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Massachusetts Agriculture Series, No. 2 December, 1920

The Commonmealth of Massarhusetia

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner
136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON

ORCHARDING

REVISED FROM THE FIFTH EDITION OF
THE BULLETIN ON APPLE GROWING

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS
32 DERNE STREET

1921

ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

NEW YorRK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

Cornell University Library

rcharding.

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000357792

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Massachusetts Agriculture Series, No. 2 December, £920

Che Commonwealth of Massachusetts

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner
136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON

ORCHARDING

REVISED FROM THE FIFTH EDITION OF
THE BULLETIN ON APPLE GROWING

BOSTON
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS
32 DERNE STREET
1921

Wan

318959

PusiicaTion oF THIS DocuMENT
APPROVED BY THE
SUPERVISOR OF ADMINISTRATION.

Introduction,
Cuap. I.
CuHap. II.
Cuap. III.
CHap. IV.
Cuap. V.
Cuap. VI.
Cuap. VIL
Cuap. VIII.
Cuap. IX.
CHap. X.
Cuap. XI.
Bibliography,

Index, .

CONTENTS.

‘Establishing an Apple Orchard. By F. C. Sears,

Renovating Old Orchards. By F. C. Sears”

The Establishment and Maintenance of Peach
Orchards. By J. K. Shaw,

Pruning Fruit Trees. By J. H. Gourley,

Grafting and Budding. By W. W. Chenoweth,

Some Important Apple Insects in Massachusetts.
By H. T. Fernald, et Set Aa ‘

Diseases of the Apple in Massaehusetts. By A. V.
Osmun, ; .

Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple. By H. T.
Fernald and A. V. Osmun, :

Apple Storage on the Farm. By W. R. Cole,

Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. By
Albert R. Jenks, .

The Massachusetts Apple Grading Law. By Wilfrid
Wheeler and H. Linwood White. Revised by
W. A. Munson,

106
115

127

146

168
169

INTRODUCTION.

Increasing interest in apple growing in Massachusetts and
the many requests for information applying to Massachusetts
conditions have made necessary a new edition of the bulletin
on “Apple Growing.” Since the new book includes a chapter
on peach growing, and it is planned to have a chapter on
pear culture in the next edition, the title has been changed to
“Orcharding.”

In preparing this book the text of the last (fifth) edition
of “Apple Growing” has been carefully revised and brought
up to date. The three articles, “Varieties of Apples for
Massachusetts Orchards,’ “The Planting of a Commercial
Orchard in Massachusetts” and “The New Orchard,” all by
Professor F. C. Sears, have been combined into one new
article, which appears as Chapter I. The material presented
in the article entitled “Three Common Scale Insects” and
“Plant Lice or Aphids,” both by H. T. Fernald, have been
included in the chapter on “Apple Insects,” and the “Spray
Calendar for Apples” by Erwin H. Forbush has been revised
and included in the chapter on “Insecticides and Fungicides.”

Orcharding is undoubtedly one of the most important
branches of Massachusetts farming. Apple growing particu-
larly is a well-established part of our agriculture, because
Massachusetts produces good fruit and has the advantage of
being at the door of large markets, which will take all she
-produces as soon as it is properly graded and packed. The
soil and climate are among the most advantageous known for
the production of apples of the finest quality, and with the
adoption of organized marketing methods by the growers there

is every reason to believe that the business will be more profit-
able and will continue to increase in volume.

The Apple Grading Law, which is fully explained in Chapter
XI, has proved to be one of the best adopted by any State,
and has given good service in establishing a high standard for
grading and packing in closed containers.

Every effort has been made in this book to present practical
information for the guidance of orchardists, and to deal with

all the principal points adequately and concisely.

Boston, November 26, 1920.

CuapTer I.
ESTABLISHING AN APPLE ORCHARD.

F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE.

In any country which grows as fine apples as Massachusetts,
and in a section where orcharding is as important a branch
of farming as it is in this Commonwealth, there is a constant
demand for information as to the setting of orchards. The
following brief suggestions are offered in the hope that they
may, in part, supply the desired information.

FUTURE OF THE OrcHarD INDUSTRY.

Naturally, any man who contemplates setting an orchard is
anxious to know the answer to the above question, and while
it cannot, of course, be answered conclusively, it would cer-
tainly seem to the writer that with the conditions which
obtain here in Massachusetts it is as reasonable to expect suc-
cess in the orchard business as in any other branch of farm-
ing. We are close to the best markets in the country; our
land values are reasonably low; our transportation facilities
are excellent; and our conditions as to labor, fertilizers and
other factors which go to influence. the result of an orchard
enterprise are certainly no worse than in other sections. The
writer would therefore be inclined to believe that the future
of the orchard business in Massachusetts is as good as it is in
any other part of the United States.

SELECTING THE ORCHARD SITE.

If one is buying a farm with a view of using it as an or-
chard proposition and wishes to ascertain how much of the
land is useful for that purpose, or if one already owns a farm

8
and wishes to judge of the availability of certain blocks of
land on that farm for orchard purposes, the following score

card may prove useful: —

Score Card for Orchard Site.

1. Soil, . 30
(a) Surface,. ; 15
(b) Subsoil, . 15
2. Water drainage, : . 30
(a) Surface, . 10
(b) Subdrainage, 20
3. Atmospheric drainage, . 15
4, Aspect, e 4 : . 15
(a) With reference to the sun, » 6
(b) With reference to winds, 10
5. Windbreaks, . 10

The attempt has been made here to give a list of the im-
portant considerations which ought to govern the selection of
a site and to attach to each factor a numerical value. Doubt-
less these numerical values are not in all cases correct, but at
least they are suggestive.

Under each particular factor many different things might
be considered, but the following are at least some of the
important ones: —

1. Soil.

(1) In the consideration of the surface soil one ought to
take into account first of all the fertility of the land, whether
it is rich enough to give a satisfactory growth of tree, which
is of course desirable; and, on the other hand, whether by
liberal use of barn manure it may by any possibility be too
fertile for the best type of growth of the young tree. While
the latter is much less likely to occur than the former, there
are cases where land is too fertile to give the most satisfactory
results. ,

(2) The second question under surface soil would be adapta- |
tion of the particular block to the special type of fruit one - -

wishes to grow. This is probably the most important single

item in judging an orchard site. We recognize that, as a...
class, peaches ought to grow on rather light soil, pears on . .

rather heavy soil, while apples do well on various types of
soil, running from fairly light to rather heavy. As a matter
of fact, in the case of apples, the work of Mr. H. J. Wilder
and others has shown fairly definitely the soil preferences of
certain varieties of apples, and we recognize that a Hubbard-
ston or a Wealthy does well on light soil, while a McIntosh
or a Baldwin requires a medium type of soil, and a Rhode
Island Greening a rather heavy type of soil.

(3) A third item to be considered in the surface soil is the
ease with which it can be worked. Very stony land or heavy
clay land would be scored down under the head of difficulty
in working it, though it might be good enough in other re-
spects to more than offset this.

(4) A fourth item would be the question of whether the
soil is sour or not. While it has not yet been definitely shown
that apple trees prefer an alkaline soil, we do know that lime-
stone districts are particularly noted for their fine fruit, and
that the cover crops which we wish to grow in the orchard
will not thrive, at least most of them will not, on an acid
soil. This means that in case the soil in our block is sour, it
will be necessary to apply lime to correct that condition.

(5) A fifth item would be the humus content of the soil.
It will be found that young trees will start off much better
on soil which is fairly well supplied with humus, and while
this deficiency may be made up through the agency of barn
manure or cover crops, it will be found that the soils which
need humus most are the last ones to grow satisfactory cover
crops. One will therefore find it a slow proposition to correct
this deficiency.

Turning now to the subsoil, we have the question of the
fertility of this subsoil, whether it is a pure sand and carries
relatively small quantities of plant food, or a gravelly clay
which may be decidedly fertile. This point is more impor-
tant than is usually recognized, since the great bulk of the
root system of our trees is down in the subsoil and not in
the surface soil. One ought also to consider the ease with
which the roots can penetrate this subsoil. Ledges and stiff
clay hardpan would both be objectionable from this standpoint.

2. Water Drainage.

The second general item in the above score card is water’:

drainage, which is certainly extremely important. It is de-
sirable to have sufficient surface drainage to carry off the sur-
face water, since it is a well-recognized fact that trees will
not do well in a wet soil. On the other hand, if the slope is
too abrupt we may get washing of the soil, especially in the
spring, and loss of water during summer rains when there
may be a scarcity of water in the soil. For this reason very
abrupt slopes are less desirable, at least in this respect. Un-
der subdrainage would be considered the question of whether
there was sufficient drainage or whether the water was held in
the soil; and, on the other hand, whether there was too much
drainage making the-subsoil too dry.

3. Atmospheric Drainage.

The third question to be considered is the matter of at-
mospheric drainage, and the importance of this varies a good
deal with different fruits in different sections. In those sec-
tions where frosts are likely to occur in the spring after the
trees are in bloom, and with early blossoming classes or vari-
eties of fruits, the question of atmospheric drainage may be
very important. If one is considering this question there are
several points which ought to be looked into. First, is there
sufficient slope to carry off the cold air? This does not re-
quire much slope, and one which will move the water over
the surface will be ample to carry off the cold air also.

One ought also to consider whether there is any obstruction
at the bottom of the orchard against which the cold air will
bank up and so cause a frost to occur in- the orchard. This
obstruction might be a very thick block of timber or a rise
in the land.

4. Aspect or Slope.

The fourth item is the aspect or slope of the land, whether
to the north, south, east or west, and the score card con-
siders this first with reference to the sun, second with refer-
ence to the wind. In the former point, slope with reference
to the sun, we have the advantage of southern aspect in the

ripening of the fruit which makes it desirable, if this can be
secured without subjecting the plantation to danger from
frost. As a matter of fact, with apples in this State there is
usually little danger of the blossoms being hit by late frosts.

Another item which ought to be considered in this question
of the aspect with reference to the sun is the danger of sun
scald, which is considerably greater on a southwestern slope
than on any other. But this is ordinarily not a serious matter
in Massachusetts.

The other side of the question of slopes, that is, slopes with
reference to wind, is much more important, and it is very
desirable to secure, if possible, a slope which is away from
the prevailing winds of the section. In most sections of the
State the northwest wind is the most dangerous, since we are
likely to get gales from that quarter in the autumn before
the fruit is picked, and this may cause serious damage from
windfall fruit.

5. Windbreaks.

The last item in the score card is the matter of windbreaks,
which, in conjunction with the slope, help to protect the plan-
tation from the effect of wind, and which are, in the opinion
of the writer, very important. It is often possible to do such
labor as spraying, pruning or harvesting in the orchard with
entire comfort when it is protected by a good windbreak,
while it might not be possible to work at all if exposed to
the wind. This is peculiarly true of spraying, where one has
to consider not only the discomfort of the wind, but also the
difficulty of getting the spray where it is wanted.

In this matter of windbreaks several items ought to be con-
sidered. First, and most important, is the kind of trees. As
a general proposition it may be said that no tree should be set
which harbors a fungus or an insect which is likely to be
troublesome on the orchard. This would eliminate cedars, oaks
and cherries. All things considered, perhaps the best trees
for windbreaks are the pines and spruces among: evergreens,
and the hard maples among deciduous trees.

The second item which ought to be considered in this matter
of windbreaks is the question of how far away they ought to
be. This depends somewhat on whether the orchard is set

down by the side of a windbreak already established or whether
the windbreak is planted with the orchard. But in any case
it is better to have them too far away than too near. Prob-
ably 50 or 60 feet would be the minimum, and 100 to 150
would be more desirable. The land between could be used
for grass or utilized in some other way. Where the trees are
set too near the orchard there is always a good deal of dam-
age and the fruit is much poorer on that side of the orchard.

It is also desirable, if it can be arranged, to have both
near-by and distant windbreaks; and where the windbreak is
at the bottom of the slope (if the orchard is located in a
section which is likely to be troubled by frost), care should
be taken to keep it open at the bottom so that the cold air
may drain through.

It may be worth while to close this discussion of wind-
breaks by a mere catalogue of the advantages to be secured
from them. Some of the important ones would be as
follows: —

(1) To protect plantations from cold in winter. This de-
pends somewhat on the type of winter, but it was shown
very definitely in the winter of 1913-14 that those plantations
that were out exposed to severe winds were damaged much
more severely than similar plantations which were protected.

(2) The windbreak reduces the number of windfalls. This
needs no discussion, but is often a serious matter. The writer
recalls one orchard man whose crop was around 3,000 barrels,
and who one season picked up 700 barrels after a severe wind
storm.

(8) It prevents the breaking of trees when laden with fruit or
covered with ice.

(4) It reduces the evaporation of moisture from the soil.
This might be extremely important during severely dry spells.
(5) It facilitates labor. This has already been discussed.

(6) It helps to retain snow and leaves in the orchard. This
is important in those sections where deep freezing of soil is
likely to occur and result in root injury.

(7) It prevents injury to the blossoms where severe winds
occur during the blossoming period.

The California orchard plow.

This is a fairly impressive list of benefits and ought to con-
vince any one that the windbreak is a useful thing to have
in connection with the orchard if it is possible to get it.

CHOICE OF VARIETIES.

We may next attack the question of the choice of varieties
for the plantation, and in the writer’s opinion this is the
most critical question which can come up for decision so far
as its bearing on the success of the orchard is concerned,
One is more likely to succeed if he chooses the right varieties
and puts them on the wrong soil than if he chooses the wrong °
varieties and has them on satisfactory soil.

It is impossible in a paper of this type to discuss a long
list of varieties, and those which have been selected are, in
the opinion of the writer, the most useful for our State.

Let us begin by considering the advantages of a fairly long
list of varieties for the orchard, say the advantages of five or
six varieties in the orchard as against one or two. These
advantages stated briefly would be as follows: —

First, it provides better for cross-pollination. This has
been shown to be frequently a very important factor in the
success of the orchard; and while most of our varieties are
reasonably self-fertile, yet nearly all of them are benefited by
cross-pollination with other varieties,—the yields being
steadied and made more certain.

Second, a longer list of varieties lengthens the season for
picking and handling the fruit. In the writer’s opinion this is
the strongest argument for a fairly long list of varieties. Let
us compare the orchards of two men, both of whom we will
say are harvesting 3,000 barrels of apples in the season. One
man has Baldwins alone, and if we allow a 15-day picking
season (which would probably be a generous estimate count-
ing from the time the fruit was in proper condition to pick
up to the time when it would begin to drop badly), this would
mean that the owner must pick 200 barrels per day during
this picking season.

On the other hand, suppose the adjoining owner has five
varieties beginning with Oldenburg, which is ripe around the

middle of August, following this with Wealthy, then MclIn-
tosh, then Baldwins, then Wagener. The latter need not be
picked before the middle of October or even later. This
would give the second man two months in which to do his
picking, or an average of around 60 barrels per day. Any one
who has ever attempted to manage a picking crew will easily
see the great advantage to the second owner.

Third, a longer list of varieties insures some fruit each
year. If the McIntosh are not bearing the Baldwins will be;
if the Baldwins are off the Wageners will be bearing.

Fourth, it increases the chances of pleasing customers.
This is not an extremely important item but still it is worth
considering, since one customer prefers one kind of apple
while another prefers some other kind.

Fifth, it may utilize the types of soil better. One variety,
as already suggested, does well on a light soil, another on a
medium soil, and another on a rather heavy soil.

Sixth, it enables the owner to hold his markets better.
If he has a continuous supply of apples available from the
beginning of the season until the end, he can dispose of them
much better than if he has one early and one late and loses
the market in between.

Seventh, it lengthens the period of income. This ought not
to be an important matter, but as most men are constituted
it is.

Looking at the other side of the question, the disadvan-
tages from the increase in the number of varieties, we have,
first, that it decreases the chances of selling the entire crop
to one buyer. This would be an important consideration in
those sections where the practice is to sell the crop, either on
the trees or in the packing house, to a buyer who takes the
entire crop at one sale; and in certain sections the advantages
enumerated above might be more than offset by this single
disadvantage.

Second, it may lower the efficiency of the orchard because
it includes less efficient varieties. For example, Wealthy and
McIntosh are both extremely efficient varieties, growing large
crops of good apples. If one plants some Oldenburgs or some
Spies or some Gravensteins, he is likely to reduce the efficiency

of the orchard because these latter varieties are not as gen-
erally efficient as the former.

Third, the soils may not be suitable for the particular
varieties one wishes to set. This might or might not be an
important consideration.

Turning now to a few specific varieties which seem to be
well adapted to most of our orchard sections in Massachu-
setts, we may suggest the following list: —

Oldenburg.

This is a Russian variety imported into this country about
1835 and probably more generally grown, take the United
States as a whole, than any other variety with the possible
exception of the Ben Davis. The tree is very hardy, very
productive; comes into bearing early, often yielding fruit the
third or fourth year; is a vigorous grower while young, but
soon steadies down to a rather scant growth and therefore
never makes a large tree. It is a reliable cropper, often
yielding annual crops, but likely to be biennial, and is ex-
ceptionally healthy in the matter of foliage.

The fruit of the Oldenburg is of good and uniform size, a
fine light yellow in color, striped more or less with red, but
is only fair in quality. Its season is the latter part of August
and early September, and it is usually a profitable variety on
account of its many other good characteristics and in spite of
the fact that it is not high in quality.

Wealthy.

This variety was originated by Peter Gideon at Excelsior,
Minnesota, and is another variety that is very generally suc-
cessful. The tree is very hardy; a good grower while young,
but slowing down fairly rapidly and never making a large
tree. It comes into bearing early, frequently by four or five
years, and is extremely prolific. The fruit has a fine color,
being well covered with a handsome red, its quality is excel-
lent, and the fruit is very even in size and shape. It drops
badly, which necessitates picking over the trees at least twice
if the best results are to be secured. The fruit is of good size
when the trees are young, but is apt to run small as the

trees get older, necessitating heavy pruning, good fertilizing:
and thinning of the fruit. The season is September and
October. At the present time it is doubtful if any other
variety is more profitable than the Wealthy for Massachusetts
orchards.

McIntosh.

This variety originated in Ontario, but has rapidly come to
the front in Massachusetts of late years, and probably no:
other variety is more popular or more profitable at the present
time. The tree is a strong grower, very hardy, healthy ex-
cept for a tendency to be attacked by scab; comes into bear-
ing fairly early, say five or six years, and bears regularly and
annually thereafter. Some trees in the agricultural college
orchard have borne twelve successive crops. It makes an
excellent tree in shape, being one of the best in that respect.

The fruit of the McIntosh is wonderfully fine in color, with
beautiful white flesh, juicy and tender, and of the very highest.
quality. It is in season in ordinary storage from October to
December, but under refrigeration much longer, and in any
case keeps extremely well for an apple of its season. The
fruit drops badly, necessitating several pickings if the best
results are to be secured. Doubts are sometimes expressed
as to whether the McIntosh is not being overplanted in this
section, but it would seem that with an apple of this quality
put on the market at a reasonable figure, there would be a
chance to dispose of almost unlimited quantities.

Baldwin.

This is a Massachusetts variety, having originated at Wil-
mington, near Lowell, and is the most generally grown of any
variety, and next to the McIntosh is probably the most pop-
ular for this State. The tree is a strong grower, long-lived,
and bears abundantly in alternate years. It is not especially
hardy, though it succeeds well in most parts of this State.
It comes into bearing in seven or eight years, and usually
bears very abundant crops biennially from that time forward.
The fruit is excellent in quality when well grown, of fine
color, of good size, and keeps well. In ordinary storage its

Baldwin.

McIntosh.

Palmer Greening.

THREE PoPpuULAR VARIETIES.

season is from November to February or March, and it is
at present and always will be a leader in Massachusetts or-
chards.

Wagener.

This apple originated in New York and is not widely grown
in Massachusetts, but in some respects is a most promising
variety. The tree is of medium size, a good grower while it
is young, but slow as it gets older. It is remarkably early in
coming into bearing, sometimes producing apples at the third
or fourth year, and bears abundantly, at least biennially,
after that. The fruit is of good size, fine color and excellent
quality, though somewhat inclined to produce culls where
there are few apples on the trees. The season is November
to February. The special value of Wagener to orchardists is
the fact that it is a late-keeping apple and yet a small tree,
and is therefore adapted to use as a filler where that system
of growing is adopted.

Gravenstein.

This variety, originated in Germany, was introduced into
the United States about 1825 and has been a very popular
variety in many sections. The tree is very vigorous, almost
too much so, making a large tree and tending to overgrow
and winter-kill as a result of late growth, unless soil conditions
and soil management are just right. It is rather slow in
coming into bearing, requiring about seven or eight years, and
is an uncertain cropper. In some sections it bears very abun-
dantly indeed and is extremely popular, and in others it is a
shy and uncertain bearer. The fruit is of high quality, hand-,
some in color, very popular in the market, and in sections
where the Gravenstein succeeds it stands close to the head of
the market varieties. Its season is September to November,
and barring the fact that the trees are apt to go bad through
winter-killing and other troubles, it would stand second or
third in many sections. This difficulty could doubtless be
overcome to some extent by setting other hardy varieties and
topworking Gravenstein on these,

Delicious.
This is one of the newer apples, but is one of promise and is—-
being fairly largely set in some sections. It promises to be a
good variety of high quality to follow the McIntosh as a
dessert apple. It originated in Iowa, but seems to be taking
decidedly to New England conditions, and some excellent
fruit of this variety is being grown in various parts of the
State. The tree is a good grower, comes into bearing fairly
early, and is said to bear annually. Conclusive evidence on
this last point is lacking as yet for this State. The fruit is
handsome in color, of good quality, though apt to lose its
quality fairly quickly and become mealy. Its name and
advertising make it popular in the market. It is probably
not to be recommended for general planting as yet, but cer-
tainly is a variety of promise.

Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan and Williams Early.

The two former varieties are Russian in origin, while the
Williams is a Massachusetts production. All three of these
are grown as early apples more or less freely in many sections
of the State, the Yellow Transparent, coming in the last of
July or the first of August, followed by Red Astrachan and
then by Williams. For early varieties there are at present
no others which can compete with them, though all of them
have their shortcomings,— the Yellow Transparent being
yellow in color, easily bruised and making rather a poor tree;
the Red Astrachan being slow in coming into bearing and not
producing freely; and the Williams being a poor, sprawling
tree and not prolific.

In the writer’s opinion the foregoing list of varieties com-
prises the best sorts for Massachusetts orchards. Other
varieties which are fairly popular, but of which space will not
permit a detailed description, are Rhode Island Greening,
Northern Spy, Hubbardston, Palmer Greening, Winter Banana
and Opalescent.

To sum up the writer’s opinion on the variety question for
Massachusetts orchards it would be that for a commercial
orchard nothing but a red apple should be set. The five

leaders for most sections are, in the order of their ripening,
Oldenburg, Wealthy, McIntosh, Baldwin and Wagener, with
Gravenstein standing near the head for some sections and
Delicious a promising candidate.

Buyine oF Nursery STOCK.

This question brings up many minor details which have to
be settled before a satisfactory purchase can be made. A few
of these questions would be —

First, shall we buy northern or southern grown stock?
This probably makes no difference provided the stock can be
landed at the orchard in good condition.

Second, the advantages of locally grown stock. These are
certainly considerable and personally the writer would never
go far from his orchard for nursery stock. Locally grown
trees arrive at the farm in fresher condition, the transportation
charges are less, and any disagreement with the nurseryman
can be more easily adjusted. '

Third, shall one set dwarfs or standards? For most com-
mercial propositions probably the standard is to be recom-
mended. There have been cases where dwarf trees have done
remarkably well, but, on the whole, the standard is more
satisfactory.

Fourth, the best age of trees to buy. This question is
largely on one-year versus two-year trees, and in the writer’s
opinion the one-year tree is likely to be more satisfactory
where soil conditions are ideal, but the two-year trees are to
be preferred where soil conditions are not of the best.

It is unquestionably wise to buy direct from some reputable
nurseryman instead of from an agent, and to get in your
order as early as possible. If it can be done in November
or December, one is sure to get the varieties he wants and to
avoid many other difficulties.

PREPARATION OF SOIL.

If the land is not too sloping, it is desirable to plow the
field the autumn before it is to be set, but on land which
« slopes much, it is best to wait until early in the spring. After

plowing, the land should be fitted in the best possible manner,
using the disc harrow first and following this with any other
harrows that may be available, ending with a planker or clod-
crusher, which should leave the land in first-class condition to

be laid off.
LAYING OFF THE ORCHARD.

This is a matter which deserves much more care than it
usually receives. The operation should be begun by setting
a stake in one corner of the orchard block at the point where
the corner tree is to grow. This ought to be not less than
25 feet and preferably 50 feet from either edge, and if there

V yy V

are trees growing along either margin of the field, 75 to 100”
feet is better. Next a range stake is set at the opposite end
of the field and stakes are then driven every so often, being
such a distance apart as it is desired to have the trees stand.

The light-drayght orchard harrow.

Just what this distance ought to be is a much-discussed ques-
tion. In the writer’s opinion it ought seldom to be less than
40 feet for the standard trees, which would make the fillers,
if these are used, 20 feet apart. Next a row of stakes is
set at right angles to the first row, usually about the middle
of the field, these being all the stakes that are set by the
sighting method, the balance being best set with what are.
called measuring boards. These are two boards of a length
equal to the distance between the trees. These boards have
notches at the ends, and are laid down the end of one against
a stake in one row and the end of the other against a stake
in the second row of stakes as shown in the accompanying
diagram, and the new stake is driven in the notch where the
two boards meet. All this may sound like a good deal of work,
but it would surprise any one who has not tried it to see how
quickly the stakes may be set.

LocatTING THE TREES.

For locating the trees a planting board should be used.
This is a device which is by no means new but which deserves
much wider use than it gets. There are several types of
them, but the one shown in the accompanying diagram is

a fal G

perhaps as good as any. The board should be 4 or 5 feet
long by 8 inches wide, with a notch at each end and one in
the middle. The middle notch is placed against the stake
set for the tree and a short piece of lath is then driven down
at each end in the notches, the planting board taken away,
and the hole dug for the tree where the center stake stood.
Then when it comes time to set the tree, whether it is that
afternoon, or the next day, or the next week, the planting
board is put in place again with the two ‘small stakes in the
end notches and the tree is slipped into the middle notch
and planted out, and of course stands exactly where the
original stake stood. This is another operation which may
sound bungling but which in actual practice works out very
satisfactorily.

SETTING THE TREE.

Where soil conditions are just right, that is, land well pre-
pared and well drained, and where the nursery stock can be
bought near by so that it is certain to be on hand when wanted,
and yet will not have been dug while too immature, autumn
setting will succeed. But it is usually best, in our climate, to
set orchards in the spring, and the earlier in the spring they
can be set the better.

The field operations of digging the holes and setting the
trees will vary greatly according to the number to be set, and
various other factors, but in general would be somewhat as
follows. The holes should be dug about 18 inches to 2 feet
wide and perhaps 15 inches deep. The top 8 or 10 inches of
soil should be put in one pile and the subsoil in another.
The tree is prepared for setting by cutting off all large roots.
that are broken, and shortening in any long, straggling roots.
The actual setting can best be done by two men, one holding
the tree and the other shoveling in the soil. The tree is.
slipped into the notch in the planting board mentioned above,
and is held at the proper height by the man setting it while
the other man shovels the soil into the bottom of the hole.
If the hole is considerably deeper than necessary for the
depth of the tree, some soil may be shoveled in before the
tree is put into the hole. The tree ought to be set at about the
same depth at which it grew in the nursery; an inch or two
deeper is probably all right, but it should not vary greatly
from its original depth. The soil should be packed in care-
fully under the crown of the tree and the roots brought out
into approximately their original position. When the soil has
been filled in so that all roots are covered, the man setting
the tree should tramp the soil down firmly about the roots so
that there will be a good contact between them, and the
tree can start off properly. The surface soil should be used
first, and subsoil filled in at the top of the hole.

Where operations are being conducted on a fairly large
scale, it is well to mount a barrel on a stone-boat, fill it
half full of water and then put the trees into this barrel to
be transported around the orchard. This insures their ar-
riving at the holes in first-class condition.

PRuNING THE TREE AFTER SETTING.

If one-year trees have been set they will usually consist of
a straight whip, and the only question with regard to pruning
is the height at which this whip should be cut off. Opinions
vary on this, but probably most growers would say around
30 inches. Eighteen inches would be considered a very low
head, and 40 inches a fairly high one, though many growers
head even higher than this. If the tree is a two-year tree,
the question of pruning it is considerably more complicated.
But, to begin with, all branches ought to be removed except
those which are wanted for scaffold branches, and these should
not be over five, and preferably three or four. These scaffold
branches should be well distributed around the central trunk
of the tree so as to give a well-balanced head, and a good
deal of time and thought ought to be given to this first
problem. When the superfluous branches have been removed,
then those remaining ought to be cut back from a third to
half their length.

CULTIVATING THE ORCHARD.

As soon as possible after the trees are set, cultivation ought
to be begun in the orchard and kept up from that time until
about the first week in July. For this cultivation one of the
V-shaped cultivators is perhaps as good as anything, and
the land should be worked with it every week or ten days in
order to keep up a good dust mulch and to keep down all
weeds. Everything possible should be done to protect the
trunks of the trees from damage through this cultivation.
This means a steady horse, a careful man, and padding the
ends of the whiffletree with an old bag in order to prevent
the trees from being barked if the whiffletree accidentally
touches them.

In addition to the cultivating some hoeing may be necessary
provided weeds are abundant. But, on the other hand, with
good cultivation, upon land not too much infested by weeds,
the cultivator may do all the work that is necessary.

FERTILIZING THE TREES.

The type and quantity of fertilizers used in the orchard will
vary a good deal according to soil conditions and according to
the cultivation that is maintained. With a reasonably fertile
soil and with good cultivation, it may not be necessary to use
any fertilizers whatever; while, when the soil is poor and the
cultivation not of the best, a considerable quantity of fertilizer
may be necessary. For this fertilizing nothing is better than
good barn manure, and where this is available it may be the
only fertilizer needed. Two or three forkfuls around a tree
will bring along a more satisfactory type of growth than can
be got in almost any other way. While this may be all that
is necessary it frequently is desirable to put on a little nitrate
of soda at the start to bring the trees along quickly.

Where barn manure is not available some nitrate of soda,
say 2 or 3 ounces per tree, and some tankage, say a half
pound per tree, will usually result in a very satisfactory growth
of the trees.

The question of the application of any other types of fer-
tilizers to trees the first year is still a matter of debate, but
probably in most cases it is not worth while to apply potash;
and while the case of phosphoric acid is less certain and a
half pound of acid phosphate per tree might be worth using,
still, if the soil is handled properly in other respects, the trees
will probably make a very satisfactory growth without any
other types of fertilizers than some form of nitrogen.

CROPPING THE ORCHARD.

It is a much debated question whether it will pay to grow
other crops among the young trees during the first few years
of the orchard, and the answer to this question depends very
largely on the type of land and the type of market available.
In most cases it is probably wise to attempt to grow some
sort of crops in the orchard. If the right crop is selected it
will usually help towards carrying the expense of bringing the
orchard along, and the cultivation is apt to be more thorough
and systematic where there is a crop involved than where
there is nothing but the orchard on the land.

Barley as a cover crop in a young orchard. This is one of the best cover
crops for Massachusetts orchards.

The choice of this crop will be largely a personal matter and
is frequently a rather difficult question to settle, but it ought
to be a cultivated crop-without any question, and usually an
annual crop. Some of the most generally successful companion
crops for young orchards are late potatoes, beans, late cabbage,
corn (preferably sweet corn or small-growing flint corn) and
squash.

Cover Crops FOR THE ORCHARD.

Whether the orchard is cropped or not the land along the
tree rows should be sowed down about the first week in July
to some type of cover crop. If the land is not cropped then
the entire orchard should be seeded down. This cover crop
is a very important part in the proper management of the
orchard. Some of the things which it does to the orchard are
to check the growth of the tree toward the latter end of the
season, thus insuring that it goes into the winter in a well-
ripening condition; to prevent the washing of the soil during
winter and spring rains, which of course is extremely important
where the land has any great slope; to add humus to the
soil, which has already been discussed and which is very im-
portant; and if a leguminous crop is used, to add nitrogen to
the soil. In sections where the soil is likely to freeze deeply
the cover crop also assists in preventing extreme depths of
freezing and still more important in preventing alternate
freezing and thawing of the soil.

Various crops are used for this purpose. One of the best
plans is to use a mixture of two crops; and it will be found
that a half bushel of barley with either 6 or 8 pounds of
crimson clover added, or with a peck of winter vetch added,
makes an excellent combination. Another good plan is to
substitute buckwheat for barley, using a half bushel of buck-
wheat with 6 or 8 pounds of crimson clover or with the peck
of winter vetch. These mixtures insure that nearly all of the
functions mentioned above will be satisfactorily performed in
the orchard.

PROTECTING THE TRUNKS OF TREES.

The last thing which ought to be done to the orchard in the
autumn is to adopt some plan of protecting the trees from
damage by mice. If mice are not plentiful in the section and
are seldom known to do any damage of this type, then merely
clearing away the trash and cover crop from around the trees
may be all that is necessary. But if there is any great proba-
bility of damage, then it is better to use some sort of protectors;
and a strip of good waterproof building paper about 18 inches
wide, placed around the tree at its base and tied in one or two
places to hold it snugly, will usually insure the tree coming
through without damage. Do not use tar paper!

CuHapter II.

RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS.

F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE.

There are undoubtedly thousands of old apple trees in
Massachusetts, some in orchards and others scattered about
fields, which would pay good returns if they could be thor-
oughly “renovated” and thereafter be given proper treatment.
On the other hand, there are just as many, and probably
far more, which would be more profitable on the woodpile
than anywhere else. The first question, then, for one to
decide, if he owns such trees or orchards, is “Will it pay to
make the attempt to get them into a thrifty condition again?”
In the writer’s opinion this depends on three conditions: (1)
the age and vigor of the trees; (2) the stand of trees in the
orchard; and (3) the varieties. To discuss each of these
briefly : —

1. The Age and Vigor of the Trees. — If the trees are vigorous,
with good trunks and main branches, unaffected with canker
or other injuries to the bark, it has been my experience that
they can be brought into a profitable condition even though
the tops are full of dead branches and they have been system-
atically neglected for years. This is supposing, of course, that
the other factors mentioned above are favorable. It is truly
surprising what can be done with an old orchard when it is
taken in hand and given modern, up-to-date treatment. On
the other hand, if the trunks or main branches are damaged
by canker, or have been injured by cold so that the bark
has fallen away in patches of any size, as very often happens,
or if the trunk and main branches are badly rotted out in the
center, then it is very doubtful if the orchard will pay for
renovating. It must be remembered that the trunk is the

highway by which the results of our improved care are trans-
ported back and forth from the roots to the top, and if this
highway is in a demoralized condition we are not going to
get the best results.

2. The Stand of Trees. — This is supposing, of course, that
the trees to be treated are in an orchard, and it will be easily
seen that if half of the trees are out it is not going to pay to
cultivate and fertilize the whole of the land for trees which
could be put on half of it. And it is seldom satisfactory
to attempt to grow anything else in such vacant spaces in
an old orchard, or to plant young trees in the vacancies. If
the trees are along fences or odd corners, so that cultivation
of the soil will not be attempted, then the question of stand
is less important, and may, perhaps, be ignored altogether.
But in an orchard there ought to be a three-quarters stand at
least to make it worth while to take the matter up, except
under the most favorable circumstances.

3. The Varieties in the Orchard. —'This is of less importance
than the two points already mentioned, vet it is a factor
that is decidedly worth considering and that has an important
bearing on the cost of the renovating process. It is possible,
of course, to graft over the trees, but this is both an expensive
and a lengthy operation, and I should condemn to the brush
heap an orchard which needed to be grafted far more quickly
than one which already had the right varieties in it. Of
course the question of varieties is very largely personal, and
need not be discussed here, but I should mean by “right”
such varieties as suited the grower and the markets for which
he was producing, preferably standard sorts, like Baldwin,
Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury Russet,

The above, as I have said, are the main factors in deciding
for or against the renovation of an old orchard, yet perhaps
I have omitted the chief factor after all, and that is the man
himself. If he has just come into possession of the orchard,
and is making an attempt to clean up all along the line, I
should have far more faith in the ultimate good results of
the matter than if he were author and finisher of the neglect
from which the orchard has suffered, even though he might

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have firmly determined to “do the right thing by the or-
chard” henceforth.

Having finally decided that the orchard is worth while,
the work of renovating will fall naturally under the follow-
ing heads: first, cultivation; second, pruning; third, spray-
ing; fourth, fertilizing; fifth, cover crops; sixth, grafting, —
arranged somewhat in the order of their importance, though,
of course, this will vary greatly with different orchards, and
all with the possible exception of grafting will be needed
to secure the best results.

I have placed cultivation first because though trees will
often do well in sod, if otherwise well cared for, and though
it may sometimes be necessary, even in attempting to revive
an old orchard, to let the trees stand in sod, yet, as a rule,
to get them into satisfactory condition cultivation is the
prime requisite, and will do more than any other one thing
to start the orchard on the right road. It is usually difficult
in an old orchard, such as we are considering, to do anything
like a thorough job of plowing. If one can secure an ox team
they will do the work better than a team of horses, as they
will be able to get under the trees better, and the slow, steady
gait of the oxen is better than that of most horses. Do not
be alarmed over cutting some tree roots with the plow, even
some large roots. A little root pruning will not hurt the
trees, and the fresh, new feeding-roots, sent out from the
broken and cut ends of the old roots, will very soon equal in
absorbing ability the parts of the old roots which are cut
away. Another point in plowing is the question of throw-
ing the furrow towards or away from the trees. One. fre-
quently finds an old orchard in which the plowing has been
for years always in the direction of the trees, until each row
stands along a ridge, with deep hollows between. Such an
orchard should be plowed away from the trees, until the land
gets back reasonably level again. After that it is well to
plow the orchard alternately towards and away from the
trees, — one year north and south and the next east and
west. In this way the land can be kept in the best condition
for the trees.

Occasionally it is impossible to do even a makeshift job
of plowing, and then one can sometimes begin operations
by running a heavy dise harrow through the orchard, to cut
up the sod and start things in the right direction, and per-
haps plow it the following year.

After the plowing has been done it is always advisable
to use the disc harrow and follow it with the spring tooth
harrow, going both ways with each of them, and going over
the land several times, so as to get the land in good tilth.
After this, through the balance of the season, it is best to
cultivate the land once every week or ten days, up to per-
haps the first week in July. And let this weekly cultivation
be thorough! If the two harrows suggested, disc and spring
tooth, are available, it is well to run the disc over the long
way of the orchard first, and then finish with the spring
tooth the opposite way. This insures all the land being
worked over, and leaves it more level than if one finishes
with the disc, which of course is desirable on account of re-
ducing evaporation. It is difficult to overdo cultivation at
this season of the year, and with an old, neglected orchard
I should feel inclined to let this be the principal feature of
the program, so far as the soil is concerned.

Now for our second point in the program, pruning. This
is apt to vary more in the extent to which it is needed
and in the character which is best to apply than any one of
the other factors. If the trees are very high, with little or
no bearing wood near the center, as is apt to be the case,
then they should be given drastic pruning, so as to grow
an entirely new top, a good many feet nearer the ground
than the old one. If there are water sprouts in the center of
the tree, as is frequently the case, then the tree may be de-
horned, as it is called, that is, all the old top can be cut away,
leaving stubs perhaps 3 or 4 feet long at the base of each
main branch. If there are no water sprouts, or very few,
then the top should be pruned severely but not dehorned, in
the hope that it will send out water sprouts and thus allow
of dehorning later on. This seems like heroic treatment, and
it is, but in the great majority of cases, if the trees are other-
wise healthy, they will send out a bushy top which, with

Fic. 2.— A poor type of tree for renovating. Trunk is toolong and main
branches have no bearing wood except at tops. If renovation is
attempted this tree should be severely cut back to renew the top.

judicious thinning, will make practically a new tree out of
the old one. And one great reason why such old trees as we
are now considering (tall, overgrown ones) are not profitable
is that they are so tall that every operation — pruning, spray-
ing, picking, etc. —is four or five times as costly as with
lower trees. So it is absolutely essential to get them down
nearer the ground if they are ever to be made profitable.

On the other hand, if the trees are reasonably low, the
pruning may consist largely in thinning the top throughout,
beginning, of course, with the dead branches, and then taking
enough live ones to leave the head fairly open to light and
air, and to the sprayer when that comes on the scene. Even
in this class of trees (those which are not unreasonably tall)
it is often possible to reduce their height to advantage, with-
out materially altering their form, by simply cutting back
each of the main, upright branches to one of its strong, main
offshoots. At the start the effect may not be just what we
should like, and the top may be thrown somewhat out of bal-
ance, but with a year’s growth it will largely recover its
symmetry, and even if it should not altogether the advantages
of the lower top will offset any disadvantages.

Another point in this latter type of pruning, and one often
neglected, is not to remove too large branches in the thinning.
Of course it is much easier to remove what one considers the
required amount of wood by taking out a few large branches,
but the results are much better if one will take comparatively
small branches (not above an inch, and preferably much
smaller, in diameter) and take more of them. This thins the
top uniformly, letting in light, air and spraying materials to
all parts equally; while the removal of a few large branches
leaves the top too open in some places and as thick as ever
in others. Still another point which one should bear in mind
in his pruning is to keep a sharp watch for diseased branches,
and take these out in preference to healthy ones. The Euro-
pean and some other cankers are, in particular, liable to
be found in such an orchard, and may be largely held in
check by such pruning. And lastly, after the pruning has
been done, and the wounds made have had time to dry up and.
“check”? somewhat, all wounds of an inch and a half or over

should be thoroughly painted with thick lead paint, to keep

out moisture and prevent decay. White lead and boiled lin- - .

seed oil make the best kind of covering for such wounds, but
it is well to add a little brown color, merely to take off the
glaring whiteness of the painted wounds. One frequently
sees the advice to take the paint pot into the tree when prun-
ing, and attend to the painting at once, when the limb is
removed, but in the writer’s experience the pruning tools are
all that one wants to be bothered with at one time, and the
paint will certainly adhere better to the cut surface when this
has dried somewhat.

Our “thirdly” is the spraying problem. This will vary
somewhat, according to the insect and fungous diseases which
may be present in the orchard or locality. If the San José
scale is there a thorough spraying with oil in the autumn,
after the leaves have fallen, and with lime-sulfur just as the
buds are swelling in the spring, will be found to be the most
efficacious treatment. Where one does not have too bad
an infestation of scale, in the writer’s observation the best
thing to use is the lime-sulfur, and one has the satisfaction of
knowing that while he is. driving this pest out of his planta-
tion he is also most effectively reducing the vigor of a num-
ber of fungous diseases which might have caused trouble
later in the season. In this connection (fighting insects and
fungi) one is frequently asked as to the desirability of scrap-
ing the trees to remove the rough, scaly bark. While this
ought not to be necessary as a regular practice in orchards
which are cared for, and especially in those which are sprayed,
yet in the beginning I believe it is an excellent treatment for
such orchards as we are considering. Certainly it will add
materially to the effectiveness of any spraying which may be
done in the orchard.

It will not usually be found necessary to use oil after the
orchard is once cleaned up, and the following spraying schedule
will generally be satisfactory for future years.

First Spraying. — Early spring, just as the buds are break-
ing. Commercial lime-sulfur, about 6 gallons, and arsenate of
lead paste 4 pounds, or powder 2 pounds, 40 per cent nicotine
sulphate, three-eighths of a pint, to 50 gallons of water. This

Fig. 3.— Type of tree which should be cut back severely in renovating;
10 or 12 feet at least could be removed to advantage. Except for
poor trunk (see Fig. 2), this tree could be very successfully re-
modeled.

is for scale, aphis, bud moth, and also for certain fungous
diseases. Unless buds are well broken and tips of leaves
showing when this spray is made, omit arsenate of lead.

Second Spraying. — Just before the blossoms open. Lime-
sulfur 1 gallon, 40 per cent nicotine sulfate, three-eighths of
a pint, arsenate of lead paste 3 to 5 pounds, or powder 1} to
23 pounds, water, 50 gallons. There is some experimental
evidence to show that 5 to 10 pounds of lime, slaked and
added to each 50-gallon cask of spray containing lime-sulfur
and arsenate of lead, will prevent the burning of foliage which
sometimes follows the use of this combination. It is at least
worth trying. This spraying is for bud moth, tent cater-
pillar, browntail moth, curculio, aphis, red bug and scab.

Third Spraying. — Within a week after the petals fall.
Warm weather shortens and cool weather lengthens this period.
Same as second spraying. This spraying is especially for cod-
ling moth, curculio, apple scab, red bug, gypsy moth and
aphis.

Fourth Spraying. — About four weeks later. Same materials
as the third, omitting nicotine. Especially important for cod-
ling moth, lesser apple worm, scab, gypsy moth, sooty fungus
of apples, ete.

The relative importance of these different sprayings will
vary with different orchards. Some may be omitted alto-
gether in certain sections. There are few localities, however,
where the second and third will not give excellent returns on
the cost of applying. ;

In some sections of the State injury to the foliage has re-
sulted from spraying with the combination of lime-sulfur and
arsenate of lead. In similar climates this difficulty has
been avoided by substituting’ Bordeaux mixture for com-
mercial lime-sulfur in the second spray in the above pro-
gram, and self-boiled lime-sulfur for the commercial in any
later applications. This has worked out well in New Jersey,
Nova Scotia and elsewhere, and is certainly worthy of trial
here.

Of course one may be confronted by special problems, like
an acute attack of canker worms or a scourge of apple aphis,
in which case a specialist should be consulted. But for all

ordinary cases the foregoing program ought to be entirely
adequate, and it would certainly surprise most old orchards
to receive half of this attention.

The fourth factor in our operations is the fertilizer question,
which is naturally very closely related to our cultivation
problems and sometimes has to be varied to suit the cultural
methods adopted. At the beginning I do not believe it is
desirable in most cases to apply any nitrogenous fertilizers,
or if they are applied it should be in very limited quantities,
and early in the season. A moment’s reflection will show the
philosophy of this. Trees which have been allowed to grow
in sod, as the old orchards which we are considering will
undoubtedly have been, and in soil which has been im-
poverished by constant removal of the grass as hay, and of
the fruit, without any return of fertilizer, will have long,
straggling roots sent out to forage at a distance for all the
plant food possible. And these long roots will have com-
paratively few branches or small feeding roots, as it is a well-
known fact that roots branch freely in a fertile soil and sparsely
in a poor soil. Now when the land in the orchard is plowed
and cultivated, and fertilizers are applied, the conditions
become very much more favorable in the soil, and the roots
begin to branch freely in response to these improved conditions.
If the fertilizer has been applied in the form of barn manure,
as is often the case, this requires some time to decay and get
into soluble condition so that the roots can take it up, but
when this has taken place it furnishes a large amount of
highly nitrogenous food which tends to stimulate a very
strong wood growth late in the season. The trees having the
root systems such as we have described, long and spreading,
and having sent out an abundance of feeding roots all along
these original main roots in response to improved conditions,
are sure to take up an unusual amount of this plant food,
much more than trees which have had regular care from the
beginning, and which therefore have more compact root
systems. The result is that the growth is continued very late
in the season, that the new layer of tissue between the old
bark and wood does not ripen up in the autumn as it should,
and that when cold weather comes on it is no better fitted to

Fig. 4. — Trunk injured by cold. Such trees are usually not worth
renovating.

withstand freezing than a potato or a cabbage, and is destroyed
during the winter. Soon after this the bark separates from
the wood, and the tree dies if the bark has been killed all
round, or is seriously weakened if only part way. For these
reasons, as I said in the beginning, I should advise with-
holding nitrogenous fertilizers almost entirely the first season
in the case of most orchards. If the soil has any fertility to
it at all the cultivation and consequent improved physical
condition will liberate all the nitrogen that the trees need to
make an entirely satisfactory growth.

In a few orchards, where the soil is very poor, it may be
necessary to apply some nitrogen, and if this is done it should
be in the form of nitrate of soda. An application of perhaps
200 pounds of this material, made early in the spring as soon
as growth starts, will usually be all that is necessary even
in the worst of cases.

Other fertilizers may or may not be needed. It is very
difficult to make a general recommendation. On light, sandy
land some potash is often desirable, and 200 pounds of sulfate
of potash may well be applied. For supplying phosphoric
acid the most common material used is acid phosphate, and a
good application of this is 200 to 300 pounds per acre.

Nearly all of our old orchard soils are benefited by lime,
and an application of 2 tons of ground limestone per acre
may well be made. Just how much this will affect the trees
themselves is still a matter of doubt, though there is some
evidence to support the belief that it is an advantage to them.
‘But there is no question that it will benefit the cover crops
grown in the orchard, especially the leguminous ones, and this
is sufficient justification for its use.

We come now to the question of cover crops for the orchard,
by which is meant some crop grown in the orchard, usually
late in the season, and exclusively, or at least mainly, with
the object of improving the soil of the orchard. That it
can be made to play a very important part in the upbuilding
of an old orchard has been shown time and again. Some
of the best ones for Massachusetts orchards are buckwheat,
barley, soy beans, turnips, dwarf Essex rape and the vetches.
The chief advantages derived from their use would be that

they take plant food away from the trees in the autumn and.
thus help to ripen them up; that they catch and hold nitrates
in the soil after the growth of the trees has stopped, and
when these substances might otherwise be washed out of the
soil; that they help to pulverize and rot down the sod, which
is especially important at the beginning; that when they are
plowed under the following season they furnish humus, which
in turn furnishes plant food to the trees; and that, in the
case of soy beans and the vetches, they help to keep up the
store of nitrogen in the soil by what they take up from the air
and store in their roots. This is by no means all that these
cover crops do, but it covers the main points, and serves to
show how important they are. The general plan of their use
would be this: that the orchard would be plowed as early in
the spring as the soil would permit and thoroughly fitted as
outlined earlier. Then thorough cultivation would continue
up to the first week in July, when the cover crop would be
sown. The only important deviation from this course would
be in the case of some of the leguminous cover crops mentioned,
particularly soy beans, which often give better results if
sown in drills earlier in the season (the middle of June), and
cultivated several times before the orchard is laid by. Of
course the objection to this is that the cultivation by this
method is much more costly, since it must be done with a
one-horse cultivator, a row at a time, instead of with a disc
or spring-tooth harrow, covering three or four times the
space. But even this objection is often, if not usually, over-
balanced by the much better growth of the cover crop.

After cultivation ceases and the cover crop is sown, nothing
further is done to the soil until the following spring, when
the cover crop is plowed under, and the program begins
again. Where a good growth of one of the nitrogenous cover
crops can be secured it is often possible to obtain all the
nitrogen needed for the orchard in this way.

I should feel inclined to begin with buckwheat as a cover
crop in starting an old orchard because it is peculiarly effective
in rotting down sod and putting the soil in fine physical
condition. This might be followed in a year or two by
either soy beans or a mixture of one half bushel of buck-
wheat, and one peck of summer or winter vetch.

Note also the fine

Fic. 5. — A dehorned tree after one year’s growth, showing how well these trees recover.

crop of buckwheat used as a cover crop.

As to amounts of seed per acre of the different crops sug-
gested the following will be found right for ordinary con-
ditions: —

Buckwheat, . 1 bushel.

Barley, 13 bushels.

Soy beans, 1} bushels broadcast; 4 bushel in drills.
Summer vetch, 13 bushels broadcast; 1 bushel in drills.
Winter vetch, . . 1 bushel broadcast; $ bushel in drills.

The principal objection to the vetches is the cost of seed,
and they are probably best used in the mixtures above sug-
gested.

Lastly there is the question of top-grafting the trees. I
have already said that I should consider the necessity of
this a strong factor against the orchard, for it requires con-
siderable time, two to four years, and not a little expense,
to work over the trees into other varieties. But it frequently
happens that odd trees in an orchard are of unsatisfactory
varieties, and it is sometimes worth while to graft over an
entire orchard where the trees are relatively young and other-
wise in good condition. Where this is to be done I believe
it is generally advisable to employ an expert grafter if one
can be found in the neighborhood; or, if the orchard is of
sufficient size to warrant it, a professional grafter can be
secured from a distance. In either case it is better business,
and more satisfactory generally, to pay by the stub, and to
have the grafter guarantee the scions to live. Of course in
such a case one must have confidence enough in the man to
insure that he will not put in grafts needlessly, but after all
it is better to have too many grafts than not enough, and
with a little knowledge and supervision on the part of the
owner there is usually little difficulty on this score. If the
owner js situated so that he can do so I should strongly
advise his furnishing the scions himself, and too great care
cannot be exercised in selecting them. They ought to be taken
from bearing trees, and they should be thoroughly well matured
and not too long-jointed. Let them be selected while the
trees are still dormant, and stored in moist soil or sawdust in
the coolest possible place; if an ice house is available so much
the better.

A great many problems will undoubtedly come up in reno-
vating an old orchard besides those which have been dis-
cussed, and modifications will have to be made to suit special
fruits, such as peaches and plums, but if a campaign along
the general lines indicated could be made among the old, and
at present profitless, orchards of the State, either cleaning
them up or cutting them down, it would certainly do a great
deal toward putting Massachusetts fruit on a better footing
with both dealers and consumers, and it would make an addi-
tion to the income of the farmers of the State by no means to
be despised.

Cuapter III.

THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF PEACH
ORCHARDS IN MASSACHUSETTS.

J. K. SHAW, RESEARCH PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS
EXPERIMENT STATION.

Massachusetts is on the northern frontier of peach growing.
While there is limited production in southern New Hampshire
and still more limited production in southern Maine and
Vermont, the commercial crop in these three States is almost
negligible. It follows that the peach industry in Massa-
chusetts is beset with many difficulties and calls for wide and
thorough knowledge and a high degree of skill on the part of
the grower if he is to attain a commercial success in the
business.

During the past few years peach growing in the northern
and central portions of the United States has been passing
through a period of depression. There have been several years
of partial or complete crop failure, while apple growing has
been more profitable, causing many growers to turn from
peaches to apples as a more profitable crop. Peach growing
has always had its ups and downs, and it is reasonable to
suppose that in the near future there may be a revival of
interest in the business.

Limitine Factors.

1. Winter-killing of Fruit Buds.

The most frequent cause of crop failure in Massachusetts
is winter-killing of the fruit buds. Buds that are perfectly
dormant may survive a temperature of 20 degrees below zero,
but higher temperatures are often fatal especially when, as fre-
quently happens, the buds are started into slight growth by
warm periods in midwinter. Buds are sometimes practically all

killed by a temperature of 10 degrees below zero, but it is prob~
able that in such cases they have been caused to swell by warm
winter days. Just what temperatures will bring this about
is uncertain, but a maximum of 45 degrees or higher for two
or three days will often have an appreciable effect. During
November or December high temperatures will have no effect,
as may be learned if one will bring peach twigs into a warm
room and put them in a jar of water. In early winter the
buds will not respond, while in midwinter, or later, they will
in a few days come into full bloom. The date of completing
this resting period depends on many things. It is desirable to
have it continue as long as possible and to this end we may
encourage the trees to grow reasonably late in the fall. Vari-
eties differ greatly in bud hardiness, and Greensboro seems
hardiest of the common varieties. Carmen and Champion are
hardier than the average, while Elberta is very tender in bud.

Air temperature varies greatly with the local elevation, and
it follows that peach trees should be planted only on elevated
sites. If possible one should choose a site 200 or 300 feet
above the stream level of the locality, with free outlet for
the downward flow of cold air, and without broad slopes above
which may cool the air so that it will flow down over the
orchard. At the same time it is important to avoid sites
exposed to sweeping winds. In Massachusetts one should be
careful about planting peaches more than 1,200 feet above sea
level.

Open expanses of water serve to modify extreme winter
cold, and therefore locations near the open ocean should be
less subject to harmful winter temperatures though they may
be somewhat objectionable for other reasons. Still the writer
believes that the region about Buzzards Bay and portions of
Cape Cod ought to be favorable for peach growing.

Direct means for preventing the winter-killing of peach
buds are of rather small practical value. Keeping the trees
thoroughly whitened during December and January by spray-
ing with whitewash has been recommended and it is often
quite effective., The writer hesitates to express an opinion of
its practical value in Massachusetts, but it is worth experi-
menting with. Small trees may be covered with corn stalks

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or similar material. Some growers have laid down the trees
in the fall with success, but the labor involved and the check
to the trees from cutting the root system on two sides in
order to bend the trees over will interfere with a general
adoption of this scheme. In general one must rely on select-
ing hardy varieties and on a wise choice of site, and the latter
is a point that cannot be overemphasized.

Certain soil conditions are believed to favor bud aetaeee
Among these are a warm, dry, gravelly soil, yet retentive
enough of moisture to promote good growth and prevent ex-
cessive drying out of the tree in winter; moderate fertiliza-
tion, giving vigorous growth completed so that the tree may
go into winter with well-ripened wood; and the growth of a
good cover crop as a winter protection of the soil. Low-
headed trees are thought to be more hardy than high-headed
ones. ;

It ought to be possible to make progress in solving this most
important problem of peach growing by breeding bud hardy
varieties, and this is now being attempted at the State Ex-
periment Station.

2. Winter-killing of the Wood.

The fruit buds are considerably more tender than the wood,
yet in severe winters there is often considerable killing of the
branches and sometimes of the whole tree. The remarks con-
cerning bud injury will apply fairly well to wood injury, and
it is to be prevented as far as may be by much the same
methods. Varietal hardiness of wood and bud do not always
go together, as Elberta, which is tender in bud, is about as
hardy in wood as any variety.

Peach trees will recover from winter injury if not too severe,
when proper steps are taken. These are a severe pruning of
the tree, cutting back into three or four year old wood, and
removing half or two-thirds of the top. Extremely heavy
pruning, spoken of as dehorning, is not to be resorted to.
Then the tree should be encouraged to make a strong growth
by thorough cultivation and fertilization with material rich
in nitrogen.

3. Diseases.

Peach diseases often limit the crop in Massachusetts, yet
by proper measures they may be controlled so that losses are
not serious.

Brown rot is the most destructive, especially in years when
warm, humid weather persists just before and during the
harvesting period. When the disease is present in the orchard
it does a great deal of damage to the fruit after it is sent to
market. Sound fruit, but carrying spores of the disease and
exposed to warm, moist air, often rots to an alarming degree
while on the way to the consumer.

Not only does the disease cause characteristic decay of the
ripening fruit, but it may destroy the bloom, small twigs and
even larger branches by causing cankers thereon.

The disease carries over winter chiefly in dried fruits hang-
ing to the tree or fallen to the ground and known as “mum-
mies.”’ It follows that these should be destroyed by plowing
under or in some other way, but the main reliance is on proper
spraying, which will be discussed later.

Yellows occasionally causes great havoc by destroying the
trees. The first symptom is likely to be premature ripening
of the fruit on a part or all of the diseased tree. Often the
fruit shows reddish spots and reddish streaks through the
flesh. The same season or the next tufts of weak, yellowish
shoots appear through the tree, and in a very few years the
tree perishes. The disease is contagious, passing from one
tree to another commonly through budding in the nursery.
It follows that great care should be taken to plant stock free
from the disease, and any tree in the orchard showing possible
symptoms should be watched, and the moment it seems prob-
able that it is suffering from yellows it should be dug and
destroyed. A new tree may be planted at once in its place
if desired. Spraying is of no avail with this disease.

Leaf curl sometimes causes extensive defoliation and con-
sequent weakening to the tree, but does not directly affect
the wood or fruit. The swollen, distorted leaves, often yel-
lowish or reddish in color, are very characteristic. Once seen
the disease is readily recognized. It is easily controlled by

spraying, but the application must be made early before the
buds start into growth in the spring.

Scab affects some varieties more than others, Greensboro
being especially susceptible. It is readily recognized through
the appearance of black spots’ over the surface of the fruit.
The usual spraying program will ordinarily prevent the disease.

There are other diseases that sometimes cause damage, but
these are the most common and serious in Massachusetts.
Their prevention by spraying will be discussed later.

_ 4. Insects.

The toll taken by insects is serious, but by care and, watch-
fulness their ravages may be held in check. While there are
a great many insects feeding on the peach, only three are
deemed important enough to find mention in this brief dis-
cussion.

Borers work just beneath the bark on the tree trunk, below
and a little above the ground. Their presence is indicated by
the appearance of masses of a brownish jelly-like material,
commonly at the surface of the ground. The only satisfactory
remedy is to dig them out. Go over the trees in the fall,
and, if the insects are abundant, again in the spring. Dig
away the soil 5 or 6 inches deep and go over the bark care-
fully. Dig out the “worms” and kill them. Put back the
soil and do it all over the next year.

Various protective and repellant materials have been tried
for borers, but while they may decrease the number of borers,
nothing has been devised yet that will remove the necessity
of digging them out. Heaping up a mound of earth 6 or 8
inches about the trunk of the tree in late June, forcing the
insects to locate where they are more accessible, is as helpful
as anything. Liberal fertilization with nitrate of soda to
promote vigorous growth will help the trees to overcome
borer injury.

The San José scale is found on peach as well as other fruit
trees. Formerly it was very destructive, but now it does
serious damage only in neglected orchards. Nevertheless, one
should watch for the ashy-gray scurfy appearance on the

twigs caused by this pest and take energetic control measures.
if necessary.

Curculio causes serious damage in three ways: (1) by caus-
ing heavy drop of the young fruit during the few weeks fol-
lowing fruit setting; (2) by blemishes on the fruit from the
egg punctures; and (3) by furnishing an opportunity for in-
fection by brown rot through the egg punctures, the last
being more serious than often. realized. The adult insect.
passes the winter in rubbish along fence rows, in neglected
fields and near-by woods. Care should be taken to locate
the orchard away from the immediate vicinity of such places
or to clear them up as the case may be. The chief preven-
tion, however, is spraying as discussed later.

d. Marketing Conditions.

After one has overcome the limiting conditions of produc-
tion, the efforts of the commercial grower go for nothing unless
a satisfactory market is at hand. Fortunately for the Massa-
chusetts grower he has a first-class market at his doorstep.
The only difficulty that arises is that he is likely to have a
crop only in years when peaches are abundant and the price
consequently low. Great profits in growing such perishable
fruits as peaches are secured only when a combination of
good prices and a good crop occurs. It should therefore be the
effort of the grower to get, so far as possible, a crop in years
when other growers fail. Means of attaining this rather difficult
aim, in part at least, will now be considered.

EstTaBLISHING THE PEACH ORCHARD.

From the foregoing discussion it follows that one should
direct all efforts towards overcoming these limiting factors and
especially the most important and difficult one of winter-
killing of fruit buds. Several factors not previously men-
tioned may be considered in establishing the orchard.

Soil.
The importance of local elevation, slope and protection from
sweeping winds has been mentioned. Peach trees succeed on
a wide range of soils, but it is in all cases imperative that the

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soil be well drained. The subsoil should be open, preferably
with a layer of gravel 2 or 3 feet down, underlaid with a
more compact soil that will retain moisture. If these con-
ditions prevail, the character of the surface soil is of less im-
portance. It may be of medium clay to decidedly sandy.
Peaches prefer a more fertile soil than apples, but may do
well on soils too poor for first-class production of field or
garden crops.
Slope.

Peaches do well on lands sloping in any direction, but it
would seem that northerly slopes ought to be a little better
in Massachusetts as there will be less tendency for the buds
to start during winter thaws. A gentle slope falling off sharply
below the orchard and without great expanse of sloping land
above ought to be ideal.

Trees.

One-year-old trees are the rule and the medium sizes are
generally to be preferred, but the planting and care of the
trees is of more importance than any small differences in the
stock. One should not plant trees if the bark is shriveled or
if they are badly infested with San José scale or crown gall.
Large well-branched root systems are important.

Varieties.

The number of varieties of peaches is legion, yet those that
have found favor with any considerable number of com-
mercial growers in the State are few. The following are dis-
cussed in approximately the order of ripening: —

Greensboro is the hardiest in bud of the common varieties,-
and is adapted to as wide a range of soil conditions as any.
The quality is not especially good, yet coming among the
first it is acceptable. In the market it competes with later
varieties from the south and is sometimes less profitable on
that account. It is susceptible to scab which is easily con-
trolled by spraying.

Carmen is in higher favor than Greensboro, being ten days
to two weeks later and of better quality. While less hardy in
bud than Greensboro, it is hardier than most of the yellow-

fleshed sorts. It is one of the very best for Massachusetts
orchards.

Champion follows Carmen at a week or ten-day interval,
and is reputed to be about the best in quality of any. It is
apt to crack in wet seasons and is much subject to brown rot.

Belle would be in higher favor if it did not compete in
season with the yellow-fleshed Elberta; it is hardier in bud
and equal or a little better for eating fresh, but does not hold
its shape so well in canning.

Hale (J. H.) has been brought forward as a substitute for
Elberta. It is a trifle earlier, somewhat larger and hand-
somer, but does not seem to have the adaptability to all sorts
of conditions that Elberta has. It is a fine peach, but will
hardly replace its well-established competitor.

Elberta is the standard peach all over the country. Prob-
ably more are grown than of all other varieties put together.
It has two serious faults: it is not of the highest quality for
eating fresh, and it is tender in bud. Often an orchard will
have good crops of Greensboro and’ Carmen when Elberta is
totally killed.

Other varieties worth trying to fill out the season are, in
approximate order of ripening, Mayflower, Arp, Waddell,
Edgemont, Mountain Rose, Hiley, Rochester, Stump and Fox
Seedling.

Planting.

Before planting, the soil should be put into good tilth by
deep plowing and harrowing. The trees should be set 18 or
20 feet apart. The hole should be large and the soil well
packed over the roots. If trees can be secured from near-by
‘nurseries, they may be set in the fall, but generally spring
planting is best. Immediately after planting they should be
severely pruned, cutting the tree back to 24 inches or lower,
and cutting off all weak branches and shortening in the strong
ones two-thirds or more. The branches to form the head
should come out from 6 to 24 inches from the ground.

Soil Management.

A successful peach orchard cannot be grown in sod. It is
imperative that continuous cultivation be kept up from early

spring till midsummer or later. For this reason peach orchards
on steep slopes are generally undesirable on account of the soil
washing that is apt to occur. In July or early August a cover
crop should be sown. It is impossible to say what crop is
best further than that it should furnish the largest possible
amount of organic matter to plow under in the spring. The
trees should grow fairly late in the fall so they may not com-
plete the resting period too soon, yet it is important that the
leaves fall and the wood ripen up before the cold days of
November come. It is probable that a good cover crop on
the soil as the trees go into the winter is helpful in securing
the bud hardiness that is so important in Massachusetts.

Peach orchards require more fertilization than apple orchards.
Barnyard manure in moderate quantity is good, but it is
often unobtainable. Of the chemical fertilizers, nitrogen-
carrying materials are most often of benefit and nitrate of soda
has given good results. The amount to use will depend on
the soil. Generally 4 pounds per mature tree will be profitable.
Nitrogen, especially in liberal amounts, will delay ripening of
the fruit, which may or may not be desirable. It will cause
the tree to grow late in the season, which, if not overdone,
will favor hardiness to cold.

Phosphoric acid has not generally proved of benefit to
peach trees, but it is often helpful to the cover crop and its
use may be justified on that account.

Potash alone is sometimes profitable, but has generally
given better results when used’ with nitrogen and_ possibly
phosphoric acid.

The leading shoots of a bearing peach tree ought to make a
growth.of 12 to 20 inches each season, and if they are not
doing this an application of 2 to 4 pounds per tree of nitrate
of soda is likely to prove profitable. The peach owner is advised
in such cases to try it with and without potash and phosphoric
acid and judge if the use of the last two is profitable. The
amount of acid phosphate should be 2 to 4 pounds per tree, and
muriate or sulphate of potash 1 to 2 pounds per tree. It is
best to use rather small amounts until one is satisfied that
that particular element is needed; then it may be increased
to the limit of profit.

‘tO

Pruning.

Few Massachusetts peach orchards are intelligently and
systematically pruned. More attention to pruning should pay
large dividends in increased crops and longer life of the trees.
The peach bears by lateral buds on the new annual growth
and on lateral or terminal buds on short, straight spurs. Most
fruit buds are of the former kind, and as a result of this
habit the bearing wood gets farther away from the center of
the tree each year. This tendency is to be checked by heading
back. Sometimes the fruit buds are near the base of this
new growth, sometimes near the tip, and sometimes evenly
distributed the entire length. These facts should be observed
before pruning so that intelligent limiting of the crop may
follow pruning. Heavy heading back should follow a loss of
crop from winter cold, but one should make sure that the buds
are destroyed before cutting, lest he destroy a crop. Dead
buds will show a brown center within forty-eight hours after
killing, but 90 or 95 per cent of the buds may be killed and the
remainder make a fair crop. This is why the peach crop is
sometimes destroyed in April and yet floods the market in
September. If the buds are really all killed, cut the branches
back into three or four year old wood and cut to a side branch;
also cut back the side branches and remove all weak shoots.

If a crop is promised, less severe pruning should be practiced.
The new growth should be shortened one-third or more and
weak side shoots removed. Cut to a side branch whenever
possible. Every effort should be made to keep the tree from
going high in the air by cutting back severely the upright
growth in the center of the tree.

Spraying.

The summer spraying program in the peach orchard will
differ considerably from that for apples largely because lime-
sulfur and lead arsenate will burn the foliage severely and
cause partial defoliation. Thoroughness of application is of
vital importance as with all spraying work; every leaf, twig
and fruit should be completeli covered with the spraying
material.

er ten ae

Fig. 4. — Peach tree cut back into three or four year old wood, after severe

winterkilling, making a good recovery.

over crop of buckwheat.

4
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Self-boiled lime-sulfur is the best material for summer
spraying. It is made by putting 8 pounds of lime in a wooden
or iron container and slaking in the usual manner. When it
starts to boil, sift in 8 pounds of finely ground sulfur and con-
tinue boiling with constant stirring for a few minutes. At
the first appearance of a very slight reddish tinge, add cold
water to make up to 50 gallons and apply at once. Only the
best of lime should be used. If it does not start slaking
readily use hot water, but do not use any artificial heat to
cook the mixture. Better results follow if twice or four times
the amounts given are prepared in a single batch.

For small operations a proprietary material known as
atomic sulfur is sometimes used with good results.

No fixed spraying program will be the best under all con-
ditions and in all seasons, but the following will give generally
satisfactory results: —

_ First Spraying. — Before the buds start to swell, commercial
lime-sulfur, 1 gallon to 9 gallons water, for San José scale
and leaf curl. Not needed if these pests do not occur.

Second Spraying. — For the curculio, arsenate of lead, 3
pounds paste, or 13 pounds powder, to 50 gallons of water,
just as ‘the shucks are falling,—a week or ten days after
blossoming. It is a safe thing to add 2 or 3 pounds freshly
slaked lime to prevent possible injury to the foliage.

Third Spraying. —For curculio, brown rot and scab, self-
boiled lime-sulfur and arsenate of lead two weeks after second
spraying. Atomic sulfur may be used in place of the self-
boiled lime-sulfur, in which case it is best to add milk of lime
as in second spraying.

Fourth Spraying. — For brown rot, self-boiled lime-sulfur
four or five weeks before the fruit ripens. To be omitted with
Greensboro and other early varieties. Atomic sulfur may be
used as a substitute.

Dusting has recently been recommended as a substitute for
liquid spraying and is fairly satisfactory for peaches. It is
generally most desirable for large growers where haste is im-
portant or when water is difficult to obtain.

Harvesting and Marketing.

Peaches should be allowed to hang on the trees until as
nearly ripe as possible. For near-by markets the time to pick
is when they are well colored and at the first signs of softening
on one cheek. Then they should be hurried into the con-
sumer’s hands as rapidly as possible. If several days must
elapse on the way they must be picked a little sooner. Gener-
ally it will be necessary to go over the trees twice or three
times to get all the fruit in the best condition. If hot weather
prevails at ripening, they will often all come on at once. As
with all fruit great care should be taken to avoid bruising and
consequent decay.

The package most commonly used is the 14-quart Jersey
basket. Except in years of a generally heavy crop marketing
is a simple problem, and as previously pointed out the greatest
success follows where one can get a good crop in years of
scarcity. The American people spend too much money in
carrying food products long distances. Let us produce more
peaches at home and avoid this transportation cost.

CHAPTER IV.
PRUNING FRUIT TREES.

J. H. GOURLEY, PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE, NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE
COLLEGE, DURHAM, NEW HAMPSHIRE.

The pruning of fruit trees is a subject which is as old as
fruit growing itself. Definite and elaborate systems of prun-
ing trees were in vogue centuries before such practices as
thinning and spraying were heard of. Yet in spite of the
antiquity of the practice it is only in recent years that well-
conducted and thorough experiments have thrown light upon
the underlying principles involved. At present the views of
competent fruit growers are somewhat at variance as to how
much pruning should be done, ranging all the way from none
whatever to very heavy cutting, and also there is no uni-
versal agreement as to the best form into which a tree should
be trained.

Pruning may be defined as the art or science of cutting away
a portion of the plant in order to improve its shape, to in-
crease its fruitfulness, or to repair damage. It should be
recognized that training and pruning a tree are for different
purposes. There are not many who would not attempt to
train a tree for the first few years in order so to distribute
the branches as to make the tree capable of carrying the
maximum load of fruit when it becomes mature as well as to
secure “the ideal” which the grower has in mind, Neverthe-
less, it is easily possible to overemphasize its importance, for
the object of pruning a tree is certainly not to produce a
beautiful or shapely object, but rather to make a tree well
balanced and capable of carrying a heavy load and having the
crop so distributed as to give it maximum size and color.
It is not uncommon in some sections to have a ton and a

half of fruit hanging on a tree, and the tree’s capacity to carry
it must be a matter of foresight by the orchardist.

On the other hand, the matter of producing a fruitful tree
is a complicated problem intimately associated with other prac-
tices and varying with different kinds of fruits and varieties of
them.

SHAPE AND ForM OF THE TREE.

The general shape or form of a tree is largely a varietal
character and is not easily changed, A tree which is quite
upright in habit of growth, such as the Wealthy or Sutton,
cannot be made to develop into a spreading type by any
system of pruning. Likewise a tree of a spreading habit, such
as the Rhode Island Greening, or one with a drooping habit,
as the Wolf River, cannot be developed into an upright grow-
ing one by pruning or training. Yet much can be done to
curb a wayward grower or improve the natural proclivities of
a variety.

Types or TRAINING THE APPLE TREE.

The grower should ‘first. decide upon the general type of
tree which he wishes to develop and then begin with the
newly set tree to follow out his plans.

There are several general forms into which the young tree
can be trained, the three principal ones being the vase or
open-headed tree, the semi-leader or modified leader, and the
central or pyramidal type.!. The vase-shaped tree is developed
by selecting from three to six scaffold limbs which are to be
somewhat equal in importance and all of which are lateral
branches from the main trunk or stem, the central branch or
leader being cut out at planting time. These scaffold branches
are usually cut back to from 4 to 8 or 10 inches in length at
time of planting, provided the tree is two years old, but if it
is a one-year-old tree the top is cut back to from 20 to 30
inches in height and the scaffold branches are selected from
the initial ones sent out during the ensuing summer or the
following spring when they receive their first pruning. These

1 In addition to these three general types of training we should perhaps include the natural
type of unpruned tree, although this sort of neglect is not common in commercial orchards.

Fic. 1.— An apple tree in which the central leader has
been allowed to develop. Such trees are inclined to
grow too high. Compare with Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.— The open-center habit of growth. <A well-bal-
anced tree with plenty of room for the admission of
light and air. Most orchardists favor this type of tree
in preference to the type shown in Fig. 1.

branches are selected radially about the main stem. The
semi-leader type of tree is essentially different, in that the
central leader is not removed at planting time but is allowed
to remain and develop some 2 feet or more above the first
set of scaffold branches, when the terminal is removed to
prevent it continuing into a full leader tree. The result of
this type of pruning is to secure what amounts to two sets
of scaffold limbs, one some distance above the other, or else
some branches distributed above the entire axis. The value
of this type of tree is that the side or scaffold limbs are more
strongly built and not so likely to be broken out by a heavy
crop as in the case of the vase-shaped tree. This type of
tree is gaining in favor in many sections of the East.

The leader or pyramidal type of tree has all its limbs de-
veloped from a central leader much as a pine tree. The
limbs are strongly built and the loss of any individual limbs
is of slight importance compared with the open tree, but it
is not as desirable as the semi-leader. The branches are
likely to crowd and the resulting fruit is adversely affected.

Heapine Back versus THINNING Out.

In the actual pruning operation there are two different
types of procedure to consider, namely, heading back and
thinning out. The first refers to the cutting back of the
shoot or branch, hence removing the terminal growing point
and a certain number of the lateral buds or shoots nearest
the terminus of the branch. The second, on the other hand,
refers to the removal of surplus branches or shoots without
any cutting back process. The effects of these two types of
pruning are different and should be considered by the careful
orchardist.

In general, the young tree must have some heading back
for about three years in order to develop a strong, well-
branched framework. After this only the long; rangy branches
which are out of proportion should be headed in. The result
of heading back mature trees, or those just passing through
the transition stage from vegetative to reproductive growth,

? With no two opposite each other.

is to cause a bushy development of branches and retard the
bearing. This result is due to the fact that the buds nearest
the cut surface or wound make the greatest response the
following season and fewer buds are left to develop into spurs
than where the terminal is not cut. So that unless it is neces-
sary to stimulate vegetative growth the heading back or
“shearing” of mature trees should be confined to overgrowing
branches.

The thinning-out process will remove cross limbs and others
which cause the tree to be too dense. The result of this type
of pruning is to maintain and develop the maximum number
of fruit spurs and bring the tree into early bearing. Usually
a combination of the two types of pruning is necessary at
some periods in the life of a tree.

CaRDINAL PoInTs IN PRUNING THE MatuRE TREE.

In addition to the considerations above mentioned the follow-
ing points should be borne in mind: —

1. Remove Dead Branches. — Remove all dead branches, also
diseased or injured parts, in order to safeguard the remaining
portions of the tree. Some exceptions to this may be noted
in case such a disease as black rot canker (Spheropsis malorum)
is found abundantly through the tree. If it were all removed,
little would remain of some trees, hence it is often retained
until the limb shows evidence of decline.

2. Open up the Tree. —If the tree has become too thick and
“bushy” it will be necessary to remove a portion of the limbs
or a weakening of the fruit spurs results, and fruit inferior in
size, color and quality will be produced. Rubbing limbs should
be removed, and long, rangy limbs which are out of propor-
tion should be headed back. The extent of this work will de-
pend upon the experience and judgment of the operator.

3. Avoid Removal of Fruit Spurs. —This matter is para-
mount, and a thorough understanding of thei way a tree bears
its fruit must be one of the basic guides in the removal of
branches. There are times when it is desirable to remove a
portion of the spurs or portions of the individual spur.

4, Stubs are to be avoided. — In removing limbs or branches,
no matter how small, they should be cut close to the trunk

ah)

or adjoining branch to which they are attached. This is not
so important with the peach as with the apple, owing to the
strong growth of the former which will more quickly envelop
a small stub.

5. Remove Suckers. — As a rule it is desirable to remove
the suckers or water sprouts which may arise throughout the
tree. Strong sucker growth along the main limb of a long
branch may be an evidence of decline in the branch, and the
outer extremities may be robbed of vitality if these suckers are
allowed to develop. On the other hand, it is often desirable to
retain a portion of them for replacing limbs. In such a case
it is usually desirable to head them back and treat in about
the same manner as a young tree. A portion may also be
retained throughout the tree for developing into fruit spurs
by cutting back to a few inches long.

SUMMER PRUNING.

It does not seem possible to harmonize the views held by
different investigators on the value of summer pruning. It
is an old practice and has commonly been credited with bring-
ing about increased fruitfulness and as a means to bring tardy
bearers into fruiting. There is very little experimental evi-
dence on which to base this teaching, but it is well entrenched
in the literature. The value of it seems to depend upon the
variety, soil, climate, time and character of pruning, and,
perhaps, upon some other undetermined conditions. For east-
ern conditions the consensus of opinion seems to be that it is
not a desirable practice as the trees are enfeebled and the
effects upon bearing are doubtful, often negative.

DEHORNING TREES.

The dehorning of apple trees, or the cutting back of one-
third, one-half or even more of the tops of old trees, leaving
naked branches from which to grow a new top, has had its
advocates. This procedure requires great caution, for it is
not uncommon to find that trees which are subnormal in
vitality may have their death hastened by such a procedure,
although the first two or three years the operation seems suc-

cessful. It is usually better to cut back a portion of the tree
at a time, and always cut to a side branch rather than trust
to the outgrowth of suckers or water sprouts from af stub.
Such trees should be stimulated in some way when this treat-
ment is given. The peach, on the other hand, may be so
treated with success.

CHAPTER V.
GRAFTING AND BUDDING.

W. W. CHENOWETH, PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES,
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

Grafting and budding are the practical means employed to
reproduce established varieties of fruit trees. This is made
necessary because the tree fruits do not come true to name
from seeds. While the two operations have the same ob-
jectives, the method of manipulation and the season of doing
the work vary so much that for purposes of clearness they
will be discussed separately.

GRAFTING.

Grafting consists in placing a portion of a plant upon or
into another plant or upon a different place of the same plant
in such a way that the growing areas of the two are in con-
tact and their permanent union results.

This actively growing area referred to above is found just
beneath the bark and is technically known as the cambium
layer. When growth begins in the spring, 7.¢, when the
leavés are unfolded, the cambium becomes so filled with food
materials (sap) that the bark readily separates from the wood,
or in common parlance the bark “‘slips.” It must be noted
that in every type of grafting and budding the success of the
operation depends upon having the cambium, or growing
areas of scion and stock, in intimate contact.

The part of the plant transferred is called the scion. It is
the part of the graft which produces the tree or the branch,
and will produce the same kind of fruit as the branch from which
it was taken. The scions for grafting are best if cut from the
terminal shoots of the past season’s growth. These shoots or
twigs should be well matured and the buds should be plump

and well matured. Scion wood may be cut any time from
early winter until early spring. If cut several days or weeks
before it is to be used, is should be stored in a cellar with
at least 6 inches of the butt ends buried in moist sand in order
to prevent drying out.

The part of the plant upon which the scion is inserted is the
stock. It may be a root or even a piece of a root of a seed~
ling or the stem or branch of an already established tree.

Equipment and Materials.

The equipment necessary to do the ordinary types of graft-
ing consists of the following items: —

‘1. A strong pocket knife, very sharp, or a regular grafting knife.

2. A grafting chisel or a large, strong butcher knife.

3. A sharp saw with reasonably wide set.

4. A mallet of some sort for forcing the chisel or butcher knife into the
stocks in top grafting work.

5. Grafting wax, for top grafting and for repairing girdled trees.

6. A supply of No. 20 cotton thread for use in root grafting, also in bud-
ding.

7. A supply of good scion wood.

Grafting, as a rule, is practiced only when both stock and
scion are in the dormant state. It is limited in its practical
application to the apple, pear, quince, plum and grape. There
are many methods in use, but those only of most practical
value to the fruit grower will be discussed here.

Grafting Wax. — Grafting wax may be bought of dealers in
hardware or of seedmen, or it may be made in the home by
melting together over a slow fire 4 parts by weight of resin,
2 parts beeswax or paraffin, and 1 part linseed oil. When
thoroughly melted, pour carefully into a pail of water. As
soon as cool enough to handle, pull this wax the same as in
making molasses candy. As the wax is pulled it takes on a
lighter color and acquires greater elasticity. It should be soft
enough to handle on ordinarily warm days, but not soft enough
to run under influence of sun’s heat.

In pulling the wax it may be kept from sticking to the hands
by keeping them wet. When using the wax in the field have

a small quantity of linseed oil along. If the hands are oiled
before attempting to apply the wax it will be found to facilitate
the work and to preserve the good nature of the operator.

Top Grafting.

Top grafting is resorted to when for any reason one desires
to change the variety of an already established tree or to
remedy some defect or inherent weakness in the tree itself.
If the tree is two or three years set it may be grafted in the
stem or trunk, requiring only one operation to change the
whole top. However, if the young tree has a well-shaped
head it is more satisfactory to graft each of the scaffold
branches, since a better shaped tree will be secured. If the
tree has long been established the only method of changing
it is to graft into the branches. Just how large a branch may
be successfully grafted is an open question, but best results
will follow if the branches selected for stock are not more
than 3 inches in diameter. Branches 1 to 2 inches through
make the most successful stocks.

In working over large trees it is advisable to graft first the
lower or lateral branches and only a few of the more upright
or central ones, leaving enough of the central branches to
furnish some shade for the trunk and main branches. If the
whole top is removed at one season sun scald is likely to
occur, seriously injuring or even killing the tree.

If the scions set the first season make sufficient growth to
supply the necessary shade, the remaining branches may be
grafted the second season. ‘l'wo or even three years are re-
quired to change completely the variety of a bearing tree.
While young trees up to three or four years old may be com-
pletely grafted in the one season, even with young trees it is
a good plan to leave one or two of the more central branches
for at least the first season.

The best time to do top grafting is in late spring after
severe freezing is not likely to occur and before growth begins.
There are several distinct methods of uniting the stock and
scions, but only two will be discussed.

Cleft Grajting. —In cleft grafting, the stock, which is either
the stem or the branch of a tree, is cut off squarely with a

sharp saw. ‘This stock is prepared to receive the scion by
splitting it through the heart to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. This
split or cleft, as it is called, may be made with a grafting
chisel or a strong knife. The wedge on the grafting chisel or
a wooden wedge is inserted to open the cleft to receive the
scions (see Fig. 1, b).

Fig. 1.—Cleft grafting: u, side view of scion; b, the stock ready to receive the
scions; cv, the scions in position; d, cross section through the wedge of the
scion, showing one edge, the inner one, thinner than the other.

The scions are cut from shoots of the previous season’s
growth taken from a tree of the desired variety. On the
lower end of a piece of scion wood cut a smooth wedge with a
taper about 1% inches long, having one side a trifle thinner
than the other (see Fig. 1, a and d); cut off the excess length,
leaving two or three buds on the finished scion. The wedge of
the scion is inserted into the cleft of the stock, the thinner edge
inward, being sure that the inner bark lines, 7.¢., the cambium
layers, are incontact. To insure this, the scion may be slanted

just a trifle, having outer edges even at upper edge of stock
(see Fig. 1, ec). The scion must be cut so that it will fit firmly
into the cleft. Another scion is prepared and inserted into
the opposite side of the stock. Each stock should carry two
scions. The weaker must be removed after one or two seasons’
growth (see Fig. 1, c).

When the scions are firmly set in position the wedge is re-
moved and the wound is carefully waxed. The wax must fit
snugly around the scions at the top of the stock, and the cleft
must be entirely closed with it. The wax should extend down
the side an inch or two below any signs of cracks in the bark.
If the wax has been properly made it will require no further
attention after being applied. If too soft, it will run when
warm days come and must be replaced with a harder wax. If
the wax is not properly applied or is too soft, the air gains access
to the wound, drying out the wood, and the scions will not grow.

The Notch, or Coburn Grafting. — This method is less com-
monly used than the preceding, but has some distinct ad-
vantages. Instead of splitting the stock a longitudinal cut is
made, using a sharp saw with a fairly wide set. This gives a
groove or notch the width of the saw cut about one-half inch
deep at top of the stock, running down the side of the stock
for 3 or 4 inches where it becomes a mere scratch on the bark
at the lower end (see Fig. 2, a).

The scion is prepared in a slightly different manner from
that in the cleft method. Instead of a wedge it is cut in such
a way that the two sides of the tongue which is to fit into the
saw cut have parallel sides (see Fig. 2, b and c). The edge that
is to go toward the center of the stock should be a trifle thinner
so that when inserted into the stock the greatest pressure comes
on the outer edge. A few taps on the top of the scion will fix
it firmly in place. If stock is more than 1) inches in diameter,
two scions may be inserted. The same care must be exercised
as in cleft grafting to have the growing areas in contact. The
wound must be thoroughly waxed as soon as Scions are set.

In both types of top grafting only one scion should be per-
mitted to make a permanent growth. After the first or second
season the less desirable one should be removed. This is
generally done by making a sloping cut down the stock, be-

ginning at the base of scion left and emerging at side of stock
3 or 4 inches below. If the cleft has not closed it should be
rewaxed. No rewaxing will be necessary if the notch, or
Coburn method, has been used.

Fic. 2.— Coburn grafting: a, the prepared stock; b-c, prepared
scion, showing method of cutting the tongue; b, viewed from
side that goes outward in finished graft; ¢, viewed from
side showing the sloping cut necessary to fit the sloping
notch.

Root Grafting.

Root grafting is one of the common methods of propagating
apple and pear trees. The stocks used for standard apple
trees are one-year seedling trees, or, lacking these, the small roots,
one-quarter inch in diameter, of young trees may be used. Pear
seedlings are the stock used for propagating standard pear trees.

The stocks should be procured in the autumn and stored in
moist sand in a frostproof cellar. The scions, also, may be cut
in late autumn and early winter, tied in bundles and ‘stored
with the stocks, or they may be cut from the trees in early
spring at the time the grafting is to be done.

The grafting should be done in late winter or early spring,
about February and March, although expert grafters are
successful if the work is not done until planting-out time. If
the work is to be done in a warm room, only a small supply
of materials should be brought in at a time or else some means
must be employed to prevent drying out of both the materials
and the finished grafts.

Preparation of the Stock. —In preparing the stock to receive
the scion proceed as follows: Cut off the top from the seedling

Fia. 3. — Tongue grafting: a, the stock prepared to receive the scion; b, the
scion cut to fit the stock; c, the union of the finished graft, showing the
interlocking of the tongues of stock and scion and the method of wrap-
ping with string.

stock, use a sharp knife and begin the cut at the crown, 1.e.,
soil line. The cut should be an upward sloping one with a
smooth, even surface about 14 inches long. Set the knife on
the sloping surface about one-fourth inch from the upper end
and cut the tongue. The tongue is made by cutting back
toward the base of the sloping cut to a distance of about 1

inch, dividing the wood between the bark and face of sloping
cut into two nearly equal parts (see Fig. 3, a). It will be seen
that the tongue is cut, not split. Cut off the lower part of the
seedling, leaving the stock about 3 or 4 inches in length. If
the remainder of root is large enough, another stock may be
made from it. Well-grown seedlings with a straight tap root
10 to 15 inches long will make two to three good stocks.

Preparing the Scion. — The uniting surface of the scion is pre-
pared in the same manner as described for the stock, the
tongue being cut, of course, on the lower end of the scion. The
scion should be cut to a length ‘of 6 or 7 inches (see Fig. 3, b).

The stock and scion are united by causing their tongues to
interlock. In fitting them together it is necessary that the
growing areas, 2.¢., inner bark lines of scion and stock, should
be in contact on one side of the union. If the stock and scion
have been properly prepared the two pieces will fit perfectly
without any overlapping of the ends. The stock and scion
should be pushed firmly together so that the pieces will form
a fairly rigid union.

After the stock and scion are fitted together they should be
bound with string to prevent mechanical injury in handling
and to hold the cut surfaces in more intimate contact, thereby
preventing drying out and insuring a callousing over of the
wound. Number 20 cotton thread is generally used for this
purpose. The operation is as follows: Holding the finished
graft by the scion in the left hand, begin to wrap the string
around the top of the union. Catch the free end of the string
under the first or second wrap of the string, then wind the
string around three or four times; pass to the lower end of
the union by making one or two spiral turns of the string.
Wrap the lower end of the union three or four times, and by
slipping the string between the end of the scion and the side
of the stock, give the string a sharp jerk. The string will
break: near the graft and the end will remain fast, preventing
unwinding (see Fig. 3, c).

Storing the Grafts. — The finished grafts are tied in bunches
of 25 to 50 and are then buried in moist sand stock down to
a depth of 5 or 6 inches, or they may be packed in boxes in
alternating layers of grafts and moist sand. The grafts must

not be permitted to become dry. After a few weeks in storage
the wounds will be calloused or practically healed, and the
grafts are now ready to set in nursery row as soon as the
ground is in condition to receive them. This healing of the
wounds in storage, while not absolutely necessary, the ama-
teur will yet find very desirable.

Setting out the Grafts. — The grafts should be set out as early
as the ground can be fitted. Prepare the soil by deep plowing
and frequent harrowing to fine it. Lay off the rows 3 to 4
feet apart. Make a dibber by sharpening a round stick. It
should be about 1 to 1} inches in diameter by 10 to 12 inches
long. Since the finished grafts are 7 to 9 inches long they
will require a hole 6 to 8 inches deep. Push the dibber in
the soft earth to the required depth, withdraw it and insert
the graft, holding it so that one bud only remains above
ground level. Again insert the dibber alongside the hole
containing the graft and by a sidewise pressure on top firm
the soil about the graft. Firm the soil about the top by
pressing down with the hands and proceed to set the next
graft. The grafts-are set 12 to 15 inches apart in the row.

By careful fertilizing and frequent cultivation a large per
cent of these grafts will be made large enough to transplant
after the first season’s growth, or they may be left to make a
second season’s growth in the nursery row. They are now
known as two-year-old trees, and should be removed to their
permanent position in the orchard.

Repairing Girdled Trees.

Mice, rabbits and other rodents cause considerable loss each
year to the fruit growers of Massachusetts. During periods of
deep snow and scarcity of other food these animals resort to
the bark of young trees. The work of mice is generally con-
fined to the base of the trunk, since they live beneath the
snow. Rabbits, however, may do serious injury not only to
the trunk but also to the branches of low-headed trees.

Sometimes the bark is gnawed off in irregular patches, but
more often a partial or complete girdling results. These
girdles may be relatively narrow, extending up and down the
trunk for a distance of 1 to 3 inches, but frequently they are

wide, being 4 to 6 or 8 inches. It often happens that only
the outer bark is removed; as 4 rule, however, the wood is
completely bared.

If the girdle is quite narrow, not exceeding 1 or 2 inches, it
may be possible to save the tree by mounding with earth,
provided the girdled area has not become thoroughly dried
by long exposure. This remedy is recommended by many
writers on the subject, and by a few practical growers who
say they have tried it. This department has not given it a
trial and cannot recommend it from experience. It might be
well worth while trying out on a few of the less valuable trees.

Where trees are not completely girdled they usually re-
cover, particularly if they be young and vigorous. If the bark
remains intact over half of the circumference they may be
considered safe. If the bark area is reduced to a quarter,
then it will be well to set in one or two bridges on the side
opposite to the area of sound bark.

Where trees are completely girdled one of two methods of
repairing may be used, depending upon the age or size of the
trunk. If trees are quite small, such as one and two year
trees, it is often advisable to cleft graft them. The small size
of the tree renders any other method a rather difficult proc-
ess, while the cleft graft is relatively easy and perhaps much
more satisfactory. Because of the well-established root system,
the scion will make a very vigorous growth, and apparently the
tree does not suffer any greater setback than if bridged, and
besides a more shapely tree will result. Furthermore, it is less
expensive in the amount of time required to do the work.

Bridge grafting is the most satisfactory recourse for trees
older than two years. The purpose of the bridge is to provide
a channel for the immediate downward flow of the elaborated
plant food, since the removal of the bark has destroyed the
natural channels of sap flow to the roots. Eventually, how-
ever, as the girdled portion becomes thoroughly dried, the
circulation of sap between top and roots is taken care of by
the bridges, which soon become a part of the tree, enlarging
and finally growing together, until after some years an en-
largement or ribbed bulge on the trunk of the tree marks the
point of injury. Trees that have been bridged do not present

as sightly an appearance as uninjured trees, as eventually the
bridges grow together forming an enlargement at the base of
the tree. However, if it is a question of losing several years
growth on valuable trees, one can afford to disregard a poorly
shaped trunk.

Cleft Grafting. —If cleft grafting is to be used it will be
necessary to remove the earth from around the trunk to a
depth of several inches; and since the part of the trunk uncoy-
ered will be wet, some time must elapse before grafting opera-
tions can be completed. Usually only a few hours will be re-
quired to dry the bark enough so that the wax will stick to it.

With a sharp saw cut off the trunk just below the surface of
the ground. The reason for making the cut this low is to
hide any unsightliness that may form at the point of the graft
union. Next split the stump to a depth of 2 or 3 inches, using
a stout knife or a grafting chisel (see “Cleft Grafting,” page 60).

When the job is completed the earth is put in place and a
stake set to mark the position of the scions. It will generally
be found necessary to give the new growth some support
during the first summer. If the union is a good one the scion
will make a growth of several feet. It should be tied to a
stake to prevent its being broken off by the wind. Only one
scion should be permitted to grow. Shoots coming from the
other should be removed, and at the following spring’s prun-
ing if this scion protrudes above the ground, it should be cut
off below the surface of the ground.

Bridge Grafting. — Girdled trees that have been set more
than two years should be bridge grafted. This process is
essentially as follows: —

With a sharp knife cut a small notch just above the girdled
portion and one directly beneath. it, but below the girdle.
The notch should go through the bark and into the wood and
is made as follows: Set the knife on the bark above the girdle
and force it inward and upward for a distance of a half or
three-fourths of an inch. Withdraw the knife and setting it
a quarter of an inch below the first incision cut inward and
upward allowing the knife to stop when it reaches the point
of the first cut. Remove the knife and dislodge the wedge-
shaped chip. A similar notch is cut directly beneath this, but

below the girdle. In making this cut the knife is directed
downward and inward (see Fig. 4, b).

Scions may be taken from any variety, but must be of the
season’s growth. On the butt end of a piece of scion wood

SNS NN NSS SSS NNN AS Saw WSO QQ

MSA NNN

Fic, 4. — A diagram of a longitudinal section of a girdled trunk with one bridge
in place: a-a, girdled area; b-b, notches to receive bridge; c, bridge in
place; d-d, wax over wounds; e, bark; f, wood; g, scion shaped for in-
sertion; h, enlarged end of scion, showing manner of cutting the wedge.

cut a wedge about 1 inch in length, making the longer cut on
the side that is to be placed next the tree. Measure on the
scion wood the distance between the two notches and cut off
the scion a trifle longer.. Cut a wedge on the upper end the
same as directed above. Now insert the wedge at the butt

end of the scion into the lower notch, and by slightly bending
force the upper end into the upper notch, using some pressure
to force wedges in until the scion is firm (see Fig. 4, ¢ and d).
The bend in the scion will serve to keep it in place until it has
become united to the tree.

In same manner insert four or more scions around the trunk
at regular intervals. Large trees may require six or eight
scions, while smaller ones will do well with four or five.

When the scions or bridges are all in place, the wound made
by the operation must be thoroughly waxed. Crowd the wax
well into the notches and have it meet the scions snugly. If
air or water gets into these wounds the scions will not grow and
the tree will be lost.

All shoots that start from the scions or from below the girdle
should be removed not later than at close of first season’s
growth.

While in a sense the girdled area will determine the length
of the bridge or scions, yet it will be found that if the girdled
area is short, a scion considerably longer than is really neces-
sary to just bridge it can be used to better advantage. Scions
less than 5 or 6 inches in length will be very difficult to handle
unless they are quite thin and pliable.

Trees that have been bridge grafted should receive a more
severe pruning than is given uninjured trees.

BupDING.

Budding differs from grafting in the amount of wood trans-
ferred and in the season of operation. Budding may be de-
fined as the insertion of a bud bearing little or no wood be-
neath the bark of the stock. Budding may be used for the
propagation of all fruit trees. It is more economical of scion
wood since single buds only are used. It is, however, more
expensive as to stocks in propagating trees since one stock
must be used for each tree propagated, while in grafting a
well-grown stock may make two or three trees.

Budding is used primarily to propagate new trees, and for
top working young trees; it is not as useful in top working
_old trees as is grafting. The stock for budding should rarely
exceed three or four years, and better success will follow the

use of one and two year old stocks. It is the only practical
method of propagating the peach and cherry varieties, and it
may be applied to any of our orchard fruit trees.

Because of the very nature of the operation, budding must
be.done when the bark slips easily and when there is a supply
of buds properly developed. These conditions are met in this
section in the late summer and early fall. At that season the buds

Fio. 5. — Budding: a, the bud cut from bud stick; 6, showing method of cutting
bud; knife is started below the bud in cut; c, the T cut on the stock; d, the
finished job, showing the bud in position and the method of wrapping with raffia
or string,

growing at the bases of the leaves on the shoots of current
season’s growth are sufficiently developed to form good scions.
In the earlier part of the budding season avoid the buds found
near the base and those near the tip of the shoots, taking only
those growing in the middle two-thirds of the shoots, since,
as a rule, these buds are the best nourished and most matured.

During this period, also, the sap is flowing freely through the
cambium, or growing area, and the bark therefore slips readily.

In Massachusetts budding may be done from the middle of
August until well into September. No growth is made by the
bud until the following season.

In the actual operation of budding the operator first pre-
pares his bud sticks. These are the terminal shoots of the
current season’s growth. The leaves are cut off, leaving about
one-half inch of the petiole or leaf stem. This will serve as a
sort of handle and will facilitate the setting of the buds. The
bud sticks must be kept from drying out by wrapping in
paper, moist burlap or other material. The buds, as needed,
are cut from the bud stick as follows: With a sharp knife
begin the cut about a half inch below the bud and, by cutting
into the wood a little, force the knife underneath the bud,
cutting up to the surface about a half inch above the bud
(see Fig. 5,a and b). The bud with its small piece of attached
wood is ready to insert into the stock.

The stock is prepared by making a longitudinal cut through
the bark for a distance of 13 inches; at the top of this cut a
transverse cut is made forming a letter T. If the transverse
cut is made with a rolling motion of the knife, the flaps of
bark at the angle of the two cuts will be loosened from the
wood; otherwise, these flaps must be lifted with point of
knife or with the ivory heel of a regular budding knife. The
bud is next grasped by the leaf stem as a handle and gently
pushed into place until its cut surface lies in contact with
the peeled body of the stock with the bud pointing upward.
A string of some sort, raffia or No. 20 knitting cotton is then
drawn tightly around the stock both above and below the bud
in order to hold it firmly against the stock and to prevent the
wound drying out (see Fig. 5,c and d). As soon as the bud has
united with the stock, which should be within a week or ten
days, the string is cut and the bud receives no further attention
until next spring, at which time the stock is cut off an inch
or two above the bud in order to force the bud into growth.
No buds on the stock beyond the one set should be permitted
to grow.

In propagating trees the seedlings in the nursery row are
budded, the buds being set as near the ground as convenient.
The following spring the tops of the seedlings are cut off just
above the buds.

In top working trees by budding the buds should be set in
wood not more than two or three years old. Hence this
method for top working old trees is not as valuable as grafting,

‘

since in budding the desired variety must be set so far from
the trunk and scaffold branches as to carry the tree too high.

GROWING Stock FoR BupDING AND GRAFTING.

If one is to propagate new trees seedling stock is necessary.
This may be purchased from nursery firms or may be grown
by the fruit grower.

The first requisite is to secure a supply of seeds. Apple
seeds are most easily secured from a cider mill. A small
quantity of pomace is placed in a vat or barrel and water is
added. Fermentation will start within a few days, causing the
pomace to break up and float to the surface while the seeds
fall to the bottom. By adding more pomace the desired amount
of seed is secured. $

Peach and plum seed may be secured from sources where
these fruits are grown in quantity or where they are canned or.
manufactured.

All these seeds sprout more freely if not allowed to become
thoroughly dried out. Consequently they require special
treatment. Two courses are open, as follows: The seeds are
placed in a shallow box and covered with sand. The box is
then buried in the earth a few inches below the surface. The
following spring the seeds are dug up and sowed in nursery
rows. The second course is to plant the seeds immediately after
they are removed from the fruits.

Peach, and plum seedlings if well cared for should be large
enough to bud the fall of their first season’s growth. Apple
and pear seedlings are large enough for root grafting after one
season’s growth, but generally require two seasons’ growth
before budding.

DwarrF TREES.

The apple and pear are the commonest dwarf trees and their
small size is due to the slow-growing stock upon which they
have been worked.

The apple is dwarfed by grafting or budding on Paradise
apple stock. Doucin apple stock produces a dwarf tree which
is intermediate between the Paradise stock dwarf and the
standard tree. The pear is dwarfed by working it on quince
stock. All these stocks may be purchased from nursery firms.

CHapTer VI.

SOME IMPORTANT APPLE INSECTS IN MASSACHUSETTS.

H. T. FERNALD, PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUL-
TURAL COLLEGE.

During the last decade, apple growing in Massachusetts has
developed greatly. With this growth of the industry has also
developed an increased interest in the insect pests of the apple
and in the methods for their control. Many persons spray
their trees regularly, finding this the only way by which crops
of good fruit can be obtained; and while this is only one
factor in making a success of fruit growing, it is at least an
important one. ;

Fifteen or twenty insect enemies of the apple are abundant
in Massachusetts, and to obtain control over them no one
treatment is sufficient, for while several can be handled suc-
cessfully in the same way, others will entirely escape. In fact,
in controlling insects the only rule is to “ make the punish-
ment fit the crime.”

Some apple insects attack the roots; others the trunk and
branches; others the buds and leaves; and others the fruit
itself. Fortunately, root-attacking forms are seldom or never
abundant enough in this State to become serious pests, and
only a few are of importance on the trunk and limbs.

INSECTS ATTACKING THE TRUNK AND BRANCHES.

The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer.

The adult of this insect is a beetle not often, seen, but
nevertheless quite abundant. It attacks the pear, quince,
thorns, mountain ash and a few other trees as well as the
apple, these often serving as a source of supply of the insect
from which the apple is kept stocked. Such trees therefore
should either be cared for like the apple or not be allowed to
grow near the apple orchard.

The beetle, which is about an inch long, pale brown above,
with two white stripes along its back, -appears in late spring
and summer, and lays its twenty-five or thirty eggs singly,
here and there, in slits it cuts in the bark of the trees near
the ground. The tiny grub, or borer, on hatching from the
egg, burrows through the bark to the sapwood and there digs
out shallow but broad galleries. The bark over these often
dries and cracks, letting out “sawdust” which aids in locating
the galleries. After resting during the winter, the borer re-
sumes its work, still feeding on the sapwood, and if the tree
is small, or there are several borers present, girdling may
result. After a second winter in the tree the borer works into
the heartwood and finally turns outward toward the surface.
After a third winter of rest it tunnels to the bark, then trans-
forms into the adult beetle, which during the spring or sum-
mer escapes from the tree. Eggs are then laid for the next
generation.

The life of an individual from egg to adult is three years,
but beginning so late in the year that the fourth calendar
year thereafter is the year the adult appears. Small, or weak,
unhealthy trees suffer most from the attacks of this pest.

Methods for controlling this insect have been experimented
with for years, but no entirely successful single way has been
found. ‘‘Worming” the trees in the fall is perhaps as good
as any, so far as results go. To do this, clear away any grass
or litter from the base of the trunk and look for “sawdust,”
tracing this up to cracks in the bark and cutting open the
dead bark at these places to find and destroy the borers. If
*the borers have tunneled deeper into the tree, a flexible,
pointed wire can be run into the tunnels to kill them there.

Thick paints are often applied to the trunks to keep the
beetles from laying their eggs there. To do this, remove the
earth a few inches down around the trunk and paint to about
a foot above the ground with pure white lead in raw linseed
oil, making it thick and putting on a good coat.

Several layers of newspaper, building paper or cloth can be
used also, wrapped around the lower foot or two of the trunk,
to act as protectors, but the bottom of the material must go
below ground and the top be tightly fitted to the tree so the

beetles cannot get inside and-crawl down to where they desire to
lay their eggs. The paint or protectors should be put on by the
first of- June and kept in good condition until the end of August
at least.

The Oyster-shell Scale.

This common pest is found on the trunk where the bark is
thin, and also on the branches and twigs. The animal itself
is concealed during most of the year under a scale it forms,
and it is the scale rather than the insect which is therefore

Oyster-shell scale: a, under side of female scale, showing eggs; b, upper
side of same, both much enlarged; cv, female scales on a branch,
natural size; d, male scale much enlarged; ¢, male scales on
branch, natural size. The fine lines to the right of a, b and d
show the real length of the scales. (Howard, United States
Department Agriculture, Yearbook, 1894.)

familiar to most people. The scale is generally about a six-
teenth of an inch long, narrow at one end and rather broadly
rounded at the other. It may be quite straight, but is more
often somewhat curved, and resembles a tiny oyster shell in
form, whence its name. It may be brown or gray in color.
During the winter the dead insect may be found under the

narrow end of the scale, and in the space between it and the
other end will be found from fifteen to one hundred very
small whitish eggs. These hatch during the latter part of May
or early in June, according to the progress of the season, into
very tiny whitish animals just visible to the eye, and generally
called ‘‘crawling young.” They crawl about for a few hours
to a day or so, then locate at some spot and force their long
sucking beaks through the bark until they reach the sap. On
this they feed, sucking it into their bodies. Scale soon begins
to form over and cover them, and by the end of August these
arc complete and the insects have become full grown. Eggs
are now laid under the scales and the parents die, there being
in Massachusetts only one generation a year.

Control for this insect is the same as for the scurfy scale
and is given below.

The Scurfy Scale.

This scale in many ways resembles thé oyster-shell scale.
It differs from it, however, as follows: The scale is shorter
and broader, being rather pear-shaped; its color is white instead
of brown or gray; and the
eggs and crawling young
are purple instead of nearly
white. In other regards the
facts given above for the
oyster-shell scale are true
for this insect also.

Control for the oyster-
shell and scurfy scales can
to some extent be obtained
by spraying infested trees
with the lime-sulfur wash as

Seurfy scale: a, female, b, male scales, natural given under the San José

size, on twigs; c, female scale, much en- scale below. In most cases,

larged; d, male scale, much enlarged. Lees

(Howard, United States Department As- however, this is not sufh-

riculture, Yearbook, 1894.) cient, and spraying with
nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, using 1 part of this in about 600
parts of water as soon as the crawling young are seen, followed
by a second treatment about ten days later, is desirable. Kero-
sene emulsion (see directions for making on page 108) may be used
instead of the nicotine sulfate, but is not as effective.

The scurfy scale.

The San José scale.

The oyster-shell scale.

Turee Common Orcuarp Scates (Twiczk Natura Size).

It should be noted that scales remain on the tree a long
time after the insects which produce them are dead, before
weathering off, so that a tree largely freed from these pests
may appear badly infested when this is really not the case.

The San José Scale.

The San José scale has been present for nearly thirty years
in this State, and has caused much loss in apple orchards, as
when abundant it is a very serious pest. Fortunately, most
apple growers are now able to recognize this insect and know
how to treat it.

The fully formed scale is nearly circular, quite flat, but
rising gradually from its edge toward the center where there
is a hump or nipple, usually surrounded by a slight depression.
Its color at this time is generally brown or dark gray. At the
beginning of winter, scales of various ages may be present on
a tree, but the younger and the oldest ones die during this
period, leaving only those from one-third to two-thirds grown
to continue the race the following season.

These insects under their scales resume their sucking of the
sap from the tree in the spring and become adult in June.
The production of young now begins, and here there is an
important difference in the life of this insect from that of the
oyster-shell and scurfy scales, whose eggs all hatch at about
the same time. With the San José scale no eggs are laid.
Instead, this insect produces living young, a few every few
days for a period of about a month, the total number per
female being about a hundred. These crawling young resemble
those of the other scales in size and structure, but are bright
lemon yellow in color and can be recognized in this way. Their
habits at- first are like those of the other kinds, but, after
settling down to feed, they form a pure white waxy scale over
themselves, circular in outline, so that in this stage they look
like very tiny dots of white wax on the bark. Later, as they
grow, this scale becomes larger and changes color, being black,
gray or either of these colors, more or less mixed with white.
By the time the insect beneath has become adult, however,
the scale is quite uniformly gray or brown and about the
size of a pinhead. About a month is required for the in-

sects to reach maturity and begin reproduction in their turn,
and as their parent may only be ceasing the production of
young by this time, there is, in consequence, an almost con-
stant appearance of young from about the middle of June
until cold weather puts an end to the process, at which time
there will probably be all stages of the insect present at once.
There are usually only three generations a year in Maasa-
chusetts, though, with
the longer seasons, four
or even more may
occur in the South.
Increase from the
scales coming to ma-
turity in the spring is
usually about 100 per
female. In the later
generations it is nearer
500, so that a tree
having only a_ few
scales on it in the
spring can easily have
millions on it by the
following winter, and
be in very bad con-
dition or even dying
from the lack of the
sap these insects have

Different stages of the San José scale, enlarged five
times. (From Virginia State Crop Pest Commis-

sion Bulletin, 1904.) abstracted from it.

Control of this pest cannot be like that for the oyster-shell
and scurfy scales, which was based upon the appearance of all
the delicate, unprotected, crawling young at about the same
time. Here a treatment aimed at the destruction of these
young would have to be repeated every ten days or two weeks
from the end of June until into October, — evidently a costly
and impracticable method. Accordingly, the plan adopted is
to treat this scale, during the winter months or in spring be-
fore the buds open, with a material strong enough to get at
the insect under its protecting scale and kill it there. At this
time there are no leaves to interfere with the thorough appli-

cation of a spray, and the tree being dormant is less liable to
injury by strong sprays than during the growing season.

A number of materials have been used in spraying for the
San José scale, but at the present time only three or four ap-
pear to have any great value. These are the lime-sulfur
wash, miscible oils, and dry sulfur compounds. The lime-
sulfur wash is now usually purchased in concentrated liquid
form and diluted with water for use, the amount of dilution
being generally about one of the wash to eight or nine of
water, according to directions sent with it. For best results
though, its density should be determined with a Beaumé hy-
drometer, and the amount of water to add will vary with
the density of the wash. Tables giving the amount for the
different densities can be obtained from the Agricultural Ex-
periment Station at Amherst, and almost any drug store can
obtain a Beaumé hydrometer for liquids denser than water at
a cost of not more than a dollar or two,

Spraying with the properly diluted material can be made at
any time during the winter or spring until the buds begin to
open, but somewhat better results are obtained by spraying
as late as possible.

The miscible oils are also nearly always purchased ready
made, needing only dilution with water. They have one ad-
“vantage over the lime-sulfur wash in that they spread over
the surface of the bark more from where they strike it. On
the other hand, many cases of injury to trees have been re-
ported following the use of these materials, particularly where
they are used spring after spring for several years. How
serious this injury is cannot be said to have been fully deter-
mined as yet, but there is certainly some liability to it, and
many fruit growers now follow the practice of spraying with
lime-sulfur for two years and use the oil every third year
only.

The inconvenience of shipping liquid materials, and other
difficulties involved, has led to the recent appearance on the
market of dry sulfur compounds, these being for the most
part combinations of sulfur with lime, barium, magnesium or
sodium. From the standpoint of convenience these are much
better than the liquid lime-sulfur concentrate, but chemical

analysis would indicate that they should be less effective than
the other. Still, many reports of success with them have ap-
peared, and while sufficient time since their being put on the
market has not yet elapsed to permit a final verdict as to
their actual value, it would at the present time seem probable
that some of them at least may have come to stay. The
writer does not care to advise either in favor of or against
their use as yet, believing that they are still in more or less of
an experimental stage.

Whatever the material used, the spraying should be done
with a nozzle throwing the spray in the form of a very fine
mist, and the purpose be to reach every part of each limb,
branch and twig, but stopping the treatment of each part just
before it would begin to drip, as every drop thus lost means
so much less to do its work on the tree. If spraying must be
done on windy days, it may be impossible to reach the lee-
ward side of the trees. In that case, the trees can be “‘ patched
up” on their unsprayed sides when the wind is blowing in the
opposite direction, or on calm days or mornings before the
wind starts blowing. The scales are so small that only the
most thorough work will reach them all, and only those reached
by the spray will be killed, for after once settling down and
forming its scale the insect never moves again.

* All of the scale insects considered above are sometimes found
on the leaves and also on the fruit of trees, particularly when
the trees are heavily infested.

INSECTS ATTACKING THE Bups AND LEAVES.

«lpple Plant Lice or Aphids.

There are three kinds of aphids which attack the apple in
the Eastern States, but only two of them appear to be of
much importance in Massachusetts. These are the green
apple aphid and the rosy apple aphid.

The green apple aphid lays tiny shining black eggs on the
smaller twigs of the tree in the fall. These hatch about the
time the buds begin to open in the spring, and the young
aphids suck the sap from these buds and check their growth,
often seriously. As the leaves develop the insects feed on

them also, causing them to curl somewhat, and this also inter-
feres with the proper growth of the tree. In a short time
these aphids become full grown and begin to produce living
young which feed on the leaves, like their parents. Gener-
ation after generation is quickly produced, and as a dozen or
more generations are produced during the summer, and as
each adult produces fifty or more young, favorable seasons
result in an enormous
abundance of these in-
sects, all of which are
removing from the tree
the sap it needs. Thus
growth is checked, the
apples are stunted, or at
least undersized, and the
loss to the fruit grower
is large. ee aoe
When cold weather [Ree
comes in the fallachange |
of life takes place. Eggs
are laid on the twigs and
these hatch the following
spring, the aphids on the
tree dying.

The rosy apple aphid - i
has a rather different life. Twig of apple, showing plant lice. (About
Its eggs are laid on apple Pact t
twigs in the fall and hatch at about the same time in the
spring as those of the green apple aphid. The aphids work
on the buds and leaves also, but on the latter much more
curling is caused by the feeding than in the case of the other
kind.

After a few generations on the apple in the spring, however,
the rosy apple aphids leave the apple trees and go to plantains,
particularly the narrow-leaved plantain, and here they feed
and reproduce during the summer. In the fall these insects
migrate back to the apple, where as cold weather comes on
they lay their eggs. The average number of young produced
by an individual of this species is about 175, and the number

of generations is probably from 15 to 20, so that here, too,
these insects may become extremely abundant and do much
injury. They frequently suck the sap from the blossom buds,
sometimes preventing some of the fruit from setting, and
stunting and deforming many which do set.

Plant lice are best controlled by spraying the trees thor-
oughly, just as the buds are opening, with nicotine sulfate,
40 per cent, 1 part, water, 800 parts. Two or 3 pounds of
common laundry soap can advantageously be added to each
50 gallons of this spray. If it is desired for any reason to
apply Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur at the same time, the
soap must not be put in. Spray through a very fine nozzle
and repeat ten days or two weeks later if aphids are still
present.

The Leaj Hopper.

The leaf hopper, a tiny greenish insect not very much larger
than a plant louse, has been very injurious in apple orchards
during the last two or three years. It is found during the
spring months and again in the early fall mainly on the under
side of the leaves, sucking the sap and giving them a speckled
appearance, and in some cases drying them up and causing
them to turn yellow and fall off. In the particular cases
observed in this State, it does not seem to be the true apple
leaf hopper but an allied species, which does not cause a curl-
ing of the leaves to any such extent as the apple leaf hopper.
Lacking more complete, detailed knowledge of this insect, we
must rely on the general facts about the life histories of mem-
bers of this group to aid in determining when and how to at-
tempt control. In general, all the leaf hoppers for a time
suck sap from the plants on which they feed, growing and
by degrees developing wings. After a month, more or less,
of this, the wings become full sized, the insects mature
and they can then fly about. At this time they are much
harder to reach by spraying than earlier, so spraying should
be done when these insects first appear in the spring — while
they are young — and again in the fall under similar condi-
tions, taking them before they can fly, in each case. Nicotine
sulfate, 40 per cent, is known to be a good killing material for

leaf hoppers in general, and should prove effective here also,
the difficulties in its use being the same as with plant lice, viz.,
that the insects must be actually touched by the spray if they
are to be killed, and that they are very small. Only thorough
spraying, using every effort to reach the under side of the
leaves where most of the hoppers are found, will give satis-
factory results. The strength of spray to use is the same as
that advised for plant lice above.

Caterpillars.

Numerous caterpillars are found feeding on apple leaves, but
in the majority of cases spraying with arsenate of lead as
soon as they are noticed will quickly kill them. Among the
common kinds noticed is the tent caterpillar, which goes out
each morning from white webs or tents spun in the forks of
branches ‘during the spring. Spraying with arsenate of lead
will easily control this pest, and a special treatment for it is
usually unnecessary if the codling moth treatment given below
is carried out: The gypsy moth and brown-tail moth cater-

Yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar: a, caterpillar, showing char-
acteristic position when disturbed; b, adult moth; c, cluster
of eggs, natural size; d, side view of one egg much enlarged.

pillars are also often abundant on the trees during the spring
months, at least in Eastern Massachusetts. All of these
spring-feeding caterpillars can be kept under control by spray-
ing once or twice. If the fruit grower is on the alert to dis-
cover them as soon as they begin work, and treat them before
they have had time to do much harm, he' need not fear much
injury to the trees by them.

In August or even early September other caterpillars are
liable to appear on the trees. Some, such as the yellow-necked

apple-tree caterpillar and the red-humped caterpillar, feed in
groups and may completely strip a limb of its leaves. Where
such a limb can be reached easily, removing the caterpillars
by hand — as they are all close together — and killing them
may be easier than spraying the tree, though if handwork for
any reason is undesirable, spraying will be effective.
Sometimes in early fall small thin webs appear on some of
the limbs, increasing in size as time passes, until in September
they may be nearly as large as a bushel basket. These are
the webs of the fall webworm, and may be distinguished from
those of the tent caterpillar by the facts that they occur in
late summer instead of May and June and that they are not
placed in forks, but cover the branch. The caterpillars of this.

Red-humped apple-tree caterpillar. Moth of red-humped apple-tree-
caterpillar,

insect feed on leaves under the web, and when these are all
“eaten, extend the web over more before eating them.

When these webs are small they can be removed, limb and
all, with the caterpillars inside and be destroyed. If they cannot
be reached easily, or too much of the tree would be removed by
doing this, spray all around the nest with arsenate of lead so
that the next leaves to be covered by the web shall be well
poisoned,

With all the leaf-feeding caterpillars, success in control is
obtained by attention to two points: watch the trees so that
the caterpillars may be treated before they get too much, of
a start; and spray thoroughly, leaving no unsprayed leaves for
them to feed on.

INSECTS ATTACKING THE FRUIT.

Four insects are quite serious enemies of the fruit of the
apple in Massachusetts. These are the codling moth, or apple
worm, the apple maggot, or railroad worm, red bugs,’ and ,the
plum curculio.

The Codling Moth.

This is one of the most important pests of the apple in this
country. The writer has been accustomed to spray his trees
for this pest in the approved way, and in 1919 a count of the
apples gathered from: one tree, which had been sprayed regu-
larly for several years, showed that only about 10 per cent of
the fruit was wormy. In 1920 this tree was not sprayed, and
a similar examination of the fruit gathered showed over 90 per
cent wormy. The average cost of spraying an apple tree,
even when the work is hired, is less than $2, so that it pays
well to spray, as has been repeatedly shown for large orchards
as well as in the case of the single tree referred to.

The codling moth caterpillar winters near the apple tree and
nearly always under some loose piece of bark on the trunk or
one of the limbs. In the spring it changes to a small dark-
colored moth which flies at night, is not attracted to lights,
and is therefore seldom seen. It comes out a week or two
after the apple blossoms fall, and lays its eggs singly, here and
there, on the young leaves, twigs and on the fruit which
is now beginning to form.
About a week later the eggs
hatch, and the tiny cater-
pillars feed a little on. the
leaves but soon crawl to the
fruit, where from sixty to
eighty of every hundred go
to the blossom end and bore
inward to the core. The
others appear to bore in
through the side of the fruit.

Around the core the cater-
pillars now feed for about a

: Codling moth: a, work of caterpillar; §
month until full grown. b, point of entrance; d, pupa; e, full-
They then bore out, gener- grown caterpillar; f, g, moth; k, head

of caterpillar; 7, cocoon.

ally through the side of the

fruit, and crawl down the tree until they find pieces of loose bark
where they can go. Each now, under a piece of bark, gnaws
out a little oval cavity which it lines with silk, and in this the
caterpillar changes over into the moth.

In most cases this last change does not occur in Massa-
chusetts until the following spring, there being but one gen-
eration a year. A few of the caterpillars which finish feeding
early, however, may undergo this change and produce moths
which appear in August, and at once lay eggs for a second
generation the same season. The caterpillars which hatch
from these eggs enter the fruit at any point and are usually
the ones found in late apples when these are gathered, though
they may be the very latest members of the first generation.

The usual method of control for this pest is to spray the
trees with arsenate of lead just after the blossoms fall. At
this time there is a little depression or cup at the blossom end
of the apple, with five green projecting lobes (sepals of the
blossom) surrounding it. After about ten days these bend
inward and close up the opening of the cup. The caterpillars
which enter at the blossom end of the fruit either push their
way between or bore through these lobes, enter the cup and
start boring their way toward the core from its bottom. If,
therefore, poison. can be placed in this calyx cup, as it is
called, while its top is still open, the caterpillars entering later
must feed upon that on their way into the fruit.

In spraying to accomplish this, therefore, the purpose should
be as far as possible to direct the spray against the blossom
ends of the little apples and place the poison in the calyx
cup. When the lobes close together later, they will aid in
preventing rains from washing out the poison before the
caterpillars arrive.

A later spraying with arsenate of lead, usually about the
15th or 20th of June, is also frequently given. The purpose
of this is to poison the leaves on which the caterpillars feed
somewhat before going to the fruit. As some of the insects do
not enter the fruit at its blossom end but elsewhere, this
second spraying is largely for the purpose of killing those
which would not be reached by the poison in the calyx cup.

In spraying, use a rather fine nozzle giving small droplets of
spray, and considerable pressure at the pump to force the
droplets into the calyx cups as much as possible. Three
pounds of the paste arsenate of lead (or 13 pounds of the pow-
der) in 50 gallons of water is the usual mixture for both appli-

cations. If a combination either with Bordeaux mixture, lime-
sulfur or nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, is desired, this is
perfectly possible, provided certain precautions in the mixing
of the materials are followed. These precautions are dis-
cussed on page 112.

The Apple Maggot.

The apple maggot, often also called the railroad worm, is
frequently a serious pest in Massachusetts. The adult insect
is a fly smaller than the house fly, with black or dark bands
across its wings, which appears about the middle of July. It
lays its eggs singly in holes it makes in the skin of the apple,
and the little white maggots which hatch from these eggs
tunnel through the pulp in all directions. While the maggots
are very small the tunnels close up and make rather tough,

Apple maggot: a, adult male fly; 6, adult female fly; c, maggot;
all much enlarged.

fibrous lines, but after the maggots get larger the tunnels re-
main open and the pulp around them turns brown and decay
follows, often making the fruit entirely soft and worthless.
When the maggot has completed its feeding it leaves the
fruit and enters the ground, where it changes into the adult
fly. A few of the maggots which finish feeding early may
change into flies the same fall, and in these cases eggs are
laid on late apples, which are therefore liable to be infested
without showing it when they are picked. Most of the late

; 88

fall apples, however, are attacked by flies of the first genera-
tion, for these do not all appear at the same time, some coming
several weeks later than the first ones.

The flies have the habit of feeding somewhat at the intervals
between laving their eggs, and this habit is taken advantage
of in controlling the insects. Spraying the trees with arsenate
of lead, 3 pounds of paste (or 13 pounds of the powder) in
50 gallons of water, applied just about the time the first flies
appear, and a second time about two weeks later, seems to
keep this pest in check. At first molasses was added to this
to attract the flies, but recent tests do not indicate any better
results from this than from the arsenate of lead alone.

Gathering and destroying fallen fruit promptly is also a
good control method, but it requires so much labor that this
method is not often made use of.

Red Bugs.

These are rather recent apple pests in Massachusetts, or, at
least, they have only attracted attention during the last eight
‘or ten years. The injury is undoubtedly caused by several
kinds of insects which are closely related, but those first ob-
served were partly “red, thus giving the name to all, whether
red or not, which affect apples by puncturing the skin and
sucking the juices.

The damage to the apples is done mainly late in May and
in June. The tiny young, which in size and general appear-
ance somewhat resemble plant lice, crawl over the small
apples and plunge their beaks into the flesh. The effect of
this is that the parts there become hardened or woody and
discolored. The apple will continue to grow after this, but
at the places where the punctures were made it will be less
developed than elsewhere, forming hollows or pits on the
surface and making the apple, as a whole, malformed, irregular,
and greatly reducing its value. Such apples often remain
quite small, also, and are very noticeable when the crop is
being gathered.

Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, 1 part, water, 800 parts, with
the addition of about 3 pounds of any common laundry soap
to each 50 gallons of the water, has thus far proved the most

effective method for controlling this insect. This is very
thoroughly sprayed over the tree through a fine nozzle, just
before the blossoms open. In some cases repeating this treat-
ment just after the blossoms fall has also been advisable.
Where this is the case, the nicotine sulfate can be combined
with the arsenate of lead “calyx cup” spray to advantage.

The Plum Curculio.

This well-known pest of plums, peaches and cherries injures
the apples also, and sometimes quite seriously. In the spring
while the apples are small the adult beetle, or curculio, makes
holes in the skin of the fruit here and there, and in each
places an egg. It then cuts a crescent-
shaped slit in the skin so as to partially
enclose the hole containing the egg.

It is not probable that many, if any, of
the young which hatch from these eggs are
able to develop in the apple. The effect of
the puncturing and slitting, however, upon
the fruit is to produce unsightly scars and blemishes, besides
injuring the pulp of the fruit near these places, making it hard.

In late summer and fall the curculio also injures the apple,
but in a different way. At this time it eats into the apples,
making small holes an eighth of an inch or more deep and
about an eighth of an inch across. The skin and flesh around
the edge of this hole turn black, and the value of the apple is
greatly reduced.

To prevent or at least check the work of this insect on
apples, the two sprays recommended for the codling moth are
of value. If the curculios are abundant though, an additional
treatment with arsenate of lead, nine or ten weeks after the
blossoms fall, is of advantage. Measures for controlling this
pest on the other fruits it attacks will of course reduce the
number of these insects, leaving fewer to cause trouble with

Plum curculio.

the apples.

Cuapter VII.
DISEASES OF THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS.

A. VINCENT OSMUN, PROFESSOR OF BOTANY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUL-
TURAL COLLEGE.

The enormous development of the apple-growing industry
in this country during the last two decades has brought in-
creasing competition, and growers have come to realize that
their business must stand or fall on the quality of the fruit
they produce. Only clean fruit, that is, fruit free from blem-
ishes caused by insects or diseases, can meet the competition
and market demands. An added incentive to the production
of clean fruit is furnished by the new State law to regulate the
grading and packing of apples. And surely every real wide-
awake apple grower takes pride in producing clean, high-class
fruit, regardless of regulatory laws. Naturally, the grower
who is interested in the quality of fruit which he grows wishes
to know something about the diseases which he is forced to
combat.

Diseases of the apple are of two sorts: (1) those caused by
microscopic organisms (fungi and bacteria); and (2) those due
to unfavorable weather, or cultural conditions, or functional
disorders. The first group are known as parasitic diseases
and the second group are called nonparasitic or physiological
diseases.

Parasitic diseases are caused by bacteria or fungi growing
and feeding on the surface or in the tissues of the host, and
specific organisms may attack root, trunk, twigs, leaves or
fruit, thus bringing about a diseased condition.

Where the causal organism of a disease is known, a remedy
for the disease, based on control of the organism, can usually
be worked out. In fact, every grower should understand that
intelligent attack on any parasitic disease must have back of

Fig. 1. — Scab on apple leaves.

Fre. 2s

Scab on apple fruit, showing cracking (right).

it a knowledge of the life history and habits of the organism
which is the primary cause of that disease.

The nature of nonparasitic or physiological diseases often is
obscure, but where the underlying cause can be determined
the remedy usually lies in changing or avoiding conditions
which produce it.

In addition to the diseases which occur primarily in the
orchard, there are a number which commonly affect the fruit
only in transit and storage. Some of the diseases which at-
tack fruit in the orchard continue to develop after it is har-
vested and placed in storage.

The economic importance of controlling apple diseases is in-
‘dicated by the total loss due to diseases in the United States
for 1918 which was estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels.
In Massachusetts alone, the loss has been estimated at over
150,000 bushels. In 1920, in one small section of the State,
the value of the crop was reduced fully $200,000 by diseases.

Descriptions of the more common diseases of Massachusetts

apples follow.
ScaB.

This disease probably causes more loss to the apple crop of
the State than any other, though relatively few varieties are
seriously affected by it. Among the more susceptible of the
varieties commonly grown in Massachusetts are McIntosh,
Fameuse (Snow), Fall Pippin and Rhode Island Greening.
Scab is not ordinarily a serious disease in Western Massachu-
setts, but in the eastern part of the State, especially on the
McIntosh, it assumes great importance.

Scab is caused by a fungus, Venturia inequalis, which at-
tacks young twigs, leaves, blossoms and fruit. Its occurrence
on twigs is rare. On the blossoms, it infects chiefly the pedi-
cels and calyx, and may sometimes cause severe blossom drop.
The disease is most in evidence on the leaves and fruit. The
first appearance on the leaves is in the spring. It then occurs
on the lower surface as a web-like growth, brownish or olive-
brown in color. Later, velvety spots of the same color form’
on the upper surface. Scab spots exhibit considerable vari-
ation in shape (Fig. 1), but the most common are approxi-
mately round, with a finely fringed margin. On both upper

and lower surfaces of the leaf, the growth of the scab fungus
has a tendency to follow the veins. The round spots often
become raised on the upper surface, causing a corresponding
depression on the lower side. Similar spots, but darker in
color, form on the fruit just beneath the waxy outer laver or
cuticle. (Fig. 2.) This cuticle soon becomes ruptured over
the spots, giving them a scab-like appearance, which suggests
the common name of the disease. Cracking of the fruit often
accompanies severe infection. (Fig. 2.)

Scab does not in itself cause rotting of the fruit, but in
storage other fungi may gain entrance to the flesh of the fruit
through the scab lesions and set up decay. These are discussed
under “Storage Rots.”

Buack-Ror.

Authorities differ as to the importance of black-rot. With-
out question, however, this disease is the cause of considerable
loss in Massachusetts, and in the eastern part of the State it
is second only to scab in importance.

The cause of black-rot is a fungus, Physalospora cydonie.
This fungus gains entrance to the flesh, causing it to decay.
Usually a single decayed area is produced which spreads until
the entire apple is involved. In the early stages of decay the
spot is brown, often marked by zones or rings, and after a
time the surface of the spot becomes dotted with minute black
pimples under which are the fruiting bodies of the fungus.
The rotted area eventually turns black, whence the name. In
the later stages of decay, fruit affected with this disease be-
comes wrinkled and finally shrinks into dry, hard mummies,
(Fig. 3.)

Any part of the fruit may be attacked by black-rot, but it
most often starts at a wormhole or at the calyx end. In the
latter case, it is sometimes called blossom-end rot. (Fig. 4.)
Blossom-end rot frequently may be traced to spray injury in-
curred at the time of the so-called calyx spray, when the
-nectaries of the blossoms are exposed and easily burned by the
spray materials.

Characteristic brown spots are produced on the leaves by
the black-rot fungus. (Fig. 5.)

Fic. 3. — Black-rot, advanced stage,
showing black fruit dots.

Fic. 6. — Bitter-rot, pink spore stage. (After
Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin 118.)

Fic. 4. — Showing result of spray injury at blossom-end of fruit and
black-rot following (right).

Fig. 5.— Leaf-spot caused by
black-rot fungus. (From U.S.
D. A., B. P. I., Bulletin 121.)

Birrer-Ror.

In Massachusetts, bitter-rot is of comparatively little im-
portance. In other parts of the United States, notably the
middle Atlantic and middle western States, it is in some years
the most destructive disease in the orchard.

The causal fungus, Glomerella cingulata, produces a dry, bit-
ter rot of the apple flesh. The disease usually begins in July
or August as small, round spots, brown in color. These spots
soon become sunken and increase in size, usually exhibiting a
series of raised concentric rings. (Fig. 6.) Minute black
fruiting bodies develop in the rotted area either in concentric
rings or scattered. These bodies eventually discharge small
masses of pink spores which disseminate the disease. In the
final stages of the disease the fruit becomes shriveled into a
hard,-dry mummy.

Brown-Ror.

Brown-rot is important chiefly as it affects some early vari-
eties, such as Red Astrachan and Yellow Transparent. The
amount of loss which it causes is not large. It is caused by
the same fungus, Sclerotinia cinerea, which produces brown-
rot of peach, plum and cherry. The fungus usually gains en-
trance to the fruit through a wormhole or other injury.

The disease starts as a small brown spot, which rapidly
spreads through the entire fruit as a soft rot. Often the rotted
fruit turns black, and the disease may be mistaken for black-
rot. It remains more or less smooth on the surface and does
not shrivel and wrinkle as in the case of black-rot. In warm,
moist weather small grey tufts of spore masses form on the
surface of the rotted area.

Soory-BLoTcH AND FLy-SPECK.

The name, sooty-blotch and fly-speck, is indicative of the
appearance of this disease. (Fig.7.) The causal fungus, Lepto-
thyriwm pomi, is entirely superficial in its attack on the fruit,
and its effect is merely to form surface blemishes; however, the
disease must be considered of considerable importance because
of the greatly reduced market value of fruit disfigured by it.

Sooty-blotch and fly-speck is usually at its worst in old
orchards which have not been kept properly pruned to admit
light and air. It is common, also, on trees shaded by buildings
and on roadside trees exposed to dust.

FRuit-Spot.

This disease is also known as Brooks-spot and brown-spot
of Baldwin. It is not, however, confined to the Baldwin, and,
in fact, other varieties, such as Yellow Transparent, Yellow
Bellflower and Tolman Sweet, are often more seriously affected
by it.

Fruit-spot is more serious in New England than in other
sections, and in some years it has very greatly reduced the
value of the apple crop in this State.

The cause of fruit-spot is a fungus, Phoma pomt. The dis-
ease first manifests itself in August. On red-skinned fruit, the
small, round spots are deeper red, and on green skin they are
darker green. The spots are usually most numerous about the
blossom end of the fruit. At first the spots are but slightly
sunken and each centers about a lenticel or breathing pore.
Later, the spots deepen in color or turn brown and become
more sunken. They do not become large. (Fig. 8.) Im-
mediately beneath the surface of the spots the flesh of the
fruit becomes discolored, but this never extends deeply. Mi-
nute black fruiting bodies of the causal fungus appear in the
spots in their later stages of development.

- Brrrer-Pit or STIPPEN.

Baldwin fruit-spot is perhaps a more common name for this
disease. It is, however, misleading, because the King, Rhode
Island Greening, Northern Spy and other varieties are com-
monly affected, though the Baldwin is, perhaps, the most sus-
ceptible. Bitter-pit is among the important apple diseases of
the State, and in some years it may be ranked as the most
serious. It does not destroy the fruit through decay, but so
reduces the quality as to render it unfit for market.

The cause of bitter-pit is obscure. It is not due to attack
by a parasitic organism, and is therefore classified as a physio-

Fie. 8. — Fruit-spot. (From Maine
Experiment Station, Bulletin 185.)

Fie. 9. — Bitter-pit or Stippen.

logical disease. The prevailing opinion of those who have
studied the disease is that it is caused by disturbed water re-
lations. Seasonal conditions, such as frequent winds accom-
panying low humidity, high temperatures and bright sunlight,
which promote loss of water by transpiration, may be factors.
Sudden or fluctuating changes in temperature and alternating
wet and dry periods during the latter part of the growing
season seem to favor development of the disease.

Bitter-pit may appear on the fruit after it is half grown,
but it is seldom noticed by the orchardist until the fruit is
nearly mature. The first outward sign of the disease is when
slightly sunken spots appear scattered over the surface of the
fruit, usually most numerous near the calyx end. They are
nearly round, seldom over an eighth to a quarter of an inch
in diameter, and might be taken for hail bruises. (Fig. 9.)
They increase in number as the fruit matures. With age, they
become brown in color and deeper, but the skin covering them
does not rupture. The flesh beneath each spot is brown, dry
and corky. Brown streaks or spots of corky tissue, not con-
nected with surface spots, extend through the flesh. Affected
fruit is usually somewhat bitter to the taste.

Bitter-pit is often mistaken for fruit-spot. The spots of
this disease are, however, usually larger, more uniformly round
and deeper than those of fruit-spot and the discolored, corky
streaks extend deeper into the flesh.

The disease may continue to develop in storage, but this is
preventable through control of temperature and ventilation.
Fruit affected with bitter-pit should be stored at a uniform
temperature between 30 and 33 degrees F. Higher temperatures
permit development of the spots.

Bitter-pit cannot be controlled by spraying, although the
maintenance of a healthy leaf growth by keeping other dis-
eases in check is probably beneficial in reducing the amount of
this trouble. There is, in fact, no definitely known method of
control for the disease. Certain orchard practices, however,
tend to reduce it to a minimum. Judicious pruning, to keep
the set of fruit evenly distributed on laterals, and good soil
drainage are among the most important things to consider.
Usually there is less of the disease on apples borne on laterals

than on those on main branches. The practice of thinning
fruit to keep the vield regular tends to reduce the disease, but
in cases of severe thinning to produce very large fruit, the
disease is likely to occur in great severity. Bitter-pit may
occur in the best-managed orchards. and probably few varieties
are immune. |

Sroney Dry-Ror.

But little importance attaches to this disease in the orchard,
but in storage it may sometimes cause considerable loss. We
have never observed it on fruit still clinging to the tree except
where a branch had bent down and the fruit rested on the
grass or ground beneath. It is, however, commonly found on
windfalls beneath the tree, and it is likely that the causal
fungus, Volutella fructi, is normally a wound parasite.

In storage, the trouble spreads through contact, but is held
in check by low temperatures. Avoidance of bruised or scarred
fruit will do much toward keeping this rot out of the storage
package. The appearance of Volutella-rot is somewhat like
that of black-rot, for which it is often mistaken in storage.
The rotted area is, however, more sunken and the decayed
tissue is dry and spongy. The surface of the spot is black,
and the skin becomes roughened when the fruiting bodies of
the fungus, which are more closely clustered than in black-
rot, break through it.

APPLE Rust.

Apple rust is important in Massachusetts, as a rule, only to
the growers of Wealthy and Jonathan. Other varieties com-
monly grown in the State are little affected by it. In the
middle Atlantic States, the York Imperial is very susceptible.
Rust is much more destructive on quince than on apple in
this State.

Apple rust is caused by a fungus, Gymnosporangium, which
not only lives on two radically different hosts — the apple and
the red cedar — but is absolutely dependent on both of these
hosts for the completion of its life cycle, and, in fact, for
reproduction and dissemination.

In regions where red cedars abound the galls or “cedar
apples,” -which are the winter stage of this disease produced

Fig. 10. — ‘‘Cedar apples’”’ on red cedar, with ‘“‘horns’’ par-
tially extended (winter stage of apple rust).

on the cedar, are a familiar sight. (Fig. 10.) These galls are
dull reddish brown in color and vary from the size of a pea
up to nearly 2 inches in diameter. On the surface are scat-
tered small circular depressions. In the spring, brown horns
about an inch long protrude from these depressions, and in
rainy weather these horns become gelatinous and bright orange”
in color. At such times, when there are many “cedar apples”
on a cedar tree, the tree appears at a distance to be in blossom.
It is from these gelatinous horns that the spores of the causal
fungus spread in the spring to the apple. On infected apple
leaves small yellow spots_develop, and these soon become
larger and orange-colored. Clustered in these spots, on the
lower side of the leaf, are minute cuplike bodies in which the
spores of the fungus are formed. These give the name “clus-
ter-cup” stage to the summer form of apple rust. (Fig. 11.)
The fruit may be similarly affected, usually at the calyx end.
From this stage the spores are blown to the cedars, which thus
become infected to produce the “cedar apple” stage.

Apple rust cannot be spread from one apple tree to another,
nor from cedar to cedar; hence, if either host is absent from
a region, the fungus cannot complete its life cycle and therefore
becomes exterminated in that area.

The obvious line of attack on apple rust in the orchard is
therefore through destruction of all the cedars within infection
distance of the orchard. In regions where the disease is most
serious it has been determined that the cleaning up of cedars
within a radius of 1 mile of the orchard will reduce infection
to a very small amount and that 2 miles’ clearance will prac-
tically free the orchard of rust. In Massachusetts, where in-
fection is seldom very heavy, a clear radius of half a mile
should be sufficient to keep the orchard relatively free of rust.

It is not, of course, always possible for one man to control
the land over such a wide area, but co-operation among neigh-
bors will accomplish much and is worthy of a trial. In some
States there are laws which require the destruction of all cedars
which menace an orchard.

Frre-B1icut.

This disease is not of great importance in the apple orchard.
A large amount of twig blight, one form of the disease, often
occurs, but this seldom is extensive enough to reduce a crop
materially or menace the trees attacked. When the disease
takes the form known as “‘collar-blight,” it is likely to result
fatally, but seldom are many trees in an orchard affected.
The disease is much more destructive to the quince and pear,
and may spread from these hosts to the apple.

Fire-blight is caused by a bacterium, Bacillus amylovorus.
It attacks blossoms, fruit, twigs and bark of limbs and trunk.
The disease first appears in the spring on full-blown blossoms.
These suddenly turn brown and wilt. In this stage the dis-
ease is commonly called “blossom-blight.” From the blighted
blossoms the disease spreads downward to the spur on’ which
the leaves die. At the same time, the stage called “twig-
blight”? may develop. On young twigs the leaves turn brown
from the tip downward. The dead leaves droop and cling
tenaciously to the dead twig, and have the appearance of
having been scorched. (Fig. 12.) Cankers often form on the
limbs, and these are usually traceable to blighted twigs which
may frequently be found rising from the cankered area. (Fig.
13.) Such cankers may spread until a limb is girdled, but
more often their development is checked by dry, warm weather
conditions.

The most serious form of fire-blight on the apple is the so-
called “collar-blight” or “crown-rot.”’ This occurs as a dead
area or canker in the bark near the base of the trunk. (Fig.
14.) Infection in such cases is usually through water sprouts.
These cankers have a sunken, smooth surface and may increase
in size until midsummer. They are likely to continue develop-
ment the following year, and, unless permanently checked,
usually completely girdle the trunk, causing death of the tree.
Usually, the first sign of collar-blight is a yellowing and reduc-
tion in size of the leaves on one or more large branches.

Successful control measures have not been worked out. In
a young orchard or in the nursery, it is easy to cut out and
burn all blighted twigs as they appear, but in older orchards

Fic. 11. — Rust on apple leaves: (a) on under surface
(summer or cluster-cup stage), (b) on upper surface.
(After Illinois Experiment Station, Circular 241.)

Fic. 12.— Fire-blight (twig-blight phase). (After
Illinois Experiment Station, Circular 241.)

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it is doubtful if the results pay for the labor of the operation.
In cases of severe infection it is worth while to clean up the
cankers on the limbs. Cases of collar-blight should be treated
as cankers. (See general treatment under “Cankers,” page
100.) It is seldom, however, that such treatment is entirely
successful, especially if the canker has gained much headway.
Sometimes bridge grafting is resorted to, but in most instances
replacement of the affected tree is advisable.

CANKERS.

The term “canker” is applied to a diseased area or lesion
in the bark. Cankers are usually common in-old and neglected
orchards. In young and well-managed orchards they are rela-
tively unimportant as a rule. When renovation of an old or-
chard is undertaken, cankers are likely to present one of the
chief problems, for often, when long neglected, they may in-
volve considerable areas on main limbs and trunks, and in
such cases heroic measures often are necessary to save a tree.

Several kinds of cankers occur on apple trees in Massachu-
setts, and these are caused by different organisms.

Black-Rot Canker.

This is caused by the same fungus that produces black-rot
of the fruit and spotting of leaves. Cankers commonly form
on older limbs, but this is by no means always the case, and
younger branches and even new twigs may be attacked. On
limbs, the cankers usually start on the upper side. A dis-
colored, sunken patch forms in the bark and this later becomes
dark brown or nearly black. A distinct crack or crevice soon
divides the diseased from the healthy bark, and late in the
season small black fruiting bodies of the causal fungus may
appear scattered over the diseased surface. A roll of corky
tissue develops along the limiting crevice, usually on one side.
This is evidence of the effort of the tree to heal the injury by
the formation of new tissue. The following year, however, the
canker may spread through and beyond this corky barrier and
finally girdle the limb. At first the diseased bark remains
closely pressed against the underlying wood (Fig. 15), but

100

later it cracks away, exposing the wood. (Fig. 16.) A badly
cankered limb bears other evidence in the form of yellow
leaves, and where the limb is completely girdled the leaves
above become vellow, then brown and the bark and fruit
shrivel.

Bitter-Rot Canker.

This canker is caused by the same ftingus as bitter-rot of
the fruit. It is similar to the black-rot canker, but usually
the diseased bark becomes much cracked and remains clinging
to the wood. It is much less common in this State than black-
rot canker.

European Canker.

This is probably the most destructive of fruit diseases in
Europe. In Massachusetts, however, it cannot be considered
serious. The causal fungus, Nectria ditissima, probably in
most cases gains entrance to the host tissues through wounds.
Both young and old limbs are attacked, and frequently these
cankers follow hail injury.

Nectria-canker usually takes the form of an open wound,
which is accompanied by swelling of the surrounding live
tissue. Zones or folds of tissue border the wound, and these
distinguish this canker from all others. Crotch infections are
not unusual. Types of Nectria-canker are shown in Fig. 17.

Nail-Head Canker.

This is the least important of the cankers occurring in the
State, and it has only recently been found within our borders.
It is a serious disease in the Mississippi Valley, but is not
likely to become common here. The cause is a fungus, Num-
mularia discreta.

In a general way, the treatment for all cankers is the same.
It consists chiefly in cutting out and disinfecting wounds.
Infected twigs and small branches should be pruned off where
this will not materially injure the tree. On large branches
and trunks, cankers should be cut out, using the utmost care
to remove all diseased tissue down to the healthy wood and back
into the healthy, living bark. Where possible, the wound thus
made should be shaped with a sharp point at each end and

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101

curved sides, the long diameter extending lengthwise of the
limb or trunk. A wound shaped in this manner will heal
much more readily and completely than one with rounded or
square ends or one extending crosswise of the limb or trunk.

After. the cutting-out process is completed, the surface of
the exposed wood should be disinfected with a 1-1,000 solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate, and as soon as this dries a coat of
good lead paint should be applied, using great care to cover
every bit of the surface. Painting over should be repeated
every year until the wound is entirely healed. Coal tar and
asphaltum are often used for coating wounds. The former
is apt to cause injury, and the latter is difficult to prepare.
Paint, if of good quality and applied each year, has been
found as satisfactory as any substance used. Tools used in
cutting out cankers should be wiped frequently with a cloth
or sponge wet in the disinfecting solution in order to avoid
carrying infection from one cut to another. It is also im-
portant that the operator wear rubber boots or overshoes, as
any wounds made in the bark are easily infected by canker
parasites.

In cleaning up an orchard infected with cankers, one must
use judgment as to what limbs to remove and what cankers
to treat by cutting out. It is sometimes better to sacrifice
a large bearing limb if the canker has so far advanced as to
weaken or nearly girdle it. But where cankers on such limbs
are small enough to respond to treatment, the limbs should
be retained.

Burning of diseased twigs, branches and bark, removed in
the cleaning up of an orchard, is an important part of the
operation, as these remain a serious source of further infection
if left lying about.

Spraying probably is only indirectly beneficial in the control
of cankers. Keeping fruit-rots and leaf-spots in check by this
means undoubtedly reduces the amount of canker infection.
On the other hand, by keeping an orchard clear of cankers,
the amount of fruit-rots and leaf-spots caused by the same
fungi may be greatly reduced, for the cankers are constant

sources of infection.

102

Crown-GALL.

Crown-gall is of importance chiefly in the nursery. It is
not unusual to find whole blocks of nursery trees affected by
this disease. Affected trees, when set in the orchard, some-
times grow out of the disease, but they are more likely to
show retardation in growth and stunted development. Crown-
gall is not confined to the apple but attacks many kinds of
plants and trees. The disease also is known as crown-knot,
root-gall and, in one form, as hairy-root.

The causal organism of crown-gall is Bactertwm tumefaciens.
It infests cultivated soils and lives in old galls of a great
variety of plants. It is doubtless true that some soils become
more badly contaminated with the organism than others.

The most familiar and common form of the disease occurs
_ as galls at the base of the trunk or on the branches. In the
nursery, a large proportion of these galls form just above the
union of scion and stock. They are usually an inch or two
in diameter, but may be larger, and, when developed, hard
and rough. (Fig. 18.) A second form of the disease, less
common than the galls, takes the form of an excessive devel-
opment of fibrous roots, which grow in dense clusters, sug-
gesting the name, hairy-root. (Fig. 19.)

Control of crown-gall is largely a matter of sanitation and
avoidance. The nurseryman should use the utmost care in
preparing his stock. Grafting instruments should be fre-
quently disinfected in a 1-1,000 solution of corrosive subii-
mate; the graft union should be carefully made and wrapped.
Where the disease is discovered in the nursery, affected trees
should be promptly removed and burned. If a large number
of nursery trees are diseased, they should be cleaned out and
the land planted to other crops for several years. No method
of disinfecting the soil for this trouble is known.

Orchardists should insist on clean nursery stock when se-
lecting trees for new orchards, and every tree should be care-
fully inspected before setting. All that show any evidence of
crown-gall or hairy-root should be rejected.

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103

SroraGe Rots.

As every orchardist can testify, the loss from disease does
not end with the placing of fruit in storage. Most of the
diseases which occur on the fruit in the orchard may continue
to develop after harvest, and sometimes-the shrinkage of the
crop due to this is greater than on the tree. Scab, black-rot,
bitter-rot, brown-rot, spongy dry-rot, fruit-spot and_bitter-
pit, all of which develop more or less on stored fruit, already
have been described. In addition, there are several rots
which occur only after the fruit has left the tree.

Blue Mold.

The rot caused by this fungus, Penicillium expansum, is the
most common and destructive of all storage troubles. It is
frequently called soft-rot, and this name is descriptive of the
disease. The rotted tissue is light brown and watery and has
a musty odor and taste. On the surface of the rotted fruit
there develop white tufts of the mold, which soon turn blue-
green in color. From these tufts myriads of minute spores
are given off and each is capable of starting a new rotten
spot. (Fig. 20.)

Apparently the fungus is unable to penetrate the sound
skin of the fruit. Bruises, wormholes, scab or other disease
spots, stem punctures or any other wounds offer easy access,
and once the fungus gets into the flesh it causes rapid decay
of the fruit. The disease spreads from one fruit to another,
either through contact or by scattering of the spores. Soft-
rot is primarily a disease of overripe or injured fruit.

Cold retards development of the fungus, but apples which
have become overheated may continue to rot when affected
by it, even after being cooled to cold-storage temperatures.
Fruit that is carefully picked, sorted and packed and placed
in storage at 32 degrees F. within forty-eight hours after
picking will escape much of the trouble from this source.
Wrapping with paper to prevent contact will do much to
reduce the amount of soft rot.

104

Pink-Mold.

This fungus, Cephalothectum roseum, occurs only on stored
fruit. It occasionally follows scab, growing on the scab spots
through which it enters the flesh of the apple, causing it to
decay. The decayed flesh is firm, corky and bitter to the
taste. The presence of the mold is evidenced by pink tufts
on. the surface of the fruit. It develops slowly in cold storage.
This trouble is of little importance in Massachusetts.

Scald.

This trouble is often very disastrous to apples which have
been improperly handled and stored. It is not caused by an
organism, but by gases given off by the fruit itself. It is
usually evident as an irregular, spreading area on the green
side of the fruit. The brown discoloration extends but little
beneath the skin, and only after other rot-producing organisms
have entered through the injured area does the flesh become
decayed. Scald is usually the result of storing under poor
ventilation, which allows the gases to accumulate. It is more
apt to occur on fruit that is picked green than that which is
well ripened on the tree. Large quantities of warm fruit
placed in a poorly ventilated room are likely to develop scald.
High temperatures promote scalding. Stored in ventilated
containers in well-ventilated rooms at low temperatures, ap-
ples will not become badly scalded. By wrapping the fruit
in oiled paper, scald may be entirely prevented. Oils absorb
the gases which cause scald.

MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES.

All the aforementioned troubles of the apple have definite,
distinctive characteristics which stamp them as definite dis-
eases. Most of them are due to the parasitic attack of specific
organisms, but a few are brought about by purely physical
agencies which interfere with normal functions and life proc-
esses of the host.

Among these latter may also be classed such injuries, and
their effects on, the tree or fruit, as sun-scald, frost-cracks,
winter-injury, spray-injury and a variety of other mechanical

Fic. 20. — Blue-mold or soft-rot of apple fruit, showing white tufts of
mold on surface.

105

injuries. These, though not perhaps distinctive diseases, are,
nevertheless, troubles which every orchardist is forced to deal
with more or less. It is not, however, the purpose of this
chapter to discuss these troubles. They are, for the most part,
closely associated with orchard management or mismanage-
ment, and through proper attention to all of the many details
of orchard management their occurrence may be reduced to
an inconsequential minimum.

GENERAL ConTRoL MEASURES.

Spraying the apple orchard with fungicides or with fungi-
cides and insecticides combined is absolutely necessary for the
production of clean, sound fruit. Spraying, however, is not a
panacea for all the diseases to which the apple is heir. Neither
will spraying’ cure a disease. The object of applying a fungi-
cide is, rather, to prevent or control disease by killing or in-
hibiting the development of parasitic fungi. To be effective,
therefore, the spraying schedule must be based on knowledge
of the life histories of the fungi to be combated. It is an
important function of the plant pathologist to work out life
histories of these parasitic organisms, and find out, if he can,
the vulnerable points in the different stages of their develop-
ment. With this accomplished for any disease, it is then
usually possible to work out an effective spray schedule. On
such knowledge are all control measures based, and the spray
schedule given in another section of this publication is the result.
‘of such fundamental work by the scientist. Obviously, physi-
ological diseases are not much affected by spraying.

In addition to spraying, general orchard and storage sani-
tation, regulation of conditions and approved cultural and
other management details must be practiced in order to as-
sure a satisfactory product. Where combative measures other
than spraying are necessary, they are discussed in connection
with specific diseases.

Directions for spraying are given in the “Spray Schedule
for the Apple” (page 113) and for preparing fungicides in the
chapter on “Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple”

(page 106).

106

CuaprTer VIII.
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES FOR THE APPLE,

H. T. FERNALD AND A. V. OSMUN.

Insecticides and fungicides for use by apple growers are few
in number, many which were formerly on the list having now
been discarded. Insecticides are of two classes, viz., the
stomach poisons and the contact insecticides. Where the in-
sect bites off and swallows solid food, such as leaves, the best
material to use is a stomach poison sprayed or dusted onto
the tree. The insect eating this substance on its food is
poisoned and dies. If, on the other hand, the insect sucks
the sap from the tree, no stomach poison put on will reach
it, and materials applied so as to actually hit it must be re-
sorted to. These contact insecticides, as they are called, kill
the insects they touch, and only those. As many of the
sucking insect pests of the apple are extremely small, it is
dificult to reach them all by the spray, so very thorough
spraying must be done with these materials if all the insects
are to be reached and destroyed.

Fungicides are applied only for the control of diseases known
to be caused by fungi which at some stage in their life cycles
grow on the surface of the host where the spray or dust can
come in contact with them. Fungicides are toxic to the fungi
for which they are applied.

INSECTICIDES.

Stomach Poisons.

Arsenate of Lead. — This is the standard stomach poison for
orchard use. It comes both as a paste and as a powder. The
latter is for spraying and also for dusting the trees, using an
air gun or bellows, a number of forms of which are on the
market. In dusting, the powder should be thoroughly mixed

107

with sulfur or gypsum, and this mixing is difficult without
special machinery. Dust mixtures are now on sale, however,
the more usual proportions of the materials being 85 per cent
of sulfur or gypsum and 15 per cent of arsenate of lead. The
sulfur is of some insecticidal value and is therefore probably
the better mixture to use.

As a spray the usual formula is —

Arsenate of lead, paste (pounds), 3
Water (gallons), . 50

If the powder is used instead of the paste, take 14 pounds
instead of 3 pounds. Its price is higher, but there is about
twice as much poison in a pound of powder as in the paste.

In preparing the paste, stir it up thoroughly in a little of
the water, to get a uniform mixture before adding the rest of
the water.

The paste will be of little value after it has once been al-
lowed to dry, and it is also injured by freezing.

Arsenate of Lime. — This is a rather recent spray material,
which like arsenate of lead can be obtained either as a paste
or a powder. There is more arsenic in the latter, but as the
price is correspondingly higher there is little difference between
the two forms from this standpoint.

This material cannot be used with safety on leaves unless
an excess of lime is present. Accordingly, the usual formula
is —

Arsenate of lime, paste (pounds), : 2
Quicklime (pounds), 2 to3
Water (gallons), ; : 50

For the powder take —

Arsenate of lime, powder (pound), 2
Quicklime (pound), 1
Water (gallons), . ; . 50

In either case slake the quicklime in some of the water;
strain it into the rest of the water and then mix in the arsenate

of lime.

108

This substance is cheaper than arsenate of lead, but has
not been used long enough so that one is always sure of the
results which will be obtained. At the present time it seems
to be a promising insecticide, provided care is taken in mixing
to add lime enough to prevent burning the leaves.

; Contact Insecticides.

Nicotine Sulfate, 40 Per Cent.— This material is on sale
under various trade names selected by different manufac-
turers. It is rather expensive, but is so much diluted for use
that a little of it goes a long way as a spray.

One part of the nicotine sulfate is usually mixed with about
800 parts of water. For a barrel pump, which holds about
50 gallons, the proportions are —

Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent (pint), : 4
Soap (pounds), : 2 to 3
Water (gallons), 50

Sometimes it can be used stronger than this for particu-
larly resistant insects, and in a few cases 1 part in 1,000 parts
of water (three-eighths of a pint in 50 gallons of water) is
strong enough, but 1 in 800 is the standard dilution.

This is the best contact insecticide for plant lice, crawling
young of scale insects, etc., but if it cannot be obtained, kero-
sene emulsion, though not quite as effective, and troublesome
to prepare, may be used instead.

Kerosene Emulsion. — This is prepared as follows: —

Nis

Common laundry soap (pound),
Soft water (gallon), 1
Kerosene (gallons), 2

Dissolve the soap in the water (most quickly done by heat-
ing the water), remove from the fire, and add the kerosene.
Now, with a small hand spray pump and fine nozzle, spray
this mixture out of the pail or whatever it is in back into the
pail again through the pump, thus thoroughly mixing or
“churning” the materials. If this is properly done the mix-
ture should soon become milky, then gradually thicken until
it goes hard through the pump. This thickened material is

109

the stock mixture and should keep for a month. In time it
will break up again and the oil, separating out, will appear on
the surface. It is then no longer fit to use.

For use against plant lice, crawling scale insects, etc., take
1 gallon of this stock mixture, mix thoroughly with about 9 gal-
lons of water, and spray. For more resistant insects; mix 1 gal-
lon of the stock with 4 or 5 gallons of water.

If the materials fail to thicken while being “churned,” it is

probably because hard water has been used. In that case add
a little borax or soda to soften it.
— Lime-sulfur Wash. — This wash was first developed as a
scale killer and this is still its chief use as an insecticide. It
has been found, however, that it is also a valuable fungicide,
and is therefore of greater value than was at first thought. It
was originally made by boiling together varying amounts of
lime and sulfur (usually 15 pounds of each) in 50 gallons of
water for about an hour, but the time and labor involved has
led to its being produced and put on sale in concentrated
form, requiring only dilution with the proper amount of water
to make it ready to spray. The usual directions for dilution
to use during the winter months, while the trees are dormant,
are to mix 1 gallon of the concentrate with 8 or 9 gallons of
water, but different brands vary somewhat in this. Further
suggestions for using it are given in Chapter VI under the head-
ing “San José Scale.”

However diluted, the results obtained will depend to a
great extent on the thoroughness with which it is applied.
Careless spraying will fail to reach many of the scales, and
those left will reproduce rapidly enough to injure the tree
seriously in such cases.

For summer use on badly infested trees the concentrate
must be diluted much more than for winter spraying. Treat-
ment for scales during the summer is always made under such
disadvantages that only trees so heavily infested as to make
it doubtful whether they will live through the season are
given this spray. If it seems necessary, however, 1 gallon of
the concentrate is usually diluted with about 30 to 40 gallons
of water. The exact amount to dilute for summer as well as
for winter work is best learned by getting the reading of the

110

concentrate by a Beaumé hydrometer and consulting the dilu-
tion table referred to under the heading ‘‘ San José Scale.”

Miscible Oils. —'There are a number of these oils on the
market under trade names. As their composition is more or
less secret and probably differs with the different brands, dilu-
tion should be according to directions given by the manu-
facturers.

Dry Sulfur Compounds. — So little is known of these as yet
that all which can be said of them is to follow the directions
accompanying them as to mixing with water. Their possible
merits and other points about them are considered under the
heading “San José Scale.’’

FUNGICIDES.

Lime-sulfur Solution. — Lime-sulfur has proved to be an
efficient and effective apple fungicide in western Massachusetts
and for that section it is at present recommended above all
others.

It is usually more convenient to buy the concentrated solu-
tion than to prepare it. A number of reliable brands are on
the market. Those sold under a guarantee of 32 to 34 degrees
Beaumé test may safely be used for spraying fruit trees. The
directions furnished by manufacturers for the dilution of their
own products can usually be relied upon. The usual dilutions
are 1 gallon to 8 or 9 gallons of water for winter spraying, and 1
or 1} gallons to 50 gallons of water for summer treatment. It
should be used as soon as possible after diluting and not be
allowed to stand over night, if this can be avoided. If this, or
the concentrate, must be left open, pour a very little kerosene
on the surface to keep air away from it as much as possible.

Bordeaux Mixture. — Bordeaux mixture is sometimes used
for spraying fruit trees, but it is not recommended for this
purpose by the writers because of the severe burning of fruit
and foliage which it is likely to produce. In a dry May it
may not cause serious injury, but one cannot predict what the
weather conditions will be, and the risk incurred in applying
copper mixtures to the apple is too great to be worth trying.
It is probably true that this material is the most effective

111

fungicide known for certain apple diseases. However, the
injury which may result from its use is often much more
serious than the diseases which it is meant to control. It is
better, therefore, to use some other substance which is known
to be effective, for the most part, in controlling these diseases.
For the present, concentrated lime-sulfur is recommended as
a substitute for Bordeaux mixture. It seldom causes serious
injury and usually gives very satisfactory control.

It is fair to state, however, that in certain sections of the
State, notably in the eastern part, control of scab and _ black-
rot often is not obtained with the use of lime-sulfur when
applied according to the schedule used in other sections. In
fact, so many disastrous failures to get control have followed
the use of this mixture that great need of investigation to es-
tablish better control measures in eastern Massachusetts is
indicated. Until such work is carried out, definite directions
for the control of scab and black-rot in the orchards of that
section cannot be given with any degree of confidence.

Sulfur Dust. — Sulfur dust has been used with considerable
success in New York, Illinois, Michigan and Nova Scotia, but
it has not been given sufficient trial in this State to warrant
the recommendation of its use at this time.

Copper Sulfate-lime Dust.— The use of a copper sulfate-
lime dust in Nova Scotia has met with some success, but this
has not been tried in Massachusetts.

Corrosive Sublimate. — This substance is used for disinfect-
ing pruning and renovating tools and the surface of wounds
before painting. (Corrosive sublimate, 1 part; water, 1,000
parts.)

.Corrosive sublimate may be purchased in tablet form at
drug stores. One tablet dissolved in 1 pint of hot water makes
a 1-1,000 solution.

Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous. It should be plainly
labeled and kept out of reach of children and farm animals.
The solution should not be made in metal containers as most
metals are corroded by it.

112

COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES.

Where control of insects and diseases is needed at about
the same time, a combination of an insecticide and a fungicide
is desirable to save time and labor by putting on the two
together as a mixture. To combine the desired insecticide and
fungicide, however, is not always a simple task, as the two
materials may change on mixing and produce substances which
would be injurious. Precautions in making such mixtures
must therefore be taken.

Lime-sulfur, Lead Arsenate and Nicotine Sulfate (Winter Strength).

Commercial lime-sulfur (gallons), : ; 6
Lead arsenate, powder (pounds), 13, or paste founds’. 3
Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent (pint), : :
Water, to make (gallons) b. 50

This is the mixture to use for the first spraying (see “Spray
Schedule,” page 113).

Lime-sulfur, Lead Arsenate and Nicotine Sulfate (Summer Strength).

Commercial lime-sulfur (quarts), F » §
Lead arsenate, powder (pounds), 13, or paste (pounds), ‘ 3
Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent (pint), 3
Water, to make (gallons) 50

This is for the second and third sprayings (see “Spray
Schedule,” page 113).

Lime-sulfur and Lead Arsenate (Summer Strength).

Commercial lime-sulfur (quarts), 5
Lead arsenate, powder (pounds), 14, or paste (pounds), 3
Water, to make (gallons) . : oer 50

This is the mixture to use for the fourth spraying (see
“Spray Schedule,” page 113).

COMBINATION INSECTICIDES.

Arsenate of Lead and Nicotine Sulfate. —In cases where
chewing and sucking insects are present but no treatment for
fungous diseases is necessary, arsenate of lead may be pre

113

pared as usual and nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, can be added,
the 50 gallons of arsenate of lead spray taking the place of
the 50 gallons of water given under the directions for pre-
paring the nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent.

Lime-sulfur Wash and Nicotine Sulfate. — This combination
is rarely used, but can be prepared, if desired, by adding one-
half pint of nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, to the 50 gallons of
lime-sulfur. The soap usually added to the nicotine sulfate
must not be added in this case.

SPRAY SCHEDULE FOR THE APPLE.

First Application. — Time: Just as the buds are opening.
This is known as the “delayed-dormant spray,” and now takes
the place of the application formerly made when the tree was
wholly dormant. What to use: Lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and
nicotine sulfate (winter strength) as given under the heading
“Combined ‘Insecticides and Fungicides,” page 112. For: San
José scale, aphids, bud moth; scab, and possibly effective against
some other diseases.

Second Application. — Time: When the buds first show
pink but before they open (the “cluster-bud spray”’). What to
use: Lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and nicotine sulfate (summer
strength) as given under the heading “Combined Insecticides
and Fungicides,” page 112. For: Aphids, bud moth, tent cat-
erpillar, red bug, brown-tail moth, gypsy moth, curculio; scab,
and possibly other diseases.

Third Application. — Time: As the petals fall-or within a
week after falling begins; never when the tree is in actual
blossom. This is called the “calyx spray” because at this
time the petals are gone and the calyx is wide open. What to
use: The same as for the second application. For: Codling
moth, curculio, red bug, aphids, brown-tail moth, gypsy
moth; scab (this and the second applications are probably
the most important in the control of scab), fruit-spot, black-
rot and leaf-spot.

Fourth Application. — Time: Plan to complete this spraying

114

within two weeks after the third. Possibly it may be delayed
until three weeks after the third, but this will depend on the
season and perhaps the section of the State. What to use:
Lime-sulfur and lead arsenate (summer strength) as given
under the heading “Combined Insecticides and Fungicides,”
page 112. For: Codling moth, curculio, lesser apple worm and
any other chewing insects which may be present; scab, bitter-
rot, black-rot, sooty-mold and fly-speck, brown-rot, fruit-spot.

The above schedule is recommended for all parts of the
State except the extreme eastern section. It is probable that
there should be some modifications of it for that region, but
a definite program cannot be offered until investigational

\work has been done on which a new schedule may be based.
It is possible that a greater number and more frequent appli-
cations of fungicides may prove necessary for eastern Massa-
chusetts.

On the other hand, certain of the applications in the schedule
might be omitted in some orchards without material reduction
of control. At present, experience and judgment must govern
one in determining whether this may safely be done.

In a wet or cloudy summer season, where sooty-blotch and
fly-speck have been prevalent in previous years, an application
of lime-sulfur in August will be beneficial in checking this
disease.

No apple grower can afford to omit the second and third
applications, — the so-called cluster-bud and calyx sprays.

115

CHAPTER IX.
APPLE STORAGE ON THE FARM.

WM. R. COLE, EXTENSION SPECIALIST IN HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES,
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,

The problem of storage for the apple crop probably comes
at some time or other to every grower. There can be little
doubt that in some form storage is essential to successful or-
charding. Many should think of it for themselves on their
own farms, while others should look at the question as one of
co-operation and think of it in the form of a central storage
house for a group of growers. Some are apt to be satisfied
with the commercial warehouse, but very frequently the grower
in this latter class is at the mercy of the speculator.

Common storage is a successful way to handle the crop of the
grower with an average acreage. This is the type which is
sometimes known as frostproof storage and can be very suc-
cessfully operated in Massachusetts. Much more can be ac-
complished with this type of storage than is generally realized
if proper use be made of low night temperatures of the fall.
It is a good business proposition for our growers to own either
individually or collectively a common storage cellar.

Of course it is necessary that those holding fruit be able to
wait for their money, which is one of the objections to storage.

There is a good deal of misapprehension as to the function
of a storage house in the preservation of fruit. A fruit is a
living organism in which the life processes go forward slowly
in low temperatures, but do not cease in the lowest temper-
ature in which the fruit may be safely stored. When the
fruit actually reaches the end of its life it dies of old age.
The storage house is designed to arrest these ripening proc-
esses in a temperature that will not injure the fruit in other
respects, and thereby to prolong its life history. It follows

116

that the behavior of different apples or different varieties of
apples in a storage room is largely dependent on their condi-
tion when they enter the room. In general it is the function
of the storage house to furnish a uniform temperature of the
desired degree of cold throughout the storage season.

There are various conditions that affect the keeping quality
of apples in storage of which the following are most impor-
tant: —

(a) The Condition of the Fruit.— The behavior of apples in
storage depends upon their condition when they enter the
room. No two lots should be expected to act alike unless they
are in a similar condition when stored. If one lot ripens more
than another after being picked and before being placed in stor-
age, it will deteriorate more quickly in the storage house. In other
words, it is nearer the end of the life cvcle when it is stored.

(b) Temperature for Keeping the Apples. — The commercial
practice of 31 to 32 degrees Fahrenheit in the warehouse will
hold back the ripening of the fruit more than a higher tem-
perature. It also checks the development of diseases if dis-
ease germs are present. When the fruit is removed from the
warehouse to a warmer temperature it remains in good con-
dition longer when taken from a temperature of 31 or 32 de-
grees Fahrenheit than when removed from a higher storage
temperature. Under favorable conditions winter varieties of
apples may be stored satisfactorily throughout the season in
a temperature of 34 to 36 degrees. This higher temperature
is adapted to farm storage houses and warehouses in which
the fruit can be placed soon after picking.

(c) The Time to pick :pples for Storage. — The ideal apple
for keeping in cold storage is fully grown, highly colored and
still hard when picked from the tree. The scarcity of labor,
the difficulty that is experienced in getting cars for the trans-
portation of apples, and the frequent congestions in the freight
trafic and the railway terminals often make it necessary to
begin picking the crop relatively early in the season, so that
many apples which are not in first-class condition for long
keeping go into storage. These difficulties are an argument
in favor of having the storage cellar located on the farm.

(d) Effect of Color. — Weeping quality is often correlated

117

with the degree of coloring up of the fruit. Colored varieties
of apples should, if possible, be picked only after they are well
colored but while they are still firm and solid.

_(e) Storage promptly after picking. —.A large proportion of
the difficulties in the storage of apples are the results of de-
laying the storage after the fruit is picked. The apple ripens
more rapidly after being picked than when hanging on the
tree and maturing in the same temperature. The ripening
that occurs between picking and storage shortens to that
extent the life of the fruit in the storage house. This makes
it extremely important to get the fruit from tree to storage as
soon as is possible after picking.

(f) Influence of the Type of Package. — There is a wide dif-
ference of opinion concerning the comparative value of ven-
tilated and closed packages for apple storage. One of the
largest growers of apples in Massachusetts, with a total at the
present time of nearly 7,000 trees in all stages of growth from
two vears up to fifty years, is using discarded orange boxes most
successfully as the means of storing his fruit. The fruit is placed
in these orange boxes immediately on picking and then carried to
the storage house. Bushel boxes as storage containers are used
by many farmers who are successful in holding their fruit. These
boxes are filled in the orchard and either hauled directly to the
storage and placed therein or are stacked up outside over night
for cooling and then placed in the storage in the early morning.
Apples should never be piled in the orchard.

In handling apples for storage, the ideal is reached when
the fruit can be taken directly from the trees to the warehouse.
This should, however, be done only when the weather is cool;
if the weather is hot they should be precooled as noted above.
If shipped distances, of course the same effect on the fruit is
obtained when the fruit is placed in refrigerator cars for trans-
portation. So far as the keeping quality of the fruit is con-
cerned it is undoubtedly true that the warehouse near the
orchard is the most satisfactory.

Storage has also undoubtedly had a good effect in raising
the standard of production by the growers. They must have
good fruit for storage; and since storage gives better prices, it
is an argument for raising better fruit.

118

No fruit should-ever be placed in storage that has not been
thoroughly sprayed. In rare instances unsprayed fruit may
look as well as the sprayed product, but experience has shown
that it never keeps as well. Proper spraying affects the fruit
so thoroughly that it has great resistance to external bacteria.

Storage in bulk should not be attempted if it is possible to
avoid it. If conditions make-it necessary to store in bulk
just care must be exercised to get the bins of not too large a
size and separated by spaces for air circulation. It is possible
to keep good hard fruit of some winter varieties in bins if
these receptacles be not over 2 by 3 feet high and as long as
may be convenient.

A dark storage is very necessary. The presence of light
hastens the ripening even if the temperature is kept low, and
in some cases impairs the flavor of the fruit.

The chief advantages of good storage facilities, looking at
the problem from the standpoint of the grower, are, first, that
it makes him independent of the commercial buyer. If, the
buyer knows the grower has no satisfactory place to store.
his apples he will naturally lower the price that he offers for
the fruit. On the other hand, if the fruit buyer realizes that
the apples are safe and can be held successfully he will be more
inclined to pay the grower a fair price for his crop. Good
storage facilities in fact put the transaction on a plane of
equality for both the grower and the buyer. This comfort-
able feeling of independence on the part of the grower is often
worth to him all that a storage cellar will cost.

Second, good storage facilities will keep the fruit in better
condition, and in consequence make it sell for more when it is
disposed of.

Third, the ultimate consumer, who is the final judge, will be
much better pleased with fruit coming from good storage and
will be more apt to want another barrel. It is a well-known
fact in the business world that the profit in merchandizing
comes from the repeat orders.

Fourth, good storage delays the marketing of the fruit and
in this way improves the price. Baldwins, for example, sell
for more in December than they do at picking time in October.
They also sell for more in March or April than they do in De-

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cember. Nothing is more demoralizing to the apple market
than that first-class fruit be forced into competition with wind-
falls and fruit from unsprayed orchards.

A study of the prices for Baldwin apples covering a period
of six years, 1912 to 1917, inclusive, showed average price at
harvest time, September 15 to November 15, was $2.45 per
barrel. During the same period of years the market price
over what makes up the common storage period, December 1
to April 1, was $3.75 per barrel.

As an illustration, assume that a farmer had a crop of 500
barrels and that he possessed a good storage cellar, an allow-
ance of 10 per cent being made for shrinkage: —

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Value of 450 barrels out of common storage, . . $1,687 50
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Per cent of gainon 500 barrels, . =. wwe, 37

If this comparison were made inclusive of the 1918-19 and
1919-20 crops, the percentage of gain would be much higher.

Fifth, another advantage of storage is the fact that it is a
food saver. During the war we were continually urged to
save food. It is now necessary to practice the same conser-
vation though perhaps a better name for the principle would
be thrift. A great many thousands of bushels of apples are
annually allowed to go to waste in Massachusetts because the
grower has no facilities for storing his crop. This is food
waste and could be saved by having proper storage facilities.

Sixth, good storage facilities help the labor market. When
help is scarce at harvest time it is worth while having a storage
building or cellar close by the orchard so that the time con-
sumed by hauling to the railroad station, if one is shipping to
commercial storage, may be saved and these men put to work
picking apples.

Seventh, storage has a large influence in extending the ap-
ple market. Many of the summer and fall varieties may now
be shipped to distant domestic and foreign markets in re-
frigerator cars or even in refrigerator compartments on ship-
board. If the fruit has been properly handled between the
orchard and the warehouse as well as in the warehouse, the

120

late-keeping varieties can be withdrawn from common storage
in the winter and shipped to Europe and arrive in satisfactory
condition. This export may be carried out in common holds
in vessels, providing they have good ventilation. These late-
keeping varieties stored in cold storage may be exported in
refrigerated shipping compartments as late as the middle or
last of May and give satisfactory returns on the foreign market.

Eighth, storage is one of the most important influences in
raising the standard of American orcharding. There is an
increasing demand on the part of the consumer for fruit of a
higher-quality, of better appearance, and of better physical
condition. The old-fashioned method of handling the apple
crop when the fruit was roughly handled, poorly packed and
improperly preserved will not satisfy the present-day con-
sumer. Poorly grown fruit or improperly handled fruit does
not keep well in storage and therefore is not profitable.

There are two main types of fruit storage, — those using
some mechanical means of lowering the temperature below
that of the outside air, called cold storage, and those depend-
ing upon temperatures secured from atmospheric changes and
called cool or common storage. The first class ‘may be sub-
divided into those using ammonia refrigeration and those using
ice. The second class embraces many different types of building,
and there are also pits and trenches which embody the same
general principles and are constructed to suit given conditions.

Few producers in Massachusetts are handling sufficient
quantities to warrant the ownership of mechanically cooled
storages. There are some districts where large production by
closely grouped farms offers a field for the promotion of co-
operatively owned cold-storage plants, but this chapter is in-
tended for those interested in common storage and no attempt
will be made to discuss refrigerated storage.

Six fundamentals must be kept in mind in constructing an
apple storage: —

. Maintenance of low temperatures.

. Protection from frost.

. Protection from heating.

. Protection from changes in temperature.

. Provision for sufficient moisture.

. Avoidance of a wet and stagnant atmosphere.

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Air-cooled storages are usually built partly or entirely under
ground because the earth acts as an insulator. The depth of
the earth depends on the location of the cellar. It should be
covered deep enough so that frost cannot enter the storage
room in the coldest weather. A deep covering gives better
satisfaction the year round because it keeps out the extreme
cold in the winter and keeps out the heat of the summer.

The ventilation system of an air-cooled storage must be
correctly designed and very carefully operated. Intakes and
outlets must be carefully constructed and placed to give a
good circulation. No ventilating system, however carefully
installed, will give satisfaction unless properly operated. On
cold nights during the fall the system must be working at its
maximum, The ventilators should be kept open during the
nighttime as long as the cold fall weather lasts.

Since storage cellars are usually built under ground, they
should be constructed of some material which will easily
withstand the action of moisture. Concrete is a first-class
material for storage cellar construction. Concrete construc-
tion is not overexpensive, is easy to build, is waterproof, rat-
proof and permanent.

The construction of a storage especially for apples is often
advisable for the grower who has a large production of winter
varieties. Its size is of course dependent on the quantity of
fruit it is desired to store, but if one keeps in mind the fact
that a bushel of fruit plus air space and alleys will occupy
about 23 cubic feet of space, it will be comparatively easy to
figure the size necessary.

The type of building and its size are dependent on local
conditions. An average 10-acre orchard will produce 2,500 to
3,000 bushels in a good crop. The grower with a crop of this
size will need a cellar of approximately 7,500 cubic feet capacity
since an allowance per bushel of 23 cubic feet is needed to pro-
vide storage space with necessary air spaces and alleys.

The location should be carefully selected. It should, if pos-
sible, be located on a side hill of slight slope but with suf-
ficient rise to assure good drainage and to make the excava-
tion work as easy as possible. It is best if one side and one
end may be below the ground level. The shape of the cellar

122

will largely depend on the “lay of the land,” but, as a general
rule, if the length be twice the width it will work out well.
The storage should be located as near the center of production
as possible, keeping in mind ease of reaching it and ease of
getting out with fruit for market. As a general proposition
it is best not to make the cellar more than 8 feet deep in the
clear, that is between floor and ceiling. If the grower is using
bushel boxes with 1 inch risers, this will permit of stacking
eight or nine high, which is as much as is easy to handle.

The walls may be of concrete, masonry, brick or hollow tile.
For most localities, however, it is probably best to use con-
crete. In the greater part of Massachusetts it is possible to
obtain easily the necessary sand and gravel. In making the
excavation a little care in keeping the banks as nearly per-
pendicular as possible will make it necessary to build but one
form for the concrete. The face of the bank can be used for
the other side of the form. The walls should be at least a
foot thick at the top and should be more than that at the
bottom, especially if one contemplates the erection of a build-
ing over the cellar. The walls should go at least 18 inches
below the floor level of the cellar so that rats will not burrow
under. In building a wall of this thickness heavy rocks can
be used, being careful to get the concrete well down around
them. In building the wall of course gaps will be left wherever
ventilators, windows and doors are to be placed.

The floor of the cellar should be dirt except in special cases
when the soil is very wet or where an easily applied supply of
water is available. This dirt floor will supply the necessary
moisture. In cases where a water supply can be easily utilized
a concrete floor may be laid, provision for conducting the
water being made as circumstances may demand. Successful
methods have been used which included a shallow trench
around the edge of the floor into which the water could be
turned as occasion demanded. Another method has been to
dig a series of shallow blind wells which were connected by
pipes from well to well and drained outside the cellar. If the
water from a spring can be carried into the cellar and a stream
kept constantly running, it will not only provide moisture
but will help in equalizing the temperatures.

123

The ceiling of the cellar should be of sheathing paper cov-
ered with boards. It must be tight. If there is to be a build-
ing over the cellar its floor will make the other side of an air
space for protection from cold. If no building is put over
the cellar the ceiling timbers should be tightly boarded over
on their upper sides.

The ventilating system used in common storage houses de-
pends on the natural law that warm air rises. It consists of
a series of cold-air inlets and warm-air outlets. The inlet
flues should be placed in position so that they open to the
outer air at the ceiling of the cellar and just above the ground
level on the banked side of the cellar. Unfortunately there are
not available any accurate data as to the relative size of
these openings to the size of the cellar. In some localities a
“yatio of 1 square foot of inlet per 1,000 cubic feet of cellar
space has been found satisfactory, while in others it has been
necessary to increase this proportion greatly. It is easier to
err on the side of too little rather than too much. These
openings should be not less than 12 by 24 inches in size, and
the flues running from them should extend to within 6 inches
of the cellar floor. They should be equipped with tightly
fitting shutters and dampers.

This space between shutter and damper gives the air-space
protection needed to keep out frost. These flues must be of
tight construction to insure efficient working. There should
be one for each 15 feet of length of wall. This allowance is
in accord with the best information available at the present
‘time.

Warm-air outlets to furnish the rest of the circulation sys-
tem should be placed in the middle of the lengthwise center
of the cellar, leading from the ceiling up through the roof.
They act in the same way as the chimney of a house, giving
a draft that sucks out the warm, foul air. They should be
of a size to equal approximately in total the square foot area
of the inlet flues, but will need to be only one-half the num-
ber. They should be equipped with tightly fitting shutters at
the ceiling and dampers above.

In constructing a storage cellar it is advisable to build a
packing room as an adjunct to the plant. This may well be

124

built on the open side and should be separated from the
cellar proper by a stud and board partition. It should be of
a size to permit of the running in of the truck or wagon and
give room for efficient work by two or three men. If a grader
is used it will need to be much larger than if such, is not the
case. The doors from the packing room to the storage room
should be of a size and location to permit the trucks and
wagons to run into the cellar if possible. This will help to
reduce the man labor in getting the fruit into the cellar. All
doors should fit tightly and those on the outside should be
double. Plenty of windows should be allowed for in the
packing room. It should have a board floor for the comfort
of those working there. The packing room is sometimes
placed above the storage, but this is an inefficient and expen-
sive location for it even if an elevator be installed.

All openings, doors, windows and inlet flues should be pro-
vided with screens made from four to the inch cellar window
wire as protection against rats.

Many farmers have on their places old barn cellars or even
old house cellars which, with the expenditure of a little money
and labor, may be made into very efficient common storage
houses. Most of these old barn cellars were built so that they
have three sides below the ground level and the fourth side
open.

The first thing necessary to do is to clean up the cellar,
thoroughly removing all manure and, so far as possible, the
saturated dirt. The walls should be repaired where necessary
and pointed up all round. A concrete footing 4 or 5 inches’
thick and going down below the foot of the wall for 18 to 24
inches is excellent insurance against rats. This footing should
be put in on all four sides, and on the open side will serve as
a foundation for the stud and board wall it will be necessary
to construct. This wall should be built of 2 by 4 inch studs
spaced 16 inches, covered on both sides with sheathing paper
or one-ply roofing paper, and then with matched boards. The
outer side should be waterproofed with shingles or two-ply
roofing paper. The remainder of the work in reconstruction
will follow the foregoing directions for new construction.

It is good practice to put up a building over the storage

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cellar. This may be of stud and board construction covered
with shingles or roofing paper, or it may be framed and cov-
ered with shiplap. It can be most satisfactorily used as a
storage for empty boxes, as a shop for assembling boxes and
barrels, and as a storage room for orchard equipment. If
walls and ceiling be sheathed over it can well be used as an
apple storage for the part of the crop which it is desired to
move early in the season before really cold weather sets in.

If no building is to be put up over the cellar the ceiling
beams should be boarded over on their upper sides and a
roof put on. With good tight ceiling and roof no danger of
frost getting in should exist.

After constructing the storage cellar the problem of holding
the fruit is only partially completed. No storage however
carefully planned and correctly built will successfully hold
poor fruit; neither will it hold good fruit in marketable con-
dition unless properly managed.

Producers in Massachusetts who are practicing storage do
so with one of two objects in view. One class is storing ap-
ples of the higher grades that are sized and packed at har-
vest time and are not, as a rule, repacked but are shipped as
market conditions demand. Generally speaking, apples stored
in common storage under these conditions go to market early.
in the winter. The second group, and much the larger num-
ber are enrolled in this class, store direct from the trees, making
no attempt to grade or size the fruit until it is packed out for
market.

Certain growers have made a practice of running the fruit
over a sizing machine as it goes into the cellar and have not
lost anything in keeping quality. For a grower who is mar-
keting several grades this would appear to be good practice
since it permits of stacking a given size by itself, which facili-
tates filling an order for that size fruit. Fruit to be thus
handled needs to be especially hard and firm so that no ap-
preciable damage by bruising will be done by the machine.

The boxes of fruit should be piled in a careful manner. If
boxes with no risers are used strips of l-inch thick lumber
should be placed on the tops of the boxes before putting on
the next layer. This will allow a circulation of air over the

126

top of each box. Alleys should be left open in front of each
cold-air inlet flue and a space of 6 inches to 1 foot left open
between the wall and the piles of boxes.

During the fall season all openings, including doors and
windows, should be left open through the nights and closed
in the mornings. This is in order to bring in as rapidly as
possible the cooler air and to confine it there. A little atten-
tion to this matter is worth many dollars in holding the fruit.
Close attention to the temperature outside and in will pay
many times over. Thermometers should be placed in the
cellar so that accurate knowledge of the temperature may be
had.

During the storage season occasional use should be made of
the ventilating system so that the air may not become stag-
nant. Select a day when the outer temperature is neither
too warm nor too cold and open the whole system for a few
hours. If the flues are properly designed and built it is pos-
sible to change the air very rapidly.

No storage cellar is a bit better than the fruit in it and the
method used in managing it.

There are many successful storage cellars in use in Massa-
chusetts and examples of several types may be of interest.

The Auburn Fruit Company of Worcester has, at its orchard
in Auburn, a cellar built for apple storage some years ago. It
has been uniformly successful for holding the fruit. This
cellar is built with concrete walls, below ground level on two
sides and one end and has a packing room at the other end.
It has a shed construction building over it which is used for
package storage.

R. C. Cobb of Littleton and A. N. Calkins of Harvard have
successfully reconstructed old barn cellars into efficient apple
storages. E. F. Shumway of Belchertown has a good storage
cellar made by roofing over an abandoned house cellar. The
Williamsburg Fruit Growers Association has a co-operative
storage and packing plant constructed from an old barn. Any
of the above will gladly show people interested how their
plants were built and what the results are.

127

CHAPTER X.
APPLE PACKING FOR MASSACHUSETTS GROWERS.

ALBERT R. JENKS, WEST ACTON, MASSACHUSETTS, FRUIT GROWER.

The commercial importance of the apple crop in Massa-
chusetts has grown rapidly during the past decade. Improved
methods of harvesting, sizing, grading, packing, storing and
marketing have had a great influence in helping make the
apple crop profitable to its producers. These methods must
be improved upon and be more generally practiced if the
State is to maintain the reputation being developed, and is
to continue to market her rapidly increasing crop at a price
which will return to the growers cost of production plus a
reasonable profit. The rapid development of interest in apple
by-products with their apparently unlimited market forms an
excellent outlet for culls and lower grade apples, so that one
should not hesitate to remove these grades of apples from their
better marketable grades.

Improved methods of picking must precede any advance in
the packing of apples. Too little thought oftentimes is given
to this phase. Apples may be excellently grown and finely
packed, but unless they are carefully picked they will not
bring the highest market price. It is very hard to know just
when an apple has reached the stage when, if picked, it will
keep the longest and still retain the highest quality for culi-
nary and dessert purposes. The time will vary according to
the soil, its moisture content, the variety of apple, the stock,
the season, the exposure and the purpose for which the fruit
is sold. Experience is necessary to determine this point, but
there is less danger of picking too early than too late. A fair
test of ripeness is to lift the apple gently and twist it slightly.
If it parts readily from the spur, the apple is ripe enough to
pick. If the apples are to be placed in ordinary storage they

128

should be picked earlier than if they are to be put into cold
storage. One must not, however, pick apples -too green, be-
cause they are more likely to scald in storage. Experience
during the past few years has proved that apples must be
picked several days earlier than they have been in order to
obtain satisfactory results from storage.

HARVESTING.

In picking apples, handle them as carefully as eggs. Em-
ploy help who can pick with two hands. The recent labor
shortage has forced fruit growers to use women, boys and
girls to help harvest the fruit. Farmerettes have in the ma-
jority of cases proved very satisfactory. Many fruit men re-
port that the farmerettes have been the most satisfactory help
which they have ever had at harvest time, and they prefer to
continue employing them as long as they are available.

Great care should be exercised not to detach the stems,
because when a stem is pulled out it breaks the skin; this
allows the bacteria to enter the apple, resulting in rot and
disease in an otherwise sound apple. Many markets refuse
apples with 25 per cent of the stems missing. Equal care
should be exercised in picking apples to leave all fruit spurs
unbroken upon the limbs. Each broken spur means that
several apples are deducted from the next three or four years’
crops. This is an absolutely unnecessary loss if due care is
exercised. Help should never be allowed to climb into the
trees while picking, especially young trees, because broken
branches and bruised limbs are bound to result from such a
procedure. Wounds and bruises upon the limbs constitute
ideal conditions under which canker and other diseases start
and flourish. Light, strong stepladders should be used for low
trees; for taller trees, light pointed ladders, which will fit. into
crotches in the limbs, are better then straight ladders. Ex-
tension ladders are necessary for very tall trees.

There are many kinds of picking bags, buckets and baskets
upon the market. Most growers prefer the oak, splint, half-
bushel basket which has a swinging bale, allowing the basket
to be lowered into the barrel or other receptacle and the con-
tents poured out without any danger of bruising the fruit.

129

The baskets should first be oiled, thus making them more
durable; they should then be padded with canvas or burlap.
Picking receptacles that open from the bottom are not entirely
satisfactory at present, and picking bags tend to bruise the
apples more or less. Heavy wire bent in the form of the letter
S, with the upper part large enough to put over limbs and
the lower part to fit the handle of the basket, are very useful.
This will enable the pickers to use both hands. It is quite
essential that practically all the picking be done by hand, as,
up to the present time, the patent pickers have not been so
perfected as not to bruise the fruit, or else they are deficient
in other ways. Patent pickers may be used for stray, scattered
apples.

The question of field receptacles for the apples now arises.
The field receptacles to be used will depend upon what is
available or easily obtainable, upon whether the apples are to
be sold shortly after being harvested or are to be stored, and
upon what sort of a container they are to be sold in.

There are several different types of field receptacles in use
in the State. They vary according to the section of the
State. The growers in eastern Massachusetts have been
marketing their apples almost entirely in the so-called Boston
produce box which contains 14 bushels. They have also used
this box as a field and storage container. These growers are
now adopting a smaller box which will hold a United States
standard bushel by cubical contents within the tolerances of
the law.

This package stores well when empty, can be used over and
over again, stacks well in storage and on trucks, and when full
is not too heavy to handle easily. Excellent ventilation for
the apples while in storage is provided by the use of risers
upon the ends of the boxes. Growers in the central and
western parts of the State are rapidly adopting this package
as a field and storage receptacle.

Orange, grape-fruit and cracker boxes are used by several
of the large, progessive growers. These ordinarily can be ob-
tained at little cost and furnish excellent ventilation. Second-
hand barrels are used extensively in the western part of the
State for field and storage receptacles.

130

Market PacKaGeEs.

As previously suggested, eastern Massachusetts apples are
almost entirely marketed in the produce box. The _ bushel
produce box now being adopted as a standard package is 174
by 173 by 7g inches inside dimensions. The ends are made
of not less than five-eighths inch and the sides and bottom of
three-eighths inch material. Risers are also being standardized
and are not higher than five-eighths inch and are generally
five-eighths by five-eighths inch. The wording upon at least
one side of the package, in bold Gothic type of at least 1 inch
in height, is as follows: “Standard Box For Farm Produce
U. S. Standard Bushel.” This produce box is by legislative
action a standard produce box in Rhode Island. It is used
for vegetables and fruits and can be used over and over again.
It is hoped that the other New England States will adopt the
same size bushel produce box so that the different States will
have an interchangeable package.

This box has many advantages for use in near-by markets,
and a large percentage of Massachusetts apples are at present
sold within the State borders. The box is easily and quickly
packed, and is at present a credit package, which means that
the grower obtains a portion of his original package investment
back from the man who purchases his apples. These boxes
cost from 20 to 32 cents apiece, and the credit or exchange
value is 15 cents, so that considering the credit value growers
are able to market their fruits in these packages at a much
less package cost than when using barrels, apple boxes, stave
baskets, or 14-quart peach baskets.

Some Massachusetts growers have tried out the standard
apple box. This is at present used by northwestern apple
growers for all the apples which they ship. The dimensions of
the standard box are 103 by 114 by 18 inches inside measure-
ment. The box contains a trifle less than a standard bushel,
but when it has the necessary bulge it accommodates more
than a bushel. Apples are generally sold by the number in
the box and not by weight or measure.

The ends of the box should be of one piece, three-fourths of
an inch thick, with the grain running crosswise; the sides

131

should be one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch thick and of
one piece; the tops and bottoms should be of two pieces each,
a little less than one-fourth of an inch thick, the two pieces
making them more elastic. There should be two cleats for
the top of the box and two for the-bottom on each end. These
hold the top and bottom securely, as the bulge has a tendency
to push the thin boards over the nail heads. The boxes gen-
erally come knocked down, and can be put together during
rainy weather, before the season opens. Four nails should be
used for the sides, at each end. Fourpenny or fivepenny ce-
ment-coated nails are the best; they hold better.

Many Massachusetts growers attempted using the standard
apple box before they had fruit of high enough quality to
warrant placing it in such a package. These growers ini all
too many cases also did not understand proper grading and
packing, so that distributors and consumers have often been
disappointed in condition and quality of these apples. Massa-
chusetts grown and packed fruit in standard apple boxes
therefore has in many cases not the best of a reputation. A
few individual growers of really high-class fruit are building up
a fine reputation for their product and find an unlimited
market right at home.

The standard apple box probably will be used more exten-
sively in the future when Massachusetts McIntosh, Graven-
steins and Wealthies are grown so extensively as to supply all
of the local demand for them and still have a surplus for
shipping to near-by States and more distant markets. There
is little doubt but what within a few years McIntosh growers
will have to look outside of the State for satisfactory markets
‘for their very rapidly increasing crop. The standard apple
box is an excellent package for distant markets.

Some growers near Springfield, Massachusetts, have been
using the 14-quart peach basket. This has been a fine package
in that it contains just about the right quantity of apples for
a family to purchase and use up before loss from deterioration
starts. It has filled a long-felt want for a small package. It
has many drawbacks, such as being a poor package for hauling
to market and stacking in the market or in the retail store.
This package probably will have to give way to the proposed

132

standard half-bushel box, which is 122 inches in length, 123
inches in width, and 77 inches in depth, all inside dimensions,
the size of material in ends, bottoms and sides to be similar
to the bushel box. The writer believes that this package is
destined to become very popular with growers of high-class
apples who cater to roadside stands, fruit stores and retail
store trade. It is hoped that like the bushel produce box it
may in time become a credit package.

The apple barrel is standardized by Federal and State law.
The barrel is at present used for the larger share of the crop
of the western part of the State. It is an excellent package
for use in exporting apples or in selling average grade apples
outside of the State. Owing to the frequent difficulty of ob-
taining apple barrels, one should order them in advance of the
time they are needed. Use only new barrels for the best
grade and perhaps for the second-best grade. If second-hand
barrels are used at all they should be carefully cleaned. Hard-
wood barrels with elm hoops are the best.

Four-quart wire-bale baskets: are coming into common use
for fruit stand and roadside stand trade. They are easily
packed with the different sized apples. Corrugated packages
are now so expensive that they are used but little in com-
mercial packing. Hampers, flat tills, and other types of small
packages are not used to any great extent commercially.
They likely will be developed for specialized markets.

The universal bushel is a stave bushel of United States
Standard cubic contents within the tolerances of the law. It
is an attractive package which is used very extensively in
apple-growing sections outside of Massachusetts. The shortage
and high price of boxes and barrels already is tending to develop
an interest in this package among growers in Massachusetts and
it is likely to get into very general use in the State during the
next few years.

If one plans to pack his apples in barrels it is always a de-
batable question whether the packing should be done in the
field or in the packing shed. Local conditions oftentimes de-
cide this question. It is generally better, however, to haul
the apples to a central packing place, as the facilities for bet-
ter and more rapid work can there be provided. Barreled

se grader.

Fic. 1.— The Pe

Fic. 2. — The Gifford grader.

133

apples thus packed generally bring 15 to 25 cents more a
barrel, because, as a rule, the work is done better. Then, too,
if the apples are brought immediately to a central packing
house, they generally have an opportunity to become cool
before they are placed in the barrels. This adds to their keep-
ing qualities very materially. If the varieties are in large,
compact blocks in the orchard, and the packing shed is quite
a long distance away, it undoubtedly is cheaper to pack the
apples in the field. In this case, one needs no field receptacles,
as the pickers can empty their baskets directly upon the sort-
ing table. When the packing-shed plan is followed, cheap but
firm barrels are probably the best field receptacles. These
should be filled not more than four-fifths full: A low-down
spring wagon, with a broad platform and broad wheels which
will turn in under the platform, should be used. Bolster
springs have been placed upon the market. By using these
spririgs almost any wagon may be made suitable for orchard
use. Fruit hauled on such a wagon will be bruised but very
little. Large market express wagons are used in eastern
Massachusetts for hauling apples to the packing shed or
storage.

SIZERS.

Sizers, or graders as they are oftentimes erroneously called,
are to be found on most of the larger fruit farms in the State.
Reports received from the manufacturers and dealers of sizers
show that there are between fifty and sixty in the State at
present and they are increasing at the rate of about thirty
each year.

The sizers are of several different types, but the two most
common ones are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, The machines do very
excellent work in sizing all varieties of apples, peaches and
pears. One may run over each hand machine about four
hundred fifty bushels daily. It iS an easy matter to adjust the
machines to grade different varieties of fruit to sizes desired.
They give three to five sizes, and size the apples with very little
error. Such outfits usually pay for themselves in one season in
saving of Jabor where one has many apples to size, grade and
pack,

134

BaRREL PAckKING.

Many different types of tables are in use for sorting apples
for barrel packing. The most common table is called the
end-delivery table, and is a very good table for use when one
is careful not to handle the apples roughly. The dimensions
are as follows: Length, 7 feet; width at back, 33 feet; height
-at front, 32 inches; height at back, 36 inches; height of side
boards, 6 inches.

Spaces are left between the boards in the bottom of the
table for the dirt and leaves to sift through. The boards
must be of a soft wood and smoothed off, in order not to
injure the fruit. The back of the table is purposely made 5
or 6 inches higher in order that the apples may roll down
toward the front.

It is necessary to have three men working at such a table
to get the best results. An upturned barrel is placed at the
end of the table. On this is placed a basket for a certain
grade, —the grade which is running the smallest. A man
stands at the side of the table and sorts. He has one or two
upturned barrels beside him which hold the baskets for other
grades. The grade which composes the bulk of the apples is
allowed to run down the table into the barrel. The third
man in the crew knocks the tail end out of the barrels, picks
out the facer apples, puts them into the barrels and empties
the baskets of the two sorters into their proper barrels. Three
men working in a crew in such manner will average about 40
to 45 barrels per day. One extra man can head up and stencil
all the barrels put up by three such crews.

A heavier table is often used in packing-house work. It is
9 feet long, 6 feet wide and 33 inches high in front, with the
table running lengthwise. The back of the table is 38 inches
‘high and the side 8 inches high. The bottom is slatted, as in
the end-delivery table. Three men are needed in the sorting
crew, as at the other table. The only advantage of this
table is the fact that more field barrels can be emptied upon
it at one time.

The actual packing of the barrel consists in placing a cor-

135

rugated head on the bottom of the barrel. The final top of
the barrel is the bottom as it is being packed. If the quality
of the apples warrants it, a fancy lace paper circle is next put
into the barrel. An oiled or paraffined paper, circle is put in
next, which prevents any dirt which may possibly sift into
the barrel through the cover from coming in contact with the
fruit, and also prevents excessive moisture transpiration from
the apples. The head of the barrel is now faced with uniform-
sized apples of a grade which is typical of the contents of the
barrel. These apples should be of good color, or at least show
good color around the stem ends. Stemmers or small shears
should be used to cut the ends from the long stemmed vari-
eties, so that they will not puncture the oiled paper circle
and will rest more evenly upon the face end. This is some-
times omitted in strictly commercial work. The face layer
is put in stem end down, in concentric circles. The outside
or larger circle is placed first, of-a uniform-sized apple which
will just fill the circle snugly. Each concentric circle is placed
in the same way. The center will require one, two, three,
four or six apples, varying in accordance with the sizes of
apples used. The next layer is-placed the same way by some
growers, especially for their extra fancy and exhibition bar-
rels. Most commercial growers now make the second layer
by placing the heavy-colored cheek of the apples in the cav-
ities formed between the apples of the face layer. This method
makes the barrel look much better when opened. About a
bushel of apples is next carefully emptied upon these two face
layers, before the barrel is shaken at all. The barrel should
be carefully shaken then, and after each succeeding basket is
put in, until it is full. The shaking, or “racking”’ as it is
called, tends to work the apples down into all of the cavities.
In this way a compact package is secured and possibility of
bruising is eliminated.

The height to which the barrel should be filled varies ac-
cording to varieties, and opinion on this point differs in dif-
ferent localities. It should be just high enough so that when
the head is pressed in all apples will be held firm, and yet not
so tight as to bruise them. The last layer should be placed
with stem ends uppermost. This makes it easier to put the

136

head in, and if by mistake the bottom should be opened, it
would present a much better appearance. A corrugated head is
also used at the tail end as it helps to prevent bruising when
the tail is pressed in. It should be nailed in place with six
three-and-a-half-penny nails. It is advisable also to nail liners
to the tail end of the barrel. The barrel is reversed, and if it is
to be shipped a long distance the head should also be nailed in a
like manner as an added precaution.

Barreled apples if held for any length of time should be
placed on their sides. They should be packed in a car in
this way. This method of storing prevents the fruit in a bar-
rel from bearing the weight of other barrels, because the
package itself bears it and prevents apples in the barrel from
becoming slack.

The following score card, or some slight modification of it,
is generally used for judging the barreled apples: —

Apples.
Texture and flavor, 100
Size, . 100
Color, 150
Uniformity, : . 150
Freedom from blemishes, : 150
— 650
Package.
Staves, : 10
Hoops, 10
Heads, 10
Nailing, 20
Marking, 20
— 70
Packing.
Facing, 70
Tailing, 60
Pressing, 70
Racking, . 80
— 280
1,000

AprLe Box PackInc.

The western growers have succeeded wonderfully with the
apple box. This is due entirely to the fact that they were

Fig. 3.— A well-packed barrel of apples. The ‘‘lace circle’’ adds to its
attractiveness, and with good apples it is good business to use it.

Fic. 4. — The different kinds of packs. Beginning at the left, (1) offset; (2) square;
(3 and 4) diagonal.

137

compelled to pack high-grade apples, and have developed their
apple-sizing machinery so that it is very accurate. They are
careful packers and so expert at it that their packing cost is
not prohibitive.

The Box Packing Table.

The box packing table, such as is shown in Fig. 5, is about
3 by 4 feet, made of 6 by 1 inch boards with 2 by 4 inch
joists as posts. A stout canvas is stretched across the top of
the boards. An old piece of rubber hose may be nailed along

Sf yA insx eins.

Fig. 5.—A convenient type of packing table.

the top of the boards over the canvas to protect the apples
from bruising. Shelves for holding the apple box are made
at a slant on opposite corners of the table. Extra shelves
may also be made under the table for holding wrapping paper
and other packing accessories, thus saving a lot of the packer’s
time by having everything convenient.

138

Grading.

As the apples are placed upon the table they are generally
graded for size and color. It requires as much skill to grade
apples well as it does to pack them well. Sizing is oftentimes
done by machine. An amateur starting to grade for size by
hand should have a thin board convenient, with holes of the
different diameters cut in it. Occasionally, when in doubt,
he can try the apples in the different sized holes. It takes a
great deal of practice for one to become an efficient grader,
although some people learn very rapidly. Two men can pack
to good advantage at one table. One may pack a certain
size while the other is packing some other size, thus keeping
the table fairly well cleaned off.

Lining the Boz.

The box is lined on the bottom, sides and top with two
pieces of paper each 18 by 24 inches. These are placed so
that they overlap about 2 inches in the bottom of the box.
They are long enough to cover the sides and the top, lapping
over about 2 inches when the box is packed. The ends are
rarely lined. Many growers crease these papers where the
sides meet the bottom, which is really the top of the box, so
that when the bulge is pushed down the paper will not be
torn.

Wrapping.

All apples should be wrapped in tissue paper. This helps
to retain the moisture content of the apples and also makes a
cushion between them. In case an apple should decay, the
paper prevents the rot from spreading. Apples also pack
more firmly when wrapped. Wrapping paper can be obtained
either plain or printed. Oftentimes the large orchardists have
their brand or trade name printed upon the wrapper. This
makes it cost a little more, but it is a good form of advertising.
The white tissue is the best, although different colors are used.
It comes in different sizes, which are used according to the
size of the apples. The common sizes are 9 by 9 inches, 10
by 10 inches and 11 by 11 inches. Supplies of the three sizes

139

should be kept on hand; the 10 by 10 inch size, however, is
most largely used.

Many beginners at apple packing have difficulty with the
wrapping of the apple. Wrapping methods vary among dif-
ferent packers. The points sought for are speed and an at-
tractive appearance when wrapped. The paper is taken with
the left hand towards one corner. The apple is placed in
the paper, blossom end down; the: four loose corners are
folded in; the left hand places the apple in the box. By
placing the blossom end downward in the hand, the surplus
loose corners .are wrapped around the stem end, thus pro-
tecting the apples with which it may come in contact.

Layer papers are used in the top and bottom of the box
inside of the lining paper; they are also used between the
layers of apples, in order to raise the height of the pack when
necessary. The paper comes in different colors and weights,
but a medium weight, white, rough cardboard, 11 by 18 inches,
is the best.

A shelf should be made to put on the apple box to hold the
wrapping paper, such as is seen in Fig. 6. Thumb-cuts should
also be provided to put upon the thumb of the left hand for
grasping the single sheet of wrapping paper.

Packing.

The packer is now ready for work. He stands in front of
the box, with wrapping paper on the shelf and apples at his
right upon the table. With his left hand he grasps a sheet of
wrapping paper at the corner, while with his right he grasps
a certain sized apple which he is about to pack. The experi-
enced packer knows at a glance what pack he must use to
have every apple tight in the box, and also how many apples
he will need to pack the box.

There are three systems of packing in use, the straight, the
diagonal, and the offset. The diagonal, however, is used al-
most entirely. It is the hardest to pack, but it is by far the
most attractive and the most efficient. Apples in a square
pack generally become bruised in shipment, because each
apple is placed directly over the other. Apples may vary
more in size in diagonal packing than in square packing;

140

they also tend to bruise much less in this pack, because each
apple rests in the space between two or four others. The
offset pack presents more empty space to the critical pur-
chaser when he takes off the side of the box to look at the
apples; therefore, it should be used only when necessary.

The size of an apple is always considered as the greatest
distance from cheek to cheek, and not the distance from
stem end to blossom end. A well-packed box of apples should
always have a bulge of three-fourths of an inch upon both
top and bottom. The top and bottom bulged in this way act
as springs to hold all the apples tightly. This bulge is most
easily attained by selecting apples with a little greater diam-
eter for use in the middle of each layer. As the box is packed
this bulge will be about 1} inches in the middle, but when the
bottom is nailed on, the top of the box will spring out, thus
making both top and bottom equal. (See Fig. 7 for illustra-
tion of bulge.) The pack should be but little in excess of the
height of the box at the ends. This generally comes all right
because of the size of the box and the kind of pack selected
for the several sizes of apples. Apples which have a diameter
of 22 inches make a five-tier pack of either 188, 198, 200 or
225; 2% inches in diameter make a four and a half tier pack
of either 138, 150, 163 or 175; 2% inches in diameter make a
four-tier pack of either 113 or 125; 3% inches in diameter
make a three or two and a half tier pack of either 36, 48, 56,
64, 72 or 80. The number varies with the variety, owing to
their different shapes and thicknesses.

It is sometimes a hard question for beginners to decide
when to use the different packs, such as the 4-4, 4-3, 3-3,
3-2 or the 2-2. This varies with the size and shape of the
apple being packed. The 2-2 and 3-2 are the packs most in
favor among fruit growers. It is advisable to pack the apples
upon their cheeks whenever possible, as they present a much
better appearance. A few of the varieties and sizes require
stem-end packing. Experience and long-continued practice
will overcome most of the difficulties experienced by beginners
in box packing.

In the 2-2 pack, start by placing one apple in the lower
eft corner and another apple halfway between the cheek

ox partially packed, showing construction and position of hod.

Fic. 7. — The bulge. The box at the left shows too little bulge, the one in the
center the proper bulge, and the one at the right too much.

141 =

of the first apple and the opposite side of the box. The
next two apples are placed into the equal spaces formed by
the first two apples. The operation of placing two apples
in the cavities left by the last two apples should be con-
tinued until the end of the box is reached. The layer of
apples should be pulled down towards the packer, which will
then leave sufficient space to insert two more apples. These
last two apples will cause all the others to become firm in the
box. If the apples are of such a size that layer papers are
necessary to raise the height of the apples, a paper is inserted
after the first layer is complete. The second layer in the
box is packed in the same way, except that the first apple is
placed in the lower right corner. This means that all the
apples in this layer are placed in the pockets formed by the
apples in the first layer, and that when the box is nailed
no apple will be bearing the entire weight of any other apple.
Each succeeding layer is packed in the same way, being care-
ful that’ each layer is started so that the apples will be in the
pockets formed by the apples of the preceding layer.

The 3-2 pack is very similar to the preceding 2-2 pack, ex-
cept that three apples are used in alternate rows instead of
two. This means that the 3-2 pack requires a much smaller
apple. This: pack is started by placing one apple in each
lower corner and one in the center of the space between these
two apples. Two apples are next placed, partly filling the
cavities formed by the three apples. These two apples leave
three cavities which are filled by three apples, etc., until the
first layer is completed. In starting the second layer, two
apples are used, then three, etc., thus filling the small pockets
formed by the apples in the lower layer.

The 4-4 pack is the square pack (see Fig. 4). The apples
must be of such a size that four of them just fit into the box
across the end. These are placed, and then four more, etc.,
until the layer is completed. The next three or four layers
are packed in the same way, which means that every apple
except those in the upper layer of the box must bear the
entire weight of one or more apples above it upon its cheek.
This invariably means a blemish upon the cheek, which im-

mediately lowers the price.

142

After the box is packed, a layer paper is placed upon it,
the ends of the lining paper which have been hanging loose
on the side are folded over the apples, the box taken to the
box press, and the bottom nailed on. Box presses are upon
the market and can be purchased very cheaply. Oftentimes
they are made at home.

Boxes when piled upon each other should always be placed
upon their sides. They pile better and the fruit is not dam-
aged by this method.

The following score card, or some slight modification of it,
is generally used for judging the box apples: —

Apples.
Texture and flavor, 100
Size, 100
Color, 150
Uniformity, 150
Freedom from blemishes, 150
— 650
Package.
Material, 30
Marking, 10
Solidity (nailing, cleats, etc.), eg 10
— 50
Packing.
Bulge or swell, 100
Alignment, 20
Height of ends, 60
Compactness, 80
Attractiveness and style, : 40
— 300
1,000

PackiInG In BusuEeL Propuce Boxes.

There has been up to the present time very little effort
made to really pack apples in the produce box. The so-called
jumble pack is the usual pack. A few of the growers of better
grade apples have been “placing” their apples in boxes. This
has meant selecting apples of a certain size which when placed

143

in rows in the box would just fit. Three such layers with or
without layer paper have usually been placed in the package.
Sometimes four layers are used.

The general use of the standard bushel produce box, with
the certainty that it is likely to be used as a closed package
within a few years for the shipping of McIntosh apples into
adjoining States, makes it necessary for growérs to practice a
good system of packing. At present, because of the recent
adoption of this type of practice, the writer, as well as the
commercial growers, has no well-defined system. The system
is likely to be worked out along one of the three following
lines or, possibly, along all lines: —

A system at present in use with the large sized box, which
without doubt can be worked with the standard produce box,
is to use what is called a packing pad. This packing pad is
nothing but a thin board covered frame which in turn is
covered with heavy felt. The felt is cut of a size so that it
just fits into the box. A four-sided box without top or bottom
is laid upon this packing pad which is on the packing table.
Apples are placed in stem end or cheek down in rows upon
the felt. Care is usually taken to select a size so that a cer-
tain number will just fill a row, and give the same number
of rows. The next layer of apples is placed in with the
cheeks filling the holes formed by each three or four apples
beneath. The remainder of the apples are placed in, being
careful to fill all space well. As the box is being filled, it may
be slightly racked, which tends to shake all apples down into
the lowest holes. The top of the box is leveled off as best it
can be by placing some apples on their cheeks and others
upon their stem ends. These apples are used for near-by
markets and are shipped in open packages; therefore, very
little pressing should be necessary when nailing the solid bottom
on. As soon as this is nailed on, the package is reversed and
the packing pad removed; the package is now ready for
market and presents a fine appearance. Those orchardists
who have used this system or a modification of it report that
it does not require much additional time and that the package
will generally sell for 25 to 50 cents more, which pays them
well for their time.

144

This system can be very easily modified for the packing of
apples in closed packages for interstate or foreign trade. A
packing pad is not needed. The bottom, which will be the
permanent top, is nailed on ‘first, instead of the permanent
bottom. Corrugated layer paper is placed in the package,
smooth side up. The remainder of the packing is done as
suggested above, except that in smoothing the top off care
should be exercised to get the level of the apples about one-
third of an inch above top of box. A corrugated layer paper
1s placed on, and the top which will be the permanent bottom
is pressed down with a box press. After the top is nailed the
package is reversed, stenciled or marked, and is ready for
long-distance shipment or storage.

The system of rowing apples and placing three or four such
layers in the box, one apple upon the other, doubtless will be
continued by apple growers when using the standard bushel
box. |

The jumble pack undoubtedly will be very generally used
for packing the bulk of the apple crop in the standard bushel
box. This pack should be greatly improved upon during the
next few years. As practiced at present it consists of simply
placing the apples in the packages by grades. The apples on
the top are generally carefully placed so as to give a fairly
level surface and good appearance. So far as possible, growers
attempt to show the cheek of the apples.

Risers.

Risers are blocks or strips of wood nailed upon the ends of
the boxes so that other boxes may safely be placed upon
them without danger of bruising the apples. The size of the
risers has varied from three-sixteenths of an inch to 2 inches
in thickness. The growers are standardizing the size at present
so that the larger share from now on will be of the five-eighths
of an inch size.

145

Slats.

Slats are, as the name suggests, laths or thin narrow strips
of board, and are nailed across the top of the box or on top
of the risers. Two are ordinarily used, one on either side
about 1 inch in from the side. If three or more slats are
used, the package is deemed a closed package, and must
conform to the Massachusetts apple grading law.

146

CHAPTER XI.

LAWS AND REGULATIONS ON APPLE GRADING AND
PACKING. ,

WILFRID WHEELER AND H. LINWOOD WHITE. REVISED BY W. A. MUNSON,

INTRODUCTION.

The purpose of a grading law is to furnish a common denomi-
nator by which sellers and buyers may trade in a particular com-
modity in language which means the same thing to both of them.
As long as each individual grower has his own idea of what is meant
by a “Fancy,” a “No. 1” or a “No. 2” apple, such a common de-
nominator is, of course, impossible. Apple grading legislation has
furnished this standard for the apple business.

The first grading law in the east was passed in Maine in 1910;
this was followed by a law in New York in 1914; in Vermont,
Connecticut and Massachusetts in 1915; and in New Hampshire
in 1917. Apple grading laws have also been passed in ten or
more other States.

This chapter contains the text of the United States Standard
Barrel Law, the United States Apple Grading Law and the Massa-
chusetts Apple Grading Law, and also the regulations which have
been adopted by the Massachusetts Commissioner of Agriculture,
under the authority granted by sections 105 and 110 of the last-
named law. Cuts of model stencils will also be found on the fol-
lowing pages.

THE MASSACHUSETTS APPLE GRADING LAW.

The Massachusetts Apple Grading Law is an act to regulate
the grading, packing, marking, shipping and sale of apples in
closed packages. It applies to all apples in closed packages,
packed or repacked in Massachusetts, and intended for sale either
within or without the State, and also to apples grown in other

147

States when such apples are graded and branded as conforming to
the Massachusetts standard. :

The law, and the regulations authorized thereby, went into
effect July 1, 1916. Slight amendments were made by the Legis-
latures of 1917 and 1918, and the law was codified in 1920.

The law provides a maximum penalty of $50 for the first viola-
tion and $200 for subsequent violation.

The regulations under the law appeared as of May 1, 1918,
and July 1, September 19, and December 10, 1919.

UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW.

The Federal Standard Barrel Law was passed under the con-
stitutional authority granted Congress by section 8 of Article I
of the Constitution, giving authority to the Federal Congress to
fix weights and measures. The law fixes a standard for the barrel
just as standards are fixed for the quart, peck or bushel. This
standard supersedes all State standards, but the specifications
coincide with those of the Massachusetts standard barrel. This
act is enforced by the Bureau of Standards of the Department of
Commerce, and the regulations under it will be found in Bureau of
Standards Circular No. 71, issued September 18, 1917.

UNITED STATES APPLE GRADING LAW.

The United States Apple Grading Law, popularly known as the
“Sulzer Bill,” is an optional law which defines three standard
grades and provides a penalty for misbranding. The law applies
only to apples intended for interstate commerce. In order to
avoid the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts act, apples packed in
this State must be intended for shipment in interstate commerce,
and packed and branded in accordance with the Sulzer bill. The
relation between the Sulzer bill and the Massachusetts law is laid
down in section 114 of the Massachusetts law.

EXPLANATION OF REQUIREMENTS.
The specific requirements of the Massachusetts Apple Grad-

ing Law, the United States Standard Barrel Law so far as this
applies to apple barrels, and the regulations, are herewith

tabulated for ready reference.

148

“ CLoseD PACKAGE”? DEFINED.

Regulation No. 1.— A barrel, box or other container, the contents of
which cannot be seen sufficiently for purposes of inspection without re-
moving nails, wire, hoops or metal, cloth or paper strips, or similar seals
or contrivances which cannot ordinarily be removed without mechanical
assistance or without destroying the usefulness thereof, except that string
or tape unless sealed shall not be considered as having been destroyed
when cut, broken or removed, shall be a “closed package” within the
meaning of the law.

The following kinds of containers are hereby declared to be “closed
packages: ” —

Barrels provided with the usual closely fitting heads.

Barrels covered with burlap or other material through which the apples
cannot readily be seen.

Boxes, including covers, made entirely of close-fitting boards when the
covers thereof are nailed or otherwise securely fastened.

Boxes or cartons of corrugated paper, cardboard, metal or other ma-
terial, the covers of which are sealed or otherwise fastened in such a
manner as to prevent opening without damaging either the fastener or
the container.

Boxes with slatted covers are considered closed packages. The brand-
ing or marking of these boxes may be on sides, top, or on paper top
under slats with printed matter showing through.

Baskets with slatted covers are considered closed packages. The
branding or marking of these baskets may be on sides, top, or on paper
top under slats with printed matter showing through.

Baskets, the covers of which are sealed or otherwise fastened in such
a manner as to prevent opening without damaging either the fastener or
the container.

“STANDARD BARREL” DEFINED.

Staves: length, 28% inches; thickness, not greater than '5
of an inch.

Heads: diameter, inside of staves, 174 inches; distance
between (inside measurement), 26 inches.

Bulge: circumference (outside measurement), 64 inches.

Capacity: 7,056 cubic inches.

Any barrel of a different form than this but of the same
capacity, no matter what its dimensions, is a standard barrel.
A flour barrel is a standard barrel.

Apples must not be sold or offered or exposed for sale in any
barrel that is of less capacity than 7,056 cubic inches, except
that subdivisions of the standard barrel known as the third,
half and three-quarters barrel’ may be used, provided their

149

capacities, respectively, are at least one-third, one-half or three-

quarters the capacity of the standard barrel (United States
Standard Barrel Law).

“Sranparp APPLE Box” DEFINED.!

Length, 18 inches (inside measurement).
Width, 113 inches (inside measurement).
Depth, 103 inches (inside measurement).
Capacity, not less than 2,173% cubic inches.
A box of different dimensions or of a different capacity is
not a standard box, but may be used for packing apples of

standard grade for sale or distribution.

“STANDARD GRADES” DEFINED.

For purposes of comparison the requirements for the several
grades are grouped below: —

Apples when sold, or offered or exposed for sale in closed packages and not conforming to
the specifications for the “Fancy,” “A’’ and ''B” grades or, if conforming, not branded in ac-
cordance therewith, shall be classed as ‘ Ungraded,” and so branded.

“Fancy.”

“An

“BRB”

Ungraded.

Variety,

Maturity,

How picked,

Color, .

Shape,

Size,

Only one variety
in the same
package.

Well matured
but not over-
Tipe.

Hand-picked.

Above medium
in amount for
the variety.
Proportion of
surface to be
colored fixed
by regulation
(page 150).

Normal.

Good and
reasonably
uniform. Mini-
mum size to
be stated on
the package.
Minimum for
each variety
determined by
regulation
(page 151).

Only one variety
in the same
package.

Well matured
but not over-
Tipe.

Medium in
amount for the
variety. Pro-
portion of sur-
face to be
colored fixed
by regulation
(page 151).

Normal.
Minimum size

to be stated on
package.

Only one variety
in the same
package.

Well matured
but not over-
Tipe.

No color
requirement.

Practically
normal.

Minimum size
to be stated on
package.

1 This is not the Boston bushel box, the dimensions of which are 18 X 18 X 8 and the capacity

2,592 cubic inches.

N.B. — There is no United States standard bushel box.

150

“Fancy.”

oan

“Bo

Ungraded.

Condition, .

Diseases and fun-
gous injury.

Insect injuries,

Bruises and other
mechanical in-
juries.

How packed,

Tolerance, . ‘

Sound.

Free from, such
as scab, sooty
fungus, cedar
Tust, etc.

Free from, such
as result from
codling moth,
scale, curculio,
etc.

Free from,

as those
resulting from
packing.

Properly, in
clean, strong
packages. The
fruit should be
properly
stemmed and
tailed and the
face or shown
surface must
be a fair repre-
sentation of the
contents. The
specimens
should be
Bat nt firmly

ut not

ene
should be
strong enough
to prevent
mechanical in-
jury to the
fruit in
handling.

Apples, on any
one defect, or
on a combina-
tion of defects,
may be not
more than 3
per cent below
specifications.

Sound.

Practically free
from, such as

scab, sooty scab, sooty
fungus, cedar fungus, cedar
Tust, etc. Tust, etc.
Practically free Practically free
from, such as from, such as
result from result from
codling moth, codling moth,

scale, curculio,
etc.

Practically free
from, except
those resulting
from packing.

Properly. The
face or shown
surface must
be a fair repre-
sentation of the
contents.

Apples, on any
one defect, or
on a combina-
tion of defects,
may be not
more than 5
per cent below
specifications.

Practically free
from defects
that materially
injure the
appearance or
useful quality.

Properly. The
face or shown
surface must
be a fair repre-
sentation of the
contents.

Apples, on any
one defect, or
on a combina-
tion of defects,
may be not
more than 10
per cent below
specifications.

Color in the Three Grades.
Regulation No. 2. — Color shall refer to amount and not to shade.

The color of apples branded “Massachusetts Standard Fancy Grade”’
shall cover at least 75 per cent of the surface in the case of red varieties,
such as Baldwin, Tompkins King, Esopus Spitzenburg, Jonathan, McIn-
tosh, Ben Davis, Sutton, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse, and the like; at
least 60 per cent in the case of varieties having slightly less red color than
the above, such as Hubbardston, Gravenstein, Northern Spy, Rome,
Oldenburg, Wagener, and the like; and at least 10 per cent in the case of
varieties having still less red color, such as Maiden Blush, Winter Banana,
and the like. Yellow or green varieties, such as Rhode Island Greening,

151

Grimes Golden, Yellow Newtown, and the like, must have the character-
istic green or yellow color of the variety; the presence or absence of a
blush need not be considered.

The color of apples branded ‘Massachusetts Standard A Grade” shall
cover at least 35 per cent of the surface in the case of red varieties, such
as Baldwin, Tompkins King, Esopus Spitzenburg, Jonathan, McIntosh,
Ben Davis, Sutton, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse, and the like; at least
20 per cent in the case of varieties having slightly less red color than the
above, such as Hubbardston, Gravenstein, Northern Spy, Rome, Olden-
burg, Wagener, and the like; and at least 5 per cent in the case of varieties
having still less red color, such as Maiden Blush, Winter Banana, and the
like. In the case of yellow or green varieties, the presence or absence of
color need not be considered.

The presence or absence of color in the case of apples branded “‘ Massa-
chusetts Standard B Grade”’ need not be considered.

Minimum Sizes in the “Massachusetts Standard Fancy Grade.’

Regulation No. 3. — The minimum sizes of apples sold as apples of
“Massachusetts Standard Fancy Grade,’ when measured at right angles
to the stem and blossom end, shall be as follows, for the several varieties: —

First Group: Diameter, 23 inches; Fameuse (Snow), Golden Russet,
Red Canada, Roxbury Russet, Williams, Yellow Transparent.

Second Group: Diameter, 2? inches; Baldwin, Ben Davis, Hubbards-
ton, McIntosh, Oldenburg, Palmer Greening, Red Astrachan, Sutton,
Wagener, Wealthy, Yellow Belleflower.

Third Group: Diameter, 3 inches; Fall Pippin, Gravenstein, King,
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Rolfe, Rome Beauty.

Fourth Group: Diameter, 3} inches; Twenty Ounce, Wolfe River.

MarkKS REQUIRED ON CLOSED PacKaGEs.

Statement in a conspicuous place on the outside of the
package in plain letters (not less than 36 point Gothic) of the —

1. Place: name of State in which the apples were grown.

2. Grade: legal designation.

Regulation No. 4. — The grade of apples contained in a package shall be
indicated by the term “MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD FANCY
GRADE,” “MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD A GRADE,” “MASSA-
CHUSETTS STANDARD B GRADE,” or “MASSACHUSETTS

UNGRADED,” as the case may be.
3. Size: minimum size in all grades. In the “Massachusetts

Standard Fancy Grade” the minimum size must be not less
than that specified in the regulations (see above). The abbre-
viation “Min.” may be used for the word “minimum.” Mini-

152

mum sizes shall be stated in variations of one-quarter of an
inch, such as 2 inches, 23 inches, 24 inches, 22 inches, 3 inches,
81 inches, and so forth, in accordance with the facts. Minimum
sizes may be designated by figures instead of words.

4, Contents: Barrel,— quantity expressed by the term,
“ONE STANDARD BARREL,” or by a statement of the
measure (the Massachusetts standard bushel of apples sold at
retail is 48 pounds), or of the weight in pounds. The term
“ONE STANDARD BARREL,” or the abbreviation “ONE
ST’D. BBL.,” will be acceptable to the United States
Department of Agriculture and the Division of Standards,
Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industry, as a proper
and sufficient statement of the contents of a barrel, regardless
of whether it is sold at wholesale or retail in intrastate, inter-
state or foreign commerce. This term will be considered also as
applying to the barrel itself. Box, — quantity expressed in terms
of measure, weight or numerical count. In interstate commerce
the marking to show merely the number of apples in a box
is not sufficient; the minimum size of the apples must also be
given (Opinion No. 61, Secretary of Agriculture, Washington,
District of Columbia).

5. Variety: true name, that is, the name by which the
variety is known on the market. Commercial abbreviations
may be used. If not known the expression “VARIETY UN-
KNOWN” may be used.

6. Packer: name and address of person by whose authority
the apples were packed or repacked. If repacked the package
shall be so marked. (Name and address of farm will comply
with this requirement.)

Order of Statements on Barrels.

Regulation No. 5.— The statements required by the law, and by the
regulations adopted thereunder, shall appear on one end of the barrel in
the following order: —

. Name of the State in which the apples were grown.
. Grade.

Minimum size.

. Quantity of contents.

. Variety.

. Name and address of packer or repacker.

Aor wd

153

Regulation No. 6.—The word “MASSACHUSETTS” as used on
packages containing apples grown in Massachusetts shall be considered
as showing the State in which said apples were grown as well as applying
to the grade.

MarkinG oF CLOSED PACKAGES.

Color of Ink to be used.

Regulation No. 7. — All letters and figures relating to grade or brand, in-
cluding private marks, used in marking or branding a closed package
packed in accordance with the provisions of the law shall be in ink of one
color.

Barrels.

Only block letters and block figures of a size not less than

36 POINT
GOTHIC

(one-half an inch high) may be used in stating on the outside
the information required.

CovERING OPEN PACKAGE.

Regulation No, 8. — Any person or firm who covers or authorizes to
be covered an open package of apples consigned to them, which is in-
tended for sale or distribution, or which is intended to be offered or
exposed for sale or distribution, is considered to have repacked it; and
such package must be branded in compliance with the Massachusetts
Apple Grading Law, and must bear all statements required by sections
101, 102, 103 and 104, and in accordance with the provisions of section
105 of said law.

154

The following is a reduction of a photograph of a well-
balanced barrel stencil. Notice that space is left at the bottom
for name and address of consignee.

os AP
YY ONT 4 0).
ais k FANDARD >
~~” PANCYGRADE S&
MIN.SIZE 38 INCHES
ONE STD. BBL

BA L DWINS

PACKED BY+

L. i. TOWNSEND
MALDEN, MASS.

155

Another style of stencil is illustrated below. With the ex-
ception of the words “PACKED BY,” the letters, before
reduction, were all 36 point Gothic. This allows more space
for other marks, but does not in any way alter the provision
that such other marks as refer to grade or brand must not be
more conspicuous than the marks required by law.

UNGRADED

MIN.SIZE 2% INCHES
ONE STD. BBE.
BALDWINS
-~PACKED BY-~<
L.E. TOWNSEND,
MALDEN, MASS.

NOTE.— Where apples are marked ‘‘ Ungraded,” the word
“‘standard’’ must be omitted.

Packages Other than Barrels: How Branded.

Regulation No. 9. — The branding or marking of closed packages other
than barrels shall be in letters and figures of such a size that the state-
ments required by sections 103 and 104 of the law and by the regulations
shall, when properly spaced, cover at least one-half the outside of one
end of the package or at least one-half the label affixed thereto.

156

This is illustrated by the following: —

MASSACHUSETTS
STANDARD
A GRADE
MIN.SIZH 8 INCHES
COUNT 100

BALDWINS
=Pached by <«
L. Kh. PrOWNSEND,
MALDEN, MASS.

MASSACHUSETTS
STANDARD
B GRADE

MIN. SIZE 2% INCHES
ONE BUSHEL

BALJIWINS

Packed hy
L.. TOWNSEND
MALDIEN. MASS.

157

OtHER MARKS.

The packer or distributor may put any marks on the package
other than those required by law, provided, however, that such
marks as relate to grade or brand are not inconsistent with, or
more conspicuous than, the required marks. This gives an
opportunity for the grower or packer to affix his own brand,
or name of farm, and facts concerning the quality or other
characteristics of the apples.

In the case of the type of label illustrated below, the brand is
subordinated to the grade. The words “Townsend Farm,”
however, might be as conspicuous as the words “ Massachusetts
Standard Fancy Grade,” but should not be more conspicuous.
The name of the variety might be substituted for the word
“Apples,” and the label would then read, for example, “'Town-
send Farm Baldwins.”

MASSACHUSETTS
STANDARD FANCY GRADE

TOWNSEND FARM

APPLES

GROWN AND PACKED BY

L.E.TOWNSEND

MALDEN, MASS. U.S.A.

VARIETY MIN. SIZE INCHES COUNT

158

Regulation No. 10.— Such marks as “No. 1’s,” “No. 2’s,” “XX,”
“XXX,” “Extra,” and the like shall not be used on closed packages.

CoLp StTorAGE REGULATION.

Regulation No. 11.—In order that an inspection can be made of
apples which have been in cold storage, as provided for in section 109 of
the Massachusetts Apple Grading Law, owners of closed packages of
Massachusetts apples in cold storage, who have not received a Massa-
chusetts certificate of inspection, are hereby required to notify the Depart-
ment of Agriculture of the intended date of removal of such apples.

159

APPENDIX.

UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW.

[Pusiic — No. 307 — 63p Conaress.]
({H. R. 4899.]
An AcT TO FIX THE STANDARD BARREL FOR FRUvITS, VEGE-
TABLES, AND OTHER Dry CoMMODITIES.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That the stand-
ard barrel for fruits, vegetables, and other dry commodities
other than cranberries shall be of the following dimensions when
measured without distention of its parts: Length of stave,
twenty-eight and one-half inches; diameter of heads, seventeen
and one-eighth inches; distance between heads, twenty-six
inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches, outside meas-
urement; and the thickness of staves not greater than four-
tenths of an inch: Provided, That any barrel of a different form
having a capacity of seven thousand and fifty-six cubic inches
shall be a standard barrel. The standard barrel for cranberries
shall be of the following dimensions when measured without
distention of its parts: Length of staves, twenty-eight and one-
half inches; diameter of head, sixteen and one-fourth inches;
distance between heads, twenty-five and one-fourth inches;
circumference of bulge, fifty-eight and one-half inches, outside
measurement; and the thickness of staves not greater than
four-tenths of an inch.

Section 2. That it shall be unlawful to sell, offer, or expose
for sale in any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, or
to ship from any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia to
any other State, Territory, or the District of Columbia or to a
foreign country, a barrel containing fruits or vegetables or any
other dry commodity of less capacity than the standard barrels
defined in the first section of this Act, or subdivisions thereof
known as the third, half, and three-quarters barrel, and any
person guilty of a willful violation of any of the provisions of
this Act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and be liable
to a fine not to exceed $500, or imprisonment not to exceed six

160

months, in the court of the United States having jurisdiction.
Provided, however, That no barrel shall be deemed below stand-
ard within the meaning of this Act when shipped to any foreign
country and constructed according to the specifications or direc-
tions of the foreign purchaser if not constructed in conflict with
the laws of the foreign country to which the same is intended
to be shipped.

Section 3. That reasonable variations shall be permitted and
tolerance shall be established by rules and regulations made by
the Director of the Bureau of Standards and approved by the
Secretary of Commerce. Prosecutions for offenses under this
Act may be begun upon complaint of local sealers of weights
and measures or other officers of the several States and Terri-
tories appointed to enforce the laws of the said States or Terri-
tories, respectively, relating to weights and measures: Pro-
vided, however, That nothing in this Act shall apply to barrels
used in packing or shipping commodities sold exclusively by
weight or numerical count.

Section 4. That this Act shall be in force and effect from
and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and sixteen.

Approved, March 4, 1915.

UNITED STATES APPLE GRADING LAW.

“Tue Suizer BIL.”
(Pusiic — No. 252 — 61st Conaress.]
(H. R. 21480]
An ACT TO ESTABLISH A STANDARD BARREL AND STANDARD
GRADES FOR APPLES WHEN PACKED IN BARRELS, AND FOR
OTHER PURPOSES.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of
the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the
standard barrel for apples shall be of the following dimensions
when measured without distention of its parts: Length of
stave, twenty-eight and one-half inches; diameter of head,
seventeen and one-eighth inches; distance between heads,
twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches
outside measurement, representing as nearly as possible seven
thousand and fifty-six cubic inches: Provided, That steel barrels
containing the interior dimensions provided for in this section
shall be construed as a compliance therewith.

Section 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed
in barrels which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in

161

interstate or foreign commerce, or which shall be sold or offered
for sale within the District of Columbia or the Territories of the
United States shall be as follows: Apples of one variety, which
are well-grown specimens, hand picked, of good color for the
variety, normal shape, practically free from insect and fungous
injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are necessarily
caused in the operation of packing, or apples of one variety
which are not more than ten per centum below the foregoing
specifications shall be “Standard grade minimum size two and
one half inches,” if the minimum size of the apples is two and
one half inches in transverse diameter; “Standard grade mini-
mum size two and one-fourth inches,” if the minimum size of
the apples is two and one-fourth inches in transverse diameter;
or “Standard grade minimum size two inches,” if the minimum
size of the apples is two inches in transverse diameter.

SEecTION 3. That the barrels in which apples are packed in
accordance with the provisions of this Act may be branded in
accordance with section two of this Act.

Section 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be
deemed to be below standard if the barrel bears any statement,
design, or device indicating that the barrel is a standard barrel
of apples, as herein defined, and the capacity of the barrel is
less than the capacity prescribed by section one of this Act,
unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end and side with
words or figures showing the fractional relation which the actual
capacity of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by section
one of this Act. The marking required by this paragraph shall
be in block letters of size not less than seventy-two point one
inch gothic.

Section 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed
to be misbranded within the meaning of this act —

First. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device
indicating that the apples contained therein are “Standard”
grade and the apples when packed do not conform to the re-
quirements prescribed by section two of this Act.

Second. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device
indicating that the apples contained therein are “Standard”
grade and the barrel fails to bear also a statement of the name
of the variety, the name of the locality where grown, and the
name of the packer or the person by whose authority the apples
were packed and the barrel marked.

Section 6. That any person, firm or corporation, or asso-
ciation who shall knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples

162

in barrels or who shall knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels
in violation of the provisions of this Act shall be liable to a
penalty of one dollar and costs for each such barrel so sold or
offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the United States
in any court of the United States having jurisdiction.

Section 7. That this Act shall be in force and effect from
and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirteen.

Approved, August 3, 1912.

MASSACHUSETTS APPLE GRADING LAW.

GENERAL Laws, CHAPTER 94.
INSPECTION AND SALE OF Foop, DruGs, anpD Various ARTICLES.
Sections 1 (part), 100 to 107, inclusive, 109 to 114, inclusive.

“Closed Package’’ defined.

Section 1. ... “Closed package” in sections one hundred
to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one
hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and
thirteen, shall mean a barrel, box, or other container, the con-
tents whereof cannot be sufficiently inspected without opening
TBs tec see 53

Standard Barrel and Box for Apples.

Section 100. The standard barrel for apples shall be of the
following dimensions when measured without distension of its
parts: length of stave, twenty-eight and one half inches; diam-
eter of heads, seventeen and one eighth inches; distance between
heads, twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four
inches, outside measurement; and the thickness of staves not
greater than four tenths of an inch: provided, that any barrel of
a different form having a capacity of seven thousand and fifty-
six cubic inches shall be a standard barrel.

The standard box for apples shall be of the following dimen-
sions by inside measurement: eighteen inches by eleven and one
half inches by ten and one half inches, without distention of its
parts; and shall have a capacity of not less than two thousand
one hundred and seventy-three and one half cubic inches.

Standard Grades of Apples.

Section 101. The standard grades of apples when packed or
repacked in closed packages within the commonwealth shall be
as follows: “ Massachusetts Standard Fancy” shall include only

163

apples of one variety which are well matured specimens, hand-
picked, above medium color for the variety, normal shape,
of good and reasonably uniform size, sound, free from disease,
insect and fungous injury, bruises and any other defects except
such as are necessarily caused in the operation of packing, and
shall be packed properly in clean, strong packages; provided,
that apples of one variety which are not more than three per
cent below the foregoing specifications may be graded as “ Mas-
sachusetts Standard Fancy”’.

“Massachusetts Standard A” shall include only apples of one
variety which are well matured specimens, properly packed, of
medium color for the variety, normal shape, sound, practically
free from disease, insect and fungous injury, bruises and other
defects except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of
packing; provided, that apples of one variety which are not more
than five per cent below the foregoing specifications may be
graded as “ Massachusetts Standard A”’.

“Massachusetts Standard B” shall include only apples of one
variety, which are well matured, properly packed, practically
normal shape, practically free from disease, insect and fungous
injury or any other defect which materially injures the appear-
ance or useful quality of the apples, but they may be less than
medium color for the variety; provided, that apples of one
variety which are not more than ten per cent below the fore-
going specifications may be graded as “ Massachusetts Standard
B”.

Apples not conforming to the foregoing specifications of grade,
or, if conforming, not branded in accordance therewith, shall
be classed as ungraded and so branded.

Other Designations Forbidden.

Section 102. The marks indicating the grade, as described
in the preceding section, shall not be accompanied by any other
designation of grade or brand which is inconsistent with, or
marked more conspicuously on the package than, the marks re-
quired by section one hundred and four.

Minimum Size. Term defined, etc.

Section 103. The minimum size of all apples in all grades,
including ungraded apples as defined in section one hundred and
one, shall be marked upon the package, and shall be determined
by taking the transverse diameter of the smallest fruit in the

164

package at right angles to the stem and blossom end. Minimum
sizes shall be stated in variations of one quarter of an inch, such
as two inches, two and one quarter inches, and so forth, in ac-
cordance with the facts. Minimum sizes may be designated by
figures instead of words. The word “minimum” may be desig-
nated by using the abbreviation “ min.”

Certain Information to be marked on Closed Packages of Apples.

Section 104. Each closed package of apples packed or re-
packed within the commonwealth and intended for sale within
or without the commonwealth, shall have marked in a conspicu-
ous place on the outside of the package in plain letters a state-
ment of the quantity of the contents, the name and address of the
person by whose authority the apples were packed, the true name
of the variety, and the grade and minimum size of the apples con-
tained therein, in accordance with sections one hundred and one
and one hundred and three, and the name of the state where
they were grown. If the true name of the variety is not known
to the packer or other person by whose authority the apples are
packed, the statement shall include the words “variety un-
known”, and if the name of the state where the apples were
grown is not known, this fact shall also be set forth in the state-
ment. If apples are repacked, the package shall be marked
“repacked”’, and shall bear the name and address of the person ~
by whose authority it is repacked, in place of that of the person
by whose authority they were originally packed.

Branding and Marking of Barrels.

Section 105. The branding or marking of barrels under sec-
tions one hundred and one to one hundred and seven, inclusive,
and one hundred and twelve shall be in block letters and figures
of a size not less than thirty-six point Gothic. The commis-
sioner of agriculture shall prescribe rules and regulations as to
the lettering to be used in branding or marking other closed
packages.

Adulterated Apples. Term defined.

Section 106. For the purposes of sections one hundred to
one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one
hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and
thirteen, apples packed in a closed package shall be deemed to
be adulterated if their measure, quality or grade does not con-

165

form in each particular to the brand or mark upon or affixed to
the package, or if the faced or shown surface gives a false rep-
resentation of the contents of the package

Misbranded Apples. Term defined.

Section 107. For the purposes of sections one hundred to
one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one
hundred and ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and
thirteen, apples packed in a closed package shall be deemed to
be misbranded:

First. If the package is packed or repacked in the common-
wealth and fails to bear all statements required by sections one
hundred and one, one hundred and three and one hundred and
four, made as required in section one hundred and five.

Second. If the package, whether packed or repacked within
or without the commonwealth, is falsely branded or bears any
statement, design or device, regarding the apples contained therein,
which is false or misleading, or if the package bears any state-
ment, design or device indicating that the apples contained
therein are of a specified Massachusetts standard grade, and said
apples, when packed or repacked, do not conform to the require-
ments prescribed for such grade.

Sale of Cold-storage Apples regulated.

Section 109. Apples which have been in cold storage shall
not be sold or distributed, or offered or exposed for sale or dis-
tribution, in closed packages until they have been inspected in
accordance with rules and regulations prescribed by the com-
missioner of agriculture.

Commissioner of Agriculture to make Rules and may enter Certain
Places.

Section 110. The commissioner of agriculture shall make
and may modify rules and regulations for enforcing sections one
hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and
nine and one hundred and twelve, and shall, either in person
or by his assistant, have free access at all reasonable hours to
each building or other place where apples are packed, stored,
sold, or offered or exposed for sale. He may also, in person or
by his assistant, open each box, barrel or other container, and
upon tendering the market price may take samples therefrom.

166

Prosecution for Violation of Certain Sections.

SEecTIon 111. The commissioner of agriculture and his duly
authorized assistants shall have authority to enforce sections
one hundred to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred
and nine and one hundred and twelve, and to prosecute all
violations thereof.

Penalty jor Adulterating, Misbranding, etc., Apples.

Section 112. Whoever adulterates or misbrands apples within
the meaning of sections one hundred and one to one hundred and
seven, inclusive, and one hundred and nine, or packs, repacks,
sells, distributes or offers or exposes for sale or distribution,
apples in violation of any provision of sections one hundred
and one to one hundred and seven, inclusive, one hundred and
nine and one hundred and thirteen, or apples so adulterated or
misbranded, or wilfully alters, effaces or removes, or causes to
be altered, effaced or removed, wholly or partly, any brands or
marks required to be put upon any closed package under section
one hundred and four, shall be punished for the first offence by
a fine of not more than fifty dollars, and for a subsequent of-
fence by a fine of not more than two hundred dollars.

Certain Exemptions from Penalties.

Section 113. No person who sells or distributes or offers or
exposes for sale or distribution apples adulterated or misbranded
within the meaning of sections one hundred and six and one
hundred and seven, shall be deemed to have violated any of the
provisions of sections one hundred to one hundred and seven,
inclusive, one hundred and nine and one hundred and twelve if
it appears that he acted in good faith solely as a distributor, or
if he furnishes a guaranty signed by the person from whom he
received the apples, together with the address of such person,
that the apples are not adulterated or misbranded within the
meaning of said sections. In such case, the person from whom
the distributor received the apples shall be liable for the acts
of the distributor, if he relied upon the guaranty, to the same
extent that the distributor would have been liable under said
sections.

167

Apples in Interstate Commerce exempted.

Section 114. Apples shipped in the course of interstate com-
merce and packed and branded in accordance with the act of
congress approved August third, nineteen hundred and twelve,
and known as “The United States Apple Grading Law”, shall
be exempt from sections one hundred and one to one hundred
and seven, inclusive, one hundred and nine, one hundred and
ten, one hundred and twelve and one hundred and thirteen.

168

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

GENERAL PUBLICATIONS.

AUTHOR. Title. Publisher. Price.
Bailey, L. H., Nursery Manual, Macmillan, 1920, $3 25
Bailey, L. H., Principles of Fruit Growing, Macmillan, 1915, 3 25
Bailey, L. H., Pruning Manual, , Macmillan, 1916, 3 25
Brown, B. S., Modern Fruit Marketing, One Judd Company, 1 60
Browh, B. S., Modern Propagation of Tree | John Wiley & Son, 1916, 1 50
Gould, H. P., Beach Croniing Macmillan, 1918, 3 00
Hesler, L. R., and Whet- | Manual of Fruit Diseases, . Macmillan, 1917, 3 00
Kah M. a Principles and Practice of Prun- | Orange Judd Company, 2 50
Sears, F. C., Productive Orcharding, Je SY riawineehs 1917, 2 50
Slingerland, M. V., and | Fruit Insects, Macmillan, 1914, 3 25
eo American Fruit Culturist, . Orange Judd Company, | 3 50
Waugh, F. A., American Peach Orchard, lies Judd Company, 175
Waugh, F. A., Beginners’ Guide to Fruit Grow- Orange Judd Company, 100
Wilkinson, A. E., The Apple, . Ginna & Co., 1915, 3 20

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

Wilder, H. J. Soils of Massachusetts and Connecticut with their Special Reference to Apples

and Peaches. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 140.

Spraying Peaches for Control of Brown Rot, Scab and Curculio. United States Department
of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 440.

Growing Peaches: Sites and Cultural Methods. United States Department of Agriculture,
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 917.

Peach Varieties and their Classification. United States Department of Agriculture, Farm-
ers’ Bulletin No. 918.

INDEX

INDEX.

“A” grade, requirements of,
Acid phosphate, use of, .
in old orchards,
in peach orchards, .
Aphids (or plant lice) in old orchards,
on apple trees,
@ methods of control,
Apple diseases, Fi
bitter-pit or stippen,
bitter-rot,
black-rot,
brown-rot,
cankers,
bitter-rot,
black-rot,
European,
nail-head,
classification of,
Control measures for,
crown-gall,
economic Joss from,
fire-blight,
fruit-spot, 4
miscellaneous injuries,
rust,
scab,
sonty Elotot ane fly-speck, .
spongy dry-rot, . ‘
storage rots, ‘
blue-mold,
pink-mold,
scald,
Apple Insects in Massachusetts, Some Important, shaptee on, by ‘Pros
fessor H. T. Fernald, 5
Apple maggot (or railroad a9 ,
methods of control, ‘
Apple Orchard, Establishing an, chapter on, by Professor F. C. Sears,
Apple Grading and Packing, Laws and Regulations on, chapter on, by
Wilfrid Wheeler, H. Linwood White and W. A. Munson,
Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers, chapter on, by Albert R. Jenks
Apple Storage on the Farm, chapter on, by Professor W. R. Cole,
Apple worm, lesser,
Arp peach,

“B” prade, requirements of,
‘Baldwin, variety of apple,
apples, prices for,
fruit-spot (bitter-pit or stippen),

PAGE
149-151

149-151
16

119

172

Barley as a cover crop,
Barrel, apple, standard,
contents, of, legal, .
defined,
method of aokine 4 in,
score card for apples packed in,
storage of, when filled,
tables for packing in,
Belle peach,
Bibliography, .
Bitter-pit or stippen, dcanetion of,
control of,
Bitter-rot, description of, . 5
canker, description of,
Black-rot, description of,
canker, description of,
in pruning,
Blue-mold,
Bordeaux mixture,
as a fungicide,
Borer, round-headed apple-tree,
* methods of control,
Borers attacking peach trees,
Boxes, produce, standard bushel, ‘
packing apples in,
risers on, ,
slats on,
standard apple,
contents of, legal,
lining of,
packing apples in,

score card for,

systems of,
= table for,
Branding. (See Marking.)
Bridge grafting described,
diagram of,
pruning after,
Brown-rot of apples, description of,
of peaches, .
spray for,
Brown-tail moth,
Brown-tail moth caterpillar on apple rang:
Buckwheat as a cover crop,
Bud moth,
Bud sticks, préparation of,
Budding, definition of,
diagram of, .
in top working trees,
method of,
object of, F
time for, in Massachusetts, :
By-products, apple, .

Calyx spray,
“Cambium layer”’ defined,
Canker, black-rot, in pruning,

PAGE

25, 35

132

152

. 148
132, 134-136
163

173

PAGE

Canker worm, . ‘ 33
Cankers on apple trees. ¥ 99-101
bitter-rot, 100

black-rot, F 99

European, 100

nail-head, 100

Carmen peach, ' 45
Caterpillar, tent, 33
Caterpillars on apple trees, 83
brown-tail moth, 83

fall web-worm, 84

gypsy moth, 83

° red-humped, 84
tent, : 83

yellow-necked, ' 84

Central or pyramidal type of trees, 52
Champion peach, 46
Cleft grafting described, 59, 60
diagram of, 60

on girdled trees, 66, 67

“Closed package”’ defined, 148
_ Closed packages, marks prohibited on, 158
required on, 151

color of ink in marking, 153

method of marking, 155

other than legal marks on, 157

Clover, crimson, as a cover crop, 25
Cluster-bud spray, iis
Coburn (or notch) grafting, 61
diagram of, 62

Codling moth, on apple trees, ; 85
methods of control, 86

“Collar-blight”’ (or ‘‘crown-rot’”’) phase of fire-blight, 98
Color of apples in grading under law, 150
Concrete, in apple storage houses, 121, 122
Condition of apples for storage, 116
: relation of color to, 116

Contents, table of, F 3
Control of apple diseases, general, 105
Copper sulfate-lime dust as a fungicide, 111
Corrosive sublimate, disinfectant, 101, 111
Counts of apples in boxes, 140
sizes of apples for various, 140

Cover crops for apple orchard, 25
advantages of, 25, 36,

barley as a, 25, 35

buckwheat as a, . 25, 35, 36

clover, crimson, as a, 25

Essex rape, dwarf, as a, 35

in peach orchards, : 47

as aid to bud hardiness, 47

method of cultivation, 36

proper quantities of seed for, F ‘ 37

soy beans as a, 35, 36

turnips as a, ,
vetch, winter, as a, . 25, 35, 36

174

PAGE

Crops, cover, in new orchard, r 25

in old orchards, 35

in peach orchards, i 47

growing of, in orchard, ‘ 24

Crown-gall on nursery stock, 102

control of, : 102

“Crown-rot”’ (or *collar-blight’’) phase of fe-blight 98

Cultivation in new orchard, E 23

in peach orchard after setting, . 47

after winter-killing, 41

before setting, 46

in renovating old orchards, 29

Cultivator, V-shaped, use of, 23

Curculio on apples, ¥ P 89

methods of control, 89

in old orchards, 33

on peaches, ‘ 44

spray for, 49

Definition of ‘‘closed package”’, 148

‘standard barrel’’, 148

‘standard apple box”, 149

“standard grades”, 149

“Dehorning”’ of old trees, 30, 55

Delayed dormant spray, 113

Delicious, variety of apples, 18
Diseases of the Apple in Massachusetts, chapter on, by Praeue A.

Vincent Osmun, ‘ 90

Diseases of peaches, 42, 43

brown-rot, 42

leaf-curl, 42

scab, . 43

yellows, 42

Dormant spray, delayed, . P A 113

Doucin apple, stock for dwarfing, 72

Drainage, atmospheric, 10

water, , 10

Dusting in apple orchards, ‘ é 7 ‘ ‘ 111

in peach orchards, p 49

Dwarf trees, method of production, To

Eastern Massachusetts, spraying in, 111, 114

Edgemont peach, ‘ 46

Elberta peach, 46

‘Essex rape, dwarf, as a cover crop, 35

European canker on apple trees, 100

Fall web-worm on apple trees, i. ote . 84

“Fancy’’ grade, requirements of, ( : 149-151

Fertilizers, nitrogenous, in old orchards, . ‘ . 34

in peach orchards, . , : 47

Fertilizing, after planting, i i ‘ 24

in renovating old aatanty, ‘ f 34

of peach orchards, 47

of peach trees after winter-killing, ' 41

Field receptacles for apples, ‘ : é ‘ i 129

PAGE

Fire-blight, description of, 3 : : . . 98
control of, : a 5 98

Fox Seedling peach, . ‘ - i 46
Fruit-spot, of apples, dexctiption of, " 4 94
Baldwin (bitter-pit), ; 5 , é 94

Fungicides for the apple, . . . : ‘ P 106, 110, 111
description of : : ‘ F 110, 112

Bordeaux mixture, . : 110

copper sulfate-lime dust, @ 111

rt corrosive sublimate, . ‘ 111

lime-sulfur solution, . 110

sulfur dust, 111

object of use of, . , . 110,111

and insecticides, combined, ‘ i 112

Girdled trees, repairing, . s ‘i 65
‘‘Graders,”’ apple (sizers), ‘ ‘ 125, 133
Grading of apples for box packing, . ‘ 3 138
Grading laws, purpose of, i 146
when adopted, 146

Grafting and budding, chapter on, by ‘Pootaneoe Ww. Ww. ‘Chenoweth, 5 57
definition of, 57

growing of stock for, : 72

object of, 57

Grafting, applicable to what fruits, . 58
bridge, described, ‘ 67-69

diagram of, 68

ca after, . 69

chisel, < ‘ ‘ 58

cleft, described, 59, 60

diagram of, 60

on girdled trees, 66, 67

equipment for, . : 8 58

notch or Coburn, described, 61

diagram of, 62

root, described, . ‘ 62

tongue, described, ‘ 63

diagram of, . 63

top, described, . é 59

wax, how made, ‘ F 58

Grafting, top, of old trees, 37
Grafts, setting out, . ‘ 65
storage of, : f 64
Gravenstein, variety of apple, ‘ 17
Green apple aphid, 80
Greensboro peach, 45
Gypsy moth, 33
Gypsy-moth cenouailla on apple trees, ‘ 6 . : 83
Hairy-root, phase of crown-gall on nursery stock, : ; ‘ 102
control of, ‘ - 102

Hale (J. H.) peach, eee as
Harrow, disk, use of, in old orshanda, * ‘ ‘ : 30
spring-tooth, use of, in old orchards, F F . i 30
Harvesting, of apples, 127, 128
of peaches, é , c : F : ‘ 7 , 50

time for, A ‘ , : 50

176

“Heading back”’ in pruning,
Hiley peach,

Injuries, physical, to apples, < : Z f : <
Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple, chapter on, by Professors H. T.
Fernald and A. V. Osmun, .
Insecticides, combination, : ‘ 3 A k
arsenate of lead and nicotine sulfate,
lime-sulfur wash and nicotine sulfate, .
and fungicides combined, i '
lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and
nicotine sulphate,
lime-sulfur and lead arsenate,
contact, defined,
described, .
kerosene emulsion,
lime-sulphur wash,
miscible oils,
nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent,
sulfur compounds, dry,
for the apple, A
classification of,
stomach poisons,
arsenate of lead,
of lime,
Insects, apple,
apple maggot,
caterpillars,
codling moth,
leaf hoppers,
oyster-shell scale,
plant lice or aphids,
plum curculio,
red bugs,
round-headed apple-tree borer,
San José scale,
scurfy scale,
Insects, attacking peaches,
borers,
curculio,
, scale, San José,
Inspection of apples in cold storage,
Introduction,

*‘Jumble”’ pack,
Kerosene emulsion as a contact insecticide,

Law, Massachusetts, on apple grading, regulations under,
summary of,
text of,
United States, on apple grading, summary of,
text of,

104

106
112, 113
112
113

106
108-110
108

109

110

108

110
106-110
106
106-108
106

107

142, 144

108

148-158
146
162-167
147
160-162

177

PAGE
Law, United States, on standard barrels, summary of, . 147
text of, . 159, 160

Laws and Regulations, on Apple Grading and Packing, chapter on, by
Wilfrid Wheeler, H. Linwood White, and W. A. Munson, 146
Lead, arsenate_of, use of, P 32, 33
as insecticide for apples, 106
to control caterpillars, 83
to control codling moth, 86
in combination insecticides, 112
in combined insecticides and fungicides, 112
in peach orchards, 48
Leaf-curl of peaches, 42
spray for, 49
Leaf-hoppers on apple trees, 82
Lime, in fertilizing old orchards, 35
in spray mixtures, 33
Lime, arsenate of, as an fnaentioide, 107
Limestone, ground, use of, in old orchards, : 35
Lime-sulfur, commercial, use of, : 32, 38, 82
: in combined insecticides and fungicides, 112
self-boiled, use of, A 33
in peach orchards, 49
method of mixing, 49
solution, as fungicide, 110, 111
wash, use of, to control San José nie. 79
as an insecticide, 109
in combination insecticide, 113
Manure, barn, use of, ke 5 24
in old orchards, 34
in peach orchards, 47
Marketing, of peaches, conditions affecting, 44
methods of, 50
Marking, of closed packages, 153-158
Marks, on closed packages, 151
. color of ink for, 153
kinds prohibited, 158
method of applying, 155
other than legal, 157
Massachusetts Apple Grading Law, regulations under, 148-158
summary of, 146
text of, 162-167
Massachusetts, eastern, spraying in, 11, 114
future of orchard industry in, vg
Mayflower peach, 46
McIntosh, variety of apple, 16
Measuring boards, use of, 21
Mice, protection of trees from anaes by, 26
Miscible oils as contact insecticides, 110
Mountain Rose peach, 46
Nail-head canker on apple trees, 100
Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, use of, : : F 32, 33, 76, 82, 88
as a contact insecticide, 108
in combination insecticides, 112, 113

in combined insecticides and fungi-

cides,

112

178

PAGE

Notch (or Coburn) grafting, : ‘i P ‘ , 61
diagram of, . ‘ x 62,

Nursery stock, , , ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ 19
advantages of locally grown, ‘ i 4 19

best age of trees to buy, ‘ ‘ . 19

buying of, . F Z j 4 19

dwarfs or standards, . F - ‘ ‘i 19

northern or southern, . : r . ; 19

Oldenburg (Duchess of), variety of apple, . . x 15
Open-headed (or vase-shaped) trees, . : 3 ‘ 52
“Open package,” effect of covering, . ‘ ‘ 153
Orchard, apple, cover crops for, . . ‘ 25
cultivation of, . : 23

fertilization of, é < ‘ 24

growing crops in, ‘ ‘ 24

laying off, i 20

site for, selection of, . , 7

score card for, 5 i ‘ 8

industry, future of, in Massachusetts, . ‘ 7
Orchards, Renovating Old, chapter on, by Professor F. c. sees ‘ 27
conditions for, . ‘ 27

Oyster-shell scale, . - x a % % é 75
methods of control, F : 76

Pack, ‘‘jumble”’, , ‘ « . 142, 144
Packages, for apples, 129, 130-133
closed, ‘ x + 4 144

market, . . 4 ‘ - 180-133

barrel, standard, . é : 132

baskets, ” ‘ “131, 132

boxes, . é . 130, 131

open, . ‘ ‘ 143

used for field senentadlen: : . : 129

Packing, pad, use of, in box packing, . F ‘ 143
in standard produce box, . . 142-144

room, in storage house, 3 i ° . 123,124

systems of, in boxes, . ; 4 . 139-142

sizes of apples for, : 140

types of, . e é ‘ 140

2-2, ‘ . 140

3-2, ‘ F r ‘ 141

4-4, . 141

Painting of cut surfaces after pruning, F : 4 o2
after removing cankers, : : 101

Paper, building, use of, to protect trees, . ‘ ‘ “ i , 26
Paradise apple, stock for dwarfing, . 4 72
Peaches, cultivation of, 2 ‘i 47
fertilization of, . F ‘ 47
harvesting of, ‘ P 50

method of planting, P 46

setting of, . 46

time for planting. ‘ A ‘ 46
varieties of, ‘ ‘ ° é 45, 46

Peach growing, limiting factorsin, . A r : 39

marketing conditions aieetnw, P 44

179

Peach growing, proper sites for,
soil conditions affecting,
soil types for,

Peach Orchards, Establishment and ivaintonance of, in inasachwsdlts,

_ chapter on, by Professor J. K. Shaw,
cultivation of,
fertilizers for,
management of,
pruning of,
setting trees in,
spraying of, :
steps in establishing,
Phosphoric acid, use of, ‘
in old orchards,
in peach orchards,
Picking apples, equipment for,
proper method of,
Pink-mold,
Planting board, use of,
Plant lice (or aphids), on apple trees,
in old orchards,
methods of control,
Potash, use of,
in old orchards,
in peach orchards,
Preparation of soil for apple orchard,
for peach orchard,
Prices for Baldwin apples 1912-17,
apples out of storage,

Pruning Fruit Trees, chapter on, by Professor J. H. Gourley, .

Pruning, after bridge grafting,
of apple trees after setting,
definition of,
important points in,
in renovating old orchards,
methods of,
object of,
of peach orchards,
of peach trees after winter teltine,
after setting,
principles of,
summer,

Railroad worm (or apple maggot),
Rape, dwarf Essex, as a cover crop, .
Red Astrachan, variety of apples,
Red bugs, on apple trees,
methods of control,

Red-humped ticianiol on apple trees,
Risers,
Rochester 7
Root grafting, described,
Rosy apple aphid,
Rust, apple,

on cedars,

control of

33,

180

San José scale, on apple trees,
methods of control,
on peach trees,
Scab, apple, .
description of,
of peaches,
spray for,
Scald,
Scale,
oyster-shell, 4 ,
methods of control,
San José, on apple trees,
methods of control,
on peach trees, .
spray for,
seurfy, . F
‘ methods of control,
“Scion,” defined,
method of cutting,
preparation of, for tongue grafting,
when to be cut,
Score card for judging barreled apples,
boxed apples,
Scraping of old trees in renovating,
Scurfy scale, on apple trees,
methods of control,
Seed for cover crops, proper quantities,
Semi-leader or modified leader trees,
Setting of grafts,
Site for apple orchard, score card for,
selection of,
Sites for peach orchards,
Sizers, apple (‘‘graders’’),
Sizes of apples, minimum,
Sizing of apples before storage,
machines for,
Slats,
Slope of land in orchard,
with reference to sun,
to wind,
in peach orchard, .
Soda, nitrate of, use of, é
in old orchards,
in peach orchards,
Soil conditions favoring bud hardiness in peaches,
suitable for peaches,
Soil for apple orchard, ‘
adaptability to types of fruit,
ease of working,
fertility,
humus content,
preparation of,
sourness,
subsoil, character of,
Sooty-blotch and fly-speck (sooty-fungus), '
control of,

125, 133
151

125

125, 133
145

Sorting of apples for packing,
tables, types of,

Soy beans as a cover crop,

Spongy dry-rot, description of,

Spraying, effect on quality for Sicttaiie:

in eastern Massachusetts,
in renovating old orchards,
mixtures for,

of peach orchards,

materials for,

to control apple diseases,
Spray schedule for apples,
for peaches,

Stakes, setting, in laying off orchard, .

“Standard apple box”’ defined,
“Standard barrel”’ defined,
“Standard grades” defined,
Stippen (or bitter-pit), control of,

description of,

“Stock” defined,

growing of, for grafting and wudding:

preparation of, for budding,

for tongue grafting,

Storage, common, for apples,
advantages of,

conditions affecting eapare sieitter 3 ip,
dark, desirability of,

proper temperature of,

time to pick apples for,

type of package for,

weather conditions for,

Storage houses, examples of,
functions of,
locations for,
management of,
material for,
packing rooms in,
principal types of,

principles of construction,

size of,
use of old cellars for,

ventilation system for,

Storage of apples in bulk,

promptly after vidlcinis

cold or refrigerated,

of grafts,

prices for apples out of,
Storage rots of apples, :
blue-mold,
pink-mold,
scald,
Stump peach,
Subsoil in apple sechend,
Sulfur, atomic, use of,

compounds, dry, as contact jnsaatictdes,

dust as a fungicide,

inspection of apples in,

181

121,
123,

121, 123,

103, 104

182

PAGE

Tables for packing apples in barrels, 134
in boxes, 137

Tankage, use of as fertilizer, 24
Tent caterpillar on apple trees, 83
Thinning of tops of old trees, eal
“Thinning out’’ in pruning, 53
Top-grafting, described, 59
by budding, 71

of old trees, 2 37

Trees, apple, age and vigor of, in old ordtiards, 27
locating, in planting orchard, 21

natural shape of, 62

preparation of, for setting, 22

proper distance between, 21

protecting trunks of, Z 26

pruning after setting, 23

setting, method of, 22

size of holes for, . 22

stand of, in old orchards, 28

types of training, . 52

central or pyramidal, 52

methods of development, 52

semi-leader or modified leader, 52

vase or open-headed, 52

peach, method of setting, sar 46
proper age for setting, 45

pruning of, 48

after setting, 46

rate of growth of, 47

time for setting, 47

Turnips as a cover crop, 35
Ungraded apples, under Massachusetts law, 149
United States, Apple Grading Law, summary of, 147
text of, 4 160-162

Standard Barrel Law, summary of, 147

text of, 159, 160

Varieties of apples, : 13
advantages of proper choice of, 13

Baldwin, . 16

Delicious, 18

discussion of proper number of, 14

Gravenstein, 17

importance of, in old sarthuwels: 28

McIntosh, 16

Oldenburg eee of), 19

Red Astrachan, 14

Wagener, 17

Wealthy, &

Williams Early, 1g

Yellow Transparent, 1&

183

PAGE

Varieties of peaches, 45, 46
Belle, 2 F 46

Carmen, : 45

Champion, ‘ 46

Elberta, ‘ 46

Greensboro, 45

Hale (J. H.), 46

others, 46

Vase or open-headed trees, 52
Ventilation of storage houses, system of, 121, 123
management of, 126

Vetch, summer, as a cover crop, 36
winter, as a cover crop, . 25, 35, 86
Waddell peach, é 46
Wagener, variety of apple, 17
Water sprouts in old trees, 30
Wealthy, variety of apple, 15,
Williams Early, variety of apple, 18
Windbreaks, . r Li
advantages of, 12

kinds of trees for, 11

near-by and distant, A 12

proper distance from orchard, ‘ +
Winter-killing of peach fruit buds, 39
of peach tree wood, 41

pruning after, 5 48

Wrapping of apples for box packing, 138
paper, kinds and sizes, 138
Yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar, 84
Yellows of peaches, 42

Yellow Transparent, variety of apple, 18

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