lb.
lb.
7.
lb.
.. d.
£ >. d.
1-54
34-5°
3-8.S
II. 16
30.65
5 I
1-37
30.69
0.49
1.60
30.20
3 9
I ig 2
2.00
44.80
3.21
7.17
41-59
6 II
1.40
31-36
0.41
1-31
30-95
3 10
2 II II
3.10
69.44
2.96
4.26
66.48
II I
2.00
44.80
0.38
0.85
44.42
5 7
3 14 9
1.20
26.88
2-75
10.23
24-13
4 0
0.50
11.20
0-3S
3-13
10.85
I 4
164
2.00
44.80
2.41
5-38
42.39
7 I
2.00
44.80
0.31
0.69
44-49
5 7
2 5 3
1.40
31.36
2.41
7. 68
28.95
4 10
2.00
44.80
0.31
0.69
44-49
S 7
I 19 10
2.50
56.00
1.93
3-45
54- 07
9 0
1.50
33'-6o
0.25
0.74
33-35
4 2
2 16 5
0.85
19.04
2-75
14.44
16.29
2 9
0.96
21.50
0-35
1.63
21.15
2 8
I 16 5
1. 10
24.64
2-75
II. i5
21.89
3 8
1.30
29.12
0-35
1.20
28.77
3 7
2 I II
0.7s
16.80
,2-75
16.37
14.05
2 4
0.70
15.68
0-35
2.23
15-33
I II
2 0,8
0.80
17.92
2-75
15.35
15.17
2 6
0.80
17.92
0-35
1-95
17-57
2 2
211
0.60
I3.44
2.68
19.94
10.76
I 9
0-37
8.29
0-34
4.10
7-95
I 0
0 16 7
0.85
19.04
2.68
14.08
16.36
2 9
0-.S3
11.87
0-34
2.86
"-S3
I 5
0 18 II
0.80
17.92
2-75
15-35
15-17
2 6
0.50
11.20
0-35
3-13
10.85
I 4
0 17 7
0.7S
i6.8o
2.68
15-95
14.12
2 4
tt.W
12.32
0-34
2.76
11.98
I 6
0 17 2
0.00
13-44
2-57
19.12
10.87
I 10
0.50
11.20
0-33
2.94
10.87
I 4
0 19 9
(0.60)
(13-44)
2-57
2.14
(19.12)
(10.87)
(I 10)
(0-37)
(8.29)
0-33
0.27
(4.00)
(7-96)
(I 0)
(0 18 6)
2.00
44.80
2.41
5-.38
42.39
7 I
2.00
44.80
0.31
0.69
44-49
5 7
267
2.90
64.96
2-57
3-96
62.39
10 5
1.46
32.70
0-33
1. 01
32-37
4 I
I 15 2
3- 5°
78.40
2.41
3-07
75-99
12 8
1.50
33-60
0.31
0.92
33-29
4 2
I 18 I
3.60
80.64
2.14
2.65
78.50
13 1
1-45
32.48
0.27
0.83
32.21
4 0
I 18 6
0-57
12.77
t.38
IQ.81
"•39
I II
i..^o
33-60
0.18
0-54
33-42
4 2
I 7 0
0.40
8.96
r.28
14.28
7.68
I 3
1.60
35-84
0.16
0-45
35-68
4 6
0 18 7
0.3s
7-84
1.20
15-31
6.64
I I
1. 00
22.40
0.1S
0.67
22.25
2 9
0 12 2
0.24
.S.3«
1.07
19.89
4-31
0 9
1. 00
22.40
0.14
0.63
22.26
2 9
075
0.24
.^-.3«
0.92
17.10
4.46
0 9
0.80
17.92
0.12
0.67
17.80
2 3
066
0.18
4.03
0.84
20.84
3-19
0 6
I.OO
22.40
O.II
0-49
22.29
2 9
065
0.30
6.72
0.88
13.10
5-84
I 0
I.OO
22.40
O.II
0.49
22.29
2 9
0 II s
0.IS
3-36
0.32
9-52
3-04
0 6
0-.55
12.32
0.04
0.32
12.28
I 6
0 4 I
0.09
2.02
0.22
10.89
1.80
0 4
0.28
6.27
0.03
0.48
6.24
0 9
029
0.19
4.26
0.26
6.10
4.00
0 8
0.36
8.06
0.03
0-37
8.03
I 0
036
0.07
I- 57
0.20
12.74
1-37
0 2
0.40
8.96
0.03
0-34
8-93
I I
032
0.06
1-34
0.18
13-43,
1. 16
0 3
0.22
4-93
0.02
0.41
4.91
0 7
0 2 II
(0.06)
(1-34)
0.14
(10.78)
(1.20)
(0 2)
(0.22)
(4-93)
0.02
(o-,34)
(4-91)
(0 7)
(o 2 6)
0.05
1. 12
O.I3
11.61
0.99
0 2
0.30
6.72
0.02
0.30
6.70
0 10
027
3o8
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
Table III. — (1897) Plan and Results op Estimations or the Compensation "Value
OF Unexhausted Manure, starting prom the Original Manure Value, that
IS THE Value, deducting the constituents op increase in Fattening Live-
Weight ONLT.
i.,-s.i>.
COMPEKSATION VaULE OF UKEXHAUSTBD MahUEK.
Original M
ure valu)
deducting
crease in li
weight on
1
Foods.
.a
:3
^ .
Last
Second
Third
Is
gs-
li
£S
ti
Total.
year. year.
1
year.
1-
E >^
in >»
&0«
Deddot J OF Original MANt?EE Value the Last Year, and J from Year to Year.
One Ton
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ 8. d.
s. d
s. d.
s. d.
s. <i.
S. (i.
i. d.
£ s. d.
I. Linseed
I 19 2
0 19 7
0 13 I
8 9
5 10
3 ii
2 7
I 9
I 2
2 16 8
2. Linseed-cake
2 II II
160
0 17 4
II 7
7 9
S 2
3 S
2 3
I 6
3 IS 0
J Decorticated )
3* \ cotton-cake J
S 7 8
3 14 9
r 17 4
I 4 II
16 7
11 I
7 S
4 II
3 3
2 2
4. Palm-nut cake
164
0 13 2
089
S 10
3 II
2 7
I 9
I 2
0 9
I 17 11
( Undecorticated )
5" \ cotton-cake )
2 S 3
127
0 IS I
10 I
6 9
4 6
3 0
2 0
I 4
3 5 4
6. Cocoa-nut cake
I 19 10
0 19 u
0 13 3
8 10
S II
3 II
2 7
I 9
I 2
2 17 3
7. Eape-cake .
8. Peas
2 16 5
I 8 3
0 18 10
12 7
8 S
5 7
3 9
2 6
I 8
417
I 16 5
0 18 3
0 12 2
8 I
5 S
3 7
2 S
I 7
I I
2 12 7
9. Beans .
2 I II
I 0 II
0 13 TI
9 3
6 2
4 I
2 9
I 10
I 3
302-
10. Lentils .
208
104
0 13 7
9 I
6 I
4 I
2 9
I 10
I 3
2 19 0
11. Tares (seed) .
12. Indian corn .
211
107
0 13 9
9 2
6 I
4 I
2 9
I 10
I 3
2 19 6
0 16 7
084
0 S 7
3 9
2 6
I 8
I I
0 9
0 6
I 4 2
13. Wheat .
0 18 II
096
064
4 3
2 10
I 11
I 3
0 10
0 7
I 7,6
14. Malt .
0 17 7
0 8 10
OS"
3 II
2 7
I 9
I 2
0 9
0 6
I S 5
15. Barley .
0 17 2
0 8, 7
0 5 9
3 10
2 7
I 9
I 2
0 9
0 6
I 4 II
16. Oats .
0 19 9
0 9 11
067
4 5
2 II
1 11
I 3
0 10
0 7
I 8 5
17. Rice-meal
(0 18 6)
(0 9 3)
(0 6 2)
(4 I)
(2 9)
(I 10)
(I 3)
(0 10)
(0 7)
(I 6 9)
18. Locust-beans
19. Malt culms , .
267
I 3 3
0 IS 6
10 4
6 II
4 7
3 I
2 I
I S
372
20. Fine pollard
I 15 2
0 17 7
0 II 9
7 10
5 3
3 6
2 4
I 7
I I
2 10 II
21. Coarse pollard
I 18 I
0 19 I
0 12 9
8 6
S 8
3 9
2 6
I 8
I I
2 IS 0
22. Bran
I 18 6
0 19 3
0 12 10
8 7
S 9
3 10
2 7
I 9
I 2
2 IS 9
Dedoot § OF Oriq
INAL Manure Value the
Last Year, and \ from Year to Year.
One Ton
23. Clover-hay .
I 7 0
0 9 0
072
S 9
4 7
3 8
2 II
2 4
I 10
I 17 3
24. Meadow-hay
25. Pea-straw .
0 18 7
062
0 4 II
3 II
3 2
2 6
2 0
I 7
I 3
I 5 6
0 12 2
041
033
2 7
2 I
I 8
I 4
I I
0 10
0 16 II
26. Oat-straw
07s
026
020
I 7
I 3
I 0
0 10
0 8
0 6
0 10 4
27. Wheat-straw
066
022
019
I S
I 2
0 II
0 9
0 7
0 6
093
28. Barley-straw
065
022
019
I 5
I 2
0 II
0 9
0 7
0 6
093
29. Bean-straw .
0 II 5
0 3 10
0 3 I
2 6
2 0
I 7
I 3
I 0
0 10
0 16 I
Deduct i op Oric
INAL Manure Value the
Last Year, and J from Year to Year.
Ten Tons
-
30. Potatoes
2 0 10
I 0 S
0 13 7
9 I
6 I
4 I
2 9
I 10
I 3
2 19 I
31. Carrots.
I 7 6
0 13 9
092
6 I
4 I
2 9
I 10
I 3
0 10
I 19 9
32. Parsnips
I IS 0
0 17 6
0 II 8
7 9
S 2
3 5
2 3
I 6
I 0
2 10 3
33. Mangel-wurzels .
I II 8
0 IS 10
0 10 7
7 I
4 9
3 2
2 I
I S
0 II
2 s 10
34. Swedish turnips .
192
0 14 7
099
6 6
4 4
2 II
I 11
I 3
0 10
221
35. Yellow turnips
(I S 0)
(0 12 6]
(0 8 4)
(s 7)
(3 9)
(2 6)
(i 8
(I I)
(0 9
(i 16 2)
36. White turnips
I S 10
0 12 II
087
5 9
3 10
2 7
I 9
I 2
0 9
I 17 4
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
309
On the basis of the figures set out in compensation . values in a regular
Tables I. and II. (1897), Lawes and descending scale, one -third being de-
Gilbert constructed a further table in ducted each year. Thus, with linseed-
which, beginning with the allowance of cake, the " original manure value "
one-half the "original manure value" being J^2, iis. iid. per ton (1897),
for food consumed during the last the compensation value for the unex-
year of the tenancy, to the subsequent hausted manure from one ton consumed
years, up to the eighth, were assigned was; —
Last year.
Second year.
Third year.
Fourth Fifth
year. year.
Sixth 1 Seventh
year. ! year.
Eighth
year.
£ s. d.
160
(being one-half of
s. A.
17 4
(being the
previous year's
value less
one-third.)
s. d.
II 7
(being the
previous year's
value less
one-third.)
s. ct. s. d.
7 9 52
5. d. s. d.
3 5 23
». d.
I 6
the original
manure value,
^■2, IIS. iid.)
for each year one-third of previous year's
value deducted.
An outgoing tenant would, from this,
be able to claim an allowance of is. 6d.
for each ton of linseed-cake he had con-
sumed seven years previously, there be-
ing assumed to be still some slight bene-
fit accruing from it for the eighth crop
grown.
In the first of these tables we have the
total quantities of ingredients capable of
contributing to the fertility of the land
contained in the principal varieties of
foods in use on the farm, stated both
as percentages and as pounds per ton.
These figures represent the manurial
matter that would reach the land, sup-
posing that the foods were simply ground
up and applied directly to the soil, with-
out the intervention of .the stock that
consumes them.
In Table II. we have indicated to us
the average destination of this fertilising
matter — how much of it, that is to say,
may be assumed to be retained by the
animal in increasing its weight, and how
much will find its way into the manure.
Then we have the theoretical money value
of this latter portion calculated for each
fertilising constituent ; and finally, we
have stated what would be the total
value of the manure from a ton of the
food, supposing its value to be com-
pletely realised.
To make the matter clearer, we will
select an instance — say that of linseed-
cake. From Table I. we learn that
linseed-cake contains 88.5 per cent of
dry matter, which includes 4.75 per cent
of nitrogen, 2.00 per cent of phosphoric
acid, and 1.40 per cent of potash ; or other-
wise stated, one ton of linseed-cake ton-
tains 106.40 lb. of nitrogen, 44.80 lb. of
phosphoric acid, and 31.36 lb. of potash.
From Table II. we learn that 6 lb. of
linseed-cake go to make i lb. of increase
in live -weight, so that i ton of cake
yields 373.3 lb. of increase in live-weight.
We also learn that of the 106.40 lb. of
nitrogen in the ton of cake, 4.74 lb. are
retained by the animal, while 101.66 lb.
pass into the manure. This quantity of
nitrogen is equal to 123.4 lb. of ammonia,
which, at 4d. per lb., is equal to ^2, is.
2d. per ton. In like manner we find
that of 44.8 lb. of phosphoric acid in
the ton of cake, 3.21 lb. are retained by
the animal, while 41.59 lb. pass into the
manure, which, at 2d. per lb., would be
worth 6s. iid. Of 31.36 lb. of potash in
the ton of cake, 0.41 lb. is retained, 30.95
lb. passing into the manure, giving at
ij^d. per lb., 3s. lod. The three money
figures added together give £^2, iis. iid.
as the " total original manure value " of
one ton of linseed-cake. This value in
the case of decorticated cotton-cake is as
high as j[^T,, 14s. gd., while for maize it
is but i6s. 7d., or for barley, 17s. 2d., and
for swedes it is less than 2 s. 11 d.
There can be no doubt that the pro-
portions which these "original manure
values " bear to one another, correctly
represent the proportions borne to one
another by the actual manurial values
realisable in the field, provided that the
circumstances are favourable for their
comparative realisation ; though it has
happened, as in the Woburn experi-
ments, that practical trial has occasion-
3IO
THE MANURIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
ally shown that manure made by the
use of a food like decorticated cotton-
cake has done no more immediate good
than manure made from a like quantity
of maize. But this has no doubt been
caused partly by the land being in such
good heart that the maize manure was
in itself suflBcient to bring out its maxi-
mum fertility, and that the richer man-
ure supplied by the decorticated cotton-
cake was of the nature of a superfluity ;
and partly by the influence of the clover
crop in the rotation, which, by taking up
nitrogen from the air, tended to equalise
the manure residues.
It is of course to be borne in mind that
the values calculated in each case are
average ones, and any given ton of lin-
seed-cake, for example, may differ a good
deal from another ton ; but it is only on
the average quality of each kind of food
that a table for general reference could
well be based without becoming bewilder-
ingly cumbersome.
Theoretical and Kealised Manure
Values. — But even putting aside this
consideration, there are obviously a vast
number of circumstances affecting the
question of how far the theoretical value
given in the tables is capable of actual
realisation in the field. The nearest
approach to the perfect application of
the whole of the manure to the crops is
found in the consumption of food on the
land itself, as when grazing cattle or
sheep consume cake in the field. Their
excreta go directly on to the land, and so
the whole of the manurial matter at least
reaches the soil.
The other extreme is found where the
food is consumed in the farmyard, and
the manure badly cared for — as when it
is left to lie about in the open, exposed
to the free and prolonged action of rain,
in such a way as to allow the drainage
from it to be lost. Wherever the rich
drainings from dung are allowed to run to
waste, there is a serious loss of fertilising
matter, — ^for the most valuable part of
manure is the soluble salts of ammonia
and potash which it contains.
What proportion of the manurial value
originally contributed to the dung really
finds its way on to the land from the
farmyard depends, therefore, upon in-
dividual care and management, of which
no exact account can be taken in tables.
Furthermore, a herd of dairy cows will
rob the food of much more nitrogen and
phosphoric acid than a herd of fattening
oxen, since oxen, while fattening, store
up but little of these materials compared
with that which is required by the cows
to produce a flow of milk, and to build
up the bodies of the young calves which
they have yearly to produce. The same
applies to the case of young growing
stock as compared with fattening stock,
the former storing up more of the food-
materials, and producing consequently
the poorer manure. There are obviously,^
then, difficulties to be surmounted in
forming an estimate of the manurial
value that may fairly be assumed to be
realisable in any given case.
To meet in some way these difficulties,
Lawes and Gilbert published in the Jour-
nal of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England for 1898 a revision of their
already quoted tables, in which these
are made specially applicable £0 the
case of cows producing milk.
As a guide to the farmer in regard to
the value of the respective foods, and as
to the best foods to use in order to at
once fatten his stock and best fertilise
his land, the mere "original manure
values " supply sufficient information ;
but when the question at issue is the
realisable unexhausted value of manure
from food consumed, such complexities
as we have glanced at arise and give
serious trouble.
XTuexhausted Value of Consumed
Food. — The " county customs " which
are often brought in to assess, under the
provisions of the Agricultural Holdings
Act, the compensation due to an outgoing
tenant for unexhausted manurial value
for foods consumed, are in most cases
absurdly fallacious, being too often based
on the cost of the foods used, this having
really no relation whatever to their man-
urial value. The difficulty which the
valuer who proceeds on rational prin-
ciples has to face is to decide on how
much of the " original manure value " is
to be assumed to be still left on the
farm — the " compensation value," as Sir
John Bennett Lawes has called it.
With a view to putting the matter on
a broad general basis for practical pur-
poses, Lawes and Gilbert drew up a
further table (Table IIL), in which they
THE MANUKIAL YALUE OF FOODS.
3"
suggested that in the case of an outgoing
tenant claiming compensation for the
unexhausted value of consumed food,
the "original manure value" of each
ton of food (as shown in Table II.)
should be discounted to the extent of
50 per cent for the food consumed
within the last year. This deduction of
50 per cent was in order to allow for all
the losses to which the manure was sub-
ject before it came to be actually applied
to the land. The compensation was
further spread over a period of eight
years, for which period it was assumed
to exercise an influence. In the case of
food consumed in the last year but one,
a deduction was made of one-third of the
allowance for the previous year — while
for food consumed three years previously
a further deduction of one-third was
made ; and so on, for any particular
number of years, down to the eighth
year.
Let us, as an instance, take again the
case of linseed-cake, the "original manur-
ial value " of which is _;^2, i is. i id. For
each ton of this cake consumed in the last
year of tenancy, it would be assumed
that a practical unexhausted value of
^i, 6s. remained on the farm, realis-
able by the new tenant. For a ton of
cake consumed in the last year but one,
this sum would be reduced by one-third,
making 17s. 4d. If consumed a year
previously, it would be still further re-
duced by a third, making iis. 7d., and
so on. In the eighth year back, the
compensation would be only is. 6d.
As a matter of fact, most farmers
would, no doubt, object to paying " com-
pensation values " for food used more
than two or three years previously ; but
the principle of compensation suggested
— taking it as far back as may be deemed
judicious — is a perfectly sound one. In
applying it, the valuer, if he knows his
business, will be influenced by his ob-
servations taken on the farm as to the
mode in which manure is treated, and as
to the information available in regard to
the consumption of the food. Sir John
Bennett Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert,
in the paper already quoted from, very
rightly observe : " It is pretty certain
indeed that every claim for compensation
will have to be settled on its own merits;
that the character of the soil, the crop-
ping, the state of the land as to cleanli-
ness, and many other points, will be
taken into consideration both for and
against any claim."
Voelcker and Hall's Tables.
What Lawes and Gilbert's Tables
really effected was, to put the whole
matter of the valuation of unexhausted
manurial residues on a sound basis
— viz., that of the value of the actual
constituents supplied and not the mere
cost of the foods producing them, this
latter, as explained, having often no
relation whatever to the manurial value.
Previously to the issue of these tables
the assessing of " unexhausted value "
had been ruled entirely by "local cus-
tom," this varying very widely in dif-
ferent districts. Each system, moreover,
was of a purely arbitrary character, and
in almost every instance the actual cost
of the respective foods was taken as the
starting - point. Lawes and Gilbert's-
Tables rightly superseded these "local
systems," and supplied, at least, a reason-
able ground on which to frame a valua-
tion.
At the same time, it was generally felt
that, in practice, the period of eight years,
over which Lawes and Gilbert spread
the application of their system, was an
unduly long one. Undoubtedly it could
be shown from the Eothamsted and the
Woburn experiments that manure made
from purchased foods would exercise an
influence for as long a period as eight
years on crops subsequently grq,wn with
it, but there was the fact to consider
that no one would, in practice, apply
farmyard manure only at such long
intervals, nor would any one expect it
to have any practical bearing after so
long a period as eight years after its
first application.
Such considerations as these militated
much against the general adoption of
Lawes and Gilbert's Tables in the
practical business of valuation, and,
though the general principles of the
tables were in a measure accepted, and
though certain modifications were intro-
duced into "local systems" consequent
on these, the latter were not by any
means wholly superseded. There was
a general feeling, in short, that the
tables, though perhaps they were right
312
THE MANUEIAL VALUE OF FOODS.
ia principle, could not be fully applied
in practice. '
These facts led Dr J. A. Voelcker'and
Mr A. D. Hall — the then directors re-
spectively of the Woburn and Eotham-
sted Experimental Stations — ^to review
the whole position, and in 1902 they-
put forward a revision of Lawes and
Gilbert's Tables, and this was published
in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England for 1902. This table
is here set out at length.
TABLE IV.— VoELCKEE AND Hall's Tables (1902) op the Composition, Man-
UEiAL AND Compensation Values of Feeding-Stuffs (Eevisbd feom Lawes
AND Gilbert's Tables op 1897).
Valdatiok per Toh as Manure.
Compensation value for
each ton of the food
consumed.
No.
Poods.
* . Nitrogen.
Phosphoric
acid.
Potash.
Half
Three
Value
1^
^
Per
Value
of
Per
Value
quar-
Per
at 4s.
it
0
g
f5
cent
at 12S.
value
cent
at 38.
ters of
CtJllt
per
s.
ti
in
per
to
in
per
value
in
unit,
1
"S
1
fnoii,
food.
unit.
to man-
fonrl.
all to
12
ure.
ure.
.„
manlire.
m
'^
E«
X
s. d.
s. d.
X
s. d.
s. d.
1*
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
6. d.
I
Decorticated cotton-cake .
6.90
82 10
41 5
3. TO
9 4
7 0
2.00
8 0
.■;6 5
28 2
14 I
7 0
2
Undecorticated cotton-cake
3 54
42 6
21 3
2.00
6 ;
4 6
2.00
8 0
33 9
16 10
8 5
4 2
1
Linseed-cake
4-7S
57 0
28 6
2.CXJ
6 0
4 6
1.40
5 7
38 7
19 3
9 7
4 9
4
Linseed
1.60
43 '
21 7
1.54
4 7
3 5
1-37
5 6
30 6
15 3
7 7
3 9
Palm-nut cake
2.50
30 0
15 0
1.20
3 7
2 8
0.50
2 0
19 8
9 10
4 II
2 5
5
Cocoa-nut cake .
3.40
40 10
20 5
1.40
4 2
3 I
2.00
8 o
31 6
15 9
7 1°
3 II
7
8
Bape-cake ....
Beans ....
4.90
58 10
29 5
2.50
7 6
5 8
1.50
6 0
5 2
41 I
20 6
10 3
5 I
4.00
48 0
24 0
1. 10
3 4
2 6
1.10
31 8
15 10
7 II
3 II
9
10
Peas
Wheat
3.60
43 2
21 7
0.8s
2 7
I II
0.96
3 10
27 4
13 s
6 10
3 5
1.80
21 7
10 9
o.8i;
2 7
2 0
0.53
2 I
14 10
7 5
3 8
I 10
II
Barley
1.6^
19 10
9 "
0-75
2 3
1 8
0.55
2 2
13 9
6 10
3 5
I 8
12
Oats
2.00
24 0
12 0
0.60
I 10
I S
0.50
2 0
IS 5
7 8
3 10
I II
13
Maize
1.70
20 5
10 2
0.60
I 9
I 4
0.37
I 6
13 0
6 6
, 3 3
I 7
14
Bice-meal .
1.90
22 10
II 5
0.60
I 9
I 4
0-37
I 6
14 3
7 I
3 6
I 9
15
16
Locust-beans
Malt
1.20
14 5
7 2
0.80
2 5
I 10
0.80
3 2
12 2
6 I
3 0
I 6
1.82
21 10
10 II
0.80
2 S
I 10
0.60
! 5
15 2
7 8
3 10
I 11
-17
Malt culms ....
S-QO
46 10
23 5
2.00
6 0
4 6
2.00
8 0
35 II
17 11
8 II
4 5
lii
Bran .....
2.50
30 0
15 0
,.60
10 10
8 2
1-45
S 9
28 II
14 5
7 2
3 7
IQ
Brewers' grains (dried)
3.30
39 7
19 9
1.61
4 10
3 8
0.20
0 10
24 3
12 I
6 0
3 0
20
21
Brewers' grains (wet) .
Clover-hay ....
0.81
9 9
4 'I
0.42
I 3
0 II
0.0S
0 2
6 0
3 0
I 6
0 9
2.40
28 10
14 5
0.157
I 9
I 4
I.liO
6 0
21 9
10 10
5 5
2 8'
22
21
Meadow-hay
Wheat-straw
1.50
18 0
9 0
0.40
I 2
0 11
1.60
6 5
16 4
8 2
4 I
2 0
0.45
5 5
2 8
0.24
0 9
0 7
0.80
3 =
6 5
3 2
I 7
0 9
24
Barley-straw
0.40
4 10
2 5
0.18
0 6
0 4
1. 00
4 0
6 0
3 4
I 8
0 10
25
26
Oat-straw ....
Mangels . .
Swedes ....
0.50
6 0
3 0
0.24
0 9
0 7
1. 00
4 o-
7 7
3 9
I 10
0 II
0.22
2 8
1 4
0.07
«o ,
0 2
0.40
I 7
3 I
I 6
0 9
0 4
27
0.25
3 0
I 6
0.06
0 2
0 I
0.22
0 II
2 6
I 3
0 7
0 3
28
Turnips ....
O.lB
2 2
I I
0.05
0 2
0 I
0.30
I 2
2 4
I 2
0 7
0 3
In drawing up this revised table,
Voelcker and Hall were able to utilise
information obtained from further ex-
periments conducted at Woburn and
Eothamsted as well as on the Con-
tinent, and these were specially useful
as affording more definite knowledge as
to the actual losses incurred in making
and storing farmyard manure. Up to
that time these losses had been merely
assumed, but now they were able to be
more nearly defined.
Further, the tables were revised in
two important respects : firstly, in respect
TKEATMENT OF FAKM-HOKSES.
313
of the money values of the manurial
constituents, these having undergone
some modification since the earlier tables
were issued ; and, secondly, in regard to
the period over which compensation was
spread. Voelcker and Hall limited this
period to that of the ordinary farm
rotation — viz., four years — substituting
this for the eight years adopted by
Lawes and Gilbert, and adjusting the
tables in this sense. In addition to
these alterations, they simplified the
tables by the exclusion of certain foods
which only very occasionally came under
consideration, and, in place of the three
tables of Lawes and Gilbert, they put
forward a single table (Table IV.), which
comprised practically all the details that
were necessary for showing the basis of
calculation and the final valuation of the
unexhausted residue for each year of
the rotation.
In arriving at their conclusions,
Voelcker and Hall, it must be under-
stood, closely followed the principles
laid down by Lawes and Gilbert, adopt-
ing, in great measure, the figures of
these investigators as to the composi-
tion of foods, the constituents stored
up in live -weight increase, &c. The
main difierences were in regard to the
losses in making and storing the manure
(these being now based on actual experi-
ment), and in respect of the period over
which compensation was to be spread.
Simultaneously with this revision by
Voelcker and Hall, the Central Chamber
of Agriculture, which had appointed a
Committee for the purpose, and had re-
ceived evidence from valuers, farmers,
and others, issued a table for the assess-
ment of unexhausted value. This Table,
it may be said, differs but slightly from
that of Voelcker and Hall. The tables
put forward by the latter have been very
favourably received, and may be said to
have practically superseded the "local
systems " formerly in use ; they have
now secured general adoption, and
may be taken as ruling the question of
" compensation for unexhausted manure
value of foods."
TEEATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
As would be expected, the management
of the work-horses of the farm differs in
many details from the system pursued in
pure-bred studs. In the former case the
methods are more simple and less varied.
In the greater part of England, horses
when not at work are tended by lads or
men employed specially for the purpose.
In Scotland and Ireland it is the prevail-
ing custom for the men who work the
horses to attend at all times to their feed-
ing and general treatment. The latter
system is the better one for both men
and horses.
Watering Horses. — The first atten-
tion to horses in the morning is to take
them out to water — that is, if there is
not a regular supply of water within
their reach in the stable.
When horses are allowed to drink
water freely immediately after feeding,
they are liable to suffer from colic, as the
water is apt to carry some of the un-
digested food into the intestines. Water
should therefore always be given to
horses before, and not after, feeding.
The quantity of water drunk by
horses varies greatly, some drinking
more than others. If allowed frequent
access to fresh pure water, horses will
not, as a rule, drink more than necessary.
When an animal is very hot, or chilled,
or exhausted, or has been, long without
water, only a small quantity of water
should be allowed at first. In such,
cases, a safe drink is water thickened
with a handful or two of oatmeal, or,
better still, oatmeal gruel. Very cold
water should be given in small quanti-
ties at a time. Keep watering-troughs
scrupulously clean, and see that the
water in them is changed frequently.
When the horses have received their
morning feed, the men, before going to
breakfast, remove the dung and soiled
litter to the dung-pit.
Morning Feed.- — Immediately after
getting water, the horses receive their
314
TREATMENT OF FAEM-HORSES.
first allowance of bruised oats or other
food, with long hay in the rack or
manger, the latter being usually pre-
ferred. Horses should be given peace at
feeding-time. Harness can be quickly
enough put on after the feed is eaten,
and time should be taken to groom the
horses very carefully. An allowance of
a little time between eating and going
to work is of advantage to all horses.
Mid -day Care of Horses. — When
the horses come in from the morning
work they get a drink of water, a feed
of bruised corn, and chaffed hay or oat-
straw, and the men get their dinner.
Some keep the harness on during
this interval, but it should be taken
off, to allow both horses and har-
ness to cool. After dinner the men re-
turn to the stable, when the horses will
have finished their feed, and a small .
ration of fresh straw or hay will be well
relished, The men have a few minutes
to spare, when they should wisp down
their horses, put on the harness, comb
out the tails and manes, and be ready
to put on the bridles the moment one
o'clock strikes.
When work is in a distant field, rather
than take them home between yokings,
some farmers feed the horses in the field
out of nose-bags, and make the men take
their dinners with them, or it is brought
to them. This, however, is not a good
plan.
Hours of "Work. — The hours of work
vary in different parts of the country,
and, of course, also with the season. The
most general rule is ten hours per day —
from six to eleven a.m. and one to six p.m.
In Scotland this method is strictly ad-
hered to, when daylight admits, but in
England there is less regularity in work-
ing hours.
Work expected of Horses. — No
definite rules can be laid down as to the
amount of work which should be accom-
plished by horses. The local circum-
stances, such as the character and fitness
of the horses, the nature of the work, the
exigencies of the time, and the supply of
food, must always be duly considered,
and the farmer must at the time decide
for himself how much work of any par-
ticular kind he is to expect from each
horse or pair of horses.
One general principle may be laid
down — one not so fully observed as is
desirable — and that is/ that in working
horses Jong days are preferable to quick
pace. It will be much easier for a pair of
horses to plough a certain equal extent of
land .in six days of ten hours than in six
days of nine hours each, easier still than
in six days of eight hours. With the
farm-horse, as with the roadster and
hunter, " it is the pace that kills."
Evening Care of Horses. — When the
horses come in from their day's work
they are well rubbed down, and receive
hay or straw and bruised oats. The stable
has had but half litter all day, since its
cleansing out in the morning, and the
horses have stood on the stones at mid-
day. This is a good plan for purifying
the stable during the day, and is not so
much attended to as it deserves. Fresh
straw is brought by the men from the
straw-barn, and shaken up with the old
litter to make the stalls comfortable for
the horses to lie down upon for the night.
In most cases horses receive food again
about eight o'clock, when the litter is
once more shaken up and adjusted for
the night.
Grooming Horses. — The grooming
consists first in currying the' horse
with the curry-comb b, fig. 738, to
Fig. 738. — Curry-cotnb, brushy /ooi-picker^
and mane-comb,
free him of the dirt adhering to the
hair, and which, being now dry, is easily
removed. A wisping of straw removes
the roughest of the dirt loosened by the
curry-comb. The legs ought to be thor-
oughly wisped — not only to make them
TREATMENT OF FARM-HOR§ES.
31S
clean, but to dry up any moisture that
may have been left in the evening.
At this time the feet should be picked
clean, by the foot-picker a, of any dirt
adhering between the shoe and foot. The
brush c is then used to remove remain-
ing and finer portions of dust from the
hair, dust being cleared from the brush
by a few rasps along the curry-comb.
The wisping and brushing, if done with
some force and dexterity, with a combing
of the tail and mane with the comb d,
should render the horse pretty clean. But
there are more ways than' one of groom-
ing a horse, as may be witnessed by the
skimming and careless way in which
some ploughmen do it. It is the duty
of the farmer himself, op his steward
or manager, to see that the horses are
well attended to.
Brushing preferable to Combing.
— The use of the iron curry-comb is dis-
approved by many. Dr Fleming says it
" should never, as a rule, be applied to
the skin of horses." For long rough
coats, he considers nothing is better than
a good dandy-brush to remove dandrufi",
dust, and dirt; for finer-coated horses a
good bristle-brush, supplemented by the
wisp and rubber, will suffice. He re-
gards the brush as the best appliance for
cleaning the skin thoroughly, and he
points out how essential it is, for the
health of the animal, that the skin be
kept clean, so that it may at all times be
in a fit condition to perform its import-
ant functions.
Eubbing Wet or Heated Horses. —
If a horse comes into the -stable heated
or wet, it should at once be well rubbed
down with a handful of straw. If it
has been excessively warm, it may be
well to throw a rug over it till it has
regained its normal temperature. It
may perhaps, after two or three hours,
or sooner, break out into a cold per-
spiration, and if so it should again be
well dried.
Water-brush. — For washing the legs
and heels of a horse, a water-brush, fig.
739, is very useful.
Exercise for Horses. — When idle,
work -horses should be taken out for
■exercise every day, and groomed as
carefully as when at work. Exercise is
necessary to prevent thickening of the
heels, a "shot of grease," or a common
cold. Fat horses, unaccustomed to exer-
cise, are liable to molten grease.
Breeding Horses. — It is advisable for
most farmers to breed their own horses.
On a farm which employs three, four, or
more pairs, two mares might easily bear
foals every year, and perform a share
of the work at the same time, without
injury to themselves.
Wintering Young Horses. — In the
south of England young horses are kept
out on the fields all the year round, and
in many cases do not even have a shed
in which to lie overnight. Most people
consider it necessary to have field-sheds
for shelter, but in some cases nothing of
the kind is provided.
Housing iN'ecessary in Cold X>is-
triots. — But in the colder districts the
young as well as the adult horses have
to be housed in winter, at any rate over-
night. When the weather is not wet or
very cold the young animals should have
Fig. 739. — Water-brush.
a run out daily, and be brought back to
a dry but airy bed at night. Covered
sheds afford excellent shelter for young
horses in winter nights, and where these
are not available, loose-boxes or hammels
are preferable to stalls.
Handling Young Horses.— Young
horses should be frequently handled by
their attendant, who by his kindly hand-
ling should make himself welcome and
familiar amongst them. Young horses
are not regularly groomed, but they
will be all the better of a turn of the
brush now and again. They should be
rubbed with straw, if wet, and any clay
or earth adhering to their hair should be
removed.
Colts and fillies may be kept together
their first winter, but afterwards entire
colts should be kept by themselves.
Intelligence of Horses. — -The horse
is an intelligent animal, and seems to
delight in the society of man. It is re-
marked by those who have much to do
3l6
TEEATMENT OF FAEM-HOKSES.
with blood-horses, that when at liberty,
and seeing two or more persons standing
conversing together, they wiU approach,
and seem to wish to listen to the conver-
sation. The farm-horse will not do this ;
but he is quite obedient to call, and re-
cognises his name readily from that of
his companion, and will not stir when
desired to move until his own na/me is
pronounced. He discriminates between
the various sorts of work he has to do,
and will apply his strength or skill in the
best way, whether in the threshing-mill,
the cart, or the plough. He will walk
very steadily towards a feering-pole, and
halt when he has reached it. He seems
,, also to have an idea of time. We have
heard a horse neigh daily about lo min-
utes before the time of loosening from
work in the evening, whether in summer
or winter. He is capable of distinguish-
ing the tones of the voice, whether spoken
in anger or otherwise.
Horses are fond of nearly all kinds of
music. Work-horses have been known,
even when at their corn, to desist eating,
and listen attentively, witt pricked and
moving ears and steady eyes, to music on
various instruments. We have seen a
kilted Highlander playing the bagpipes
riding on the back of a farm-horse, which
showed every sign of pleasure. "The re-
cognition of the sound of the bugle by a
trooper, and the excitement occasioned
in the hunter when the pack give tongue,
are familiar instances of the power of
particular sounds on horses, in recalling
old associations to their memory. The
■ horse's memory is very tenacious, as is
evinced in the recognition of a stable
in which he Had at times been well
treated. He is very susceptible of fear,
and will refuse to pass into a road or
a particular locality in which he had
received a fright.
FEEDING HORSES.
In its way, the feeding of horses is
quite as important as the feeding of
cattle. The one is fed to perform work,
the other to produce meat. In each case
the performance will depend mainly upon
how the matter of feeding has been at-
tended to. He who would feed his
horses perfectly must know and con-
sider not only the duties, powers, con-
dition, and consequent food requirements
of each animal, but also the composition
and character of the available articles of
food. It is only by properly adapting
the one to the other that he can ensure
the best possible results. Perfection may
be beyond our reach. Let us get as near
to it as possible.
Articles of Food for Horses. — The
articles of food most largely used for
horses are hay, straw of various kinds,
oats, wheat, barley, beans, Indian corn,
bran, linseed, linseed-cake, turnips, man-
gels, carrots, parsnips, potatoes, furze (or
gorse), silage, vetches, fresh grass, clover,
&c. Information regarding the composi-
tion and character of these and other
feeding materials is given in the section
on "Varieties of Food" (vol. iii. p. 269),
in this volume. Before attempting
to arrange mixtures of food for horses,
farmers should give careful considera-
tion not only to that information, but also
to what is said in the succeeding sectidn
on "Animal Nutrition" (vol. iii. p. 291).
Food Requirements of Horses.
It is far from easy properly to under-
stand and determine the food require-
ments of different horses — horses of vari-
ous kinds, ages, conditions, and sizes, and
performing different kinds of work.
Bation for Idle Horses. — For a horse
doing no work, the food, to properly
maintain its bodily functions for twenty-
four hours, should contain over 12 lb.
dry matter, made up as follows : —
Albuminoids .
8.3602.
Fats .
3.19 „
Carbohydrates
1 1.4 lb.
Salts .
0. s oz.
Total food, free from water, 12.15 lb.
It is calculated that this amount of food,
so composed, is capable of producing
force equal to 27,855 foot-tons. "And
if the weight of a horse," says Dr
Fleming, "is estimated at 1000 lb., he
would require 87.3 grains for each pound
of body weight; or the whole body would
require about i-8oth part of its weight in
food every twenty-four hour's, the animal
undergoing no toil of any kind. A pony
weighing 440 lb. requires 46 grains of
nitrogenous matter for each 2 lb. 3^^ oz.
TREATMENT OF FAEM-HORSES.
317
of weight. This essential diet is sup-
posed to be theoretically totally devoid
of water, but in reality it would contain
from 15 to 20 per cent of that fluid; so
that, to allow for it, something like 1.87
lb. to 2.49 lb. must be added to the
12.472 lb."i
But this is merely a ration for the
bare subsistence of a horse. To enable
the horse to perform work, additional
food is necessary.
Additional Food for Work. — The
amount of additional food required to
enable a horse to perform work and
maintain its condition will depend upon
several circumstances, such as the nature
and amount of work to be done, the
season of the year, condition and size
and powers of the horse, <fec. The mere
weight of the animal is not so reliable as
a guide to the quantity of food required
by a horse as it is in the case of cattle.
The food requirements of small horses
are relatively greater than those of larger
ones.
Quick Pace and Food Requirement.
— A point of some importance is this,
that there is less waste of energy and
tissue — and therefore less food require-
ment— when the labour performed is
slow and prolonged than when it is brief
and severe. Dr Fleming says it has
been calculated that the useful work of
a horse, which would be represented by
100, with a velocity of 2 miles per hour,
would not be more than 51 with a ve-
locity oi Tj4 miles, or more than 7 with
a speed of 1 1 J^ miles an hour. In prac-
tice it has been found that the amount
of food sufficient for slow work for ten
hours will not suffice for more than five
hours' exertion at a trot. Increased
speed in work increases the demand for
albuminous food,
A horse working at walking-pace re-
quires from 6 to 9 grains of albuminoids
for each 7233 foot-pounds of work per-
formed; while for work at a trot the
requirements of albuminoids would be
as much as from 15 to 24 grains for the
same number of foot-pounds of energy
expended.
Force exerted by Horses. — ^In order
to know how to properly adjust the
quantity and composition of food, it is
' The Practical Hone-Keeper.
VOL. III.
necessary to ascertain as nearly as pos-
sible the amount of force exerted by
horses in performing work, be it pulling
a load or carrying a rider. With regard
to this Dr Fleming says: "It may be
mentioned that a one-horse engine, work-
ing ten hours per day, raises 19,799,360
pounds I foot high — this being the cal-
culated amount of energy expended in
ten hours if ij; could be all 'at once exer-
cised. But this is probably much more
than a horse could exert; a very hard
day's work would in all likelihood not
be more than 16,400,000 foot-pounds,
which would be exercised by a horse
pulling a load along at a walk for eight
hours. Eight hours' slow walking, vnth
a traction force of 100 lb., is equal to
8,436,571 foot-pounds per day. Slow
farm-work is equal to 11,211,000 foot-
pounds per day. With regard to fast
work, the amount of foot-pounds raised
is less, for the effisrt required is sudden,
and the waste of tissue or force is con-
sequently greater. The actual amount
of work done is less, for the reason that
the animal cannot sustain the effort, and
owing to the greater waste incurred,
more food is needed."
The amount of energy expended at
work both at fast and slow- pace must
vary considerably, but Dr Fleming gives
the following estimate as "fairly cor-
rect " :—
r Foot-poands.
A hard day's work for a horee\ ^^
at a walk would be j" "-Soo.ooo
A moderate day's work, ditto . 8,500,000
A hard day's work for a horse "j
at a trot of fast pace would !- 7,233,000
be ' J
A moderate day's work, ditto . 3,500,000
Bations for Degrees of Work. —
The follovsdng table, showing the amount
of food required by a horse under dif-
ferent conditions of labour — the proxi-
mate principles of the diet being stated
— is given by Dr Fleming : —
Proximate Moderate Active Severe
Principles. Worls. Worli. Work,
lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz.
Albuminoids .14 18 20
Fats . . o 8>^ o 10 o 12^
Carbohydrates 6 13 6 o lo o
Salts ..15 I 7 I 9
Total . 9 n}^ 9 9 lA Syi
X
3i8
TEEATMENT OF FAKM-HORSES.
It is necessary to explain that these
are merely approximate quantities, and
must not be followed blindly. In each
individual case carefulness and judgment
must be exercised ; and the appetite,
health, condition, and working powers
of each animal duly considered.
Winter Feeding of Horses.
There is almost as mujh variety in
the systems of feeding horses in winter
as in the methods of the winter feeding
of cattle.
As to the methods of feeding different
classes of horses so much information
has already been given in describing the
systems of management pursued in pure-
bred studs of the various breeds of
horses and ponies, that comparatively
little need be added here.
Preparing rood for Horses. — On
the best -managed farms all kinds of
grain are bruised, and the larger portion
of the hay and straw cut into chaff be-
fore being given to horses. As to the
propriety of bruising grain there can be
no question. Not an ounce of grain of
any kind should be given to horses with-
out being ground ; for when given whole,
a portion of the grain is liable to pass
through the animals undigested. The
husk of grain is so dense and difficult
to dissolve, that if it should be given
whole and escape being ground by the
animal's teeth, the gastric juice acts
feebly and slowly upon it, and will most
likely be unable to dissolve it, so that
a portion of the whole grain will pass
through the animal unaltered.
As to the chaffing of hay and straw,
there is some difference of opinion.
But there is no doubt the chaffing
both economises fodder and is advan-
tageous to the horses, by assisting them
to masticate their food. It should there-
fore be encouraged, for both these points
are important.
Many who regularly pursue chaffing
give their horses in addition small allow-
ances of long hay or straw, which may
be relished by the horses when they are
not hard worked and have plenty of
time to eat their food. The bruised
grain and chaffed fodder are usually
given together, and are of course mixed
■ in varying proportions according to the
work being performed at the time.
Beans and peas should be merely
cracked or split, and not ground into
flour. Care should be taken to mix the
various ingredients thoroughly, so that
each animal may receive its due
proportions of all- of them. The
chaffed fodder and bruised grain may
be conveniently mixed in a large iron
vat or box, or in a wooden box lined
with sheet-iron.
Mashes for Horses. — Farmers now,
as a rule, prefer dry food to mashes for
horses, but in many cases in winter mash
is still ^ven once or twice a-weeL The
mash generally consists of boiledj,:barley,
oats, or beans, mixed at times wito bran
and seasoned with salt, and an ounce
each of sulphur and nitre is sometimes
added. Raw potatoes or swedes are
given one time and mash another, or the
potatoes and swedes are boiled with
either barley or oats. The articles are
prepared in the stable boiler-house in
the afternoon, and when given to the
horses at night should not exceed milk-
warmth. The corn put into the boiler
is as much as when given raw, and in its
preparation swells out to a considerable
bulk. The horses are exceedingly fond
of mash. The ingredients should be
well mixed and well cooked.
For horses at light work, cooking food
may be commended on the score of
economy, for a small allowance of cooked
grain will render a large quantity of
chaffed fodder palatable. For horses,
old or young, whose teeth and digestive
systems are weak or defective, cooked
food is highly advantageous. Mouldy
hay is made safer and more palatable by
being steamed, and damaged grain should
in all cases be cooked. Horses will relish
a sprinkling of salt in their cooked food.
Be careful to give the cooked food to
horses before it begins to ferment.
Oats for Horses. — The quantity of
raw bruised oats given to farm-horses,
when at moderate work, is usually from
about 7 to 1 2 lb. per day in two or three
feeds. Some give less when the horses
are ngt at full work. Others give still
larger quantities in the busy season.
Substitutes for Oats. — Some far-
mers withdraw the corn altogether from
their horses in the depth of winter, giv-
ing them mashes of some sort instead;
whilst others give them only one feed of
TREATMENT OF FAEM-HOKSES.
319
oats a-day, divided at morning and noon,
and a mash or raw turnips or potatoes
at night. In many cases the mashes
used when horses are at light work con-
sist too largely of chaffed straw, upon
which horses soon lose condition and
strength. A fair proportion of grain of
some kind should always be included.
Both turnips and potatoes are good
food for horses, but they should be given
in moderation. Large quantities of soft
food do not prepare horses well for hard
work, and so mashes should be given to
them sparingly.
A-'^toup of Bations. — The follow-
ing ^e food mixtures used by leading
farmers in different parts of the country
when horses are at full work, the quan-
tities mentioned being for one day : —
(i) 10 lb. of cut straw ; 10 lb. of oats ;
16 lb. of turnips.
(2) 16 lb. of hay ; 5 lb. of oats ; 16 lb.
of turnips.
In these two cases the turnips are
pulped and mixed with the cut fodder
twelve hours before being used.
(3) 10 lb. of bruised oats; 20 lb. of
iay; 12 lb. of cut straw.
(4) Hay, maize, oats, anc} beans, mixed
in the proportions of 4 cwt. hay, 3 cwt.
maize, 2 cvrt;. oats, and 1 cwt. beans —
the hay being chaffed and the grain
bruised. Heavy farm and cart horses,
doing full work, get as much of this
mixture as they will eat, which is about
24 lb. each daily, with a little long hay
twice a-day.
(5) 2 bushels of oats, j4 bushel split
peas, with 2 trusses of nay and straw
chaffed per week per head when in full
active work.
(6) As much as they can eat of long
straw and uncut swedes, with i^ bushel
oats per week.
(7) 18 lb. crushed oats and 2 lb. lin-
seed-cake, VTith hay ad lib.
(8) 12 to 14 lb. crushed oats; a mash
of bran, with a gill of linseed-oil and
some saltpetre every Saturday night ; an
allowance of hay and oat straw ad lib.
(9) 10 J^ lb. crushed oats, ^j4 lb.
crushed Indian corn, and 'jj4 lb. cut
hay, with long hay ad lib., and rock-salt
to lick.
(10) 13 lb. of crushed oats, 3 lb. bran,
6 lb. raw swedes (sliced), and 14 lb. cut
chaff (two-thirds hay and one-third straw)
— the oats, bran, and chaff being mixed
together and macerated with water, and
prepared twelve hours before being used.
In most cases these rations, which
apply to the winter and spring, cost
from los. to 12s. per week; in some
cases more. In the grazing season the
rations are varied and greatly lessened,
especially in grain.
Boots for Horses. — Swedes, either
raw or cooked, are given largely to
draught - horses. When the roots are
cooked alone, from 50 to 60 lb. are put
into the boiler or steaming-vat for each
horse, and this gives about 35 to 45 lb.
of cooked food, which should be prepared
in time to allow it to become cool, but
not cold, before being given to the horses
in the evening. A, little chaffed hay,
perhaps not more than i lb. for each
horse, is mixed with cooked roots, and
some add about i lb. of ground oilcake,
while others have about half a pound
linseed for each animal cooked along
with the roots. This warm food is given
either in two meals — one when the horses
come in from work in the evening, and
the other at 8 p.m. — or in one mekl at
the latter hour.
But the most general plan is to give
the turnips to horses raw and uncut, as
the last meal for the night. Mangels
are given in a similar way. Roots of
all kinds should be thoroughly cleaned
before being given to horses.
Carrots and Parsnips. — There is no
kind of root equal to carrots for horses.
They are especially suitable for*hunting
and other horses which are hard-worked.
They are given raw and usually sliced.
For ordinary farm-horses, however, they
are generally beyond reach on account of
their cost. Parsnips are also given to
horses. Both carrots and parsnips are
supposed to be injurious to the eyes of
horses.
Furze for Horses. — Furze (whin or
gorse) is relished by horses, and makes
useful winter food for them. It is the
young shoots of furze that are fed to
horses, and they are best when bruised
by a furze "masticator." In the ab-
sence of a " masticator," the furze is
cut as fine as possible by a chaff-cutter,
but this does not cut and bruise it so
fine as is desirable. A hand furze-bruiser,
which does its work wonderfully well, is
S20
TREATxMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
represented in fig. 740. When fresh
furze is crushed, it throws off a fine
aromatic odour, which is much relished
by horses. The furze is bruised every
second or third day. It should not be
allowed either to heat to any extent or
to become dry. If
it should get dry
before being used,
it would be well
to sprinkle water
over it by a garden
watering-can.
Draught - horses
will eat from 20 to
25 lb. of crushed
furze per day, but
it will be as well to
give smaller quan-
tities, mixed with
chaffed hay or straw
and bruised oats.
Feeding Young
Horses. — Young
growing horses are
often stinted in
food. No greater
mistake could be
made. They ought*
to be fed liberally
and with as much
care and punctual-
ity as the hardest-worked horse on the
farm. Let them have as much good
hay or oat-straw as they can eat two
or three times a-day. In addition to
this, on many farms one-year-olds get
3 lb., and two-year-olds 4 lb., gradually
■increasing as they get bigger to 5 lb.,
Fig. 740. — Hand 'whiti-
bruiser.
of the following mixture : 3 parts,
crushed oats, i part beans, and i part
linseed, — this food being given when the
animals are housed at night, and before
being put out in the morning. In wet
stormy days, when they are out only
half an hour or so for exercise, they
should have their food thrice, instead of
twice a-day.
This is liberal feeding, and less of the
concentrated food, perhaps from 4 to
6 lb. per day, may suffice to keep the
youngsters growing and in good condi-
tion. Many think it is desirable to give
young horses once or twice a -week a
warm mash, consisting of boiled rootsj
boiled linseed or linseed - meal, mixed
with bran. Young horses will thrive
admirably on 3 to 4 lb. of crushed oats,
and I lb. of crushed linseed -cake per
day, mixed with chaffed hay or straw,
and raw swedes.
Young Horses not to be Pampered.
— But while young horses should be fed
liberally, they should not be forced in
feeding, or pampered in any way. Keep
them in good growing condition, full of
natural flesh; and, without exposing them
to excessive cold or wet, let them have
plenty of exercise and fresh air, so that,
as far as possible, their muscular and
constitutional strength and hardiness
may be developed.
Rations for Tovsrn Horses. — The
rations given to horses for town haul-
age vary greatly, the following indicat-
ing usual allowances for light and
medium van and lorry horses in the
towns named : —
Glasgow.
Edin-
■faurgh.
Birming.
ham.
London,
South.
London,
Street.
Liver-
pool.
Dublin
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Oats .
6
8
10
• 7
3
3
Maize.
II
4
6
7
12
12
14
Beana or peaa .
4
4
I
I
4
Hay .
'. "iVz
14
12
II
n
14
12
Straw
I
2
3
Bran .
oYz
I
I
"oY^
Total lb. .
27
32
32
29
28
31
^9%
Riding and Driving Horses. — Car-
riage-horses are often fed more highly
than is necessary or is really beneficial
for their health and usefulness. If their
work is light, from 8 to 10 lb. of bruised
grain and 12 to 14 lb. of chaffed hay per
day will be sufficient. When the work
is heavier the grain must be increased,,
perhaps 2 or 3 or 4 lb. per day. Hunt-
ing-horses, and all riding-horses which
are kept at hard work, should be liberally
fed — horses over 15 hands, perhaps from
15 to 16 lb. of bruised oats per day, with
10 or 12 lb. of chaffed hay; the allowanca
TEEATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
321
of oats for smaller horses being reduced
by 2 or 3 lb. per day. A few pounds of
carrots — not more than 3 lb. per day —
may occasionally be given with advan-
tage. For hunters, Dr Fleming recom-
mends the substitution of 2 lb. of split
beans for 2 lb. of the allowance of oats.
Army horses usually receive 10 lb. of
oats per day with 12 lb. of hay, and —
for litter — 8 lb. of straw. When on
severe duty, or in camp, the allowance
of oats is increased to from 10 to 14 lb.
per day. The hay is given uncut.
Quantity of Food. — It is considered
that, as a rule, an average-sized draught-
horse will require about 29 lb. of food
per day. Much less than that, even
although it should be highly nutritious,
will not be sufficient to maintain the
animal in a healthy and vigorous con-
dition. Reynolds states that such a,
horse, when moderately worked and well
housed, will consume from 29 to 34 lb.
per day, of which the hay and straw
should constitute about two-fifths.
Bulk of Pood. — It is undesirable, in
ordinary cases, to attempt to feed horses
mainly upon highly concentrated food.
In order to enable the digestive organs
to properly perform their functions, a
certain considerable degree of bulk in
the food is necessary. When horses are
hard-worked, the morning and mid-day
meals may advantageously be small in
bulk — a feed of oats can be speedily
eaten, and does not interfere with the
breathing organs as does a bulky feed of
hay or straw. But at night, in these
cases, bulky food should be given.
Pregtuenoy of Feeding. — Horses
should be fed at least three times a-day
— before 6 in the morning, about mid-
day (as soon as brought in from work),
and in the evening. The exact hours
will depend upon local circumstances as
to the work being carried out. But it is
very important that precise feeding hours
should be arranged, and that these should
be rigidly adhered to. Punctuality in
feeding is a most important consideration.
Long fasts are detrimental to horses.
The standard hours of farm-work seldom
permit of more than three meals per day;
but it would be far better for the horses
if they could be fed four times a-day, at
intervals of not more than four hours.
Let the evening meal be the largest and
bulkiest, as the horses have then plenty
of time for thorough mastication. Long
fasts and rapid and heavy feeding often
give rise to disorder of the digestiye or-
gans, and care should be taken to give
the animals ample time to consume their
food in comfort. Improper mastication,
often caused by too hurried feeding,
renders the process of digestion more
difficult. At long spells of work, a feed
of grain, even if it should be very small,
given in a nose-bag, will be found very
beneficial. Do not give more food of any
kind at a time than the animal is likely
to consume, as if any were left it would
become stale and unpalatable, and prob-
ably be wasted.
Care of Horses in Summer.
The care of horses in summer causes
little trouble or anxiety.
Pasturing Work-liorses. — On many
farms, especially in Scotland, the rule
is to graze horses. As soon as the
warm weather of summer has fully set
in, the horses lie out in a pasture field
overnight. Between the yokings they
either get cut grass in the stable or are
put on pasture, the latter plan saving the
trouble of cutting grass. Work-horses
are liable to suffer much from chilly
nights, (Jold often laying the foundation
of diseases- — such as rheumatism, costive-
ness, stiffness of the limbs. The after-
math is good pasture in the interval of
work at noon, and the second cutting
of clover may last for suppers until the
time to betake to the stable altogether.
Soiling Horses. — Many farmers dis-
approve of pasturing farm -horses, and
support them at the steading upon for-
age. Where there are hammels or courts
which could be easily divided, we would
adopt this plan at once, but we are-
doubtful of its advantage in a stable.
The heat of a stable in summer — and
the doors cannot be left open — with the
evaporation of ' the increased issue of
urine due to the green food, cannot fail
to vitiate the air. The cattle-courts are
more open; and if they can be divided
so that each pair of horses may have
a compartment to themselves, they will
thrive admirably here.
In the tillage districts of England this
system of summering horses in the cattle-
courts is extensively pursued. Many
322
TKEATMENT OF FAKM-HORSES.
farmers, indeed, maintain that there is
no better or cheaper method of keeping
draught-horses in summer than in the
courts, fed with green vetches or other
similar succulent food, and dry hay, with
perhaps a little bruised oats. Very often
the grain is omitted.
Still it is a good plan to give the
horses a week or two of the fresh air
in an open pasture field.
Pasturing Young Horses. — Young
horses are put to pasture during the day
as soon as they can obtain a bite. They
should be brought at night into their
hammels until the grass has passed
through them ; after which they should
lie out all night in a field which offers
them the protection of a shed or other
shelter. Work-horses do not care for a
shed on pasture, being too much occu-
pied with eating during night to mind it.
In rainy weather young horses should be
kept in the hammel on cut grass, and not
exposed to rain in the field overnight.
The farmer's saddle-horse should usual-
ly have grass in summer, as it is the
most wholesome food it can have. But
it is more convenient to give it cut grass
in a court or hammel than to send it
to pasture, where it may be difficult to
catch when wanted.
Peculiarities of the Sorse in Graz-
ing.— It is surprising with what con-
stancy a work-horse will eat at pasture.
His stomach being small in proportion
to the bulk of his body, the food requires
to be well masticated before it is swal-
lowed ; and as long as that process is
proceeded with while the grass is cropped,
no large quantity can pass into the sto-
mach at a time.
The horse, like all herbivorous animals,
grazes -with, a progressive motion on-
wards, and smells the grass before he
crops it. His mobile lips seize and
gather the stems and leaves of the grass,
which the incisors in both jaws bite
through with the assistance of a lateral
twitch of the head. When grass is rank,
he crops the upper part first ; and when
short, bites very close to the ground.
Horses should not graze amongst sheep,
as both bite close to the ground; and
work-horses often injure sheep that come
in their way, either by a sly kick or by
seizing the wool with their teeth.
It is proverbial that horses do not
graze well upon many of the very best
bullock pastures. Horses often do better
on rough pasture than on land which has
been altered in its herbage by thorough
drainage.
Horses Injured by Green rood. — •
Care must be exercised in beginning
horses with green food every year. If
allowed to gorge themselves too freely
at the outset, serious illness may follow.
Begin them sparingly with it, and if it
should be wet or very succulent at any
time during the season, it will be all the
better to be accompanied or mixed with
a little dry food such as hay.
Littering Horses.
■Stravsr as Litter. — Straw is the most
largely used, and is the best of all kinds
of litter for horses. Wheat-straw, being
stronger and tougher, is preferable to
oat, or any other variety of straw, but in
many parts of the country wheat-straw
is not available. The stall should be
thoroughly cleared out every morning,
the wetter portions of the litter sent to
the manure-pit with the dung ; and the
drier parts, which may be fit to be used
for another night's bedding, retained in
some convenient corner, or if the weather
is dry, spread out near the stable, and
taken in again in the evening.
Litter which has been used should
never, as is sometimes the case, be stored
beneath or in front of the manger, as the
ammonia is apt to rise and injure th,e eyes
of the horse, as well as taint its food.
From 8 to 14 lb. of straw is generally
used as litter for each horse per day.
With care, 8 to 10 lb. should be quite
sufficient.
Peat-moss Litter. — The best substi-
tute for straw as litter for horses yet
introduced is "peat-moss litter" — peat-
moss which has been broken and com-
pressed by machinery till most of the
moisture has passed away, leaving soft,
spongy, fibry- looking vegetable matter.
It makes cheap and comfortable bedding,
absorbs and conserves the urine, and is a
powerful deodoriser, keeping the stalls
sweet and wholesome. It has a highly
beneficial efiiect upon the feet of horses,
keeping them cool, and encouraging the
growth of strong tough hoofs. For ani-
mals with tender feet it is most beneficial.
It is also valuable as manure, and its use
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
323
should be commended on account of the
saving of straw thus effected.
Peat-moss litter is now a regular article
of commerce.
Other Varieties of Litter. — Many
other substances are used as substitutes
for straw in littering horses, such as saw-
dust, fine sand, spent tan, leaves of trees,
and ferns. Sawdust is often used, but
by itself it does not make comfortable or
desirable litter. As a padding beneath
a thin layer of straw it is very useful,
comfortable, and economical, and may be
resorted to where peat-moss litter cannot
be procured at reasonable cost. Sawdust
should be spread in a layer 2 or 3 inches
deep, and raked daily. At least once
every week the stall should be thoroughly
cleaned out, and an entirely fresh layer
of sawdust laid down. Where ferns are
plentiful, they may be cut and stored
for use as litter in winter. Spent tan,
about 6 inches deep, makes durable and
useful litter. If the surface is carefully
cleaned of the dung every morning,
and the tan raked by an iron garden-
rake, one layer will last over a month.
Scatter a little gypsum over it now
and again.
General Hints.
Exercise.' — Horses that are not regu-
larly at work should be exercised punc-
tually every day, say, just after breakfast.
In very cold weather in winter towards
mid-day may be preferable. Unless idle
horses have plenty of exercise given to
them methodically, they are Cable to
contract ■ " grease " in the legs, and be-
come soft, flabby, and unfitted for active
work. Horses that are entirely idle
should have two hours' daily exercise.
It is specially important for young horses
to have plenty of exercise.
Eest. — Farmers are often not so care-
ful as they ought to be in providing
quietness and comfort for hard-worked
horses during hours of rest. In particu-
lar, during the two hours of mid-day rest
horses should have as little disturbance
as possible. As soon as they have been
made comfortable in their stalls, and
been fed, they should be left in perfect
quietness. The stable -door should be
shut, and no one let in to disturb the
repose of the animals till their own at-
tendants return to prepare for the work
of the afternoon. Again, when the horses
come in at night fatigued by a hard day's
work, they should as soon as possible,
after being fed and rubbed down, be left
for quiet rest till supper-time.
■Washing Horses' Legs. — Horses
working on wet land are apt to have
their legs so besmeared with mud that
nothing but washing will clean them.
In that case the legs should be washed
at night, great care being taken to dry
the legs thoroughly. Washing is itself
undesirable, and should be resorted to
only when absolutely necessary.
Cracked and greasy heels are often
caused by imperfect drying after washing
or after exposure to wet and mud. Re-
ferring to this point, Dr Fleming gives
a few words of warning which are well '
worthy of careful attention. He says :
"It must, however, be regarded as essen-
tial to proper management, that under
no pretext is a horse to be left for the
night until all his legs have been thor-
oughly dried. Nor is this precept very
difficult of execution ; a handful or two
of light wood sawdust, rubbed for a few
minutes well into the hair, will absorb all
the moisture from the most hirsute legs,
affording not only a sense of comfort to
the animal, but preventing those unde-
sirable consequences engendered by con-
tinued application of cold and wet to the
extremities. " '
Shoeing Horses. — Highly satisfac-
tory methods of shoeing the various
classes of horses are npw pursued in
almost all parts of the country. Skilled
shoers are everywhere to be found, and
farmers should be careful to see that the
feet of their horses are well shod and
kept in good condition.
Clipping and Singeing. — For horses
which have rank coats of hair and have
fast trotting work to do, clipping or
singeing is found advantageous. This
is seldom practised with farm - horses ;
and if they are well groomed there will
be little need for any interference with
the length of the coat. Clipping is most
generally pursued with the ranker coats,
and this is done speedily and efficiently
by a clipper such as those (Clarke's)
represented in fig. 741.
Shorter coats are singed, either oil or
^ The Practical Horse-Keeper, 93.
324
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
gas being used in the singeing-lamp, the
latter being preferable.
Injurious to Clip Iiegs of Horses.
— But while this system of clipping or
singeing has its advantages, there is one
practice often resorted to which is en-
tirely mischievous and should be strictly
forbidden, and that is clipping the hair
from the legs of draught-horses. In con-
demnation of this practice we cannot do
better than quote the words of Dr Flem-
ing, who regards it as "highly perni-
cious," and adds : " Hair is the natural
protector of the cuticle, and is especially
required to warm and shield the delicate
skin of the heels ; its removal from these
situations is certain to induce a predis-
position to grease, and other equally
serious consequences. If the legs are
muddy on return from labour, they
should be dried as far as practicable, and
the adherent clay subsequently removed
Fig. 741. — Horse-clippers.
with a hard brush. The application of
the thinnest possible film of pure neat's-
foot oil to the surface of the hair of the
legs will prevent the adhesion of clay,
but it should only be used when abso-
lutely necessary. . . .
Protection to Skin from "Wet. — " A
predisposition to cracked heels is engen-
dered by clipping the legs and pastetns
in winter : this should never be done, if
possible ; but if necessary, then the skin
should be protected from the action of
wet and dirt by rubbing into it, before
the horse leaves the stable, hard vaseline
or zinc ointment. A very good protection
against the action of icy cold water, or
the salt slush which is so common on
tramway lines in winter, is a mixture of
one part of white-lead and three parts
common oil, rubbed around the pasterns
and the coronets by means of a brush."
Method in Stable Management. —
Method and punctuality contribute as
much to successful stable management
as to success in business. Let the stable
rules be arranged on a well-thought-out,
workable plan, such as will, in the most
effective manner possible, contribute to
the comfort and usefulness of the horses.
And when the rules are laid down, see
that they are rigidly adhered to. Irreg-
ularity in the feeding and general treat-
ment of horses is most detrimental to
their wellbeing. Among horses let all
things be done quietly, kindly, and in
order. Horses appreciate kindly treat-
ment, and will repay such behaviour by
confiding obedience. Good horsemen and
good horses get warmly attached to each
other. There is more of the "social
element" about the horse, the greatest
of all our quadruped friends, than the
casual observer would be inclined to give
him credit for.
The Foaling Season.
The foaling season is an anxious time
for the owners of brood mares. The
risks in foaling are greater than the
calving risks, for the bovine race is
hardier than the equine. With moderate
skill and timely attention, however, seri-
ous losses in foaling are not likely to be
of frequent occurrence.
Insurance against Foaling Kisks.
— Several insurance companies provide
special facilities for insurance against
losses in foaling, and farmers are pru-
dently taking advantage of this provision
of safety. The cost of insurance is
comparatively small, and the sense of
security it affords to the farmer is very .
comforting.
Abortion in Mares. — Abortion in
mares, as in other animals, is often dif-
ficult to account for. In the large
majority of cases, however, it may be
attributed to injury inflicted in one form
or other. A fright, chasing, running
away, hurried driving, a kick from
another horse, over - exertion at work,
being driven in too ,heavy a grubber or
cultivator, ploughing hard beaten head-
lands, being bogged in soft land, a shake
between the shafts of a heavily loaded
cart or waggon, or being upset or cast in
shafts, are amongst the more violent
actions liable to cause abortion. But
it may also be induced by serious illness,
improper feeding, especially with forcing
food, exposure to wet stormy weather,
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
325
eating poisonous plants, consuming
frosted food, drinking an excess of cold
water, &c.
When abortion does occur, the mare
should be kept apart from other mares
in foal until they have produced their
young. And these other mares should
not be allowed access to the spot where
the unfortunate mare aborted.
Care of Brood Mares. — The greatest
possible care should be exercised all
through the period of pregnancy, alike
in feeding and working the mare. She
should be fed liberally but not excessively,
for overfeeding may itself cause abortion.
It is a well-known fact that overfed mares
are liable to produce small foals, and the
tendency to this is still greater when
the overfed mare is an idle animal, kept
perhaps solely for showing and breeding
purposes.
Little need be said here in regard to
the care of brood mares in and near the
foaling season. The subject has already
been fully dealt with in earlier parts of
this volume in connection with the man-
agement of the leading breeds of pure-
bred horses.
There is considerable difference of-
, opinion and practice amongst farmers
as to the working of mares up to foaling-
time. Mares accustomed to steady farm-
work may safely enough be kept at the
lighter kinds of work up to within a few
days, or at most a week, of the expected
date of foaling. Carting, however, is
dangerous, and should be avoided.
About ten days before the date upon
which the foal is expected, the foaling
compartment should be prepared. This
should be free from draughts, comfort-
able in every way, and large enough
to allow the mare to turn herself with
ease at any part of it without incur-
ring the risk of crushing the foal in so
doing.
Watching Mares at Foaling. — It is
very desirable that an eye should be kept
on the mare night and day at foaling-
time. Mares carry their foals from 330
to 360 days, eleven months being the
time most generally "reckoned." They
are by no means punctual, however, and
very often a mare has to be watched for
a week or ten days, occasionally even
longer.
Symptoms of Foaling. — One of the
surest signs of the approach of foaling is
afforded by the udder. It of course be-
comes larger, and a waxy material appears
like a bean at the tip of each teat. After
this is present, in three cases out of four
the mare will foal within twenty-four
hours, and should not be left till the
event has taken place.
Less definite indications of the comple-
tion of the period of pregnancy are the
drooping of the belly, the enlargement
and relaxation of the external organs of
generation, and the flanks sinking in-
wards. The mare becomes dull and dis- *
inclined for exercise, while the movements
of the foal may be seen to grow more
distinct and active.
Assistance in Foaling. — Mares sel-
dom need assistance in foaling. When
aid is required, great skill and care must
be exercised in rendering it. In cases
which threaten to be protracted, or show
any unusual and dangerous symptoms,
the veterinary surgeon should at once be
called in. Rarely, indeed, is a case of
difficult foaling carried through success-
fully by any except an experienced and
specially trained man in obstetrical work
amongst farm animals.
difficult Foaling. — If the mare has
gone the full time of pregnancy, any ex-
ceptional difficulty in foaling is more than
likely to arise from the foal Ijring in an
abnormal position. The head and fore-
feet should come first, the head resting
upon the two fore-legs, just as in the case
of a calf. If the labour pains are pro-
tracted without any apparent or sufficient
progress, the hand and arm should be
well lubricated with soft warm water and
an antiseptic soap, and gently inserted to
discover the position of the foal. If it
is in its natural position as indicated, a
little time will likely complete the pro-
cess. If the foal is not yet in the pass-
age, give the mare more time, and if
necessary make another examination. If
the foal is not presenting itself in the
usual position mentioned, it may be nec-
essary to adjust it, or at any rate to make
some alteration in its position before
birth can take place.
But this delicate work requires so much
skill that, as already stated, it cannot be
safely intrusted to any but a well-trained
veterinary surgeon. If at all possible,
have the veterinary surgeon at hand in
326
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
such cases. If this is impossible, obtain
the advice and assistance of the most ex-
l)erienoed person within reach. Do not
ba too hurried in assisting the mare.
Vv^atch carefully, and assist nature when
assistance seems likely to be useful. The
mare needs more skilful and more careful
operating than the cow in difficult par-
turition, and constant attention may be
required to prevent her injuring herself
should she become violent.
Such a case as this, however, is quite
exceptional. As a rule, all that need be
provided for the mare is a comfortable
and cleanly compartment, with just a
little less than the usual amount of food
given to her when at work. The rest
will, in most cases, be accomplished by
nature.
Reviving an Exhausted Mare. — If
the mare should seem to be weak or ex-
hausted she may be revived by a drink of
milk-warm oatmeal gruel, with the addi-
tion of a quart bottle of good ale.
Support to Mare'B Belly. — Brood
mares which have produced several foals
are liable, when well up in years, to show
a large extension of belly. For the sake
of appearance as well as comfort to the
mare, it would be well in extreme cases
to support the belly for a time after foal-
ing with wide, strong bandages wrapped
several times round the body. ,
Mare's Udder. — Inflammation some-
times occurs in the udder of a mare being
sucked. The udder is found to be hard
and hot to the touch, and evidently pain-
ful to the mare. Foment the udder with
warm bran-water, rub gently, and draw
away a little milk at frequent intervals.
It may be necessary to remove the foal
for a few days and give the mare a dose
of physic. Do not give medicine unless
the foal is taken away from the mare for
the time. A change of diet and low feed-
ing for a few days may give relief. In a
bad case, lose no time in calling in the
veterinary surgeon.
After Foaling. — When it is seen that
the foaling has been completed success-
fully, and the mare and foal are on their
feet, a drink of warm gruel, made of
oatmeal and water, or oatmeal, bran,
and water, with a little salt in it,
should be given to the mare, some sweet
hay being placed in the rack. The two
should then be left alone for a little
time, but carefully watched. As a rule,
they speedily become 'accustomed to each
other's society, and only in exceptional
cases is any further interference re-
quired, either on behalf of the foal or
the mare.
Cleansing. — ^In ordinary circumstances
the " after-birth " will come away of its
own accord very shortly after delivery.
If it has not done so within at most ten
or twelve hours, it will very likely have
to be removed by the hand. This must
be done gently and carefully ; and if the
after-birth has begun to decompose, the
passage and uterus should be cleansed
and disinfected by plentiful injections of
some mild antiseptic fluid.
After-straining. — If the mare should
continue to strain heavily for some time
after birth, it may be assumed that all
is not well with her, and that the ad-
vice of the veterinary surgeon would be
useful.
Attention to the Toal. — The foal
needs attention the moment it is born.
First see that it has broken through and
freed itself from the enveloping mem-
branes, so that it has freedom to breathe.
Then examine the umbilical cord, or
navel-string, and see that it has been
severed, and that there is no serious
bleeding. The navel-string may be
snapped in the act of foaling, but it is
much safer to tie it. The attendant
should tie a piece of thoroughly clean
cord that has been soaked in an anti-
septic solution around the navel-string
about three-quarters of an inch from the
skin ; tie again an inch and a half farther
down, and divide between with a clean
knife. The stump of the cord should
then be dressed with a strong solution of
qp^rbolised glycerine up to and over the
edge of the skin.
Reviving "Weak Foals. — It occasion-
ally happens that a foal, although still
living, is to all appearance dead when
born. In this case, efforts should at
once be made to induce respiration. A
moment's delay may result in the ex-
tinction of the vital spark, which, with
prompt action, might be fanned into
active life.
Weakly foals will be all the better of
a little extra attention at the outset, in
the way of rubbing and drying with a
woollen cloth. The limbs as well as the
TREATMENT OF FARM-HORSES.
327
body should be well rubbed. It helps to
promote circulation and give strength to
the young creature.
Rearing Foals. ,
The feeding and general treatment of
foals in pure-bred studs have been fuUy
dealt with earlier in this volume, and
therefore little detailed information will
be required here.
Foals are not so robust as calves, and
are more subject to injury from cold and
wet. In the great majority of cases,
the foal is reared almost entirely on its
mother's milk for a period ranging from
four to six months.
Troublesome Mares. — Unless ex-
ceptional circumstances have arisen — un-
less from some cause or other the mare
becomes an inefficient or unkindly nurse
— it will rarely happen that the mother
and offspring require any special aid or
interference until weaning-time arrives.
Occasionally it happens that a mare
requires coaxing to admit the youngster
to the udder, but with patience, tact, and
kindliness success is generally attained.
If sterner measures should be necessary,
it is a good plan to put a net-muzzle on
the mare's mouth and allow her to reach
the foal with her mouth, but in a position
that she cannot get at it with her feet.
This should only be tried when the mare
and foal can have sufficient attention. A
bridle with blinkers may be required, and
even a fore-foot held up, but do not use
a twitch or strike the mare. Sometimes
it is found that the bringing of a strange
horse within sight of the mare a few days
after foaling induces her to abandon her
indifference and take the foal under her
protection.
Beginning the Poal to Suck. — The
foal will often be very awkward in its
first efibrts to suck. Do not attempt to
assist or direct it except towards the
proper quarter. Keep the mare quiet,
and let the youngster feel its way itself.
The instincts of nature will be its best
teacher, and it will soon learn how to
proceed. The mare's udder may be hard,
and the teats dry. If so, rub the udder
with the hand, and draw away a little
milk, leaving the teats moist, so as to
lead on the foal in its first attempt to
suck.
19'urBiiig Motherless Foals. — When
a mare dies and leaves a living foal, or
when a mare is unable to rear twin foals,
or even to rear one, the best course for
the sake of the foal is undoubtedly to
procure a nurse-mother. No system of
hand-rearing is quite equal to the mare's
udder ; and especially in the case of an
exceptionally valuable foal an effort
should certainly be made to procure a
nurse-mother. This, however, is usually
difficult to obtain, and, as a rule, foals
that cannot be suckled by their own
mothers have to be reared by the hand.
Bearing Poals by Hand. — For the
young foal cow's milk is the next best
food to the mare's milk. If the foal is
newly born, the milk must at the outset
be poured gently into its mouth out of
an old teapot or kettle. By the time the
foal is a week or ten days old it may be
taught to drink the milk out of a pail,
just as the hand-fed c^lf drinks milk.
Give the foal your fingers to suck, and
gently lead its head into the pail until
it draws up milk between the fingers. In
this manner it will readily learn to drink
of its own accord when the pail is
placed before it.
Cow's Milk for Foals. — Cow's milk,
as we have said, is the best food on which
to rear a foal for which mare's milk
cannot be obtained. For some time at
the outset, at any rate, the milk should
be new and warm as it comes from the
cow. Many experienced breeders think
it desirable to dilute the milk with warm
water and a little sugar. The foal should
get little at a time, and be fed four or
five times a-day. It may not be con-
venient to milk a cow so often as five
times a-day, and therefore, at least for
two of the meals to the foal, the cow's
milk may have to be kept for two or
three hours. In this case the milk should
be heated to about the temperature of
new milk by the admixture of a little
hot water in which a very little sugar
has been dissolved. When it is desired
to give the milk undiluted, the best way
of heating it is to insert the tin vessel
holding it into another vessel containing
hot water.
Bean -milk and Cow's Milk for
Foals. — It sometimes happens that foals
do not thrive satisfactorily on cow's milk
alone. In this case the substitution of
bean-milk for perhaps about one-half of
328
TKEATMENT OF FAKM-HORSES.
the cow's milk may be tried. The bean-
milk is prepared by boiling the beans
almost to a pulp, removing the shells,
and pressing the pulp through a fine
hair-sieve. The result is a thick creamy
fluid or paste. Sprinkle a pinch of salt
over it, add the cow's milk entire or
diluted, and the compound is ready for
the foal. This system of feeding is
highly spoken of by breeders of great
experience.
Iiinseed, Bean-xaeal, and Milk for
Foala. — Another liquid mixture used
successfully in rearing foals consists of
skimmed milk, linseed, and bean -meal.
One formula for preparing the daily food
of a foal from these substances is as fol-
lows : 1 2 pints sweet skimmed milk, i
quart of linseed, which has been previ-
ously boiled for three or four hours, and
3 lb. of fine bean-meal added in a dry
state. In some cases where the mares
are hard-worked on the farm, the foals
are weaned when only a few weeks old,
and reared by the hand in some way
similar to the above.
Health, of the Foal. — During the
nursing period the health of the foal
must be watched carefully, so that its
progress may not be interrupted by any
derangement of the system that might
be avoided or remedied. Young foals
are liable to suffer from constipation,
especially if they have not been able to
suck the_^rs* milk from the mare's udder.
The first milk is by nature provided with
a moderate purgative tendency which is
very beneficial to the offspring ; but if
the slightest symptoms of constipation
appear in the foal it should at once re-
ceive a light dose of castor-oil.
Diarrhoea must also be carefully
guarded against. Fresh air, exercise,
protection from inclement weather, and
good sound food to the mare, are the
surest preventives.
Housing Mares and Foals. — The
best treatment is to remove the cause,
and if that cannot be done, call in a
veterinary surgeon. Unless the weather
is dry and genial, it will be prudent to
keep the mare and foal under cover for
a week or more. At the end of that
time they will both be -able to go out to
the field for a short time. Every change
should be gradual, whether it be a change
from one kind of food to another, from a
cosy box to an open field, or from idle-
ness to work.
"Working Kurse - mares. — Draught
mares are often returned to work in a
week or ten days after foaling. If circum-
stances permit, it would be better to de-
lay till the beginning of the third week —
better for the mare and the foal too. In
any case, the work for a time should be
light, and* for several weeks the mare
should not be kept longer from the foal
than two or three hours on end. With
good feeding the mare will be able for
two yokings, of three hours' duration
each, at light work, in ^ix or eight weeks
after foaling. As long as the foal is de-
pending mainly upon the mare for its
sustenance, it will be better, in a pressure
of work, to take three yokings of three
hours each daily from the mare, with in-
tervals of not less than an hour, than to
keep her longer in work at one time.
Two short yokings daily, however, are as
much as any nursing-mare should have
to accomplish.
Some recommend that the foal should
accompany the mare to the work, and be
allowed to suck her at frequent intervals.
It is safer to keep the foal in more com-
fortable quarters, and bring the mare to
it at intervals of from two and a half
to three hours, according to the stage in
the nursing period.
It is injudicious, dangerous indeed to
both mare and foal, to keep the mare
away from the foal until her udder is
much engorged and distended. Inflam-
mation may arise in the udder, and un-
less it be at once checked, the life of the
mare may be endangered. Then it will be
risky for the foal to allow it to suck the
milk from the inflamed udder. If there
is any reason to suspect that inflamma-
tion has begun, a portion of the milk
should be drawn away by the hand and
the udder bathed with cold water before
the foal is admitted.
Nursing - mares should never on any
account be overheated at work.
Brood-mares while nursing their young
should be liberally fed, especially so when
working hard at the same time.
Weaning Foals.
The weaning-time is a critical period
in the existence of a young horse. It is
usually the first great trial of its life,
TKEATMENT OF FAKM-HOKSES.
329
and if the animal is not properly cared
for at the time, its progress may be
seriously impaired. In ordinary circum-
stances foals are weaned when they are
from four to six months old.
As already indicated, the foal should be
trained to eat other food some time before
weaning. As the time for weaning ap-
proaches, the intervals during which the
foal is withdrawn from the mare will be
lengthened, and the extra food increased.
And if the foal takes kindly to its other
food, this process need not be long con-
tinued.
Whether the weaning process is to be
short or protracted will depend mainly
upon (i) the manner in which the foal
takes to and thrives upon the other food;
(2) the condition of the mare's udder;
and (3) the necessities of the time as to
the working of the mare. If the foal is
weakly, and does not seem to thrive satis-
factorily upon the other food, it may be
well to continue a little of its mother's
milk for some time : better submit to
some inconvenience in this way than spoil
a good foal. Then the mare may have
such an abundant flow of milk that the
sudden withdrawal of the food would be
undesirable for her sake. On the other
hand, the pressure of work may require
that the weaning shall be completed as
quickly as possible. Thus, in weaning,
there is need for experience and careful
consideration.
Feeding reals at 'Weaning-time. —
As to feeding, the foal should be well
attended to at weaning-time. Feed it
liberally but not to excess, taking care
to keep its bowels and general health in
as good order as possible. Bruised oats,
bran, and beans make a capital mash for
foals ; and some add boiled linseed.
Attention to tlie Mare at Wean-
ing-time.— At weaning-time the feeding
of the mare also needs careful attention,
so that the flow of milk may be stopped.
Hard work and spare feeding will dimin-
ish the secretion of milk. Let the food
be dry and lessened somewhat in quan-
tity. Even the allowance of water may
be slightly restricted. Draw some milk
from the udder once or twice arday, or
oftener if it becomes very full, but do not
empty it at any time. If the secretion of
milk is not diminishing satisfactorily, it
may be well to give a light dose of phy-
sic. This is sometimes necessary with
mares maintained solely for breeding, but
rarely with mares kept hard at work.
In the event of a mare having to be
dried soon after foaling, by the death of
the foal or other cause, the flow of milk
will usually be stopped by drawing away
a little milk by the hand once or twice
daily for a few days, and by giving the
mare some purgative medicine, a short
allowance of dry food and little water,
and plenty of work or other exercise.
Tlie Mating Season.
In regard to the mating of horses
little need be said here. The informa-
tion already given in this volume on
this subject in reference to pure-bred
stock is equally applicable to the breed-
ing of ordinary farm-horses.
The latter end of spring and early
summer is the inating season for horses.
Both mares and stallions are in the best
form for breeding when in robust health,
in good natural condition — just such
condition as should be shown by hard-
worked well - cared - for horses. Over-
feeding should be avoided; it is as
injurious as insufficient feeding.
A mare will usually come into 'Season
about nine or ten days after foaling, but
occasionally not in less than twice that
period. It is generally quite apparent
when a mare desires to receive a stallion ;
but if there is any doubt, the point may
easily be settled by trying her with the
stallion.
It is advisable to serve the mare in
the first heat of the season. As a rule,
with healthy animals one service will be
sufficient. About twenty days after the
first service the mare should again be
shown to the stallion, and if the usual
symptoms of desire are not then exhib-
ited by her, it may be assumed ,that she
is pregnant. Still she may "come round"
again in about three weeks, and the
attendant should watch carefully for the
symptoms. Some breeders think it de-
sirable to have the mare served twice
at one time, with an interval of ten to
twenty-four hours ; but this is not the
rule.
ITumber of Mares to one Stallion.
— The number of mares allotted to one
stallion in a season varies considerably
with circumstances, such as the age, con-
330
MANAGEilENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
dition, and value of the horse. An adult
horse in robust active condition may
have from 60 to 70 mares. The num-
ber often exceeds 80, but it is highly
imprudent to overdo a stallion, and it
may incur the risk of many blanks
amongst his mares.
Romeiv:latv/re of Hones.
The names given to the horse are
these : the new-bom is called a foal ; the
male being a colt foal, the female a, filly
foal. After being weaned, foals are
called simply colt or fUly, according to
the sex. The colt when broken into
work becomes a horse, and remains so all
his life; and the filly is changed into
mare. When the colt is not castrated he
is an entire colt, which he retains until he
is fully grown or serves mares, when he
is a stallion or entire horse; when cas-
trated he is a gelding, and it is in this
state that he is a draught-horse. A mare,
when served, is said to be covered by or
glinted to a particular stallion ; and after
she has borne a foal she is a brood mare
until she ceases to bear, when she is a
barren mare or eill mare ; and when dry
of milk she is yeld. A mare, while with
young, is in foal.
Names Suitable for FarmrHorses.
Names for horses should be short and
emphatic, not exceeding two syllables,
for long words are dif&cult to pronounce
when quick action is required. For
geldings, Tom, Brisk, Jolly, Tinker,
Dragon, Dobbin, Mason, Farmer, Cap-
tain; for mares, Peg, Rose, Jess, Molly,
Beauty, Mettle, Lily, seem good names.
For stallions, they should be important,
as Lofty, Matchem, Diamond, Blaze,
Samson, Champictn, Bold Briton, &c.
The language spoken to horses by
their drivers is referred to in vol. i.
p. 381.
MANAGEMENT OP COWS AND CALVES.
In the notes on the breeds of pure-bred
cattle in this volume a good deal of
information is given regarding the feed-
ing and general management of cows and
the rearing of calves. What little need
be added here will apply mainly to
ordinary commercial cattle, though, as a
rule, it is only in small details that the
treatment of cows and calves in mixed-
bred stocks differs from that in pure-
bred herds.
CALVING SEASON.
In exceptional cases, mostly in milk-
selling herds, calving takes place all the
year rdund. In the vast majority of
stocks, however, the great bulk of the
calving occurs in the months of January,
February, March, and April, the spring
months being most in favour in all ex-
cepting pedigree herds.
The risks of the calving season are
considerable, and at this time breeding
stocks require the most careful daily at-
tention from their owners and attendants.
Symptoms of Pregnancy. — Cows
may be ascertained to be in calf between
the fifth and sixth months of their gesta-
tion. The calf quickens at between four
and five months, and it may be felt
by thrusting the half -closed hand, in
which the point of the thumb projects
over the curved index finger, against the
right flank of the cow, when the calf
should be felt as a distinct hard lump.
All the flank should be explored, and
strong, deep, but not violent, punches
given before failure to detect it is ac-
knowledged. Or when a pailful of cold
water is drunk by the cow, the calf
moves, when a convulsive sort of motion
may be observed in the flank, by looking
at it from behind, and if the open hand
is then laid upon the space between the
flank and udder, this motion may be
distinctly felt. It is not in every case
that the calf can be felt at so early a
period of its existence, for lying then
in its natural position in the interior of
the womb, it may not be felt at all ; and
when it lies near the left side of the cow,
it is not so easily felt as on the opposite
one. Therefore, although the calf may
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
331
not be fdt at that early stage, it is no
proof that the cow is not in calf.
When a resinous -looking substance
can be drawn from the teats by stripping
them firmly, many consider it a sure sign
of pregnancy. After five or six months, '
the flank in the right side fills up, and
the general enlargement of the under
part of the abdomen a£fords considerable
evidence of pregnancy.
But there is seldom any necessity for
thus trying whether a cow is in calf, for
if she has not sought the bull for some
months, it is almost certain to be because
she is pregnant.
Beckoning Time of Calving. — The
exact time of a cow's calving should be
known by the cattle-man as' well as by
the farmer himself, for the time when
she was served by the bull should be
registered.
Gestation. — A cow is reckoned to go
just over 9 months with calf, although'
the calving is not certain to a day. The
late Earl Spencer found from records of
the calving of 764 cows that 314 cows
calved before the 284th day, and 310
calved after the 285th ; so he considered
that the probable period of gestation
ought to be regarded as 284 or 285
days, and not 270, as generally believed.
In those observations the shortest period
of gestation when a live calf was pro-
duced was 220 days, and the longest 313.
Prolapse of th.e Vagina. — Cows are
most liable to this complaint when near
the period of calving, about the eighth
and ninth months, and, from whatever
cause it may originate, the position of
the cow, as she lies in her stall, should be
amended by raising her hind quarters as
high as the fore by means of the litter.
No great danger need be apprehended
from the prolapse, but it is better to use
means to prevent its recurrence than to
incur bad consequences by indifference
or* neglect.
Feeding In-calf Cows. — Much more
care should be bestowed in administering
food to cows near the time of their reck-
oning than is generally done. The care
should he proportioned to the state of
the animal's condition. When in high
condition, there is risk of inflammatory
action at the time of parturition. It is
therefore the farmer's interest to check
every tendency to obesity in time. Moder-
ate quantities of turnips suit well, so also
do barley mashes and small quantities
of oil-cake, the laxative tendency of the
oil-cake being a special advantage for
in-caH cows.
Critical Period in Pregnancy. —
The eighth and ninth months constitute
the most critical period of a cow in calf.
The bulk and weight of the foetus cause
disagreeable sensations to the cow, and
frequently produce feverish symptoms,
the consequence of which is costiveness.
The treatment is laxative medicine and
emollient drinks, such as a dose of i lb.
of Epsom salts with some cordial admix-
ture of ginger and caraway -seed and
treacle, in a quart each of warm gruel
and sound ale.
Calving.
Symptoms of Calving. — Symptoms
of calving indicate themselves in the
cow about fourteen days before the time
of reckoning. The loose skinny space
between the vagina and udder becomes
florid ; the vulva becomes loose and
flabby ; the udder becomes larger, firmer,
hotter to the feel, and more tender-look-
ing ; the milk-veins along the lower part
of the abdomen become larger, and the
coupling on each side of the rump-bones
looser ; and when the couplings feel as if
a separation had taken place of the parts
there, the cow should be watched day
and night, for at any hour afterwards
the pains of calving may come upon her.
In some cases these premonitory symp-
toms succeed each other rapidly, in others
they follow slowly. With heifers in first
calf these symptoms are often slow.
Attendance in Calving. — Different
practices exist in attending on cows at
calving. In most cases the cattle-man
attends on the occasion, assisted some-
times by the shepherd, and other men if
required, but in some districts in Scotland
the calving is left to women to man-
age. The large and valuable breeds of
cows almost always receive assistance in
calving. The cows of the smaller varie-
ties frequently calve without assistance.
In cases of difficult calving a veterinary
surgeon should be summoned.
Preparation for Calving. — A few
preparatory requisites should be at hand
when a cow is about to calve. Flat soft
ropes should be provided for the purpose
332
MA^^AGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
of attaching to the calf. The cattle-
man should have the calf's crib well
littered, and pare the nails of his hands
close, in case he should have occasion to
introduce his arm into the cow to adjust
the calf ; and he should have some anti-
septic oil or ointment or antiseptic soap
and soft warm water with which to
lubricate his hands and arms, although
the glairy discharge from the vagina vrill
usually be sufficient for this purpose. It
may be necessary to have bundles of
straw to put under the cow to elevate
her hind-quarters, and even to have block
and tackle to hoist her up in order to
adjust the calf in the womb. These
last articles should be ready at hand if
wanted. Straw should be spread thickly
on the floor of the byre, to place the
new-dropped calf upon. All being pre-
pared, and the byre -door closed for
quietness, the cow should be carefully
watched.
The Calf. — On the extrusion of the
calf, it should be laid on its side upon
the clean straw on the floor. The calf
should never be allowed to fall with its
full weight on the floor. The breathing
is assisted if the viscid fluid is removed
by the hand from the mouth and nostrils.
The calf is then carried by two men,
suspended by the legs, with the back
downwards, and the head held up be-
tween the fore-legs, to its comfortably
littered crib.
Navel - string. — The state of the
navel-string is the first thing that should
be examined in a new-dropped calf, that
no blood be dropping from it, and that
it is not in too raw a state. The bleed-
ing can be stayed by a ligature on the
string, but not close to the belly. In-
attention to the navel-string may over-
look the cause of the navel-ill; and, in-
significant as this complaint is usually
regarded, it carries off more calves than
most breeders are aware of. The navel-
string should be dressed two or three
times daily until dried up with a dress-
ing consisting of one part of pure car-
bolic-oil to twenty parts of olive-oil.
Inflammation of the navel is often
caused by one calf sucking another.
Eeviving Calves. — Some calves,
though extracted with apparent ease,
appear as'^if dead when laid upon the
straw, but they may only be in a condi-
tion of suspended animation. A power-
ful attendant should seize the calf by the
hind-legs above the hock, swing it verti-
cally clear of the ground, while another
strips all viscid material from its mouth
~ and nostrils. It should then be laid flat
on its side at all its length, with head,
neck, and legs extended. An intelligent
operator should then use artificial respira-
tion in the same way it is used in the
apparently drowned, by elevating and
depressing a fore-leg. The leg should be
puUed upwards and forwards until it is
evidently pulling at the chest-wall by its
attachments, then pressed gently down-
wards and backwards over the lower
part of the chest, the weight of the
operator's arm going with it. This
should be repeated from six to ten times
for less than half a minute. It should
then be lifted vertically by the hind-legs
again, its mouth and nose stripped as
"rapidly as possible, and laid on its other
side a little roughly, and the process
repeated with the other fore -leg. It
should be turned this way after every
eight or ten movements of the leg, verti-
cally over its long axis, not horizontally
over its back, its mouth and nostrils kept
clear, and assistants applying friction to
the skin and drying it at the same time
with handfuls of hay or straw. The first
sign of life may be a slight cough, after
which care should be taken that the
movements of the operator should har-
monise with the efforts of the animal at
natural respiration. Success has resulted
by the use of this method after fifteen
and even twenty minutes' steady persist-
ent work.
Extracting a Dead Cal£ — When the
sjrmptoms of calving have continued for
a" time, and there is no appearance of
a presentation, the operator should in-
troduce his arm to ascertain the cause,
and the probability wiU be that the calf
has been dead in the womb some tinfe.
A dead calf is easily recognised by the
hand of an experienced cowman. It
should be extracted in the easiest man-
ner ; but should the body be in a state
of decay, it may not bear being pulled
out whole, but may require to be taken
away piecemeal.
Mistaken Idea. — A notion /exists in
some parts that a cow, when seized with
the pains of labour, should be made to
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
333
move about, and not allowed to lie
still, although inclined to be quiet.
As a rule, she should not be interfered
with.
Befreshing the Cow. — When a cow
seems exhausted in a protracted case of
calving, she should be supported with a
warm drink of gruel, containing a bottle
of sound ale. Should she be too sick
to drink, it should be given her with the
drinking-horn.
After the byre has been cleansed of
the impurities of calving, and fresh litter
strewed, the cow naturally feels thirsty
after the exertion, and should receive a
warm drink. There is nothing better than
warm water, with a few handfuls of oat-
meal stirred in it for a time, and seasoned
with a small handful of salt. This she
will drink up greedily. A pailful is
enough at a time, and it may be renewed
when she indicates a desire for more.
This drink should be given to her for
two or three days after calving in lieu of
cold water, and mashes of boiled barley
and gruel in lieu of cold turnips. At
this critical period oil-cake is specially
suitable, as it acts as an excelldnt laxa-
tive and febrifuge. Nothing should be
given at this time of' an astringent
nature. The food should rather have
a laxative tendency.
Immediate Milking. — It used to be
considered desirable to milk the newly
calved cow dry as soon as possible after
calving. This is most unnatural. Her
own calf would not take all her milk for
days, and it is now recognised that milk-
ing dry soon after calving tends to induce
milk fever. A little milk should be drawn
from each quarter, but only sufficient to
relieve the tension, and although this is
done several times a-day the udder of a
good milker should not be emptied for
some days after calving.
Ijicking and Rubbing Calves bene-
ficial.— Many skilled breeders systemati-
cally let the newly dropped calf be licked
by the cow. There is more in this ap-
parently small matter than is generally
supposed. "The bloomy appearance of
suckled calves is partly due to this
motherly attention ; and the licking
along the calf's spine, which the cow,
with her rasp of a tongue, gives her calf
immediately after birth, has evidently
an important meaning. All careful
VOL. III.
managers, when the calves are not
reared by the cow, take care to imitate
this process, rubbing well over the spine
with a wisp of straw. This not only
dries the calf and prevents its taking
cold, but evidently strengthens it ; and
the calf, if a healthy one, responds to
the rubbing by vigorous efiforts, soon suc-
cessful, to gain its feet."^ It is, more-
over, held by experienced breeders that
the licking of the calf has a beneficial
effect on the cow, and in the case of
breeds liable to milk-fever this is especi-
ally so. It is good practice in such cases
to leave the calf beside its mother for at
least two days.
Bulling.
Coming in " Season." — A cow will
desire the bull in four or five weeks
after calving. The symptoms of a
cow being in season need not be
descriljed.
Too Xiarly Bulling Unwise. — There
is good reason to believe that many cases
of cows not holding in calf with the first
serving after calving arises from the want
of consideration on the part of breeders
as to whether the cow is
in that recovered state
from the effects of calving
which may be expected
to afford a reasonable
hope that she will con-
ceive. The state of the
body, as well as the
length of time, should be
taken into consideration
in determining whether
or not the cow should
receive the bull when she
fifst comes into "season."
Leading Cows. — A
cow is generally easily
led to the bull by a
halter round the head.
If she is known to have
a fractious temper, it is
better to put a holder in her nose than
to allow her to run on the road and
have to stop or turn her every short
distance. A simple form of holder is
shown in fig. 742.
a Joint.
6 Knobbed points,
meeting.
c Screw-nut.
e Ring far rein-
rope.
1 Jour. Hoyal Agric. Soc.
zvi. 428.
g., sec. ser.,
334
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
ABORTION.
It is now recognised that there are
at least two forms of abortion. » The
one, known as Sporadic Abortion, arises
from many different causes, including
accidents ; the other, known as Contagi-
ous or Epizootic Abortion, is caused by
a specific living organism. Heavy losses
are often sustained by stock-owners from
abortion, especially in herds of pure-bred
cattle. Ewes abort frequently and mares
occasionally.
SPORADIC ABORTION.
Causes. — Most frequently the direct
causes of sporadic abortion are violent
exercise, frights, bruises, careless attend-
ance, diseased bulls, un-
wholesome food, impure
water, and hay affected
with ergot.
Brgot causing Abor-
tion.— As to the part
which ergot has played
in causing abortion there
is difference of opinion.
Ergot is a fungus which
attacks the ear or panicle
of grasses and cereals,
rye particularly, and is
recognised as a black
spur, seen in fig. 743.
Farmers should certainly
regard ergot as a danger-
ous enemy, and should
burn any portions of hay
in which it is seen to
exist to any considerable
extent.
Prevention. -^ Imme-
diately a cow shows
symptoms of aborting,
she should be separated
from her compamonsaud
il watched carefully. She
T\s.nt,i-—Headiif should be kept perfectly
timothy imth nu- . , j i i i j.
merous ergots. qui«t, and should get
laxative food such as
oil -cake and mashes, and if there is
straining, frequent doses of opium, bella-
donna, or anti-spasmodics.
After abortion cows must be carefully
attended, in order to get them back into
a healthy natural condition, and to pre-
vent abortion spreading. In cases of
slow cleansing it may be well to give a
dose of laxative medicine, such as i lb.
of Epsom salts, i oz. powdered ginger,
and I oz. caraway seeds.
Preventing Kecurrence of Abor-
tion.— There is great risk of recurrence
of abortion amongst cows that have once
aborted, and, as a rule, the wisest course
is to fatten off aborted cows. When
abortion occurs the byre should be thor-
oughly cleaned and disinfected, and
every possible precaution taken to get
the animals and premises into a clean
healthy condition.
EPIZOOTIC ABORTION.
For the following notes we are in-
debted to Principal Dewar, Edinburgh :
Early in the closing quarter of the
twentieth century acute observers began
to think that a form of abortion was not
uncommon which manifested contagious
properties. It was not till 1896, how-
ever, that Professor Bang of Copenhagen
published his article on "Infectious Abor-
tion," showing that abortion in cows was
caused by a micro-organism, and that he
could communicate the disease to preg-
nant animals by cultures of that organ-
ism. For most or our subsequent know-
ledge of the subject obtained up till
about 1908 we are indebted to Professor
Bang.
Causes of Abortion.
The causal organism, isolated by Pro-
fessor Bang, is a fine short bacillus, and
is found in an almost pure state in a
slimy poultaceous exudate met with in
animals that have just aborted, as well
as in pregnant animals affected vAth the
disease, between the uterus and the
placental membranes.
For years after the contagious hature
of the disease was accepted it was
generally believed that it was not com-
municated like other contagious diseases,
but only through the vulva and genital
canal, — that it was mostly communicated
in the byre owing to the discharges from
affected animals passing into the gutter,
and that each cow infected herself, and
it might be her neighbour, by means of
her tail, which became soiled with the
contaminated fluids in the gutter. It
APORTION.
335
has now Jjgeii proved, howevpr, tliat
ftnimals may cpijtract the disease by the
injestion of food or water sojiled with
these virulent discharges, and it is very
prob9,bIe that the virus frequently gains
access to the system in tlw way.
It has not y^t been proved that t^^
disease can be communicated by inhala-
tion, by means of the respiratory organs,
although the possibility of infection by
this portal shouH pot be Ip^t sig^t of in
dealing with the disease,
It is generally belieyed that a com-
mon method of infection is by means
of the bull. Should a bull serve a
COTT that has aborted and that has not
been properly treated for it, or any cow
the genital passage of which contains
abortion bacilli, unless he is carefully
and thoroughly 4isinfected after service,
there is a risk of him communicating
the disease to every cow he serves for
some time. That this means of infec-
tion has not been sooner and more
generally recognised is due to the fact
that the 4isease is of a very insidious
nature, that the incubative period is very
irregular and often very prolonged. A
cow may contri^ct the disease at the timp
of service fiom an infected bull, and may
noti abort until the seventh or eighth
month of pregnancy. Iii such a case the
real cause is likely to be overlooked and
a less remote cause suspected.
Treatment.
It is seldom that contagious abortion
is suspected in a herd until one or more
cases occur, and by that time it is prob-
able that a large number, in fact the
great majority, of the cows and heifers
may be affected, the Ijaciilus proliferating
in the uterus and setting up those chronip
inflamnjatory changes which ultimately
lead to abortioii. Although we can
hardly hope to prevent the accident in
cases ill which the disease is far advanced,
still no one can be sure of the stage the
disease ha^ reached, and it is well to
treat as affected all the pregnant animals
that may have been exposed to thp
contagion.
For this purpose it has been reppm-
mended to wash or sponge the tail, anus,
vulva, and perinseal region of each cow
«very inorning with a reliable antiseptip
wash. In s,ddition tp thip a large syringe-
ful of antiseptic wash,. -which should not
be quite so strong as that used externally,
should be injected into the vagina of each
cow once a^week. The flooring of the
^yre should also be thoroughly scraped,
cleaned, and disinfected every week.
Should some of the cows be giving
milk, care should be taken not to use as
antiseptic and disinfecting agents medi-
cines which have strong penetrating
odours, as the odour is apt to be com-
municated to the milk, and render it
useless for human consumption.
Brauer — on the Continent — recom-
mended medicinal treatment with the
view of getting at the organisms through
the blood stream. He started with a
subcutaneous injection of from half an
ounce to an ounce of a 2 per cent solu-
tion pf carbolic acid once a-fortnight,
in addition to the external cleansing
and washing put of the genital passage
already mentioned, but he subsequently
used double the quantity.
For a number of years the adminis-
tration of carbolic acid by the mouth
has been strongly recommended in this
country for the purpose of destroy-
ing or hindering the proliferation of
the organisms in the uterus. It is
found that considerable quantities of the
acid can be given in this way without
causing any untoward symptoms. One
weU- known authority, writing in an
agricultural paper, recommends half-
ounce doses of a somewhat crude car-
bolic acid to be given to each cow three
times a -week in bran -mashes. Some
animals, he says, may be unwilling to
eat mashes containing the acid.
As the purpose is to get at the
organisms through the blood, it is neces-
sary that the acid should be absorbed :
it is thprefore better to give it in smaller
dpseS'^quarter-ounce doses — and repeat
oftener if necessary; and there is no
doubt that a purer acid is less pungent,
less irritating, much more jeadily taken
by the cows, and quite as useful.
Preuentipe Treatment.
As the discharge from the uterus of
aborting cows is the chief source of the
contagion, it is necessary to use means
to prevent its being spread in the byre
or scattered in the field. Any cow, there-
fore, that shows the slightest symptom
33<5
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
of abortion should at once be removed
from the others and put in a byre or
building by herself. And as the byre
in which the abortion takes place requires
to be properly cleaned and disinfected
afterwards, one with a cemented smooth
floor and no underground drains is to
be preferred.
It should be remembered that the
aborted calf and placenta are both
fertile sources of infection, and these,
as well as all discharges, should be
buried, burned, or otherwise destroyed.
Although the calf may be born alive, it
is not a very desirable addition to the
stock. Aborted calves often die within
a few daya^ of birth. In any case, it is
necessary to remember that it is as
fertile a source of contagion as if it had
been dead, and even more so, as it is
capable of moving about, and should be
effectually removed from contact with
other animals until old enough to be
more than once disinfected. It is highly
probable that for a short time the faeces
of the calf may be contagious.
After abortion the uterus of the cow
should be thoroughly cleansed and dis-
infected. If the placenta does not come
away — which is quite common after
abortion — it should be removed by the
veterinary surgeon before twenty -four
hours have elapsed. The uterus should
then be flushed out with some reliable
antiseptic wash several times daily for
a few days, or as long as easy access to
it can be obtained. The antiseptic should
not be used in a strong condition, but a
large quantity of fluid should be run
through the uterus. The thorough cleans-
ing and disinfection of the womb not
only destroys the contagium and serves
to prevent the spread of the disease, but
tends to prevent barrenness in the cow
and the recurrence of abortion during
the next pregnancy.
It should also be remembered that
the cattle -man may easily convey the
disease on his boots or clothes, and by
contaiqinating fodder or food of any
kind quite unsuspectingly spread the
disease.
Should any suspicion attach to the
bull, or should he have been serving
suspected cows, his prepuce should be
carefully and gently but thoroughly
syringed out with an antiseptic twice
daily for several days. Some breeders
who have had contagious abortion in
their herds have regularly had the bull
syringed out— disinfected — each time be-
fore and after service, and with the best
results. Should there be a lot of strong
hair about the orifice of the prepuce,
likely to harbour dirt and germs, it
should be clipped off and the skin around
the opening disinfected.
There is no reason to believe that
the organism of contagious abortion
multiplies outside the animal body, but
as it is possessed of a great amount of
vitality (Bang found living bacilli in
uterine exudate that had been kept seven
months), the greatest care should be
taken in disinfecting buildings and every-
thing that could by any possibility have
come in contact with the discharges.
Breeders, as a rule, have hitherto been
inclined to dispose of their cows after
abortion. There cannot be any harm
in this if they are fattened and sent to
the butcher, but to dispose of a cow
that may be carrying the organisms of
abortion in her system, as a breeding
animal, to whomsoever cares to buy her,
is, if not legally a criminal act, un-
doubtedly one morally, and should never
be done. It is now considered a better
policy to keep the cows, if they are
good ones, disinfect them thoroughly
as well as everything they could have
been in contact with, and try to get rid
of the disease. This has been done
successfully, in some cases even during
the first season. There is no doubt that
replacing the cows which have aborted
by purchasing fresh ones is a risky busi-
ness, as the imported cows frequently
abort, and thus serve to maintain the
contagion.
It is well to bear in mind the possi-
bility of the disease being conveyed be-
tween neighbouring farms by individuals,
or the interchange of any commodity
that has been in contact with the virus.
We have known of cases where this
seemed the only possible way by which
the disease could have been communi-
cated.
In this country contagious abortion
has not yet been scheduled as a con-
tagious disease, but in Norway this has
been done since 1894, owners there being
required to notify the existence of the
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE INQUIRY INTO EPIZOOTIC ABORTION. 337
disease in their herds. The restrictions
in Norway are not severe, but the notifi-
cation serves to warn probable buyers
against the risk incurred by purchase.
• Professor Bang has been experimenting
with a view to finding a means of confer-
ring immunity on animals by inocula-
tion, and not without obtaining consider-
ably encouragement, but up to 1908 had
not found any practicable method which
could be of general application.
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE INQUIRY
INTO EPIZOOTIC ABORTION.
In 1905 the President of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries appointed a
Departmental Committee to "inquire,
by means of experimental investigation
and otherwise, into the pathology and
etiology of Epizootic Abortion, and to
consider whether any, and if so, what,
preventive and remedial measures may
with advantage be adopted with respect
to that disease." The investigations
were begun on temporary premises, and
were continued later on a small experi-
mental farm which has been leased by
the Board and equipped as a veterinary
laboratory. A very considerable amount
of experimental and bacteriological work
was performed for the Committee by Sir
"?ohn M'Fadyean of the Roy^l Veterinary
College, London, and Mr Stockman, chief
veterinary officer of the Board of Agri-
culture and Fisheries, and the results
are embodied in the Committee's Report.
The first part dealing with tl^ disease in
bovine animals was issued along with
an appendix giving the work in detail in
June 1909.
Microbe of Cattle Abortion.
The most definite and important an-
nouncement in the first Report is that of
the discovery of the microbe of abortion
in cattle in Great Britain. Abortion
was experimentally induced in cows,
ewes, goats, bitches, and guinea-pigs, by
introducing into their bodies the microbe
found in the uterine exudate of cows that
had aborted ; but although other species
may be experimentally infected in the
laboratory, the Committee do not think
that they are likely to become infected
with bovine abortion in practice except
as the result of gross carelessness in the
disposal of infected material, and so the
conclusion is that "bovine abortion is
primarily a disease of cattle."
The bacilli of cattle abortion which
proved to be the cause of abortion in
cows in these researches are small oval
rods, differing in several respects from
the abortion bacillus found by Bang in
his Danish experiments. But, while the
bacillus isolated in England differs in so
many material ways from that described
in Denmark, the investigations estab-
lished by exhaustive and laborious studies,
that the apparent differences arose from
a faulty and incomplete study of the
biological characters of the bacillus in
Denmark, and instead of coining a new
name for the bacillus isolated in England
the Committee magnanimously suggest
that it should be known as "Bang's
Bacillus pf Cattle Abortion." The Eng-
lish bacillus is non-motil^, and is an aerobe
— that is, it requires oxygen for its de-
velopment. It can be cultivated on
various substances, such as agar-gelatine-
broth-serum, agar, potato, milk, &c. It
grows best at temperatures between 30°
and 37° C.
Tests made as to the temperature
necessary to destroy the vitality of the
bacillus of cattle abortion showed that it
was not destroyed at a temperature of
55° C. maintained for an hour in the
stove, but that after two hours at the
same temperature its vitality was de-
stroyed. When it was kept 10 minutes
in water at a temperature of 55° C. it
retained its vitality, but when kept in
water for 10 minutes at a temperature
between 59° and 61° C. its vitality was
destroyed. The comparatively low tem-
perature at which its vitality is destroyed
promises well for the disinfecting effects
of the homely bucket of boiling-water.
Microbe of Sheep Abortion. — In
regard to abortion in sheep, the Report
states that while the bacillus of cattle abor-
tion can experimentally cause abortion in
ewes, it was never found in the mem-
branes of ewes aborting in the field : " a
totally different microbe — a vibrio — has
repeatedly been isolated from outbreaks
of abortion in ewes, and has been success-
fully employed at the laboratory to ex-
perimentally infect other ewes pregnant
338
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
fbr the first time. Pregnant cows, how-
ever, cannot be infected with this vibri-
onic abortion of ewes."
Methods of Infection.
The Keport states that for experi-
mental purposes the inost certain method
of infecting an animal with abortion is
to inoculate natural virulent material or
active cultures into the blood stream.
As to natural methods of infection, the
virulent material may gaift access to the
preghant uterus by tie vagina and by the
mouth. The Committee do not regard
infection by the vagina as likely to ^fery
often happen, but are inclined to believe
that the disease is more frequently con-
tracted by the mouth than in any other
way.
The risks of infection being carried by
the bull from one cow to another are
regarded as comparatively slight, the
Committee stating that "without deny-
ing that the disease may be spread by
coition, we think that nothing more than
a quite subsidiary r6le in the spread of
epizootic abortion can now be assigned
to the bull."
One of the most insidiOuS vfrays of
spreading abortion is the introduetion
into clean herds Of in-calf cows affected
with the disease, and it is difficult to
guard against this risk, for it is impos-
sible for the ordinary individual to say
whether a pregnant animal is affected or
not, but in the iSection dealing with
diagnosis the Committee hold out hope
that one Or other of the new methods
they have elaborated fOt diagnosing the
disease in cows before abortion occurs
may eventually solve this difficulty.
Cows which have aborted are, of
course, a dangerous source of infection.
The materials expelled from the uterus
of an infected cow in the act of abortion
are all virulent, for they contain the
microbe, and so also will the discharge
from the genital organs for a varying
time after abortion. It is still uncer-
tain how long virulent material may re-
main infective after leaving the animal,
but if kept fluid and free from putrefac-
tion it may remain virulent for seven
months or even more. This significant
consideration increases the importance
of careful attention being given to the
thorough disinfection or destruction of
all materials in connection with abort-
ing cows.
The COinmittee are not of opinion that
many cases of abortion arise from any
other cause than infection. They add :
"We do not deny that odd cases of
abortion itay arise from accident or
poisoning by such substances as lead,
but we have no hesitation in stating that
we believe gg per cent at least of the
outbreaks of cattle abortion which as-
sume epizootic characters are due to
infection by the bacillus of cattle abor-
tion, and that the fact of a cow having
aborted on premises formerly believed to
'be clean is a sufficient reason for suspect-
ing that the disease has been introduced."
They add to, this the important state-
ment that there is no difficulty in diag-
nosing the bacterial disease once an
animal has aborted, if an examination
of the foetal membranes be made at an
early date after abortion.
Ifm/m/anibatidn of Ariimdls.
The investigations have not brought
out any evidence that could be regarded
as showing that natural immunity from
the abortion bacillus is possessed by any
individuals of the boviae species. Qn
the other hand, it has been found that
there are serious obstacles in the way
to a practical success by the use of a
protective serum. The protection de-
rivable even from potent serum cannot
be depended upon to last more than 2
or 3 weeks, and as the period of the
risk of infection extends over at least
7}^ months of pregnancy in cows, it is
at once sefen that it would neither be
practicable nor economically possible to
give the ordinary cow a sufficient number
of doses of a rather expensive serum to
protect her from infection during that
long period. The idea of hyper-immun-
ising animals for the production of serum
was therefore abandoned.
Inoculation with Pure Cultures
for the Production of Immunity. —
The Eeport proceeds : " The most hope-
ful line of inquiry seemed to be the
production of immunity by inoculation
of large doses of pure culture. One of
the great objections to the protective
inoculation methods in practice is the
number of operations necessary to ensure
protection. But owing to the harmless-
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE INQUIRY INTO EPIZOOTIC ABORTION. 339
ness of large quantities of pure cultures
of the abortion bacillus when injected
into non- pregnant animals, it seemed
possible that whatever degree of im-
munity could be established by a prac-
ticable number of small doses might be
conveyed by inoculating one large dose."
Trials with pure cultures of the bovine
abortion bacillus were therefore made
with ewes and heifers, the animals being
inoculated about 60 to 148 days before
becoming pregnant. The results with
sheep were so irregular as to be regarded
as of little or no practical value, and
these trials were discontinued. With,
heifers the results were more encourag-
ing. Two heifers were inoculated with
a rich liquid culture of the bacillus, the
one 148 days and the other 106 days
before becoming pregnant. The former
heifer, 40 days after becoming pregnant,
was inoculated intravenously with 10 c.c.
of a dense emulsion of virulent uterine
exudate, yet when killed 112 days there-
after she was found free from infection.
The immunity of the other heifer " was
tested by giving her enormous doses of
virulent exudate both by the mouth and
the vagina 36 days after becoming preg-
nant and 142 days after immunisation,
and 16 days later she received 10 c.c.
of a dense emulsion of a virulent ex-
udate into the jugular vein. She was
killed and found free from infection
122 days after receiving the first in-
fecting dose."
These results with heifers, says the
Report, "are all the more encouraging
when one remembers that not a single
negative result followed the intravenous
inoculation of unprotected heifers with
uterine exudate, and it should be noted
also that the tests applied were in point
of severity far beyond anything likely to
be met with in practice." In addition
to the above experiments, they show by
infecting experiments on animals which
have aborted that these may be abso-
lutely immune to the disease at their
next pregnancy.
Curative Measures.
The Report discusses the various
methods which have hitherto been most
largely used for the prevention and
eradication of abortion, and which have
already been described, the comment
being that it cannot be said " that either
singly or collectively they have brought
about any material improvement in the
general condition of our herds in relation
to abortion."
The spraying of the external genital
organs and hind quarters of cows with
disinfectant solutions is regarded- as Use-
less "so long as the animals remain in
an infected byre."
As to the isolation of animals as soon
as they show signs of abortion, it is
remarked that the necessity for this
measure is obvious, and cannot be too
much insisted upon. "Isolation of the
affected animals, however, must be com-
plete immediately before and after the
act to be of any real value," and the
Report indicates possible methods of ac-
complishing this.
Carbolic acid and other antiseptics are
regarded as useless as curative agents,
and " as a preventive agent by internal
administration we believe carbolic acid
to be equally useless," an opinion which
is supported by direct experiment.
The irrigation of the genital passages
of animals which have aborted with
antiseptic solutions is recommended,
"but not on the grounds that the
injections will disinfect the uterus. We
are of opinion that it will seldom be
necessary to continue the injections for
more than a month, and that after three
months there should be small risk in
putting the cow to the bull, provided
she is afterwards protected against fresh
infection."
Cows which have aborted should not
be sold except for slaughter till they
have ceased to discharge. The Report
states that cows which have once aborted
are, as a rule, less liable to infection
during a subsequent pregnancy than if
they had not before aborted, — are in-
deed often absolutely immune, though
it is known that a considerable number
of cows abort twice in succession. The
Committee consider "that on infected
premises the animals which have already
aborted are to be loolied upon as valu-
able assets for purposes of eradication,
— much more valuable than new and sus-
ceptible animals brought in. We findj
however, that a small proportion of those
which have aborted will not hold to
the bull for an indefinite period after
340
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
abortion, and it may be found better
to fatten off such animals, unless they
are of high value."
The keeping of a goat amongst cows
as a preventive against abortion is stig-
matised in the Keport as the product of
"ignorant superstition."
Very properly the Committee speak
with reserve as to the part which pre-
ventive inoculation is likely to play in
the combat with abortion in the field,
but the Keport would seem to hold
out good hope for the future in this
direction.
The Board of Agriculture and Fish-
eries is to be congratulated upon the
success of the initial stage of this im-
portant and interesting investigation.
MILKING COWS.
The milking of cows is a process that
demands greater care and skill than most
people realise. The peculiar variations
in the milk-yield of cows is due more
frequently to imperfect milking than is
generally believed. Too much care can-
not be given to the operation.
The Udder. — The udder should be
capacious, though not too large for the
size of the cow. It should be nearly
spherical in form. The skin should be
thin, loose, and free from lumps, filled
up in the fore part of the udder, but
hanging ip folds in the hind part.
Each quarter should contain about equal
quantities of milk, though sometimes
the hind ones yield the most.
The teats should be at equal distances
every way, neither too long nor too short,
but of moderate size, and equal in thick-
ness from the udder to the point. When
the teat is too long and inclined to taper
at the point, it is invariably tough to
milk. A medium-sized teat, from 2}^
to 2j^ inches long, is considered the
most desirable and most easily milked.
On the other hand, nothing is more ob-
jectionable than too small teats. The
teats should be smooth, and feel like
velvet, firm yet soft to handle, not hard
or leathery. They should yield the milk
freely, and not require to be forcibly
pulled.
When the milk is first to be taken from
the cow after calving, the points of the
teats will be found plugged up with a
resinous substance, which, in some in-
stances, requires the exertion of some
force before it will yield.
Milking Period. — Cows differ much
in the time they continue to milk with-
out again bearing a calf, some not con-
tinuing to yield it more than 9 months,
others for years. The usual time for
'COWS that bear calves to give milk is
10 months. Many remarkable instances
of cows giving milk for a long time are
on record.
Hours of Milking. — The hours of
, milking vary in different parts of the
country. On small farms, where the
milk produced is required for consump-
tion on the holding, the cows are often
milked three times daily — morning, noon,
and evening. In the great majority, jof
dairy herds the milking takes place
twice daily — early in the morning, and in
the evening or late in the afternoon.
The precise hours vary according to local
habit, which is regulated mainly by the
use made of the milk. Where the milk
has to be sent long distances to market
the morning milking takes place from
3 A.M. onwards, and the afternoon milk-
ing from 4 P.M. onwarda More general
hours are from 5 to 6 a.m. and 5 to
6 P.M.
Hours of Milking and Percentage
of Butter-fat. — Careful observation has
shown that the tendency of the evening's
milk to be richer than the morning's
milk in butter-fat is partly due to the
fact that the interval between the
evening and morning hours of milking
is usually longer than the interval be-
tween the morning and evening hours
of milking. The discovery of this has
led to the intervals being more nearly
equalised. Why the differences in the
intervals should have this effect is a
problem that still awaits solution.
Milk-pails. — ^The vessel used for re-
ceiving the milk from the cow was at
one time mostly made of thin oak staves
bound together with thin galvanised
hoops, but the pail now most generally
in use on all properly conducted dairy-
farms is made of tinned iron or tin, and
is preferable for cleanliness and light-
ness. This pail should be 3 to 4 inches
wider at the mouth than the bottom, and
when placed between the milker's knees
MILKING COWS.
341
should be deeper at the under side in
order to prevent spilling of the milk
when held in a slanting position. * The
pail should be large enough to contain
all the milk that a cow will give at a
milking without becoming quite full. It
is undesirable to annoy the cow by rising
from her before the milking is finished,
or by exchanging one pail for another.
The milking - stool, as in fig. 744, is
made of wood, to stand 9 inches in height,
or any other height to suit the conveni-
ence of the milker, with the top 9 inches
in diameter, and the legs a little spread
out below to give the stool stability.
Some milkers do not care to have a
stool, and prefer sitting on their
Fig. Tifi,,^~Milking'Stool.
haunches; but a stool keeps the body
steady, and the arms have more freedom
to act, particularly to prevent accidents
to the milk in case of disturbance by
the cow.
Cov(rs holding back Milk. — The
holding back of milk is a curious pro-
perty which cows possess. How it is
effected is not very well understood, but
there is no doubt of the fact occurring
when a cow becomes irritated or fright-
ened by any cause. Cows should there-
fore at all times be treated gently, and
neither struck nor shouted at. The cow
will yield more milk to the skilled
milker than to an unskilled person, who
may tug and pull the teats instead of
gently squeezing them. Not all are
affected to the same degree; but, as a
proof of their extreme sensitiveness in
this respect, it may be mentioned that
very few can be milked so freely by a
stranger as by one to whom they have
been accustomed.
The Milking Side. — Usually, the
near side of the cow is taken for milk-
ing, and it is called the milking side.
Some think cows should always be
milked on the same side, but in many
dairies where the cows are stalled in
pairs the milker steps up between the
cows and milks the one from the left side
and then turns round and milks the
other from the right side. This practice
is to be commended. It is rare to see
a cow milked in Scotland by a man,
and women as rarely do the milking in
England.
The Operation of Milking. — Milking
is performed in two ways, stripping and
nievling. Stripping consists of seizing
the teat firmly near the root between the
front of the thumb and the side of the
forefinger, the length of the teat lying
along the other fingers, and of pressing
the finger and thumb while passing them
down the entire length of the teat, and
causing the milk to flow out of its point
in a forcible stream. The action is' re-
newed by again quickly elevating the
hand to the root of the teat. Both
hands are employed at the operation,
each having hold of a different teat, and
moving alternately. The two nearest
teats, the fore and hind, are first milked,
and then the two farthest. In the case
of cows with properly sized teats strip-
ping should be resorted to only at the
finish of milking in order to draw out
the last drops.
Nievling is done by grasping the teat
with the whole hand, ov fist, making the
sides of the forefinger and thumb press
upon the teat more strongly than the
other fingers, when the milk flows by the
pressure. Both hands are employed, and
are made • to press alternately, but so
quickly in succession that the alternate
streams of milk sound on the ear like
one forcibly continued stream ; and al-
though stripping also causes a continued
flow, the nievling, not requiring the hands
to change their position, as stripping does,
draws away a large quantity of milk in
the same time.
Thus stripping is performed by press-
ing and passing certain fingers along
the teat, and nievling by the doubled
fist pressing the teat steadily at one
place.
Of the two modes the nievling ' is
preferable, because it is more like the
sucking of a calf. When a calf takes
a teat into its mouth, it seizes it with
342
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
the tongue against the palate, causing
them to play upon the teat by alternate
pressures or pulsations, while retaining
it in the same position. Nievling does
this : the action of stripping is quite
different.
Milking should be done fait, to draw-
away the nlilk as quickly as possible;
and it should be continued as long as
there is a drop of milk to bring away.
An Improved System of Milking.
An improved system of milking was
introduced into Denmark by Mr Hage-
lund, an eminent veterinary surgeon. It
is claimed for this system that not only
is an increased flow of milk obtained
but a slight . increase of butter - fat as
well. - The process consists of manipulat-
ing or massaging the udder in a special
way, first by rubbing gently with a dry
cloth, this process not only cleaning' the
udder but tending to bring down the
milk into the teats; next, by milking
slowly at first the two front 'teats and
then the two rear ones alternately until
all is drawn that will come in this way.
The udder is then manipulated in the
following manner : —
First. — The right quarters of the udder
are pressed together by placing the left
hand on the hind quarter and the right
hand in front of the fore quarter, the
thumbs being placed on the outside of
the udder and the four fingers between
the two divisions of the udder. The
hands are now pressed towards each
other, and at the same time lifted to-
wards the body of the cow. The press-
ing and lifting are repeated three times,
the milk collected in the milk-ducts is
then drawn out, and the manipulation
repeated until no more milk is obtained,
when the left quarters are treated in
similar manner.
Second. — The glands are pressed to-
gether from the side. The fore quarters
are milked each by itself by placing one
hand with the fingers spread on the out-
side of the quarter, and the other hand
in the division between the right and
left fore quarters ; the hands are pressed
against each other, and the teat then
nulked. When no more milk is obtained
by this manipulation the hind quarters
are milked by placing a hand on the
outside of each quarter, likewise with
fingers spread and turned upward, but
with the thumb just in front of the
hind 'quarter. The hands are lifted
and pressed into the gland from be-
hind and from the side, after which
they are low^ed to draw the -milk.
This manipulation is repeated till no
more milk is obtained.
Tki/rd, — The fore teats are grasped
with partly closed hands and lifted with
a push towards the body of the cow,
both at the same time, by which method
the glands are pressed between the hands
and the co*'s body. This is repeated
three times, and the teats are then
stripped dry. When the fore teats are
emptied the hind ones are treated in a
similar manner.
The process thus described may seem
elaborate and intricate, but in actual
practice it is quite simple, and cows in
full milk can be milked by an expert
milker in from six to eight minutes.
It had long been known by observant
dairymen that the flow of milk from a
cow may be increased by gentle manip-
ulation of the udder : indeed all skilled
milkers have in the past been in the
habit of bringing the hand gently round
the udder before commencing to milk,
but no systematised method had been
adopted or published till it was adopted
in Denmark. Now it is being largely
practised at Scandinavian dairy farms
and in the United States of America.
MUhmg-Machines.
During the closing decade of the nine-
teenth and the opening decade of the
twentieth century quite a number of
milking-machines have been put on the
market, the inventors claiming that each
in turn had solved the milking problem.
In many cases where dairy farmers
had fitted up expensive machines it was
found that whilst they milked fairly
satisfactorily when the cows were in full
milk, the operation was less efficient
when the cows were drying off, and in
many cases hand -milking was again re-
sorted to. In other cases, the machine
was dispensed with on account of the
keeping properties of the milk being
impaired.
Two Scottish milking-machines — the
Lawrence - Kennedy and the Wallace —
have . stood the test of practice better
MILKING COWS.
343
than the earlier inventions^ and a good
many farmers both in this country and
abroad are using them with a fair measure
of success.
These two machines are similar in
their main features, both working on the
suction principle. By means of an ex-
haust pump a vacuum is created in a
system of piping which is attached to
the cow's teats by rubber cup and which
leads into sealed milk-pails : ingenious
contrivances impart to the teat-cups a
pulsating movement which closely re-
sembles the sucking action of the calf,
and in this way the milk is drawn
from the cow. Fig. 745 represents the
teat-Clips and milk-pail of the machine
made by J. & R. Wallacej Castle-Douglas.
A simpler appliance is the self-acting
milker. In this system the milk flows by
gravitation through perforated siphons
inserted into the teats. This method,
however, is rarely used except in the case
of sore teats or udder.
Spaying Cows.
The spaying of cows has sometimes
been practised to secure the permanency
of milk without continued calf-bearing.
The operation of spaying a cow, which is
Fig, 745. — Wallaces Tnilking-Tnacldne — Teat-cups and milk-pail.
performed some time after calving, con-
sists in cutting into the flank of the cow, ,
and, by the introduction of the hand,
destroying the ovaries of the womb. The
cow must have acquired her full stature,
so that it may be performed at any age
after 4 years. She should be at the
flush of her milk, as the future quantity
yielded depends on that which is afforded
by her at the time of the operation. The
operation may be performed in ten days
after calving, but the best time appears
to be 3 or 4 weeks after. The cow should
be in robust health, otherwise the opera-
tion may kill her or dry up the milk.
The only preparation required for safety
in the operation is, that the cow should
fast 12 or 14 hours, and the milk be
taken away immediately before the
operation.
* The wound heals in a fortnight or
three weeks. For two or three days after
the operation the milk may diminish in
quantity; but it regains its measure in
about a week, and continues in full flow
for the remainder of the animal's life,
or as long as the age of the animal
permits the secretion of the fluid, unless
from some accidental circumstance —
such as an attack of a severe disease —
it is stopped. But even then the animal
may easily be fattened.
Advantages of Spaying. — The ad-
vantages of spaying are : " i. Rendering
344
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CAEVES.
permanent the secretion of milk, and hav-
ing a much greater quantity within the
given time of every year. 2. The quality
of the milk being improved. 3. The un-
certainty of, and the dangers incidental
to, breeding, being to a great extent
avoided. 4. The increased disposition to
fatten, even when giving milk, or when,
from excess of age, or from accidental
circumstances, the secretion of milk is
checked ; also the very short time re-
quired for the attainment of marketable
condition. 5. The meat of spayed cattle
being of a quality superior to that of ordi-
nary cattle." ^ With these advantages
breeders of stock can have nothing to
do ; but since the operation is said to be
quite safe in its results, it may attract
the notice of cowfeeders in town.
FEEDING OF COWS.
In the feeding as in the general treat-
ment of cows, practice varies greatly.'
The conditions which most largely reg-
ulate these variations are, the class or
breed of cows, the purposes for which
they are kept, the locality, and general
systems of farming pursued.
Dairy Herds.
A^ would be expected, where dairying
is the sole or dominant feature in the
system of farming, the cows are fed and
managed diflferently from what they are
in mixed farming, where cows are kept
chiefly to breed and rear calves, and pro-
vide milk and butter to the farmer's
household. Again, even within the
limits of dairjdng itself, there are dis-
tinctive conditions which induce different
methods of feeding. Where the main
object is the production of milk for dis-
posal as milk, the feeding differs — un-
fortunately, sometimes differs too much
for the quality of the milk — from that
considered best for butter -production.
Then surrounding circumstances, such as
the varieties of food which may be most
easily and most cheaply grown or pro-
cured, also tend to regulate and modify
the systems of feeding ; while it is well
known that food which does well with
one lot of cows is often less acceptable
' Ferguson's Distent, among Cat., 29-36.
and profitable as food for others. Thus
it becomes manifest that there are good
reasons for great variations in the sys-
tems of feeding cows.
Begarding the details of the systems
of feeding cows pursued in dairy herds
throughout the country little need be
said here. Information on the subject
is already given in the sections of this
volume dealing with the management of
pure breeds. The exceptionally bounti-
ful methods of feeding pursued in the
herds of Ayrshire cows are described
in pages 114 and 115 of this volume.
Of the detailed systems followed in
herds of Jersey and Guernsey cattle,
particulars will be found in pages 132
and 134. A typical system in dairy
herds of Shorthorn and Shorthorn crosses
is indicated at page 93, and the highly
successful method of feeding puriBued by
Mr John Evens in his famous milking
herd of Lincolnshire Eed Shorthorns is
described at page 96.
Kegulating Food by Yield of Milk.
— There are few points of greater import-
ance in connection with the management
of cows than that of maintaining the
proper relation between the allowance of
food and the production of milk. For-
tunately a good deal of attention has
bee;i given to the investigation of this
aspect of the question in recent years,
and, generally speaking, the feeding of
dairy cows is now carried on upon much
more economic lines than till weUnigh
the close of the nineteenth century.
Typical Bations. — The typical rations
noted below are arranged in relation both
to the weight of the cows and the
quantity of milk they are yielding. They
are based on experience gained in trials
conducted in connection with the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.^
No. 1. — Bationfor cows giving i8j^ lb, ofmUk
(roughly if gallon) per day.
Quantities for cows 9 cwt. live-weight and
giving 16% lb. of milk daily are given within
brackets.
39 lb. swedes or 52 lb. yellow turnips (35 lb.
or 47 lb.)
ig lb. oat-straw (17 lb.)
4^ lb. decorticated cotton-cake (4^ lb. )
Roughly speaking, I lb. less of decorticated
cotton-cake might be given if the yield is
I2j^ lb. of milk daily instead of 18^ lb. dafly.
' Jour. Board of Agric., March 1 909.
FEEDING OF COWS.
345
No. 2. — Sation for cows giving 30j^ lb. of milk
{roughly 3 gaUom) per day.
Quantities for cows 9 owt. live-weight and
giving 27^ lb. of milk daily are given within
brackets.
46}4 lb. swedes or 62 lb. yellow turnips
(42 lb. or 56 lb.)
19 lb. oat-straw (17 lb.)
6% lb. decorticated cotton-cake (6 lb. )
4}4 lb. undecorticated cotton-cake (4 lb.)
No. 3. — As for No. 2, toith hay instead of
oat straw.
Quantities for cows g cwt. live-weight and
giving 27^ lb. of milk daily are given within
brackets.
H6}4 lb. swedes or 62 lb. yellow turnips (42
lb. or 56 lb.)
19 lb. meadow-hay (17 lb.)
5 lb. decorticated cotton-cake (4^ lb. )
3f lb. Indian cotton-cake (3^ lb.)
Heavy milkers, giving about 4 gallons
of milk daily, should have all the foods
of the best quality possible, and might
be given either of the following addi-
tions to Kation No. 3 : —
10 cwt. live-weight, dried off previous to
calving, would probably do well with
either of the following rations. The
quantities for cows of 9 cwt. live-
weight are given within brackets.
No. I. — 39 lb. swedes or 52 lb. yellow turnips
(35 lb. or 47 lb.)
19 lb. oat-straw (17 lb.)
2^ lb. maize-meal (2^ lb.)
2}4 lb. decorticated cotton - cake
(2X lb-)
No. 2. — 39 lb. swedes or 52 lb. yellow turnips
(35 lb. or 47 lb.)
19 lb. meadow-hay (17 lb.)
zU lb. maize-meal (2 lb.)
2/7 lb. decorticated cotton-cake
CA lb.)
The following are the winter rations
given to cows in four dairy herds in
Scotland, the cows in herd No. 4 being
Shorthorns or Shorthorn crosses, and in
the others mostly Ayrshires : ' —
2 lb. seeds hay
2 lb. linseed-cake
I lb. maize-meal
}or{;
2 lb. linseed-cake.
2)4 lb. maize-meal.
Eation No. i might also have hay
substituted for oat-straw, and if so the
decorticated cotton-cake could be reduced
by about 2 lb. daily. This, however, is
not quite an exact equivalent. In any
of these rations the roots can be con-
siderably reduced if desired and a substi-
tute used.
Bations for Dry Cows.
Cows giving reduced quantities of
milk as the lactation period progresses
should have the concentrated food given
to them lessened ; but cows that are
heavy milkers and have become lowered
in condition, owing to their heavy milk
yields, mUst not have the food re-
stricted too greatly, but must be allowed
to regain condition before coming to the
next calving.
For cows that are to be fattened off at
the close of their milking periods, the
ration should not be reduced as indicated
above, but should be gradually altered as
the flow of milk decreases to that suit-
able for fattening animals. Cows of
Herd No. i.
Per cow
per day.
Turnips (yellow) or mangels
43 lb-
Straw (oat)
9% „
Hay (Italian and clover) .
(>% „
Meals (bean, pea, rice and dec
cotton-cake) .
8 „
Bran ....
I'A ..
Treacle ....
yz „
Distillers' grains or draff (wet)
10 „
The roots are fed whole, mid-forenoon
and afternoon, and the meals three times
daily. A portion of the straw is cut
long and mixed in the cooler with the
meals and draff for each lot of animals.
This is done immediately the cows have
been fed. Hot water is then run on the
mass in sufficient quantity to thoroughly
wet it, the whole being left lying in this
condition till next feeding-time, when it
is fed at about blood-heat. There is
always plenty of the coarsest of the
straw left uneaten to sufficiently litter
the animals.
Herd No. z. Per cow
per day.
Turnips or mangolds (raw) . 40 lb.
(Some of these are steamed. )
Hay II „
Corn, chaff, or cut strJw . . 2% u
Bean-meal .... 3^ „
Undeo. cotton-cake . . . 3 u
' Trans. High and Agric, Soc, 1909.
346
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
Hebd TSo. 3.
Turnips .
Straw
Hay
BeanTiueal
Bibby dairy meal
Bran
Treacle .
Herd No, 4,
Turnips ....
Straw ....
Pease-meal
Compound cake
Dried breipers' grains
Cummins (barley sprouts)
Per cow
per day.
28 lb.
7 „
4 ,,
4 ,.
3 , »
^H „
1 »
Per cow
per day.
78 lb.
24 ■■ „
3 >.
2^ „
2 „
2'A „
Dairy Cows in Summer. — Little
need be said as to the feeding of cows
in summer. They are kept mainly on
pasture, sometimes getting allowances
of concentrated food accordilig' to the
supply and quality of the pasture, the
condition ,of the cows, and the quan-
tity of milk they are giving. Recent
trials have indicated that on reason-
ably good pastures cows rarely give a
sufficiently increased yield of milk to
pay for extra food.
Feeding Dry and Breeding Cows. —
This point is also dealt with in the sec-
tions relating to breeds of pure-brpd
cattle. The fgregoing notes relate in?.inly
to the feeding of cows where the produc-
tion of milk is the chief, or at ^ny rate a
specially important, consideration, and
where, on this account, the cows are fed
with such quantities and qualities of
food as are calculated to stimulate and
maintain a bountiful flow of milk. In
herd's in which the yield of milk is a
secoijd.ary consideration, the systems of
feeding are somewhat difierent, and, as
a rule, the rations are arranged upon a
niore moderate scale.
Then, in 9,11 cases, cAws are fed ijaore
sparingly when not giving milk. By far
the most general practice is to f3e4 dry
cows upon oat-straw or hay and turnips
or mangels. Formerly turnips were given
to cows much too freely. Large meals
of cold watery turnips are positively in-
jurious to cows that are heavy in calf ;
and in all respects it is better practice
to feed roots sparingly to cows. About
50 or 60 lb. of roots per day, given in
two meals, are now very general quan-
tities in well-managed herds, and with
plenty of good sound fodder, either
oat -straw or hay, or both, the cows
should thrive we}! and sustain no harm.
Many stiU give larger quantities of
turnips, but dry cows may be kept in
good condition with even less than 40
lb. of roots, as is often the case where
the pulping system is pursued, or where
recourse is had to warm mashes com-
posed of cheap food, largely of chopped
hay, straw, chaff, and perhaps a few
roots.
In England dry cows are usually kept
on hay, straw, and turnips or mangels,
and in many cases they receive no
roots of any kind. With plenty of good '
hay, a run out daily — in fine weather,
of course, — free access to water, and
perhaps a small allowance of bran or
some other cheap food, they thrive
fairly well.
It is not a good plan, however, to let
cows get low in condition, and this is
sometimes allowed to happen by too
poor feeding when they are wholly or
partially dry.
EFFECTS OF VENTILATION AND
TEMPERATURE ON MILK- YIELD.
The extent to which milk-yield may
be affeeted by variations in the tempera-
ture in which cows are kept has long
been an open question. The opinion
has been widely held that in the winter
months in this country it was only by
keeping cows moderately warm that the
maximum yield of milk would be ob-
tained. It has also been extensively
believed that if the temperature of a
byre were allowed to fall to say 40° F.,
or loiriir, there would in consequraice be
a marked decline in milk -yield from
cows kept in that byre. But "while
these have hitherto been the prevailing
views, a few dairy farmers of an inquir-
ing tarn of mind began, towards the end
of the last century, to doubt whether
those views were well founded.
Uxpei-iments with Pows.
In 1907 the subject was brought before
the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland by Mr John Speir, Newton,
■ Glasgow, and it was resolved to conduct
a series of experiments in the hope of
EFFECTS OF VENTILATION AND TEMPEEATUEE ON MILK- YIELD. 347
solyifig the problem. In the winter and
spring of 1908-9 two similar lots of cows
at five farms in different parts of Soqt-
land were fed and housed alike, except
that the byre containing one lot was
freely ventilated in all weathers, so that
its air, whigh was relatively pure, was
kept comparatively cool, and that in
the other ,byre the ventilation was so
restricted that the temperature was
miaintained at about summer temperature.
It was intended to have a difference of
about 10° P. between the temperatures
of the two byres. This was very nearly
attained, the general average for the
whole period of the experiments — 18
weeks — being 49.82° in the freely-venti-
lated byres and 59.40° in the byres with
restricted ventilation.
The results obtained, which are ex-
tremely interesting, are reported fully in
the Transactions of the Society for 1909.1
The following table gives a summary of
the yield by the two lots of cows ; —
YIELD OF MILK IN FREE VERSUS RESTRICTED VENTILATION.
For 18 Weeks— From 23ND November 1908 to 27TH March 1909.
Farm.
No. or
cows
in
each
lot
in "A"
.^and
"B."
"A"— Free Vehtilatiok; | " B "—Restricted Ventilation.
3
1°
2 g s
3
1'
s-§s
i
1°
is
Newton
Woodilee .
Criohton
Hartwood .
*RossIynlee .
18
10
8
8
6
60,302.5
29,242.7
25,811.0
^o,soao
12,466.0
26.6
24.6
27.0
32-5
30.2
1%
3-66
3-33
3-82
49-35
52.24
50.50
47.87
48.92
59,453-6
29,011.5
26,055.5
3J, 627.0
11,185.5
26.1
24.4
27.4
33-7
27.1
3-59
3-27
4.58
3-44
3-43
60.81
60.57
5940
56.00
57-53
Total .
100
158,322.2
157,333-1
Average milk per cow per
day for the whole period
27-5
3- 55
27-3
3-49
Difference
989.1
.2
.06
Average temperature in proportion to the cows
49.82
59.40
Difference
9.58
...
■ For 10 weeks only.
It is thus seen that the popular belief
in the advantage for milk production of
a warm temperature as attained by re-
stricted ventilation was not supported by
these experiments. In the total yields
of milk of the two lots of 50 each in
eighteen weeks there was a differ^ice oi
only about 100 gallons — less than j^ lb.
of milk per cow per day. In other
wrords, cows kept in an average tempera-
ture of 49.82° F. gave slightly more milk
per day over a period of eighteen weeks
than cows kept in an average tempera-
ture of 59.40° F.
It will be observed that in percentage
of butter-fat in the milk, the advantage
lies also on the side of free ventilation,
the averages being 3.55 and 3.49 per cent.
Even more remarkable than the re-
sults, as seen in the general averages for
the whole period, are the records of the
' Tram. High, and Agric. Soc. of SeoUamd, ,
fifth ser., vol. xi., 1909.
348
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
yields of milk obtained in two periods of
exceptionally cold weather that occurred
in the course of the experiments. In the
first cold period (four days in December)
the average temperature of the cold byres
was 41.2° F., and the average yield of
milk per cow, 29.0 lb. per day. In the
same byres the average temperature for
the four days before and the four days
after the cold period was 53.76° F., and
the average yield of milk per cow per
day precisely the same as in the four
cold days, with a lower temperature of
12.56° F. Another cold period occurred
in March,- and the results obtained in it
agree entirely with those of the first cold
period.
General Conclusions.
The most important general conclusions
drawn from these experiments are : —
1. That fresh air is a much more im-
portant factor in the production
of milk in mid-winter than it is
generally considered to be by
milk - producers in .this country.
While most people agree to the
need of fresh air in regard to the
health of the animals, it seems
almost as desirable in mid-winter
if a full supply of healthy milk
is to be produced.
2. In order that the greatest advan-
tage may be derived from the
fresh air, the animals should at
no time have the ventilation re-
stricted in autumn, but should be
kept as cool as possible, so that
they may not only retain all their
hair, but if necessary increase it.
3. There is no difiiculty, much less
impossibility, in producing milk
in freely ventilated byres in the
coldest weather likely to be met
with in this country, if the cows
; are kept sufficiently cool in early
autumn.
4. While the present experiment shows
that rather more milk has been
produced under conditions of free
ventilation than where ventilation
was restricted, it would be in-
judicious, till these results have
been corroborated by other trials,
to consider that this will invari-
ably happen. It is unquestion-
able that the general health of
the cows would be better under
free than under restricted venti-
lation.
5. Milk produced in a building kept
at a high temperature by re-
stricted ventilation, or during a
warm period, does not seem to
be any richer in fat than that
produced at a low temperature
or during cold weather.
6. It seems hopeless to expect to be
able to keep the air of any byre,
no matter how constructed, at
from 60° F. to 63° F. during the
ordinary weatlier of an average
winter without excessive pollution
of the air.
7. Any saving in food which is effected
by keeping the animals at a higher
temperature seems to be equalled,
if not exceeded, by improved
digestion when they have plenty
of fresh air but a lower tem-
perature.
8. There is reason for believing that
those great scourges of the dairy-
man, nmmmitis or weeds and tub-
erculosis, may be considerably re-
duced if cows are kept in freely
ventilated byres in winter.
CALF-EEAEING.
It is only too true that calf-rearing,
the root and the rise of the cattle-
breeding industry, has not received from
the general body of farmers such full
and careful attention as it deserves, or
as it is capable of repaying. It is un-
deniable that the live-stock resources
of the United Kingdom might advan-
tageously be developed to a much greater
extent. The growing importance of live-
stock interests in British agriculture is
manifest to all. In this expansion calf-
rearing must play a leading part. Breed-
ing is of course the starting-point, and
the rearing of the -calf is the first great
step in the progress of the industry.
Aversion of Farmers to Calf-rear-
ing.^^ With many farmers calf-rearing
finds little favour — often, one may ven-
ture to say, for no . better reason than
that it is a troublesome business, de-
manding constant and careful attention.
With skilful and careful management,
CALF-KEARING.
349
calf-rearing, where circumstances are at
all favourable, is almost invariably •re-
munerative. This much, however, it
must have, and it rarely succeeds where
not well conducted. The young animals
must be fed with skill and regularity,
and their health and comfort carefully
attended to in every way. When this
responsible work is left entirely to hired
servants, it may be imperfectly or ir-
regularly performed, with the result that
the calves make unsatisfactory progress,
or perhaps become impaired in health.
The farmer thus loses faith in the benefits
of calf-rearing. He has, perhaps, at last
learned that the cause of the mischief _ is
improper treatment ; but personal super-
visioij, or supervision by some member
of his family or employees in whom con-
fidence could be placed, may be found
*irksome or inconvenient, and thus again
the industry of calf -rearing loses in
favour.
Calf- rearing on Large Farms. —
This demand which calf -rearing makes
upon the careful personal supervision of
the farmer or some member of his family,
is undeniably the main reason why upon
many large farms well suited for breed-
ing, so few calves are brought up. A
little of the blame for this may be laid
at the door of modern social fashion.
Upon a large farm the farmer himself
has many other duties which draw him
away from superintending the feeding
and treatment of calves ; and it is not
the fashion for sons and daughters of
large farmers to give their attention to
such matters. This conception of social
life upon the farm may easily be carried
too far. It is not suggested that the
sons and daughters of men of capital
should be expected to put their hands to
the manual work of calf-rearing. There
is a difference between this, however,
and the superintending of work done by
hired servants. The daughters and sons
of farmers will be none the less ladies
and gentlemen if they make themselves
acquainted with certain details of their
father's business, and assist him in seeing
that these details are carried out with
due care and regularity.
Deficiency of Store Cattle. — The
growth in the breeding of cattle has not
kept pace with the increase in the con-
sumption of beef. The supply of home-
voL. in.
bred store cattle has not been equal to
the demands of the feeders. Farmers
have been complaining of unsatisfactory
,4nancial results from fattening cattle,
and the main difficulty has been the fact
that, on account of deficient supply, store
cattle have been dearer than fat animals
— that feeders have had to pay more
for the lean cattle than the price of beef
would warrant.
Home - breeding, not Importation,
the Semedy. — The proper remedy for
this state of matters is the extension of
home-breeding — assuredly not the im-
portation of foreign lean cattle. Let
that be resorted to only when our own
resources in cattle-breeding have been
developed to the fullest advantageous
extent. We are far short of that limit
yet ; and one would fain hope that until
it is reached the best efforts of our leaders
of agriculture may be directed to the
encouragement of home-breeding rather
than to the devising or providing of
means of increasing the embarrassments
of home-breeders by importing foreign-
bred lean stock.
Bear more Calves. — In any scheme
for increasing the supply of home-bred
store cattle, calf -rearing must play an
important part. We must not only
breed more calves, but we must also rear
more. We should rear all we breed, or
nearly so, and rear them well, too; for
let it ever be kept in view that what an
animal loses with bad treatment as a
calf, it can hardly ever fully recover.
But by rearing well, one does not mean
any sort of extravagant treatment. As
a matter of fact, there is in many cases
room for much greater economy in the
rearing of calves. In connection with
calf-rearing on dairy farms, or wherever
milk can be turned to good account, this
point is of special importance.
Breed longer from Covsrs. — Cows
that prove to be good breeders should be
bred from to a greater age than is the
general rule at present. A custom by
no means uncommon is to buy a cow for
a temporary supply of milk, and fatten
her off when she gets dry. Now this is
a serious loss. Breed from all suitable
cows as long as practicable.
Breeding from Heifers. — From all
heifers that are suitable, whether in-
tended for cows or not, take one, two, or
z
350
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
perhaps even a third' calf. Keep them
well all the while,, letting the calves
suckle ; and if the heifer is not to be
kept for a cow, she may be fattened off
and sold as heifer-beef. The calf or two
will have done her little or no harm in
the butcher's- eye, if only she does not
show the udder of a cow. This will not
often arise when the calves suckle. This
question was put to an extensive sales-
man in the north of England, who replied
that his experience was that two calves
or so in no way spoiled the sale of the
young heifer, if only there were no dis-
play of udder, and if she were plump,
level, and well fattened. He added that
a lot of young heifers never came before
him for sale but he regretted that so
much valuable material was being wasted.
Premature fatting of heifers is really
killing the goose that lays the golden
eggs. In these times farmers cannot
afford such waste as that.
Are Calves ITuisanoeB ? — Unfortu-
. nately not a few dairy farmers look upon
calves as little else than nuisances — as
necessary evils, — something which they
would never wish to have if only they
could without them get cows in milk.
This is a great misfortune, and shows
clearly that while the cry is for more
store stock, there must be something
radically wrong somewhere. The fact
is, calf-rearing is very imperfectly under-
stood.
It is undeniable that dairy farmers, as
well as other farmers in all parts suited
for breeding, would find, in well-con-
ducted calf-rearing, returns which would
amply repay careful treatment and ju-
dicious and liberal feeding. The dairy
farmer may dislike the calf because he
has found it a greedy and bad-paying
customer for its mother's milk. But if
he has done so, he has had himself to
blame. A good calf will well repay a
moderate allowance of its mother's milk
for a short time ; and one would em-
phasise this point, that it is only for a
very short time at the outset that there
is any necessity to give milk — at any
rate, new milk — to calves.
Milk Substitutes. — Scientific research
and commercial enterprise have placed
us in possession of many advantages un-
known to our forefathers. In the simple
matter of calf -rearing much has been
gained in this way. Why, the market
is teeming with cheap milk substitutes ;
and, without going ■the length of aflSrm-
ing that these foods are worthy of all
their energetic vendors say of them, yet
one may unhesitatingly say that, with
substantial advantage to themselves and
the general public, farmers might draw
upon them much more largely than they
have done heretofore. Undoubtedly the
use of these prepared foods is on the in-
crease ; and by a judicious use of them
and other simple natural foods, calf-
rearing might be increased to a very
great extent, both on dairy and mixed
husbandry farms.
Hearing or Selling Calves. — It is
not suggested tlfat all farmers should
rear their calves. It may suit some
better to sell the calves when one, two,
or three weeks old. If the calves are
of a good class they will sell readily
at handsome prices. WhUe it may suit
some to breed calves and sell them young,
it will undoubtedly pay others to adapt
their arrangements specially for rearing.
Instead of keeping large stocks of cows,
they may buy in young calves, arid rear
them partly on milk and other suitable
food. In certain cases these bought-in
stock may be carried on and fattened
when about two years old or less. In
others they may be simply reared, and
sold as lean stock when from ten to
eighteen months old.
Housing Calves.
The comfortable and economical hous-
ing of calves is a matter that demands
careful attention. Calves are either
suckled by their mothers, or brought
up by the hand on milk and other
substances. When they are suckled, if
the byre be roomy enough — say, about
18 feet in width — calves may be tied
up to the wall behind the cows ; or,
what is a less restrictive plan, they
may be put together in large loose-
boxes at the ends of the byre, or in
an adjoining apartment, and let out at
stated times to be suckled.
When brought up by the hand, calves
are put into a suitable apartment, pref-
erably each in a crib to itself, where the
milk is given to them. The advantage
of having calves separate is, that it pre-
vents them, after having had their allow-
CALF-REARING.
351
ance of milk, sucking one another, by
the ears, teats, scrotutn, or navel, by
which malpractice ugly bleitiishes are at
times produced. When a number of
calves are kept together, they should all
be muzzled to prevent this sucking.
Calf- crib. — The crib for* each csilf
should be 4 feet square and 4 feet in
height, sparred with slips of tile -lath,
and have a small Woodeti wicket to
afford access to the calf. The floor Of
the cribs, and the passages between
them, should be paved with Stone, or
laid with asphalt or concrete, though
asphalt and concrete make cold floors
which should be well covered with litter.
Abundance of light should be admitted,
either by windows in the walls or sky-
lights in the roof ; and fresh air is essen-
tial to the health of calves, so that ventila-
tion should be carefully attended to. So
also should the cleaning of the calf-cribs.
The cribs should be regularly cleaned
out ; and it is a good plan to sprinkle
the floors daily *ith» some disinfectant,
such as diluted carbolic acid- — one part
of acid to twenty of water. This will
keep the atmosphere pure and whole-
some, which is very desirable for the
young animals.
The crib should be fitted up with a
manger to contain cut turnips or carrots,
and a high rack for hay, the top of which
should be as much elevated above the
litter as to preclude the possibility of
the calf getting its feet over it.
The general fault in the construction
of calves' houses is the 'want of light and
air — both great essentials; light being
cheerful to animals in confinement, and
air essential to the good health of calves.
When desired, both may be excluded.
Calf-houses are often also too cold. The
walls of the house should be plastered,
to be neat and clean, and should be lime-
washed at least once every year.
In some cases the cribs are so con-
structed that the calf has access, either
at will or when the door of the crib is
opened, to a larger enclosure in which
the young animal can eiercise its limbs.
Care in letting out Calves. — When
the calves are fit to be put out in the
open air, after it becomes mild, they
should be put into a shed for some
nights before being turned out to grass,
and also for some nights when at grass.
When put right out to the open from the
crib they are apt to run about so much
as to get chills, but this risk is lessened
by the calves beitig loose in a shed for a
little time before being put out. The
shed should be fitted up with mangers
for turnips, racks for hay, and a trough
of water.
Calfs First Pood. — The first food
the calf receives is the Westings — the
first milk taken from the cow after
calving. It is of the consistence of the
yolk of an egg, and is an appropriate
food for a young calf. By the time it
gets its first feed, the calf may have
risen to its feet. If not, let it remain
lying, and pour a little of the biestings
into its mouth, introducing a finger or
two with it for the calf to suck, when it
vrill swallow the liquid. Let it get as
much as it is inclined to take. When it
refuses to take more, its mouth should
be cleaned of the biesting that may have
run over.
Composition of Biestings. — The
biestings or first milk after calving
differs considerably in composition from
ordinary milk. It Contains an excep-
tionally large proportion of casein or
cheesy matter, as the following analysis
of ordinary milk and biestings vrill
show : —
Ordinary
Milk.
Biestin
Casein (cheese)
Butter fat
Milk-sugar
Albumen
Ash
Water .
3-30
3-40
4-55
0.60
0.7s
87.4
4-83
3-37
2.48
15-85
1.78
71.69
100.00
100.00
Feeding
Calves.
Reform in Calf - feeding. ^In the
method of feeding calves during the first
few months of their existence, there has
been almost as great a revolution as in
any other branch of farm practice. The
old notion, that at least three months of
feeding upon whole milk as it comes
from the cov^ was necessary for success-
ful calf-rearing, has been exploded. In
many cases, almost entirely in herds of
pflre-bred cattle, the calves still suckle
their dams. But beyond these herds
comparatively little new milk is now
employed in rearing calves, reliance
352
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
being more largely placed upon skim-
milk and milk-substitutes.
The introduction of the cream-separ-
ator led to important improvements in
the system of calf - rearing. Although
bereft of nearly all the butter-fat, separ-
ated milk is usually more wholesome for
calf-rearing than skimmed milk. Separ-
ated milk is fresh and sweet, while in the
case of skimmed milk a certain amount
of change may have taken place which
more than counteracts the advantage of
the additional percentage of butter-fat.
Calf-feeding in Pure-bred Herds.
— The methods of feeding calves pur-
sued in herds of pure -bred cattle are
detailed in the sections of this volume
dealing with these breeds. Nothing
need be added here in regard to pure-
bred calves. The methods, it will be
seen, vary considerably, yet there is a
general agreement in the main features.
Calf- feeding in Ordinary Mixed-
bred Herds. — The feeding of calves in
ordinary mixed -bred stocks does not
differ fundamentally from that in pure-
bred herds. The general principles are
the same in both cases. The main dif-
ference comes in on the score of economy.
In pure -bred herds the main purpose
aimed at is often the fullest possible
development of the animal regardless of
a little e^tra cost in the process of feed-
ing. In ordinary commercial stocks
strict attention must be given to econ-
omy from the very outset. Thus, as a
rule, in the latter case the cheaper feed-
ing materials are more largely used than
in pure-bred herds.
Suckling and Hand - rearing. —
Suckling, of course, is nature's method
of calf-rearing. As has been seen, it is
followed largely in pure -bred herds.
For ordinary fattening stock it is too
expensive, and in this case is rarely
pursued, except with cows that have
just had their first calves, or where two
calves are put to one cow. Hand-rear-
ing is by far the most widely prevalent
system.
Prevalent Methods. — Perhaps the
most widely prevalent method of rearing
calves is to feed them entirely on new
milk for a short period at the outset —
that period varying from two to six
weeks, — and afterwards • partly on new
milk, separated milk, and artificial food ;
or upon separated milk and artificial
food, without any of the rich milk as it
comes from the cow. It is, no doubt,
a good plan to let the calf have all the
new milk it can readily consume for at
least two or three weeks at the outset.
By degrees separated or skimmed milk
may be substituted for new milk, and
when the new milk is wholly, or almost
wholly, withdrawn, the separated or
skimmed milk must be supplemented
by some other richer food.
Separated Milk for Calves. — Separ-
ated milk alone is not a well-balanced
food for calves. As the butter-fat has
been almost wholly removed from it,
the remaining constituents are not suffi-
cient for the healthy development of the
young animal. Skim-milk, left by an
efficient system of creaming, wil^ on
an average, contain the following per
I GO lb. : —
Casein
• 3-Slb
Albumen .
.7 ,.
Fat .
.5 "
Sugar
4.0 M
Ash .
.8 ,r
9-5 lb.
The skim -milk thus retains almost all
the casein and sugar in the new milk;
but so effective are most of the modern
processes of separating the cream from
the mUk, that only the merest traces of
butter-fat may remain in the separated
milk. About one-sixth of the casein and
albumen consists of nitrogen, and as far
as it goes, skim-milk is undoubtedly a
valuable food, and may be used with great
advantage in conjunction with other
feeding material.
Separated or skimmed milk should
not be fed largely by itself to calves,
for calves so fed are liable to scour,
indigestion, and other bowel-complaints.
The withdrawal of the new milk should
take place gradually, and other sub-
stances should be introduced • in corre-
sponding ratio to make up for the defici-
encies of the separated or skimmed milk.
Artificial Food for Calves. — The
other substances most largely used either
in supplement of or as substitutes for
milk in rearing calves are linseed, lin-
seed-cake, oatmeal, Indian corn-meal,
palm-nut meal, malt, pea-meal, barley-
meal, or some specially prepared food.
CALF-KEARING.
353
Tho characteristics and colnposition of
these articles are described in the chapter
on " Foods," which should be referred to
and consulted carefully in arranging the
dietary of animals.
Preparing Foods for Calves. — These
articles of food are given to calves in
the form of gruel, and they can hardly
be too well steeped or boiled. It is de-
sirable to have the linseed and linseed-
cake ground into meal before boiling.
Gruel from linseed-cake is often prepared
by adding four parts of boiling-water to
one part of the meal derived by grinding
the cake, and allowing the mass to remain
covered up for twelve hours. Palm-nut
meal may be prepared in a similar man-
ner. In making linseed-gruel, water
should be added so as to give almost a
gallon and a half of gruel for every pound
of linseed. If the gruel is found to purge
the caK, add a little more water, and for
a day or two give rather less of the gruel
and more of the skim -milk. A little
wheat-flour, mixed with gruel, is also a
useful and simple remedy in cases of
purging. Mixtures of these meals are
often made into gruel for calves, and the
selection of the particular articles to be
used will be regulated mainly by their
market prices at the time.
Quantities of Milk for Calves. — In
the majority of cases where calves are
raised by hand-feeding, they get about
two quarts of new milk twice or three
times a-day — four to five or six quarts
in all — during the first two, three, four,
or six weeks of their existence. At these
various periods, according to custom or
to the supply of new milk and the other
demands for it at the time, a beginning
is made with the substitution of separated
or skimmed milk for new milk. A very
small proportion of the latter is given at
first, by degrees it is increased, and soon
the new milk is wholly withdrawn. Some,
indeed, give new milk only for about two
weeks, and others continue it for six weeks
or two months, perhaps even longer. The
new milk and separated or skimmed milk
are given together. Some feed calves
three times a-day in the first few weeks,
and others only twice ; it is advisable
that they should be fed often.
Allowances of other Foods.— Sup-
plementary foods should be begun soon,
as soon indeed as the curtailing of the
new milk has commenced. The artificial
food, made into gruel, is given along with
the milk, and at the outset the gruel
should be given in very small quantities.
Sudden changes of food may inflict serious
injury upon the health of the tender
young animal. Some begin to give gruel
to calves before they are a month old,
others delay till the animal is in its sixth
or seventh week. The daily allowance
of gruel will of course vary with the age
of the calf, and the quantity of milk it is
receiving. No fixed "bill of fare" can
be prescribed with safety. The appetite
of the young animals must be watched
closely, and special care taken to keep
the bowels in good order. Feed calves
liberally, but never overdo them. Let
them have just as much as they can
readily consume at the time, keeping
on the scrimp rather than the abundant
side.
North, of Sngland Bations. — The
following table of rations was long in
use by an experienced breeder in the
North of England for calves of the large
breeds : —
ist week — i quarts of new milk at three meals.
2nd week — 4 quarts of new milk and 2 quarts
boiled skim-milk at three meals.
3rd week — 2 quarts of new milk and 4 quarts
boiled skim-milk at two meals, and }4
lb. boiled linseed.
4th week — 6 quarts boiled skim-milk and % lb.
boiled linseed at two meals.
Sth week — 6 quarts boiled skim-milk and I lb.
boiled linseed at two meals.
General Notes.
Feeding Calves for Veal. — A large
number of calves are slaughtered for
veal, and these are of course forced with
rich food from the very outset. New
milk is the best of aU foods for this pur-
pose, although it may be to some extent
supplemented by rich gruel, made per-
haps from barley-meal or Indian -corn
meal. The new milk is given in three
meals. The daily quantities of new milk
may be a gallon and a half by the end of
the first week, two and a third gallons by
the end of the second week, rising grad-
ually to three gallons by the end of the
fourth week. Milk turned into veal is
not likely to realise more than 6d. per
gallon.
Some give raw fresh eggs to veal-calves,
which are generally allowed to suck the
354
MANAGEMENT OF COWS AND CALVES.
cow at will, or at least three times a-
day.
The usual period of fattening for veal
is from si?: to ten we^ks, and with the
view of improving the colour of the flesh
the calves are frequently bled, In fatten-
ing veal -calves, most careful attention
must be given to cleanliness, ventilation,
and regularity of feeding.
Danger of gorging Calves.— ^Great
care should be exercised in the feeding
of calves in their tender days, especially
during the first three weeks. At this
time they should be fed sparingly rather
than liberally. Many calves are lost by
sucking or d^^inking more milk when
they are quite young than their weak
digestive system can readily dispose of.
Whether the calf is fed by the hand or
suckled by its dam, take care that it does
not over-feed itself. Never let it suck
or drink till it is quite satisfied — at any
rate during its first three weeks. If the
cow has too much milk for the calf, take
away a little by the hand.
Many calves are killed by gorging with
milk after a long fast — perhaps after a
journey. When a purchased calf is taken
to its UQW home it should be fed very
sparingly for at leasj two days.
Weaning Calves. — Weaning is usu-
ally a critical event in oalf-life. In dairy
and ordinary stocks, where only a small
portion of thfe milk is given to the calves,
the youngsters are weaned when very
* young. The process may be said to
begin in some cases at the end of the
second week, when some skim -milk or
gruel is substituted for so much of the
new milk, In pure -bred herds, and
wherever calves are reared largely on
milk, weaning, as has been seen, is gene-
rally completed in the sixth, seventh, or
eighth month.
In the TYeaning of calves there is
scope for the exercise of the utmost skill
and care. If success is to be attained,
both skill and care are essential. Pre-
pare the young animal for the weaning
— -the complete withdrawal of its mother's
milk-^by feeding it partially for some
time before with such food as will form
its, main support after it has been weaned.
Let the milk be lessened, and the other
food gradually increased in quantity, so
that the transition may be efifected almost
imperceptibly. The more carefully and
intelligently this is done, the more sat-
isfactory will be the result in the calf.
The amount of milk allowed to a suckled
calf may be regulated by drawing away
as much of the cow's milk by hand as
may be desired, and at last, just before
final weaning, the calf may have access to
the cow only once a-day.
There is perhaps no better food for
calves at weaning-time than good linseed-
cake^from i to 2 lb. per day, and a few
sliced turnips or mangels, and fresh well-
made hay. If accustomed to this fare
before being entirely deprived of their
mother's milk, they will be found to pass
through the ordeaL of weaning without
any loss in condition or delay in pro-
Setoning. — A seton is a piece of string
or tape passed through a certain part of
the body, with the object of either drawing
an abscess, or acting as a counter-irritant,
or for the purpose of inoculation. As a
prevention against black-leg, or quarter-
ill, it is a useful custom to insert a seton
in the calf's brisket in the spring. It is
considered desirable to soak the seton in
some irritant such as the following em-
brocation— viz., hartshorn, i ounce ; tur-
pentine, 2 ounces; spirit of camphor, 2
ounces; laudanum, ^ ounce; olive-oil,
6 ounces.
Castrating. — The male calves can be
most easily castrated when a few weeks
old. They can then be cut standing, by
twisting the tail round one hind leg.
Stand behind the calf, cut through the
bag, twist the stone several times, and
scrape the cord closely through with a
blunt knife. When the calves are several
months old they must be cast. This may
be done by tying the hind legs together
with a rope, placing a halter round the
neck, taking the shank end of the halter
and running it through the rope that
unites the hind legs, tying it back, pass-
ing it through the portion that is around
the neck, and drawing the legs tight, then
fastening the rope. The fore legs can be
held by a man. The stones may then be
removed by the clams and hot iron, as in
the case of the liorse — place the stone in
the clams, and with a red-hot iron saw
the cord slowly through close to the
clams.
MANAGEMENT OF STOEE AND FATTENING CATTLE. 355
MANAGEMENT OF STOEE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
The subjects to be dealt with under
this heading bulk largely in the agricul-
tural economy of the United Kingdom.
The importation of fat stock and dead
meat has grown to great dimensions, yet
a substantial proportion of the agricul-
tural community of this country derive
a large part of their living from the
rearing and fattening of cattle. In this
work, therefore, these branches of the
live-stock industry demand careful atten-
tion.
PREPAEATION OF FOOD FOE
CATTLE.
In order to ensure the best possible
results in the progress of the animals,
careful attention should be given to the
methods of preparing food for the differ-
ent classes of cattle. In this, as in most
other farming matters, it is impossible to
lay down hard and fast rules which would
be equally applicable to all cases. This
much, however^ is applicable to all — let
the food be prepared and presented to
the animals in as cleanly and palatable
condition as possible. Depend upon it,
the animals, be they mere calves or adult
cattle, will amply repay in increased pro-
gress any extra care required in present-
ing their food to them in a cleanly, in-
viting, and wholesome condition.
WasMng Koots. — Dirty roots should
never be placed before cattle, either cut
or uncut. If turnips should become very
wet and muddy, they should, by some
means or other, be washed before being
given to cattle. Several machines have
been made for washing roots, but in a
brook or pond they can be washed satis-
factorily by hand.
Frozen BootB. — It is very unwise to
give frozen turnips to cattle. A speedy
way of thawing turnips is to steep them
in a pond or tank of cold water. But
here, as in many other cases, prevention
is better than cure. Timely storing pre-
vents the necessity of having to use
frozen roots.
Cutting Turnips. — ^Young cattle and
sheep, with tender, imperfectly developed
teeth, cannot comfortably consume uncut
roots, and should never be expected to
do so. FuUy grown cattle can quite
well eat whole roots ; yet even with these
it is desirable, in all cases where practi-
cable, to have the roots cut before being
given to them. The slicing is the most
common method of cutting turnips for
cattle. The slices, as a rule, vary from a
half to three-fourths of an inch in thick-
ness. It is bad practice to slice more
turnips at one time than can be used
immediately.
Turnip - cutting machines are almost
innumerable, and most of them do excel-
lent work. There are large turnip-slicers, .
which are driven by horse, steam, or
water power ; and in very many cases the
old-f ad[iioned hand-lever slicers, with some
modern improvements, are still in use.
Pulping.
Where the pulping system is pursued,
the roots are cut by machines into pulp
or small chips, and mjxed with cut straw,
chaff, or other fodder, and this mixture
is given to cattle either with or without
the addition of crushed cake, meal, or
other concentrated food, according to
the "class and condition of animals re-
ceiving it.
Economy of Pulping. — The pulping
system economises food of all !^inds,
especially roots. To be sure it in-
creases the cost of labour somewhat,
but the question to determine is not
merely whether pulping increases the
labour bill or outlays of any kind,
but whether it enables the farmer
to turn his roots, straw, and chaff to
better account — in short, whether it is
more profitable than the older method
of giving the roots by themselves whole
or sliced. For the pulping system may
be more costly and yet more profitable.
Experience has proved it to be both in
most cases ; and, as would therefore
be expected, it is practised extensively
throughout the country. A common
expression amongst farmers who have
pursued the pulping system is that it
356 MANAGEMENT OF STOKE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
makes their roots "go a great deal
further " than under the old method.
Greater advantage can be derived from
pulping in the rearing than in the
fattening of cattle. It is also adrair-
ably adapted for sheep.
Preparing Pulped Mixtures. — ^The
pulping process is very simple. The
pulped mixture should be prepared every
day, and allowed to lie from 12 to 24
hours before being given to the animals.
The fermentation which takes place in
this time is entirely beneficial. It softens
the fodder and cake or meal, or what-
ever else there may be of dry food,
sweetens the whole mass, and renders it
not only more pleasant to the palate of
the animal, but also more easily digested
and assimilated than if the roots and dry
food had been given separately. Never
on any account allow the pulped mixture
to lie so long as to become mouldy or
sour.
The roots must be cut or pulped, the
grain either bruised or ground into meal,
the cake broken, and the straw and hay
cut into chaff. For bruising and grind-
ing grain, breaking cake, and cutting
fodder into chaff, there are numerous
machines of the highest efficiency.
Pood - preparing Compartment. —
Where pulping or any of the other
modern systems of feeding are exten-
sively pursued, it is found convenient to
have a food-preparing compartment ad-
joining, or part of, the turnip - store.
Adjoining this also, or in the same house
practically, should be the cake and meal
Fig. 746. — Steam food-preparitig machinery.
compartments. A handy arrangement is
to have the cake and meal stores on a
floor right over the food-preparing com-
partment. In this floor the cake-breaker
and grinding or bruising mill are situated,
as also the chaff-cutter ; and the broken
cake, cut fodder, and bruised grain are
dropped through hoppers into the apart-
ment below, where the mixing of the
food takes place.
This system is, of course, subject to
many variations in detail, in accordance
with the peculiarities of different stead-
ings and the extent of the holding.
The chief points to be aimed at are
convenience and the saving of labour,
these two terms being, in this connection
mainly, but not entirely, synonymous.
Fig. 746 represents one of many excel-
lent and convenient food-preparing sets
erected in farm-steadings, by Barford &
Perkins, Peterborough. Provision is also
made in this set for steaming the food.
The small vertical engine is fixed in
an outhouse or lean-to, and in addition
to driving the grinding - mill, oilcake-
breaker, root-pulper, and chaff-cutter,
&c., it supplies steam to the two steam-
ing-pans, one of which is used for roots,
chaff, &c., and the other for boiling
milk or compounds.
Gooking or Steaming.
The cooking or steaming system of
preparing food for cattle has lost in
favour. It was at one time practised to
a considerable extent for cows and fat-
tening cattle, but in most cases it has
been abandoned wholly or partially. As
a rule, food for cows receives nothing
more in the way of cooking than scalding
with hot water.
WINTER HOUSING OF STORE CATTLE.
357
Bruising Grain.
The importance of having all kinds of
grain bruised flat or ground into meal
before being given as food to stock is
now very generally acknowledged. Still,
it is only too true that even yet fanners
not unfrequently permit the feeding of
whole grain, especially to horses. It is
a wasteful practice, and should not be
pursued on any account.
WINTER HOUSING OP STORE
CATTLE.
The influence of locality is very great,
and must be carefully considered by the
successful stock-owner. In the cold re-
gions of the north, even the young store
cattle have to be housed throughout the
entire winter. In the greater part of
Ireland, and in the southern and milder
parts of Great Britain, young growing
cattle spend a good deal of the winter,
when the weather is dry and favourable,
on the pasture-fields. Between these two
extremes of in all vrinter and oict all or
the greater part of it, there are many
gradations, which individual farmers
must judiciously and carefully arrange
for themselves. So much depends upon
local circumstances as to climate, house
and field shelter, class of cattle, supply
of outdoor and indoor food, &c., that
to lay down hard and fast rules would
be worse than useless.
Err on the Side of Shelter. — This
one rule, however, one would lay down
with all the emphasis and firmness that
can be given to it. It is better to err on
the side of caution — better to have the
animals inside when you think they
might perhaps suffer little harm by being
out, than outside when they would have
been better in. How often is it the case
that even a reputedly careful farmer
allows his cattle to remain out on the
fields when he thinks they might be as
ttiell in ? " As well in." Depend upon
it, that means that the animals ought to
be inside. The thonght may or may not
be expressed — when there is thinking in
the play, be it ever so little, always let
the animals have the benefit of the doubt
— and the shelter too !
Fresh Air for Cattle. — Not for a
moment would one depreciate the value
of fresh air for cattle. Fresh air is most
essential, particularly for young growing
cattle. But it is easy to provide this
without exposing the cattle to excessive
cold, and drenching, chilling sleet, and
winter rains. Cattle certainly cannot
thrive well in close, stuffy, ill-ventilated
houses. But while a few farmers are so
careless as to let their cattle suffer in
health and be retarded in progress by
want of proper ventilation or fresh air, the
prevailing error is entirely the other way.
Ijoss from Exposure to Bad Wea-
ther.— It is not in the least overstating
the case to say that for every twenty
shillings lost by want of ventilation in
cattle - houses, there are hundreds of
pounds sterling sacrificed by the expo-
sure of cattle to inclement weather. If
the value of property, in the shape of
raw material for producing meat and
dairy produce, which is lost every year
through the imprudent and avoidable
exposure of cattle to inclement weather,
could be accurately stated in plain fig-
ures, the vastness of the sum would as-
tonish everybody, no one perhaps more
so than the defaulting stock -owners
themselves. It would certainly run into
millions of pounds sterling per annum !
For be it remembered that exposure
to bad weather does more than retard
the progress of cattle. It likewise incurs
great waste of feeding m^erial. While
the animals are thus exposed more food
is required to maintain the animal heat,
not to speak of increase either in size
or condition. It is a jaroverbial saying
amongst observant if not always pains-
taking farmers, that cattle will thrive
better upon moderate feeding with suffi-
cient shelter, than with all the food they
can eat in exposure to cold and wet.
Economical Bearing of Cattle. —
The proper housing of cattle has much
to do with their economical feeding.
It is perhaps not overreaching the mark
very far to say that the thriving of store
cattle in winter is regulated almost as
much by how they are housed or shel-
tered as by the system of feeding. This
statement will suffice to show the young
farmer that, if he wishes his cattle to
make satisfactory progress, if he desires
to secure in his store cattle the greatest
possible progress, at the lowest possible
358 MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
outlajr of time and money, he must give as
careful attention to sbelter as to feeding.
Unfortunately this is not always done.
In very many cases, farmers who are
known to be liberal and careful feeders
are lamentably negligent in providing
proper shelter for the stock. More par-
ticularly does this remark apply to Eng-
land and to Ireland — still more notably
to those very districts in which compar-
atively little house or shed accommoda-
tion would supply all the shelter that is
required.
Houses for Cattle in Cold Sis-
triets. — Where the winter is long and
usually severe, as in the greater part of
Scotland and colder parts of England
and north of Ireland, substantial houses
have to be provided. for all kinds of cattle
in winter; but where the winter is usually
mild and open, very cheap erections are
quite sufficient for store cattle. In cases
where close houses or courts are required,
care should be taken to have them well
ventilated.
Cattle-sheds in Southern. Districts.
— Going at once from the one extreme
to the other, from where tjie winter is
severest to where it is mildest, one finds
in the latter parts simple forms of winter
shelter for store cattle used with satis-
factory results. Very often it is a large
open court, with access to a roofed com-
partment where the animals can take
shelter from rain or snow, eat their- food,
and lie over night. Perhaps a roof is
thrown over a portion of the court — a
roof of sheet-iron or wood resting upon
the wall of the court at one side and
upon pillars at the other. The roofed
compartment may be merely a '"lean-to "
on another building. It matters little
how it is provided, and in these mild
districts it need not be costly, substan-
tial, or elaborate.
The main object is to make sure that
there is plenty of roofed space to protect
the cattle from rain, to enable them to
eat their food in comfort, and have a dry
warm bed. Store cattle need not be
kept in such a warm temperature as
milking cowa and fattening cattle. Keep
them dry and comfortable, and so long as
comfort is secured, the young growing
animals will be all the better of some
open space to move about in when the
weather is favourable.
Cattle - courts. — Between the close
byre and open court and shed there are
many forms of winter shelter for store
cattle. The most general is the partially
covered court, which is perhaps, upon
the whole, the most serviceable and ad-
vantageous of all. With surrounding
buildings and boundary walls the court
is usually well sheltered from "a' the
airts the win' can blaw"; and with a
half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of it
roofed, there is ample protection from
rain and snow.
The equipment of houses for cattle is
dealt with in vol. i. pp. 151-167.
WINTEE FEEDING OF STORE
CATTLE.
There are endless variations in the
systems of feeding young store cattle in
winter. These variations are regulated
mainly by (i) the locality and methods
of cropping and general farming pur-
sued ; (2) the condition and time at
which the animals are to be sold; and
(3) the class and character of the stock.
Appoi^ioning Home-grovvn Foods.
— The farmer will have to consider and
arrange at the beginning of winter what
proportions of his supply of home-grown
winter food, such as roots, straw, hay,
silage, and grain, he is to allocate to the
various kinds of stock. The proper al-
location of the home supply of food
amongst the various kinds of stock, and
the careful distribution of that supply so
as to make it extend evenly throughout
the entire season, are -points of the very
greatest importance in farm manage-
ment. For instance, too free use of
roots or fodder at the beginning of the
winter may cut short the supply before
the next grass season comes round, and
the blank thus created through want of
forethought may have to be filled up at
disproportionate outlay by the purchase
of expensive foods.
At this particular time the farmer will
take special note of the quantity of roots
available for the young store cattle, so
that he may be able to decide and ex-
plain to the cattle -man not only what
daily allowance of roots is to be given to
these store cattle, but also what kinds
and projiortions of other food will have
WINTER FEEDING OF STORE CATTLE.
359
to be provided for them. Probably the
supply of roots available for the store
cattle may decide whether or not the
pulping system is to be pursued. If the
supply of roots is very abundant, possibly
the farmer may think it better to give
the store cattle a liberal quantity of roots
in the ordinary way by themselves, than
to give a larger proportion of the roots
to other kinds of stock or to buy in
more store cattle. Circumstances alter
cases; and the farmer inust, at the be-
ginning of every winter, consider care-
fully how he can turn the produce of his
farm to the best possible account.
Economise Turnips. — Now that the
turnip-break is being curtailed, it is more
probable that the supply will be scrimp
than abundant. In any case, it may
prudently be urged as a general principle
that farmers should endeavour to econo-
mise the turnip crop. It is the most
costly and most risky, crop in the ordi-
nary rotation ; and, all things considered,
it is not by any means cheap food. As
a rule, therefore, farmers should be en-
couraged to adopt methods which would
advantageously economise the supply of
roots, and render them less dependent
upon the turnip -break than they have
been in the past.
What Foods to be Bought and
■what Sold. — When it has been ascer-
tained what quantity of roots can be had
for the store cattlet the farmer will next
consider what kinds and quantities of
other foods are to be given to them.
Whether these other foods are to be
home-grown or bought, or part of both,
will depend upon the supply of such
home-grown foods as straw, hay, silage,
and grain, and the current market prices
of these and other commodities used as
food for cattle. For instance, hay may
be worth more in the market than as
food for store cattle, so that it may be
advantageous to sell hay, and — if the
home supply of straw be deficient-^buy
oat -straw or some other food. Again,
"ups" and "downs" in market prices
may enable the farmer to derive profit
by selling grain and buying maize, cake,
or other food ; or the home-grown grain
may be selling so badly, and the cattle so
well, that he may find it beneficial to use
the grain in pushing on the live stock,
instead of sending it to market.
Advantage in Using Home-grown
Food. — There is a growing tendency to
use more and more of the home-grown
produce as food for cattle and sheep, the
low range of prices of grain being the
chief infl.uence in bringing this about.
Other things being equal, there is an
advantage in consuming instead of sell-
ing farm produce. It is true economy
to make the produce of the farm " walk
itself " to market, in the bodies of well-
conditioned cattle, sheep, and swine.
No Hard and Past Btiles. — Yet
farmers must not be tied by rules. They
should sell their farm produce, and buy
food whenever it is advantageous to do so.
Thus it will be seen that if the farmer is
to turn his produce to the best possible
account, and rear his cattle as economi-
cally and efficiently as may be, he must be
able to watch the condition and tendency
of market prices, as well as the quality
and quantity of his own crops, with keen
intelligent perception, and sound, ready,
and careful judgment.
Ages of Store Cattle. — Formerly
there were two generations of store cattle
to receive attention at the beginning of
winter — namely, the calves of this and
those of the previous year. Latterly,
however, the adoption of the "early
maturity" movement, of which more
anon, has advanced the calves of the
previous year, now from eighteen to
twenty months old, into the ranks of
fattening cattle.
Now, therefore, the winter feeding of
store cattle begins with mere calves,
some of them eight or ten months old,
others considerably younger. Late calves
may be either sucking their dams or
receiving milk in other ways at the
beginning of winter; but, as a rule,
the calves will have been weaned from
two to several months before then, and
have become well accustomed to eat such
foods as grass, hay, cake, and meal.
Care in beginning "Winter Feeding.
— In the rearing of calves, the import-
ance of keeping them progressing steadily
from birth should be constantly kept in
mind. "Never let your cattle lose the
calf -flesh," is sound advice to give to
farmers; and it is one which the farm-
student should store up carefully in his
mind. In this particular section of the
work we take up the care of these young
36o MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENINO CATTLE.
cattle at the threshold of winter. They
are, as indicated, of various ages, mostly
from six to nine months, and in good
thriving condition. As the "supply of
grass diminished and the evenings be-
came chilly, the calves had been receiving
indoor food, such as cake, meal, vetches,
grass, or hay. By degrees they are
worked into their winter rations. It is
well to avoid sudden changes in the feed-
ing and treatment of cattle. Give small
quantities of the new food at the outset,
increasing the new and lessening the old,
until almost imperceptibly the complete
substitution has been effected.
Turnips and Straw for Store C&ttle.
— In the colder districts the young store
cattle, which may now be said to have
emerged from calfhood, will be entirely
dependent upon house - feeding by the
time the winter has fairly set in. In the
turnip-growing districts the food through-
out the winter will consist mainly of
turnips and oat -straw. Very many
farmers still give the young cattle all
the turnips they can eat comfortably;
but, as has already been indicated suflS-
ciently, the allowance of roots is being
lessened with advantage.
Study the Animal's Appetite. —
Where it is intended to feed the young
store cattle solely with turnips and straw,
and where there is an abundance of both,
the cattle-man may decide for himself,
from time to time, by carefully watch-
ing the appetite and progress of the
individual animals, what quantity of
each kind of food is to be given to
each animal. He will be careful not
to gorge the young beasts with cold
roots, for in all probability some of
them, of a greedier disposition than
others, would eat more turnips than
would be good for them. Keep within
the limit of sufficiency rather than over-
step it. Do not on any account give
more roots at one meal than will be eaten
up cleanly without delay at that time.
It is a bad, wasteful practice to have
roots lying for hours before cattle. Val-
uable food is thus destroyed, and the
animals thrive best when they have their
stated meals at fixed hours, getting no
more roots at each time than will be at
once consumed. The same remark ap-
plies to meals and cake, but with straw
and hay the case is different.
Feed Sparingly and Frequently. —
The long fodder is usually, and ought
always to be, supplied in a rack suffi-
ciently high to be just within easy reach
of the animal's head. Many good
farmers think it beneficial to have a
little fodder always in the rack, so that
the animals can take a mouthful when
they feel the desire for it. There is some-
thing to be said for this, and the fodder
in the rack is not so liable to get spoiled
by the animal's breath as are roots or
other food lying in a box or crib lower
down. Still, it will be found more ad-
vantageous to supply the fodder spar-
ingly and frequently than in large
quantities at a time. The fresher and
sweeter it is, the more keenly will it be
relished by the animals ; and if too much
is given at a time, the cattle are apt to
pull out more than they eat and waste it
amongst their feet.
Feeding Hours.— The most general
custom where the turnip and straw sys-
tem prevails is to give the roots in two
meals, one in the forenoon, between 8 and
lo o'clock, and another between 2 and 3
in the afternoon ; and the fodder in three
meals, between 5 and 6 in the morning,
between 11 and 12 in the forenoon, and
between 3 and 4 in the afternoon. In
some cases a fourth meal of straw is given
between 6 and 8 o'clock at night.
In many instances the daily allowance
of turnips is divided into three meals,
given at 6 a.m., 10 a.m., and 3 p.m. ;
and the young animals will be more
contented and most likely thrive better
with three small or moderate meals of
roots than with the same quantity in
two meals.
Different Kinds of Boots for Store
Cattle. — At the outset, perhaps for two
or three weeks, soft white turnips are
given whole, "tops and all," but if the
tops are very wet and muddy, they
should be given very sparingly, or, better
still, not at all, as in that condition they
will be apt to cause scour. The white
turnips are succeeded by yellows, and
where a large proportion of swedes is
grown, these take the place of the yellow
turnips perhaps as early as the second or
third week in November, probably not
for several weeks later, according to the
proportionate supplies of the two kinds
of roots.
WINTER FEEDING OF STORE CATTLE.
361
It is not often that the soft white
turnips need to be cut ; but in every in-
stance yellow turnips and swedes should
be cut for young cattle — for all kinds of
cattle, indeed, whose teeth are not fully
developed and in good order.
Boots, Cake, Meals, and Fodder for
Store Cattle. — Partly from choice and
partly from necessity slore cattle are now
being reared with much smaller allow-
ances of turnips than in former times —
say, prior to 1875. The advantages of
this change have already been noticed.
In certain c^ses the curtailment of the
root-supply has been moderate, and little
or nothing introduced in place of that
withheld, excepting an increased quantity
of straw or hay, and an offering of fresh
pure water.
The more general plan, however, has
been to give, along with the lessened
allowance of roots, small quantities of
other more concentrated foods, such as
cake, bruised grain, or Indian corn meal,
and the usual full supply of long fodder.
With two small rations of roots, from 35
to 50 lb. altogether, plenty of good oat-
straw or hay, and from ij^ to 3 lb. of
cake or meal per day, young store cattle
will be found to thrive admirably. The
allowance of meal or cake is usually given
early in the morning, perhaps about 6
A.M., and the roots at from 9 to 10,
and about 3 p.m. ; the fodder as already
stated. It is considered undesirable to
give a large feed of cold roots upon an
empty stomach in the morning.
In other cases where still fewer roots
are allowed, these are given at one time,
perhaps about 10 or 11 a.m., the con-
centrated food being given early in the
morning and afternoon, the former meal
smaller than the latter. Again, in some
farms the whole of the cake or meal is
given in the morning, and the roots re-
served till the afternoon. It cannot be
said that any one plan is best for all
cases ; but as a rule, at any rate where
the animals run out daily, it is con-
sidered most suitable to give the turnips
in the forenoon.
Where the animals are able to pick up
a little grass outside, they will relish
a feed of cake or meal as soon as they
come in, and an allowance of fodder may
be reserved till later in the -afternoon.
Where no food is to be had outside, the
animals, after a run in the fresh air and a
drink of cold water, will welcome a sub-
stantial ration of oat-straw or hay.
Southern Systems of Feeding Store
Cattle. — In the principal grazing dis-
tricts of England and Ireland, and also
in the south-west of Scotland, where the
climate is mild, and the winters com-
paratively free from frost and snow, the
young store cattle are out on the pastures
almost daily throughout the winter — out
many a day when they ought to be in.
Where there is a good deal of rough pas-
ture, and where care is taken to have the
animals comfortably housed at night and
in wet or exceptionally cold weather, the
young cattle thrive wonderfully well
under this system, with but very little
extra food of any kind. Most likely no
roots are given, perhaps nothing but long
oat-straw, or a little hay or silage, once
or twice a-day. In other cases a small
allowance of cake or meal, from i to 2
lb. per day, is given.
Occasionally in these parts the extra
food is given in racks and boxes outside.
This, however, is not a good plan. Let
the animals have it under a roof, with a
dry place to stand upon, where they will
have plenty of fresh air, but be free from
draughts and wet.
It is not uncommon, indeed, to see
turnips given to cattle on fields even in
cold days in winter. In an exception-
ally mild dry day there may be little
harm in this, but, generally speaking, the
practice is to be condemned. The ani-
mals will turn the cold roots to better
account if allowed to consume them in
comfortable quarters.
Pulped Pood for Store Cattle. — As
already indicated, the pulping system is
specially serviceable in the feeding of
store cattle. It enables the farmer to
'turn his straw and chaff to better ac-
count as food for stock than could be
done otherwise. The straw of wheat and
barley are not much relished by cattle
when given by themselves, and cattle
will not willingly eat chaff. Yet there is
considerable feeding value in all these,
and in a judiciously prepared pulped
mixture cattle will eat them with appre-
ciation. There is not the same advan-
tage in pulping good oat-straw and hay,
for if given in a fresh condition, and in
small quantities at a time, cattle will
362 MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
consume these in the long form with ex-
ceedingly little -waste. But the utilisa-
tion of the less palatable kinds of fodder
is an important consideration, and this,
together with its great influence in econo-
mising roots, commends the pulping sys-
tem very strongly as a most useful agent
in the rearing of store cattle.
Proportions of Pulped Mixtures. —
Already some information has been given
as to the manner of preparing pulped mix-
tures (p. 356). The proportions of roots to
other foods will, of course, depend largely
upon the supply available for the store
cattle. Some mix equal quantities, bushel
by bushel, of pulped roots and chopped
fodder; but a much smaller proportion
of roots is more general. One bushel of
pulped roots is often made to serve for
two, three, or even more bushels of
chopped fodder, and when the allowance
of roots is very small, it is desirable to
add to the mixture a little crushed cake,
meal, or bruised grain, perhaps from i to
2j^ lb. for each beast per day. Decorti-
cated cotton-cake is most largely used
for store cattle, but many give a mixture
of this and linseed-cake or linseed-meal.
The market prices should be watched
carefully, and the kind of cake or other
food bought which is comparatively
cheapest at the time. Many careful,
feeders sprinkle a little common salt
over the pulped mixture, and still a
larger number sweeten it with dissolved
treacle.
When it is intended to push the ani-
mals from their youth, and have them
fattened at an exceptionally early age,
the richer and more concentrated foods
are increased in quantity.
Store Cattle on Pastures.
Store cattle go to the fields as soon as
the grazing season begins. If the supply
of pasture is fairly ample the growing
•cattle may get no extra food. If the
pastures are poor, and if it is desired, as
it ought to be, to keep the animals pro-
gressing, concentrated food of some kind
should be given on the fields. The extra
food may consist of whichever of the
ordinary cattle foods may be cheapest at
the time, and the quantities may vary
from I to 3 or 4 lb. daily.
Keep Stock Progressing. — There is
one point which demands most careful
attention about the end of spring and be-
ginning of summer. It is this — to see
that the animals are carried from the
one season to the other in a steadily
progressing condition. Do not on any
account let the animals fall off towards
the end of the house-feeding season. If
the supply of turnips and other home-
grown food become scarce, buy in food,
or reduce the stock by selling. Then if
the supply of grass should be deficient
at the outset, supplement with other
food — with purchased corn and cake, if
need be. In the period of transition
from one season to another, cattle are
often allowed to fall back in condition.
This is vAy detrimental to the interests
of the stock-owner, and should be avoided
by hook or by crook.
Give the Pasture a Good Start.
— Do not be impatient to turn the cattle
from the winter quarters to the summer
grazing. Let cattle of all ages remain
in the steading until the grass is quite
ready to receive them, and able to main-
tain them in a satisfactory condition. In
late seasons, when the turnips and other
winter food are exhausted before the grass
can afford them a bite, the animals should
be partly supported upon extraneous food
— as oilcake, beans, oats ; or those in
fairly good condition should be dis-
posed of, to leave some turnips for the
young cattle and cows until the grass
grows up.
The cattle are let out in relays as the
grass progresses. It is a good plan at the
first of the grazing season to take up the
cattle at night, and give them dry fodder.
This tends to counteract the laxative
influence of the fresh grass.
Overgrowth, of Pastures Injurious.
— An important point in the successful
grazing of land is to keep the pastures
from growing too rank. In the earlier
part of the season, in particular, they
should be weU eaten down, cropped
frequently, but not so as to injure the
plants. Pasture-grasses should never be
allowed to mature and produce seed, for
both the land and the plants will be
thereby impaired in their productive
powers. Pastures do best when grazed
for about two weeks, and rested for a
sifnilar period all through the season.
All kinds of stock thrive best on mod-
erately .short pasture. Rough bunches
FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER.
365
of grass should be regularly cut down
by the scythe.
In some cases, in a good growing
season, it may be advisable tO' buy in
more stock to keep down the pasture.
In other cases, especia,lly when cattle
are dear, it may be better to save a
portion for hay, and thus curtail the
grazing &rea.
On many farms the droppings of the
cattle are daily collected into heapSj and
in the autumn spread upon the inferior
parts of the field. On others they merely
scatter the droppings over the field where
they are found, once or twice a-week.
Changing Stock on Pastures. —
Grass-land requires skilful management
if it is to yield the maximum amount
of pasture in every sort of season. The
circumstances under our own control
which most injure grass are overstocking
and continual stocking. There should be
no more stock upon the farm than its
grass will maintain in good condition;
and the stock should not be allowed to
remain too long in the same field.
The safest way to treat each grazing-
field is to stock it fully at once, in order
to eat it bare enough in a short time,
and then to leave it unstocked for two
weeks or so, that the grass may grow
up to a fresh bite. One advantage of
this plan is, that it provides new-grown
grass; and another is, that the grass
does not become foul by being constantly
trodden upon. Stock delight to have
fresh-grown grass ; and they loathe grass
which has been trampled and dunged
upon, times out of number.
To facilitate the frequent changing of
stock to fresh grass, many farmers run
a temporary wire-fence across a pasture
field, letting the animals crop first one
division and then the other.
Mixed Stock on Pastures. — Another
principle affecting the treatment of pas-
ture-land is the different way in which
different animals crop grass : cattle crop
high, sheep nibble low, while horses bite
both high and low. This is a wise
distinction between the two classes of
ruminants, sheep being suited to short
mountain - pasture, which their mobile
lips hold firmly while it is severed from
the ground with the incisors of the lower
jaw with a twitch of the head aside;
whereas the ox is as well suited to the
plains and valleys, where grass grows
long, and which it crops with the scythe-
like operation of its tongue and teeth.
From these different modes of cropping
grass, it is inferred that the horse or
sheep should follow the ox in grazing,
or accompany him, but not precede
him. On pasture eaten bare by horses
or sheep, the ox cannot follow ; and
when all are in company, the horse and
sheep will eat where the ox has eaten
before, or the horse will top the grass
before the ox, the horse being fond of
seizing the tops of plants by his mobile
lips, and pinching them off between the
upper and lower incisors. The accom-
paniment of them all in the early part
of the season is a good arrangement, be-
cause all have the choice of long and short
grass ; but the horse should be separated
from the sheep in the latter part of the
season, as both bite close.
Water and salt should always be with-
in the reach of cattle on pastures.
FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER.
In the study of the scientific aspects
of cattle-feeding we have not kept pace
with some other countries, yet we do
know a great deal more about early
maturity, and the economical production
of beef, than was known in this country
prior to 1870.
Early Maturity.
In the rearing and fattening pf their
stock the farmers of the present day are
now turning both time and food to better
account than their forefathers did. The
progress that has been made in the
matter of " early maturity " — in the
rearing of stock at a more rapid rate,
and fattening them in less time and at
an earlier age — has been very marked
and gratifying. Along with this move-
ment— -as an essential element in it, in
fact — has come a great saving of cattle
food. Apart from the question as to the
influence which this early " forcing " of
stock may exercise upon the constitu-
tional stamina of the bovine race, in
regard to which some misgivings are
entertained by eminent authorities, there
can be no doubt that substantial im-
mediate benefit has resulted from it to
364 MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
feeders of cattle. In feeding cattle, as
in most other industries, time means
money. It is important, therefore, that
time as well as food should be econo-
mised. Indeed, the economical use of
Hhe one involves the thrifty use of, the
other, and by a careful study of these con-
siderations farmers have raised their
system of " meat manufacture " to a de-
cidedly better footing.
Age for Fattening. — ^As a rule, cattle
are now fattened during the second year
of their existence. Large numbers are
slaughtered before that year is com-
pleted, when about twenty or two-and-
twenty months old. It is the exception
now to find three-year-old English or
Scottish bred bullocks on British farms.
Many farmers practically keep on fatten-
ing their cattle from their very birth,
never stinting them in food, thus not
only maintaining a rapid rate of growth,
but also a steady increase in the accumu-
lation of fat and muscle.
Cheaper Meat from Young than
from Old Animals. — There is no longer
room for doubt that meat can be pro-
duced at a lower cost per pound on
young than on old animals. To throw
light on the question of the most profit-
able age at which to fatten animals,
many interesting experiments have been
carried out in this and other countries.
At Kothamsted, in particular, the trials
bearing on this point were numerous and
instructive. In most of these trials it
was found that the older and fatter an
animal became the more costly it was to
add additional weight of meat, confirm-
ing the American dictum of Professor
Stewart that " every additional pound
put upon an animal costs more than the
previous pound of growth."
Iiavsres on High-pressure and Pro-
fitable reeding. — Sir John Benn§tt
Lawes was an able and persistent ad-
vocate for early maturity. He often
pointed out, however, that from an econ-
omical point of view the high-press-
ure system of feeding might easily be
overdone. He said : " Every day of an
animal's life, a certain amount of food is
required for sustenance purposes alone.
An animal which does not increase in
weight is kept at a loss, as it merely
turns food into manure. On the other
hand, if you require to produce as much
weight of beef in one year as is produced
under ordinary feeding in three years, it
can only be done by a large expenditure
in costly foods ; and, except for show
purposes, this very rapid fattening is
not necessarily the most profitable. As
the rate of increase is limited, however
highly an animal is fed, much waste of
food takes place imder a high-pressure
system of feeding ; while on the other
hand, an animal is unprofitable if it
does not increase in weight every day.
Between these two extremes there ought
to be some point which marks the mini-
mum cost at which a pound of beef
can be produced. I have once or twice
tried to construct a table for my own
satisfaction, but without much success."
Methods of Fattening Cattle in Winter.
Winter is the season in which cattle-
feeding is carried on to the largest ex-
tent in this country, the animals being
housed for the purpose either loose in
courts, boxes, or hammels, or tied up in
stalls. The construction and equipment
of house accommodation for cattle are
dealt with in vol. i. pp. 151-167, and at
this stage it would be well to consult what
is said there. It is especially important
that fattening cattle should be kept in a
thoroughly healthy, comf ortablecondition,
for unless this is attended to the progress
of the animals will not be satisfactory.
What Food is to be'tTsed ? — ^It has
been seen that in the methods of feeding
other classes of cattle, cows, calves, and
store cattle, in winter, there is almost
endless variety. In the winter fatten-
ing of cattle the variation of practice is
quite as great. The system of cropping
and the supply of home-grown food are
leading factors in determining the method
of feeding pursued. The farmer should,
of course, consider carefully the market
price of the various recognised articles
of food and of his own produce, and
after due deliberation decide whether
his own home-grown or purchased foods
will be cheapest and most profitable.
Other things being equal, he will give
the preference to his home-grown food,
for, as already pointed out, there is econ-
omy in making the farm produce " walk
itself to market."
An important point at this time is to
estimate the supply of fodder and roots.
FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTEE.
365
and so apportion the daily use of these
as to extend them evenly over the season.
reeding Bations. — The fattening
cattle will most likely be at various
stages in their advance towards maturity.
Some, already in high condition, may be
intended for the Christmas markets, when
winter-fed beef usually brings the max-
imum price. Others, most probably
younger animals, will be leaner, and
may require from 4 to 6 months' feed-
ing. Both classes will be accustomed to
the house-feeding before winter sets in
(for all fattening animals should be housed
as soon as the cold nights of September
begin to be felt), and both should now
be liberally fed. They should not be
gorged,' but have as much as they can
eat, given to them at fixed intervals
in as palatable and tempting a form as
possible, and in such quantities as will
ensure that, without any food being left
or wasted, the animals will be well
satisfied. As to the gross bulk, there
may be little difference in the food given
to the cattle, but the riper animals will
get the richer food. As the cattle ap-
proach maturity, the more concentrated
foods, such as cake and grain or meal,
are increased, and the bulkier commo-
dities, such as roots and straw, may be
slightly lessened.
As to this variation of food, no hard
and fast lines can be laid, down. It would
be worse than useless to attempt to do
so, — it would be positively unsafe. The
immediate wants, the condition, progress,
and appetite, of each individual animal
must be carefully considered, and in
accordance with these' and these alone
is it safe to arrange or modify the daily
meals. Thus, again, it is seen that the
office of cattle-man is a responsible one.
The success or failure of the feeding
operations is largely dependent upon
him. By careful and constant atten-
tion to the adapting of the meals to the
wants and capacities of the animals, he
may greatly facilitate the fattening, as
well as economise valuable food.
Balancing Pood properly. — As to
the importance of having the foods
properly balanced, a good deal has al-
ready been said. And at this critical
time, when the feeder is arranging or
modifying the food to suit his fattening
cattle at tlje dififerent stages of their pro-
VOL. III.
gress, he may be urged to consider care-
fully the question of mixing foods, so
that the various ingredients shall be
present in the proportions most per-
fectly adapted to the requirements of
the animal. See in particular the in-
formation given under the heading of
"Animal Nutrition," p. 291 of this vol.
Scottish Feeding Customs.
On nearly all Scottish farms turnips
still form a dominant or important ele-
ment in the rations of feeding cattle.
Yellow turnips arg used at the outset,
and these may last for one month, two
months, or longer, as the case may be.
The more advanced animals, especially
those intended for the Christmas market,
will receive swedes as soon as practi-
cable, perhaps about the beginning of
November. All changes in the food
should be introduced gradually. In
putting cattle on roots in winter, small
quantities should be given at the outset,
full meals being allowed only after the
animals have become accustomed to the
new mode of treatment.
Daily Allowance of Turnips. — What
quantity of turnips should a feeding
bullock receive daily ? This is a vexed
question, as to which opinions of prac-
tical men have undergone, and are still
undergoing, considerable change. Not a
few still give the animals all they can
comfortably consume in two meals daily.
That would perhaps mount up to, or even
exceed, 120 lb., according to the size of
the animal. That assuredly is improvi-
dent feeding, a more prudent and more
profitable system being to give much
smaller quantities of roots and larger
proportions of other foods. The general
tendency now is in the latter direction.
The majority of the more successful
feeders nowadays limit the allowance of
roots to from 60 to 90 lb. per day, still
less being allowed in many cases.
Feeding Hours. — The general plan is
to give the turnips in two meals, about 8
or 9 A.M., and from 1.30 to 3 p.m. Some
give the roots as the first meal in the
morning, following with oat -straw or
hay, cake or meal, or both, about 11
A.M., turpips again early in the after-
noon, followed by straw or hay, and
cake or meal, as in the forenoon.
Others think it better to give about
2 A
566 MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
half the, daily allowance of cake and
mealj say at 6 a.m., to be followed about
two or three hours later by turnips and
oat-straw or hay; the afternoon meals
coming in the same order, beginning with
cake and meal at i p.m., and ending with
' straw and hay at 8 p.m. Others, again,
give a very small feed of straw or hay as
the first mouthful in the morning, say
from 6 to 7 a.m.
Turnips or Cake for Breakfast P —
Some experienced feeders contend that
it is unsafe to give cattle a feed of cold
watery turnips upon an empty stomach
in the morning, yet many successful
feeders have all their lives pursued the
system of giving roots as the first meal,
and say they have never discovered any
evil effects from it. Upon the whole,
the weight of experience is in favour of
giving a small allowance of cake and
meal as the first feed in the morning.
Daily Allowance of Cake and Grain.
—Where the allowance of turnips is re-
stricted to from 6o to 90 lb. per day for
cattle weighing from 8 to 10 cwt. live-
weight, the quantity of cake and, meal
may vary from 4 to 8 or 10 lb. per day,
beginning the winter with the smallest,
and finishing off the fattening period
with the largest, quantity. The concen-
trated food at the outset often consists
of a mixture of decorticated cotton-cake
and linseed - cake, or these two and
bruised oats, peas, beans, or perhaps
Indian corn. Some lessen the propor-
tion of cotton - cake and increase the
quantities of linseed-cake and meal as
the finishing-time approaches, the max-
imum allowance of concentrated food
being given for a period of about six
weeks at the end.
Where a still smaller quanity of tur-
nips is allowed, perhaps 50 lb. or under
per day, it is usual to give the roots
either in two pulped mixtures, one in
the morning and the other in the after-
noon, or by themselves in one feed early
in the forenoon. In either case, with
this small allowance of roots, the quan-
tities of the more concentrated foods
must be increased. The necessary bulk
will be made up by straw or hay; the
essential nutriment mainly in cake or
bruised grain.
The Pulping System for Feeding.
— When the minimum quantity of tur-
nips is allowed, the pulping system will
be found specially serviceable. As al-
ready shown, it permits of greater econ-
omy of roots than can be secured by
any other method. Comparatively speak-
ing, it is perhaps more useful in rearing
store stock than in fattening. The lay-
ing on of flesh and fat cannot be accom-
pUshed without the employment of a
certain amount of rich food, which, of
course, is as costly in a pulped mixture
as by itself. But the pulping method
turns the small allowance of roots to bet-
ter account with fattening as well as with
store cattle, and it is easy to add the re-
quired cake or grain. With mixed foods
used as in the pulping system, it is easier
to ensure that the ration shall be properly
balanced, with all the essential constitu-
ents present in due proportion, than when
turnips, cake, grain, and fodder are each
given separately. It is possible, also,
by careful preparation, and perhaps by
a sprinkling of a little condiment or
dissolved treacle, to present the pulped
mixture in an exceptionally palatable
and inviting' condition. In the fattening
of stock both these points are of much
importance.
Cattle-feeding in Aberdeenshire. —
The fame of Aberdeenshire beef is world-
wide. In the attainment of this the
people, the land, and the ■ cattle have
each played a. creditable part. To
reverse the order, the stock of cattle
are of the very best class of beef-
producing animals, chiefly crosses be-
tween the native Black Polls and the
Shorthorn breed. Then the land is
peculiarly adapted for the raising of
turnips of the highest feeding value.
It is well known that there are turnips
and turnips, some considerably richer
'than others in feeding properties. The
roots grown on the well-farmed granite
soils of Aberdeenshire are of exception-
ally rich quality. And as to the people,
the knack of how to make a bullock
hard-fat would seem somehow to have
become the special birthright of the
Aberdeenshire farmer.
Mr M'Combie's System of Feed-
ing.— Aberdeenshire owes not a little of
its reputation for cattle-feeding to the
late Mr WUliam M'Combie of Tillyfoar
(1805-1880), who was far in advance
of his time as a feeder of cattle. His
FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER
367
little volume, Cattle and Cattle-breeders,''-
is full of useful hints to breeders and
feeders of cattle. He says; —
" The practice of tying up cattle early
in Aberdeenshire is now almost unir
versal; the success of the feeder de-
pends upon it, for a few weeks may
make a difference of several pounds.
J. sow annually from 12 to 16 acres of
tares, and about the middle of June save
a portion of the new grass full of red
clover, and from the ist to the 20th of
August both tares and clover are fit for
the cattle. I have for many years fed
from 300 to 400 cattle; and if I was
not to take them up in time, I could
pay no rent at all. A week's house-
feeding in August, September, and
October, is as good as three weeks in
the dead of winter. I begin to put the
cattle into the yards from the ist to the
middle of August, drafting first the larg-
est cattle intended for the great Christ-
mas market. This drafting gives a great
relief to the grass-parks, and leaves abun-
dance to the cattle in the fields. During
the months of August, September, and
October, cattle do best in the yards, the
byres being too hot ; but when the cold
weather sets in, there is no way, where
many cattle are kept, in which they wiU
do so well as at the stall.
Tares and Clover for Fattening
Cattle. — "I never give feeding cattle
unripe tares j they must be three-parts
ripe before being cut. I mix the tares
when they are sown with a third of
white peas and a third of oats. When
three -parts ripe, especially the white
peas, they are very good feeding. Fresh
clover, given along with tares, peas, <fcc.,
forms a capital mixture. I sow a pro-
portion of yellow Aberdeen turnips early,
to succeed the tares and clover. It is
indispensable for the improvement of
the cattle that they receive their turnips
clean, dry, and fresh.
Allowance of Cake, Com, &e. —
"I change the feeding cattle from
tares and clover on to Aberdeen yellow
turnips, and afterwards to swedes, if
possible by the middle of October. I
do not like soft turnips for feeding
cattle. The cattle that I intend for
^ William Blackwood & Sods, Edinburgh
and London.
the great Christmas market have at first
from 2 to 4 lb. of cake a -day by the
ist of November. In a week or two I
increase the cake to at least 4 lb. a-day,
and give a feed of bruised oats or barley^
which I continue up to the 12th or 14th
of December, when they leave for the
Christmas market. The cake is appor-
tioned to the condition of the different
animals, and some of the leanest cattle
get the double of others which are riper."
Cattle - feeding in Easter Boss. —
The district of Easter Eoss has long
been famous for the large number of
" prime beeves " it sends to the London
Christmas market. The system of feed-
ing pursued is very liberal and carefully
thought out. The majority of the cattle
there fattened for the London market
are put up for finishing at the end of
the grazing season, when they are ap-
proaching three years old. They are
well -grown cattle of first-class quality,
mostly Crosses between the Shorthorn
and Aberdeen-Angus breeds. They are
well grazed, and are in good condition
when housed for hard feeding.
Mr John Gordon, Balmuchy, Fearn,
one of the largest feeders in Easter Ross,
states that when his feeding cattle are
housed he staj^ts them v?ith 2 lb. de-
corticated cotton-cake and 2 lb. linseed-
cake, gradually increasing to 3 lb. each,
and then by degrees withdrawing i lb.
of the cotton-cake and substituting a
like quantity of linseed - cake. About
six weeks before the animals are sent
away to the London Christmas market,
they get in addition to the cake 2 lb.
each of bruised oats or finely ground
peas or beans, very slightly moistened
with water. Half the daily allowance
of cake is given at 6 a.m., and a feed of
cut turnips follows at 9 a.m. While the
animals are eating their turnips the
byres are cleaned out and the cattle
groomed, and as soon as the turnips are
eaten, a moderate supply of sweet oat-
straw or hay is given. The cattle are
then allowed perfect rest till i p.m., and
in the afternoon they receive cake, roots,
and straw or hay as in the forenoon, with
a " bite " of oat-straw or hay at 8 p.m.
Mr Gordon considers it of great import-
ance to have the feeding, grooming, and
cleaning done with the regularity of
clock-work, and remarks that a cattleman
368 MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
■will never be a successful feeder unless he
knows how to give a beast as much as it
can eat and yet not a " pick " more. He
must also watch the bowels of the animals
' carefully, as if an animal is purging or
costive it cannot be doing well.
Anthrax and Imported Pood. —
In later years, with the object of less-
ening the risk of anthrax being con-
veyed to stock by the use of foreign
foods, Mr Gordon has confined his
choice of feeding materials to home-
made linseed -cake and home-grown
grain, the mixture being made up of
equal portions of the following — viz.,
pure Aberdeen made linseed-cake, bean
meal, dried distillery grains, ground
wheat,, ground barley, and ground oats.
A Popular Sooteli " Blend." —
The following mixture of foods is
largely used in the Lothians and other
parts of Scotland both for sheep and
cattle — viz., Decorticated cotton-cake,
linseed-cake, bran, maize, grouna locust-
beans, and peas in equal proportions,
and all mixed together. When oats are
cheap and maize dear, the former may
take the place of the latter.
Cattle-feeding in England.
In many cases English methods of
cattle - feeding differ considerably from
the prevailing practice in Scotland.
The warmer climate and longer period
of "growth provide the farmer in the
south of England with greater variety
of winter food than can be grown' to
advantage upon average Scottish farms.
Comparatively fewer turnips are grown
in England than in Scotland, and, as a
rule, southern farmers place less reliance
than northern farmers upon turnips as
food for cattle. Mangels are largely
grown in Engla,nd, and in spring they
are given f re^y^ to cattle being fattened.
In the south, cattle may, of course, in
average seasons remain longer out on
the pasture-fields in autumn than in the
colder regions north of the Tweed, but in
too many cases English farmers sustain
losses by being too long in housing their
feeding cattle towards the end of the
grazing season. Feeding cattle should
be housed overnight as soon as the chilly
evenings set in ; though they may have
a run out daily for some time after.
Boots and Green Food for Feed-
ing Cattle. — As indicated, a greater
quantity of green 'food, other than roots,
is grown in England than in Scotland
for cattle. This is extensively used in
autumn and early winter before the
turnips or mangels are available. Many
of the best feeders in England feed ex-
tensively upon grass-land during summer,
giving large quantities of cake and meal
on the fields. Any of the cattle not
quite fattened on the fields are housed
at the end of the grazing season, and
finished upon hay, hay -chaff, a small
allowance of roots, and about 6 lb. of
cake, with about 2 to 4 lb. of meal per
head per day.
Hereford Examples. — Farmers in
the county of Hereford , have been ex-
ceptionally successful in the feeding of
young Hereford steers, which they turn
out in admirable condition for slaughter
at from 18 to 20 months old. The
animals are fed liberally from their birth
onwards, and in the ^autumn of theii?
second year the steers get on the grass
an allowance, beginning with 4 lb. daily,
of cotton-cake and ground com, wheat,
barley, or oats. About the end of Sept^
ember they are housed, and receive the
best quality of hay and pulped roots, and
from 8 to 9 lb. per day of linseed-cake,
cotton-cake, and bruised corn. By
Christmas they are in prime condition
for slaughtfer, and their average dead-
weight would then, at from 18 to 20
months old, be about 640 lb. — i.e., 8
score per quarter. The cake and corn is
given in two feeds, the first thing in the
morning and about 4 p.m.
ITorfolk Systems. — In Norfolk, with
the four-course system of cropping, there
is little scope for grazing, but an abund-
ance of turnips and straw. Here, there-
fore, roots are extensively employed in
the feeding of cattle. And, as in Aber-
deenshire, the turnips grown in Norfolk
are credited with exceptionally high feed-
ing qualities. Cattle, for most part
animals rising two years old, are pur-
chased in autumn, and fattened during
winter in courts and yards, upon turnips,
straw, hay, cake, and grain. Some
farmers expend up to jQt, for artificial
food for each animal, this artificial food
consisting chiefly of cake, with varying
quantities of home-grown corn, lentilSj
and maize, all ground and mixed.
FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER
369
A BerkBhire System. — Mr Chas. H.
Eady, who manages the extensive home-
farm of Lady Wantage at Lockinge, in
Berks, says that the usual system of
cattle-fattening in the stalls for ordinary
market is as follows : The men begin their
duties at 5.30 a.m., giving each animal —
Yx bushel chaff (hay and straw).
3 lb. lineeed-cake.
2 lb. barley-meal.
About 7 o'clock each animal gets
about 8 lb. hay, and at midday they
get Yt, bushel roots (swede or mangel).
The afternoon feed, commencing at
3.30 P.M., is—
Yx bushel chaff.
3 lb. linseed-cake.
2 lb. barley-meal.
8 lb. hay.
Water is always before the animals.
Frequent Feeding. — In Mr R. W.
Hudson's feeding-courts at Danesfield,
Great Marlow, where hundreds of prime
Devons are fattened annually, the prin-
ciple followed is to feed little and often,
the belief being that by this method
better flesh is obtained and the beasts
ripen quicker than by the old method of
giving four meals with a munching of
hay always at hand. Here is the time-
table at the home farm at Danesfield as
supplied by Mr Colin Campbell, the
agent : —
6. 30 A
M.
Cake.
7
,
Roots and chaffl
8
J
Hay.
10
Roots.
12
}
Meals.
2 p
U.
Cake.
4
,
Roots and chaff.
6
)
Hay.
The quantities vary according to the
cattle being fed. All mangers are cleaned
out before each meal, and every beast
has water laid on before it. " Under
this system," says Mr Campbell, " our
bullocks put on from i J^ to 2 J^ lb. per
day.
Mr M'Calmont's System. — At Mr
M'Calmont's home farm at Crockfords,
near Newmarket, a number of fine Gallo-
way crosses are matured annually. Mr
Fred C. Paine, the farm manager, states
that he always feeds the roots by them-
selves. They mix overnight linseed-
cake, bean-meal, lentil-meal, and a little
cotton-cake, with sainfoin and straw-
chaff in equal proportions, together with
a popular sugar meal, the quantity
allowed being about 3 lb. of the last-
named per head daily, and 10 lb. of the
mixture. This is given to the cattle
early in the morning, and while eating
this they are freshly littered up. About
9.30 A.M. they are allowed ^ bushel
of swedes per head (from November to
the middle of February and thereafter,
mangels). In the afternoon the feeding
cattle receive a similar quantity of roots,
the rule being to let them have as many
as they will eat. The concentrated food
ration is increased, as the cattle get on,
to 14 lb. each, say 7 lb. linseed-cake and
7 lb. bean -meal, and 4 lb. sugar-meal
extra, mixed with chaff.
Potatoes for Cattle. — In some parts
of England potatoes are made use of in
feeding cattle in most years, although
the practice does not find universal
favour. It is usual to begin with only
a few pounds of potatoes, and increase
gradually. They do not require to be
steamed, and so long as there is no dirt
adhering to them there is little danger
either of choking or colic. One very
successful feeder regularly turns out 50
ripe bullocks about Christmas time which
are finished by the aid of the potato-
crop. They wilt consume up to 56 lb.' a-
day of potatoes, but that quantity, it need
hardly be said, is not recommended un-
less given by very skilled hands. Tubers
that are slightly tainted with disease
may be fed in this way. The rest of the
ration consists of the usual allowances
of cake, grain, and fodder.
Oatmeal Balls. — To finish a bullock
well and give it that firm touch which
butchers value so highly, one very suc-
cessful English feeder and exhibitor pins
his faith to oatmeal balls. The oatmeal
is damped with water and the balls are
rolled in the hand and placed before the
bullock. All that is necessary is to
sufiiciently wet the meal to enable it
to stick together.
Feeding without Boots. — For feed-
ing cattle without roots the following
plan is recommended by an experienced
feeder : " One pailful of cut hay or
straw three times a -day, mixed with
bean -meal, Indian corn meal, linseed-
cake meal, and cotton-cake meal in equal
370 MANAGEMENT OF STORE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
proportions. Four to ten lb. of the meals
to each beast according to sfize, &c. Mix
the \*liole day's feed, chop and meal to-
gether, in a large box. Then take i lb.
of treacle for each animal and dissolve in
sufficient boiling-water; after which pour
the sweetened liquor over the mixture of
chop and meals in the box, and turn the
whole over to let it mix thoroughly.
Next cover up the feed in the box and
let it stand twenty-four hours. Give a
pailful three times a,-day with a little
salt. If the cattle have to be pushed
very fast, they may get each 2 lb. daily
of cotton- and linseed-cake mixed, in
addition to the above feed."
Winter Feeding on Fields. — Al-
though the system must necessarily in-
volve a heavier consumption of feeding
material to maintain the animal heat,
some English farmers nevertheless derive
satisfactory results by fattening cattle in
dry well-sheltered fields during winter.
Mr Richard Stratton, The Duffryn, New-
port, Monmouth, one of the most ex-
perienced cattle-feeders in the country,
says : " I give feeding cattle cake and
meal on grass up to 14 lb. per head per
day in winter, when they do well on dry
pasture, with shelter under banks and
hedges. I prefer feeding in this way to
either tying up or in open yards. Straw
is scarce and dear here, and the system
saves litter, and prevents all waste of
manure. I begin in October with about
6 lb. of cake and meal, and finish off
with 12 or 14 lb. in December or Jan-
uary, given at 7 a.m. and 5 p.m. ; the
animals going away fat when from
2 years and 6 months to 2 years and
9 months old. But my practice in feed-
ing varies according to the prices of the
d^erent commodities. Sometimes I use
cake, sometimes corn ; also hay or straw,
according to the market prices of these.
Again, as to roots, if scarce and dear,
I sell them and use artificial foods ; if
plentiful and cheap, I consume them."
Mr Stratton's farm, it should be men-
tioned, is in a warm locality and well
sheltered.
Cattle Feeding in Ireland.
Irish farmers devote their attention to
the rearing and selling of store cattle
rather than to fattening. The mild open
climate of their country favours this
system, which is found to be more profit-
able and better adapted for men with
limited means than finishing the cattle
for the butcher. There are, however, a
good many Irish farmers who fatten
cattle, and most of them do it success-
fully.
Feeding on Pastures.
The extent to which cattle are fat-
tened on pastures has been slowly but
steadily increasing. It is now carried
on to a large extent both in England and
Scotland, and to a much smaller extent
in Ireland. In Hereford, in particular,
farmers make a special feature of the
grass feeding of their famous beef-pro-
ducing cattle.
Concentrated Food on Fastures. —
Only in few cases, where the pasture is
exceptionally rich in quality, are cattle
fattened on the grass vrtthout extra
food. The mixtures and quantities of
extra food given to feeding cattle on
pastures vary greatly according to the
size, age, and condition of the cattle, the
character of the pasture, the prices of
the feeding-stuffs, the supply of home-
grown food, and the time available for
the fattening procesa Cotton-cake and
linseed-cake are used to a large extent,
along with ground oats or barley and
sometimes wheat, or some of the other
foods in the market. The extra food
is given in boxes on the fields twice or
thrice daily. The quantities range from
about 4 to 10 lb. per day.
Rock-salt and water are always within
reach of the animals. Feeding cattle are
put on to fresh pastures at intervals of
a few weeks, the more frequently the
better both for the animals and the
pasture.
"Soiling."
The system of "soiling" might be
humorously described as grazing cattle
in the house ! It consists of retaining
the animals in the house, — the byre,
hammel, or cattle-court, — and cutting
and carting the green food to them, in-
stead of allowing the animals to browse
over the pastures and pick up the grasses
for themselves.
Advantages of "Soiling." — Several
advantages are claimed for this system
over the older and more simple and
FATTENING CATTLE IN WINTER.
371
natural method of grazing. The chief
of these are — (i) that a given extent
of land will carry a heavier stocking of
cattle; (2) that more actual food will
be produced during the season ; (3)
that the quantity of food grown is more
fully utilised ; (4) that the animals
thrive better, because they are protected
from extremes of temperature, from the
attentions of insects, and from undue
exercise ; and (5) that a greater quantity
of manure is made upon the farm.
More Food Better TTsed.^ — It is un-
questionable that by the frequent and
systematic cutting of the grasses as they
grow up, a greater weight of food will
be grown during the season than when
the pasture is cropped irregularly by
stock in the ordinary method of graz-
ing. Then with careful cutting and
carting, every particle of the food is
placed before the stock in a palatable
condition, so that the material grown
is more fully utilised than when it is
trodden upon and unevenly eaten by
cattle.
Animals Thriving Better. — Pro-
vided the animals are kept in comfort-
able, well-ventilated compartments, with
plenty of fresh air, they will' most likely
give a better return for the food, in
yield of milk or in accumulation of fat,
than they would on the pastures exposed
to sun and wind and to the torturing
of insects. That young animals would
develop bone and muscle more rapidly
is very doubtful ; bu£ it has been abund-
antly proved that adult animals will
accumulate fat more quickly in this
confinement than upon pasture fields.
Disadvantages of "Soiling." — "Soil-
ing " is altogether a more artificial
system than ordinary grazing. It neces-
sitates the employment of more money
per acre, not only in a larger head of
stock, but also in providing the necessary
house accommodation, and the consider-
ably larger force of labour. The heavy
labour bill is indeed the greatest dis-
advantage of the system as opposed to
grazing.
Then, again, there is this further con-
sideration, that substantial outlay may
be incurred in providing food to the
animals in the house before the grass is
sufficiently grown to admit of being cut.
Successional forage crops are grown for
this purpose, as well as to supplement
the ^ass at other times. All this in-
volves additional outlay, employing more
capital per acre.
Utility of the System. — Still there
are many circumstances under which the
system may — especially with fattening
cattle and dairy cows — be pursued with
excellent results. It is specially suitable
for warm climates, where forage crops
may be easily grown, and where cattle
would be disturbed by the excessive heat
in the open fields. Then, where the
supply of water for fields is insufficient,
house-feeding may be followed in prefer-
ence to grazing.
It is not likely, however, that in the
best grazing districts, or in the colder
parts, "soiling" will ever displace the
long - established system of summering
stock on the open fields. Indeed, it has
to be noted that with all the advantages
claimed for it the system of "soiling"
cattle is not gaining ground in this
country.
Review of Feeding Experiments.
In the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society of Scotland for
1909 there appears an exhaustive review
of the results of over two hundred ex-
periments in the feeding of cattle con-
ducted in this country in the seventy-six
years between 1832 and 1909. The
review, which was compiled for the
Society by Mr Herbert Ingle, B.Sc,
F.I.C., from reports appearing in various
publications, is unique in its scope and
character. The results are given in
tabular form, showing amongst other
details—
(i) The average daily ration.
^2) The rate in increase in live-weight.
(3) The quantity of digestible matter
in the ration.
(4) The starch equivalent of the
digestible fat, carbohydrates, amides,
and fibre in the ration.
(5) The albuminoid ratio of the
ration.
(6) The amount of digestjble matter
consumed per i lb. of increase in live-
weight.
A striking feature in the review is the
fact that the results of such a large num-
ber of experiments expressed in such
definite terms as are here adopted should
"372
MANAGEMENT OF STOEE AND FATTENING CATTLE.
be found to be so fully in accord with
orthodox expectations, with what modern
experience and scientific teaching would
lead one to look for. Generally speaking,
a survey of this exhaustive review sup-
ports the conclusion that in the feeding
of their cattle the most up-to-date farmers
of the present day are pursuing lines
that are sound and economic both in a
scientific and practical sense.
Increase in Live - weight. — The
daily increase in live-weight per head,
averaged 1.803 It), for 199 lots. With
these 199 lots arranged in order of daily
gain in steps of a quarter of a pound,
the following table shows the distribu-
tion : —
rage daily gain per head.
number of Lots
ween 0. 25
and
0.5 lb.
2
„ 0.50
0.7s ..
s
., 0.7s
1.0 „
5
„ I.O
1-25 „
4
,. 1.25
1.50 „
29
„ 1.50
I-7S ..
39
>, 1-75
2.0 „
56
.) 2.0
2.25 „
27
>) 2.25
2.50 „
17
.1 2.50
2.7S ..
8
„ 2.7s
3-0 ..
6
.. 3-0
3-25 ..
I
199
Digestible Matter per lb. of In-
crease. — The amount of digestible
matter consumed for each pound of live-
weight increase obtained is no doubt
one of the most important measures of
a system of feeding. In 199 trials the
total average weight of digestible mat-
ter consumed per day per 1000 lb. of
live -weight was 13.92 lb., the highest
being 22.7 lb. and the lowest 7.4 lb. The
weight of digestible matter consumed
for each i lb. of live -weight increase
averaged 9.00 lb. for the 199 lots. In
the majority of the cases the amount
was between 9 and 10 lb., more than 78
per cent being between 6 and 1 1 lb., and
more than 50 per cent between 7 and
10 lb.
Digestible Albuminoids. — The
amount of digestible albuminoids sup-
plied per day for 1000 lb. live- weight
averaged 1.675 ^^- f^"^ ^99 ^o^s, the
lowest being o.ii lb., and the highest
3.68 lb. The following table shows (i)
the amount of digestible albuminoids
consumed per day per 1000 lb. weight
by the lots in various grades, (2) the
average gain per day in live-weight, and
(3) the amount of digestible matter con-
sumed for I lb. of live-weight increase : —
Receiving less than 0.25 lb. per day
„ between 0.25 and 0.5 „
„ 0.50 and 0.7s „
„ 0.7s and 1.0
„ „ 1.0 and 1.25
„ „ 1. 25 and 1.50
1.50 and 1.7s
„ „ 1,75 and 2.0
„ „ 2.0 and 2.25
„ „ 2.25 and 2.50
„ „ 2.50 and 2.75
2.75 and 3.0
3.0 and -J 'c
above 3. 25
I 3-25
3 lots
6 „
9 „
12 „
20 „
25 .,
28 „
39 >,
19 =,
18 „
12 „
4 ,,
3 „
I lot
199
11*0 00 (TOin
Digest
tiragt: gain
er day in
lb.
matter for
I lb. in-
crease.
0.97
13- S3
1.70
7-95
1.69
8.92
1-95
8.62
1.80
8.72
1.82
8.65
1.72
9.60
1.8s
936
1.86
8.29
i.8s
8.27
1-93
8.38
2.00
8-93
1-57
8.90
1. 19
11.30
It will be observed that the amount of
digestible albuminoids given per day
was between i.o and 2.0 lb. in 55 per
cent of the trials.
Albuminoid Ratio. — As would be
expected, a wide range is exhibited in
the albuminoid ratios of the rations.
The average for the whole of 199 lots
was I : 7.65, the widest being i : 69.5,
and the narrowest i : 2.7.
Influence of Age on Teeding. —
The particular ages at which cattle
can be fattened most profitably is a
matter of much interest Some light
is thrown upon this point by the fol-
lowing table shov^ing the, quantity of
albuminoids plits the starch equivalent
of the other food constituents con-
sumed per I lb. of live-weight increase
in 142 lots: —
PREPARING CATTLE FOR SHOWS.
373
6 months old
81o
tB consuming 8.17 lb.
for I lb. incn
12 „ „
14
«.IS
i8
11
8.74
2 years „
5'
9.99
2% ■
i8
8.97
3 » .. •
. 38
8-55
4 „ ,. •
2
9.80
142
As would be expected, the younger
animals made increase with less con-
sumption of food, but the three-year-old
cattle appear to have utilised their food
better than those two years old.
Leguminous Fodders. — The par-
ticulars relating to the merits of the
different classes of fodders indicate that
a leguminous fodder such as clover-hay
is exceptionally valuable in the fatten-
ing of cattle. In 17 cases where
clover-hay formed a constituent of the
daily ration, the average amount of
digestible matter consumed per i lb. of
increase of live -weight was only 7.47
lb., and if two of these cases be ex-
cluded, the value becomes only 7.01 lb.,
while the average daily gain per head
of the animals is 2.13 lb. These figures
compare very favourably with the means
of the whole, which are 9 lb. and 1.803
lb. respectively. This very significant
result is worthy of note by cattle-
feeders. The good effects of clover-hay
as a constituent of a feeding ration is
doubtless partly due to its high con-
tent of albuminoids, but, in the opinion
of Mr Ingle, is probably also connected
with the nature and amount of its ash
constituents.
PREPARING CATTLE FOR SHOWS.
The following notes on the selection
and preparing of cattle for showing are
from the pen of Mr Robert Bruce, him-
self for many years an exceptionally suc-
cessful breeder and exhibitor of cattle of
different varieties : —
Before referring to the preparation of
animals for exhibition at the principal
shows, it may be well to speak of the
selection of the subjects, upon which
much trouble and expense have to be
expended before the owner can expect
to put creditable exhibits in the judging
ring.
It has to be realised that in these days
the competition is keener than at any
former time in the history of our show
system, and that there is a yearly increas-
ing number of thoroughly capable men
in charge of showyard stock, who turn
out the animals under their care in the
" pink of condition."
The great demand for high -class
specimens of all our different breeds of
cattle, which has been experienced for a
considerable length of time, and the re-
munerative prices obtained for winning
animals, have led to an increasing number
of owners of pedigree herds and show-
yard exhibitors.
Improvement in Shovsr Stock. —
Those who can look back upon the cattle
that appeared at our National shows
prior to about 1870 cannot fail to realise
the great changes that have taken place
in the preparation and management of
showyard animals, and that the average
merit of showyard specimens is much
higher to-day than at any former period.
The very fact that such is the case has
led casual critics to assert that we do
not now see in our showyards the same
splendid specimens which we did in
former times. Opinions by the majority
of such critics are formed upon com-
parison, and there can be no doubt but
that there is now a much narrower
margin of excellence between the differ-
ent exhibits in a class than was the case
on former times, and in consequence the
winners certainly do not appear to be
the same outstanding specimens they
374
PEEPAEING CATTLE FOE SHOWS.
■were when the average quality of the
showyard animals was of a much lower
standard.
Selecting Show Stock. — Bearing in
mind the competition that has now to be
faced, much care ought to be devoted to
the selection of the animals intended for
the showyard. At the early age at which
the selection has to be made, there must
be in the whole matter a considerable
amount of chance, and even those who
may be considered experts f)refer to put
several of their youngsters upon the
probation list before making die final
selection.
G-ood Breeding IBasential. — ^In mak-
ing a selection, the all-important matter
of breeding must receive attention and
only well-bred specimens put on such a
list. In using the term "well-bred"
there is no intention to confine the
meaning of the expression to any par-
ticular strain of blood that for the time
being may be fashionable with owners of
the particular breed to which the animal
or animals may belong. An animal to
be "well-bred" must be the produce of
two good parents, and in forming an
estimate of the qualifications of the
parents, form, constitution, and tempera-
ment must be carefully considered.
Form and Constitution. — Without
the principal points which go to make up
the true form, as recognised in the difier-
ent breeds, it must only be a waste of food
to attempt showyard preparation; and as
the life to which a subject is subjected
while under training for the showyard is
by no means a natural one, strength of
constitution is essential.
Temperament. — Granted that form
is apparent, and strength of constitution
may be reckoned upon through having
been inherited from the parents, the
possession of a docile temperament is
of much importance. No doubt the last-
named qualification may be acquired,
and much depends upon the man in
charge if it has to be developed, but
every practical breeder knows that a
quiet disposition is hereditary, and is a
most important factor in the selection of
animals vrith a view to training for show-
yard contests.
If, therefore, three or four of the best-
bred and most promising-looking calves
of a breeder's lot are selected under the
above conditions, we may at once pro-
ceed to consider the next step towards
preparation for showyard honours.
Proper Age. — Seeing that at most of
the important breeding shows the ages
of animals date from the ist January,
— in some cases from ist December — it
will be at once evident that it is import-
ant the selected calves should have been
born as early in the season as possible, so
that when they come to be shown they
may not be handicapped in the matter
of age.
Calf - rearing. — ^The general practice
pursued by the majority of breeders in
the management of their pure-bred calves
is to allow them to run with and suck
their dams untU they are eight or nine
months old, having taught them in the
meantime to eat cake or other concen-
trated foods before weaning them from
the milk. In these days of keen com-
petition a more artificial system of calf-
rearing is generally pursued by successful
exhibitors.
The system of calf-rearing pursued by
many is to allow the calf to suck its dam
for a week or ten days, when it is taken
off and fed from the bucket or pail, and
when it has once learned to drink it is
supplied with milk long after the usual
weaning age. The importance of con-
tinuing the use of milk after the animal
has passed the calf stage is well under-
stood and largely practised by showyard
exhibitors. The success of such a system
depends much upon the care with which
the quantity given is regulated, more
especially during the first two months
after birth. It must be recognised that
drinking the milk is unnatural, and every
care must be exercised to avoid over-
loading the stomach and upsetting the
digestive organs.
Such a system entails considerable
trouble and labour, which to a great
extent may be avoided by allowing the
calves to suck, and in the earlier stages
of their lives accustoming them to take
to any nurse by frequent changes from
one to the other, so that they are ready
to take to any cow, and continue to suck
so long as it may be considered necessary
they should have milk.
A few weeks after birth calves will
begin to nibble at food, and ought to
receive tit-bits in the form of a handful
PREPAEING CATTLE FOE SHOWS.
375
of sweet meadow-hay, and after a time
small quantities of pulped or finely cut
roots or cabbages^ with a little meal or
finely ground linseed-cake.
3Iixed Feeding-Cakes. — This brings
us to observe that there are in these days
a large number of cakes on the market,
many of which are prepared in a way to
relieve owners of stock of much of the
trouble of mixing and regulating the
quantities of meals and cakes each animal
ought to receive. The time was when
feeders had only linseed and other seed-
cakes, and had to supplement them with
bran and meals given either dry, damp,
or scalded. The prepared cakes referred
to are sold as corn-cakes, feeding-cakes
or composite cakes, and if purchased
with a satisfactorily guaranteed analysis
and relatively cheap, their use will be
found to be labour-saving and economical
in comparison with meals. As a rule, the
cakes referred to have some sweetening
substance in them, such as lociist-beans,
and are readily eaten by young animals.
Housing Calves. — The calves,
whether drinking or sucking the milk,
ought to be kept during the spring
months in properly ventilated, well-
sheltered boxes, facing south if possible,
with an opportunity to spend the greater
portion of the day in the open air in fine
weather.
Salt and Chalk for Calves. — It is
a good plan to have a lump of rock-salt
and one of chalk placed in the boxes
for the calves to lick when they feel
inclined to do so. The benefit of salt
is quite generally understood, and if
chalk is also available it will be seen
that it is applied to counteract acidity
in the stomach, which may occur now
and again, especially when milk is drunk
from the paU.
Quantities of Food and Peculiar-
ities of Animals. — No hard and fast
rules can possibly be laid down regard-
ing the amounts of the different kinds
of food which ought to be given to
animals at any stage of their showyard
preparation, and especially during their
calfhood. Nor would it be well to pre-
scribe a ration, seeing that the most
important element in the matter is the
extreme necessity of attention to the
individuality of the animals in training.
The most successful cattle-feeders are
those who thoroughly realise that every
animal under their care is possessed of
a distinct individuality.
Some consume much more of certain
kinds of food than others, and all have
their fancies, which must he attended to
before a full measure of success in the
attainment of early development can be
expected.
Value of ShoTvyard Honours. —
In connection with this matter it is well
to realise that the expense connected
with showyard preparation must exceed
the immediate return of profit as cal-
culated by increase of weight for value
of food consumed. Showyard honours
are looked upon as advertisements for
herds, and, as a rule, are indirectly pro-
fitable, although there" may be a debit
balance standing against the winning
animals.
During the first summer the best and
most promising of the youngsters on the
probationary list should be kept in their
boxes, while the others may join the
herd and be treated in the ordinary way,
being stronger and more forward than
those they now join, owing to the few
months' showyard preparation they have
received.
During the summer months the nurse
cows should be brought into the yard
morning and evening to suckle the calves
that are not fostered on the pail, and
month by month the youngsters should
get a gradually increasing quantity of
linseed and other cakes, with pulped or
finely cut mangolds and what fresh-cut
grass they will eat. At no time at this
or any period of their showyard prepara-
tion should more of any kind of food be
given than will be at once cleaned up,
and every capable cattleman, by careful
attention to the state of the bowels, will
very soon gauge the amount of the dif-
ferent foods that can be profitably
assimilated by each animal under his
care.
Exercising and Handling. — It need
hardly be said that early in life the
calves must be taught to lead in the
hand, and during the summer months
beyond the exercise they get in the yard
they ought to be led out a distance of
not less than half a mile each second
day at least. Indeed some very success-
ful trainers have their animals led out
376
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
as regularly every week-day as they are
fed. Many prizes are lost in the show-
rings through the inability of the
animals to walk out with that freedom
of, action judges look for in high-class
specimens of showyard cattle.
Attention to Animals' Feet. — In
connection with this subject no amount
of exercise can be of any use unless the
animals' feet are attended to, and with-
out special appliances for either slinging
or throwing the animals, it is a most
difficult matter to turn up the feet so
that the soles can be properly dressed.
If, however, while animals are quite
young, they are accustomed to have their
legs lifted and their feet attended to,
there need be no difficulty in keeping
their feet right at any period of their
lives.
G-rooming. — During the whole time
of preparation the animals' skins ought
to be kept clean and free from vermin,
so that the growth of the hair may be
encouraged and a healthy tone preserved.
An occasional washing with one or other
of the non-poisonous sheep-dips, to be
followed in a few days with a thorough
washing with soap and water and a cold
douche, vsill destroy the vermin and
tend to maintain the skin and hair in
a healthy condition.
Increasing Pood vnth Advancing
Age. — With increasing age and greater
appetite care must be exercised that the
increased diet is composed of the best
quality of sueh foods as the animals eat
with relish, the quantities of each being
based upon evidence deduced by observ-
ing closely the effect of any increase or
change of diet on the health and diges-
tion of the animals.
Use of Condiments. — Many ani-
mals intended for breeding purposes
make their appearance in the judging
rings at an early age, the large pro-
portion of the males being exhibited at
shows and sales from twelve to fifteen
months old. Such being the case, early
development is essential if prizes or
good prices can be looked for, and
however much some breeders may be-
lieve in spices and other condiments,
not a few of the most successful trainers
who have led many winners in the
keenest of competitions have had no
occasion to use such expensive materials.
No doubt these condiments may be
useful in the case of what are termed
"shy feeders," but such animals are, as
a rule, disappointing thrivers even after
being pampered, and in practice it will
be found that close attention to the
requirements and tastes of individual
animals must be looked upon as being
of infinitely more importance than any
dependence upon condiments.
Importance of Practical iBxperi-
enee. — Cattle-feeders of the present day
enjoy privileges that were quite un-
known in days gone by, when the values
and effects of the different kinds of foods
had to be 4ound out by feeders them-
selves« In later times scientists have
done much for the feeder, yet no amount
of scientific knowledge can avail unless
it be combined with a knowledge ob-
tained by practical experience.
In much that is written upon the
subject, the fact often seems to be over-
looked that cattle-feeders have to do
with living subjects having their own
individual peculiarities, so that however
scientifically a ration may be prepared,
it may completely fail in producing the
desired effect.
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
The flocks of the United Kingdom
form a substantial asset in its agriculture.
Their numbers are large, and the enter-
prising and skilful manner in which
they are managed reflects credit upon
their owners. In the breeding, rearing,
and feeding' of sheep in this country
there' have been just as marked advances
in recent times as in the management of
our herds of cattle.
In another part of this volume (pp.
138-206) the many valuable breeds of
sheep kept in the United Kingdom are
fully described, and so also are the
LAMBING SEASON.
377
methods of management pursued in pure-
bred flocks. In view of the fulness of
that information, the details to be given
here regarding the rearing and feeding
of ordinary sheep stocks, need not be
extended to great length.
LAMBINa SEASON.
With the owners of breeding flocks the
lambing season is a busy and anxious
time. The results of the year's opera-
tions depend largely upon how the flock
fares at this season. It is therefore of
the utmost importance that the most
careful attention should be given to the
treatment of the ewes and their offspring
in the tender days of the latter. These
matters, as already indicated, are dealt
with so fully in the section relating to
flocks of the pure breeds that little need be
added here. In their main features, the
systems of management suitable for the
lambing season in pure-bred flocks are
equally well adapted for that period in
ordinary mixed-bred flocks. The atten-
tions of the shepherd should be just as
thorough and careful in the one case as
in the other.
Iiambing - Pens. — On many farms
there are elaborate and costly lambing
sheds and pens built of stone and lime.
On others the lambing-pens are merely
temporary erections, formed, perhaps, of
hurdles and straw ; while in many cases
no lambing-pens of any kind are pro-
vided. Costly erections are not necessary,
but lambing-sheds or lambing-pens of one
kind or other should be provided upon
all farms carrying breeding-sheep, and for
all kinds of sheep, whether the hardy
mountain breeds or the more tender
southern varieties. Little roofed space
may suffice, but there should be a dry
bed and shelter from the prevailing
winds to make it unnecessary to put any
of the ewes and lambs under roof, yet the
means of doing so should exist. The
sudden occurrence of a storm without
proper shelter being at hand for ewes
with very young or tender lambs might
result in serious losses.
Hardiness of Hill Sheep. — Hill sheep
are not as a rule brought into lambing-pens
as is done with lowland breeds. They
produce their young on the hillsides, and
in average seasons the death-rate amongst
hill lambs is wonderfully small. The
vitality of these creatures when newly
dropped is quite marvellous. Still, it is
desirable that, even for the hardy hill'
sheep, some provision should be made
whereby the more weakly lambs may
have shelter in excessively wet cold
weather. For this purpose, it will be
found useful to have some artificial
shelter provided at suitable points
throughout the farms. Little huts con-
structed perhaps of turf, hurdles, and
bundles of straw or rushes, will entail
little outlay or trouble in formation, and
during inclement weather will be found
of great benefit to the ewes and lambs.
Ewes with weakly lambs can be accom-
modated comfortably in these scattered
huts for a few days and nights, the
shepherd carrying or having conveyed
to them some hay, corn, and" roots.
Iiambing Hospital. — A few pens in
a corner of the lambing-fold by them-
selves should always be spt apart for
hospital purposes. They may be formed
of hurdles and straw at very little trouble
and expense, and would be of great
benefit wherever a breeding flock is
kept.
Supplementary Shelter. — In addi-
tion to the regular lambing-fold it would
be well to provide additional shelter in
the form of small covered pens or hijts
at convenient well-sheltered parts of the
farm, for weakly ewes and lambs during
a storm.
Shepherd's Hut. — It is advisable to
have a sleeping-place or shelter for the
shepherd beside the lambing - fold. It
may be a fixed structure or may rest on
wheels and be made of iron or wood.
In many cases shepherds are provided
with medicine - chests furnished with a
considerable variety of medicines and
stimulants, comprising laudanum, lin-
seed-oil, castor-oil, spirits of nitre, Epsom
salts, powdered ginger, powdered chalk,
tincture of aconite, carbolic acid, Galli-
poli^oil, and whisky or brandy, &c.
Assistance in Lambing. — As a rule,
experienced shepherds are very expert
and successful in assisting ewes in lamb-
ing. Young shepherds do not acquire
the skill and deftness required for this
service from books, but from practice in
association with older men, and it is the
378
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
duty of all shepherds to equip themselves
thoroughly for the work as early aa
practicable. Before giving assistance to
a ewe while lambing, the shepherd should
smear his hands as well as the vagina of
the ewe with " carbolic oil " — that is, a
mixture of i part of carbolic acid to lo
parts of pure olive-oil; and a little of this
germ-killer should also be smeared on
the broken umbilical cord at the navel,
especially if the weather is wet and the
land slushy.
The exact moment for rendering assist-
ance can be known only by experience.
It is necessary to watch and wait, for a
hasty parturition often superinduces in-
flammation, if not of the womb, of the
external parts of the ewe.
Inflammation after Iiambing. — Un-
less the utmost care is exercised there is
great risk of losing the ewe after a case
of hard labour, by " bearing " or " strain-
ing "— after - pains — and inflammation.
Formerly the rate of mortality from in-
flammation after lambing was often high,
but it has been abundantly proved that
by timely treatment the danger may be
effectually averted. It has already been
pointed out that in all cases the shepherd,
before assisting a ewe, should smear his
hand in a mixture of carbolic acid and
olive or Gallipoli oil — about i part of
the former to lo parts of the latter.
Then, after the removal of the lamb,
about two tablespoonfuls of the carbolic
acid and oil should be injected into the
womb, while any of the external parts
which seem inflamed should be smeared
with the same mixture. This treatment
should be repeated every three or four
hours, as may be found necessary. The
strength of the carbolic mixture should
be regulated — from lo to 20 parts of
Gallipoli oil to i of carbolic acid — ac-
cording to the symptoms of the case.
The handiest instrument for this pur-
pose, and one which has proved itself
invaluable in the lambing-fold, is made
by fixing a 6- or 7-inch injection- tube
suitable for a female into an indiarubber
enema -tube bulb. It is portable and
convenient, forcing the germ-killing fluid
into all the recesses of the inflamed
womb.
Where the symptoms of inflammation
are serious, a strong mixture should be
applied promptly and frequently.
It should be mentioned that the credit
of discovering this invaluable preventive
belongs to Mr Charles Scott, author of
The, Practice of Sheep Farming.
ABSisting Ijambs in Feeding. —
When lambs do not succeed at once in
finding the teat, the shepherd should
give assistance, and if the supply of milk
should not be suflicient the shepherd
may have to partly feed the lamb on
cow's milk For this purpose he should
have with him a supply of fresh cow's
milk every day.
Cow's Milk for Liambs. — Caution is
required in beginning ■ a young lamb
upon cow's milk. At the outset it
should be given in small allowances and
often. It is best when given immedi-
ately it is drawn from the cow, but if it
has been allowed to cool it may be raised
to its natural heat by being placed in
a cup upon the kitchen-range for a
moment, or by a clean hot iron being
inserted in the milk.
Eemoving Ewes and liambs. — Ewes
are kept on the lambing -ground until
they have recovered from the effects of
lambing, the lambs have become strong,
and the ewes and lambs are well ac-
quainted with each other. The time
required for all this depends on the
nature of the lambing and the state of
the weather. When quite recovered, the
ewes, with their lambs, are put into a
field of new grass, where the milk will
flush upon the ewes, much to the
advantage of the lambs.
Mothering liambs. — ^When ewes and
lambs are turned out to pasture, or out
of the lambing-fold, the shepherd ought
for the first ten days to see, at least
twice a-day, that every lamb is with its
own mother, and especially in the case
of twins, to see that they are both hav-
ing regular access to the right ewe.
Distinctive marks with paint on ewes
and lambs are helpful in this work of
Much trouble is imposed upon shep-
herds when ewes will not take their own
lambs; but this does not often happen.
Another duty which requires tactful con-
duct on the part of the shepherd is the
introducing of a strange lamb to a ewe
that may have lost her own lamb. But
by patience and kindness difiBculties are
usually got over.
LAMBING SEASON.
379
Stimulants for Weak Ziambs. —
"When a lamb has become so prostrate as
to necessitate removal from the mother,
it should not only be placed upon a
woollen cloth near a moderate fire, but
have a little stimulant administered as
well. Some experienced shepherds re-
commend from a half to a whole tea-
spoonful of gin or whisky in a little warm
water, sweetened with moist sugar; a
very little of its mother's milk — or the
milk of another newly-lambed ewe, if its
own mother is not alive — should also be
given without delay. The ewe should be
milked into a small jug or cup, and the
milk at once conveyed to the lamb, which
may be fed by a teaspoon. If the milk
gets cold before being given to the lamb,
it should be heated to the normal tem-
perature by the addition of a few drops
of hot water, or, better still, by a clean
hot piece of iron inserted into it.
Carrying Iianxbs. — Young lambs
should be handled as little as possible.
When they have to be carried, this should
be done by the two fore -legs. Never
seize or carry a lamb by the body.
Cleaning Evsres' Udders. — Any loose
wool should always be removed from the
udders of ewes at lambing, so as to pre-
vent the lamb from swallowing pieces
of wool, and forming hair -balls in the
stomach. These balls often prove fatal
to lambs. They are sometimes formed
by lambs on bare and dirty pasture
where pieces of wool are lying about.
The Iiambing Period. — It may at
first thought seem curious that within
the narrow limits of the British Isles
there should be such a length of time as
there is between the dates of lambing in
the earliest and the latest districts. The
lambing period in this country actually
extends over six months, beginning with
Dorset sheep in the extreme south of
England in November, and ending with
mountain sheep in the north of Scotland
in the month of May.
After Lambing.
Lambing in a flock is usually com-
pleted in four or five weeks. The after-
treatment of the flock varies in accord-
ance with the class of sheep, and the
objects in view.
Castration. — The male lambs not to
be kept as rams are castrated when fr,om
ten days to five weeks old. In some
cases, indeed, castration is performed
when the lambs are otily two or three
days old, but the more general plan is
to delay from, two to four weeks.
In hill stocks castration is not usually
performed until the lambs are fully a
month old ; in other words, the ewes com-
mence to lamb in the third week in April,
and the "marking" takes place about
the end of May, varying a little accord-
ing to circumstances and local custom.
Some farmers have a decided objection
against too early castration, as it tends
to give a feminine appearance to the
wedders, stunting the growth of horn,
and weakening the neck too much.
Great caution is required in castrating
lambs. It should not be done in rainy,
cold, or frosty weather ; nor should the
lambs be heated by being driven before
the operation. They should be caught
and handled gently. One assistant
should catcj^ the lambs, and another
hold them while the shepherd operates.
There are different metliods of castrat-
ing. One method is to make two slight
incisions, one for each testicle; another,
to cut off the point of the scrotum and
pull both testicles through this large
opening — the testicles in both cases
being pulled out by the shepherd's teeth.
The amputated wound takes a consider-
able time to heal, whereas the two
simple, incisions heal by the first in-
tention. It is argued, however, by those
who prefer the latter plan, that there
is an advantage in the larger opening,
as all discharges are more readily got
rid of.
Docking. — ^Advantage is taken of the
opportunity afforded at castration to dock
the tail, which in Scotland is left as long
as to reach the meeting of the hams. In
docking, the division should be made
with a large sharp knife in a joint, when
the wound will soon heal. The lamb,
after being docked, is let down to the
ground by the tail, which has the effect
of adjusting the parts in connection
with the castration. Ewe lambs are
also docked at this time, but they are
not held up, being merely caught and
held by the shepherd between his legs
until the amputation is done.
In England, docking is performed at
the third joint, which gives a stumpy
38o
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
appearance to the tail. The object of
docking is to keep the sheep clean behind
from filth and vermin ; but as the tail is
a protection against cold in winter, it
should not be docked so short in Scotland
as is done in England. Tup lambs, in
order to strengthen the backbone, are
allowed to retain their full tails until
one year old.
Risks from Castration and Dock-
ing.— The scrotum does not bleed in
castration, but the tail often bleeds in
docking for some time in two minute
and forcible streams, though usually the
bleeding soon ceases. Should it continue
as long as to sicken the lamb, a small
cord should be tied firmly round the end
of the tail, but not allowed to remain
on above twenty-four hours, as the liga-
tured point would die by stoppage of
the circulation of the blood, and slough
off. In some instances inflammation
ensues, and the scrotum swells, and
even suppurates, when the wound should
be carefully examined and the matter
discharged.
To avoid ir-ritation to the wounded
scrotum, the new-cut lambs should for a
few days be put on old grass or new
grass, where the stubble is specially short.
A Preventive. — Some farmers use a
mixture of pure olive-oil and spirit of
turpentine for dropping into the scrotum
after extracting the testicles, and the
results they claim are satisfactory. Per-
haps a still better preventive of inflamma-
tion would be a few drops of a solution
of carbolic acid and oil poured into the
scrotum. The knives used in castrating
should be dipped into a disinfecting
solution now and again, to keep them
clean and free from disease germs.
H.ig or Chaser. — Sometimes one of
the testicles does not descend into the
scrotum, when the lamb ultimately be-
comes what is called a rig or chaser — one
which constantly follows and torments
the females of the flock, when near him.
It is not, as a rule, safe to rely upon
such a ram for breeding.
liook to the Pastures. — The state of
the new grass-fields occupied by ewes and
lambs requires consideration. Ewes bite
very close to the ground, and eat con-
stantly as long as the lambs are with
them ; and as they are put on the new
grass in spring, 'before vegetation is much
advanced, they soon render the pasture
bare in the most favourable circumstances,
and especially so when the weather is un-
favourable to vegetation. In cold weather,
in spring, bitten grass soon becomes
brown. Whenever the pasture is seen
to fail, the ewes should be removed to
another field. But in removing ewes
and lambs from a short to a full bite of
grass, caution is required in choosing
the proper time for the removal It
should be done in dry weather, and in
the afternoon.
Shepherding on Arable Farms. —
On low C9untry or arable farms with the
softer breeds of sheep, from 200 to 300
ewes are about as many as one shep-
herd can superintend during the day;
and it may be necessary to have an
assistant for him in the night, to gather
the ewes into shelter at nightfall, and to
take a weakly lamb, or all the lambs
that have dropped during the night, into
sheds erected on purpose, or into shel-
tered stells, as a protection against bad
weather. To ascertain the state of his
flock, he should go through them with a
lantern at least every two hours, and
oftener if necessary.
Shepherding Hill Sheep. — The hardy
breeds of hill sheep need less attention,
especially during the night. Indeed, the
general plan is to leave the flock undis-
turbed during the dead of the night.
The ewes and lambs are turned out to
the dry lair over- night, and there the
shepherd looks over them carefully, per-
haps as late as eleven o'clock, while he
or his substitute returns to them as early
as 3 or 4 A.M., when daylight is making
its appearance.
Aihnents among Ijambs. — Young
lambs, as long as they are dependent on
their mother for food, are subject to few
diseases. A change to new luxuriant
grass in damp weather may bring on the
skit or diarrhoea, and exposure to cold
may produce the same effect. As long
as the lamb feeds and plays, there is
little danger ; but should it appear dull,
its eyes watery and heavy, and its joints
somewhat stiff, remedial means should
immediately be used. In the first place,
it is usual to give a gentle aperient, say,
half an ounce of Epsom salts, with half
a drachm of ginger, and this may be
followed by a tablespoonful of sheep's
LAMBING SEASON.
381
cordial, consisting of equal parts of
brandy and s*eet spirits of nitre.
Ailments amongst Ewes. — After
recovery from lambing, the complaint
the ewe is most subject to is inflam-
mation in the udder, or vdder-clap or
garget. The shepherd must give careful
attention to this, and apply the usual
remedies where required. Directions
for the treatment of ailments amongst
live stock are given at the end of this
volume.
Abortion among Ewes.
Ewes in lamb are liable to abortion,
or slipping of the lamb, as it is termed,
as well as cows, but not to so great an
extent, nor does the complaint so often
become epidemic in its character. It is
known, however, that there is a form of
abortion amongst ewes which is caused
by a specific germ (see p. 337 of this
volume). Various other causes produce
abortion amongst ewes, such as severe
weather in winter, having to endure
much fatigue in snow, leaping ditches,
being frightened by dogs, over-driving,
feeding on unripe watery turnips, &c.
TJnripe Roots and Abortion. — The
clearest evidence as to the evil influence
of exclusive feeding of in-lamb ewes upon
unripe watery roots was obtained by
Professor Axe in the season 1882-1883.
The turnip crop in that season was un-
usually abundant, and, owing to the
mild winter of 1882 - 1883, continued
to grow, and remained throughout the
season in an unripe and exceptionally
watery condition. Of the total number
of ewes (about 7800) fed exclusively
on roots, no fewer than 19 per cent
aborted ; while, where the roots were sup-
plemented by frequent changes to grass,
the rate of abortion fell to 3 per cent,
and to i^ per cent where the roots were
supplemented by corn and cake, or some
other substantial aliment.
In reference to the high-pressure sys-
tem of forcing the growth of roots by the
free application of artificial manures, and
the growing practice of sowing roots late
and beginning their consumption early.
Professor Axe remarks that these are
inconsistent with full maturation and
ripening of roots, and that on this ac-
count " the desirability of a guarded
and judicious employment of this de--
VOL. III.
scription of food in the management of
breeding stock cannot be too forcibly
insisted upon."
He also very strongly objects to the
"too common system which condemns
pregnant ewes to live exclusively on
filth -laden shells" behind other sheep,
which get the best of the fresh roots.
Foot - rot and Abortion. — It was
shown clearly that foot -rot contributed
largely to the cases of* abortion. In
flocks where it prevailed to any extent
the rate of abortion was 4j^ per cent
greater than in those in which there was
no foot-rot.
Twins and Abortion. — The cases of
abortion were much more numerous with
twin than with single lambs. Indeed,
for every abortion with a single lamb
there were six abortions with twin-lambs
— pointing, as Professor Axe says, "to
the existence of some debilitating cause
unfitting the ewes with twins to meet
the greater demands on their nutritive
resources, while influencing in a less de-
gree those with singles."
Preventive Measures. — The follow-
ing preventive measures are recommended
by Professor Axe : —
" I. That from the time ewes are
placed on turnips to the time when they
lamb down, they should receive a liberal
amount of dry food, to be regulated ac-
cording to the nature of the season and
the condition of the roots.
" 2. The quantity of roots should at
all times be limited, and besides shells,
a fresh break should be given every day
after the hoar-frost has disappeared, and
in the early spring the tops should be
removed.
" 3. Change from the fold to the open
pasture twice or thrice a-week, or for a
few hours each day, if convenient, is
desirable, and especially when the lair
is bad.
"4. Protection from cold winds and
driving rains should be provided in
stormy weather.
" 5. Plenty of trough-room should be
provided, and ample space allowed for
the ewes to fall back.
•• " 6. All troughs should be shifted
daily, and set well apart.
" 7. Dry food should be given at the
same time as the fresh break of roots, to
prevent crowding at the troughs.
2 B
382
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
" 8. Rock-salt should be at all times
accessible.
" 9. Animals suffering from foot-rot,
or otber forms of lameness, should be
removed from the fold, and placed on
.dry litter, and receive such other atten-
tion as the nature of the case may in-
dicate." 1
SHEEP IN SUMMER AND
AUTUMN.
The summer is the season of least
anxiety with flock - owners and their
shepherds. Unless abnormally unfavour-
able weather should be experienced the
duties of shepherds in the summer mofiths
are not likely to be arduous, yet the
really efficient shepherds keep a con-
stant and careful watch over the flocks
in their charge throughout the whole
year.
Ewes and Lambs.
The treatment of ewes and lambs
during summer varies greatly, according
to the locality and character of the
grazing, the class of sheep, and the ends
in view with the lambs and their
mothers.
In ordinary unpedigreed flocks, where
the ewes are to be kept for further breed-
ing, and the lambs for breeding or for
fattening later on, they graze together
till weaning time, no extra food being
given in ordinary circumstances. Where
ewes and lambs are to be fattened for
Slaughter in the course of the summer
or autumn, extra food is allowed all
through the season, as is usually the case
in pure-bred flocks where the youngsters .
are intended largely for breeding pur-
poses.
For information regarding methods of
feeding ewes and lambs where grazing
alone is not relied upon, the reader is
referred to the section in this volume
dealing with pure-bred sheep, pp. 138-
205. The methods of treating ewes and
lambs pursued in all parts of the country
are so fully stated in t|iose pages that
further details here would be mere
repetition.
' Jour. Soy. jigric. Soc. of Eng., vol. xxi.
(1885), p. 199.
Pastwring Sheep on Arable Farms.
The method of pasturing sheep on
arable land is regulated according to the
class of stock kept and the nature and
management of the farm. The stock
may be a breeding or " flying " (hogging)
one, or a certain modification of either,
or both these recognised classes. A ewe
stock is generally found where the farm
is largely under rotation grasses or per-
manent pasture. The hogging system,
on the other hand, prevails where the
farm is worked in rotation, and the soil
adapted for turnip culture.
Summer Fattening. — Sheep intended
to be fattened on the pastures during
summer are usually graded in lots, ac-
cording to the conveniences on the farm
in the way of separate fields. And it is
a matter of great importance on grazing
farms to have a good many fields of
small or moderate size, rather than fewer
fields of greater area. Of the sheep to
be fattened a draw of the best is made,
and these are put into the best piece of
pasture. With plenty of good sweet
pasture, and perhaps a little cake and
grain, they will now fatten rapidly. ;»
Bruised oats are much in favour for
fattening sheep on pasture.
Store Sheep in Summer. — The sheep
to be kept simply in good store condition
during summer are of course treated less
sumptuously than the fattening sheep.
A common plan with a flock of hoggs is
to select the leanest and smallest, and
assign these to the best of the pasture
available for the store sheep, so that
upon this (and perhaps a little extra
food in the shape of oats) they may so
develop as to "match" more evenly with
the " tops " at the time of selling.
Shifting Sheep on Pastures. — When
sheep are enclosed on fields, it, is very
desirable that they should be frequently
shifted on to fresh pasture. The change
will be beneficial both for the sheep and
the pasture. It will be all the better for
the sheep if the changes can be arranged
from poorer to richer food. Where the
fields are large they should be divided,
perhaps by a temporary fence of wire or
iron hurdles.
Water for Sheep. — There is a pre-
vailing idea amongst many farmers that
there is little or no necessity to provide
SHEEP IN SUMMER AND AUTUMN.
383
"water for sheep on pasture. This is a
serious mistake, -which is responsible for
greater losses to flock-owners than would
be readily imagined, especially when feed-
ing on cake or other concentrated foods
is practised. On succulent pasture with
heavy dews sheep may require no further
supply of water j but in dry weather and
on dry pasture they cannot thrive and
maintain good health without access to
water.
Salt for Sheep. — Salt is especially
necessary for sheep. It gives tone to
"the system, and should always be within
their reach. Common salt may be given
to them in partially covered boxes on
the fields, or rock-salt may be put within
their reach.
Maggot-fly. — During warm weather
the shepherd should have his eye upon
«very sheep on the farm at least twice
a-day. At thfs time they are liable to
be attacked by the "maggot -fly." If
any animal is seen to be restless, twist-
ing its body, shaking its tail, and run-
ning forwards with its head bent down,
the shepherd should catch it, and most
likely on close examination he will find
a colony of maggots located about the
hind parts. In hot weather the shepherd
should never go to the fields without
having in his pocket a bottle of dip-
mixture or fly-oil. With this he anoints
the part attacked, and shakes out the
maggots from the wool. This simple
treatment will be quite sufficient.
Undipped Sheep Falling. — Long-
wooUed sheep, hoggs especially, before
being clipped, are so loaded with wool
that, when annoyed by the ked, they are
apt to roll upon their backs ; and when
that happens they are sometimes unable
to get up again. They lie awkward or
awald, and would soon die. Shepherds
have to watch carefully to guard against
deaths from this mishap.
Many collie dogs are quick in observ-
ing sheep in this state, and some will
run and take hold of the wool, and pull
the sheep over on its feet. Shepherds
cannot be too alert in visiting sheep on
pasture at this season.
Pasturing Sheep on Hill-fa/rms.
The system of management pursued on
hill-farms in carrying flocks from spring
until weaning-time is usually very simple.
Stocking' on Hill - farms. — The
classes of sheep kept on hill-farms are
arranged to suit the character of the
land, the nature of the pasture, the alti-
tude and exposure of the farm. A com-
mon plan is to maintain a stock of ewes
on the low ground attached to hill-farms,
or where the heath is well mixed with
green ground, or interspersed by stream-
lets with green banks. Young sheep are
placed on ground similar in character,
but with a less admixture of green pas-
ture. Older sheep generally occupy the
higher grounds.
Pasture Plants on Hilly G-round. —
The intelligent shepherd observes care-
fully the difi'erent kinds and succession
of pasture plants suitable for the feeding
of sheep, and as these attain sufficient
growth he gives his flock a turn upon
them. For instance, in most parts dur-
ing January and February, "mossing"
is usually plentiful ; in April and May,
" deerhair " becomes a standard plant ;
in June, July, and August, green banks,
" haughs," and old pasture land are at
their best ; in September and October,
"prie" and "stool bent" come up; and
. in November and December, '?moss leek"
and coarse bent and heath come in for
use.
There is thus upon hill-farms, embrac-
ing high and low ground, a wonderfully
complete succession of pasture plants.
It is the object of the careful 'Shepherd
to take advantage of these as they come
up in turn ; and the flock-owner's bal-
ance-sheet may be largely influenced by
the manner in which these successional
growths are observed and utilised.
Heather-burning.
As heath constitutes a large ingredient
in the food of mountain sheep, it is im-
portant that heath-burning should be
carried out systematically, so as to have
at all times a succession of young and
old heath. Sheep-farmers have long been
in the habit of burning a portion of the
heath on their farms everyyear, with the
view of allowing it to grow again, that
its yolmg shoots may support sheep in
those parts of the grazing where there is
little grasS: Burning causes an abundant
growth of young shoots ; it is therefore
the interest of both landlord and tenant
that the heath should be so burned as
384
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
to produce the greatest growth of young
shoots.
Methods of Burning. — Various
methods of heather^burning are pursued.
The best plan is to burn in regular rota-
tion, so that every piece of heather on
the farm be burned at intervals of about
eight years or less.
The burning of heather is controlled
by the regulations of the property, and
is usually carried out at the sight of and
with the assistance of the gamekeeper
and his gillies, the shepherd helping and
pointing out the- most suitable parts.
Heather takes about three years before
it sprouts aften. burning, but often on
the burned ground other plants come
up soon which are useful to sheep.
Sheep-washing.
There has from time to time been
much discussion as to the utility of
washing sheep before clipping them.
Objects in "Washing. — -There is a two-
f61d object in washing sheep— to free the
wool from earthy material and improve
its lustre, and cleanse the skin of the
sheep from incrusted matter.
Opposition to Washing. — It is main-
tained by many flockmasters that any
depreciation in the price per pound for
unwashed wool is fully compensated by
the greater weight of the fleece, and that
the advantage to be derived from having
the skin of the sheep cleaned by washing
may be .more than counterbalanced by
the risk and trouble of the after-washing.
It is better, they think, that the clean-
ing of the wool should be left to the
manufacturer.
Washing is pursued to a large extent
in some districts, chiefly where the sheep
are kept on arable land, and in others
hardly any washing takes place. Per-
haps about a third of the sheep stock
may be washed.
Study the Market. — ^The best guide
as to the expediency of washing sheep»
will be the tendency of the wool trade
— whether washed or unwashed wool
finds the greater favour, or brings rela-
tively the higher price. The advantages
from washing are, as a rule, relatively
greater when prices of wool are high
than when they are low. The loss of
a weight by washing will most likely be
from I to 2 lb. per fleece, and washed
wool will usually bring, from ij^d. to
3d. per lb. more than' unwashed wool.
The cost of washing would be from id.
to ij^d. per head.
Methods of Washing. — There are
different methods of washing sheep.
It is most frequently done in a pool
about 3 feet deep, formed in a small
stream ; but where a stream does not
exist it may be done in a natural pond
or at the side of a lake. A pool with a
muddy bottom is not suitable. It is-
important to have grass-land on both
sides of the pool.
The sheep to be washed are enclosed
on one side of the pool, the animals be-
ing one by one pushed or drawn intO'
the water and made to go out at the-
other side. For a day or more after
washing the sheep should be kept on
the cleanest grass-land available, where-
there are no bare earthy banks.
In small flocks washing is sometimes-
carried out in large tin baths.
Time of Washing. — Washing takes
place about eight or ten days before
clipping.
Lambs are very rarely washed.
Shearing of Sheep.
This is an interesting event on sheep-
farms. In most parts the sheep-shearing-
is regarded as a joyous occasion — a sort
of harvest — in which a liberal allowance
of beef and broth and ale is dispensed
to the clippers engaged in the laborious-
work. It is a point of great importance
to have dry settled weather for this
operation ; and as the time approaches,,
flock- owners watch the weather indica-
tions with some anxiety.
Time of Shearing. — The exact time-
of shearing varies with the locality, the
class of sheep, and the season. The
clipping season may be said to extend
from the middle of May till the end of
July. The new growth of wool should
be well started before the clipping,
begins.
If the sheep have been washed, they
may be clipped about eight or ten days- ^
thereafter.
The tups are first shorn, then the hoggs
and wethers, and lastly the ewea
On Lowland and mixed husbandry
farms a covered place is generally selected
for clipping. Upon large sheep-farms
SHEEP IN SUMMER AND AUTUMN.
38s
facilities are provided for clipping at the
sorting-pens, where there is often shed
■accommodation.
In case of dew or rain in the morning,
as many dry sheep may be brought into
the barn on the previous evening as the
■number of clippers will shear on the
■ensuing day.
Force at Clipping. — It is customary
for neighbouring sheep-farmers to assist
Fig. ■j^j.—Wool-skears.
■each other in clipping. The emulation
amongst a number of men clipping to-
gether not only expedites the shearing of
the individual flock, but makes the work
■cheerful, and calls forth the best and
quickest specimens of workmanship
from each clipper. Many additional
hands have to be hired or transferred
from other farm-work for the occasion,
the number required varying with the
size of the flock.
Wool - shears. — The tool with
which the wool is clipped off sheep is
made of steel, in the form of shears,
whose broad blades are connected by
an elastic ring (fig. 747).
Avoiding Injury to the Sheep. —
Shearers who are expert and careful
scarcely ever injure sheep in clipping,
but when the skin does get cut with
the shears the wound should be at
once dressed with tar. It is important
in clipping to keep the points of the
shears clear of the skin, which may be
done by gently pressing the blades upon
the body of the sheep.
Methods of Clipping. — There are
various methods of clipping sheep. The
process is intricate, and can be learned
only by practice. Many clippers, women
as well as men, become very expert at
the work, and will clip from 25 to 30
sheep per day, some of them even more.
Shearing Iiambs. — In the extreme
south of England, the practice of clip-
ping lambshas long been pursued. It
is by degrees spreading northwards, and
is considered by many flock -owners to
be decidedly beneficial to the progress of
the lambs. In the case of lambs which
are to be fattened oflf in the course of
their first winter or following spring, it
is specially advantageous to clip them
as lambs. Lambs' wool is usually in
request at a comparatively high price.
It is generally past midsummer before
lambs are shorn.
Sheep - shearing Machines. — The
shearing of sheep by mechanical appli-
ances is now carried out successfully,
and to a large extent, especially on the
great sheep - ranges of the colonies.
There are several excellent shearing
machines in use, all of them working
on the principle of the horse - clipper.
The first of them was the "Wolseley,"
brought out in Australia in the closing
quarter of the nineteenth century. In
many cases hand-power is sufficient, but
steam, oil, and other engines are used
where the flocks are very large. A
Fig. 748. — Hand-^tywer sheep-shearer.
hand -power single clipper (Stewart's),
fixed to a post, is shown in fig. 748.
Storing Wool. — As they are taken
from the sheep the fleeces are '•carefully
assorted, freed from lumps of dung,
straws, thorns, or other rubbish, and
rolled up for storing. In some cases the
fleeces are immediately put into large
canvas sacks or pack -sheets, but, as a
rule, this is not done till the time of
delivery to the buyer. On large farms
a wool -room is provided, but in many
cases the wool is stored in a granary or
outhouse. The wool should be kept dry
and cool, and out of the reach of dust
light, and moths.
386
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
Weaning Lambs.
The time of the year for the weaning
of lambs, like that of the lambing itself,
is subject to great variation throughout
the' country. - June, July, and August
are* the weaning months, southern arable
farms coming first, and northern hill-
farms last. In some cases in the south
weaning takes place as early as May.
In many cases hill lambs are not now
weaned. Those to be sold are sent to
the marts directly they are taken from
the ewes, and the lambs to be retained'
longer in the flock are allowed to remain
with their mothers. This system is
harder upon the ewes, but the gain to
the young stock is substantial It is
believed that lambs allowed thus to
remain with their ipothers are less
liable to "braxy" in the autumn
months than lambs weaned ' in the
ordinary way.
Treatment of SvT'es and Ijambs. —
As to the treatment of ewes and lambs
at the weaning time, information is
given in the portions of this volume
dealing with the management of pure-
bred flocks. Nothing further need be
said on the matter here beyond urging
the importance of the shepherd watch-
ing carefully lesj any ewe should suffer
from a psrsistent sjjpply of milfc. If
ewes after weaning are removed to close-
eaten dry pasture, there will, as a rule,
be little danger ; hvjk in extreme cases
it may be advisable to relieve the udder
by drawing away a little milk by hand,
taking care-not to empty, but merely to
slacken, the udder.
After - treatment of Iiambs. — The
treatment in the way of feeding given
to the Iambs after weaning depends
maiWy upon the purpose for which the
youngsters are designed. If they are to
be fattened off early on the farm, or sold
to others for this purpose, they are fed
highly all along. The lambs to be kept
for breeding purposes or for fattening at
a later time are treated more moder-
ately. The systems pursued in the dif-
ferent parts of the country in the rear-
ing of lambs after weaning are indicated
in the description of the management of
pure - bred* flocks in an earlier part of
this volume.
Fattening Xiambs. — The rate at
which the lambs are forced will, of
course, be regulated to suit the time
at which it is desired to have them
ready for slaughter. In Hampshire and.
other parts in the south of England,
where the fattening of lambs for-
slaughter at nine to eleven months old
is extensively pursued, the system of
feeding is most liberal and highly forc-
ing. Until early turnips are ready, the
youngsters have frequent changes — per-
haps weekly — upon rich pasture, lucerne,
and clover aftermath, with all they can
well consume of cake and grain. Then
on turnips they have artificial food and
hay.
The raising of fat lambs for early
slaughter is pursued extensively, espe-
cially in the south of England, and Jn
these cases both ewes and lambs are fed
highly. Lambs being fattened after
weaning get ample supplies of highly
forcing food, as is shown in the feeding"
of Hampshire lambs at p. 173 of this
volume.
Drafting Lambs. — After weaning
the lambs are drafted, so that the
various classes may be assigned to the
intended purposes. Most probably the
stronger of the wether lambs and the
greater number (the best) of the ewe
lambs will be retained to run on the
farm along with the old sheep until
lat^ in the season. The others may be
sent to arable farms to be wintered on
grass and turnips. Those kept behind
are drafted to the low country, as the
pasture becomes scarce on- the high
ground, and as the winter approaches.
Ma/rking Sheep.
Sheep are marked for the purposes of
identification and classification, in vari-
ous ways and at different times. There
are the farm or flock mark, the age
mark, and the pedigree or breeding
mark. To provide these, five distinct
systems of marking are in use — ear-
mark, tar-mark, keel-mark, horn-brand,
and tatooing letters and figures in the
ears. (A convenient system of ear-mark-
ing is shown in fig. 704, p. 167, in this
volume.)
Tar should be used sparingly in mark-
ing the fleece, so as to avoid as far as
possible injuring the selling value of
the wool.
SHEEP IN SUMMER AND AUTUMN.
387
Begistering Marks. — To facilitate
the recovery of strayed sheep, the flock-
masters in several counties and districts
register their respective marks, and
publish these in book or pamphlet
form. This is an excellent plan,
especially useful in large pastoral dis-
tricts where there is little fencing.
Dipping Sheep.
, In order to protect them from insect
attacks, and to generally promote their
health and comfort, sheep are dipped, or
dressed in some other way, once or twice
a-year. With the view of getting rid of
"scab," stringent Dipping Orders have
been introduced by the Board of Agri-
culture. These vary from time to time,
and it is of the utmost importance that
flock-owners and their shepherds should
make themselves familiar with all changes
in the Orders as they appear.
Former Customs. — Formerly it was
the custom to "bathe" the sheep on
lowland and arable farms, while the
sheep on hill -farms were "smeared."
The latter method was preferred for
high-lying farms, because "smearing"
tends to keep sheep warmer in exposed
parts, and to render them less liable to
be affected by changes in the weather.
Bathing and smearing have both to
a very large extent given place to
"dipping," yet it will be useful to in-
dicate briefly how these older methods
were carried out.
Bathing. — For bathing, or " pouring "
as it was sometimes called, the utensils
Fig. 749. — Baih-stoolfor stteep.
required are, — a bathing-stool, such as is
shown in fig. 749; a bath-jug or a tin
bottle with a pipe passed through the
cork, and a tub or other vessel to hold
the bathing mixture.
The sheep is placed on its belly on
the stool, with its lees passed through
the rungs, the head oeing towards the
shepherd, who sits on the end of the
stool. The shepherd with his thumbs
and forefingers sheds the wool along the
centre of the back from the head to the
tail, and opens the shed with the palms
of his hands. A boy then pours the
liquid from the tin or jug along the
shed, following the shepherd's hands,
from the tail to the head of the
sheep. Other sheds are made, about
3 inches apart, until the whole animal
is covered, and from these sheds the
liquid bathes the entire skin of the
sheep.
Sm.earing. — Smearing is done in a
manner similar to bathing, although the
materials used are different. The smear-
ing mixture consists of tar and butter,
made up in such proportion as to be
sufficiently consistent to be readily lifted
on the finger of the operator. It is ap-
plied in the sheds of the wool by the
shepherd himself, who takes from tho
kit or tub beside him a portion of the
mixture with his forefinger, and rubs
it into the shed. The sheds are made
closer than for bathing, perhaps an inch
or an inch and a quarter apart. The
entire body is thus gone over, so that
the sheep becomes enveloped in a close
matted covering of wool, tar, and butter.
Bip'^ng.
This is the most expeditious and now
almost the universal method of dressing
sheep.
Process of I>ipping. — The operation
of dipping is simple in the extreme.
The sheep are either plunged or made to
swim through* a specially prepared tub,
bath, or tank, containing the dipping
liquid, after which they are kept on a
drainer until the liquid ceases dripping
from their fleeces.
The chief recommendations of dipping,
therefore, are cheapness, efficiency, and
remarkable despatch.
Constrttction of Dipping-hath.
Dipping-baths of many different pat-
terns are in use throughout the country.
.Some are small and movable, others large
and permanently fixed.
Swimming - T^atli. — Forjarge flocks
388
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
the modern swimming-bath is the most
convenient. Directions as to the con-
struction and working of a bath of this
kind are given in an admirable treatise
on Sheep-Dipping by the late Mr David
Wood. Flock-owners would find it useful
to refer to this pamphlet. ^
Process of Sipping. — The process of
dipping in this bath is thus described by
' AV. Blackwood & Sons. Price Is.
Mr Wood : " All being ready for starting,
we will suppose a good number has to be
dipped : two persons will be needed to
bring the sheep forward ; two, or, better
still, three should stand at the side of
the bath, to guide tha
sheep through. Le^
the one nearest the
catching or entrance
pen take hold of each
sheep with one hand
as it comes forward
and as it walks down
the sloping board, and
with the other hand
press down the hinder
part of the sheep, keep-
ing the head above the
mixture. , It will be
found when the sheep
has a good coat of
wool upon it, that
considerable pressure
is needed to get it
down, but it is of
great advantage to do
so. Let the sheep
then be passed on to
the next assistant, and
so on until it gets foot-
hold up the sloping
gangway."
Plans of Bath. —
The bath described by
Mr Wood is repre-
sented in fig. 750,
which shows a bath
erected at Bailliemore
Farm, Strachur, Ar-
gyllshire. The sheep
enter the catching or
gathering pens at No.
I, which is formed in-
side one large division
of fold ; through gate-
way A pass into No. 2 ;
through gateway B,
thence into the bath.
No. 3, passing up into
I t^e dripper, No. 4.
When drained, they
pass out of the upper end of dripper
back into a second division of large fold
through gateway c. Pens Nos. i and 2
will hold 'about as many sheep as both
divisions of dripper 4, 4. The boiler-
house is built so as to take advantage of
SHEEP IN SUMMER AND AUTUMN.
389
"wall of large fold, one side of it forming
a side of pen No. 2.
Cost of Bath. — The cost of erecting
this bath, exclusive of the boiler-house,
and allowing nothing for the carting or
the timber, which was grown on the
estate, amounted to only about ;£io.
Stone and 'Wood Baths. — The main
plan of the bath and dippar described by
Mr Wood is well suited for swimming-
baths of all sizes ; but later eipwience
has shown that it is easier for both
sheep and shepherd to have the bath
deeper set in the ground, so that the
top is level with the surface, and a space
for standing in made about 3 J^ feet deep
at each side of the dipper. DiiFerent
materials are used in the construction
of dipping-baths. Wood is largely em-
ployed ; but the best kind of material is
the Caithness flagstone — that is, where
it or any similar flagstones can be ob-
tained conveniently, and at reasonable
cost.
Tossing Sheep into Bath. — The con-
struction of the passage leading into the
bath, so as to facilitate the driving of the
sheep into the latter, requires considera-
tion. The sheep are of course reluctant
to walk into the liquid. It is a good
plan to let the floor of the passage ter-
minate in a trap-board, which capsizing
forwards, tosses the sheep into the bath
in true bathing attitude.
Some farmers consider that the catch-
ing or " gripping" pen may be advantage-
ously dispensed with — a short passage
or "shedder" being formed between the
gathering-pen and the bath. The best
method of regiflating the passage of the
sheep is by hanging a small gate just
inside the trap -board, and keeping a
lad in charge of it. By adopting this
method the services of the "grippers"
are unnecessary, and the rough handling
the sheep might otherwise experience is
avoided.
In some of the modern patent dippers
there are ingenious trap-dpor arrange-
ments, by which, one at a time, the
sheep are sunk gently into tlje bath,
being thus dipped without any shock.
Plunge -bath. — For small flocks the
small plunge-bath is still most largely
nsed. It is generally constructed of
wood or flagstone, and the sheep have
to be lifted both into and out of it.
Dipping Mixtures.
The flock-owner has almost unlimited
choice as to the material to be used in
bathing or dipping his sheep. Prepared
sheep -dips are in the market by the
score. To say that they are all good
would be sajdng too much. There are
at least a dozen, however, which are ex-
tensively employed, and each of which is
cordially commended by diflerent flock-
owners. A certificate is given by the
Board of Agriculture for those dips
which are found efficient for the cure of
scab, when used according to directions.
ITon-poisonous Dips. — - These dips
are roughly classified into poisonous and
non-poisonous dips, those which contain
poisonous ingredients and those which do
not. It is believed, however, that some of
the so-called non-poisonous dips are such
only in name. Indeed it is affirmed by
many farmers that perfectly non-poison-
ous dips would be ineffectual in destiioy-
ing keds and other insects unless used at
greater strength than directed by their
makers. Non-poisonous dips will kill
the insects, but not the embryo or eggs.
These develop later ; and for this reason,
those who use non-poisonous dips have
to dip twice in order to thoroughly
cleanse their sheep. The interval
between the two dippings usually ex-
tends to ten days or a fortnight.
Composition of Dips. — Non-poison-
ous dips are, as a rule, made up of
carbolic acid in one form or other; an
alkali soft soap, with sometimes a slight
addition of sulphur. The poisonous
dips are in most cases supplied in the
form of powder, and are usually made
up of arsenic and alkali, soda, or potash,
occasionally with the addition of sulphur.
Some farmers prepare their own dips,
but it is generally safer to use a well-
tried manufactured dip.
Time for Dipping. — The most general
time for dipping is towards the end of
autumn and beginning of winter. It is
a common practice to dip lambs when
they are weaned, and some repeat the
operation about November. In some
calses the summer dipping is deferred,
and the ewes and lambs dipped together
about two weeks before tupping begins.
A few dip immediately after clipping.
In other cases the dipping of adult
390
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
sheep is deferred until the New Year, or
even until spring, the practice varying
with the locality, the liability of the
sheep to be struck by the fly, and the
prevalence of other parasites. In arrang-
ing the times of dipping, farmers must
conform to the Orders of the Board of
Agriculture.
"Weather for Dipping. — It is very
essential that dry weather be chosen
for the operation, otherwise little benefit
will be derived from it. If the sheep
are wet the wool will not absorb the dip
properly; and if after dipping they are
exposed to heavy rain, before the fleece
has become perfectly dry, the solution will
in all probability be washed out of it.
Dressing for Scab. — When scab ap-
pears in a flock the matter must be
reported to the Local Authority, who
will see that certain dipping and isolat-
ing operations are duly carried out.
Tupping Season.
The autumn and early winter is the
mating season on sheep-farms, the pre-
cise time for introducing the rams to
the ewes varying considerably through-
out the country.
Flushing Svires. — It has been found
a good plan to "flush" the ewes just
before tupping — that is, to give them an
exceptionally abundant supply of suc-
culent food for about two weeks before
tupping, so as to have them in an im-
proving condition when mated. This
treatment hastens tupping, tends to in-
crease the number of twin-lambs and to
lessen the number of barren ewes.
If possible, a portion of rich pasture
should be preserved for this purpose, or
the ewes may have a run of the new
grass and stubbles after harvest. On
some farms where pasture is not avail-
able, a small breadth of rape is grown
for the ewes, and in other cases a moder-
ate, feed of bruised oats is allowed.
On hill - farms farmers are not so
anxious for twin - lambs, for on these
lands one good lamb is usually suffi-
cient for a ewe to rear satisfactorily.
Hill-farmers, therefore, give less attention
than lowland farmers to " flushing " the
ewes. Still, many save low pasture upon
which to feed the ewes two or three
weeks before tupping.
Some flock-owners, however, question
the propriety of flushing stock ewes, as
they believe that when a big crop of
lambs has been got one season by " flush-
ing," the crop of lambs in the following
season may be smaller, no matter how
much the ewes may be flushed — a view,
however, that is not universally held.
" Flushing " no doubt can be overdone.
Ill efiects of severe flushing with such
succulent food as mustard may be modi-
fied by letting the ewes have mainly dry
food between tupping and lambing.
Fertility in Sheep, — An important
inquiry into the effects of "flushing"
and other factors supposed to influence
fertility in sheep was conducted for the
Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland by Dr F. H. A. Marshall in the
years 1905, 1906, and 1907. This in-
quiry conflrmed the view that extra feed-
ing at about tupping time results in a
larger crop of lambs at the subsequent
lambing. In Dr Marshall's report on
this inquiry,^ reference is made to other
special causes believed to afiect fertility
in sheep. Inclement weather during
tupping time may lessen the number of
twins. It is believed that fertility may
be developed by tupping early instead of
late ^ in the tupping season, the genera-
tive system being most active at the
beginning of the season. It seems well
established that fertility is a property
that can be inherited, and thus it is
believed that systematic breeding from
twins will tend to increase fertility.
Management in Tupping Season. —
The various important matters requiring
attention in connection with the tupping *
season — such as the mating of ewes and
tups adapted to each other, the treat-
ment of tups, adjusting the number of
ewes to each tup, and observing and
recording service — are dealt with fully
in the details of management in pure-
bred flocks given in an earlier portion
of this volume.
SHEEP IN WINTER.
The management of sheep in the winter
months demands the utmost care. The
system of winter treatment varies greatly,
^ Tram. Sigh, and Agric. Soc. of SooUcmd,
fifth ser. , vol. zzii., 1908.
SHEEP IN WINTER.
391
perhaps even more than the treatment in
the other seasons. Naturally the anxiety
amoiigst sheep-farmers and shepherds as
to the wellbeing of their flocks is greatest
in the coldest and stormiest parts, where
vast expense and trouble are often in-
volved in carrying flocks safely through
severe snowstorms.
SHEEP ON TURNIPS IN WINTER.
The practice of keeping sheep on
turnips in winter is pursued largely
throughout the country. For the most
part the sheep are folded on the roots
on the fields where grown, though in
some cases the roots are pulled and given
to the sheep on. pasture or in sheds.
Preparing Turnips for Shee^p. — As
to methods of preparing unpuUed turnips
for consumption on the ground by sheep,
information is given in voL ii. pp. 357
and 358. It is important that this work
should be carried out in good time and
with care, so that the most economical
results may be obtained.
^Enclosing Sheep on •Turnips. —
There are two ways of enclosing sheep
upon turnips — with hurdles made of
iron or wood, and with nets made
of twine or wire. Since the intro-
duction of nets, the older method of
enclosing with wooden hurdles has be-
come exceptional, and is now seldom
adopted unless where the enclosure
is to stand for a considerable time,
or for temporary enclosures for sorting
sheep. Iron hurdles used for enclosing
sheep are referred to in vol. i., figs. 119,
120, and 121. The wooden hurdles in
use are of various patterns, a specially
good light hurdle being that shown in
fig. 751. It is formed of any sort of
willow or hardwood, as oak-copse, ash-
saplings, or hazel. The erecting of
hurdles is a simple process which need
not be described. ^
Ifets for Enclosing Sheep. — Nets,
made of twine of the requisite strength,
form a superior enclosure for sheep when
supported onstakesdriven into the ground.
The stakes are best formed of thinnings
of trees, and they should be seasoned
with the bark on before being cut into
stakes. The stakes are usually about 3
itiches in diaflieter and 4 feet 9 inches
long — allowing 9 inches of a hold in the
ground, 3 inches between the ground and
the bottom of the net, and 3 inches from
the top of the net to the top of the stake.
They are pointed at one end with the
axe, and that end should be the lower
one when growing as a tree, as the bark
is then; in the most natural position for
repelling rain.
Setting Sheep-nets.— If the ground
is in a soft state, the stakes may simply
be driven into the ground with a mallet,
the stakes being placed from 2^ to 3
paces asunder. Should the soil be thin
and the subsoil hard, a 'hole sufficiently
large for a stake may be made in the
subsoil with the tramp -pick used in
draining or an iron piercer made for the
purpose. The stakes are driven in until
their tops may not be less than 4 feet
high, along as many sides of the en-
Fig. •j^z.—Ett^lt
closure as are required at the place to
form a complete f«nce.
The net is set in this manner : Being
in a bundle, having been rolled up when
not required, the spare ends of the top
and bottom ropes, after the stake is run
through the outer mesh of the net, are
tied to the top and bottom of a stake
driven close to the fence, and the net is
run out loose in hand towards the right
as far as it will extend on the side of the
stakes next the turnips. On coming
back to the second stake from the fence,
with your face to the turnips, the bottom
rope first gets a turn to the left round the
stake, then the top rope a similar turn
round the same stake, so as to keep the
meshes of the net straight. The bottom
rope is then fastened with the shepherd's
knot to this stake, 3 inches from the
ground, and the top rope with a similar
knot near the top of the stake, adjusting
the net along and upwards; and so on,
with one stake after another, until the
392
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
■ whole net is set up, care being taken to
have the top of the net parallel with the
surface of the ground throughout its
entire length.
Slieplierd's Knot. — Th'e shepherd's
knot is made in this way : Let a, fig. 752,
be the continuation of the rope fastened
to the first stake ; then, standing ton the
opposite side of the stake from the net,
press the second stake with the left hand
towards a, and at the same time tighten
the turn of the rope round the stake
with the right hand by taking a hold
of the loose end of the rope d, and put-
ting it betweerl a and the stake at c,
twist it tight round the stake till it comes
to 6, where it is pulled up under a, as
seen at b, and there its elastic force will
secure it tight«"when the stake is let go.
The bottom rope is fastened first, to keep
the net at the proper distance from the
ground, and then the top rope is fastened
to the same sjake in the same manner,
at the wi^th
the net admits,
at stake after
stake. If both
the cord and
stake are dry,
the knot may
•slip as soon as
made ; but the
part of the
stake at b where the knot is fastened
on being wetted, the rope will keep its
hold until the cord has acquired the set
of the knot. It is difficult to make a
new greasy rope retain its hold on a
smooth stake even with the assistance
of water, but a double turn round the
stake will ensure its staying secure.
The shepherd should be provided with
net-twine to mend any holes that may
break out in the nets.
Wire Nets. — In certain situations,
where rabbits and hares are apt to de-
stroy string nets, or where it is not
necessary to step over the nets with cut
turnips or other food, wire has largely
taken the place of twine nets. Wire
nets are made with meshes of any size,
but 4 inch is the size generally in use,
and 3 feet is the most common height.
Twine nets are made to set about 40
yards, but wire nets set 10 yards
farther. The cheapest are made by
machinery, with the wire running prac-
Fig. 752. — SJtepker(£s knotj in
fastening a net to a stake.
tjcally horizontally, but the best are
made only by hand, with the wire
worked from top to bottom and vice
versA backwards and forwards. The top
and bottom stratids are extra strong, and
one or two strong strands are worked
along the centre. Iron or steel wire is
used, and galvanised after manufacture,
giving a strong, enduring, and convenient
fence at a minimum cost. In setting up,
the stobs are first erected as for twine '
nets, and the end of the wire net un-
rolled and fixed to the first stob, then
the whole roll of netting is unrolled
alongside the stobs, pulled tight, and
the far end fixed to a stob. After this
it is an easy and rapid process to fix to
the stobs by twine, or preferably by bell-
hangers' staples, from which the net is
unhooked and rehooked as required when
taking down and re-erecting. Sometimes
the stobs are driven through the meshes
of the net and tied firmly with twine, but
this plan is severe on the net.
Iixtent of Soots given at a time.
— Care has to be exercised as to the
quantity of turnips made available for
sheep in an enclosure at one time.
After a week or so, breaks which will
serve a couple of days, or three at most,
may be given, but this will altogether
depend on the weather.
In frosty weather or snow, turnips
sufficient for the day only should be
given, otherwise the shells will become
hard frozen in a very short time, and the
sheep are unable to eat them, so that
when a thaw sets in these rot. A good
plan is to allow the sheep to work on the
ground given during the forenoon, and
set pickers on in the afternoon, to pick
up all the shells for the sheep, no more
ground being given than will serve the
sheep for the day.
Carting Turnips to Lea Iiand in
Wet Weather. — -When the weather be-
comes excessively wet, and the sheep
cannot comfortably consume the roots
upon the black earth, the turnips, after
being tailed, may be carted from the field
and spread on pasture, and the sheep
taken from the turnip-breaks until better
weather sets in.
Another plan, sometimes adopted in
wet weather, is to leave the sheep on
the turnip-field only from early morning
till about 3 P.M., the rest of the time
SHEEP IN WINTER.
393
being spent on pasture, where extra food
may be given in boxes. In other cases
the turnips are pulped, and given to the
sheep on pasture.
Begin Turnip-feediaig Early. — The
turnip-break should be made ready for
the sheep before the grass fails, so that
the feeding sheep may not lose any of
the condition they have acquired on
grass"; for it should be borne in mind
that it is easier for animals to progress
in fattening than to regain lost con-
dition. Much rather leave pastures in
a rough state than lose condition in
sheep for want of turnips. Eough pas-
ture will never be wasted, but will be
serviceable in winter to ewes in lamb and
to aged tups. Feeding sheep, therefore,
should be put on turnips as early as will
maintain the condition they have ac-
quired on grass.
Begin eautiously -witb. Turnips. —
It is considered advisable to avoid put-
ting sheep on turnips for the first time
in the early part of the day when they
are hungry. Danger may be appre-
hended from luxuriant tops at all -times,
but when they are wetted by rain, snow,
or half-melted rime, they are sure to do
harm. The afternoon, when the sheep
are full of grass, should be chosen to put
them first on turnips ; and al,though they
will immediately commence eating the
tops, they will not be likely to hurt
themselves. But it is a still safer plan
to begin by carting cabbage or turnips,
a few at a time, to the grass-field, than
to put the sheep str^^ight from grass to
turnips.
Turnips risky for Ewes. — Sheep for
turnips are selected for the purposa
Ewes being *at this season with young,
are not often put on turnips in the
early part of the winter, but continue
to occupy the pastures, part of which
should be left on purpose for them in
a good state, to support them as long
as the ground is free of snow. As the
lambing-time approaches, and the pas-
tures begin to get bare, a few turnips are
often given daily to in-lamb ewes, gener-
ally on a pasture-field, and along with a
little hay and cake. But care should be
taken never to give frozen roots to in-
lamb ewes, as this has often been blamed
for causing abortion. Many farmers also
altogether avoid giving turnips to in-lamb
ewes, in the belief that they are liable to
cause inflammation at lambing.
Draft Ewes on Turnips. — Every
year a certain number of old ewes, unfit
for further breeding, from want of«teeth
or a supply of milk, are drafted out of
the flock to make room for young
females, and are fattened upon turnips,
with the addition of a little corn or cake
and hay.
Young Sheep on Turnips. — It some-
times happens that the hoggs — the cas-
trated male lambs of last year and the
ewe lambs not required for breeding, — ■
instead of being sold, have been grazed
during the summer, and are fattened on
turnips. In many parts of the country
lambs are now freely fed on turnips. •
Turnip-tops for Sheep. — Care should
be taken not 'to shift the sheep or give
them a fresh break when the turnip-tops
are covered with white or hoar frost, as
numbers of deaths hapgen from this
cause. In fact, farmers put too much
value on turnip-tops : if hoggs, fat sheep,
or other feeding animals were never to
taste them, they would fatten faster.
If the tops are cut off a day or two
before the fold is shifted, and scattered
over the ground, they wither before the
hoggs get at them, and loss is avoided.
A supply of stored turnips should
always be at hand to give to the sheep
in case of hard frost.
Bri/ Food with Turnips.
When sheep are on turnips, they
should always be supplied with dry fod-
der, hay or straw, — that is, where they
cannot have a daily run of some rough
dry pasture. Clover-hay is the best and
most nutritious, but fresh oat -straw
answers the purpose very well. The
best way of supplying dry food is to
chaff the hay or straw and place it in
the boxes which are required for the cut
turnips later in the season. About }( lb.
oats per sheep per day, mixed with
the chaff, gives excellent results ; many
of the sheep will become ready for the
butcher without further feeding.
South of Scotland Methods. — In
the midland and south-eastern counties
of Scotland, the fattening of sheep is
carried on to a large extent, the moder-
ately dry climate in these parts being
favourable for this industry. The sheep
394
FLOCK MANAGEMENT
are begun on the soft varieties, and are
passed on to yellows and swedes in turn.
Great numbers of hoggs are fattened in
this way. Many are given ample allow-
ances of turnips, just about as much as
they can eat Without waste. In addition,
they get mixtures of oats, -decorticated
cotton-cake, and other materials, varying
from ^ lb. to i lb. or more per head per
day, with hay and straw. Linseed-cake,
beans, peas, maize, bran, brewers' and
distillers' grains, and condimental foods,
are all used to a lesser or greater extent.
Sheep -Fodder Sacks. — Fodder for
sheep is largely given in racks, which
are of various forms. A strong and use-
ful fodder-rack for sheep, fit for grass or
tares in summer, or turnips in winter, is
shown in fig. 753. It was invented by
Fig. 753. — KirkwoocTs wire sheep-fodder rack.
Rack of wirework 6 feet long, 2 feet 9 inches wide at
top, 8 inches wide at bottom, and 2 feet 3^^
inches deep,
a Curved cover of sKeet-iron with a hatch.
h b Sheet-iron troughs to contain corn, &c.
Mr Kirkwood of Tranent. The troughs
are provided with a hole at each end to
allow the rain to drain off, and might be
used in dry weather for holding salt or
oilcake for the day.
Anothei very useful rack, made by Mr
W. Elder, Berwick-on-Tweed, is shown
in fig. 754. It is made chiefly of wood
and wire, aid is useful also as affording
shelter.
Substitutes for Feeding-Backs. —
Another plan often adopted by farmers
is to hang a net on a double row of
stakes, the middle of the net forming
a receptacle for the hay. Wire-netting
with mesh of about 4 inch, set double
along a row of stobs, has also been found
a cheap and durable means of giving
hay to sheep.
Supplying Fodder. — Two racks or
more are required, according to the num-
ber of sheep. It is the shepherd's duty
to fill them with fodder, which is easily
done by carrying a small bundle of fod-
der every time he visits the sheep.
When carts are removing turnips from
the field, they carry but the btmdles.
F>S' 754* — Eldet^s skeep-fodder rack.
If only as a means of providing shelter,
irrespective of fodder, the racks should
be kept full. Fodder is consumed more .
at one time than another ; in keen sharp
weather the sheep eat it greedily, and
when turnips are frozen they have re-
course to it. In rainy or soft muggy
weather it is eaten with little relish ; but
it has been observed that sheep eat it
steadily and late, and seek shelter near
the racks, prior to a storm ; while in fine
weather they select a lair in the open
part of the break.
Fig. 755 is a simple and convenient ,
form of trough for oats or other feeding-
stuffs. A convenient length is 9 feet,
its form acute at the bottom. An ex-
cellent sheep feeding -box is shown in
fig. 706, vol. iii. p. 169.
Picking out Tumip-sliells. — Until
of late years, sheep helped themselves
to turnips, and when 'the bulbs were
scooped out to the level of the ground.
Fig. 755. — Trough/or turnip shecp-Jeeding.
their %helU were raised with a picker, the
mode of using which is seen in fig. 756.
By this mode of action the tap-root of
the turnip is cut through and the shell
separated from the ground at one stroke.
^ Only half the ground occupied by
shells should be picked up at once, so
that the sheep may take up a larger
space of ground while consuming them.
When the ground is dry, the shells
should, on the score of economy, be
SHEEP IN WINTEE.
395
nearly eaten up before a new break
of turnips is given ; and if any shells
are left, the sheep will come over the
ground again and eat them.
Cutting Turnips for Sheep. — The
feeding of sheep on uncut turnips can
be satisfactorily carried out until their
teeth become defective : this occurs from
the constant eating of hard roots, often
in a semi-frozen state, which loosens the
front teeth. The farmer can readily judge
when other measures become necessary by
the appearance of the bulbs, which have
their outer skin peeled off by the sheep,
and so left.
To meet this difficulty the turnip-
butter comes into requisition. Many
thoroughly efficient machines are now
available for this purpose, such as that
Fig. 756. — Turnip-picker,
a Handle 4 feet long.
b Blade 10 Inches long, including eye for handle,
c Breadth of blade 2 inches.
shown in fig. 757, which cuts the turnips
into finger-pieces. In this form they are
readily eaten by the sheep. The plan
adopted, if the turnips are to be eaten
on the land where grown, is to cast them
into heaps alongside the net, a sufficient
•quantity for one or two days in each
heap. The cut turnips are given to the
sheep in the troughs or boxes, 7 to 10
boxes being sufficient for 100 sheep.
The heaps being laid down at intervals
allows the troughs or boxes to be changed
to fresh ground daily, so that the land
is equally manured all over the field.
One worker can in this manner feed
300 sheep.
The Cutter Cart. — ^The old-fashioned
method of cutting turnips by means of
the lever slicer has been largely super-
seded by the cylinder cutter, fig. 757,
or the cutter cart, fig. 758. The cutter
cart is an exceedingly useful invention.
It consists of an ordinary farm box-cart
with a root cutter of the barrel type
placed underneath, driven from the
wheels of tte cart by tooth-gearing and
Fig. Tsj.—Gardjier's cylindrical turnip-cutter.
clutch. By a lever the cutter is easily
thrown out of gear. The cart is loaded
with roots and set agoing, and the finger-
pieces fall regularly as the cart proceeds.
To adapt them for use where the cut
roots are given to the sheep in boxes,
some cutting carts are fitted with a
large receptacle or framed box, also
made to fix below the cutter barrel,
which can be set to catch and carry all
the turnips as they fall from the cutter
barrel. The feeding boxes are set along
Fig. 758. — Eldej's turnip-cutting cart.
the field in a row about 30 yards apart.
The cart being loaded with turnips, it is
pulled along the field, cutting as it goes.
As it reaches each box the cut turnips
are shovelled from the large receptacle
underneath the cart into the feed boxes,
396
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
By this plan the feeding can be done all
over the field instead of on one spot as
with a stationary cutter.
Cake - breaker. — For sheep oilcake
must be well broken. This is done by
a strong machine such as that shown in
fig. 759, made by Barford & Perkins,
Peterborough. The oilcake is put into
the hopper, the mouth of which is open
upwards. The two rollers bruise it to
any degree of smallness, by means of
pinching-screws. The bruised cake falls
down the spout into any vessel below.
Oats and Hay for Hoggs. — Som6
farmers keep hoggs on turnips all through
the season. Others think it better to,
give them not more than" twq or three
hours daily on the turnips, giving them
during the remainder of the time the
Fig. 759. — Oilcake-Breaker.
run of a dry pasture-field, where they
get yi lb. of oats f)er head daily, and
a handful of hay when the weather is
hard. After the New Year the turnips
must be cut for them.
Salt for Sheep. — Salt is frequently
given to sheep on turnips, sometimes in
the form of rock-salt,*and ii> other cases
as common salt. Sheep should have
access to water when using salt.
Sheep on Turnips , during Sucw. —
A fall of snow, driven, by the wind, may
cover the sheltered part of the field, and
leave the turnips bare only in the most
exposed places. In this case the sheep
may have to be fed on the exposedjparts,
and if so the racks should be so placed
there as to afibrd shelter. If the fall of
snow should be very heavy the shepherd
may have to get help to clear away
enough of the snow to enable him to
get the sheep fed.
Occasionally in stormy districts liie
sheep may have for a week or more to
be fed without roots, say on cake and
bruised corn and hay, but it is well to
bear in mind that sudden changes in
food are undesirable for all kinds of
stock, and have therefore to be avoided
as much as possible.
Unripe Turnips dangerous. — The
danger of giving sheep access to unripe
raots is referred to at p. 393. Informa-
tion is given there as to measures for
keeping ewes in good health on roots.
Blackface Sheep in Winter. — "It
is always safe policy in stormy weather
to supplement the natural food with hay.
Blackfaces being naturally very hardy,
they require less artificial feeding in
winter than almost any other breed of
mountain-sheep ; yet in excessively severe
winters the prudent manager does not
leavs his sheep to forage for themselves
until it is too late to help them. So
long as the snow does not get too deep,
or is not frozen hard, they take little
harm. Blackface sheep are excellent
workers in the snow, and will toil bravely
for a sustenance under the most trying
circumstances. Hand -feeding is only
resorted to when it cannot be longer
avoided ; and in that case the sheep are
either removed to a lower district or fed
on hay at home." ^
Sheep in a "Wood in a Snowstorm. —
During severe snowstorms some farmers
put sheep into woods, and supply them
there with hay upon the snow round the
roots of the trees. A precaution is
requisite when the trees are Scots fir ;
their evergreen branches intercepting the
snow are apt to be broken by its weight,
and fall upon the sheep and kill them.
Heavily loaded branches should therefore
be cleared partly of their snow where the
sheep are to lodge.
Bape for Sheep. — In the south of
Scotland, and more generally in England,
rape is grown for sheep. The consump-
tion of rape by sheep is conducted by
breaks in exactly the same manner as
that of turnips ; but rape is never stripped
or pulled, the entire crop being consumed
on the ground. In England, the rape
' Blackface Sheep, by J. and C. Scott, 109.
SHEEP IN WINTER.
397
intended for sheep is sown broadcast
and very thick. In Scotland, it is
often raised in drills like turnips; and
although not so convenient for sheep
as when sown broadcast, yet the drills
permit the land being well cleaned in
summer, which renders the rape an
ameliorating crop for the land. Rape is
extensively used as a catch crop after
early potatoes, and often gives an. ex-
cellent return in fattening hoggs before
Christmas.
Shelter for Sheep on Turnips. —
Sheep on turnips have little shelter but
what is aflForded by the fences of the
field or plantations. In some cases this
is quite suflScient, but in others it is in-
adequate. Various devices are in use
to provide shelter not merely against
sudden outbreaks of stormy weather,
but with the view of gradually improv-
ing the condition of sheep, both in car-
case and wool.
An excellent temporary shelter for
sheep on turnips may be made by the
erection of a double line of hurdles or
nets, the space between the lines being
filled up with straw. A curve or angle
can be introduced, and thus shelter can
be provided for every quarter from
which storms may come.
Experiments -with Foods for Sheep
on Boots. — A series of interesting and
instructive experiments were carried out
during the years 1903 -1905 in East
Lothian by the staff of the Edinburgh
East of Scotland College for the purpose
of ascertaining (i) the most profitable
feeding-stuff to use along with cut Swed-
ish turnips, supplied ad libitiim, and a
daily allowance of from }( to j4 lb. of
hay in the winter feeding of sheep ; and
(2) whether the use of feeding - stuffs
effects any saving in the daili/ consump-
tion of turnips when the sheep are
allowed to take as many as they please.
The prices of th^ foods were taken at —
turnips los. per ton, hay ^^3, los., Bom-
bay cotton-cake ^5, 2s. 6d., dried
grains ^^5, 12s. 6d., decorticated cotton-
cake ^1, los., linseed-cake ^£8, ss.,
maize ^5, 7s. 6d., crushed oats
£6, 9s. 2d.
At these prices Bombay cotton-cake,
linseed-cake, and a mixture of these two,
were equally satisfactory feeding-stuffs.
Dried grains also fed well, but the car-
case-weight was not so good. It re-
solves the business into a question of
the relative prices of the several staffs.
A rise of los. per ton will put any one
above the profitable line. n>
The Total Live-weight Inoreabe and its Cost.
Lot.
Description of characteristic food.
Total
increase in
8s days.
.average
increase
per head
per week.
Gross cost
of food
per cwt. of
live- weight
increase.
Net cost
of food
per cwt. of
live-weight
increase.
I.
Bombay cotton-cake ....
lb.
754
lb.
2.07
£ s. rf.
2 I 3
£ i. rf.
I II 7
II.
Bombay cotton-cake and linaeed-cake
859
2.35
209
I IT I
III.
Linseed-cake
926
2.54
2 I 4
I II 7
IV.
Bombay cotton-cake and oats .
727
1.99
234
I 14 I
V.
Dried distUlery grains
■ 796
2.18
2 0 2
I II I
VI.
Decorticated cotton-cake and maize .
787.
2.16
2 I II
I 12 4
The average daily consumption of tur-
nips in 1905 was 13.42 lb. per head —
fully a pound more than was taken in
1904, and 3 lb. less than in 1903, — and
none of the lots varied more than about
J^ lb. from this quantity except Lot
VOL. in.
VI., which consumed only 1 1.93 lb. per
head per day. Lot VI., however, stands
highest for consumption of hay, taking
7.16 oz. per head per day, while the
general average is 5.42 oz. The linseed-
cake lot also is prominent as a consumei
2 c
398
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
of hay, thus corroborating former re-
sults ; while the lot fed on Bombay
cotton-cake runs to the other extreme,
and has to be ranked along with those
fed on dried grains and a mixture of
Bombay cotton-cake and oats. That
Bombay cotton-cake should have the
same effect as a bulky ration of dried
grains in reducing the consumption of
hay seems remarkable. Nevertheless, it
is upheld by all three experiments. The
quantities of concentrated food taken by
the respective lots is in close agreement,
all being within ^ of an oz. of the
general average of 13.31 oz. per head
per day. No appreciable diminution of
the amount of swedes consumed was
observable between the lots which got
concentrated feeding -stuffs and the lot
which only got hay with its swedes in
the earlier years. Of course, though no
daily reduction of swedes was caused by
cake - feeding, the cake -fed lots were
sooner ready for the butcher than the
sheep that did not get cake.
Cost of Turnip-feeding for Sheep.
— The cost of turnip-feeding varies with
the season and the crop as well as in
different districts in the same season ;
but usually the price of turnips for hoggs
ranges from 3d. to 5d. a-week, and for
ewes and fattening sheep from 4d. to 8d.
each sheep. These prices are sometimes
exceeded when turnips are scarce in a
backward spring. When it comes to
extreme prices, however, the flockmaster
in many cases can fall back on hay and
corn or cake.
House-Feeding of Sheep.
Feeding Sheep in Sheds. — In former
times the feeding of sheep in sheds was
strongly commended by a few who had
experimented upon it with satisfactory
results. Others, however, were less suc-
cessful, and while it was useful for small
flocks, it has not come into extensive
practice where large flocks are kept.
Still, by several enterprising farmers
who have carried it out with excep-
tional care, the practice is pursued with
success.
A Boss-shvre Example.
For many years the house-feeding of
sheep has been carried on with mailted
success by Mr John Boss, Millcraig,
Alness, Boss-shire. He states that by
this method he can feed a larger num-
ber of sheep, at least a third more, than
by outside feeding. Where sheep are fed
largely in the house, and littered with
peat moss-litter or straw, the fertility
of a farm may be so increased that little
artificial manure may be required. Sheep
can be fattened in a shorter time in the
house than outside, and home-grown food
will go further. The sheep make steady
and often very rapid progress. Mr Ross
thinks the saving in death-rate alone
would almost pay the interest on the
cost of the shed. The sheep are pro-
tected from birds and maggots in sum-
mer, and from injurious extremes of
weather in autumn, winter, and spring,
and they fatten all the more rapidly
because they undergo so little exercise.
The saving in food is undoubtedly
substantial. With care, not a particle
of any kind of food need be wasted.
All green food and hay are passed
through the chaff-cutter, and given in
boxes, so that no food can be trampled
under foot. The long feeding-trough is
not suitable for sheep in houses, and in
its place Mr Ross uses five-sided boxes,
each side being large enough for two
sheep — in all, ten sheep at each box.
Much labour, of course, is involved in
cutting, carting, and preparing food, as
well as in littering and cleaning the
shed, yet there is a certain saving, in
that the shepherd has no wandering
over fields, and no stakes and nets to
erect.
The littering has to be carefully at-
tended to. Whether straw or moss-litter
is used, it should be raked over daily,
and fresh small quantities spread almost
every day. Sheep should never be al-
lowed to stand in damp bedding, and if
their feet are sound when put into the
shed they rarely go wrong.
In the feeding of sheep in houses, dis-
tillery "draff," mixed with decorticated
cotton -meal and cut hay, and allowed
to ferment slightly, gives good results.
Where "draff" is not available, a little
treacle diluted with water may be used
to make a mass of hay and meals palat-
able to the sheep.
Sheep-feeding Shed. — ^The shed used
by Mr Ross (fig. 760) is no feet long
SHEEP IN WINTEE.
399
by 60 feet wide under one roof. It
is divided across the middle into two
equal areas by a concrete passage ten
feet broad, and raised 3 feet above
the floor-level of the shed. This pass-
age affords facilities for storing foods
and also for the mixing of them. These
two main areas are again divided in
the middle, thus providing four com-
partments of 30 feet by 50 feet, each
sufficient to hold from 70 to 100 sheep.
It is believed that compartments about
this size, and square in shape or nearly
so, are better suited than longer and
larger enclosures, as in the latter the
sheep are apt to run about too much
when they are disturbed.
The sides and centre division of the
shed are formed of concrete walls 3 feet
high, with wooden framing 9 feet high
above, to carry the roof. The lower half
of the framing is lined with boards,
while the upper half is composed of
swing-doors, which may be opened or
closed at will, thus providing admirable
ventilation for the sheep without expos-
ing them to draughts.
The roof of the shed is in one span,
covered with corrugated iron, and sup-
ported by the centre division and side
walls. The south end is half -sparred
above the wall, and in the north end
there are large doors. There are cart
outlets for tho convenient cleaning of
Fig. 760. — Sheep-feeding shed — Exierior and interior^
the shed. At one end of the centre
passage there are stores for straw, hay,
and roots, with accommodation for
chaff-cutters and turnip-cutters, which
are driven by a i-horse- power petrol
engine.
The manure is allowed to accumulate
under the sheep until it can be conven-
iently removed. Wilh the low concrete
walls all round, the manure can rise to
3 feet in height without toufthing the
wooden framework of the shed.
A shed such as this, to accommodate
from 300 to 400 sheep, will cost about
_;^3oo. At 10 per cent interest, this
represents about is. 6d. to 2S. per sheep,
but with three sets of sheep turned out
each year the cost of the shed is only
about 6d. for each sheep.
WINTERING SHEEP ON PASTORAL
FARMS.
It is far more difficult to bring hill
sheep well through the winter than it is
to handle a lowland flock, especially in a
winter of severe snowstorms. So long
as the snow lies dry, even though it
drifts badly, sheep manage, with careful
guiding, to find a living ; but they are
sorely tried when a thaw and frost fol-
low esich other closely. The flockmaster
who has not a plentiful supply of hay on
hand is then in a bad plight.
" Home -"Wintering " or "Sending
Atway." — On semi-pastoral farms, as on
arable lands, this question does not arise;
on purely pastoral holdings it is different.
400
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
On many of the higher and more ex-
posed grazings the sheep have to be
brought down to lower ground in winter,
even if they are to be wintered on the
farm; and, provided that an abundance
of natural hay exists, it is better to
winter the hoggs as well as the ewes
at home. Wethers which are not ready
for the butcher when they come off
the hill in autumn, it may be neces-
sary to send away for wintering on
turnips, if they are to be fattened on
grass the following summer ; but if store
sheep are likely to be cheap in the
spring, it will pay best to sell the
wethers direct from the hill in autumn
to be winter - fattened on arable farms.
Sending the hoggs away to be wintered
costs 6s. or 7s. a-head, which is more
than a second sheep -rent; and sheep
that have to go back to hill pasture
in the spring are altogether better win-
tered on ha^at home if this should be
practicable.
Wintering Sheep in Eomney
Marsh. — The same difficulty of win-
tering the hoggs at home has to be
njet by the Eomney Marsh graziers ;
but whereas the hill - sheep farmers
have to contend against winter storms
and the failure of the frozen pastures,
the Kentish sheep - breeders have to
move their young sheep to higher
grounds in winter owing to the flood-
ing of their pastures, and not so
much in search of better food as of
sounder grazing. Many thousands of
these Kent hoggs or tegs are sent out to
winter in the adjoining counties at the
end of September and brought back at
the end of March every year, the winter-
ing having cost 8s. or 9s. a-head, and
sometimes more.
Saving Hay for Hill-farms. — Care
has to be taken during summer to pro-
vide sufficient hay for the requirements
of the flock in snowstorms. A general
practice is to save or hain the enclosed
parks which had been used early in
spring for weak ewes and lambs. There
are usually enclosures of this kind, ex-
tending in all to perhaps 6 to 10 acres
for every " hirsel " of ewes, and sufficient
hay should be obtained here for a flock
of 500 ewes during an average winter.
It is the duty of the shepherds to cut
and secure this hay, and it is important
that the work should be properly and
seasonably attended to. For the supply
of natural hay specially fertile "haughs"
and other patches of green pastures
throughout the farm are also saved.
Arable Iiand on Sheep - farms. — -
Where at all practicable there should
be a certain area of arable land on
sheep - farms, so that the supply of
natural hay may be augmented by rota^-
tion hay, and that a moderate quantity
of turnips may be grown. The advan-
tages of this in stormy winters are very
great.
Irrigation on Hill -farms. — Since
hay is the principal food for mountain
sheep in snow or black frost, it is of im-
portance to procure this valuable prov-
ender in the best state, and of the
best description. It has long been
known that irrigation promotes, in an
extraordinary degree, the growth of
natural grasses ; and perhaps there are
few localities which possess greater facil-,
ities for irrigation, though on a limited
scale, than the Highland glens of Scot-
land. Rivulets meander down those
glens through haughs of richest allu-
vium, which bear the finest description
of natural pasture plants. Were those
rivulets subdivided into irrigating rills,
the herbage of the haughs might be
multiplied many fold, and hill-farmers
are earnestly urged to convert them
into' irrigated meadows. Although each
meadow may be of limited extent, the
grass they afford is greatly increased in
quantity and value when converted into
hay.
One obstruction alone existing to the
formation of meadows is, the fencing re-
quired to keep stock off while the grass
is growing for hay. But the fencing
should be made for the sake of the crop
protected by it. Hurdles make an excel-
lent fence. This difficulty is now greatly
lessened by the introduction of cheap wire-
fencing. Besides placies for regular irriga-
tion, there are rough patches of pasture,
probably stimulated by latent water per-
forming a sort of under-4rrigation to the
roots of the plants, which should be
mown for hay ; and to save further
trouble, this hay should be ricked on
the spot, fenced with hurdles, around
which the sheep would assemble at times
to feed through them in frosty weather
SHEEP IN WINTER
401
from the rick, and wander again over
the pasture for the remainder of the
day ; and when snow came, the atells
would be the places of refuge and sup-
port. As the hay in the stack is eaten,
the hurdles are drawn closer to the-
stack, to allow the sheep again to reach
the hay.
The practice now generally adopted,
however, is to lay out the hay in hand-
fuls on the snow, keeping plenty of room
between the lines of hay.
On sheep-farms arable land might not
itself be capable of yielding rent or profit,
but it would most likely add greatly to
the value of the adjoining pasture-land.
Let it be always kept in view that the
more food and shelter provided in winter
for stock the less will be the loss incurred
during the most inclement season.
Shelter on Sheep - farms. — There
is still a marked deficiency of shelter
on most pastoral farms in this country —
that is, where it is not provided by
the configuration and lie of the ground.
More tree - planting for the providing
of shelter for stock is urgently re-
quired, and much may also be done
by the planting of suitable bushes
such as broom, whin, and juniper. It
used to be the custom with some sheep-
farmers to fill their pockets on spring
mornings with the seeds of the whin and
broom, and in their walks over the sheep-
farm, scatter these seeds on any likely
spot. These eventually provide food for
sheep in a stormy winter, besides growing
into strong bushes capable of afibrding
excellent shelter.
Stells for Sheep.
To admit of food being supplied with
some degree of comfort to sheep during
severe snowstorms on high grazings the
existence of stells is desirable. There
are still many store-farmers sceptical of
the utility of stells, but on exposed farms
their advantages are undeniable. A stell
may be formed of a plantation or a high
stone wall — either will afibrd shelter ;
but a plantation requires to be fenced by
a stone wall. '
Outside Stell. — Fig. 761 is a good
outside stell, formed of plantation. The
circumscribing stone wall is 6 feet high,
the ground within it is planted with
trees. Its 4 rounded projections shelter
a corresponding number of recesses em-
braced between them; so let the wind
blow from whatever quarter, two of the
recesses will always afford shelter. The
size of the stell is regulated by the num-
ber of sheep kept.
Sheep Cots or Sheds. — Much diver-
sity of opinion exists regarding the util-
ity of sheep-cots on a store-farm. These
are rudely formed houses, in which sheep
are put under cover in storihy weather,
especially at lambing-time. Many object
to sheep-cots on high farms, because,
when inhabited in winter, even for one
night, by as many sheep as would fill
them, an unnatural height of tempera-
ture is thereby generated. Cots may be
serviceable at night when a ewe or two
Fig. 761. — Outside stell sheltered by plantation
on every quartet.
become sick at lambing, or when a lamb
has to be mothered upon a ewe that has
lost her own lamb ; and such cases being
few at a time, the cot never becomes
overheated.
Paddocks for Sheep. — On an unshel-
tered breeding-farm it is desirable to have
two paddocks, which are sufficient to con-
tain invalid sheep, tups, and twin lambs,
until strong enough to join the hirsel.
Pormimg Plantation Stells. — In mak-
ing stells of plantations, it is desirable to
plant the outside row of trees as far in
as their branches shall not drop water
upon sheep in their lair, such dropping
never failing to chill them with cold, or
entangle their wool with icicles. The
spruce, by its pyramidal form, has no
projecting branches at top, and affords
402
FLOCK MANAGEMENT.
excellent shelter by its evergreen leaves
and closeness of sprays; descending to the
very ground. The Scots pine would fill
up the space behind the spruce; but every
soil does not suit the spruce, so in some
cases it may be inexpedient to plant it.
Larcljes being deciduous, their branches
are bare in winter. Larches grow best
amongst the debris of rocks and on the
sides of ravines ; Scots fir on thin dry
soils, however near the rock ; and the
spruce in deep moist soils.
Size of Stells. — Stells should be as
large as to contain 200 or perhaps as
many as 300 sheep on an emergency;
and even in the bustle necessarily occa-
sioned by the dread of a coming storm,,
so large a number as 200 could be separ-
ated from the rest, and accommodated
in a sheltered recess accessible from all
quarters. Thus 5 such stells as fig. 761
would accommodate a whole hirsel of
1000 sheep.
Suppose, then, that 5 such- stells wen;
erected at convenient places — not near
any natural shelter," such as a crag,
ravine, or deep hollow, but on an open
rising plain, over which drift sweeps un-
obstructed, and remains in less quantity
than on any other place — with a stack of
hay inside and a store of turnips outside,
food would be provided for an emergency.
On a sudderf blast arriving, the whole
hirsel might be safely lodged for the
night in the two leeward recesses of one
or two of these stells, and, should prog-
nostics threaten a storm, next day all the
stells could be inhabited in a short time.
Concave Stells. — Instead of the small
circular stell, some recommend a form
Fig. 762. — Outside stell "without plantation.
without plantation, having 4 concave
sides, and a wall running out from each
projecting angle, as in fig. 762 — each stell
to enclose J^ an acre of ground, to be
fenced with a stone wall 6 feet high, if
done by the landlord ; and if by the
tenant, 3 feet of stone and 3 feet of
turf — which last construction, if done by
contract, would not cost more than 2S.
per rood of 6 yards. In this form of
.stell, without a plantation, the wind
would strike against a perpendicular
face of the wall in either recess, and
being directed upwards, would throw
the snow down immediately beyond the
wall into the inside of the stell. It is
for this reason that objections are taken
to inside stells.
Inside Stells. — Opinion is not agreed
as to the best form of stell for high
Fig. 763. — Inside stell sheltered hy plantation.
pastures, where wood is seldom found.
At such a height the spruce will not
thrive; and the larch, being deciduous,
afibrds but little shelter with its spear-
pointed top. There is nothing left but
the evergreen Scots fir for the purpose,
and when surrounding a circular stell a,
fig. 763, it would a£ford acceptable shel-
ter to a large number of sheep. This
stell consists of 2 parallel circles of wall,
enclosing a plantation of Scots pine,
having a circular space, a, in the centre
for sheep, as large as to contain any
number. For obvious reasons the en-
trance to the stell should be the same
width all through, not wider at the outer
end than the inner, as shown in the
figure, which has the twofold disadvan-
tage of increasing the velocity of the
wind into the circle, and of squeezing
the sheep tlie more the nearer they
reach the inner end of the passage.
SHEEP IN WINTER.
403
Circular Stells. — But where trees
cannot be planted with a prospect of
success, stells may be formed without
them, and indeed usually are ; and of all
forms that have been tried, the circular
has obtained the preference on hill-farms,
as shown in iig. 764. Opinions differ as
to size. Some think 8 to 10 yards
inside measurement best ; others prefer
a larger size, perhaps 18 yards.
Giving Hay at Stells. — Circular
stells should be fitted up with hay-roichi
round the inside, not in the expensive
form of circular woodwork, but of a
many-sided regular polygon. It is a
bad plan to make sheep eat hay by
rotation, as some recommend, because
the timid and weak will be kept con-
stantly back, and suffer much privation
for days at a timB. Let all have room
and liberty to eat at one time, and as
often as they choose. The hay -stack
should be built in the centre of the stell,
on a basement of stone, raised 6 inches
above the ground to keep the hay dry.
The circumference of the stell measures
160 feet round the hay-racks; and were
8 or 9 six-feet hurdles put round the
stack, at once to protect the hay and
serve as additional hay-racks, they would
Fig. 764. — Circular stell, with hay-racks and hay-stack.
afford 47 feet more, which would give
I foot of standing-room at the racks to
each of 200 sheep at one time.
It is well to have some turnips stored
beside the stells for use in a protracted
snowstorm.
General Notes.
Bridging Rivulets for Sheep. —
Where a rivulet passes through an
important part of a farm, it , will be
advisable to throw bridges for sheep
across it at convenient places. Bridges
are best constructed of stone, and though
rough, if put together on correct prin-
ciples, will be strong ; but if stone cannot
be found fit for arches, they may do for
buttresses, and trees laid close together
across. the stream, held firmly by trans-
verse pieces, and then covered with
tough turf, form a safe roadway.
Young Slieep best for Hill-farms.
— The state of hill-pastures modifies the
management on hill -farms. The hill-
pasture does not rise quickly in spring,
nor until early summer; and when it
does begin to vegetate it grows rapidly,
affording a fuU bite. It is found that
this young and succulent herbage is not
congenial to the ewe — it is apt in the
autumn to superinduce in her the liver-
rot ; but it is well adapted for forward-
ing the condition and increasing the
size and bone of young sheep. It ia
therefore safer for many hill -farmers
to purchase lambs from south - country
pastoral farmers, who breed Blackface
sheep largely, as well as Cheviot, than to
keep standing flocks of ewes of their own.
Nomenclature of Sheep.
The various classes of sheep are spoken
of by different names throughout the
country. A new-born sheep is a lamb,
and retains the name until weaned from
its mother. The generic name is altered
according to the sex and state of the
animal : when a female, it is a ewe-lamb ;
404
BEITISH WOOL.
when a male, a tup-lamb ; and this last
is changed to hogg-laumh or wether-lamb
after it has undergone castration.
In Scotland, after a lamb has been
weaned, until the first fleece is shorn, it
is a hogg, a female being a ewe-hogg, a
male a,,tup-kogg, and a castrated male a
wether-hogg.
After the first fleece has been shorn,
a ewe-hogg becomes a gvm/mer or shear-
ling - ewe, a tup-hogg a shearling - tup,
and the wether-hogg a dinmont. After
the second shearing, a gimmer is a ewe,
if in lamb; if not in lamb, a barren
gimmer or ydd ewe, and if never put' to
the ram, a yeld gimmer. A shearling-tup
is then a 2-shear tup, and a dinmont a
wetherjhxi.'ii more correctly a 2-shear wether.
A ewe three times shorn is a twinter
ewe (two-winter ewe) ; a tup a ^-shear
tup; and a wether still a wether, or
more correctly a ^-skear wether.
A ewe four times shorn is a three-win-
ter ewe or a^ed! ewe ; a tup, an aged tup,
a name he retains ever after.
Tup and ram are synonymous terms,
applied to entire males. .
A ewe that has borne a lamb and fails
to be with lamb again is a yeld or barren
ewe. After a ewe has ceased to give
milk she is a yeld ey/e.
A ewe when removed from the breed-
ing flock is a draft ewe or brokerir
mouthed ewe; gimmers unfit for breed-
ing from are draft gimmers ; and lambs,
dinmonts, or wethers, when drafted, are
sheddings, tails, shots, or drafts.
In many parts of England a somewhat
difierent nomenclature prevails. Sheep
bear the name of lamb until 8 months
old, after which they are ewe tegs or she
hoggs and wether tegs until once clipped.
Gimmers are theaves or " two tooths "
until they bear the first lamb, when
they are ewes of 4-teeth, next year ewes
of6-teeth, and the year after full-mouthed
ewes. Dinmonts are shear hoggets until
shorn of the fleece, when they are 2-shear
wethers, and thereafter are wethers.
Big and chaser are terms applied to a
lamb when one of its testicles does not
come into the scrotum.
Chilver is a name sometimes applied
in Hampshire to ewe lambs from wean-
ing time till Christmas, when they be-
come tegs.
BEITISH WOOL.
The following notes on the origin,
characteristics, and uses of British wool
are contributed by Mr S. B. Hollings,
Calverley, near Leeds : —
The United Kingdom is a place
of variety, no matter from whatever
standpoint judgment is given. And in
those conditions which are responsible
for the production of different types of
sheep and wool — such as climatical and
physical conditions — this variety is no
less distinct than in other respects.
Moreover, it is fairly safe to say that
there are few countries more free from
the disadvantages of unsatisfactory ex-
tremes of various kinds.
Sheep-farming is an industry which is
by no means disregarded by those • who
seek their means of livelihood from the
land. Still, in the United Kingdom it
is not what it once was, on account of
competition with colonial and foreign
wool and mutton. Judged from the
wool standpoint, this is perhaps truest
in connection with the longer and
most lustrous types, for it may be
safely stated that many medium and
short breeds — notably those of the
white and crispy nature — cannot
be seriously competed against, for the
reason that they cannot be matched.
But in regard to long wool, it should be
encouragement to the British farmer to
observe that he has the clear lead in
the ideal conditions for wool produc-
tion which are available for him. Pure
lustre wool soon turns cross - bred - like
in the warm colonies, this meaning loss
to a greater or less extent of Justre,
length, and uniformity, which are vital
characteristics.
Again, in many localities cross-breds
only are suitable, and in producing these
experience has proved breeding diffi-
BRITISH WOOL.
40s
culties to exist which necessitate the
employment of the shorter - wool types
of sheep; and the types these produce,
as previously suggested, do not advan-
tageously compete with ours, for the
reason that they differ from them so
much as to make their use as substitutes
impossible save in comparatively few
cases. With respect to mutton, in spite
of the enormous imports of chilled and
frozen carcases, a strong demand still
prevails for the home-grown article, and
doubtless will be maintained to an ex-
tent which, along with the returns for
high-class wool, will at least justify the
continuance of this industry as much
as any other in these days of small
profits in all agricultural as well as in
other callings.
That this idea is just now becoming
prevalent is shown by the growing re-
turns relating to sheep. With the
development of the Colonial wool trade
-T-most marked from about i860 — came
a decrease in the numbers of sheep
reared and quantity of wool grown in
Great Britain ; and this continued up to
quite recent times, say 1905. Then,
largely owing to the high prices prevail-
ing, the turn in the right direction set
in. During 1907 some 29 million sheep
and lambs were depastured in the British
Isles, and these yielded a return in wool
of 130^^ million lb. weight — a quantity
of which England contributed, roughly,
57 per cent, Scotland 2iJ^ per cent,
Ireland 14^^ per cent, and Wales 7 per
cent.
Classification of Wools.
Coming to a study of the various
breeds of sheep and the types of wool
produced by these, the initial difficulty
presenting itself is that of a suitable
classification. As might be expected,
sheep grown under such diverse condi-
tions as obtain in this country, and sub-
ject to all the modifications cross-breed-
ing can make, difier both in type of
animal and in wool to an extent which
makes a perfect classification almost
impossible. The following system of
classification has been adopted, not so
much on account of its accuracy but be-
cause of its convenience for our present
purpose : —
(i) Long - wool breeds — Lincoln,
Leicester, Cotswold, Border Leicester,
Wensleydale, Devon, and Eomney Marsh.
(2) Short -wool breeds — Southdown,
Shropshire Down, Suffolk Down, Hamp-
shire Down, Oxford Down, Eyeland, and
Dorset Horn.
(3) Mountain breeds — Blackface,
Cheviot, Lonk, Herdwick, Dartmoor,
and Exmoor.
The first class consists of types of
very large and valuable sheep, chiefly
inhabiting the heavier and richer agri-
cultural lands of the western and mid-
land counties of England. They yieM
wool of a long, strong, and lustrous type,
most suitable for the lustrous and demi-
lustrous kinds of dress fabrics and lin-
ings. Class 2, usually termed "Down-
wool breeds," includes sheep of a smaller
type, distributed over the more southern
portions of England, and these produce
wool of a white and crisp type, which is
extremely useful for hosieries, flannels,
serges, blankets, shawls, &c. From the
types in both these classes growefs in all
wool-producing countries have drawn
sheep for the building up and improve-
ment of their flocks to an extent which
has rightly earned for the United King-
dom the name of " The Vv'orld's Stud
Farm."
The mountain breeds in class 3, as
might naturally be expected, are gener-
ally of a somewhat poorer order. Still,
these breeds have their great value;
without them much land would be sheep-
less, and as a consequence the range of
wool qualities and the variety in price of
fabrics — both so necessary for the vary-
ing requirements of the trade — would
be disadvantageously less. The uses
of these are in cheap serges, hosieries,
blankets, flannels, and carpets.
A fourth class might very properly be
made, consisting of "half-breds," or more
correctly " cross-breds," produced by
crossing the afore-mentioned types to-
gether for purposes of improving both
mutton and wool, though chiefly thfe
former. This class is somewhat large,
with representatives scattered through-
out almost all the sheep-growing areas,
the wool yielded being of medium length
and quality and suitable for medium-
class dress fabrics, serges, hosieries,
and woollens. As these are the cross-
bred progeny of the breeds referred
4o6
BRITISH WOOL.
to,- and which will be detailed shortly,
there is no necessity for a separate
classification.
L(yng Wools.
Lincoln ■Wool. — Reverting to class i
— ^the Long -wool breeds — the Lincoln
must be placed at the head. The Lin-
coln is the longest and strongest woolled
of all British breeds — the wool being
lo inches and upwards in length j it is
of excellent lustre for its type, of a fair
degree of fineness (being 36's to 40's
quality), soft to the handle, and very
elastic. The fleece varies from 8 to 12 lb.
in weight, though at times it is double
this, and it will generally yield three-
quarters of its greasy weight in scoured
wool. It finds employment in the best
dress fabrics, and, because of its excep-
tional length, strength, and elasticity, it
forms the chief material in the "hog
top " wrapping for the squeegee rollers of
wool-scouring bowls, this material only
being really serviceable under practical
conditions.
Xisicester "Wool. — The Leicester is
often placed along with the Lincoln
breed, especially when the wool is con-
sidered. The Leicester wool is of an
excellent type, and very lustrous in
staple. Its uses are similar to those of
the Lincoln wool, though it might also
be. noted that the addition of Leicester
wool to Lincoln gives to that product
the quality of softness to a remarkable
degree.
Cotsvirold Wool. — The Cotswold wool
is of the demi-lustre type, a shade finer
than the Leicester (44's) and a little
shortef, with a weight of fleece of about
8 lb., and is of much value in the making
of dress goods and linings.
Border Leicester Wool. — The wool
produced by this breed is excellent. It
is of a demi-class, of good length and
fineness (occasionally 46's quality), and
is eagerly sought for dress fabrics, lin-
ings, &c.
Wensleydale Wool. — ■ This breed,
originally containing much Leicester
blood, yields a fleece about 8 lb. in
weight, of a son^ewhat curly but very
lustrous character, of 40's quality and
fair length, which is used for purposes
similar to the lustre wools already noted.
rieece of Devon Long-wools. — Of
the two types of these sheep, one, de-
signated South Ham, grows a somewhat
fine and silky wool, generally used along
with the wool of the ordinary Devon.
Roniney Marsh Wool. — While not
being of highest excellence in regard to
wool, this is one of the most valuable of
English breeds. The wool is demi-lus-
trous, of 46's quality, of good length,
strength, and oftentimes with a fleece
weight of about 7 lb.
Short-wool Breeds.
Typical of these is the Southdown, a
breed which, because of its fineness,
whiteness, and softness of wool, might
even be called the English Merino. No
breed has been more perfected, both as
regards mutton and wool, than this. The
wool is extremely crimpy, about 3 inches
in length, of thick and massive staple,
50's to 56's in quality (this only being a
point lower than strong Merino wool),
with a fleece weight of 5 lb. In handle
it is somewhat harsh and dry, this being
due to chalk, which robs the fibre of its
nature, and leaves it also somewhat im-
paired in strength as compared with the
lustres. - For hosieries, flannels, dress
fabrics, serges, &c., it is in great demand.
Shropshire Wool. — For mutton and
wool this breed gains the highest praise ;
in fact, with re§p,rd to the latter no
breed is in greater demand. The wool
is about s inches long, of 50's quality,
open in fibre, and of excellent spinning
quality.
Other Down Wool. — The wool of
the Oxford, Hampshire, and Sufiblfc is
fairly similar, being of the Down type
just described. The uses are much the
same.
Ryeland Wool. — The Ryeland breed
yields exceeding fine and open wool of
the Down type, but of a small fleece
weight. This wool has suffered much in
competition with strong colonial wool of
the Merino type which forms a satisfac-
tory substitute, and this has interfered
with its development to a considerable
extent.
Dorset Horn Wool. — This breed is
of greater value for mutton purposes
than for wool. The fleece is light — 3 to
4 lb. in weight, with wool fairly long,
fine and bright in appearance, of use as
the ordinary Down types.
MARKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
407
Mountain Breeds.
Blackface "Wool. — The wool of this
distinctive breed is not of good quality.
It is long, thick 28's to 32's quality,
harsh and kempy, of Uttle lustre, and
comparatively small weight of fleece, say
4 to s lb. It is used mostly in the pro-
duction of carpets, rugs, (fee, of medium
class character. In some parts of the
extreme north there is a variety of
sheep whose fleece is described as wool
and hair, the woolly part being shed,
plucked, or shorn each year. This wool
is of medium length and softness, of
fair spinning quality, and is suitable
for use as coarse serge and tweed-like
fabrics. *
Cheviot Wool. — The wool of the
Cheviot breed is dense but fairly fine,
46's quality, and long, with a fleece of
about 4 lb., being of greatest use in the
making of tweeds, and for hosieries and
flannels- of medium types. Crossed on
the Border Leicester, this gives the North
or Leicester-Cheviot wool of Yorkshire
for which much demand exists, large
quantities frequently going to America.
Iionk Wool. — The wool of the Lonk
sheep is less characteristic than that of
the Cheviot breed, but it is easily dis-
posed of for use in low tweed and serge
making.
HerdvTick Wool. — This breed yields
a fleece of only 3 to 4 lb., the wool being
coarse and open. It is of medium length.
and fulfils requireftients similar to the
Blackface and Lonk wools.
Dartmoor and Exmoor Wools. —
The wool yield of these breeds is small
in weight, short in staple, but is soft.
It is used for' hosiery, blankets, and
flannels.
Welsh. Wools. — Generally two kinds
exist which are natural to Wales. The
first occupies the highest mountains, and
yields wool often coloured black, greyish,
white, and brown, but of a coarse nature
and only medium in length. The second
class, which also inhabits the mountains
and hills, yields white wool from which
the celebrated Welsh flannels are made.
The wool is not uniform either in length
or fineness, and it contains many kemps.
The fleece weight is about 2 to 3 lb. *
Irish Slieep and Wools.
As is the case with Welsh sheep, two
distinct varieties exist in Ireland— those
of the mountain and those of the vale.
The mountain sheep somewhat resemble
the Welsh and Scotch types, and yield
similar wool, though these when carefully
tended* and grown in less elevated posi-
tions show marked improvement in char-
acter. Wool from the vale sheep (of which
the Eoscommon is the only pure breed)
is of medium length (6 inches), and of the
Down type, but longer of course, and is
extremely serviceable in the making of
hosieries and flannels, these often being
of an excellent quality.
MARKETING OF LITE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
Historical.
The origin of Markets and Fairs (says
Mr Loudon M. Douglas, to whom the
Editor is indebted for these notes) is
wrapt in obscurity, but their history, so
far as known, is of a most interesting
character. The word market means traflBc
or trade, and although associated at one
time with other pursuits, that meaning
has been attached to it from the earliest
historical times.
A fair has come to be looked upon as
synonymous with a market, although at
one period there was a marked difler-
ence, the market being liable to be held
on any day of the week, whereas a fair
was looked upon as a much larger func-
tion, and was only held on specified
dates, which, in some cases, were pro-
claimed some time before.
There are many references to the
customs of trade in Biblical times, show-
ing that then the principles of market-
ing were well known. It was to Greece,
however, that the principle of marketing
owed one of its greatest advantages, as
it was the Greeks who invented the idea
4o8
MARKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
of a gold and silver coinage whose value
should be unquestioned in any country
of the world — that is to say, a universal
coinage.
In early as in later times, fairs and
markets were associated with religious
festivals, and, indeed, as far back as
Pythagoras (550 B.C.) it was said, on the
authority of Cicero, that large numbers
of people attended the religious festivals
on those days merely with a view to
trade. In later times this became a
custom, and for many centuries fairs and
markets were indissolubly associated with
religious festivals, and the practice was
carried to so great an extent that the
principal fairs and markets during the
middle ages were held on Sundays in
the churchyards, there being thus a
curious blend of business and devotion.
The incongruity of the combination,
however, was recognised in England in
the reign of King Henry VI., during
which period it was practically suppressed,
on the ground that it was reminiscent
of the buyers and sellers in the Temple.
Fairs were at one time common tQ all
countries, but with the introduction of
railways and quick transport, together
with rapid postal and other means of
communication, they have fallen in
esteem, and now occupy only a second-
ary place in market transactions in all
civilised countries.
Several of the great fairs of Europe are
still carried on ; and while some of them
are specially devoted to the buying and
selling of specific kinds of goods — such,
for example, as the Leipzig Book Fair
or the Nottingham Michaelmas Goose
Fair — there are others which are devoted
to the handling of general merchandise.
We have also such fairs in the United
Kingdom as the Glasgow Fair, Donny-
brook Fair, and the Fair of St Barthol-
omew, the last - mentioned being the
greatest fair that has ever existed. The
original intention, however, in connection
with these fairs — namely, that they
should be for the marketing of goods —
has been modified to suit the progress of
civilisation, and they have dwindled
down to mere occasions for a holiday.
It is of interest to recall that fairs and
markets have always had some privileges,
such as the right of exclusive dealing
within a certain area of the fair while
it lasted; the administration of justice in
connection with the transactions, or any-
thing that has happened during the fair,
in a Summary Court, described as the
Court of Piepowder (from the French,
pied poudre, meaning dusty feet), and
so described, it is supposed, because of
the dusty feet of the suitors. In later
days the Clerk of the Markets became
the judge of this court, and exercised the
jurisdiction .previously held by represen-
tatives of the community. This privilege
has, however, been altogether done away
with, and the Clerk of the Markets is
now merely a recorder of the transactipns
which take place within the modern
market.
Modem Fairs.
Modern fairs, in so far as the United
Kingdom is concerned, are associated
almost entirely with agriculture, and the
tendency is to dispense with them alto-
gether. In Ireland, where they are very
numerous, and where they are largely
live-stock markets for the sale of cattle,
sheep, and pigs, they serve a useful
purpose in remoter districts, where they
enable farmers to bring their produce to
one centre, and where they may be sure
of getting the price which rules in the
fair for any particular class of animals.
This advantage, however, is also being
supplanted by the institution of live-
stock scales at various railway stations,
where live stock may be sold to agents
of purchasers, by weight, in place of by
guesswork as obtains in a fair.
" Market overt " was a term which
was applied to transactions carried out
in open market. In England such •
markets were held in specified places
and on particular days, but in modern
life this has been replaced by the institu-
tion of shops, which constitute " market
overt " in the same way. In Scotland
" market overt " does not exist, and the
difference will be understood when it is
stated that " the owner of goods sold (in
'market overt') by one who has stolen
them, or to whom they have been lent,
may reclaim them from the purchaser."
In England the owner would have no
such privilege.
These rights pertaining to fairs, with
many others of a like character which
need not be recalled, only serve to show
MAKKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
409
how much they are out of sympathy with
modern institutions. They served a use-
ful purpose in their day in enabling
produce of various kinds to be con-
veniently distributed. But wherever
railway communication is efficient — and
that is fast becoming universal — the need
for the fair entirely disappears. The
time, therefore, appears to be not far
distant when they will cease to exist
altogether, and give place to methods
more in keeping with modern ideas.
A market at the present day, in so far
as agriculture is concerned, means a suit-
able place — which may either be covered
or open — in which the produce of the
farm may be bought and sold.
Every town and considerable centre of
population has its market, and, in many
places, corn markets are held on distinct
days of the week from live-stock markets,
so that the selling of the cereal produce
of the farm need not interfere with the
disposal of the live stock.
The Marketing of Dairy Produce.
In connection with dairy farming there
are two systems of disposing of the
milk. The first is by converting it into
butter, and this applies to districts which
are remote from populous towns, where
milk is valued at considerably less than
what it would fetch in the neighbour-
hood of a large population. It does not
pay at any time to make butter in the
neighbourhood of a large city, as the
value of milk for household purposes is,
on the average, at least one-third greater
than what it is for butter-making pur-
poses. The farmer, therefore, who is
remote from the large town, and who
practises dairying, either converts the
milk which he sells into butter and feeds
the calves and pigs on the separated
milk, or he sells* his whole milk to a
creamery, which may be jointly sup-
ported by a large number of farmers;
or it may be operated on co-operative
lines, in which case it is usual for the
farmer to take back again about an equal
quantity of separated milk to the whole
milk he has supplied. The average price
of this separated milk is reckoned at a
penny per gallon, and he is therefore
able to feed his pigs and calves in the
same way as he would if making butter
on his farm, but with much less
trouble than if he had a private butter-
making establishment. In cheese-mak-
ing, which is carried on very largely on
such farms, there is not the same in-
ducement towards co-operation, as it is
entirely questionable whether co-opera-
tion in cheese-making is superior to what
is accomplished by private enterprise.
In either case, however, the residual whey
is utilised as feeding, more especially for
pigs.
Butter which is made on the farm is,
in many cases, delivered to merchants or
to consumers direct, but in many dis-
tricts, more especially in Ireland, small
farmers at the present day make what
is termed " lump " butter, and which is
simply butter produced in a crude way
and without any regard to its proper
grading. This lump butter is taken to
butter fairs, which are held week by
week, and is purchased by merchants,
who mix all the lump butter together so
as to make different grades of a uniform
texture and appearance. These mer-
chants term the produce, which they
turn out in kiels, firkins, boxes, and
packages — ^" factory" butter, so as to
distinguish it from " creamery " butter,
or such as is produced from the mixture
of the milk. In the one case, the factory
butter is the result of mechanical mixture
of the various lumps ; whereas, in the
case of creamery butter, the production
is the result of the mixture of the
various supplies of milk. It is quite
obvious that the creamery is very much
more advantageous than the ■ factory
system, in so far as the production of a
trustworthy and uniform article is con-
cerned. The custom, however, among
the small farmers of making their own
butter is dying out but slowly, and is not
likely to be extinguished until a greater
number of creameries have been estab-
lished, either by private enterprise or by
co-operation.
Marketing of Live Stock.
The Markets and Fairs Weighing of
Cattle Acts (1887 and 1891) require that
all market authorities shall " provide and
maintain sufficient and proper buildings
or places for weighing cattle brought for
sale within the market or fair, and shall
keep therein or near thereto a weighing-
machine and weights for the purpose of
410
MAEKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
weighing cattle, and shall appoint proper
persons to have charge of such machines
and weights and to afford the use of such
machine and weights to the public for
weighing cattle, as may from time to time
be required."
By these provisions the business of
buying and selling live stock has been
placed upon a much better footing, especi-
ally for the farmer. The live- weight prices
of the various animals are shown clearly,
and it is therefore not difficult for the
farmer to get fair value for his produce.
The fee which market authorities may
charge for these facilities is twopence for
each head of cattle and a penny for every
five or smaller number of sheep or swine.
There are various live-weight scales
made ; their construction, however, is
practically identical, there being only a
slight variation in design. The vjeighing-
machine(fig. 765) consists of an ordinary
platform weighing apparatus, and to the
platform a cage is attached, the weight
of which is allowed for in the counter-
balancing. Cattle are simply driven one
by one into the cage and , are weighed
entire, and from such weights it is com-
Fig. 765.
Live stock weigking-TnacJune.
The USB of the wdgKbridge far
detBrmiming the live-weight of aaUle
has greatly i/noreased. By it^uid
and the use of average tables for
calcuhxtion, the approximate dead-
weight of any animal can he deter-
mined. By this means both the
seller and the buyer know, pretty
nearly, the price per lb. which a/ny
price for the live animal wiU gi/ve, «
In this way a more sati^actory
marvner of marheting is arrived
at thom by buying or selling by
**ha/nd," The live-weight scale also
Jiicilitates sales ' by weight on the
basis of either live- or dead-weight.
> ^^^m.' 'x.®"--
paratively easy to compute what the nett
weight will be. Fdr this purpose several
simple rules have been devised by Mr
John D. M'Jannet. These rules are as
follows : —
For ascertaining the approximate Car-
case-weight of Fat Cattle from their
Live-weight.
1. For wastefuUy fat Smithfield Club
show cattle, multiply the live-
weight by 7 and divide by 10.
2. For extra prime Smithfield Club
show cattle, multiply the live-
weight by 2 and divide by 3.
3. For prime butchers' bullocks found
in ordinary markets, multiply the
live-weight by 3 and divide by 5.
4. For fair killing beasts found in
ordinary fat-stock markets, mul-
tiply the live-weight by 4 and
divide by 7.
5. For old fat cows, just take one-
half of live-weight.
Live- and Dead-weight of Fat Pigs.
Young fat pigs weighing alive at farm
from 83 lb. up to 158 lb. will dress
from 62 J4 tb 70 per cent. Fat pigs
of prime quality, weighing alive at
farm from 160 lb. up to 410 lb., will
dress from 67^^ to 77^^ per cent.
The following table shows approxi-
mately the available produce from fat
sheep ; —
MARKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
411
Description.
TJnfasted
live-weight.
Per cent
of mutton.
Average,
Three-part lambs .
Three-part hoggets
Cross-bred hoggs .
Half-bred ewes
Blackface ewes
Ih. lb.
60 to 90
90 to 120
120 to 135
140 to 180
116 to 136
Lowest. Highest.
49 52
50 54
52 56
50 53
50 52.7
50 per cent.
51
S3
51
SI
A specially interesting and useful table and the weight are known. This table
is that which follows, and which gives can be extended indefinitely on the same
the price per live cwt. of cattle between lines, and is a fair model of what such a
80 and 83 stones, when the price " bid " table should be : —
Table showing the Pkice per Live Cwt. op Cattle wheee the Weight and the
^ Price Bid is known.
The Price
Bid.
Live-weight or Auimal.
1
i
0
■§ c
y-
II*
i
0
£S"
;g8
»SS'
Price
Price
Price
Price
per cwt.
per cwt.
per cwt.
per cwt
£ s.
d.
s.
d.
s. ci.
s.
d.
s, d.
13 0
0
26
0
25 8
25
4
25 0
13 2
6
26
3
25 II
25
7
25 3
13 5
0
26
6
26 2
25
10
25 6
13 7
6
26
9
26 5
26
I
25 9
13 10
0
27
0
26 8
26
4
26 0
13 12
6
27
3
26 II
26
7
26 3
13 15
0
27
6
27 2
26
10
26 6
13 17
6
27
9
27 5
27
I
26 9
14 0
0
28
0
27 8
27
4
27 0
14 2
6
28
3
27 II
27
7
27 3
14 5
0
28
6
28 2
27
10
27 6
14 7
6
28
9
28 S
28
I
27 9
14 10
0
29
0
28 8
28
3
28 0
14 12
6
29
3
28 II
28
6
28 2
14 IS
0
29
6
29 2
28
9
28 5
14 17
6
29
9
29 5
29
0
28 8
15 0
0
30
0
29 8
29
3
28 II
15 2
6
30
3
29 II
29
6
29 2
IS 5
0
30
6
30 1
29
9
29 4
IS 7
6
30
9
30 4
30
0
29 7
15 10
0
31
0
30 7
30
3
29 10
15 12
6
31
3
30 10
30
6
30 I
IS 15
0
31
6
31 I
30
9
30 4
15 17
6
31
9
31 4
31
0
30 7
16 0
0
32
0
31 7
31
3
30 10
16 2
6
32
3
31 10
31
6
31 I
16 s
0
32
6
32 I
31.
9
31 4
16 7
6
32
9
32 4
31
II
31 7
16 10
0
33
0
32 7
32
2
31 10
16 12
6
33
3
32 10
32
S
32 I
16 15
0
33
6
33 I
32
8
32 4
16 17
6
33
9
33 4
32
II
32 7
17 0
0
34
0
33 7
33
2
32 9
17 2
6
34
3
33 10
33
5
33 0
17 S
0
34
6
34 I
33
8
33 3
17 7
6
34
9
34 4
33
II
33 6
17 10
0
3S
0
34 7
34
2
33 9
17 12
6
35
3
34 10
34
5
34 0
17 IS
0
35
6
35 I
34
8
34 3
17 17
6
35
9
35 4
34
II
34 6
The Peiok
Bid.
Live- weight of Animal.
1
4
0
•is
?^
!
0
t.
H ^.
m-^ a"
CX3
0
«> c
CO r
«= c „
Price
Pi ice
Price
Piipe
per cwt.
per cwt.
iper cwt.
per cwt.
£ s.
d.
s.
d.
s.
d.
s.
d.
s. d.
18 0
0
36
0
35
7
35
2
34 8
18 2
6
36
3
35
10
35
4
34 II
•f S
0
36
6
36
I
35
7
35 2
'? 7
6
36
9
36
4
35
10
35 5
18 10
0
37
0
36
7
36
I
35 8
18 12
6
37
3
36
10
36
4
35 II
18 15
0
37
6
37
I
36
7
36 2
18 17
6
37
9
37
4
36
10
36 S
19 0
0
3!
0
37
6
37
I
36 7
19 2
6
38
3
37
9
37
4
36 10
19 S
0
38
6
38
0
37
7
37 I
19 7
6
38
9
38
3
37
9
37 4
19 10
0
39
0
3!
6
38
I
37 7
19 12
6
39
3
38
9
S8
3
37 10
19 15
0
39
6
39
0
38
6
38 I
19 17
6
39
9
39
3
38
9
38 4
20 0
0
40
0
39
6
39
0
38 7
20 2
6
40
3
39
9
39
3
38 10
20 5
0
40
6
40
0
39
6
39 I
20 7
6
40
9
40
3
39
9
39 4
20 10
0
41
0
40
6
40
0
39 7
20 12
6
41
3
40
9
40
3
39 10
20 15
0
41
6
41
0
40
6
40 0
20 17
6
41
9
41
3
40
9
40 3
21 0
0
42
0
41
6
41
0
40 6
21 2
6
42
3
41
9
41
3
40 9
21 S
0
42
6
42
0
41
6
41 0
21 7
6
42
9
42
3
41
8
41 2
21 IQ
0
43
0
42
6
41
II
41 S
21 12
6
43
3
42
9
42
2
41 8
21 IS
0
43
6
43
0
42
5
41 II
21 17
6
43
9
43
3
42
8
42 2
22 0
0
44
0
43
6
42
II
42 5
22 2
6
44
3
43
9
43
2
42 8
22 5
0
44
6
44
0
43
5
42 10
22 i 7
6
44
9
44
2
43
8
43 I
22 10
0
45
0
44
5
43
II
43 4
22 12
6
45
3
44
8
44
I
43 7
22 15
0
45
6
44
II
44
4
43 10
22 17
6
45
9
45
2
44
7
44 I
412
MAKKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
Carcase Competitions.
At the Smithfield Club Show, held in
December 1908, the carcase classes were
very much extended, and some interesting
results were obtained. It was observed
that the animals submitted in competi-
tion, first as live animals and latterly in
the carcase, did not in every case gain
the same awards in the two classes, the
judgment of the live animal not being
borne out when the carcases were ex-
amined. It is felt strongly by meat
purveyors that more attention should be
given to carcase competitions, which they
regard as the only satisfactory test of
an animal which is destined for food.
It may be of interest to record here
the various entries in the classes of
cattle, sheep, and pigs which obtained
the highest awards at that show ; and it
may be observed that a comparison of
the actual weights realised with the
weights stated in the foregoing table,
indicates that the rules laid down are
fairly accurate.
TABLES OF THREE CARCASE CLASSES ENTERED AT SMITHFIELD CLUB
SHOW, LONDON, 1908.
Stebbs not exceeding two teabs old.
Catalogue Number and
Name of Exhibitor.
Breed.
Live-
weight.
Carcase
Wiight
in 8-lb.
stones
and lb.
Per-
centage
of
Meat.
Placed
Judges
Alive.
Carcase
Awards.
Realised
per 8 lb.
584 Coed C6ch Trustees .
585 J. J. Cridlan .
586 Sir Walter Gilbey, Bt.
587 G. Young
588 J. & G. Young .
589 W. A. Sandeman
590 James Mc William
591 Joseph Godman
592 R. M. Greaves .
593 Finlay Munro .
594 R. G. Nash
595 Lionel Phillips .
596 J. Douglas Fletcher .
597 Univ. Coll.,- N. Wales
598 Sir, J. Colman, Bart. .
599 Duchess of Newcastle
600 Viscount Tredegar .
Welsh
Aberd. -Angus
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
Aberd. -Angus
Cross-bred
Welsh
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
Aberd. -Angus
Welsh
Cross-bred
Cross-bred
Shorthorn
ewt. qr. lb.
11 3 12
12 I 13
II I 12
10 I 2
10 3 I
11 2 20
II I 26
II 2 7
10 I 0
10 I 16
10 I 18
11 I 8
II 2 18
11 3 lO
12 0 18
9 0 26
13 0 9
St. lb.
loi 6
"S 4
loi 7
92 2
94 0
108 5
108 4
107 4
.90 3
97 4
94 I
103 6
108 4
104 S
no I
84 0
124 6
61.30
66.71
64.00
64.17
62.41
66.43
67.50
66.41
63.00
67.00
64.58
65.46
66.46
63.12
64.68
65.00
68.10
4th
3rd
H.C.
H.C.
ist
2nd
h!c.
C.
H.'C.
2nd
H.C.
C.
4th
3rd
1st & Ch.
R. &'h.C.
H.C.
H.C.
s. iL
4 0
4 4
4 6
6 0
5 °
tl
'I
5 8
7 0
4 4
4 4
4 6
4 0
5 0
3 6
Averages 1908
1907
II I 3
II I 8
102 6
103 2
65.11
65.14
...
...
4 m
4 5
One Pure Lonq-Woolled Wetheb Sheep above 12 and not exceeding 24 months.
633 J. G. Young
634 Henry Simpson
635 Sir J. Gilmour, Bart.
636 J. D. Fletcher .
637 William Kennedy
638 Univ. Coll., N. Wales
639 Robert Graham
640 Sir R. W. Jardine, Bt.
64T W. Vivers & Son
642 Henry Dudding
Cheviot
Wensleydale
Blackfaced
Cheviot
Cheviot
Welsh M'n
Cheviot
Cheviot
Cheviot
Lincoln *
lb.
i6s
171
147
133
izS
102
116
119
116
304
lb.
ICO •
III
63
72
76
75
205
60.60
64.97
67-35
66.16
60.80
61.76
62.06
63.86
64,65
67-43
2nd
4th
C.
3rd
ist
2nd
4tii.
R. &C.
3rd
ist
4 0
3 8
3 8
4 6
6 0
5 0
S 6
7 2 ,
2 6
Averages 1908
1907
H9U
130
96>l
86
63.96
65.98
4 9
5 4
MAEKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
413
One Pia, not exceeding twelve months old, above 220 lb. and not exobbdino
300 LB. UVE-WEIOHT. ""
Per-
Placed
Catalogue Number and
Breed.
Live-
Carcase
centage
by
Carcase
Bealised
Name of Kxliibitor.
weight.
Weight
of
Judges
Awards.
per 8 lb.
Meat.
Alive.
lb.
lb.
s. d.
716 H. Peacock . " .
Berkshire
304
187
61.51
2nd
2nd
3 10
717 Briaut Brothers
Large White
282
201
71.27
H.C.
3rd
3 6
718 Lionel Phillips .
Tamworth
28s
256
89.78
3rd
3 2
719 J. Douglas Fletcher .
M. White
281
233
82.91
4th
4th
3 4
720 Via. Com. M. C. A. .
Berkshire
288
210
72.91
1st
1st & Ch.
4 8
721 Kenneth M. Clarfi .
Large Black
254
163
64.17
3 8
722 Thomas Soodohild .
Large Black
239
183
76.56
R. & H.C.-
3 6
723 D. E. Higham .
Berkshire
283
243
8^.86
3 2
724 John Neaversou
Large White
274
228
83.21
3 4
725 Harold Sessions
Large Black
293
237
80.88
3 4
,
Averages 1908
278
217
76.90
3 6'/,
1907
276
229
82.87
3 3
ir 1906
256
213
83.10
3 9H
11 1905
258
213
82.66
3 10
The Meat-Supply.
Since the nineteenth century entered
on its last quarter an entirely new set of
conditions has sprung up in connection
with the meat -supply of the United
Kingdom. Frozen and chilled meats of
all descriptions have been imported from
various foreign countries, notably the
United States, Canada, Argentina, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, Holland, and Scan-
dinavia ; and, so far as can be seen, the
supplies from these various sources are
likely to go on increasing. That these
supplies are already substantial is clearly
seen from a glance at the supplies of
dead meats which pass through the
Central Markets of London.
According to the returns' issued in
1908, four tons out of every five which
pass through the London Central Meat
Markets, in order to supply the 6,000,000
consumers in London, are of foreign
origin. That is to say that the meat-
produce derived from the United King-
dom, and which passes through Smithfield
Market, amounts to only 20^ per cent
of the total. The actual figures for
five years are given in the following
table : —
Table sHOwmo the QuANTrriBS or Home and Foebwn Meat passino theouqh
Smithfield Mabket, London.
Tear.
"Weight of
Market
Supplies.
Origin or Sources of Supplies in terms per cent.
"English
liilled " and
United
Kingdom
productions.
Imported productions, chilled or frozen.
Weight.
Rate per
cent.
North and
South
American.
Austral-
asian.
Contin-
ental.
1869
1877
1887
1897
1907
tons.
127,981
197.631
259,383
391.707
417.057
69,650
61.752
132.324
25.350
54-4
31.2
5I-0
6.4
97.7
89.0
77-5
47.9
36.6
nil.
7-4
9-5
18.8
24.6
nil.
nil.
5.8
20.3
257
2.3
3-6
7.2
13.0
13- 1
VOL. III.
414
MAEKETING OF LIVE STOPK AND DEAD MEAT.
[Copyright of Loudon M. Douglas.
Fig. y66.-^Side of heef.
The various cuts of beef which are shown on the diagram are those
which obtain throughovi the United Kingdom, thsre being, however^
slight modifications m various districts. It wUl be observed that the
*'Jtou7id,'* *^ Rump,'* and "Sirloin" are the highest-priced paHs,
The importation of frozen dead
meat to this country began about
1876. The earlier consignments
came chiefly from the United
States of America, but in 1879
two Scotsmen, named Bell and
Coleman, began to bring cargoes
of frozen meat from Australia.
Since then " the supplies have
steadily increased, until during
1907 they reached the gigantic
total of 18^ million cwt. of all
kinds of meats, valued at about
;^42,ooo,ooo sterling. Hitherto
much of the meat so imported
has been frozen to about 18' E.,
but it has been found that the
frozen product commands a much
smaller price than " chilled "
meat, which is carried at a much
• higher temperature — namely, at
28° F. Consequently, arrange-
ments have now been made to
■ bring in, from Argentina and
the united States, most of the
meat in the " chilled " condition.
It has been found that chilled
meat can be sold so as to com-
pete with the home-grown article,
and frequently fetches higher
prices. As this means an enor-
mous increase in the revenue
derivable from imported meat,
it is not to be wondered at that
the great shipping companies
are strenuously endeavouring ,to
bring all their meats under such
conditions.
MarTceting of Meats.
So far there has been very
little attempt to develop the
handling of meats at the farm.
A good many farmers slaughter
their own pigs in order to make
"farm-cured" bacon, but they
generally rely upon selling their
cattle and sheep on the hoof.
In order, therefore, that they
may the better understand what
the meat - purveyors require, it
may be of interest to refer in
some little detail to the pro-
cesses in use in the handling
of meats.
When live stock intended for
human food passes through mar-
MARKETING .OF LIVE 8T0CK AND DEAD MEAT-
415
fcets, it i? destined, aS a rule, for either
a private slaughter - house or a public
abattoir,
A private slaughter - hpus^ has many
objeetion?, the greatest b«ing that it is
kdifScult to control the meat which may
be handled tihere. The conditions ?ilso
wjiich necessarily exist in a private
[Copyright of 'Loudon M. Douglas.
Fig. 767. — Cutting up of a carcase ^f tnutton.
The methods in use for dividing up the carcases qf mutton vary slightly vn di0rent parts of the United Kingdom,
Imt the gerwrcd custim is shown on the Moo illustrations, mhere the mames of each portion ajnd Ss average prices a/re
given. It vnll he oiis&rved that the dearest port^ns are the legs and sadclle, a^d if ^ to the inerease of these that
bre&iing should be directed. Th£ V space between the legs shtmldhe as synaU as -possiile, artfl the greatest developm^t
should take place right across the " saddle."
establishment as compared with a public
■one must be inferior, owing to the fact
that the cost of installing proper .equip-
ment woujd be too great for a priyate
individu^il. There ar«, of course, many
exceptions tp this, but only in esoep-
4i6
MARKETING OF LIVE STOCK AND DEAD MEAT.
tional cases should private slaughter-
houses be allowed to exist.
Public slaughter-houses are very fre-
quently erected in conjunction with
cattle-markets, so that when live stock
is disposed of the animals may be con-
veniently conveyed to the abattoir ad-
joining. This relation of the market to
the abattoir is also convenient in another
way, as it enables complete inspection
on the hoof to take place, so that any
animal which is suspected of being dis-
eased can be intercepted before it enters
the abattoir.
The principal advantages in the hand-
ling of animals in an abattoir are, that
expert slaughtermen are employed, and
complete control and veterinary inspec-
tion is possible'. Meat can also be
matured in a properly constructed
abattoir much better than in small
premises, as usually plenty of ventila-
tion is provided, and chilling rooms
form part of the equipment also. That
part of technical detail, however, is not
one which very greatly interests the
farmer, — what he is concerned with is
the product itself. It is his business to
supply meat which will conform to the
requirements of the meat-purveyor, and '
what these requirements are can be best
understood from a diagram showing
niHE PART
^ flnn toJHieK BACK BACK KIBS. PRIME CUT
lOlfl LBAHEST
CORNER
OAdlHIOH
'^TOP or THICK PRIME THIN STREAKY
FORE HOCK '""""^^'^rHEAKY
FLANK
GAfSMON HOCK
[Copyright of Loudon M. Douglas.
Fig. 768. — Sidn 0/ bacon.
In the cutting v/p of a sicU of icKOn cwred in the " Wiltshire " method, as shown in the Ulvstrati^m, it will he
observed that the loin l^iftigs the highest price. Breeding should thereffyre he directed towards inereasing the
development of the live animals so that tlie fleshy part qfthe hack from which the loin is derived should form the leading
what parts of the animal bring the
highest prices. In the diagram in fig.
766 the British method of cutting up a
carcase of beef is illustrated.
The cutting up of the carcases of
sheep (fig. 767) is not so detailed an oper-
ation, and it does not involve quite so
much skill, as the cutting up of beef.
The breeding of sheep, however, for the
meat-purveyor should be strictly on the
lines of producing the Jargest quantity
of meat to the smallest proportion of
bone, and it is particularly desired that
the meat of the hind-quarters should be
extremely fuU. The transverse sections
through the middle should show a large
richly coloured "eye." When these two
points are accentuated in any sheep, it
answers tlien to the meat - purveyor's
requirements.
In so far as pigs are concerned, they
may be required for fresh pork or bacon,
but in either case the points are pretty
much the same, so that in breeding for
bacon purposes farmers will answer the
requirements of the meat trade all round,
and the points to be studied cannot
better be illustrated than by reference
to the diagram shovring the section into
which a side of bacon is usually cut,
and the prices of each (figs. 768 and
769).
Farmers as Retailers.
At various times atteiipts have been
made to organise societies of farmers ia
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK.
417
order to retail the products of the farm —
not so much on the lines of co-operation
as of private enterprise. Such concerns
have been instituted in various towns
with considerable success, notably in
dairying and also in the purveying of
meat. Whether this is an advantageous
line idr farmers to follow or not it is
hardly possible to say at the present
time, for as yet the experience of it has
been limited. If, however, a company
of farmers would combine together to
open several meat -purveyors' establish-
ments, and in that way save all the
cost of marketing and intermediate
profits, there seems no reason why
such a scheme should not succeed. It
is altogether a question of capable
management and' a proper understand-
ing of how to utilise the by-products
of the business.''
Much profit is lost in the Meat Trade
of the United Kingdom owing to the
fact that a very large number of meat-
purveyors slaughter their own animals,
and are thus unable to utilise offals to
the fullest extent. It would be far
better for each one of these to hand
over all the offals from his animals
to a central depot, where they would
be treated in bulk at very much less
cost and more efficiently than could
possibly be done on the small scale.
The residual products are also en-
tirely lost in small slaughter-houses,
instead of being converted into fer-
tilisers, which should be the final
destiny of the waste material in con-
[Copyright of Loudon M. Douglas.
Fig. 769. — Carcase of pork.
The sections into wJvioK a side of pork is divided are not
nectlOn with fhe handhng of all am- nuTmrom, the primmpal leing tlie leg and tlie loin, which,
1 J j: r J ioth in market pork and i/n connection with 'bacon-cv.rhw,
malS used tor lOOa. wing the highest prims.
INSECT ENEMIES OF LITE STOCK.
Dr R. Stewart Macdougall contributes
t£e following notes on the Insect, Mite,
and Tick enemies of stock.
Of the four chief classes of jointed-
footed animals (Arthropoda) only two,
the Insecta and the Arachnoidea (ticks
and mites and spiders), contain enemies
of stock. These insect and mite and tick
enemies affect stock in different ways :
e.g., they may be complete parasites,
passing their whole life on the affected
animal-^e.g'., lice and mange mites; or
they may be parasitic for part of their
life — e.g., the bots of cattle and horses
and the sheep maggots; or they may
visit the animal for a meal of blood
and then leave— e.j'., cleg and stable-
fly-
4i8
INSECT ENEMIES OP LIVE STOCK.
INSECTS.
A description of the characteristics of
insects and of the various orders of in-
sects will be found in vol. ii. p. 442, &c.
Of the various groups of insects only
three contain stock enemies — viz., the
Diptera or two-winged insects, the Mal-
lophaga or biting lice, and the Parasitica
section of Hemiptera — ^viz., the Sucking
Lice.
THE TWO- WINGED FLIES.
The insects of this order have a com-
plete metamorphosis (the keds are marked
exceptions). The mouth - parts of the
adult are fitted for a liquid diet, the
mouth-parts of some being modified to
form lancets by which wounds can be
made previous to the sucking up of
blood. The larva of a Dipterous insect
is a legless maggot. The families of
Diptera containing stock enemies are —
Tabanidse or true gad-flies.
CEstridae or bot-flies.
Muscidae — e.g., stable and sheep mag-
got-flies.
Hippoboscidse — e.g., ked and forest-fly.
PuHcidse (a degraded family), or fleas.
True GadrFlies.
These insects are harmful only in the
adult condition when by their mouth
lancets they woutd for blood. The
wound is made, never by a sting at the
end of the body but always by the
modified mouth -parts. The eggs are
laid elsewhere than on stock, and the
maggots of this family are not parasitic
on stock.
The Ox Gad-fly (Tabanus bovimis)
measures up to an inch in length and
has a stout body; the thorax is brown-
black and hairy and has dark stripes ;
the abdomen is red-brown, and along the
middle line of the back is a row of
whitish triangles. The flies are foUnd
from about the end of May onwards.
Both maggot and pupa live in the soil.
Another large Tabanus is Tabawm s%id-
eficus, a somewhat darker fly than
hovinus. Smaller species are T. auturri-
nalis, T. irotiiiui, T. maculicornis, and
T. cordiger. " >
T. bovinus and T. svdeticus approach
stock with a marked humming note j the
smaller Tabariidse land quietly on the
beast visited fo^ a lUeal.
The Cleg (Hcematopoda plwvialis)
measures half an inch in length and
has a narrow body; there are pale
stripes down the thorax, and a pale
grey band and greyish spots on the
upper surface of the abdomeh. The
grey wings have light-coloured markings,
The maggot and pupa live in the soiL
The flies are about in late summer.
There are two other British species, II.
crassicornis and H. italica.
The Blinding Breeze Flies (CJiri/sops)
may be distinguished from the Cleg
by the presence of three small eyes on
the top of the head (in addition to the
two large compound eyes). The com-
pound eyes are golden-green with purple
lines and spots. The flies have a some-
what square-shaped abdomen, and when
at rest the wings are held somewhat
apart. There are four species — Cf. ccecut-
iens, C. relicta, C. quadraia, and C. sepul-
cralis. The two first are the commonest.
The family Chironomidse or Midges
contains many British species. Most are
harmless, but several species of the genus
Ceratopogon cause great annoyance to
man by their "bites." Every one knows
the viciousness of these midges in summer
and autumn. The larvse of the midges
live, some of them in tte soil, others in
water. For keeping oflf the "biting"
midges, Theotald gives the following
as successful : a mixture of y^ oz. pure
carbolic acid, i % oz< spirits of lavender,
I drachm of eucalypfus-oil.
(Estridce or BotrFlies.'
The adults are hairy flies with abortive
or rudimentary mouth-parts. The adult
flies cannot wound stock, — it is the larva
or maggot which is harmful in this
family,— ^yet* stock seem instinctively to
fear the flies, and stampede as these
approach to lay their eggs. There are
three sections of QEstridse — viz. :
Gastricolse, in which the larvse live in
the alimentary canal — e.g., horse-
bot;
Cuticolse, in which the larvae live be-
low the skin — e.g., ox-marble flies ;
Cavieolse, in Which the larvse crawl
up the nostrils to the frontal
sinuses — e.g., sheep nasal-fly.
INSECTS.
419
Horse Bot-Flies.,
Gastrophilus equi. — This yellow-brown
fly (fig. 770) measures from one-half to
two-thirds of an inch long. There are
red hairs on the thorax and yellow-
brown hairs on the ajadomen. The
female fly can be told from the pres-
ence of a well-marked ovipositor directed
downwards and forwards^
The eggs — pointed at the attached end
and blunt' at the free end — are glued to
the hairs of the horse ; they measure '/12
inck The eggs are fixed to the hairs on
fore-leg and shoulder,, and sometimes to
the mane. When the egg is ripe the
maggot protrudes itself, and is conveyeji
by means of the horse's tongue to the
horse's mouth, ultimately reaching and
fixing itself to the stomach. The first
part of the stdmach is chiefly infested ;
but, in case of bad infestation, the
stomach generally may be more or less
covered. The maggots hold on by
means of their mouth-hooks, not leav-
ing till they are full fed. The full-
grown larva is rounded, and measures
^ inch ; in addition to its mouth-
Fig. 770. — Gastrophitus eqtti.
A, Male, twice natural size.
B, Head of i^ame, with a, the channel on the
face,
c, Abdomen of female, showing ovipositor,
s, Egg on a hair, magnified.
E, Grown. larva, magnified.
£', Front end of larva, a, antennae ; & and c, month-hooks,
much magnified.
G, Last segment of larva seen from behind.
H, Stigmatic plates at hind end of larva, greatly magnified.
T, Pupa.
K, Pupa seen from the side.
(a to D after Brauer-; e to k after Nitzsche.)
hooks it has a double row of prickles
on each segment. When full grown
the larva leaves go, and, passing along
the alimentary canal of the host, drops
to the ground, where pupation takes
place. The flies are commonest in July
and August.
Oastrophilim hcemorrhoidalis is a
smaller and darker species. The eggs
of this fly are darker, and are sometimes
laid on the long hairs about the lips.
The maggots may fix themselves in the
thorax and back of the throat or in the
rectum.
The presence of the Gastrophilua mag-
gots may set up inflammation and ulcers,
and may cause interference with the free
passage of food or passage of waste
matter : loss of appetite and condition
are symptoms of attack.
Horses out at grass should be examined
and any leggs removed by thorough
grooming. The hcemorrhoidalis maggots
can be removed by hand from the anal
region, and those in the laryngeal region
by pushing into the throat a stick covered
with an oil - saturated cloth. Where
emaciation seems due to the presence of
the maggots the following has been re-
commended as a draught once a fort-
night: 2 oz. turpentine and 20 oz. raw
linseed-oil mixed.
420
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK
THE OX-WAEBLE FLIES.
There are two species of these — Hypo-
derma lineata and Hypoderma bovis.
The larvae of these flies are the cause of
immense loss in Britain every year.
Hypoderrna lineata. — The Striped Ox-
Warble Fly is so named from the longi-
tudinal bands on the front part of the
thorax, light stripes alternating with
dark. It measures half an inch in length,
and is black, with a hairy covering of
whitish, red-brown, and black hairs. The
flies are found from May till September.
The females lay their eggs in rows,
attaching them, as a favourite place, to
the hairs just above the hoofs. The
cattle, in licking themselves, convey the
maggots to their mouth, and the young,
maggots — spiny at this stage — fix them-
selves to the gullet. The larva moults,
and in doing so loses its spines, and
proceeds to wander from the gullet
through the tissues of the host, ulti-"
mately reaching the back. Here another
moult takes place, which leaves the
maggot spiny. Lying below the skin, the ,
maggots give rise to great irritation. A
swelling, with a hole leading to the out-
side, marks the position of the larva.
The larva lies in the warble with its
tail end pointing to the opening ; at this
tail end the spiracles for respiration are
situated. When full grown the maggot
presses itself out of the warble and falls
to the ground for pupation. Pupation
takes place under cover of the last
moulted 'skin, and this puparium or
pupa -case hardens and becomes black
in colour. In due course the fly, when
ready, issues through a cap-like opening
at one end of the puparium.
Hypoderma bovis measures over half
an inch in length; it is dark coloured,
banded with yellow hairs ; there are
yellow hairs on the face and yellow and
black hairs on the thorax ; the hairs on
the abdomen are yellow-white in front,
black in the middle, and yellow -red
behind.
There are conflicting views as to the
life-history of H. bovis. Miss Ormerod's
view was that the eggs were laid on the
hairs of the back, and that the maggots,
on hatching, bored directly through the
hide. Others hold that the life-history
resembles that of H. lineata — ^viz., that
the eggs or maggots are licked into the
mouth, and that after a wandering they
reach the tissues of the back. Kecently
Carpenter, as the result of careful ex-
periment with calves kept under observar
tion, has stated that the eggs are laid
chiefly on the legs, not on the back, both
fore and hind limbs being struck near
the hock. Carpenter also inclines to the
view that the larvae, on hatching, bore
through the skin, and after a more or
less prolonged wandering reach the back.
While maggots may reach the back by
way of the mouth. Carpenter's careful
experiments seem to prove that this
is not necessary. He kept six calves
muzzled in such fashion that they neither
could lick themselves or their neighbours,
and yet five out of the six calves showed
warbles.
Once having reacted the back, the
rest of the life-history is the same as for
H. lineata.
H. bovis is commonest from mid-
summer till the end of July, but not
limited to this period. According to the
trade reports, February till September
is the time for warbled hides, but chiefly
April and May.
The 0?-Warble Flies cause loss in
various, ways. The presence of the flies
bent on egg -laying alarms the cattle,
which gallop about. The irritation
caused by the spring maggots under the
skin prevents the cattle grazing at peace,
and they fail to put on flesh. After the
cattle have been slaughtered there is loss
in dressing the carcases from what is
called " licked beef " or " butchers'
jelly," this inflamed tissue having to be
cut and scraped away. Then there is
the loss from hides showing the warble
holes.
Treatment. — As a fly deterrent vari-
ous dressings are recommended; the
dressing to be applied along the spine
at regular intervals. It must be ad-
mitted that there is considerable testi-
mony in favour of the value of this
treatment. Yet careful experiment in-
dicates that the hairs of the back are not
a favourite place for egg-lajdng, and if
so the dressing of the back cannot be a
'■ measure for recommendation. As against
the maggots, once they are present in thp
back, it is a sometimes practised measure
to treat the warbles separately in order
INSECTS.
421
to kill tlie maggot. The maggot lies
in the warble with the tail end — where
the spiracles are — uppermost, and advan-
tage is taken of this to apply to each
some sticky or greasy or poisonous sub-
stance which will suffocate and kill the
pest. This mode of treatment, however,
is not to be recommended.
The best treatment is to squeeze out
the maggots and kill them. This is
not a difficult measure when the maggots
are approaching the end of theirggrowth,
and ought to be the most practised treat-
ment. Kegular and methodical attention
to this on the, part of our stock-owners, if
continued over a few seasons, would go
far to annihilate this enemy.
Another species of warble -fly — viz.,
Hypoderma diana — is the cause of
warbles in deer.
The Sheep Nostril-Fly (OEstrus ovis).
This fly (fig. 771) measures about half
an inch in length; the upper surface of the
head is light-brown ; tlffi upper surface of
Fig. 771. — (Estrus avis.
I and 2, Adult fly. 6, Young larva.
3. Piipa. a, Head-end.
4 and 5, Full-grown larva. &, Tail-end.
(After Riley.)
the thorax is light-brown or yellow to
grey, and has dark tubercles ; the ringed
abdomen is brown - yellow, with dark
spots; the legs are brown. The wings
are glassy, and extend, when the insect
is at rest, beyond the body. -The newly-
hatched maggots are white and worm-
like ; they have two mouth -hooks and
transverse rows of little spines on the
under surface of the abdomen ; there are
also spines at the hind end. When full
grown the maggot measures between ^
inch and i inch.
Life - History. — In warm sunshiny
weather the females fly towards the
sheep, laying their eggs, just ready to
hatch, or newly-hatched maggots, at the
sheep's nostril. The maggots, by their
mouth-hooks and spines and anal pro-
cesses, draw and push themselves up the
nostril. The maggots feed on the secre-
tions resulting from the irritation caused
by their presence and their prickings;
they become mature in the frontal and
maxillary sinuses gf the sheep. When
full grown the maggots are sneezed out
on to the pasture, where, a little below
the surface, or in a sheltering tuft, they
become pupse, the fly maturing under
cover of the last moulted skin of the
maggot, which becomes dark in colour.
The number of maggots in a head varies,
a small number being the commoner
thing.
"" Symptoms attending infestation are :
discharge from the nostrils of the in-
fected sheep; sneezing and snorting in
the endeavour to get rid of the larvae ;
tossing of the head ; rubbing noses on
the ground ; a staggering gait ; and dif-
ficulty in breathing.
Treatinent.— Dressings on the nostrils
of the sheep to prevent the files laying
their eggs or maggots. A contrivance
for this purpose is to have V-shaped
• salting-troughs in the field, the sides of
these being smeared with tar, which
reaches the nose of the sheep as they
lick the salt.
Infested sheep should be isolated be-
fore the maggots are sneezed on to the
pasture. In bad cases the sheep should
be sent for slaughter. Kemedial measures
are not of much avail, and fumigation,
or an operation to remove the maggots,
would be practised only with valuable
animals.
FAMILY MUSCID^.
This important family includes the
Tsetse -Flies, one of which {Glossina
morsitans) carries the parasite of tsetse-
fly disease, so fatal to the domesticated
animals in some parts of Africa; while
another species (Glossina palpalis)
carries the parasite that causes Sleeping
Sickness.
422
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK.
Thero are three. British blood-sucking
species; the others do not draw blood,
but arc harmful in other ways. The
blood-sucking species are Stomoseffs eal-
dtrans, HmmatoMa gtvmulans, and Lyper-
osia irritans.
The Stable-Fly (Stomoxys calcitrans).
This fly resembles the common houses
fly, but is shorter and stouter ; the wings
when Stomoxys is at rest are held wider
apart, and the head is more erect and
carries the cruel proboscis. In stables
where these flies settle on the horses'
legs the pricks of the proboscis cause the
beasts to stamp, and in Sensitive fine-
skinned animals a swelling may follow
the wound. Cows sometimes sufiier
severely.
The life-history of this fly has recently
been worked out by Newstead."- Farm-
yards and stables are, according to New-
stead, favourite haunts of the fly, which
also is found in fields, parks, and open
woods. The fly is also common in towns.
At night the flies may be found resting
On beams and rafters in open sheds in
farmyards. Fresh dung was offered to
flies kept in captivity, and eggs were laid
on it. With larvag fed on moist sheep's
dung (the eggs were obtained from cap-
tive females), at an average day tempera-
ture of 72 per cent, and night tempera-
ture of 65° F., the whole life-cycle was
completed in 25 to 37 days. With drier
material and light admitted the cycle
took 42 to 78 days. After prolonged
observation, Newstead succeeded in find-
ing the females laying their eggs in the
open, in a heap of grass mowings, in
September.
H^MATOBIA STIMULANS.
This fly, smaller than a house-fly, has
the head much smaller than that of S.
calcitrans, but the palpi are much longer.
The Cics live in the open and suck blood,
the pain of their " bite " being severe.
LYPEROSIA IKRITANS (Hcematobia
serrata).
This is the smallest of the blood-
sucking Muscids, and measures 4^ to 5
^ Journal of Economic Biology, 1907, vol. i.
millimetres in length. It is a pest of
cattle. This fly has been introduced to
the United States and Canada, where it
has been the cause of considerable loss,
interfering with the feeding of the cattle
and with their digestion, as well as
causing a loss of blood. From the habit
which these flies have of resting, when
in numbers, on the horns of the animals,
the name Horn-Fly has been given in
America.
The Common House-Fly (Musca
domestica).
Although sevei-al species of fly are
found in our houses, Musca domentica
is the commonest from midsummer
onwards to the autumn. The fly
measures 6.5 to 9 millimetres; it is dark
ash-grey in colour ; there are four longi-
tudinal black streaks down the back of
the thorax ; the abdomen is checkered
with black, and a dark streak runs down
the middle of its upper surface. The
egg is white and oval; the larva is a
white or grey -white maggot, with a
pointed head end and a blunt posterior
end. In the course of its development
it moults twice, and three stages can
thus be distinguished. ' Full grown it
measures ^ inch. The puparium is
oval and brown.
Life-History. — The female lays on an
average 120 eggs. The favourite place
for egg-laying is horse manure, but the
eggs may be laid on the ihanure of other
animals, where this is fresh and not too
dry, and in decaying comestibles. The
number of eggs laid by a single female
may reach 400 to 500. In warm
countries the whole life -cycle can be
passed through in a fortnight. Gordon
Hewitt,^ in his experiments at Man-
chester, found the life-cycle to vary
from 20 to 30 days : taking the shortest
times for the different stages in the
various experiments, then, 15 days is
the result.
It is clear, then, that enormous num-
bers of house-flies can be reared in a
season, and there is no doubt that this
means " considerable risk to the com-
munity. There is the fouling of food
and drink, with the dung-stained feet of
^ Memoirs a/nd Proceedings of the Manchester
Literary and Philosophical Society, 1906-07.
INSECTS.
423
the flies, and a soiling with their excre-
ment. As feeders on ga,rbage there is
ertdence that harmful bacsteria can be
conveyed to foods and milk ; the bacteria
of typhoid and tubercttlosis can be
carried, and probably the prevalence of
summer-diarrhcea in children, so bane-
ful in its results, is due to carriage of
bacteria by the -fly.
Excrement in the open should be
covered. Middens are great places for
the breeding of Musca domestica — the
maggots- sometimes swarming in such.
Howard recommends the application to
such of chloride of lime, a shovelful to
be thrown over every day or two's addi-
tion to the heap. A -wise measure would
be to protect exposed eatables with gauze.
The Blue-Bottles or Meat-Flies.
Two species of Calliphora — viz., C.
erythrocephala and C. vomit(yria,—^'w%\\
known by their loud buzzing noise and
their blue colour, lay their eggs on meat
and fish or on decaying organic matter, to
which they are attracted by their sense
of smell.
C. erythrocephala has a red face and a
black beard; C. vomitoria has a black
face and a red beard. The eggs are laid
in little heaps, and hatch in twenty-four
hours. The voracious maggots are well
known, as also are the brown oval pupa-
cases. The length of the life-cycle varies
with the food and the temperature. In
experiments made by me in August in
the open air the whole life -cycle was
passed through in a month.
Galliphora erythrocephala also
" strikes " sheep : the maggots pass their
life on the sheep, not boring deeply into
the flesh, however, as the green -bottle
(Lucilia) maggots do, and fall to the
ground for pupation when they are full
grown.
The Green-Bottles.
These belong to the genus Lucilia, and
there are two closely resembling species
— ^viz., Lucilia sericata and Lucilia coesar.
Lucilia coesar is green with a whitish face,
and the upper border of the buccal cavity
is reddish. L. sericata is, if anything,
smaller ; both face and buccal catity are
white. The colour is bright green, but
associated with this is a bluish bloom
absent in ecesar.
Lucilia sericata.
This fly is, par excellence, the sheep
maggot-fly. It can be observed flying
about the sheep during hot weather. The
fly measures about yi inch long and about
^ inch in spread of wing. The eggs are
yellowish-white, and measure about V16
inch. The larva is a legless maggot, but
is capable of an active crawling move-
ment; the head end is provided with two
mouth-hooks ; the hind end is blunt, with
tubercles round the margin, and two plates
with the spiracles. The pupa cases are
brown, and rounded or barrel-shaped.
Life-History. — The female fly may lay
as many as 500 eggs, these being fixed to
the wool in clusters of 20 or more. The
maggots from the eggs feed at first ex-
ternally, but later bore into the flesh.
When full grown they drop to the ground
for pupation.
Attack is worse on lambs than on old
sheep. The flies are found at work from
-May onwards. Moist, warm, muggy
weather, or warm sunshine after showers,
favours the fly.
Symptoms of attack are : Matting to-
gether of the wool flbres, a continual wag-
ging of the tail, rubbing and biting of the
sheep in their efforts to allay the irrita-
tion caused by the magggts, much inflam-
mation, oozing from the sores of an evil-
smelling sticky fluid, discoloration of the
wool which falls out and in bad cases does
not grow again, rapid loss of condition.
Treatment. — Keep the hind-quarters
of the sheep clean : a good measure is
to clip the tvool of the tail and between
the hind-legs. Carcases of dead animals
should be burned or buried so that
they may not serve as breeding -places.
Dipping with sulphur as an ingredient.
The neighbourhood of wounds should be
dressed with an ointment of butter and
flowers of sulphur or with spirits of tar.
Infested sheep should be isolated. The
maggots are not difficult to kill; they
should be picked or rubbed off, or where
they have got to work the wool may be
shorn a little, the affected parts being
dressed with fly-oil, or with a mixture
of turpentine and rape-oil in equal parts,
or with dilute paraffin-oil, finishing off
with a dusting of sulphur. Very much
depends on the care of the shepherd, and
there should be repeated inspection.
424
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK.
The Flesh-Flies, or Family Sa/rco-
phagincB.
Our best known species is Sarcophaga
carnaria, a greyish - looking hairy fly.
The female measures half an inch in
length and the male less. The upper
surface of the thorax is whitish - grey
with longitudinal black stripes. The
dark - coloured abdomen has a number
of whitish-grey markings resembling a
check.- The female fly deposits live
maggots on decomposing animal or vege-
table matter, and perhaps in wounds.
The maggots are white - coloured, and
have ^ their upper surface granulated.
Pupation takes place in some convenient
shelter - place ; the pupa case is
black-brown. Sarcophaga carnaria
maggots are chiefly scavengers, but
6n the Continent there is a dan-
gerous species, S. magnijka, whose
maggots are found on live animals.
FAMILY HIPPOBOSCID^.
This is a family of flies with
flattened horny body, and parasitic
on various animals, chiefly birds.
Some have well-marked wings ; in
others the wings are rudimentary
or may be absent. An interesting
feature in their biology is their
mode of reproduction, the pggs
hatching and the larvse developing in the
body of the mother right up to the period
when the larvse are ready for pupation.
The Ked or Kade or Sheep Louse-Fly
(Melophagus ovinus).
This insect (fig. 772) is wingless, and
measures about a quarter of an inch
in size. The colour is brownish; the
body is bristly. There is a tubulaf
proboscis. The square thorax bears
three pairs of bristly legs, each end-
ing in two strong two -toothed claws
and a plumed bristle. The keds live
aipong the wool of the sheep, coming
towards the surface on a sunny day,
hiding Nearer the skin among the fibres
of the wool in colder weather. They are
not able to live long away from their
hosts, from which they derive shelter,
warmth, and food. After shearing, the
keds are not found so spread over the
body, but collect more on the neck,
shoulders, and ears. The larva is nour-
ished within the body of the mother on
a secretion prepared in uterine glands;
small shining red-brown puparia are fixed
to the wool, and the adult, when ready,
issues by a crack at one end.
Keds — especially in lambs, which re-
main thin in consequence — give rise to
much irritation by their puncturings.
Infested sheep bite, scratch, and rub
themselves. Where the skin has been
punctured by the proboscis dark spots
show, surrounded by a red area.
■ Treatment. — Dipping, the bath con-
taining some substance which will poison
or suffocate the pests. After dipping, a
few dayl should elapse before the sheep
Fig. 772. — Melophagus ovinus.
I, Female, natural size.
z, Male, magnified ; Tiev7 of apper surface.
3, Male, magnified ; view of lo^wer surface.
4, Pupa cane, natural size.
4a, Fupa case, magniQed.
are allowed to return to their old feeding-
grounds, so that any keds that may have
previously tumbled to the ground may
have perished. A second dip should
foHow the first, say, after a fortnight.
The Forest-Fly (Hippobosca equina).
The New Forest is the chief locality
for this fly, but it has been recorded
from other parts of the south of Eng-
land and from Wales. The fly is winged
and retains its* wings ; it is a quarter of
an inch long. The head is yellow, and
there is a dark stripe in the middle of
the face ; the thorax is brown, and has
three yellow patches, two in front and
one in the middle. The toothed claws
give the fly a very secure grip of the
horse. The puparia laid by the female
are white at first, but soon darken. The
flies are found fixed to parts of the horse's
body where the skin is soft and the hair
not plentiful. The flies, as they crawl
THE BLOOD-SUCKING LICE OR PEDICULID^.
425
over the horse or donkey, cause great
annoyance and irritation, and strange
animals especially plunge and rear or
roll themselves about.
The Deer Forest-Fly (Lipoptera cervi).
This insect measures '/s inch; it is
yellow -brown in colour and is tough
and bristly ; the legs are short and hairy.
Botfi males and females can be found all
through the winter on the deer, the in-
sects being by this time wingless. To
begin with, however, both sexes have
wings, but when a host has been reached
the wings are shed or torn oflf and only
stumps remain.
The females lay small shining puparia
among the hairs of the deer. The flies
emerge in summer, and from autumn
onwards both males and females may
be found running over or clinging to
the deer.
Ornith/miyia avicularia.
This species is a bird parasite-; it is
found, for example, on fowls and pigeons,
and is generally distributed throughout
Britain. The fiy measures less than a
Quarter of an inch ; it is greenish-yellow
in colour, with the upper surface of the
thorax darker; the wings are smoky.
The fly retains its wings, and can at
pleasure leave one host and fly to an-
other.
PULICIDiE OE FLEAS.
This family is made , up of insects
whose wings are reduced to mere scales.
Three species of the genus Pulex may be
distinguished thus : —
Pulex irritans, the flea of man, with-
out comb-like spines on head and pro-
thorax.
Pulex avium, the flea of fowl and
pigeon ; 24 to 26 comb-like spines on the
prothorax.
Pulex serraticeps, the dog-flea ; 7 to 9
comb-like spines on the lower edge of
each side of the head and on the sides
of the posterior edge of the prothorax.
Fleas are laterally compressed insects
with bristles on thorax and abdomen ;
the six legs are also bristly — thB hind
pair the longest — and end in claws. The
males are smaller than the females and
have the end of the abdomen tipped up.
Eggs are laid in dusty corners, cracks in
the floor, on mats,' and among the hairs
of the dog. Legless larvae hatch out,
which can wriggle actively, assisted by
the hairs on the segments and by hooks
at the hind end. When the maggot is
full grown pupation takes place under
cover of a silky cocoon that may be
covered with dust particles.
The dog-flea also passes to man and the
cat. Pulex avium attacks the pigeon and
fowl and other birds ; it can prick man.
Sitting hens are annoyed, and where the
fleas are plentiful growth of the young
birds is interfered with.
Treatment. — Careful and regular
sweeping and cleansing of dog - kennel
and hen-house with lime-wash. Infested
dogs, having first been bathed with soapy
water, should be sprinkled with fresh
pyrethrum powder. Creolinated water
— a 10 per cent solution — is a good wash
for flea-infested animals. A little saw-
dust soaked in naphthaline and plaged in
the nests of sitting birds will give them
peace.
THE BLOOD-SUCKING LICE OE
PEDICULID^.
These insects belong to the Parasitica
section of the Order Hemiptera. They
have a sucking proboscis capable of ex-
pansion and contraction. When not in
use this proboscis is invisible, having
been withdrawn into its sheath ; the
sheath carries a number of hooklets which
bury themselves in the skin and so hold
the sucking-tube steady. The legs have
a two-jointed tarsuS) and the tarsus ends
in a stout claw which bends up and
forms, with a projection from the lower
extremity of the tibia, ^n apparatus by
which the parasites cling and creep.
The females lay eggs or nits, which are
glued to the hairs of the host. Develop-
ment is rapid; the young forms that
issue from, the eggs feed and grow and
moult themselves to the adult form
without any resting pupal stage.
Three genera may be noticed : —
The genus Phthirius has the thorax as
broad as the abdomen, the two passing
into one another without constriction —
e.g., Phthirius inguinalis, the crab-louse,
against which the best remedy is staves-
acre ointment. The genus Pediculus has
426
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK
tlie thorax narrower than the abdomen;
the gibdomen, broadest at the middle,
narrows at the anterior end, so that the
thorax and abdomen do not seem sharply
marked off from one another ; the eyes
are prominent. To this genus belong
the haad'lous,e (P^diculus capitis) and
body -louse (Pedieulus vestimenti).
The genus Haem3,topinus has the thorax
narrower than the al3domen; the abdo-
men and thorax, owing to the difference
in breadth, are sharply marked off from
one another. Haema'topinus species infest
the dog, horse, ox, pig, goat, and rodents.
THE BITING LICE OE
MALLOPHAGA,
The name Mallophaga means wool-
eaters, and indicates that these lice live
not on blood, but on epidermal scales,
feathers, hairs, scurf, &fi.
When present in numbers on the host
they are the cause of itching, unrest, and
irritation.
The Mallophaga are flattened forms,
with their mouth-parts fitted for bjting
and cutting. The head is large and
buoad; the first segment of the thorax
is distinct, but the other two segments
are not marked off from the abdomen ;
the legs are short and have one or two
claws ; in one section the legs are fitted
more for clinging, in the other more for
locomotion. Wings are absent.
There is an incomplete metamorphosis,
there being no resting pupal stage in
the life-history. Pear-shaped eggs are
laid on the hair or feathers, and the
young, which iatch, differ externally
from the adult only in size ; they become
sexually aiature after some moultings.
Mammals may be the hosts, but birds
more commonly, hence the Mallophaga
are often called the Bird-lice.
The two sections are the Philopteridse,
characterised by their comparative slug-
gishness, theij: feet being more adapted
for clinging ; and the Liotheidae, which
are more active.
PHILOPTEEID^.
Triehodeotes. — This genus infests
dog, horse, ox, sheep, goat. The species
have wide flat heads, beset on the upper
surface with hairs. The first segment of
the thorax is well marked ; the second
and third segments are fused to form
one piece; the abdomen is nine-jointed,
and has scattered hairs, these being most
marked at the edges; the abdomen of
the female is cleft at the end.
Lipeurus. — This genus has an elon-
gated narrow body. Species infest fowls,
ducks, geese,- turkeys, pigeons, pheasants.
Lipeurus variabilis of the domestic fowl
ma^r be taken as an example. This insect
may bo found in numbers amongst the
primary lyad secondary feathers, and can
move about actively. The head is round;
the hind part of the thorax is longer and
broader than the fore part; the under
surface of the thorax shows a brownish
spot ; the abdomen is spotted and banded,
and has projecting hairs at the edges.
The prevailing colour is pale-yellow, with
the spots fawn coloured and the bands
dark. The male measures 1.9 mm. and
the female 2.2 mm.
Ooniodes. — The species of the genus
Goniodes have flatter, wider bodies than
the last.
Goniodes dissimilis is the chicken
Goniodes. The head is wider than long ;
the abdomen is broad and oval, and has
on the middle of each segment two
bristles ; there are curved spots at the
edges. The general colour is whitish,
with ■ darker spots and fawn - coloured
bands. The male measures 2 mm. and
the female 2}4 mm.
The genus Goniocotes is also made up
of flattesned wide forms. Goniocotes hblo-
gasteir, the chicken-louse, is much smaller
than the last, the male measuring about
.9 mm. and the female 1.3 mm. - The
head is as wide as long and broadiest just
behind the antennae. Colour yellowish ;
there are brown-black bands.
LIOTHEID^.
Of this section, fitted for running,
Menopon, pallidum may be taken as an
example. This is the commonest and
most troublesome of all lice infesting the
fowl. It runs with great nimbleness
among the feathers. The head is angftlar
and crescent -shaped ; the temples bear
four bristles; the thorax is the same
length as the head in the male, but longer
than the head in the female. The abdo-
ACARINA OR MITES.
427
men is oval and elongated, and each
segment carries a series of bristles. T)w
abdomen of the male is longer and nar-
rower, and has four long bristles at the
end. The colour is pale -yellow, with
bright fawn spots on the abdomen.
Treatment for Lice, both Sticking and
Biting.
There should be scrupulous cleanliness,
with periodical disinfection ., of stable,
kennel, and hen-house. Dust-baths should
be provided for birds. Of ointments
which, rubbed into the hair, will suffocate
the pests, may be mentioned : (i) one
part sulphur to four of lard ; (2) staves-
acre ointment made of oil of stavesacre
one part, lard seven parts; or (3) i
decoction of one of stavesacre seeds to
four of lard.
For rubbing in or for washing there is
a large choice of preparations : (j) a
decoction of one ounce of stavesacre
seeds to a quart of liquid, half water
half vinegar; (2) an infusion of two
parts stavesacre to one hundred of vin-
egar; (3) one part petroleum to ten of
rape - oil ; (4) a 5 per cent mixture of
boiled tobacco or tobacco juice from
manufactured tobacco, diluted in the
proportion of i to 100 ; (5) creolinated
water — i.e., a 5 per cent solution of
creolin. When animals are combed the
comb should be dipped in a strong solu-
tion of soda, or comb and brush should
be dipped in paraffin emulsion, or in one
quart of water to which has been added
2 oz. of carbonate of soda and }i oz. of
powdered stavesacre.
A repetition of the treatment should
follow in some days, so that any of the
pests which have hatched from eggs that
escaped the first treatment may be killed
before they become mature and proceed
to egg-laying.
ACARINA OE MITES.
Acarina is an Order of the class Arach-
Tioidea ; it denotes the mites as distinct
from the spiders and the scorpions.
Mites are small animals with head
and thorax soldered together to form
A cephalothorax which is united through-
out its width to the abdomen : the two
parts are so joined that no sigij of theunior.
may be visible. The mouth apparatus is
fitted for biting or piercing or sucking,
the various united pieces forming the
rostrum. This rostrum is made up of a
pair of mandibles and a pair of pedipalps,
the latter consisting of a basal part and a
several-jointed palp capable of free move-
ment.
The adult mito has four pairs of legs,
which vary in shape according to the
habit of life of the mite ; the legs end in-
hooks or hairs or suckers. When the
mite hatches from the egg only six legs
are present ; the fourth pair appears latejc.
Respiration may be by tubules opening
on the outside of the body, but in many
parasitic forms the breathing is directly
through the skin. The sexes are separate,
and reproduction is typically oviparous;
exceptionally live young may be pro-
duced. Five mite families are of import-
ance here.
Family Demodecidoe.
This is a family of very small worm-
like mites with the cephalothorax and
the transversely striated abdomen dis-
tinguishable from one another. The
mandibles are little stylets. The adults
have four pairs of very short legs ; those
legs are three-jointed. Eyes are absent,
and respiration is through the skin.
Out of the egg there comes a larva,
legless in some varieties, in others
having three pairs of rudimentary legs ;
after two moults there is a well-developed
mouth and eight legs. These Demodex
mites live in the sebaceous glands and
the hair follicles of mammals,
Demodex folliculorum (fig. 773) is com-
mon in the sebaceous gl^ds of man's
face ; a favourite place is the skin of the
nose, but the presence of this mite in
man is of no importance. There are
varieties on the dog, cat, horse, ox,
sheep, pig, goat, and mouse. The De-
modex mites are very small, the largest
— that of man— measuring only '/so of an '
inch or a little over.
The worst Demodex attack is that on
the idog, where it causes follicular mange,
an affection of the skin characterised by
pustules and falling out of the hair. All
the stages from larva to adult may swarm
in the sebaceous glands and the hair
follicles, particularly the latter ; the mites
are fixed by their rostrum. It is young
428
INSECT ENEMIES OF £lVE STOCK.
dogs chiefly that are attacked, and short-
haired dogs more than long-haired ones.
The disease generally begins about the
head, particularly in the neighbourhood
of the eyes, and extends gradually to the
fore-legs, feet, and sides.
The symptoms vary according to the
stage of the disease. To begin with,
there is only a slight itching and small
papules and a redness marking the places
■where there has been a slight loss of
hair; as the disease spreads the skin
wrinkles, larger pimples appear, filled
with a purulent material, and when these
burst red crusts mark the place ; the itch-
ing may also increase. If some of the
purulent matter be squeezed out and
examined under the microscope the para-
sites are revealed. A characteristic odour,
suggestive of mice, comes away from the
patient.
Follicular mange does not yield readily
to treatment ; and where it has persisted
and spread, death almost certainly follows.
A good dressing is Peruvian balsam dis-
solved in aicohol — one part balsam to
four of alcohol — the solution to be
rubbed daily into the skin after the con-
Fig. 773- — Demodex
/olliculoruni.
Greatly- magnified.
(After Lohmann,
in'DasTierreich.')
Fig. 774. — Larva ^Trombidium holosericeum, ventral svrface.
Magnified one hundred times. (After RaiUiet.)
tents of the pustules have been squeezed
out. Anoth^er ointment in use is made
of five parts creolin and a hundred parts
lanoline.
Family TronMdiidce.
To the carnivorous section of this
family belongs Leptus autmnnalis (fig.
774), the Harvest Bug. This harvest
bug is not an adult, but possibly is the
larva of the mite known as Tromhidium
holosericeum. Leptus autumnalis is six-
legged and brick-red. The legs have six
joints and are hairy, and each ends in
three slender prongs.
This mite swarms in late summer and
autumn on grass and undergrowth, and
on such plants as gooseberry, currants,
raspberry, beans, from which the pest
passes to man, horse, ox, dog, cat, hare,
rabbit, mole, and fowls.
Dogs, especially hunting dogs, often
harbour the parasites fixed about the
head and nose and belly and feet, where
the mites cause eruptions. On the cat
they give rise to little wounds at the
root of the tail and the feet between the
claws. Dr Johnston, in the History of the
Berwickshire Naturalists' Club, quotes a
correspondent as to this mite on the
horse thus : " In the worst case I have
ever seen, that on a horse, the skin
seemed exactly as if it had been rubbed
with a liquid blister."
ACARINA'OK MITES.
429
Fowls and late-hatched chickens are
sometimes much annoyed by the Leptus
mites which bury their rostrum at the
base of the feathers.
Treatment. — A two per cent solution
of carbolic acid is a preventive as well as
a cure. Chloroform water — one of chloro-
form to six of water thoroughly mixed —
is also of service. Rubbing in sulphur
ointment or benzine or phenic acid will
get rid of the mites. In the case of
fowls the feathers should be dusted with
flowers of sulphur.
Family Sarcoptidce.
In this family we have the mange or
itch mites.
Mange, Itch, or Scah Mites. I
These tiny mites have rounded or oval
bodies and a conical rostrum. There is
a metamorphosis in the life-history.
There are three distinct genera of
mange mites — viz., Sarcoptes, Psoroptes,^
S3anbiotes,^ and under the microscope
they are distinguished thus : —
Sabcoftes.
Body rounded.
A short rostrum and two little
expansions called cheeks.
Legs short, not reaching far
from the body. The four
front legs spring from the
edge of the body ; the four
hind legs are attached to
the under surface of the
body and almost concealed
beneath it.
The tarsus (last joint of the
leg) may bear a long un-
jointed stalk, terminated in a
small sucker or suctorial disc.
The mandibles are nipper-like.
The mites, which are not
found in colonies, mine into
and make galleries below
the skin.
PaOEOPTES.
Body more oval.
Rostrum more pointed ; no
cheeks.
Legs longer, and all four pairs
can be seen projecting from
the body.
The tarsus bears a three-
jointed stalk terminated by
a sucker.
The mandibles are more lance-
like.
The mites, found many to-
gether, do not burrow into
the skin, but live in parts
sheltered by hair and wool,
and under crusts.
Symbiotes.
Body more oval.
Rostrum about as wide as
long, and blunt ; no cheeks.
Legs long, and all four pairs
visible.
The tarsus bears a short un-
jointed stalk terminated by
a wide sucker.
The mandibles are nipper-like.
The mites, which are social,
live exposed on the outside
of the host.
On the same animal all three kinds of
mange mite may be found, but each ani-
mal has one species of mite which, of the
three, is the most harmful for it. In the
following table is indicated various hosts
with the genus of mite found on these.
Host.
Mat be infested by
Horse .
Sarcoptes
Ox .
Sarcoptes, perhaps not
a species peculiar to it.
but derived from some
other animal.
Sheep .
Sarcoptes about the
heaid, and in bad cases
to fore-limbs.
Dog .
Sarcoptes.
Cat .
Sarcoptes.
Pig .
. Sarcoptes.
Goat .
Sarcoptes on head and
body generally.
Birds .
Sarcoptes.
Psoroptes on the inner
side of legs, tail, mane,
genital organs,
Psoroptes on sides of
neck and root of tail,
extending over the
body except the limbs.
Psoroptes (Sheep Scab).
Symbiotes on fetlock and
limbs.
Symbiotes ^t root of tail.
Symbiotes on the feet and
limbs.
Symbiotes affects the ears.
Symbiotes affects the ears.
Symbiotes on sides of neck,
back, withers, and loins.
' Psoroptes has, as synonyms, the names Dermatodectes (skin-biters) and Dermatocoptes
(skin-wounders).
^ Symbiotes has, as synonyms, the names Chorioptes (hiders) and Dermatophagus (skin-eaters).
VOL, III, 2 1
430
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK
Except in the case of sheep, where it is
the Psoroptio form of mange which is the
most serious and most troublesome form,
in all" the other animals noted the most
noxious scab is the Sarcoptic.
TrammisdhUity of Scab.
Genera,lly speaking, the Sarcopt in each
species of host is very contagious for the
same species — e.cf., Sarcopt of the horse is
very readily transmissible to other horses.
Man. — ^The Sarcopt of man placed ex-
perimentally on the horse and
dog produced on these an erup-
tion which soon passed oft The
same gave no result in the cat.
Horse. — The Sarcopt of the
horse passes readily^ to ass and
mule, and is transmissible to
man; but the disease set up
in man is not severe and yields
readily to treatment. It is be-
lieved that the Sarcopt of the
horse can pass to the ox, but
it has not been proved to infect
more domesticated animals than
those already named.
Psoroptic and symbiotic mange
of the horse are not communic-
able to other animals.
Ox. — Neither the psoroptic
nor the symbiotic mange of the
ox seems communicable as a
permanent disease to the other
domesticated animals;
Sheep. — The sarcoptic mange
of the sheep passes readily to
the goat. Placed experiment-
ally on the horse, ox, and dog,
an ephemeral but no permanent
disease was produced. The
psoroptic mange of the sheep
is not communicable to the
other domesticated animals.
Dog. — The Sarcopt of the dog is com-
municable to man. Placed experiment-
ally on the various domesticated animals
the results were insignificant or nega-
tive.
Cat. — The sarcoptic mange of the cat
can infect man. It can pass also to the
horse, ox, and dog.
Pig. — The Sarcopt of the pig has been
shown to be contagious for man. Placed
experimentally on the sheep, cat, and
dog there was no result, or only a slight
infection which soon passed off.
Goat.— ^he sarcoptic mange of the
goat is transmissible to the horse, ox,
sheep, and pig. Experiment has shown
that the Sarcopt of the pig can be very
troublesome to man, whether man re-
ceives it directly from the goat or,
secondarily, from one of the just men-
tioned animals.
Life-History of Mange Mites.
The following round of life of Sar-
copies scabiei (fig. 775) may stand as
Fig. 775. — Sarcoptes scabiei.
Greatly magnified. (After Lohmann, in 'Das Tierreich.')
typical of mange mites in general (any
exceptions wUl be noted later).
The fertilised female about to lay her
eggs burrows (it has already been pointed
out that this is the burrowing genus)
into the skin, and makes a gallery along
which the eggs are laid one by one.
The eggs hatch in a few days, and the
larvae, on hatching, pierce their way to
the surface of the skin, where they live
for a short time. These newly hatched
larvse are 6 -legged and not sexually
mature. The larva moults several times
ACAKINA OE MITES.
431
and grows. The next stage is the nymph
stage, in which the fourth pair of legs
hsis appeared. In the next stage pairing
takes place. Development from the
larval to the adult state is rapid, and
the numbers of the pests soon increase.
Sa/rcoptes scabiei var. equi.
This mange mite, in its attack on the
horse, generally starts about the withers,
the place of attack being marked by a
few hard pimples on the skin. As the
disease spreads, neck, shoulders, back,
and sides may be invaded, long-haired
parts (which would, on the other hand,
be chosen by the Psoroptes of the horse)
being avoided. Characteristic of attack
is an intense itching, the itching being
worst at night and in warm conditions ;
greater in the stable than when the
horse is exposed, and greater when the
horse is covered with a cloth than when
naked. Pimples form, and can be felt
as little elevations if the hand be pulled
across the skin : these burst ^hen the
horse rubs itself, and the secretion from
them dries into a crust. To begin with,
these crusts are isolated, biit as the
disease spreads different patches run
together and a large crust is formed,
under cover of which the young mites
may be found. The hair also drops out,
and the skin wrinkles and thickens.
Care must be exercised against the
spread of the disease. The pest spreads
easily from horse to horse. The chief
agents in the transmission are the larvae,
the nymphs, the newly fertilised females,
and the males, — all these being found
more towards the external surface. An
attacked horse should be isolated.
Common means of infection are the
brushes, curry-combs, and instruments
used in dressing the horse ; while the
stall where the patient is housed is a
source of danger until disinfected.
Scal^ Leg of the Fowl (Sarcoptes nutans).
This mite lives underneath the epi-
dermal scales of the .legs of the fowl; it
also affects and is contagious for turkeys,
pheasants, partridges, parroquets, and
small cage-birds.
There are slight differences in the
structure and mode of life of this Sar-
coptes as compared vtith the preceding
general account. First of all, the species
seems to be viviparous; then while the
male has the legs provided with the usual
stalks and suckers, the legs of the female
are usually short, and quite lack the
bristles and suckers. Again, the female
simply burrows into the skin without
proceeding to form the little tunnel or
gallery described as characteristic for
the genus Sarcoptes.
The ripe female is very sluggish,
scarcely moving, so that the disease is
spread by the males, larvae, and nymphs,
which move about more on the outside
of the skin. The progress of the disease
is slow ; there is a comparatively slight
itching; also an elevation of the epi-
dermal scales, chiefly those in front of
the ankle and above the toes. Below
these scales is a powdery mass glued
into a crust by a serous exudate, the
whole ultimately forming irregular thick
crusts which, if broken off, leave the
skin below exposed and bleeding. On
the under surface of these crusts is a
number of little pits ; each of such pits
has been the abode of an egg -laying
female.
The diseased birds are lame ; they
have a difficulty in perching,- and there
is a great falling off in their condition.
Treatment. — Separate mite - infested
birds. Thoroughly cleanse and disinfect
the places where the birds have been
kept with boiling water and whitewash.
As to the affected bird itself, the general
plan is to soften the crusts by bathing
the leg in hot water and then carefully
to remove them; then apply a mixture
of creasote i part and lard 20 parts.
Or use a mixture of equal parts of
flowers of sulphur and vaseline. The
removal of the crusts is often attended
with a bleeding, and therefore some
prefer to remove only the crusts that are
already somewhat loose and are easily
removed. After a day or two the
dressed limb should be cleansed with
soap and water.
Feather-Eating or Depluming Scabies
(Sarcoptes Isevis).
This is a very contagious and a
quickly spreading disease on fowls and
pigeons, and is often due to a tiny
Sarcopt at the roots of the feathers.
The disease is most prevalent in spring
and summer. Beginning at the rump, it
432
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK.
spreads to other parts of the body, the
neck and head being often badly in-
fected. The feathers break off and fall
away at the attacked places, and the
birds, irritated by the mites which live
at the base of the feathers, pull out
their feathers. The suffering birds be-
come thin and fall away in their egg-
laying.
Aflfected birds— r4he cock especially —
should be isolated. The creosote and
/ \
h^ '■
Fig. 776. — Adult viale ^Psoroptes communis
Jront under surface.
(After Salmon and Stiles.)
the eggs have only six legs. The adult
male (fig. 776) has two abdominal pro-
jections which end in long hairs. Each
of the six front legs of the male has
a stalk ending in a sucker ; the two
hind legs are, small and have neither
stalk nor sucker. The legs of the
female (fig. 777) diflfer in appearance be-
fore the last moult and after the- last
moult. Before the last moult only the
front four legs have stalk and sucker;
lard ointment mentioned above is excel-
lent, as also is oil of cloves rubbed
well in.
COMMON SHEEP SCAB (Psoroptes
communis var. ovis).
Tliis mite is large enough to be visible
to the naked eye, the full-grown male
I /so inch and the female '/40 in<:h. The
egg measures V120 inch. The laxvse from
Fig. 777, — Adult female (y^Psoroptes z.oxn.xaa.-a)sJrom
under surface.
(After Salmon and Stiles.)
the hind two pairs end in hairs. After
the last moult the stalk and sucker are
present on the two front pairs of legs and
on the fourth pair, but the third pair of
legs remains without stalk or sucker.
The Psoropt is found, not burrowing
ipto the skin and laying its eggs in a
gallery like the Sarcopt, but living
externally on the skin, and laying eggs
on it or glueing them to the wool near
the skin. The parts chosen for infesta-
ACARINA OR MITES.
433
tion are those where the wool is thick —
the back, flank, rump, and neck. The
six-legged larva hatches from the egg,
and the further changes resemble these
described above for Sarcoptes scabiei.
Symptoms and Result of AttaclE. — ,
The sheep are restless, and bite and rub
themselves against posts, fences, &c., in
order to relieve the intense itching that
is occasioned by the mites pricking the
skin. Little pimples appear as the
result of the woundings, and from them
there is an exudation of matter; the
exudate dries into a crust. The sheep
in scraping themselves rub ofif little pieces
of crust and tufts of wool. The area of
infection goes on increasing. If material
be wanted for microscopic examination
it is best procured from the edges of the
crusts.
The best method to adopt in order to
demonstrate the pest is to make a scrap-
ing of a newly formed crust or near the
edge of a crust; this should then be
placed in a solution of potash and allowed
to lie for some time, the material being
afterwards placed for examination under
the microscope.
From the life-history of this pest care
must be taken to avoid the spread of the
disease by preventing infection to hitherto
clean and healthy sheep. Therefore,
yards and sheds that have contained
scabby sheep should be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected and allowed to
stand empty for a month before being
used again for clean sheep. Any posts
on the pasture-grounds used for rubbing
should be whitewashed, as tags of wool
or bits of crust sticking to them may
harbour some of the parasites. Hence
the danger also to clean sheep passing
along a highway were scabby sheep
allowed to make use of the highway.
Treatment. — The great method of
fighting this Psoropt is by dipping.
There is a large number of effective
dips on the market, some of them
arsenic dips. The Board of Agricul-
ture, while recognising the efiScacy of
others, mentions the three following : —
Lime and Sulphvr Dip.
Mix 25 lb. of flowers of sulphur with
i2i^ lb. of good quicklime. Triturate
the mixture with water until a smooth
cream without lumps is obtained.
Transfer this to a boiler capable of
boiling 20 gallons, bring the volume of
the cream to 20 gallons by the addition
of water, boil and stir during half an
hour. The liquid should now be of a
dark-red colour ; if yellowish, continue
the boiling until the dark-red colour is
obtained, keeping the volume at 20
gallons. After the liquid has cooled,
decant it from any small quantity of
insoluble residue, and ' make up the
volume to 100 gallons with water.
Carbolic Acid and Soft-Soap Dip.
Dissolve 5 lb. of good soft-soap, with
gentle warming, in 3 quarts of liquid
carbolic acid (containing not less than 97
per cent of real tar acid). Mix the liquid
with enough water to make 100 gallons.
Tobacco and Sulphur Dip.
Steep 35 lb. of finely-ground tobacco
(offal tobacco) in 2 1 gallons of water for
four days. Strain off this liquid and
remove the last portions of the extract
by pressing the residual tobacco. Stir
the mixture well to secure an even ad-
mixture, and make up the total bulk
to 100 gallons with water.
The period of immersion in these dips
should not be less than half a minute.
In Leafiet No. 61 of the Board of
Agriculture it is stated that of the two
forms of baths — hand and swimming —
the latter is greatly to be preferred. Its
advantages are : " (1) The sheep being in
a natural position may be coinpletely im-
mersed, even in a poisonous solution,
with comparatively little danger; (2)
sheep in lamb may be dipped with much
less risk; (3) the motion of swimming
allows no portion of the fleece to escape
contact with the solution ; (4) the work
is most easily and therefore most effect-
ively performed ; (s) a larger number of
sheep can be dipped in a given time and
with few^r operators."
TICKS (Ixodoidea).
The Ixodidae (Warburton), Ixodinse
(Neumann), are mites with a terminal
rostrum made of mandibles and maxillae,
as in the previous families, but modified
in a different way. Parts of the two
maxillae are soldered together to form a
so-called dart furnished with backwardly-
434
INSECT ENEMIES OF LIVE STOCK.
directed hooks. The other parts of the
malxillse^viz., the maxillary palps— are
4 -jointed. The two mandibles com-
plete the rostrum ; each has a basal stem
and a branched hooked upper part. It is
by means of this rostrum that ticks fix
themselves so firmly to their hosts ; the
recurved hooks of the rostrum make it
difficult or impossible for one to pull, by
main force, a tick from its attachment.
In so pulling the body may come away
and the mouth-parts be left in the wound.
The legs end in two claws and a little
sucker. The skin is leathery but ex-
tensible, and a protective dorsal shield
is present. Breathing is by tracheSe,
which open in spiracles at the bases of'
the hind pair of legs. The two sexes
difier in size, the male being smaller.
They also differ in the character of the
dorsal shield, which in the male may
coyer the greater part of the dorsal
surface, whereas in the female it is
limited to a small region at the front
part of the cephalothorax.
Life-History.
In the life-history there is a metamor-
phosis, there being four stages — adult,
egg, larva, nymph. The fertilised female,
gorged with blood, drops away from the
animal to which it has been fixed and
proceeds to lay its eggs. The number of
eggs is great, and the egg-l&ying may be
spread over a considerable time, varying
with the weather conditions.
From the eggs hatch tiny forms with
six legs. These young forms ascend
blades of grass or collect at the tip
of a twig or branch, and here with
marvellous patience they wait until a
host passes. The host is clutched at
with outstretched fore -legs, and hav-
ing successfully obtained a lodgment,
the larvse fix themselves and remain for
a time, feeding at the expense 'of the
host. After feeding for some time, the
larva withdraws its rostrum and drops
voluntarily to the ground. Here it re-
mains passive, until at last it undergoes
the first moult ; the skin ruptures and
the nymph appears.
The nymph has a stronger rostrum and
longer and stronger legs than the larva.
The legs, too, are now eight in number.
Spiracles are also present for the first
time. Sexual organs are not completely
developed. The nymph, like the larva,
seeks a host, and attacbment is followed
by a period of feeding. There is then a
similar falling away of the nymph from
the host, followed by another moult. As
a result of this moult we have the mature
ticks, male and female. When these
have fixed themselves to a host pairing
takes place. The male does not die after
one act of copulation, but is able to pro-
ceed to other efficient acts of pairing.
The mature male on the host feeds, but
does not swell much ; the female, on the
other hand, rapidly increases in size, and
at last falls away and prepares for her
egg-laying.
There are some species of tick in which,
once the larva has reached a host, there
is no leaving of the host until the female
falls off for her egg-laying : in such cases
the moults take place while the larva and
nymph remain attached to the animal.
BRITISH TICKS.
The following species are given by
Wheler ^ as having been found on one or
other of the domesticated animals : —
Ixodes ricitms (Latreille) : male 2.35
mm. to 2.80 mm. long, and the
female from about 3 mm. when
fasting to 10 mm. long when re-
plete. Found cm numerous hosts,
the favourite seeming to be sheep,
goats, cattle, and deer ; found also
on hedgehogs, moles, bats, and even
on birds and lizards.
Ixodes hexagotius (Leach) var. longi-
spinosus : male, 2.50 to 3 mm. long;
female, 3.00 mm. fasting to 1 1 mm.
when replete. Found especially on
stoat, ferret, hedgehog, but also on
sheep and cattle.
Ixodes hexagonus (Leach) var. incho-
atus: male, 2.52 mm. long; female,
2.86 mm. fasting to 6.56 mm. replete.
Found abundant on shepherds' dogs
on the Border ; was never found on
the sheep.
Haemaphysalis punctata (Canestrini
and Fanzago) : "male, 3.10 mm.
long ; female, 3.44 mm. fasting to
12 mm. when replete. Found on
sheep, especially behind the ears,
• " British Tiek8,"bjr Edward Galtou Wheler,
in The JournaZ of AgrioiUtural Sciafuic, March
1906,
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
435
and on goats, cattle, horses; also
on the hedgehog.
Dermacentor reiiculattts (Fabricius) :
male, 4.20 mm. long; female, 3,.86
mm. fasting to 16 mm. when replete.
On sheep occasionally, but also
attacks cattle, deer, goats, and even
man.
Very much work still remains to be
done on ticks ; * the actual workers at the
family are not numerous, but interest has
been greatly stimulated owing to the
recognition of the very important part
which ticks may play in the spread of
grievous diseases. There are numerous
pathogenic ticks, and the following dis-
eases are known to be carried by them,
the tick being the intermediate host by
which the parasite causing the disease is
" introduced to the suffering animal : —
Eed Water or Texas Fever in cattle.
Heart Water in sheep and goats.
Canine Piroplasmosis or Malignant
Jaundice.
Ehodesia or Coast Fever in cattle.
Carceag or Piroplasmosis in sheep,
FAMILY GAMASID^.
To this family belongs the Hen Mite
{Dermanyssus gallinai). This is an oval,
pear-shaped mite which varies in colour
' At present an excellent Monograph of the
Ixodoidea 13 being published. The authors
are George H. F. Nuttall, M.A., M.D., Ph.D.,
D.So., F.E.S. ; Cecil Warburton, M.A., P.L.S. ;
W. F. Cooper, B.A., F.L.S. ; and L. E. Robin-
son, A.B.C.Sc. (Loudon).
from white to red, according as it is fast-
ing or replete with blood. The legs are
strong and bristly; the bodjr is somewhat
flattened, the hind part being widest ; the
abdomen is surrounded with bristles.
The mites live in colonies in hen-houses
and pigeon-lofts, the colony containing
all stages at the same time — larv»,
nymphs, males, females. These hen
mites are temporary parasites, hiding in
the day-time in crevices and such shelter-
places, whence they issue -at night and
swarm on to the birds, ' making rest
impossible for them. The birds are
irritated by the itching which is an
accompaniment of the wounding made
by the mites' mouth -parts. The pests
suck the blood, and what makes them
more formidable is their ability to sub-
sist for a long time in absence of a live
host. Brood hens are worried, and young
birds become aneemic and may die. The
mite may also invade the nostrils and
external auditory meatus. In addition
to attacking the hen and the pigeon, this
Bermanyssws (skin-pricker) pricks man,
the horse, dog, cat, and goat. Horses,
like fowls, are attacked at night, and the
irritation causes an eruption of small
vesicles. From continual rubbing these
get broken, the skin. becomes raw, and
little scabs result.
Treatment.-^— Do not allow fowls into
the stables at night; Bathe with a
5 per cent solution of chlorhydrate of
ammonia. To keep fowls free from the
mite let there be a regular cleansing, and
disinfection of their houses and perches.
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
It is not presumed that the farmer
should become so familiar with veterinary
science as to be able to dispense with
the services of the professional Veterinary
Surgeon. The farmer, however, should
unquestionably know enough of the ail-
ments which afflict his live stock to
enable him to recognise the symptoms
of each when he sees them, and also to
successfully treat those of the more
simple kind, as well as to decide when
the veterinary surgeon should be sent
for; and what had best be done until he
arrives. The information necessary for
these purposes will be found, carefully
classified, in the following treatise. This
treatise, compiled originally by Mr G.
H. C. Wright, LL.B., and edited by Mr
F. Tonar, M.R.C.V.S., has been carefully
revised for this edition of The Book of
the Farm by a Fellow of the Eoyal
College of Veterinary Surgeons, who is
one of the most experienced and trusted
members of the veterinary profession.
436
AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK.
SUBJECTS.
HOBSEB . .
Cattlb .
Sheep .
Swine
Doss
Becifes .
Abortion (cows)
(ewes)
Abrasion, an ,
Acute founder .
Administering medicine ,
After-birth
Amaurosis or glass eye
Amputation of the tongue
(horse) ....
Anthrax or splenic apoplexy
(cattle) ....
(swine) . . . .,
Apoplexy or staggers (horse) 438
438
466
484
490
493
493
478
488
459
468
462
496
481
442
446
468
490
■ (sheep), . . . 484
Arsenic-poisoning (horse) , 455
- (cattle) . _ . . 477
Ascites. See Dropsy of
the abdomen . , 476
Back tendons, sprain of the 460
racking . . . 497
weak. . . . 489
Bandaging. See Note in
rupture of suspensory
ligament . . . 458
Bastard strangles . . 445
Black-quarter or quarter-
ill 468
water. See Bed water 478
Bladder, inflammation of . 453
neck of . . . 453
stone in the . . 455
Bladders, tongue . . 446
Bleeding (horsd) . . 448
(cattle) . . . 478
from nose (horse) . 445
Blindness .... 484
Blistering. See Firing . 465
Blood, staling of . . 455
Bloody flux. See Dysen-
tery . , . .475
milk. . , . 480
Bog-spavin , , . 459
Bone-spavin . . . 458
Bots 451
Bowels, inflammation of
the (horse) . . . 452
(cattle) . . . 476
twist of the . . 4S3
Brain fever . . . 439
inflammation of the
(horse) . . . .439
(cattle) . . , 466
water on the . . 485
Brazy or sick^ness . . 486
Broken knees , . . 456
horns . . . 468
ribs (horse) . . 448
wind .... 447
Bronchitis (horse) . . 446
(cattle) . . . 471
Brushing, cutting or. , 456
Bull-burnt or gonorrhoea . 479
Calculus. See Stone in the
bladder (horse) . . 455
(sheep) . , . 486
Calf-bed, falling down of the 479
Calves, destroying boms in 467
special diseases of . 483
Calving. See Parturition . 481
Cancer of the tongue
(cattle) .... 467
Canker .... 462
Capped hocks . . . 456
elbow , . . 456
Castration. , . . 497
Cataract .... 442
Catarrh. See Cold (cattle) 469
(sheep) . . .485
epizootic. See In-
fluenza .... 471
malignant. See Mur-
rain .... 472
Catarrhal fever. See Dis
temper .... 448
Cattle plague or rinderpest 469
Chest, dropsy of . . 448
Choking (horse) . . 447
(cattle) . . . 469
Cholera, hog. See Swine-
fever .... 491
Chronic cough . . . 447
constipation . . 452
founder . . . 463
Cleansing, removing . . 481
Coffin-joint, sprain of the . 460
Cold (common) horse . 447
(cattle) . . . 469
Colic or gripes (horse) . . 451
(cattle) . . . 474
flatulent (horse) . 451
simple (cattle) . . 474
spasmodic (horse) . 451
Constipation (horse) . . 452
(cattle) . . . 474
' ' ■ 483
4S6
(calves)
(sheep)
Consumption. See Tuber-
culosis .
Contraction of the foot
Contused wounds
Convulsions
Corns
Costiveness or fardel-bound
Cough, chronic (horse)
teething (horse)
(cattle)
Cow-pox' .
Cracked heels. See Grease
Cramp .
Crib-biting .
Cud, loss of
Curb.
Cut, speedy
Cutting or brushing .
472
462
459
490
462
474
447
446
470
479
457
491
447
477
456
459
456
Destroying horns in calves 467
Diabetes
Diarrhoea (horse)
(cattle) .
(sheep)
(swine) . .
Dishorning and broken
horns ....
452
452
475
484
487
490
467
Dislocation or luxation of
the patella .
Distemper
Docking .
Dropsy of the chest .
abdomen .
womb
Dunt. See Staggers, .
Dysentery (horse)
(cattle)
(sheep)
Elbow, capped- .
Enemas (injections) .
Enlarged knees
Enlargement of the hock
Epilepsy or fits .
Epizootic catarrh. See
Influenza
lymphangitis
Erysipelas
(swine)
Extracting teeth
Eye, gla^
inflammation of the
(horse) .
(cattle)
wounds in the .
Eyeball, growth on .
removal of the .
Eyelids, tumour or itching
of the . . .
inflammation of the,
or ophthalmia (horse)
(cattle) .
warts on U,6
461
448
498
448
476
481
48s
452
475
487
456
497
482
456
439
471
439
490
492
44S
442
442
468
443
468
442
442
442
468
443
Falling down of the calf -bed 479
False quarter . . . 462
Farcy .... 443
Fardel-boimd or costiveness 474
Feet, foul or fouls in the
pumiced .
Felon chine. See Rheuma-
tism (cattle) .
Fern-sick. See Staggers
Fetlock, sprain of the
Fever, catarrhal. See Dis-
temper .
TTiillr , .
mud .
parturient .
rheumatic .
scarlet
simple
swine .
Firing
Fistulous withers
Fits. See Epilepsy
Flatulent coUc (horse]
(cattle)
Flooding after calving
Flukes in liver
Foaling
Fomentation
Foot, contraction of the
foul or fouls in the
inflammation of the
rot (sheep)
weakness of the
Foot-and-mouth
(cattle) .
482
463
482
48s
460
448
481
461
488
447
449
448
491
465
451
439
451
474
479
477
453
497
462
482
462
489
465
470
AILMENTS OP FAKM LIVE STOCK.
437
Foreign bodies in the rumen
Foul or fouls in the feet
Founder, acute . ,
chronic , .
Fractures .
of the nose and jaw
of the skull >
Oalls, saddle . .
wind . . .
Gall-stones . •
Garget (cattle) ; ,
(sheep) . .
Gargle. See Murrain
Gastritis or inflammation
of stomach , .
Glanders .
Glass eye . • .
Gleet, nasal
Goggles. See Staggers
Gonorrhoea or bull-burnt
Grain-sick
Grass staggers . ,
Grease . , ,
Gripes. See Colic (horse)
(cattle)
Growth on eyeball .
Gullet, stricture of .
Gut tie . .
Hard udder . ' .
Haw, thickening of the
Heart disease .
Heaving. See Parturient
fever . , ;
Hefting or overstocking
Hernia, scrotal .
umbilical ,
Hide-bound
Hip knocked down .
sprain of .
Hock, enlargement of the
Hocks, capped .
Hog cholera. See Swine-fever
Hoose or husk (cattle)
(sheep)
(swine) . .
Hoove, hove, or hoven
(cattle) . ,
(sheep) ,
Horns, broken .
destroying, in calves
dishorning and broken
Hydrophobia . ' .
Impaction of the paunch
Incised wounds .
Inflammation of the bladder
neck of the bladder
bowels (horse) ,
(cattle)
brain (horse)
(cattle)
eye (horse)
(cattle)
eyelids (horse) .
(cattle)
foot .
jugular vein
kidneys (horse) .
(cattle)
liver (horse) ,
(cattle)
(sheep)
lungs or pneumonia
(horse) ....
475
482
462
463
457
440
440
450
462
486
479
488
472
453
443
442
444
485
479
475
442
457
451
475
468
451
476
480
443
450
488
480
455
455
465
458
460
456
456
491
471
485
490
475
487
463
467
467
493
475
4S9
453
453
452
476
439
466
442
468
442
468
462
449
453
476
454
477
487
449
Inflammationoflungs(cattle) 471
(sheepj . . 485
(swine) . . 491
muscles of the neck , 450
stomach (hbrse) , 453
' fourth (cattle) . 476
(sheep) . . 487
udder. See Garget
(cattle) .... 479
' (sheep) . . 488
• womb (mare) . . 454
(cow). . . 480
Influenza, See Distemper
(horse) . . , . 448
or epizootic catarrh
(cattle) . . . , 471
Intestinal worms , . 492
Itch. See Mange . . 465
Itching or tumour of the
eyelids .... 442
Jaundice or yellows (horse) 454
Seattle) . . . 477
(sheej)) , . . 488
Jugular vein, inflammation
of 449
Kidneys, inflammation of
the (horse) .
(cattley
Knees, broken .
enlarged .
Knee-tied .
Lacerated wounds
Lameness .
Laminitis — founder (acute)
(chronic)
Lampas ,
LeadT-poisoning .
(cattle)
Legs, swelled .
Lencorrhoea or the whites
Lice (horse)
(cattle'
(sheepj
(swine.
Ligament, rupture of the
suspensory ,
Lip, lower, paralysis of
Liver, inflammation of the
(horse) .
(cattle)
(sheep)
(flukes)
Lockjaw or tetanus (horse
(cattle)
(sheep)
Loss of cud ,
Louping-ill or trembles
Lumbago. See Rheumatism
Lungs, inflammation of the
(horse) .
(cattle'
(swine)
Lymphangitis, epizootic
Mad staggers .
Maggots. See Vermin
Malignant catarrh
Mallenders and sallenders
Mange (horse) .
(cattle)
(sheep). See Sheep-
scab . , ,
453
476
456
482
458
459
491
462
463
444
455
477
461
480
465
482
490
493
458
446
454
477
487
477
440
467
484
477
484
482
449
471
485
491
439
439
490
472
458
465
482
489
Measles (swine)
. 491
Megrims .
■ 441
Mercury-poisoning .
• 477
Milk-fever
, 481
Mouth, thrush in the
, 466
wounds in the .
• 446
Mud-fever .
, 461
Murrain .
■ 47a
Nasal gleet
• 444
Navel-ill .
■ 484
Navicular joint disease
Nettle-rash or surfeit
• 463
. 466
Nose, bleeding from .
• 445
Nursing the sick
• 499
Open joints
Ophthalmia (horse) ,
(cattle)
Optic nerve, palsy of the
Over-reaching .
Overstocking or hefting
Ox, contagions pleuro
pneumonia of the .
457
44a
46B
44a
463
480
47a
Palsy or paralysis . . 441
of the optic nerve . 44a
Paralysis. See Palsy . 441
of lower lip . . 446
of the tongue . . 446
(cattle) . . 466
Parturient fever , 488
Parturition or foaling . 453
■ or calving . . . 481
Patella, dislocation or lux-
ation of the . . . 461
Peritonitis. See Inflardma-
tion of the bowels (horse) 454
Pink eye. See Distemper 448
Plague, swine , . . 492
Pleurisy .... 449
Pleuro-pneumoniaoftheox 473
Pneumoniai See Inflamma-
tion of the lungs (horse) 449
(cattle) . , . 471
(sheep) . . .485
^ (swine) . . . 491
Poison (horse) . . . 454
(cattle) ■ . . . 477
Poll evil ', . . , 450
Polypus . . . . 44S
Polyuria, diabetes or , 452
Poultices .... 497
Pregnancy, time of . . 499
Pricks or wounds in the sole 463
Prolapse of the rectum
(horse) , . . .455
(swine)
Pulse
Pumiced feet .
Punctured wounds
Purpura .
Quarter, false .
Quinsy
Quitter
Rabies. See Hydrophobia
Recipes (horses)
(cattle)
(sheep)
Rectum, prolapse of the
(horse) .
(swine)
Red water.
Removal of the eyeball
491
499
463
459
449
462
470
464
493
493
495
495
455
491
478
442
438
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
Bespiration . . . 499
Eheumatio' fever . . 447
Bheumatism (horse) . . 458
(cattle) . . . 482
(swine) . . . 491
Ehododendron-poisoning . 477
Eibs, broken . . . 448
Rickets .... 489
Rinderpest. See Cattle
plague . . . .469
Ringbone .... 464
Ringworm (horse) . . 466
(cattle) . . . 4S3
Roaring .... 450
Rot 488
foot (sheep) , . 489
Round bone, sprain of . 460
bumen, foreign bodies in the 475
Rapture of suspensory
ligament . ^ . 438
Saddle galls . . . 450
Salleuders and mallenders 458
Sand-craclr , . . 464
Scarlet fever . . . 449
Scrotal hernia . . . 455
Seedy toe .... 464
Setoning .... 498
Shab. See Sheep-scab . 489
Sheep-pox or Variola ovina 486
,— — scab .... 489
ticks. See Vermin . 490
Shoulder slip . . . 460
sore .... 450
sprain of . . , . 460
Sickness. See Braxy . 486
Side-bones . . . 464
Simple colic . . . 474
Sitfasts .... 450
Skull, fracture of . . 440
Sole, pricks or woundk in the 463
Sore shins .... 460
shoulders , . . 450
teats .... 482
throat (horse) . , 447
(cattle) . . 470
Spasmodic colic . . 451
Spavin, bone . . . 458
bog . . . .459
Spaying . . . .498
Speedy cut ... . 459
Splenic apoplexy. See An-
thrax . . . . 468
Splint .... 460
Sprain of the back tendons 460
coffin-joint . . 460
fetlock . . . 46a
round bone . . 460
Sprain of the shoulder
stifle-joint .
Staggers. See Apoplexy
(horse) .
(sheep)
(grass)
mad (horse)
stomach . .
Staling of blood'
Stifie-Joint, sprain of the .
Stomach, inflammation of
(horse)
Stone in th6 bladder (horse)
(Sheep)
Straining. ' See Parturient
fever
Strangles .'
bastard
Stricture of gullet .
String-halt
Sturdy. See Staggers
Suppression of urine .
Surfeit (horse) .
(swine)
Suspensory ligament, rup'
ture of .'
Swelled legs
Swine erysipelas
fever . .- .
plague
Teats, sore
•' warts on .
Teeth, diseases of
extracting .
Teething cough .
Temperature
~ See Lockjaw
See Lockjaw
Tetanus,
(horse)
Tetanus.
(cattle)
(sheep)
Thick wind
Thickening of the haw
Thoroughpin .
Throat, sore (horse) .
(cattle)
Thrush
in the mouth .
referred to in canker
Toe, seedy
Tongue, amputation of
bladders .
cancer of .
paralysis of
460
461
438
48s
443
439
441
4SS
461
4S3
487
476
441
4SS
486
44S
44S
461
48s
482
466
491
458
461
492
491
492
482
480
44S
445
446
499
440
467
484
4SI
443
461
447
470
464
466
462
464
446
446
467
446
Tongue, wounds of .
Trembles or louping-ill
Trichinosis'
TuberculoiSs — cbnsumpti
Tumoiirs in the brain
— ; — df the eyelids
— — (horse)
Turn-sick. See Staggera
Twist of the bowels .
Udder, hard J
inflammation of the,
See Garget (cattle) .
Umbilical hernia
Urine, suppression of
Variola ovina. 'See Sheep'
pox
Vermin
Warbles (cattle)
Warts on the eyelids
teats .* ;
Water, black. See Red
water .
on the brain
Weak back. See Rickets
Weakness of the foot
Whistling and wheezing
White skit
Whites, leucorrhoea or the
Wind, broken .
thick.
Wind-galls
Withers, fistulous
Womb, inflammation of the
(mare) .
(cow). . ,
— *• dropsy of the .
Wornig (horse) .
intestinal (swine)
Wounds (horse)
(cattle)
contused .
of the coronet .
in the eye or eyelids
incised
lacerated .'
mouth . 1
punctured.
-: sole .
tongue
Yellows. See Jaundice
(horse) .
(cattle)
Yew-poisoning .
446
484
492
472
439
442
458
48s
453
480
479
488
t55
482
486
490
483
443
480
478
485
489
465
451
484
480
447
451
462
451
454
480
481
455
492
459
4S3
459
464
443
459
459
446
459
463
446
454
477
477
HORSES.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,
EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
I. THE HEAD ANI) NEEVOtTS SYSTEM.
Apoplexy or Staggers.
This almost hopeless disease results
from an effusion of blood producing
pressure on the brain.
Symptoms. — Head carried low. The
horse staggers till he falls. Eyes fixed
and pupils dilated. Muzzle cold. Hear-
ing and sight affected. Teeth clenched.
When convulsions come on, the horse
soon dies.
Cause. — Apparently the breaking of a
small blood-vessel on or near the brain,
occasioned by the derangement of the
system from overfeeding, or by violence.
Prevention. — There- is practically no
means of prevention beyond the ordinary
proper management of the animal
HORSES.
439
Treatment. — ^Apply iced or cold water
in a douche or stream along the spine and
on the back of the head. Give a physic
ball (No. 17). Remove dung from lower
intestines with the hand, and the urine
may require to be removed by the cath-
eter. Administer a warm clyster (No. 13)
two or three times a-day, and if it can be
done without disturbing the animal too
much, give the following every four
hours : Bromide of potassium, 4 drs. ;
brandy, 6 oz. ; water, 8 oz. But per-
fect quietness is the best medicine.
Nothing more can be done : this almost
invariably fatal disease must be left to
take its course.
Tumours in or on the Brain
can seldom, if ever, be recognised and
localised during life, and their treatment
is practically hopeless.
Brain-fever, Mad Staggers, or
Inflammation of the Brain.
Symptoms. — Sleepy and daft condi-
tion. Nostrils distended. Flanks heav-
ing. Eye wild. When delirium comes
on, the horse becomes violent and danger-
ous : his struggles will continue till he is
exhausted, and the stupor returns.
This disease is sometimes thought to
be colic : the difference is, however, very
apparent. In colic, the horse is conscious,
and only pjunges and rolls from pain,
often turning his head round to his
flanks : in mad staggers the struggles
are more violent, and consciousness is
lost.
Cause. — Fulness of blood to the
head through being over-heated in hot
weather.
Treatment. — This disease is so often
fatal, and so little can be done to check
it by medicine, that bleeding seems the
only course to pursue.
Put the horse in a cool stable. Open
the jugular vein, and bleed till he is
Give purgative — croton-nut, J^ dr., or
croton-oil, 20 drops, in warm gruel, and
repeat in 10 gr. doses, or croton-oil
lo-drop doses every eight hours till the
bowels are open.
Bathe head with iced or cold water.
Inject warm water and soap. After
purgative has been administered, give
every few hours, in gruel, a draught con-
taining chloral hydrate, 4 drs. ; bromide
of potassium, 4 drs. ; Fleming's tincture
of aconite, 5 drops ; spirit of chloroform,
I oz.
When recovering, feed moderately for
a few days on bran-mashes and a little
hay.
Epilepsy or Fits.
A disease of the brain not very com-
mon among horses.
Symptoms. — Attack is sudden. Horse
stares round, trembles, and falls to the
ground. Convulsions more or less severe
follow.
When consciousness returns, the horse
will feed as if nothing happened.
Cause. — A derangement of the brain ;
but very little is known about it, and
there are no known means of prevention
or cure.
A horse subject to these fits is danger-
ous for either riding or driving.
Treatment. — Give a purgative (No.
17), and if the horse is restless or excit-
able give a draught composed of chloral
hydi'ate, 4 drs. ; tincture of belladonna,
I oz. ; water, 8 oz., morning and evening.
Little can be done to guard against a
return of this disease.
Epizootic Lymphangitis.
A contagious and eruptive disease
affecting horses and mules, and, although
less liable to it, the ox sometimes becomes
affected. Its first appearance in Britain
was in horses brought from South Africa
after the war. It is now (1909) believed
to be stamped out.
Cause. — It is due to a fairly large,
somewhat ovoid, micro-organism, the
Cryptococcus farcinim,osus, possessed of
considerable vitality, and the disease is
easily communicated from affected to
healthy animals.
Symptoms. — Small nodules form on
the head, neck, legs, or on any part of
the body. They may grow as large as
hazel-nuts, burst in succession, and dis-
charge matter. The sores formed have
little tendency to heal, and prpud flesh
may grow from the wounds, forming
large ulcers. The lymphatic vessels in
their neighbourhood become inflamed,
swollen, and stand out like cords. Ulcers
may form in the nostrils, but this is not
common, although there is often a dis-
440
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
charge from one or both nostrils, and
enlargement of the glands under the jaw.
Unless energetically treated at an early
stage, gradaal emaciation leads to ex-
haustion and death.
Treatment. — The best treatment is
the complete excision of the diseased
part — the ulcers — opening up of the
inflamed lymphatic vessels, and the
destruction of the diseased tissues with
caustics or the hot iron. It should be
left to the veterinary surgeon.
Prevention. — Isolation of affected
animals, the free use of antiseptics,
careful burial or cremation of diseased
carcases, and the thorough cleansing and
disinfection of the boxes or stables.
Fracture of the Skull.
The bones of the skull are so thick
that a fracture can only arise from a fall
when a horse rears, or else from brutal
violence. This is a common occurrence
with pit ponies, and is caused by their
knocking their heads against the roof
timbers. In most pits they wear a
leather skull-cap to prevent this. It is
generally fatal.
Treatment. — The parts should be
elevated and fastened with adhesive
plasters, to prevent their moving. To
reduce any inflammation, give purgative
(No. 1 8) and a spare diet.
Fracture of the Nose
is caused by a fall, or a blow across the
bones of the nose.
Treatment. — Place the finger up the
nose, and gently push the bones back
into their place, and retain them there
by an adhesive plaster.
Fracture of the Jaw.
Generally caused by a kick, fall, or
accidental violence.
Treatment.- — If the animal is of any
value, get the jaw set by a veterinary
surgeon, who will place it in a cradle
made for that purpose.
Lockjaw or Tetanus.
A disease affecting the nervous system,
and one of the most fatal which attacks
the horse.
Symptoms. — A difficulty in chewing
its food and some stiffness about the jaws
is often the first symptom observable.
Water is gulped down, the jaw becomes
rigid, and saliva runs from the mouth.
Afterwards the muscles of the head,
neck, and shoulders become fixed, till
the whole muscular system of the body
seems cramped. After some days, if the
disease is not checked, the horse will die
in agony from sheer exhaustion.
Cause. — ^It is now believed to be con-
tagious, and due to a micro-organism —
the bacillus of Nicolaier, or drumstick
bacillus ; but the apparent cause is
generally some wound, kick, or blow.
Docking has been known to cause it
In some cases the only apparent cause
has been the existence of bot-worms in
the stomach. Exposure to cold and
general neglect have also brought it on.
Prevention. — There is no particular
means of prevention beyond the proper
care of the animal, and maintaining
thorough cleanliness of any wound,
accidental or otherwise ; but if the
beginning of this disease is suspected,
give at once linseed-oil, i pint ; aloes, 2
drs. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 8
drops.
Treatment. — In this disease there is
considerable difficulty in giving remedies,
owing to the contraction of the muscles
of the jaws and the general stiffness. If
the cause of the disease is some wound,
it had better be poulticed, and dressed
with carbolic oil or carbolic acid in 20
parts of water. Open the bowels by
giving J^ dr. of powdered croton (or
20 drops croton-oil) in warm water, re-
peating the powdered croton in doses of
10 grs. (or croton-oil 10 drops) every
eight hours till purging commences.
If costiveness still continues, administer
a clyster of olive-oil, 8 oz. ; opium, J^
oz. ; warm gruel, 2 quarts.
Put the horse in a cool rather dark
stable where there is plenty of air, keep
him very quiet, and let no one but the
attendant have anything to do with
him. Mix an ounce each of extract of
belladonna and bromide of potassium
together, and place a piece of it about
the size of a bean between the molar
teeth every five hours by the aid of
the forefinger.
Put a pail of gruel or sloppy mash in
the manger, so that the animal can, if
inclined, partake of it.
Never try to force food down the
HORSES.
441
animal's throat : it only aggravates the
disease.
If the animal is a valuable one a
veterinary surgeon should be called in,
who will probably administer antitetanic
serum, which is an almost unfailing pre-
ventive, and often seems useful in pro-
moting a cure when the disease is taken
in time.
Tetanus does not extend to the in-
ternal organs ; the horse will suffer from
hunger. When the horse is recovering,
he should be fed moderately with nour-
ishing food (bran -mashes, linseed, and
oatmeal in preference), and he will be
all the better for a turn or walk out of
doors if the weather is suitable.
Megrims.
This disease is said to be caused by
an undue pressure of blood in the head.
Symptoms. — The horse will suddenly
stop, shake his head, then proceed on his
journey at considerable speed. Some-
times he will turn round twice or more,
often perspiring profusely, fall down,
and either struggle on the ground or
lie quietly. The attack may last five
minutes, and when it is over the horse
will resume work as though nothing had
happened : he will, however, be con-
siderably weakened. A horse subject
to these attacks is particularly danger-
ous to ride or drive, and after one at-
tack will always be liable to others in
the future. Sometimes horses will die
suddenly when seized with an attack.
Cause. — Violent exertion in hot
weather; too small a collar or tight
bearing-rein ; a high system of feeding.
Prevention. — A proper-fitting collar
and not too violent exercise ; a judicious
system of feeding, and an occasional dose
of purgative medicine, such as No. 20.
Treatment. — Bleeding is of little use,
though recommended by many authori-
ties. Let the animal stand a few min-
utes, dash cold water on his head, push
the collar forward, and proceed home as
quietly as possible. Then give a physic
ball (No. 17), and every six hours in
water bromide potassium, J^ oz., for two
or three days; afterwards give tonic
(No. 21). Mashes and green meat
should be given in preference to dry
food, and a run out to grass for two
months.
Pahy {Paralyiis).
A deficiency in nervous power, which
affects usually the hind quarters.
Symptoms. — Stiffness in their action,
diflBculty in turning, disinclination to
lie down from the difficulty in rising
again, and sometimes a total inability
to rise.
Cause. — Pressure on the spinal cord
from effusion of blood or serum, or from
tumours within the spinal canal. Falls,
injury to the spine from blows or from
turning in too narrow a stable, old age,
and heavy loads.
Prevention. ^Humane treatment and
ordinary care.
Treatment. — Give mild doses of pur-
gative medicine, such as linseed-oil, i
pint, which will not only open the
bowels but also support the system.
Eub stimulating embrocation, as mus-
tard liniment (No. 15), on the part
affected, and in cases of doubt, especi-
ally along the spine. Give morning
and evening nux vomica tincture, 2
drs. ; spirit of ammonia, i oz. in 10 oz.
of water.
Stomach Staggers.
Disturbance of the brain resulting from
a deranged and distended stomach.
Symptoms. — The first symptom may
be duU, colicky pains, sleepy look, pulse
very slow, profuse perspiration. In many
cases blindness. Bests his head against
the manger or wall, and sometimes moves
his legs in a peculiar manner. Stagger-
ing gait till the horse falls down and dies
in a state of stupor.
Cause. — Unsuitable food or over-feed-
ing. Food in an overloaded stomach
will swell and distend it, affecting the
nervous system in such a way as to
cause staggers.
Prevention. — Proper, regular, and
systematic feeding with food of good
quality will ensure immunity from this
Treatment. — Give a purgative, such
as I pint linseed-oil and i oz. of tincture
of ginger. An hour after the dose of oil
give in gruel draught (No. 9), and repeat
the dose of oil if action of the bowels is
not obtained. Clysters of warm water
and soap should also be given every four
hours.
442
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
Ctrass Staggers.
A disease manifesting nervous symp-
toms but arising from the stomach.
Symptoms. — They come on slowly;
the .horse is dull and listless at first, but
gradually passes into a somnolent con-
dition. In time the animal gets weak,
reels or staggers about, and if sharply
turned, will most likely fall down. It
seldom lies down when suffering from
this disease.
Cause. — It is mostly seen during the
months of July and August, but varies
according to the season. It arises from
eating rye-grass at a certain stage of its
growth, as if eaten in this state it
causes the disease. In hot and dry
seasons it is most frequent.
Treatm.ent. — Kemove the animal into
a loose-box, give ball (17) and draught
(9), and repeat the draught every four
hours. Do not give any more rye-grass,
• but steamed oats, bran-mashes, and a little
hay. Fresh, succulent, natural grasses
may be given in very small quantities.
IT. THE EYE.
Cataract
is an opacity of the crystalline lens, and
often follows an attack of ophthalmia.
Syinptom.s. — A speck in the eye, not
on the surface, which varies in different
eyes in colour, shape, position, and size.
They often become large enough to cause
blindness.
Cause. — From a blow, after an attack
of ophthalmia, or inflammation of the
eye.
Treatment. — In the lower animals
very little can be done for it.
Amaurosis or Glass Eye.
Paralysis r or loss of special sensation
in the optic nerve.
Symptoms. — The eye looks larger,
pupil dilated, animal stares — in fact, the
eye is blind and motionless, and looks
more like a glass eye than a natural
one.
Cause. — It is seen as a temporary
condition in some cases of poisoning, but
when permanent it is the result of either
partial or total loss of function in the
optic nerve.
Treatment is of no use unless it is
the effect of a poison; then give ball
(17), a pint of linseed-oil, and every two
hours give in pint of cold water 4 oz. of
brandy and 2 oz. of spirits of ammonia
aromat.
Inflammation of the Eye or Simple
Ophthalmia.
Symptoms. — Eyelids swollen, water-
ing, and nearly closed. Eye bloodshot,
and inside of the eyelids very red.
Cornea cloudy. Health not affected.
Cause. — Foreign matter, such as a
hay -seed or chaff in the eye; a blow
with a whip; or exposure in facing a
cold wind. It is sometimes produced in
a young horse by over-exercise.
Treatment. — First remove any foreign
substance. Give mUd purgative (No.
20) and a mash diet ; bathe the eye with
poppy-heads and warm water every two
hours, and if that is not handy, with
weak brandy-and-water ; if no improve-
ment, bathe with a solution composed
of liquor opii sedativus i oz., in i pint
of cold water. A useful lotion for in-
flammation of the eye is sulphate atro-
pine, 4 grs., in I oz. of water. Keep
the animal in a dark box until better.
The inflammation should be cured in a
few days ; if not, treat as for Ophthalmia,
infra.
Itching or Tumour of the Eyelids.
Treatment. — Eub the eyelids with
mercurial ointment and lard in equal
parts, and give sulphur, j4 oz., and nitre,
I dr., in the food once a -day till the
animal is cured.
Bemoyal of the Eyeball.
It is necessary sometimes, when the
eye has been severely damaged, or has
a cancerous growth in it, to remove it.
This can be done only by a veterinary
surgeon, who will not only remove the
eye, but, if you wish, place a glass one
in its place. In using glass eyes always
take them out at night, for if kept in
very long they cause pain.
t Ophthalmia.
Violent inflammation of the eyelids,
extending to the cornea and internal
structures of the eye.
Symptoms. — Light pains the eye,
HORSES.
443
■which is kept shut; a profuse flow of
tears. Pupil is contracted, and iris
changes colour. The opacity usually
extends from the circumference towards
the centre, and the inflammation dimin-
ishes one day to increase twofold the
next, till in a few weeks, if not checked,
the eye becomes opaque and blindness
comes on. After an apparent cure
the disease will sometimes come on
again, either in the same eye or in the
other which had not previously been
affected.
Cause. — A foul-smelling, ill-ventilated
stable, reeking with ammonia and de-
composing manure, is a frequent cause
of this disease. Confinement in a dark
stable and a sudden transition into the
glaring sunshine often accounts for it.
The tendency to inherit this disease from
sires with defective sight is too well
known from sad experience to need any
comment. The management of horses
being now better understood, this disease
is becoming rarer every day.
Prevention. — A well - drained and
well -lighted stable and cleanliness are
the best preventives.
Treatment. — Foment the eye with
warm water, and bathe with a lotion
composed of sulphate of atropine, 4 grs.,
in I oz. of water. Feed on spar^ diet ;
put the horse in a cool, airy, but dark
stable, where there is perfect cleanliness.
Give purgative (No. 18 or 19). The use
of the lancet may in extreme cases be
useful; the inside of the eyelid should
be exposed, and the lancet drawn lightly
along for the purpose of relieving the
parts affected by pressure of blood.
Cloudiness of the eye, or complete opac-
ity, is a frequent consequence of this
disease, which may be treated by bath-
ing with solution of corrosive sublimate,
I gr., in 2 oz. of water.
Thickening of the Haw.
The haw of the eye is situated in the
inner corner of the eye filling the lid.
A horse can bring it forward over the
eye, and with it wipe away any foreign
matter that may have got into it. This
haw sometimes enlarges and protrudes,
so that itf cannot retract.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 19),
and bathe the eye with poppy-heads and
warm water. Should the ulceration con-
tinue, bathe with white vitriol, J4 dr.;
water, 6 oz. ; or paint with a weak solu-
tion of silver nitrate. If further treat-
ment is necessary, it must be left to a
veterinary surgeon.
Wwrts on the Eyelids.
Treatment.— Cut off with a pair of
scissors and touch with lunar caustic,
taking care not to touch the eye, and not
to put on more than is necessary. Rub-'
bing the roots with blue vitriol will
sometimes effect a cure. Take care also
that any bleeding, when cutting, does
not touch any other part, as blood from
a wart may spread the disease.
Wownds in the Eye or Eyelids.
Generally caused by brutality or care-
lessness.
Treatment. — Very little can be done
except to reduce the inflammation by
purgative medicine (No. 20), and bathe
with warm water, and apply a lotion
composed of atropine, 4 grs., in i oz. of
water. This lotion is best applied by
the aid of a feather, which, when soaked
in the lotion, should be drawn gently
across the eye. When the eyelids are
torn, never cut any of the skin off, but
retain it in its proper position by the aid
of pins or silver wire. In these cases the
horse should be kept in a dark box.
in. ^MOUTH, NOSE, TEETH, TONGUE,
PALATE.
Glanders and Farcy.
These names have been long applied
to what was believed to be two distinct
diseases, but is now known to be only
different manifestations of one and the
same disease. Glanders has been recog-
nised as affecting horses, asses, and mules
from remote ages, and is now included
under the Diseases of Animals Acts.
Cause. — Contagion. It is due to
the Bacillvs mallei; but overcrowding,
insufficient food, want of fresh air, and
insanitary conditions may predispose
to it.
Symptoms. — Gtenerally a discharge
from one nostril, but may be from both ;
sometimes a cough, enlargement of the
glands inside the lower jaw on the same
side as the discharge. It is often
444
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
chronic, and the animal may work for
months, taking its food fairly well, and
little to cause suspicion but the nasal
discharge. But sometimes there is a
slight rise of temperature, and the
animal seems sensitive to cold ; the hair
may get erect on coming out of a warm
stable, or after a drink of cold water.
One of the most characteristic appear-
ances is the presence of ulcers inside the
•nostrils. These are very rare, apart from
glanders. In the acute form there is
high fever, the breathing is distressed,
and the animal looks very ill. In the
form known as Farcy, one or more of
the limbs may become swollen, and
the lymphatic vessels inflamed, hard,
and cord-like; nodules, which may be-
come as large as hazel-nuts, form here
and there on the course of the vessels,
generally burst, and discharge a yellowish
oily matter. Although most common
about the limbs, nodules often form
about the head, neck, and other parts
of the body. The discharge from the
nose and from these nodules is the main
source of the contagion, and is very
dangerous to other animals, and also to
man. It is not very rare for an attend-
ant on a glandered horse to become
attacked by the disease.
Glanders is scheduled under the Dis-
eases of Animals Acts : intimation of its
existence must at once be given to the
police, and it is the duty of the Local
Authority to cause every glandered
animal to be slaughtered as speedily as
practicable. They must also cause the
detention of each horse, ass, or mule
which, in their opinion, has been ex-
posed to the risk of contagion, until
such time as they can have the " mallein
test" applied to it. Should the animal
not react to the mallein test, the "de-
tention notice" ceases to affect it after
forty-eight hours. But when the animal
reacts, it has to be slaughtered by the
Local Authority.
For all such diseased animals so
slaughtered the Local Authority must
pay to the owner, as compensation, half
the value of each animal before it was
tested — the sum paid not to exceed ^25
in the case of a horse, or J[fi for any ass
or mule. Where, after slaughter, the
animal is found not to have been
glandered, full value must be paid, but
not over £^io. And when an animal
is slaughtered after being clinically
affected — manifestly glandered, — the
Local Authority shall pay whatever sum
they think expedient, but not more than
one-fourth the value of the animal, and
not less than £^2 in the case of a horse,
and I OS. for any ass or mule.
Treatment is not permitted, although
it is recognised that animals occasionally
recover.
Prevention is comprised in careful
isolation and disinfection, and the adopj •
tion of rigorous police measures.
Lampas. '
A fulness of the lower bars of the
palate.
Cause. — It generally occurs with
young horses, and is a natural result
from the congestion caused by the shed-
ding of their milk-teeth and the growth
of the permanent ones.
Treatment. — Cut the bars lightly
with a penknife several times across,
avoiding the artery. Never burn them.
Give bicarbonate of potash, 6 drs.,.
morning and evening in drinking-water,
and warm bran-mashes. Use lotion (No.
16) for washing the sore places.
Nasal Gleet.
A profuse and unnatural discharge of
mucus from one or both nostrils.
Symptoms. — The nasal discharge con-
tinues after every other sign of cold has
left. Mucus in large quantities, mingled
with matter, constantly flows or is blown
from the nose, tiU the horse becomes
much weakened. The mallein test may
have to be applied to make sure it is not
glanders.
Treatment. — Should cough remain,
treat as for Cough (p. 447). If the dis-
charge is foetid, give daily a dose con-
taining sulphate of copper, i dr. ; ginger,
2 drs. ; gentian, 2 drs. If the discharge
is not offensive, but only an excessive
discharge of the fluid which moistens
the nose, give daily, sulphate of copper,
I dr., made into a ball with flour and
treacle. Horses affected by this com-
plaint should always have a lump of
rock-salt in their racks, and a little salt
mixed with* the most, nourishing food
possible. Tonic (No. 21) may be useful
in treating this disease. Nasal gleet of
HORSES.
445
long standing may be due to a diseased
tooth or boile in the head, and the
opinion of a veterinary surgeon should
be obtained.
Polypw.
An excrescence may grow in the
nostril or further back and impede the
breathing. It must be removed by a
veterinary surgeon, and no treatment
by an unprofessional man can be of
any use.
Bleeding from Nose.
The result of irritation of the nose,
glanders, bursting of a blood-vessel in
the head or lungs, and sometimes a blow
on the head.
Treatment, — Keep animal quiet, head
elevated, and pour cold water over it.
Give every two hours, in a pint of gruel,
tincture of perchloride of iron, i oz. ;
spirits of sweet nitre, 2 oz.
Rabies or Hydrophobia,
See Dogs (p. 493).
Strangles.
A disease more common among colts
and horses under four years old than
among older ones.
Symptoms. — A cold, cough, sore
throat, and. profuse discharge, of yellow
mucus from the nostrils, swelling under
the throat, which increases and renders
swallowing painful. The tumour is
situated in the centre of the throat
under the jaw, and feels like one soM
mass. Owing to its solidity this disease
can readily be distinguished from Glan-
ders (see p. 443) when the tumour is
composed of separate parts, which can
be easily identified. The centre of the
tumour is soft, and when it suppurates
and bursts it discharges an immense
quantity of pus, quickly healing after
the discharge. When the cough sub-
sides, the horse begins to recover from
the extreme weakness attending the
disease.
Cause. — Probably cold or climatic
changes. I have strong reasons for be-
lieving that this disease is contagions.
Prevention. — Isolate affected animals.
TJreatment. — Blister the tumour with
ordinary blister (No. i or 2) to hasten its
VOL. in.
progress and prevent the inflammation
spreading. Whfen the tumour is soft on
the top, lance it and suffer the pus to
drain out without any pressure. After
the discharge, keep the place clean by
bathing it well with warm water ; rub
with vaseline, which will soften the
wound and promote its healing. Give
twice daily, in a pint of gruel, No. 9, and
keep the bowels open with carrots and
bran-mashes. Feed on bran-mashes and
green food, and keep the animal in a cool
and comfortable stable. When recovery
is established, give mOrning and night
tonic (No. 21), and keep the horse well.
The dischairge from the nose will continue
some time, but will gradually cease. If
this disease is neglected, death will prob-
ably follow.
Bastard Strangles.
A low form of strangles, in which ab-
scesses appear on different parts of the
body. The treatment should be the
same as for ordinary strangles. In this
disease there is much more danger of
blood-poisoning.
Teeth (Diseases of).
The irregular growth and rough edges
of. the teeth frequently produce wounds
in the mouth. A horse out of condition
should be examined, and if his teeth
are irregular or have rough edges, they
should be rasped down with a file that
is made for the purpose. Sometimes it
is necessary to cut off paft of a tooth
which projects far above the level of the
others.
Extracting Teeth.
To extract the corner teeth of a three-
or four-year-old horse, so as to try and
alter his age, is cruel, and any one with
experience of horses can easily see on
looking into the animal's mouth if such
a thing has been done.
Wolf- teeth. — These little teeth are
situated in front of the molars, and are
believed by some to interfere with the
animal's feeding. They can be easily
extracted by the aid of a pair of forceps,
or else punched out. But unless it is
distinctly evident that they are causing
trouble they should be left alone.
Molar Teeth. — They sometimes be-
2 F
446
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
come diseased. The animal quids his
food, and frequently when feeding
pauses for a few seconds. The breath
is very offensive Their treatment
should certainly be left to the veterin-
ary surgeon.
Wounds in tke Mouth.
From a cruel bit, &c.
Treatment. — Wash it with a solution
of alum, I oz., dissolved in twenty-eight
times its weight of water ; or use lotion
(No. i6).
TeeOimg Covgh.
A persistent and violent cough.
Symptoms. — Usually seen between
the age of three and four. Food re-
fused, head poked out, gums red and
swollen, frequent coughing, and some-
times a tooth is found in the manger.
Cause. — Teething, which causes irri-
tation of throat.
Treatment. — Extract any temporary
teeth showing signs of getting loose,
and blister throat with mustard lini-
ment (No. 15), and give every night
and morning, in a pint of gruel, draught
(No. 10).
Wounds of Tongue.
Treat as for wounds of the mouth.
Tongue Bladders {Banula).
Sometimes occur underneath the
tongue.
' Cause. — Produced by a slight de-
rangement of the system.
Treatment. — Give a physic ball (Nos.
17 or 18), which will reduce any fever.
The bladders may be readily removed by
opening with a lancet.
Paralysis of the Tongue.
Palsy of the tongue.
Symptoms. — The tongue hangs in a
loose manner from the mouth, and be-
comes swollen and inflamed.
Cause. — A severe injury to tongue, or
by dragging on the tongue when giving
a ball.
Treatment. — Suspend the tongue in
a .net-bag tied to the head-stall; give
purgative (No. 19) and a drachm of nux
vomica night and morning in a half-pint
of water.
Amjiutation of Tongue.
This is sometimes done by veterinary
surgeons when the tongue has been ex-
tensively lacerated. A horse that has
lost part of his tongue must be fed from
a deep manger, and in drinking these
animals force their heads deeply into a
pail of water.
Paralysis of the Lower Lip.
A pendulous condition of the lower
lip.
Symptoms. — ^The animal's health is
not interfered with, and he feeds fairly
well, but lets a little food drop, his lip
hangs down, and a little saliva flows
from it.
Cause. — Paralysis of the nerve o^
the Up, which is usually brought about
by the curb -chain being too tight, or
a badly fitted bridle, or accidental
injuries.
Treatment. — Give a physic ball, con-
taining 5 drs. of aloes, and rub into
the lip and sides of the face a little of
embrocation (No. 12). Feed on sloppy
mashes.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT,
CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS,
AND BLOOD.
Bronchitis,
or inflammation of the bronchial tubes.
Symptoms. — Coughing, wheezing,
hard breathing, and weakness. The
horse may die in a severe attack from
suffocation. /
Caufie. — In cases of neglected cold or
catarrh, bronchitis often follows. Ex-
posure to cold or wet Common in
young animals that are starved and
neglected.
Treatment — Give plenty of fresh air,
but keep warm. Apply embrocation
(No. 12) to the chest; give nitre, 3 drs.,
and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10
drops, three times arday, and increase\
the dose if necessary. Feed on bran-
mashes containing linseed - meal. For
drinking-water, give weak infusion of
linseed. In acute cases, give in gruel
draught No. 10 three times a-day.
HOESES.
447
Broken Wind.
Symptoms. — In this disease the ex-
piration of the breath takes two efforts,
and the inspiration only one ; the breath-
ing, therefore, is not regular, as in thick
■wind.
Cause. — It is due to the rupture of
air-cells, and is generally attended by a
dry cough. Dusty food, gross feeding,
previous inflammation, and violent exer-
cise after heavy feeding.
Treatment. — There is no cure. Keep
for slow work, and feed on soft nourish-
ing food which occupies a small space.
Crib-biting
is more a vicious habit than a disease.
Symptoms. — The animal seizes the
manger or any fixed object, and makes
a gulping noise as if trying to swallow
air.
Cause. — Indigehuuii or habit; one
horse .will learn it from another.
Treatment. — It takes a lot of curing.
Anchovy paste on the manger will some-
times effect a cure. Any saddler will
make a strap to go round the horse's
neck to prevent crib-biting. An inven-
tion has been recently brought out to
cure it by the aid of electricity. The
battery is placed in such a way that
whenever the animal seizes and squeezes
the top part of the manger he at once
receives a severe shock.
GJwhing.
Substances which have lodged in the
gullet can generally be forced down by
the use of a flexible tube, similar to that
used for cattle ;' but it should only be
done by a veterinary surgeon.
Sore Throat.
A common complaint, and associated
with such diseases as strangles, influenza,
and scarlet fever, <fec. '
Symptoms. — Animal has a nasty
cough, quids his food, and pokes out
his nose.
Treatment. — Blister the throat with
embrocation (No. 12), feed on sloppy
food, and give in gruel twice a-day (No.
10). Be careful in drenching, as there
is a risk of choking the animal.
Rheumatic Fever.
A specific fever due to a constitutional
condition of the sygtem.
Symptoms. — Animal restless, breath-
ing hurried, slight cough, shows signs of
pain, goes stiff, and joints swell.
Cause. — Hereditary tendency, bad
stables, and insufficient food.
Treatm.ent— Give physic ball (No. 20),
put half an ounce of nitre frequently in
drinking-water, and give twice a-day the
following ball : iodide of potassium, i
dr.; powdered colchioum, 2ogrs.; liquor-
ice-powder, 2 drs,, made up with linseed-
meal and treacle. Rub the swollen joints
every night with embrocation (No. 12),
and apply woollen bandages.
Chronic Cough.
A mpst annoying disease tp the rider.
This cough frequently follows an attack
of inflammation of the lungs.
Symptoms. — If the horse coughs after
drinking, the cough will arise from the
windpipe. It may not affect the general
health.
Cause. — Previous inflammation, ne-
glected cold, and sometimes worms.
Treatment. — If the coat is staring,
the cause of the cough will generally be
worms, in which case give turpentine,
J^ oz., daily, in 4 oz. of linseed-oil ; or
santonine, 20 grs., and aloes, 3 drs., made
into a ball with linseed-meal and treacle,
in the morning on an empty stomach,
and repeat after two days ; or give
draught (No. 11). If the cough pro-
ceeds from the throat, feed on green
food and mashes, and give ball (No. 8).
Apply ^bUster (No. 2) to the throat if
other remedies fail. Water, in which a
little linseed or treacle has been boiled,
is useful instead of plain water, for
drinking purposes.
Common Cold.
Symptoms. — Slight discharge from
the nose, and weeping of the eyes ; fever
and cough.
Cause. — Changes of temperature and
chills.
Treatment. — Clothe warmly, and
place in a cool stable. Feed on warm
bran - mashes with a little linseed - meal
in them, and give in gruel night and
morning till fever is reduced — acetate
448
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
of ammonium, 3 oz. : potassium bi-
carbonate, Yz oz. ; chloroform, J^ oz. ;
and apply liniment (No. 14) to the
throat, or embrocation (No. 12).
Distemper, Catarrhal Fever,
or Tvfliienzfi,
Most prevalent in spring and autumn,
^specially when the weather is cold and
wet.
♦ Symptoms. — At first dulness, loss of
appetite, and there may be shivering,
■ cough, weakness, inflamed eyes, nose a
pale red, watery discharge from nostrils.
Later the discharge from the nostrils
becomes thick, but seldom offensive,
glands of throat and under jaw swell,
which make swallowing diflScult. Gen-
erally there is intense weakness.
There is a violent form of influenza
which has lately come into notic» called
"pink eye." It is attended with high
» • fever, extreme weakness, depression, and
loss of appetite, and has been the cause
of serious loss in many parts of the
country.
Cause. — Contagion, influences of
climate producing cold, amounting al-
most to an ' epizootic.
Treatm.ent. — Remove into a cool box,
clothe warmly, feed on warm bran-
mashes and green food, a little hay,
or a carrot or two, and give in weak
infusion of linseed i oz. nitre, instead of
pure water for drinking. Sponge the
nostrils with vinegar and water. Give
draught twice a-day containing spirits
of nitrous ether, 1 oz., liqwyr ammonii
acetatis, 3 oz., in a pint of water, and
rub the throat with embrocation
(No. 12). Half fill a nose -bag with
hay, and pour boiling water upon it,
and keep the horse's head in it till the
vapour ceases to rise, but be careful not
to burn the horse's nose. In cases of
extreme depression, as in pink eye, give
every three hours spirits of nitrous
ether, i oz. ; whisky, 4 oz. ; water, 6 oz.
When recovering, give tonic (No. 21) in
a pint of beer twice a-day. Great care
should be taken to prevent these attacks
producing roaring and other diseases.
Broken Ribs.
The ribs of horses are frequently
broken through accidents and kicks.
Treatment. — If the ribs are only
broken and not the skin, put a good
pitch-plaster over that side of the chest ;
but if the skin is broken and there is a
hole in the chest, it is beyond the power
of any one but a veterinary surgepn to
e£fect a cure.
Dropsy of the Chest.
The result usually of pleurisy.
Symptoms can be detected only by
placing the ear against the chest, and by
percussing the chest wall
Treatment. — Call in a veterinary
surg'eon, who may tap the chest and
let the fluid out.
-There is a disease amongst 'colts run-
ning on low marshy land of a dropsical
nature, but in this disease the swelling
is seen on the outside of the chest and
along the abdomen.
Treatment. — Take colt in from the
grass, give good food, and every night
and morniug, in a pint of gruel, give
tonic (No. 21).
Siniple Fever".
Symptoms. — Staring coat, cold- legs
and feet, dulness, alternate shivering
and hot fits, constipation. There is no
cough or turning round to the flanks.
Cause. — Sudden change from heat to
cold, often produced by the improper
ventilation of a stable; checked per-
spiration.
Treatment. — Place in a cool stable
where there is good air without draught,
warm clothing, and give soft food while
the fever is at its height, and then a
more generous diet. Give mild opening
medicine, such as linseed -oil, j4 pint.
On no account give active purgatives.
Clysters of warm water and soap witl
aid the action of the bowels, and give
every four hours a draught containing
solution acetate of ammonium, 3 oz. ;
Fleming's tincture of aconite, .5 drops;
spirits of nitrous -ether, 1 J^ oz., in pint
of water. The disease is not dangerous,
unless complications ensue.
is gradually becoming a thiijg of the past,
but it is sometimes beneficial, especially
where there is great blood-pressure, such
as brain-fever, mad staggers, and acute
founder.
How to Bleed an Animal. — Put a
HORSES.
449
driving bridle on the horse, bring his
head round to the light, turn it to the
left side, raise the jugular vein on the
right side by pressing on it with the
fingers, hold the fleam in the left hand
parallel with the vein, and give it a smart
blow with the blood -stick; keep the
bucket pressed against th^neck below
the wound, and if the blood does not
flow freely, insert the fingers into the
mouth to keep the jaw moving. Take
from I to 3 quarts of blood, afterwards
place a pin through the lips of the
wound, and wind tow around it. Do
not use too large a fleam.
Inflammation of the Jugular Vein
after Bleeding.
The wound caused by bleeding is gen-
erally held together by a pin and piece
of twisted tow ; it will usually heal in a
couple of days. If the fleam has been
Carelessly used, or has been dirty, the
wound is apt to become inflamed, swell,
and discharge matter. Abscesses will
then form, and if not checked will prove
dangerous.
Treatment. — Wash the wound at
once with a solution of carbolic acid, i
part in about 20 parts of water ; but it
is a dangerous condition, and as soon as
mflammation of the vein is suspected a
veterinary surgeon should be called in.
Purpv/ra or Purpura-koemorrhagica.
A blood disease of a very low type.
Symptoms. — Is seen frequently after
severe illnesses, as strangles and influ-
enza. The legs, nose, and lips "swell,
pink spots are seen inside nose and
eyelids; animal refuses food, and -looks
a pitiful object.
Cause. — Sequel to other diseases, or
from bad hygienic conditions.
Prevention. — See that your stable-
ventilation, drainage, and food are good.
Treatment. — Is best left to a veterin-
ary surgeon.
Inflammation of the Lungs or
Pneumonia.
Symptoms. — Fever and quickening
pulse, cold ears and legs, breathing
thick, nostrils dilated, restlessness, un-
willingness to lie down, and staring
coat. Sometimes the attack comes on
suddenly and sometimes gradually.
Cause. — Cold, over-driving when out
of condition, and contagion.
Treatment. — Remove to a cool airy
loose-box, and clothe warmly; rub the
legs well, using white oil liniment (No.
14) ; feed on green food and bran-mashes
only; apply embrocation (No. 12) to
each side of the chest ; give every four
hours a draught containing acetate of
ammonium, 3 oz.; bicarbonate potash,
% oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 3
drops; wjter, 8 oz., till the fever is
subdued. When convalescent, give tonic
(No. 21), and two months' run at grass
if the season permit.
This is a very dangerous disease, and
the aid of a veterinary surgeon should be
obtained.
While suffering from fever the diet
should be sparing, and entirely composed
of green food, carrots, and cold bran-
mashes. The open air is preferable to a
close warm stable : it is of the first im-
portance that the horse should have cool
fresh air to breathe. If this disease is
neglected, the after - consequences, even
should the horse recover, will be most
serious, and his constitution will be
ruined.
Scarlet Fever.
A feverish disease of the horse, char-
acterised by pink spots in the nose and
mouth, and usually associated with a
sore throat.
Symptoms. — The animal dull and off
its feed, eyes swollen, pink spo^ inside
the nose and eyelids, and frequently a
sore throat.
Treatment. — Place the animal into a
comfortable loose-box, give thrice a-day,
in gruel, draught (No. 9), and when
recovering, give tonic (No. 21) in a pint
of ale twice arday. This disease is now
generally considered as a mild type of
purpura-hsemorrhagica.
Pleurisy.
A disease affecting the membrane cov-
ering the luHgs and .lining the chest.
Symptoms. — Very similar to those of
inflammation of the lungs, except that
the pulse is hard and small, the breath-
ing shorter and painful, and perfoftned
mostly by the abdominal muscles, show-
ing a line at each expiration from the
lowe» border of the ribs tq the flank.
4SO
AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK.
Cause. — Chills.
Treatment. — Eemove into a cool airy
stable, and feed on cold bran-mashes and
green food. Kub the chest and sides
■with embrocation (No. 12), and give
twice a -day oil of 'turpentine, i oz.;
iodide of potassium, 2 drs.; liHseed-oil,
4 oz. ; lime - water, 6 oz. Call in a
veterinary surgeon, who may resort to
the Use of the trocar to tap the chest.
Complete rest at grass, if possible, and
tonic (No. 21) should follow when the
animal is recovering.
Heart Disease,
as a rule, causes interference with blood
circulation.
Symptom.s. — There is really but one
true symptom, and that is the irregularity
of the pulse, but often associated with
this there is weakness, cough, hurried
breathing, and sometimes the animal
staggers as if in want of breath.
Cause. — Eheumatic usually in its
origin.
Treatment. — feest, but often there is
no improvement.
There are several inflammatory diseases
of the heart, but it would only be wast-
ing time to enumerate them here, for
they are of a complicated nature and not
common.
Poll Evil.
A painful swelling on the upper part
of the neck behind the ears, generally
terminating in an abscess.
Symptoms. — Inflammation andiswell-
ing of the ligaments over the atlas bone.
Cause. — Tight reining, blows on the
neck and head from striking the manger,
or lintel of the door, or given by a savage
attendant. "
Treatment. — Apply cooling lotion,
such as goulard water, to the swelling,
and keep the bowls open with purgative
(No. 18). If the tumour increases, apply
common blister (No. 3) to hasten its dis-
charge, and when it is soft in the middle
it should have a seton drawn through
the tumour from the top, through the
bottom, out at the side below the tumour;
this will completely drain the abscess.
Then foment and clean with warm water
till cured. The aid of a veterinary
surgeon should be obtained to ensure the
successful treaiment of the tumour.
Roaring,
A rough, disa^eeable noise made by
some animals during respiration, especi-
ally if forced to exert themselves.
Symptoms. — ^A roaring sound when
sharp exercise is taken, caused by the
difficulty of the air passing through the
contracted opening of the larynx.
Cause. — Frequently results from an
attack of strangles. Tight reining tends
to produce it.
Treatment.— There is no cure in the
case of a confirmed roarer. In early
stages rub blister (No. i) on the throat,
and give a ball morning and night, com-
posed of nux vomica, % dr. ; arseniate of
iron, 3 grs. ; qiunetum, i dr. Nothing
further can be done.
Saddle Galls.
Cause. — A badly fitting saddle, or
heavy bad rider.
Treatment — Appfy lotion (No. 7),
alter the saddle, and do not work until
cured.
Sore ShmUders.
The shoulders of horses sometimes
become very sore and painful, and when
in this condition, if neglecte^, large
wounds and abscesses soon follow.
Cause. — Badly fitting collar, heavy
loads, the draught badly adjusted, using
one trace longer than the other, and
working horses too young.
Treatment. — Bathe the shoulders
night and morning for an hour with
warm water, then apply lotion (No. 16)
to the parts where the skin is brokea
Do not work the animals until they are
properly healed, for you can be sum-
moned for working a horse with sore
shoulders.
Sitfasis.
These are small hard tumours which
form in the substance of the skin where
the harness comes in contact with it.
Cause. — Pressure of the saddle. Small
pimples or pustules from an unhealthy
condition of the skin, and are often due
to necrosis — death — of a small patch of
skin.
Treatment. — Give rest, foment, and
apply cooling lotion. Should they sup-
purate, wash with tincture of myrrh.
HOKSES.
451
1 oz. ; carbolic acid, J^ oz. ; glycerine, 2
oz. ; and water, 10 oz. If they make no
progress towards healing, apply a little
blister (No. i) to the ulcers, and dress
the wounds with friars' balsam. But
it is often advisable, and brings about
a far more speedy recovery, to have the
hard core in the centre carefully removed
with the knife. Alter the saddle and
make it fit.
Stricture of Gullet.
Symptoms. — A contraction of the
gullet which prevents the passage of
food.
Can be cured only by a veterinary
surgeon.
Thick Wind. i~
Ssrmptoms. — DiflSculty of breathing
when driven. Short hurried respira-
tions. This complaint is most usual in
horses with contracted chests, often re-
sulting from an attack of inflammation
of the lungs.
Treatment. — This annoying disease
can be mitigated only -by careful man-
agement, avoiding sharp exercise after
feeding, and by never giving a very full
meal. The food should be of a very
nutritious nature in small bulk. A thick-
winded horse may be able to go a good
pace without inconvenience, if he is not
hurried when he first leaves the Stable.
Whistling and Wheezing
are forms of broken wind, which can be
mitigated only by using the animal for
slow work. A drink made of linseed-
meal, one pint, boiled in six pints of
water, with a little treacle, may do good,
but there is no cure.
Withers (Fistulous).
Symptoms. — This troublesome dis-
ease first appears as a swelling on the
withers, develops into a tumour, sup-
puration takes place, and a deep ulcer
forms, which may extend down to the
bone.
Cause. — Pressure on the vrithers from
an ill-fitting saddle or collar.
Treatment. — Give the horse complete
rest till cured; do not work him till
then under any pretence. Upon the
first appearance of the swelling, foment.
and apply lotion (No. 7). If the tumour
appears, apply bHster (No. i or 3). The
veterinary surgeon should be called in
if this does not stop the inflammation.
Keep the bowels open by feeding on
green food and bran-mashlfe.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH,
LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND
OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS, AND
PARTURITION.
Bots.
The larvae of the gad-fly. Most com-
mon in spring and eariy summer. The
eggs of the gad-fly are deposited among
the hair, and are introduced into the
stomach through the horse licking him-
self. They attach themselves to the
lining of the stomach during the winter,
injuring and weakening it, till finally
they are seen escaping in the spring out
of the anus, causing great itching.
Treatment. — No medicine will totally
destroy these bots. The use of salt
among the food may serve to mitigate
the evil, and a draught containing oil of
turpentine, i oz., linseed-oil, 10 oz,, may
remove many of them, but very little
can be done, and nature must be left to
take its course. Green food assists' in
bringing them away.
Colic or Gripes,
I. Flaiulent Colic.
Symptoms. — Stomach and intestines
distended vrith gas; pain and depression.
Cause. — Overloading of the stomach
with green food ; cold and over-exertion.
Treatment. — Give a purgative (No.
17), and clyster (No. 13), and every two
hours give a draught containing opium
tincture, i oz. ; spirit of ammonia, i oz. ;
carbolic acid, 15 drops; chloroform, i
oz., in 12 oz. of water. '
2. Spasmodio CoUe.
Symptoms. — Acute pain, rolling on
the groxmd, suddenness of attack, ex-
cited countenance, and the intermittent
nature of the pain. This last character-
istic distinguishes the disease from in-
flammation of the bowels.
Cause. — Chills from drinking cold
water when hot, and errors in feeding
452
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
and watering, are tl^e most common
causes.
Treatment. — If taken in time, this
disease can usually be cured by giving
linseed-oil, i pint; oil of turpentine, i
oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. ; chloro-
form, I oz. Walk the horse about after
giving the dose. If the attack continues,
apply hot, fomentations to the belly till
the aid of the veterinary surgeon can be
obtained.
Diarrhoea.
Frequent passing of fluid dung.
Symptoms. — Animal dull, refuses
food, slight colicky pains, and frequent
dunging, which, if not checked, will ter-
minate in inflammation of the mucous
membrane of the bowels.
Cause. — Bad feeding, or feeding on
raw potatoes, too sucsulent green food,
cold and irritation of the bowels from
worms or innutritious food.
treatment. — Place animal in a warm
box, if cold put a rug on and bandage
his legs, keep short of water, and give in
half - pint of gruel twice a - day the fol-
lowing : Tincture of catechu, i oz. ;
powdered chalk, }i oz. ; tincture of car-
damoms, I oz. ; opium powder, i J^ dr.
To be continued until the diarrhoea
ceases.
Constipation.
Generally arising from the nature of
the food or torpidity of the liver or in-
testines.
Prevention. — ^AU dust from chop or
chaff should be sifted out of. horse's food,
and too much mealy or dry food should
not be given without access to water.
Treatment. — Give purgative medi-
cine— linseed-oil, i pint, and plenty of
watery food, gruel, &c., and warm clys-
ters of soap- and -water, repeating the
dose of oil when required. For chronic
constipation give daily a ball composed
of aloes, I dr. '; nux vomica, J4 dr. ;
carbonate ammonium, i dr. ; ginger, i
dr. ; gentian, i dr.
Dysentery.
A continual passing of semi -solid
dung, tinged with blood.
Symptoms. — It first starts with diar-
rhcea, which passes into dysentery; the
animal becomes restless, occasionally lies
down; in the course of a few hours it
trembles ; clots of blood are passed with
the dung, which has a bad smell if not
soon checked ; a cold sweat breaks out,
the legs become cold, the eye glassy, and
death closes the scene.
Cause. — Too large a dose of physic,
worms and improper feeding, associated
with a bad sanitary condition of the
stable.
Treatment. — Put animal in a warm
box ; if cold put a rug and bandages on.
Give every ^ix hours until the purging
ceases the following drench in half a
pint of gruel : Chlorodyne, ^ oz. ; pow-
dered opium, I dr. ; prepared chalk, %
oz. ; tincture of cardamoms, i oz, ; old
port wine, yi pint.
Diabetes or Polyuria.
Symptoms. — Excessive discharge of
urine, weakness, and unthrifty appear-
ance.
Cause. — Irritation of the kidneys by
a too frequent use of diuretics or bad,
musty, or mouldy food.
Treatment. — Feed on green food and
mashes, and give morning and night in
gruel a draught containing dilute hydro-
chloric acid, 2 drs. ; quinetum, i dr. ;
tincture of opium, j^ oz. The part of
the loins over the bladder should be cov-
ered with a hot cloth. Attend to the
quality of the food, and in severe cases
call in a veterinary surgeon.
Injlammation of the Bowels.
Very fatal, often resulting in death in
a few hours.
Symptoms. — At first uneasiness and
dulness ; fever, and in some cases shiver-
ing fits; nostrils red and mouth hot;
breathing and pulse quick ; ears and legs
cold ; and the passing of small quan-
tities of dung at short intervals. The
horse will show great pain by kicking at
his belly and whisking his tail.
Cause. — A chill when overheated,
often from drinking cold water when
hot, over-exertion, a too full meal when
the animal is tired and worn out.
Prevention. — These inflammatory dis-
eases of the internal organs are too
common among draught-horses. There
is no more pernicious habit than that of
working horses during hot weather, with-
out allowing them for hours together to
HORSES.
453
have any drinking-water till they get into
a probably cold stable, where they are
allowed to drink their fill and stand for
an hour during the dinner-hour till they
are chilled inside and out. It seems
extraordinary that so many horses stand
this treatment. Allow farm-horses fre-
quent moderate drinks of water while at
their work, when that work is heating
or the weather hot. The exercise after
drinking will prevent any chills, and on
their return to the stable they will eat
their corn without requiring water to an
injurious extent. The custom of giving
horses large quantities of coarse boiled
food was often to blame for causing this
disease.
Treatment. — Place in a cool stable
and clothe warmly; give warm clysters
of thin gruel and Epsom salts, ^ lb.
Foment the belly with hot water and
rub it with embrocation (No. 12), and
every three hours give in gruel tincture
of ginger, i oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. ;
chloroform, 4 drs. Rub and bandage
the legs. Give plenty of warm linseed-
gruel. If costiveness continue, give
with great caution in gruel small doses
of aloes, 2 drs. dissolved, and J^ pint
linseed -oil, and send for a veterinary
surgeon.
Gdstritis or Inflammation of Stomach:
A disease of rare occurrence.
Symptonis. — Animal shows signs of
pain, breathes hard, sweats about the
shoulders, thirst, flow of saliva, great
prostration, legs and ears become cold,
the animal staggers, and soon dies.
Cause. — r Too much food rapidly
swallowed, foreign body in stomach, or
from a vegetable or mineral poison.
Treatment. — Give linseed-oil, i pint ;
tincture of opium, 2 oz., and give after
every two hours two eggs beaten up in a
pint of linseed-gruel, and add to it an
ounce of tincture of nux vomica, and one
of tincture of belladonna.
Twist of the Bowels.
A twist in a portion of the bowels,
which may cause strangulation, mortifi-
cation, and deatL
Symptom^. — Excruciating pain, the
animal is up and down, blowing heavy
and sweating, nothing seems to give ease,
and death comes as a happy release.
Cauae. — Mostly rolling when in pain.
Treatment. — Nothing can do any
good except opium, which will ease pain
until death.
Inflammation of the Bladder.
See Inflammation of the Kidneys for
symptoms and treatment, infra.
Cause. — Irritant matter in urine, or
stone in the bladder.
Inflammation of the Nech of the
Bladder.
Symptoms. — Distended bladder and
partial to total suppression of urine.
Cause. — Overstraining or cold.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 17),
and three times daily in gruel a draught
containing Fleming's tincture of aconite,
5 drops ; tincture of opium, i J^ oz. ; bi-
carbonate of potash, ]4 oz. Apply hot
fomentations to the loins, and call in a
veterinary surgeon, who will, if necessary,
draw off the urine with a catheter.
Parturition.
The act on the part of a mare to bring
forth her young. The period of preg-
nancy in the mare is usually eleven
months, though it sometimes varies be-
tween ten and twelve months. This
animal seldom brings forth more than
one at a time, nevertheless twins some-
times do occur, but they rarely live long
after birth.
Signs of Foaling. — ^The mare is dull,
abdomen sprung, back bent, vulva swollen,
and a little mucus discharged. The
udder becomes enlarged, wax appears
at the ends of teats. As the time draws
near the mare becomes restless, paws,
keeps on lying down, an anxious ex-
pression in the eyes, and frequent pass-
ing of dung and urine. The water-bag
soon makes its appearance, which ulti-
mately bursts, after which the foal
appears.
Treatment.- — The mare should be
placed in a nice clean loose -box with
plenty of straw, and do not disturb her
by keeping open the door and looking in
frequently.
Inflam/mation of the Kidneys.
Symptoms. — Fever and peculiar posi-
tion, standing with legs wide apart ; hot
loins, and tenderness in that part ; sup-
454
AILMENTS OP FARM LIVE STOCK.
pressed urine, wMch is dark in colour
and may be tinged with blood ; straining
to void urine. Put the hand up the
rectum, and the bladder under the
rectum will be empty without undue
heat. In cases of inflammation of the
neck of the bladder, it will feel hard
and full. In cases of inflammation of
the bladder,' it will feel empty, but there
will be great heat.
Cause. — Unwholesome food, particu-
larly musty oats, or a violent overstrain-
ing or cold.
Treatment. — Remove into a comfort-
able box, clothe warmly, give plenty of
water, feed on linseed and bran-maahes,
foment the loins with hot water. Apply
embrocation (No, 12) to the loins over
the kidneys, but leave the turpentine
out of the embrocation, and give purga-
tive (No. 17); give also warm clysters
of soap-and-water. When the purgative
has acted give white hellebore, 5 grs. ;
tartar emetic, i dr., mixed into a ball,
three times a-day till cured. If possible,
find out and remove the cause of the
disease, if it arises from improper food.
Inflmnmation of the Womb.
An inflammatory disease of the womb
shortly after foaling.
Symptoms, -r- Animal becomes dull
and stiff, appetite lost, secretion of milk
diminished, breathing hurried; the ani-
mal grinds her teeth, suffers from colicky
paiils, frequently lies down, stamps, kicks
at her belly, the vulva is swollen and a
discharge comes from it, which is at
first yellow, but afterwards becomes a
chocolate colour, and foetid.
Cause. — Exposure to cold, retention
of the after-birth, and injuries received
during foaling.
Treatment. — Put hot cloths across
the loins, and give every three hours the
following draught in a pint of linseed-
gruel : tincture of belladona, i oz. ;
spirits, ether (nitrous), 2 oz. ; and soda
sulphite, y^ oz.
Inflammation, of the Liver.
An uncommon disease.
Symptoms. — Dull pain, but no great
uneasiness, yellowness of the mouth and
nostrils.
Cause: — Overfeeding and insufficient
exercise.
Treatment. — Should the attack be
severe, call in a veterinary surgeon. Give
for a purgative — sulphate of soda, 5 oz. ;
virgin scammony, 30 grs. ; and feed on
bran-mashes with a light diet. A useful
draught, to be given three times a-day
in gruel, is composed of chloride am-
monium, 2 drs. ; bicarbonate potassium,
yi oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5
drops; chloroform, yi oz.
Jaundice or Yellows.
Symptoms. — A yellow tinge in the
eyes, skin, and mouth ; urine quite
yellow; loss of appetite, and constipa-
tion.
Cause. — Obstruction of the flow of
bile from the liver, disease of the liver
or congestion arising f ronf cold or other
cause.
Treatment. — Feed on mashes, thin
warm gruel, and green food ; clothe well
if weather is cold; give every morning
calomel, j4 dr. If inflammation sets in,
give every morning in gruel a draught
containing solution acetate ammonium,
4 oz. ;■■ Fleming's tincture of aconite,
5 drops; spirits of nitrous ether, i^ oz.
When recovering give tonic (No. 21).
Peritonitis.
Inflammation of the lining membrane
of the abdomen.
Symptoms. — Small hard pulse, colicky
pains, dulness, constipation, and tender-
ness on pressure over the abdomen,
which feels hard and rounded.
Cause. — It may arise from cold and
neglect, but generally from worms or
wounds, as after castration.-
Treatment — Hot fomentations per-
sistently applied; give opium or laud-
anum, with small doses of spirits of
ammonia every four or five hours, gruel
and linseed-tea to drink, and soft sloppy
food.
Poisons.
The only vegetable poison that need
be mentioned is yew. The eating of
this tree accounts for the death of many
horses every year. If the poison is
suspected, give at once linseed-oil, 20 oz.,
and drench with spirits of ammonia,
3 oz. ; brandy, 5 oz. ; gruel, r pint.
Repeat dose of oil if it does not operate
in twelve hours.
HORSES.
45S
i Lead-poisoning.
A disease due to tte introduction of
lead into the system. Although com-
paratively common in cattle is rare in
the horse.
Symptoms. — The horse has a care-
worn expression, staring coat, back
arched, legs cramped, colicky pains, and
flow of saliva from the mouth.
Cause. — Grazing near rifle-butts or
lead-smelting works, drinking water im-
pregnated with lead, licking lead paints,
and the barbarous practice of giving shot
for broken wind.
Treatment. — Give sulphate of mag-
nesia, 8 oz., in a pint of water, with
tincture of belladonna, i oz. ; tincture of
capsicum, ^ oz. Afterwards, give every
four hours until the animal is purged,
sulphate of magnesia, i oz., tincture of
belladonna, i oz., in half a pint of water.
Arsenic-poiscming.
Due to arsenic either given acci-
dentally or intentionally.
Symptoms. — Colic, staggering gait,
quick breathing, cold ears, diarrhcsa,
and death.
Cause. — It is sometimes caused by
grooms giving it to improve the con-
dition of their horses, or by allowing
animals to graze where recently dipped
sheep have been lying.
Treatment. — Give every two hours
the following in half a pint of water :
iron sesquioxide, % oz. ; brandy, J^
pint.
Umbilical Hernia.
A round swelling under the belly of
young horses.
Symptoms. — A soft swelling in the
centre of the abdomen, ranging in size
from a fowl's egg to a cocoa-nut.
Cause. — Due to non-closure of the
navel.
Treatment. — Trusses, bandages, or
plasters frequently fail, and it may have
to be operated on by a veterinary sur-
geon.
Scrotal Hernia. ' ^
Descent of the small intestines into
the scrotum.
Cause. — By galloping, or a severe
strain, but very often there at birth.
Symptoms. — The scrotum looks large
and feels soft, but is not always the same
size.
Treatment. — Castrate by the covered
operation (p. 497).
Staling of Blood,
or mixture of blood with the urine.
Cause. — Inflammation or injuries of
the kidneys.
Treatment. — Feed on green food and
mashes ; clothe warmly ; give Fleming's
tincture of aconite, 8 drops, every night.
Purgative (No. 17) should ba given, and
three times a -day a draught in gruel,
composed of extracts of ergot, y^ oz. ;
tannin, ^ oz. ; dilute sulphuric acid,
2 drs. When the appearance of blood
in the urine has ceased, give daily Per-
uvian bark, i oz. ; sulphate of iron, i dr.
Stone in the Bladder (Calculus).
Sym.ptoms. -^ Irregular voidance of
urine, sometimes total suppression, gre^t
pain, suddenness of attack, great uneasi-
ness, a sediment from the urine dn the
floor of the stable, and, profuse perspira-
tion during attack;
Cause. — Formation of solids in the
bladder, often brought on by weakness
or -disease of the kidneys.
Treatment. — Give morning and Even-
ing, in gruel, a draught containing bicar-
bonate of potassium, i oz. ; benzoatQ
ammonium, i oz. If the gravel or small
stones are not passed, place the case in
the hands of a veteriilary surgeon, who
will treat it for calculus, the removal of
which requires an operation, the stone
being too large for the hotSe to pass.
Worms..
Symptoms. — Rough coat and half-
starved appearance, at other times an
enormous appetite, but no improvement
in condition ; appearance of a yellow
powder about the anus, with irritation
and switching of the tail.
Treatment. — ^ When fasting give in
gruel draught (No. 11), and repeat in
three days.
Prolapse of the Rectum.
Cause. — A drastic purge, injuries,
straining during foaling or in a violent
flt of colic.
Treatment. — Wash the gut with equal
456
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
parts of olive-oil and liquor opii sedatiims,
and gently work it back to its proper
place; afterwards depress the tail.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS,
FEET, AND SKIN.
I. — THE LIMBS.
Broken Knees.
Cause. — A fall Horses first brought
from a stable are liable, from no f aalt in
their build, to stumble and fall through
excitement. They are also apt to tread
on a rolling stone and fall. A horse that
stands over — i.e., whose fore legs are too
far under him — and those that shuffle
along without lifting their feet, owing to
the formation of the shoulder, are very
liable to fall forward.
Treatment. — Wash with warm water
and remove the dirt. Apply a linseed-
meal poultice to allay inflammation;
after twelve hdurs remove the poultice.
If a yellow kind of oil exudes from the
wound, it shows that the joint has been
cut into, and a veterinary surgeon alone
can deal with the case, which, to say the
least, is a desperate one. If, however,
there is no yellow joint-oil to be seen, wash
the wound with a weak solution of carbo-
lic acid, or boric acid, i part ; water, 30
parts ; adjust the injured pieces of^skin,
apply a piece of carboHsed tow, bandage
with carbolised gauze, and so dress twice
a-day.- Keep animal tied up until the
knees are healed. If fever runs high,
give every four hours in gruel a draught
containing salicylate sodium, 3 drs. Pur-
gative (No. 19) may be useful if the
health of the horse is affected.
Capped Hocks,
or a swelling on the, point of the hock,
which does not often cause lameness, but
is shown by the swelling and tenderness
on the point of the hock.
Cause. — Often caused by striking a
closing door or gate, but may be due to
kicking.
Treatment. — Foment with hot water
and bathe with cooling lotion (No. 7) ;
give complete rest till cured. Apply
blister (No. 4) if the swelling has a
tendency to harden. If this swelling is
neglected it may prove incurable.
Capped Elbow. 1
A hard swelling at the elbow, varying
in size.
Symptoms. — Karely lameness ; the
swelling is hard, and about the size of a
large hen's egg.
Cause. — It is caused by the heel of
the shoe in lying, which either irritates
or squeezes the skin at the elbow, and
sets up inflammation.
Treatment. — If observed when only
commencing, treat as for capped hock;
but if left until it gets confirmed and
callous, even blisters and setons are of
little use. Then it may have to be' re-
moved by operation by a veterinary
surgeon.
Curb.
A swelling on the posterior aspect of
the leg below the hock, seen plainly
when the horse is viewed sideways.
Cause. — A sprain of the ligament
under the hock.
Treatment. — Foment with hot water
and apply cooling lotion (No. 7) and a
high-heeled shoe. If the swelling does
not go down, apply blister (No. 4), and
give complete rest. Curby hocks are
natural to some horses, but once the
horse reaches maturity they seldom cause
lameness but are always a blemisL
Cutting or Brushing.
The names given when a horse strikes
the inside of the fetlock with the shoe
of the other foot. Horses with feet
turned out are most Uable to this defect.
It is often brought on by fatigue or by
working a young horse too soon.
Treatment. — Make the shoe fit the
hoof of the cutting foot, which should
be rasped on the inside to reduce it.
Foment the swelling caused by the
bruises, and apply lotion (No. 7). See
remarks on "Speedy Cut" (p. 459).
Enlargement of the Hock. '
Arising from inflammation.
Cause. — A sprain or a blow, such as a
kick by another horse : it produces great
lameness.
Treatment. — Foment with hot water,
apply lotion (No. 7), and give perfect
rest. Purgative (No. 19^ will help to
HORSES.
457
relieve the inflammation, or a draught
in gruel, containing salicylate sodium, 3
drs., every four hours.
If any enlargement remains when the
inflammation is reduced, apply blister
(No. 4). The object in view must be
to prevent a permanent enlargemeht of
the hock.
Fractures
are divided into simple, compound, and
compound comminuted fractures.
A simple fracture is when the bone
is broken into two pieces, compound
when broken and associated with a
wound, and a compound comminuted
when broken* into several pieces and
associated with a wound.
In the horse simple fractures are the
only ones worth trying to treat. In the
case of the other two kinds, the sooner
the animal is destroyed the better.
Before trying to set a fractured limb,
it is wise to consider whether the animal
is worth it, and if placed in slings will
he be quiet. Having decided to set the
limb, place the animal in slings; take
some guttarpercha, place it in hot water,
and mould it to the limb, or use some
sheet-tin, and after moulding it to the
part, cover with some flannel to prevent
its cutting at edges. Take the splints
thus made, place them on the part to
be set, and pack where 'they do not
exactly fit with tow, then take a nice
long bandage, wind it tightly around,
and do not touch it for a couple of
months.
If the animal is a restless one, it
will be only wasting time to try and
set the limb. It is a false but popular
idea that horses' bones will not unite;
nothing will unite quicker,.if the anifnal
will only nurse its limb.
Grease.
A disease of the skin of the heel, gen-
erally of the hind feet.
Symptoms. — Inflammation, with pain
and lameness at first ; discharge of mat-
ter: at first limpid, .soon gets thick,
foetid, and irritating; swelling; often
going on to ulceration and the forma-
tion of fungus -like growths called
"grapes."
Cause. — Too l^itle exercise and too
much corn; bad or innutritious food;
too much coarse boiled food ; washing
with cold water without afterwards dry-
ing the legs, and chills caused by work
in wet, muddy ground, after keeping in
too warm a stable.
Prevention. — The legs of horses sub-
ject to this disease should not be Washed
unless they are afterwards dried. Let
the mud dry on the legs, and then brush
it oflf; it is more than probable if you
do this, you will have no more trouble,
provided gither conditions are favour-
able. *
Treatment. — Wash the heel with
warm water and soap, or if very bad,
poultice at first with boiled turnips and
bran, sprinkling the sores all over with
soeit before applying the poultice, and
rub in ointment composed of oleate of
zinc, I part, and vaseline, 2 parts ; or
lard, I oz., sugar of lead, i dr. ; or wash
with lotion containing chromic acid, i
part, water, 8 parts. If the case proves
obdurate, use ointment containing white
precipitate of mercury, i dr. ; liquor
carbonis detergens, i dr. ; vaseline, i oz.
Give a mild alterative, Barbadoes aloes,
4 drs. ; Castile soap, i dr. ; oil of cara-
ways, 10 drops, or condition powders
(No. 6). Sulphate of soda, 4 oz,j in the
food every night may prove a useful
aperient. Iodide of arsenic, 4 grs. ;
liquorice-powder, 2 drs. ; gentian, 3 drs.,
made into a ball with treacle and lin-
seed-meal, is a very good thing for this
disease, and a ball should be given every
night.
Open Joints. •
The following joints are sonietimes
opened : hock, stifle, knee, and fetlock
joint.
Symptoms. — Great pain and lame-
ness ; a small wound is seen, and from
it flows a yellowish fluid the consistency
of glycerina
Cause. — Kick from another horse,
accidents of various kinds, and by a
groom pricking the horse with his fork
when bedding the animal up.
Treatment is unsatisfactory. Give a
dose of physic ; place a cold-water band-
age around the joint for twenty-four
hours; but it is better to call in a
veterinary surgeon as soon as an open
joint is deemed possible.
4S8
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK
Knee-Tied.
A natural defect, for which there is no
cure. It is a want of depth under the
knee, owing to the binder knee-bone not
being large enough.
., Mallenders and Sallenders.
Dry scurfy hiUBOUrs, which, when
affecting the front of the hock, are called
Sallenders, and when under the back dt
the knee Mallenders.
Cause. — Neglect in the st%jDle.
Treatment. — Rest, and apply oint-
ment containing tar, i oz. ; sugar of lead,
^2 OZ. ; lard, 4 oz. ; and give draught
morning ' and evening containing bicar-
bonate potassium, 6 drs, ; spirits of
nitrous ether, i oz. ; tincture gentiai^ i
oz. ; water, 8 oz. Feed, i on green food
and improve stable management. If the
above treatmenx is not successful, apply
a little of blister (No. 4), mixed vyith
three times its weight of lard, and well
rubbed m.
Tttmours.
There are many kinds of tumours,
and they may be either internal or ex-
ternal. The former are usually situated
in the brain, womb, abdomen, and liver,
and nothing within the power of man
can do any good. The external tumours
are the ones we are often asked to cure,
and they usually appear on the shoulders,
neck, under the tail, and at the end of
the cord after castration.
Treatment. — There are various ways
of removing them, and the best is by the
knife. If the tumour is narrow at its
base, an easy and safe way to remove it
is by winding a piece of green sUk
tightly around its base and allowing it
to drop off. In cutting large tumours
out, veterinary surgeons sometimes come
in contact with large arteries, and these
must be caught up and tied. When a
tumour appears after castration, use the
hot iron and clams to remove it.
Rheumatism.
Change of temperature and cold often
produce stiffness of the joints, varying
in intensity.
Treatment. — Keep the animal warm,
and rub the part affected with lini-
ment of belladonna, and morning and
evening give in J^ pint of water iodide
of potassium, i dr. It might be necessary
in extreme cases to apply blister (No. i),
Rv,ptwe of the Siapensory Ligameni,
Lameness from this cause is generally
incurable. The suspensory ligament sus-
tains the foot, and the rupture of it
allows the fetlock to drop down almost
tO'the ground. If the horse cannot bend
his foot, it is not the suspensory ligament
'that is ruptured.
Cause. -^Over-exertion or strain.
Tr©atm.en.t. — Perfect rest, and put on
a high-heeled shoe. Bandage the legs,'
foment, and apply lotion (No. 7) ; if this
does not reduce the swelling, apply
blister (No. 4) and give a mild purgar
tive (No. 19).
In most cases the lameness will be
permanent.
Hip Knocked Down.
Symptoms. — At first great swelling,,
the animal goes lame, but when the
swelling is reduced the hip that is
knocked down looks less than the other
when looking at it from behind.
Cause.^T-Through falling, in kn9cking
against a wall, in passing through a
doorway.
Treatment. — Little can be done ex-
cept placing the animal in slings, and
bathing the part with hot water ; if an
abscess forms, the piece of bone that is
knocked off must be cut down upon and
removed.
Spavin.
There are two kinds : —
1. Bone-,
Symptoms. — Bony enlargement on
the inside of the hock-joint towards its
antero - inferior aspect, producing lame-
ness when first formed, till the parts ac-
commodate themselves to the enlarge-
ment. Afterwards, the lameness may
be apparent only when the horse is first
taken out of the stable, unless it inter-
feres with the movement of the joint,
when a small spavin may permanently
lame a horse.
^ The frequent bandaging of the legs is apt
to produce an unsightly curliness of the hair.
The application of alum, I oz. ; salt, 2 oz, ; in
I quart of water, will do much to remedy it.
HOKSES.
459
Cause. — Hereditaxy, local injury,
sprains of the ligaments and concussion,
overwork when young, peculiar forma-
tion of hock, and improper shoeing.
Treatment. — Perfect rest and repeated
application of blister (No. 4). Should
blistering not remove the lameness, firing
may have to be resorted to. I have
found ossoline effect a cure when other
remedies fail. Spavins always constitute
unsoundness.
2. Bog-Spavin.
Sjrmptoms. — A tumour, resembling
a wind-gall on the hock, formed on the
inside of the front of the hock. The
swelling is due to distension of the bursa
of the hock with joint-oil, and is usually
permanent, but does not much interfere
with slow work.
Cause. — Sprain and over - exertion.
Hereditary conformation.
Treatment.— If it is not considered
advisable to keep the horse for slow
work without treating the spavin, which,
in my opinion, is the wisest course to
pursue, apply blister (No. 3) and allow
perfect rest, in the hope of effecting a
cure, but it is not likely to be permanent.
Speedy Cut.
Horses are apt to strike the inside of
the fore leg at the lower part of the knee
with the other >foot when trotting fast,
or lifting their feet high. Horses liable
to this are dangerous to ride or drive,
the force of the blow being sufficient in
some cases to bring them down. Great
pain and inflammation and swelling re-
sult from thfi blow.
Prevention. — Cut the hoof away on
the inside, and put on a shoe of equal
thickness at toe and ieel, having only
one naU on the inside, and not project-
ing beyond the part of the hoof which
has been rasped. Keep a speedy cutting,
boot on the injured leg to protect it.
Treatment. — Foment the bruise,
apply lotion (No. 7), and allow complete
rest till cured. If the bruises have a
tendency to harden, apply blister (No. 4).
Wounds are divided into abrasions, in-
cised, punctured, contused, and lacerated
wounds.
An Abrasion.
Caused by falls, kicks, barb-wire, and
short nails, ^c.
Symptoms. — The skin is torn, but
the wound is not of any depth.
Treatment. — Wash well with warm
water, dress with tincture of myrrh, and
dust fuller's earth over it.
Incised Wounds.
Caused by a knife, scythe, or any
sharp instrument.
Symptoms. — The wound usually is
deep, and the edges cleanly cut.
Treatment. — Having thoroughly
cleansed the wound, sew it up with car-
bolised gut, and dress with liq. carbonis
detergens, i oz. to 30 oz. of water.
Pimctwred Wownda.
Caused by long nails, horns of cattle,
forks, parts of agricultural implements,
and broken shafts.
Symptoms. — A wound of some depth,
and though it may not be large to look
at, it is the most fatal of all wounds.
Treatment. — If it is bleeding freely,
plug it up for some hours with carbolised
tow; after the tow is removed, inject
into the wound, by the aid of a wound-
syringe, the following lotion : glycerine,
3 oz. ; carbolic acid, 1 oz. ; water, 30 oz. ;
and keep in the .wound a piece of tow
soaked in the lotion untU it heals. Ke-
member, wounds of this kind must heal
from the bottom.
Contused Wouvds.
Caused by a severe blow, fall, or kick.
Symptoms. — This is more of a bruise
than a wound.
Treatment. — Bathe for two hours
twice a-day, and afterwards dress it with
lotioB (No. 7),
Tom or Lacerated Wounds.
Caused by a bite from a dog or hbrse,
by being entangled in a fence and strug-
gling, and in coming against the latch of
a door in passing through it.
Symptoms. — A wound usually of some
size with its edges ragged.
Treatment — Cleanse the wound well
with hot water, sew up any part you
think necessary, and dress with iiq. carbo-
nis detergms, 1 part ; water, 30 parts.
460
AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK.
Splint.
SymiJtonis. — A bony enlargement on
the inside of the fore leg below the knee.
It often produces lameness until fully
grown, when the lameness usually dis-
appears, unless the splint interferes with
a tendon or joint. Splints are not
thought much of unless near a tendon
or joint.
Cause. — Young horses are very sub-
ject to splints : they arise irom injuries
to, and a sudden weight thrown upon,
the bones of the legs, and usually found
on the inside of the canon-bones of the
fore legs.
Treatment. — Blister (No. 4) applied'
once or twice will generally effect a cure.
As a horse gets older splints will gener-
ally disappear.
Sprain of the Back Tendons.
Symptoms. — Great pain, thickening
and inflammation in the leg above the
fetlock, preventing the horse bringing
his foot flat to the ground. The leg will
appear to be round instead of flat.
Cause. — Inflammation of the sheath
which encloses the back tendons, the re-
sult of hard work or excessive strain.
Treatment. — Perfect rest ; foment
with hot water and then poultice with
linseed-meal and bathe with lotion (No.
7) ; beep the bowels open with purgative
(No. 19). When the heat subsides, and
the horse can put his foot flat to the
ground, bandage the leg with bandages
steeped in vinegar. Should the inflam-
mation continue, apply, embrocation (No.
12), or blister (No. 3), and give two or
three months' complete rest.
Sprain of the Coffin-joint.
Symptoms. — Sudden lameness, and
heat and tenderness round the coronet.
Treatment. — This kind of sprain
should be treated at once, before the
inflammation spreads. Apply blister
(No. 3), and give occasionally purgative
(No. 19). Bandage the leg and give
perfect rest. ,
Sore Shins,
Only common in young horses that
have been put too suddenly to work.
Symptoms. — Lameness; if both legs
are affected, the animal rests first on one
then on the other leg, and the legs have
a doughy feel.
Cause. — By a young horse galloping
before the bones are properly developed.
Treatment. — Put cold-water bandages
on for 'a few days, and then blister with
(No. i).
Sprain of the Fetlock,
Symptoms. — Lameness, attended with
swelling, heat, and tenderness of the
fetlock, is probably a sprain ot the
fetlock.
Treatment. — Apply repeatedly blister
(No. 3) till the heat subsides, then ban-
dage lightly to strengthen the fetlock;
give perfect rest.
Sprain of the Eovmd Bone or Hip.
Symptoms. — A sprain in connection
with the rounded bone of the thigh, by
which the horse loses all power of moving
that quarter, and drags his leg, resting
it on the toe alone.
Cause. — Sudden strain, slip, or fall.
Treatment. — Foment and apply im-
mediately blister (No. 3), and call in a
veterinary surgeon.
Sprain of the Shoulder.
Symptoms. — Great pain, especially
when going down-hill, and a dragging
of the foot forward on the toe; If the
foot is drawn forward, the horse shows
pain. No outward swelling or heat.
Cause. — Accident from slipping or
going over rough ground. Young horses
are very liable to this.
Treatment. — Perfect rest ; apply hot
fomentations to the shoulder and bathe
with lotion ^No. 7), and, if necessary,
blister (No. 3) ; keep down inflammation
by giving purgative (No. 19). A long
rest, combined with this treatment, will
geserally effect a cure. t
Shoulder-Slip.
A peculiar outward movement of the
shoulder when the animal walks, some-
times, but not always, accompanied by
lameness.
Symptoms. — The shoulder-joint looks
enlarged, but the muscles -of the shoulder
are wasted.
Cause. — By horse being put to plough
too young ; by the one foot being in the
furrow and the other out, and by pulling
HORSES.
461
awkwardly and using the shoulders un-
equally before getting accustomed to the
draught. Injury to the supra-scapular
nerve sufficient to cause more or less
paralysis.
Treatment. — Blister the shoulder with
(No. i), and turn the animal out to grass
tor three or four months.
Sprain of the Stifle-joint.
Symptoms. — Dropping of the hind
quarters and dragging of the leg j great
heat, swelling, and tenderness of the
stifle.
Cause. — A blow, slip, sprain, or over-
work.
Treatment. — If the stifle has been
dislocated from a kick or blow, send for
a veterinary surgeon, who alone can
judge as to the treatment. In case of
sprain, apply warm fomentations and
lotion (No. 7) till the inflammation is
somewhat reduced, and then apply
blister (No. 3); give perfect rest and
purgative (No. 19).
Dislocation or Luxation of the Patella.
This disease is usually seen in young
horses, and is due to the slipping out-
wards of the patella or bone which
corresponds to the lid of the human
knee.
Symptoms. — One or both stifles may
be wrong, the joint looks swollen, and
when the animal moves it slips out and
in with a peculiar noise.
Cause. — Hard galloping, feeding on
hilly pasture, and often a disease of the
joints occurring in foals.
Treatm.ent. — In young horses, seems
to be of little use ; but blisters may be
tried. If the swelling is accompanied
by heat and pain, apply hot fomenta-
tions and cooling lotion first. In older
horses it can be reduced by flexing
(working backwards and forwards) the
leg; push the patella back into its
proper 'place, and apply a blister.
String-halt.
Symptoms. — A sudden snatching up
of the hind leg or legs, but usually only
one leg, which makes the horse's action
peculiar. Probably a nervous disease,
and practically incurable. It produces
no lameness, but is liable to get worse,
and is always considered unsoundness.
VOL. in.
Cause. — Often produced by rheuma-
tism or by leaving a horse standing in
a stable without sufficient exercise, and
is hereditary.
Treatment. — Doses containing citrate
iron, 2 drs. ; and ammonium, 2 drs. ;
tincture nux vomica, 2 drs. ; tincture
capsicum, 2 drs. ; carbonate of ammon-
ium, 2 drs., given in water night and
morning, may relieve and strengthen the
system with satisfactory results.
Mud-fever.
Symptoms. — Heat and swelling of
the legs, and the animal moves stiffiy ;
there is a certain amount of fever, hence
the name.
Cause. — The chilling and irritant
action of mud, which in cold weathef
produces inflammation in the legs of
horses, especially when the legs are
rendered tender by clipping, repeated
washing, and imperfect drying.
Prevention. — Do not clip the horse's
legs ; let the mud dry, and then brush it
off; never wash them in frosty weather.
Treatment. — Dress the legs with a
mixture of glycerine, 8 oz. ; carbolic
acid, I dr. ; and liq. plumhi acet., i oz.
Swelled Legs.
Horses of a coarse nature are very
subject to swollen legs, especially the
hind ones.
Sjrmptoms.— With or without great
heat; lameness accompanied by quick
pulse and fever, but there may be
neither fever nor lameness.
Cause — Overfeeding, too little exer-
cise, and change of food.
Treatment. — If there is much fever,
foment the legs, bathe with lotion
(No. 7), and give a ball containing
turpentine, i oz. ; ginger, }4 dr. ; lin-
seed-meal, yi oz. ; and two hours after
give purgative (No. ig). If there is not
much fever but swelling, stiffness, and
pain in the legs, foment them and rub
lightly with embrocation (No. 12).
Give gentle exercise and purgative
(No. 19).
Thoroughpin.
Symptoms. — ^Very similar to wind-
gall (see below). An enlargem^pt at
the upper and back part of the hock
between the tendon and the bone. It
2 G
462
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK
usually projects on both sides of the
hock, but rarely causes lameness, if
taken in time before the swelling be-
comes callous.
Cause. — Overwork or strain.
Treatment. — Eest, and apply blister
(No. 3 or 4) till the swelling is reduced.
Wind-galls.
Symptoms. — Puffy elastic swellings
situated just above the fetlock, which
may become largS and hard, causing
lameness.
Cause. — Strain of the tendons, and
overwork in young horses.
Treatment. — Bandage with flannel
steeped in vinegar till the swelling
subsides. If this does not effect a
cure, blister (No. 3) should be applied.
Wind - galls do not, as a rule, cause
unsoundness.
n. THE FOOT.
Canker,
A disease of the hoof, generally com-
mencing about the frog or heels, and
often spreading over the sole.
Symptoms. — This disease is some-
times the result of neglected thrush, and
differs from it in its tendency to spread,
and in the swelling or enlargement of
the affected parts. The diseased frog
assumes a soft, fungatory appearance;
is liable to bleed on being touched ;
emits a very foetid, offensive, although
nearly colourless discharge ; and unless
energetically treated the disease is apt
to spread over the whole sole.
Cause. — Hereditary; but often neg-
lect and want of cleanliness.
Treatment. — Cut away the sole
where the canker is situated, removing
all fungus, and apply acid solution of
nitrate of mercury and bandage up the
foot, or dust on iodoform night and
morning ; morning and night bathe with
lotion— carbolic acid, i part; glycerine,
I part; and in four days repeat the
application of acid solution. If the
fungus still grows, call in the aid of
a veterinary surgeon.
Contraction of the Foot.
Symptoms. — A natural hoof is nearly
circular, but sometimes through neglect
or bad shoeing the hoof is made concave.
and the heels contract, producing per-
manent lameness if not attended to.
Cause. — Neglect in stable manage-
ment or shoeing. Too much paring
away of the frog, bars, and sole. Ex-
treme dryness, or allowing the shoes to
remain on too long, will cause the hoof
to shrink.
Prevention. — Stopping the feet with
cow-dung or moist clay, and removing
the shoes.
Treatment. — ^A contracted foot can
hardly ever be cured, but if it is decided
to attempt ■ a cure, a veterinary surgeon
should be called in.
Corns.
Symptoms. — The horn of the heel —
most frequently the inner heel of a fore-
foot— becomes reddish, soft, and tender.
The horse will flinch when this part is
pressed, and occasional or permanent
lameness results.
Cause. — Careless shoeing or tight
shoes, producing undue pressure at a
particular point.
Treatment. — Old corns are difficult
to cure; fresh ones may be prevented
increasing by proper shoeing, and by
paring the corn as far as possible with-
out wounding the sole. A bar-shoe may
be put on in serious cases with advan-
tage, and the horse shod with leather.
Falsex Quarter.
Symptoms. — It is due to a division
of or a want of secretion by part of the
coronary band, which extends as the
horn grows downwards, making a fissure
or wide groove in the hoof. It is a
serious defect, often resulting in in-
flammation and lameness, and from the
thinness of the horn it is very liable to
injury during work.
Cause. — Injury to the coronary band,
and sometimes the consequence of neg-
lected sand-crack. ,
Treatment. — ^Apply blister (No. 5)
to the coronet, and treat the fissure as
for Sand-crack (see p. 464). Should the
secreting coronary band be permanently
injured, no remedy will cure the disease.
Laminitis — Founder (acvie),
or inflammation of the feet.
Symptoms. — Great restlessness and
continual shifting of the animal's weight
HORSES.
463
from one foot to the other ; pain, fever,
heaving flanks, hot feet. After a time
the horse will lie down and will then
rest quietly.
Cause. — Violent exertion on hard
roads, or cold causing inflammation;
feeding on wheat; unusual or inor-
dinate feeding of any kind; from
inflammation of the lungs, or bowels;
or from drinking largely of cold water
when overheated ; putting a horse that
has been idle suddenly to work, and
sometimes occurs after foaling.
Treatment. — Remove the shoes,
foment the feet, and poultice with
linseed -meal or bran. Give a draught
in gruel every six hours, containing
bicarbonate of potassium, i oz. ;
Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops;
nitrous ether, i oz. Feed on mashes
and green food, and keep the poultices
on for three days. Bathe the feet with
lotion containing ammonium chloride,
2 oz. ; potassium nitrate, 2 oz., in 16 oz.
water. If the inflammation continues
after three days of such treatment,
apply blister (No. 2) to the pasterns.
In most cases the aid of a veterinary
surgeon is advisable.
Laminitis---Founder (chronic).
The result of acute founder or inflam-
mation of the foot, and nothing can cure
it ; shoeing may do good.
Navicular Joint Disease.
Symptoms. — A sprain of the joint
made by the shuttle-bone at the back
of the coffin-joint in the foot of the horse
will, if the cartilage of the bone is in-
flamed, produce lameness. When first
brought out of the stable, the horse will
tread on his toes and avoid bringing his
heel to the ground ; consequently he will
go lame down-hill ; when resting he will
point his feet. This lameness is very
deceptive, and has often been judged to
be in the shoulder.
Cause. — Hereditary ; over - exercise
after undue rest.
Treatment. — Foment and apply hot
linseed-meal or bran poultices ; and give
purgative (No. 19). The early advice of
a veterinary surgeon should be obtained,
and he will best determine how ulcera-
tion and ossification of the cartilage can
be prevented.
Over-reofhing,
or wounding of the heels or coronet with
the other foot.
Symptoms. — Often a clicking noise
due to the hind shoe striking the fore
one when the animal is moving. Often
inflammation and pain ; and the wound,
however slight, should not be neglected.
Treatment. — Wash all dirt from the
wound, apply a piece of tow dipped in
friars' balsam, and tie it up. In severe
cases poultice jvith Unseed-meal or bran.
If the wound does not heal, call in a
veterinary surgeon.
Pricks or Wounds in tlte Sole.
Symptoms. — Lameness, which can
probably be located by pressing all
round the sole with a pair of pincers,
the tender part being of course shown
by the horse flinching.
Cause. — Commonly a fault in shoe-
ing, or a wound caused by a stone, flint,
piece of glass, or a nail picked up on the
road.
Treatment. — Having found the ten-
der place, pare that part of the sole
down to the quick, and fill up the
wound with a little tow dipped in
friars' balsam. If the horse is very
lame, or if the wound is festering, apply
a poultice of linseed-meal or bran. If
it does not heal, touch the place with
chloride of antimony, which should in-
duce the crust to form. A picked -up
nail is often very dangerous, and if there
is much lameness a veterinary surgeon
should be called at once.
Pmniced Feet.
A result of inflammation of the feet.
The exudate thrown out between the
wall of the hoof and the coffin-bone dur-
ing inflammation of -the feet forces the
latter to press downwards on the sole of
the foot, flattening it and causing what
is called a " pumiced " foot.
Symptoms. — HoUowness of the
middle of the front part of the foot.
Fulness or convexity of the sole.
Cause. — Inflammation of tha foot, or
very hard wtork, especially on hard roads
or streets.
Treatment. — No cure. Blisters or
stimulating dressings to the coronets
may be tried, to increase the growth of
464
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
healthy hora Care — ^in shoeing — that
nothing presses on the pumiced part of
the foot, or a bar-shoe, is the only thing
that can be done.
Quittor.
A suppurating wound of the coronet,
often arising from a neglected prick, a
tread, or accidental injury. Wounds of
this nature are very serious, and should
be left to the veterinary surgeon.
Binghone.
A most prevalent disease situated in
the pastern. In the hind feet, unless
the disease is found at the front of the
foot, the horse will walk on his toes;
in the fore feet, owing to the greater
concussion, it is generally at the front
and sides, and the animal will walk on
his heel.
Symptoms. — Pain and inflammation,
with enlargement of the bone above the
coronet, generally on both sides of the
pastern, which, if not checked, will
spread rapidly.
Cause. — Horses having straight up-
right pasterns are very liable to this
disease, owing to their peculiar forma-
tion. It may also be hereditary.
Treatment. — Apply hot poultices to
the leg and give purgative (No. 19), re-
peating the dose if necessary. If there
is no improvement, blister once or twice
with No. 4. Firing is often resorted to
with success. Complete rest for some
months will be necessary.
Sand-crack.
Symptoms. — Cracks in the fore feet
will generally be found on the inner
side, and in the hind feet in the front
of the hoof.
Cause. — Brittle nature of the hoof,
previous disease, heavy work or neglect.
Treatment. — Wash the crack to clean
it from gravel and dirt. If the pain and
lameness are severe, it may have to be
poulticed. Pare and rasp it, and apply
ointment composed of oil of tar, 2 oz. ;
fish-oil, 4 oz. ; and stop the foot with
cow-dung and moist clay. By passing a
red-hot iron above and below the crack,
healthy sound horn may be got to grow
from the top. If any growth of proud
flesh appears in the crack, apply nitric
acid, and blister the coronet with No. 2.
Give rest and cover the crack with a
plaster made of pitch, and bind the
whole up firmly for five days. If the
coronet has been divided, the aid of a
veterinary surgeon had better be ob-
tained.
Seedy Toe.
A disease of the foot in which an un-
healthy horn is secreted that fails to
maintain the connection between the
horny laminae and the wall of the hoof.
Symptoms. — There may or may not
be a swelling of the wall of the foot,
generally situated towards the toe; some-
times attended with lameness. If the
part affected is tapped with a hammer it
will sound hollow, and by paring the
'crack or hollow inside the wall-part of
the foot the friable unhealthy horn can
be found.
Cause. — Previous disease or injury,
naturally weak feet, pressure of a part
of the shoe, generally the clip.
Treatment. — Eemove the cause, if
{practicable ; pare away the diseased por-
tion of the hoof, and apply blister (Na
2) to the coronet. Best till cured.
Afterwards shoe with side-clips.
Side-hones.
Symptoms. — Somewhat similar to
Eingbone (p. 464), except that the disease
is located above the heel ; it is an ossi-
fication of the lateral cartilages of the foot.
Usually found in heavy draught-horses,
and in the fore feet rather than in the
hind feet. If the horse has good, well-
developed feet, they do not generally
cause lameness.
Cause. — Concussion and hereditary
predisposition ; bad shoeing.
Treatment. — Apply blister (No. 5);
if this does not cure the lameHess, have
Professor Smith's ' operation performed
on the foot by a veterinary surgeon;
some of the well-known patent specifics
may be tried with a chance of success.
Thrush.
A disease of the frog, which secretes a
semi-fluid foetid matter.
Symptoms. — A discharge of matter
from the cleft of the frog. There is not
often lameness, and the disease can be
detected only by the matter exuding
from the frog. If thrush is neglected, it.
HORSES.
465
will increase, the frog will become soft,
ragged, and split up, the horn will
disappear, and canker of the sole may
supervene.
Cause. — Generally excessive moisture
in the bedding, bad stable management,
and constitutional predisposition.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 19),
clean tKe frog thoroughly, and pare away
all loose horn, apply a lotion to the frog,
composed of carbolic acid, i part; gly-
cerine, 6 parts, and place tow moistened
with this lotion in the cleft of the frog
every night. If possible, remove the
cause of the disease. It is not necessary
or expedient to turn the horse out to
grass.
Weakness of the Foot.
Generally a fault in the make of the
horse. Sometimes the result of disease.
A well-formed foot should be at an angle
of 45° from the coronet to the toe; a
weak foot will be perhaps 36° to 40°,
which is not sufficient to bear the press-
ure required. No cure for this defect,
but careful ^hoeing may have a palliative
effect. Easping the wall of the hoof and
paring too much off the heels is -often
the cause of this complaint.
Firing
is a painful operation often unnecessarily
performed, for many of the horses that
are fired are as lame after the operation
as they were before. Firing was at one
time greatly in vogue, but, like bleeding,
it is getting out of fashion, and by-and-by
horses with fired legs will be rare. It is
thought by some that the lines in firing
act as a permanent bandage to the weak-
ened part : such is not the case, but firing
does act as a counter-irritant of a severe
kind.
Before you resort to firing, blister your
horse once or twice, and give it a three
months' run at grass ; then if it comes
up lame, think about firing ; but remem-
ber there are some cases of lameness that
nothing will ever cure.
There are two kinds of firing — lines
and dots : line firing is the best for
curbs, ringbones, and the back tendons ;
the dots are preferable for splints and
spavins. '
■Having clipped the hair off the part
to be fired, secure your animal, take the
iron and make the lines at first super-
ficial, then with a fresh iron deepen them,
but never go through the skin in line
firing ; afterwards rub blister in, and tie
the animal's head up for forty -eight
hours.
Blistering.
Clip the hair off the chosen part, and
rub the blister in for at least ten minutes,
then tie the animal up for twenty-four
hours.
III. — THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES.
Hide-bound.
A want of oUy matter, which produces
hardness of the skin, giving the coat a
rough look. It shows that the digestive
organs are out of order, and is not so
much a disease of the skin itself.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 19),
and afterwards daily in the food condi-
tion powder (No. 6). Powerful tonics
should be avoided.
Lice
may be destroyed by applying a--lotion
composed of tobacco, 4 drs., in a
pint of hot water, or .by using an oint-
ment composed of white precipitate of
mercury, i part, lard, 12 parts, well
rubbed in. It is best to clip the horse
before applying these dressings. Clean-
liness and nourishing food will prevent
their reappearance.
Mange or Itch.
Symptoms. — Loss of hair, itching,
tenderness, and scurfy eruption, from
which matter issues. When the scab
falls off, a larger blotch will appear. It
generally begins at the root of the mane
or on the neck.
Cause. — Stable neglect, dirt, and con-
tagion, it being due to the presence of
animal parasites — small insects called
Acari.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 20),
and rub the places with ointment com-
posed of sulphur, I oz. ; lard, i oz. If
this does not effect a cure, add to the
ointment 30 grs. of white precipitate of
mercury. This disease is often very
obstinate, and patience must be exercised.
A little salt should be given with nour-
ishing food, and the skin kept clean,
466
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK
using warm soap-and-water for the pur-
pose. Complete isolation is necessary.
Wash the stable, harness, brushes, &c.,
with solution of chloride of lime, i pint
in 3 gallons of water, before they are
used again.
Bingworm.
SymptoniB. — A parasitic fungus, which
a£fects the skin in circular patches ; the
hair comes off, leaving a dry and scaly
eruption.
Cause. — Contagion', neglect, or dirt.
Treatment. — If the animal is in high
condition, or in a disordered state, give
purgative (No. 20), but if not, give
nourishing food, and keep him clean
and isolated from other animals. Eub
the fungus with ointment composed of
oleate of mercury, 1 part ; lard, 2 parts,
till cured. Clean the stable, harness,
brushes, &c., with water containing i
pint of chloride of lime to 3 gallons of
water before they are used again.
Nettle-rash or Surfeit.
Symptoms. — Large pimples, disap-
pearing as quickly as they come, which
spread from the neck to different parts
of the body.
Cause. — Exposure to chills, or drink-
ing cold water when hot.
■Treatment. — Give in a pint of water
2 oz. of spirits of ether and i oz. of
tincture of ginger, and then treat the
same as for Hide-bound (p. 465).
CATTLE.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,
EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Inflammation of the Brain,
May arise from violence, disease, or
as an effect of poisons.
Symptoms. — Great pain and moan-
ing, slow respiration, eyes red, loss of
consciousness. Attacks of delirium,
and the beast becomes ungovernable
till stupefaction results, accompanied
by extreme weakness ; at length death
ensues.
Cause. — Violence, exposure to great
heat, want of water, overdriving ; sudden
change into a rich pasture.
Treatment. — If the beast is in fair
condition you should slaughter it at once.
If not, give linseed-oil, 2 pints ; croton-
oil, J^ dr., and three times a-day, in
gruel, hydrate of chloral, i oz. ; bromide
of potassium, i oz. ; and apply ice or
cold water to the head. If the animal
survives the first stage, blister the crown
of the head and sides of the neck
with No. 22. Most probably the animal
will never recover.
Paralysis.
There may be palsy of the half, or any
part, or of the whole of the body.
Symptoms. — ^The animal may lie, eat,
and chew its cud as if nothing were
wrong ; but when you try to rouse it you
will see it make several attempts to get
on its legs but fails. When parturient
paralysis appears before calving, it is not
so serious as the form of paralysis that
comes after calving or an attack of milk-
fever.
Cause. — By derangement of the
stomach, and is called reflex paralysis;
by injury to spine, and before or after
calving, and is called parturient paralysis.
Treatment. — Give purge (No. 27),
and apply liniment (No. 26) to the whole
length of the spine, and every night and
morning give in a pint of ale the follow-
ing drench : tincture of nux vomica, 2
oz. ; iodide of potassium, 2 drs. ; sulphate
of iron, i dr. ; turn the animal twice
a^^lay. When paralysis appears before
calving, the cow usually calves before she
rises; but if it appears after calving,
treatment often does little good, and if
fat it may be best to kill the animal
But if a cure is to be tried, pursue the
same line of treatment as before calving.
Gralvanism may be tried.
Thrush in the Mouth.
This usually appears as an epizootic
amongst cattle in cold and wet weather.
Symptoms. — Small pimples and vesi-
cles appear on the tongue, lips, and
about the mouth ; they break and form
ulcers, but these ulcers soon heaL There
is not much danger in this disease, though
a little fever often exists.
Treatment. — Give purge (No. 28) ;
wash the mouth out with alum-water, i
part of alum to 30 of water, and give
night and morning, in a pint of water,
I oz. of salicylate of soda.
CATTLE.
467
Lockjaw or Tftanus.
A disease which seriously affects the
nervous system, producing contraction
or spasm of the muscles.
Symptoms. — Sluggishness, and for
some days increasing difficulty in masti-
cation and swallowing, till the jaws be-
come almost closed. The contraction
of the muscles will then extend to the
head, neck, and shoulders, and appear
to cramp the whole body. Constipation.
Recovery is very doubtful
Cause. -(- Generally some wound or
blow affecting a muscle, or exposure to
cold. Contagion and the access to a
wound of the specific organism of the
disease, the bacillus of Nicolaier or
drumstick bacillus.
Prevention. — If this disease is sus-
pected, give in gruel Epsom salts, i lb.,
and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10
drops.
Treatment. — Any treatment must be
prompt to be efficacious. A veterinary
surgeon should be called at once.
Cancer of tlie Tongiie.
This disease, though not often sus-
pected, frequently exists, and the teeth
are usually blamed for it ; but the dis-
ease now known as actino - mycosis is
often mistaken for cancer.
Symptoms. — The animal is unthrifty,
off its food, frothy saliva flows from the
mouth, and it quids its food. On ex-
amining the mouth you find the tongue
hard in places, and slightly swollen.
Treatment. — As soon as it is detected,
kill the animal, or else it will gradually
starve to death. The enlargements on
the tongue, caused by the presence
amongst the tissues of the parasitic
fungus known as the actino-myces, are
sometimes successfully treated, if not
too far advanced, but they should be
left to the veterinary surgeon.
Dishorning and Broken Horns.
On the subject of the dishorning of
cattle the following conclusions were
adopted by Tennessee Agricultural Ex-
perimental Station: "(i) For removing
the horns, an ordinary meat-saw is per-
fectly satisfactory. (2) The horns should
be removed as close to the head as pos-
sible, without cutting the skull proper.
The sawing should be done rapidly, and
with long sweeps of the arm if possible.
(3) Animals one and two years of age
appear to suffer considerably in dishorn-
ing. The painful effects decrease with
increase of age, so that an animal of
ten years old may suffer but very little.
This is owing to the layer of flesh sur-
rounding the base of the horn, which
is much thicker in young than in old
animals. Dishorning causes an abnormal
increase of pulsation and temperature,
which extends over several days. The
appetite is also affected during the
twenty-four hours succeeding the opera-
tion. (4) Dishorning is more especially
to be recommended for those animals
that are of vicious temperament, that
are what are termed ' masters ' ; to be
applied to bulls and to beef animals
that are kept quiet and closely stabled
or shipped. (5) From evidence quoted
from other sources, it appears that dis-
horning is not necessarily a cruel prac-
tice, but may be conducted to promote
ends that are both humane and desir-
able in live-stock breeding. Mr Saedler,
British Cousul at Chicago, reports that
in his very extensive district the sys-
tem of dishorning or dehorning cattle
is rapidly increasing. Some farmers
have dehorned their whole herd. It
has been calculated that 200,000 cattle
and horses die each year in the United
States from horn-thrusts. The advocates
of the system of dehorning claim that,
besides lessening this loss and that of
human life, much shed -room is saved,
less bay is consumed, there is less tur-
moil from restive animals, and that cows,
being more quiet and docile, give more
milk.
"In the case of calves, the horn is
extracted by a gouge or punch when
two or three months old, and with fiill-
grown animals the horn is sawn off at
the point where the matrix joins the
bone horn, and should be done early in
the spring. If sawn higher up, the
horn grows again ; if below, the process
of granulation would not take place." \
Destroying Horns in Calves.
In young calves, when the horns are
felt causing a projection under the skin,
' Veterinary Journal, November 1888.
468
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK
they can be prevented growing by the
application of a cailstic solution which
can be obtained from most agricultural
chemists.
Broken Horns.
If the horn is severely crushed, it is
best to amputate it ; but in cases where
it is only torn or broken off, wash clean,
smear some Archangel tar over it, wrap
some tow -around, and take a long linen
bandage and wind around the horns in
the figure-of-8 style.
Ophthalmia. Inflanvmation, of the Eyes.
The symptoms and treatment of the
diseases effecting the eyes are practically
the same as those given in the section
on Horses (see p. 442).
Growth on Eyeball.
There is sometimes seen in cattle a
growth on the eyeball. Should this be
causing trouble, so that its removal is
deemed necessary, a veterinary surgeon
should be applied to.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE THKOAT,
CHEST, AND RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
Symptoms. — Frequently large lumps
appear on the side of the jaw or on other
parts of the body. In time they burst
and discharge a large amount of matter,
often affecting the health of the animal.
Cause. — Generally a blow, prick, or
other injury.
Treatm.eiit. — A mild purgative (No.
28) should be given Jn gruel, and the
abscess should be fomented with hot
water, and opened as soon as it is
ready. If making little or no progress,
it should be rubbed with blister (No. 22).
Tonic (No. 29) may be given in a pint
of warm ale morning'and evening when
recovering.
Anthrax or Splenic Apoplexy.
A contagious and very dangerous
disease which affects all animals, and
is also inoculable to man.
It is most common in cattle, but is
also met with in horses, pigs, and sheep.
Cause. — It is due to the presence of a
micro-organism, the Bacillus anthracis, in
the blood and tissues. The origin of an
outbreak is generally obscure, and foreign
feeding-stuffs and imported bone manure
have been blamed for introducing it Al-
though contagious, it is not infectious,
and seldom spreads from the farm or
herd in which an outbreak occurs.
Symptoms. — Very often the first thing
observed is that an animal is found dead,
and frequently there is some bloody dis-
charge about its nostrils and anus. If
seen alive, there is great dulness and
depression, high temperature, the head
often low and the back a little raised;
the abdomen appears full, as a rule, and
there may be some shivering about the
flanks or shoulders.
In the horse, there is generally swell-
ing about the throat, which may extend
down the neck towards the breast ; and
in the pig often a great swelling from
ear to ear.
Serious outbreaks have frequently been
caused by the thoughtless slaughtering
of affected animals, and allowing the
blood to be scattered about — the blood
being the chief means of spreading the
disease. When a case of anthrax is
suspected, — according to the law, — the
owner must at once give notice to the
police, and take means to isolate the
animal, so as to prevent other animals
coming in contact with it. A veterinary
inspector is sent to inquire into the case,
and if anthrax is found to exist the car-
case has to be cremated, or buried with-
out the skin being cut, six feet deep, and
covered with a thick layer of lime. The
inspector will see that the place and
everything connected with the case is
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
Black-quarter or Quarter-ill.
A disease which has been known as
affecting young cattle for a very long
time, and was scarcely considered con-
tagious until it was proved experiment-
ally. It is generally confined to animals
from three months to two years old, and
very often the best thriving one in a lot
is the victim. All ruminants are thought
to be liable to it, but it is only common
in cattle.
Cause. — ^It is due to a micro-organism,
the Bacillus Chauvxi, rather smaller than
the anthrax bacillus, and, unlike the latter,
is never found in the blood during life,
but only in the tumours and effusions.
CATTLE.
469
Symptoms. — Very like those of an-
thrax, but there is usually either lame-
ness or the appearance of a swelling on
some part where it does not cause lame-
ness. The 'Swelling, at first hgt and
painful, rapidly enlarges, and begins to
crepitate on pressure — i.e., it contains
gas. There is generally constipation,
and often the animal goes down and
refuses to rise.
' Treatment. — This is not of much use.
It is almost invariably fatal. A strong
dose of Epsom salts and common salt
may be given when first seen. Some
recommend that the tumour should be
fomented with very hot water, freely
incised, and turpentine and other anti-
septics smartly rubbed into it. Unlike
anthrax, the flesh seems quite harmless
to dogs, pigs, &c.
Prevention. — Some farms seem liable
to this disease, and the calves used to be
bled, physicked, and setons put in their
dewlaps every season. Now a process of
inoculation is used, and can be applied by
your veterinary surgeon. It is generally
well spoken of, but has sometimes given
unfortunate results. Plenty of rock-salt
within reach of the young stock, and an
occasional dose of salts and nitre, will
do them good.
Cattle Plague or Rinderpest.
A contagious, infectious, eruptive fever,
and the most serious epizootic disease to
which the ox is liable.
It seems to find its home in Central
Asia, and is always present in India.
The last serious outbreak of it in
Britain was in 1865-66, when it spread
over most of Britain, and caused the loss
of cattle to the value of several millions
sterling.
Cause. — It is presumably due to an
ultra-microscopic organism possessed of
great virulence, as the disease spreads
rapidly from animal to animal.'
Symptoms. — High fever, dulness,
staring coat, maybe shivering, discharge
from eyes and nose, appetite lost, and
milk arrested. There is generally con-
stipation at first, followed by a foetid
diarrhoea. The most distinctive symp-
tom is redness of the mouth and nostrils,
an eruption appears in small spots over
which the mucous membrane becomes
shed in bran-like scales.
Treatment. — No treatment is per-
mitted.
Prevention. — Owing greatly to its
extension southwards from Egypt after
1890, until it spread practically over all
the African continent, wild ruminants
dying from it as well as domesticated,
many attempts were made to find some
satisfactory means of prevention. Now
an immunising serum for inoculation has
been obtained, serum institutes estab-
lished both in Egypt and India, and
the serum is prepared and distributed
under Grovemment supervision. Al-
though the disease cannot be "stamped
out" by means of the serum, yet its
propagation can be wonderfully con-
trolled and restrained.
Choking.
Vfery often cattle get pieces of turnips
or linseed-cake into their throat or gullet,
especially if the turnips are cut in large
pieces.
Symptoms. — Animal ceases to feed,
nose poked out, saliva flows from the
mouth; the animal in time becomes
hoven, and frequently dungs. If it is
choked by a piece of turnip, you can
smell it in the breath, and if the piece is
near the larynx there may be coughing.
Treatment. — Give a little linseed-oil'
very slowly. If this does not pass it
on, you must use the probang. In using
this instrument you must first place the
gag in the animal's mouth, and have it
held there by two men, who cross their
hands, holding the gag in one and grasp-
ing a horn with the other, — and be sure
that the animal is held steady, its head
and neck as straight as possible and in
line with the body ; then take the pro-
bang, oil it well, and gently pass it down
the throat, until you reach the oflfending
body. Do not use much force in passing
it into the stomach, for it is an easy
thing to rtipture the gullet. If it can-
not be moved by the probang, the
veterinary surgeon should be called in,
although if the hoven is extreme it may be
necessary to tap the rumen at once with
a trocar to permit the gas to escape.
Cold or Common Catarrh.
Symptoms. — Dulness ; running dis-
charge from the nose ; cough ; watering
eyes ; loss of appetite.
470
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
Cause. — This common complaint is
most frequently met with in spring and
autumn ; it arises from exposure to
draughts and from chills caught in wet
weather. If neglected, it will lay the
foundation of serious coughs, inflamma-
tion of the lungs, and other formidable
diseases.
Treatment. — Epsom salts, i lb., and
ginger, ^ oz., may be given at first in
warm gruel; afterwards, morning and
evening, in gruel, solution of acetate am-
monia, 4 oz. ; bicarbonate of potassium,
I oz. ; spirit of chloroform, jl oz. All
drinking-water to be given with the chill
off; and feed on bran-mashes and green
food.
Sore Throat or Quinsy.
Inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the throat, or of the tonsils.
Syxaptoms. — The animal refuses to
feed, pokes its nose out, breathes hard,
and makes a peculiar noise in the
throat.
Cause. — Cold and an insanitary con-
dition of the byre, associated with bad
feeding.
Treatment. — Blister with No. 22, and
place a piece about the size of a bean of
the following every three hours between
the molar teeth : extract of belladonna
and chlorate of potash of each an ounce,
and made into a paste.
Cough.
Cause. — Neglected colds are apt to
develop into coughs which are difficult
to cure. Cold caught when the system
is relaxed, as is the case with cows after
calving, may take the form of a cough
which will settle on the lungs and pro-
duce serious consequences.
Treatment. — Keep the animal warm ;
give water in which linseed has been
boiled for drinking purposes, and morn-
ing and evening, in gruel, draught (No.
25)-
Foot-and-movth Disease.
Aphthous fever. A j30ntagious and
infectious eruptive fever, and the most
typical epizootic disease affecting the
domestic animals.
All ruminating animals are subject to
it, and also the pig, whilst the horse and
other animals are sometimes affected.
Cause. — It is due to the presence of
an ultra-microscopic organism, which has
never been demonstrated, but which has
practically been proved to exist, and
there is no doubt it is only communi-
cated from animal to animal by contagion
and infection.
Symptoms. — Fever, often high fever,
and sometimes shivering. Soon there is
a profuse discharge of saliva which hangs
in strings from the mouth, and the ani-
mal smacks its lips. There is also a
shaking of the feet as if it wished to get
rid of something irritating them. If
the mouth is examined small bladders or
vesicles will be seen on the lips, in the
mouth, and on the gums and tongue.
Small ones may also be seen on the teats
and udder, and on the scrotum in the
male. It is the same thing which causes
the sores at the front and back of -the
cleft of the hoof, but seldom observed
until they burst and look raw and sore.
When the vesicles in the mouth burst
the smacking of the lips stops, and red,
raw-looking spots are seen. The sores
on the teats of milch cows almost pre-
vent milking, and there is danger of
inflammation of the udder. After the
animal is recovering the hoofs are" shed
gradually in all the worst cases.
In the sheep it is not generally so
bad ; the mouth is seldom so sore, but
the sores at the feet may form all
round the top of the hoof, and do not
appear only at the front and back as
in the ox.
In the pig the feet lesions are worst ;
and pigs moved about or sent per rail at
the height of the disease may lose their
hoofs altogether.
Calves sucking their dams, whUe
suffering from the disease, often die
suddenly. Adult animals seldom die
from it in this country, but it causes
immense losses through destroying the
udders of dairy cows, causing abortions
and great loss of condition.
Treatment. — A dose of physic at the
start, see that their feet do not get wet
or dirty, cleanliness and astringent anti-
septic washes for the sores, and the pro-
vision of suitable food. But the Board
of Agriculture does not permit treat-
ment now.
Prevention. — Isolation and strict
police measures.
CATTLE.
471
Hoose or Hwih
is a peculiar disease produced by the
thread-Tvorm or lung parasite of cattle —
the StroTigylus micrurus.
Symptoms. — Peculiar husky cough,
■wheezing, loss of condition, and death,
if means are not taken to destroy the
thread-worms in the bronchial tubes.
In the later stages of the disease there
is much slimy mucus about the mouth
and nose. It is, very prevalent among
calves and growing stock during the late
summer when in the fields, and especially
so in the autumn when the weather is
wet. The cough is particularly notice-
able if the animals are chased.
Cause — Prevention. — The losses
caused by these parasites render it most
important that every care should be
taken to keep animals likely to be
affected free from the influences calcu-
lated to invite an attack. These parar
sites frequent low, marshy, and undrained
ground. During a wet season many kinds
of grass-land will be found to contain
them. Calves and young stock should
be kept in good condition, and, if pos-
sible, during the autumn should be
housed at night, and pot turned out till
the dew is off the grass. When animals
are allowed plenty of food there is not
much risk of the disease, so that young
calves should get plenty of milk or other
suitable food, and older animals trough
food, as crushed grains and cake with
some common salt in it.
Treatment. — Stock in the autumn
should be daily examined, and upon the
first sound of husk the affected beast
should be attended to. Give daily to a
calf turpentine, J^ oz., beaten up with
milk and an egg; keep him w§ll, giv-
ing linseed -porridge ; and if the calf is
young, new milk. In the case of older
cattle, give morning and night turpen-
tine, I oz., in six times the quantity of
sweet oil. ' I have tried applications of
tar to the animals' noses, but it does no
good. A new method of treating this
disease is to inject remedies directly into
the windpipe, but this should be left to
a competent veterinary surgeon.
Bronchitis.
Inflammation of the small air-tubes of
the lungs.
Symptoms. — Animal dull, breathes
quick and short, fits of coughing, and,
on placing the ear against the chest, a
peculiar wheezing noise is heard.
Cause. — Cold, exposure to wet, and
allowing medicine to get into the wind-
pipe in the act of drenching an animal.
Treatment. — Eemove to a warm box,
throw a couple of sacks over its back,
rub each side of the chest with embroca-
tion (No. 12), and give in a pint of gruel
twice arday (No. 25).
Inflammation of tin Lungs or
Pneumonia.
Symptoms. — Dulness, loss of appetite,
cough dry and hard, rapid breathing,
hot mouth, very cold ears, horns, and
feet, slimy discharge from mouth.
Cause. — Exposure to cold and sudden
chills.
Treatment. — Eemove into a cool
loose-box, and give every six hours, in
a pint of gruel, Fleming's tincture of
aconite, 20 drops; solution acetate of
ammonia, 4 oz. ; spirits of nitrous ether,
J^ oz. Feed on mashes and green food ;
rub the chest with blister (No. 23). If
the bowels are costive, give in gruel
Epsom salts in i-lb. dozes. Clothe with
rugs or sacks about the shoulders and
chest.
Influenza or Epizootic Catarrh.
Symptoms. — All the symptoms at-
tending common colds are intensified in
the more serious form of influenza. Pro-
fuse discharge from eyes and nose, pain-
ful cough, obstinate constipation, fever,
followed by equally obstinate diarrhoea ;
swellings about the head, accompanied
by great weakness. Usually the disease
runs through a herd, and is attended
with considerable loss among the cattle.
Cause. — ^Influences of climate, which
seem to make the disease an epizootic.
Treatment. — Isolate the affected
beasts. Give linseed-oil, ij^ pint, fol-
lowed by gruel to drink ; if constipation
continues, give enemas and every six
hours a draught containing acetate of
ammonium, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potash,
I oz.; spirit of chloroform, '^ oz. Keep
the body warm, and for drinking pur-
poses give water in which a little linseed
has been boiled. Feed on mashes and
green food.
472
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
Murrain or Malignant Catarrh.
Symptoms. — This disease, which is
one of the most fatal to which cattle are
subject, usually begins with a cough, fol-
lowed by heaving flanks, shivering, ten-
derness over the loins, horns cold, dung
hard, black, and foetid, bloody matter
running from the nose. As the disease
advances, blood is mixed with the dung,
and the breath becomes offensive. Great
weakness sets in, the mouth becomes
ulcerated, till finally the beast dies, a
mass of corruption.
Cause. — Not well known.
Treatm.ent. — If this dreadful disease is
suspected, completely isolate the beast;
give every four hours, in warm gruel,
salicylic acid, 3 drs. ; tincture of cin-
chona, 2 oz. ; brandy, 4 oz., till the
opinion of a veterinary surgeon can be
obtained, who will decide whether to
slaughter the beast or not. •
Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia of the Ox.
A contagious and infectious disease
affecting cattle only. It has now been
stamped out in Great Britain after prov-
ing a perfect pest to the farmer and
stock-breeder for over fifty years.
Cause. — A very minute micrococcus
which can only just be made out under
the highest powers of the microscope.
Symptoms. — A short husky cough is
often the first symptom, but if the tem-
perature is taken it will be found that
fever is present. As the disease 'pro-
gresses the cough becomes more marked,
especially when the animal is hurried or
excited, the breathing is more frequent,
and there is a distinct lift at the flanks.
When punched over the ribs the animal
may grunt, and it may seem pained on
movement.
But it may require a post - mortem
examination to distinguish the disease.
When the chest is opened there may
be a considerable amount of fluid in it,
and the lungs and pleura covered by
a yellowish white membrane; but the
disease may all be on one side. In old
cases the lung may be adherent to the
ribs. Part of the lung or lungs will feel
solid, and when cut into presents a char-
acteristic marbled appearance, the sec-
tions varying in colour through pink,
greyish, different shades of ted, to
almost black, and separated by yellowish
veins up to about half an inch broad.
Treatment is not now required in
Britain, and •
Prevention is obtained by keeping it
out of the country.
Tuberculosis — Consumption.
This almost ubiquitous disease is more
commonly known as consumption when
affecting the chest in man than when
met with in the lower animals. In some
of its various forms it is also known as
"struma" and "scrofula," and animals
affected by it are often called " piners "
and " wasters."
This is the most widely spread and
destructive disease to which animals are
liable, and nearly all animals are subject
to it.
Cause. — It is due to a very fine
bacillus, the Bacillus tuberculosis, or
bacillus of Koch, as it was first dis-
covered by Professor Koch of Berlin in
1882. Prior to that time the disease
Was believed to be strongly hereditary,
and that over-crowding, bad hygiene, and
privation led to its development. These
are now considered predisposing causes,
but many still think that a hereditary
tendency to it may exist in some in-
dividuals. Although tuberculosis cannot
exist without the presence of the bacillus,
it is now recognised by scientists that
there are different varieties of the
Bacillus tuberculosis. There is the
"human type," which is commonly the
cause of tuberculosis in man ; the
"bovine type," which is the cause of
tuberculosis in cattle ; and the " avian
type," which is the cause of tuberculosis
in fowls. Although these differ from
each other in several respects, yet the
differences are not sufficient to cause
them to be considered as distinct
species, but only as different varieties
of the bacillus of Koch.
At the London Conference of 1901
Koch gave it as his opinion that human
and bovine tuberculosis differed so much
that it was scarcely possible to communi-
cate the latter disease to man, and that
owing to this the presence of tubercle
bacilli in the milk and flesh of bovine
animals might be disregarded.
Owing to the eminence of Koch as a
scientific pathologist such a declaration
CATTLE.
473
could not be ignored, and a Koyal Com-
mission was soon after appointed to
investigate the matter.
The second interim Eeport of the
Commission was published in 1907, and
states : " There can be no doubt but
that in a certain number of cases the
tuberculosis occurring in the human sub-
ject, especially in children, is the direct
result of the introduction into the human
body of the bacillus of bovine tuber-
culosis ; and there also can be no doubt
that in the majority of these cases the
bacillus is introduced through cows'
milk. Cows' milk containing bovine
tubercle bacilli is clearly a cause of
tuberculosis, and of fatal tuberculosis in
man."
Although the bacilli of bovine tuber-
culosis seem to be more virulent when
inoculated to other animals — experi-
mental animals — than the bacilli of
human tuberculosis, it does not follow
that this is the case when inoculated or
communicated to man. It seems rather
the opposite, and many scientists seem
to doubt whether tubercle bacilli of the
bovine type ever cause acute tuber-
culosis of the lungs — often called
phthisis or consumption — in the human
subject.
Symptoms. — These are often very
indefinite : an animal if well cared for
and kept in good condition may be full
of tubercles, without manifesting any
symptoms of illness. Sometimes an
animal — often a young one — will begin
to make a rough noise in breathing,
especially when eating with the head
down. This is often due to disease with
enlargement of the glands about the
throat. Sometimes they will bulge
externally below the ears or about the
lower jaw, burst and discharge matter.
Often a cow, especially if a heavy milker,
is inclined to become lean, then a dry
short cough is heard, she soon looks un-
thrifty, gradually emaciates, the cough
becomes worse, diarrhoea may set in, the
skin seems to adhere to the bones, the
appetite is impaired, and she becomes a
confirmed piner. Sometimes a young
animal will become lame, and it is
thought to have been injured, a joint
may be observed swollen, it continues to
enlarge, and turns out tubercular. A
quarter of a cow's udder may feel a little
hard, but it continues to give milk, and
little is thought of it. It, however, still
grows harder, but is not very painful,
and milk is secreted in fair amount.
This is generally in a hind quarter, and
is at length found to be due to tuber-
culosis. There is scarcely an organ or
tissue but may become afiected, sometimes
tumours — diseased glands — will appear
near the point of the shoulder or about
the flanks, and in a bull a testicle may
become enlarged, — all due to tubercle. In
the horse it is not very common, and the
symptoms are often vague. There is not
very often a cough, but he seems weak,
breathless on exertion, and unfit for hia
work; he loses appetite, but drinks plenty,
and often urinates much more than
usual. He becomes dry and open in his
coat, rough and scaly on his skin, and
acquires an unthrifty appearance.
It is thought that horses often contract
the disease from mixing with cattle, or
from being reared on cow's milk.
Pigs are frequently affected. The
disease may spread from pig to pig, but
is often due to diseased offal about
slaughter - houses and the refuse from
creameries. A growing pig may become
lame, and one or more joints enlarge. Or
it may begin to cough, to be less keen
for its food, diarrhoea may result, it loses
condition, and tumours may appear in
the region of the throat.
Treatment. — It is scarcely worth
while treating an animal with tuber-
culosis. Still, if an animal in fair con-
dition is suspected, it should get every
attention and the most nourishing food
to enable it to be sent to the butcher as
early as possible, in the hope that the
carcase may be free of the disease and
fit for human food.
Prevention. — There is no subject con-
nected with the health of animals (or of
man either) receiving so much attention
at the present time (1909) throughout
the civilised world as the suppression of
tuberculosis, and in no country, as far as
animals are concerned, is less being done
in that direction than in Britain. Ex-
cept in the form of carcases or meat
intended for human food, and in the
case of cows, the milk of which is offered
for public sale, no restriction or control
• whatsoever is exercised by Government in
connection with the disease. It is a big
474
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
and difficult question, but the time seems
approaching when the Board of Agricul-
ture will be obliged to take action regard-
ing it.
Meanwhile the breeder and stock-
owner must rely on his own knowledge
and initiative. A very considerable aid
to its suppression is the fact that it is
now very generally recognised as con-
tagious. As soon as any breeder has
reason to suspect that an animal may be
affected with the disease it should be
rigorously isolated, and its stall or box
cleaned and disinfected. And should a
veterinary surgeon pronounce the illness
to be due to tuberculosis, unless the
animal is in a condition to be rapidly
fattened, it should be destroyed. On ho
account should it be again returned to
the herd. There is no doubt but breeders
can clear the disease out of their herds
by the use of tuberculin, and keep it out,
at less expense than it will cost them in
loss and illness if no means of any kind
are used to prevent it.
Many scientists in different parts of
the world have for years been trying to
obtain some reliable means of prevention.
Von BeVingj ^ German, has prepared
several kinds of serum, one at least of
which, he affirmed, when inoculated into
animals rendered them immune or insus-
ceptible to the disease, but it has been
extensively tried in Argentina, under
Government auspices, with very question-
able benefit. At the present time the
most successful method of 'conferring
some degree of immunity on animals is
by the intravenous injection of cultures
of human tubercle bacilli, and that will
require some time yet before it is applic-
able on a commercial scale. Meantime
the breeder should foster the health, the
vigour, and robustness of his herd.
Never allow an animal to get into low
condition ; see that there is sufficient air-
space; light, and ventilation in the byres,
and that young and breeding animals
are turned out for a short time every day
unless the weather is very bad. The
weaklings should never be retained in
the herd. If there is any appearance of
delicacy or lack of robustness let them
go. It does not matter how fine a
pedigree an animal may have, if there is
neither vigour nor stamina it should not
be in a breeding herd.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH,
LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND IN-
TERNAL ORGANS.
Bloody Fliix, see Dyaentery (p. 475).
Colic or Gripes.
is of two kinds.
1. PlatitiZent Colic,
Arising from retention of food in the
third stomach and bowels.
Symptoms. — Fever, moaning and
pain; .discharge of gas from anus, dis-
tention of the abdomen, restlessness.
Cause. — Errors in dieting, green food,
being turned out to grass too suddenly
in the early, summer, especially if a cold
day.
Treatment. — Giye purgative (No. 27)
in gruel, and every four hours, in gruel,
solution of ammonia, i oz. ; spirit of
chloroform, i oz. Give gentle exercise,
and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26).
Clysters of warm water may be neces-
sary. Feed on mashes and gruel.
2. Simple Colic.
Symptoms. — Spasmodic attacks of
pain, increasing in violence. Irritability,
and constant striking of the belly with
the hind legs or horns; continual rest-
lessness.
Cause. — Chills from drinking cold
water when heated ; improper food.
Treatment. — Give linseed-oil, 1 pint,
repeating the doze if there is costiveness ;
and every four hours give in gruel : oil
of turpentine, J^ oz. ; tincture of opium,
I J^ oz, ; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 oz.
Walk the animal about. In obstinate
cases send for a veterinary surgeon,
and in the meantime rub the belly
with liniment (No. 26).
Costiveness or Fardel-hound.
Sym-ptoms. — Excessive costiveness ;
dung hard, but at intervals loose and
slimy. Frequently the abdomen will
become distended, and inflammation
follows.
Cause. — Excess of dryness in the food,
or the peculiar properties of some kind
of underwood often eaten by cattle. Often
also a symptom of some other disease.
CATTLE.
475
Treatment. — Give linseed-oil, i pint ;
and •warm oatmeal-gruel, in which y^ oz.
salt has been mixed. If this does not
act, give, in gruel, purgative , (No. 27),
and, if necessary, a warm clyster of gruel
and J^ oz. salt.
Foreign Bodies in the Rtimen.
Some C0V7S at times suffer from de-
praved appetities, and pick up almost any-
thing that comes in their way. Leather,
wire, cutlery, rags, <fec., have been found
in the paunch of an animal.
Symptoms. — They are not very notice-
able, and an animal might have a foreign
body in its paunch for months without
feeling any inconvenience from it, but if
the foreign body passes into any vital
organ, symptoms such as loss of appetite
and colicky pains are soon noticed.
Treatment. — Nothing can do any good
in the shape of medicines ; if you suspect
there is something in the stomach that
should not be, consult your veterinary
surgeon on the case.
Diarrhoea.
Symptoms. — A frequent discharge of
fluid dung mixed with mucus, which soon
causes great weakness.
Cause. — Change of food, especially
when moved from a poor into a luxuriant
pasture. Bad water or atmospheric in-
fluence, amounting almost to an epizootic.
Treatment — Give linseed-oil, i pint ;
tinature of opium, i ^ oz. ; oil of turpen-
tine, J^ oz., and repeat the doze, if nec-
essary, which will remove any cause of
irritation in the intestines : till this is
done, no astringent should be given.
When the oil has cleared the system,
give morning and evening, in cold gruel :
ppwdered opium, 2 drs. ; catechu, 4 drs. ;
galls, powdered, 4 drs. ; prepared chalk,-
1 oz. Looseness of the bowels, unat-
tended with pain and weakness, should
not be regarded as serious, provided it
can be accounted for by change of food ;
it should be carefully watched, and steps
taken to prevent its assuming too violent
a character.
Dysentery or Bloody Flwc.
Symptoms. — Continual and obstinate
purging, the animal is hide-bound, eyes
pale, pulse weak, extreme weakness. In
time the dung appears like undigested
food, and water with clots of blood
in it.
Cause. — Internal inflammation from
neglected diarrhoea or the eating of
poisonous plants.
Treatment. — Clothe warmly, foment
and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26).
Feed on gruel made of oatmeal and lin-
seed, with 4 oz. of starch and i oz. nitre
in it. Give three times a-day in gruel :
ipecacuanha, i dr.; chlorodyne, 40 drops;
opium, 2 drs. ; chalk, i oz. ; galls, 2 oz.
Give also cold clysters of oatmeal-gruel ;
and laudanum, 2 drs. This disease is
most dangerous and almost hopeless.
Hoove, Hove, or Hoven,
or distention of the rumen by gas, owing
to the food being retained in the stomach
so long that it begins to ferment.
Symptoms. — Swelling of the belly ;
heavy breathing; moaning and unwill-
ingness to move. As the gas is evolved,
the stomach becomes further distended,
— there is even danger of the paunch
bursting; the circulation of the blood
is impeded ; gradually suffocation sets
in, till at length the beast falls and
dies.
Cause. — Overloading of the stomach
so that it is unable to react on its con-
tents, greedy feeding on green food, feed-
ing on clover before the dew is off it,
hence it is often termed "dew-blown."
Treatment. — In desperate cases the
only cure is to relieve the stomach by
means of a stomach-pump, which will be
almost beyond an ordinary breeder of
stock. In cases of sudden emergency,-
an incision into the paunch behind the
short ribs with a penknife will give relief.
A trocar and canula should be used if it
can be got. In ordinary cases give at
once in a pint of water hyposulphate of
soda, 4 oz., repeating the dose till relief
is afforded. When recovering, Epsom
salts, I lb., and ginger, }4 oz., may be
given, and but little food allowed till the
digestive organs have recovered their
strength.
Impaction of the Paunch or Grain-sick.
This disease is seen when animals are
allowed to gorge themselves with such ■
foods as succulent grass, chaff, potatoes,
turnips, and grains.
476
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
Symptoms. — Animal dull, refuses
food ; disinclined to move and generally
lying down ; greatly swollen on the left
side, but, unlike hoove, it has a doughy
feel.
Treatm.eiit. — Give purge (No. 27),
and with it i pint of linseed-oil and 2
oz. of tincture of nux vomica ; if this
fails, you must get a veterinary surgeon,
who may require to perform an operation
to remove the contents.
Inflammation of the Bowels.
Symptoms. — Restlessness, pain, per-
spiration, hard breathing, quick pulse.
Cause. — Sudden chills in hot weather,
as from drinking a great quantity of cold
water when overheated, most common in
working oxen.
Treatment. — Give, morning and even-
ing, linseed-oil, J^ pint ; spirits of nitrous
ether, i oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. ;
and repeat the dose of spirits of nitrous
ether and tincture of opium in a little
gruel every four hours ; very careful
feeding on sloppy foods and gruels.
Dropsy of the Abdomen or Ascites.
An accumulation of fluid in the ab-
dominal cavity.
Sym.ptoms. — The beast increases
slowly in size ; the swelling is on both
sides and on the low;er part of the ab-
domen ; as the fluid increases the breath-
ing becomes hurried, belly hangs low,
the animal looks thin, and if you force
your fist against the side of the belly, you
feel the impulse of the returning water
against it.
Cause. — Debility and organic disease
of the liver or spleen.
Treatment. — The chance of success in
treatment is not great, for, unless the
cause can be removed, the only thing to
be done is to tap the abdomen with a
trocar and canula to let the fluid out,
and if it again accumulates the case is
hopeless.
Inflammation of the Fourth Stomach.
Symptoms. — Uneasiness, pawing of
the ground, striking at the belly with
the feet, showing where the pain is lo-
cated ; dung thin and offensive ; pulse
hard and quick ; breathing accelerated ;
alternately hot and cold shivering fits.
Cause. — Unwholesome or poisonous
food; change frop a poor to a rich
pasture; prolonged indigestion.
Treatment. — Feed on bran -mashes,
but no green food; give linseed-oil, i
pint ; and every six hours, in gruel, tinc-
ture of opium, 2 oz.; Fleming^s tincture
of aconite, 12 drops; spirit of chloroform,
I oz. The belly may be frequently
rubbed with liniment (No. 26).
Gut Tie.
It is only seen in castrated animals,
and generaUy terminates fatally.
Symptoms. — It is usually seen at the
age of two or three, rarely before. TJie
animal at first appears dull and^ loses its
cud; after a time colicky pains appear,
it strikes its belly with hind legs, goes
stiff, breathing becomes hurried, the
animal wears an anxious expression, no
medicine seems to do any good, and in
a few days it dies in great agony.
Cause. — The cord of the testicle en-
circling a portion of the small intestines
and strangulating it.
Treatment. — There is only one thing
to be done, and that is an operation by a
veterinary surgeon, opening the abdomen
in the right flank, and liberating the con-
stricted gut.
Inflamvmatiam, of the Kidneys.
Symptoms. — Straining to void urine,
which is forcibly ejected in small quan-
tities; loins tender and hot. After a
time blood and pus may be mixed with
the urine and the straining increases;
muzzle becomes dry, horns cold, breathing
quick. Diarrhoea follows, dung becomes
foetid; pain increases, total suppression
of urine takes place, and the animal will
die in about three days.
Cause. — Unwholesome food or a chill
which has produced inflammation in this
particular part.
Treatment. — Foment the loins with
hot water, and rub in mustard mixed
with water ; give clyster of warm gruel
with 2 oz. salt in it, adding tincture of
opium, ij^ oz., if straining continues.
Give at once, in gruel, purgative (No. 27),
and three times a-day give, in gruel, a
draught containing Fleming's tincture of
aconite, 12 drops; solution acetate of
ammonium, 3 oz. ; and tincture of opium,
I oz.
CATTLE.
477
Inflammation of the Liver (Yellows or
Symptoms. — Yellowness of the eyes
and skinj pu^e quick; ears and horns
hot ; muzzle dry ; shivering of the right
side ; stiffness, fulness of the belly ; pain
when the right side is pressed; urine
and dung light brown in colour.
Cause. — Over - fattening ; driving in
hot weather; injury to the body near
the liver, impeding circulation and in-
ducing inflammation.
Treatment. — Give in warm water
purgative (No. 27), and feed on bran-
mashes. Morning and evening give in
warm water chloride of ammonium, 4
drs. ; bicarbonate of potassium, i oz. ;
ginger, 4 drs. Keep free from draughts.
The animal should be sold when occasion
offers ; it is never likely to do well after
the attack.
Elukes in Liver.
Cattle, like sheep, suffer from flukes
in their livers, but not so severely, and
it is rarely discovered until their death.
The reasons for cattle not suffering so
severely as sheep are — ^firstly, they do
not feed so close to the ground, and thus
pick up fewer fluke-eggs ; and, secondly,
their livers are larger, and can stand the
ravages of the fluke better.
Loss of Cud.
Symptoms. — Very often cattle do not
chew their cud properly, and a great
quantity of saliva dribbles from their
mouth.
Cause. — Indigestion.
Treatment. — Change the food, and
give a dose of linseed-oil, i pint, and, in
the case of a calf, give oatmeal-porridge
with bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr., night and
morning. A little salt given with the
food will help to remedy the evil.
The poisons that cattle principally
suffer from are yew, rhododendron,
arsenic, mercury, and lead.
Tcw-'pmsoning
is perhaps most frequently met with.
Symptoms are those of a virulent
poison, and is rapidly fatal, often shiv-
ering, cold extremities, staggering; the
VOL. III.
animal may fall arid die rapidly in con-
vulsions, usually in a few hours.
Cause. — By animals being allowed to
graze in the vicinity of yew-trees, when
they will often crop the tops of the
growing twigs, or by the trimmings of
these trees being thrown within their
reach.
Rhododend/ron-poisoning.
Symptom.s. — This poison is not so
quick in its action ; the animal staggers,
becomes partially paralysed, colicky
pains; animal lies and moans and fre-
quently vomits, the vomit being greenish
in colour.
Cause. — Same as yew.
Treatment. — The treatment of these
two vegetable poisons is identical. Open
the rumen and remove the poisonous
stems and leaves, then give purge (No.
28) and half a pint of brandy in some
water every three hours.
Arsenic-pmsoning.
Symptoms. — Great prostration, shiv-
ering, colicky pains, diarrhoea, and death.
Cause. — In being given by accident,
and by grazing on land where recently
dipped sheep have been lying.
Treatment. — Give the following in a
pint of water every hour : the hydrated
peroxide of iron. Calcined magnesia is
also a chemical antidote. The white of
eggs given raw, and powdered charcoal,
are also useful
Mercury-poitoning.
Symptoms. — Flow of saliva from the
mouth, breath foetid, gums red and ten-
der, colicky pains, and appetite lost.
Cause. — By dressing cattle with mer-
curial preparations to cure mange, ring-
worm, and warbles.
Treatment. — Give purge (No. 28)
with half a dozen eggs, and follow every
two hours with iodide of potassium, 2
drs.; opium powder, 2 drs., in gruel.
Sulphur and sulphate of iron are believed
to be useful.
Lead-paisonimg.
Symptoms. — Animal dull, abdomen
tucked up, eyes staring, unsteady gait,
bowels constipated, swelling under jaw,
and emaciation. In acute cases blind-
ness and delirium.
2 H
478
AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK.
Cause. — Grazing near smelting fur-
naces or rifle-butts, and by eating lead-
paint or sheet-lead.
Treatment. — Use the stomach-pump,
afterwards give oils, flour-gruel, skimmed
milk, and in a pint of cold water sul-
phuric acid dil., 3 drs. Give every three
hours the following : iodide of potas-
sium, 2 drs. ; sulphuric acid dil., 3 drs. ;
3 eggs ; and half a pint of water.
Bed Water.
When in an acute form, it is often
called Black Water.
Symptoms. — The first thing that
draws attention to the animal is usually
the red colour of the urine, which froths
when it falls to the ground; this is gener-
ally accompanied by diarrhoea or scour-
ing, which soon gives way to constipation.
The urine gets darker, the appetite fails,
the animal gets weaker, and the heart
can frequently be heard beating while
standing behind the animal. Death often
ensues within three or 'four days.
Cause. — It is not very well known.
It is most common in milk cows, occur-
ring generally from ten to fifteen days
after calving, and is most common on
moorland soils, and where there is a wet
retentive subsoil. But in some dis-
tricts when it is very common it attacks
bulls, oxen, and heifers as well, and
at all seasons. In this form there is
now every reason to believe that it is
due to a micro organism which is met
with in the blood of affected animals,
mostly in the red corpuscles. It was
first described by Messrs Smith and
Kilborne of the Bureau of Animal In-
dustry of the United States as being the
cause of Texas fever, a very fatal dis-
ease occurring in cattle in the Southern
States. They called the organism the
Pyrosoma higeminum,, and proved that
the disease was not directly contagious
as had previously been thought, but that
it was communicated to animals by the
bites of ticks.
Prevention. — Careful feeding after
calving, a limit|ed supply of turnips, some
linseed - cake, and other foods allowed.
Thorough draining and manuring of the
land, the destruction of ticks, and the
cutting down of all rank, coarse grass
and ragweed which would give shelter to
the ticks.
Treatment. — If observed before the
appetite and rumination are diminished,
give in gruel: Epsom salts, 16 oz., and
ginger, J^ oz., but not otherwise; and
morning and evening give tincture of
perchloride of iron, ij^ oz. ; spirit of
chloroform, J^ oz., in gruel, and give
milk, raw eggs, and stimulants if appe-
tite lost.
Bleeding.
Cattle are bled from the following
veins : jugular, the vein below the eye,
and the milk-vein. The jugular is usu-
ally opened in cases of milk-fever, apo-
plexy, &c., and is easily got at on either
side of the neck. First raise the vein by
placing a cord tightly around the neck
close to the shoulders, turn the neck a
little to the opposite side, and a sharp .
blow will send the fleam through the
skin into the vein. The fleam should be
a size larger than that used for a horse.
Afterwards, close the wound with a pin,
and twist tow or a clean worsted thread
around it. The vein below the eye is
opened with a lancet in cases of inflam-
mation of the eye, and the milk-vein in
cases of inflammation of the udder. Two
quarts of blood is a fair quantity to take
from an animal.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE GENER-
ATIVE ORGANS.
Abortion.
Symptoms. — When abortion takes
place in the early stages of gestation, as
it often does in the second month, the
symptoms are very slight, and may be
unnoticed, especially in the summer
when the cattle are at grass. In the
later stages of gestation the symptoms
are easily recognised. There is restless-
ness and derangement of health, the
udder becomes enlarged, accompanied
by calving pains, and discharge from the
vagina. But frequently the first symptom
is the appearance of the calf.
Cause. — There is so much uncertainty
connected with this disease, that it is
sufficient to remark here that blows,
injuries, exposure to cold, improper food, ■
foul smells, and overdriving are the most
immediate causes. But there are some
forms of abortion that, once started in a
CATTLE.
479
herd of cows, are to all appearance com-
municable by contagion.
Prevention. — Careful attention, pure
clean water, and the removal of any ex-
isting injurious influence will do much
to make the occurrence of the disease
rare. A goat allowed to run amongst
the cows is said to be a good preventive.
Have the cow isolated as soon as ob-
served, before abortion if possible, and
attend to the thorough cleansing and
disinfection of everything with which
the calf or the discharges could have
come in contact.
Treatment. — Should any symptoms
of abortion appear, give Epsom salts, 12
oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10
drops; chloral hydrate, i oz., Ln a pint
of warm water, and repeat the dose of
aconite in a half -pint of water three
times a-day if there is no improvement.
Bury the foetus at once, and if it takes
place in a field, remove any cattle in it
to another pasture.
Calving, see Parturition (p. 481).
Cow-pox.
Symptoms.— Small vesicles followed
by pustules on the teats, which, when
numerous, may produce inflammation
and afiect the health.
Cause. — Constitutiotial, and contagion
from other cows, carried by the milker's
hand.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 28);
keep the teats clean, and bathe them
with goulard water, or chloride of lime,
^2 oz., dissolved in half-gallon of water.
The sores will soon heal.
Gonorrhoea w Bvllrburnt.
This is a contagious disease of the
genital organs, and is propagated through
copulation.
Symptoms. — In the cow a glairy dis-
charge is seen comirlg from the vulva
a few days after being bulled; kicking
and restlessness on urinating. In the
bull this discharge is seen issuing from
the penis.
Treatment. — Inject into the vagina
twice a-day a little of the following, after
syringing with lukewarm water : liquor
opii sedativus, i oz. ; sulphate of zinc,
}4 oz. ; water, 1 quart. In the case of
the bull, it must be injected into the
sheath. Give the animal purgative (No.
28) now and then to keep its bowels
open. Sexual connection must not be
permitted until all risk of contagion is
gone.
Falling Down of the Calf-bed.
Symptoms. — After calving, the womb
sometimes follows the ' calf, and hangs
down like a large red bag.
Treatment. — Remove the cleansing
carefully if it is still attached, clean the
womb with lukewarm water and return
it as soon as possible. Give a draught
in warm gruel containing tincture of
opium, 2 oz. ; chloral hydrate, i oz. ;
spirit of chloroform, i oz. liaise the
animal higher behind than in front.
Afterwards place a truss on the animal
to keep it in.
Flooding after Calving.
A flow of blood from the womb.
Cause. — Rupture of some of the ves-
sels of the womb through using force in
extracting a calf.
Treatm,ent. — Keep the cow higher
behind than in front ; place ice or cold-
water cloths across the loins ; give every
three hours in a pint of cold water the
following: tincture of perchloride of
iron, }4 oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz. ;
and tincture of ergot, 2 oz.
Garget,
or inflammation of part of the udder.
Symptoms. — This is a very serious
disease, and usually afiects one quarter
of the udder, sometimes two, and if the
inflammation is not reduced, the milk
will become discoloured, or matter may
collect in the udder instead of milk, the
health become affected, and the cow may
be lost.
Cause. — Careless milking; too hasty
drying of the cow ; injury to the udder ;
lying on cold wet land in the autumn.
Prevention. — Shoilld there be any
appearance of the disease, the calf
should, if possible, be put to the mother,
and it may, by its sucking and bumping,
relieve her of the pressure of milk and
disperse the hardness.
Treatment. — Should the disease be-
come established, draw off gently all the
contents at frequent intervals, and apply
48o
AILMENTS OP FAKM LIVE STOCK.
light poultices to the bag, containing
belladonna, 3 drs. Give four times a-
day, in gruel, nitre, 2 drs. ; bicarbonate
of potassium, i oz. ; Fleming's tincture
of aconite, 10 drops. Should ulcers
form and break, they should be dressed
with lotion containing carbolic acid, i
part ; water, 20 parts.
Overstocking or Hefting.
This is not a disease, but the conse-
quence of the cruel practice of placing
an elastic band around the teats, or
plugging them up with grains of barley,
and not milking the animal for twenty-
four to thirty-six hours, with the result
that the animal arrives in the market
with a beautiful udder, and the owner
tries to get more for the cow than she
is worth. The results of overstocking
produced in this way are intense suffer-
ing of the animal, inflammation of the
udder, and a permanent interference with
the secretion of milk, and it undoubtedly
comes under the heading, cruelty to
animals.
Hard Udder.
Cows' udders frequently become hard,
especially with heifers after their first
calf.
• Symptoms. — SwelUng and inflamma-
tion.
Treatment. — Rub a little goose-grease
on the udder after each milking, with a
good deal of gentle rubbing, and if there
is much tenderness give purgative (No.
28) in gruel.
Bloody Milk.
Symptoms. — Generally the fir.st and
only symptom is the presence of blood
in the milk, and it is very often confined
to one teat. The udder may neither
be hard nor painful. This disease is
especially prevalent among young cows
after the first calf.
Cause. — Injuries to the udder; con-
gestion of the gland structure and rup-
ture of some small vessel ; sudden change
to a rich milk - producing diet ; chills ;
too hasty drying of the cow; careless
milking, (fee.
Treatment. — Give Epsom salts, i lb.;
nitre, i oz. ; and ginger, i oz. Follow
with tonic (No. 21). Milk the affected
teat or teats into separate vessels.
Warts on Teats.
These little but troublesome things
can easily be removed by winding green
silk around them and allowing them to
drop off ; or by cutting them off with a
pair of scissors, afterwards touching the
parts with nitrate of silver. They should
be attended to when the animal is dry.
Inflammation of the Womb.
Symptoms. — After calling, inflamma-
tion of the womb sometimes sets in,
causing fever and loss of milk, and
usually accompanied by a fcetid dis-
charge from the uterus; but sometimes
the discharge is suppressed^ There is
generally pain, fever, stiffness, straddling
gait, and straining.
Cause. — Generally injury done during
parturition, either from violence used in
the assistance given, dirty hands or dirty
instruments, or otherwise. High condi-
tion and improper rich food induce a
tendency to this complaint.
Prevention. — A fortnight before calv-
ing, a cow's diet should be reduced to
the simplest character. If the condition
of the beast is very high, Epsom salts,
I lb., and J^ oz. ginger in gruel ; or a
pint of linseed -oil, given a few days
before calving, will do much to ensure
safe recovery.
Treatment — ^If there is difficulty in
passing urine, the^ aid of a veterinary
surgeon should be at once obtained.
In the first stages of the disease give
a warm clyster containing tincture of
opium, 2 oz. If constipation, give a
bottle of linseed-oil with a gill of whisky,
and if necessary follow with purgative
(No. 27) in half-doses till the bowels are
opened ; then give every six hours in
gruel, salicylate of sodium, 4 drs. ; tinc-
ture of opium, I J^ oz. ; solution acetate
of ammonium, 4 oz. Feed on mashes,
and be careful not to allow the animal
to get a chill.
Leucorrhoea or the Wliites.
Called so from the colour of the dis-
charges.
Symptoms. — The cow is unthrifty,
and a white discharge runs from the
vagina, especially when she coughs or
lies down.
Cause. — From injury to the womb,
CATTLE.
481
usually after difficult calving or reten-
tion of the cleansing.
Treatment. — Give tonic (No. 29) night
and morning in a pint of ale ; inject into
the vagina, by the aid of a Syringe, the
following twice a-day: sulpho-carbolas of
zinc, J^ oz. ; water, i quart ; and feed
the animal well.
Parturition or Calving.
The natural presentation of a caU is
with the muzzle resting above the fore
legs, with the back of the animal up-
wards. In cases of unnatural presenta-
tion, assistance will always be required.
Every endeavour should be made to get
the calf into a proper position. Experi-
ence and skill in extracting the calf are
more needed than mere force. Every care
must be taken not to wound the cow.
No description within the scope of the
present treatise could give a proper idea
of the methods used in all cases of un-
natural presentation. The aid of an ex-
perienced surgeon must therefore always
be obtained if the case is beyond the
knowledge of the man in charge. Two
or three hours after calving it may be
prudent to give, in warm gruel, purga-
tive (No. 28). Shortly after calving
the cleansing or after-birth should come
away. If retained twenty -four hours,
with no appearance of coming away, it
should be carefully removed before de-
composition is too far advanced, as it
very often sets up a septic or putrefactive
inflammation ; but if not removed, a
draught in gruel containing Epsom salts,
8 oz. ; powdered ergot, i oz. ; carbonate
of ammonia, 4 drs., should be given
every day, unless diarrhoea supervene,
until it appears. Should decomposition
actually commence, the hand must be
introduced, and the placenta removed as
gently as possible. But it is wise to call
in the veterinary surgeon.
Dropsy of the Womb.
An accumulation of fluid in the womb,
and is often mistaken for pregnancy.
Symptoms. — The cow looks as though
she were pregnant ; but when her time is
up — that is to say, if she has been to
the bull — she shows no sign of calving,
and if you place your hand up the
rectum nothing but a huge water -bag
can be felt.
Treatment consists of tapping the
womb and allowing the fluid to escape,
and should be left to the veterinary
surgeon.
Milk-Fever {Dropping after Calving).
Symptoms. — After calving the cow
will appear restless, muzzle hot and dry,
udder tender and hot, constipation. In-
creasing weakness, ending in death, if
the treatment is not successful. Some-
times cows have been known to suddenly
drop down a few hours after calving
without the herdsman previously know-
ing that anything was wrong.
Cause. — ^The origin of the disease is
as yet not satisfactorily settled ; there
are many opinions, the enumeration of
which would occupy too much space to
be profitable for our present purpose.
Prevention. — A fortnight before
calving keep the cow on a spare diet,
composed in winter of bran-mashes and
other opening food ; a little linseed meal
or cake will help to keep the bowels
open. After calving, it has always been
my practice to give a drink of thin gruel
with 12 oz. Epsom salts in it ; and
should any signs, of derangement appear,
add Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10
drops ; repeating the dose of aconite
every six hours should signs of restless-
ness continue.
Treatment. — Try and not let the
animal injure herseK dashing about
When down and unconscious, keep her
propped on to her breast with her legs
under her in as natural a position as
possible.
The treatment of this disease has been
quite revolutionised since Schmidt of
Kolding, Denmark, published his method
of treatment by injecting the udder, in
1897. He used a solution of iodide of
potass, J^ dr., in J^ pint of boiled water,
into each quarter of the udder. But
since that time many medicines have
been used, and it is found that the in-
jection of pure aseptic air is very satis-
factory. The udder is distended to its
fullest and massaged by the hand. Little
other treatment is required, and the re-
coveries by this method, when the cases
are taken in time, and the treatment
carefully and satisfactorily applied, are
about 90 per cent, ^ut great care is re-
quired to have everything aseptic, as it is
482
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
very easy setting up inflajnmation of the
udder, and the cow may recover from
milk -fever to die of mammitis. It is
therefore advisable to obtain the services
of a veterinary surgeon when possible.
Sore Teats.
Symptoms. — After calving, cows are
liable to have sores or small cracks or
chaps on the teats, making them very
tender and painful.
Treatment. — Apply boracic acid oint-
ment or lotion to the teats, having pre-
viously bathed them with warm water to
remove all scabbiness and dirt. Dry
dressings sometimes do better, as oxide
of zinc and powdered starch.
Suppression of Urine.
Cows in calf are very subject to this
complaint, in consequence of the pressure
caused by the calf. It is also a symptom
of several other diseases.
Treatment. — -Keep the bowels open,
by giving in warm gruel purgative (No.
28), assisted by a clyster of warm gruel,
and give till relieved, morning and even-
ing, in gruel, tincture of perchloride of
iron, I oz. ; spirit of chloroform, yi oz.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS,
FEET, AND SKIN.
Foot-and-TTumlh Disease.
(See p. 470.)
Foul or Fouls in the Feet.
Symptoms. — Cattle are very liable to
this disease of th« foot, which produces
great lameness. There is a good deal of
foetid discharge from the cleft of the
foot, also swelling of the pastern.
Cause. — Driving over rough roads or
for long distances ; injury from a prick,
nail, or splinter ; standing on moist and
dirty bedding.
treatment. — Put the beast into a
dry, clean place. Dress down the dis-
eased hoof with a knife, and wash with
liot water and soda. If there is pain and
fever, and the lameness excessive, poultice
for some days to reduce the inflammation.
Then dress the foot with a mixture of
tar and powdered sulphate of copper.
Should much swelling of the pastern
with some lameness remain, apply blister
(No. 23). If there is a wound in the foot
caused by a splinter, remove the splinter,
apply a hot poultice of linseed-meal, and
bind up the foot.
Enlarged Knees.
Cows in byres frequemtly suffer from
an enlargement on the front of the knee
through lying on the stony jjoor.
Treatment. ^If there is much pain
and swelling, apply warm fomentations
assiduously, and cooling lotion (No. 7).
See that the knees are protected from the
hard floor and from the manger.
Lice.
Sym.ptoms. — Cattle in poor condition
often lose their hair, especially on the
neck and back, owing to their being
infested with lice.
Cause. —Want of cleanliness and poor
condition.
Treatment. — ^Wash the part affected
with lotion made from tobacco, 4 drs.,
dissolved in i pint of hot water. Oint-
ment made of lard, 6 oz., 'white precipi-
tate of mercury, yi oz., is a certain
remedy, but requires careful handling.
Improve the qtiality of the food and
keep the animal clean ; give tonic (No.
29).
Mange.
Symptoms. — Itching, loss of hair,
scurf, scab, or sores, especially on the
back.
Cause. — ^It is caused by a small in-
sect (an Acafus) ; it is favoured by dirt,
poverty of the blood, and neglect, and
is very contagious when animals get
into contact.
Treatment. — Improve the food given,
and keep the animal clean. Rob the
places affected with ointment composed
of sulphur, I oz. ; lard, 4 oz. ; give in
gruel mild purgative (No. 28), adding
sulphur, I oz. If this does not effect a
cure, wash the places with corrosive sub-
limate, J^ oz. ; muriatic acid, i oz. ; soft
water, 2 quarts; or by the treatment
recommended for lice.
Rheumatism, Lvitnhago.
Symptoms. — Swelling of the joints;,
stiffness ; listlessness ; unwillingness to
move, which the beast does with pain.
CATTLE.
483
Cause. — Cold, especially after calving
or ■when weakened by illness. -
Treatment. — Give a draught in gruel
or warm water, morning and evening,
containing carbonate of ammonia, J^ oz. ;
bicarbonate of potassium, i oz. ; gentian,
I oz. ; ginger, i oz. Eub the, parts
affected with liniment of belladonna, i
part, compound liniment of ammonia, i
part. Give nourishing food and a little
linseed meal or cake, and keep free from
chills till quite cured.
Ringworm
is caused by a parasitic fungus growing
in the skin.
Symptoms. — Loss of the hair, which
comes off in circular patches, leaving a
dry and scaly eruption. The face, head,
neck, back, and root of the tail are the
parts most generally affected.
Cause. — Contagion, neglect, and dirt.
Treatment — If the animal is in high
condition or out of health, give purga-
tive (No. 28), and keep on nourishing
food. Rub the parts affected with oint-
ment composed of oleate of mercury, i
part; lard, 2 parts, or use a lotion of
perohloride mercury, i part ; water, 500
parts. I have used lotions composed
of sulphurous acid, but have found the
mercurial ointment the most eflScacious ;
sometimes a second application is not
even necessary. Wash the cribs, rub-
bing-posts, &c., which have been used
by a beast affected with ringworm with
I pound chloride of lime dissolved in 2
gallons of water, to avoid spreading the
disease among other stock.
Warbles.
Symptoms. — Early in the year and in
the spring, from January till May, large
lumps about the size of half-a-crown may
often be found along the backs of cattle ;
these increase in size till the contents,
the maggots of the bot-fly (CEstnts hovis),
escape. There is always a small air-hole
to be seen in the middle of the lump,
and the head of the maggot is often
visible.
Cause. — The bot-fly pierces the skin
of the beast while out at grass during
the hot weather in July and August,
and leaves an egg at the bottom of the
wound, which hatches, develops, and
grows, till at length it emerges a large
maggot about May or June in the fol-
lowing year.
Prevention. — None, except the exter-
mination of the flies by diligent destruc-
tion of the maggots.
Treatment. — In April or May all
cattle should be examined, and the mag-
gots squeezed out between the fingers,
which may easily be done, and in my
opinion is the best way of ensuring their
destruction. If the holes are smeared
with M'Dougall's cattle-smear, the mag-
gots are no doubt killed, but they re-
main in the ulcer, and certainly the
most healthy way is simply to crush
them out and relieve the beast of them
at once.
The damage done by this fly to cattle
and hides may be estimated at millions
of pounds; every means should there-
fore be taken to remove this pest from
the country.
In severe cases, unless the animal has
a fancy value, it would be better to
slaughter at once. Simple cases may
be cured by bringing the edges of the
skin together, and fastening them with
carboUsed gut and a bandage of car-
bolised gauze. The bowels must be kept
open by doses of purgative (No. 28), and
the wound kept clean by bathing with
warm water if necessary.
SPECIAL DISEASES AFFECTING
CALVES.
Gonstipation.
Cause. — ^Frequently the first milk or
biesting from the cow has not been
given to the caK, and constipation en-
sues. Also, when milk has been taken
to excess it is apt to produce consti-
pation.
Prevention. — In a young calf the
natural first milk of the mother is
most suitable, and afterwards care
should be taken that only as much
milk is given as the digestive organs
can dispose of.
Treatment. — Give castor- oil, i oz.,
beaten up in the yolk of an egg, with
ginger, i scr. ; repeating the dose if
necessary. Clysters may be required,
but not so often as in young foals. '
484
AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK.
Diarrkosa.
Cause. — ^Injudicious feeding, and at
too long intervals ; bad smells, • cold,
acidity in the stomach, produced by
any sudden change of food, or by any-
thing which deranges digestion.
Prevention. — Care should be taken
that the milk given to calves should be
sweet, and that the air is kept pure.
Treatment. — If the calf refuses its
food, and blood is mingled with the dung,
accompanied by great pain and weakness,
immediate steps must be taken to remove
the 'irritating matter. If the diarrhoea
is repent give castor-oil, 2 oz., to relieve
the intestines, and after this has had
time to act, give morning and evening
I oz. of calf-cordial (No. 2 A If this does
not produce any effect, give four times
daily, tincture of catechu, 2 drs. ; spirit
of chloroform, 30 drops ; and dilute sul-
phuric acid, 30 drops, in thin gruel.
Diarrhoea, indigestion, and death are
also caused by hair halls, which form in
the stomach. There is no preventive.
Caused by the ealves licking each other.
Navel-iU.
Calves sometimes suck one another's
navels, which causes swelling and inflam-
mation of it ; or it may be caused by the
cord breaking off too short, by neglect,
exposure to cold, wet, and dirt.
Treatment. — Poultice, if no tendency
to bleeding, or apply hot fomentations
persistently, and carbolic oil to the raw
surface. A very fatal disease.
WhiU Skit.
Whitish diarrhoea seen in calves that
live on a milk diet.
Treatment. — Give castor-pil, i to 2 oz.,
according to the size of the animal, and
follow up with calf-cordial (No. 24). Keep
the animal for a few days on flour or oat-
meal gruel.
SHEEP.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,
EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Apoplexy.
This disease cannot be treated or
guarded against ; it attacks the fattest
sheep on the richest pastures, especially
in the spring of the year. The animal
seized will drop down suddenly, and in
extreme cases die at once. Any animal
affected should be killed immediately.
Zoupinff-ill or Trembles.
A disease manifesting nervous symp-
toms.
Symptoms. — The animal trembles,
breathes in a jerky manner, moves its
legs in an automatic style, occasional
spasms of the muscles of the neck, which
usually terminate in paralysis.
Cause. — It is seen only in certain dis-
tricts, and is supposed to be due to a
peculiar formation of the soil or the con-
dition of the grass. The Committee
mentioned in connection with braxy,
p. 486, state that the cause is a large,
feebly motUe bacillus, with a great
tendency to form spores ; that it is a
regular inhabitant of the" alimentary
canal — the intestines ; and that it is
due to some change in the blood- result-
ing in a diminution of the resisting
power of the animal that the bacilli are
able to pass the walls of the intestines,
invade the tissues, and set up the train
of symptoms — ^usually ending in death —
known as louping-UL
Prevention. — Dip the sheep, remove
them to fresh pasture, and give them
corn and salt ; to every pound of salt
add one ounce of sulphate of iron.
Treatment. — Of little use; look to
prevention. As a preventive the Com-
mittee recommend drenching with cul-
tures of the organism as for braxy.
Blindness.
Sheep are sometimes attacked by tem-
porary blindness, often lasting only
about ten days.
Cause. — Changes of temperature;
the reflection of the sun on snow ; dusty
roads on a long journey ; and confine-
ment in badly ventilated ships' holds.
Prevention. — Remove the cause.
Treatment. — ^If left to nature, the
blindness will probably pass away.
Lambs thus affected require extra care,
and should be put to the ewes so that
they should not suffer from loss of milk.
Lockjaw or Tetanus.
Symptoms. — Practically the same as
those in the case of the horse (p. 440).
SHEEP.
485
Cause. — Cold, especially during lamb-
ing-time; also produced by careless cas-
tration, wounds, &c.
Prevention. — Shelter and careful at-
tention will do much to avert this dis-
ease. (See pp. 440, 441.)
Treatment. — Give castor-oil, 2 oz.,
repeating the dose every six hours till
it takes effect. Give', in gruel, tincture
of opium, I dr., morning and evening.
Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops,
may be added to the gruel if there is
no relief.
Staggers, Stwdy, Goggles, Fern-sich,
Dunt, or ~
Symptoms. — Dulness; unsteady walk,
generally in a circle ; separation from
the rest of the flock ; blindness. The
animal affected will often fall into a
ditch and perish, or die gradually. This
disease generally attacks young sheep in
good condition.
Cause. — A species of parasite — the
Goenwrus cerebralis — ^in cysts or bladders
containing fluid, which lodge in the
brain.
Prevention. — Young sheep in damp
situations are very liable to this disease,
and care should be taken to avoid put-
ting them into such pastures. The use
of lump or rock salt, which they can lick
as often as they like, helps to ward off
this and similar diseases. Keep your
sheep-dog free from tape-worms, for it is
the egg of this worm that gets into the
brain.
Treatment. — Slaughter is the most
profitable course to follow. There is a
method of treating this disease by punc-
turing the soft place in the skull, and
removing the bag or cyst ; but unless
this is done in good time, and performed
skilfully, it is rarely successful.
Water on the Brain.
This disease often affects very young
lambs.
Symptoms. — ^Dulness and stupidity;
, staggering gait ; rapid loss of flesh.
Death may ensue in about a month.
Cause. — Often congenital, commenc-
ing before birth; constitutional weak-
ness.
Treatment. — No cure, so far as the
farmer is concerned.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT,
CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS,
AND BLOOD.
Catarrh.
Symptoms. — Dulness ; loss of appe-
tite ; diflSculty in swallowing ; water
running from the eyes and nose; hot
mouth and muzzle ; constipation ; cough,
and discharge of yellow mucus from the
nose.
Cause. — Chills and exposure.
Treatment. — Give daily, in linseed
gruel, nitre,, i dr. ; digitalis, i scr., and
keep the animal warm.
Hoose or Husk.
Symptoms. — A husky cough, which
increases if the animal is hurried. Grad-
ual loss of condition, till the health is
undermined. In time the diseased lungs
will no longer be able to purify the
blood, and the animal will die.
Cause. — The presence of parasites —
the Strongylus filaria, and sometimes
the Strongylus rufescens also — in the
bronchi and lungs.
Prevention. — Lambs should never
be depastured on land fed previously
the same year with sheep. If this ad-
vice is acted on, and proper care taken
of the flock, cases of hoose will be less
frequent on most farms.
Treatment. — Give daily : turpentine,
I dr., for a lamb ; 3 drs. for a sheep, in
respectively 6 and 12 drs. of sweet-oil,
and feed liberally, giving some good
linseed-cake with the food. Veterinary
surgeons now use injections of para-
siticides into the windpipe.
Pneumonia — Inflanrniation of the Lungs.
Symptoms. — -Hard breathing ; loss of
appetite ; fever ; cough, which becomes
more and more distressing ; discharge
from the nose ; thirst. Aiterwards in-
tense weakness sets in, too often followed
by unconsciousness and death.
Cause. — Cold, particularly from shear-
ing in cold weather.
Treatment. — Give in linseed - tea,
Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops.
^ three times a-day, and with it once a-day
tartar of antimony, y^, dr. Keep warm,
and in cases of complete prostration,
486
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
give, as a stimulant, in the gruel, gin, i
or 2 oz.
Sheep-pox or Variola ovina.
A contagious and infectious eruptive
fever only affecting sheep.
It is scheduled under the Diseases of
Animals Acts, but it has not been seen
in Britain since 1862.
Cause. — Contagion and infection. In
all probability due to an ultra-microscopic
organism.
Symptoms. — High fever, loss of ap-
petite, and depression, distinct evidence
of serious illness. An ^eruption of
reddish spots appears about the mouth,
nose, and eyes, inside the arms and
thighs, and about the udder or scrotum.
The spots go on to form vesicles and
pustules; these usually burst and dis-
charge a yellowish matter, which mats
and agglutinates the wool. The animal
acquires a sickly disagreeable odour, and
becomes a loathsome-like object.
Pregnant ewes often abort.
Prevention. — Sheep should not be
admitted into Britain from countries
where sheep-pox exists.
DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH,
LIVER, BOWELS, KIONEYS, AND
INTERNAL ORGANS, PARTURI-
TION AND MILKING ORGANS.
I. — STOMACH, LIVEE, BOWELS, KIDNEYS,
AND INTERNAL ORGANS.
Braxy or Sickness.
Syniptom.s. — Restlessness; hanging of
the head ; aching of the back ; grinding
of the teeth ; cold extremities ; kicking
of the belly with the hind feet ; disten-
sion of the abdomen ; separating from
the rest of the flock.
Cause. — It is due to an anaerobic mo-
tile bacillus, very similar to the bacillus of
black-quarter. Prevalent in the autumn,
especially among the lambs ; often runs
through a flock like an epizootic.
Prevention. — 'If possible, keep the
sound pastures for the lambs, and avoid
letting them have too succulent pasture
for grazing, and always let rock-salt be
within reach. Do not allow an affected
animal to be bled or slaughtered on
ground that the rest of the flock have
access to,' as blood diseases, as well as
inflammation of the bowels, enteritis,
and acute indigestion, are sometimes all
included under the general name erf
braxy.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 34).
Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops,
may be given in gruel every morning,
and the food should be sparing, with a
little linseed. The treatment of the dis-
ease is generally unsatisfactory. Change <
their pasture, and if on good aral^ grass,
put them on the heather, if possible, for
a day or two. A Departmental Com-
mittee, of which Professor Hamilton of
Aberdeen was chairman, was appointed
by the Board of Agriculture, in Decem-
ber 1 901, to investigate braxy and
louping-ill. ' This Committee, in 1906,
recommended as a preventive, a drench
prepared from cultures of the organism,
the bacillus, on glucose beef-tea. A small
quantity of this culture to be mixed with
water and given by the mouth, the dose
to be repeated in from 8 to 14 days. -
Calcidus or Gall-stones, and Kindred
Diseases of the Bladder.
Symptoms. — Dulness ; loss of appe-
tite ; separation from the flock, generally
lying down ; quick breathing ; when
roused, painful efforts to void urine, only
a few drops of which come away. Saline
deposits will sometimes be found in the
sheath.
Cause. — High and stimulating system
of feeding, especially on saccharine roots,
such as mangel-wurzel ; want of exercise ;
absence of water for drinking.
Prevention. — Avoid an exclusively
saccharine and starchy diet, and allow
free access to water.
Treatment. — In the latter case warm
fomentations and syringing with tepid
water may get rid of the deposit ; after-
wards wash out the sheath with an
astringent lotion. But if the seat of the
malady cannot be reached, the sheep
should be at once slaughtered when the
disease is suspected.
Constipation.
Sjrmptoms. — Dulness and costiveness.
Cause. — Especially prevalent among
young lambs, caused by the quality or
too great quantity of the ewes' milk,
which has coagulated in the stomach.
SHEEP.
48;
Prevention. — Avoid any irregularity
in the ewes' food, and especially too
luxuriant pasture.
Treatment — Put the ewes on shorter
pasture, and give every morning as much
warm water, with Epsom salts, i oz.,
dissolved in it, as the lamb can take.
Lambs also suffer from wool halls,
which form in the stomach. There is no
cure, but care should be taken that the
bags of ewes should be kept as clear of
wool as possible, in order to prevent
lambs getting it into their stomachs.
Diarrhoea.
Symptoms. — Simple looseness of the
bowels without much pain.
Cause. — Ereah, succulent herbage,
especially when it has been touched with
frost.
Treatment. — Change the pasture or
source "of irritation, and if weakness
comes on, give rhubarb, i dr., and after-
wards, in warm gruel, powdered opium,
20 grs. ; catechu, }^ dr. ; prepared chalk,
Xoz.
D^senterj/.
Symptoms. — ^Frequent evacuations of
hard lumps of foetid dung, mixed with
slime and blood ; lOss of appetite ; pain,
fever, and great weakness. Affects sheep
of any age, generally in the summer.
Cause. — Aggravated and unchecked
diarrhoea ; chills after being clipped.
Many believe it to be contagious.
, Prevention. — Sheep that are scouring
should be watched, the food altered, and
any aggravation of the attack checked.
Treatment. — Give in warm water,
three times a-day, ipecacuanha, J^ dr. ;
powdered opium, 20 grs.; chlorodyne, 10
drops ; chalk, J^ oz. Gruel, or if animal
will eat, flour-porridge, sprinkled "with
salt, should be given.
Hoove, Hove, or Hoven.
A distension of the stomach by gas,
owing to the fermentation of food which
has been too long retained in it.
Symptoms. — Enlargement of the
belly, especially on the left side, which
sounds hollow when tapped. Stupor
and death follow, unless the animal is
relieved.
Cause. — When sheep are incautiously
fed on green clover or turnips, they are
apt to eat to excess, and fermentation of
food in the stomach sets in before the
organs are able to dispose of the accumu-
lation of food.
Prevention. — Green clover and tur-
nips should be given in small quantities
at first, and sheep should only be. turned
into a very succulent pasture for an
hour or two till they get accustomed
to it, when there will be no danger of
hoove.
Treatment. — The insertion of a trocar
into the flank will relieve the pressure of
gas, and a dose of purgative (No. 33)
will op^n the bowels. A drachm of
chloride of lime dissolved in a quarter of
a pint of water, and homed into the
sheep, will often reduce the pressure of
gas. The subsequent food should be
rather scanty.
Inflammation of the Liver.
Symptoms. — Loss of appetite; skin
hard and itchy; tongue foul; dung white
and foetid ; weakness.
Cause. — Sudden change from poor to
nutritious food is generally the cause.
Prevention. — Extra care when any
change of food takes place.
Treatment. — Give daily, in gruel, pur-
gative (No. 32). Foment the body over
the liver with hot water, and inject warm
water if the bowels are costive. In
chronic cases of this disease, salt (4 oz. per
head per week). should be given in addi-
tion to the purgative above mentioned.
Inflammation of the Stomach.
Symptoms. — Loss of appetite and
separation from the flock ; alternate hot
and cold shivering fits ; restlessness ;
straining to empty the bladder.
Cause. — Too nutritious food, or irri-
tating or poisonous plants.
Prevention. — Avoid exposing the
lambs to chills and cold east winds after
being cut, and exercise care when forcing
on sheep for the market.
Treatment. — Foment the belly ; give
Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops,
twice a-day, and purgative (No. 34),
halving the dose in the case of young
lambs. Keep warm, and let the food
consist of warm gruel with a little boiled
linseed in it.
488
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK.
Jaundice.
Symptoms. — Yellowness of the skin
and eye ; constipation y urine brown ;
loss of appetite.
Cause. — Richness of the pasture,
especially in damp sultry weather.
Prevention. — ^The use of salt among
the artificial food, combined with care as
to the nature of the pasture, will make
the appearance of this disease rare.
Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 32)
and frequent doses of salt, 4 oz. per head
per week.
Rot.
Sjrmptoms. — At first the animal will
lay on fat very quickly, but afterwards
the wool begins to fall ofif ; the eyes be-
come hollow, the belly enlarged; swell-
ings appear on the body ; scouring sets
in, and finally death ensues.
Cause. — The presence of the Distoma
hepaticum, or flukes in the liver, espe-
cially prevalent in wet seasons. Sheep
fed on low -lying, wet, and undrained
land are very subject to this disease.
Prevention. — The use of salt in the
food and judicious grazing during wet
seasons will do much as preventives.
Treatment. — Remove the flock at
once to dry uplands or salt-marshes if
available, and give salt in the food,
4 oz. per head per week, and as much
in the troughs as the sheep wiU lick up.
II. — PAKTUEITION AND MILKING ORGANS.
Garget or Inflam/maiion of the Udder.
Symptoms. — Pain when the lambs
are sucking, lameness, restlessness, fever,
inflammation, and swelling of the udder.
Cause. — Stoppage of the secretion of
milk ; exposure to cold ; injuries.
Prevention. — Care should be taken
to prevent the udder being surcharged
with milk, especially when the lambs
are weaned' or dead.
Treatment. — Foment the udder with
warm water, and clear it from all
wool. If not very painful, let the lamb
suck it and knock it about as much as
possible. Give purgative (No. 33), and
remove all the milk by frequent milk-
inga; rub the udder with belladonna
liniment.
Parturient Fever — " Heaving,"
" Straining."
Symptoms. — Fever, loss of milk, list-
lessness, frothy saliva, stiffness of the
hind quarters, discharge of dark foetid
fluid from the vagina, swelling of the
vulva, straining, and pain. The whole
constitution will be affected, diarrhoea
sets in, followed by death. This disease
is nearly always fatal.
Cause. — Probably the result of blood-
poisoning, owing to deleterious matter
entering the system through wounds of
the parturient organs.
Prevention. — Should any wounds be
made during parturition, they should be
washed with warm water and syringed
with lotion (No. 30) daily for some days,
and afterwards anointed with glycerine,
8 parts, carbolic acid, i part. Great
cleanliness should be observed in the
lambing - yard, and a free use made of
carbolic acid, and the hands washed and
naUs cut before manipulating the womb.
Treatment. — Besides the injection of
carbolic lotion, give every four hour*
carbolic acid, 20 drops, in water; and
if constipated, purgative (No. 33) ; give
plenty of gruel . and linseed - tea. If
straining and diarrhoea come on, give
whisky, 4 oz., and tincture of opium,
1 oz., in gruel. The treatment is, how-
ever, generally unsatisfactory.
Abortion,
or the premature expulsion of the foetus.
Symptoms. — ^There are no particular
symptoms in abortion among ewes.
Cause. — Overdriving ; cold ; im-"
proper food; injuries to, or disease of,
the abdomen. A very .frequent cause
is the disturbance of sheep by dogs.
Prevention and Treatment. — When
cases of abortion occur, the cause of the
disease must, if possible, be ascertained
and removed. It may generally be
traced to one of the causes mentioned
above. When one sees a flock of ewes
occupying a turnip-fold, only vacated by
the fat hoggs when it was too bad for
them, up to their bellies in mud, one can
hardly be surprised that cases of abortion
are only too frequent. Given a proper
rational system for the management of
a breeding flock, and cases of abortion
will be. rare, and only the result of
SHEEP.
489
circumstances which cannot be alto-
gether avoided. Should a ewe appear
sickly after abortion, inject lotion com-
posed of carbolic acid, i part; water,
40 parts; and give purgative (No. 33).
DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS,
FEET, AND SKIN.
Foot-rot.
Symptoms. — Lameness, which may
be traced to disease between the claws
of the feet, indicated by the discharge
of matter and swelling, which, if not
checked, will gradually extend to the
whole of the foot. Or the horn of the
hoof may be broken or fissured, and
often a foetid discharge. In old cases the
horn is rough, enlarged, and deformed,
and fungoid granulations may project
from any openings in the horn, and
from sores about the coronet.
Cause. — Often contagion, grazing on
low, rich pastures, encouraging over-
growth of the hoofs, which are apt to
split and crack and collect dirt.
Prevention. — The maxim, "A stitch
in time," &,c., if put into practice, will
prevent the' disease spreading, and will
soon cure those affected. As a means
of prevention it is useful to pass the
whole flock twice a -year through a
solution of arsenic, put into a trough,
through which the sheep are driven
slowly. The solution is thus prepared :
Boil 2 lb. of arsenic with 2 lb. of potash
(pearl-ash) in i gallon of water over a
slow fire for half an hour ; keep stirring,
anrf when like to boil over, pour in a
little cold water ; then add 5 gallons of
cold water. Put this solution into the
trough to the depth of r^ inch. The
solution is poisonous, ' so the trough
should be kept locked when not in
use. A bath of copper sulphate is per-
haps as useful and less dangerous.
Dissolve I lb. of sulphate of copper in
2 gallons of water, and walk the sheep
slowly through it as often as required.
Treatment. — - Pare away all loose
ragged horn, to allow ths matter to
discharge, cut away any proud flesh
with sharp scissors, and have recourse
to a stronger bath of copper sulphate —
I lb. to I gallon of water; and in bad.
cases it may have to be used every four
to seven days. A narrow trough about
7 inches wide, sloping a little outwards,
with rails on each side 16 to 18 inches
wide, or sufficiently wid.e to admit the
bodies of the sheep, and from 15 to
20 feet long.
As copper is poisonous, although not
nearly so bad as arsenic, the sheep
should be put in a bare court, or on
to a hard road until the feet become
dry.
Note. — Sheep, when they have trav-
elled far on hard stony roads, get very
footsore, and, if possible, should be put
on soft cool pasture for a few days,
when the feet will soon recover.
Rickets — Weah Backs.
Lameness of hind quarters, resulting
from weakness of bones, which, from
their constitution, are liable to injury
under trifling exertion. This disease
only affects the lambs, and when once
it appears may run right through the
flock. The outbreak may occur at any
time while the lambs are young.
Symptoms. — DiflSculty in rising; the
fore feet are not affected.
Cause. — Peculiar condition of the
soil, pointing to an insuflSciency of
particular elements necessary to pro-
duce a perfect offspring. Food grown
on light moor tillage laAd, dressed with
caustic lime, is believed by some to
produce rickets.
Prevention. — Avoid in-and-in breed-
ing, and also food grown on land which,
as above described, is apt to produce the
affection.
Treatment. — Direct treatment is use-
less.
Sheep-Scab, S?iab, or Mange.
An eruption of the skin, produced by
parasites — the Bematodectes ovis — minute
acari which burrow in the skin.
Symptoms. — Constant rubbing against
gates, &c. ; lo&s of wool ; skin red, rough,
and afterwards covered with hard scabs ;
loss of health and condition.
Cause. — Contagion.
This affection is scheduled under the
Diseases of Animals Acts, and the treat-
ment is prescribed by the Board of
Agriculture. Affected sheep must be
dipped in a "dip" approved by th*
Board, and the owner cannot be com-
490
AILMENTS OF FAKM LIVE STOCK
pelled to dip them a second time under
10 days.
At the present time (1909) the Board
demands that within certain districts of
country, which it terms " conlpulsory
dipping areas," all sheep shall be
dipped, in an approved dip, twice"
a -year, within certain specified dates.
Vefmin.
Sheep ticks and lice may be destroyed
by the use of one of the many dips
which are sold for the purpose.
Maggots may be destroyed by apply-
ing spirit of tar, i part, olive-oil, 4 parts,
to the places affected. It will also keep
off the flies.
SWINE.
Anthrax. — (See p. 468.)
Symptoms. — Dulness ; urine, and
sometimes the dung, mixed with blood,
external swellings. When caused by
eating the flesh or blood of animals
dying of the disease, there is nearly
always great swelling about the throat.
Cause. — Generally contagion.
Prevention. — Keep in good condition,
and avoid close buildings, putrid food,
and bad water. Completely isolate all
diseased animals.
Treatment. — Owing to the rapid and
fatal nature of this disease, aU treatment
is unsatisfactory. But it is not so fatal
as in horses and cattle, although young
pigs are more easily affected by it than
grown ones. Give Epsom salts, 3 oz.,
and oil of turpentine, 2 drs., in a little
linseed - gruel, and rub the limbs with
oil of turpentine. Call in a veterinary
surgeon, who will inject diluted carbolic
acid under the skin.
Convulsions.
Symptoms. — Young pigs are subject
to convulsions, which take the form of
sudden spasms with complete insensi-
bility, frothing from the mouth, and
redness of the eyeballs.
Cause. — Disorders of the brain ; indi-
gestion ; sometimes intestinal worms.
Prevention. — Good water and nour-
ishing food.
Treatment. — Give a purgative —
Epsom salts — regulating the dose ao-
\cording to size. Eemove as far as pos-
sible the cause of the attack — i.e., expel
the worms if they exist (see p. 492), or
alter the food if it has produced indiges-
tion. Give sulphate of iron, i dr., in the
food.
Diarrhoea.
Symptoms. — Looseness of the bowels,
which affects the health. If unaccom-
panied by loss of appetite, fever, or pros-
tration, no treatment is required beyond
removing the cause.
Cause. — Often a symptom of some
other disease. Often caused by indi-
gestion, putrid food or water.
Prevention. — Proper food and atten-
tion.
Treatment. — Give castor-oil, 3 oz.,
and peppermint-oil, 5 drops, in gruel.
Erysipelas.
Symptoms. — Heat; itching; redness;
tenderness and swelling of the skin,
generally on the head and neck ; loss of
appetite. When the swelling goes down
at the end of a few days, a dark-red
patch will be left.
Cause. — Want of ventilation ; dirt ;
heating food ; wounds.
Treatment. — Give, in gruel, jalap, i
dr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 3 oz., mixed
in a little water, and as soon as the pur- •
gative has acted, give muriate of iron,
10 drops, night and morning, in food.
Foment the swellings on the skin with
water, 1 quart, in which i oz. of sulphate
of zinc has been previously dissolved.
Good nourishing food should be given,
and the animal should be completely
isolated.
Hoose or Hush (se6 p. 471).
Symptoms. — Short, dry cough; frothy
discharge from ' the nose ; loss of appe-
tite; thirst; loss of flesh, till finally
death results.
Cause. — The presence of worms in
'the air-passages, amounting almost to an
epizootic in certain districts.
Prevention. — Keep in good condition,
and isolate from infected animals ; pure
water, and clean or boiled food.
Treatment. — Give, in milk, salt, i
teaspoonful (i dr.) ; oil of turpentine, i
teaspoonful, daily. Fumigate in a close
building by burning flowers of sulphur
on a hot shovel till the animals can bear
SWINE.
491
no more without coughing violently, and
repeat the fumigation every week. Give
linseed - porridge, nourishing food, and
plenty of skim -milk.
Pneumonia — Inflammation of the
Lungs.
Symptoms. — Shivering ; hot skin ;
laboured breathing ; red eyes, nose, and
mouth; cough deep and dry; yellow
discharge from the nose.
Cause. — Cold, aggravated by neglect
and predisposition to the disease ; may
result from hoose.
Prevention. — Nourishing food, and
warm dry bedding.
Treatment. — Cover with a warm rug,
but allow plenty of cool fresh air ; rub
the chest with mustard, i part, and tur-
pentine, 4 parts, and repeat the rubbing.
Give spirits of nitrous ether, 2 drs. ;
tincture of opium, 2 drs., in a little milk
twice a-day, and put 2 drs. of nitrate of
potash in its food every time the animal
is fed.
Symptoms. — Fever ; cough ; loss of
appetite ; red patches on the sMn ; pus-
tules imdie^ the tongue.
Treatment. — Give, fasting, i oz. of
sulphur in the food, and repeat the dose
till the animal is quite recovered. Keep
the animals warm.
Prolapse of the Rectum.
After parturition, and even in young
pigs of both sexes, the rectum sometimes
protrudes and swells.
Treatment. — The gut should be
emptied and washed. It may be re-
turned by inserting the finger into the
opening and pressing it into the anus. A
nourishing diet should be given. Some-
times a truss will be necessary to keep
the gut in its place after it has been
returned. It may be necessary to am-
putate the protruding part. Advice
should be obtained if this is found to
be necessary.
Rheumatism, Cram,p, Lamieness.
Symptoms. — Dulness ; lameness, es-
pecially of the hind quarters ; tenderness
of the joints ; constipation.
Cause. — Damp bedding ; lying on
■cold brick floors; chills. Especially
prevalent where pigs lie on fermenting
horse-manure.
Prevention. — Allow young pigs
plenty of exercise and dry bedding in
which they may bury themselves.
Treatment. — Give Epsom salts, i oz.,
and sulphur, i oz., in thin gruel, sali-
cylate of soda, r dr., and bicarbonate of
soda, 2 to 4 drs., twice a-day. Keep
warm, and feed on nutritious food of
good quality.
Surfeit.
Symptoms. — Fever ; swellings in
patches on the lips, eyelids, and nostrils,
which quickly appear and disappear.
Cause. — Change of food or weather.
Generally occurs in the autumn.
Treatment. — Give in gruel, jalap, i
dr. ; Epsom salts, i oz., and avoid im-
proper feeding.
Swine-fever or Hog-cholera.
A contagions and infectious disease of
pigs which has been known in Britain
and America since about the middle of
last century, and has often caused very
severe losses. Notwithstanding, it was
not dealt with in the Contagious Dis-
eases (Animals) Act of 1878, but was
included by "The Animals Order," dated
iSth December 1879, as was also gland-
ers and farcy. And although the Privy
Council and, since its institution, the
Board of Agriculture have passed innu-
merable Orders and struggled at the
suppression of the disease, it is still only
too prevalent in the country.
Cause. — Two organisms seem to be
always present, probably associated, in
swine-fever — a small ovoid bacillus, the
Bacillus choleras suis, and an invisible
infective organism.
Symptoms. — It is sometimes very
acute, especially in young pigs. They
become suddenly ill, there is high fever,
quickened breathing, a rash appears over
the thinnest parts of the skin^ou the
back of the ears and about the belly —
they stagger about, and often die in con-
vulsions. Generally it is less rapid, the
animal is dull, does not care to come out"
of its pen, but lies buried under its
litter. There is loss of appetite, consti-
pation at first, generally followed by
diarrhoea, fever, the eyes look red and
watery, the tail hangs limp, red blotches
492
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
appear about the back of the ears, inside,
the arms and thighs, and about the
belly. These gradually become darker
until they may be dark-purple or almost
black. The lungs are frequently a£fected,
causing rapid breathing and a short
painful cough. Animals often die after
two or three days' illness, but they may
die after a fortnight, and one will some-
times recover after being very ill, but
takes a long time to make a complete
recovery. It is doubtful also how long
an animal that has been very ill with
swine-fever may prove a centre of infec-
tion— several months at least.
Treatment, -r- As it is the digestive
tract that is principally affected, ctoly the
blandest and least irritating foods should
be allowed — skimmed milk, alone or
with lime-water, fine well-boiled gruels,
beef-tea, which if well boiled can be
made from meat which would otherwise
be destroyed, and anything which will
support the strength without causing
irritation. Some also recommend mild
antiseptics given internally.
Prevention. — A protective serum has
been introduced and can be applied by
any veterinary surgeon ; but few would
care to use it unless the disease has
broken out in their immediate neigh-
bourhood or in a large valuable breeding
herd.
Isolation and Police Measures. —
Any person having a diseased or sus-
pected pig in his possession must at
once give notice to the police, and they
telegraph the information to the Board
of Agriculture, who then deal with the
case. An " infected place " is declared,
and all movement of pigs out of or into
it is stopped except with the licence of
the Board. The movement of pigs on
any premises in the vicinity is also-
generally stopped as long as it is
thought there is any risk.
The policy adopted in dealing with
swine-fever has undergone many changes
during the past thirty years, and in 1908
a reversion was made to a system more
nearly approaching the stamping out-
method than has been in use for some
time. While the Board retains perfect
liberty to deal with separate outbreaks
as it considers best, as a rule it now
takes over the young and immature pigs
and the breeding swine and has them
destroyed, paying full value for healthy
pigs and half value for diseased ones, on
the understanding that the owner will,
as rapidly as possible, have the others
killed for the market, and the pla«e
cleaned and thoroughly disinfected be-
fore any fresh pigs are brought on to it.
As the disease is exceedingly contag-
ious, very strict regulations are laid
down by the Board regarding cleansing
and disinfection.
Apart from the existence of swine-
fever in any place, the Board has divided
the whole country into limited districts,
which it calls "scheduled areas," pre-
sumably to give it some control over the
movement of pigs, and pigs cannot be
moved from one to another without a
licence.
Other Contagious Diseases of Pigs.
There are other two diseases of pigs
known to be contagious, one of which —
swine erysipelas — is not uncommon in
Britain. It sometimes causes consider-
able losses, and in these cases is gener-
ally believed by pig-owners to be swine-
fever, but is not nearly so fatal nor so
contagious in this country as the latter,
and has .not been scheduled by the
Board. "
The other contagious disease of pigs is
swine plague, sometimes very destruc-
tive on the Continent. It is doubtful if
it has ever appeared in Britain. At
least, if it has it has not done much
harm.
Worms {Intestinal).
Symptoms. — Ill-health; scurfy, dry
skin ; irregular appetite ; itchiness of
the anus, and the passing of worms \
loss of flesh; cough; scour.
Prevention. — Sound food and water.
Treatment. — Give santonine, 3 grs.,
on an empty stomach, and four days
later repeat the dose ; the next day give
3 oz. Epsom salts. Allow access to
plenty of coal, slack, or cinders, so that
the pigs may eat as much grit as they
like.
Trichinosis.
A parasitic disease of the pig, but
rarely seen in this country.
Symptoms. — The animal is dull, loss
of appetite, goes stiflly, vomits frequent-
KECIPES.
493
ly. As the disease advances, the animal
persistently stands, and when it lies
down it tries to bury itself under the
bedding.
Cause. — It is due to a minute worm
called the Trichina spiralis, which infests
the whole body; far more common in
Germany and America than in this
country.
Treatment. — Slaughter and bury the
animals at once, for the diseased pork is
poisonous to human beings.
* Lice.
These may be easily removed by wash-
ing with water saturated with petroleum.
DOGS.
Rabies or Hydrophobia.
The only disease with which dogs are
specially liable to be affected that need
be noticed here is that dreaded disease,
rabies, hydrophobia, or madness, as
it is variously called. No disease of
animals is more dreaded by man than
canine madness, and the cry " mad dog "
runs through a district like the sound
of an alarm-gun. Scheduled under the
Diseases of Animals Acts,, it has been
stamped out in Britain by the vigor-
ous action of the Board of Agriculture,
but therie is always a risk of its re-
introduction.
Cause. — It is not contagious in the
ordinary sense, but is an inoculable
disease, doubtless due to some living
contagious agent which has not yet been
clearly demonstrated. It is inoculable
to all animals, including man, its natural
mode of communication being by the
bites of rabid dogs, and it is never seen
in our larger animals but from this
cause.
Syinptom.s. — There is some change in
the habits of the dog. He may hide
away in a dark corner, or creep under
a bed or couch. Will often pick up and
swallow pieces of string, rags, leather,
straw, feathers, or pieces of wood. He
becomes restless, generally wanders from
home, and hurries along at a slouching
trot, saliva flowing from his mouth, and
there may be froth. He will snap at
animals or persons who may come in his
way, "has no fear, and will bite at any
VOL. III.
object held out to him. The voice is
altered, and becomes something between
a bark anfl a howL Later, paralysis
sets in, the jaw droops, and death soon
follows. In the larger animals there is
generally excitement, often excitement
of the genital organs. The horse may
get perfectly delirious, — would bite, kick,
and smash everything within his reach.
The ox will even try to bite, and will
butt at anything.tand everything.
Treatment. — ^Immediate slaughter as
soon as definite symptoms are present.
Prevention. — Keep it out of the
country; rigorous police measures.
Persons bitten by rabid animals are
subjected to a system of inoculation.
RECIPES.
The scientific names are given as found
in the British Tharmaeopceia and Squire's
Companion to the British Pharmacopoeia.
Directions for preparing the mixtures
are appended to each recipe.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Grains, grs.; scruple, ser. ; drachms, drs.;
Pounds, lb.; ounces, oz.; quart, qt.; pint, pt.
HORSES.
1. Powdered cantharides (P. cantharis), i oz.
Olive-oil (Olemm oUvce), 8 oz.
Use the ordinary " salad - oil " obtainable
from grocers. Mix together in an earthen-
ware pot, and infuse in a water-bath for four
hours, and strain. Clip hair off the part before
application.
2. Powdered cantharides {Ocmtharis), % lb.
Lard {Adeps proepa/ratm), I lb.
Besin (fiesina,), % lb.
Melt the resin and lard together at a low
temperature, then sprinkle in the cantharides,
and stir till cold.
3. Perchloride of mercury (eorroaive sublimate)
{Hyd/rm'gyri.percklaridAimC), 40 grs.
Methylated spirit (Sipeiki, methyXC), i oz.
To be applied with a small brush. Shake
together in a bottle until dissolved.
4. Ked iodide of mercury (Hydrargyri iodi-
dwm rubrum), yi lb.
Lard (Aderps prceparatus), 4 lb.
Mix together. Poison.
5. IoAiae-{Iodum), 2 oz.
Iodide of potassium {Potaxni iodidmn), I oz.
Camphor {Oamphora), % oz.
Methylated spirit, i pt.
2 I
494
AILMENTS OF FAEM LIVE STOCK.
Should be made up by a qualified party.
Put the iodine and iodide oi potassium in a
bottle with 15 oz. of the spirit, shake till
dissolved. Dissolve the camphor in 5 oz., then
mix together. ,
CONDITION POWDEBS.
€. Fenugrek, 2 parte.
Carbonate of iron, I part.
Nitrate of potassium {Potassii nitras), 2
parts.
Gentian powder {Oentiance raddx), I part.
Sulphur {S^hwr sMimakim), 2 parts.
Mix all together and sift- Qive i oz.
daily in the food.
COOLIKO LOTION.
7. Solution of subacetate of lead {Liquor
plumK suhacetatii), i part.
Tincture of arnica (Tmot/u/ra arnioce), 3
parts.
Water {Aqtia), 8 parts.
Mix.
COUOB BALL.
8. Digitalis (DigUaZes foUa), }4 dr.
Powdered opium {Opium), i dr.
Aloes {Aloe iarhadeniis), I dr.
Soft-soap {Sapo mollis) \enough to
Linseed-meal {Limifarvna) J make a ball.
Make into a stifi mass. . Give one ball every
day.
9. Spirits of ammonia {SpirUus am/monice aro-
matious), l}4 oz.
Chloroform {Ghloroformum methyU), 1 oz.
Bicarbonate of potash {PoUusU bioarbonas),
% oz.
Water {Aqwt), 10 oz.
Mix. Shake up well before giving in gruel
or other bland liquid. Every two hours till
improvement, then twice a-day.
POB BEONCHITIS.
10. Tincture of digitalis {Ti/nxtAura digitalit),
, 3 dre-
Bromide of potassium {Potassii bromidwm),
2 drs.
Nitrous ether spirit {^tJieris nitrosi), I oz.
Water {Aqua), 10 oz.
Dissolve bromide of potassium in water, add
the other ingredients, and make up with water
to 10 oz. To be given three times a-day.
FOB WORMS.
I. Extract male fern {Extract/um ^licii liqui-
dum), 2 drs.
Oil of turpentine {Oleu/m terebinthime),
1% oz.
Linseed-oil {Oleum V/ni), I pt.
Mix and shake well together.
EMBROCATION.
12. Hartshorn {Liq. am/mon. dil.), I oz.
Turpentine {Oleum terebinthmce), 2 oz.
Spirit of camphor {Spirilus camphora),
2 oz.
Laudanum (TincJtwa opii), % oz.
Olive-oil {Olevm oKvce), 6 oz.
Mix the hartshorn with the olive-oil, and
shake, then the turpentine, spirit of camphor,
and laudanum, shaking after each addition.
Shake well before using.
OLTSTBB.
13.
Oatmeal, 3 qts.
Salt, 3 oz.
Olive-oil, ^ pint.
Give warm, and repeat till relief is given.
lERITAHT.
14. Ammonia solution {Liquor ammonia, F.),
302.
Soft-soap {Sapo molUs), 4 oz.
Oil of turpentine -{Oleum terebtnthitue),
80Z.
Olive-oil {Oleum oUvce), 4 oz.
Rub the soap with the olive-oil to smooth-
ness, then add turpentine and ammonia solu-
tion. Bottle, and shake well.
IS'
16,
Mustard {Sinapis), 4 oz.
Oil of turpentine {Oleum terebimthmce),
$ oz.
Linseed-oil {Oleum lim), 1 pt.
Mix together, and shake thoroughly.
LOTION.
Tincture of myrrh {Timotwra myrrJue),
I oz.
Alum {Alwmcu), 2 drs.
Water {Aqua), 6 oz.
Mix together.
PURGATTVBS.
17. Aloes powdered {Aloe harbadensis), 6 drs.
Ginger {Zingiber) 2 drs.
Made into a ball with soap or treacle.
18. Calomel {Hydrwrgyri subchlorO/wm), I dr.
Opium, powdered {Opiwm), 20 grs.
To be made into a ball with Uuseed-meal
and treacle. .
Aloes {Aloe bwrbademii), l}i dr.
Tartar emetic {Antimonium tortorofum))
I dr.
Nitfe {Potassii nitras), 2 drs.
Digitalis {Digitales folia), % dr.
To be made into a ball with meal and treacle.
OBDINART PURGATIVB.
20. Earbadoes aloes {Aloe harhadenm), l^ dr.
Calomel {Hydrargyri st^ehloridMm), I dr.
To be made into a bsdl with meal and treacle;
19'
EECIPE8.
495
21 Sulphate of iron (Perri svlph.), 1% dr.
Sulphate of quinine {Quinines svlph,),
20 grs.
Sulphuric acid, diluted (Acidum sulphuri-
cum dHwtv/m), 2 drs.
Water (Aqua), 10 oz.
Dissolve the sulphate of iron in water, diffuse
quinine in the solution, then add diluted sul-
phuric acid, and make up to 10 oz.
Give morning and night.
CATTLE.
22. Powdered cantharides {CwBtharis), t oz.
Olive-oil (Olewm otivce), 8 oz.
Use the ordinary " salad-oil" obtainable from
grocers. Mix together in an earthenware pot,
and infuse in a water-bath for four hours, and
strain. Clip hair off the part before appli-
cation.
23. Powdered cantharides, I part.
Venice turpentine, i part.
Besin, I part.
Lard, 4 parts.
Melt resin and lard together, then stir in
the cantharides and Venice turpentine.
CALF-COBDIAL.
24. Prepared chalk {Creta, prcepwrata), 2 oz.
Powdered catechu {Catechu), 1 oz.
Ginger {Zingiber), % oz.
Opium {Opvwm), 2 drs.
Peppermint- water {Aqucsmenthtxpeperita),
1 pt.
Dose for calf? two^ tablespoonfuls morning
and evening ; dose for sheep, one tablespoonf ul
morning and evening.
Mix all together.
DRAUGHT FOE COUGHS, &C.
25. Powdered digitalis {IHgitaZes folia), i dr.
Liquor ammonia acetatis (Liquor timmonii
acetatis), 3 oz.
Spirits of nitrous ether (Spiritus cetheri$
mtrosi), T- oz.
Extract belladonna (Extractum belladoTimce),
2 drs.
To be given in a pint of water.
Melt extract of belladonna in a little warm
water ; when cold, add the other ingredients.
Shake, and make up to a pint with cold
water.
26. Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthince),
80Z.
Solution of ammonia {Idquar amnumice, F.),
30Z.
liiioft-soap {Sa/po mollis), 4 oz.
Rub down the soft-soap in the turpentine,
then add the ammonia, and shake.
PURGATIVES.
27. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 16 oz.
Powdered aloes (Ahe barbadensis), 8 dra.
Ginger (ground) (Zingiber), 1 oz.
To be given in a quart of warm water or
gruel.
Epsom salts for cattle costs is. a stone.
Use Barbadoes aloes and ordinary domestic
ginger.
MILD PUROATIVi;.
28. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 12 oz.
Powdered ginger (Zimgiier), yi oz.
To be given in a quart of warm water or
gruel.
Salts for cattle, and ordinary ginger.
29. Gentian (Oemtiamia radix), I oz.
Ginger (Zingiber), % oz.
Carbonate of ammonia (Ammumii cwbonat),
Yi oz.
Carbonate of iron, 2 drs.
To be given in a pint of gruel or water
SHEEP.
30. Carbolic acid (Aoidum carbolicvm), I part.
Water (Aqua), 50 parts.
Shake.
DRESSING FOR FOOT-ROT.
31. Red nitrate of mercury (Byd/rargyri
oxidvm, rubrwm), 1 oz.'
Nitrous acid, 2 oz.
To be mixed with two tablespoonfuls of
water ; dissolve the red nitrate of mercury
in the acid, and then add the water.
PURGATIVES.
32. Calomel (Sydrm-gyri mbchloridum), 5 grs.
Powdered opium (Opiumi), 4 grs.
Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), i oz.
To be given in 3 oz. of gruel or water.
All obtainable _ from a druggist. Mix and
give in grueL Ask for Epsom salts for cattle.
33. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 3 oz.
Ginger (ground) (ZingU)er), i dr.
In thm gruel.
Take ginger used for domestic purposes, mix
with the salts, and give in thin gruel.
34. Castor-oU (Oleum ridni), 2 oz.
Tincture of opium (laudanum) (Tinotwa
opii), 2 drs.
Use ordinary castor- oil and laudanum ; mix,
and give.
■ Note. — The doses given, except where other-
wise stated, are intended for fair - grown
animals of medium size. Allowance must
therefore be made should the age or size of
the animal to be treated exceed or otherwise
the average.
496
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
Table of Doses.
i
Horse.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Swine.
Doses.
4 years and over .
2 to 3 years . . .
1 year ....
2 to 10 months . .
2 years .
I II
6 months
I II .
I year .
6 months
3 " •
I II .
I year .
6 months
3 " ■
I II .
I part,
f "
*i to i part.
^ to tV part.
APPENDIX.
AIiMINISTEEING MEDICINE.
Some notes will be useful as to the
methods of administering medicine to
the various animals.
The Horse.
Medicine is usually given by the
mouth, but sometimes injected under
the skin into the blood, by the rectum,
and by inhalation.
A drench should never exceed a qhart,
and before giving it, make sure that it
is neither too hot nor too strong, for
choking will follow.
A tin bottle is the best for drenching
with; if this cannot be had, use a
champagne-bottle. '
How to fix the animal. — Put on a
head-stall or halter ; take a piece of rope
or plough-line, make a loop at one end,
pass the loop first through the nose-band
of the halter or head-stall as the case
may be, then into the mouth, throw the
other end over one of the rafters above,
and pull the horse's head up ; the medi-
cine should be slowly .poured into his
mouth, for horses are slow swallowers.
Never be guilty of pouring it down the
horse's nose, as I have seen some men
do, and kill the animal. If the animal
makes an attempt to cough whilst you
are drenching him, let his head down
instantly.
The Ball. — They should never exceed
1 3^ oz. in weight, and never be given
when they have become hard. The best
way to give a ball is by the hand, and
with a little practice it can be soon
learned. Take the tongue gently in the
left hand, and draw it to the side of the
mouth, place the ball between the fingers
of the right hand, quickly run the hand
along the roof of the mouth, and leave
the ball at the hack of the tongue; with-
draw the hand, and let go the tongue.
The animal will soon swallow, and you
will see the ball pass down the left side
of the neck. If you are not clever
enough to give it in the manner de-
scribed, use a balling gun or iron. Do
not attempt to give a ball on the end
of a pointed stick, for you are sure to
run the stick into some vital part of the
throat, and perhaps ruin the animal.
Cattle.
The cow is best drenched with a bottle
or horn, and the quantity should not
exceed 2 qts. In giving the medicine,
stand on the right side of the cow, seize
the nose with the thumb and finger of
the left hand, and get some one to hold
the horns on the* left side. A cow
swallows much more, quickly than the
horse, so it takes but a minute or pwo
to give a dreqch.
Sheep.
A long-necked sauce-bottle is best to
use for sheep. The quantity to be giVen
should not exceed 4 oz. Stand on the
right side, span the nose with your finger
and thumb, place the finger in the mouth,
and slowly run the medicine in at the
right side of the mouth.
Swine.
The quantity to be given should not
exceed 5 oz. In giving physic to a pig,
take a child's old boot, cut a hole in the
toe of it about the size of a shilling,
place the toe of the boot into the pigfe
mouth, pour the medicine into the leg
portion of the boot, and the pig will bite
savagely at the boot and swallow the:
medicine at the same time.
APPENDIX.
497
FOMENTATION.
^Fomentation is of great value in
all cases of paii) and inflajumation.
Never start to foment a part, how-
ever, without having p&nty of hot
water and time, for it does little or
no good unless continued for an hour
or two.
In cases of external injuries or inflame
mation — ^if it is on the knee or below it
— ^place the leg in a tub full of hot water,
if elsewhere soak a piece of flannel or
sponge in hot water, and hold on the
part.
For internal inflammation, such as
in the bowels and the chest, double
a blanket, soak it in hot water, and
have it held against the chest or belly
as the case may be, by a man on
each side of the animal, and place
over it a waterproof carriage -rug to
keep in the heat. The blanket must
be dipped into the hot water every
three or four minutes. If the blanket
is too hot for your hand it is too hot
for the horse's skin, so be careful not
to scald the animal.
ENEMAS.
Enemas or injections are of various
kinds, and are given in cases of constipa-
tion to hasten the action of the bowels ;
in dysentery and diatrhoea to check the
action of the bowels; in debility to
support the animal, and when in pain
• to relieve it.
An enema for constipation should
consist of linseed-oil, i pint ; salt, 4 oz. ;
and warm water, i gallon, to be repeated,
if required, every four hours.
For diarrhoea and dysentery use liquor
opii sedativus, 2 oz. ; starch, 4 oz. ;
and, warm water, 3 pints. For weak-
ness and debility use half a gallon of
warm milk with two eggs, or the same
quantity of beef -tea to be given every
four or six hours.
To relieve pain use warm water, i
quart ; extract of belladonna, i drachm ;
or liquor opii sedativus, i oz. ; to be
given every three hours.
An enema is given by the enema-
syringe, and the tail should be de-
pressed for a few minute's after it is
given.
BACK-EAOKING.
This is occasionally done to remove
the hard dung from the bowels, but it
is not necessary if an enema has been
given. The person who performs this
operation should have a small hand, cut
the nails short, and oil the hand before
introducing it.
POULTICES.
Poultices are applied to certain parts
to relieve pain, soften, and draw out any
matter that may exist. The poultice
should be made of boiled turnips or
bran, the softer and warmer the better.
A poultice to do any good must be of
considerable size, kept on from twelve to
twenty-four hours, with hot water con-
tinually poured over it, taking care not
to scald the animal.
For the foot the poultice should be
placed in a stout bag, and fixed around
the fetlock by a strap.
CASTRATION.
The horse is usually operated upon at
the age of one or two years ; but he is
sometimes allowed to go uncut until
three years old to see if he is worth
keeping for an entire horse, or to allow
his neck to get developed. The spring
or autumn is the best time to perforin
this operation, as we then avoid the
cold winds of winter, and the sultry
weather and the troublesome flies ef
summer.
There are various ways of performing
this operation, but the best and most
' successful way is either by torsion or
the hot iron. Some precautions should
be taken before operating. Handle the
colt for several weeks before, so that
when he comes to be cast he will not
fight, struggle, and break out into a
sweat ; feed him sparingly the day before
the operation ; make sure thafboth test-
icles are down and no rupture exists ;
always see that the ground is soft and
free from stones where you intend to
cast the animal.
Having haltered the colt, take him to
the chosen spot, pass his head through
the loop in the rope, pass the two ends
between his fore and hind legs, bringing
498
AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.
them back, pass them through the loop
at the shoulders, and draw tight until
the animal is on his side ; then tighten
up, wind the rope round the fetlock,
include the fore legs, and get a man
on each side to hold the end of the rope
so as to keep the animal on his back.
To remove the stones by torsion, make
a bold cut through the bag, release the
stone, place the clams around the cord,
put the torsion forceps on the cord about
half an inch from the clams, and twist
the forceps slowly around until you sever
the cord; the other stone to be treated
in the same way.
To operate with the hot iron : Having
placed the stone in the clams, take a red-
hot iron and saw the cord slowly through
close to the clams.
Horses are now often Operated on
standing, the testicles being removed
by the ecraseur or clams.
As to after-treatment, house the animal
for a few days, and then let it run out
during the day, housing it again at
night.
From castration, lockjaw, bleeding, in-
flammation of the bowels, or broken back
sometimes arise.
If the animal has only one stone down,
postpone the operation, for it is almost
certain to come down in a few months ;
if it never appears, the animal is most
likely a " rig," and must be operated on
as such.
Calves.
When a few weeks old they can be cut
standing, by twisting the tail around one
hind leg. Stand behind the calf, cut
through the bag, twist the stone several
times and scrape the cord closely through
with your finger-nails or a blunt knife.
When they are several months old they
require to be cast. This is done by
tying the hind legs together with a rope,
place a halter round the neck, take the
shank end of the halter and run it
through the rope that joins the hind
legs, tying it back, pass it through the
portion that is around the neck, and
draw the legs tight, and fasten. The
fore legs can be held by a man. Take
the stones off with the hot iron as in the
case of the horse.
The bull is best castrated standing
with the hot iron.
Let a man seize the pig by its hind
legs and hold it between his legs.
Cut through the bag, twist the stone
several times, and scrape through the
cord vrith a blunt knife or your finger-
nail£
Lambs.
Let some one hold them on a bench
for you ; cut the tip of the bag off, and
use the hot iron and clams, or do them
the same way as the pig. In many parts,
one person takes the lamb in his arms,
holding its four legs tightly, two in each
hand, while the shepherd cuts the top off
the bag with a sharp knife, presses out
the stones with his fingers, and drawa
them away with his teeth, then using
the hot iron.
SPAYING.
Heifers and sows are sometimes spayed
in order that they may fatten more
quickly, but a description of this opera-
tion would not enable one to do it, and
it can be learned only by watching those
skilled in it.
DOCKING.
It is best performed when the animal
is but a few months old, and at that age
the tail can be easily cut off with a stout
pocket-knife, and the end seared with
the poker. In adults the operation is as
simple, but often followed by excess of
bleeding, lockjaw, or an abscess at the
end of tail Having parted the hair
at the spot where the tail is to be cut
off, tie the top hair back, get some one
to hold the tail out, and with a sharp
stroke of the docking - machine it is
divided. Afterwards, hold the tail up,
slightly sear it with the searing - iron,
then place a piece of tow saturated in
perchloride of iron on the end, bring the
hair over it, and tightly tie below.
SETONING.
Setons are tapes passed through cer-
tain parts of the body, with the object
of either draining an abscess, acting as
a counter-irritant, or. for the purpose of
inoculation.
APPENDIX.
499
In using a seton for draining an
abscess, such as pole -evil or fistulous
withers, always bring it out at the
lowest part of the abscess, so as to secure
drainage.
In using setons as counter-irritants in
cases of lameness, diseases of the eye or
brain, pass them simply underneath the
skin, and be careful not to wound any
internal structure.
For inoculation, in cases of black-
quarter or pleuro-pneumonia, the seton
must be soaked with some irritant, such
as embrocation (No. 12) in the case of
black-leg, but in pleuro-pneumonia with
the serum of a diseased lung.
NUESING THE SICK.
All the doctoring in the world is of
no avail unless associated with good
nursing.
Sick horses should be placed in a com-
fortable loose-box, free from draughts,
and with plenty of straw in it. In cold
weather a rug should be placed on the
animal, and its legs bandaged. Animals,
like human beings, soon lose their appe-
tite when sick, so that every means
should be tried to induce them to feed.
The diet must be soft, nourishing, and
given frequently in small quantities.
The following foods are recommended :
bran - inashes, with bruised oats, sweet
hay with a little treacle-water sprinkled
over it, scalded oats, a little linseed-cake.
and, when in season, grass, tares, carrots,
and parsnips can be given sparingly if
the horse is not suffering from any bowel
affection. A pail of oaten or linseed
gruel should be placed within the reach
of the animal, and if it does not drink
this, give it treacle-and-water, or water
with a tablespoonful of nitre dissolved in
it. Take the chill off the water if the
weather is cold. '
Never allow one kind of food to re-
main too long in front of the animal;
take it out and try something fresh.
The animal should, if strong enough,
and the weatl;ier permits, be taken out
every day, and led up and down for
half an hour with a rug on. , Exercise of
this kind strengthens the animal and
increases the appetite. See that the
manger and bucket from which the horse
is fed are clean, for horses are naturally
very sensitive as to what they eat, and
more so when they are sick. Sick horses
should every morning get a thorough
wisping down.'
Do not work the animal before it has
properly recovered, and then gradually. .
A USEFUL TABLE.
It is useful for stock-owners to have
before them the following table, indi-
cating a normal condition of the pulse,
respiration, and temperature of their
various animals ; also the period of ges-
tation.
Pulse.
Respira-
tion—
Beats per
Minute.
Tempera-
tuje—
Degrees
Fahrenheit.
Average Duib-
tion of
Pregnancy. ,
Beats per
Minute.
Where felt.
Horse . .
Cow . . .
Sheep . .
Pig . . .
Dog . . .
40
45
100
Jaw . . .
Jaw . . .
At the heart.
At the heart .
Thigh . . .
lo
12
18
IS
20
100
IOI.5
102.5
102.5
102
48 weeks.
40 II
21 II
16 M
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THE PROPERTY OF HENRY CAUUWELI,, ESQ., MII)\'ILLE, BOSTON, LINCOLNSLURE.
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
(DIVISIONS I. TO VI.)
VOL. PP.
Aoerdeen-Angus cattle . . . iii. 62
As beef-producers . . . iii. 63
Characteristics of the breed , . iii. 63
Early improvement ... iii. 62
Management of herds . . . iii. 67
Points of the breed . . . iii. 66
Present position of the breed . iii. 66
Prices 1882-1907 .... iii. '65
Weights iii. .65
Aberdeenshire manure experiments . ii. 51
Abortion ...... iii. 334
Among ewes iii. 381
Soard of Agriculture, inquiry into iii. 337
Curative measures ... iii. 339
Causes of iii. 334
Epizootic iii. 334
Ergot causing .... iii. 334
Foot-rot and .... iii. 381
Immunisation of anim^ . . iii. 338
In mares ..... iii. 324
Methods of infection . . . iii. 338
Microbe of cattle .... iii. 337
II of sheep .... iii. 337
Preventing recurrence of . . iii. 334
Preventive measures by Prof. Axe iii. 381
Preventive treatment . . . iii. 335
Sporadic iii. 334
Twin lambs and .... iii. 381
Unripe roots and .... iii. 381
Accident, insurance Against . . i. 280
" Acclimatisation " value of sheep . i. 279
Accounts i. 244
Acidity in cheese-making . . . ii. 504
Acts of Parliament —
Agricultural Holdings . . i. 26B, 273-277
Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs . i. 506
Workmen's Compensation, 1906 . i. 296
Administering medicine to stock . iii. 496
Adulteration of takes .... iii. 276
Advantages claimed for ensilage . . ii. 293
After-birth iii. J26
Aftermath ii. 253, 254
Ages of store cattle .... iii. 359
Agricultural bacteriology ... i. 16
II botany i. 14
Agricultural chemistry
locomotive
motors
pupils and their training .
science, first degree in, in Britain
seasons, calendar and .
societies, agricultural education .
II publications on drainage
year
zoology . . . . i. 15
Agricultural colleges in England
Co-operation of county councils
Courses of study .
Dairy schools
Government grants
Number of students at
Standard of instruction
Agricultural colleges in Scotland
Courses of study .
Dairy education .
Extension work . . . '
Grants to ....
Progress of ten years .
Agricultural education
Aid to, by agricultural societies
At Cirencester College .
At Edinburgh University
At Oxford ....
Co-operation of county councils
Demonstration and research
Government grants for, and research
Growing appreciation of
Important sciences bearing on
In Ireland ....
Modem colleges 'in England and
Wales ....
N.D.A. Examinations .
N.D.D. Examinations .
Older teaching centres .
Tardy assistance from the State
Agriculture —
Application of steam-power to .
At Oxford
Board of
II and abortion
,. pp.
13
419
430
2, 3
31
62
36
45
57
424
32
33
32
32
33
33
32
34
34
35
35
34
■ 3S
30
36
31
31
32
33
3S
39
35
II
36
36
.36
31
30
403
32
37
337
502
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
Agriculture-
Efficient drainage essential .
i.
44
Influence of electricity in
il.
404
Insects of importance to
ii.
443
Irish Department of . . .
i.
40
National Diploma Examinations in
i.
36
Sciences applicable to .
i- 9
, 10
State aid
i.
37
Ailments of farm live stock
iu._
435
Cattle
iii.'
466
Horses .'.....
iii.
438
Index of subjects . . . .
iii.
436
Among lambs and ewes
iii.
380
Becipes
iii.
493
Sheep
iii.
484
Swine
iii.
490
Air, the
i.
22
Amount of, for perfect combustior
i.
404
Carbonic acid and oxygen in
i.
49
Chemical composition of
i;
23
Evils of impure, in stables . , .
i.
170
Utilisation of air-nitrogen by plant
s i.
S3Z
Vitiation of, by animals
i.
171
Weight of .■*■ ,
i.
22
Air and germination . . . .
ii.
iSS
11 hot-, drying of grain . . ■ .
ii.
202
Air-grates, specification for
i.
232
ii.
298
Albumen in milk . . . .
ii.
480
iu.
299
Aldemey or Channel Island cattle
iii.
132
Alfalfa, seed of
ii.
76
Allan's drill dung-spreader
i.
513
Alsike clover
ii. 7S,
243
"Alta Vela" phosphates .
1.
499
Alumina in soils
i.
304
American and Canadian silos
ii.
ago
ii-
267
11 ploughs . _ .
i.
37S
ii.
174
Ammonia —
Assimilation of, by plants .
i.
491
Fixing, in dung .
i.
468
II in urine . . . .
In rain
^ i.
476
i.
29
Preventing loss of, in liquid manu]
re i.
485
Sulphate of . .
i.
490
Ammonium-salts better than nitrate
of soda ....
ii.
II
Analysis of—
Bone-meal ....
i.
495
Cabbage ....
ii.
394
Carrots ....
ii.
394
Farmyard dung .
i.
467
Grasses ....
iii.
2B6
Hops
u.
383
Liquid-manure .'
i.
475
Pasture grass
ii.
394
Potatoes ....
ii.
394
Soil
i.
3°S
Town stable manure . .
i.
470
Turnips ....
ii.
394
Anatomy and physiology .
i.
18
Ancient notions regarding beans
ii.
IS3
11 reaping-machine.
ii.
172
11 roads
i.
122
11 threshing-machine
ii.
210
Anderson, Dr, on dung
i.
469
Aneroid
i.
23
Angle-iron gate ....
i.
119
Animals —
Ash constituents and nitrogen in
looo lb. of various .
i.
328
Barb-wire field-fences for
i.
113
Classification of .
i.
16
Animals —
Composition of urine of different
Division of the Board of Agriculture
Energy value of foods to
Fish products as food .
Food requirements of .
In relation to farm life
Insects injurious to
Metabolism . .
Mites found on .
Mutual dependence of plants and
Nutrition
Protection to timid
Relation of geology to .
Vitiation of air by
Water requirements of .
Anthrax and imported food
Apatite ....
Apex, forming the, of stack
Aphides, general treatment for
Appliances, reaping .
II for bee-keeping .
Applied mechamcs
Aqueous vapour .
Arab ponies
Arable and pastoral farming, stead-
ings for .
II and sheep farming, bams for
11 farming, steading for .
11 steadings for suburban farming
II V, pasture rotation <
Arc, modes of describing ■
11 specificaticfn for mill-wheel .
"Aries"
Aromatic herbs
Artificial drying of grain .
It and special manures ,
II manures, application of
II II classification of .
Ascomycetes, the
Ash constituents and the seasons
I,' 11 importance of .
I, 11 and nitrogen in 1000
lb. of various animals
11 quantity of, in an acre of wheat .
Ash of —
Barley-straw
Bean- and pea-straw
Oat-straw
Eye-straw .
Spent hops .
Wheat-straw
Ashes from paring and burning land
,1 of plants .
Ass and the Mule
I, longevity of the .
II varieties of the .
Atholl ponies
Atmosphere, the .
Chemical composition of
Constituents of .
•• Gravity of .
Height of . . .
Nitrogen of .
Pressure of .
Temperature of soil and
Atmospheric nitrogen for turnips
11 influence on cream
Atmospherical complications in summer
Autumn anomalies .
II crops .
11 cultivation ■ \
11 dunging for potatoes
11 field-sports in
11 manured beans, sowing
1- 475
1- 39
iii. 297
iii. 290
iii. ^01
ii. 424
iii. 417
iii. 296
iii. 429
i. 14
iii. 291
i. 154
i. 19
i. 171
iii. 296
iii. 368
i. 498
ii. 197
ii. 444
ii. 169
iii. 259
i. 22
i. 27
iii. 52
1. 132
i. 134
I- 13s
i. 149
1- 437
ii. 218
i. 238
i. 294
ii. 404
ii. 202
i. 486
i- 515
1. 486
ii. 411
ii. 13
ii. 8, 9
i. 328
ii. 95
11. 103
ii. 148
ii. 103
ii. 103
ii. 384
ii. 102
i- 353
'• 3°S
59
60
59
5°
22
23
23
22 '
6
22
262
ii. 343
ii. 490
ii. 6t
ii. 6s
66
6S
11. 301
ii. 6s
ii. 150
INDEX TO VOLUMES 1, II., III.
503
Autumn planting of potatoes
. ii. 308
Barley-
n rain in ....
ii. 65
Straw
ii. 103
II rewards of labour
ii. 65
Tillage for ....
Top-dressing
. ii. 131
II sheep in ... ,
. iii. 382
. ii. 136
11 sowing peas in . .
. "• 154
Uses of . . . .
• ii- 133
II II wheat in .
ii. 117
Utilisation of .
ii. 97
II weather and field operations
. ii. 6s
Varieties of .
. ii- 133
II wheat .....
ii. 128
Weather and manures on
ii. 22
II and winter ploughing for turn
ps ii. 329
Yield and weight of .
Yorkshire trials in manuring
. ii- 90, 97
II and winter weather .
ii. 13
li- 13s
Autumn-sown crops, drainage and
i. so
Barn-brooms ....
ii. 227
A^Tshire cattle —
11 hay-
ii. 270
Beef production .
iii, 114
11 hoe
ii. 226
" Bowing " system
iii. 115
11 implements
It owl, the ... .
ii. 22s, 226
Early ideals ....
iii. m
ii- 431
Historical ....
iii. rii
Bams —
Management of herds .
iii. 114
And granaries
i. I7S
Milk records
iii. U3
Conveying sheaves to sheaf-
i. 182
Milk yields ....
iii. 113
Com
i. 180
Points of the breed
. iii. Ill
English ....
i. 178
i. 183
Useful properties .
iii. 113
Granaries in connection with
Granary window .
i. 183
Back-band
i. 380
Hay
i. 177
Bacteria—
Preservation of wooden floors
i. 181
Camembert and Brie .
. ii. S20
Straw
i. 178
In plants ....
. ii. 418
Upper
i. 182
. Bapid multiplication of
!. :5
Vermin in ... .
i. 183
i. 3-'
Barometer-
Bacteriology, agricultural .
i. 16
Aneroid ....
i. 23
Badger, the
ii. 423
Upright ....
i. 23
Bagging grain ....
li. 228
Wheel
1. 23
II -machine ....
ii. 324
Barrel chnms ....
ii. 496
Baikie for binding cattle .
i. 156
Barrels for early potatoes .
ii. 315
Bailiff, duties of .
i. 6
Barrow, sack
11. 229, 230
Bdle, swung, %. travis partitions
i. 169
Basic or " Thomas " slag .
i. 500
Band-knots, placing the
ii. 186
Baskets, bam ....
ii. 226
Bands and binding grain
ii. 184
II com .....
ii. 227
Bank-vol&
ii. 428
M potato hand-
ii. 306
Barb-wire fences ....
i. 113
n seed-
ii. 121
Bare fallow
i. 441
Bath cheese
ii. 514
Barley-
Bathing or " pouring" sheep
. iii. 387
After com, experiments on .
ii. 134
Bath-stool for sheep .
iii. 387
As food for stock .
iii. 270
Beam, length of plough
i- 373
Charlock ....
"• 13s
Beams, specification for
i. 238
Caassifying .
. ii. 96
Bean-riddle ....
ii. 226
Crop values ....
ii. 90
Beans —
'
Effects of season on yield and qu
ality ii. 21
Aphis ....
ii. 444
Experiments at Rothamsted
• ii- 19, 133
Beetle
ii. 44S
Experiments at Wobum
ii- 43
Botanical character of .
ii- 153
Finishing sowing .
ii- 133
Broadcast grown .
. ii. 152
Germination of . . .
ii. 132
Consumption of .
ii. 147
Grains in a bushel of .
■ • i'- 97
Containing poison . ' .
. ii. 147
Harrowing for
ii. 132
Cropping ....
ii. 152
Hummellers ....
ii. 228
Cultivators and grubbers
ii. 150
Judging ....
ii. 97
Field-bean ....
ii 146
Limits of culture .
ii. 97
Food for stock .
iii. 273
Malting ....
ii. 97
Ha,nd-hoeing
ii. IS2
Manures for .
. ii. 37, 134
Harrowing drills .
ii. 152
Manuring. See Rothamsted
• ii- 19. 133
Harvesting ....
ii. 208
Meal
ii. 97
Horse-hoeing , . .
ii. 152
Oats and, mixed .
ii. 138
Locust or Carob . . ' .
. iii. 278
Quantity of seed .
ii. 132
Manures for .
ii. 38, 40, 149
Quick drying
ii. 187
Manures for tumips and
ii- 33
Reaping ....
ii. 187
And peas . . .
11. 146, 398
Riddle
ii. 22s
And peas mixed .
. ii- 153
After roots ....
ii. 134
And pea-straw, ash of .
ii. 148
Rothamsted experiments with
. ii. 19. 133
Ploughing for
ii. ISO
Season and effect upon yield
ii. 21
Poisonous ....
. iii. 274
Small sheaves
ii. 187
Preparing as food
iii. 274
Smut
ii. 416
Quantity of seed for
ii. 149
Soil for
• ii- 133
Riddle
ii. 226
Sowing
ii. 131, 132
Rows on the flat .
ii. 152
Summer culture of
ii- 13s
Rust in ....
ii. 41S
Stack-heating
ii. 200
Sowing. . . . ii
148, ISO, isf
Stage for cutting .
ii. 168
Soy
. iii. 274
S04
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., H., IIL
Beans —
Spring tillage for .
ii. 150
Stacking
ii. 209
Summer culture of
ii. 152
Thatching
ii. 209
Varieties of
ii. 149
Vegetable casein in . . .
iU. 273
Weevils
"• 4S9
Wheat after ....
ii. 119
Yield and weight of . . .
ii. 147
Bearing-reins ....
Beds, DOZ-, in family cottages .
i. 208
Bee-keeping
iii. 257
Appliances
Clover for bees . . . .
iii. 259
iii. 257
As a farm industry
iii. 2S7
Hives
iii. 258
Management . . . .
iii. 260
Marketing honey , . . .
iii. 258
Principles of . ■ . .
iii. 2S7
Beet carrion beetle
"• 445
„ fly ., - . . . -
ii. 446
It sugar-
11. 403
Beetles-
Bean
ii- 44S
Beet carrion ....
ii. 445
Brassy-flea ....
ii. 458
Cabbage-flea
ii. 448
Click
"• 454
Colorado ....
ii. 461
Com ground-
ii- 4S5
Devouring slugs and snails .
ii- 474
Flour
ii. 456
Ground ....
ii. 469
II and strawberries
ii. 467
Mangold ....
ii. 446
Pea
ii- 445
Kaspberry ....
ii. 467
Eose
ii. 469
Turnip-fly or flea-
ii. 463
II mud-
ii. 462
ii. 469
Beetroot
ii. 398
II pulp , . . .
iii. 28»
Bell's reaping-machine
ii. 172
Bere and rye as food for stock .
iii. 271
Berkshire pig , . , ,
iii. 213
Biestings, composition of .
iii- 3SI
Binder, self- ....
ii. 177
Binding ....
ii. 178
Cost'Of cutting with ,
ii. 181
Efficiency of the .
ii- 177
General construction .
ii. 177
ii. 181
Eaking. ....
ii. 181
Saving in crop
ii. 181
Size of sheaves
ii. 181
ii. 181
Binding cattle ....
i. 156
" grain
ii. 184
11 horses . '■.
i- 174
. ii. 184
II position of the band .
ii. 185
Biology
- i- 13
Biped pass
1. 121
Birds devouring slugs and snails .
ii. 474
11 protection against disbudding b^
1 ii- 439
II in relation to the farm
ii- 431
II in spring storms .
- ii- 59
Bisset's binder ....
ii. 180
Black grass, seed of . .
ii- 83
Blackbird, the ....
ii- 436
Blackface sheep —
iii. 183
Distribution of the breed
iii. 183
Blackface sheep-
Early history . . . .
iii. 183
Management . . . .
iii. i8s
Prices of (1893-1907) .
iii. 184
Prices of wool (1893-1907) .
iii. 184
Eam-breeding . . . .
iii. 186
A typical sheep . . . .
iii. 184
Qualifications of a shepherd
«!■ i8s
In winter
UL 396
Blending, house for butter-
11. 522
Blood, dried
i. 488
"Blood "horse
iii. 34
Blood-sucking lice . . . .
iii. 425
Blue-bottles or meat flies .
iii. 423
Blunt's ensilage press .
Bo«ird of Agrioufttire and Fisheries .
ii. 292
..!• 37
„ M and abortion
ui- 337
Boarding in the kitchen
1. 227
Boilers
i. 407
Bolls, flax-seed
ii. 389
Bondon or Xeufchatel cheese
ii- 521
Bone and mineral phosphate
i- 502
Bone manure
i- 493
Bone-meal, analyses of . . .
1- 495
Bones
1- 493
Burned
i- 495
Dissolved, and ' ' bone compounds "
i- 495. 496
Fermented
1. 494
Eaw
1- 493
Steamed or de^elatinised
i- 494
Boning-rod for drams . . . .
i. 67
Book-keeping
i. 244
Bordeaux mixture for spraying .
li. 409
Border Leicester sheep —
Characteristics . . . .
iii. 143
Early improvers . . . .
iii. 141
Management in flocks .
iii. 144
Mertoun flock . . . .
iii. 142
Origin— Bakewell's improvements
iii. 141
Noted breeders . . . .
iii. 143
Preparing rams for sale
iii. 147
Value for crossing
iii. 144
"Bosses," stack "kilns" or
ii. 265
II for stacking hay
ii. 271
11 for ventilating stacks
ii. 201
Botanical character of beans
. ii- 153
Botany —
Natural Orders of plants
i. 14
Plant pathology .
i. 14
Bot-flies
iii. 41S
Bothies
i. 226
Bothy system ....
i. 227
Bottles, milk
ii. 482, 485
Boulder-clay ....
i 18
Boundary fences ....
i. 86
Box-beds in family cottages
i. 208
Boxes —
For butter ....
ii. 501
For cattle ....
i- 155
For horses ....
i. 174
Boxing seed potatoes .
ii. 308
Bracken clock or garden chafer .
ii- 455
Bracken-cutting . . . . •
1- 343
Brackets, specification for .
i- 238
Bran as food for stock
iii. 270
Break-furrowing ....
ii- 332
Breast method of water-wheel .
ii. 220
Breasting bank-and-ditch hedges
i- 97
II knifff
i. 96
Breeding— <
Controlling sex .
iii. 227
Cross
iii. 228
Grading ....
. iii. 228
Heredity ....
iii. 225
Horses
- iii- 31S
INDEX TO VOLUMES I, II., III.
505
Breeding —
In-and-in ....
iii. 229
Line
iii. 229
Mendel's laws in stock-
iii. 231
Mental impression
iii. 227
Mule
iii. 60
Principles of stock-
iii. 224
Selection in
iii. 228
Stock, treacle for .
ui. 278
Systems of
iii. 228
Telegony
iii. 227
Transmission of acquiiedcliaracter
"Variations in results . . . .
9 iii. 227
iii. 225
Bietds of—
Cattle
iii. 3, 62
Dogs
iii 264
Horses
iii. 2, 9
Poultry . . . . .
iii. 237
Sheep
iii. 7, 138
Swiue
iii. 8, 2IO
Bressay stud of Shetland ponies .
iii. 56
Brewers' grains for dairy cows .
iii. 272
II difference in composition .
iii. 272
II and distillers' grains as food
iii. 271
II dried grains . . . • .
iii. 271
II dried v. wet grains
iii. 273
Bricks, specification for .
Bridges for sheep , . . .
i. 231
iii- 4"3
Bridle, horse
L 379
Brie cheese
ii., s=o
Britain, rainfall in Great .
L 29
British cattle, modern . . . .
ui. 6
II resources for com production
ii. 90
• II wool ....
iii. 4154
Broadcast manure-distributor
i. S20
II sowers . . . .
ii. 123
II II hand
ii. 124
II sowing, disadvantages of
ii- 157
II II of turnips • .
"- 335
Broccoli as food ....
iii. 282
Brome, seed of rye and soft
ii. 86
Brood mares, care of .
iii. 325
Brooms, bam ....
ii. 227
Bucket water-wheel .
U. 217
Buckwheat
ii. 376
II as food for stock .
iii. 272
II reaping ....
ii. 209
II seed of .
ii. 78
Bug, harvest ....
iii. 428
Building dry-stone walls .
i. 105
II process of stack- .
ii- 193
Buildings —
Farm. See Farm buildings .
i. 126
Iron .... %
i. 228
Specifications for farm .
i. 229
Bulb-eating slug ....
ii- 474
Bulbous plants . . . -
li. 401
Bullfinch, the ....
ii- 439
Bulling of cows ....
Bullock-holder ....
iii- 333
is- 333
Bulls, treacle for younfe
in. 278
Bunt of wheat ....
ii. 416
Buntings
a 438
Burning heather ....
. i. 343
II lime ....
1- 363
1, paring and, land .
1- 349
"Burnt ale" ....
iii. 272
Bush fruit
ii. 400
Butter, working of . . .
Butter-worker
ii. 499
ii. 500
„ and churn
ii. 498
Centrifugal butter-drier
ii. 500
Fresh butter
ii. SOI
Packing into crocksi .
• »• SOI
Salting butter
11. 500
Butter-
scotch hands
Yield of ...
Butter-blending house
II -dairy ground-plan .
n -drier, centrifugal
11 -fat ....
Buttercups, seeds of .
Butterflies, cabbage .
Butter-making ,
Boxes for transit .
And cheese-making associated
Churns ....
Churning
Sleepy cream .
Speed of the chum
Tuae of .
Whole-milk .
Colouring butter .
Effect of food on the temperature
Influence of salt .
Ripening cream .
Starter jelly .
Sweet-cream biitter .
Temperature for churning
Use of a " starter "
Byre-flttings, specification for
Byres —
And courts, drainage of
Binding cattle
Flooring of .
For feeding cattle
Mangers in .
Temperature of, and milk-yield
Ventilation of
Windows in .
Analysis of .
Aphis ....
Black-rot of . . ,
Butterflies .
Flea-beetle .
As food . . .^
Gall-weefll .
Growing of .
And Italian rye-grass .
Lifting ....
Manuring
Moth ....
Produce
Root fly
Boot gall-weevil .
Seed of .
Sowing and planting .
Storing.
For Spring use
For summer use .
Utilising
I, stalks . . > .
Yield of . . .
Cadzow Park wild white cattle
Caerphilly cheese
Cake-feeding on pas]:ures .
Cake and meals, compound
Cakes for store cattle .
Calcium cyanamide
II oxide of . . .
Calendar and agricultural seasons
Calf-rearing
Allowances of other foods
Artificial food
Aversion of farmers to .
Breed longer from cows
Breeding from heifers .
11. 501
ii. 478
ii. 522
i. 148
ii. 500
ii. 478
li. 77
ii. 446
ii- 493
ii. 501
ii. S22
ii. 496
ii. 498
ii. 499
ii- 499
494. 499
"• 495
ii. 501
ii- 495
ii- 494
493, 494
"- 493
ii. 494
ii- 494
ii- 493
I. 239
i. 158
i. 156
i. 156
i. 158
i- iSS
111. 346
i- 157
'• 157
ii. 371
u- 394
11- 449,
ii- 418
ii. 446
ii. 448
iii. 282-
ii. 463
"- 393
li. 372
ii- 373
li- 372
li. 447
li- 372
ii- 447
ii. 448
ii- 73
u. 371
"• 373
11. 371
ii. 371
ii. 372
ii- 373
11. 372
iii. 4
ii- 514
ii. 282
iii. 287
iii. 361
i. 489
i. 360
ii. 62
iii. 348, 374
iii- 353
111. 352
iii. 348
iii- 349
111. 349
5o6
INDEX TO VOLUMES I, IL, HL
Calf-rearing—
Calf-crib iii, 351
Calf's first food .... iii. 351
Are calves nuisances ) , . , iii. 350
Care in letting out calves . . iii. 351
Castrating ..... iii. 354
Composition of biestings , . iii. 351
Danger of gorging calves . . iii. 354
Deficiency of store cattle . . iii. 349
Feeding calves .... iii. 351
II calves for veal . , iii, 353
Home breeding, not importation,
the remedy . -. . . iii. 349
Housing calves .... iii. 330
On large farms .... iii. 349
Milk substitutes .... iii. 350
North of England rations . . iii. 353
In ordinaiy mixed-bred herds . iii. 352
Preparing food for calves . . iii. 353
Prevalent methods ■ . .iii. 352
In pure-bred herds . . . iii. 352
Quantities of milk for calves . iii. 353
Bear more calves .... iii. 349
Bearing or selling calves . , iii. 350
Beform in calf-feeding . . iii. 351
Separated milk for calves . . iii. 352
Setoning ..... iii. 354
Suckling and hand-rearing . . iii. 352
Weaning calves .... iii. 354
Calves —
Castration of .... iii. 498
Exercise and handling for showing .iii. 375
Linseed for iii. 275
Management of .... iii. 330
Milk for ii. 486
Palm-nut meal as food for . . iii. 277
Salt and chalk for . . . iii. 375
Calving—
Abortion iii. 334
. Attendance in .... iii. 331
The calf iii. 332
Coming in " Season " . . .iii. 333
Extracting a dead calf . . iii. 332
Feeding in-cal^icows . . . iii. 331
Gestation ' iii. 331
Immediate milking of cow . . iii. 333
Lickingandrubbing calves beneficial iii. 333
Navel-string .... iii. 332
Prelapse of the vagina . . . iii. 331
Preparation for . . . . iii. 331
Beckoning time of . . . iii. 331
Eefreshing the cow ... iii. 333
Eeviving calves .... iii. 332
, Season of iii. 330
Symptoms'of .... iii. 331
II of pregnancy . . . iii. 330
Cambridge road-scrapings . . .» i. 497
Camembert cheese , . . . ii. 520
Canadian and American silos . . ii. 290
Candlemas entry to farms . . . i. 277
Cantal cheese ii. 519
Capillary power of soils . . . i. 309
Capital per acre in stocking farms ' i. 28^, 2S7
Carbonic acid and oxygen in the air . i. 49
Carcase competitions .... iii. 412
Carnivora ii. 424
Carob beans iii. 278
Carpenter work ... i. 232, 238, 242
Carriage harrows . . . . li. 249
Carrick cattle. See Galloway . . iii. 71
Carrion crow ii. 432
Carrots ii. 395, 398
Analysis of ii. 394
Ply ii- 44S
Growing and heating in pits . ii. 396
Carrots —
For horses .
Leaves of
Liability to rot .
Pests .
Pits . . .
I^eparing seed
Produce
Pulling.
And rye .
Seed of. i
Soil for.
Sowing, . .
Storing .
Thinning . • .
Tillage and manuring
Time of storing .
Tops as food for stock
Varieties of .
Wireworms .
Carse-land farming
Steadings for ,
Cart-
Farm tip-
Frames .
Harvest
Jack's farm .
Liquid-manure
Loading a
Hopes .
Hoping a loaded .
Carting " gaitins "
II hours of
Casein in milk
II vegetable, in beans
Cash-book .
Castration of calves .
M of horses .
II of lambs . ,
II of pigs
Cat, wild .
Catch-cropping bush fruit
Caterpillars, surface .
Catstail, seed of .
Cattle-
Abortion, microbe of .
Administering medicine to ,
Advantages in home-grown food
Age for fattening .
Ages of store . , ,
Ailments of . . , .
Albuminoid ratio .
Anthrax and imported food .
Apportioning home-grown foods
Attention to animals' feet .
Balancing food properly
Barb-wire field-fences for
Binding
Boxes and stalls for
II plans for .
Bruising grain for
Byres for feeding .
Carcase competitions
Care in beginning winter feeding .
Changing stock on pastures .
Cheaper meat from young .
Concentrated food on pastures .
Cooking or steaming food . . .
Courts for . ....
Cutting turnips ....
Daily allowance of cake and grain
Daily allowance of turnips .
Dia^am of side of beef
Different kinds of roots for store .
Digestible albuminoids
iii. 282, 319
ii. 396
"• 39S
ii. 396
». 396
ii. 39S
ii. 395
ii. 396
ii- 39S
ii. 81
ii. 394
ii- 394
ii. 39S
li- 39S
ii- 394
ii. 396
ii. 393, iii. 282
ii- 39S
iJ- 4S3
i- 5
I. 136
ii. 349
ii. 190
ii. 190
ii. 318
i- 483 ,
ii. 192
ii. 191
ii. 192
ii. 192
ii. 192
ii. 479
iii- 273
i. 248
iii. 3S4, 498
id. 497
"1- 379, 498
iii. 498
ii. 42s
u. ,400
ii. '46s
ii. 84
»"- 337
iii. 496
iii- 359
m. 364
iii- 359
lii. 466
iii. 372
iii. 368
iii. 358
iii. 376
iii. 365
i- "3.
i. 156
i- 155
1- 139
iii- 357
i. 158
iii. 412
iii- 359
111. 363
iii. 364
iii. 370
iii. 356
iii 358
, iii- 355
iii. ,366
iii. 365
iii. 414
iii. 360
iii. 372
INDEX TO VOLUMES 1., II., III.
507
Cattle
Digestible matter per lb. of m
crease ....
Early maturity .
Eoonomical rearing of ,
Eoononiise turnips
Equipment of houses for
Experiments witb . .
Fattening, in winter .
Feed sparingly and frequently
Feeding in Aberdeenshire .
II in Easter Boss
II in England .
II in Ireland . . .
Foods to be bought and sold
Form and oonstitution .
Fresh air for
Frozen roots.
Give the pasture a good start
Oood breeding essential
Qrooming ....
Hours of ... .
Houses for .
Houses for, in cold districts
Housing calves .
Importance of practical experience
in feeding ....
Improvement in show stock
Increase of Ijve-weight
Increasing food with advancing age
Influence of age on feeding ,
Keep stock progressing
Lawes on high-pressure and profit'
able feeding .
lieguminous fodders for
Loss from exposure
M'Combie's system of feeding
Management of store and fattening
Methods of fattening .
Mixed feeding cakes ,
Oatmeail balls for . . .
Overgrowth of pastures injurious to
On pastures ....
Pastoral farming .
Period of gestation
Potatoes for .
Preparation of food for
Preparing for shows .
Price per live owt. of . .
\ Proper age for showing
Pulped food for store .
Pulping roots . . .
Pulping system for feeding .
nations for fattening .
Becipes for ailments of
Beview of feeding experiments
(1832-1909)
Scotch "blend "of food .
Scottish feeding customs .
Selecting show stock .
Selling fat, in spring .
II II in summer .
Sheds in southern districts
Shelter for .
"Soiling" ....
Soutbem systems of feeding store
Store, deficiency of
■I on pastures
II thriving best in open courts
Study the animal's appetite
l^mperament ...
Troughs ....
Turnips and cake for breakfast ?
Turnips and straw for store
Use of condiments
m. 37a
iii. 363
iii- 357
iii- 359
I. 151
lu. 294
iii. 363
iii. 360
iii. 366
iii. 367
iii. 368
iii. 370
iii. 359
iii- 374
iii. 357
iii- 355
iii. 362
iii. 374
iii. 376
■ 360. 36s
i. 130
iU. 358
iii- 375
iii. 376
iii- 373
iii. 372
iii. 376
iii. 372
iii. 362
iii. 364
iii. 373
iii. 357
iii. 366
iii- 355
iii. 364
iii. 375
iii 369
iii. 362
iii. 370
i. 130
iii. 236
iii. 369
iii- 355
iii- 373
iii. 4x1
iii- 374
iii. 361
iii- 355
iii. 366
iii. 36s
iii. 49S
iii. 371
iii. 368
iii. 365
iii- 374
ii- 59
II. 63
iii. 358
iii- 357
iii. 370
iii. 361
iii. 349
iii. 362
i. 167
iii. 360
iii- 374
i. 151
iii. 366
iii. 360
iii. 376
Cattle-
Value of potatoes for .
Washing roots for
What food is to be used
Winter feeding on fields
If feeding of store
II housing of store
Wire fence for
Without roots
Cattle, breeds of —
Aberdeen-Angus .
Ayrshire . .
Devon ,
Dexter-Shorthorn
Foreign breeds of
Galloway
Guernsey
Hereford
Highland
Jersey .
Kerry and Dexter
Lincolnshire Bed Shorthorn
Long-horned
Modem British .
Orkney and Shetland
Polled Durhams .
Polled Herefords .
Bed Polled .
Shorthorn .
South Devon
Welsh black
Wild white'.
Other wild white herds
Cattle-courts
Advantages of covered
Comparative cost and return
Construction of . .
Covered-court v. open-court dung
Covered, manure for potatoes
Drain grating for .
Drainage of . ■ •
Economy of food .
Fermentation in the dung
How litter should be spread
Increased value of manure
Preventing "fire-fang" in manure
Becapitnlation
Boofing
Total saving by using
Water-supply to .
Cattleman, duties of .
Cauliflowers
Causeway, specification for
Celery fly .
Celtic pony .
Centigrade scale .
Centrifugal butter-drier
M separator .
Cereal crops with grass seeds
II II insects injurious to
Cereals, manures for .
II sowing
II stacking
Cesspools . .
II specification for
Chaff as a foot- warmer
Chaff straw-, as food .
Chaffinch, the
Chaffing Utter .
Chalk, salt and, for calves
Chalking land .
Chalky soils
Challoner's level for drains
Chamomile, seed of
iii. 282
iii- 355
iii. 364
iii- 370
iii. 358
iii- 357
i- IIS
iii. 369
iii. 3, 62
iii. 62
iii. Ill
iii. 1 01
iii- 135
iit 137
iii. 71
iii. 132
iii. 97
iii. 116
iii. 129
iii. 125
iii. 94
iii. 136
iii. 6
iii. 136
iii. 137
iii. 137
iii. 78
iii. 82
iii. 10s
iii. 108
iit 121
iii. 4
iii. 6
i. 161
i. 161
i- 165
i. 163
i. 162
L 166
i- 159
1. 163
i. 162
i. 166
i- 457
1. 161
i. 166
i. 167
i- 163
i. 163
i- 152
i. 8
ii. 398
• 237, 242
ii. 449
iii- 54
i. 26
ii. 500
ii- 491
ii. 250
ii. 449
• 7> 34. 40
ii. IIS
ii. 189
i. 71
- 230, 237
ii. 103
iii. 287
ii- 438
1- 457
ill- 375
i- 348
i- 299
i. 67
ii. 79
5o8
INDEX TO VOLUMES I, H., HI.
Channel Island cattle .... iii. 129
Charlock, destroying . . . ii. 135
It seed of ..... ii. 73
Charring posts for field fences . . i. 112
Chart for drains ...... i 70
"Chaser" (or "rig") lamb. . . iii. 380
Cheddar cheese ii, 506
Character and composition , , it 506
Chessets or cheese-mould . . ii. 510
Colouring ii. 50S
Cnrd-hreaker and knives . . ii 508
Curing ii. 510
Process of making . , . ii. 507
Salting.^ ii. 509
Scale of points . . , , ii. 507
Testing acidity of curd . . ii. 509
It II ofmUk . . . ii. 507
Treatment of the milk . . . ii. 507
Cheese-making ii. 501
Acidity ii. 504
It controlling the . . ii. 505
It measuring the . . . ii. 506
Apartments for . . , . ii. 502
Bath cheese ii. 520
Brie cheese ii. 520
And butter-making associated . ii. 522
Caerphilly cheese , . , . ii 514
Camembert cheese . . , ii. 520
Cantal cheese ...
Cheddar cheese .
Cheshire cheese ,
Culture-starters .
Curd-mill .
Berbyshire cheese
Dutch cheeses
Edam cheese
English soft cheeses
Foreign cheeses suitable for Britain
Gloucester cheese .
Gorgonzola cheese
Gouda cheese
Gruy^re
Lancashire cheese
Leicestershire and Derbyshire cheese
Neufchatel or Bondon cheese
Parmesan or Grana cheese .
PontrBv6que
Propagation of a culture-starter
Backs for ripening , .
Bennet .
Ripening .' .
Boquefort cheese
Skim-milk cheese
"Starters" .
Stilton cheese
Utensils
Vat .
Yorkshire cheese, "Cotherstone
" Wensleydale " 1
Cheese-room of farmhouse .
Chemical analysis of soil essential
changes in the soil
composition of the air
elements important to farmers
processes in mixing manures
substances in soil
Chemist, the, first in demand .
Chemistry —
Agricultural .
General
Inorganic
Organic
Prominence given, to
What a farmer should know of
li. 506
ii 511
ii- 505
11. 50a
ii. S12
ii S16
ii 516
ii- 513
»• SIS
"• S13
ii 518
ii- S17
ii. 516
ii- S13
ii. 512
ii S2I
ii- 517
ii. 521
ii- S03
ii- SOS
ii 502
ii S03
ii. S04
ii 519
u. 510
u. 504
ii 510
ii. 502
ii 502
and
ii- 513
191
307
303
23
i3
i. S08
302
II
1- 13
i II, 13
i. 13
1- 13
i. 10
i 12
Cheshire cheese .
Chesset for cheese
Cheviot sheep^
Characteristics
Early improvement
Improvers of
Management of .
Chicory
It seed of
Chickweed, seed of
If family, kidney-shaped seeds of the
Chillingham Park mid white cattle
Chough, the
Churning whole-milk .
Chums
Combined, and butter-worker
Important features of
Railway milk, or can
Types of
Cirencester College of Agriculture
Cistern, water- .
Civil engineering
Classification of animals
II of farm seeds
II of insects ,
It of soils . . .
II of wools . . .
ClaysoU ....
Clay-cutters
Clay-land drained
11 ■ not to be ploughed wet
II wet ....
Claying lands, .
Is claying injurious to sheep !
Mixing soils . .
Clay's grubber .
Cleavers, seed of .
Cleveland bay horse —
Characteristics
Management
Value for crossing
Click beetles
Clifton Park system of growing grass
Climate ....
ti effect of, on pastures .
It elevation and local
11 and irrigation
It local ....
11 It and land value .
II and rotation . .
II soil, and manuring
n soils and, for clovers .
11 what constitutes - .
Clip-fork ....
Clippers, horse- .
Clipping horses .
II sheep .
Clod-crushers
Clotted cream, Devonshire .
Clover. See also Grasses .
Alsike ....
Creeping trefoil .
Crop V. bare fallow
Culture in England
Cutting
Dodder.
It seed of . .
Experiments with
Extra late variety
Feeding value of .
As a forage crop ,
Frost injuring, seeds ,
Grasses and .
It for permanent pasture
And grasses as food
u. 511
ii. Sio
iii. 190
iii. 190
iii 191"
iii 192
ii 404
ii. 80
ii 74
ii. 73
iii 5
ii. 434
ii. 495
ii. 496
ii. 49S
ii. 498
ii 48s
ii. 496
i- 31
i- 153
i 22
i ,16
ii. 72
ii- 443
i. 301
iii 405
i 298
i- 64, 6s
i. so
i- 398
i 5°
1. 346
i 348
1. 348
li 330
ii 8i
iii- 33
ui. 34
™- 33
li- 454.
ii. 287
261-264
ii. 280
i 263
i- 356
1. 263
i. 264
i- 437
i 518
ii. 241
i 261
ii. 274
iii. 324
iii. 323
iii. 384
, ii- 38s
u. 492
u. 230
- 75. 243
ii. 243
L 442
ii- 375
"• 255
li 423
ii. 89
ii- 49
li. 376
iii 284
ii- 375
ii. 250
ii 230
24Si 28s
iii 284
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
509
of
Caovar — ,
And grasses, composition of
Importance of
Imparities in
Late variety of crimson
Meadow trefoil .
Perennial red
Bape, seed of
Seed . , . » .
Sickness, contributing cause
Soils and climate for .
Sowing crimson .
Suckling, seed of .
Tedders injuring, hay ,
Trefoil or yellow . ,
Tr^folivm incdmatmn ,
Tuirning, hay
' Varieties of ,
■White ....
II variety
Yellow suckling, seed of
Club-root, or ' ' flnger-and-toe "
Clun sheep ....
Clydesdale horse —
Admission to Stud Book
Ancient types
jCharacteristios
^arly improvement
Features of the modem
Infusion of Shire blood
Management of Show stock
Management of studs .
Markets for .
Measure^nents of .
Origin ....
Sales from 1876 to 1908
Society
Spreading of the breed .
Thompson's black horse
Coal as fuel ....
Cockchafer ....
"Cocking "hay .
Cocksfoot, seed of
Cbcoa-nnt cake as food . ^
Coiling hay .
"Coling" ....
Collar, horse
Collectors, hay .
Colleges. See Agricultural colleges
Collie Dogs ....
Collier in beans (aphis)
Colorado beetle .
Combustion —
Amount of air for perfect
Engine, internal .-,
Oxygen
Comfrey, prickly
II II as a forage crop
" Common " farming .
Compact pastoral steading .
Compensation for disturbance
II for improvements
II Workmen's, Act, 1906
Composite cottages
Composites, " seeds " of
Composition of —
Air ....
Basic slag
Clay and sliell marls .
Common foods
Coprolites .
Crops in pounds per a ore
Dung ....
Earth's crust
VOL. III.
iii. 284
ii. 241
ii. 244
ii- 37S
11. 243
ii. 74, 242
ii. 89
ii. 241
ii. 471
ii. 241
ii- 37S
il 76
ii. 260
ii. 76, 244
u. 243, 375
ii. 261
ii. 241
ii- 75> 243
il. 376
ii. 76
ii- 417
iii, 203
lU.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iiu
iii.
iii.
iii.
16
23
20
28
25
23
22
16
24
20
18
17
1. 404
li- 4SS
n. 261
ii. 87
iii. 277
ii. 262
ii. 189
i. 379
ii. 265
i- 31
iii. 264
ii. 444
ii. 461
i. 404
1. 404
ii. 376
iii. 289
i- 5
i. 131
i. 268
i. 276
i. 296
i. 223
ii. 79
1. 23
i- 500
iii. 351
i- 349
iii. 290
i. 498
i- 326
i. 467
i. 306
Composition of—
Q-rasses
Guanos .
Lime ,
Limestone
Milk from different breeds of
Oatmeal . . ,
Phosphate of Lime .
Phosphorite .
. Seeds .
Separated milk .
Sheep dips .
Slaked lime .
Superphosphates .
Turnips . . .
Urine of different animals
Compost ....
II with liquid manure
Compound cake and meals .
engines
II manures
Concrete floors .
II silos ....
II troughs . . .
Condensed milk .
Condensing engines
II waste steam
Condinl^ntal foods
Condiments, use of
Conduits, graded, in drains
11^ specification for . ,
ComiStl cooler
II pit for storing potatoes
Connemara pony.
Constituents of food s ,
Cooke's one-way plough
Cooking or steaming food for cattle
Coolers, milk
Cooley system of raising cream
Co-operative milk depots
Coping for dykes
II specification for .
Coprolites ■,
Core-drains ....
Com —
Account, statement of .
Basket ....
Boxes, specification for
Bunting, the
Carts .
Chests ....
Crops ....
Crops, conditions in lease
Culture
Dressing
Experiments at Wobum
Fly, the ribbon-footed ,
Forking, in the field
Ground-beetle
Growing
From high manuring .
Indian, as food for stock
Measuring, for horses .
Mode of lifting sacks of
Process of reaping
Production in Britain .
And rice weevil
Sacks ,
Scoop .
Screens .
And seed drill
Shovels
Stacks .
At the steading
231,
iii. 284
i. 487
L 366
i. 36s
ii. 478
ii. 100
i. 501
i. 498
ii. 156
iii- 352
iii. 389
1. 364
I. S02
iii. 279
i. 47S
i. 366
i. 484
iii. 287
i- 413
i- 505
232, 238
ii. 290
Ii. 484
407,41s
i. 406
iii. 288
iii. 376
i. 82
i. 238
ii. 483
ii. 322
iii. 46
iii. 291
i- 373
iii. 356
ii- 483
ii. 489
485, 522
i. 108
i. 231
i. 497
I. 84
.?• ^53
II. 227
i. 239
n. 438
190, 191
i- 174
11. 89
i. 274
u. 144
ii. 224
ii. 48
ii. 450
ii. 191
ii- 455
11. 89
ii. 7
lii. 272
i- 17s
ii. 228
ii. 182
ii. 90
ii- 4S5
u. 229
ii- 453
II. 227
ii. 225
ii. 124
ii. 227
ii. 189
ii. 210
2 K
Sio
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., IL, III.
Corn —
Cream —
Stool for stacl;
ii. '193
Temperature of, for churning
Strikes, . ., ^ .
ii. 227
,1 of shallow pans
Threshing and winpowipg
ii. 222
Test-tubes ...
Thrips . . ^ .
. ii. 456
Testing percentage of .
Tying sacks of
ii. 223
Creameries ......
Varieties of .
ii. 91
Creamery strainer
Corn-band for shelves ..
ii. 184
Cieasoting poles for hops .
Com-bam . ., ^ ,
i. 180
Crested dogstail, seed of , .
Cornoookle, seed of ^
. u. 74
Crooks, packing butter into
Cornish boiler
i. 408
Crop pests
"Corrimony" fence .
i. IIS
Bean aphis or collier .
Corrosion in.boile^-s .
i. 410
Bean and pea beetles .
Corrugated boilerjflue ^
i. 410
II weevils
" Cotherstone " cheese
■ iJ- S13
Beet caftion beetle ,.
Cotswold sheep — .
..fly
Characteristics .
iii. 151
Cabbage aphis . > . .
Improvement
iii. 150
II butterflies
■ Management of . . , .
iii. 151
.1 flea beetle
Cottage gardening
• ii. £9
u moth .. . . .
Cottages. See Labourers' oottag
es . i. 206
II root fly . . . .
Cotton-cake
. iii. 276
1. .1 gall-weevil
It &ution in using undeoortic
ated iii. 276
Carrot fly
ti manurial value of
iU. 277
1. wireworms
II uses of decorticated .
iii. 277
Celery fly
II value of undecortioated
iii. 277
Click beetles . . . .
County Councils and education
i. 33
Cockchafer
Court. See Cattle-qburts .
"i. 161
Colorado beetle .. . . .
" Covenanted " rent' .
i. 269
Com ground-beetle
Cow and horse dung compared
i. 46s
.. and rice weevil .
Cow's milk for foals .
. ui. 327
.. sawfly
1, for lambs .
iii. 378
.. thrips » . . . .
Cows--
Daddy-long-legs or crane-flies
Bulling of . . .
iii- 333
Death's-head moth.
Carrot-tops as food for
ii. 393, iii. 282
Diamond back mqth .
Efifeots of ventilation and ten
ipera-
Belworms . . . . .
ture on milk-yield .
iiu 346
Flea-beetles ., . . . .
Feeding of .
. iu. 344
Flour beetles . . . .
Feeding dry and breeding
iii. 346
Frit fly
Pood requirements of .
iii. 303
On fruit . . • . .
Malt-combs for .
iii. 271
Garden chafer or Macken clock .
Management of .
- . iii. 330
Gout-fly or the ribbon-footed corn-
Milk from different breeds o
: . ii, 478
fly . . ... .
MUkingof. See "Milking"
' . iii. 340
Hessian fly . ^ .
Parsnip leaves as food for
. ii. 397
Hop aphis
Period of gestation
iii- 236, 499
II fever-fly . .
Spaying
. Hi- 343
.1 flea or brassy-flea beetle
Stalls for
I- ISS
II frog-fly
Too early bulling unwise
■ iii- 333
II red-spider . . . .
Cradle-scythe
ii. 171
Mangold-leaf maggot .
Crane-flies ....
ii. 449
Onion-fly _ .
Cream —
Parafiiu emulsion for .
Airing ....
ii. 487
Parsnip fly
Atmospheric influence on
ii. 490
Pea beetle
Cooley system of raising
. ii. 489
II midge . . , . .
Deep-setting of .
ii. 489
1. moth . . • . .
■Devonshire clotted
li. 492
II thrips
II scalding system
ii. 490
II and bean weevils .
Effect of food on the churninj
;tem-
Pigmy mangold beetle .
perature .
- ii- 495
Spring-tails
" Gerber " tester .
ii. 479
Surface caterpillars
Jar ... .
ii. 489
Turnip and cabbage gall-weevil .
Lactooribe for testing .
11. 479
Turnip-fly or flea-beetle
Preserving .
ii. 492
II moth . . . .
Baising
u. 486, 491
.1 mud-beetle . . ' .
Ripening
u. 404, 493
II sawfly . . . .
Scalding
ii. 490
Wheat bulb-fly . . . .
SeUing.
ii. 492
II midge . . . .
Separated
u. 492
Wireworms
Separators, centrifugal .
ii. 491
Cropping beans
ShaUow-pan system of raisin
g . ii. 487
II conditions of ... .
Skimmer
ii. 489
.1 excise restrictions on .
Sleepy ....
ii. 499
II legal provisions . . . .
Straining
ii. 498
1. rank wheat
Swartz system of raising
ii. 489
" Crop sickness " . . . .
II. 494
u. 487
ii. 479
ii. 479
ii. 522
ii. 489
ii. 380
ii. 86
it 501
ii. 442
■ ii. 444
ii. 445
ii. 459.
ii- 445
ii. 446
ii. 449
ii. 446
ii. 448
ii. 447
ii. 447
ii. 448
ii- 445
ii- 453
li- 449
ii- 454
ii- #55
ii. 461
ii- 455
ii- 4SS
ii- 453
ii. 456
li. 449
ii. 462
ii. 464
u. 470
ii. 463
ii. 456
ii- 451
ii. 467
li- 455
ii. 450
11- 452
ii. 456
IL 458
ii. 458
ii- 457
ii. 458
ii. 446
ii. 459
ii. 444
u. 449
i'- 445
ii. 460
ii. 460
ii. 461
ii- 459
11. 446
ii. 466
ii. 464
ii. 463
11. 463
ii. 46s
ii. 462
ii. 466
ii. 451
ii. 452
ii- 453
ii. 152
i- 273
ii. 403
i- 27s
ii. 129
i. 436
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
511
Crops-
Accompanying grass seeds . . u. 250
Autumn ..... ii. 66
Cereal ' ii. 115
Composition fii ordinary, per acre i. 326
Conditions favourable to large . ii. 13
Com ii. 8g
Different kinds of dung for . . _ i. 45s
Disposal of forage, in summer . ii. • 63
Drainage and autumn-sown , . i. 50
Eleotriqity for production of . ii. 404
Elements absorbed by . . . i. 516
Evidence of the, for fertility . 1. 45°
Exhaustion of soil by removal of. i. 326
Experiments in manuring . . ii. i
Forage ii. 367
Hay . . . .... ii. 251
Insect farm pests. See Crop pests ii. 442
Ingredients removed by . i. 443, 448
Insuring i. 280
For irrigation .... i. 356
Leguminous, and soil nitrogen . i. 435
ti enriched with nitrogen i. 324
Lime for i. 362
Liquid manure for . . . i. 482
Making dung or selling . . i. 473
Mangel ii. 362
Manures for different . . . ii. 40
Manures for slow and fast growing i. 517
Potato ii. 29s
Bainfall and .... i. 264
Rotation of . . , . i. 433
Saving in, by binder . . . ii. 181
Selling way-going , , . i. 278
For silage ..... ii. 292
Slow manures for slow growing . i. 492
Sowing with spring . . . ii. 250
Subsidiary farm . . . . ii. 392
Turnip. ii. 324
Valuing i. 278
Varieties of, in rotation . . i. 440
Way-going i. 277
Weeding cereal . , . . ii. 129
Weight and composition of . . ii. 32&
Cross:breeding .... iii. 228
Cross-cultivation for turnips . . ii. 332
Ci^ss-fertilisation of grain . . . ii. 104
Garten's work on . . . . ii. 108
Mr Knight's efforts . . ii. 105
Organs of fructification . . ii. 105
Percentage of success . . . ii. 108
Period for crossing . . . ii. 107
Mr Raynbird's expferiments . . ii. 105
Mr P. Shirreff's experiments . ii. 105
Time of natural fecundation ii. 107
IT required to fix type . . ii. 107
Cross-fertilisation of potatoes . . ii. 311
II furfow, depth of . . . ii. 146
II harrowing ii. .126
Crosshill's clod-crusher . . . ii. 386
Crosfi-plonghing i. 396
II II land , . . . ii. 144
II II harrowing before . ii. 144
Crown-and-furrow ploughing * . i. 395
Crows " ii. 432
Cruciferous plants, globular-seeded . ii. 73
Cuckoo, the ii. 440
Cultivating land for turnips . . ii. 328
Cultivation, antiquity of oat . . ii. 100
Antiquity of wheat . . . ii. 95
Autumn . . . . . ii. 63
Drainage and root ... i. 50
Of flax ii. 384
General principles of com . . ii. 144
Of hemp ii. 402
Cultivation—
Of hops
Of leeks
Limits of barley .
•I 'rye
Steam , . .
Cultivators and grubbers .
II Martin's . . .
II spring-tined, for flax culture
Culture-stacters .
Cultures, soil
Curd-breaker
,1 knives
II mill . . ^ >
Currants . . . v
Curry-comb, brush, foot -picker, and
mane-comb , , .
Cushat, the, or wood-pigeon
Cutting and breasting hedges
II hedges
II stage for grain harvest
Cyanamide calcium .
Cylindrical milk-coolers . 1
Daddy-long-legs or crane-flies
Dairies, detailed i
Dairy —
Education in Scotland .
Examinations
Farm, steadings for
II steadings for suburban
II stocking a ,
Farmer, what he should know
Schools in England
Dairy, the . .
Butter-making
Cheese-making . >
Compartments in .
Consumption and selling of whole-
•milk
Dampness to be avoided
Destination ef the milk
Factory. , . ■ .
Finishings of the >
Herd recorder ,
Importance of temperature .
Medley in the milk-room
Milk
Milk records
II shelves- . <,
F^teurisation of milk 1 . '
Power for the . > ,
Purifying and preserving milk
Backs for ripening cheese .
Separate ....
Separator ....
Shelves for ....
Situation of , .
Sterilisation of milk
Temperature-of ,
Thermometers >
Utensils ... 1
Verandah ....
Dairy cows, beans for
II ' feedltfg of- 1
11 11 grains for- 1 <
It II rations for <
II It in siHnmer, feeding of
Dairying and market gardening
II in summer ....
Dairymaids, duties of .
Dairy produce, marketing of
Daisy, seed of ox-eye < . ,
Dandelion, seed of . .■ ,
Damp course, specification for .
11. 377
ii. 398
,ii. 97
ii. loi
i. 421
ii. 150
ii. 331
ii. 386
ii. SOS
i. 324
ii. 508
ii. 508
ii. 502
ii. 468
iii. 314
ii. 434
i. 95. 96
i. 98
ii. 167
i. 489
ii. 483
ii. 449
i. 192
i. 3S
i. 36
•i. 147
i. 151
i. 5, 288
I. S
i. 32
ii- 475
li. 493
ii- 501
ii. 476
ii. 485
li. 476
' ii. 484
ii. 522
ii. 475
ii. 480
ii. 477
ii. 475
ii. 478
ii. 480
ii. 476
ii. 481
ii. 477
ii. 481
ii. 502
ii. 476
ii. 491
ii. 489
ii- 475
ii. 482
ii. 477
II. 477
1. 477, 486
ii. 476
iii- 273
iii. 344
iii. 272
iii. 344
iii. 346
ii. 397
ii- 63
..V 9
lu. 409
ii. 79
ii. 80
i. 232
512
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
Dari or durra as food for stock
DartmooT pony .
II sheep .
Day-book ,
Dead-hedge .
Bead meat, marketing of
Deafening, specification for
" Deanston " system of drainage
Death's-head moth . .
Decorticated cotton-cake, uses of
De Lanne's seed mixtures
De Laval separator
Deep setting of cream .•
Deer forest-iiy .
II wire fence for .
Derbyshire cheese
II gritstone sheep
DsTon cattle . .
Early history
Management of herds
' The milling type . ,
Modem
Wraghts
Devon cattle. South. See " South
Devon long-wooled sheep-
Characteristics
Early history
Management
Devonshire system of scalding cream
Dew
II beneficial influence of ,
Dexter cattle as beef-producers —
Characteristics
i fdods
of
Origin of
Dexter-Shorthorn, age, weights,
measurements .
Diaphragm churns
Dibbling .
II machines ,
Digestible matter of various
Digestion, energy consumed In
M of food
Digger, potato- .
Diggers and steam-ploughs
Digging and grubbing.
11 and ploughing .
II steam .
Dipping bath, construction
Cost of . . .
Plans of
Plunge-bath .
Stone and wood .
,. Tossing sheep into
Dipping mixtures
II composition of dips
II carbolic acid and soft-
II dressing for scab
II liiue and sulphur
II non-poisonous dips
II tobacco and sulphur
Dipping sheep .
Bath-stool .
Bathing or "pouring"
Former customs .
Process of .
Swimming-bath .
Time of
"Weather for .
Disease, insurance against
M lime as a preventive of crop
Diseases, fungus, of plants
II potato , .' . .
11 of animals .
II of poultry .
soap
and
111. 273
iii. 44
111. I9S
1. 247
1. lOI
iii. 407
i. 242
i. 44
li. 462
iii. 277
ii. 246
ii. 483
li. 489
, iii. 425
i. IIS
ii. 512
iii. 201
iii. loi
iii. loi
iii. 104
iii. 103
iii. 102
iii. 103
iii. 105
iii. 152
iii. 152
iii. IS3
ii. 490
i. 26
ii. 62
iii. 128
iii. 127
iii. 128
iii. 126
iii. 136
ii. 497
ii. 159
ii.-i63
iii. 294
iii. 298
iiL 292
.ii. 317
i. 383
i- 399
i. 368
i. 427
iii. 387
iii. 389
iii. 388
iii. 389
iii. 389
iii. 389
ill. 389
iii. 389
iii- 433
iii- 390
iii- 433
iii. 389
iii- 433
iii. 387
iii. 387
iii- 387
iii- 387
387, 388
iii. 387
iii. 389
iii- 390
i. 280
i- 362
ii. 405
296, 316
iii.. 436
iii- 253
Dishley or Leicester sheep . . . ii:
.138
Distillery food iii
. 272
Districts, rainless . . . . i
. 2S
Ditcher's shovel i
- 91
Ditches, scouring . . . . i
• »i9
II in pastures ii
. 2S4
Divisional fences ,. . i
. 87
Divisions for stall, specification for . i
• 23s
Dock fa'mUy, "seeds "of the . . ii
. 78
Docldng .iii
. 498
II lambs iii
- 379
Dodder, a parasitic flowering-plant . ii
• 423
Dogs, period of gestation . . iii. 23*
5.499
II rabies iii
. 493
M sheep ii
. 264
Donkeys, uses of iii
■ 59
Doors, specification for . . . i. 23c
). 243
Dorset Down sheep . . . , ii
. 179
Dorset or Somerset horn /sheep . . ill
. 180
Down or short-wool breeds of sheep . ii
. 162
Draff ii
. 271
Drafting lambs ii
. 386
Drainage of pastures . . . . i
. 281
II waters, loss of nitrates in . . i
• IS
II II soil and, at Bothamsted . i
. 3
Draining ......
. 44
Accelerating harvest . . . i
. 47
And autumn-sown crops . . i
• 5°
And economical manuring .
• SI
And irrigation . , . . i. 51
,3SS
And nitrification . . . . :
- 49
And root cultivation . . . i
. SO
And soil temperature . . * . i. 4;
t, 263
Antiquity of
. 44
Best season for , . . . i:
.- 66
By contract
. 63
Byres and courts . . . . :
. IS8
Carbonic acid and oxygen .
Cattle courts . . . . :
- 163
Causes of wetness in land ,
• 51
Conducive to health . . . ;
- SO
Conflicting opinions on . . :
• 45
Cost of, per acre . . . . :
. 70
II of machine- . . . . :
- 83
II of mole and pipe .
• 78
Customs in executing ...
. 62
"Deanston" system of
• 45
Determining necessity for .
• SI
Drained clay-land ...
- 50
E£Scient, essential to agriculture .
• 44
" Essex " system of ...
■ 44
Examining soil for . . . :
• S3
Falls in outlets ....
• S3
Fertility from rain-water
• 48
-First step in
- SI
Grass lands
. 84
Hill pasture
- 344
Important details ...
■ 69
"* Improving pasture ...
■ SO
Increasing produce ...
• SO
Insects attacks less frequent
L so
Loans for
. 46
Machine ..... i
Materials . . . *.
- 78
- 57
Men for, work ....
- 63
Mitigating drought
- 49
Mole
• 74
Natural
• 51
Need of extended ....
. 84
Nitrogen and sulphuric acid from^
rain-water '
. 48
Object of
. 46
Outfalls
• 52
1, from hollows .
■ S3
II in limestone districts
■ S3
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., IIL
513
Draining—
Parkes's system of
Plough
Bemoving and avoiding boulders .
Boad
Salt from rain-water ,
SMlled labour in ,
Soils retaining water in
Specifications for, contract .
Springs
Subterranean outfalls .
Surface, , .
Time for ... .
Varying with soil.
^Ventilation of the soil in
Waste land . * . , . .
Water-level, lowering .
Water, lime in . . .
Wet and drained clay-land .
Itrains*
Advantages of cylindrical pipe
American method of regulating levels
An established rule as to
Areas of pipes (full-sized) .
Causes of obstruction f
Challoner's level for
Chart .
Clearing choked pipes
II rods
Collated pipes
Conditions regulating size of pipes
Core
Cost of cutting
It of mole and pipe .
II of pipes . . .
Course of main . .
Seep, and capillary attraction
Depth of .
JDerangementjOf .
Digging-spade
Direction of main ...
Distance between . • . .
Dunghills injurious to . ,
Endless-chain system of_olearing .
Fall for main
Filling ..."..
Flushing ....
Gauge . ' .
Grating for courts
In furrows ....
Junction of minor and main
II pipes
Keeping in order . . .
Laying the pipes .
Levelling-staff for .
Liquid manure
Material for ....
Measures for preventing obstruction
Number of pipes per acre .
Objections to sand
Obstruction by iron compounds
IT of, by roots
Old English .
Outfall pipes
Outfalls in main .
Peat .
Pipe V. porous
Pipes, areas of
II for main
II 'selecting .
Placing the dug-out soil
Plug . . .
Porous .
Preliminaipy surveying .
4S
63
64
124
48
S2
46
63
53
S3
85
S2
53
49
337
49
362
S°
44,
59
67
55
81
70
71
67
70
71
71
59
60
84
68
78
60
55
55
54
73
64
56
55
461
72
55
69
71
66
159
55
56
69
70
68
67
159
57
71
62
80
70
73
57
69
55
58
80
81
62
59
66
• 57
79
55
Drains —
Prevention of obstruction by roots
Quantity of earth removed .
Boot depu . . .
Scoops .
Shovel .
Specification for .
Stone .
Strain on pipes ,
Sub-mains ,
Symptoms of blocking
Testing'levelness of
Tile
Tube, spigot, and faucet
Upright for lower end of
Wedge-and-shoulder .
Width of .
Work, inspecting . , .
Draught of ploughs .
Dray's Hussey reaping-machine
"Dreg" ....
Dressing stacks , ,
n threshing and, machine
Dried grains as food .
Drift soils ....
Drill cultivator ...
II dung-spreader .
11 horse-hoe .
II plough and manure sower
II plough, potato-digging by
II II Scottish .
II n triple
II for turnips
II ploughs
II roller .
II sowers
II turnip • .
II sowing, advantages of
II II introduction of
II . width of, for wheat .
Drilling fallow .
Drills, harrowing for beans .
II sowing manure in
Drought, drainage mitigating
Drums? safety-, for threshing-machines
Drying, artificial, of grain
Dry-stone walls ,
Ducks ....
Dung ....
A complete manure
Art of making
Allan's drill, spreader
Analysis of town stable
Application of
Carting, out .
Chaffing litter
Cold weather and loss of nitrogen
Composition of . . .
ConcUtions influencing excreta
Covered court v. open court . '
Difierent kinds of, for crops
^ Dr Anderson on .
Economical use of
Emptying courts of .
Extra value of covered-court
Farmers now less dependent on
Fermentation in .
Fertility in a ton of
Field-sheds for .
Fields to be manured .
"Fire-fang" in .
Fixing ammonia in
Flooring of manure-pits
For bare fallow .
■ 73
. 68
71
■ 54
■ 65
, 66
i. 230, 237, 240, 243
i. 58
i. 61
i- 55
1. 71
i. 66
• i. 58
i- 159
i- 73
>• 57
1. 63
i. 66
i. 375
ii. 174
iii. 272
ii. 276
ii. 211
iii. 271
i. iS
ii- 353
.!• 513
"■ 352
1. S20
, ii. 320
ii. 302
ii. 306
ii- 334
'- 373
ii. 307
u. 124
ii- 337
ii. IS9
11- 334
ii. 124
i- 445
u. 152
1- 519
1. 49
ii. 21S
ii. 202
iii. 240
i- 453
468, 471
i. 461
i- 513
1. 470
1. 511
454, 5"
i- 457
>- 473
i. 467
i. 466
i. 162
i- 455
1. 469
i- 515
1- 457
i. 463
1- 473
i. 166
i. 469
i. 460
i- 456
1. 465
1. 468
i. 463
1. 444
514
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., IL, III.
Dung —
Ear-marking sheep, system of .
iii. 166
For grass lands .
»• SI5
Earnings, weekly, of farm-servants .
i. 289
For turnips ....
ii. 346
Earth, average composition of its crust
i. 305
For wheat ... ...
i. 515, ii. 4
ji or greensward roads .
i. I2S
Fresh and rotten .
i. 468, 470
Eaves, gutter, specitication for .
i. 236
Heating soil
i 471
Ecology
i. 14
Horse and cow, compared . .
i. 46s
Economic entomology.
i. IS
Incorporating the liquid with
,i, 481
II wire fencing ....
1. 121
Injurious to drains
i. 461
II Zoology ..-■..
i. IS
Injury from ' ' washing "
i. 464
Edam cheese
ii. 516
Intermixing ....
i. 512
Edinburgh University, education at .
i. 31
Is winter carting-out injurious ?
i. 460
11 II first agricultural degree in i. 31
Lasting influences of .
i. 471
Education. See Agricultural .
i. 30
Light soils ....
i. 514
II scientific, widening .
1. II
Loss of residual manure
i. 472
Educational institutions in Ireland .
i- 43
ti of time in carting .
i. 456
Belworms
Egg-ended boiler
ii. 470
Losses from want of care of .
i- 453
i. 408
Making, or selling crops
i- 473
Eggs-
For mangels ....
ii. 465
Hatching, time of . . .
iii. 236
•iii. 236
Manure-court . ;
i. 460
New-laid
Manure-pit ....
Manurial value of straw
i. 462
Preserving
iii. 252
i. 467
Storing
iii. 2S3
Mechanical influence of
ii. 5
Testing
iii. 250
II uses of
i. 471
Winter . .
iii. 251
Methods for preserving nitrogen ir
i. 459
Elder's tumip-cuttii% catt .
iii- 395
Mischief from defective water-spoi
its i. 465
. II sheep fodder-rack
m. 394
Mixing
i- 455
Electric driving
i- 431
Necessity for turning .
i- S14
Electrical engineering
i. 22
Nitrogen in .
ii- 5
Electricity
i. 21,24
II annually lost from
i- 454
' II in agriculture ....
li. 404
No 'J fire-fang " in open court
i. 167
Elements, chemical, important to farmer
s i. 12
Oozing of liquid from heaps .
i. 463
Elevating apparatus for hoisting hay .
ii. 274
Pig
i. 466
Elevation and local climate ' • .
i. 263
Plant-food in . . .
ii. 4
II and temperature . . ; .
i. 263
For potatoes
ii. 297, 299
II of ploughs
i. 369
Practical conclusions .
1- 473
. Elevator, hay ... . .
ii. 27s
Preventing fermentation
i- 459
II of reaper-binder .
ii. 178
Process of turning . . .
I. 512
II straw and hay ....
ii. 215
Produce of, per head of stpok
i. 469
Embryo in seed germination
ii. 156
Prof. Wrightson on
1. 474
Employment, piece work, of savants .
i. 294
Pumping urine on
i. 464
Enclosure and shelter ....
i. 86
Quantities of, per acre .
i- S15
Bnd-over-end churns ....
ii. 496
n 11 from stock
i. 466
Enemas
iii. 497
Sheep
, i. 466
Enemies, of live stock, insect
iii. 417
Shovel
i. S12
Energy value of foods
iii. 297
Soil an unreliable custodian of .
i. 472
Engineering —
Southern practice without drills .
i- 514
Electrical . ...
i. 22
Spade
i. 460
Sanitary
1. 22
Spreading . ^ .
i- 513
Engines —
Superiority of, questioned . .
i. 472
Condensing ...
i. 407
Supplemented manure .
i- 514
Gas and oil
i. 428
Symptoms of putrefaction .
1- 513
Internal combustion .
i. 21
,System'of feeding and value of
i. 467
Steam
i. 404
• Thermometer
i. 26
Wind
i. 432
Time of application
i. 514
England, cattle-feeding in .
iii. 368
Town stable
i. 470
English barns
i. 178
Treatment of farmyard
1. 453
M custom of entering a farm .
i. 277
Turning ....
1. 458
11 II of offering for farms
i. 271
II and putrefaction
i- 513
II farms, stocking of . . .
i. 286
Variety in the quality of
i- 453
II steading, modem
II wheel-plough
* i- 139
Vegetation and loss of nitrates
i. 473
i- 371
Well-made ....
i. 464
English and Irish ponies
iii. 41
With driUs or ridges .
i- ,514
Enoch's refrigerator .
ii. 484
Pnnghills —
Ensilage
ii. 289
Position of . ^ -
i- 455
Crops for
ii. 272
Turning . ' .
1. sii
Experiments. . » .
ii. so
Dunging often and lightly .
i- 515
Entering and renting farms ,
i. 261
II Northern practice of .
i- S15
Entomology, economic
i- IS
11 and sowing turnips In drills
■ ii. 336
II literature of
ii. 471
Durham Cattle, polled
lii. 137
Entrande-gates .
i. 120
Durra or dari as food for stock .
iii. 273
11 specification for .
i. 234
Dutch cheeses ....
ii. 516
Epizootic abortion ....
iii. 334
II hoe
i. 103
Equipment of a farm
1. 22
Duties of the farmer in summer .
ii. 64
11 11 with buildings . .
i. iz6
Dykes, stone
i. 10s
II of houses for cattle .
i. 151
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
5^5
Equipment, stable
Ergot . , . .
II causing abortion ,
Estate and I'arm roads. See Road.n
Evaporation . . . * .
And loss of heat in drainage
From soils ....
In spring
Ewart, Prof. Cossai, Pony trials
Ewes, abortion among
ailments among
attention to, in wintei*
flushing ....
period of gestation .
treatment of, and lambs .
Excise restrictions on cropping .
Excavations, specification for
Excreta, conditions influencing .
Exmoorpony
Exmoor sheep-
Characteristics . ...
Management
Experiments in Aberdeenshire .
II with cowsas to milk yield ,
II on feeding cattle (1832-1909)
II with foods for sheep on roots
II on cross-fertilisation of grain
II Bothamsted barley
11 with Highland.ponies .
II limited guidance of manuring
II with manure at Bothamsted
II in manuring hops
II in manuring turnips. .
II in manuring turnips .at Carbetb
n with mannres by H. & A. S.
11 with manures, &c., by B. A. S. E.
II in manuring, method of test
II on improving hill pasture .
II by agricultural colleges, &c.
II with potatoes ...
II in tedding
i. 167
i. 8p, 414
iii- 334
i. 122
i. 263
i. 46
i. 309
"• 59
iii. 54
iii. 381
iii. 381
ii. 67
iii. 390
iii. 236
iii. 386
ii. 403
230, 241
i. 466
.iij. 44
iii. 194
iii. J9S
ii. SI
iii. 346
iii. 371
iii. 397
ii. 105
ii- 133
iii. S4
i- 517 •
11. I
ii. 380
ii- 350
u. 342
ii- 33
11. 42
i- 4SI
i- 344
ii. 56
298, 299
ii. 260
Factory churns
ii.
497
II dairy ; ....
ii.
522
Fahrenheit scale .
i.
25
II thermometer
i.
26
Fairs, modem ....
iii.
408
"Fairy rings " in pastures .
ii.
287
Fallow and loss of nitrates .
i.
441
Bare . . . .
i.
441
"Bastard" . .' . .
i.
445
Wheat . ...
ii.
117
Family cottages. See Farm cottages
i.
206
Fanners .....
ii.
222
Farm, birds in relation to the
ii.
431
II cart, Jack's
ii.
318
1 crops, insect pests
ii.
442
1 crops, subsidiary
ii.
392
1 field operations on the
ii.
57
1 mammals in relation to the
ii.
424
1 plants, new varieties of
ii.
116
, the seasons, weather and work
ii.
57
1 seeds. See Seeds
ii.
70
1 tip-cart
ii.
.349
1 waggon ....
ii.
191
1 work', subdivision of .
ii.
60
1 II summary of summer
ii.
62
Farms-
Access to water in enclosing
i.
. 89
Adapting conditions to different
1.
273
Adjusting labour .
i.
280
And estate coadsr See Boads
i.
122
Capital for suburban . .
i.
S
Conditions of lease . . . , .
i.
271
II regulating rent .
i.
261
Farms — ,,
Considering offers for .
Desirable ....
Diversity of . . , .
Division of fields in
English custom in offering' for
Entering ' .
Estimating' rent- . , ,
Extent of carse
II of mixed- . • .
Fencing pastoral .
Grass paddocks on
Ill-appointed
Insurance of stock on ,
Landowners " asking" rent for
Laying out and equipping .
Offering for . , . ,
Persons who conduct the labour
of
Physical geography of .
Produce-rent of .
» Eenting and entering .
Shelter on upland
Situations of.
Stocking
II carse-land
II dairy - . ...
II pastoral .
Term of tenancy .
Terms of entry .
Valuing sheep stocks on
Farm bo6l[-keeping .
Farm bjiildings. See also Steadings
Bams and-granaries
Bothies ....
Cottages ....
Different classes of . • .
Drains of • . • .
Equipment of houses for cattle
Evils of "led farms" . '.
General principles of .
Grouping ....
* Live stock in . . .
Principles of arrangement .
Boads
Shelter
Sites on sloping farms .
Situation of the steading
Specification for . . * .
Stable equipment .
Straw in ....
Value of good
Ventilation . . ' • .
Water-supply of .
Farm cottages ....
Accommodation of
Alternative plans .
Box-beds ....
Cheap brick and wood .
Composite .
Conditions of Board of Agricul
ture
Cost of
Erected at Raith, plan of .
Specification of, erected at Raith
various designs •
Farm dwelling houses
Cellar plan .
Chamber plan
Cheese-room of
Detached dairies
Elevations and section of
» First design of first-class
Genera! printiples for .
Ground-plan of .
1. 271
i. 266
i. 261
i. 88
i. 271
i. 277
i. 267
i- S
i. 6
i. 89
' i. 89
i. 370
i. 280
i. 271
i. 22
i. 270
6
261
26S
261
go
264
281
S
5
4
267
277
279
244
126
175
226
206
127
158
151
126
126
129
129
129
128
123
128
127
229
167
129
126
157
128
206
207, 223
. 212, 213
i. 208
i. 223
i. 223
207
223
224
224
206-224
■ 189
192
193
191
192
193
192
201
^192
5i6
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., ni.
Farm dwelling-houses —
House and farrif to correspond . ,
Farming— .
i. 205
Steading, suburban
i. 148
Milji-hoi^e
i. 190
Suburban . . . . '
.!• s
Outline and ornamentation .
i. 107
Woad
u. 403
Flan of kitchen,' &c. .
i. 189
Farmyard, gate for . . .
i. 120
Plans of . .
1. 192
Farmyard manure. ' See Dong .
i- 453
Position of, and steading
i. 189
Farrowing of sows . .
in. 217
Second-class . .
i. 201
Fat cattle, carcase weight of
iii. 410
Second design of flrst-class .
i. 192
II selling, in spring
ii. 59
Third-class . .
i. 201
„ II in summer .
ii. 63
Upper storey of .
i. 790
Fat-globules in milk .
ii. 479
"Working part of . ...
i. 189
Fat sheep, selling, in summer .
ii. 63
Farm fences. See Fences .
i. 86
Fattening cattle, management of stori
5 iii. 3SS
Farm-labour, distribution of
i. 2
II M in winter .
iii. 363
Farm live stock
iii. 1
Feeding-
Ailments of
iii. 43S
Cakes, adulteration of .
iii. 276
Names suitable for . . .
iii. 330
Calves
iii. 351
Nomenclature of . . iii. 224,
330. 403
Cattle, byres for .
i. 158
Periods of gestation
iii. 236
II stalls for ,
.i. 15s
Principles of breeding .
iii. 224
Of cows ....
111. 344
Treatment of ... ,
iii. 313
Dairy herds ....
iii. 344
Farm-pupils
1. i> % 3
Experiments
ii. 50
Farm servants
i. 289
II review of (1832- 1909
iii. 371
Average earnings per week .
i. 290
Hay for ....
ii. 254
Bothies for
i. 226
Horses
iii. 316
Care of farm horses
i. 293
II revolution in system of
L 172
Cottages for
i. 206
Poultry ....
iii. 247
Farm managers ....
i. 293
Of store cattle in winter
iii. 358
Methods of hiring
i. 289
System of, and value of dung
i. 467
Piece-work employment .
i. 294
Typical rations .
111. 344
Wages of
i. 289
Value of clovers .
iii. 284
Farm service—
II hay
. iii. 286
"Aries"
, i. 294
II silage .
ii. 293
Board and lodging . . ,
1. 294
ti straw
iii. 287
Character . . ,
i. 29s
II wheat .
iii. 269
Death or bankruptcy of employer
i. 295
Feeding-box for sheep
iii. 169
Dismissal
i. 295
Feering
i. 392
Duties of servants
i. 294
Feerings, ploughing ridges and .
ii. 146
Enlistment of servant .
i. 29s
Fell pony, the
iii. 45
Lav? of . . . . ' .
i. 294
II and Arab ponies .
iii. 52
Marriage of servant
i- 29s
Felt on roofs, specification for .
i- 235-
Notice of leaving ....
i. 29s
Fences
i. 86
Payment of wages, &c.
i. "94
Anomalies in ploughing near
i. 87
Period of engagement .
i. 294
Boundary ....
i. 86
Sickness or accident . ...
i- 29s
Divisional ....
i. 87
Travelling expenses . .
i. 294
Dykes as ... .
i. 109
Workmen's Compensation Act, 1906
i. 296
Economical ....
i. 89
Farm steward, duties of . . .
i. 6
Farm
i. 86
Farm students . ' .
i. I
General considerations.
i. 86
Farmers —
Hawthorn ....
i. 103
Advantage of a training to .
i. 3
In upland districts " .
i. 90
As retailers
iii. 4f6
Maintenance and repair of .
i. 86
Duties of . . * .
i. 6
Pastoral farms
i. 89
Duties in summer
ii. 64
"Peignon" ....
i. 121
Garden. . .
ii- 59
Permanent ....
i. 91
Holiday
ii. 64
Bepairing, in summer .
ii. 63
Pastoral
i- S
Ring- ....
i. 86
Sciences to be studied by .
i. II
Sheet-iron ....
i. 115
Succeeding good and bad .
i. 266
Shelter from
i. 87
Tutor
i. I, 2
II overdone .
i. 89
Farming-
Stake-and-rice
i. 101
Acquiring a knowledge of .
i. I
Steps for ....
i. 120
Bams for sheep and arable .
i. 134
Straightening fields for
i. 87
Carse-land
i-~ 5
,Sunk
i. iicx
"Common"
i. S
*Turf
i. 103
Dairy
i. 5
Waste of ground bv .
i. 89
Different systems of . . .
i. 4
Wayfaresand
i. 88
Difficulties in learning .
i. 2
Wire
i. 103
Foresight essential in . '
i. 2
11 field. See Wire fences
i. no
Mixed
i. 6
Fertnentation in dung iujcattle-courts
i. 166
Pastoral, the simplest system
i. 4
II preventing, in djing .
i. 459
Selecting a system of .
i. 6
■ Fertilisation, cross-, of grain
ii. 104
Steading for arable
i- 13s
II of potatoes ....
ii. 311
II dairy ....
i. 147
Fertilisers
i. 515
II pastoral ....
1. 130
II and Feeding Stuffs Act
i. 506
INDEX TO VOLUMES L, II., III.
5^7
Fertility in sheep .
Fertility dr soil . -. w.
Accumulation of .
Exhaustion and restoration of
From rain-water . . .
In a ton of dung .
Bestoring ....
Sources of, in soil.
Fescue grass, seeds of .
Feudal customs ....
Field-bean
II madder, seed of .
II -mouse ....
II operations, autumn weather and
II 11 and spring weather
II peas
II pits for potatoes .
II slug
II sports in autumn
II stacks
II -vole
II work in winter .
Field-fences , . ; ,
Field-gates
Angle-iron , ,* , ,
Construction of .
Deficiency of common .
Entrance gates . . .
M II specifications for
Fastening .....
Fence steps ....
Gate for farmyard
Hanging ....
Iron
Painting . . . . ,
Posts' for . . . . '
Preserving gate-posts .
Wickets ....
Wire
Wooden ....
Wrought-iron, specification for
Field-workers, duties of
Fields-
Convenient ....
Division of, on a large f^ni .
Large
Shape of, in fencing
Shelter overdone in enclosing
.Size of . . ...
Small
Straightening, in fencing
Filter, milk
Finches, the ....
Finger-and-toe ....
II experiments with, in turnips
Fire, insurance against
Fire-clay mangers .
Fire-extinguishers
" Fire-fang " in manure
, II . II preventing
Fire-grate, proportions of the
Fish guano
II products as animal food
Fishery Div. of Board of Agriculture
Flail for threshing rye-grass
Flat milk cooler .
Flauchter-spade . .
Flax ....
Bolls containing seed
Clod-crushers
Culture
Dodder .
Drying .
Grass seeds with .
Growing for fibre and seed
iii. 390
i- 317
i. 322
i. 447
i. 48
i. 469
i. 448
!■ 319
11. 83, 86
i. 276
ii. 146
ii. 81
ii. 427
li. 6s
ii- 57
u. 147
ii. 321
ii- 473
ii. 65
ii. 202
ii. 428
ii. 66
i. 86'
i. 117
i. 119
i. 118
i. 119
i. 120
i. 234
i. 121
i. 120
i. 120
i. 120
i. 119
i. 121
i. 121
i. 121
i. 120
i. 121
' i. 119
i- 23s
i. 9
i. 88
i. 87
i. 89
i. 88
i. 87
ii. 488
ii- .438
li. 417
"- 49. 54
i. 280
i- 173
1. 2S0
i- 465
1. 166
i. 409
I. 487
iii. 290
i. 40
II. 278
ii- 483
1- 350
11. 384
ii. 389
"- 385
11. 384
li. 423
11. 390
ii. 387
iii. 275
Flax-
Manuring ....
n. 387
Method of pulling
Norwegian narrow
11. 388
ii. 386
Outlet for straw . .
ii- 391
Pulling, steeping, and drying
ii. 388
Rippling ....
ii. 388
Rotation for.
ii.'38S
Scutching ....
ii. 390
Seed
li. 387-391
Soil for
- ii- 385
Sowing . . / .
ii- 387
Spring-tined cultivator
Tillage for ....
Weedipg ....
Yield ot^ ....
ii. 386
- ii- 38s
ii. 388
ii. 390
Fleas, pulicidse or , . .
iii. 435
Fleeces of wool ....
iii. 404
Flemish scythe ....
ii. 170
Flesh-flies
iii. 424
Flies injuries to live stock .
iii. 418
II useful
ii. 469
Flock management
iii. 376
Flooring of byres
i. 156
II specification for .
i. 239, 242
Floors—
Of stables ....
i. 169
Specification for concrete
i. 232
ti for gravel
i. 231
II for loft .
i. 234
Flour beetles . . . « .
ii. 456
11 rye-
ii. 102
II wheat for ....
ii. 93
Flowering season for wheat
ii. 130
Flowers, farm culture of .
ii. 401
Flue, corrugated boiler
1. 410
Flues for stacking hay
ii. 271
Flushing drains ....
• ..?• 71
II ewes ....
111. 390
Flying-stock on a "common " farm
i. 6
II on a pastoral farm
i. 4
Fly-catcher, the spotted .
ii- 437
Foaling —
Abortion in mares
iii. 324
After foaling
iii. 326
Assistance in . . .
iii. 32s
Box
i- 174
Care of brood mares *
iii- 325
Cleansing ....
iii. 326
Difficult . •'. . .
iii. 326
Insurance against risks
iii. 324
Mare's udder
iii. 326
Reviving an exhausted mare
iii. 326
Support to mare's belly
iii. 326
Symptoms of . . .
iii. 325
Troublesome mares
iii. 327
Working nurse-mares .
iii. 328
Foals-
Attention to
• . iii. 326
Attention to mare
iii. 329
Bean-milk for
iii. 327
Beginning to suck
iii. 327
Cow's milk for .
- iii. 327
Feeding at weaning time
. , iii. 329
Health of ....
iii. 328
Housing mares and
iii. 328
Linseed, &c., for .
iii. 328
Nursing motherless
- iii- 327
Rearing ....
iii. 327
Reviving weak
. ,iii. 326
Weaning ....
- iii. 328
Fodder-racks for sheep
iii. 394
II for store cattle .
iii. 361
Foggage for grazing .
ii. 284
Fomentations ....
iii. 497
5i8
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., HI.
Food-
Albuminoid ratios
Composition of . .
Condimental
Constituents of .
Digestible matter of various .
Digestion of .
Economy of, in cattle-courts
Energy value of .
Experiments with cattle, slieep
and goats
Functions of
Manurial constituents of looo lb
of ordinary
Manurial residue of
Manurial value of
Oats as, for stock .
Bequiruments of animals
Supply. . ■ • ^•
And temperature for chummg
Varieties of, for stock ,
' ' Foot-pound " and horse-power .
Foot-rot and abortion .
II dressing for ,
Forage crops ....
M II crimson clover as .
II .1 disposal of
II „ importance of
" II II maize as .
II II prickly comfrey as .
II M sorghum as .
II M vetches as
Force required for a ton weight on roads
Forecasts, weather
Foreign breeds of cattle
II II horses
II II sheep ,
II cheeses suitable for Britain
Forest-fly
II Pony, New . . .
Foretelling weather .
Forfarshire steadiug ...
Forget-me-not, seed of
Forker, second ....
Forking corn in the field .
II hay by hand ih stack-building
Forks, harvest ....
Formation of soils
Foundations, specification for . i.
Fowls. See Poultry ,
Fox, the
Frames for farm cart .
Fresh butter . .
Frey Bentos guano
Friction of the earth in ploughing
Frit-fly
Frost, influence of .
II injuring clover seeds ,
II throwing oat plants .
Fructification, organs of
Fruit, bush
Fruit-trees, winter washing of
Fruits
II insect pests injurious to
II multiple ....
Fuel, amount of, per horse-power
M value of different kinds of .
Functions of food ...
Fungoid attacks on hops
Fungus diseases of plants .
Furrow, water- .
Furze, gorse or whin
n as winter food
n for horses .
" Fylde " cheese .
iii.
299
iii.
290
. iii.
288
iii.
291
iii.
E94
. iii.
292
i.
162
. iii.
297
. iii.
294
iii.
b
291
i.
329
i.
329
iii.
303
ii.
100
iii.
301
i.
44°
.' ii.
495
iii.
269
i.
40s
. Iii.
381
iii.
170
ii.
367
ii.
375
ii.
63
ii.
368
. ■ iii.
288
iii.
289
. iii.
289
. iii.
288
ads i.
123
i.
20
iii.
137
iii.
61
. iii.
20S
ii.
515
iii.
424
iii.
44
i.
30
i.
141
ii.
82
ii.
194
ii.
191
ii.
271
ii.
191
i.
18
231, 237
241
m.
236
ii.
424
ii.
190
ii.
501
i.
487
i.
374
ii.
451
ii.
68
ii.
250
. ii. 68
.118
ii.
105
ii.
400
ii.
457
ii.
77
ii.
467
ii.
82
i.
405
i.
405
iii.
291
ii.
381
ii.
405
ii.
137
ii.
376
. iii.
283
. iii.
319
ii.
513
Gad-flies
"Gaiting" . ■. .
"Gaitins," carting
Galloway cattle —
Blue-greys -.
Characteristics oT .
Early history
Herd-Books .
Improvement of the breed
Management of .
Points of the breed
Weights
Galloway horses .
II ponies .
II tubes .
Game restrictions in lease
11 wire field-fences for
Game-birds .
Game-proof fence
Garden, the farmer's
II slug .
II snail .
Gardening, cottage
II market
Gardner's turnip-cutter
Garget among ewes
Garton's work as hybridisers
Gas- and oil-engines .
Gas-engine, working of
Gas-lime . .
Gas-producing plant, suction
Gate-piers, specification for caps to
Gates. See Field-gates
Gauge —
Drain .
For road-metal
Position of the rain
Sheaf- . , .
Gauging snowfalls
Gaws or water-runs
Geese ,
General chemistry
Generating electric power .
Generators, tubular steam .
Geo^aphy, physical, of farms
Geological survey
Geology ....
Geranium, seed of Dove's-foot and cut
" Gerber " tester .
Germination of barley and the weather
Germination of seeds ,
Advantages of drill sowing
Air and germination .
Changes incidental to .
Composition of seeds .
ConiUtions essential for
Deep and shallow sowing
Destruction of seed
Dibbling
Dibbling-machines
Different methods of sowing and
Disadvantages of broadcast sowing
The embryo ....
Importance of economising seed
Methods of sowing compared
Moisture and
Multiple stems or "tillering"
Produce from methods of sowing
Quantity of seed per acre
Seed dissected
Thick and thin sowing-.
Tillering ,•..■.
Transplanting . ^
Waste of seed
The young plant .
iii. 41S
ii. 187
ii. 192
111.
iii.
iii.
■lu.
iii.
ii.
iii.
75
.74
71
73
76
74
18
48
i. 408
i. 272
i. 116
ii. 441
i. no
ii. 59
ii- 473
li. 472
ii- 59
>i- 397
iii- 395
iii. 381
ii. 108
i. 428
i. 428
366. 505
1. 430
1. 231 '
i. 117
i. 66
i. 124
i. 27
ii. 170
i. 28
i. 400
iii. 24s
i. 13
1- 431
1. 409
I. 261
i. 19
1. 18
ii- 75
II. 479
11. 132
ii. 154 .
' ?;• 159
'.;• ^5s
11. 156
ii. 156
ii. iSS
11. 164
ii. 166
ii. IS9
11. -163
ii- 157
"• 157
li. 156
ii. 161
ii. 162
ii- 155
ii- 157
ii. 161
ii. 161
ii- 157
ii. 161
, 161, 165
ii, i6d
ii. 159
ii. 156
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
519
Gestation, periods of . . iii. 236, 331, 499'
Gililet-oliecks, speoifloatipn for . . i. 238
Gilbert, Sir Henry, on dung for potatoes ii. 300
Gilbert's, Lawes and, maniirial tables iii. 304
Glacial-drift i. 18
Glazing, specification fpr . . . i. ag6, 243
Gloucester cheese . . . . ii. 513
Goats . . . . . . . iii. 8, 206
Feeding experiments with . . iii. 294
Management of . . . . iii. 208
As milkers iii. 206
Period of gestation ... iii. 236
Selection of iii. 208
Varieties of iii. 207
Goldfinch, the ii. 439
Gooseberries ii. 400
Aphides ii. 468
Magpie moth . . . . ii. 468
Mildew ii. 41a
Sa.wfiy ii. 468
.Gargonzola cheese . . . . ii. 518
Gorse , . . . . . . ii. 376
11 (whins or furze) as winter food . iii. 283
Gouda cheese . . . . . ii. 517
Gont-fly, or the ribbon-footed obrn-fly ii. 450
Government grants for education . i. 39
ri II to agricultural colleges i. 33
Gradients in farm roads . . . i. 123
Grading in. stock-breeding ... iii. 228
Grain —
Artificial drying of . . . ii. 202
Bagging . , . , . . ii. 228
Bruised, as food . . , .iii. 357
Crop values . . . . . ii. 90
Cross-fertilisation of . • . . ii. 104
Degeneracy of . . . . ii. 104
G&rton's work as hybridisers . ii. 108
Imperial bushel measure for . ii. 227
Marketing, in winter . . . ii. , 67
Mendel's laws and improvement of ii. no
Threshing in winter . . . ii. 67
Grain-drying racks . . . 'ii. 202, 20S
H shed . . . . ii. 207
Grain harvest ... . ii. 167
Artificial drying . . . . ii. 202
Bands and binding . . . ii. 184
Beginning of . . . - . ii. 167
Cost of cutting with binder . . ii. 181
. Cutting barley . . . . ii, 168
I) thatch . . . . ii. 200
Degrees of ripeness . . . ii. iflg
Grain-drying racks . . ii. . 202, 208
II shed . . . ii. 207
Judging ripeness . ' . . . ii. 168
Labour . ... . . ii. 169
Loss by too early cutting . . ii. 167
Manual and self-delivery machines ii, 176
Process of reaping . . . ii. 182
II of stacking ' . . . ii. 189
II of thatching . . . ii. 195
Baking. . . . . . ii. 185
Heaping appliances . . . ii. 169
1, barley , . . . ii. 187
11 oats . . . ii. 182
II wheat . . . , ii. 188
Richmond grain-drying rack . ii. 202
Bipening process . . . . ii. 168
n" in the sTieaf . . . ii, 167
Self-bind'er/ See Binder . . ii, 177
Shedding or " shaking " . . ii. 168
Size of sheaves \ . . . ii, 185
Stack-heating ' . . . . ii. 200
II ventilators] . . . . ii. 201
Stacking cereals ' . . . . ii, 189
Stooking or shocking ' . . ' . ii. 185
Grain-rent i. 268
Graip i. 5^3
II potato- ... . . ii. 31S
Grana or Parmesan cheese . . . ii. 517
Granaries. See Bams . . . i. 17S
It preserving wheat iii . . . ii. 94
Grants for education and research . i. . 39
Grass —
And rotation . , , . i, 437
And soil nitrogen .... i. 434
Lands, drainage of ... i, 84
II dung for .... i. 515
11 eifects of lime on , . i, 362
Paddocks i. 89
Grasses and clovers. See also Clover . ii. 230
Analyses of iii. 286
Clifton Park system of glowing . ii. 287
Composition of . . . .iii. 284
Cutting early and late , . . ii. 255
Tor different soils . . ii 245
Early grazing from permanent . ii. 287
As food iii. 284
Hay crop from permanent . , ii, 287
II experiments. See Bothamsted ii. 23
Ill-suited mixtures . . . ii. 255
Injury to young . . . . ii. 192
Milderw of ii. 412
Parks, letting in spring . . ii. 59
For permanent pastures . ii. 245, 285
Seeds, depth for . , . . ii. 247
IT identification of , . ii. 82
II with flax . . . . ii. 387
II rolling for . . . . ii. 249
II for rotation . . . ii. 244
„ sowing , . , , ii, 247
II II with another crop , ii. 286
11 II without another crop ii. 286
Varieties of ii. 230
Varieties of, sown . . . ii. 244
Crested dogstail . . . ii. 233
Evergreen meadow-grass . ii. 240
Fine-leaved Jheep's fescue . ii. 236
Fioriu or creeping bent . , ii. 231
' Floating sweet grass , . iL 237
Hard fescue , , . . ii. 236
Italian rye-graes . . ii. 238
Meadow fescue . . . ii. 85, 234
It foxtail . . . ii. 83, 231
Perennial rye-grass . . ii. 237
Eed'fescue . . . . ii. 236
Bough cocksfoot . . . ii. 233
^Bough-stalked meadow-grass ii. 240
Smooth-stalked meadow-grass ii. 239
Sweet-scented vernal , . ii. 231
Tall fescue . , . . ii, 235
Tall oat-grass . . . ii. 84, 233
Timothy or meadow catstail . ii, 239
Various-leaved fescue , ^ ii. 235
Water meadow-grass . . ii. 241
Yellow oat-grass . . . ii. 232
Wheat after , , , . ii. 119, 127
Grates, specification for air- . . i, 232
Grating, drain, for courts , . , i, 159
Gravel floors, specification for , . i. 231
Gravelly soils i, 299
Gravity, Specific, of soils, minerals, &c. i, 24
Grazing, early, from permanent grass , it 287
Great Britain, rainfall in . . , i, 29
Green-bottle fly iii. 423
Green-manuring i, 445
n II experiments at Wobum ii. 47
Greenfinch, the Ii. 439
Green-fly ... . . ii. 457
Greens, &c,, culture of . . ii. 398
Greensward roads .... i, 125
520
INDEX TO VOLUMES I, H., HL
Greenwich mean temperatnTe
Grooming cattle for snows .
" Grooving " in boilers
Growth, average composition of grasse
and clovers at dmerent stages of
Grubbers .
II and cultivators .
Grubbing, advantages of
II and digging
II for turnips ,
II for wheat .
Gruyere cheese ,
Guano. See Manures, varieties of
Guernsey cattle —
Characteristics
Herd-Book .
Management of .
Milking properties
Points of the breed
Gullies, specification for
Gulls ....
Gypsum
Hackney and harness ponies
Hackney horse .
Characteristics
Alterations in form
Historical .
Management of .
Practice of breeding
Soundness — veterinary examination
Haiks, specification for
Haims. . .
Hainault scythe .
Hair-grass, seeds of .
Half-bred sheep —
Characteristics
Distribution of .
Early lambs from
Founding of the breed
Management of .
'Sale centres .
Two classes of
Half-ploughing .
Hall's manurial tables
n refrigerating machine
Hammels .
Hammer nut-key .
Hampshire Down sheep-^
Characteristics
Breeding from lambs
Description .
Management
Shepherd's competitions
Hand-hoeing beans
Hand-hoes .
II -pick .
II threshing-machine
Hares and rabbits
Harness for plough
II pegs . .
II room .
Harness ponies, Hackney and
Harrison M'Gregor'a self-delivery
II II mower
Harrowing—
For barley .
Before cross-ploughing
Cross- .
Drills for beans
Efficient
Oats .
Potatoes
Process of .
' Turnip land .
i.
26
iii.
376
i.
411
. iii.
285
ii.
330
ii.
150
il.
117
i.
399
.ii. 330-332 1
u.
117
ii.
S16
i.
486
iii.
133
. iii.
134
iii.
134
iii.
133
iii.
133
i.
230
ii.
441
i.
S04
iii.
42
iii.
37
iii.
39
iii.
40
iii.
38
iii.
40
. iii.
38
on iii.
40
i.
239
i.
379
ii.
170
. ii. 88, 89 1
iii.
160
. iii.
IS9
iii.
IS9
. iii.
158
iii.
161
iii.
160
. iii.
159
11.
332
iii.
3"
ii.
484
i.
154
i.
390
. iii.
170
iii.
171
. iii.
172 .
iii.
172
. iii.
172
ii.
152
ii.
353
i.
91
ii.
216
u.
429
i.
379
i.
173
i.
173
iii.
42
per ii.
176
ii.
257
ii.
132
ii.
144
ii.
126
ii.
152
ii.
126
ii. 136
137
ii. 320
321
ii.
I2S
ii.
330
Harrowing —
Wheat ....
After wheat .
The wheat-braird .
Harrows —
Carriage for .
Chain ....
Grass-seed . . >
Iron ....
Norwegian, for flax culture
Working wide
Harvest. See also Grain harvest
Cart .
Forks .
Mouse .
Weather and
Work, magnitude of
Harvester. See Binder
II the stripper-
Harvesting beans, peas, and tares
II flax ....
M grain ....
II hops ....
II by motor ,.
Hatching, time of . .
Haulm or bean- and pea-straw
Hawk, sparrow- . . .
Hawthorn hedge . .
Hay-
Aftermath .
'American, collector .
Barns ....
Best stage for cutting .
Bosses or flues
Building fielH-stacks .
"Cocking" .
Coiling.
Collecting .
Collector . . .
Crop ....
Crop from permanent grasses
Damaged . . '
Early v. late stacking
Elevator
Experiments at Bothamsted
Feeding value of .
For feeding .
Force in building stacks
Form of stackhead
Foundations for stacks .
Ground for stacks
Growing rye-grass seed
Hand-rake . .
Heading stacks .
Height of stacks .
High-forking by hand .
Horse-forks .
House ....
Ill-suited mixtures for .
Injured by wet .
Large stacks
• Manuring the crop
Preparing for starring .
Process of building stacks
II of turning
Propping stacks .
Raking.
Backs for horses .
Boping stacks
Botation , . .
Sainfoin . . .
Salting and spicing
For seed
Shed ....
ii.
118
ii.
"5
ii.
250
ii.
249
ii.
249
ii.
248
ii.
125
ii.
386
ii.
249
t . ii.
167
ii.
190
u.
191
ii.
428
ii.
.65
. . ii.
65
ii.
177
ii.
182
s . ii.
208
ii. 388,^89
ii.
167
ii.
381
ii.
182
. iii.
236
ii.
148
ii.
431
. i. 92,
103
ii- ZS3.
254
ii.
267
. i. 177 ; ii.
270
■ li. 254. 255.
263
u.
271
ii.
268
ii.
261
ii. 262, 263, 264
ii. 260,
262
ii.
26s
ii.
251
s . ii.
287
. iii.
286
ii.
269
ii.
275
ii.
23
. iii.
286
ii.
254
ii.
271
ii.
272
ii.
270
ii.
268
ii.
278
ii.
272
ii.
272
iL
273
ii.
271
ii.
274
i.
174
ii.
255
ii.
254
ii.
273
ii.
251
ii.
268
ii.
271
ii.
262
ii.
273
ii.
264
i.
172
ii.
272
ii.
261
ii.
370
ii.
277
, ii.
253
ii.
270
. . ii.
293
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., in.
521
Hay-
Situation of fleld-stacks
ii. 26s
Size of stacks . . . .
ii. 271
Sledge
ii. 265
Stack-lifters. . . • .
u. 273
Stacking ...
u. 264
And straw elevator
ii. 215
II mixed in drying .
ii. 269
Tedders injuring clover
ii. 260
Tillage for . . . . • .
ii. 251
Time for cutting . , . .
ii. 253
. Ti for field-stacking
u. 264
Turning clover . . . .
ii. 261
Varieties of
ii. 251
Yield of
ii. 253
Haymaking —
Artiflcialhay-drying .
Clearing swathe ends ,
, Controlled by weather .
ii. 278
ii. 258
, ii. 258
Cutting ....
u. 2S3. 2S7
Dressing stacks . . . .
ii. 276
* English methods of . . ■
ii. 2S9
Hay-fork
ii. 262
Hay-stacking appliances
ii. 273
Head-ridges ....
ii. 258
Hot air v. Neilson system of dryin
; ii. 278
Irish methods of ,
ii. 27"i5
Laid patches
ii. 2S7
Loss in
iii. 286
Machines ....
ii. 259
"Making "the hay
Meadow-hay . . .
ii. 258
ii. 259
Methods of cutting . ,
u. 256
Mower ». scythe ,
ii. 256
Mowing-machines . .
ii. 256
Permanent hay-stacks . ,
ii. 270
Presser for hand-power
ii. 279
Pressing hay . , .
ii. 279
Eick-cloths ....
il. 277
Scottish methods of . .
ii. 261
. Speedy
ii. 260
By stages ....
ii. 269
In summer ....
ii. 63
Swathe-turning and tedding
. . ii. 2S9
Thunderstorms and
ii. 263
Variations in practice ,
. ii. 258
' Weather and
ii. 2S3
Headridges
i. 400
Heat
i 2S
Conductors of . . .
i. 406
Dissipation of . . .
1. 406
Economical use of
i. 406
Evaporation and loss of, in draina
s;e i. 46
Influence of .
ii. 12
Preventing loss by radiation
i. 406
Source of energy . ,
i. 40s
Heating, stack
ii. 200
Heather-burning . . . . i. ;
)43 ; iii- 383
Hedge-spade ....
i. 103
11 weed-hook ....
1. 103
Hedger'saxe ....
• i- 97
Hedgers, duties of . . .
i. 7
II required for farms
i 8
Hedgehog, the ....
ii. 429
Hedges,
i. 91
And wire fences .
i. 105
Breasting bank-and-ditch .
. i. 97
Cutting down
• i- 95
Dead .....
1. lOI
Filling gaps ....
i. 100
Form of ....
i- 95
Growth of . ,, .
. i- 95
Hawthorn ....
i. 103
H plant .
i. 92
Hedge-planters .
i. 92
>94i
Hedges —
Holly ...
.Injured by snow .
Laying the plants
II young twigs
Method of plashing
Permanent fences
Planting . . .1. 9I1
Plashing
Pruning
Raising whin
Stake-and-rice fence .
Switching ,
Thorn, around plantations
Time for planting
Tools for planting
II II weeding
Transplanting thorns .
Trees and
Trench-planting .
Trimming .
Turf fence .
Untrimed thorn . « .
Waste of ground by
Weeding
Weeds ....
Whin ....
Helliiegel's discoveries regarding nitrogen
Hemp culture
Herbs, aromatic .
Herdwick sheep . .
Heredity in stock breeding
Hereford Cattle —
Characteristics
Management
Milking qualities .
Polled .
In the showyard .
Weights
Herring gull
Hessian fly .
High pressure, steam .
Highland and Agricultural Society —
Aid to agricultural education by
Medals for ploughing .
Milk records
Table of unit values of manures
Trials of steam-engines
Highland and^ Agricultural Society'
manure 'experiments —
Cropping ....
Insoluble nitrogenous manures
Lessons from
Manures for the barley crop
II for the bean crop .
II for cereals
II for different crops .
II for oats .
II tried
II for turnips and beans
Manuring turnips
Object of the experiments .
Organic matter . .
Other research work .
Results with nitrogenous manures
II phosphatic manures
II potash manures
The stations ....
Experiments with potatoes .
Highland cattle — '
Characteristics
Early improvement
Herd-Book Society
Management of the breed .
Points of the breed
1. 104
i- 95
1. 93
i. loi
i. 98
i. 91
; u. 66
1. 95
1. los
i. loi
i- 95
1. 91
1. 91
1. 103
i. 92
i. 94
i. 91
96, 105
i. 103
i. 96
i. 89
i. 103
i. 94
1. 105
ii. 47
ii. 402
ii. 404
iii. 197
iii. 225
iii. 97
iii. 99
lu. 99
ui. 137
iii. 99
iii. 99
ii. 441
ii. 452
1. 406
i. 36
i. 388
ii. 480
i- 507
1. 418
"• 33
n. 36
ii- 39
"- 37
11. 38
ii- 34
11. 40
ii. 38
ii- 33
33
37
33
40
41
u.
ii.
ii- 35
"■ 34
"- 37
ii- 33
u. 298
iii. 116
iii. iiB
iii. 119-
iii. 119
iii. 117
522
nSTDEX* TO VOLUMES I, H,, IH,
Highland cattle, size and early maturity iii. 119, | Hoi
se clippers ....
iii. 324
Highland ponies
iii. 48 1
bot-flies ....
111. 419
Early studs
iii. 49
and cow dung compared .
i. 46s
Experiments witli . . ' .
iii. S4 '
, fork
11. 274
Management of .
Origin . 1
iii. 54
-hoe
ii. 124
iii. 48 1
,1 drill . . . .
ii- 352
Points of . . . .
iii. 48 1
hoeing beans . » . '
ii. 152
Besuscitation of .
iii. 48 ,
-power in a stream - .
ii. 218
Hill pasture— .
1 II actual and "nominal"
i. 405
Bracken-cutting .
!• 343 '
II amount of fuel per
1. 40s
Cropping
i- 343 '
II " foot-pound " and
i. 405
Deterioration of .
i- 343 '
II for threshing purposes
ii. 221
Draining ....
' !• 344 >
rake ......
ii. 260
■ Effects of lime on. . •.
i. 343 Hoi
"ses— "
Glenbuck, improvements at .
i. 345
Administering medicine to .
iii. 496
Heather-burning .
i. 343
Ailments of . . , .
iii. 438
Improvement of .* .
i- 343
Articles of food far
iii. 316
Irrigation on
>• 343
Barb-wire field-fences for .
i. 113
Laying waste land to .
i. 340
Binding ....
Boxes for
i. I74»
Liming
i- 343
1. 174
Manuring .....
!• 343
Breeding ....
iii. a^S
iu. ^i
Mid-Lothian example of improvinj
S , i- 344
Bulk of food-
Benewing vraste land .
i. 340
Care of. i. 2
93 ; iii. 321
Hiring farm-servants, methods of
i. 289
Carrots- and parsnips for
lii. 319
Histology . . . .
i. 14
Castration of
lu- 497
Hives for bee-keeping
iii. 258
Clipping and singeing .
iii. 323
Hoar-frost
a 69
Docking .....
iii. 498
Hoe, barn . < <
ii. 226
Evening care of .
iii. 314
II Dutch
i. 103
Exercise for i
ii. 315, 323
Hoeing drilled wheat .
ii. 129
Feeding , . . .
iii. 316
II hand-, beans
ii. 152
Feeding young .
iii. 320
II II potatoes
ii. 307
Food requirements of .
iii. 316
II horse-, beans
ii. 152
Food for riding and driving .
iii. 320
II kohl-rabi ....
ii. 393
Foaling, season ^ . .
iii. 324
II singling and, turnips .
ii- 352
Force exerted by ... .
lii. 317
Hoggs, oats and hay for
iii. 396
Frequency of feeding .
iii. 321
Holly hedges ....
i. 104
Furze for >
iii. 319
Holstein chum ....
ii. 497
Grooming . -. . .
iii. 314
Homesteads, modem .
i. 139. 141
Handling young -.
"1. 315
Homogenised milk
ii. 483 .
Hay-raeks for » . .
i. 172
Hooded crow ....
ii. 432
Hours of work -. «
iii. 314
Hooding, for oats
ii. 187
Injured by green food -.
iii. 323
II for wheat .
ii. 188
Intelligence of . . .
iii- 315
Hook, sickle or .
a. 169
Language to .
i- 381
Hook-stones, specification for .
i. 231
Littering ....
iii. 323
HopS:— *?
Mashes for ....
iii. 318
Analysis of hops .
. ii. 383
Mating season ^
iii. 329
Cost of ^op-cultivation
u. 378, 384
Measuring com for
i- I7S
Creasoting poles .
ii. 380
Method of stable management
iii. 324
Culture ....
ii- 377
Mid-day care of ,
iii. 314
Dressing plants .
ii. 378
Morning feed" ■•
iii. 313
Drying hops ....
ii. 382
Names suitable for farm
iii. 330
Harvesting hops ,
ii. 381
Nomenolatureoi? .
iii. 330
Insect and fungoid attacks ii 3
57, 381, 384
Oatsfoi ^ . . .
iii. 318
Longevity of the hop , ,
■, ii. 381
Pace and food requirement .
iii. 317
Manuring ....
ii- 379
Pasturing work , .
iii. 321
Picking ....
ii. 381
Peculiarities in grazing . '
iii. 323
Planting hops
ii- 378
Period of gestation
iii. 236, 499
Pocketing ....
ii- 383
Ploughing with .
i. 380
Preparing land
ii. 377
Potatoes for .
iii. 283
' Price of picking .
. - ii. 382 .
Preparing food for
iii. 318
Produce of hops .
ii. 384 *
Protection of skin from wet .
iii. 324
Bearing plants
ii- 377
Quantity of food .
iii. 321
Soil for hops
ii. 377
Rations for degrees of work .
iii. 317, 320
Spent hops as manure .
ii. 384
Becipes for ailments of
iii- 493
Stacking poles
ii- 383
Best for ....
iii. 323
Tying up the bines
ii- 381
Bevolution in system of feeding
i. 172
Varieties of .
ii- 377
Roots for ....
iii. 319
Horizontal engines
i. 414
Shoeing ....
iii. 323
II condensing engine
i- 415
Singeing ....
iu. 323
Horn as manure ....
i. 492
Soiling .....
iii. 321
Homed breeds of Cattle
iii. 82
Speed of, in ploughing . • ..
i. 387
" Hornsby " binder
ii- 177
Stable equipment
i. 167
Horse-beans ....
ii. 147
Stalls for ....
i. 168
II breeding societies
iii. 10
In summer, work for . . ,
. • ii. 63
INDEX TO VOLUMES L,.II., Ill
S23
Horses—
Insect pests.. See Crop pests
ii. 442
Treatmeilt of farm
iii.
313
1, pests injurious to fruit
ii. 467
Vetches for .
ii.
Insects, classification of
ii. 443
Washing lees of .
Water-'^rusli
Watering
iii.
323
It harmful ....
• .;• 'S
. iii.
31S
II important in agriculture .
li. 443
iii.
313
II -vseful
. ii. 469
Wintei, feeding of
, iu.
318
Insectivora .....
ii. 429
Wintering young .
, ui.
31S
Insurance against fire, disease, &c.
L 280
Wire-fence for
. i.
"5
Insuring crops ....
1. 280
Work expected of
. iii.
314
Inventory and valuation of stock
• ..!• 244
Yoking to ploughs
1.
374
Invemess-shjre ponies
Invertebrates, classification of .
. iii. 51
Horses, breeds of , .
. , iii.
2,9
i. 16
Cleveland Bay
iii.
32
Ireland —
Clydesdale .
iii.
16
Agricultural education in .
i. 36
Foreign
iii.
61
Cattle-feeding in .
iii. 370
Galloway
iii.
18
Tenure in ... .
1. 268
Haickney
. iii.
37
Wages of farm-servants iu .
i. 291
The Hunter .
iii.
36
Irish Pepartment of Agriculture
i. 40
Ponies ....
iii.
47
Agricultui-al investigations .
i- 43
Shire ....
iii.
0
Annual vote to . . .
i. 41
Suffolk ....
iii.
28
Board and Council of .
. i. 42
Thoroughbred
. iii.
34
Branches of .
i. 42
Yorkshire Coach-horse
iii.
33
> ' Educational institutions
i. 43
House-fly .....
iii.
422
Functions transferred to
i. 41
It -mouse
ii.
427
Fands
i. 42
Houses for cattle, equipment of
i.
151
Improvement of live stock .
i- 43
Housing calves .
iii.
35°
Itinerant instruction and instructors i. 43, 44
II of store cattle in winter
. iii.
357
Object of
i. 40
Howard's Champion Plough
i.
371
Organisation of .
i. 42
ti haymaker .
ii.
259
Responsible oificials
i. 41
11 mower
ii.
256
Irish Hunters
iii. 36
11 self-delivery reaper .
ii.
176
' II ponies, English and .
iii. 41
II straw-trusser
ii.
216
Iron—
Hummellers
ii.
228
And wire fence. See Wire fences i. 114.
Humus ....
i. 303, 321,
434
Buildings ....
i. 228
Hunter horse
iii.
36
Fences
. i. IIS, "7
Management of .
. iii.
37
Gates
i. 119
Method of hreeding
iii.
36
Harrows .....
ii. 125
Type ....
iii.
36
Hurdles
i. 116
Hurdles
i. ii5; iii
391
Oxide of, in basic slag .
i. 500
Husbandry — •
It in soils .
i. 304
Good . . ._ .
i.
273
Scythes .....
ii. 171
Mixed, needful .'
i-
437
•Standards
i. 112
Steadings for mixed
i.
136
Strainers
i. Ill
Husk and kernel of oats
ii.
99
Trough. .....
i. 151
1, It of wheat .
ii.
95
Work, specification for
i. 236
Hussey reaping-machine
ii.
174
Ironmongery., specifiication for .
i. 243
Hybridisation, Garten's work on
. ii.
108
Irons, plough
i. 384
II progress of .
ii.
109
Irrigation . . » . .
•• 353
I^draulic ram .
i.
153
And drainage.
■ i. Si> 3SS
Hygrophytes
i.
31S
And soil temperature .
i. 355
Hymenoptera, useful .
ii.
469
Bed-work ....
i. 358
HyphomycetacesB (fungi) .
ii.
417
C^toh-work water-meadow .
Climate afld.
1- 356
1. 360
Identification of farm seeds
ii.
70
Cost of irrigating land ..
Implements, barn
. ii.
22s
Crop, Italian rye-grass an .'
ii. 376
II care of . . .
i.
366
Crops for .
i- 356
II house for . . .
i.
367
Effects on the soii
i. 359, 484
II used in winter ,
ii.
67
Liquid manure for
Improvements, compensation for
i.
276
Moisture and vegetation
i. 354
II executing permanent .
i.
270
Of hill pasture .
■ ..>• 343
m. 400
i- 354
1. ^KQ
Impurities in clover and grasses
. . ii. 71
,244
Onhm-farms.
In-and-in breeding
iii.
229
Reasons for .
Incubators, use ot
iii.
249
Regulating water-flow .
Indian com as food for stock
iii.
272
Sewage
]• 357
1. 359
;■ 356
1. 360
i- 358
1- 356
1. 360
;• 3SS
»• 357
ii. 66
Infield and outfield .
i.
438
Side
Inorganic chemistry .^
i.
13
Soils for ... ,
II constituents of soil
i.
303
Swamp
II matter available in soils
i.
304
Systems of .
II II in plants .
i.
3°7
Time for ....
Insect enemies of live stock
. iii.
417
Warping ....
11 and fungoid attacks on hop
s . ii.
381
Water-meadow .
II attacks in summer
ii.
63
Water required for
If -11 on turnips
ii.
326
Winter
11 11 lessened by drainag
e . i.
5°
Island ponies ....
• «'• 53
524
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., HL
Italian rye-grass .
ii.
376
Cabbages and
ii.
372
Irrigation crop
ii.
376
Produce
. . ii.
■V7(>
Seed ....
. ii. 85, %76
' Sowing for forage .
. ii.
376
Itch mites ....
iii.
429
Ivel agricultural motor
i.
430
Jackdaw, the
ii.
434
Jack's farm cart .
. ii.
318
If potato digger
ii.
317
It reaper and inower
u.
257
Jar, cream . ' .
ii.
489
Jay, the ....
ii
434
Jersey cattle-
Characteristics . ,
. iu.
129
English Cattle Society ,
. iii
130
English improvers .
iii
130
Introduction into England
. iii
129
Management of ,
iii
131
Milk and butter tests .
iii
130
Scale of points
iii
129
Johnson's ensilage press
ii.
292
Johnston on liquid manure
i
478
Joiner-work
i 232, 238,
242
Judges at ploughing-matches
i.
389
Judging barley .
ii.
97
,1 cheese, scale of points
ii.
507
„ land
i.
26s
II of dryness in stacks .
ii
189
■1 ripeness of grain .
ii.
168
II wheat.
ii.
93
Kale, thousand-headed
ii.
374
Ked or louse-fly .
iii.
424
Kent or Romney Marsh sheep
. iii
156
Kerbs, specification for
i
231
Kernel and husk of oats
ii.
99
II and husk of wheat
ii.
95
Kerry cattle —
As beef-producers
. iii
128
Characteristics
iii
127
Management . .
iii
128
Milking properties
iii
128
The typical animal .
. iii
J 26
Weights and measurements
iii
127
Kerryhill sheep . . .
. iii.
200
Kestrel, the ...
ii.
431
Key, iron hammer nut- .
i.
390
Kidney vetch , ■ ,
ii
376
II seed of
ii.
77
"Kilns," stack, or bosses ,
ii.
26s
Kirkwood's sheep fodder-rack
iii.
394
Knapweed, seed of . .
ii.
79
Knife, breasting .
i.
96
Knife-sharpener for reaper ,
Knives for oreaklng cheese curd
ii.
183
ii.
508
Knight, Mr, on cross-fertilisation
ofgrain ii
105
Knotter of self-binder .
. ii.
78
Kohl-rabi ....
ii 392 ; iii.
282
Labour —
Adjusting farm .
i.
280
Books ....
i.
260
Distribution of farm .
. i. 2,
440
Force of, in reaping oats
ii
183
Good and bad management
i
280
For grain harvest .
ii.
169
Hours of, in summer .
. , ii.
63
Persons who conduct farm
i
5
Rewards of .
ii.
65
Rotation and
i.
437
Saving in, with self-binder
ii.
181
Skilled, in drainage
i
52
Labour, variety of farm
Labourer's cottages. See Farm cottages
Classes of servants .
Residence on the farm .
Specification of . ,
Labourers for working reaper
Lactocribe ....
Ladders ....
Ladybirds ....
Lambing —
After ....
Assistance in .
Assisting in feeding
Cleaning ewes' udders .
Hardiness of hill sheep
Hospital
Inflammation after
Look to the pastures .
Mothering lambs
Fens .
Period of
Season .
Shepherd's hut
Supplementary shelter
Lambs —
After-treatment .
Ailments among .
Assistance iu feeding
Carrying
Castration of
Cow's milk for
Docking
Drafting
Fattening . . •
Removing ewes from
"Rig "or "chaser"
Risks from castration and docking
Shearing ...
Shepherding hill sheep
Stimulants for weak .
Treatment of ewes and
Twins and abortion
Weaning . . .
Lancashire boiler
II cheese
Land —
Burdens .
Chalking
Claying
Cost of irrigating .
Draining . • .
Improving poor and waste
Irrigating . .
Judging . , .
Levelling . . .
Liming.
Marling
Paring and burning
Re-draining .
Rollers ....
Rolling
Value, local climate and
II rent and .
Warping . . ,
Wet clay
Language to horses
Lapwing, the
Large black pig .
, II white pig .
II white Ulster pig
Lark, the ....
Lath and plaster work
Laval cylindrical milk-cooler
Lavender ....
Laverock, the
63
i. 206
i. 206
i. 207
i. 241
ii. ^7S
ii. 479
ii. 222
ii 469
iii. 379
iii. 377
iii. 378
iii 379
iii. 377
iii. 377
iii. 378
iii. 380
iii 378
iii 377
iii. 379,
iii 377
iii 377
iii. 377
iii. 386
iii 380
iii 378
iii 379
379, 498
iii 378
iii 379
iii 386
iii 386
iii 378
iii 380
iii. 380
iii 385
iii 3S0
iii. 379
iii 386
iii 381
; iii. 386
i. 408
ii. S13
i. 276
i. 348
i. 346
i. 368
i. 44
335. 340
1- 353 •
1. 265
i. 338
1. 360
i- 348
»• 349
1. 74
142, 143
ii. 141
i. 264
i 269
i. 360
i. 5°
1. 381
ii. 440
iii. 2r4
iii 210
iii 2J2
ii. 440
240, 244
ii. 483
11. 402
ii. 440
INDEX TO VOLUMES L, II., III.
525
Law of farm service. See Farm service
Lawes on high-pressure and profitable
feeding ....
II and Gilbert's manurial tables
Lawrence iiat cooler for milk
Laying out a farm
u out roads ....
Lazy-bed system of planting potatoes
Lease, See also Tenancy ,
Adventurous offerers .
Care in drafting conditions .
Compensation for improvements
Conditions as to manuring .
II as to w^ed-cleaning
II of . . .
II . of cropping
Di^osal of produce
Entering a farm .
Essential repairs .
Feudal customs ;
Game restrictions in
Land burdens . . .
Leaving the farm in rotation
Owners' rights reserved
Penal clauses
Provisions as to cropping • ,
Becoi€ of holding
Bent-day ....
Stamping the
Ledger
Leeks
Leguminous crops and soil nitrogen
It enrich soil with nitrogen .
Leicester sheep —
Bakewell's influence , .
Characteristics
Clip and weight .
Locality , , . ,
Management of .
Leicestershire cheese .
Lens, examination of seed by pocket-
Lentils as food for stock
II vegetable casein
Level, Challouer's
Levelling-box ....
II dyke-top ....
II land
It staff .....
Lice, general treatment of plant-
II biting
II blood-sucking
II treatment for
Lifter, sack- ....
Light, comparative duration of, in seasons
II influence of.
Lime —
Action of ... .
And drainage water
And nitrifying organisms .
And soluble phosphates
Application of . . .
As a preventive of crop disease
Benefits from
Burning . . . .
Characteristics
Composition of . .
It phosphate of.
It slaked . . .
Compost ....
Covering in ....
Dissipating plant-food .
Durable effects of .
Effects of, on grass land
VOL. III.
I. 294
iii. 364
iii. 304
ii. 483
i. 23
11. 310
i. 267
i. 271
i. 372
i. 276
i. 27s
i- 275
i. 271
i. 273
i. 27s
i. 277
i. 270
i. 276
i. 272
i. 276
J. 27s
1. 272
i. 276
i. 275
I. 277
i. 272
i. 273
i. 249
ii. 398
i. 43S
i. 324
il 146
ii. 74
iii. 138
iii. 139
iii. 139
iii. 139
iii. 139
ii. 512
ii. 70
iii. 273
iii. 273
i. 67
i. 338
i. 108
i. 338
i. 67
ii. 444
iii. 426
iii. 42s
iii. 427
ii. 229
ii. 62
ii. 12
i. 361
i. 362
i. 361
i. 362
i. 360
i. 362
i. 361
i. 363
1. 366
i. 366
i. 501
i. 364
i. 366
i- 36s
1. 361
i. 363
i. 362
for
Lime-
Effects of, on hill pasture
!(iSBential in burning land
For hill pasture .
For sandy soils .
Gas . . .
Ground
In soils
Limeshells .
Loving crops
Over-use of .
Quantity per acre
Shovel .
Slaking
Sources of .
Specification for .
" Spreading .
TWo for applying
Weight of .
Limestone, composition of
II ground
Lime-washing, specification
Liming ....
Care of men and horses
Frequent
Hill pasture .
Injury from imprudent
Land .
Lincoln long-wooled sheep-
Characteristics
Management of ,
Modern Becords .
Noted early flocks
Lincolnshire, Curly-Coated pigs
Lincolnshire Bed Shorthorn —
Characteristics
Early improvement
Later improveiaent
Management
Milking qualities .
Weights
Line-breeding
Linnet, the .
Linseed for calves
II for foals
II as food for stock
Linseed-cake, reputation of
Liquid manure. See also Urine
Acts quickly
> Advantages of
Application by cart
Average composition of
Carts ....
Complex character of excreta
Composition and character of
Compost with
Disadvantages of excess of water
Dispensing with pumps
Drain
Dralnings from yard and dung-heaps
Irrigation with ... 1,
Johnston on
Mid-Lothian system of collecting
Neglect of
Preventing loss of ammonia .
Pump i.
Bainfall and loss of . . .
Scoop
Tanks 1. 159,
Time for application . . .
Utilisation of surplus .
Valuable character of .
Variation in its composition
With the dung ....
Literature of entomology .
i. 36
1- 343
i. 35°
i. 363
1. 362
366, 505
i. 364
330
363
. 362
I 363
■ 36s
. 364
. 360
. 231
• 364
. 361
. 36s
1- 36s
364
236
360
365
36s
34?> 344
1. 361
i. 360
iii. 148
iii. 149
iii. 148
iii. 148
iii. 215
95
94
94
96
96
95
lu. 229
ii. 439
m. 27s
iiL 328
iii. 274
iii. 275
i. 47S
I. 479
1. 479
1. 483
1. 479
1. 483
i. 475
i- 475
i. 484
1. 479
i. 481
i. 159
i. 478
339. 484
i. 478
i. 481
i. 480
1. 48s
160, 481
i. 480
i. 484
480, 481
i. 486
i. 482
i. 477
1. 477
1. 481
ii. 471
526
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
litter —
Careless strewing of, in courts . i. 457
Saving of, in cattle courts . . i: 162
Littering horses . . . . ' ' . iii. 323
Live stock —
Accounts . . I . . . i. 256
Ailments of iii. 435
Damaged wheat for . . . iii, 269
Farm iii. i
In farm buildings . . ' . i. 129
Insect enemies of . . . . iii. 417
Insurance of, against fire . . i. 280
Marketing of, .and dead meat . iii. 407
Quantities of dung from . . i. 466.
Kotation and .... i, 436
Sohemeforimprovement of, in Ireland i. 43
Weighbridge .... iii. 410
Loading a cart with sacks . . . iL 229
Loamy boU i. 298
Loans for draining .... i. 46
Looks, specification for . . . i. 239
Locomotive, agricultural . . . i. 419
Locust or carob beans .... iii. 278
Loft floor, specification for . . . i, 234
Long-horned cattle .... iii. 136
Long-wooled breeds of sheep . . iii. 138
Lonk sheep iii. 197
Lucerne . . il. 49, 76, 355, 369 ; iii. 289
Lupin, cultivation of . . , , iii. 274
ii. 376 ;
M'Ainsh-Bobertson grain-drying rack
M'Cormiok's reaping-machine
Machine-draining, early attempts at
Machine-sowing of oats
Maggot, mangold-leaf.
Maggot-fly,' sheep
Magpie, the
Main posts, specification for
Maize ....
Malleable-iron fence .
II straw-rack .
Malt as food for stock
,1 Eothamsted experiments with
Malt-combs as food for stock
M as manure
Malting barley ....
Mammals in relation to farm life
Management of cows and calves .
,1 of flocks ....
11 of pastures ....
II of store and fattening cattle
Manganese, oxide of, in soils
Mange, itch, or scab mites ,
Mangels
Advantages of storing .
. Autumn tillage . . . .'
Beetle
Carting roots ...
Climate for ,
Cover with dry straw .
Cultivation for
Dependency on manure
Drills and flat rows
Dung for ....
Experiments at Bothamsted
Experiments with (R. A. S. E.)
As food
After hoeing .
Ingredients absorbed by
II of manure for
Injuring plants
Maggot
Manuring
Medium v. large roots
Plagues
ii, 208
ii. 174
I. 79
ii. 137
ii. 446
383, 423
il- 434
i. 232
272, 288
i. 118
i. 152
iii. 270
iii. 270
iii. 371
iii. 271
ii. 97
ii. 424
iii. 330
iii. 376
ii. 280
iii. 355
i- 3°4
iii. 429
u. 362
iii. 281
ii. 363
■ ii. 446
ii. 367
ii. 363
ii. 366
ii. 363
ii- 365
II. 363
ii. 365
i. 28, 364
ii. 49
iii. 281
ii. 366
ii. 364
II. 364
ii. 366
ii. 446
ii. 364
ill. 281
ii. 366
Mangels —
Preliminary cleaning .
Quantity of seed .
Salt for ....
Soils for ... .
» Storing
Sugar in . . - .
Thinning and after cultivation
Time of sowing .
Transplanting
Varieties of .
Yield of ....
Mangers . . ' .
And racks, metal . " .
Fire-clay
Specification for .
„ for .stable
Support for .
Manual and self-delivery machines
Manures and manuring
Abstraction of fertility
Action of nitrogen greatest on
young plants
Advantages of sowing each, separately i. 509
And mutton experiments . ,
Apatite, phosphorite, and phos
phatic layers .
Application of
II of artificial
Artificial and special .
Bare fallow .
Barley ....
11 Yorkshire trials in
For beans '. . .,
Beans and nitrogenous .
Cabbages
For carrots .
Carting in winter ,
For cereals .
Character of soil and .
Characteristics of nitrogenous
Chemical analysis unreliabla
I, process in mixing
Choice of phosphatic .
Compound .
Compounding mixtures
Conditions in lease
Conserving, in soils
Covered-court, for potatoes
Dangers of careless mixing
Deferring exhaustion .
Different rotations
II soils
Distributor ' .
D^rainage and economical
Effect of phosphatic,'iu soils
Elements to be supplied in
Estimating the value of
Evidence of the crops .
II II soil
Excessive nitrogenous applications
Exhaustion in a Norfolk rotatioQ
II and restoration of fertility
Experiments in Aberdeenshire with
II by Highland and Ag
ricultural Society
' II at Eothamsted
II by Eoyal Agricultural
Society of England
Farmers' experiments in
Fermentation in the dung .
" Fire-tang " in open-court dung
Flax
For slow and fast growing crops
Form of applicationfor different soils
ii. 366
ii. 364
u. 364
ii. 363
ii. 366
iii. 280
ii. 366
ii. 364
ii. 366
ii. 362
ii. 366
i- 155
i. 172
i. 173
, 1. 232
1. 23s
i. 173
ii. 176
i. 446
i- 447
i. 493
i. 346
i. 498
i. 511
i- 515
i. 486
i. 44S
ii. 133. 134
ii- 135
ii. 149
ii. 149
ii. 372
ii. 394
ii. 67
ii. 7
i. 516
i. 490
1. 449
i. 508
i. 503
i. S°S.
i. 510
i. 27s
1. 492
i. 166
i. 508
i. 448
i. 518
i. 516
i. 520
i. SI
1. 328
i. 516
1. 508
i. 450
1. 517
1. 491
1. 448
1. 447
li. 51
33
28
11. 42
i. 452
i. i65
i. 167
ii- 387
i. 517
i. 516
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
527
Manures and manuring —
Oreeu ....
The hay crop
Hill pasture , i
Home mixing preferable
Hops , . . ,
II experiments in .
Increased value of, in cattle-courts
Ingredients removed by crops
Knowledge of geology useful
Kohl-rabi
Law of minimum .
Leeks .
Loss in, by washing
Malt-combs as
Mangels , .
Meadows; English trials in .
Method of test experiments .
Methods of miidng
Mixtures injured by lying long .
It and mixing .
More frequent . . .
Nitrogenous, which enrich the soil
For oats . . . . .
J Pastures , . . ii. 281, 282,
Potash
Potatoes ....
II College trials in
Power of soils to retain .
Preventing " fire-fang " in .
Purchasing of ... ,
Quantity of, per head .
Eainfall and artificial .
II and time of sowing .
Ratio of dilferent ingredients
Removal and return of plant-food
Residues of previous ■ . . ' .
Resources of the soil to be reckoned
Restoration of fertility of soil by .
Restoring fertility
Retention of
Return from, on exhausted land .
Safe mixtures ....
Slow and active ....
11 for slow-growing crops
SoU, climate, and ....
Soluble phosphates or superphos-
phates . . . .
Sowing, by machines
11 in drills .
Spent hops as
Successful
Supplemented
Surface .
Tillage and .
Time of application of artificial .
Top-dressing, in summer
Turnip-tops as ... .
Turnips
Uncertain character of compound
Unit value of . . .
Valuable ingredients of
Valuation of unexhausted .
Value and uses of experiments
Vetches
. Wheat
Manures, varieties of .
' ' Alta Vela " phosphates
Ammonia, sulphate of .
Apatite. . . ;
Basic slag .
Blood, dned .
Bones ....
Calcium cyanamide
Coprolites .
453.
1- 445
ii. 251
i- 343
i. 511
"■ 379
ii. 380
' i. 161
i. 448
i. 516
ii. 393
i- 453
ii. 398
i. 166
iii. 271
ii. 364
ii. 252
i. 451
1. 509
i. 5°9
i. 508
i. 518
i. 325
ii. 138
283, 287
i. 329
n. 297
ii. 301
i. 492
i. 166
i. 505
i. 161
i..Si8
ii. 10
i- 519
1. 449
ii. 13
i. 449
i. 328
i. 448
1. 329
1. 517
i- 509
1. 490
i. 492
i. 518
i. 501
i. 520
i- 519
ii. 384
1. 449
i. 514
i- 515
i. 517
i. 519
ii. 63
ii. 358
"• 339
510
507
1. 507
i- 330
1- 517
li. 369
ii. 128
475, 486
499
490
498
499
1.
493
489
497
Manures, varieties of—
Dissolved guano .
Farmyard .
Fish guano .
Frey Bentos guano
Gas-lime
Guano, dissolved .
II fish .
II Frey Bentos
II Peruvian .
II rock .
Gypsum
Horn .
Lime .
liquid .
Mineral phosphates
Nitrate of potash .
II of soda
Nitrogenous .
Peruvian guano .
Phosphatic .
Phosphorite .
Potassic
Eape-dust .
"Redonda"
Rock guano
Shoddy
Soda, nitrate
Soot .
Sombrero
Sulphate of ammonia
Superphosphates .
Manure-trade, origin of the
Manurial constituents in 1000 lb. of
ordinary foods .
II elements in i;ain-water, loss of
II residue of foods .
II value of cotton-cake .
II n of straw .
Manurial value of foods
Lawes and Gilbert's tables .
Proportion of food assimilated and
voided
Solid excreta
Theoretical and realised manure
values
Unexhausted value of consumed
food
Urine
Voelcker and Hall's tables .
Mares, abortion in . . ,
11 number of, to one stallion
M period of gestation .
Market-gardening
Marke^ng grain in winter .
of dairy produce . .
honey
of live stock and dead meat
of meats ....
poultry ....
Marking sheep ....
Marl clay, composition of .
M shell, composition of .
Marling land ....
i\ arshall's agricultural motor
Martinmas entry to farms .
Martin's cultivator
Martins, swallows and
Masham sheep ....
Mason-work, specification for
Mating season of horses
Mattock
I Maunds or wech^j
Mavis, the . ]• .
Meadow catstail, seed of .
488
453
486
487
505
488
486
487
486
499
504
492
360
47S
502
489
488
490
486
493
498
503
488
499
499
488
491
499
490
1. 501
1. 497
i. 329
ii. . 16
i. 329'
lii. 277
i. 467
iii. 303
iii. 304
iii. 304
iii. 304
iii. 310
iii. 310
iii. 304
iii. 311
iii. 324
iii. 329
iii. 236
ii- 397
li. 67
iii. 409
iii. 258
iii. 407
iii. 414
iii. 251
iii. 386
i- 349
1- 349
1. 348
1. 430
1. 277
"■ 331
.}}■ 437
iii. 204
236-241
iii. 329
i- 337
li. 225
ii. 436
■ 84, 239
528
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
Meadow fescue, seed of . . .
ii.
8S
Milk-
II foxtail, seed of .
ii.
83
Selling skiip-
ii.
492
II grasses, seeds of .
li.
87
Selling trade
ii.
48s
II manuring
ii.
251
Separated
ii.
492
Meadows —
II for calves .
iii.
352
English trials in manuring .
ii.
252
Shelves
ii.
476
For highland districts .
i
3SS
Sieve
ii.
488
Water- and irrigation
i.
3SS
Statistics ....
ii.
480
Water catch-work'
i.
358
Sterilisation of .
ii.
482
Meal, yield of ....
ii.-
100
Substitutes for calf-rearing .
iii.
350
Meals, componnd cake and
iii.
287
Sugar
ii.
480
II for store cattle
iii.
361
Testing percentage of cream
ii.
479
Mean and actual temperSture ^ .
i.
261
Turbine-driven pasteuriser .
ii.
481
II temperature, rise of Greenwich
i.
26
Vat ... .
ii.
502
Measuring grain ....
ii.
227
Weight and specific gravity .
ii.
480
II water-supply
ii.
217
Zinc dishes unsuitable for .
ii.
488
Meat-flies, blue-bottles or .
iii.
423
Milkhouso
i.
190
Meats, marketing of .
lii. 413,
414
II vertical section of
i.
197
Mechanical engineering
i.
22
Milk-yield, ventilation and tempera
Mechanics ...
i.
20
ture on ....
iii.
346
II applied ....
' 11 of the plough
Medals for ploughing-matches .
i.
22
Milking cows ....
iii.
340
i.
373
Cows holding back milk
iii.
341
i.
388
Hours of ... .
iii.
340
Medicine, administering
iii.
496
Improved sj^tem of
iii.
342
Memorandum book
i.
260
Machines for ...
iii.
.342
Mendel's laws in improving grain
II II in stock-breeding .
ii.
no
Milk-paUs ....
iii.
'340
iii.
231
Milking side
iii.
341
Mericarps
ii.
80
Nievling ....
iii.
341
Merino sheep . . ' .
iii.
205
Operation of
iii.
341
Metabolism ....
iii.
296
Percentage of butter-fat
iii.
340
Metal mangers and racks .
i.
172
Period of ....
iii.
340
II important to farmers ..
i.
12
Spaying ....
iii.
3-43
II size of, for roads.
i.
124
. Stripping ....
Udder of . . . • .
iU.
341
Metazoa, classification of .
1.
16
iiu
340
Meteorology ....
i.
20
Milking-stool ....
iii.
341
Mice
ii.
427
Mill-dam
ii.
2l3
Micro-organisms in soil
i.
32s
Mill-wheel arc, specification for .
i.
238
Microbe of cattle abortion .
iii.
337
Milling properties of oats .
ii.
140
II of sheep abortion .
iii.
337
Mineral constituents, the fate of .
ii.
17
Microscope, inspecting seeds by the
ii.
70
II manures for barley
ii.
20
Middle white pig
iii.
211
II theory at Bothamsted
ii.
S
Mildews, the ....
u.
411
Minerals, specific gravity of
Minimum thermometer
i.
24
Milfoil, seed of .
ii.
79
i.
26
Milk
ii.
478
Missel-thrush, the
ii.
436
.Albumen ....
. ii.
480
Mites, acarina or . . .
iii.
427
Appliances for weighing
ii.
480
Mixed farm, extent of a .
i.
6
Bottles
ii. 4S2
48s
II husbandry, steadings for .
i.
136
Butter-fat ....
ii.
478
Mixing manures ....
i.
S08
For calves ....
ii.
486
Mixtures, standard seed .
ii.
246
Casein
ii.
479
Modern British cattle .
iiL
6
Churning whole- .
ii.
495,
II reaping-machines
ii.
174
Cleaning dairy utensils
iL
486
II Scotchplough .
Moisture and germination .
i.
370
Cold store ....
ii.
483
ii.
'55
Composition of cow's .
ii.
478
II and vegetation .
i.
354
II of, from different breeds
ii.
478
II in irrigation
.- i.
354
,1 of separated . -
' ill.
3S3
Molasses as food. See Treacle .
iii.
278
Condensed ....
ii.
484
Mole, the ....
ii.
429
Consumption and selling of whole
ii.
48s
Mole-drains
i.
74
Coolers
ii.
483
II V. core-drains
i.
84
Co-operative depots
ii.
48s
Money-rents, fixed
i.
269
Destination of . . .
ii.
484
Moorland breeds of sheep .
iii.
183
Fat-globules.
ii.
479
Morgan's hay- and straw-press .
ii.
279
Filter
ii.
488
Morphology ....
i.
14
As food ....
. iii.
269
Mortar, specification for . . i. 2
31. 236
241
Homogenised
ii.
483
Mossy land, insoluble phosphates for
ii.
35
Laval cylindrical cooler
ii.
483
Moths-
Lawrence flat cooler .
ii.
483
Cabbage ....
ii.
447
Methods of distribution
ii.
48s
Death's-head
ii.
462
Pan, iron ....
ii.
48^
Diamond-back
ii.
464
Pasteurisation of .
ii.
481
Heart or dart
ii.
46s
Pasteuriser tin can
ii.
481
Magpie ....
ii.
468
Purifying and preserving
ii.
481
Pea . .
ii.
460
Railway chum or can .
ii.
48s
Raspberry .
ii
467
Becords
ii.
480
Turnip"
ii.
46s
Refrigerating machines
ii.
484
Motive power for threshing-machines
ii.
216
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
529
Motor, harresting hj .
n driven pasteurisers
Motors, agricultural ....
Mouiitaii^or moorland breeds of sheep
Mowers, types of ....
Mowing-machines. See Beapiug-machines
Mule, the, and the Ass
,1 breeding
Mull ponies
Multiple fruits ,
Mustard
Myxomycetes
ii. 182
ii. 482
i- 430
iii. 183
ii. 256
ii. 256
iii. S9
60
S3
82
111..
ii.
73. 37S
li. 417
Names for horses
Natural drainage
II history
11 orders of plants
II philosophy .
Needle of seu-binder
Neilson system of drjring hay
Nelson system of drying g^ain
Nets for enclosing sheep
Neufohatel or Bondon chfeese
Newberry's dibbling-machine
New Forest pony
"bbli
. , ui. 330
i- SI
i. IS
1. 14
i. 19, 22
ii. 178
ii. 278
ii. 202
iii. 391
ii. 521
ii. 163
_ iii. 44
Newington's dibbling-machine . ii. 164
Nievling iii- 34i
Nipplewort, seed of i,. . . . ii. 80
"Nitragin" i. 324
Nitrate of potash .... i. 489
Nitrate of soda . ' . . . . i. 488
Action of . . • . . . i. 491
And sulphate of ammonia compared i. 491
As a manure .... i. 329
' Nitrates in drainage-waters, loss of . ii. 15
Fallowing and loss of . . . i. 441
Production of, in soils . . . i. 321
Vegetation preventing the loss of i. 473
Nitre-beds, forming .... i. 489
Nitric acid in bare fallow, production of i. 442
Nitrification and drainage ... i- 49
II of soil i. 311
II theory of i. 489
Nitrifying organisms, lime and . . i. 361
Nitrogen, per 10,000 lb. of soil . . i. 323
Action of, on young plants . . i. 493
And sulphuric acid from rain-water i. 48
Annually lost from dung .. . i. 454
Artificial supply essential for wheat ii. 7
Ash constituents and, in 1000 lb.
of various animals , . . i. 328
' Cold weather and loss of . . . i. 473
In dung "• S
Grass and soil .... i. 434
In soils i. 320
Leguminous crops and soil . . i. 435
Leguminous crops enrich soil with i. 324
Loss and conservation of . . i. 435
Methods of preserving, in dung . i. 459
, Natural restoration of, to arable soils ii. 16
II supplies of ash and . . ii. 8
For potatoes . . . . ii. 298
Nutlets , .
Nut-key, iron hammer
Nutrition, animal
Nutritive value of roots
II value of sugar-beet
Of the soil and atmosphere insufficient ii. 6
For turnips ii. 341
Utilisation of air, by plants . . i. 332
Nitrogenous manure, beans and . . ii. 149
II II for barley crop . ii. 19, 37
M II experiments . ii. 35
II II characteristics of i. 490
II II which enrich the soil i. 325
Nomenclature of horses ... iii. 330
■ii of pigs iii. 224
II of sheep . . . ■ ♦, • i". 403
Norfollc sheep . . . . . iii. 203
•Norwegian harrow . . . . ii. 386
Oatmeal balls for cattle
II nutriment in
Oats ....
Antiquity of culture of
Bad work in binding
And barley mixed
Bruising .
Classification
Crop values .
Cutting
As food for stock ,
Force of labour in reaping'
Grains in a bushel of
Harrowing .
And hay for hoggs
For horses , .
Influence of season on
Kernel and husk of
Limits of culture of
- Machine sowing .
Manuring' .
Meal .
Milling properties of
New and old varieties compared
Number of seeds per acre
Origin of . . .
Ploughing for
Preparing to cut . .
Quantity of seed .
Baking.
Reaping
Riddle ....
Seed of golden oat
II of tall oat grass .
Sharp knives for cutting
Smut of . . .
Soil agd milling property of
Sowing.
Stack-heating
Straw ....
Summer culture of
'Tulip root of, or segging
Varieties of .
Water-furrows after sowing
Welsh trials in manuring
Yield and weight .
Offering for a farm
Oilcake breaker . . .
Oilcakes^ minor . . .
Oil-can ....
Oil-engines, working of
II and gas-engines
Old English drains
Oliver's chilled plough
Onions ....
II fly .
II mildew
Orchards , * .
Orders, Natural, of plants .
Organic chemistry
11 matter in soils .
II manures unnecessary for cereals
Orkney and Shetland cattle
Ornamental wire iield-fencing
Otter, the ....
Otto gas-engine
Outfalls
Outfield anil infield
Outhouses of cottages .
ii. 81
i. 390
iii. 291
iii. 279
iii. 281
iii. 369
iiu 27a
ii. 98
ii. '100
ii. 184
ii. 138
iii. 272
ii. 98
ii. 90
ii. 183
ii. 100 ; iii. 272
ii. 183
ii. 99
ii. 136
iii. 396
iii. 318
ii. 139
ii. 99
ii. loi
ii. 137
ii. 38, 138
ii. 99
ii. 140
ii. 140
ii. 137
ii loi
11. 137
ii. 182
ii. 137
ii. 184
ii. 182
ii. 225
ii. 88
ii. 84
ii. 182
ii^ 416
ii. 141
ii. 136, 138
ii. 200
ii. 103
ii. 139
ii. 471
ii. 136
ii. 137
.. "■ '38
ii. 90, 99
i. 270
iii. 396
iii. 277
ii. 223
i. 429
i. 428
i- 57
1. 372
11. 398
ii. 459
ii. 411
ii. 400
i. 14
1. ■ 13
i. 302
ii. 6
iii. 136
i. 116
ii. 426
i. 428
i. 52. S3
i. 438
i. 2z6
530
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., lit
Outlets for porous drains .
. i.
82
Overshot method of water-wheel
ii.
220
Owls
ii.
431
Ox- warble fly . . . '.
iii.
420
Oxen, comparative value of foods for .
iii.
300
Oxford Down sheep ....
iii.
174
Oxidation in different soils .
i.
32s
Oxide of calcium
i.
360
It of iron in basic slag .
i.
Soo
„ -of iron in soil ....
i.
304
M of manganese in soils ,
i.
304
Oxygen and carbonic acid in the air .
i.
49
II and combustion ....
i.
404
Paddocks, grass
i.
89
II for sheep
iii.
401
PaU, milk- .....
iii.
340
Painting, specification for . . i. 236,
240
243
Paling, common wooden . .
i.
102
Palm-nut meal as food for calves
iii.
277
Pansy, seed of field- ....
ii.
7S
Paper-making, flax straw for
ii.
391
Paraffin emulsion, how to make .
ii.
444
Parasites in seeds ....
ii.
72
II seeds of . . . .
ii.
89
Paring and burning land .
i.
349
Paring-plough
i.
351
II sock
i.
SSI
Parkes's system of drainage
i.
45
Parks, letting grassy in spring ,
ii.
59
Parmesan or Grana cheese .
ii.
517
Parsley, seed of
ii.
80
ParSnnis ii.
396. 398
11 fly
ii.
449
lu as food
iii.
282
II for horses
iii.
319
II leaves as food for cows
iii
397
II seed of
H.
80
„ storing
ii.
396
Partridge, the
id.
441
Pasteurisation of milk. . .
ii.
481
Pasteurisers, belt-driven
ii.
482
It iaotor-driveu ....
ii.
482
It turbihe-driven ....
ii.
481
Partitions, specification for . i.
II swung bale v. travis .
239
242
i.
169
Pastoral and arable farming,,steading3 for i.
132
II compact, steading
Pastoral farm —
i.
131
Cropping
i.
276
Flying stock on .
i.
4
Bent of
i.
4
Sheds for sheep on . . .
i.
132
Steadings for ....
i.
130
Stocking . ' .
- i.
4
Wintering sheep on .
iii.
399
Pastoral farmer, knowledge required by
i.
5
Pastures-
Application of manures
U.
283
Clifton Park system of growing .
ii.
287,
On different soils ....
ii.
280
Drainage of
ii.
281
Drainage improving .
i.
S°
Drains and fences . . * .
ii.
284
Dressings of manures .
ii.
282
Effect of climate on . . .
ii.
280
ElHot's, Mr, seed mixture for
ii.
238
" Fairy rings " in .
u.
287
Feeding cake on . .
ii.
282
Formation of j)ermanent
ii.
28s
Grass, analysis of.
ii.
394
Grasses and clovers for permanent ii. 245,285
Grazing after hay . . . . ii. 284
Improvement of. See Hill pasture i. 343
Insufficient attention to . . ii. 280
Pastures —
Managfement of . . . . ". 280
Manuring .... ii. 281, 287
Mole-dramingfor. . . . • i. 74
Permanent, on poor clay soil . ii. 288
Profit from . . . . ii. 281
Should not be mown . . . ii. 280
Sowing grass with another crop . ii. 286
Sowing grass seeds alone . . ii. 286
Sowing permanent . . ii. 286
Stocking of . . . . ii. 283
Store cattle on ... . iii. 362
Trials in England . ii. 49, 285, 286
Value of -» !!• 284
Water-supply for . . . ii. 284
Weeds in ..... ii. 284
Pasturing sheep on arable farms . iii. 382
I II M on hill-farms . iii. 383
It work-horses . . iii.' 32^
Pathology of the plant , . i. 14
Pavement, specification for i. 23S, 243
Peas^
And beans ... ii. 146, 153, 39S
Beetle **■ 44S
Consumption of .... ii. 14S
As food for stock .... iii. 273
Harvesting ii. 209
Midge . . . ... . ii. 460
Mildew of ii. 412
Moth ii. 460
Reduce of . . . ii. 148
Fop'sheep ..... iii. 274
Sowing' ii. rS3, 154
Stacking ii. 209
Straw ... . . ii. 148
Summer culture of . . . ii. 154
Thatching ii. 209
Thrips ii. 461
Tillage for ii. 153
Vegetable casein .... iii. 273
Weevils ii. 459
Peat drains i- 58
Peat-moss as litter .... iii. 322
Peaty soils i. 299
Peewit, the ii. 440
" Peigaon " wire fence . . . i. 121
Penal clauses in lease . . . . i. 276
Penistone 6heep , iii. C04
Percentage composition of ordinary foods iii. 290
Perennial red (ilover . . «. . ii. 74,242
II rye-grass, seed of . . . ii. 85, 237
Permanent fences .... i. 91
II pasture, formation of . . . ii. 285
II grasses and clovers for . . ii. 245
Pemvian guano i. 486
Pests. See Crop pests . . . ii. 442
Pheasant, the ii. 441
Philosophy, Natural .... i. 19
Phoma fungus in swedes . . . ii. 414
Phosphate, bone and mineral . . i. 50a
II of lime, composition of . . i. 501
II It solubility of . . . i. 501
Phosphates —
Analyses of commercial . . i. 499
Lime and soluble .... i. 363
Precipitated i. s°i
Soluble, or superphosphates . i. 501
For turnips ii. 343
Phosphatic layers .... i. 498
II manures . . . . i. 493
II ti choice of . . . 1 503 '
II It effect of ... i. 328
It ti experiments . . . ii. 34
Phosphoric acid in soils . . . i. 320
11 It for turnips . . ii. 341
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., IL, III.
S3 1
PhosphoiitB ....
i. 498
II composition of .
1. 498
Phycomycetes, the .
ii. 405
Physical condition of the soil
i. 318
It geography of fanns .
i. 261
M properties of soils
i. 308
Physios
i. 19
Pick, hand-
i. 91
Pickling wheat ....
11. 130
Pieoe-woTk hy farm servants
i. 294
Piers, specification for
i. 231
Pig dung
i. 466
Pigeons
ii- 434
Piggeries
i. 184
Construction of .
i. 184
Material for construction of .
i. 186
Specification for .
i. 18S
Pigs-
Breeds of
iii. 8, 210
Carcase competitions .
iii. 413
Castrating . . . . i
ii. 221, 498
Diagrams of side of bacon .
Early maturity in
iii. 416
iii. 220
Farrowing
iii. 217
Feeding young . . . .
Live- and dead-weight of
iii. 221
iii. 410
Management of .
iii. Z17
Meals, &c., for .
iii. 221
Nomenclature of .
iii. 224
Period of gestation , . i
ii. 217, 499
Rearing and feeding .
iii. 220
Rest for feeding .
iii. 224
Seasons of farrowing ,
iii. 219
Trough
iii. 223
Weaning . . . . i
ii. 219, 221
Pillars, specification for
i. 238
Pipe ». porous drains .
i. 80
Pipe-laying, iron ....
i. 69
Pipes, areas of drain- ,
i. 81
II for drains ... i. 55
, 60, 61, 62
II specification for drain- . i. 2
30, 240, 243
"PirUng"
ii. 186
Pit ponies
iii- S9
Pits, carrot
ii. 396
II field, for potatoes
ii. 321
II turnip, in the field .
ii. 361
Plans—
For farm dwelling-houses .
i. 189
Of bothies ....
t. 227
Of family cottages
i. 207
Of fai-mhouses
i. 189, 192
Of labourers' cottages .
i. 206
Of piggeries ....
i. 184
Of steadings ....
i. 130
Plant food—
And fertility , .
i- 319
Distribution of, in soils
i- 320
In dung ....
ii. 4
Insoluble phosphates as
ij- S3
Tiime dissipating .
1. 361 _
Removal and return of, by manur
ing
i. 449
Plant pathology ....
1. 14
Plantations^
Reclaiming ground
;■ 337
Shelter from.
1. 90
11 wall and .
i. 89
Thorn hedges around .
i- 95
Planting cabbages
11. 371
n kohl-rabi ....
ii- 393
II potatoes ....
ii- 303
11 strawberries
"• 399
Planting and rearing hedges
i. 91
II thorn hedges . . . .
i. 91
II tools for .
1. 91
Plants —
Ashes of the.
Assimilation of aoimonia by
Discriminating soils by-
Distribution of, in soils
Frosts t;hrowing out
Fungus diseases of
Growth and temperatul'e
Inorganic matter in
Leguminous ....
Lice, general treatment for .
Mutual dependence of animals and
Natural Orders of
New varieties of farm
Relation of, to soils
Uprooted by frost
XJtilisation of air nitrogen by
What they draw from the soil
Plashing hedges . . . .
Plaster and lath work, specification for
Ploughing
A regular pace >est
Advantages of steam- .
Ancient form of ridges .
Anomalies in . . .
Bad
For beans ....
Best ploughmen .
Casting' ridges
Charaoteristros of correct
Clay land not to be ploughed wet
Cross
Cross-, land ...
Crown-ajid-furrow
Deep
Different forms of ridges
Digging and ....
II and grubbing .
Direction of ridges
Effects of a crested furrow-slice
II of a rectangular furrow-slice
Extent ploughed at different Speeds
Peering
Finish or mould furrows
Form and position of furrow-slice
Friction of the earth . ,
In frost and snow
Gathering up ridges
Or grubbing for tnmips . ii.
Harness for . . .
It weight and cost of
Beadridges
High-crested furrows objectionable
Injury by too deep
Judges at, matches
Lea in winter ....
Learning
Long and short ridges .
Matches ....
Medals of the H. & A. Society
Modes of
Movement of the fufrow-slice
Number of furrows
For oats
Open furrows
Parts of ridges ....
Prejudice against steam-
Rain-water channels
Ridges and feerings . .
Shallow
Smashing up the soil .
Speed of horses ....
In spring
Steam '
Steep land
I- 30s
1. 491
i. 312
L 316
ii. 118
ii. 40s
1. 262
i- 307
ii. 146
ii. 444
i. 14
1. 14
ii. 116
i- 315
ii. 68
i- 332
1. 306
i. 98
240,244
■ 368
388
422
392
87
397
150
38s
396
386
398
396
144
39S
399
391
368
399
391
382
382
387.
392
39S
38s
374
398
394
329. 330
i- 379
1. 3S0
i. 400
i- 389
I. 421
i. 389
ii. 66
i- 38s
}- 387
1- 388
i. 388
i- 391
i- 386
.i- 39S
11. 137
i- 395
1- 391
1. 421
i. 398
u. 14S
i- 399
»- 399
1- 387
ii. 60
i. 421
i. 388
532
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., HI.
Ploughing —
Stubble-Iand
Subsoiling ....
Trench and snbsoil
Unseasonable
Varying methods to suit soil
Water-runs or gaws
Weight of deep and shallow furrows
For wheat ....
Wide and broken furrow
Width of ridges .
With three horses
II two horses .
Ploughman, duties of .
11 how employed in bad weather
Ploughs ,
Actions of various
Advantages of the double-furrow
American ....
Body of, and length of wrest
Chilled
Ohilled-steel.
Construction of common
And diggers ....
Digging ....
Double-furrow . . , i.
Drainage ....
Draught of . ,
Drill
English wheel . . .
Iron hammer nut-key for
Irons
Length of beam .
II of stilts and leverage
..Mechanics of . . .
Modern Scottish .
Mole-draining
Paring
Quantity of earth turned over by
Beins
Scottish drill- , . .
Scottish swing-
Slide
Small's
Staff
Steam-
Subsoil
Swing-trees ....
Tempering ....
Triple drm- ....
Turn-wrest or one-way
Varieties, of ....
Weight of ....
Wheels on .
Wilkie's ....
Yoking horses in .
Plovers . . . . .
Plug drains
Plumber-work, speoifloations for
Plunge-churns ....
Poas, seeds of ... .
Poison,, beans containing .
Polecat, the ....
Polled breeds of cattle
Polo pony
Ponies —
Atholl
Celtic
Connemara ....
Dartmoor ....
English and Irish .
Exmoor ....
Experiments with Highland
Pell
Fell and Arab crosses .
372;
t- 398
399
400
400
391
400
38S
117
382
391
381
380.
7
7
368
381
126
37S
373
373
382
368
383
320
120
63
375
373
371
390
384
373
373
373
370
7S
351
389
380
302
369
390
381
37S
423
401
37S
383
306
372
369
37S
374
382
374. 376
ii. 440
i- S7
240, 243
ii. 496
ii: 87
ii. 147
ii. 425
iii. 62
iii. 43
m.
iii.
iii.
Ponies —
Galloway
Hackney and harness
Highland
Inverness-shire .
Island .
Management of .
Mull .
New Forest ,
Polo .
Boss-shire
Bum . .
Shetland
Skye .
Types of
Uist .
Welsh .
Wintering hill
Pont I'Ev^que cheese .
Poor land, improving .
Poppy-oake as food
Porcelain milk dish .
Porous drains
II V. pipe-drains . -
Portable engines .
II threshing-machine
II weighing-machine
Posts, specification for main
II and fencing, specification for
Pot-culture experiments
Potash —
And soda in soils .
As a manure
In soils.
Manures^ experiments
Nitrate of .
For potatoes
Solubility of, in soils
Sources of .
For turnips .
K Use of .
Potatoes
Adjusting force of labour
Dr Aitken on manuring
Analysis of . .
Application of manure for
Arranging the gatherers
Assorting . ,
Autumn dunging .
II planting unsuitable
Ayrshire practice in planting
Barrels for early .
Blossom, vertical section
Boxing system of preparing sets
Carting dung for .
For cattle ....
College trials in manuring .
Colorado beetle .
Complete planting as it proceeds
Conveying seed toVae planters
Covered-court manure for .
Covering in ....
Cross-fertilisation
Culture after
Death's-head moth
Depth of sets and distance apart
Difficult to preserve
Digger ." .
Digging by drill-ploughs
Disease
II resisting varieties
Diseased tubers .
Distributing dung from carts
Distribution of the
Drill roller ....
m.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iiL
iii.
iii.
iii
iii.
iii
48
42
48
SI
S3
47
S3
44
43
SI
S3
S4
S3
• 41.42
iii. S3
iii. .45
iii. 47
ii 521
i. 340
iu. 278
ii. 488
i- 79
i 80
i. 415
ii. 213
ii. 230 •
i. 232
•• 235
ii 50
i- 305
I. 329
i 320
ii. 37
i 489
ii. 298 ^
i 322
i- S04
"• 341, 343
I. 504
li. 29s
li 320
ii 298
ii. 394
u. 301
ii. 317
ii. 317
ii. 301
ii. 308
ii. 306
ii 31s .
II. 312
ii- 308
ii. 302
iii 369
ii. 301
ii. 461
ii. 306
ii. 30s
i. t66
ii. 306
ii 3"
iif 307
ii. 462
ii. 307
II. 321
ii. 317
ii. 320
ii 296, 316, 406
ii. 310
ii. 318
ii. 303
ii. 296
ii. 307
INDEX TO VOLUMES I, II., III.
533
itoes—
Potatoes-
The drill system ,
ii. 304
Spring tillage with autumn dung
ii-
302
Dung and seed not to be left |
Storing
ii-
321
uncovered.
li. 306
II seedling . . . -
ii-
314
Dung for ....
ii. 297
II wet . - . .
ii.
323
Early blight or leaf curl
ii. 417
Tillage for ....
ii.
296
Experiments in spraying
Experiments with late planting
. ii. 49
Tubers boxed - . . -
ii.
308
ii. 307
It free from earth
ii-
318
Filling dung.
. ii. 302
Utilising diseased
iii-
282
As food ....
ill. 282
Varieties of
ii.
29s
Forking after ploughs .
Frosted ....
ii. 321
Ventilating pits ....
ii.
323
. ii. 323
Warty disease of .
ii-
410
Gatherers required
ii. 317
Weather and digging .
ii-
320
General observations on manuri
ng 11. 301
Wheat after
ii-
119
Sir Henry Gilbert on dung for
ii. 300
Width of drills . ,
ii-
307
Good potatoes
ii. 296
Winter rot of ....
il-
412
Graip
Hand-basket
• ' »• 31S
Yield of , - . . i. 326
; ii.
229
ii. 306
Yorkshire method of storing
ii-
322
„ hoeing
. ii. 307
N Young seedling .
ii.
313
Harrowing ....
ii. 320, 321
Poultry
Advantages of pure breeds -
iii.
236
Heating ....
ii. 323
iii-
240
For horses ....
. iu. 283
Classification of breeds '.
iii-
237
Improved di^er best .
ii. 321
Co-operation marketing
iii.
252
ii. 298
Cross-bred . . . -
iii.
239
Introduction into Europe .
ii- 295
Diseases of .
iii.
2S3
Land suitable for planting ,
ii. 296
Ducks ....
iii.
240
Lazy-bed system .
n. 310
Early moulting . . - .
iii.
251
Lifting and selecting ..
ii. 314
Fancy breeds ....
iii.
239
Male and female organs
ii. 311
Feather-eating or depluming scaliios
iii.
431
Manuring ....
. ii. 297
Feeding . . . iii-
247
248
Marking fertilised plum
ii. 313
Fixed houses
iii.
246
Medium-sized
. ii. 316
Geese
iii.
24s
Methods of raising
. ii- 315
General purpose breeds
iii.
238
Need for new varieties .
ii- 31s
Hatching eggs, time of
iii.
236
Nitrogen for ...
ii. 29S
Housing . . . -
iii.
24s
Period of development .
• ii- 314
Incubation .
iii.
249
Kts
ii. 321
Laying competitions
iii.
251
Planting ....
ii- 303
II varieties .
iii.
237
" In autumn , .
. ii. 308
Marketing .
iii-
25!
252
On the flat .
ii. 304
New-laid eggs
iii.
236
Machines . .
ii. 305
Preserving eggs .
iii.
252
The seed
Boxed seed .
ii. 30s
Bearing
iii.
236
ii. 309
Scaly leg of .
iii.
431
Ploughs ....
ii. 320
Table breeds
iii.
238
Plum •»
. ii. 313
Testing eggs
iii.
250
Potash for ....
ii. 29S
Tuberculosis of .
iii.
2SS
Preserving sets
. ii- 304
Turkeys
iii.
245
Process of cross-fertilisation
ii. 312
Vices in
iii.
256
II digging
ii. 318
Winter eggs .
Power for the dairy .
iii.
251
Quantity of seed per acre .
ii. 304
ii.
477
Baiser attached to plough .
ii. 321
II motive, for threshing-machines .
ii.
2l6
Raising ....
ii- 31s
Practical farming —
Acquiring a Knowledge of .
Different systems of .
Early varieties
ii- 315
I
By the graip .
ii- 31S
4
Late or main crop ,
li- 316
Difficulties in learning .
2
New varieties of .
ii. 310
Foresight essential in -
2
Eipe plums ....
"• 313
Practice, science with .
10
Kothamsted experiments with
ii. 299
Pregnancy —
Scab
ii. 417
Critical period of
iii.
331
Section of a flower
11- 311
Feeding In-calf cows .
iii.
331
Securing and storing seeds .
ii- 313
Gestation ....
iii-
331
Seed
11- 303, 311
Prolapse of the vagina .
iii-
331
II for autumn planting .
U. 308
-Reckoning time of calving .
iii.
331
II magnified
• ii- 313
Symptoms of ... .
iii.
•330
II pits ....
Seedless varieties .
II. 323
Preserving cream
ii.
492
11- 311
II milk .
ii.
481
Shaws as thatch .
ii- 323
Presses, cheese ....
ii.
503
Single V. drill plough .
- ii. 304
Pressing hay
ii.
279
Small
ii. 316
Prey, birds of . . " .
ii.
431
Soil and tillage for
ii. 296
Prickly comfrey - - . .
ii.
376
Sowing artificial manure
ii. 303
II II as a forage crop -
iii.
289
II the seed .
"• 313
Prime movers
i.
21
Speedy marketing
ii. 316
Principles of bee-keeping .
iii.
258
Spreading dung .
- 11. 303
II of stock-breeding
iii.
224
Spring dunging . . .
u. 302
Prismatic boss for ventilatii
ig stacks
ii.
201
534
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
Prismatic pit for storing potatoes
Proorastrnation, evils of
Produce —
Conditions as to disposal of
Drainage increasing
Rent . . ■. .
Botation and outlet for
Profit and loss account
Protection to timid animals
Protozoa, classification of .
Pwning hedges ...
Public health regulations for steadings
Pulped food for store cattle
Pulping roots for cattle
Pulverising ploughs .
Pump, liquid-manure .
Pumpherstoq, experiments with
ures at ... .
Pupils —
Farm
Pees for farm
Training of farm .
Purchasing of manures
Pure-culture for butter-mating
Purifying and preserving milk
Quicks, planting young
Rabbits, bares and . . ,
Rabbit-warren wire fence .
Racks —
Cheese .
Tor drying grain
For sheep .
For straw
Hay, for horses
Metal mangers and
Radiation, preventing loss of heat by
Radnor sheep
Railway milk-churn or can .
Rain
Ammonia in .
In autumn .
Snow-water and .
In spring
In summer .
Theory of . . .
In winter
Rainfall —
Amount of . ...
And artificial manures .
And crops ,
And loss of liquid manure
And sheep farming
Distribution of
In Great Britain .
Influence of .
And time of sowing manure
Weight of, per acre
Bain-gauge ....
II position of .
Rainless districts
Rain-water —
Carbonic acid and oxygen in
Channels ....
Evaporation of . . .
Fertility from
Loss of manurial elements in
Nitrogen and sulphuric acid from
Salt from
Spouts .
Raising cream
II potatoes
Rake, hay hand-
Raking grain
< u. 322
ii. 61
i. 274
i. so
1. 268
!• 437
1. 252
i- IS4
i. 16
i- 95
i. 130
iii. 361
iii- 3SS
ii. 330
160, 481
ii. 33
1,
i3
2
i- 3
1- S05
"• 493
u, 481
i. 100
ii. 429
i. 116
ii. soz
202, 208
iii. 394
i. 152
i. 172
i. 172
i. 406
iii, 182
ii. 486
i. 27
29
6S
69
S9
62
28
68
i. 28
i. S18
i. 264
i. 486
i. 264
i. 28
i.> 29
ii. II
ii. 10
i. 29
i. 27
1. 27
i. 28
i. 49.
1. 398
1. 47
48
;t6
48
48
160
4B6
31S
ii. 272
ii. 185
Raking hay .
Rakings, drying .
Ram, hydranlic ,
Bansomes' horse-rake .
II ploughs
II threshing-machine
Rape ....
M for sheep . .
Rape-cake as food
II as food for cattle
II impunity of Indian
Rape-dust ....
Rapes, seed of .
Raspberries.
Beetle . < . .
Moth ; . . .
Weevil ....
Ratio of different ingredients in manures
Rations for dairy cows
II feeding, for fattening cattle
ti for horses . . iii. 317
Rats ....
Raven, the .
Raynbird, Mr, on cross-fertilisation of
grain
Reaper and mower. Jack's .
Reaper-binder. See Binder
Reaping. See Grain harvest
Rea^g appliances —
Binder .....
Harvesting by motor .
Reaping-machine .
Scythe ......
Sickle or " hook "
The stripper harvester .
Reaping-machines —
American . , . .
Ancient ....
Bell's
Dray's Hussey
First effective ,
Harrison M'Gregcir's .
Historical ....
Howard's ....
Knife-sharpener .
M'Cormiok's
Manual and self-delivery
Modem ....
Nineteenth-century machines
Price of ... .
Speed of ... .
varieties of .
Rearing of calves
M foals ....
ti and planting hedges
Reaumur scale . . .. .
Recipes for ailments of farm live stock
Reclamation of wafite land .
Record of holding
Records, milk ....
Recreation, vrinter
Red-clover seed ....
Red Pdled cattle
Combination of beef and milk
Improved Red Poll
Management of .
Milk yields ....
Modem types . .
Standard description .
Weights ....
Red-shank, seed of . . .
"Redonda" and "Alta Vela" phoS'
phates
Re-draining land .
Reed-bunting, the
ii. 264
ii. 185
i. IS3
ii. 260
37i> 372
ii. 215
ii. 374 ,
iii. 396
iii. 278
iii. 276
iii. 276
i. 488
ii. 73
ii. 400
ii. 467
ii. 467
u. 467
i- S19
iii 344
iii. 365
319, 320,
ii. 426
ii. 432
II. los
ii. 257
ii. 176
ii. 167
ii. 177
ii. 182
ii. 172
ii. 170
ii. 169
iL 182
ii. 174
ii. 172
. ii. 172
ii. 174
ii. 172
ii. 176
ii. 172
ii. 176
ii. 183
ii. 174
ii. 176
ii. 174
ii. 172
ii. 17s
u. 17s
li- 17s
iii. 348
iii. 327
i. 91
i. 25
iii. 493
i. 335
i. 277
ii. 480
ii. 67
ii. 401
iii. 78
m.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
iii.
ii.
81
78
80
80
79
79
80
78
I. 499
1. 74
ii. 438
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., Ill
53S
Befrigerating machines '
Eeiua,. tearmg- .
M ploitgh-
Bemoval, conditions as to
Bennet
Bent —
Advantages of a fixed money'
!A.nd land value ,
Conditions regulating
"Covenanted"
Da^ in lease .
Estimating .
Fixed money
Interest, profit, and
Landowners "asking"
Methods of estimating
Mixed .
Offering
Benting and entering farms
Beopening drains
Bepairs essential .
11 and renewals
Besearoh, Government grants for
II specialism in scientific
Besearoh work in Aberdeenshire
II by Highland and Agricultural
Society ....
II at Bothamsted .
II by Boyal Agricultural Society
Besidual soils ....
Betting flax ....
Bhnbarb
Bib-grass, seed of . . .
Bice as food for stock .
Blce-meal as food for stock
Bichmond grain-drying rack
II potato-planter . ,
Eick-cloth for ha^-stacks
Bick-stands. . . .
" Eickling," advantages of
II temporary stacking
Biddies
BSdges —
Ancient form of .
Casting .
Different forms of
Direction of . ' .
Feerings for ploughing
Gathering up
Ill-ploughed .
Mode of feering .
Parts of . . •
Ploughing, and feerings
Widfliof .
" Big " (or " chaser ") lamb
Eing-dove, the .
Eing-fences .
Bipening cream .
II grain .
Blppling flax
"Eoads," cutting
Eoad-scrapings, Cambridge
Beads ....
Ancient
Arrangement of farm
Benefits of good .
Binding material for
Cost of maintenance
Cross section of .
Drainage of .
Grades and gradients
Laying out .
Bepairing .
Side channels
Size of metal for .
ii. 484
i- 379
i. 380
i. 276
"• 503
269
269
261
269
272
267
269
269
271
267
268
270
261
71
270
279
39
II
SI
"• 33
ii. I
ii. 42
i. 301
389, 392
"■ 399
ii. 77
iii. 273
iii. 273
ii. 202
ii- 305
ii. 277
i. 176
ii. 189
ii. 189
ii. 225
i. 392
1. 396
1. 391
i- 391
1- 397
1- 394
1- 397
1- 393
i- 391
ii. 146
i- 391
iii. 380
ii- 434
i. 86
ii- 493
ii. 168
ii. 388
ii. 183
i- 497
i. 122
i. 122
i- 122
i: 122
i. 125
i. 125
i. 124
i. 124
i. 123
i. 123
i. 125
i. 124
i. 124
I. 124
i- 1 28
i. 123
i. 499
i. 24
ii. 426
Beads —
• Stones for read-metal .
To farm buildings
Width of ....
Beck guano . .
Eocks, specific gravity of
Bodents
Boilers —
Diameter and weight of . ii. 142
Divided . . . ii. 142
Drill ... . . ii. 307
Water-ballast . . . ii. 143
Belling for grass seeds . . ii. 249
II wheat ii. 118
Boiling land ii. 141
Process ef ii. 143
Speed in . . . . ii. 143
Tyime for . , . . ii. 143
Bemney Marsh sheep, Kent or . . iii. 156
Bones, specification for . i. 240, 243
Eoof boarding, specification for . , , i. 234
M for court ... . i. 164
II spans, specification for i. 232, 233
Boofing cattle-courts . . .1. 163
II specification for . i. 238, 242
Eoofs, specification for felt on i. 235
II of steadings . i. 181
Book, the ii. 432
Boot- or bulb-eating slug . . ii. 474
Boot-alcohol for industnal purposes ii. 403
Boot cultivation, drainage and , . i. 50
Boots. See Turnips, Mangels, &c. ,
Carting ..... ii. 366
Different kinds of, for store cattle iii. 360
Frozen, bad for cattle . . . iii. 355
For horses ... .iii. 319
Sowing in summer . . . ii. 63
Storing. . . . ii. 366
Quality of barley after . ii- 134
Bange of . . . . i. 434
Bothamsted experiments . ii. 28
Variation in nutritive value of . iii, 279
Washing, for cattle ... iii. 355
Bopes, care of . . . . ii. 191
II cart- ... . . ii. 191
II straw for ii. 196
Hoping hay-stacks . , . . ii, 272
II a loaded cart . . . , ii. 192
,1 lozenge ii. 198
II stacks ii. 198-
Boquefort cheese . . . , ii. 519
Boscemmen sheep ^ . , . . iii, 157
Bose, mildew ef ii. 412
Boss-shire ponies , , , . iii, 51
Eetation of crops . . , . i. 433
And climate i. 437
And labour i. 437
Arable v. pasture . . . . i. 437
Conditions as to leaving farm . 1. 275
For fiax , . . , , ii, 385
General rules , , . i. 440
Grass and i. 437
Hay ii. 261
I, cutting ii. 255
II manuring . , , . ii. 251
Manures for different . . . i. 518
Sample rotations .... i. 438
Seed^ for, grasses . . . . ii. 244
Experiments at Wobum , . ii. 46
Bothamsted experiments . , . ii. 1-32
Barley ii- 133
Continuous growth of . . , ii. 19
Produce ofgrain and straw averages ii. 20
Produce of hay per acre — 1856-
1902 ii. 23.
536
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., IH.
Eothamsted experiments —
Grass for hay ....
Changes in herbage by ,
Complete manures
Effect of lime
Effect of manures upon herbage
Mineral manures alone .
Nitrogenous manures alone ,
Percentages of herbage — 1856-1902
Malt
Other experiments ,
Potatoes
Boot crops ■ . , . .
Average produce of roots
Continuous growth of mangels
Effect of manures on tilth ,
Farmyard manure for mangels
Manure recovered in crop .
Manures and Incidence of disease
Nitrogenous manures for mangels
Potash salts for mangels
Produce of roots and leaves .
Quantities of manures per acre .
Trials on turnips ....
The soil
Soil and drainage-water investigations
Wheat —
Ammonia with individual ash con-
stituents . . . .' .
Ammonium-salts alone
Ammonium - salts with ash con-
stituents
Autumn and spring sowing of
ammonium-saJts
Behaviour of liiQe in soil
Continuous growth of . ■ , •
Effect of annual residue from am-
monium-salts— average 1852-1906
Effect of annual residue of ash con-
stituents— average 1852-1906 .
Effect of autumn and spring ap-
plications of ammonium-salts .
Effect of autumn weather due to
fallowing
Effects of residues of manures
The fate of min%ral constituents .
Influence of season
Produce of wheat with ammon-
ium-salts— average 1852-64
Produce of wheat with dung
Produce of wheat with nitrate of
soda and ammdninm-salts
Produce of wheat variously manured
- Ppduce of wheat variously man-
ured— average for fifty-five years
Produce of wheat without manure
Proportion of corn to straw .
Tracing the fate of manures .
With ash constituents .
With farmyard manure
With nitrate of soda . , .
Without manure ....
The yield of dressed grain, &c. .
Bove beetles
Eoyal Agricultural Society —
Aid to agricultural education by ,
Experiments with wheat and barley
ti ensilage .
,1 clover
II lucerne .
11 mangels .
II potatoes .
Feeding experiments .
" Finger-and-toe " in turnips
Green-manuring experiments
11. 23
ii. 27
ii. 26
ii. 27
ii. 24
ii. 26
ii. 24
ii. 25
iii. 270
ii. 32
ii, 209
11. 2tJ
ii. 28
ii. 28
ii. 31
ii. 29
ii. 31
ii. 32
ii. 30
ii. 30
ii. 29
ii. 28
ii. 342
11.
u. 10
ii. i8
ii. 3
u.
11. • 15
ii. 13
ii. 17
ii. 12
11.
4
IL
9
ii.
6
ii.
4
11.
12
ii.
14
11.
S
11.
4
11.
10
u.
3
11.
12
u.
469
i.
36
11.4;
,44
11.
SO
11.
49
u.
49
11.
49
11.
49
11.
-5°
11.
49
Eoyal Agricultural Society —
Hellriegel's discoveries .
Objects of the Wobum experi^
ments . . . ■
Other experiments with corn crops
Pasture experiments .
Pot-culture station
Botation experiments .
Trials of windmills in England
Wobum station .
Bum ponies ....
Bunch, seed of >
Bust, white
Eye
M here and, as food for stock .
II carrots and ....
II limits of culture of .
II sowing . . . .,
II straw .....
II yield and weight of ,
Ey6-flonr .....
Bye-grass, cabbages and Italian .
II flail for threshing
II Italian
II seed of . . .
Byeland sheep ....
Sack-barrow . • .
II lifter
^aoks —
Com-
Loading a cart with
Mode of lifting
Placing, in the field
Seed-
Tying, of com
Sainfoin
II cutting ' ,
II as food . ■ . . • .
II hay
Salt for sheep . •. . .
II and chalk for calves .
II from rain-water .
Salting butter ....
II and spicing hay . ,
Sandringham dairy-nerd reoor4er
Sand-drains ....
Sandy soil
Sanitary engineering . ,
Savoys
Scab mites
47
Scaffolding, specification for
Scaly leg of the fowl . •
Scarifier, drill- ....
Science —
First degree in agricultural, in
Britain
Growing in favour
Veterinary
With practice
Sciences-
Applicable to agriculture
Prominence given to chemistry
To be studied by farmers
Scientific character of Eothamsted trials
II education widening ,
II research, specialism in
Scoop, corn- . ' ■.
II liquid-manure *.
Scorpion-grass, seed of
Scotch hands for butter-making .
Scotland, cattle-feeding in 1
Screens, com- , . .
Scutching-flax ....
» 11. 47
ii. 42
ii. 48
ii. 49
ii. 42, 50
ii. 46
. i- 432
ii. 42
iii. S3
ii. 73
ii. 411
ii. 370
iii. 271
ii- 39S
ii. 101 •
ii. 141
ii. 103
ii. loi
ii, 102
ii. 372
ii. 278
ii. 376
ii. 84, 278
iii. 178
i. 229, 230
ii, 229
ii. 229
ii, 229
ii, 228
ii. 120
ii. 121
ii. 228
ii. 370
ii. 255
iii. 289
ii. 370
i. 383, 396
iii. 37S
i. 48
_^ii. 500
li. 277
ii. 480
i. 80
i. 298
i. 22
ii. 397
iii, 429
iii. 432
i, 241
iii. 431
ii. 3S2
31
17
10
1. 9, 10
i. 10
1. II
ii. 227
i. 484
ii, 82
ii. SOI
iii, 366
ii. 225
ii. 390
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
537
Scythe
ii. 170
Setoning
iii. 498
.Cutting "roads "with.
ii. 183
11 calves ....
iii- 354
Unsuitable for reaping wheat
u. 188
Sewage irrigation . • .
" Shaking,'^ shedding or, of grain
i- 357
Seal for Unding cattle
i- 57
ii. 168
Seasons, the
ii- 57
Shallow-pan system of cream-raising
ii. 487
Ash constituents and .
Ii. 13
Sheaf-binding harvester. See Binder
ii- 177
Calendar and agricultural .
Effect of, upon Barley .
Influence of, on oats .
ii. 62
11 gauge-
ii. 170
ii. 21
11 ripening of grain in the
ii. 167
ii. 139
Shearing sheep ....
iii. 384
M on crops .
li. 12
Shears, wool
iii. 385
Seed-
Sheaves, lifting broken stalks
ii, 185
Adulteration and deterioration
ii. 71
II size of . ...
ii. 185
Of buttercups
ii. 77
II small . . . . '
• ii. 187
Change of
ii. 115
II for wheat ....
ii, 188
Of the chickweed family
"• 71
Shedding or shaking of grain
ii. 168
Classification of farm .
a. 72
Sheep—
Of the cleavers family .
ii. 81
"Acclimatisation " value of
i. 279
Clover
ii. 74, 241
And arable farming, barns for
i- 134
Colour and gloss . . . .
ii. 71
Abortion, microbe of 1
iii- 337
Of composites
ii. 79
Administrating medicine to .
iii. 496
Of the cruciferous plants
ii. 73
Ailments of .
iii. 484
De Jiaune's mixtures .
ii, 246
Arable land on, farms .
iii. 400
Depth for grass .
ii. 247
Prof. Axe on abortion among
iii. 381
Of the dock family
ii. 78
Barb-wire fences for .
i- 113
Drill, hand ....
ii. 124
Bathing or "pouring " .
Begin cautiously with turnips
iii. 387
II turnip
ii. 337
i"- 393
Examination of .
ii. 70
Begin turnip-feeding early .
iii- 393
Form and surface of .
ii. 70
Bridging rivulets for .
iii- 403
JProst injuring clover .
ii. 250
British wool ....
iii. 404
Germination of . . .
ii. 154
Blackface, in winter .
iii. 396
Grass
U. 82
Cabbages for . . .
ill. 282
Hay for ....
ii- 253
Cake-breaker
iii. 396
Identification of .
iL 70
Carcase competitions .
iii. 412
Improvement in .
ii. 115
Carting turnips on lea land in bad
weather ....
Impurities in farm
ii- 71. 75
iii. 392
Leguminous ....
ii- 74
Comparative value of foods for
iii. 300
Merioarps ....
ii. 80
Cost of turnip-feeding for .
iii. 398
Multiple fruits .
ii. 82
Cots or sheds
iii. 401
Nature of farm .
ii. 70
Cutting turnips for
iii- 395
New or old ....
ii. 117
Diagram showing cutting of oarcas
e ill. 415
New varieties of farm plants
ii. 116
Dipping of. See " Dipping "
iii. 387
Of parasites ....
u. 89
Disposal of fat, in summer .,
ii- 63
Parasites in .
ii. 72
Dogs
iii. 264
Quantity of seed per acre
ii. 161
Draft ewes on turnips .
iii. 393
11 for barley -
ii- 132
Dressing for foot-rot ,
iii. 170
II for oats
ii- 137
Dry food with turnips for .
iii- 393
11 for wheat .
ii. 118
Dung . ■, .
i. 466
Two-faced rib-grass
ii. 77
Enclosing, on turnips .
iii. 391
For permanent pastures
ii. 245, 285
Excessive valuations for
i- 279
Bed-clover ....
ii. 401
Experiments with foods for, or
For rotation grasses
ii. 244
roots
iii. 397
Sacks for . . . .'
ii. 121
Extent of roots given at a time
. iii- 392
Size of
ii. 70
Ewes and lambs, treatment of
iii. 382
Sowing grass
ii. 347
Feeding-box for .
iii. 169
Standard mixtures of .
ii. 245
Feeding experiments with .
iii. 294
Testing ....
ii. 116
Feeding shed . . <
iii. 399
Time
ii. IIS
Feeding in sheds .
iii. 398
II seasonable working of land
ii. 115
Fertility in ....
Iii. 390
11 selecting seeds
fi. 115
Fodder-racks
iii- 394
True - . ■ . . ' .
■ ii- 72. 73
Force at clipping . . ' .
iii- 385
ambelliferous
ii. 80
Heather burning .
iii. 383
Wheat for ....
ii. 94
"Home-wintering" or "sending
Seed-basket." . . .
ii. 121
away" ....
' iii- 399
II carrier . . . ' .
ii. 121
House-feeding of .
Irrigation on hill-farms
ill. 398
Seedling
ii. 156
iii. 400
Seedlings, the "damping off" of
ii. 405
Is claying lands injurious to ?
i. 348
Self-binder. See Binder .
ii. 177
Ked or louse-fly .
iii. 424
Self-deUvery machines
ii. 176
Lime and sulphur dip .
iii- 433
Self-heal, seed of . . .
ii.. 81
Live-weight increase and its cost
iii. 397
Sellar's ploughs ....
i- 370
Long-wooled breeds of .
iii. 138
Semi-portable steam-engine « .
i. 416
Maggot-fly ....
ii- 3,83, 423
Separated milk for calves .
. iii. 352
"Marking ....
. hi. 386
Separators, cream . ...
ii. 492
Methods of clipping .
■ iii- 385
Servants, duties of
i- ?94
•Nets
iii. 391
n' wages of farm
i. 289
Nomenclature of .
iii- 403
538
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
Sheep —
Nostril-fly . ■, •
Oats and hay for hoggs
Paddocks for ,
Pastoral farming .
Pasturing on arable farms
II on hill-farms
Peas for ...
Period of gestation
Kokiug out turnip-shells
Preparing turnips for .
Bap^ for . . .
Becipes for ailments of
Begistering marks ,
Boss -shire example of house
feeding
Salt for
Saving hay for hill-farms
Scab, common
M dressing for
Shearer, hand-power .
Shearing machines
Shearing of .
Shelter for, on turnips .
Shepherding hill .
Shifting on pastures
Short-wool and Down breeds of
, Smearing
Stells for .
Stocks, valuing .
Store,* in summer .
Storing turnips for ewes
Storing wool
Substitutes forleeding-racks
Summer fattening
Supplementing dykes for
System of ear-marking .
Ticks in . . .
Time of shearing .
Tupping season ^
Turnip-cutter cart
Turnip-tops as food for
Turnip-tops for .
Turnips consumed on ground by
On turnips in winter .
On turnips during snow
On turnips in winter .
•Turnips risky for ewes
Undipped sheep falling
Unripe turnips dangerous
Washing of .
Water for .
Wheat for , . ,
In winter . .
Wintering, on pastoral farms
Wintering, in Eomney Marsh
Wire nets
In a wood in a snowstorm
Wool-shears ...
Young, on turnips
Young, best for hill-farms
Sheep, breeds of .
Sheep, varieties of—
Blackface
Border Leicester .
Cheviot
The Clun steep .
Cotswold . ,
Dartmoor . . ' .
Derbyshire Gritstone .
Devon long-wool .
Dorset Down
Dorset or Somerset horn
Exmoor horn , ,
Foreign breeds . .
iii. 421
iii. 396
iii. 401
i. 132
iii. 383
iii. 383
iii. Z74
236, 499
"i. 394
iii. 391
iii. 396
iii. 495
iii. 387
iii. 398
• 383. 396
iii. 400
iii. 432
iii. 390
iii. 385
m. 38s
iii. 384
iii- 397
in. 380
iii. 382
iii. 162
iii. 387
iii. 401
i. 279
iii. 382
ii. 362
iii. 385
iii. 394
iii. 382
i. 109
iii. 166
iii- 433
iii. 384
iii. 390
iii- 39S
u. 358
iii- 393
"■ 357
li. 67
iii. 396
iii. 391
iii. 393
iii. 383
iii. 396
iii. 384
iii. 382
iii. 269
iii. 390
iii. 399
iii. 400
iii. 392
iii. 396
iii. 38s
"i. 393
iii. 403
iii. 7
iii. 183
iii. 140
iii. 189
iii. 203
iii. 150
iii. 195
m. 201
iii. 152
iii. 178
iii. iSo
iii. 194
iii. 205
Sheep, varieties of—
Half-bred .
Hampshire down .
Herdwick
tent or Romney Marsh
erryhill (Wales)
Leicester . . ^
Lincoln, long-wool
The Lonk
Masham
Merino
The Norfolk
Other types ,
Oxford Down
Fenistone
Eadnor
Boscommon .
Eyeland
Shetland
Shropshire
South Devon
Southdown
Suffolk .
Welsh .
Wiltshire
Sheep-drawing pen
Sheep-farming and rainfall . '
Sheep's fescue, seed of
II sorrel, seed of . ,
Sheet-iron fence .
Shelter-
Fencing for .
Prom dykes . .
From fences .
From plantations .
From stake-and-rice fence
From wall and plantation.
On sheep-farms ,
For sheep on turnips ,
On upland farms .
Overdone in enclosing fields folr
" Sheltie," or pony
Shelves of dairy .
II milk ....
Shelving, specification for .
Shepherd, qualifications of a
Shepherds, duties of ,
Shepjberd's hut .
■I knot ,
Sherardia, seed, of
Shetland cattle, Orkney and
Shetland ponies .
Bressay Stud
Distribution
Management of . .
In the mines
Modem type
Points of the breed
Purity of .
Shetland sheep .
Shire horse, the . .
Characteristics
Dimensions and weight
Feeding and management
Ground for breeding
Mating .
Name of the breed
Origin of
Prices .
Society of .
A typical shire .
Veterinary inspection
Shirrefi", Mr, on cross-fertilijation of
grain
iii.
158
iii.
170
iii.
197
iii.
156
iii.
200
iii.
138
iii.
148
iii.
196
iii.
2Q4
iii.
20s
iii.
203
iii.
20s
iii.
173
iii.
204
iii.
182
iii.
IS7
iii.
178
iii.
204
iu.
164
iii.
153
iii.
162
iii.
176
iii.
198
iii.
154
iii.
204
iii.
167
i.
264
ii.
^6
ii.
78
i.
"5
i.
89
i.
no
i.
87
i.
90
i.
102
i.
89
iii.
401
iii.
397
i.
90
i.
89
iii.
58
ii.
489
ii.
476
i.
243
iii.
^8S
i.
8
iii.
377
iii.
392
iL
81
iii.
136
iii.
54
m.
se
iii
57
iii.
58
iii.
56
iii.
S6
iii.
57
iii.
54
iii.
204
iii.
9
iii.
II
iu.
n
iii.
14
iii.
9
iii.
II
iiL
9
iii.
9
iii.
10
iii.
9
ui.
13
ili.
9
ii. 105
INDEX TO VOLUMES L, II., III.
539
Shocking, stooking or, giain
Shoddy as manure . .
Shoeing horses ,
Shorthorn cattle .
Attributes of the breed
Seef production .
For crossing purposes
Dexter-Shorthorn
Early improvers .
Exports of .
Herd-Books .
The ideal Shorthorn
Later improvers ,
Lincolnshire Bed .
Management in dairy herds
, Management of herds
Milking properties
Shorthorn Society
Short-wool and Down breeds of
Shovel, corn
II dung .
II lime , , .
Shows, preparing cattle for
Showyard honours
Shrew, the .
Shropshire sheep —
Early types .
Feeding boxes
Management
Mating rams and ewes
Merits of the breed
System of ear-marking
Sickle or " hook "
Sieve, milk-
II com .
Silica unnecessary for cereals
- It in soils
Simfflex pump .
Singeing horses ,
Singling and hoeing turnips
Skim-milk cheese
Skimmer, cream-
Skylark, the
Bky-lights, specification for
Skye ponies
Slag, basic or "Thomas"
Slaking lime
Slater-work; specifications
Sleepy cream
Sliding scale of rent .
Slime fungi .
"Slipoote" cheese
Slugs ....
Sluices, troughs and ,
Small's plough .
Smearing sheep . .
Smut in barley .
II in oats
II in wheat .
Snails ....
Snow ....
Hedges injured by
Keeps land warm .
And soil temperature
In spring
Uses and drawbacks of
Water and rain .
Snowfalls, gauging
Soda, nitrate of .
II action of nitrate of
II as a manure
II nitrate of, excels
salts
Soft cheeses
sheep
for
ammonium
ii. 185
i. 488
iii. 323
iii. 82
iii. 86
iii. 86
iii.' 87
iii- 13s
iii. 82
iii. 89
iii. 89
lU.
8S
iii. 84
iii. 94
iii. 93
iii. 89
iii. 88
iii. 89 I
iii. 162 !
ii. 227
i. 512
!• 513
iii- 373
ill- 375
li. 430
iii. 164
iii. 169
iiL 165
iii. 167
iii. 165
iiL 166
ii. 169
ii 488
ii. 226
ii. 7
i. 304
ii. 289
i. 160
iii. 323
ii- 352
ii. 510
ii. 489
ii 440
i. 238, 242, 243
iii- 53
1. 499
i- 364
240, 243
ii 499
i 268
ii 417
ii 514
li. 472,
ii 220
i«38i
iii. 387
ii. 416
ii. 416
ii 416
ii. 472
ii 69
i- 95
li 69
i 262
ii- 59
69
69
28
11.
ii.
i
i. 488
i 491
i 329
"• 513
Soil
Absorbing power of
1. ny/
i 311
Accumulation of fertility .
i. 322
Alumina in ....
i. 304
An unreliable custodian of manuri
i. 472
Analysis of .
'• 305
And rotation
i- 436
Ashes of the plants
i- 305
Available inorganic matter .
1- 304
Bacteria ....
i. 311
For barley •• . . .
ii- 133
Capillary, power of
i- 309
For carrots ....
ii- 394
Causes of infertility .
i- 331
,1 of wetness in land .
i 51
Chalking ....
i- 348
Chalky
i. 299
Character of good and bad .
i 266
II of, and manuring .
i 516
Chemical analysis essential .
i- 307
It changes in the
1- 303
II substances in
i. 302
Classification of .
i 301
Clay
i. 298
Clayey loams
i. 298
Claying ....
i- 346
Climate and manuring .
i. 518
And climate for clovers
ii. 241
Colour of, and subsoils
i, 310
Composition of clay and shell marl
s i- 349
Composition of the earth's crust
i. 306
Conserving manures in .
i 492
Constituents
i 302
Density and volume weight .
i 309
Depth of ....
Different kinds .
i. 300
i. 298
Discriminating, by plants .
i 312
Distribution of plant-food in
i- 320
M of plants .
i. 316
Drainage and temperature .
i. 263
II varying with .
i- S3
And drainage-water experiments
ii- 3
Drift
i 18
Dung heating
i. 471
Effect of, on milling property of oa
s ii. 141
Effects on, by irrigation
i- 355
Evaporation from
i. 309
Examining ....
1. 265
II for drainage
i- S3
Exhaustion by crops and stock
i. 326
FertiUtyof ....
i- 317
For flax
ii- 385
For irrigation
i- 356
Formation of . . .
i. 18
Glacial drift or till
1. 301
Grass and, nitrogen
i- 434
Grasses for different
ii. 24s
Gravelly ....
i 299
For hops ....
ii- 377
Humus in ... .
i 303, 321
Influence of electricity on .
ii. 404
II of season and, on oats
ii 139
Inoculation of . . . '
i- 324
Inorganic constituents of
i- 303
II matter in plants
1- 307
Irrigating .
i- 3S3
Kindly
1. 299
Forkohl-rabi
ii 393
Leguminous crops enrich, in nitrog
en i. 324
,1 II and, nitrogen
i- 435
Liming
i. 361
Loamy
i. 298
For mangel ....
ii- 363
Manures for different .
i. 516
Marling ....
i. 348
S40
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
3oil-
Sowing-
Mioro-orgaUisms in . . .
i- 32s
Advantages of drill- .
• H- '59
Mixing, in claying lands
Barley
n. 131
Mode of classification in India .
i.. 301
Basket
11. 122
Nitrates in, production of .
Nitrogen of the, and of atmosphere
i. 321
Beans'
ii. 148
ii. 6
Cabbages . .
■ . ii. 371
,1 per looo lb. of .
i. 323
parrots
Tereals
• ;;■ 394
II phosphoric acid, and potash in
i. 320
ii. "5
Nitrogenous manures vhich enrich
J. 325
Crimson clover ,
■ ?!■ 375
Of clay and sand ....
i. 298
Deep and shallow.
ii. 164
Organic matter in .
i. 302
Different methods of, and gen
inination ii. 157
Oxidation in different .
i. 32s
Disadvantages of broadcast ,
• if- W
Oxide of iron in .
'• 304
Flax
11. 387
II of manganese in .
i. 304
Grass seeds . . . .
ii. 247
Paring and burning
i. 349
Crops accompanying
ii. 250
Pastures on different .
ii. 280
Hand-sowing
ii. 248
Peaty ....
1. 299
Harrow carnage .
Ii. 249
Percolation of water through
i. 309
Harrows
ii. 248
Phosphatic manure, effect on
i. 328
Methods of sowing
ii. 248
Physical condition of the
i. 318
Rolling . . . .
ii. 249
II properties of .
Plant-food in ....
i. 308
Speed of the machine .
ii. 248
i. 319
Time of sowing
ii. 247
Position of, and subsoil
i. 300
Working wide harrows .
ii. 249
Power of, to retain manures
i. 492
Kohl-rabi . . . .
ii. 393
Proportion of good and bad .
i. 266
Machines . . . .
ii. 123
Relation of plants to .
i. 31S
Manure in drills .
i. 519
II to strata ....
i. 19
Manures by machines .
i. 520
II to water.
i. 319
M separately
.!• S09
Residual
1. 301
Oats . .' .
ii. 136
Resources of the, and manuring .
i. 449
Peas ...
ii. IS3. 154
Restoration of fertility by manuring
i. 328-
Permanent pasture
ii. 286
Retaining water in drainage .
i 46
Potato seed . . . .
ii. 313
Retention of manures . . . ••
i. 329
Root, in summer .
ii. 63
At Rothamsted ....
ii. 2
Rye
ii. 141
Sandy
i. 298
Sheet
ii. 122
Sandy loams ....
i. 299
With spring crops
Thick and thin .
ii. 250
Section of, and subsoil .
1. 300
ii. 161
Signs ioT faults, by Bombay revenue
i. 302
Turnips
. ii. 334
Silica in
i. 304
Wheat in autumn .
ii. 116
Smashing up the, in ploughing .
i. 399
II in spring .
ii. 119
Snow and, temperature
i. 262
Sows, farrowing of . . .
, iii. 217
Solubility of phosphates and potash in i. 322
South Devon cattle —
Sourcesof fertility in .
1. 319
Description .
Early history
. iii. 106
Specific gravity of
i. 24
iii. 105
For strawberries ....
ii. 400
Herd-Book Society
. iii. los
Structure of
i. 308
Management of .
iii. 107
Subsoil. .....
i. 297
Making qualities .
iii. 107
Temperature of ... .
i. 310
Recent improvement .
iii. io5
1, of, and atmosphere
i. 262
Weights .
. iii. 106
II and drainage .
i. 47
South Devon sheep
iii. IS4
Texture of
i. 308
Southdown sheep-
Transported .....
i. 301
Characteristics
iii. 162
For turnips
ii. 328
Early improvers .
. iii. 162
Uncultivated
i. 266
Management
. iiL 163
Utilisation of air nitrogen by
■ Soy beans ....
, iii. 274
plants in
i. 332
Spade-
Varying methods of ploughing to
Common
i. 35°
suit
i. 391
Digging
i. 64
Ventilation of the
i. 49
Dung- ....
J. 460
For vetches
il. 368
Flauchter- .
i. 35°
Virgin
i. 433
Spade-hind, duties of .
. . i. 7
Water a factor in environment .
i. 316
Spadesmen, duties of .
L 7
Weeds in . . . .
1. 312
Sparrow, the house- .
ii. 439
What plants withdraw from the .
i. 306
II -hawk, the
ii. 431
" Soiling ',' cattle ....
iii. 370
Spaying cows
iii. 343
II horses ....
iii. 321
Special and artificial manures
i. 486
Soluble phosphates or superphosphates
i. SOI
Specific gravity of milk
ii. 480
Sombrero or rock guano
i. 499
II of soils, rooks, minerals, an
d woods i. 24
SSmerset, Dorset or, horn sheep .
iii. i8o
II of turnips .
ii. 327
Soot
i- 491
II of urine
i. 477
Sorghum
.ii. 376
II and volume weight of soils
i. 3°9
II as forage crop
iii. 289
Specifications —
Sowers, broadcast ....
ii. 123
Conditions of
i. 229
1, drill
ii. 124
For a modern stone steadinf
; . i. 236
,1 hand broadcast .
.
ii. 124
For a steading for a farm of ,
00 acres i. a29j
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
541
itions —
For drainage contract ,
For piggeries
Of labourers' cottages ,
Of model cottage erected at Baith
''Speedwell" crystal chum
Spicing, salting and, hay ,
Spiders
Sporadic abortion . ,
Spouts, rain-water ,
Spraying, the Strawsoniser at work
Spring
Advancing field-work .
Birds in, storms .
Pares of stock -owners in
Cattle, disposing of fat
Checking growth of turnips in
Cottage gardening in .
Crops, sowing witii
Dunging for potatoes .
Evaporation in
Svils of procrastination
Farmer's duties in
II garden in
Field operations in
II -work in
Letting of grass parks in
Manured beans, sowing
Preliminaries .
Bain in .
Snow in . . ,
Sowing wheat in .
Subdivision of farm-work
Tillage for beans .
II for turnips . ii 329,
Varieties of, wheat
Vetches
Weather in .
Winds in . . .
Spring-tails or CoUembola .
Springs, draining
Sprouting in the stock
Squirrel, the
Stable-fly ....
Stable management, method of
Stables . ...
Binding horses in .'
Boxes for horses .
Com-chest .
Dimensions of
Equipment .
^ Evils of impure air in .
Fire-clay mangers for' .
Fittings, specifications for
Floors for
Foaling-box .
Harness room
Hay-house .
Large v. small
Mangers, specification for
Metal mangers and racks
StaUa ....
Swung bale v, travis partitions
Temperature of .
Travis for horses .
Ventilation of
Windows
Stacks —
Cutting thatch
Drawn straw . .
Eave .....
English custom of thatching
Ensilage
Field ....
Form of . . .
VOL. III.
i. 63
i. 186
i. 241
i. 224
ii. 497
u. 277
ii. 458
iii- 334
i. 160
ii. 409
ii- 57
11. 60
, ii- S9
11- S7
ii- 59
ii- 359
ii- 59
u. 250
ii. 302
ii- 59
61
58
59
57
58
59
u.
ii.
ii.
ii.
ii.
ii.
u. 151
ii. 6i
u.
ii.
59
59
10, 119
ii. 60
ii. 150
, 332. 333
ii. 127
ii. 368
ii. 58
ii. 58
ii. 466
i- 53
ii. 189
ii. 429
iii. 422
iii. 324
i. 167
i- 174
i. 174
i. 174
i. 167
i. 167
i. 170
i- 173
i. 239
i. 169
i. 174
1- 173
1. 174
i. 168
i- 23s
1. 172
i. 170
i. 169
i. 171
i. 169
i. 170
i. 167
ii. 200
ii. 196
ii- 195
u. 199
ii. 290
ii. 202
ri. T94
Stacks-
Formation of . .
i. 177
Forming the apex
. ii- 197
Foundation for ' .
1. 176; ii. 193
Heating
ii. 200
Height of .
ii. 195
Lifters ....
ii- 273
Material for thatching..
ii. 196
Measuring heat in
ii. 20I
Method of thatching .
ii. 197
Propping .
ii. 200
Ropes ....
ii. 19s
Roping.
ii. 198
Size of . . . .
ii. 194
Straw for ropes .
a. 196
Straw-rope making
ii- 19s
Thatching .
ii. 196
Thermometer
i. 26
Topping
ii. 19s
Trunming .
ii. 194
Tying ropes .
ii. 198
Ventilators .
ii. 201
Winding straw-ropes .
ii. 196
Stack-building, commencing
- ii. 193
II II process of .
IL 193
stacking beans .
u. 209
Cereals.
ii. 189
Hay
ii. 264
Peas ....
ii. 209
Poles for hops
ii. 383
Preparing for
ii. 189
Process of . . .
ii. 189
Temporary, or "rickltng"
Stackyard, arranging a
ii 189
ii- 193
II account
1- 253
II fencing the .
II gronnd-plan of .
i- 175
i. 177, 179
II posts and fencing
i. 23s
It roofed. ' . .
i- 177
Stairs, specification for
i. 239, 243
Stake-and-rice fence
i. loi
Stakes, charring .
i. 102
Stall divisions, specification for
i- 235
Stallion, number of mares to one
iii. 329
Stalls—
For cows
i- 15s
For feeding cattle
i. 155
For horses .
i. 168
Single and double
i- 155
Standards, wiought-iron
i. 112
Starling, the
ii. 436
" Starter " for butter-making
ii- 493
" Starters " or pure-cultures
ii. 504
State aid to agriculture
i- 37
II for agricultural educati
on i. 30
Stathels ....
i. 176
Statics.
i. 20
Statistics, milk .
ii. 480
Steading. See also Farm bui^iii
gs . i. 126
Combined arable and pastors
il . i. 132
Compact pastoral . ' .
i. 131
Com at the .
ii. 210
For arable farming
i- 13s
For carse farms
i. 136
For dairy farming
i. 147
For mixed husbandry .
i. 136
For pastoral cattle farming
i. 130
For sheep and arable farmin
g • i- 134
For suburban dairy farming
i- 151
II farming .
i. 148
Forfarshire .
i. 141
Hanging-doors in . jf
i. 181
Manure-pits at
Modem English .
i- 463
1- 139
II Scotch .
i- 139
2 M
542
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
steading —
Plana of.
Position of farmhouses and .
Precautions against Teimin in
Preservation of wooden floors
Principle in the construction of .
Public health regulations for
Eoofs of
Situation of the . .
Specification for a, for 500 acres .
II. . for a modem stone .
Suburban farming, with arable
culture .
Truss-roofs .
Work in the, in winter .
Steam, condensing waste ** .
II food-preparing machinery
II generators, tubular .
II ploughs and diggers .
Steam cultivation
Advantages of steam-ploughing .
Double-engine system of
I Injury by too deep ploughing
Plough engines . . 1 .
Ploughing plant, cost of
Prejudice against steapi-ploughing
Single-engine systems .
Steam-digging
Tackle for 1000 acres ,
Weeds killed by digging
/ Steam-engine — .
Boiler
Compound .
Construction of, and action of steam
Different types of .
Expansive action of steam in
High pressure . ?
Highland and Agric. Society's
Horizontal .
Portable
Semi-portable
Simplicity in
Traction
Vertical
Steam-power
Application of, to agriculture
For cleaning clay land .
Coal as fuel .
Early days of
Other forms of
For threshing-machines
Steelbow entry to farms
Steeping flax
single
's trials
Stells-
For sheep
Concave
Circular
Inside .
Forming plantetion
Giving hay at
Outside - .
Size of .
Steps, fence
Sterilisation of milk .
Sterilised milk bottles
Steward, duties of a farm
Sties for brood-sows .
Stilton cheese
Stilts, length of plough
Stoats ,
Stock-dove, the .
Stock-owners, cares of, in spring
Stock-
Account « . . , .
Ailments of farm live .
1. 130
i. 189
i. 183
i. 181
i. 129
i. 130
i. 181
i. 127
i. 229
i. 236
1. 149
i. 182
ii. 66
i. 406
iii. 356
i. 4x39
i- 383
1. 403
1. 422
i. 422
i. 421
i- 423
1. 423
i. 421
i. 424
i 427
1. 424
i. 427
407
413
411
414
413
406
418
414
41S
416
418
418
414
403
332
404
404
404
216
277
389
1. 132 ; ui. 401
iii. 402
iii. 402
iii. 402
iii. 401
iii. 402
iii. 401
iii. 402
i. 120
ii. 482
ii. 482
i. 6
iii. 219
ii. SIC
i- 373
u. 425
li. 436
u. 57
i. 256
iii. 435
Stock-
Changing on p&stures ,
Farm live ....
And fire
Improvement of, in Ireland
On carse farms .
Quantity of dung.per head of
Table of pulse Tespiiation and
temperature
Varieties of food for • .
Vetches, how fed to
Stock-breeding, principles of
Stocking farms
II a carse-land farm
II a dairy-farm ,
II a pastoral farm , .
II of pastures .
Stone drains
II walls, dry .
Stones for road-metal .
II Bpecification for hook-.
I, . II . . for dressing
Stony ground, trenching
Stooking or shocking grain .
Store cattle — .
Ages of . . .
Deficiency of
Management of .
In partially open -courts
On pastures
Winter, feeding of
Winter housing of
Store sheep in summer
Storing — .
"Si-
Carrots.
Kohl-rabi ■ .
Mangels
Parsnips
Potatoes
Turnips
Wheat, ancient practice in
Straight fences
Strainer, creamery
Straining post for wire field fences
Straw ....
Ancient uses of .
Ash of .
Barley .
Bean- and pea-
Chaff as food
Com and, from high manuring
In farm buildings .
And hay elevator .
As litter
Manurial value of
Mixed with -hay in drying
Oat and rye ,
Outlet for flax
Preparing and storing chaff .
Backs ....
For ropes
Rope making
Eope winding
Thatch-iaaking machine
Trusser
Turnips and, for store cattle
Value of, in cattle-courts
Value of, as food- .
Wheat .....
Yield of . ...
Straw-bam ....
II floor .
Strawberries
Strawsoniser, the
iii. 363
iii. t
i. ^o
i. 43
1. 469
iii. 499
iii. 269
iii. 288
iii. 224
i. 2S1
i. 5
i- 5
i. 4
ii. 283
i. 58
i. 107
i. 124
i. 231
237, 241
i- 337
185, 188
iii- 359
m. 349
"1. 355
i. 167
iii. 362
iii. 358
iu. 357
iii. 382
ii. 373
ii. 39S
ii- 393
ii. 366
ii. 396
ii. 321
ii- 356
11. 95
1. 87
ii. 489
no, III
ii. 102
ii. 104
io2, 103
ii. 103
ii. 14S
iii. 287
ii. . 7
i. 129
ii. Z15
iii. 322
i- 467
ii. 269
ii. 103
ii. 391
iii. 287
i. 152
ii. 196
ii. 195
ii. 196
ii. 197
ii. 215
iii. 360
i. 162
iii. 286
ii. 102
ii. 104
i. 178
i. 180
ii. 399
ii. 409
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
543
stream, horse-power in a .
ii. 2i8
Streamlet churn .
ii. 497
Stripper harvester
ii. 182
Stripping cows . .
. iii. 341
n turnips
. ii. 358
Stubble, ploughing, land .
i. 398
n -rake . . . . •.
ii. 18s
Students. See Farm pupils
i. I
Sub-letting, conditions as to
i. 276
Subsidiary .farm crops
ii. 392
Cabbages .
II. 393
Carrots . ■ . .
"■ 393
Flowers
ii. 401
Fruit •.
ii. 400
Hemp culture
ii. 402
Kohl-rabi .
ii- 392
Lavender
ii. 402
•• ParsnipB
Ked-clover seed . .
. ii. 396
ii. 401
Rhubarb ..
ii- 399
Vegetables .
.- ii. 397
Woad
ii. 403
Subsoil ■. ...
i. 297
And trench-ploughing .
i. 400
Colour of
i. 310
Examining . . , .
i. 265
Influence of
1. 300
Injurious ingredients in
i. 4DI
Subsoiling
i. 399
Subufban dairy-farming, steadings
for i. 151
II farming
i- 5
II Ti capital for - ,' -.
i- S
II IT steadings for ,
i- 148
11 II with arable cnlture
i. 149
Suction gaa-producer .plant .
i. 430
Suffolk horse-
Characteristics .
. iii. 29
Management
. iii. 31
Measurements
iii. 30
Society ....
. iii. 30
Suffolk sheep ....
iii. 176
Sugar-beet
ii. 403
II as food for dairy cows
. iii. 281
Sugar, value of .
iii. 289
Sulphate of ammonia .
i. 490
11 and nitrate of soda compared
i. 491
Sulphuric acid and nitrogen from i;8
lin-
water
i. 48
Summer
ii. 61
Atmospherical complications i
1 . ii. 61
"Beneficial influence of dew .
ii. 62
Calendar and agricultural seas
>ns ii. 62
Care of horses in .
iiL 321
Cattle, disposal of fat .
Culture ol5 barley . ' .
ii. 63
ii- 13s
II • of beans .
ii. 152
of oats .
. ii. 139
M • of peas .
ii- 154
II of wheat .
ii. iz8
> Dairying in- .
ii. 63
The farmer's duties in .
ii. 64
Feeding dairy cows in .
'. iii. 346
Forage crops, disposal of
ii- 63
Grazing stock in .
ii. 63
Haymaking, in
ii. 63
Horses in ... .
ii. 63
Hours *f labour in
ii. 63
Insect attacks in- .
ii. 63
Light in
ii. 62
Eain
ii. 62
Eepaining fences ., ...
ii. 63
Best from field-work in
ii. 64
Eoot sowing in . . .
ii. 63
Sheep,, disposal of fat .
■ .!!• ^3
Sheep in •
iii. 382
Summer — .
Summary of farm-work in
Thunderstorms .
Top-dressing of manures in
Weaning laniba in
The weather , •
Weed attacks in .
Superphosphates ,
11 for barley -,
II for turnips-.
Surface-drains ■ .
Surface-manuring
Survey, geological
Surveying ground for.planting hedgef
II preliminary, ton. drains
Sussex cattle —
Management of , ,
Standard description .
Weights and early maturity
Swallow, the
Swamp irrigation
Swartz system of raising cream
Swathe-turner
Swede, seed of .
■Swedes ....
Swimming-bath -for sheep . .
Swine, administering jnedicine to
II ailments of , - .
II and their management
II management of
H . period of gestation ,
Swine, Ijreeds of ,
Berkshire ■ ,
Large black pigs .
Large white breed .,
Large white Ulster pig
Lincolnshire curl-y coated pigs
Middle white
Other types of pigs
Small breeds of pigs
Tamworth pig
Swing chum . , .
11 ploughs . . . .
II trees
Switching-bill
Swung bale v, travis partitions
Systems of breeding . .
Tackle for steam cultivation
Tailing, topping and, turnips
Tamworth pig
Tank, liquid manure- .
Tares, harvesting. See also Vetches
Taylor's stack ventilator .
Tedders injuring clover-hay
Tedding
„ swathe-turning and • ,
Telegony ....
Temperature — ■
Of cream for churning .
Of the dairy .
-Drainage and soil .
Duration of vegetation and-
Elevation and
Greenwich mean .
Irrigation and soil
Mean and actual ...
Of shallow pans for creaming
Of soil and atmosphere
Of soils . ■ . . .
Of stables - .
Plant growth and
Snow and soil
Ventilation and, on milk yield
ii, 62
i. 28
ii. 63
ii. 63
ii. 6r
ii. 63
i. 502
ii. 134
ii- 345.
- i. 85
i- 51S
i. 19
i. 92
i- 55
iii. 1 10
iii. 108
iii. 109
ii-' 437
i. 360
ii. 489
ii. 259
ii. 73
ii. 325
iii. 387
iii. 496
iii 490
iit 210
iii. 217
iii. 236
iii. 8, 210
iii. 213
iii. 214
iii. 210
iii. 212
iii, zis
iii, 211
iii. 217
iii, 216
iii. 214
ii. 497
1. 389
i- 375, 378
i- 95
i- 95
i. 169
iii. 228
i. 424
ii- 359
iii. 214
i. 159, 480
ii. 209
ii. 202
ii. 260
ii. 260
ii. 259
iii, 227
ii. 49I
ii, 477
i. -47, 263
i. 262
i. 263
1. 26
i- 355
i. 261:
ii, 487
i. 262
i 310
i. 171
i. 262
i, 262
iii, 346
544
INDEX TO VOLUMES I.. H., III.
Tenancy, pee aleo Lease .
i.
£67
TUlage—
Compensation for disturbance
i.
268
For hay ....
For kohl-rabi
• H- 251
" Covenanted " rent
i.
269
. i|. 393
Deductions for bad condition
i.
269
Land, mole-draining .
.?• 74
Fixed money-rents
i.
269
For mangels ....
. ii. 363
Grain-rent . , . • .
i.
268
And manuring
i. S17
In Ireland ....
i.
268
For peas ....
li. IS3
Interest, profit, and rent .
i.
269
Soil and, for potatoes .
ii. 296
Mixed rents ....
i.
268
Spring, for beans .
For turnips ....
ii. 150
Offering for a farm
i.
270
.. ii. 328
Produce-rent
i.
268
Tillering
U. 161, i6s
Bent and land value .
i.
269
II ' multiple stems or
ii. IS7
Sliding-scale in rent
i.
26S
Timid animals, protection to
i. IS4
Term of ....
i.
267
Timothy hay, cutting .
ii* 363
Yearly
i.
268
II head of, with ergots .
. . iii- 334
Tenant, outgoing and incoming .
i.
278
11 . grass, seed of . . .
. ". 84, 239
Ti repaying, for cartages
i.
270
Tip-cart, farm ....
ii. 349
Terms of entry to farms
i.
277
Titmice
ij. 437
H. 403
Testing percentage of cream in milk
ii.
479
Tobacco
Texture of soils ....
i.
308
Tomato root-rot ....
. ii. 471
Thatch, cutting ....
ii.
200
Tools for dyke-buSIding
i. 106
11 potato-shaws as .
Thatch-making machine
ii.
323
. 11 for weeding and planting hed^
Topping and tailing tui'nips
'es i. 91, 103
ii.
197
ii^ 359
Thatching peas and beans .
ii.
209
Traction engine ....
i. 418
II process of. See also Stacks
ii.
19s
Tractors, motor ....
ii. 182
If turnip-store
ii.
361
Tracts for foundations, ^eciflcatioi
for i. 237
Theory of rain ....
i.
28
Transplanting seed
ii. 166
Thermometers ....
i.
2S
Transported soils
i. 301
II dairy
ii.
477
Travis for horse stables
i. i6g
II Fahrenheit ....
i.
26
Treacle for breeding stock .
iii. 278
II minimum ....
i.
26
Treatment of farm horses .
iii. 313
II stack
i.
26
Trees and hedges. • .
i. 94
Thinning carrots ....
II and hoeing'koM-rabi .
ii.
39S
ti swing- ....
1. 375
ii.
393
II winter washing of fruit- .
ii. 457
II -machines ....
ii.
353
Trefoil, seed of .
ii. 76
II of turnips . j, . .
ii.
327
Trench-planting hedges
1. 91
Thistle, seed of field- .
ii.
79
Trench-ploughing
,i. 400
"Thomas "slag ....
i.
499
Subsoil plough .
i. 401
Thorn hedges ....
i.
95
Subsoiling ....
i. 401
Tlioroughbred horse .
iii.
34
Trenching stony ground
i. 337
II for Hunter breeding ,
iii.
35
II hand
i. 402
Thousand-headed kale . . ii. 3
74 ; iii.
282
II waste land ....
i. 337
Thraving
ii.
170
Trimming stacks ....
ii. 194
Threshing grain in winter .
ii.
67
Tropophytes ....
i. 316
II by outgoing tenants .
J.
278
Troughs —
II and winno^jing com .
ii.
222
And haiks ....
i. 239
Threshing-machine, an ancient , .
ii.
210
And sluices ....
ii. 220
Care in feeding ,
ii.
223
Cattle
i. 151
Hand
ii.
216
Concrete . - .
i. 151
Hands required for
ii.
213
Pig . . . . • .
iii. 223
Horse-power for .
ii.
221
Position of water-
i- 153
Irregular driving .
ii.
223
Specification for .
. i. 235-239
Motive power for .
ii.
216
Turnip sheep-feeding .
. Iii. 394
Portable ....
ii.
213
Water-
i. 153
Machine, position of, in steading
i.
129
Trass for iron roof :
i. 177
Preparing for . . ,
ii.
223
II roofs of steadings
i. 182
Bemoving straw .
ii.
223
Trusser, straw- ....
ii. 21S
Safety drums
ii.
215
Tsetse-flies
iii. 421
Saving of labour .
ii.
212
Tubes, Galloway. . .
i. 408
Scotch
ii.
211
Tuberculosis of poultry
. iii. 2SS
Straw and hay elevator
ii.
215
Tubular milk-cooler .
ii. 483
Straw-trusser attached to .
ii.
215
II steam-generators
i. 409
Water-power for .
ii.
217
Tufted hair-grass, seed of .
ii. 89
Throstle, the ... .
ii.
436
Tulip-root of oat, or seggiug
ii. 471
Throw-crooks ....
ii. 195
196
Tupping season ....
iii. 390
Thrush, the ....
ii.
436
II fertility in sheep
iii. 390
Thunderstorms and haymaking -
ii.
263
II flushing ewes
iii. 390
II summer ....
i.
28
II management in .
iii. 390
Ticks in sheep ....
iU.
433
Turbine, the ....
ii. 221
Tile drains
i.
58
II -driven pasteuriser
ii. 481
Till soil
i. 18
301
Turf fence
i. 103
Tillage for barley
ii.
131
II removing ....
i- 337
For carrots ....
ii.
394
Turkeys
iii. 24s
Drainage facilitating •.
i.
SO
Turnip-cutter, Gardner's .
iii. 395
For flax ....
ii.
385
Turnip-picker . . . .»
. iii. 395
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., III.
545
Turnips
Advantages of , . .
II of raised drills .
II of storing .
After cultivation ,
Analysis of .
Application of manure for .
Artificial manure alone
Atmospheric nitrogen for
Autumn cleaning .
II dunging and ploughing
It . and ivinter ploughing
Basic slag for . . .
tr V. superphosphate
Broadcast sowing of .
Care in thinning . ...
Care in use of mineral phosphates
Cart for dung on steep lana .
Carting ....
„ dung into drills
Cheapest phosphate for turnips
Checking growth in spring .
Clay soils unsuitable for
On very strong clays .
Climate and soil to be considered
Climatic influences on .
Common ....
Composition of . . .
Consolidating the drill-top .
Consumed on the ground by sheep
Cross-cultivation .
Cutter-cart .
Cutting for cattle .
II for sheep ....
Daily allowance for cattle .
Dependence on manure • .
Depth of the drill
II of seed . . . .
Desirability of economising .
Diamond-back moth
Disadvantage of raised drills
Distance between plants
Distribution of the plants .
Drill-plough
II -sower ....
11 for sowing on the flat .
Drilling on the flat
II manure and seed
Dung
II spreading apparatus .
Is dung essential for .
Dunging and sowing in drills
Earthing-up ....
Economise .....
Elements absorbed by roots .
II in manure for
English practice of manuring
Excess of potash injurious .
An exhausting crop
Experiments at Carbeth
II in north of England
II in south of England
II in north of Scotland
II at Pumpherston
Farmyard manure for .
Fine grinding in manure
Pinger-and-toe, or club-root
As food for stock .
The force employed
Forking out weeds .
Gall-weevil . .
Growing may be overdone
II roots in squares
Grubbing or cultivating in spring
Half-ploughing .
ii.
324
ii.
324
ii.
334
iii.
279
ii.
3S6
ii.
394
ii.
348
ii. 348,
3S1
ii.
342
ii.
331
ii.
332
ii.
329
ii.
346
ii.
350
ii.
335
ii.
327
ii.
345
ii.
349
ii.
ii.
348
ii.
344
ii.
359
ii.
328
ii.
333
ii.
345
ii.
326
ii.
32s
iii.
279
ii.
337
p ii.
357
ii.
332
iii.
395
iii.
355
iii.
395
iii.
365
ii.
339
ii.
335
ii.
339
. iii.
280
ii.
464
ii.
334
ii.
354
ii.
327
ii.
334
ii.
337
ii.
338
ii.
335
ii.
337
ii.
348
ii.
349
ii.
346
ii.
336
ii. 356, 362 1
iU.
359
ii.
340
ii.
340
ii.
342
ii.
343
ii.
339
ii.
342
ii.
350
ii.
350
ii.
35°
■ "■ 37-40 i
ii.
346
ii.
.350
■ "• .4?
.417
iii
279
ii.
336
ii.
333
ii
463
ii.
324
ii
355
ii
.332
ii.
332
Turnips —
Hand-hoes ii. 353
Harrowing turnip-land . . ii. 330
Heavy dressings . . . . ii. 347
Hoeing —
Advantages of drills . ii. 355
Care in ii. 356
Drill-harrowing or horse-hoeing ii. 352
II scarifier . . . ii. 352
Good and bad hoeing . . ii. 353
Hand-hoeing lu flat rows . ii. 353
Harrowing across flat rows . ii. 352
Hoeing-motches . . . ii. 353
Influence of weather . ii. 352
Medium and large roots . ii. 355
Process on drills . . . ii. 353
Speed of hoers . . . ii. 353
Tninning by hand . . . ii. 354
Transplanting plants . . ii. 354
Ill-shaped ii. 326
Insect attacks on . . . ii. 326
Introduction of . . . ii. 324
II of drill-sowing . ii. 334
Irregularity in growth of . . ii. 35S
Keeping properties of . . . ii. 357
Lifters . . '. . . . ii. 360
. Lifting appliances . ii. 358
Manure injuring seeds . . ii. 338
Manures for tumips and beans . ii. 33
Manuring ii. 339
Mildew of * ii. 411
Mineral phosphates . ii. 345
Mode of pulling . . . . ii. 359
Moderate dressings of dung . ii. 347
Moth ii. 465
Mud-beetle ... . ii. 462
New varieties . . . . ii. 325
Nitrogen for ... ii. 341, 342
Normal conditions in preparing land ii. 329
Number per acre ... ii. 327
Opening and closing drills . ii. 337
Order of using . . . . ii. 326
Overworking land injurious . . ii. 333
Pests ii. 356
Phoma fungus ... ii. 414
Phosphates for . . . . ii. 343
Pits in the field . . . . ii. 361
Ploughing or grubbing . . ii. 330
Potash for . . . . ii. 343
Preparing clean land . . . ii. 333
II foul clay land , . ii. 331
Prevailing intervals between . ii. 354
II systems of growing . ii. 329
Produce of different varieties ii. 325
Proportion of leaf and root . . ii. 326
Pulverising ploughs . ii. 330
Pumpherston, manuring at ii. 37, 40
Quantities of manures for . . ii. 347
Quantity ofroots to be left for sheep ii. 357
11 of seed required . , ' ii. 338
Kaised drills on strong clays . ii. 335
Recouping the soil , . . ii. 344
Removing weeds . , . . ii. 330
Rothamsted trials . . . iL 342
Sawfly ii. 466
Scottish dressings of manure . ii. 347
Seed of. ..... ii. 73
Seed-drill ii. 337
Selection of seed . . . ii. 338
Sheep on . . . ii. 67 ; iii. 391, 396
Shelter for sheep on . . . iii. 397
Simultaneous drilling and sowing ii. 336
Singling and hoeing . . . ii. 352
Soils for ii. 328
Southern customs of sowing manure ii. 349
546
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., II., IIL
Turnips —
Sonthem dressings
Sowing
II . artificial manure
Specific gravity of
Stale seed-bed undesirable
Stores.
Storing.
And straw for store cattle
Stripping
Supplementing dung .
Swedes ....
For table use
Taking roots from the Store .
.Temporary storing on lea
.Thatching store .
.Thick and thin sowing .
Tillage of land for
.Top-dressing
Topping and tailing . . ,
•Tops as food . . . . ii.
Trimming knife. .
Trough for courts
.Uncertainties in manuring
.Varieties of .
.Water drill . ..*,..
II an^ dry drills compared
Weeds ....
Weight of .
Welsh trials in manuring
White rot of
Width of drills . .
II of rows . ,
Yield and quantity of dung
Turnstile
Tutor-farmers
Twigs, laying young, for hedges
Udder-clap among ewes
■ Udder, cow's, its structure .
Uist ponies
Umbelliferous " seeds "
Undecortioated cotton-cake, value of
Undershot water-wheels ...
Unexhansted value of manures .
Unit value of manures
United States, weather forecasts in
Uredineee ...
Urine. See also Liquid manure
Cesspools, specification for .
Changes through decomposition
Composition of . . .
II of, of different animals
II of saline and mineral in
gredients ....
Conditions influencing .
Decomposition of.
Fixing ammonia .
Fresh and stale , ' .
n .injurious to vegetation
Manurial value of
Pumping, on dung
Specific gravity of urine
Utilisation of surplus ,
Useful flies
Ustilagnese, the ....
Value of foods for maintenance .
II unit, of manures
Valuing crops ....
II sheep-stocks
ii of unexhausted manures
Vane, specification for
Vapour, aqueous
II weight of -
11. 348
"• 334
"■ 349
li. 327
ii. 336
i. 152
ii. 356
iii. 360
ii- 358
11. 346
u. 325
u. 398
II. 361
ii. 361
ii. 361
ii- 338
ii. 328.,
ii- 35°
"■ 359
• aSi, 393
"• 359
1. 151
11. 340
li- 325
ii- 337
i'- 338
"- 331
11. 327
ii- 351
ii. 418
ii- 334
"• 335
Ji- 347
I. 121
i. I, 2
i. loi
iii. 381
iii. 340
iii- 53
u. 86
iii. 277
ii. 217
i- 330
1- 507
1. 30
ii. 414
- i. 475
1. 237
1. 477
477
475
I- 477
i- 476
1. 476
i- 476
i. 476
i- 485
iii. 304
i. 464
i- 477
1. 482
ii. 469
ii. 416
iii. 299
i- 507
i. 278
i. 279
i- 330
1. 240
i. 27
i. 27
iii. iSg
ii. S02
iii. 273
i. 262
1. 48s
I- 354
i- 473
i. 316
i. 157
ii. 499
i. 170
i. 171
iii. 246
Varieties of food for stock .
Vat, milk- . . . ■ .
Vegetable casein in beans, peas, and
■lentils , . . ' .
Vegetation —
. .Duration of, and temperature
: .Fresh urine injurious to
Moisture and, in irrigation ,
Preventing the Ios9>of nitrates
Zones of
Ventilation of byres .
In churning ....
Evils of impure air • .
How to be provided
.Of poultry houses '
Of stables i. 170
Of the soil , . . . 1-49
Specification for . . . i. 234, 940, 242.
. And temperature on milk yield . iii. 346
Ventilators, stack . . . . ■ ii. 201
Vents, specification for . . . i. 242
Verandah of driiry , . . . ii. 476
Vermin, precautions against, in barns i. 183
Vertebrates, .classification of . . 1. 16
Vertical boiler ... . i. 408
II II and engine . . i. 415
Vetches . . ii. 368
As forage crop . . ■ . .iii. 288
Harvesting- . . . ii. 209
How fed to stock .... iii. 288
Manuring ii. 369
Spring ii. 368
Xftilislng ... . ii. 36S
Winter ii. 368
Veterinary science . . . . 1 i. 17
II ailments of larm live stock . iii. 435
II recipes . . . . .iii. 493
Vilmorin s classification of wheat . ii. 93
Virgin soils i. 433
Vodoker and Hall's manurial tables . iii. 311
Voles ii. 428
See Farm servants . i. 289
Waggon, farm iL 191
Wagtails, water- ii. 437 '
Wall, shelter from, and plantation . i. 89
Wallace's hay-sledge ii. 266
II milking-machine ... iii. 345
Walls, dry-stone i. 105
II specification for . . . . i. 241, 237
Warping i. 360
Waste land i. 335
A Mid-Lothian example of improving i. 344
An Irish example . . . . i. 339
Cropping new land , . . i. 339
Crops from. i. 339
Depth and cost of trenching i. 337
Draining .... i. 337
Improvements at Boon . . i. 341
Impraving i. 335, 340.
II at Glenbuck . . i. 344
II hill pasture . . i, 343
Laying to pasture . . . i. 340
Levellmg i. 338
Levelling-box .... i. 338
Methods of i. 336
Original condition of . . . i. 339
Process of reclamation . . . i, 339
•Eeclaiming plantation ground . i. 337
Bemovin^tuif I. 337
Renewing pasture . . . . i. 340
Rules for land improvement . i. 33S
Scottish example .... i. 336
Trenching i. 337
II stony .ground . . i. 337
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., •II., III.
547
Waste land — .
Trials, in Saotland
II in Nortlinmbeiiland . .
Water —
Access to, in enclosing fields
As a prime, factor in environment
Channels in ploughed land .
Cistern
Course, planting hedges along
. Level test holes ....
Meadow catch-work , - .
II _ for HigJiland districts .
II ' 'irrigation ' . - .
Percolation of, through soils
Quantity required foi irrigation .
Belation of soil to . , .
Requirements of animals
For sheep •.'.-.
Soft, best for boilers ■ .
Soils retaining^ in drainage .
Spouts, defective . .
Supply to cattle courts
II for irrigation ' . ' ,
Table in drained-and undrained land
Tank, i^ecfication for ,
Troughs .....
II position of . . .
II specification for
Wastft steam condensing
Water-ballast rollers .
II -channels in ploughed land
II •courses, finishing processes
II drill for turnips , . ' .
II -furrows, formation of
' II II under drainage v.
II II inland .
II meadows, time for irrigating
Water-brush . . ...
Water power for threshing-machines .
II -rat or vole ,
II -shrew
II -supply, measuring the
II . II to pastures .
Water-wagtails ■ .
Water-wheel • . ■ .
II ^eed of bucket
Watenng horses . . ■ . .
II -pools
Watson's ventilator .
Way-bread, seed of . .
Wayfares and fences .
Way»going crops ....
Disadvantages of selling system
Selling .
Weaning calves . .
II foals
II lambs. . . ii. 63
Weasel, the . .
Weather —
Autumn, and field operations
DfFects of, and manures on barley
4 And field operations in winter
Forecasts
Forecasts in the United States .
Foretelling ....
■ Germination of barley and tbe
And harvest . . ■ .
And haymaking .
Haymaking, controlled by the
In spring ...
In summer . ...
In winter . , . ' .
And work . .
Wechts, bam, or baskets . . ii.
Wedge-and-shoulder drains
i. 346
i. 345
i. 89
i. 316
i. 398
1. 153
;• 94
• S3
i. 358
1. 355
!• 355
1. 309
;. 357
1- 319
iii. 296
iii. 382
I. 411
i. 46
i. 46s
i. 152
;• 357
I. 49
1. 231
.1- 153.
i. 153
1. 235
i. 406
11. 143
ii. 66
ii. 118
li- 337
11. 137
ii. 127
ii. 126
ii. 66
iii- 31S
ii. 216
ii. 428
ii. 431
11. 217
ii. 284
"• 437
11. 217
11. 221
111. 313
1. 109
i. 158
ii. 77
i. 88'
1. 277
i. 278
i. 278
m. 354
iii. 328
; 111. 386
11. 425
ii. 65
11. 22
ii. 66
1. 20
1. 30
1. 30
ii. 132
ii. 6s
n. 253
ii. 258
li. 58
ii. 61
ii. 68
". 57
22s, 226
1. 57
Weed-cleanii^, conditions as to
weed-hook ....
Weeding cereal crops .
II flax ' . ' ,
II hedges
Weeds —
Attacking, in summer .
Cleaning of the land from
Collecting . . ,
Disposing of .
Found in soils . .
In hedges
In pastures ,
Killed by steam-digging
On bare fallow , ' .
On turnip land ,
Weevils —
Bean .
Black vine .
Cabbage root gall .
Com and rice
Pea and bean
Raspberry .
Turnip and cabbage gall-
Weighing-machines ' .
Weight and average composition
crops ....
Weight of barley
and specific gravity of milk
of oats , . .
of rye ....
of turnips , . .
of wheat .
Welsh black cattle — ■
Characteristics
Improvement required
Management of ■ .
Maturity and weight .
Milking properties
Welsh cob, type of a .
II pony
II sheep
Wensleydale cheese .
II sheep
West Highland cattle .
Wheat-
After beans' .
Aftergrass .
After potatoes
Ancient practice in storing .
Antiquity of, cultivation
Art of sowing
Autumn . . ■ .
Autumn and winter weather for
Black rust of . . .
Braird; harrowing the .
Breeding on Mendel's principles
Broadcast-sowers .
Bulb fiy ■ .
Bunt of
Classification
Colour of .
Crop values- .
Cropping rank
Date of spring sowing ,
Double-furrow plough .
Drill-sowers . ■ .
Dung for ■ .
Ear-coekle • . . .
Experiments at Bothamsted
It at Wobum
Fallow. . . •. •
For flour . . .
Flowering season ,
As food
1- 27s
li. r29
ii. 129
ii. 388
i. 103
ii. 63
i. 436
1. 444
1. 444
I. 312
i. 94
ii. 284
i. 427
i. 444
"• 330. 333
ii- 459
11. 467
u. 448
ii. 455
II. 459
n. 467
ii. 463
230 ; iii. 410
of
it 326
ii. 97
ii. 480
. ii. 99
. ii. loi
a. 327
. il 94
iii. 122
iii. 123
iii 124
iii. 122
iii. 123
iii. 46
iii. 4S
iii. 198
ii. .513
111, 154
iii, 116
ii. 119
ii. 119, i?27
. > ii. 119
. Ii- 95
ii- 95
li. 122
ii. 128
ii. 13
ii. 414
ii. 250
ii. no
ii. 123
ii- 4Si
ii. 416
ii. 91
ii. 91
ii. 90
il 129
ii. 119
ii. 120
il 124
i. 51S
II. 470
ii. 3
il. 43
il. 117
ii. 93
u. 130
iii. 269
548
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., IL, IH.
Wheat— *
Frost throwing out plants .
ii.
ii8
Grubbing for
ii.
"7
Hand broadcast sowers , , .
ii.
124
Harrowing . . . , '
ii. ii8,
125
Hoeing -drilled
ii.
129
Judging
ii.
93
Kernel and husK of
ii.
9S
Land for spring .
ii.
119
Late varieties of .
ii.
128
Limits of, culture
ii.
95
Manuring of. See Rothamsted
"• 3.
128
Midge
ii.
452
Number of grains in a bushel
ii.
94
One-hand sowing . . , ,
ii.
121
Origin of » . . . .
ii.
95
Over-luxuriance in autumn ,
ii.
128
Pickling ....
ii.
130
Placing sacks in the field .
ii.
120
Plant in the state of germination
ii.
157
Ploughing for . . . .
ii.
117
Preserving, in granaries
ii.
94
Boots of sown
ii.
165
Quantity of ash in an acre of
it
95
Quantity of seed for .
ii.
irS
Iteaping ....
ii.
188
Relation of ear and grain .
. ii.
93
•Riddle
ii.
225
Boiling ....
ii.
118
Bust in, description of figures
ii.
4J9
Scythe unsuitable for reaping
ii.
188
For seed
ii.
94
Seed-basket ....
ii.
121
II carrier ....
ii.
121
M sacks ....
ii.
121
Self-binders for reaping
ii.
188
Sheaves for ....
ii.
188
For sheep ....
' iii.
269
Smut
ii.
416
Sowing in autumn
ii.
117
1, in spring .
ii.
119
II machines .
ii.
123
Spring seed from early districts
ii.
1(28
Stack-heating ...
ii.
200
Stooks
ii.
188
Storing u. immediate selling of
ii.
95
Straw . . . . _ .
u.
102
Summer culture of . " .
ii.
128
Tillage for spring .
ii.
~120
Titoe to out .
ii.
188
Time for sowing in autumn .
ii.
118
Top-dressing . . . .
Turning pickled . . . .
ii.
130
ii.
131
Two-hand sowing . . . .
ii.
122
Under-drainage v. water-furrows .
ii.
127
Varieties of spring
ii.
127
Variety to sow .
ii.
118
Varying with soil
ii.
94
Vilmorin's classification of .
ii.
93
Water-courses
ii.
118
II furrows
ii.
126
Weight of ....
ii.
94
Where to begin sowing
ii.
121
Width of drill .
ii.
124
Yellow rust of . . .
U.
415
Yield of ....
ii.
90
Wheels on ploughs
i.
374
Whin
ii.
376
11 hedges ....
i.
105
Whin-bruiser, hand .
iii.
320
Whins (furze or gorae) as winter food
iii.
283
Whippletrees ....
i.
37S
White clover ....
ii.
243
II campion seed of
ii.
74
11 varietv of
ii.
376
Whitsunday entry to farms
i.
277
Wickets for foot-passengers
i.
120
Wild whitiB cattle
iii.
4
Wilkie's plough ....
i.
38a
Wiltshire sheep ....
iii.
204
Wind engines ....
i.
432
Winding-pillar for wire field-fences
i.
III
Windlass for chain cleaning drains
i.
73
II steam plough
i.
427
Windmills, trials of, in England.
i.
432
Windows — »
Hit-and-miss
i.
168
In byres , . . . '
i.
157
Specification for . , i. 231, 2
35. 240,
242
Stable
i.
167
Winds-
Moist and dry
i.
27
Prevailing ....
i.
29
In spring , . . . ■
ii.
58
Variable ....
i.
29
Winnowers, modem .
ii.
224
Winnowing, threshing and, com
ii.
222
Winter
ii.
66
Attention to ewes in .
ii.
67
Autumn and, ploughing for turnij
11 weather for wheat
s ii.
ii.
329
13
Beneficial influence of frost .
u.
68
Best season for draining
ii.
66
Carting manure in
ii.
67
Domestic enjoyment .
ii.
68
Fattening cattle in
iii.
363
Feeding of horses .
iii.
318
Feeding stock in .
ii.
67
Field work in ^ . .
ii.
66
Hoar-frost ....
ii.
69
Hospitality ....
ii.
67
Housing of store cattle
iii.
357
Implements used in
ii.
67
Injury by hoar-frost .
ii.
69
Irrigation in.
Marketing grain .
ii.
66
ii.
67
Planting hedges .
ii.
66
Plants uprooted by frost
ii.
68
Ploughing lea in .
ii.
66
Bain
ii.
68
Eeoreation . .
ii.
67
Sheep in ....
iii.
390
Sheep on turnips .
ii.
67
Snow, keeps land warm
ii.
69
11 -water and rain .
ii.
69
Threshing grain in
ii.
6f
Uses and drawbacks of snow
ii.
69
Vetches ....
ii.
368
Water channels in ploughed land
ii.
66
Weather in
ii.
68
Weather and field operations in
ii.
66
Work in the steading .
ii.
66
Wintering hill ponies .
iii.
47
II young horses
iii.
3 IS
Wire fences
i.
no
Barb-
i.
113
Charring posts
t
H2
"Corrimony"
i.
"5
Durability of
i.
114
Erecting
i.
"3
Folding hurdle .
i.
116
For game ....
i.
116
Intermediate posts
i.
III
Iron standards
i.
112
II strainers
i.
III
Knotting wire . ...
i.
114
Number of wires .
i.
"3
Ornamental ....
i.
116
Standard for barb-wire
i.
113
Straightening wire
i.
114
INDEX TO VOLUMES I., IL, III.
Wire fences —
Straining-posts .
tr wire
Varieties of .
Winding-pillars .
Wire-strainer
Wireworms .
II false .
Woaa farming .
Woburn experiments with manures, &c,
Wood, speoifio gravity of
Wood-mouse . .
II snail .
Wooden riddles .
II silos .
Wood-pigeon, the
Wood's new century reaper and binder
Wool-
British ,
Classification of ,
Irish sheep and .
Long-wooled breeds
Mountain breeds ,
Shears , • ,■ •
Short-Wool breeds
Storing.
Workers, duties of field-
Workmen's Compensation Act, 1906
Xerophytes
1. no
i. 113
112, 114
i. Ill
Yarrow, seed of .
II,
"3
453
ii. 470
ii. 403
42
i. 24
ii. 427
li. 472
ii. 225
ii. 290
ii- 434
ii, 180
lu. 404
iii. 405
iii. 407
iii. 406
iii. 407
iii. 385
iii. 406
iu. 38s
i. 9
i. 2q6
316
11. 79
Yellowhainmer, the
Yield of crops —
Barley .
II straw
Bean straw
Hay, clover
II meadow
Manges
Mangel tops
Meaf .
Oats .
Oat straw
Potatoes
Eye .
II straw
Turnips ... I.
Turnip tops
Wheat .
Yokes, plough
Yorkshire cheese
II coach horse
fi fog,, seed ot
II trials in maniydng barley
549
ii. 438
ii. 372
i. 326 ; ii. 90, 97, 133
i. 326
i. 326
i. 326
i. 326
i. 326
i. 326 ; ii. 366
Zinc dishes unsuitable for milk . . ii. 488
Zones, the i. 261
II of vegetation .... i. 316
Zoology i- IS
M economic i- 15
II mammals in relation to Agriculture ii. 424
326;
i. 326
ii. 100
i. 326 ; ii. 90, 99
i. 326
1. 326 ; ii. 229
ii. loi
ii. 104 .
ii. 325. 327
i. 326»
326 ; ii. 90
i- 37S
ii- S13
ill- 33
ii. 83
ii- 135
THE END.
PKIKTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD ASD BOm.
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