Manual of the apiary

retest

ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

NEw YorK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS

BEEKEEPING LIBRARY

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

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MANUAL

oF

THE APIARY,

BY

A. DCO OK,

Professor of Entomology,

IN THE

MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.

FLPTH EDITION,

REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND
BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED.

SEVENTH THOUSAND.

CHICAGO, ILLS. :
THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,

1880.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.

to tise
REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH,
THE .
INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE,
THE
HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO
APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL
IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
BY

THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE.

In 1876, in response to a desire frequently expressed by
my aplarian friends, principally my students, I published an
edition of 3,000 copies of the little unpretending “ Manual of
the Apiary.’ This was little more than the course of lectures
which I gave annually at the College. In less than two years
this was exhausted, and the second edition, enlarged, revised,
and much more fully illustrated, was issued. So great was
the sale that in less than a year this was followed by the
third and fourth editions, and, in less than two years,
the fifth edition (seventh thousand) was issued. Hach edition
has been enlarged and changed, to keep pace with our rapidly
advancing art.

It‘is the desire and determination of both publishers and
author, to make this work the exponent of the most improved
apiculture ; and no pains will be spared, that each succeeding
edition may embody the latest improvements and discoveries
wrought out by the practical man and the scientist, as gleaned
from the excellent home and foreign apiarian and scientific
periodicals. A. J. COOK.

State Agricultural College, Lansing, Mich,

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

Who May Keep Beés............. 0c cc ccc ees ee cnceuenes 11
Specialists ............. 0. ccc e cee eee eabesada exes mee ey 11
AMALCULS Sis wiecew seek cna ve hs «ee pede chav ewes SAAR aN 11

Who are Specially Interdicted ...................cc cece 12

Inducements to Bee-Keeping ........... 0... 0c cc cece cues 12
RECTCATION oi ocd oa he tana get wad evs heey £6 Boe S ETN 12
Prost os ssiccatseuen chau serie eewe sakes aes ad canes bank ae als 13
Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit................. 15
Adaptation to Women ............. 0... cece cee e eee 15
Improves the Mind and Observation............... 17
Yields Delicious Food ............. cc cece eee eee eee 17

What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires ................ 18
Mental EROLt ix ccasdae ccd von acted cag eat aweabers da 18
Experience Necessary .............:.cce cece eect eeeee 18
Learn from Others.............-.ccee cee eee e eee eeeee 18
Aid from Conventions ............. cece cece cece ween 19
Aid from Bee Papers ..............cce cece scene eens 19

American Bee Jourial............. cc ceee een eee 19
Gleanings in Bee Culture.....................6. 20
Bee-Keepers’ Magazine ..............+.-see eee eee 21
Books for the Apiarist.............. cece eee ener eee 21
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee.................. 21
uinby’s Mysteries of Bee-Keeping............ 22
ing’S Text-Book ..........:cee cece n cee een en eees 22
A, B, C of Bee Culture.......... ccc ce cece eens 22
Foreign Works. ...........cceseseeeeeeeeeeeeennes 22
Promptitude....... Sat soea: ... OB
PNthusiasnd soo ccaskig gees ovcca gs nese iaeeadeann denen 24
PART TI.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY BEE.
CHAPTER I.

The Bee’s Place in the Animal Kingdom............. 27
The Branch of the Honey-Bee........ te OT
The Class of the Honey-Bee.... ... 28
The Order of the Suh Bepee eiuite ag acpi ele oietetas Hnel 30
The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee.................. 31

ii. CONTENTS.

The Family of the IJoney-Bee..................005 84
The Genus of the Honey-Bee..................008. 38
The Species of the Honey-Bee..................... 41
The Varieties of the Honey-Bee................... 41
German, or Black Bee...............0cc cece eee eee 47
Italian, or Ligurian........... 0.0.0... cece eee eee 41
Fasciata, or Egyptian...../...0.000..0 ccc cece eee eee 43
,, Other Varieties.......... 0... c cece cece eee ee ee eenes 43

BIDWORTADNY a vst ie concours sties ah od gurl 2 iaaeicean, aeaGiaswaiete 44

Valuable Books on Entomology..................65 47
CHAPTER II.

Anatomy and_ Physiology .............-.00eee eee P ssobatsueneiate 48

Anatomy of Insects.......... 0c. cece cece ete en ee enens 48
Organs of the Head ............... cece cece ace eeeee 48
Appendages of the Thorax...................0.00ee 55°
Internal Anatomy .......... 2... sees eee eee ee eee eee ee 56
Secretory Organs .........-........- serantvk: Gamiht- Chena rarn de 61
Bex Oreanss ovacsacabse inn ed ahakaahs wat Mada eared 62
Transformations ...........0 0. cece cece ee eee eee eeenees 66

DDG. HOOF sci hee ae ciek dS os hare Bon nia eE aed oad 67
The: Larval, ::2ve25 perce whale mee eens eae peeaes 68
he. PUPA i yas sake cit ent bce Shades Wee nee Boe 68
The Imago Stage.............4.c. cece e eee cee 70

._ Incomplete Transformations.................... 0 eee 70

Anatomy and Physiology of the Honey Bee........... 71
Three Kinds of Bees in Each Colony............. 71

The Queen............. ph anaiut v bude Sonnets Ba aie . 71

PHE DPOME se. sieeacc soa ces ev aseme de ses Se caren oars 86

The Neuters or Workers.................e eee eee 90
CHAPTER III.

Swarming, or Natural Method of Increase.............. 101
' CHAPTER IV.

Products of Bees, their Origin and Function.......... 104
HONCY ie5 caec ces ess eee ee ees ovens oe he ce ae ye ieee as cals 104
Waki cv cee cece vere cea yee vd Hehe ieee oss Cee debe ngese ners 106
Pollen, or Bee-Bread..........cece cece cece ete eee eeees 111
Propolis saecus cenaenetenesGme saee oe ox eases eseleeed os 112

Bibliography: sasssccacceastasenda uasaeoie basket ye eeesi es 113

PART II.
THe APIARY, ITS CARE AND MANAGEMENT............ 115
INTRODUCTION.
Pre PALALIOD: .ce-soad dara soGuivde bb ceed g2G8 Lea w ee WA AO ae ss 117
; ead a Good Manual......... fais Bound Reese sey tahicaysns ate 117

VASIt SOME APIAVISt ec cc ancien cacnine te ety be eetioea ne eee 117

CONTENTS. iii.

Take a College Course............ 0.0 .c ce cece aeeeeuee 118
Decide on a Plan..... 00... cece cece cence eeeeues 118
How to Procure our Bees.................... 0000s eee. 118
Kind of Bees to Purchase........... 0.02... e cece ec eeeeuee 119
In What Kind of Hives...........00.000.......... paisa chuantaes 119
When.to Purchase... ec... ccc ccc ceases ess ve tun nnocwueevins 119
How Much 0: Pays eicc ees pik ake Os Ge SEES a4 bow dietenunn 120
W.Here: tO LO Catto. i aginaneeew xe es c8-2448 24 24 bedec aan 120
CHAPTER V

Hives and Boxes............ ccc ccccc ccc ecnccceeeeuaeesnns 122
Box Hives..................000005 bea olentaheced ieee ane dae 122
Movable Comb Hives.........------ +s... see ee eee es 128

The Langstroth Hive............. 00.0... cece cece 123
Character of the Hive.....................085 124
The Bottom Bourg stereos Gage 4s Sea 127 |

(Phe: COVEN. 22 sanwac's sends $a araarertndanten 129

HES BEAMES ses ces vias eedcn es kag Bee CMe ..182

How to Construct the Frames........ 133

A Block for making Frames...... 134

Cover for Frames...............0c0ee cease 136
Division: Boar@s: 2s scccacccasssaecs cee aca 187

The Huber Hive...................... ‘eieaecney see lOo
Apparatus for Securing Ganb Hones Svar ageeue Osta 84 141
OXCS sis .aciareiwe veo eee eee Rea eias sees ob eas ees 142
Small Frames or Sections.......... ee ree 144
Requisites of Good Frames................... 144
Description sociaxiviads eceiencigta nee cascess 144
How to Place Sections in Position................ 147
Sections in Frames...................:.ee eee 147
Sections in Racks................00ccceee cece 149

CHAPTER VI.

Position and Arrangement of the Apiary................ 152
SPOSitiOnic: sive eee que bone ae 5 cOAeteielatarnnnd:niate meine date 152
Arrangement of Ground............. ii alovAtsyophtecia ahaa 152
Preparation for each Colony..........-..s seen cree es 153

CHAPTER VII.
TO Transfer Be@S..cicsceoccccs cscs ten nee se pce toes acne 156
CHAPTER VIII.

Feeding and Feeders......-..0.20cecece cree ence cee seeeeee 159
Hoe Much to Feed...........0seeee ees siete Wade uisiaten asain’ 159
How to Feed..........ccc cece cere eee ete ester ennees 160

CHAPTER Ix
meen Rearing... 1.0.2.2 cc cee cee dee ece reser arte eenenes 163
¢ Ho Gry Gol Theva Me ons noes oe onions octet ie cane

NUCL OR geerv-yis seca arn aint ale Weve ne Aes oes Sat ie ees ea eee la
aaa we Clip the Queen’s Wing?.... ..........-.-+06- 168

iv. CONTENTS,
CHAPTER X.
InGrease: OF Colonies ssa sasie sede cides sneer ace eared siacesacew ages 171
Swarming........ cece cece cece ence cece ene ee eene renee 171
Hiving: SWarms os sie keers sles stanseanaielniews svsseseie“et%s 173
To Prevent Second Swarms...............0000 sei etelers 175
To Prevent SwarmMing............c..c eee e cere eee e eee 176
How Best to Increase............ ccc cece eens cece eee ee el TT
DiVIGING secs se os ¢2 na Pewee 3 Bee Gree ule Rar Rael deRIgE ER 5 177
Howto: Did Cte ss. yaaa c-cae odlesuatine awmaene ais 2 177
CHAPTER XI.

Italians and Italianizing..........0. 00... ccce cece eee e ences 180
All Should Keep only Italians...................02005 183
How’ to- (talianiZee: sis 2k sees non paeadieowwee xan cece 183
‘How to Introduce a Queen..............csee cece eeees 183
To Get Italian Queens... ........ cece cece cece eee renee 185
Rearing and Shipping Queens.............. ....... -.186

To Ship Queens.)sjsss202 sesnen saws vee eee Xd tae sees 186

To: Move: Colonies's. aici wosesatcacsnaw rare seweee es 4 187
CHAPTER XII.

Aexiancting and the Extractors.............. se tiaersciin ages s 188

PUXtPACCOP sso: Se ue au slosadnasinawantwGaGe mids 188

What Ss ae TO BUY isco Gee aesaediatesseameniess 189

Use of the Extractor............ 0. cee cece anes rere 191

When to use the Extractor...............cc cee e cena 192

HOW tO EXtracts visiic avececiteasasnamuras aaucaaniatese se 194
CHAPTER XIII

Handling, B6GS) oic.ce ocerareeawiry saa dita dotnamataeniaen ees 195
“he Best: Bee. Veil sek esis anne 8456 aca ceckar waoweneases 196
To Quiet, Bees sce cies sau ed ae oslo ve dea a ars dened Gemeelens 197
Bellows Smoker...........0..ccccccceeceeceuseccecseee 198

The Quinby Smoker..............c cece cece eee eee 198

The Bingham Smoker................csceceeceees 199

How to Smoke Bees...............ccccceeevcececeeees 201°

To: Cure SUN OS ss 2cace anaerauie’y doles 208 ooo sa Mes ee 201

‘Lhe Sweat THEOL: . ois .-< ese ie dene caren 4 wes oak oaaneee 201
CHAPTER XIV

Comb Foundation. Dest ad enotinhacetn oi Rene Guhl ak col a ho dale 203
History.. sath badialesagieze 208
American Roundation: . 204
How Foundation is Made . .206
To Secure the Wax Sheets. . 206
Use of Foundation. . 207

To Fasten the aan aus
Save the ee een ne eres arene eee 211
MOthOOS ict snadawed Metin che sesteeeeusineeea thee ss 211

CONTENTS, Vv.
CHAPTER XV.

Marketing Honey .........- 2.2... cece ne eeeeneeeeeneeees 213
How to Invigorate the Market...................... 213
Extracted: Honeys. «s%.0s3en danseecamen gains sieves 214
How to Tempt the Consumer............,.......0000 214
Comb Honey: «.. 225. ssassncciacassce evar esceestseve sees 215.

Rules to be Observed............c..seee eee eeeee 215.
CHAPTER XVI.

Honey. Plants \asccwtoanletaaeintoadlacana tana weiead von eess 218

hat are the Valuable Honey Plants?.............. 220

Description with Practical Remarks.............. 222

April Plants. oes hu dix geecibcch ieee sosnehew.d es be 223.

BY PANS oa desecermnt wana aliiioseslediaye dsceees 925

JUNE PAN ts. csc. ciascdewrese deleirleniaa been a beso 8 228

JULY PLANS so. is esisicaca seowataakiieeiwadec snes 237

August and September Plants................ 242,

Books on Botany... ...........cceccceeeecceeeeers 244.

Practical Conclusions...............eee ee eee DAE
CHAPTER XVII.

‘Wintering Bees cases aecs dec akan mes seen same ees cane oe 246.
The Cause of Disastrous Wintering............... 246
Requisite to Safe Wintering—Good Food............ 248.

Secure Late Breeding..................0ec cece ees 24y
To Secure and Maintain Proper Temperature... . .249:
Box for Packingin. .cc.43..esacaver ma esssemseaw vaes 250
Chaff Hives....... hina actress Mare acetone ay tates. ese vale ess 251
Wintering in Cellar or Elouse..............-.02e eee 252
Burying Begin... 2 isaccse7 vaca vies tdentae hens cosine cise 254
Spring Dwindling............... 2... cece eee eee eens 254
CHAPTER XVIII.

The House Apiary........... 0... cc cece cere eee e eee ees 255
DDESCTIPCION . eis aa case ncatecdet. oe om Vd ee hea vbibig Sead a: sense onion’ 255
Are they Desirable.... 0.0.0.0... 0. cc cece cece ee ee eee 256
The Case as it Now Stands............... eee eee 256:

CHAPTER XIX.

Evils that Confront the Apiarist...................... 258.
Robbing..............-..- Ged a Selde oiae aac ee 258.
DISGASE : cicin siocnine ees sniex Oye coke ao osaeas eee teas tae 259
FOUL Brood);és Weadeatensghuis save ok ove eee ses 259

ROM CGICS: caicnve ais odtce-ckes: vaio edna eedlo dees Gee anes 260
Enemies, Of Bees sci seis ted eves tek beens Kaba sees ee 262
SDE Be: MOths sais sess asi exienetaeg gece coe cngselateierasae's Os 262
PIS ORV siateicnds cae cars saris walaseos Gels eauacaue 266.
FROMECICS a ites siya dosiaesnare sstaceye Sais ih Bisere inte Sure: 6: ek LOO

Bee: Kallerice woes ee isiesccesd psa ee dees wees ae eheons 267

vi. CONTENTS.

Hee Founs Leg cea side ea 2 and Bai inn eae ne
non ant Suggestion
Bee Haw Kise: acess a05004 4956 dows Sie os 4 eee eee was
Paphine | Diy RTTAS Te eee ee ee
SPICELS: o cacceccig tessa sea secs hardaed tan weas wees
ADS he ace spe oats ccotes BERET AWA TAG Sw Ree BA amar Keer ieCE
WASPS 2 cgue ecuuceain ca abverr.s atin Senmuuhe-} aioe coott Sees
De KING BIG se a 6. aces oie seid ast augue d teens Soa
TPOAOS 95-5 2d: oa vik Rade SNS Fa4i eae aS ee Sead 4 Ae RAS
MCG een siscced sin wre in nse hedae Gaihinawn oem Means Sralese nate we
CHAPTER XxX.
Calendar and AXiomS . ............. cece eee cece eee eee 274
“Work for Different Months................-.-.....-.. 274
JQDUALY wrod seme vae dev case ss 3455405845 50Se 4s eRe 274
Pe DTUary:ys-sssieecs o458¥ F404 05ers 8 Ne ee Hah 6 eee 274
Mareh ave ews peu daxdvacsseca coe cry ok tant eoeeeanes 274
SADT leave tote crore ating Siem ang ate ad aorta 4 MNES 275
May sea cvis tanec aldgabeeses baeesta we tees 275
JUNE saxccnicieos taste ee. yee anes ches weee ae Bea ews 275
JULY easneena eed eeewand ced AGeR Rs Sakae Alek awe eae 275
AUGUST iiwic cca dste Re. WSS e EET EEA GAAS G Same 275
September... . Bipane die hvatena Mee dee ee as .. 276
Octobenicasnxsncieng odes ese sec secs uhuns -tideaerees wieae Hoe 276
NOVEM DCE wascoctey sha ence etantaawesenmesabehadoetes 276
DOCOM DOL sree sit eso eiva else 9 $4 8-9 hiss deacaeeiictied Somes 276
AXIOMS sosaiaideraaste cet ares Hae eae h Daa AW aaa 277
APPENDIX.
History of Movable Frames ............. 2. cece ence eee es 278
Lecanium Tulipifer®.......... 0... ccc ccc cece eee eee 286
Natural History of 2.0.0.0... cc cece ene e cece e ee neee 287
Motherwort as a Honey Plant... ............ 0... cee eee 289
Deseriptlonee iscsi Wed von heae aah bees bee e ee eh wees 291
The Sour-Wo0d Tree. .......... 00 ccc cece neces cee eeeeas 292
The Japan Medlariacsicssgesss odiee seice ee cet eenees aew'ee 293
The Stinging Bug sicod cesses doe Coed ser dese OS ae bewaeane’ 293
The Southern Bee-Killers ............0 0. cc ccee eee eececees 297

Honey-Comb Coral ........ 0. sc ee cece cence ee ences Tesvanseers 301

fT
. Block for making Frames

a Blow for Section maling +
46. Hetherington Pe Daralorss

. Phelps Section ..

- Quinby Smokers.
. Bingham Smoker.
. Comb Foundation, 3
66. Comb Foundation Machine

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Bee's W.

Head of Bee...

arva of Bee
Pupa of Bee.
Queen Bee...
Labium of Queen!!
Part of Queen’s Leg.
Drone

Honey: -Comb
Langstroth Hive
Body of Hive..
Bevel Gauge.
Bottom-Board.

. Two-Story Hive..
. Cover | to Hive .

with Cross-Se

Division-Board...
Part of Quinby H
Part of Bingham Hiv:
Glass Honey Box .
Isham Honey Box .
Harbison Seciion Frame. .

Dovetailed PosHon.

ection Frame ..
ectionsin Frame ...

outhard’s Section Rac
W heeler’s Section Rack.

Simplicity Feeder..
ueen-cell Inserted

Knife for Uneapping eiaiptcik
Knife with Curved Point.
Bee-Veil...........

Hivein Shade of Evergreen

. Trach
. Respiratory Apparatus of a Bee: 2

9. White Sage

. White or Dutch Clover:
. Alsike Clover .
z ee Clover:

\. Mi nt

- Pollen of Milkwee

. Black Mustard
ape

. Comb Foundation Cutter ........ 206
68. Block for Fastening Foundation: 210
. Presser for Block 211

. Wax Extractor..
. Prize Crate ....
. Heddon © Crate. .

Chinese Wistaria.
Barberry .....

ae ieee

hh.
Rocky Mountain Bee Plant.

96. ++ 289
97. Boneset ............ 241
98. Buckwheat... + AZ42,
99. Golden Rod.. oo 248
100. Sun Flower...... 2 243,
101. Packing-Box for Win 250
102. Gallery of Moth Larva. +262
103. Loth Larva in Comb 2263
104. Moth Larve . 264
105. Moth Cocoon +264
106. Moth with Win, «264
107. Male and Fema) 265
108. Bee-Killer ............. 268
109. Bee Louse ... +268
110. Tachina Fly . 270
111. Munn Hive .......... 219
112. Munn’s Triangular Hive 280
113. Lecanium Tulpiter ss. 288
114. Stem of Motherwort. ++ 289
115. Fruit and Leaf of Motherwort...290
116. Motherwort Bloom.. wy
117. Sour-Wood ........ 292
118. Stinging-Bug—natu: 294
. Magnified twice 294
Beak, magnified. 294
‘Antenna, magnifi

182.
183.

5.
. Southern Bee-Killer.....

. Wing of Asilus Missouriensis.

Anterior Jeg, exterior view... .295
nterior view...-

Claw, extended a Seecelotatentese auetmiats

Middle leg, magnified. F

Wings extended.
Head of.....

Honey-Comb Coral
Wasp-stone Coral.,

INTRODUCTION.

WHO MAY KEEP BEES.
SPECIALISTS.

Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do
whatever the needs of his business require, with no thought
of delay, may make apiculture a specialty, with almost cer-
tain prospects of success. He must also be willing to work
with Spartan energy during the busy season, and must persist,
though sore discouragement, and even dire misfortune,
essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains,
As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in
apiculture. I make no mention of capital to begin with, or
territory on which to locate; for men of true metal—men
whose energy of mind and body bespeak success in advance
—will solve these questions long before their experience and
knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries.

AMATEURS,

Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended
to those of any business or profession, who possess the above
named qualities, and control a little space for their bees, a few
rods from street and neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives
may securely rest (C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, keeps his bees
very successfully on the top of his store, in the very heart of
a large city), and who are able to devote a little time, when
required, to care for their bees. The amount of time will
of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with
proper management this time may be granted at any period of
the day or week, and thus not interfere with the regular busi-
ness. Thus residents of country, village, or city, male or
female, who may wish to be associated with and study natural
objects, and add to their income and pleasure, will find here
an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, shut out from
fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point sadly to

1 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

departing health and vigor, and to men the nature of whose
business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too
highly recommended as an avocation.

WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED.

There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially
susceptible to the poison intruded with the bee’s sting.
Sometimes such persons, if even stung on the foot, will be so
thoroughly poisoned that their eyes will swell so they cannot
see, and will suffer with fever for days, and, very rarely, indi-
viduals are so sensitive to this poison that a bee-sting proves
fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should never keep
bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Klein and
Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but
spurred on by their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon be-
come so innoculated that they experience no serious injury
from the stings. It is a well-recognized fact, that each suc-
cessive sting is less powerful to work harm. Every bee-
keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though
with the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion
neither of fear nor anxiety.

INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING.
RECREATION.

Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the
pleasure which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination
about the apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always
presenting the most pleasurable surprises to those on the alert
to receive them. And among the insect hosts, especially
bees, the instincts and habits are so inexplicable and marvel-
ous, that the student of this department of nature never
ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less with
wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords
most wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look
in upon the book of nature, and study the marvelous pages
she is ever waiting to present. To such, the very fascination
of their pursuit is of itself a rich reward for the time and
labor expended. I doubt if there is any other class of manual

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 13

laborers who engage in their business, and dwell upon it, with
the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to meet a
scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough
study of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its
very nature, go hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I
once asked an extensive apiarist, who was alse a farmer, why
he kept bees. The answer was characteristic: ‘Even if I
could not make a good deal the most money with my bees, I
should still keep them for the real pleasure they bring me.”
But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels,
President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties
are very severe. Said he: “For the restful pleasure which
I receive in their management.” I am very sure, that were
there no other inducement than that of pleasure, I should be
slow to part with these models of industry, whose marvelous
instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever ministering to my
delight and astonishment.

A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and Col-
lege classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I
took him to see our apiary, and as we looked at the bees and
their handiwork, just as the nectar from golden-rod and asters
was flooding the honey-cells ; he became enraptured, took my
little “Manual of the Apiary’ home with him, and at once
subscribed for the old American Bee Journal. He very
soon purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so
much of pleasure and recreation in the duties imposed by his
new charge, that he has written me several times, expressing
gratitude that I had led him into such a work of love and
pleasure.

PROFITS.

The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pur-
suit. When we consider the comparatively small amount of
capital invested, the relatively small amount of labor and ex-
pense attending its opperations, we are surprised at the
abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its intelligent
practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming
that labor—yes, real hard, back-aching labor—is not required
in the apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colo-
nies, will have, at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous

14 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

work. Yet this will be both pleasant and healthful, and will
go hand-in-hand with thought, so that brain and muscle will
work together. Yet this time of hard, physical labor will
only continue for five or six months, and for the balance of
the. year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure.
Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, in-
dolent, heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in
any other calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years
of experience, where accurate weight, measure, and counting
of change has given no heed to conjecture, that there is no
manual labor pursuit, where the returns are so large, when
compared with the labor and expense.

An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in
Michigan, with the absolute certainty of more than doubling
his investment the first season ; while a net gain of 400 per
cent. brings no surprise to the experienced apiarists of our
State. This of course applies only to a limited number of
colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States as a loca-
tion for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I
ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary,
have netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net
return of $24.04, while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above
all expense, of over 400 per cent. of their entire value in the
spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who graduated at our College one
year since, purchased last spring seven colonies of bees. The
proceeds of these seven colonies have more than paid all ex-
penses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while there
are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count the
labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered
with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our
State who possess good apiaries and good improved farms,
have told me that their apiaries were more profitable than all
the remainder of their farms. Who will doubt the profits of
apiculture in the face of friend Doolittle’s experience? He
has realized $6,000, in five years, simply from the honey taken
from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of all expenses
except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks,
and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colo-
nies, and we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee-
keeping made Adam Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 15

Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 as the cash receipts of a
single year’s honey-crop. It enabled Mr. Harbison, so it is
reported, to ship trom his own apiary, eleven car-loads of
comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater
recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money-
making, even with hardships and privations, is attractive
and seldom disregarded ; such opportunity with labor that
brings, in itse7, constant delight, is surely worthy of
attention.

EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT.

Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience,
that serves so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds
to the poorly paid, out-door air to the clerk and. office-hand,
healthful exercise to the person of sedentary habits, and su-
perb recreation to the student or professional man, and
especially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum,
routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The labor,
too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and
management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as
not to infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occu-
pation. Indeed, I have never been more heartily thanked,
than by such persons as named above, and that, too, because
I called them to consider—which usually means to adopt—
the pleasing duties of the apiary.

ADAPTATION TO WOMEN.

Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society
has not been over-ready to favor—our women. Widowed
mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, ad? may
find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and profitable labors ot
the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and health,
can care for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient
strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb
when loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With
the proper thought and management, full colonies need never
be lifted, nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet right here
let me add, and emphasize the truth, that only those who
will let energetic thought and skiliful plan, and above all
promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weak-

16 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

ness, should enlist as apiarists. Usually a stronger body,
and improved health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and
exercise, will make each successive day’s labor more easy, and
will permit a corresponding growth in the size of the apiary
for each successive season. One of the most noted apiarists,
not only in America but in the world, sought in bee-keeping
her lost health, ana found not only health, but reputation and
influence. Some ot the most successful apiarists in our
country are women. Of these, many were led to adopt the
pursuit because of waning health, grasping at this as the last
and successful weapon with which to vanquish the grim mon-
ster. Said “Cyula Linswik”—whose excellent and beautifully
written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee
publications, and who has had five years of successful experience
as an apiarist—in a paper read before our Michigan Conven-
tion of March, 1877: “I would gladly purchase exemption
from in-door work, on washing-day, by two days’ labor among
the bees, and I find two hours’ labor at the ironing-table more
fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can
exact. * * * T repeat, that apiculture offers to many
women not only pleasure but profit. * * * Though the
care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who
experiments in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find
that it means, at some seasons, genuine hard work. * * *
There is risk in the business, I would not have you ignore
this fact, but an experience of five years has led me to be-
lieve that the risk is less than is generally supposed.” Mrs.
L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees very
successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before
the same Convention, in which she said: “But I can say,
having tried both,” (keeping boarding-house and apiculture,)
“T give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, health-
ful, independent and enjoyable. * * * TI find the labors
of the apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove
in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * *
I believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would
find renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recrea-
tions of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early
spring, when the weather was cool and the work light, I be-
came gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by mid-

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 17

summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the
sun as my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life.
Previously, to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a
head-ache. * * * My own experience in the apiary has
been a source of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my
anticipations.” Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but
two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over
$100 ; the second year but a few cents less than $300; and
the third year about $250. “The proof of the pudding is
in the eating ;” so, too, such words as given above, show that
apiculture offers special inducements to our sisters to become
either amateur or professional apiarists.

‘IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION.

Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observa-
tion, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too,
in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist
receives manifold and substantial advantages. In the culti-
vation of the habit of observation, a person becomes constantly
more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, results which
also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. It
is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is so
frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the
hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his
hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for
ennui. The whole tendency, too, of such thought and study,
where nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the
desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with
their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study,
and we shal] have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of
the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that
even the old philosophers would have coveted ; furnishes the
rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by
keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations
of the All Father, must draw them toward Him “who went
about doing good,” and in “ whom there was no guile.”

YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD.

A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of

mention, is the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea,

18 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

our very lives, demand that we should eat sweets. It is a
truth that our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups,
are so adulterated as to be often poisonous. The apiary, in
lieu of these, gives us one of the most delicious and whole-
some of sweets, which has received merited praise, as food fit
for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present day.
To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb,
or the equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is
certainly a blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply
our families and friends with a most necessary and desirable
food element, and this with no cloud of fear from vile, poi-
sonous adulterations.

WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES.

MENTAL EFFORT.

No one should commence this business who is not willing
to read, think and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un-
thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or
later, failure will set her seal upon their efforts. Those of
our apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the
closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the late
terrible winters with but slight loss.

Of course the novice will ask, How and what shall I
study ? ;

EXPERIENCE NECESSARY.

Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence
with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the
bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note
every change, whether of the bees, their development, or
work, and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause.

LEARN FROM OTHERS.

Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists.
Note their methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by con-
versation to gain new and valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt
whatever is found, by comparison, to be an improvement upon
your own past system and practice.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 19

AID FROM CONVENTIONS.

Attend conventions whenever distance and means render
this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social
intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them
sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conserva-
tory of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instru-
ments and methods. And the apt attention—rendered
possible by your own experience—which you will give to
essays, discussions and private conversations, will so enrich
your mind, that you will return to your home encouraged, and
able to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have
attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Convention,
and never yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and
expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions which
I received. These [ would carry home, and test as com-
manded by the Apostle: “ Prove all things and hold fast that
which is good.”

AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS.

Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the
three excellent bee publications that are issued in our coun-
try. It has been suggested that Francis Huber’s blindness
was an advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two
pairs of eyes, his wife’s and servant's, instead of one. So,
too, of the apiarist who reads the bee publications. He has
the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, of hundreds of intel-
ligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders
his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He
who “cannot afford” to take a bee-journal.

It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any
one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others.
Each has its peculiar excellences, and all who can, may well
secure all of them to, aid and direct their ways.

AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL.

This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its
age, but for the ability with which it has been managed, with
scarce any exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel
Wagner, its founder and long its editor, had few superiors in
breadth of culture, strength of judgment, and practical and

20 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

historic knowledge of apiculture. With what pleasure we
remember the elegant, really classic, diction of the editorials,
the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities which
marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly
visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel
Wagner. Some one has said that there is something in the
very atmosphere of a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all
who approach him. I have cften thought, as memory reverted
to the old American Bee Journal, or as I have re-read the
numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner's superior
learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his noble
character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding,
instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess
the early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to
state that the American Bee Journal is again in good hands,
and that its old prestige is fully restored. Mr. Newman is
an experienced editor, a man of excellent judgment and ad--
mirable balance, a man who demonstrates his dislike of crim-
inations and recriminations by avoiding them ; who has no
special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost
sure to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers ;
who lends his aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so
much to spread apiarian knowledge. And when I add, that
he brings to his editorial aid the most able, experienced and
educated apiarists of the world, I surely have spoken high
but just praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose enviable
reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by
Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago.

GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE.

This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five
years, by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from
the first. Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly
experimenting ; a terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good
nature and enthusiasm. I am free to say, that in practical
apiculture I am more indebted to Mr. Root than to any other
one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. TI also think that,
with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent advance-
ment of practical apiculture than any other person in our
country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so

MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 21

inimical to conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises
that with which he has had so brief an experience, and must
consequently know so little. This trait makes it imperative
that the apiarist read discriminately, and then decide for him-
self. In case of an innovation, wait for Mr. Root’s continued
approval, else prove its value before general adoption. This
sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root, Medina, Ohio.

BEE-KEEPER'S MAGAZINE.

I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less
of it than of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has
many very able contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root
deal largely in their own wares, and, of course, give space to
their advertisement, yet, in all my dealings with them, and I
have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have ever found them
prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. King,
New York,

BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST.

Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture,
both American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a
course to others. Each book has peculiar excellences, and
each one may be read with interest and profit.

LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE.

Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee-
literature. I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have
received from the study of its pages. It was a high, but de-
served encomium, which J. Hunter, of England, in his
“Manual of Bee-Keeping,” paid to this work: “It is un-
questionably the best bee-book in the English language.”

The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter
so replete with interest, and the entire book so entertaining,
that it is a desirable addition to any library, and no thought-
ful, studious apiarist can well be without it. It is especially
happy in detailing the methods of experimentation, and in
showing with what caution the true scientist establishes prin-
ciples or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully free
from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture
remained stationary, there would have been little need of

22 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

another work ; but as some of the most important improve-
ments in apiculture are not mentioned, the book alone would
be a very unsatisfactory guide to the apiarist of to-day.

QUINBY'S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING.

This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of America’s
most successful bee-keepers. The work has just been revised
by L. C. Root, who has fully maintained its excellent charac-
ter. The admirable style and eminent practicality of this
work has lost nothing in the revision. Mr. Root is the son-
in-law of the late Mr. Quinby, and was fully advised of the
latest views and discoveries of the great bee-keeper. To
these he has added the rich results of his own experience, as
well as the latest discoveries and methods of the most progress-
ive apiarists.

KING'S TEXT-BOOK.

This is a compilation of the above works, and has recently
been revised, so that it is abreast of the times. It is to be
regretted that the publisher did not take more pains with his
work, as the typography is very poor.

.
A B C OF BEE-CULTURE.

This work was issued in numbers, but is now complete. It
is arranged in the convenient form of our cyclopzedias, is
printed in fine style, on beautiful paper, and is well illustrated.
I need hardly say that the style is pleasing and vigorous.
The subject matter is fresh, and embodies the most recent
discoveries-and inventions pertaining to bee-keeping. That it
may be kept abreast of apiarian progress, the type is to be
kept in position, so that each new discovery may be added as
soon as made.

FOREIGN WORKS.

Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and
shows by its able historical chapters, admirable scientific dis-
quisitions, and frequent quotations and references to practical
and scientific writers on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient
and modern, that the writers were men of extensive reading

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 23.

and great scientific ability. The book is of no practical value ,
to us, but to the student it will be read with great interest.
Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in
my library that treat of bees and bee-keeping, if I may ex-
cept back volumes of the bee-publications.

“The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture,” by
Alfred Neighbour, London, is a fresh, -sprightly little work,
and as the third edition has just appeared, is, of course, up
with the times. The book is in nice dress, concise, and very
readable, and J am glad to commend it.

A less interesting work, though by no means without merit,
is the “ Manual of Bee-Keeping,” by John Hunter, London.
Thisisalso recent. I think these works would be received with
little favor among American apiarists. They are exponents
of English apiculture, which in method would seem clumsy
to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in implements.
and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Ger-
mans and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and
hence their text-books and journals compare illy with ours.
I believe the many intelligent foreign apiarists who have come
to this country and are now honored members of our own
fraternity, will sustain this position. Foreign scientists are
ahead of American, but we glean and utilize their facts and
discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is discov-
ered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten
times as many American as foreign apiarists know of this
and practice by the knowledge. In practical fields, on the
other hand, as also in skill and delicacy of invention, we are,
I think, in advance. So our apiarists have little need to go
abroad for either books or papers.

PROMPTITUDE.

Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping,
is prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the
rock on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too
often that they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt
that more colonies die from starvation, than from all the
bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is this?
Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season
by absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must

24 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

we blame? Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced
idleness of queen and workers, just because room is denied
them, is very great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly,
neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, indifference
to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments,
greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be suc-
cessful, promptitude must be our motto. Each colony of bees
requires but very little care and attention. Our every inter-
est demands that this be not denied, nor even granted grudg-
ingly. The very fact that this attention is slight, renders it
more liable to be neglected ; but this neglect always involves
loss—often disaster.
"ENTHUSIASM.

Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desira-
ble, if not an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To
be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with even slight op-
portunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance.
The beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may
meet with discouragements—unquestionably will. Swarms
will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist
will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees
with great disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet re-
proof more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all
these difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be
foreseen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers
will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely as a
pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs
with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to
his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence in the face
of all those discouragements which are so sure to confront
inexperience, will surely triumph. In-sooth, he who ap-
preciates the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love
his companions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their
care and management. Nor will this love abate till it has
kindled into enthusiasm.

True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled
by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, sys-
tem and promptitude, stand in lieu of and make amends
for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and
certainly they work at great disadvantage.

PART FIRST.

—<c ox

NATURAL HISTORY

OF

THE HONEY BEE.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE.

CHAPTER I.
THE BEE’S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that
there are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It
will be both interesting and profitable to look in upon this
vast host, that we may know the ‘position and relationship of
the bee to all this mighty concourse of life.

BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon
I., grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one
branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this term indi-
cates the jointed or articulated structure which so obviously
characterizes most of the members of this group.

The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a tech-
nical meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of
union of two parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus,
the parts of an insect’s legs, as well as the surfaces of union,
are styled joints or articulations. All apiarists who have
examined carefully the structure of a bee, will at once pro-
nounce it an Articulate. Not only is its body, even from
head to sting, composed of joints, but by close inspection we
find the legs, the antennz, and even the mouth-parts, like-
wise, jointed.

In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea—which includes
the rolicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether
he moves forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the
sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under
old boards, etc., and the barnacles, which fasten to the bot-
tom of ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life
within and without.

The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these,
as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then,
which gives us food, is related to the dreaded tape-worm with
its hundred of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the same

28 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

food after we have eaten it, and the terrible pork-worm or
trichina, which may consume the very muscles we have de-
veloped in caring for our pets of the apiary.

The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in
the bee and lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms.
This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates or back-bone ani-
mals, to which we belong, is outside, and thus serves to pro-
tect the inner, softer parts, as well as to give them attach-
ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal.

This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden-
banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight,
animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually
bony skeleton ; from the less active Molluscan branch, with
their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the
clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish—the devil-fish
of Victor Hugo—with its long, clammy arms, strange ink-
bag, and often prodigious size ; from the Radiate branch, with
its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral
animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents ;
and from the lowest, simplest, Protozoan branch, which in-
cludes animals so minute that we owe our very knowledge of
them to the microscope, so simple that they have been
regarded as the apron-strings which tie plants to animals.

THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE.

Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly
characterized by breathing air usually through a very compli-
cated system of air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are con-

Fig. 1.

A Trachea, magnified.

stantly branching, and almost infinite in number, are very
peculiar in their structure. They are formed of a spiral

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 29

thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder formed by closely
winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, so as to cover
it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the wire un-
moved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than
this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee
under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself
taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee, as
my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful
breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand into large

Fie. 2.

Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.— After Duncan.

lung-like sacks (Fig. 2, 7°), one each side of the body. Doubtless
some of my readers have associated the quick movements and
surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their

30 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we
see the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes—
their lungs—and the quick, busy life which has been proverb-
ial of them since the earliest time. The class Insecta also
includes the spiders, scorpions, with their caudal sting so
venomous, and mites, which have in lieu of the tubes, lung-
like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged worms—
those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical
centipeds or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of
being poisonous and deadly.

The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing
Crustacea, with their branchize or gills, nor the worms, which
have no lungs or gills but their skin, if we except some ma-
tine forms, which have simple dermal appendages, which
answer to branchia.

ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true In-
sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago:
or last stage, six legs. Nor is the second term less applica-
ble, as the word insect comes from the Latin and means to
cut in, and in no other articulates does the ring structure ap-
pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More
than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike
all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body
(Fig. 2), namely: the head (Fig. 2, a), which contains the
antenne (Fig. 2, d), the horn-like appendages common to all
insects ; eyes (Fig. 2, e) and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig.
2, 6), which bears the legs (Fig. 2, g), and wings, when they
are present; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 2, c), which,
though usually memberless, contains the ovipositor, and when
present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a more striking
metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched
they are worm-like and called larvee (Fig. 12), which means
masked ; afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would
hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They are then
known as pups, or as in case of bees as nymphs (Fig. 13).
At last there comes torth the imago with compound eyes, an-
tennze and wings. In some insects the transformations are
said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 31

little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We
see in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of
insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there
is a marked resemblance from the egg to the adult.

As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which
have only two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no
antenne, eight legs, and no transformations (if we except the
partial transformations of the mites), as also the myriapods,
which have no marked divisions of the body; and no com-
pound eyes—which are always present in the mature insect—
many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order
Insects.

SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE.

The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from
two Greek words meaning membrane and wings), which also
includes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This
group contains insects which possess a tongue by which they
may suck (Fig. 20, a), and strong jaws (Fig. 21) for biting.
‘Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of flowers, and also
gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four wings,
and undergo complete tranformations.

There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of
‘one sub-order will show a marked likeness to those of another.
This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully
striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace
suppose it is a developed peculiarity, not always possessed by
the species, and comes through the laws of variation, and nat-
ural selection to serve the purpose of protection. Now, right
here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the
other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which
he and the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and
desired to know whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or
some other species. Now, this insect, though looking in a
general way much like a bee, had only two wings, had no
jaws, while its antennze were closer together in front and
mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the
sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several
similar insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are
several families, as the Cistride or bot-flies, the Syrphidee—

32 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

a very useful family, as the larva or maggots live on plant-
lice—whose members are often seen sipping sweets from
flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees—the one re-
ferred to above belonged to this family—and the Bombyliidee,
which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like
wild and domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on
the larve of various of our wild bees, and of course the
mother fly must steal into the nests of the latter to lay her
eggs. So in these cases, there is seeming evidence that the
mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as they steal
in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. Possi-
bly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen
them enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to
do the same, found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters
each with a poisoned tip.

Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the high-
est of insects, others.claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and
moths a first place, while others, and with the best of rea-
sons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is
admired for the glory of its coloring and elegance of its form,
the beetle for the luster and brilliancy of its elytra or wing-
covers ; but these insects only revel in nature’s wealth, and
live and die without labor or purpose. Hymenoptera usually
less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive in color, are
yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with
a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be
found among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor ;
the ants are still better political economists, as they have a
specially endowed class in the community who are the sol-
diers, and thus are the defenders of each ant-kingdom. Ants
also conquer other communities, take their inhabitants cap-
tive and reduce them to abject slavery—requiring them to
perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the
community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some
leaf-eating species have been observed to show no mean order
of intelligence, as some ascend trees to cut off the leafy
twigs, while others remain below, and carry these branches
through their tunnels to their under-ground homes.

The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay
their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 33

fresh meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as
the insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite,
which is working to disembowel it, is full-grown. Thus this
steak is ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show
wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in discovering
this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies—a family of these
parasites—boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid
beech or-maple wood, and upon examination I found the pros-
pective victim further on in direct line with the insect auger,
which was to intrude the fatal egg. I have also watched ich-
neumon-flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so sur-
rounded with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce
several thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced
victim, Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars in a box,
[ reared, of course, the iwhneumon-fly and not the moth. And
is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the
number of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to re-
ceive them, so that there may be no danger of famine and
starvation, for true it is that while small caterpillars will re-
ceive but one egg, large ones may receive several. How
strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its wondrous in-
struments more perfect than any saws of human workman-
ship, and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten
their eggs to the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the ab-
normal growth of food for the still unhatched young. The
providing and caring for their young, which are at first help-
less, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception, to the
Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered a mark
of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call
it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits
—that must go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of
communities known among animals, of whatever branch—all
these, no less than the compact structure, small size and
specialized organs of nicest finish, more than warrant that
grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and Pack-
ard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects.
As we shall detail the structure and habits of the hiyhest of
the high—the bees—in the following pages, I am sure no one
will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of the ani-
mal kingdom.

34 MANUAL OF THE APIARY,

FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE,

The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidae, of Leach,
which includes not only the hive bee, but all insects which
feed their helpless young, or larve, entirely on pollen, or honey
and pollen.

The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed anten-
ne (Fig. 2, @) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males,
and only twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandi-
bles (Fig. 21) are very strong, and often toothed ; the tongue
or ligula (Fig. 20, a), as also the second jaws or maxillee
(Fig. 20, ¢), one each side the tongue, are long, though in
some cases much shorter than in others, and frequently the
tongue when not in use is folded back, once or more, under
the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff spine
on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or the
third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, ex-
cept the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which
the posterior legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs
on the posterior legs. All of this family except one parasitic
genus, have the first joint or tarsus of the posterior foot,
much widened, and this together with the broad tibia
(Fig. 2, 2) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, p), forming quite a basin
or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the species ; and gen-
erally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff hairs.
These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course
on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A
few of the Apide—thieves by nature—cuckov-like, steal un-
bidden into the nests of others, usually bumble-bees, and
here lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by
another, they gather no pollen, and hence like drone bees
need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these
lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes,
by eating their food; and in some cases, it is said, being una-
ble like the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children
from the nest, they show an equal if not greater depravity by
eating them, not waiting for starvation to get them out of the
way. These parasites illustrate mimicry, already described,
as they look so like the foster mothers of their own young,
that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish them.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 35

Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would re-
fuse ingress to these merciless vagrants.

The larvee (Fig. 12) of allinsects of this family are maggot-like
—wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before stated,
feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus,
all during their babyhood—the larva state—the time when
all insects are most ravenous, and the only time when many
insects take food, the time when all growth in size, except
such enlargement as is required by egg-development, occurs,
these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or elder
sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak jaws,
yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at
this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like
many maggots—such as the Hessian-fly larveea—absorb much
of their food through the body walls. From the mouth leads
the intestine, which has no anal opening. So there are no ex-
ereta other than gas and vapor. What commendation for
their food, ad? capable of nourishment, and thus all as-
similated.

To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipo-
na, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not
only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs.
They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They
are exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus
been thought that there were more than one queen. They
are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a pros-
pective commercial importance in these days of artificial
comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus
is triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three,
to the front wings. They are also smaller than our common
bees, and have wings that do not reach to the tip of their
abdomens.

Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have
the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed.
These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New
World, but are met in Africa, India and Australasia. These
build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches
much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned.

Of course insects of the genus Bomhus—our common
bumble-bees—belong to this family. Here the tongue is very

36 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

long, the bee large, the sting curved, with the barbs very
short and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In
spring she forms her nest under some sod or board, hollowing
out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass of bee-
bread—probably a mixture of honey and pollen—she deposits
several egesin the mass. The larvae so soon as hatched out, eat
out thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger,
and not unlike in form the queen-ceils of our hive-bees.
When the bees issue from these cells the same are strength-
ened by wax. Later in the season these coarse wax cells be-
come very numerous. Some may be made as cells and not tormed
as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much pol-
len, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees.
At first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still
later males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two
sizes of queen bumble- bees, the large and the small. The
small appear early in the season, and the large late. A
student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, who last year had
a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, thinks
thisanerror. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus
nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens,
like those of bees, are smaller before mating and active
laying. May not this be another case like that of the two
kinds of worker-bees which deceived even Huber, an error
consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged observation ?

In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble
the bumble-bees, we have a fine example of a boring insect.
With its strong mandibles or jaws it cuts long tunnels, often
one or two feet long in the hardest wood. These burrows are
divided by chip partitions into cells, and in each cell is left
the bee-bread and an egg.

The mason-bee—well named—constructs cells of earth and
gravel, which by aid of its spittle it has power to cement, so
that they are harder than brick.

The tailor or leaf-cutting, bees, of the genus Megachile,
make wonderful cells from ‘variously shaped pieces of leaves.
These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and
oblong, and are cut—by the insect’s making scissors of its
jaws—from various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have
found these cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 37

leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf-
sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap. The ob-
long sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular
pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot-
guns, and are used at the ends or for partitions where several
cells are placed together. When complete, the single cells
are in form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When
several are placed together, which is usually the case, they
are arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a
small stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long,
These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built
in the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife
had chanced to leave stationary for some days. These leaf-
cutters have rows of hairs underneath, with which they carry
pollen. I have noticed them each summer for some years
swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called woodbine,
while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a
single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the
foliage of the same vines quite badly.

I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia,
which are also called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of
blue and green possess a luster and reflection unsurpassed
even by the metals themselves. These rear their young in
cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds and shrubs,
and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early
summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are
frequently seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth
for mortar, or digging holes, and will hardly escape identifica-
tion by the observing apiarist, as their form is so much like
that of our honey-bees. .They are smaller; yet their broad
head, prominent eyes, and general form, are very like those of
the equally quick and active, yet more soberly attired, work-
ers of the apiary.

Other bees—the numerous species of the genus Nomada,
and of Apathus, are the black sheep in the family Apide.
These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo
and our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary,
and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appro-
priating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus.

38 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

these insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-
mothers in these violated homes. And these same foster-
mothers show by their tender care of these merciless intru-
ders, that they are miserably fooled, for they carefully guard
and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn practice this
same nefarious trickery.

J reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful
bee family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis,
of this State, I was struck with the fine collection of wild
bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had in-
corporated many that were not bees. Of course, many apiarists
will wish to make such collections and also to study our wild
bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, too,
that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the val-
uable and intensely interesting study of these wonders of na-
ture. Iam glad, too, to open to the reader a page from the
book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above.
Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the
strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied hab-
its, of this highest of insect families, at the head of which
stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary.

THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE.

The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs
on the posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal
cells (1, 2, 3, Fig. 3)—the second row from the costal or anterior

Fie. 3.

A.—Anterior Wing of a Dee. 1, 2,3.—Sub-costal or Cubital Cells.

B.—Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing.
edge—on the front or primary wings. On the inner side of the
posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen baskets, in the neu-
ters or workers, are rows of hairs (Fig. 23) which are proba-

bly used in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 39°

work except to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes
meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig. 4),

Fia. 4.

Head of Drone, magnified.
Antenne. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes.

while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple

eyes, called ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the compound

Fia. 5.

Head of Worker, magnified.
Antenne. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes.

eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart. The queens and drones have
weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 21, 6), short
tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the broad
tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, p).

There is some doubt as to the number of species of this
genus, it is certain that the Apis Ligustica of Spinola, or

40 MANUAL OF TOE APIARY.

Italian bee, the Apis fasciata of Latreille, or Egyptian bee,
are only varieties of the Apis mellifica, which also includes
the German or black bee.

Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata
of India and the East Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands,
Apis Indica of India and China, and Apis florea of India,
Ceylon, China and Borneo, as distinct species. He thinks,
also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis nigrocincta are distinct, but
thinks they may be varieties of Apis Indica. Some regard
Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety
of Apis dorsata. As Apis mellifica has not been found in
India, and is a native of Europe, Western Asia and Africa, it
seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out
to be only varieties of Apis mellifica. If there are only color
and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits,
then we may suspect, with good reason, the validity of the
above arrangement. If there is structural difference, as Mr.
Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata, then we may call
them different species. The Italian certainly has a longer
tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to separate
them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the
Hast Indies are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large,
suspends its combs to the branches of trees—in rare cases our
own bees have been known to do the same—is said to be cross,
to have a very long tongue, to be larger than our common bee,
and to make larger cells.

Apis florea is small, only half as large as Apis mellifica, of
different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed.

It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to im-
port these various species, and see how marked is the differ-
ence between them and ours. Such work can be best accom-
plished through our National Association. Very likely, as
we come to know these far-off bees as we know the German
and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, habits of
comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities
developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall
sweep them all into the one species, Apis mellifica, to be re-
garded as we now regard the Italian and Egyptian, as only
varieties.

It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41

native to the American continent. Without doubt there were
no bees of this genus here till introduced by the Caucasian
race. It seems more strange, as we find that all the conti-
nents and islands of the Kastern hemisphere abound with
representatives. It is one more illustration of the strange,
inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution
of animals. .
SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES.

The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to
the Apis mellifica. The character of this species will appear
in the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and
physiology. As before stated. this species is nativ: exeln-
sively to the Eastern hemisphere, though it has been intro-
duced wherever civilized man has taken up his abode.

VARIETIES OF THE HONEY-BEE.
GERMAN OR BLACK BEE.

The German or black bee is the variety best known, as
through all the ages it has been most widely distributed.
The name German refers to locality, while the name black is
a misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and in a
less degree the drones, are darker, while the legs and under
surface of the former are brown, or copper color, and of the
latter light-gray. The tongue of the black worker I have
found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian
worker, and generally less hairy. The black bees have been

. known no longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were
known both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C., and to Virgil,
the great Roman poet, who sung of the variegated golden bee,
the first century B. C. ; and we can only account for the wider
distribution of the German bee by considering the more vig-
orous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only
over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have
vitalized all christendom.

LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE.

The Italian bee (see frontis-piece) is characterized as a
variety, not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but
also by possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were
first described as distinct from the German race by Spinola, in

42 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

1805, who gave the name Ligurian bee, which name prevails
in Europe. The name comes from a province of Northern
Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This
region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and
thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and
in warmer, more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race,
our beautiful Italians.

In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees,
which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed
as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience.
in 1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became inter-
ested, and through him the Italian became generally intro-
duced intoGermany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon’s first.
importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England
by Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already re-
ferred to. The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported
the Italians from Dzierzon’s apiary into America; and in
1860, Mr. 8. P. Parsons. brought the first colonies that were
imported direct from Italy.

The Italian worker (see frontis-piece) is quickly distin-
guished by the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdo-
men. If the colony is pure, every bee will show three of
these golden girdles. The two first segments or rings of the
abdomen, except at their posterior border, and also the base
or anterior border of the third, will be of this orange-yellow
hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much as
in the German race. Underneath, the abdomen, except for a.
greater or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while
the same color appears more or less strongly marked on the
legs. The workers, too, have longer ligule or tongues (Fig.
20) than do the German race, and their tongues are also a
little more hairy. They are also more active, and less inclined
to sting. The queen has the entire base of her abdomen,
and sometimes nearly the whole of it, orange yellow. The
variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking.
Sometimes very dark queens are imported right from the
Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the badge of
purity—the three golden bands.

The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings
and patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY 43

quite indistinct. But the under side of the body is always,
so far as I have observed, mainly yellow.

THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE,

The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is
very broadly banded with yellow. I have never seen these
bees, but from descriptions by Latrielle, Kirby, and Bevan, I
understand that all the bees are rather smaller, more slim,
and much more yellow than the Italians. Herr Vogel states
that they gather no propolis, but that each colony contains a
number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were
probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly
land of promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the repu-
tation: “ flowing with milk and honey.’ They are thus the
oldest of domesticated bees. These, -too, are said to have
been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down the Nile, as
the flower pasturage seemed to require. The bees are said
to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also
been reputed very cross.

OTHER VARIETIES.

There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiv-
ing some attention from the German apiarists, and are honored
with attention at the great meetings of Austria and Germany,
as we learn from the bee publications of those countries. The
Cyprian bee, from the Isle of Cyprus, as its name indicates,
is yellow, and probably an offspring from the Italian or Egyp-
tian. It doubtless has substantial merits, and very likely is
superior to the Italian, than which it is more beautiful,
‘though possibly less amiable. Other varieties, which are not
probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath,
the Carniolan or Krainer, and the Herzegovinian. They are
not considered superior to the German and Italian.

A variety of our Italian, which has rows of white hairs
unusually distinct, is being sold in the United States under
the name of Albinos. That they are a distinct race is not at
all likely. In fact, I have noticed among our Italian stocks
every year, the so-called Albinos.

44 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one,
to give in this connection a complete history of entomology
so far as it relates to Apis mellifica. Yet, this would take
much space, and as there is‘quite a full history in books that
I shall recommend to those who are eager to know more of
this interesting department of natural history, I will not go
into details.

Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B.
C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth
Georgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub-
ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The
poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance—
would that as much could be said for the subject matter,
which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A little
later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his
observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though
much that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious.
Pliny, the Elder, who wrote in the first century A. D., helped
to continue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had
given, and not content with this, he added opinions of his
own, which were not only without foundation, but were often
the perfection of absurdity.

After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no pro-
‘gress in natural history; even for two centuries after the revival
of learning, we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam,
a Dutch entomologist, in the middle of the 17th century,
wrote a general history of insects, also, “The Natural History
of Bees.” He and his English cotemporary, Ray, showed
their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on the
insect transformations. They also revived the study and
practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduc-
tion by Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological
progress. Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera,
and was much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time
Harvey, so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of
the blood, announced his celebrated dictum, “Omnia ex ovo,”
—all life from eges—which was completely established by
the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 45

of the 18th century, the great Linnzseus—“ the brilliant Star
of the North” —published his “System Nature,” and threw a
flood of’ light on the-whole subject of natural history: His
division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence,
and characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam’s basis,
was too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably
correct. Linnzeus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and
especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming
plants and animals, giving in the name the genus and species,
as, Apis mellifica. He was also the first to introduce classes
and orders, as we now understand them. When we consider
the amount and character of the work of the great Swede,
we can but place him among the first, if not as the first, of
naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnzeus (also written Linné)
was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera.
In the last half of the century appeared the great work of a
master in entomology, DeGeer, who based his arrangement of
insects on the character of wings and jaws, and thus discovered -
another of nature’s keys to aid him in unlocking her myster-
ies. Kirby well says: “He united in himself the highest
merit of almost every department of entomology.” As a
scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant his-
torian of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all
praise. What a spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and
of public usefulness, is such an ability to observe,as was pos-
sessed by the great DeGeer.
Contemporary with Linnzeus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of
France, whose experiments and researches are of special in-
terest to apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more
to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be com-
mended are his method of experimenting, his patience in in-
vestigation, the elegance and felicity of his word pictures,
and, above all, his devotion to truth. We shall have occasion
to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the
eat shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages.
onnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special
interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and
elucidation of ‘parthenogenesis—that ‘anomalous mode of re-
production—as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice,

46 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

though he did not discover that our bees, in the production
of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author
of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic
labors.

At this same period systematic entomology received great
aid from Lyonnet’s valuable work. This author dissected
and explained the development of a caterpillar. His descrip-
tions and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his
ability as long as entomology is studied, and they, to quote
Bonnet, “ demonstrate the existence of God.”

‘We have next to speak of the great Dane,. Fabricius—a
student of Linnzus—who published his works from 1775 to
1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at
the same time that we of America were revolutionizing gov-
ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classi-
fication, and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had
“marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter ;.
while Fabricious left it wide and deep. His classes and or-
ders are no improvement on, in fact, are not nearly as correct,
as were his Old master’s. In his description of genera—where
he pretended to follow nature—he has rendered valuable
service. In leading scientists to study parts, before little re-
garded, and thus to better establish affinities, he did a most
valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be thor-
oughly studied by all entomologists.

Just at the close of the last century, appeared the great-
est “Roman of them all,” the great Latreille, of France,
whose name we have so frequently used in the classification
of the honey-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he
used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the or-
gans—the entire structure. He gave us our Family Apide,
our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described
several of the species of this genus. In our study of this
great man’s work, we constantly marvel at his extensive
researches and remarkable talents. Lamark, of this time, ex-
cept that he could see no God in nature, did very admirable
work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon’s time, and the learned
Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of
workers in this field, and many worthy of not only méntion
but praise ; yet the work has been to rub up and garnish,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 47

rather than to create. So I will close this brief history with
a notice of authors who are very serviceable to such as may
desire to glean farther of the treasures of systematic ento-
mology ; only remarking that at the end of the next chapter
I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable
in developing the anatomy and physiology of insects, especially
of bees.

VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.

For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on
Insects—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra-
tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the
families, and even genera, of all the sub-orders. This work
and the following are out of print, but can be got with little
trouble at second-hand book-stores.

Kirby and Spence—Introduction to Entomology—is a very
complete work. It treats of the classification, structure,
habits, general economy of insects, and gives a history of the
subject. It is an invaluable work, and a great acquisition to
any library.

Dr. Packard’s Guide to the Study of insects is a valuable
work, and being American, is specially to be recommended.

The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof.
C. V. Riley, will also be found of great value and interest.

48 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER II.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of
insects ; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology
of the honey-bee.

ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked
portions Cig. 2): the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains
the mouth-organs, the eyes, both the compound and when
present the simple, and the antenne ; the thorax, which is
composed of’ three rings, and gives support to the one or two
pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of legs; and the abdo-
men, which is composed of a variable number of rings, and
gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to
the sting. Within the thorax there are little more than
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which-ena-
bles them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined
space. Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-
organs, by far the greater and more important portions of the
alimentary canal, and other important organs:

ORGANS OF THE HEAD.

Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent.
These consist of an upper lip—labrum—and under lip—labium
—and two pairs of jaws which move sidewise ; the stronger,
horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but
usually longer, maxilla. The labrum (Fig. 6, 7) is well de-
scribed in the name npper lip. It is attached, usually, by a
movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called ely-
peus (Fig. 6, c), and this latter to the broad epicranium (Fig.
6, 0), which contains the antennz, the compound, and, when
present, the simple eyes.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 49

The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under
lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the
tongue. The base is usually broad, and ‘is called the men-
tum, and from this extends the tongue (Fig. 15, a) or ligula.

Fie. 6.

Head of Bee much magnified.

o—Epicranium. m—Jaws.

e ompound eyes. m c—2d Jaws.
a@a—Antenne. k k—Labial palpi.
c—Clypeus. t-Ligula. \
t—Labrum.

On either side, near the junction of the ligula and mentum,
arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called the labial palpus
(Fig. 6, &%), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the
angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para-
gloss (Fig. 15, d), one on either side. These are often
wanting.

50 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, m, m) arise one on either
stde just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip.
These work sidewise instead of up and down as in higher an-
imals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes
armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig.
21, 5) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees.

Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little far-
ther back, are the second jaws or maxilla (Fig. 6, mz), less
dense and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex.
They arise by a small joint, the cardo, next this is a larger
joint, the stipes, from this extends on the inside the broad
lacinia (Fig. 20. ¢) or blade, usually fringed with hairs on its
inner edge, towards the mouth ; while on the outside of the
stipes are inserted the—from one to several jointed—maxil-
lary palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two
joints, and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes,
as in some of the beetles, there is a third member running
from the stipes between the palpus and lacinia called the
galea. The maxillz also move sidewise, and probably aid in
holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder
jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the
food.

These mouth parts are very variable in form in different in-
sects. In butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they
are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups
forms a hard, strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the
mosquito and bed-bug. In all the other insects, we find them
much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly
in form, to agree with the habits and character of their pos-
sessors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these
varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the in-
sect, and no wonder, too, that in their use they were so suc-
cessful in forming a natural classification.

Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these
parts and studying their form and relations for himself. By
getting his children interested in the same, he will have con-
ferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings.

To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully
pin it to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between
the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle points, made

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 51

by inserting a needle for half its length into a pine stick the
shape of a pipe-stem, leaving the point projecting for an inch
or more. With one of these in each hand commence opera-
tions. The head may be either side up. Much may be
learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but
in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will
be of great value. The best lens,-is one of Tolles’, sold by
Mr. Stoddard, of the Boston optical works. These are very
excellent and thus high priced, costing $14.00. Gray’s trip-
let hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, and can be procured
for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should have a
hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so
that it will hold itself. Tolles’ lenses are easily mounted, in
a stand which any one can contrive and make in twenty min-
utes. I valuc my Tolles’ lens even more highly than my
large compound microscope, which cost $150. Were I
obliged to part with cither, the latter would go.

I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting,
which they enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would
much rather that my boy would become interested in such
study, than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or
even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous charm. Let such
pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they
will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with
anxiety and fear.

The antennz (Fig. 6, a. a) are the horn-like jointed organs
situated between or below and in front of the large compound
eyes of all insects. They are sometimes short, as in the
house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in the grasshoppers.
They are either straight, curved or elbowed (Fig. 6). In
‘- form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, tapering,
toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, ete. It is known that a
nerve passes into the antenna, but their exact function is little
understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs
no apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell
or hearing is not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds
I think no observing person can doubt. It is proved by the
call of the katy-did, the cicada and the cricket. What apia-
rist, too, has not noticed the effect of various sounds made
by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How contagious

52 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the pleas-
ant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new
home. Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations,
as we recognize pitch, or whether they just distinguish the
tremor, I think no one knows. There is some reason to be-
lieve that their delicate touch-organs may enable them to dis-
criminate between vibrations, even more acutely, than can we
by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a colo-
ny of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If in-
sects can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory
conditions of the air by an excessive development of the
sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennz may be great
aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could only detect at-
mospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnzeus and Bonnet.
Siebold thinks, as the antennz receive but one nerve, and are
plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. Kirby
has noticed that some moths turn their antennz towards the
direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that an-
tennze are organs of hearing. Grote, fora similar reason,
thinks that the densely feathered antenne of the males of
various night moths, serve both for smell and hearing. Prof.
A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American Naturalist,
vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, proved
conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennae
of the male mosquito are organs of hearing.

That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond
question. How quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the
seavenger the filth, and the bee the precious nectar.

T have reared female moths in my study, and have been
greatly surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to
find my room swarming with males. These bridegrooms en-
tered an open window in the second-story of a brick building.
How delicate must have been’ the sense by which they were
led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my cabinet.
Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind
which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their per-
ception of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are
carried by the air, and must reach the insect through this me-
dium. Is it not probable, that the various breathing mouths
of insects are also so many noses, and that their delicate

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 53

lining membranes abounding with nerve filaments, are the
great odor sentinels? This view was maintained by both
Lehman and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of
scents, as the breathing mouths are large and numerous, and
most so in insects like bees and moths, which are most sensi-
tive to odors. How quickly the bees notice the scent of a
strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor of the venom. I
have known a bee to sting a glove, and ina trice the glove
would be asa pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Some-
times the bees will dart for many feet, guided by-this odor.
Yet the odor is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the
poison before I felt the sting. I have tried the experi-
ments of Huber and Lubbock, and know that such insects as
bees and ants will take no note of food after the loss of their
antenne. But we must remember that this is a capital ope-
ration. With loss of antennse, insects lose control of ‘their
motions, and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not
probable then that removing the antennze destroys the desire
for food, as does amputation with ourselves? Kirby believes
with Huber, that there isa scent organ. Huber’ experi-
ments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very in-
teresting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of: tur-
pentine—a substance very repugnant to bees—to various parts
of a bee engrossed in sipping honey. The bee made no- ob-
jection, even though it touched the ligula, until it approached
the mouth above the mentum, when she became much dis-
turbed. He also filled a bee’s mouth with paste, which soon har-
dened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near
‘it. This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so
disturbed as to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good
deal, and am inclined to the following opinion: The antennze
are very delicate touch-organs or feelers, and are so important
in their function and connection that removal produces a se-
vere shock, but further we know but little about their func-
tion, if they have other, and from the very nature of the prob-
lem we will find it very difficult of solution. ;

The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are al-
ways present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes,
which may or may not be present: When present there are
usually three, which if we join by lines, we will describe a

34 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

triangle, in the vertices of whose angles are the ocelli.
Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but one.

The simple eyes (Fig. 4, fff) are circular, and possess a
cornea, lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight.

From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam,
which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con-
cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct,
though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have
thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis-
tances. Larvee, like spiders and myriapods, have only sim-
ple eyes.

The compound eyes (Fig. 2, e) are simply a cluster of sim-
ple eyes, are situated one on either side of the head, and vary
much in form and size. Between or below these are inserted
the antennz. Sometimes these last are inserted in a notch
of the eyes, and in a few cases actually divide each eye into
two eyes. ;

The eyes may meet above as in drones (Iig. 4), most two-
wing flies and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably sepa-
rated, as in the worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or
simple eyes, of each compound eye, are hexagonal, or six-
sided, and in the microscope look not unlike a section of
honey-comb. The number of these is prodigious— Leeuwenhoek
actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a dragon-fly—while
some butterflies have over 17,000. The compound eyes are
motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they
give quite a range of vision. It is not likely that they are
capable of adjustment to accord with different distances, and
it has been supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to.
their hives, and the awkward work they make in finding a
hive when moved only for a short distance, that their eyes are
best suited to long vision.

Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments
with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors.
Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several others of
various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed the
position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went to
the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical
apiarists have long been aware of this fact, and have con-
formed their practice to the knowledge, in giving a variety of

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 5D»

colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that.
bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but, for slight
distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which:
would occur if position alone was guide.

APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX.

The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of
the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera
have but two, and some insects—as the worker ants—have
none. The front or primary wings (Fig. 3, A) are usually
larger than the secondary or hind wings (Fig. 3, B), and thus
the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, to which they
are attached, is usually larger than the mettathorax or third
ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins,
(Fig. 3), covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs:
or veins are variable in number, while towards the extremity
of the wing are more or less cross-veins, dividing this portion:
of the wings into more or less cells. In the higher groups.
these cells are few, and quite important in classifying. Es-
pecially useful are the cells in the second row, from the frontal.
or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal cells.
Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, A,.
1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs.

Fie. 7.

Thorax of Bee magnified three times. |
a, a, a—Muscles. b, b—Crust.

or veins consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one
forming an air tube, the outer one carrying blood. On the
costal edge of the secondary wings we often find hooks, to:
attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, B, a).

The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly loca-.
ted in the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a), whose strength, as well as the
rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid,,

56 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

are really beyond computation. Think of a tiny fly outstrip-
ping the fleetest horse in the chase, and then marvel at this
wondrous mechanism.

The legs (Fig. 2, g, g, g) are six in number in all mature in-
sects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax.
These are long or short, weak dr strong, according to the habit
of the insect. Hach leg consists of the following joints or
parts: The coxee (Fig. 24), which move like a ball and socket
joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-rings.
Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, the large,
broad femur (Fig. 2, g’, 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, g’, 2),
frequently bearing strong spines. at or near its end, called
tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed
tarsi (Fig. 2, g’, 3,3, 3, 3,3). All these parts move freely
upon each other, and will vary in form to agree with their
use. At the end of the last tarsal joint are two hooked
claws (Fig. 2, g', 4), between which are the pulvilli, which
are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather glands,
which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to
stick to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The
legs, in fact the whole crust, is more or less dense and hard,
owing to the deposit within the structure of a hard substance
known as chitine. :

INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.

The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I
have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the
thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their
use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher
animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when
highly magnified, show the striz or cross-lines the same as
do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beauti-
ful as microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not
bound together by a membrane as in higher animals. In in-
sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should
expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In in-
sects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a)
is almost entirely composed of muscles; the cesophagus,
which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. At
the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 57

The number. of iuscles is astounding., Lyonnet counted
over 3,000 in a single caterpillar, nearly eight.times as many
as are found in the human body. The strength, too, of in-
sects is prodigious. There must be quality in muscles, for
muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as strong as
those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old
philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas
have been made to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even
wagons many hundred times heavier than themselves.

The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known,
except in position. Asin our bodies, some are knotted or
have ganglia, ‘and some are not.

The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral
side of the body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after
passing around the esophagus, enlarges to form the largest of
the ganglia, which serves as a brain. The minute nerves ex-
tend everywhere, and in squeezing out the viscera of an in-
sect are easily visible.

The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant.
The heart is a long tube situated along the back, and
receives the blood at valvular openings along its sides which
only permit the fluid to pass in, when by contraction it is
forced towards the head and emptied into the general cavity.
Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion. Ac-
cording to the best authorities, there are no special vessels to
carry the blgod to various organs. Nor are they necessary,
as this nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal,
and thus easily receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis,
everywhere surrounds the trachez or air-tubes—the insect’s
lungs—and thus receives that most needful of all food, oxy-
gen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, everywhere touches
the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital opera-
tions of the animal require. :

The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or
corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher ani-
mals, arid which: give our blood its red ‘color. The function
of these discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried
everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-tubes of
insects, we see the discs are not needed. Except these semi-
fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as are other

58 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in all
normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or
any part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed

Fia. 8.

Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times.

by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, to be scien-
tific, are assimilated. As the blood of insects is nearly des-

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 59

titute of these discs, it is almost wholly fluid, and is almost
wholly made up of nutritious substance.

The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already
been referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spira-
cles or breathing mouths, which vary in number. These are
armed with a complex valvular arrangement which excludes
dust or other noxious particles. These spiracles are lined
with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, which
were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs.
From these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, 5),
which breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect
‘organism. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main
tracheze, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into
large air-sacks (Fig. 2, 7). Insects often show a respiratory
motion, which in bees is often very marked. Newport has
shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration gauges the
heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of severe
cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration,
consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and
are liable to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe
cold there would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer
which he suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. In the
larva state, many insects breathe by fringe-like gills. The
larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy tufts, while in the
larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, or last part
of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws the
water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly-
placed branchize, and then makes it serve a further turn by
forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting ahead.
Thus this curious apparatus not only furnishes oxygen, but
also a mode of motion. In the pupz of insects there is little
or no motion, yet important organic changes are taking place—
the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, is soon
to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal imago.
So oxygen, the most essential—the sine gua non—of
all animal food, is still needed. The bees are too wise
to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather
add the porous capping, made of wax and pollen. The
pupz no less than the larvee of some two-wing flies, which
live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the

60 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pups
of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time
when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note,
has a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum.

The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and,
as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and
complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As
in mammals and birds, the length, with some striking excep-
tions, varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating in-
sects have a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed
on vegetable food it is much longer.

Fie. 9. ‘

Alimentary Canal.
o—Honey stomach. . b—True stomach.
c—Urinary tubes. d—Intestine.

The mouth I have already described. Following this is the
throat or pharynx, then the cesophagus or gullet, which may
expand, as in the bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach
(Fig. 9, 0), may have an attached crop like the chicken, or
may run as a uniform tube as in our bodies, to the true stom-
* ach (Fig. 9, 6). Following this is the intestine—separated
by some into an ileum and a rectum—which ends in a vent
or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larve
that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this
is a viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 61

into the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in
building their structures. With it and mud some wasps
make mortar; with it and wood, others their paper cells ;
with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons that are to form
the beautiful comb.

Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which
secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes
the passage of food.

The true stomach (Fig. 9, 6) is very muscular, and often a
gizzard,-as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with
teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting
the gastric juice which is to liquify the food, that it may be
absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into the
blood. Attached to the lower portion of the stomach are
numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, c) though Cuvier, and even
Kirby, call these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the
mucous glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas.

The intestine when short, as in larvee and most carnivora,
is straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen,
while in most plant eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its
course. Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some
insects are beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the
taste. In some caterpillars they are barrel-shaped, artistically
fluted, of brilliant hue, and if fossilized, would be greatly
admired, as have been the coprolites—fossil feces of quadru-
peds—if set as gems in jewelry. As it is, they would form
no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as the Aphides
or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that escapes
in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is very
sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropri-
ated by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would
make this a bitter draught, so here, as elsewhere in life, the
bitter and sweet are mingled. In those insects that suck
their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, two-wing flies and bugs,
the feces are watery or liquid, while in case of solid food the
excrement is solid.

SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS.

I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby’
gives as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though

62 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

Newport gives them as one and the same. In many insects
these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucous glands,
the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other secre-
tions which serve for purposes of defense: In the queen and
workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded
with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at
the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (Fig. 25, ¢), and
extruded through the sting, as occasion requires. I know of
no insects that poison while they bite, except it be mosquitoes,
gnats, etc., and in these cases no special secreting organ has
been discovered. Perhaps the beak itself secretes an irrita-
ting substance. A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are
covered with branching spines, which sting about like a nettle.
We have two such species. They are green, and of rare
attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight incon-
venience arising from their irritating punctures. Some
insects, like bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which
affords protection, as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs
so offensive that even a hungry bird or half-famished insect
passes them by on the otherside. Some insects secrete a gas
which is stored in a sack at the posterior end of the body,
and shot forth with an explosion in case that danger threatens ;
thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a
retreat. Ihave heard the little bombardier beetle at such
times, even at considerable distances. The frightful reports
about the terrible horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere
nonsense. A more harmless animal does not exist. My
little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used to bring
them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly
as would their father upon receiving them from the delighted
children.

If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that
need be feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage
even they are seldem provoked to use their cruel weapon.

SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS.

The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig. 10, a)
which are double organs. There may be from one, as in the
drone bee, to several, as in some beetles, on each side the
abdominal cavity. In these vesicles grow the sperm cells or

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 63

spermatozoa, which, when liberated, pass through a long con-
voluted tube , the vas-deferens (Fig. 10, 4, 6), into the seminal
sack (Fig. 10, c, c), where, in connection with mucous, they
are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks (Fig.
10, d) joined to these seminal reccptacles, which in the male
bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with

Fie. 10.

' Male Organs of Drone, much magnified.

a—Testes. e—Common duct.

b, b—Vasa deferentia. {9p Eipculatory sack.
c, c—Seminal sacks. Penis.
d—Glandular sacks. i—Yellow saccules.

these viscid secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle,
ready for use, form the seminal fluid. Extending from these
seminal receptacles is the ejaculatory duct (Fig. 10, e, f, 9),
which in copulation carries the male fluid to the penis (Fig.
10, 4), through which it passes to the spermatheca of the

64 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

female. Beside this latter organ are the sheath, the claspers
when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks
(Fig. 10, 2), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone

is held in the warm hand.

Fie. 11.

4

Queen Organs, greatly magnified.
Oven Serta athecs.
c—Oviduct.
The female organs (Fig. 11) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 11,
a, a), which are situated one on either side of the abdominal
cavity. From these extend the two oviducts, (Fig. 11, 6),

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 65

which unitc into the common oviduct (Fig. 11, c) through
which the eggs pass in deposition. In many insects there is
beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sack (Fig. 11,
e) called the spermatheca, which receives the male fluid in
copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must ever
after do the work of impregnation.

This sack was discovered and its use suggested by
Malpighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully
demonstrated till 1792, when the great anatomist, John
Hunter, showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries
are multitubular organs. In some insects there are but very
few tubes—two or three ; while in the queen bee there are
more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs
grow, as do the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes.
The number of eggs is variable. Some insects, as the mud-
wasps, produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes
millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is
wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of con-
centric rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or
drawn in; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or
saws of wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs ; or again of a
tube which may also serve as a sting. °

Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at
least that the female only meets the male but once. My
pupil, Clement 8. Strang, who made a special study of the
structure and habits of bugs during the past season, noticed
that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be inter-
esting to know whether these females possessed the sperma-
theca. In some cases, as we shall see in the sequal, the male
is killed by the copulatory act. I think this curious fatality
is limited to few species.

To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dis-
section, we need more apparatus than has been yet described.
Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife,
a delicate pair of forceps, and some small, sharp-pointed
dissecting scissors—those of the renowned Swammerdam were
so fine at the point that it required a lens to sharpen them
—which may also serve to clip the wings of queens—are
requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol
will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the

66 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

muscle hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly
as well, in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the
fat. This may be applied with a camel’s-hair brush. By
dissecting under water the loose portions will float off, and
render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who had
that most valuable requisite toa naturalist, unlimited patience,
not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes,
fine as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary
canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in
upon those wondrous beauties and marvels of God’s own
handiwork—nature’s grand exposition? Father, why would
not a set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to
your son? You might thus sow the seed which would
germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-
stone. Messrs. Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian
supplies, keep boxes of these instruments, and thus aid to
light the torch of genius and hasten apiarian research ?

TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS.

What in all the realm. of nature is so worthy te awaken
delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which
insects undergo? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive °
caterpillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or
mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of nature’s
great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with
green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the
finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous
butterfly ; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out-
rivals even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and is
made fit to revel inall her decorative wealth. The little fly, too,
with wings dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like a fairy from
leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling
in the veriest filth of decaying nature. The grub to-day
drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on which it
fattens ; to-morrow it will glitter as the brilliant setting in the
bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless belle.

_ There are four separate stages in the development of
insects: The egg state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 6T

THE EGG.

This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its
yolk and its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of
all mammals, and farther, the delicate sheil, which is familiar
in the eggs of birds and reptiles. Eggs of insects are often
beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently ribbed and
fluted as by a master-hand. The form of eggs is very various
—spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight and curved (Fig.
26, 6). All insects seem’ to be guided by a wonderful
knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs
on or near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in
many cases such food is no part of the aliment of the imago
insect. The fly has the refined habits of the epicure, from
whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the horse-
droppings of stable and pasture.

Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their
consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can
be easily and most profitably studied by breaking and exam-
ining a hen’s egg each successive day of incubation. As
with the eggs of our own species and of all higher animals,
80, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part—
the white is only food, so to speak—soon segments or divides
into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane—
the blastoderm—and this is the initial animal. This blasto-
derm soon forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one
above the other, as in our own vertebrate branch. This sack,
looking like a miniature bag of grain,: grows, by absorption,
becomes articulated, and by budding out is soon provided with
the various members. As in higher animals, these changes
are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the
incorporations within the eggs of the sperm cells from the
male, which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The
time it takes the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged
by heat, and will, therefore, vary with the season and tem-
perature, though in different species it varies from days to
months. The number of eggs, too, which an insect may pro-
duce, is subject to wide variation. Some insects produce but
one. two or three, while others, like the queen bee and white
ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions.

68 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

THE LARVA OF INSECTS.

From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot,
caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm-
shaped (Fig. 12), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and
the body plainly marked into ring divisions. Often as in case

Larva of Bee.

of some grubs, larval bees and maggots, there are no legs. In
most grubs there are six legs, two to each of the three rings
succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have usually
ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few—the
loopers or measuring caterpillars—have only four or six,
while the larvee of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen
of the false or prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval
insects is usually short, direct and quite simple, while the
sex-organs are slightly if at all developed. The larve of
insects are voracious eaters—indeed, their only work seems
to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs at
this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable.
I have often been astonished at the amount of food that the
insects in my breeding cases would consume. The length of
time which insects remain as larvee is very variable. The
maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days ; the
larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week ; the apple-
tree borer gnaws away for three years ; while the seventeen-
year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years,
groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth
for a few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely,
here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The
name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by
Linnzus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and
cannot be even divined by the unlearned.

THE PUPA OF INSECTS.

In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting
after its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 69

days—the joyous honey-moon—soon to come. In this stage
the insect may look like a seed; as in the coarctate pupa of
diptera, so familiar in the “flax-seed” state of the Hessian-fly,
or in the pupa of the cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. This
same form, with more or less modification, prevails in butterfly
pupz, called, because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and
in the pup of moths. Other pups, as in case of bees (Fig.
13, g) and beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its

Fie. 138.

Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified.

antenne, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by a thin
membrane, hence the name which Linné gave—referring to
this condition—as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling
clothes, the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it
needed holding together. Aristotle called pupae nymphs—
a name now given to this stage in bees—which name was
adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth and,
eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are
in progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or
developing parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated
material stored by the larva during its prolonged banquet,
the wonderful transformation from the sluggish, worm-like
larva to the active, bird-like imago is accomplished. Some-
times the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick,
as the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of
bees. These cocoons are spun by the larve as their last toil
before assuming the restful pupa state. The length of time

70 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

in the pupa-stage is very various, lasting from a few days te
as many months. Sometimes insects which are two-brooded
remain as pupa but a few days in summer, while in winter
they are months passing the quiescent period. Our cabbage-
butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the
Hessian-fly and codling-moth, remain through the long, cold
months as larve. How wonderful is this! The first brood
of larve change to pupe at once, the last brood, though the
weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the
warm days of coming spring.

THE IMAGO STAGE.

This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given
by Linné because the image of the insect is now real and not
masked as when in the larva state. Now the insect has its
full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes, complex
mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs. In fact,
the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to repro-
duce itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry
marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees this life
to be quickly followed by the female, she only waiting to
place her eggs where the prospective infants may find suitable
food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but feed and
eare for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees.
Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive
females perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young.
The life of the imago:also varies much as to duration. Some
live but for a day, others make merry for several days, while
a few species live for months. Very few imagos survive the
whole year.

INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS.

Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts,
are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg.
The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the
absence or incomplete development of the wings in the larvee
and pup. The habits and structure from first to last seem
to be much the same. Here, as before, the full development
of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 71

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
HONEY-BEE.

With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of
the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy
to learn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest
insects of the order.

THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY.

As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the
economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which
is true of many other bees; and also of ants and many wasps,
is the presence in each family of three distinct kinds, which
differ in form, color, structure, size, habits and function.
Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, and a far
greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby
also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers.
These are accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von
Berlepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by loss of
hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. Ameri-
can apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after
our severe winters they prevail in the colony, and, as remarked
by the noted Baron, “They quickly disappear.’ Munn also:
tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming
seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to,
unless it be the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed,
which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe
burden.

THE QUEEN BEE.

The queen (Fig. 14), although referred to as the mother
bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as
late as the last century, though in the ancient “Bee Master’s
Farewell,” by John Keys, published in London in 1796, I
find an admirable description of the queen bee, with her
function correctly stated. Réaumur as quoted by “Wildman
on Bees,” published in London in 1770, says “ this third sort
has a grave and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is
mother of all the others.”

‘Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who,
though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intel-

72 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

ligent servant, Frances Burnens, developed so many interest-
ing truths, demonstrated the fact of the queen’s maternity.
This author’s work, second edition, published in Edinburgh,

Fig. 14.

Queen Bee, magnified.

in 1808, gives a full history of his wonderful observations
and experiments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a
classic, worthy of study by all.

The queen, then, is the mother bee ; in other words, a fully
developed female. Her ovaries (Fig. 11, a, a) are very
large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes already
described as composing them are very numerous, while the
spermatheca (Fig. 11, e) is plainly visible. This is muscular,
receives abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt, may
or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in con-
tact with the eggs as they pass by the duct. Leuckart esti-
mates that the spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000
spermatozoa.

The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, is
the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as
these are the characteristic marks of females among all
animals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention :
She is longer than either drones or workers, being more than
seven-eighths of an inch in length, and, with her long tapering
abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen’s
mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than are
those of the worker bees. Her jaws (Fig. 21, 5) or mandibles

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 73

are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or
ligula (Fig. 15, a), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 15, d)
and maxilla are considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the
same in the worker-bee (Fig. 5), are smaller than those of the

Fie. 15.

|

iii

ail

|

Labium of Queen.

a—Ligula. b—Labial palpi.

d, d—Paraglosse.
drones, and do not meet above. So the three ocelli are situated
above and between. The queen’s wings, too, (Fig. 14) are’
relatively shorter than those either of the workers or drones, for
instead of attaining to the endof the body, they reach but little
beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though
she has the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus
(Fig. 16, p), in respect to breadth, has not the cavity and

74 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

surrounding hairs, which form the pollen baskets of the
workers. The queen possesses a sting (Fig. 11, d) which
is longer than that of the workers, and resembles that of
the bumble-bees in being curved, and that of bumble-bees
and wasps in having few and short barbs—the little projections
which point back like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in
case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instru-
ment, when once fairly inserted. While there are seven
quite prominent barbs on each shaft of the worker's sting,
there are only three on those of the queen, and these are

Fie. 16.

Part of Leg of Queen, magnified.
t—Tibia. : p—Broadened tibia and basal tarsus,
ts—Tarsal joints.
very short, and, as in a worker's sting, they are successively
shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Aristotle
says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have
found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen’s anger,
but never with any evidence of success. Neighbour (page 14,
note) gives three cases where queens used their stings, in one

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 75

of which cases she was disabled from farther egg-laying. She
stings with slight effect.

The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impreg-
nated egg, which, of course, could only come from a queen
that had previously mated. These eggs are not placed in a
horizontal cell, but in one specially prepared for their recep-
tion (Fig. 26, 7). These queen cells are usually built on the
edge of the comb, or around an opening in it, which is neces-
sitated from their size and form, as usually the combs are too
close together to permit their location elsewhere. These cells
extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed
of wax mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble
apea-nut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by
the queen or workers. Huber, who though blind had
wondrous eyes, also witnessed the act. I havo frequently
seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact
position in. which the queen always places her eggs in the
other cells. John Keys, in the old work already referred to,
whose descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully
accurate, and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious
truthfulness, asserts that the queen is five times as long laying
a royal egg as she is the others. From the character of his
work, and its early publication, I can but think that he had
witnessed this rare sight. ‘Some candid apiarists of our own
time and country—E. Gallup among the rest—claim to have
witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so
delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a
removal. The opponents to this view base their belief on a
supposed discord between the queen and neuters. This
antagonism is inferred, and I have but little faith in the
inference, or the argument from it. I know that when royal
cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens destroyed, the
workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also seen
queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them.
I have also ‘seen several young queens -dwelling ‘amicably
together in the same hive. Is it not probable that the bees are
united in whatever is to be accomplished, and that when
queens are to be destroyed all spring to the work, and when
they are to live all regard them as sacred? It is true that

76 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by the sur-
rounding conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see
satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions
impress differently the queen and the workers. The condi-
tions which lead to the building of queen-cells and the
peopling of the same are—loss of queen, when a worker
larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by a cell ;
inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca
having become emptied ; great number of worker-bees in the
hive ; restricted quarters; the queen not having place to
deposit eggs, or the workers little or no room to store honey ;
and lack of ventilation, so that the hive becomes too close.
These last three conditions are most likely to occur at times.
of great honey secretion.

A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker
larva less than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known
queens to be reared from worker larva taken at four-and-a-
half days from hatching. In this latter case, the cells
adjacent to the one containing the selected larva are removed,
and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The development
of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to
be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and
more plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food,
as also its use and abundance in the cell, was first described.
by Schirach, a Saxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in
1771. According to Hunter, this royal pabulum is richer in
nitrogen than that of the common larvee. It is thick, like rich
cream; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the queen larva
not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but quite
a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell.
We often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, with-
out larve. Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future
use.

What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal scions
simply receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and
occupy a more ample habitation—for I have more than once
confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction of
the cell is immaterial—and yet what a marvelous transforma-
tion. Not only are the ovaries developed and filled with eggs,
. but the mouth-organs, the wings, the legs, and the sting, aye,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. U7

and the size, form and habits are all wondrously changed.
That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the
size increased is not so surprising—as in breeding other
insects I have frequently found that kind and amount of food,
would hasten or retard growth, and might even cause a
dwarfed imago—but that it should so essentially modify the
structure, is certainly a rare and unique circumstance, hardly
to be found except here and in related animals. Bevan has
suggested that fertile workers, while larvee, have received
some of this royal jelly, from their position near a developing
queen. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal
jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously
thought this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests
of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always,
so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies
long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given
by Quinby, where these occurred in a nucleus where no queen
had been developed. May it not be true, that a desire for
eggs stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs in the
ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common
high-holder, Colaptes auratus—a bird belonging to the wood-
pecker family, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but let
cruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones—
and wondrous to relate, she continues te lay more than a
score. One thus treated, here on the College campus, actually
laid more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires
may influence and move organs that are generally independent
of the will.

The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development
than the other larvae. When developed from the egg—as in
case of normal swarming—the larva feeds for five days, when
the cell is capped by the workers. The infant queen
then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. The
end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that
this is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the
queen larva, thus to render her own destruction more easy,
should the welfare of the colony demand it, as now a sister
queen may safely give the fatal sting. The queen now spends
nearly three days in absolute repose. Such rest is common
to all cocoon-spinning larve. The spinning, which is done by

78 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the
delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver,
seems to bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now
assumes the nymph or pupa state (Fig. 26,7). At the end
of the sixteenth day she comes forth a queen. Huberstates that
whena queen emerges, the bees are thrown into a joyous excite-
ment, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the hive
from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter
accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked demonstra-
tion on the natal day of her lady-ship the queen, or extra
respect paid her as a virgin. When queens are started from
worker larvee, they will issue as imagos in ten or twelve days
from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle writes
me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half
days.

ve the queen’s development is probably due to superior
quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to
reason that queens started from eggs are preferable ; the more
so, as under normal circumstances, I believe, they are almost
always thus started. The best experience sustains this
position. As the proper food and temperature could best be
secured in a full colony—and here again the natural economy
of the hive adds to our argument—we should infer that the
best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept
in such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also
confirms this view. As the quantity and quality of food,
and the general activity of the bees is directly connected with
the full nourishment of the queen-larva, and as these are
only at the maximum in times of active gathering—the time
when queen-rearing is naturally started by the bees—we
should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons are
superior. My experience—and I have carefully observed in
this connection—most emphatically sustains this view.

Five or six days after issuing from the cell—Neighbour
says the third day—if the day is pleasant, the queen goes
forth on her “marriage flight ;” otherwise she will improve
the first pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Huber was
the first to prove that impregnation always takes place on the
wing. Bonnet also proved that the same is true of ants,
though in this case millions of queens and drones often swarm

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 79

out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these whole-
sale matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also fre-
quently taken bumble-bees in copulo while onthe wing. Ihave
also noticed both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united,
probably borne down by the expiring males. That butterflies,
moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate on the wing is a matter of
common observation. That it is possible to impregnate
queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens
will caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their
advances. That this ever has been done I also question, though
many think they have positive proof that it has occurred.
Yet, as there are so many chances to be mistaken, and as
experience and observation are so excessive against the possi-
bility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or inaccurate
judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed
Huber in clipping the queen’s wing, only to produce a sterile
or drone-laying queen. Prof. Leuckart believes that successful
mating demands that the large air-sacks (Fig. 2, f) of the drones
shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible during flight.
The demeanor of the drones leads me to think, that the
excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary
to induce the sexual impulse.

I presume, that in all the future, Huber’s statement that the
queen must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted.
Yet it will do no harm to keep trying. Success may come
Mating, too, in green-houses or rooms is also impracticable.
I have given this thorough ‘trial. The drones are incorrigible
cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even to overcome the
sexual desires.

. If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will
go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated
that after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states
that if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she
will be largely a drone-laying queen. That such absolute
dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is. very ques-
tionable. Yet, all. experienced breeders know that queens
kept through the winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It
is quite likely that the long inactivity of the spermatheca
wholly or in part paralyzes it, so that queens that are late in
mating cannot impregnate the eggs as she desires. This

80 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

would accord with what we know of muscular organs. Ber-
lepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a virgin
could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she afterwards
mated. lLangstroth thought that he had observed to the
contrary.

If the queen be observed after a successful “ wedding tour,”
she will be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant
drone appendages, consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de-
sacks, and the hanging thread-like ducts.

It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a
drone, ever leaves the hive again except that she leaves with
aswarm. Some of the observing apiarists think that an old
queen may be again impregnated. The fact that queens, with
clipped wings, are fertile as long as others, makes me think
that cases which have led to such conclusions are capable of
other explanation.

If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drone, or if for
any reason she fails to mate, her eggs will only produce male
bees. This strange anomaly—development of the eggs with- -
out impregnation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in
1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student of practical and scien-
tific apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, isa Roman
Catholic priest of Carlsmarkt, Germany. This doctrine—
called parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin
—is still doubted by some quite able bee-keepers, though the
proofs are irrefragable : 1st. Unmated queens will lay eggs
that will develop, but drones always result. 2d. Old queens
often become drone-layers, but examination shows that the
spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination
was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anatomist,
in 1843; and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have myself
made several such examinations. The spermatheca can
easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crushing it on a
glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover, the dif-
ference between the contained fluid in the virgin and impreg-
nated queen is very patent, even with a low power. In the
latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more dis-
tended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa or
sperm-cells become visible. 3d. Eggs in drone-cells are
found by the microscopist to be void of the sperm-cells, which

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 81

are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This most con-
vincing, and interesting observation, was first made by Von
Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite difficult
to show this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Ber-
lepsch’s apiary, but failed. I have also tried to discover
these sperm-cells in worker-eggs, but as yet have been unsuc-
cessful. Siebold has noted the same facts in eggs of wasps.
4th. Dr. Dénhoff, of Germany, in 1855, took an egg from a
-drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker-
bee. Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed
as soon as the egg is laid.

Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been
found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps,
and of some of the lower moths, in the production of both
males and females. While the great Bonnet first discovered
‘what may be noticed on any summer day, all about us, even
on the house-plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis
is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In the fall
males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays
-eges, which in the spring produce only females ; these again
produce only females, and thus on, for several generations,
till with the cold of autumn come again the males and
females. Bonnet observed seven successive generations of
productive virgins. Duval noted nine generations in seven
months, while Kyber observed production exclusively by
parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we see,
that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is
not rare in the great insect world.

About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under
normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, .
and as the condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming
the same summer, so that no drones are required, she usually
lays no others the first season.

It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays
-quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe
this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days.
This does not seem strange. The act of forcing the sperm-cells
from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that.
these muscles should not always act promptly at first, is not
.strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that

82 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells
the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the sperma-
theca. Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I-greatly ques-
tion this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to
be laid in worker-cells, ere the cell was hardly commenced,
when there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too,
if the queen does lay the eggs—as I believe—these would be
unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen
sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly
while laying, as I have witnessed such a procedure—the same
that so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after
weary hours of watching—but that she can thus control at
the instant this process of adding or withholding the sperm-
cells, certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca,
hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells for
months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly
dart against the horse’s legs, and as surely leave the tiny
yellow egg, can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive
oviducts, and can extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure.
That a queen may force single eggs, at will, past the mouth
of the spermatheca, and at the same time add or withhold the
sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true. What gives
added force to this view, is the fact that other bees, wasps
and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from
cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the
same size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a
friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. He has
shown that old drone cells are as small as new worker-cells,
and yet each harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too,
make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen will some-
times lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then
be reared. And will, if she must, though with great
reluctance, lay worker-eggs in drone-cells. | Se

Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell,
probably to see if allis right. If the cell contains any
honey, pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though
when crowded, a queen will sometimes, especially if young,
insert two or three eggs in a cell, and sometimes, in such
cases, she drops them, when the bees show their dislike of
waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 83

of them. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she turns
about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is:
glued, in position (Fig. 26, 6) to the bottom of the cell.

The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees
of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not
surprising for her to attain the age.of three years in the full
possession of her powers, while they have been known to do
good work for five years. Queens, often at the expiration of
one, two, three or four years, depending on their vigor and
excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent
to lay impregnated eggs—the spermatheca having become
emptied of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually
supersede the queen ; that is they destroy the old queen, ere
all the worker-eggs are gone, and take of the few remaining
ones to start queen-cells, and thus rear young, fertile and
vigorous queens.

It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking

queen, with full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well-
filled with male fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs
will hatch. Readers of the bee-publications know that I
have frequently received such for dissection. The first I ever
got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian, received from the
late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have
examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-
power objective. We can only say that the egg is at fault,
as frequently transpires with higher animals, even to the
highest. These females are barren ; through some fault with
the ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect
just what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem,
if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to determine
the ultimate cause, but without success.
_ The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus
keep the colony populous; and this she does with an energy
that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will
lay two or three thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen
in my observing hive, lay for some time at the rate of four
eges per minute, and have proved by actual computation of
brood cells, that a queen may lay over three thousand eggs in
aday. lLangstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at the
rate of six eggs a minute.

84 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty-
one eggs in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she
laid fifty-seven thousand. This queen continued prolific for
five years, and must have laid, says the Baron, at alow
estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. Dzierzon says queens
may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors have not
exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertise-
ment, the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity,
as the queen white-ant—an insect closely related to the bees
in habits, though not in structure, as the white-ants are lace-
wings and belong to the sub-order Neuroptera, which includes .
our day-flies, dragon-flies, etc.—is known to lay over 80,000
eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless thing, whose abdomen is
the size of a man’s thumb, and composed almost wholly of
eggs, while the rest of her body is not larger than the same
in our common ants, has no other amusement; she cannot
walk ; she cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs.
What wonder then that she should attempt big things in the
way of egg-laying? She has nothing else to do, or to feel
proud of.

Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different
breeds of fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly
demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping
their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity ;
while others are so inferior, that the colonies make a poor,
sickly effort to survive at all, and usually succumb early,
before those adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to
confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen, too,
is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The
queen will either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the
interims of storing honey, while, on the other hand, she is
stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity, when all is life and
activity in the hive.

It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions,
is taught by instinct, or else that without her volition the
general activity of the worker-bees stimulates the ovaries, how,
we know not, to grow more eggs. We know that such a
stimulus is born of desire, in case of the high-holder, already _
referred to. That the queen may have control of the activity
of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through reflex

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 85

nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees,
which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but
quite likely.

The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and
admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined
by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient’of
loving caresses, and whose will is law in this bee-hive king-
dom, controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading
the colony whithersoever they may go, is unquestionably mere
fiction. In the hive, as in the world, individuals are valued
for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important
individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or loss
noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is
threatened ; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is
despatched with the same absence of emotion that charac-
terizes the destruction of the drones when they have become
_ supernumeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion or senti-

mentality are ever moving forces among the lower animals.
There are probably certain natural principles that govern in
the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or
tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an
enemy to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more
united than is generally believed, in a desire to promote the free
action of these principles. No doubt the principle of antag-
onism among the various bees has been overrated. ven, the
drones, when they are being killed off in the autumn, make a
sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the
colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be exter-
minated ; “‘so mote it be;” go ahead. The statement, too,
that there is often serious antagonism between the queen and
workers, as to the destruction or preservation of inchoate
queens, yet in the cell, is a matter which may well be inves-
tigated. It is most probable that what tends most for the
prosperity of the colony is well understood by all, and with-
out doubt there is harmonious action among all the denizens
of the hive, to foster that which will advance the general
welfare, or to make war on whatever may tend to interfere
with it. If the course of any of the bees seems wavering
and inconsistent, we may rest assured that circumstances have
changed, and that could we perceive the bearing of all the

86 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and har-
monious.

THE DRONES.

These are the male becs, and are generally found in the
hive only from May to November ; though they may remain
all winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer.
Their presence or absence depends on the present and pros-
pective condition of the colony. If they are needed, or
likely to be needed, then they are present. There are in

Fie. 17.

Drone Bee, magnified.

nature several hundred in each colony. The number may
and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These (Fig.
17) are shorter than the queen, being less than three-fourths
of an inch in length, are more robust and bulky than either
the queen or workers, and are easily recognized when flying
by their loud, startling hum. As in other societies, the least
useful make the most noise. This loud hum is caused by the
less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their flight
is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their
ligula, labial palpi and maxille—like the same in the queen
bee—are short, while their jaws (Fig. 21, a) possess the rudi-
mentary tooth, and are much the same in form as those of
the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as those of
the workers. Their eyes (Fig. 4) are very prominent, meet
above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown forward. Their
posterior legs are convex on the outside (Fig. 18), so, like the
queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 87

the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex-
organs (Fig. 10) are not unlike those of other insects, and have
already been sufficiently described.

It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones
hatch from unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon,
seemingly so incredible, is as has been shown in speaking of

Fie. 18.

Part of Leg of Drone, magnified.

t—Tibia. ithe ts—Joints of Tarsus.
p—Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. = c—Claws.

the queen, easily proved and beyond question. These eggs
may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile worker—
which will soon be further described—or from an impregnated
queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such
eggs may be placed in the larger horizontal cells (Fig. 28, a),
in manner already described. As stated by Bevan, the drone
-feeds six and a half days as a larva, before the cell is capped.
The capping of the drone-cells is very convex, and projects
beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that the

88 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from the
darker color—the wax being thicker and less pure—the cap-
ping of both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to
distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from
the laying of the egg, the drones come forth from the cells.
Of course variation of temperature, and other conditions, as
variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or advance the
development of any brood, in the different stages. The
drones—in fact all bees—when they first emerge from the
cells, are gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated.

Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to

state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live
till accident, the worker bees, or the performance of their
natural function causes their death. The worker-bees are
liable to kill off the drones, which they do by constantly biting
and worrying them. They may also destroy the drone-brood.
It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature
drones even in mid-summer. At-the same time, too, they
may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a
sudden check in the yield of honey, and with the drones is
most common at the close of the season. The bees seem
very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times
presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the
increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey,
rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters—whatever the age
of the queen—is sure to bring many of the male bees. While
any circumstances that indicate a future need of drones will
prevent their destruction even in late autumn.
_ The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the
queen, though when present they may add animal heat.
That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact, that
upon dissection, we always find their capacious stomachs filled
with honey.

Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before
stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the
heat of warm sunshiny days. After mating, the drone organs
adhere to the queen, and may be seen hanging to her for some
hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the drones. By hold-
ing a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs is often
produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 89

queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might.
be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds
of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would
suffice as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance
of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers
of the outer world, it is safest and best that her stay abroad
be not protracted ; that the experience be not repeated, and
especially, that her meeting a drone be not delayed. Hence
the superabundance of drones—especially under natural con-
ditions, isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are
ever on the alert for insect game—is most wise and provident.
Nature is never “penny wise and pound foolish.” In our
apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it exists in
nature, is not enforced.

The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of
the drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen,
however mated, must ever come a puredrone. My own expe-
rience and observation, ‘which I believe are those of all
apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the impure
mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of
mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many
who would seem most competent to judge—though I must
say I am somewhat skeptical in the matter—then we must
look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal, and
especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we may
expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it
exists, must come simply from the presence in the female
generative organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in
mamuals, too, there is little more than this, for though they
are viviparous, so that the union and contact of the offspring
and mother seems very intimate, during foetal development,
yet there is no intermingling of the blood, for a membrane ever
separates that of the mother from that of the foetus, and only
the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the other.
To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation,
is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling
the breath of her progeny after birth. I can only say, that I
believe this whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still
needs more careful, scientific and prolonged observation.

90 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. .

THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES.

These, called “the bees,” by Aristotle, and even by
Wildman and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individu-
als of the hive—there being from 15,000 to 40,000 in every
good colony. Itis possible for a colony to be even much more

Fie. 19.

Worker-Bee, magnified.

populous than this. These are also the smallest bees of the
colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an
inch in length (Fig. 19).

The workers—as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle.
Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber,
sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive
ovaries—are undeveloped females. Rarely, and probably very
rarely, except that a colony is long or often queenless, as is
frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far developed
as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always be drone
eggs, Such workers—known as fertile—were first noticed
by Riem, while Huber actually saw one in the act of egg-
laying. Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem not
unlike the other workers. Huber supposed that these were
reared in cells contiguous to royal cells, and thus received
royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby,
that these occur in colonies where queen-larvee were never
reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch
thought that these bees, while larvae, were fed, though too spar-
ingly, with the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and
hence the accelerated development. Such may be the true
explanation. Yet if, as some apiarists aver, these appear
where no brood has been fed, and so must be common workers,
changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a felt need,

Brie loll]

Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified.

A—Maxille and labium.

max, mx—Maxillex. mp, mp—Max. palpi. k, k—Labia palpi.
ce, c—Cardos. o— Sab fenton t—Tongue.
St, St—Stipes. m—Mentum. f—Funnel. .
1, U—Lacinie. Dp, p—Paraglosse.
B—Ligula, with sack distended.
s—Colorless membrane. funnel. R—Tubular rod.

C—Cross-section of ligula.
S—Sheath. R—Tubular rod. s, s—Colorless membrane.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 91

then we must conclude that development and growth—-as with
the high-holder—spring from desire. The generative organs
are very sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions,
and we may yet have much to learn as to the delicate forces
which will move them to growth and activity. Though these
fertile workers are a poor substitute for a queen, as they arc
incapable of producing any but drones, and are surely the
harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they
seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the pres-
ence of a queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will
they suffer the existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even
though capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have
very slight reason to be so. These fertile workers lay indif-
ferently in large or small cells—often place several eggs in a
single cell, and show their incapacity in various ways.

The maxille and labium of the worker bee are much
elongated (Fig. 20). The maxille (Fig. 20, A, max, mx) are
deeply grooved, and are hinged to the head by strong chitinous
rods (Fig. 20, A, ¢, c, St, St) to which are attached the
muscles which move these parts. The gutter-like extremities
(Fig. 20, A, 2, 1) are-stiffened with chitine, and when approx-
imated form a tube which is continued by a membrane to the
mouth opening of the pharynx, just between the bases of the
jaws. This tube forms the largest channel through which
nectar passes to the pharynx. The labium varies in length
from .23 to .27 of aninch. By the sub-mentum (Fig. 20,
A, o) and two chitinous rods (Fig. 20, A, 0, 6) it is hinged
to the maxillz. The base or mentum (Fig. 20, A, m) is tubu-
lar. The lower part of the tube is thick with chitine, the
upper part membranous. This tube is the continuation of
the pharynx into the tongue. From the mentum extend the
tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, A, ¢), the paraglossz (Fig. 20, A,
p, p) whose sack-like bases connect with the tube of the
mentum, and the labial palpi (Fig. 20, &, &), which in arrange-
ment, form and function, resemble the maxilla. The tongue
consists of an annulated sheath (Fig. 20, Band C, S) which
is slitted along its under side to near the end. This is very
hairy. Within this is a tubular rod (Fig. 20, B and C, R)
which is also slitted along its under surface. This extends
beyond the sheath, where it becomes an imperfect funnel
(Fig. 20, 7). A thin, colorless membrane (Fig. 20, C, s, s)

92 MANUAL OF TIE APIARY.

connects the slitted margins of the rod with those of the
sheath. This with the sheath forms a sack which may be
distended (Fig. 20, B) with nectar, as it has connection with
the tube of the mentum, though it is closed anteriorly. The
tubular rod connects with the sack and with the tube of the
mentum at the base of the ligula.

While the bee is sipping liquid food, the tongue alternately
pushes out and draws back fora short distance, which motion
is effected by muscles at its base. This may be analogous to
swallowing. When not in use the tongue is partially drawn
into the mentum, and with the labial palpi and maxille is
bent under the head.

When bees can get at nectar in quantity, they suck it
through the extemporized tubes formed by appromimating
the maxillee and labial palpi. Deep down in flowers they
only sip through the funnel and tubular rod. When a liquid
is spread out thin, I think they lap or wipe it up, when it
passes through the slit into the tubular rod, and thence to
the pharynx.

The jaws (Fig. 21, c) are very strong, without the rudiment-
ary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical,so that when

Fig. 21.

a—Jaw of drone. b—Jaw of queen. ce—Jaw of worker.

the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these
are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform their
various functions. Their eyes (Fig, 5) are like those of the
queen, while their wings, like those of the dronés, attain the
end of the body. These organs (Fig. 3), as in all insects with
rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or less
rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes
their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high
pitch of anger, and the slow motion and mellow note of con-
tent and joy.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 93

On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a
cavity, made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen
basket (Fig. 22, p). In these pollen baskets is compacted

Fie. 22. Fie. 23.

Outside. Inside.

Hi
As

A)
a

Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, much magnified.

t-Tibia. h—Rim of hairs. p—Pollen basket. ts—Joint of tarsi.
c—Claws. e—Rows of hairs.

the pollen, which is gathered by the mouth organs, and carried
back by the four anterior legs. Opposite the pollen baskets
are regular rows of golden hairs (Vig. 23, e), which probably
aid in storing and compacting the pollen balls.

On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and
tibia, is a curious notch (Fig. 24, c) covered by a spur (Fig. 24,
b).- For several years this has caused speculation among my
students, and has attracted the attention of observing apiarists.
Some have supposed that it aided bees in reaching deeper
down into tubular flowers, others that it was used in scraping
off pollen, and still others that it enabled bees to hold on
when clustering. The first two functions may belong to this,
though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess

94 "MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

it. The latter function is performed by the claws at the end
of the tarsi.

The worker bees possess an organ of defense, which they
are quick to use if occasion demands. This organ is straight,
not curved, as is the sting of the queen. The poison, which
is emitted in stinging and which causes the severe pain, is an
acid fluid, which is secreted by a double gland, and stored in
a muscular sack (Fig. 25, ¢), which is about the size of a flax-
seed. This sack is connected by a tube (Fig. 25, M) with the
reservoir of the sting. The sting is a triple organ consisting
of three sharp hollow spears, which are very smooth and of
exquisite polish. If we magnify the most beautifully
wrought steel instrument, it looks rough and unfinished ;
while the parts of the sting, however highly magnified, are

Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified.

smooth and perfect. The true relation of the three parts of
the sting was accurately described by Mr. J. R. Bledsoe, in
the AMERICAN BEE JouRNAL, vol. 6, page 29. The action
in stinging and the method of extruding the poison, is well
described in a beautifully illustrated article, by Mr. J. D.
Hyatt, in Vol. I, No. 1, of “American Quarterly Microscopi-
cal Journal.” The larger of the three awls (Fig. 25, a),
usually, though incorrectly, styled the sheath, has a large
cylindrical reservoir at its base (Fig. 25, s) which is entirely
shut off from the hollow (Fig. 25, H) in the more slender part
of the awl, which latter serves no purpose whatever, except
to give strength and lightness.

The reservoir connects at its base with the poison sack, and
below, by a slit, with the opening (Fig. 25, N) made by the
approximation of the three awls. The other two awls (Fig.
25, B, B, B), which we will call lancets, are also hollow (Fig.
25, 1,1). They are barbed (Fig. 25, v, U, 0) much like a
fish-hook, except that there are eight or ten barbs, instead of
one. Five of the barbs are large and strong. These barbs
catch hold and cause the extraction of the sting when the

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 95

organ is used. Near the base of each lancet is a beautiful
valvular organ (Fig. 25, £, £). The hollow inside the lancets
(Fig. 25, 1, 1), unlike that of the awl, is useful. It opens

Fie. 25.

ore ef Of Oc

Sting with Lancets drawn one side, cross-section of Sting,and a
Lancet, much magnified. ;

c—Poison sack. M—Tube from sack to reservoir. S—Reservoir.
A—AwWl. B, B—Lancets. . E, E—Valves.
U,U—Barbs. | 0, O—Openings from hollowin #H—Hollow in awl.
1, I—Hollows in lancets. lancets. T, T—Ridges in awl.

T’—Groove in lancet.
anteriorly in front of the first six barbs (Fig. 25, 0, 0), as
shown by Mr. Hyatt, and posteriorly just back of the valves
into the central tube (Fig. 25, N), and through it into the
reservoir (Fig. 25, s). The poison then can pass either
through the hollow lancets (Fig. 25, 1, 1) or through the cen-
tral tube (Fig. 25, N), between the three spears.

The lancets are held to the central piece by projections
(Fig. 25, 1, T) from the latter, which fit into corresponding

96 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

grooves (Fig. 25, 7’) of the lancets. In the figure the lancets
are moved one side to show the barbs and valves. Normally
they are held close together, and thus form the tube (Fig. 25, n).

The parts of the sting are moved by muscles connecting
the bases of the parts and extending from the parts to the
large chitinous supports (Fig. 25, d). The fact that muscles
connect the various parts, and the muscular character of the
sack, explain how a sting may act, even after the bee is
apparently lifeless, or what is even more wonderful, after it
has been extracted from the bee. The barbs hold one lancet
as a fulcrum for the other, and so long as the muscles are
excitable, so long is a thrust possible. Thus I have known
a bee, dead for hours, to sting. A wasp, dead more than a
day, with the abdomen cut off, made a painful thrust, and
stings extracted for several minutes could still bring tears by
their entering the flesh. In stinging, the awl first pierces,
then the lancets follow. As the lancets push in, the valves
close the central tube, when the poison is driven through the
lancets themselves and comes out by the openings near the
barbs (Fig. 25, 0,0). The drop of poison which we see on
the sting when the bee is slightly irritated, as by jarring the
hive on acold day, is pushed through the central opening
by the muscular contraction of the sack attendant upon the
elevation of the abdomen, and extrusion of the sting.

The honey-stomach or crop in the workers (Fig. 9, 0) is well
developed, though no larger than those of drones. Whether
it is more complex in structure or not, I cannot state.

The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only
come from a queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in
the small, horizontal cell. These eggs are in no wise different,
‘so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the drone or
queen-cells. All are cylindrical and slighly curved (Fig. 26,
b, c) and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell,
and a little to one side of the centre. As already shown,
these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she extrudes
them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These eggs,
though so small—one-sixteenth of an inch long—may be easily
seen by holding the comb so that the light will shine into the
cells. With experience, they are detected almost at once, but
I have often found it quite difficult to make the novice see
them, though very plainly visible to my experienced eye.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 97

The egg hatches in three days. The larva (Fig. 26, d, e, f,
g); incorrectly called grub, maggot—and even caterpillar, by
Hunter—is white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till
near maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to
be given grudgingly, as it never seems to have more than it

Fie. 26.

Egg and Brcod.

band c—Hggs. i—Pupa of queen, in queenscell.
d, e, f and g— Various sizes of larve. iy k—-Oaps. yea
h—Pupa.

wishes to eat, so it is fed quite frequently by the mature work-
ers. It would seem that the workers fear an excessive devel-
opment, which, as we have seen, is most mischievous and
ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager
diet. The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly
of pollen, for, as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no
brood will be reared. Probably some honey is incorporated,
as sugar is an essential in the nutrition of all animals, and
we could hardly account for the excessive amount of honey
consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed
by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in

98 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

caring for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say
water is also an element of this food. But bees often breed
very rapidly when they do not leave the hive at all, and so
water, other than that contained in the honey, ete., cannot be
added. This makes it a question if water is ever added.
The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair
to the rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when
they are most busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their
own thirst ?

In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This
cap is composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more
porous, and more easily broken than the caps of the honey-
cells; it is also more convex (Fig. 26, &). The larva,
now full grown, having lapped up all the food placed before
it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so excessively thin
that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the size
of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the bees
escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength.
Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years,
seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. In three
days the insect assumes the pupa state (Fig. 26,2). In all
insects the spinning of the cocoon seems an exhaustive pro-
cess, for so far as I have observed, and that is quite at length,
this act is succeeded by a variable period of repose. The
pupa is also calleda nymph. By cutting open cells it is easy
to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of
changing to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature
bee with all its appendages bound close about it, though the
color is still whitish.

In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The
old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of
these was an occasion of joy and excitement among the bees.
All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the bees are,
as they push over and crowd by these new-comers in the most
heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. Wildman tells
of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same
day that they came forth from the cells. This idea is quickly
disproved if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for
some days these young bees do not leave the hive at all,
except in case of swarming, when bees even too young to fly

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 99

will essay to go with the crowd. These young bees, like the
young drones and queens, are much lighter for the first few
days.

The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in
autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless.
stocks, where little labor is performed, even longer; while
those reared in spring will wear out in three, and when most
busy, will often die in from thirty to forty-five days. None
of these bees survive the year through, so there is a limit to
the number which may exist ina colony. Asa good queen
will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily,
and as the workers live from one to three months, it might
seem that forty thousand was too small a figure for the num-
ber of workers. Without doubt a greater number is possible.
That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember the
numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever attend
the individuals of these populous communities.

The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual
labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in
small pellets (Fig. 27, a, a) under the over-lapping rings under
the abdomen. I have found these wax-scales on both old and.
young. According to Fritz Miiller, the admirable German
observer, so long a traveler in South America, the bees of the
genus melipona secrete the wax on the back.

The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive,
feed the larvee and cap the cells. The older bees—for, as.
readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not’ go forth
for the first one or two weeks—gather the honey, collect the
pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called, bring in the
propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and as a.
cement, supply the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all
improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is
past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy
inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances
demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the con-
ditions impel them to swarm.

When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house-
keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse todo. The
young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean,
even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of

100 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

bee-duties. An indirect function of all the bees is to supply
animal heat, as the very life of the bees require that the
temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate consid-
erably above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant
upon nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown
by Newport, may be considerably augmented at the pleasure
of the bees, by forced respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid
vibration of their wings, have the power to ventilate their
hives, and thus reduce the temperature, when the weather is
hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and temper
the cold of winter.

Under Surface of Bee, showing Wuzx between Segments.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 101

CHAPTER III.
SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE.

The natural method by which an increase of colonies
among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has
been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long
period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as
sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile field for investiga-
tion, and will repay any who may come with the true spirit
of inquiry, for there is much concerning it which is involved
in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why
is the swarming spirit so excessive at times and so restrained
at other seasons? These and other questions we are too apt
to refer to erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no
question but that they follow naturally upon certain condi-
tions, perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the province
of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold
the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the
bees ?

In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become
populous, and storing very active, the queen, as if conscious
that a home could be overcrowded, and foreseeing such dan-

‘ ger, commences to deposit drone-eggs in drone-cells, which
the worker-bees, perhaps moved by like considerations, begin
to construct, if they are not already in existence. In fact,
drone comb is almost sure of construction at such times. No
sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large,
awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of
ten or fifteen, though there may be not more than three or
four. In these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added,
and soon, often before the cells are even capped—and very
rarely before a cell is built, if the bees are crowded, the
hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient, or the honey-yield
very bountiful—some bright day, usually about ten o'clock,
after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a

102 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

large part of the worker-bees—being off duty for the day, and
having previously loaded their honey-sacks—rush forth from
the hive as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among
the number, though she is by no means among the first, and
frequently is quite late in her exit. The bees, thus started on
their quest for a new home, after many uproarious gyrations
about the old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush, limb,
or fence, though in one case I have known the first swarm of
bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting
to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one
‘to three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and
leave for their new home, which they have probably already
sought out.

Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the
hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one
while the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right-
line to their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go,
would argue that a home is preémpted, at least, before the
cluster is dissolved. The fact that the cluster remains some-
times for hours—even over night—and at other times for a
brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster, in
waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, why do bees some-
times alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm
the past season, upon our College grounds? Was their
journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest, or were
they flying at random, not knowing whither they were going?

If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees,
and perhaps rarely, when she is among them, they will, after
having clustered, return to their old home. The youngest
bees will remain in the old hive, to which those bees, if there
are any such, which are abroad in quest of stores will return.
The presence of young bees on the ground—those with flight
too feeble to join the rovers—will always mark the previous
home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days, perhaps
rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her
cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new
colony forth, but before she does this, the peculiar note, known
as the piping of the queen, may be heard. This piping
sounds like peep, peep, is shrill ‘and clear, and can be
plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor would it be

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 103

‘mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by
& queen still within the cell.

Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen
was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned
was either of enmity or fear. Never will an after-swarm
leave, unless preceded by this peculiar note.

At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even
three more colonies may issue from the old home. These last
swarms will all be heralded by the piping of the queen.
‘They will be less particular as to the time of day when they
issue, as they have been known to leave before sun-rise, and
even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr. A. F.
Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. They will,
too, as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after
swarms are preceded by the queen, and in case swarming is
delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens. Berlepsch
and Langstroth both saw eight queens issue with a swarm,
while others report even more. These virgin queens fly very
rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in
their course than will first swarms.

The cutting short of swarming preparations before the
second, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no means
a rare occurrence. This is effected by the bees’ destroying the
queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the
drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the
honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as
they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from the
end. :

Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and
spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to
famine, mice, or some other disturbing circumstance, which
tmakes the hive intolerable to the bees.

104 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER IV.

PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND
FUNCTION.

Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the
useful products which they give us; and next to the silk-
moths in the importance of these products. They seem
the more remarkable and important, in that so few insects
yield articles of commercial value. True, the cochineal
insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an important
coloring material ; the lac insect, of the same family, gives
us the important element of our best glue—shellac; the
blister-beetles afford an article prized by the physician, while
we are indebted to one of the gall-flies for a valuable element
of ink. But the honey-bee affords not only a delicious article
of food, but also another article of no mean commercial rank
—namely, wax. We will proceed to examine the various pro-
ducts which come from bees.

HONEY.

Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract
attention, but also in importance, is honey. And what is
honey? We can only say that it is a sweet substance
gathered from flowers and other sources, by the bees. We
cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would
be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot
even call it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of
various sugars, and thus it is easy to understand why honey
varies so much in richness, color, flavor, and effects on diges-
tion. In fact, it is very doubtful if honey is a manufactured
article at all. It seems most likely that the bees only collect
it as it is distilled by myriad leaves and flowers, and store it
up, that it may minister to their and our necessities. To be
sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some change
while in the bee’s stomach ; but the rapidity with which they

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 105

store, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and
sugar fed to them, and the same immediately extracted from
the comb, has led me to believe that the transforming power
of the stomach is very slight, if, indeed, it exists at all. To
be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees empty combs at night-
fall, and found the flavor of honey early the next morning.
In this case, honey might have been already in the bees’
stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of
the hive. The method of collecting the honey has already
been described. The principles of lapping and suction are
both involved in the operation.

When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and
regurgitates its precious load, either giving it to the bees or
storing it in the cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees
that gather, give all their honey to the other bees, which
latter store it in the cells. This honey remains for some
time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the
water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker.
If the honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells,
it will generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced
below 70°. This is probably owing to the presence of the
cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as it denotes superior
quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and some
from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some
kinds of our own honey crystallize much more readily than
others. But that granulation is a test that honey is pure, is
untrue ; that it is a sign of superior excellence, I think quite
probable.

When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no
sweets, the bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently
essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider
mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark
lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually
delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the
queen never lays her maximum number of eggs except when
storing is going on. In fact, in the interims of honey-gather-
ing, egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen
seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable
means of support.

Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing

106 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

is so rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is
unable to lay her full quota of eggs ; in fact, I have seen the
brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly
depleted the colony. This might be called ruinous prosperity.

The natural use of the honey is to furnish the mature bees
with food, and when mixed with pollen, to form the diet of
the young bees.

Ve

The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax.
This is a solid, unctious substance, and is, as shown by its
chemical composition, a fat-like material, though not as some
authors assert, the fat of bees. As already observed, this is
a secretion formed in pellets, the shape of an irregular pentagon

Fie. 27.

a, a, etc.—Wax pellets. w—Wax-scale.

(Fig. 27, w), underneath the abdomen. These pellets are light-
colored, very thin and fragile, and are secreted by and molded
upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets.
Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the
stomach. This is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid
about our own joints, is formed by the secreting membrane,
and does not pass through holes, as water through a sieve.
There are four of these wax-pockets on each side, and thus
there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This
wax can he secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as
shown by Huber, which experiment I have verified. I
removed all honey and comb from my observing-hive, left the
bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 107

in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which was better than
honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown ‘by analysis that not
only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected
right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The
bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for several
days, so long as I kept them confined. This is, as we should
suppose ; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to
form water, while the third element, carbon, is in the same or
about the same proportion as the oxygen. Now, the fats
usually contain little oxygen, and a good “deal of carbon and
hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen
would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found
true in the days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of
Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become
very fat. They ate much sugar; they gained much fat. Now,
wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of
bees, as often asserted—in fact it contains much less hydrogen,
as will be seen by the following formula from Hess:

Hydrogen... ites)
—hbut it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from
its composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted
from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the
conclusion. It has been found that bees require about twenty
pounds of honey to secrete one of wax.

That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langs-
troth and Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season,
when muscular exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be
imperatively necessary to supply the waste, and give tone to
the body. Some may be desirable even in the quiet of win-
ter. Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy condition
of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food.

It is asserted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in
compact clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such quiet
would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The
same food could not go to form wax, and at the same time
supply the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular
activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much
milk. But I find, upon- examination, that the bees, even the
most aged, while gathering in the honey season, yield up the

108 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the
active storing of the past season, especially when comb-
building was in rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee
taken from the flowers contained the wax-scales of varying
sizes in the wax-pockets. By the activity of the bees, these
are not infrequently loosed from their position, and fall to the
bottom of the hive.

It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the
bees, but only takes place as required. So the bees, unless
wax is demanded, may perform other duties. Whether this
secretion is a matter of the bee’s will, or whether it is excited
by the surrounding conditions without any thought, are ques-
tions yet to be settled.

These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to
the mouth by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with
saliva, and after the proper kneading by the jaws, in which
process it assumes a bright yellow hue—but loses none of its.
translucency—it is formed into that wonderful and exquisite
structure, the comb.

Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell
being only about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed
as to combine the greatest strength with the least expense of
material and room. It has been a subject of admiration since
the earliest time. That the form is a matter of necessity, as
some claim—the result of pressure—and not of bee-skill, is
not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very start
of the cells, when there can be no pressure. The wasp builds.
the same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells,
even the drone and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and
perfect, is also untrue, as a little inspection will convince any
one. The late Prof. Wyman proved that an exact hexagonal
cell does not exist. He showed that the size varies ; so that
in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a variation of
one diameter. And this in natural, not distorted cells. This
variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but
_a variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. The sides,
as also the angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces
forming the bases of the cells also vary.

The bees change from worker (Fig. 28, c) to drone-cells
(Fig. 28, a), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 109

by any system (Fig. 28, 4), but simply by enlarging or con-
tracting. It usually takes about four rows to complete the
transformation, though the number of deformed cells varies
from two to eight.

The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of
interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 28, ¢) whose

Fig. 28.

Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases,
and Cross-sections of Cells
illustrated.

: Honey-Comb.
a—Drone-cells. e—Worker-cells.
b—Deformed cells. d d—Queen-cells.

three faces are rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre
of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non-adjacent
edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or faces of
the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a point’ where
the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side meet,
and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the oppo-

110 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

site side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms
one-third of the base of each of three opposite cells. One
side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of
the comb. Tach cell, then, is in form of a hexagonal prism,
terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid.

The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry
forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly
adding to the number, by additions to the edge. Huber first
observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees
abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the
frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons.
which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the
comb already commenced.

The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 28, c) averages little:
more than one-fifth of an inch—Réaumur says two and
three-fifths lines or twelfths of an inch. While the drone-
cells (Fig. 28, a) are a little more than one-fourth of an inch,
or, according to Réaumur, three and one-third lines. But
this distinguished author was quite wrong when he said:
“These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever
were or ever will be made.” The depth of the worker-cells
is a little less than half an inch ; the drone-cells are slightly
extended go as to be a little more than half an inch deep.
These cells are often drawn out so as to be an inch long, when
used solely as honey receptacles. The capping of the brood-
cells is dark, porous, and convex, while that of the honey is.
white and concave.

The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they
are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative
abundance of bees and honey. If the bees are abundant
and honey needed, or if there isno queen to lay eggs, drone-
comb (Fig. 28, a) is invariably built, while if there are few
bees, and of course little honey needed, then worker-comb
(Fig. 28, c) is almost as invariably formed.

All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The
fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been
long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the
innumerable thin cocoons which line the cells. These may
be separated by dissolving the wax; which may be done by
putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need not be dis-

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 111

carded, for if composed of worker-cells, it is still very valuable
for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the
cells are too small for longer service, which will not occur till
after many years of use. The function, then, of the wax, is
to make comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined
with pollen, to form queen-cells (Fig. 28, d) and caps for the
brood-cells. . (See Appendix, page 301).

POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD.

An, ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees
tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This
fanciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen balls
on the bees’ legs. :

Even such scientists as Réaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam,
and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in
these pollen-balls the source of wax. But Huber, John
Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed the presence
and function of the wax-pellets already described, and were
aware that the pollen served a different purpose.

This ‘substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufac-
tured by the bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain
it from the stamens of flowers. But if they gain access to
flour when there is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of
pollen, in which case the former term used above becomes a
misnomer, though usually the ‘bee-bread consists almost
wholly of pollen.

As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen-

zbaskets (Fig. 22, p) of the posterior legs, to which it is con-
veyed by the other legs, and compressed into little oval
masses. The motions in this conveyance are exceedingly
rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the hives, not only
with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under surface
thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the san:2
‘bee may have her sucking stomach distended with honey.
Thus the bees make the most of their opportunities. It isa
curious fact, noticed even by Aristotle, that the bees, during
any trip, gather only a single kind of pollen, or only gather
from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may
have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on
any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is

112 MANUAL OF TIE APIARY.

possible that the material is more easily collected and com-
pacted when homogeneous.

The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells,
and is unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs,
the pollen baskets being first lowered into the cells. The bee
thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses thus deposited to be
packed by other bees. The cells, which may or may not have
the same color of pollen throughout, are never filled quite to
the top, and not infrequently the same cell may contain both
pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained by
holding the comb between the eye and the sun. If there is
no pollen it will be wholly translucent ; otherwise there will
be opaque patches. A little experience will make this deter-
mination easy, even if the comb is old. It is often stated
that queenless colonies gather no pollen, but this is not true,
though very likely they gather less than they otherwise would.
It is probable that pollen, at least when honey is added, con-
tains all the essential elements of animal food. It certainly
contains the very important principle, which is not found in
honey—nitrogenous material.

The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with
proper food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible
without it. And though it is certainly not essential to the
nourishment of the bees when in repose, it still may be so,
and unquestionably is, in time of active labor.

PROPOLIS.

This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the bees.
collect pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product,
of various resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the
opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it
frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects.
From such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees,
from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused
hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure
their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to
collect their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rap-
ping on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in
the family, that they might join as mourners. This custom
still prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South.

.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 113

This substance has great adhesive force, and though soft and
pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding when
cold.

The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their
supports, to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up
all crevices except the place of exit, which they often con-
tract, and even to cover any foreign substance that cannot be
removed. Intruding snails have thus been imprisoned inside
the hive. Réaumur found a snail thus encased; Maraldi, a
slug similarly entombed ; while I have myself observed a
bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair,
etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this
unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects
more at length, I would recommend the following authors as
specially desirable: Kirby and Spence, Introduction to En-
tomology ; Duncan’s Transformations of Insects ; Packard's
Guide to the Study of Insects (American) ; F. Huber’s New
Observations on the Natural History of Bees ; Bevan on the
Honey Bee; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American) ;
Neighbour on The Apiary.

T have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and
I heartily commend all of the above. The first and fourth
are now out of print, but can be had by leaving orders at
second-hand hook-stores,

PART SHCOND.
—S>—

LHE APLAR Y:

Its CARE AND MANAGEMENT.
——S—
Motto :-—“Keep all Colonies Strong!”

INTRODUCTION TO PART IL

STARTING AN APIARY.

In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important
to make a good beginning. This demands preparation on the
part of the apiarist, procuring of bees, and location of his
apiary.

PREPARATION.

Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper

should inform himself in the art.

READ A GOOD MANUAL.

To do this, he should procure some good manual, and
thoroughly study, especially the practical part of the business ;
and if accustomed to read, think and study, should carefully
read the whole work. Otherwise, he will avoid confusion by
only studying the methods of practice, leaving the principles
and science, to strengthen, and be strengthened by, his expe-
rience. Unless a student, he had better not take a journal
till he begins the actual work, as so much unclassified informa-
tion, without any experience to correct, arrange, and select,
will but mystify. For the same reason, he may well be con-
tent with reading a single work, till experience, and a
thorough study of this one, makes him more able to discrim-
inate ; and the same reasoning will preclude his taking more
than one bee-periodical, until he has had at least a year’s
actual experience.

VISIT SOME APIARIST.

In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in
visiting the nearest successful and intelligent apiarist. If
successful, such an one will have a reputation ; if intelligent,
he will take the journals, and will show by his conversation
that he knows of the methods and views of his brother
apiarists, and above all, he will not think he knows it all,
and that his is the only way to success. Learn all you can

118 MANUAL OF THE APIARY,

of such an one, but always let your own judgment and com-
mon sense sit ag umpire, that you make no plans or decisions
that your judgment does not fully sustain.

TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE.

It will be most wise to take a course in some College, if
this is practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly discussed.
Here you will not only get the best training as to your chosen
business, as you will study, see and handle, and thus will
have the very best aids to decide as to methods, system and
apparatus, but will also receive that general culture, which
will greatly enhance life’s pleasures and usefulness, and which
ever proves the best capital in any vocation.

DECIDE ON A PLAN.

After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to
decide as to location, hives, style of honey to raise, and gen-
eral system of management. But here, ag in all the arts, all
our work should be preceded by a “well- -digested plan of
operations. As with the farmer and gardener, only he who
works to a plan can hope for the best success. Of course,
such plans will vary as we grow in wisdom and experience.
A good maxim to govern all plans is, “go slow.” /A good
tule, which will insure the above, “ Pay as you go.” Make
the apiary pay for all improvements in advance. Demand
that each year’s credits exceed its debits ; and that you may
surely accomplish this, keep an accurate account of all your
receipts and expenses. This will be a great aid in arranging
the plans for each successive year’s operations.

Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping
changes. ‘Prove all things, and hold fast that which is
good.”

HOW TO PROCURE OUR FIRST COLONIES.

To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, it is
always best to get them near at hand. We thus avoid the
shock of transportation, can see the bees before we purchase,
and in case there is any seeming mistake, can easily gain a
personal explanation, and secure a speedy adjustment of any
real wrong.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 119

KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE.

At the same price always take Italians, as undoutedly they
are best. If black bees can be secured for three, or even for
two dollars less per colony, by all means take them, as they
can be Italianized at a profit for the difference in cost, and,
in the operation, the young apiarist will gain valuable
experience.

Our motto, too, will demand that we only purchase strong
colonies. If, as recommended, the purchaser sees the colo-
nies before the bargain is closed, it will be easy to know that
the colonies are strong. If the bees, as they come rushing
out, remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or bring to mind
the gush and rush at the nozzle of the fireman’s hose, then
buy. In the hives of such colonies, all combs will be covered
with bees, and in the honey season, brood will. be abundant.

IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES.

As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the
style of hive to be used. Now, if bees can be procured in
such hives, they will be worth just as much more than though
in any other hive, as it costs to make the hive and transfer
the bees. This will be certainly as much as three dollars.
No apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, two styles
of hives in his apiary. Therefore, unless you find bees in
such hives as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in
box hives and transfer (see Chapter VII.) to your own hives,
ag such bees can always be bought at reduced rates. In case
the person from whom you purchase will take the hives back
at a fair rate, after you have transferred the bees to your own
hives, then purchase in any style of movable comb hive, as it
is easier to transfer from a movable comb hive, than from a
box hive.

WHEN TO PURCHASE,

It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April
or May—of course you only purchase strong stocks—if in
the latitude of New York or Chicago—it will be earlier
further south—you can afford to pay more, as you will secure
the increase both of honey and bees. If you desire to pur-
chase in autumn, that you may gain by the experience of

120 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

wintering, either demand that the one of whom you purchase
insure the safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce
the selling price, at least one-third, from his rates the next
April. Otherwise the novice had better wait and purchase in
spring. If youare to transfer at once, it is almost imperative
that you buy in spring, as it is vexatious, especially for the
novice, to transfer when the hives are crowded with brood and
honey.
HOW MUCH TO PAY.

Of course the market, which will ever be governed by
supply and demand, must guide you. But to aid you, I will
append what at present would be a reasonable schedule of
prices almost anywhere in the United States: For box hives,
crowded with black bees—lItalians would rarely be found in
such hives—five dollars per colony is a fair price. For black
bees in hives such as you desire to use, eight dollars would
be reasonable. For pure Italians in such hives, ten dollars
is not too much.

If the person of whom you purchase will take back the
movable hives after you transfer the bees, you can afford to
pay five dollars for black bees, and seven dollars for pure
Italians. If you purchase in the fall, require 333 per cent.
discount on these rates.

WHERE TO LOCATE.

If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be
fixed by your principal business or profession. And here I
may state, that if we may judge from reports which come from
nearly every section of the United States, from Maine to
Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly go amiss
anywhere in our goodly land.

If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select
first with reference to society and climate, after which it will
be well to secure a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap.
XVI), by virtue of your locality. It will also be well to look
for reasonable prospects of a good home market, as good home
markets are,and must ever be, the most desirable. It will be
desirable, too, that your neighborhood is not overstocked with
bees. It is a well-established fact, that apiarists with few
colonies receive relatively larger profits than those with large

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 121

apiaries. While this may be owing in part to better care,
much doubtless depends on the fact that there is not an undue
proportion of bees to the number of honey-plants, and conse-
quent secretion of nectar. To have the undisputed monopoly
of an area reaching at least four miles in every direction from
your apiary, is unquestionably a great advantage.

If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your
dangers from possible misfortune may be lessened, then a
small farm—especially a fruit farm—in some locality where
fruit-raising is successfully practiced, will be very desirable.
You thus add others of the luxuries of life to the products
of your business, and at the same time may create additional
pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your other
business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex
matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention.
Some of Michigan’s most successful apiarists are also noted
as successful pomologists. °

For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI.

122 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER V.
HIVES AND BOXES

An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course
demanded ; and here let me state with emphasis, that none
of the standard hives are now covered by patents, so let
no one buy rights. Success by the skillful apiarist with
almost any hive is possible. Yet, without question, some
hives are far superior to others, and for certain uses, and with
certain persons, some hives are far preferable to others, though
all may be meritorious. As a change in hives, after one is
once engaged in apiculture, involves much time, labor and
expense, this becomes an important question, and one worthy
earnest consideration by the prospective apiarist. I shall give
it a first place, and a thorough consideration, in this discussion
of practical apiculture.

BOX-HIVES.

I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks, and
studies—and success in apiculture can be promised to no
other—will ever be content to use the old box-hives: In fact,
thought and intelligence, which imply an eagerness to investi-
gate, are essential elements in the apiarist’s character. And
to such an one a box-hive would be valued just in propor-
tion to the amount of kindling-wood it contained. A very
‘serious fault with one of our principal bee-books, bic:
otherwise is mainly excellent in subject matter and treatment,
is the fact that it presumes its readers to be box-hive men.
As well make emperors, kings, and chivalry the basis of good
government, in an essay written for American readers. I
shall entirely ignore box-hives in the following discussions,
for I believe no sensible, intelligent apiarists, such as read
books, will tolerate them, and that,supposing they would, it
would be an expensive mistake, which I have no right to
encourage, in fact, am bound to discourage, not only for the
benefit of individuals, but also for the art itself.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 123

To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect
the whole interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able
to exchange combs from one hive to another, to regulate the
movements of the bees: by destroying queen-cells, by giving
or withholding drone-comb, by extracting the honey, by intro-
ducing queens, and by many other manipulations to be
explained, which are only practicable with a movable-frame
hive.

MOVABLE-COMB HIVES.

There are, at present, two types of the movable-camb hive
in use among us, each of which is unquestionably valuable,
as each has advocates among our most intelligent, successful
and extensive apiarists. Each, too, has been superseded by
the other, to the satisfaction of the person making the change.
The kind most used consists of a box, in which hang the
frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so far
separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the
proper distance apart. In the other kind, the frames are
wider than the comb, and when in position are close together,
‘and of themselves form two sides of a box. When in use,
these frames are surrounded by a second box, without a bot-
tom, which, with them, rests on a bottom board. Each of
these kinds is represented by, various forms, sizes, etc., where
the details are varied to suit the apiarist’s notion. Yet, I
believe that all hives in present use, worthy of recommenda-
tion, fall within one or the other of the above named types.

THE LANGSTROTH HIVE.

This (Fig. 29) is the hive most in use among Americans
and Britons, if not among all who practice improved apicul-
ture. Itis stated that the late Major Munn was first to invent
this style of hive. He states (see Bevan, p. 37) that he first
used it in 1834. But, as suggested by Neighbour in his
valuable hand-book, the invention was of no avail to apiarists,
as it was either unknown, or else ignored by practical men.
This invention also originated independently with Rev. L. L.
Langstroth, who brought it forth in 1851, so perfect, that it
needed scarce any improvement ; and for this gift, as well as
his able researches in apiculture, as given in. his invaluable

124 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

book, ‘‘ The Honey-Bee,” he has conferred a benefit upon our
art which cannot be over-estimated, and for which we, as
apiarists, cannot be too grateful. It was his book—one of my
old teachers, for which I have no word of chiding—that led

Fie. 29.

me to some of the most delightful investigations of my
life. It was his invention—the Langstroth hive—that enabled
me to make those investigations. For one, I shall always
revere the name of Langstroth, as a great leader in scientific:
apiculture, both in America and throughout the world. His
name must ever stand beside that of Dzierzon and the elder
Huber. Surely this hive, which left the hands of the great
master in so perfect a form, that even the details remain
unchanged by many of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear
his name. Thus, though I prefer and use the sizeof frame
first used, I believe, by Mr. Gallup, still I use the Langstroth
hive. (See Appendix, page 287).
CHARACTER OF THE HIVE.

The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, which
would exclude doors, drawers, and traps of all kinds. The
body should be made of good pine or white-wood lumber, one
inch thick, thoroughly seasoned, and planed on both sides.
It should be simply a plain box (Fig. 30), without top or
bottom, and of a size and form to suit the apiarist. The size
will depend upon our purpose. If we desire no comb-honey,
or desire comb-honey in frames, the hive may contain 4,000
cubic inches. If we desire honey in boxes, it should not
contain over 2,000, and may be even smaller. If the hive is

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 125

to be a two-story one—that is, one hive above a similar hive
below (Fig. 29)—I prefer that it should be eighteen inches
long, twelve inches wide, and twelve inches deep, inside
measure. Ifsimply small frames or boxes are to be used above,
I would have the hive at least two feet long. A three-fourths
inch rabbet should be cut from the top of the sides or ends.

Fre. 30

as the apiarist prefers, on the inside (Fig. 30,c). The rabbet
may equal a little more than one-half the thickness of the
board. Heavy tin strips (Fig. 33), three-fourths of an inch
wide, should be tacked to the side below the rabbet, so as to
reach one-fourth of an inch above the shoulder. These are
to bear the frames, and are convenient, as they prevent the
frames from becoming glued to the hive. We are thus able
to loosen the frames without jarring the bees. I would not
have hives without such tin rabbets, though some apiarists,
among whom is Mr. James Heddon, of this State, whose
rank as a successful apiarist is very high, do not like them.
The objection to them is cost, and liability of the frames to

126 MANUAL Of THE APIARY.

move when the hive is moved. But with their use we are
not compelled to pry the frames loose, and are not so likely
to irritate the bees, while making an examination of the con-
tents of the hive, which arguments are conclusive with me.
Any one who is not a skilled mechanic, especially if he has
not’a buzz-saw, had better join the sides of his hives after
the style of making common dry-goods boxes (Fig. 30). In
this case, the sides not rabbeted should project by, else the
corners will have to be stopped up where they were rabbeted.
The mechanic may prefer to bevel the ends of the boards,
and unite them by a miter-joint (Fig. 33). This looks a little
better, otherwise is not superior to the other method. It is
difficult to form accurate joints—and as everything about
the hive should be accuRATE and UNIFORM—this style is
not to be recommended to the general apiarist. To miter
with a hand-saw unless one is very skillful, requires a perfect
miter-box, and, even then, much care is required to secure
perfect joints. With a buzz-saw this is easier. We have

Fie. 31.

Bevel-Gauge.

only to make a carrier as follows: Take two boards (Fig. 31,
a, 6), each one foot in length, and dove-tail them together,
as though with two others you meant to make a square box.
Be sure that they form a perfect right-angle. Then bevel
the ends opposite the angle, and unite these with a third

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 127

board (Fig. 31, ¢), firmly nailed to the others. We thus have
a triangular pyramid. Through one of the shorter faces
make longitudinal slits (Fig. 31, @), so that this can be bolted
firmly to the saw-table. In use, the longer face will reach
the saw, and from thence will slant up and back. Along the
back edge of this a narrow board (Fig. 31, e) should be nailed,
which will project an inch above it. This will keep the board
to be beveled in line with the carrier, and will retain the right
angles. Of course the boards for the hive must be perfect
rectangles, and of just the right length and width, before the
bevels are cut.

Such a carrier (Fig. 31) I ordered for my Barnes’ saw, from
a cabinet-maker. It was made of hard wood, all three joints
dove-tailed, and nicely finished, at a cost of $1.50.

In sawing the ends and sides of the hive, whether by hand
or with a buzz-saw, use should be made of a guide, so that
perfect uniformity will be secured.

THE BOTTOM BOARD.

For a bottom board or stand (Fig. 32), we should have a
single one-inch board (Fig. 32, 6) just as wide as the hive,
and four inches longer, if the bees are to enter at the end of
the hive, and as long, and four inches wider, if the bees are to
enter at the side. This is nailed to two pieces of two by
four, or two by two scantling (Fig. 32, a, a). Thus the hive
rests two or four inches from the ground. These scantlings
should extend at one end eight inches beyond the board,
and these projections be beveled from the edge of the board,
to the lower outer corner of the scantling. Upon these
beveled edges nail a board (Fig. 32, d), which shall reach from
the edge of the bottom board to the ground. We thus have
the alighting-board,; whose upper edge should be beveled, so
as to fit closely to the bottom board. If the hives are to be
carried into a cellar to winter, this alighting-board (Fig. 31,
d@) had better be separate, otherwise it is more convenient to
have it attached. It may be made separate at first, or may
be easily separated by sawing off the beveled portion of the
scantlings.

Should the apiarist desire his bees to enter at ‘the side of
the hive, the scantling (Fig. 32, a, a) should run the other

128 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

way, and the alighting-board (Fig. 32, d) should be longer,
and changed to the side. I have tried both, and see no dif-
ference, so the matter may be controlled by the taste of the
aplarist. ;

For an opening to the hive (Fig. 32, c), I would bevel the
middle of the edge of the bottom board, next to the inclined
board. At the edge, this bevel should be three-quarters of

Fie. 32.

an inch deep and four inches wide. It may decrease in both
width and depth as it runs back, till ata distance of four
inches, it is one-half an inch wide and five thirty-seconds of
an inch deep. This may terminate the opening, though the
shoulder at the end may be beveled off, if desired.

With this bottom board the bees are near the ground, and
with the slanting board in front, even the most tired and
heavily-laden will not fail to gain the hive, as they come in
with their load of stores. In spring, too, many bees are
saved, as they come in on windy days, by low hives and an
alighting-board. Wo hive should bemore than four inches
from the ground, and no hive should be without the slanting
alighting-board. With this opening, too, the entrance can be

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 129

contracted in case of robbing, or entirely closed when desired,
by simply moving the hive back.

Some apiarists cut an opening in the side of the hive, and
regulate the size by tin slides or triangular blocks (Fig. 29);
others form an opening by sliding the hive forward beyond the
bottom board—which I would do with the above in hot
weather when storing was very rapid—but for simplicity,
cheapness and convenience, I have yet to see an opening
superior to the above. I think, too, I am a competent judge,
as I have at least a half-dozen styles in present use.

I strongly urge, too, that only this one opening be used.
Auger holes about the hive, and entrances on two sides, are
worse than useless. By enlarging this opening, we secure
ample ventilation, even in sultry August, and when we con-
tract the entrance, no bees are lost by finding the usual door
closed.

Some of our best bee-keepers, as Messrs. Heddon, Bald-
ridge, etc., prefer that the bottom board be nailed to the hive
(Fig. 39). I havesuch hives ; have had for years, but strongly
object to them. They will not permit a quick clearing of the
bottom board, when we give a cleansing flight in winter, or
when we commence operations in spring, which, especially if
there is a quart or more of dead bees, is very desirable. Nor
with their use can we contract the opening in cold weather,
or to stop robbing, without the blocks (Fig. 29), tins or other
traps. Simplicity should be the motto in hive-making.
The arguments in favor of such fastening are : Convenience in
moving colonies, and in feeding, as we have not to fasten the
bottoms when we desire to ship our bees, and to feed we have
only to pour our liquids into the hives.

Of course, such points are not essential—only matters of
convenience. Let each one decide for himself, which expe-
rience will enable him to do.

THE COVER OF THE HIVE.

The cover (Fig. 33, «) should be about six inches high,
and like the lid of a trunk. The length and breadth may be
the same as the body of the hive, and fit on with beveled
edges (Fig. 33), the body having the outer edge beveled, and
the cover the inner. If we thus join the cover and hive with

130 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

a mitered-joint, we must not be satisfied with anything less.
than perfection, else in case of storms, the rain will beat into
our hives, which should never be permitted. Such covers ean
be fastened to the hives with hinges, or by hooks and staples.
But unless the apiarist is skilled in the use of tools, or hires a
mechanic to make his hives, it will be more satisfactory to make

Fig. 33.

.

the cover just large enough (Fig. 29) to shut over and rest
on shoulders formed either by nailing inch strips around the.
body of the hive, one inch from the top, or else inside the
cover (Fig. 29). If it is preferred to have a two-story hive,.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. .131

with the upper story (Fig. 33, 5) just like the lower (Fig. 33,
ce), this (Fig. 53) may join the lower by a miter-joint, while a
cover (Fig. 33, a) two inches high, may join this with a simi-
lar joint.

If the upper story shuts over the lower and rests ona
shoulder (Fig. 29) it may still be made to take the same sized
frame, by nailing pieces one-half an inch square to the corners,
whose length shall equal the distance from the rabbet in the
lower story to the bottom board. Now nail to these upright
pieces, parallel to the rabbeted faces below, a three-eighths
inch board as wide as the pieces are long. The top of these
thin boards will take the place of the rabbet in the lower
story. This style, which is adopted in the two-story hives as
made by Mr. Langstroth (Fig. 29), will permit in the upper
story the same frames as used in the lower story, while two
more can be inserted. Upon this upper story a shallow cover
will rest. Such covers, if desired, may be made roof-like

Fie. 34.

(Fig. 34), by cutting end pieces, (Fig 34, 5) in form of the
gable of a house. In this case there will be two slanting
boards (Fig. 34, a, a), instead of one that is horizontal, to
carry off the rain. The slanting boards should project at the
ends (Fig. 34, d@), for convenience in handling. In such
covers we need thin, narrow ridge-boards (Fig. 34, c), to keep
all perfectly dry. These covers look neat, are not so apt to
check, and will dry much quicker after a rain.

If we secure comb-honey in crates, and winter out-doors—
in which case we shall need to protect in the Northern States
—it will be convenient to have a box of the same general
form as the main body of the hive, from six to eight inches
deep, just large enough to set over the body of the hive and
rest on shoulder-strips, and without top or bottom ; this to
have such a cover as just described. Such is the arrange-

132. MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

ment of Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, which, on the
score of simplicity and convenience, has much to recom-
mend it.

In the above I have said nothing about porticos (Fig. 29).
If hives are shaded as they should be, these are useless, and I
believe that in no case will they pay. To be sure, they are
nice for spider-webs, and a shady place in which bees may
cluster; but such are inconvenient places to study the
wondrous fabrics of the spider, even were he a friend of the
bees, and the most successful apiarist will not force his bees
to hang in idle clusters about the hive.

TUE FRAMES.

The form and size of frames, though not quite as various
as the persons who use them, are still very different. Some
prefer large frames. I first used one ten by eighteen inches,
and afterward a shallow frame about seven by eighteen (Fig.
29). The advantage claimed for large frames is that there
are less to handle, and time is saved; yet may not smaller
frames be handled so much more dexterously, especially if
they are to be handled through all the long day, as to compen-
sate, in part at least, for the number? The advantage of the
shallow frame is, as claimed, that the bees will go into boxes
more readily ; yet they are not considered so safe for out-door
wintering. This is the style recommended and used by Mr.
Langstroth, which fact may account for its popularity in the
United States. Another frame in common use, is one about
one foot square. I use one eleven inches square. The
reasons that I prefer this form are, that the comb seldom
breaks from the frame, the frames are convenient for nuclei
and save the expense of constructing extra nucleus hives, and
that these frames permit the most compact arrangement for
winter and spring, and thus enable us to economize heat. By
use of a division board, we can, by using eight of these frames,
occupy just a cubic foot of space in spring, and by repeated
experiments I have found that a hive so constructed that the
bees always cover the combs during the early cold weather,
always gives the best results. As the honey season comes on
more can be added, till we have reached twelve, as many, I

-think, as will ever be needed for brood. This was the size of

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 133:

frame preferred by Mr. Gallup, and is the one used by Messrs.
Davis and Doolittle, and many others of our most successful
apiarists. That this size is imperative is, of course, not true ;
that it combines as many desirable points as any other, I
think, istrue. For apiarists who are not very strong, especially
for ladies, it is beyond question superior to all others.

HOW TO CONSTRUCT THE FRAMES.

In this description, I shall suppose that the frames desired’
are of the form and size (Fig. 35) which I use. It will be:
easy, for any who may desire, to change the form at pleasure..

Fie. 35.

For the top bar (Fig. 35, a) of the frame, use a triangular
strip twelve and three-quarter inches long, with each face of the:
triangle one inch across. Seven-eighths of an inch from each.
end of this, form a shoulder, by sawing from one angle to.
within one-fourth of an inch of the opposite face, so that
when the piece is split out from the end, these projections
shall be just one-fourth of an inch thick throughout. For
the side pieces (Fig. 35, b, 4), take strips eleven inches.
long, seven-eighths of an inch wide, and one-fourth of an inch
thick. Tack with small brads the end of two of these strips:
firmly to the shoulder of the top-bar, taking pains that the
end touches squarely against the projection. Now tack to
the opposite ends or bottoms, the ends of a similar strip:
(Fig. 35, d) eleven and a half inches long. We shall thus.
have a square frame.

If comb-foundation is to be used, and certainly it will be-
by the enterprising apiarist, then the top-bar (Fig. 36, a).
should be twelve and three-quarters inches by one-quarter by
one inch, with a rectangular, instead of a triangular, projection

134 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

below (Fig. 36, 5), which should be one-fourth by one-eighth
inch, the longest direction up and down. This should be
entirely to one side of the centre, so that when the foundation
Gig. 36, c) is pressed against this piece it will hang exactly
rom the centre of the top-bar. If preferred, the bottom of the
frame (Fig. 36, e) need not be more than half as wide or thick
as described above.

The timber should be thoroughly seasoned, and of the best
pine or white-wood. Care should be taken that the frame be
made so as to hang vertically, when. suspended on the rabbets
of the hive. To secure this very important point—true

Frame, also Cross-Section of Top-Bar.

frames that will always hang true—they should always be
made around a guide.

A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES.

This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board
ie 37) eleven and a quarter by thirteen and a half inches.

n both ends of one face of this, nail hard-wood pieces (Fig. 37,
é, €) one inch square and eleven inches long, so that one
end (Fig. 37, g, g) shall lack one-fourth inch of reaching
the edge of the board. On the other face of the board, nail
a strip (Fig. 37, ¢) four inches wide and eleven and a quarter
inches long, at right-angles to it, and in such position that
the ends shall just reach to the edges of the board. Midway
between the one inch square pieces, screw on another hard-
wood strip (Fig. 37, @) one inch square and four inches long,
parallel with and three-fourths of an inch from the edge.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 135

To the bottom of this. screw a semi-oval piece of hoop-steel
(Fig. 37, 5, ), which shall bend around and press against
the square strips. The ends of this should not reach quite
to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring,
fasten, by rivets. an inch strap (Fig. 37, «), which shall be
straight when thus riveted. These dimensions are for frames
eleven inches sqriare, inside measure, and must be varied for
other sizes.

To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames
between the steel springs (Fig. 37, 5, 5) and the square strips
(Fig. 37, ¢, e); then lay on our top-bar and nail, after which

we invert the block and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the
top-bar. Now press down’on the strap (Fig. 37, a), which
will loosen the frame, when it may be removed, all complete
and true. Such a gauge not only insures perfect frames, but
demands that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy.
And some such arrangement should always be used in making
the frames.

The projecting ends of the top-bar will rest on the tins
(Fig. 33), and thus the frame can be easily loosened at any
time without jarring the bees, as the frames will not be glued
fast, as they would in case they rested on the wooden rabbets.
The danger of killing bees is also abolished by use of the tins.

When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a
three-sixteenths inch space between the sides and bottom of

136 “MANUAL OF THE APIARY,

the frames, and the sides and bottom of the hive.’ Ever
doubling this would do no harm ; though a much wider space
would very likely receive comb, and be troublesome. Frames
that fit close in the hive, or that reach to the bottom, are
very inconvenient and undesirable. To secure against this,
our lumber must be thoroughly seasoned, else when shrink-
age takes place our frames may touch the’ bottom-board.

The distance between the frames may be one-fourth of an
inch, though a slight variation either way does no harm. Some
men, of very precise habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the
side of the frames, at top and bottom, which project just a
quarter of an inch, so as to maintain this unvarying distance ;
or staples in the bottom of the hive to secure the same end.
Mr. Langstroth so arranged his frames, and Mr. Palmer, of
Hart, Michigan, whose neatness is only surpassed by his suc-
cess, does the same thing. I have had hives with these extra
attachments, but found them no special advantage. I think
we can regulate the distance with the eye, so as to meet every
practical demand, and thus save the expense and trouble
which the above attachments cost.

COVER FOR FRAMES.

Nothing that I have ever tried is equal to a quilt for this
purpose. It isa good absorbent of moisture, preserves the
heat in spring and winter, and can be used in summer without
jarring or crushing the bees. This should be a real quilt,
made of firm unbleached factory, duck, or cambric—I have
used the first with entire satisfaction for four years—enclosing
a thick layer of batting, and hemmed about the edges. My
wife quilts and hems them on a machine. The quilting isin
squares, and all is made in less than fifteen minutes. The
quilt should be a little larger than the top of the hive, so that
after all possible shrinkage, it will still cover closely. Thus,
when this is put on, no bees can ever get above it. When we
use the feeder, it may be covered by the quilt, and a flap cut
in the latter, just above the hole in the feeder, enables us to
feed without disturbing the bees, though I place the feeder at
the end of the chamber, wherein are the bees, and have only
to double the quilt back when I feed. The only objection
that I know to the quilt is, that the bees will fasten propolis,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 137

and even comb, between it and the frames, and this looks
bad. A little care will make this a small objection. Mr.
Langstroth used a board above the frames, which Mr. Heddon
uses even now. Perhaps Mr. Heddon never used the quilts.
Perhaps his love of order and neatness caused him to discard
them. Still, I feel to thank Mr. A. I. Root for calling my
attention to quilts.
DIVISION BOARD.

A close-fitting division board (Fig. 38) for contracting the
chamber, is very important, and though unappreciated by
many excellent apiarists, still no hive is complete without it.

Fig. 38.

a

T find it especially valuable in winter and spring, and useful
at all seasons. This is made the same form as the frames,
‘though all below the top-bar—which consists of a strip thir-
teen inches long by one inch by three-eighths, and is nailed
firmly to the board below—is a solid inch board (Fig. 38,
6), which is exactly one foot square, so that it fits closely to
the inside of the hive. If desired, the edges (Fig. 38, ¢, c)
can be beveled, as seen in the figure. When this is inserted
in the hive it entirely separates the chamber into two chambers,
so that an insect much smaller than a bee could not pass
from the one to the other. Mr. A. J. Root makes one of
cloth, chaff, ete. Yet, I think few apiarists would bother
with so much machinery. Mr. W. L. Porter, Secretary of
the Michigan Association, makes the board a little loose,
and then inserts a rubber strip in a groove ‘sawed in the edges.
This keeps the board.snug, and makes its insertion easy, even
though heat may shrink or damp may swell: either the board
or hive. I have not tried this, but like the suggestion.

138 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

The use of the division board is to contract the chamber
in winter, to vary it so as to keep combs covered in spring,
to convert the hive into a nucleus hive, and to contract the
chamber in the upper-story of a two-story hive, when first
adding frames to secure surplus comb-honey.

THE HUBER HIVE.

The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged
several of his leaf or unicomb hives together, so that the
frames would open like the leaves of a book ; though it has
been stated that the Grecians had, in carly times, something
similar.

In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved
upon the Huber hive, securing a patent on his triangular
frame hive. This, so far as I can judge, was the Huber hive
made practical.

In 1868, Mr. M. 8. Snow, then of New York, now of Min-
nesota, procured a patent on his hive, which was essentially
the same as the hives now known as the Quinby and Bingham
hives.

Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive,
which is essentially the same as the above, only differing in
details. No patent was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great
heart and boundless generosity endeared him to all acquaint-
ances. Those who knew him best, never tire of praising the
unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we except Mr.
Langstroth, no man has probably done so much to promote
the interest and growth of improved apiculture in the United
States. His hive, his book, his views of wintering, his intro-
duction of the bellows-smoker—a gift to apiarists—all speak
his praise as a man and an apiarist.

The fact that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great
favorite with those who have used it, and is pronounced by so
capable a judge as Mr. Heddon, to be the best movable-comb
hive in existence, that Mr. Quinby preferred this style or type
of hive, that the Quinby form is used by the Hetherington
brothers, Captain J. E., the prince of American apiarists,
and O. J., whose neatness, precision, and mechanical skill
are enough to awaken envy; that the Russell hive is but a

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 139

modification of the same type, are surely enough to awaken
curiosity and bespeak a description.

The Ouinby hive (Fig. 39), as used by the Hetherington
brothers, consists. of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 39)
twelve by seventeen inches, outside measure. The endsof these
frames are one and a half inches wide and half an inch thick.
The top and bottom one inch wide and half an inch thick.
The outer half of the ends projects one-fourth of an inch
beyond the top and bottom. This projection is lined with
sheet iron, which is inserted in a groove which runs one inch
into each end of the end-pieces and are tacked by the same

Fie. 39.

Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support of Quinby Hive.
nails that. fasten the end-bars to the top and bottom-bars.
This iron at thé end of the bar bends in at right-angles (Fig.
39, a, a), and extends one-fourth of an inch parallel with the
top and bottom-bars. Thus, when these frames stand side.
by side, the ends are close, while half-inch openings extend
between the top and bottom-bars of adjacent frames. The
bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from the bottom-
board. Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with the position
of the back end-bars of the frames is an inch strip of sheet-
iron (Fig. 39, 5, 6) sixteen inches in length. One-third of
this strip, from the front edge back, is bent over so it lies not
quite in contact with the second third, while the posterior third
receives the tacks which hold it to the bottom-board. Now,
when in use this iron flange receives the hooks on the corners
of the frames, so that the frames are held firmly, and can only

140 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

be moved back and side-wise. In looking at the bees we can
separate the combs at once, at any place. The chamber can
be enlarged or diminished simply by adding or withdrawing
frames. As the hooks are on all four corners of the frames,
the frames can be either end back, or either side up. Boards
with the iron hooks close the sides of the brood cavity, while
a quilt covers the frames.

The entrance (Fig. 39, e) is cut in the bottom-board as
already explained, except that the lateral edges are kept
parallel. A strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 39, @) is tacked across
this, on which rest the ends of the front end-bars of the
frames which stand above, and underneath which pass the bees
as they come to and go from the hive. A box, without bottom
and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from four to
six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames.
This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side
and top storing in sections or boxes in summer.

The Bingham hive (Fig. 40) is not only remarkably simple,
but is as remarkable for its shallow depth; the frames being
only five inches high. These have no bottom-bar. The end-

Fie. 40.

Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive.

bars are one and a half inches wide, and the top-bar square.
The nails that hold the end-bars pass into the end of the top-
bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so that an edge, not
a face, is below; though some are made with a face below
(Fig. 40, f),to be used when comb is transferred. The
frames are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each
wire (Fig. 40, a) is a little longer than twice the width of the
hive when the maximum number of frames areused. The ends
of each wire are united and placed about nails (Fig. 40, d, 6) in

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 141

the ends of the boards (Fig. 40, c,c) which form the sides of the
brood-chamber. A small stick (Fig. 40, a) spreads these
wires, and brings the frames close together. A box without
bottom and with movable cover, is placed about the frames.
This is large enough and high enough to permit of chaff
packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be
made like the one already described. Mr. Bingham does not
bevel the bottom-board, but places lath under three sides of
the brood-chamber, the lath being nailed to the bottom-board
—and then uses the blocks to contract the entrance (Fig.
40, y.)

The advantages of this hive are, simplicity, great space
above for surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed
one hive above another to any height desired, while the frames
may be reversed, end for end, or bottom for top, or the whole
brood-chamber turned up-side down. Thus, by doubling, we
may have a depth of ten inches for winter.

The objection which I have found in the similar Russell
hive, is danger of killing bees in rapid handling. In the
Russell hive the side-bars are halved together, and held in
place by ingeniously contrived wire hooks. There are no
bottom-bars. I have used none of these except the Russell.
They can be manipulated with rapidity, if we care not how
many bees we crush. It hurts me to killa bee, and so I find the
Langstroth style more quickly manipulated. Mr. Snow, too,
who was the first to make the above style of hive, has discarded
it in favor of the Langstroth. His objection to the above,
is the fact that the various combs are not sure to be so built
as to be interchangeable. Yet that such apiarists as those
above named prefer these Huber hives, after long use of the
other style, is certainly not without significance.

APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB-HONEY.

Although I feel sure that extracted-honey will grow more
and more into favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful
comb, which, from its exquisite flavor and attractive appear-
ance, has always been, and always will be, admired.and desired.

142 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

So, no hive is complete without its arrangement of boxes,
section-frames, and crates, all constructed with the view of
securing this delectable comb-honey in the form that will be
most irresistible.

BOXES.

These are for surplus comb-honey in the most salable form.
They may be of any size that best suits the taste of the
apiarist, and the pulse of the market.

It is well that the sides of these be of glass. Such (Fig.
+1) may be made as follows: For top and bottom procure
soft-wood boards one-fourth of an inch thick and of the size

Fie. 41.

desired, one for the bottom and the other for the top of the box.
Take four pieces halfan inch square and as long as the desired
height of the honey-box. In two adjacent sides of these saw
grooves in which may slip common glass. These are for corner
pieces. Now tack with small brads the corners of the bot-
tom-board to the ends of these pieces, then slide in the
glass, and in similar way tack the top-board to the other
ends. Through the bottom-board holes may be bored so that
the bees may enter. A similar box is made by A. H. Russell,
of Adrian, Mich., except that tin forms the corners. These
may be made to take from one to three combs, and are certainly
very attractive. If made small and set in a crate so that all
could be removed at once, they would leave little to be desired.
The Isham box (Fig. 42) is essentially like the Russell ;
only the tin at the corners is fastened differently. Surely, all
great mindsdorun in thesame’channel. Another form (Fig.43)
which I find very desirable, and which I used in California
(where they were introduced by Mr. Harbison) more than ten
years ago, is made as follows: Dress off common lath so that
they are smooth, cut off two lengths the desired height of the
box, and one the desired width ; tack this last piece to the ends _
of the other two, and to the other end tack a similar strip.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 143

only half as wide. Wenow haveasquare frame. Place such
frames side by side till a box is made of the desired length.
To hold these together, we have now only to tack on either
side one or two pieces of tin, putting a tack into each section,
thus forming a compact box without ends. The end frames

Fie. 42

should have a whole piece of lath for the bottom, and grooves
should be cut in the bottom and top laths, so that a glass may
be put in the ends. Of course there is ample chance for the
bees to enter from below. Now, by placing small pieces of
comb, or.artificial comb foundation, which ranks as a discovery
with the movable-frame hive and honey-extractor, on the top
of each frame (Fig. 43), the bees will be led to construct a
separate comb in each frame, and each frame may be sold by
the retail dealer separately, by simply drawing the tacks from
the tins. Barker and Dicer, of Marshall, Michigan, make a
very neat sectional honey-box, which is quite like the above,
except that paper pasted over the frames takes the place of

the tins. These, too, have wood separators as used and sold
by the gentlemen named. The honey-boxes may be placed.
directly on the frames, or. in case the queen makes trouble by.
entering them to deposit eggs—a trouble which I have seldom

144 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

met, perhaps because I give her enough to do below—we can
place strips one-fourth of an inch square between the frames
and boxes. In case we work extensively for. box honey, we
should have a rack or crate so made that we can remove all
the boxes at once ; in which case to examine the bees we
would not have to remove all the boxes separately.

SURPLUS COMB-HONEY IN SMALL FRAMES.

Honey in boxes, unless they consist of sections as just de-
scribed, cannot compete with honey in small frames, in our
present markets, and without doubt they will fall more and
more into disfavor. In fact, there is no apparatus for securing
comb-honey that promises so well as these sections. That
they are just the thing to enable us to tickle the market is
shown by their rapid growth in popular favor. Three years
ago I predicted, at one of our State Conventions, that they
would soon replace boxes, and was laughed at. Nearly all who
then laughed, now use these sections. They are cheap, and
with their use we can get more honey, and in a form that will
make it irresistable.

REQUISITES OF GOOD SECTIONS

The wood should be white, the size small, from four to six
inches square, the sections capable of being glassed, at least
on the faces, not too much cut off from brood-chamber, cheap,
easily made, and so arranged as to be put on or taken off the
hive en masse.

DESCRIPTION.

The style of section which I think will soon replace all others,
is casily made, as follows : For a section four inches square take
a strip of clean, white veneer—cut from bass-wood, poplar
or white-wood—such as is used to make berry-boxes, two
inches wide and twenty inches long ; for larger sections make
it proportionally longer. Make a shallow cut every four

Fig. 44. «
4 Four Inches. %\

inches at right-angles to the sides—though they will do this,
if asked to, at the factory. Now with a chisel (Fig. 44) four
inches long, with one-eighth inch projections at right-angles

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 145

to the main blade, cut out sections on the opposite edges of
the main strip—which will leave openings one-eighth inch by
four inches, between the first and second shallow cut and the
third and fourth. We now bend this around a square block
(Fig. 45) which will just fill it, letting the ends over-lap, and
drive through these over-lapping sections one or two small
wrought brads on to an iron, (Fig. 45, 5) set into the block,

Fie. 45.

by which they will be clinched. Or, by using glue, we may
dispense with the block. Now, if your market requires
glassed sections, or if you wish to insert dividers, either tin
or wood, glue posts one-fourth of an inch square, four in each
section along the uncut sides one-eighth inch from the edges.
The ends of these will just come flush with the gouged edges
above and below. Now, by use of tins such as are used to
fasten window-glass, these can be glassed, or if desired, each
one can receive a tin or wooden separator.

If this gluing in of the pieces is thought too troublesome,
we may still achieve the same end by using tin separators in
our crates, and then glass our sections by cutting a square
glass, just the size of the section, outside measure, and with
heavy white paper paste two of these glass to the sections.
This makes each section perfectly close, and is the method
devised by Southard and Ranney for practice the coming sea-
son. A paste made of dextrine, tragacanth, or even flour,
will answer to fasten the strips of paper, which need not be
more than one inch wide. A little carbolic acid, or salicylic
acid in solution, will keep the paste from souring.

Every apiarist can make these sections for himself, and thus
save freight and profits of making. They are neat, very cheap
—costing but two mills each—and are made strong by use of
the glued posts. They are also light. Very soon our cus-

146 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

tomers will object to buying wood and glass, if our unglassed
sections of comb-honey are kept in close glassed crates.

The Hetherington brothers make a very neat section, as
follows: The top and bottom are each two inches wide, of
one-quarter inch white pine. These receive a groove one-
eighth inch from the ends, which receives the sides, one inch
wide and one-eighth inch thick, which is pressed through to
a central position and glued. This section is five and a half
inches square. They use wooden dividers (Fig. 46, a). one-

Fie. 46.
ats 5

eighth of an inch thick, as long as the section, but one inch
less in height, so that, below and above is'a half-inch space,
which permits the bees to pass readily from one section to
another. These are held by a half-inch strip of tin (Fig. 46,
6, 6), which passes through a groove (Fig. 46, c) in the ends
of the dividers, and reaches half an inch farther ; then turns
at right-angles and ends in a point (Fig. 46, 5), which, when
in use, sticks into the top or bottom pieces ; and so the four
points hold the dividers in place. When ready to sell, they
insert half-inch glass in the grooves each side the narrow side-
pieces, and with tins fasten glass on the faces, and have a

Fria. 47.

very handsome section. I think this preferable to the Russell
or Isham box or section, as the one-inch strip of wood covers
the part of the comb where it is fastened to the sides, which
is never attractive, while the rest is all glassed. Such sec-

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 14%

tions were praised in New York and Cincinnati last season as
very fine and neat ; equal, if not superior, to all others.

A. L. Root prefers sections made as are childien’s toy
blocks, the sides fastened by a sort of mortise and tennon
arrangement (Fig. 47). I have received from Mr. J ames
Heddon a similar section, but neater and more finished, which
is made in Vermont. These are too complex to be made
without machinery, are no better for their fancy corners—in
fact, they are not as strong as is desirable—and, as we cannot
afford to purchase our apparatus when we can as well make
it ourselves, I cannot recommend them for general use.

The Phelps-Wheeler-Betsinger sections (Fig. 48) are
essentially the same. The top and bottom are a little more
narrow than the sides, and are nailed to them. The Wheeler

section—invented and patented by Mr. Geo. T. Wheeler,
Mexico,.-New York, in 1870—are remarkable for being the
first (Fig. 52, H) to be used with tin separators (Fig. 52, 12).
Instead of making the bottoms one-quarter of an inch nar-
rower for a passage, Mr. Wheeler made an opening in the
bottom, as does Mr. Russell.

‘HOW TO PLACE SECTIONS IN POSITION.

There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and
has, as it well may, earnest adyocates—one by use of crates,
the other by frames.

HONEY IN FRAMES.

I prefer this method, perhaps because I have used it most.
These frames (Fig. 49) are made the same size as the frames
in the brood-chamber, except that they are made of strips two
inches wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick, though the bottom-
bar is a quarter of an inch narrower, so that when two frames
are side by side, there is one-fourth of an inch space between,

148 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

the bottom bars, though the top and side pieces are close to-
gether. The sections are of such a size (Fig. 50, A) that
four, or six, or nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames.
Nailed to one side of each large frame are two tin strips
(Hig. 50, ¢, t’) as long as the frame, and as wide into one inch
as are the sections. These are tacked half an inch from the
top and the bottom of the large frames, and so are opposite
the sections, thus permitting the bees to pass readily from
one tier of sections to another, as do the narrower top and

Fie. 49.

bottom-bars of the sections, from those below to those above.
I learned of such an arrangement of sections from A. I. Root.
Captain Hetherington tells me that Mr. Quinby used them
years ago. The tin arrangement, though unlike Mr. Wheeler's
(Fig. 52, A), would be readily suggested by it. It is more
trouble to make these frames if we have the tins set in so as
just to come flush with the edge of the end-bars of the
frames, but then the frames would hang close together, and
would not be so stuck together with propolis. These may be
hung in the second story of a two-story hive, and just so
many as to fill the same—my hives will take nine—or they
can be put below, beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in
case he hangs these below, inserts a perforated division-board,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 149:

so that the queen will not enter the sections and layeggs. I
used them very successfully last summer without division-
boards, and neither brood nor pollen were placed in a single
cell. Perhaps wider tins would prevent this should it occur.
In long hives—the “ New Idea’”—which I find very satisfac-
tory, after several years’ trial, especially for extracted honey
—I have used these frames of sections, and with
the best success. The Italians entered them at once,
and filled them even more quickly than other bees
filled the sections in the upper story. In fact, one:

Fie. 50.

great advantage of these sections in the frames is the
obvious and ample passage-ways, inviting the bees to enter
them. But in our desire to make ample and inviting open-
ings, caution is required that we do not over-do the matter,
and invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we have
Charybdis and Scylla, and must, by study, learn to so steer:
between, as to avoid both dangers. |

RACKS.

These are to use in lieu of large frames, to hold sections,.
and are very convenient when we wish to set the sections only
ane deep above the brood-chamber. Though, if desired, we-

150 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

can place one rack above another, and so have sections two,
and even three deep.

Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, use a very neat rack
(Fig. 51), in which they use the thin veneer sections which we
recommend as superior to all others for the general apiarist.

Fie. 51.

i G
TATUM ATT, Ge
H

They have used these with excellent success, but without
separators, which they wish to insert. Perhaps by taking out
the board partitions (Fig. 51, B, B), and putting tin separa-
tors the other way across, they would accomplish their object.
In this case, the ends of the adjacent sections would not be
separated, and the width of the rack would just accommodate
two, three, or four sections, to be governed by size of hive
and sections. The sheet-iron rests (Fig. 51, H, H, H)-

Fia. 52.

which, with their bent edges, just raise the rack one-fourth
of an inch from the brood frames, would then run the other

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 151

way, and give the requisite strength. Thus, the tins would
not be liable to bend, as they would if run the shorter way of
the rack. The end-board, too (Fig. 51. A), would be a side-
board, and the strips (Fig. 51, G@, G@), with the intervening
glass, would be at the ends.

The Wheeler rack (Fig. 52) simply holds the sections, while
each section is glassed separately.

Captain Hetherington sets a rack of sections above the
frames, and stands sections one above the other on the side for
side storing. Mr. Doolittle makes a rack by placing frames,
such as J have described—except they are only half as high,
and hold but two sections—side by side, where they are held
by tacking a stick on top across each end of the row. He
also places two tiers, two deep, at each end of the brood-
chamber, if he desires to give so much room.

All apiarists who desiré to work for comb honey which will
sell, will certainly use the sections, and either adjust them by
use of frames or crates.

FOOT-POWER SAW.

Every apiarist who keeps upwards of fifty colonies of bees,
and makes apiculture a specialty, will find a foot power saw
a very valuable apparatus.

T have now used the admirable combined foot-power saw of
W. F. & John Barnes for a year, and find that it grows in
value each month. It permits rapid work, insures uniformity,
and enables the apiarist to give a finish to his work that would
rival that of the cabinet-maker.

Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and
set the saws, and should never run the machine when not in
perfect order.

152 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER VI.
POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY.

As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to
give the best results, and as this costs some money and more
labor, it should be done once for all. As plan and execution
in this direction must needs precede even the purchase of
becs, this subject deserves an early consideration. Hence, we
will proceed to consider position, arrangement of grounds,
and preparation for each individual colony.

POSITION.

Of course, it is of first importance that the apiary be near
at hand. In cityor village this isimperative. In the country
or at suburban homes, we have more choice, but close
proximity to the house is of much importance. In a city, it
may be necessary to follow friend Muth’s example, and locate
on the house-tops, where, despite the inconvenience, we may
achieve success. The lay of the ground is not important,
though if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope
in any direction, but better any way than toward the north.

ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS.

Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove
offers inviting shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp.
Such a grove could soon be formed of bass-wood and tulip
trees, which, as we shall see, are very desirable, as their bloom
offers plenteous and most delicious honey. Even Virgil urges
shade of palm and olive, also that we screen the bees from
winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on the
windward side. Such a screen may be formed of a tall board
fence, which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to
protect against thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding,
and will be eschewed by the apiarist who has an eye to
xsthetics. Ever-green screens, either of Norway spruce,
Austrian or other pine, or arbor vite, each or all, are not only
very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and add.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 153

greatly to the beauty of the grounds. If the apiary is large,
a small, neat, inexpensive house, in the centre of the apiary
grounds, is indispensable. This will serve in winter as a shop
for making hives, frames, etc., and as a store-house for honey,
while in summer it will be used for extracting, transferring,
storing, bottling, etc. In building this, it will be well to con-
struct a frost-proof, thoroughly drained, dark, and well:
ventilated cellar. To secure the thorough ventilation, pass a
tube, which may be made of tile, from near the bottom,
through the earth to the surface; and another, from near the
bottom, to the chimney or stove-pipe above.

PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY.

Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony.
Bees are forced to cluster outside the hive, where the hives
are subjected to the full force of the sun’s rays. By the
intense heat, the temperature inside becomes like that of an
oven, and the wonder is that they do not desert entirely. I
have known hives, thus unprotected, to be covered by bees,
idling outside, when by simply shading the hives, all would
go merrily to work. The combs, too, and foundation
especially, are liable, in unshaded hives, to melt and fall
down, which is very damaging tothe bees, and very vexatious
to the apiarist. The remedy for all this is to always have the
hives so situated that they will be entirely shaded all through
the heat of the day. This might be done by constructing a shed
or house, but these are expensive and inconvenient, and, there-
fore, to be discarded. Perhaps the Coe house-apiary (Chap.
XVIID may prove an exception; but, as yet, we have no
reliable assurance of the fact.

If the apiarist has a convenient grove, this may be trimmed
high, so as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement.
So arrange the hives that while they are shaded through all the
heat of the day, they wili receive the sun’s rays early and late,
and thus the bees will work more hours. I always face my hives
tothe east. Ifno grove is at command, the hives may be placed
on the north of a Con grape-vine, or other vigorous variety,
as the apiarist may prefer. This should be trained to a trellis,
which may be made by setting two posts, either of cedar or
oak. Let these extend four or five feet above the ground,
and be three or four feet apart. Connect them at intervals of

154 ‘MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

eighteen inches with three galvanized wires, the last one being
at the top of the posts. Thus we can have shade and grapes,
and can see for ourselves that bees do not injure grapes. If
preferred, we may use evergreens for this purpose, which can
be kept low, and trimmed square and close on the north.
These can be got at once, and are superior in that they furnish
ample shade at all seasons. Norway spruce is the best.
‘These should be at least six feet apart. A. I. Root’s idea of
having the vines of each succeeding row divide the spaces of
the previous row, in quincunx order, is very good; though I
should prefer the rows in this case to be four, instead of three
feet apart, especially with ever-greens. Until protecting shade
can be thus permanently secured, boards should be arranged
for temporary protection. Many apiarists economize by using
fruit trees for this purpose, which, from their spreading tops,
answer very well.

Mr. A. I. Root’s idea of having sawdust under and about
the hives is, I think, a good one. The hives of the Michigan
Agricultural College (Fig. 53) are protected by evergreens,
trimmed close on the north side. A space four feet by six,
north of the shrubs, was then dug out toa depth of four
inches, and filled with sawdust (Fig. 53, 7), underlying which
were old bricks, so that nothing would grow up through the
sawdust. The sawdust thus extends one foot back, or west
of the hive, three feet north, and the same distance to the
east or front side of the hive. This makes it neat about
the hive, and largely removes the danger of losing the queen
in handling the bees ; as should she fall outside the hive, the
sharp-sighted apiarist would be very likely indeed to see her.

My. J. H. Nellis, the able Secretary of the North-Hastern
Bee-Keepers’ Association, objects to sawdust, as he thinks it
rots too quickly, and blows about badly. He would use sand
or gravel instead. I have tried both gravel and sawdust, and
prefer the latter, as explained above. By having the sawdust
a little below the general surface, and adding a little once in
four or five years, it keeps all nice and agreeable. After the
evergreens are well started, all the space between the saw-
dust areas should be in grass, and kept neatly mown. This
takes but a little time, and makes the apiary always pleasant
and inviting.

St
or

MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

hy =] tts titae,

mi
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Fie. 53.

156 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER VIL.
TO TRANSFER BEES.

As you may have purchased your bees in box hives, and
so, of course, will desire to transfer them immediately into
movable-frame hives, or, as already suggested, you may wish
to transfer from one movable-frame to another, I will now pro-
ceed to describe the process.

The best time to transfer is early in the season, when there
is but little honey in the hives, though it may be done at any
time, if sufficient caution is used ; still it should never be
done except on warm days, when the bees are actively engaged
in storing. After the bees are busy at work, approach the
old hive, blow a little smoke into the entrance to quiet the
bees, then carry the hive off a few feet, and turn it bottom
up. Place a box over the hive—it will make no difference
whether it fits it close or not, if the bees are so smoked as to
be thoroughly alarmed—and with a stick rap on the lower
hive for about twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey
and go with the queen into the upper hive and cluster. If
towards the last we carefully set the box off once or twice,
and vigorously shake the hive, and then replace the box, we
will hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it more
complete. I got this suggestion from Mr. Baldridge. A few
young bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do.
no harm. Now put the box on the old stand, leaving the edge
raised so that the bees which were out may enter, and so all
the bees can get air. If other bees do not trouble, as they
usually will not if busily gathering, we can proceed in the
open air. If they do we must go into sqme room. I have
frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, and often in
a barn. Now knock the old hive apart, eut the combs from
the sides, and get the combs out of the old hive with just as
little breakage as possible. Mr. Baldridge, if transferring in

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. f 157

spring, saws the combs and cross-sticks loose from the sides,
turns the hive into the natural position, then strikes against
the top of the hive with a hammer till the fastenings are
broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the combs are all
free and in convenient shape for rapid work.

We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we place a
board fifteen to twenty inches square, covered with several
thicknesses of cloth. Some apiarists think the cloth useless,
but it serves, I think, to prevent injury to comb, brood or
honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and a frame on
the comb, and cut out the comb the size of the inside of the
frame, taking pains to save all the brood. Now crowd the
frame over the comb, so thatthe latter will be in the same
position that it was when in the old hive ; that is, so the honey
will be above—the position is not very important—then fasten
the comb in the frame, by winding about all one or two small
wires or pieces of wrapping twine. To raise the frame and
comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till the frame
is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and proceed with
the others in the same way till we have all the worker-comb—
that with small cells—fastened in, To secure the pieces,
which we shall find abundant at the end, take thin pieces of
wood, one-half inch wide and a trifle longer than the frame is
deep, place these in pairs either side the comb, extending up
and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure till the bees
shall fasten them, and secure the strips by winding with small
wire, just above and below the frame, or else tack them to
the frame with small tacks.

Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very
neat method of fastening comb into frames. In constructing
his frames, he bores small holes through the top, side, and
bottom-bars of his frames, about two inches apart; these
holes are just large encugh to permit the passage of the long
spines of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has
but to stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it
securely. He can also use all the pieces, and still make a
neat and secure frame of comb. He finds this arrangement
convenient, too, in strengthening insecure combs. In answer
to my inquiry, this gentleman said it paid well to bore such
holes in all his frames, which are eleven by sixteen inches,

158 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

inside measure. I discarded such frames because of the
liability of the comb to fall out.

Mr. Baldridge makes wads of comb, or comb-cappings,
which he finds good, and by pressing these against the edges
of the comb he wishes to fasten, he fastens them to the frames,
quickly and securely.

Having fastened all the worker-comb that we can into
the frames—of course all the other, and all bright drone-
comb, will be preserved for use as guide-comb—and placed
the frames in the new hive—these should be put together
if they contain brood, especially if the colony is not very
strong, and the empty frames to one side—we then place our
hive on the stand, pushing it forward so that the bees can
enter anywhere along the alighting-board, and then shake all
the bees from the box, and any young bees that may have
clustered on any part of the old hive, or on the floor
or ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately in
front. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all the
busier for having passed “from:the old house into the new.”
In two or three days, remove the wires or strings and
sticks, when we shall find the combs all fastened and smoothed
off, and the bees as busily engaged as though their present
home had always been the seat of their labors. In case we
practice the methods of either Captain Hetherington or Mr.
Baldridge, there will be nothing to remove, and we need
only go and congratulate the bees in view of their new and
improved home.

Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the
matter is much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly
smoking the bees, we have but to lift the frames, and shake or
brush the bees into the new hive. For a brush, a chicken or
turkey wing, or a large wing or tail feather from a turkey,
goose or peacock, serves admirably. . Now, cut out the comb
in the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten
as elready suggested. After the combs are all transferred,
shake all remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has
already been placed on the stand previously occupied by the
old hive.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 159.

CHAPTER VIII.
FEEDING AND FEEDERS.

As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are.
storing that the queen deposits to the full extent of her capa-
bility, and that brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when
storing ceases, general indolence characterizes the hive.
Hence, if we would achieve the best success, we must keep:
the workers active, even before gathering commences, as also
in the interims of honey secretion by the flowers ; and to do
this we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloom
in the spring, and whenever the neuters are forced
to idleness during any part of the season, by the ab-
sence of honey-producing flowers. For a number of
years, I have tried experiments in this direction by feeding
a portion of my colonies early in the season, and in the
intervals of honey-gathering, and always with marked results
in favor of the practice.

Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will receive
ample reward by practicing stimulative feeding early in the
season ; then his hive at the dawn of the white clover era
will be redundant with bees, well filled with brood, and in just
the trim to receive a bountiful harvest of this most delicious
nectar.

Feeding, too, is often necessary to secure sufficient’ stores
for winter—for no apiarist, worthy the name, will suffer his
faithful, willing subjects to starve, when so little care and’
expense will prevent it.

HOW MUCH TO FEED.

If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be
great. A half pound a day, or even less, will be all that is
necessary to encourage the bees to active ‘preparation for the
good time coming. For information in regard to supplying
stores for winter see Chapter XVII.

160 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

WHAT TO FEED.

For this purpose I would feed coffee A sugar, reduced to
the consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over
from the previous year. The price of the latter will decide
which is the most profitable. Honey, too, that has been
drained or forced out of cappings, etc., is good, and only good
to feed. Many advise feeding the poorer grades of sugar in
spring. My own experience makes me question the policy of
ever using such feed for bees. The policy, too, of feeding
glucose I much question. In all. feeding, unless extracted
honey is what we are using, we cannot exercise too great care
that such feed is not carried to the surplus boxes. Only let

Fia. 54.

iii

Division-Board Feeder.

Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, etc.

our customers once taste sugar in their comb-honey, and not
only is our own reputation gone, but the whole fraternity is
injured. In case we wish to have our combs in the sections
filled or capped, we must feed extracted honey, which may
often be done with great advantage.

HOW TO FEED.

The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to
admit quick feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so ar-
ranged that we can feed without in any way disturbing the
bees. The feeder (Fig. 54) which I have used with the best

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 161

satisfaction, is a modified division-board, the top-bar of which
(Fig. 54, b) is two inches wide. From the upper central
portion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece, the size of an
oyster-can, is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig 54, g), after
the top of the latter has been removed.’ A vertical piece of
wood (Fig. 54, d) is fitted into the can so as to separate a
space about one inch square, on one side from the balance of
the chamber. This piece does not reach quite to the bottom
of the can, there being a one-eighth inch space beneath. In
the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 54, e) just above the

Fie. 55.

Simplicity Bee-Feeder.

smaller space below. In the larger space ‘is a wooden float
(Fig. 54, 7) full of holes.. On one side, opposite the larger
chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 54,
c) is cut off, so that the bees can pass between the can and
top-bar on to the float, where they can sip the feed. The feed
is turned into the hole in the top-bar (Fig. 54, e), and without
touching a bee, passes down under the vertical strip (Fig. 54,
d) and raises the float (Fig. 54, f). The can may be tacked
to the board at the ends near the top. Two or three tacks
through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 54, d) will hold
the latter firmly in place ; or the top-bar may press on the

162 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

vertical piece so that it cannot move. Crowding a narrow
piece of woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing
a similar strip around the beveled edge of the division-board
makes all snug. One of our students suggests the name
“Perfection” for this feeder. The feeder is placed at the
end of the brood-chamber (page 137), and the top-bar covered
by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold the quilt over,
when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the hole in the
top-bar. If a honey-board is used, there must be a hole in
this just above the hole in the division-board feeder. In
either case, no bees can escape, the heat is confined, and our
division-board feeder is but little more expensive than a di-
vision-board alone.

Some apiarists prefer a quart tin can with finely perforated
cover. This is filled with liquid, the cover put on, and the
whole quickly inverted and set above a hole in the quilt.
Owing to the pressure of the air, the liquid will not descend
so rapidly that the bees cannot sip it up.

Many other styles of feeders are in use, as the ‘: Simplici-
ty’ and ‘“ Boss,” but I have yet to see one that in all respects
equals the one figured and described above.

The best time to feed is just at night-fall. In this case the
feed will be‘carried away before the nextday, and the danger
to weak colonies from robbing ig not so great.

In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be
close above the bees to economize the heat. In all feeding,
care is requisite that we may not spill the feed about the
apiary, as this may, and very generally will, induce robbing.

MANUAL OF. THE APIARY. 163

CHAPTER IX.
QUEEN REARING.

Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and
that the full number of bees is forty thousand, or even more—
though the bees are liable to so many accidents, and as the
queen does not always lay to her full capacity, it is quite
probable that this is about an average number—it will be seen
that each day that a colony is without a queen there is a loss
equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of the
colony, and this is a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of
any day is its special loss, augmented by the several losses of
the previous days. Now, as queens are liable to die, to be-
come impotent, and as the act of increasing colonies demands
the absence of queens, unless the apiarist has extra ones at his
command, it is imperative, would we secure the best results,
to ever have at hand extra queens. So the young apiarist
must early learn

HOW TO REAR QUEENS.

As queens may be needed by the last of May, preparations
looking to the early rearing of queens must commence early.
When preparing the colonies for winter the previous autumn,
be sure to place some drone-comb somewhere near the centre
of the colony that has given the best results the previous
season. In‘ March, and certainly by the first of April, see
that all colonies have plenty of bee-bread. If necessary, place
unbolted flour, that of rye or oats is best, in shallow troughs
near the hives. Jt may be well to give the whole apiary the
benefit of such feeding before the flowers yield pollen. Yet,
T have found that here in Central Michigan, bees can usually.
gather pollen by the first week of April, which I think is as
early as they should be allowed to fly, and, in fact, as early as
they will fly with sufficient regularity to make it pay to feed

164 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

the meal. I much question, after some years of experiment, if
it ever pays to give the bees a substitute for pollen.

The colony under consideration, should be given frames con-
taining bee-bread which was stored the previous year. At
the same time, March or April, commence stimulative feeding.
If you have another colony equally good with the first, also give
that the pollen, and commence giving it honey or syrup, but only
‘worker-comb should be in the brood-chamber. This will pre-
vent the close in-breeding which would of necessity occur if
both queens and drones were reared in the same colony ; and
which, though regarded as deleterious in the breeding of all
animals, should be practiced in case one single queen is of °
‘decided superiority to all others of the apiary.

Very likely in April, drone-eggs will be laid in drone-comb.
T have had drones flying on the first of May. As soon as the
drones commence to hatch out, remove the queen and all eggs
and uncapped brood from some good, strong colony, and
replace it with eggs or brood just hatched from the colony
that is being fed, or if two equally good colonies have been
stimulated, from the one in which no drone-comb was placed.
The queen which has been removed may be used in making
a new colony, in manner soon to be described under “dividing
or increasing the number of colonies.” This queenless colony
will immediately commence forming queen-cells (Fig. 56).
‘Sometimes these are formed to the number of fifteen or
twenty, and they are started, too, in a full, vigorous colony,
in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off
edges of the comb, or cutting holes in the same where there
are eggs or larvee just hatched, will almost always insure the
starting of queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed, too,
that our queens are started from eggs or from larve but just
hatched, as we have given the bees no other, and so are fed
the royal pabulum from the first. Thus, we have met every
‘possible requisite to secure the most superior queens. By
removal of the queen we also secure a large number of cells,
while if we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory
to natural swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable
‘conditions named above, we shall probably fail to secure so
many cells, and may have to wait longer than we can afford.

Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 1655

others, or who has only pure Italians, will still find that it
pays to practice this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier,
or the breeder of our larger domestic animals, so, too, the
apiarist is ever observing some individuals of marked supe-
Tiority, and he who carefully selects such queens to breed
from, will be the one whose profits will make him rejoice,.
and whose apiary will be worthy of all commendation. As will
be patent to all, by the above process we exercise a care in
breeding which is not surpassed by the best breeders’ of horses.
and cattle, and which no wise apiarist will ever neglect.

After we have removed all the queen-cells, in manner soon
to be described, we can again ‘supply eggs, or newly-hatched
larvee—always from those queens which close observation has
shown to be the most vigorous and prolific in the apiary—and
thus keep the same queenless colony or colonies, engaged in
starting queen-cells till we have all we desire. Yet we must
not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition of capped
brood, which we may take from any hive as most convenient.
I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should not be
started after the first of September, as I have observed that
late queens are not.only less prolific, but shorter lived. In
nature, late queens are rarely produced, and if it is true that
they are inferior, it might be explained in the fact, that the
ovaries remain so long inactive. As queens that are long:
unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, mated queens long:
inactive are enfeebled.

In a week the cells are capped, and the apiarist is ready to.
form his

NUCLEI.

A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees—a hive
and colony on a small scale, for the purpose of rearing and
keeping queens. We want the queens, but can afford to each
nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus hive, if we use frames.
not more than one foot square, need be nothing more than
an ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board
to the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large,
then it may be thought best to construct special nucleus hives.
These are small hives, need not be more than six inches each.
way, that is, in length, breadth, and thickness, and made. to:

166 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

contain from four to six frames of corresponding size. These
frames are filled with comb. I have for the last two or three
years used the first named style of nucleus hive, and have
found it advantageous to have a few long hives made, each
to contain five chambers, while each chamber is entirely
separate from the one next to it, is five inches wide, and
is covered by a separate, close-fitting board, and the whole by
a common cover. The entrance for the two end chambers is
at the ends near the same side of the hive. The middle
chamber has its entrance at the middle of the side near which
are the end entrances, while the other two chambers open on
the opposite side, as far apart as is possible. The outside
might be painted different colors to correspond with the
divisions, if thought necessary, especially on the side with
two openings. Yet I have never taken this precaution, nor
have I been troubled much ‘by losing queens. They have
almost invariably entered their own apartments when return-
ing from their wedding tour. These hives I use to keep
queens during the summer. Except the apiarist engages in
queen-rearing extensively as a business, I doubt the propriety of
building such special nucleus hives. Theasual hives are good
property to have in the apiary, will soon be needed, and may
be economically used for all nuclei. In spring I make use of
my hives which are prepared for prospective summer use, for
my nuclei. Now go to different hives of the apiary, and take
out three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has
brood, and so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as
you have queen-cells to dispose of. The bees should be left
adhering to the frames of comb, only we must be certain that
the queen is not among them, as this would take the queen from
where she is most needed, and would lead to the sure destruc-
tion of one queen-cell. To be sure of this, never take such
frames till you have seen the queen, that you may be sure
she is left behind. I usually shake off into the nucleus the
bees from one or two more frames, so that, even after the old
bees have returned, there will still be a sufficient number of |
young bees left in the nucleus to keep the temperature at a
proper height. If any desire the nuclei with smaller frames,
these frames must of course be filled with comb, and then we
can shake bees immediately into the nuclei, as given above,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 167

till they shall have sufficient to preserve a proper temperature.
In this case the queen-cell should be inserted just before the
bees are added; in the other case, either before or after.
Such special articles about the apiary are costly and incon-
venient. I believe that I should use hives even with the
largest frames for nuclei. In this case we should need to
give more bees. To insert the queen-cell—for we are now to
give one to each nucleus, so we can never form more nuclei
than we have capped queen-cells—we first cut them out,
commencing to cut on either side the base of the cell, at least
one-half inch distant, we must not in the least compress the
cell, then cutting up and out for two inches, then across oppo-
site the cell. This leaves the cell attached to a wedge-

Fig. 56.

shaped piece of comb (Fig. 56), whose apex is next the cell.
“A similar cut in the middle frame of the nucleus, which in
ease of the regular frames is the one containing brood, will
furnish an opening to receive the wedge containing the cell.
The comb should also be cut away beneath (Fig. 56), so that
the cell cannot be compressed. After all the nuclei have
received their cells and bees, they have only to be set in a
shady place and watched to see that sufficient bees remain.
Should too many leave, give them more by removing the cover

168 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

and shaking a frame loaded with bees over the nucleus ; keep the
opening nearly closed, and cover the bees with a quilt. The
main caution in all this zs to be sure not to get any old queen
ina nucleus. In two or three days the queens will hatch, and
in a week longer will have become fertilized, and that, too,
in case of the first queens, by selected drones, for as yet
there are no other in the apiary, and the apiarist will possess
from ten to thirty-five queens, which will prove his best stock
in trade. I cannot over-estimate the advantage of ever
having extra queens. To secure pure mating later, we must
cut all drone-comb from inferior colonies, so that they shall
rear no drones. If drone larvee are in uncapped cells, they
may be killed by sprinkling the comb with cold water. By
giving the jet of water some force they may be washed out,
or we may throw them out with the extractor, then use the
comb for starters in our sections. By keeping empty frames,
and empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept active ;
yet with so few bees, one cannot expect very much from the nu-
clei. After cutting all the queen-cells from our old hive, we
can again insert eggs, as above suggested, and obtain another lot
of cells, or, if we have a sufficient number, we can leave a
single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be the happy pos-
sessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if the even tenor
of its ways had not been disturbed.

SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN’S WING?

Tn the above operation, as in many other manipulations of
the hive, we shall often gain sight of the queen, and can, if
we desire, clip her wing, 7f she has met the drone, that in no.
case she shall lead the colony away to parts unknown. This.
does not injure the queen, as some have claimed. General
Adair once stated that such treatment injured the queen, as
it cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by
so excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet we are sure
that this is all a mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as
we have seen, go to the wings to carry nourishment to these
members. With the wing goes the necessity of nourishment
and the need of the tubes. As well say that the amputation
of the human leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, as.
it would cut off the supply of blood.

MANUAL OF TIE APIARY. 169

Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of
the queen’s wings for years. Yet, these queens show no dimi-
nution of vigor; we should suppose they would be even more
vigorous, as useless organs are always nourished at the expense
of the organism, and if entirely useless, are seldom long con-
tinued by nature. The ants set us an example in this matter,
as they bite the wings off their queens, after mating has trans-
pired. They mean that the queen ant shall remain at home
nolens volens, and why shall not we require the same of the
queen bee? Were it not for the necessity of swarming in na-
ture, we should doubtless have been anticipated in this matter
bynatureherself. Still, if the queen essays to go with a swarm,
and if the apiarist is not at hand, she will very likely be lost,
never regaining the hive ; but in this case the bees will be
saved, as they will return without fail. I always mean to be
so watchful, keeping my hives shaded, giving ample room,
and dividing or increasing, as to prevent natural swarming.
But in lieu of such caution I see no objection to clipping the
queen’s wing, and would advise it.

Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year,
the secondary the second year, the other primary the
the third, and if age of the queen permits, the remaining
wing the fourth year. Yet, such data, with other matters of
interest and importance, better be kept on aslate or card, and
firmly attached to the hive, or else kept in a record, opposite
the number of the hive. The time required to find the queen
is sufficient argument against the “queen-wing record.” It is
not an argument against the once clipping of the queen’s wings,
for, in the nucleus hives, queens are readily found, and even in
full colonies this is not very difficult, especially if we heed the
dictates of interest and keep Italians. It will be best, even
though we have to look up black queens, in full colonies.
The loss of one good colony, or the vexatious trouble of
separating two or three swarms which had clustered together,
would soon vanquish this argument of time.

To clip the queen’s wing, take hold of her wings with the
left thumb and index finger—never grasp her body, especially
her abdomen, as this will be very apt to injure her—raise
her off the comb, then turn from the bees, place her gently
on a board or any convenient object—even the knee will do—

170 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

she will thus stand on her feet, and not trouble by constantly
passing her legs up by her wings, where they, too, would be
in danger of being cutoff. Now, take a small pair of scissors,
and with the right hand open them, carefully pass one blade
under one of the front wings, shut the blades, and all is over.
Some apiarists complain that queens thus handled often
receive a foreign scent, and are destroyed by the bees. I have
clipped hundreds, and never lost one. 1 believe that the
above method will not be open to this objection. Should the
experience of any one prove to the contrary, the drawing on
of a kid glove, or even the fingers of one, might remove the
difficulty.

FERTILE WORKERS,

We have already referred to (pp. 77 and 90) and described
fertile workers. As these can only produce unimpregnated
eggs, they are, of course, valueless, and unless superseded by
a queen, will soon cause the destruction of the colony. As
their presence often prevents the acceptance of cells or a
queen, by the common workers, they are a serious pest.

The absence of worker brood, and the abundant and care-
less deposition of eggs-—-some cells being skipped, while others
have received several eggs—are pretty sure indications of
their presence.

To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony with a
good queen, after which the colony may be divided if very
strong. Simply exchanging places of a colony with a fertile
worker, and a good strong colony, will often cause the destruc-
tion of the wrong-doer. In this case, brood should be given
to the colony which had the fertile worker, that they may rear
a queen; or better, a queen-cell or queen should be given
them. Caging a queen in a hive, with a fertile worker, for
thirty-six hours, will often cause the bees to accept her.
Shaking the bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will
often rid them of the counterfeit queen, after which they will
receive a queen-cell or a queen.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 171.

CHAPTER X.
INCREASE OF COLONIES.

No subject will be of more interest to the beginner, than
that of increasing stocks. He has one or two, he desires as
many score, or, if very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a
Hetherington or a Harbison, as many thousand. This is a
subject, too, that may well engage the thought and study of
men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many
veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining un
increase of stocks.

Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail
methods, let me state and enforce, that it is always safest,
and generally wisest, especially for the beginner, to be con-
tent with doubling, and certainly, with tripling, his number
of colonieseach season. Especially let all remember the motto,
* Keep all colonies strong.” -

There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as
swarming, already described under natural history of the bee ;
and artificial, improperly styled artificial swarming. This is
also called, and very properly, too, “dividing.”

SWARMING.

To prevent anxiety and constant watching, and to secure a
more equable division of bees, and, as I know, more honey,
it is better to provide against swarming entirely by use of
means which will appear in the sequel. But as this requires
some experience, and, as often, through neglect, either neces-
sary or culpable, swarms may issue, every apiarist should be
ever ready with both means and knowledge for immediate
action. Of course, the hives were all made the previous
winter, and will never be wanting. Neglect to provide
hives before the swarming season, is convincing proof that
the wrong pursuit has been chosen.

If, as we have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the

172 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

matter becomes very simple, in fact, so much simplified that
were there no other argument, this would be sufficient to
recommend the practice of cutting the queen’s wing.
Now, if several swarms cluster together, we have not
to separate them, they will separate of themselves and
return to their old home. To migrate without the queen
means death, and life is sweet even to bees, and is not
to be willingly given up except for home and kin-
dred. Neither has the apiarist to climb trees, to secure his
bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice-work or pickets
of his fence, from the very top of a tall, slender, fragile fruit
tree, or other most inconvenient places. Nor will he even
be tempted to pay his money for patent hivers. He knows
his bees will return to their old quarters, so he is not
perturbed by the fear of loss, or plans to capture the unap-
proachable. It requires no effort “to possess his soul in
patience.” If he wishes no increase, he steps out, takes
the queen by the remaining wings, as she emerges from
the hive, soon after the bees commence their hilarious leave-
taking, puts her in a cage, opens the hive, destroys, or, if he
wishes to use them, cuts out the queen cells as already
described (page 167), gives more room—either by adding
boxes or taking out some of the frames of brood, as they may
well be spared, places the cage enclosing the queen under the:

uilt, and leaves the bees to return at their pleasure. At
night-fall the queen is liberated, and very likely the swarm-
ing fever subdued for the season.

If it is desired to hive the absconding swarm with a nucleus
colony, exchange the places of the old hive containing the
caged queen, and the nucleus, to which the swarm will then
come. Remove queen-cells from the old hives as before, give
some of the combs of brood to the nucleus, which is now a
full colony, and empty frames, with comb or foundation
starters, or, if you have them, empty combs to both, liberate:
the queen at night and all is well, and the apiarist rejoices in
auew colony. If the apiarist has neglected to form nuclei,
and so has no extra queens—and this is a neglect—and
wishes to hive his swarm separately, he places his caged queen
in an empty hive, with which he replaces the old hive till the
bees return, then this new hive, with queen and bees, and,.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 173

still better, with a frame or two of brood, honey, etc., in the
middle, which were taken from the old hive, is set on a new
stand. The old hive, with all the queen-cells except the largest
and finest one removed, is set back, so that the apiarist has
forestalled the issue of after-swarms, except that other queen-
cells are afterward started, which is not likely to happen.
The old queen is liberated as before, and we are in, the way
of soon having two good colonies. Some apiarists cage the
queen and let the bees return, then divide the colony as soon
to be described.

Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase of
colonies, cage the old queen, destroy cells, and exchange this
hive—after taking out three or four frames of brood to
strengthen nuclei—with one that recently swarmed. Thus
a colony that recently sent out a swarm, but retained their
queen, has probably, from the decrease of bees, loss ‘of brood
and’ removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming fever, and if we
give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will accept the
bees from a new swarm, and spend their future energies in
storing honey. Southard and Ranney have been very suc-
eessful in the practice of this method. If building of drone-
comb in the empty frames which replaced the brood-frames
removed, should vex the apiarist—Dr. Southard says they had.
no such trouble—it could be prevented by giving worker-
foundation. If the swarming fever is not broken up, we
shall only have to repeat the operation again in a few days.

HIVING SWARMS,

But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or from
taste, or other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire to ‘de-
form her royal highness.” Then the apiarist must possess the
means to save the would-be rovers. The means are good
hives in readiness, some kind of a brush—a turkey-wing will
do—and a bag or basket, with ever open top, which should be
at least eighteen inches in diameter, and this receptacle so
made that it may be attached to the end ofa pole, and two
such poles, one very long and the other of medium length.

Now, let us-attend to the method: As soon as the cluster
commences to form, place the hive on the ground near by,
leaving the entrance widely open, which with our bottom-

174 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

board only requires that we draw the hive forward an inch or
more over the alighting-board. As soon as the bees are fully
clustered, we must manage as best we can to empty the whole
cluster in front of the hive. As the bees are full of honey
we need have little fear of stings. Should the bees be on a
twig that could be sacrificed, this might be easily cut off with
either a knife or saw, and so carefully as hardly to disturb
the bees ; then carry and shake the bees in front of the hive,
when with joyful hum they will at once proceed to enter. If
the twig must not be cut, shake them all into the basket, and
empty before the hive. Should they be on a tree trunk, ora
fence, then brush them with the wing into the basket, and
proceed as before. If they are high up on a tree, take the
pole and basket, and perhaps a ladder will also be necessary.
Always let ingenuity have its perfect work, not for-
getting that the object to be gained is to get just as many of
the bees as is possible on the alighting-board in front of ‘the
hive. Carelessness as to the quantity might involve the loss
of the queen, which would ve serious. The bees will not
remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should a cluster
form where it is impossible to brush or shake them off, they
can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it above them
and blowing smoke among them. As soon as they are
nearly all in—a few may be flying around, but if the queen”
is in the new hive, they will go back to their old home, or
find the new one—which Mr. Betsinger says they will always.
do, if it is not far removed—remove the hive to its permanent
stand. All washes are more than useless. It is better
that the hive be clean and pure. With such, if they are
shaded, bees wiil generally be satisfied. But assurance
will be made doubly sure by giving them a frame
of brood, in all stages of growth, from the old hive.
This may be inserted before. the work of hiving is
commenced. Mr. Betsinger thinks this will cause them to
leave ; but I think he will not be sustained by the experience
of other apiarists. He certainly is not by mine. I never
knew but one colony to leave uncapped brood ; I have often
known them to swarm out of an empty hive once or twice,
and to be returned, after brood had been placed in the hive,
when they accepted the changed conditions, and went at once

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 175

to work. This seams reasonable, too, in view of the attach-
ment of bees for their nest of brood, as also from analogy.
How eager the ant to convey her larvee and pupse—the so-
called eggs—to a place of safety, when the nest has been
invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless have the same
desire to protect their young, and as they cannot carry them
away to a new home, they remain to care for them in one that
may not be quite to their taste.

If it is not desired to increase, the bees may be given to a
colony which has previously swarmed, after removing from
the latter all queen-cells, and adding to the room by giving
boxes and removing some frames of brood to strengthen
nuclei. This plan is practiced by Dr. Southard. We may even
return the bees to their old home by taking the same _pre-
cautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and not
swarming will engage their attention in future ; and if we
exchange their position with that of a nucleus, we shall be
still more likely to succed in overcoming the desire to swarm ;
though some seasons, usually when honey is being gathered
each day for long intervals, but not in large quantities,
the desire and determination of some colonies to swarm is im-
placable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, each
and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify
the propensity, by giving the swarm a new home, and make
an effort

TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS.

As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on
hand extra queens. Now, if he does not desire to form nuclei
(as already explained), and thus use these queen cells, he will at
once cut them a/? out, and destroy them, and give the old
colony a fertile queen. The method of introduction will be
given hereafter, though in such cases there is very little danger
incurred by giving them a queen atonce. And by thoroughly.
smoking the bees, and sprinkling with sweetened water, and
daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of
success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming
nuclei, in manner before described. In this way we save our
colony from being without a fertile queen for at least thirteen
days, and that, too, in the very height of the honey season,

176 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

when time is money. If extra queens are’ wanting, we have
only to look carefully through the old hive and remove all
but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly make
sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of
bees, that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such
a quest.

TO PREVENT SWARMING.

As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby
offered a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and
never had to make the payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it,
and partially succeedéd, by granting much space to the bees,
so that they should not be impelled to vacate for lack of room.
The Quinby hive already described, by the large capability of
the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side-
storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that
a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the
bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming
are shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. But as we shall
see in the- sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, un-
less we work for extracted honey—by which means we
may greatly repress the swarming fever—prevents our
obtaining honey in a desirable style. Ifwe add sections,
unless the connection is quite free—in which case
the queen is apt to enter them and greatly vex us—we must
crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such crowd-
ing is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading
the combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested
to me by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the honey to run
down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to the sections,
and thus deferred or prevented swarming..,

It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very
rapid, and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the
interims of honey secretion, we might prevent swarming,
secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections.
Too few experiments, to be at all decisive, have led me to look
favorably in this direction.

The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey
without increase, as practiced and advised by some even of
our distinguished apiarists, seems to me a very questionable

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 177

practice, to which I cannot even lend my approval by so much
as detailing the method. I would rather advise: keeping a
queen, and the workers ail at work in every hive, if possible,
all the time. .

HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS.

We have already seen the evils of natural swarming,
for, even though no stock is too much reduced in numbers,
no colony lost by not receiving prompt attention, no Sunday
quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in anxious watching, vet,
at best, the old colony is queenless for about two weeks, @
state of things which no apiarist can or should afford.
The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as
just described, where we save time by cutting the queen’s
wing, and save loss by permitting no colony to remain queen-
less, or still better to

DIVIDE.

This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our
number of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that,
too, when time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and
preferable to swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since
Lhave kept bees, and never without the best results.

HOW TO DIVIDE.

By the process already described, we have secured a goodly
number of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the
needed time. Now, as soon as the white clover harvest is
well commenced, early in June, we may commence operations.
If we have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they
become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. Take one
of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile
queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we
wish to divide. This must only be done on warm days when
the bees are active, and better be done, while the bees are
busy, in the middle of the day. Remove the division-board
of the new hive, and then remove five combs, well loaded with
brood, and of course containing some honey, from the old
colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the remain-
ing frames and shake the bees into the new hive. Only besure
that the queen still remains in the old hive. Fill both the

178 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

hives with empty frames—if the frames are filled with empty
comb it will be still better, if not it will pay to give starters
or full frames of foundation—and return the new hive to its
former position. The old bees will return to the old colony,
while the young ones will remain peaceably with the new
queen. The old colony will now contain at least seven frames.
of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so
that they will work on as though naught had transpired,
though perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added
space and five empty frames. The empty frames may be all
placed at one end, or placed between the others, though not
so as to divide brood.

The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc.,
three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young
fertile queen, plenty of bees, those of the previous nucleus.
and the young bees from the old colony, and will work with
a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony.

If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make
the new colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take
one frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two
from each of three, and carry them, bees and all, and place
with the nucleus. Only, be sure that no queen is removed.
Fill all the hives with empty combs, or foundation instead of
frames, as before. In this way we increase without in the
least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony
every day or two, or perhaps sevéral, depending on the size of
our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, pre-
vent swarming.

By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add
one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding
any bees, as there would be no danger of loss by chilling the
brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend
no time in looking for the queen, and may buila up our nuclei
into full stocks, and keep back the swarming impulse with
great facility.

These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and
so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The
only objection that can be urged against them, and even this.
does not apply to the last, is that we must seek out the queen
in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her,
though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians, as.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY: 179

of course we all will. I might give other methods which
would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my
mind inferior, and not is recommended. If we proceed as
above described, the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all,
and if they do they will be discovered in the act, by such fre- -
quent examinations, and the work may be cut short by at
once dividing such colonies as first explained, and destroying

their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for forming new
nuclei.

180 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER XI.
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.

The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-piecc)
have already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to
discuss the subject in a practical light.

The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted
question. A few among the able dpiarists in our country
take the ground that a thorough balancing of qualities will
make as favorable a showing for the German, as for the Ital-
ian bees. Ithink, too, that the late Baron of Berlepsch held
to the same view.

I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject.
I have never sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have
not been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact,
I have never had, if I except two years, any direct interest
in bees at all, and all my work and experiments had only the
promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum.

Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side,
and carefully observed and noted results during eight years
of my experience. I have carefully collected data as to in-
erease of brood, rapidity of storing, early and late habits in
the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, amiability, etc.,
and I believe that to say that they are not superior to black
bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no
wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our
Essex and Berkshire swine are no whit better than the caday-
erous lank breeds, with infinite noses, that, happily, are now
so rare among us. The Italians are far superior to the Ger-
man bees in many respects, and more—though I am acquainted
with all the works on apiculture printed in our language, and
have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of
our country from Maine to California, yet I knowof scarcely
a baker’s dozen that have had opportunity to form a correct

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 181

judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians.
That these men are honest, is beyond question; that those
who disagree with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The
black bees are in some respects superior to the Italians, and
if a bee-keeper’s methods cause him to give these points undue
importance, in forming his judgments, then his conclusions
may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong
conclusions.

The Italians certainly possess the following ‘points of supe-
riority :

First. They possess longer tongues (Fig. 20), and so can
gather from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This’
point has already been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How
much value hangs upon this structural peculiarity, [ am unable
to state. I have frequently seen Italians working on red
clover. I never saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy
to see that this might be, at certain times and certain seasons,
a very material aid. How much of the superior storing
qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I
am unable to say.

Second. They are more active, and with the same oppor-
tunities will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter
of observation, which I have tested over and over again. Yet
I will give the figures of another: Mr. Doolittle secured from
two colonies, 309 lbs. and 301 Ibs., respectively, of bow honey,
during the past season. These surprising figures, the best he
could give, were from his best Italian stocks. Similar testi-
mony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, and from
hosts of our own apiarists.

Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only
true of the day, but of the season. On cool days in spring,
I have seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not
a black bee was to be seen. On May 7th, 1877, I walked
lesg than one-half a inile, and counted sixty-eight bees gath-
ering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This
might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to
spring dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be
described while considering the subject of wintering, we think
this no objection, but a great advantage.

Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against

182 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

robbers. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their
hard-earned stores soon find that they have “dared to beard
the lion in his den.” This is so patent, that even the advo-
cates of black bees are ready to concede it.

Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the
bee-moth’s larvee. This is also universally conceded.

Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is
probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity
of the neuters. This is observable at all seasons, but more
especially when building up in the spring. No one who will
take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain
in doubt on this point.

Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is
desirable to have the bees very quiet.

Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which isa great
advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is
frequently desirable to find the queen. In full colonies I
would rather find three Italian queens than one black one.
Where time is money, this becomes a matter of much im-
portance.

Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb
while being handled, which some might regard a doubtful
compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality.

Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other
bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and
the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may
explain the above peculiarity.

Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for pref-
erence, did it standalone, the Italian bees are far more amiable.
Years ago I got rid of my black bees, because they were so
cross. ‘T'wo years ago I got two or three colonies, that my
students might see the difference, but to my regret ; for, as we
removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed perfectly
furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, and
this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous
Italians were safely handled, even without smoke. The
experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as to
superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being
cross, and Captain Hetherington tells me, that if not much
handled, they are more cross than the blacks. From my own

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 183

experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even more
eross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly
as desirable as the pure Italians.

I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have
studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the
above eleven points of excellence is too strongly stated.

The black bees ‘will go into close boxes more readily than
Italians, but if we use the sectional frames, and on other
grounds we can afford to use no other, we shall find, with
the more ample connection between the brood-chamber and
sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many others
have shown, the Italians still give the best returns.

I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more
hardy, and have found many apiarists who agree with me.
Yet, others of wide experience, think that there is no differ-
ence, while still others think the Italians more hardy.

The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which,
as they are more active, is quite probable. As I have never
had a case of serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from
experience. If the bee-keeper prevents early spring flying,
which is very detrimental to either black or Italian bees, this
point will have no weight, even if well taken.

ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS.

The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered
thus fully, are more. than sufficient to warrant the exclusion
of all other bees from the apiary. ‘Truly, no one need to
be urged to a course, that adds to the ease, profit, and agree-
ableness of his vocation.

HOW TO ITALIANIZE.

From what has been already explained regarding the natural
history of bees, it will be seen “that all we have to do to
change our bees, is to change our queens. Hence, to Italian-
ize a colony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian
queen.

HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN.

In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony
composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to intro-

184 MANUAL OF THE APIARY

duce a queen in the manner explained in the section on artificial
swarming. ‘To introduce a queen toa colony composed of old
bees more care is required. First, we should seek out the old
queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian queen in a wire
cage, which may be made by winding a strip of wire-cloth, three
and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen to twenty
meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way
one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on
each side, and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube
the size of the finger. We now have only to put the queen in
the tube, and pinch the ends together, and the queen is caged.
The cage containing the queen should be inserted between two
adjacent combs containing honey, each of which will touch it.
The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If we fear the
queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes
of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and
insert it in the upper end of the cage before we compress this
end. This will furnish the queen with the needed food. In
forty-eight hours we again open the hive, after a thorough
smoking, also the cage, which is easily done by pressing the
upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the pressure
when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage.
Now keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the
queen emerges, the bees attack her, secure her immediately
and re-cage her for another forty-eight hours. I usually let
some honey drip on the queen as soon as the cage is opened.
Some think this renders the bees more amiable. I have
introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely
been unsuccessful.

Mr. Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when
he goes to liberate the qeeen replaces the wooden stop with
one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by
eating out the comb. I have tried this, but with no better
success than J have had with the above method, while with
this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do not receive her
kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one end,
which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage
reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is
- thus held by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have
never tried this plan. When bees are not storing, especially

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 185

if robbers are abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at
such time the utmost caution will occasionally fail of success
if the bees are old.

A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always
be safely given at once to the colony, after destroying the old
queen. ‘

A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt
this course we must be careful to destroy all other queen-
cells that may be formed ; and if the one we supply is de-
stroyed, wait seven days, then destroy all their queen-cells,
and they are sure to accept acell. But to save time I should
always introduce a queen,

If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very
great value, we might make a new colony, all of young bees,
as already described. Smoke them well, sprinkle with
sweetened water, daub the queen with honcy, and introduce
immediately. This method would involve really no risk. If
the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still
more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees
were rapidly escaping from the cells; there would soon be
enough young bees to cluster about the queen, and soon
enough bees for agood colony. This plan would not be advi-
sable except in warm weather, and care is alsorequired to pro-
tect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar for
a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring.

By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may
commence the next spring, and, as described in the section
explaining the formation of artificial swarms, we may control
our rearing of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn
have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians.
I have done this several times, and with the most perfect sat-
isfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add
certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know
of no other way to make money so easily and pleasantly.

TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN.

Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth
at least five dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell
cheap queens. These are reared—must be reared—without
care, and will, I fear, prove very cheap. It is a question, if

186 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

any more sure way could be devised to injure our colonies
than the dollar queen business, which has for some years
been so extensive. It is quite probable that much of the
superiority of Italian bees is owing to the careful and judi-
cious selection in breeding. Such careful selection in breed-
ing, either with black or Italian bees, is what will augment
the value of our apiaries.

The tendency of the dollar queen business is to dissemi-
nate the inferior queens, many of which will appear in every
apiary. These should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an
apiarist will think even the poorest queens are worth a dollar.
My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a dollar “Albino”’ queen last
season which was not worth acent. Yet it cost only a dollar,
and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or even asked
for. I think it behooves apiarists to reflect on this matter,
and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown
away three dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more
and buy cheaper in future.

I believe our queen-breeders should be encouraged to give
us the best; to study the art of breeding, and never send
out an inferior queen. In this way we may hope to keep
up the character of our apiaries, and the reputation of
Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where
“natural selection” retained the best, by the “survival of
the fittest.”

REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS.

I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing.
After many inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if
any apiarist can afford to rear queens, such as apiarists wish
to buy, for less than four or five dollars. Only the best
should be sold, and no pains should be spared by the breeder
to secure such queens.

TO SHIP QUEENS.

This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a
square block two inches each way, and one and a half inches
deep—a hole bored into a two-inch plank to within a quarter
of an inch of the bottom serves admirably.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 187

We now cover the open chamber with fine wire-cloth, put
in our queen and fifteen or twenty bees, and she is ready to
ship. Any uncapped honey to daub the queen ts almost sure
to prove fatal. When it is desirable to send queens by mail,
it will be necessary to provision the cage with sugar or candy,
and cover with two pieces of wire gauze separated by at

Fra. 57.

least one-fourth of an inch (Fig. 57); then queens can be sent
by mail, to all sections of our country, for three cents each.
No one should presume, on any account, to send a queen by
mail, unless the queen-cage is covered by this double screen,
and is provisioned with sugar instead of honey. If shippers
neglect these precautions, and the mails become daubed, or
the mail agents stung, we shall again lose the privilege of
sending queens by mail. Such an order will in future be
beyond recall, hence any carelessness that endangers this
privilege will be virtually criminal. If it is thought neces-
sary to place vials of water in cages when shipping long
distances, the bees must be sent by express, as such packages
are not mailable.

TO MOVE COLONIES.

Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the
only requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for
ventilation, secure fastening of the frames so they cannot
possibly move, and combs old enough so that they shall not
break down and fall out. I would never advise moving bees
in winter, though it has often been done with entire safety.
I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after such
disturbance.

188 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER XII.

EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR.

The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the
queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any
neglect to give other room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-
combs is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size
undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, and should never
be taken from the bees, except when desired to render the
honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very
efficient auxiliary in the

HONEY EXTRACTOR.

No doubt some have expected and claimed too much
for this machine. It is equally true, that some have blun-
dered quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since
Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame to the world, the
apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to
him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka, of
Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey—
aye, more, even if it must be thrown away, which will never
be necessary, as it may always be fed to the bees with profit,
even then 1 would pronounce the extractor an invaluable aid
to every bee-keeper.

The principle which makes this machine effective is that of
centrifugal force, and it was suggested to Major von
Hruschka, by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled
by his boy at the end of a string, was emptied of its honey.
Herr von Hruschka’s machine was essentially like those now
so common, though in’ lightness and convenience there has
been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a
wooden tub, with a vertival axle in the centre, which revolved
in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from the
top of the tub, fastenings extended to the axle, which projected

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 189

for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the
centre of the tub. Attached to the axle was a frame or rack
to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth.
The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the
uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a
string, which had been previously wound about the top of the
‘axle, after the manner of top-spinning. Replace the wooden
tub with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will
be seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of to-day.
The machine is of foreign invention, and is not covered by a
‘patent, and so may be made by any one who desires to do so.

Fie. d8.

iH
ie

a

= =
The first American honey extractor was that made by Mr.
Peabody (Fig. 58). This was without gearing, and served
admirably in its day, but this has since been greatly improved,
till now we havea great variety of machines, each with its
special excellencies, and all effecting the desired results with
more or less ease and rapidity.

DESIRABLE POINTS IN AN EXTRACTOR.

The machine should be as light as is consistent with
strength. It is desirable that the can be made of tin, as it
will be neater, and more easily kept sweet and clean. The

190 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

can should be stationary, so that only a light frame shall
revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine
should run with gearing, not only for ease, but also
to insure or allow an even motion, so that we need not throw
even drone larve from the brood-cells. The arrangement for
exit of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect shut-
off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I also
prefer that the can should hold 30 or 40 pounds of honey be-
fore it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it.

In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as
most desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the comb bas-
ket might hold four Soames, The comb basket should be
placed so low in the can that no honey will be. thrown over
the top to daub the person using the extractor. I think that

Fig. 59.

EE I i
i

Oo .

a wire attachment with a tin bottom (Fig. 59, a,b) and made
to hook on to the comb basket, which will hold pieces of comb
not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor.

I have tried machines where the sides of the comb basket
inclined down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of
comb, but found them unsatisfactory. The combs would not
be sustained. Yet, if the frames were long and narrow, so
that the end of the frame would have to rest on the bottom
of the comb basket, instead of hanging as it does in the hive,
such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the
frame from falling in, before we commence to turn - the ma-
chine. Of course. with such comb baskets, there would be
less centrifugal force at the bottom than at the top of the

comb, ‘making it more difficult to avoid throwing out the larval
bees, in extracting from combs containing uncapped brood.

The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred
to wood, as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 191

either of tin or galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover
to protect. the honey from dust, when not in use, is very
desirable. The cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a
rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent for this
purpose. As nocapped honey could be extracted, it is necessary
to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To do

Fie. 60.

this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington
honey knife (Fig. 60). After a thorough trial of this knife,
here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to
any other that we have used, though we have several of the
principal knives made in the United States. It is, perhaps,

Fic. 61.

sometimes desirable to have a curved point (Fig. 61), though
this is not at all essential.
USE OF THE EXTRACTOR.

Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay,
it is nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or
extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no
empty cells. The honey yield is so great that the workers
occupy every available space, and sometimes even they become
unwilling idlers, simply because of necessity. Seldom a year
has passed but that I have noticed some of my most prolific
queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the
proper arrangement and best management of frames for sur-
plus would make such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the
brood-chamber in two-story hives, with common frames above
-—the very best arrangement to promote storing above’ the
brood-chamber—so crowded as to force the queen either to idle-

192 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

ness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, as also
the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon
extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon
this point, notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide
experience and great intelligence, think me wrong.

The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey—
extracted honey—in poor seasons, when he could get very
little, if any, in sections or boxes.

By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the
apiarist can secure nearly if not quite double the amount of
honey, that he could get in combs.

The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the
fall, which, if left in the hive, may cause disease and death.

By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from
our surplus brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable
article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for
use the next spring. We now have in our apiary one hundred
and fifty such empty combs.

If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket
attachment, at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped
sections can be emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of
drone-comb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admir-
able for starters in the sections, can be emptied oF their honey
at any season.

; By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the
price we ask for comb- -honey, an article which is equal, if not
superior, to the best comb-honey, and which, were it not for
appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market.

WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR.

If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve
cents, the extractor may be used profitably the summer
through ; otherwise use it sufficiently often that there may
always be empty worker-cells in the brood-chamber.

It is often required with us during the three great
honey harvests—the white clover, basswood, and that of fall
flowers. I have always extracted the honey so frequently as
to avoid much uncapping. If the honey was thin, I would
keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild heat, that it
might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 193

‘so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that
I urge all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the
cells. ‘The labor of uncapping, with the exellent honey
knives now at our command, is so light, that we can afford to
run no risk that the honey produced at our apiaries shall sour
and become worthless.

If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state
with no injury, by heating, though the temperature should
never rise above 200° F. This can best be done by placing
the vessel containing the honey in another containing water,
though if the second vessel be set on a stove, a tin basin or
pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel from touching
the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, the
best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be pre-
vented by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly
above 80°F. Ifcanned-honcy is set on top a furnace in which
a fire is kept burning, it will remain liquid indefinitely.

To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or
other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth
or wire sieve—I purposely refrain from the use of the word
strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow
it to be used, in connection with extracted honey—or else
draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses gate near
the lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have
risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom.
In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory
as the first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is
thinner, and will of course pass more readily through common
toweling or fine wire-cloth.

Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of
empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the
honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter. The
honey, too, should be thrown from pieces of drone-comb which
are cut from the brood-frames, and from the uncapped comb
in sections at the close of the season.

HOW TO EXTRACT.

The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of suffi-
cient size to hold all the frames from a single hive. These
should have convenient handles, and a close-fitting cover,

194 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

which will slide easily either way. These will be more easily
used if they rest on legs, which will raise their tops say three
feet from the ground. Now, go to two or three colonies, take
enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. The bees
may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather. If
the bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb
is placed inside. Extract the honey from these, using care
not to turn so hard as to throw out the brood. If necessary,
with a thin knife pare off the caps, and after throwing the
honey from one side, turn the comb around, and extract it
from the other. If combs are of very different weights, it will
be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal weights
on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now take
these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced
by them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of
combs, and thus proceed till the honey has all been extracted.
At the close, the one or two colonies from which the first
combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set extracted,
and thus, with much saving of time, little disturbance of bees,
and the least invitation to robbing, in case there is no gath-
ering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary.

TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY.

Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run
into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick,
and the vessels may be sealed or corked, and boxed at once.

If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most
conveniently kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and
ought to be waxed before using them, to make assurance
doubly sure against any leakage. To wax the barrels, we may
use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper, and just as efficient.
Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine or wax should be
turned into the barrel, the bung driven in tight, the barrel
twirled in every position, after which the bung is loosened by
a blow with the hammer, and the residue of the wax turned
out. Economy requires that the barrels be warm when
waxed, so that only a thin coat will be appropriated.

Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after
being filled, are cheap, and niay be the most desirable recep-
tacles for extracted honey.

Extracted honey should always be kept in dry apartments.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 195

CHAPTER XIII.
HANDLING BEES.

But some one asks the question, shall we not receive those
merciless stings, or be introduced to what “Josh” calls the
“business end of the bee?” Perhaps there is no more cause-
less, or more common dread, in existence, than this of bees’
stings. When bees are gathering, they will never sting unless.
provoked. When at the hives—especially if Italians—they
will rarely make an attack. The common belief, too, that
some persons are more liable to attack than othets, is, I think,
put too strong. With the best opportunity to judge, with
our hundreds of students, I think I may safely say that one
is almost always as liable to attack as another, except that
he is more quiet, or does not greet the usually amiable
passer-by, with those terrific thrusts, which would vanquish
even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person may have
a peculiar odor about his person that angers -bees and invites.
their darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped, yet,
though I take my large classes each season, at frequent inter-
vals, to see and handle the bees, each for himself, I still await
the first proof of the fact, that one person is more liable to
be stung than another, providing each carries himself with
that composed and dignified bearing, that is so pleasing to the
bees. True, some people, filled with dread, and the belief that
bees regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready
for the battle, that they commence the strife with nervous
head-shakes and beating of the air, and thus force the bees
to battle, nolens volens. believe that only such are regarded
with special aversion by the bees. Hence, I believe that no
one need be stung.

Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick motions.
Those with nervous temperaments—and I plead very guilty
on this point—need not:give up, but at first better protect

196 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

their faces, and perhaps even their hands, till time and expe-
rience show them that fear is vain; then they will divest
themselves of all such useless encumbrances. Bees are more
cross when they are gathering no honey, and at such times,
black bees and hybrids, especially, are so irritable that even
the experienced apiarist will wish a veil.

THE BEST BEE-VEIL.

This should be made of black tarlatan, sewed up like a
bag, a half yard long, without top or bottom, and with a
diameter of the rim of a common straw-hat. Gather the top
with braid, so that it will just slip over the crown of the hat—
else, sew it to the edge of the rim of some cheap, cool hat,
in fact, I prefer this style—and gather the bottom with rubber
cord or rubber tape, so that it may be drawn over the hat rim,
and then over the head, as we adjust the hat.

Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom
(Fig. 62), and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by
the coat or dress. If the black tarlatan troubles by coloring

the shirt or collar, the lower part may be made of white net-
‘ting. When in use, the rubber cord draws the lower part
close about the neck, or the lower part tucks within the coat
‘or vest (Fig. 62), and we are safe. This kind of a veil is

MANUAL UF THE APIARY. 197°

cool, does not impede vision at all, and can be made by any
woman at a cost of less than twenty cents. Common buck-.
skin or sheep-skin gloves can be used, as it will scarcely pay’
to get special gloves for the purpose, for the most timid per-
son—I speak from experience—will soon consider gloves an.
unnecessary nuisance.

Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand
apiarian supplies.

Some apiarists think that dark clothing is specially ob--
noxious to bees.

For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommends a dress
which, by use of the rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be
instantly raised or lowered. This will be convenient in the
apiary, and tidy anywhere. The Gabrielle style is preferred,
and of a length just to reach the floor. It should be belted
at the waist, and cut down from the neck in front, one-third
the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the veil.
The under-waist should fasten close about the neck. The
sleeves should be quite long to allow free use of the arms,
and gathered in with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will
hug the rubber gauntlets or arm, and prevent bees from crawl-
ing up the sleeves. The pantalets should be straight and
full, and should also have the rubber cord in the hem to draw
them close about the top of the shoes.

Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet “ head-cap,”
which she believes the men even would find a great comfort.
This is a simple, close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses.
of coarse toweling. The head is wet with cold water, and the
cap wet in the same, wrung out, and placed on the head.

Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so-
trimmed ’that the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet
her brother or sister apiarists. In such a dress there is no
danger of stings, and with it there is that show of neatness
and taste, without which no pursuit could attract the atten-
tion, or at least the patronage, of our refined women.

TO QUIET BEES,

In harvest seasons, the bees, especially if Italians, can
almost always be handled without their showing resentment.
But at other times, and whenever they object to necessary

198 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

familiarity, we have only to cause them to fill with honey to
render them harmless, unless we pinch them. This can be
done by closing the hive so that the bees cannot get out, and
then rapping on the hive for four or five minutes. Those
within will fill with honey, those without will be tamed by
surprise, and all will be quiet. Sprinkling the bees with
sweetened water will also tend to render them amiable, and
will make them more ready to unite, to receive a queen, and
less apt to sting. Still another method, more convenient, is to .
smoke the bees. A little smoke blown among the bees will
scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I have known black
bees in autumn, to be very slow to yield. Dry cotton cloth,
closely wound and sewed or tied, or better, pieces of dry, rotten
wood, are excellent for the purpose of smoking. These are
easily handled, and will burn fora long time. But best of all
is a
BELLOWS-SMOKER.

This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth or rotten
wood can be burned in the tube, and will remain burning
along time. The smoke can be directed at pleasure, the
bellows easily worked, and the smoker used without any dis-
agreeable effects or danger from fire. It can be got from any
dealer in bee apparatus, and only costs from $1.25 to $2.00.
I most heartily recommend it to all.

There are two smokers in use, which I have found very
valuable, and both of which are worthy of recommendation.

TIE QUINBY SMOKER.

This smoker (Fig. 63, a) was a gift to bee-keepers by the
late Mr. Quinby, and not patented ; though I supposed it was,
and so stated in a former edition of this work. Though a
similar device had been previously used in Europe, without
doubt Mr. Quinby was not aware of the fact, and as he was
the person to bring it to the notice of bee-keepers, and to
make it so perfect as to challenge the attention and win the
favor of apiarists instanter, he is certainly worthy of great
praise, and deserving of hearty gratitude. This smoker, until
a. better one appeared, was a very valuable and desirable
instrument. Its faults were, lack of strength, too small a

MANUAL OF THE APTARY. 199

fire-tube, too little draft when not in use, so that the fire
would go out, and too great liability to fall over on the side,
when the fire was sure to be extinguished. Many of these

Fie. 63.

defects, however, have been corrected, and other improve-
ments made in a new smoker, called the Improved Quinby
(Fig. 63. 8).

THE BINGHAM SMOKER.

This smoker (Fig. 64) not only meets all the requirements,
which are wanting in the old Quinby smoker, but shows by its

Fia. 64.

whole construction, that it has not only as a whole, but in
every part, been subject to the severest test, and the closest
thought and study. ;

200 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

At first sight this seems an improved copy of Mr. Quinby’s
smoker, and so I first thought, though I only saw it in Mr.
Bingham’s hand at a Convention. I have since used it,
examined it in every part, and have to say that it is not a
Quinby smoker. The bellows, the valve, the cut-off, and even
the form, are all peculiar. The special point to be commended,
and, I suppose, the only one patentable, is the cut-off between
the bellows and fire-tube, so that the fire seldom goes out,
while even hard-wood, as suggested by the inventor, forms an
excellent and ever-ready fuel. The valve for the entrance of
air to the bellows, permits rapid work, the spring is of the
best clock-spring material, the leather perfect, not split sheep-
skin, while the whole construction of the bellows, and the
plan of the fire-screen and cut-off draft, show much thought
and ingenuity. I am thus full in this description, that I may
not only benefit my readers, all of whom will want asmoker,
but also out of gratitude to Mr. Bingham, who has conferred
such a favor on American apiarists. There are three sizes,
which may be bought for $1.00, $1.50 and $1.75, respectively,
including postage.

Mr. ‘Bingham, to protect himself, and preserve the quality
of his invention, has procured a patent. This, provided he
has only patented his .own invention, is certainly his right,
which I think honesty requires us all to respect. Like Mr.
Langstroth, he has given us a valuable instrument ; let us see
that he is not defrauded out of the justly earned reward for
his invention.

Brother apiarists, let us cease this unjust clamor against.
patents and patentees. If a man procures a patent on a
worthless thing, let him alone, and where is thedamage? If
a man procures a patent ona valuable and desirable invention,
then buy it, or pay for the right to make it, and thus keep the
Eighth and Tenth Commandments (Exodus, 20th chap., 8th
and 10th verses). Let us never buy an article unless we
know it is valuable and desirable for us, no matter how
stoutly importuned ; but for honesty’s sake, and that we may
encourage more inventions, let us respect a man’s patent as
we would any other property. If we are in doubt as to the
correctness of some person’s claim, let us not be forced to
pay a bonus, but first write to some candid editor or other
authority, and if we find a man hasa right to the article, then

2

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 201

pay as we would any other debt. J should be very suspicious
of any man’s honesty who was not willing to respect such
rights.

TO SMOKE BEES.

Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance,
then open from above, and blow in smoke as required. If at
any time the bees seem irritable, a few puffs from the smoker
will subdue them. Thus, any person may handle his bees
with perfect freedom and safety. Ifat any time the fire-
chamber and escape-pipe become filled with soot, they can
easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hard-wood stick in-
side of them.

TO CURE STINGS.

In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a
moment, as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger
the bees and induce further stinging. The sting should be
withdrawn, and if the pain is such as to prove troublesome,
apply a little ammonia. The venom is an acid, and is neu-
tralized by the alkali. Pressing over the sting with the barrel
of a watch-key is also said to be of some use in staying the
progress of the poison in the circulation of the blood. In
ease horses are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they
should be taken as speedily as possible into a barn (a man,
too, may escape angry bees by entering a building), where the
bees will seldom follow, then wash the horses in soda water,
and cover with blankets wet in cold water.

THE SWEAT THEORY.

It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are
obnoxious to the bees, and hence, almost sure targets for their
barbed arrows. In warm weather I perspire most profusely,
yet am scarcely ever stung, since I have learned to control my
nerves. I once kept my bees in the front yard—they looked
beautiful on the green lawn—within two rods of a main
thoroughfare, and not infrequently let my horse, covered with
sweat upon my return from a drive, crop the grass, while cool-
ing off, right in the same yard. Of course, there was some
danger, but I never knew my horse to get stung. Why, then,
the theory? May not the more frequent stings be consequent

202 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

upon the warm, nervous condition of the individual? The
man is more ready to strike and jerk, the horse to stamp and
switch. The switching of the horse’s tail, like the whisker
trap of a full beard, will anger even a good-natured bee. I
should dread the motions more than the sweat, though it may
be true that there is a peculiarity in the odor from either the
sensible or insensible perspiration of some persons, that an-
gers the bees and provokes the use of their terrible weapons.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 203

CHAPTER XIV.
COMB FOUNDATION.

Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in
frames, comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to
insure the proper position of the full combs, in fact, combs of
almost any kind or shape, are of great importance. So every
skillful apiarist is very careful to save all drone-comb that is
cut out of the brood-chamber—where it is worse than useless,
as it brings with it myriads of those useless gormands, the
drones—to kill the eggs, remove the brood, or extract the
honey, and to transfer it to the sections. He is equally care-
ful to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of
proper size to domicile full-sized larvae, and never to sell any
comb, or even comb-honey, unless a much greater price makes
it desirable.

No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German
thought and Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving
the bees at least a start in this important, yet expensive work

Fie. 65.

of comb-building, and hence the origin of another great aid
to the apiarist—comb foundation (Fig. 65).

HISTORY.

For more than twenty years the Germans have used im-
pressed sheets of wax asa foundation for comb, as it was first
made by Herr Mehring, in 1857. These sheets are four or five
times as thick as the partition at the centre of natural comb,

20-4 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

which is very thin, only 1-180 of an inch thick. Thisis pressed
between metal plates so accurately formed that the wax re-
ceives rhomboidal impressions which are a fac simile of the
basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of natural
comb. The thickness of this sheet is no objection, as it is
found that the bees almost always thin it down to the natural
thickness, and probably use the shavings to form the walls.

AMERICAN FOUNDATION.

Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as:
the article was already in use in Germany, the patent was, as
we understand, of no legal value, and. certainly, as it did
nothing to bring this desirable article into use, it had no virtual
value. Mr. Wagner was also the first to suggest the idea of”
rollers. In Langstroth’s work, edition of 1859, p. 373, occurs
the following, in reference to printing or stamping combs:
“Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a simple-
instrument somewhat like a wheel cake cutter. When a large
number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed
which would stamp them with great rapidity.” In 1866, the
King Brothers, of New York, in accordance with the above
suggestion, invented the first machine with rollers, the pro-
duct of which they tried but failed to get patented. These
stamped rollers were Jess than two inches long. This machine
was useless, and failed to bring foundation into general use.

In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the
machine which brought the foundation into general use. His
machine had lengthened rollers—they being six inches long—
and shallow grooves between the pyramidal projections, so
that there was a very shallow cell raised from the basal im-
pression as left by the German plates. This was the machine
on which was made the beautiful and practical foundation
sent out by “John Long,” in 1874 and 1875, and which proved
to the American apiarists that foundation machines, and foun-
dation, too, were to be a success. I used some of this early
foundation, and have been no more successful with that made
by the machines of to-day. To Frederick Wess, then, are
Americans and the world indebted for this invaluable aid to
the apiarist. Yet, the poor old man has, I fear, received
very meager profits from this great invention, while some

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 205

‘writers ignore his services entirely, not granting him the poor
meed of the honor. Since that time many machines have
been made, without even a thank you, as I believe, to this
-old man, Weiss. Does not this show that patents, or.some-
thing—a higher morality, if you please—is necessary, that
men may secure justice? True, faulty foundation, and faulty
machines were already in use, but it was the inventive skill
-of Mr. Weiss that made foundation cheap and excellent,
and thus popularized it with the American apiarists.

These Weiss machines turn out the comb-foundation
not only of exquisite mold, but with such rapidity that it can
‘be made cheap and practicable. Heretofore these machines

Fie. 66.

‘have been sold at an enormous profit. Last November, 1877,
I expostulated with one of the manufacturers of American
machines, because of the high price, saying, as I looked at
‘one of the machines: These cught to be sold for thirty or
forty dollars, instead of one hundred dollars. He replied
that such machines—with rollers, not plates—that gave the
foundation the exact figure of natural comb, were only made,
he thought, by the person who made his machines, and thus
‘convinced me that said person should be rewarded, amply
rewarded, for his invention. But.as I have since learned
that this is only the Weiss machine, and does no more perfect
-work, I now think Mr. Weiss should receive the super-extra
profits. Even with machines at one hundred dollars, founda-

206 MANUAL OF THE APIARY

tion was profitable, as I with many others have found. But
with the present price—forty dollars, which I think, judging
from the simplicity of the machine, advertised at that price
(Fig. 66), must be reduced still lower—we can hardly conceive
what an immense business this is soon to become.

HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE.

The process of making the foundation is very simple.
Thin sheets of wax, as thin as is consistent with strength, are
simply passed between the rollers, which are so made as to
stamp worker or drone foundation, as may be desired. The
rollers are well covered with starch-water to secure against
adhesion. Two men can roll out about four hundred pounds.
per day.

TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS.

To make the thin sheets of wax, Mr. A. I. Root takes shects
or plates of galvanized iron with a wooden handle. These are -
cooled by dipping in ice-water, and then are dipped two, or
three times if the wax is very hot, in the melted wax, which
is maintained at the proper temperaturé by keeping it in a
‘double-walled vessel, with hot water in the outer chamber.

Fia. 67.

b

Such a boiler, too, prevents burning of the wax, which would
Tuin it, while it is being melted. After dipping the plates in
the wax, they are again dipped, when dripping has ceased, into:
the cold water, after which the sheets of wax are cleaved off,
the plates brushed, wiped, cooled, and dipped again. The

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 207

boiler used in melting the wax has the gate with a fine wire
sieve attached near the top, so that the wax as it is drawn off
into the second boiler, will be thoroughly cleansed. Mr. Root
states that two men and a boy will thus make four hundred
pounds of wax sheets in a day,

Others use wooden plates on which to mold the sheets,
whilc the Hetherington brothers prefer, and are very success-
ful with a wooden cylinder, which is made to revolve in the
melted wax, and is so hinged, that it can be speedily raised
above or lowered into the liquid.

‘For cutting foundation, nothing is so admirable as the
Carlin cutter (Fig. 67, a), which is like the wheel glass-cutters
sold in the shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the
place of the one of hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has
suggested a grooved board (Fig. 67, 6) to go with the above,
the distance between the grooves being equal to the desired
width of the strips of comb foundation to be cut.

USE OF FOUNDATION.’

I have used foundation, as have many other more extensive
apiarists, with perfect success in the section-boxes. The bees
have so thinned it that even epicures could not tell comb-
honey with such foundation, from that wholly made by the
bees. Yet, I forbear recommending it for such use. When
such men as Hetherington, Moore, Ellwood, and L. C0. Root,.
protest against a course, it is well to pause before we adopt it ;
so, while I have used foundation, I think with some small ad-
vantage in sections and boxes for three years, I shall still
pronounce against it.

It will not be well to have the word artificial hitched on to
our comb-honey. I think it exceedingly wise to maintain invio-
late in the public mind the idea that comb-honey is par
excellence, a natural product. And as Captain Hetherington
aptly suggests, this argument is all the more weighty, in view
of the filthy condition of much of our commercial bees-wax.

Again, our bees may not always thin the foundation, and
we risk our reputation in selling it in comb-honey, and an
unquestioned reputation is too valuable to be endangered in this
way, especially as in these days of adulteration, we may not

208 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

know how much paraffine, etc., there is in our foundation,
unless we make it ourselves.

Lastly, there is no great advantage in its use in the sections,
as drone-comb is better, and with caution and care this can be
secured in ample quantities to furnish very generous starters
for all our sections. This will readily adhere, if the edge be
dipped into melted beeswax, and applied to the sections.

If any one should still be disposed to make such use of
foundation, they should only purchase of very reliable parties,
that they may be sure to use only such wax as is genuine,
yellow, clean, and certainly unmixed with paraffine, or any
of the commercial products which were first used to adulter-
ate the wax. Only pure, clean, unbleached wax should
be used in making foundation. We should be very careful
not to put on the market any comb-honey where the founda-
tion had not been properly thinned by the bees. Perhaps a
very fine needle would enable one to determine this point
without injury to the honey.

But the most promising use of foundation, to which there
can be no objection, is in the brood-chamber. It is astonish-
ing to see how rapidly the bees will extend the cells, and how
readily the queen will stock them with eggs if of the right
size, five cells tothe inch. Zhe foundation should always
be the right size either for worker or drone-comb. Of
course the latter size would never be used in the brood-cham-
ber. The advantage of foundation is, first, to insure worker-
comb, and thus worker-brood, and second, to furnish wax, so
that the bees may be free to gather honey. We proved in
our apiary the past two seasons, that by use of foundation,
and a little care in pruning out the drone-comb, we could
limit or even exclude drones from our hives, and we have but
to examine the capacious and constantly crowded stomachs
of these idlers, to appreciate the advantage of such a
course. Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells and
build drone-cells in their place ; but such action, I believe,
is not sufficiently extensive to ever cause anxiety. I am also
certain that bees that have to secrete wax to form comb, do
much less gathering. Wax secretion seems voluntary, and
when rapid seems to require quiet and great consumption of
food. If we make two artificial colonies equally strong, sup-
ply the one with combs, and withhold them from the other,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 209

we will find that this last sends much fewer bees to the fields,
while all the bees are more or less engaged in wax secretion.
Thus the other colony gains much more rapidly in honey,
first, because more bees are storing; second, because less
food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason why
extracted-honey can be secured in far greater abundance than
can comb-honey-

The foundation if used the full depth of the frame, stretches
so that many cells are so enlarged as to be used for drone-
brood. This demands, if we use the sheets unstrengthened,
that they only be used as guides, not reaching more than one-
third of the depth of the frame. Strips not less than four
inches wide will not sag to do any harm. The foundation,
too, should not quite reach the sides of the frame, as by
expansion it is liable to warp and bend. Captain J. KH.
Hetherington has invented a cure for this stretching and warp-
ing, by strengthening the foundation. To do this, he runs
several fine copper wires into the foundation as it passes
through the machine.

I understand, too, that Mr. M. Metcalf, of this State, has a
similar device now being patented.

This is a valuable suggestion, as it permits full-sized sheets
of foundation to be inserted in the frames. I presume that
very soon all worker-foundation will contain such wires.

TO FASTEN THE FOUNDATION.

In the thin sections, the foundation can -best be fastened
‘oy use of the melted wax. To accomplish this, I have used a
block made thus : Saw a fifteen-sixteenths inch board so that
it will just exactly fill a section. Screw this to a second
board, which is one-half inch broader each way, so that the
larger under board will project one-quarter of an inch each
side the top board. Now set the section over the top board,
place the foundation, cut a trifle shorter than the inside of the
section, within, close to the top and one side of the section,
and cause it to adhere by running on a little of the melted
wax, which, by use of a kerosene lamp or stove, may be kept
melted. If the basin is double-walled, with water in the
‘outer chamber and wax in the inner, it is much safer, as then
the wax will never burn.

210 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

If the tops of the sections are thick, they may be grooved,
and by crowding the foundation into the groove, and, if
necessary, pressing it with a thin wedge, it will be securely held.

This last method will work nicely in case of fastening into
the brood-frames. But I have found that I could fasten them
rapidly and very securely by simply pressing them against
the rectangular projection from the top-bar already described
(page 134). In this case a block (Fig. 68, @) should reach

Fie. 68.

TTT 2
Hi

(a,

up into the frame from the side which is nearest to the rectangu-
lar projection—it will be remembered that the projection (Fig.
36) is a little to one side of the centre of the top-bar, so that the
foundation shall hang exactly in the centre—so far that its
upper surface would be exactly level with the upper surface
of the rectangular projection. This block, like the one de-
scribed above, has shoulders (Fig. 68, ¢), so that it will always
reach just the proper distance into the frame. It is also
rabbeted at the edge where the projection of the top-bar
of the frame will rest, (Fig. 68, 4), so that the projec-
tion has a solid support, and will not split off with pressure.
We now set our frame on this block, lay on our foundation,
cut the size we desire, which, unless strengthened, will be as.
long as the frame, and about four inches wide. The founda-
tion will rest firmly on the projection and block, and touch
the top-bar, at every point. We now take a board as thick
as the projection is deep, and as wide (Fig. 69, d) as the frame
is long, which may be trimmed off, soas to have a convenient
handle (Fig. 69, ¢), and by wetting the edge of this (Fig.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 211

69, @) either in water, or, better, starch-water, and pressing
with it on the foundation above the projection, the foundation
will be made to adhere firmly to the latter, when the frame
may be raised with the block, taken off, and another fastened
as before. I have practiced this plan for two years, and have
had admirable success. I have very rarely known the founda-

Fig. 69.

tion to drop, though it must be remembered that our hives
are shaded, and our frames small.

The above methods are successful, but probably will receive
valuable modifications at the hands of the ingenius apiarists
of our land. Study in this direction will unquestionably
pay, as the use of this material is going to be very extensive,
and any improvements will be hailed with joy by the bee-
keeping fraternity.

SAVE THE WAX.

As foundation is becoming so popular, and is destined to
come into general use, it behooves us all to be very careful
that no old comb goes to waste. Soiled drone-comb, old, worth-
less worker-comb, and ali fragments that cannot be used in
the hives, together with cappings, after the honey is drained
out through a coarse bag or colander—which process may be
hastened by a moderate heat, not sufficient to melt the wax,
and frequent stirring—should be melted, cleansed, and
molded into cakes of wax, soon to be again stamped, not by
the bees, but by wondrous art.

METHODS.

A slow and wasteful method is to melt in a vessel of heated
water, and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing to
cool, when the impurities at the bottom are scraped off, and
the process repeated till all impurities are eliminated.

A better method to. separate the wax is to put it into a
strong, rather coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil,

212 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

At intervals the comb in the bag should be pressed and stirred.
The wax will collect on top of the water.

To prevent the bag from burning, it should be kept from
touching the bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin in the
bottom of the latter, or else by using a double-walled vessel.
The process should be repeated till the wax is perfectly
cleansed.

But, as wax is to become so important, and as the above
methods are slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of
wax, specialists, and even amateurs who keep as many as ten
or twenty colonies of bees, may well procure a wax ex-
tractor (Fig. 70). This is also a foreign invention, the

oi

ic |

first being made by Prof. Gerster, of Berne, Switzerland.
These cost from five to seven dollars, are made of tin, are
very convenient and admirable, and can be procured of any
dealer in apiarian supplies.

By this invention, all the wax, even of the oldest combs,
can be secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is perfectly
neat, there is no danger of provoking the “ best woman in the
world,” as we are in danger of doing by use of either of the
above methods—for what is more untidy and perplexing than
to have wax boil over on the stove, and perhaps get on to the
floor, and be generally scattered about.

All pieces of comb should be put into a close pox, and if
any larvee are in it, the comb should be melted so frequently
that it would not smell badly. By taking pains, both in
collecting and melting, the apiarist will be surprised at the close
of the season, as he views his numerous and beautiful cakes of
comb, and rejoice as he thinks how little trouble it has all cost.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 213.

CHAPTER XV.
MARKETING HONEY.

No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that:
of marketing honey. There is no question.but that the supply
is going to continually increase, hence, to sustain the price:
we must stimulate the demand, and by doing this we shall
not only supply the people with a food element which is.
necessary to health, but we shall also supersede in part the
commercial syrups, which are so adulterated as not only to:
be crowded with filth the most revolting, but are often even
teeming with poison. (Report of Michigan Board of Health.
for 1874, pp. 75-79.) To bring, then, to our neighbor’s table:
the pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, right from the hive, is.
philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not.

Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given
special attention to this topic for the last few years, and am
free to say, that not a tithe of the honey is consumed in our-
country that might and should be. ,

HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKETS.

First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary-
that is not in the most inviting form possible. Grade ail the
honey thoroughly, and expect prices to correspond with the
grade. See that every package and vessel is not only attract-
ive, but so arranged as not to make the dealer any trouble or
cause him any vexation. One leaky can or crate may do
great injury.

Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey
constantly on hand. Do all you can to build up a home mar-
ket. The advice to sell to only one or two dealers is wrong”
and pernicious. Whether we are to buy or sell, we shall find
almost always that it will be most satisfactory to deal with
men whom we know, and who are close at hand. Only when.

214 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

you outgrow your home market should you ship to distant
places. This course will limit the supply in the large cities,
and thus raise the prices in the great marts, whose prices fix
those in the country. Be sure to keep honey constantly in
the markets. .

Third. Insist that each grocer makes the honey very con-
spicuous. If necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your
own name almost as prominent as is that of the article.

Fourth.’ Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be
sure to be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to
the delivery yourself, that you may know that all is done
“decently and in order.”

Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the honey
show to the best effect, and thus captivate the purchaser
through the sight alone.

Sixth. Call local conventions, that all in the ecommu-
nity may know and practice the best methods, so that the
markets may not be demoralized by poor, unsalable honey.

Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely,
and vary greatly, upon the style of honey to be sold, so we
will consider these kinds separately.

EXTRACTED HONEY.

As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, and
is in every way equal, if not superior—comb itself is innu-
tritious, and very indigestible—tocomb-honey. When people
once know its excellence—know that it is not “strained ”—
let us, as apiarists, strive in every way to kill that word—
then the demand for this article will be vastly increased, to
the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist.

Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word extracted,
_ and ask him to spread wide the name and character of the
honey. Leave cups of the honey with the editors and men
of influence, and get them to discuss its origin and merits.
I speak from experience, when I say that in these ways the
reputation and demand for extracted honey can be increased
to a surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity.

HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER.
First. Have it chiefly in small cups—jelly cups are best.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 215

Many persons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when
if it cost fifty cents they would not think of purchasing.

Second. Only put it in such vessels as jelly cups or glass
fruit jars, ete., that will be useful in every household when
the honey is gone, that the buyer may feel that the vessel is
clear gain.

Third. Explain to the grocer that if kept above the tem-
perature of 70° or 80° F., it will not granulate, that granula-
tion is a pledge of purity and superiority, and show him how
easy it is to reduce the crystals, and ask him to explain this
to his customers. If necessary, liquify some of the granu-
lated honey in his presence.

Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure
that the vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case
jelly cups are used, that they be filled at the grocery. And
don’t forget the large label, which gives the kind of honey,
grade, and producer's name.

COMB-HONEY.

This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light-
colored and immaculate, will always be a coveted article for
the table, and will ever, with proper care, bring the highest
price paid for honey. So it will always be best to work for
this, even though we may not be able to procure it in such
ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has all
kinds, will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most
surely meet with success.

RULES TO BE OBSERVED.

This, too, should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 50), for,
as before stated, such are the packages that surely sell.
Sections from four to six inches square will just fill a plate
nicely, and look very tempting to the proud housewife,
especially if some epicurean friends are to be entertained.

The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the
white clover season, so that the apiarist may secure the most
of this irresistible nectar, chaste as if capped by the very
snow itself. They should be taken away as soon as capped,
as delay makes them highways of travel for the bees, which
always mar their beauty.

216 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.
:

When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before
this, we should place them in hives one upon another, or special
boxes made tight, with a close cover, in which to store either
brood-frames in winter or sections at any season, and sulphur
them. This is quickly and easily done by use of the smoker.
Get the fire in the smoker well to burning, add the sulphur,
then place this in the top hive, or top of the special box.
The sulphurous fumes will descend and deal out death to all
moth larve. This should always be done before shipping
the honey, if we regard our reputations as precious. It is
well to do this immediately upon removal, and also two weeks
after, so as to destroy the moth larvee not hatched when the
sections are removed.

If separators have been used, these sections are in good
condition to be glassed, and are also in nice shape to ship
even without glass, as they may stand side by side and not
mar the comb.

The shipping-crate (Fig. 71) should be strong, neat and
cheap, with handles as seen in Fig. 71—such handles are also

Fig. 71.

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ae
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convenient in the ends of the hives, and can be cut in an
instant by having the circular-saw set to wabble. With handles
the crate is more convenient, and is more sure to be set on
its bottom. The crate should also be glassed, as the sight
of the comb will say: “Handle with care.”

Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (Fig. 72), which is
neat and cheap. Muth’s crate is like Heddon’s, only smaller.

It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus break-
age of one will not mean general ruin. However, this would
be unnecessary in case the sections were of veneer and glassed,
as before described.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 217

In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it
will pay him to furnish his own boxes. These should be
made of white-wood, very neat, and glassed in front to show
the honey, and the cover so fixed that unglassed sections—
and these, probably, will soon become the most popular—
cannot be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label,

Fig. 72.

with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain
that “he who runs may read.”

Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of
-autumn, or the cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms,
or the comb will break from the section when handled. By
‘keeping it quite warm for some days previous to shipment, it
may be sent. to market even in winter, but must be handled
very carefully, and must make a quick transit.

Above all; let “taste and neatness” ever be your motto.

218 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER XVI.

HONEY PLANTS.

As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as
honey is mainly derived from certain flowers, it of course
follows that the apiarist’s success will depend largely upon
the abundance of honey-secreting plants in the vicinity of his
apiary. True it is that certain bark and plant lice secrete a
kind of liquid sweet—honey of doubtful reputation—which,
in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem glad to
appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large
bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys
one of our best honey trees. This is an undescribed species
‘of the genus Lecaniwm. 1 have also seen them thick about
three species of plant lice. One, the Pemphigus imbrica-
tor, Fitch, works on the beech tree. Its abdomen is thickly
covered with long wool, and it makes a comical show as it
wags this up and down upon the least disturbance. The
leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath
the trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I
have found that the bees avoid this substance, except at
times of extreme drouth and long protracted absence of
honeyed bloom. It was the source of no inconsiderable stores
during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago’s great
disaster. (See Appendix, page 286).

Another species of Pemphigus gives rise to certain soli-
tary plum-like galls, which appear on the upper surface of the
redelm. These galls are hollow, with a thin skin, and within
the hollows are the lice, which secrete an abundant sweet
that often attracts the bees to a feast of fat things, as the gall
is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the sweet exudes. This
sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be unwhole-
some to the bees.

Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 219

willows, which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly dam-
age another tree valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it
not that they seldom are so numerous two years in succession,
they would certainly banish from among us one of our most
ornamental and valuable honey-producing trees. These are
fairly thronged in September and October, and not unfre-
quently in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by
bees, wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap
up the oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the Lachnus
dentatus, of Le Baron, and the Aphis salicti, of Harris.
Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew,
which enables them to add to their stores with surprising
rapidity. I remember one morning while riding on horse-
back along the Sacramento river, in California, I broke
off a willow twig beside the road when, to my surprise,
I found it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon
further examination I found the willow foliage was abun-
dantly sprinkled by these delicious drops. These shrubs
were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under trees.
Here then was areal case of honey-dew, which must have
been distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw
any such phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A.
H. Atkins, an accurate and conscientious observer, has noted
this honey-dew more than once here in Central Michigan.
Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of question-
able repute from about cider mills, some from grapes and
other fruit which have been crushed, or eaten and torn by
wasps and other insects. That bees ever tear the grapes is a
question of which I have failed to receive any personal proof,
though for years I have been carefully seeking it. I have
lived among the vineyards of California, and have often
watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees
tear open the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the
apiary, when the bees were not gathering, and were ravenous
for stores, which, when covered with sipping bees, were
replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in no instance were
mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees ever attack
sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities
which the oriole’s beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer
them. Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes

220 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

thus guilty, and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen
bees rend sound grapes, which they did with their feet.
Yet, if this is the case, it is certainly of rare occurrence,
and is more than compensated by the great aid which the
bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of cross-fertili-
zation, which is imperatively necessary to his success, as has
been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin.
It is true that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only
be accomplished by insects, and early in the season by the
honey-bee, is often, if not always,necessary to a full yield of
fruit and vegetables. J am informed by Prof. W. W. Tracy,
that the gardeners in the vicinity of Boston keep bees that
they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr. Bidwell and
Prof. Riley are right, and the bee does, rarely—for surely this
is very rare, if ever—destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any
possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist.

But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers.

WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS?

In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance
for May is the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In
June white clover yields largely of the most attractive honey,
both as to appearance and flavor. In July the incomparable
basswood makes both bees and apiarist jubilant. In August
buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome, though it be dark
and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan, August and
September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no
other in the richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not
cut off till the autumn frosts—usually about September 15..

Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and
other autumn flowers of our new northern counties, as yet
have blushed unseen, with fragrance wasted. This unoccu-
pied territory, unsurpassed in its capability for fruit production,
covered with grand forests of maple and basswood, and spread.
with the richest of autumn bloom, offers opportunities to the
practical apiarist rarely equaled except in the Pacific States,
and not even there, when other privileges are considered. In
these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the colony is
no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred
are not isolated cases.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 221

In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey
plants. Those in the first column are annual, biennial ur
perennial ; the annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: ( );
the biennial enclosed in brackets thus: [ | ; while those in the
second column are shrubs or trees; the names of sLrubs
being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of commence-
ment of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended,
in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average
for Central Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in
small capitals yield very superior honey. Those with (i) are
useful for other purposes than honey secretion. All but those
with a * are native or very common in Michigan. Those written
in the plural refer to more than one species. Those followed
by a t are very numerous in species. Of course I have not
named all, as that, would include some hundreds which have
been observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great
orders Composite and Rosacez. I have only aimed to give
the most important, omitting many foreign plants of notoriety,
as I have had no personal knowledge of them:

DATE. Annuals or Perennials,| DATE. Shrubs or Trees.
April.........-.. Dandelion. March and Ap’!|Red or Soft Maple.(a)
April and May. Strawberry.(a March and Ap’}|Poplar or Aspen.

ay and June .|*White Sage, California| |March and Ap’1|Silver Maple.
May and June . |*Sumac, California. March and Ap’l)*Judas Tree,
May and June. *CoffeeBerry,California April and May.|(Willows)t also Trees.
June to July ...| WHITE CLOVER.(a) Apriland May.|*Judas Tree—South.
June to July .../ ALSIKE CLOVER.(a) ay. ..-|(Shad-bush.)
June to July ...|*{SWEET CLOVER.] May (Alder.)
June to July ...|/*Horehound. [Weed.||Ma‘ Maples-Sugar Maple(a)
June to July ...;Ox-eyed Daisy— Bad Crab Apple.
June to July .../Bush Honeysuckle. - (Hawthorns.)
June to August|* Ages Fruit Trees — Apple,
June to August|Mother-wort. Plum, Cherry, Pear,
June to frost...|*(Borage.) etc.(a@,
June to frost. ..|*(Cotton.) (a) (Currant and Goose-
June to frost...|/Silk or Milk Weeds. berry.)(a)
‘Mustard)t *(Wistaria Vine- South)
*(Rape.)(a) (Chinese Wistaria
St. John’s Wort. Vine—South.)
(MIGNONETTE.)(a) (Barberry.)
..((Corn.)(a) (Grape-vine.)(a)
*(Teasel.)(a) Tulip-tree.
.|*Catnip.(a) -|(Sumace.)
.| Asparagus.(a) Wild-Plum.
ugust.|*(Rocky M’t.Bee Plant) (Black Raspberry.) (a)
.|Boneset. Locusts.
July to frost. Bergamot. (RED RASPBERRY.)(a)
July to frost. ‘igwort, Blackberry.)
August.... Buckwheat.)(a) *Sourwood—South.
August.......... Snap-dragon.) July (Button Bush.)
August to frost/(GOLDEN ROD.)t July. BAsSSWwooD,(a)
August to frost] Asters. July. (Virginia Creeper.) (a)
August to frost|Marsh Sun-Flowers. July to August. |*Pepper-tree, Cal’a.
August to frost/Tick-Seed. July to Sept..../*(St. Fohn's Worts.)
August to frost|Beggar-Ticks. August.......... (Late Sumac.)
August to frostiSpanish Needles. August to Sept.!*Red Gum, California.

222 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

DESCRIPTION WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS.

As this subject of bee pasturage is of such prime im-
portance, and as the interest in the subject is so great and
widespread, I feel that details with illustrations will be more
than warranted.

We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty

_ Fie. 73.-Maple.

~

—-

colonies of bees, take the seasons as they average, are al] that
a single place will sustain to the greatest advantage. Then,
how significant the fact, that when the season is the best, full

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. — 223:

three times that number of colonies will find ample resources |
to keep all employed. So this subject of artificial pasturage.
becomes one well worthy close study and observation. The
subject, too, is a very important one in reference to the loca-
tion of the apiary.

It is well to remember in this connection, that two or thrée
miles should be regarded as the limit of profitable gathering.
That is, apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more colo-
nies, should not be nearer than four or five miles of each other.

APRIL PLANTS.

As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the
best results, even in the early spring, except the bees are
encouraged by the increase of their stores of pollen and
honey ; hence, in case we do not practice stimulative feeding
—and many will not—it becomes very desirable to have some

Fie. 74— Willow.

early bloom. Happily, in all sections of the United States
our desires are not in vain. F

Early in spring there are many scattering wild flowers, as
the blood-root (Sanguinaria canadensis), liver-leaf ({epa-

224 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

tica acutiloba), and various others of the crowfoot family, as
also many species of cress, which belong to the mustard
family, ete., all of which are valuable and important.

The maples (Fig. 73), which are all valuable honey plants,
also contribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are
the silver maples (Acer dasycarpum), and the red or soft
maples (Acer rubrum), as they bloom so very early, long
before the leaves appear: The bees work on these, here in
Michigan, the first week of April, and often in March. They
are also magnificent shade trees, especially those that have
the weeping habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, their
summer form and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints
in autumn are indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore,
Acer pseudo-platanus, and Norway, Acer platanoides, are
also very beautiful. Whether superior to ours as honey
plants, I am unable to say.

The willows, too (Fig. 74), rival the maples in the early
period of bloom. Some are very early, blossoming in March,
while others, like the white willow (Sudix alba) (Fig. 74),
bloom in May. The flowers on one tree or bush of the willow
are all pistillate, that is, have pistils, but no stamens, while

Fia. 75.—Judas Tree

on others they are all staminate, having no pistils. On the
former, they can gather only honey, on the latter only pollen.
That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested
by the fact that I saw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and
the staminate, thronged with bees the past season. The wil-
low, too, from its elegant form and silvery foliage, is one of
our finest shade trees.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 225

In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Ken-
tucky, and even beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud, Cercis
canadensis (Fig. 75), is not only worthy of cultivation as a
honey plant, but is also very attractive, and well deserving
of attention for its ornamental qualities alone. This blooms
from March to May, according to the latitude.

The poplars—not the tulip—also bloom in April, and are
freely visited by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and is
used for toothpicks. Why not use it for honey-boxes? __

MAY PLANTS.

In May we have the grand sugar maple, Acer saccharinum
(Fig. 73), incomparable for beauty, also all our various fruit
trees, peach, cherry, plum, apple, etc., in fact all the Rosaceze

Fia. 76.—American Wistaria.

¢ 6)

family. Our beautiful American Wistaria, Wistaria frutes-
cens (Fig. 76), the very ornamental climber, or the still more
lovely Chinese Wistaria, Wistaria sinensis (Fig. 77), which
has longer racemes than the native, and often blossoms twice
in the season. These are the woody twiners for the apiarist.

The barberry, too, Berberis vulgaris (Fig. 78), comes after
fruit blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search of nectar

226 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

Fig. 77.—Chinese Wistaria.

in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the beautiful
scarlet, berries, so pleasingly tart.
Fie. 78 —Barberry.

In California, the sumac, the coffee berry, and the famous
white sage (Fig. 79), keep the bees full of activity.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 227

Fie. 79.— White Sage.

228 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

JUNE PLANTS.

With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover,
Trifolium repens (Fig. 80), whose chaste and modest bloom
betokens the beautiful, luscious and unrivalled sweets which

Fiq. 80.— White or Dutch Clover..

are hidden in its corolla tube. Also its sister, Alsike or
Swedish, Trifolium hybrida (Fig 81), which seems to resemble
both-the white and..red clover. It is a stronger grower than
the white, and has a whitish blossom tinged with pink. This
forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, sheep, etc., and
may well be sown by the apiarist. It will often pay apiarists
to furnish neighboring farmers with seed as an inducement to
grow this par. excellent honey plant. Like white clover, it
blooms all through June into July. Both of these should
be sown early in spring with timothy, five or six pounds of
seed to the acre, in the same manner that red clover seed is
sown. :

‘Sweet clover, yellow and white, Melilotus officinalis (Fig.
82), and Melilotus alba, are well named. They bloom from
the middle of June to the first of October. Their perfume
scents the air for long distances, and: the hum of bees that
throng their flowers is like music to the apiarist’s ear. The
honey, too, is just exquisite. These clovers are biennial, not

2H

MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

Fig. 81.—Alsike Clover.

230 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

Fig. 82.—Melilot Clover

blooming the first season, and dying after they bloom the
second season. Another disagreeable fact, they have no value

except for honey. They are said to become pernicious weeds
if allowed to spread.

.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 231

The other clovers—lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, and
alfalfa—have not proved of any: value with us, perhaps owing
to locality.

Borage, Borago officinalis (Fig. 83), an excellent bee
plant, blooms from June till frost, and is visited by bees even

Fie. 84.—Mignonette.

in very rainy weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is
eagerly visited when all others fail to yield nectar.

' Fia. 85.—Okra.

Mignonette, Reseda odorata (Fig. 84), blooms from the
middle of June till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor,
furnishes nectar in profusion, and is well -worthy cultivation.

232 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

It does not secrete well in wet weather, but in favorable
weather it is hardly equalled.

Okra or gumbo, Hibiscus esculentus, (Fig. 85), also blooms
inJune. It is as much sought after by the bees in quest of
honey, as by the cook in search of a savory vegetable, or one’
to give tone to soup.

Sage, Salvia officinalis, horehound, Murrubium vulgare,.
motherwort, Leonurus cardiaca, and catnip, Nepeta cataria,.
which latter does not commence to bloom till July, all furnish:
nice white honey, remain in bloom a long time, and are ver
desirable, as they are in bloom in the honey dearth of July
and August. They, like many others of the mint family
(Fig. 86), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom..

Fig. 86.—Mint.

The first and last are of commercial importance, and all may:
well be introduced by apiarists, wherever there is any space-
or waste ground.

The silk or milk-weed furnishes abundant nectar from
June to frost, as there are several species of the genus
Asclepias, which is wide-spread in our country. This is the
plant which has large pollen masses which often adhere to
the legs of bees (Fig. 87), and sometimes so entrap them as
to cause theirdeath. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 233

planting them to kill bees. I say graciously, as I have
watched these very closely, and am sure they do little harm,
and are rich in nectar. Seldom a bee gets caught so as to
hold it long, and when these awkward masses are carried

Fia. 87.—Pollen of Milk-weed.

away with the bee, they are usually left at the door of the
hive, where I have often seen them in considerable numbers.
The river bank hard by our apiary is lined with these sweet-
smelling herbs, and we would like even more.

Fie. 88.—Black Mustard.

Black mustard, Sinapis nigra (Fig. 88) white mustard,
Sinapis alba, and rape, Brassica campestris (Fig. 89),
all look much alike, and are all admirable bee plants,
as they furnish much and beautiful honey. The first, if self-

234 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

sown, blooms July 1st, the others June 1st; the first about
eight weeks after sowing, the others about four. The mus-
tards bloom for four weeks, rape for three. These are all
specially commendable, as they may be made to bloom during
the honey dearth of July and August, and are valuable plants
to raise for the seed. Rape seems to be very attractive to
insects, as the flea beetles and the blister beetles are often
quite too much for it, though they do not usually destroy the
plants till after they have blossomed. I have several times

Fie. 89.—Rape.

purchased what purported to be Chinese mustard, dwarf and
tall; but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no better authority,
tells me they are only the white and black, and certainly, they
are no whit better as bee plants. These plants, with buck-
wheat, the mints, borage and mignonette, are specially
interesting, as they cover. or may be made to cover, the honey
dearth from about July 20th to August 20th.

The mustards and rape may be planted in drills about eight
inches apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four
quarts will sow an acre.

In this month blooms the tulip tree, Liriodendron tulip-
tfera (Fig. 90)—often called poplar in the South—which is
not only an excellent honey producer, but is one of our most

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 235

stately and admirable shade-trees. Now, too, bloom the
sumacs, though one species blooms in May, the wild plum,
the raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in color and
flavor, and the blackberry. Corn, too, is said by many to yield
largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel, Dipsacus

Fie. 90.—Tulip

Sullonum (Fig. 91), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but
by English and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful
honey. This last, too, has commercial importance. The

236 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

blackberry opens its petals in June, and also the fragrant

locust, which, from its rapid growth, beautiful form and hand-

some foliage, would rank among our first shade trees, except

that it is so tardy in spreading its canopy of green, and so

liable to ruinous attack by the borers, which last peculiarity it
Fig. 91.—Teasel.

a

shares with the incomparable maples. Washing the trunks
of the trees in June and July with soft soap, will in great
part remove this trouble.

Fic. 92.—Cotton.

Now, too, our brothers of the South reap a rich harvest
from the great staple, cotton (Fig. 92), which commences to

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 237

bloom early in June, and remains in blossom even to October.
This belongs to the same family—Mallow—as the hollyhock,
and like it, blooms and fruits through the season.

JULY PLANTS.

Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or lin-
den, Tilia Americana (Fig. 93), which, for the profusion

Fie. 93.—Basswood.

and quality of its honey has no superior. The tree, too, from
its great spreading top and fine foliage, is magnificent for
shade. Five of these trees are within two rods of my study
window, and their grateful fragrance, and beautiful form and
shade, have often been the subject. of remark by visitors.
Figwort, Scrophiularia nodosa (Fig. 94), often called rattle-
weed, as the seeds will rattle in the pod, and carpenter's
square, as it has a square stalk, is an insignificant looking
weed, with inconspicuous flowers, that afford abundant nectar
from the middle of July till frost. I have received almost as
many for identification as I have of the asters and golden-
rods. Prof. Beal remarked to mea year or two since, that it
hardly seemed possible that it could be so valuable. We

238 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

cannot always rightly estimate by appearances alone. It isa
very valuable plant to be scattered in waste places.

That beautiful and valuable honey plant, from Minnesota,
Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains, cleome, or the Rocky
Mountain bee-plant, Cleome integrifolia (Fig. 96), if self-
sown, or sown early in spring, blooms by the middle of July,
and lasts for long weeks. Nor can anything be more: gay
than these brilliant flowers, alive with bees all through the
long fall. This should be planted in fall or spring, in drills
two feet apart, the plants six inches apart in the drills. The
seeds, which grow in pods, are very numerous, and are said
to be valuable for chickens. Now, too, commence to bloom
the numerous Eupatoriums, or bonesets, or thoroughworts

Fie. 94.—Figwort.

(Fig. 97), which fill the marshes of our country, and the hives
as well, with their rich golden nectar—precursors of that pro-
fusion of bloom of this composite order, whose many species
are even now budding in preparation for the sea of flowers
which will deck the marsh-lands of August and September.
Wild bergamot, too, Monarda fistulosa, which, like the
thistles, is of importance to the apiarist, blooms in July.

The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named but-
ton-bush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, (Fig. 95), also shares
the attention of the bees with the linden ; while apiarists

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 239

\
Ny
‘Mb

I

Fie. 96.—Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant.

240 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

of the South find the sour-wood, or sorrel tree, Oxydendrum
arboreum, a valuable honey tree. . This belongs to the Heath
family, which includes the far-famed heather bloom of Eng-
land. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, blueberry,
and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as furnishing
honey, which is very poisonous, even fatal to those who eat,
the mountain laurel, Halmia latifolia. Yet, a near relative
of the South Andromeda nitida, is said to furnish beautiful
and wholesome honey in great quantities. The Virginia
creeper also blooms in July. I wish I could say that this
beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, is a favorite with the
honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms with wild

Fig. 95.— Button Bush.

bees when in blossom, yet I never saw a honey-bee visit the
ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. Now,
too, the St. John’s wort, Hypericum, with its many species,
both shrubby and herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions
to the delicious stores of the honey-bee. The catnip, too,
Nepeta cataria, and our cultivated asparagus—which if

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 241

Fie. 97.—Boneset.

242 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

uncut in spring will bloom in June—so delectable for the
table, and so elegant for trimming table meats and for ban-
quets in autumn, come now to offer their nectarian gifts.

AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS.

The cultivated buckwheat, Pagopyrum esculentum, ie.
98), usually blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July

—three pecks per acre is the amount to sow—but by sowing
the first of June, it may be made to bloom the middle of

Fia. 98.— Buckwheat.

July, when there is generally, in most localities, an absence
of nectar-secreting flowers. The honey is inferior in color
and flavor, though some people prefer this to all other honey.
The silver-leaf buckwheat blooms longer, has more numerous
flowers, and thus yields more grain than the common variety.

Now, too, come the numerous golden-rods. The species of
this genus, Solidago (Fig. 99), in the Eastern United States,
number nearly two-score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and
are at home on upland, prairie and morass. They yield
abundantly of rich, golden honey, with flavor that is unsurpassed
by any other. Fortunate the apiarist who can boast of a
thicket of Solidagoes in his locality.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 243

The many plants usually styled sun-flowers, because of
their resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name,
which deck the hill-side, meadow and marsh-land, now unfurl

Fig. 99.—Golden-Rod.

their showy involucres, and open their modest corollas, to in-

vite the myriad insects to sip the precious nectar which

each of the clustered flowers secretes. Our cultivated sun-

flowers, I think, are indifferent honey plants, though some
Fie. 100.— Aster. :

think them big with beauty, and their seeds are relished by
poultry. But the asters (Fig. 100), so wide-spread, the

244 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

beggar-ticks, Bidens, and Spanish-needles of our marshes,
the tick-seed, Coreopsis, also, of the low, marshy places,
with hundreds more of the great family Composite, are replete
with precious nectar, and with favorable seasons make the
apiarist who dwells in their midst jubilant, as he watches the
bees, which fairly flood the hives with their rich and delicious
honey. In all of this great family, the flowers are small and
inconspicuous, clustered in compact heads, and when the
plants are showy with bloom, like the sun-flowers, the brilliancy
is due to the involucre, or bracts which serve as a frill to dec-
orate the more modest flowers.

I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey plants of
our country. Of course there are many omissions. Let all
apiarists, by constant observation, help to fill up the list.

BOOK ON BOTANY.

I am often asked what books are best to make apiarists
botanists. I am glad to answer this question, as the study of
botany will not only be valuable discipline, but will also fur-
nish abundant pleasure, and more, give important practical
information. Gray’s Lessons, and Manual of Botany, in one
volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., New
York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS.

‘It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds
with soft and silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom.
If his soil is rich, sugar maples and lindens may well serve a
similar purpose. The Judas tree, too, and tulip trees, both
North and South, may well be made to ornament the apiarist’s
home. For vines, obtain the wistarias. ;

Sow and encourage the sowing of Alsike clover and silver-
leaf buckwheat in your neighborhood. Be sure that your
wife, children and bees, can often repair to a large bed of the
new giant or grandiflora mignonette, and remember that it,
with cleome and borage, blooms till frost. Study the bee
plants of your region, and then study the above table, and pro-
vide for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape and
buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sow-

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 245

ing at the proper time. Don’t forget that borage and the:
mustards seem comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be
sure that all waste places are stocked with motherwort, catnip,
asters, etc. (See Appendix, page 289).

The above dates are only true for the most part in Michi-
gan and Northern Ohio, and for more Southern latitudes must
be varied, which by comparison of a few, as the fruit trees,
becomes no difficult matter.

246 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER XVII.
WINTERING BEES.

This is a subject, of course, of paramount importance to
the apiarist, as this is the rock on which some of even the
most successful have recently split. Yet I come fearlessly
to consider this question, as from all the multitude of dis-
asters I see no occasion for discouragement. If the problem
of successful wintering has not been solved already, it surely
will be, and that speedily. So important an interest was
never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is no reason to
think that history is now going to be reversed. Even the
worst aspect of the case—in favor of which I think, though
in opposition to such excellent apiarists as Marvin, Heddon,
etc., that there is no proof, and but few suggestions even—
that these calamities are the effects of an epidemic, would be
all powerless to dishearten men trained to reason from effect
to cause. Even an epidemic—which would by no means skip
by the largest, finest apiaries, owned and controlled by the
wisest, most careful, and most thoughtful, as has been the
case in the late “winters of our discontent,” nor only choose
winters of excessive cold, or following great drouth and
absence of honey secretion in which to work its hayoc—
would surely yield to man’s invention.

THE CAUSE OF DISASTROUS WINTERING.

Epidemie, then, being set aside as no factor in the solution,
to what shall we ascribe such wide-spread disasters? I fully
believe, and to no branch of this subject have I given more
thought, study, and observation, that all the losses may be
traced either to unwholesome food, failure in late breeding
of the previous year, extremes of temperature, or to pro-
tracted cold with excessive dampness. I know from actual
and wide-spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 247

1871 was attended in this part of Michigan with unsuitable
honey in the hive. The previous autumn was unprecedentedly
ary. Flowers were rare, and ‘storing was largely from insect se-
cretion,and consequently the stores were unwholesome. I tasted
of honey from many hives only to find it most nauseating. I
fully believe that had the honey been thoroughly extracted the
previous autumn, and the bees fed good honey or sugar, no
loss would have been experienced. At least it is significant
that all who did so, escaped, even where their neighbors all
failed. Nor less so the fact that when I discovered eight of
my twelve colonies dead, and four more just alive, I cleaned
the remaining ones all out, and to one no worse nor better
than the others I gave good capped honey stored early the
previous summer, while the others were left with their old
stores, that one lived and gave the best record I have ever
known, the succeeding season, while all the others died.

Again, suppose that after the basswood season in July,
there is no storing of honey, either from want of space, or
from lack of bloom. In this case brood-rearing ceases. Yet
if the weather is dry and warm, as of course it will be in
August and September, the bees continue to wander about,
death comes apace, and by autumn the bees are reduced in
numbers, old in days, and illy prepared to brave the winter
and perform the dutics of spring. I fully believe that if all
the colonies of our State and country had been kept breeding
by proper use of the extractor, and feeding, even till into
October, we should have had a different record, especially as
to spring dwindling, and consequent death. In the autumn
of 1872 I kept my bees breeding till the first of October.
The following winter I had no loss, while my neighbors lost
all of their bees.

Extremes of heat and c6ld are also detrimental to the bees.
If the temperature of the hive becomes too high the bees
become restless, eat more than they ought, and if confined to
their hives are distended with their foeces, become diseased,
besmear their comb and hives, and die. If when they become
thus-disturbed, they could have a purifying flight, all would
be well.

Again, if the temperature becomes extremely low, the bees to
keep up the animal heat must take more food ; they are uneasy,

248 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

exhale much moisture, which may settle and freeze on the
outer combs about the cluster, preventing the bees from getting
the needed food, and thus in this case both dysentery and
starvation confront the bees. That able and far-seeing
apiarist the lamented M. Quinby, was one of the first to
discover this fact; and here as elsewhere gave advice that if
heeded, would have saved great loss and sore disappointment.

I have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation,
that.in the past severe winters, those bees which under con-
finement have been subject to severe extremes, are the ones
that have invariably perished. Had the bees been kept in a
uniform temperature ranging from 35° to 45° F., the record
would have been materially changed.

Excessive moisture, too, especially in cases of protracted
cold, is always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals,
are constantly giving off moisture, which of course will be
accelerated if the bees become disturbed, and are thus led to
consume more food. This moisture not only acts as explained
above, but also induces fungous growths. The mouldy comb is
not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence
another necessity of sufficient warmth to drive this moisture
from the hive and some means to absorb it without opening
the hive above and permitting a current, which will disturb
the bees, and cause the greater consumption of honey.

THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING—GOOD FOOD.

To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty
pounds by weight not guess—I have known three cases when
guessing meant starvaution—of good capped honey (coffee A
sugar is just as good). If desired this may be fed as previ-
ously explained, which should be done so early that all will
be capped during the warm days of October. Let us be wary
how we trust even crystallized glucose. It might be safe
during a warm winter, when the bees would have frequent
flights, yet prove disastrous in a cold winter. Let us use it
cautiously till its merits are assured. I prefer, too, that some
of the comb in the centre of the hive has empty cells, to give
a better chance to cluster, and that all the combs have a
small hole through the centre, that the bees may pass freely
through. This hole may simply be cut with a knife, or a tin

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 249

tube the size of one’s finger may be driven through the comb,
and left in if desired, in which case the comb should be
pushed out of the tube, and the tube be no longer than the
comb is thick. This perforatory work I always do early in
October, when I extract all uncapped honey, take out all
frames after I have given them the 30 lbs., by weight, of
honey, confine the space with a division-board, cover with the
quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till the cold of
November calls for further care.

SECURE LATE BREEDING.

Keep the bees breeding till the first of October. Except
in years of excessive drouth, this will occur in many parts
of Michigan without extra care. Failure may result from the
presence of worthless queens. Any queens which seem not
to be prolific should be superseded whenever the fact becomes
evident. J regard this as most important. Few know how
much is lost by tolerating feeble, impotent queens in the
apiary, whose ability can only keep the colonies alive. Never
keep such queens about. Here, then, is another reason for
always keeping extra queens on hand. Even with excellent
queens, a failure in the honey yield may cause breeding to
cease. In such cases, we have only to feed as directed under
the head of feeding.

TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE.

We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature.
It is desirable to keep the temperature between 35° and 50°
F. through the entire winter, from November to April. If
no cellar or house is at hand, this may be accomplished as

‘ follows : Some pleasant dry day in late October or early No-
vember, raise the stand and place straw beneath ; then sur-
round the hive with a box a foot outside the hive, with
movable top and open on the east ; or else have a long wooden
tube, opposite the entrance, to permit flight. This tube
should be six or eight inches square, to permit easy
examinatior in winter. The same end may be gained
by, driving stake, and putting boards around. When we
crowd between the box and the hive either straw, chaff, or
shavings. After placing a good thickness of'straw above the

250 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

hive, lay on the cover of the box, or cover with boards.
This preserves against changes of temperature during the
winter, and also permits the bees to fly if it becomes neces-
sary from a protracted period of warm winter weather. I
have thus kept all my bees safely during two of the disastrous
winters.

As there is at present no plan of wintering, which promises
to serve so well for all our apiarists, in view of its cheapness,
ease, convenience, and universal efficiency, I will describe.in
detail the box now in use at the College, which costs only

one dollar per hive, and which is convenient to store away in
summer.

BOX FOR PACKING.

The sides of this (Fig. 101, a, a), facing east and west are
three and a half feet long, two feet high on the south end,

Fie. 101.

L ae eae

and two and a half feet on the north. They are in one piece,
which is secured by nailing the boards which form them to
cleats, which are one inch from the ends. The north end

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 251

(Fig. 101, 4) is three feet by two and a half feet, the south
(Fig. 101, 6), three feet by two, and made the same as are the
sides. The slanting top of the sides (Fig. 101, a, a) is made
by using for the upper board, the strip formed by sawing
diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches wide and
.three feet long. The cover (Fig. 101, g), which is removed
in the figure, is large enough to cover the top and project one
inch at both ends. It should be battened, and held in one
piece by cleats (Fig. 101, 2) four inches wide, nailed on to
the ends. These will drop over the ends of the box, and thus
hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow from
driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the
rain to run off easily, and will dry quickly after a storm.
By a single nail at each corner the four sides may be
tacked together about the hives, when they can be packed
in with straw (Fig 101), which should be carefully done if
the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. At the centre
and bottom of the east side (Fig. 101, c), cut out a square
eight inches each way, and between this and the hive place
a bottomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as
removed in figure to show entrance to hive), before putting
around the straw and adding the cover. This box should be
put in place before the bleak cold days of November, and
retained in position till the stormy winds of April are passed
by. This permits the bees to fly when very warm weather
comes in winter or spring, and requires no attention from the
apiarist. By placing two-.or three hives close together in
autumn—yet never move the colonies more than three or
Jour feet at any one time, as such removals involve the loss
of many bees—one box may be made to cover all, and at less
expense. Late in April these may be removed and packed
away, and the straw carried away, or removed a short distance
and burned.
CHAFF HIVES.

Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, and others, prefer chaff
hives, which are simply double-walled hives, with the four or
five inch chambers filled with chaff. The objection to these
I take to be: First, Danger that so limited a space would
not answer in severe seasons; Second, That such cumbrous

252 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

hives would be inconvenient to handle in summer; and,
Third, A matter of expense. That they would in part supply
the place of shade, is, perhaps, in their favor, while Mr. A. I.
Root thinks they are not expensive.

WINTERING IN CELLAR OR HOUSE.

With large apiaries the above method is expensive, and
specialists may prefer a cellar or special depository, which I
think are quite as safe, though they demand attention ‘and
perhaps labor in winter. After my experience in the winter
of 1874 and ‘1875, losing all my bees by keeping them ina
house with double walls filled in with saw-dust, in which the
thermometer indicated a temperature below zero for several
weeks, in which time my strongest colonies literally starved
to death in the manner already described, I hesitate to
recommend a house above ground for Michigan, though with
very numerous colonies it might do. Such a house must, if
it answer the purpose, keep an equable temperature, at least
3° and not more than 10° above freezing, be perfectly dark,
and ventilated with tubes above and below, so arranged as to
be closed or opened at pleasure, and not admit a ray of light.

A cellar in which we are sure of our ability to control the
temperature, needs to be also dry, dark, and quiet, and venti-
lated as described above. As already stated, the ventilator
to bring air may well be made of tile, and pass through the
earth for some feet and then open at the bottom of the
cellar. If possible, the ventilator that carries the foul air off
should be connected with a stove pipe in a room above, with
its lower end reaching to the bottom of the cellar. The
College apiary cellar is grouted throughout, which makes it
more dry and neat. Of course it should be thoroughly drained.

The colonies should be put into the depository when the
hives are dry, before cold weather, and should remain
till April; though in January and March, if there are
days that are warm, they should be taken out and the bees
permitted to fly, though not unless they seem uneasy and
soil the entrance to their hives. Always when taken out
they should be placed on their old stands, so that no bees
may be lost. Towards night, when all are quiet, return
them to the cellar.. I would not remove bees till towards.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 253

night, as it is better that they have a good flight, and then
become quiet. When moved out it is very desirable to brush
away all dead bees whichis an argument in favor of a movable
bottom-board. In moving the hives, great care should ‘be
exercised not to jarthem. It were better if the bees should
not know that they were being moved at all.

That the moisture may be absorbed, I cover the bees with
a quilt, made of coarse factory cloth, enclosing a layer of
cotton batting. Above this I fill in with straw which is
packed in so closely that the cover may be removed without
the straw falling out. If desirable the straw may be cut—
or chaff may be used—and may be confined in a bag made of
factory, so that it resembles a pillow. I now use these and
like them. This is not. only an excellent absorbent, but
ls the heat, and may well remain, till the following

une,

I have found it advantageous, when preparing my:bees for
winter, in October, to contract the chamber by use of a divi-
sion board. This is very desirable if wintered out doors, and
with frames a foot square is very easily accomplished. By
use of eight frames the space (one cubic foot) is very compact,
and serves to economize the heat, not only in winter, but in
spring. By thus using a division board with only three
frames, I have been very successful in wintering nuclei. We
have only to guard against low temperature.

Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong
in autumn ; but I have said before, never have weak colonies.
Yet for fear some have been negligent, I remark that weak
colonies should be united in preparing for winter. To do this,
approximate the colonies each day four or five feet till they
are side by side. Now remove the poorest queen, then smoke
thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened water
scented with essence of peppermint, putting a sufficient number
of the best frames and all the bees into one of the hives, and
then set this midway between the position of the hives at the
commencement of the uniting. The bees will unite peaceably,
and make a strong colony. Uniting colonies may pay at
other seasons. It may seem rash to some, yet I fully believe
that if the above suggestions are carried out in full, I may
guarantee successful wintering. But if we do lose our bees—

254 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

with all our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in
the spring, with a perfect certainty of making 200 or 300 per
cent. on our investment. Even with the worst condition of
things, we are still ahead, in way of profit, of most other

vocations.
BURYING BEES.

Another way to winter safely and very economically, is to
bury the bees. If this is practiced the ground should either
be sandy or ell drained. If we can choose a side-hill it should
be done. Beneath the hives and around them, straw should
be placed. I should advise leaving the entrance well open,
yet secure against mice. The hives should all be placed
beneath the surface level of the earth, then form a mound
above them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or
cold. A trench about the mound to carry the water off
quickly is desirable. In this arrangement the ground acts as
a moderator. Five colonies thus treated the past winter,
(1877-8) lost all told less than one-half gill of bees. As this
method has not been so long tried, as the others, I would
suggest caution. Try it with a few colonies, till you are
assured as to the best arrangement, and of its efficacy. I am
inclined to think that it is next to a good snow-bank, as a
winter repository.

SPRING DWINDLING.

As already suggested, this is not to be feared if we keep
our bees breeding till late autumn. It may be further
prevented by forbidding late autumn flights, frequent flights
in winter, when the weather is warm, and too early flying in
spring. These may all be curtailed orprevented by the pack-
ing system as described above, as thus prepared the bees will
not feel the warmth, and so will remain quiet in the hive.
Nine colonies which I have packed have been remarkably
quiet, and are in excellent condition this, February 25th,
while two others unpacked have flown day after day, much,
I fear, to their injury. I would leave bees in the packing
till near May, and in the cellar or ground, till early flowers
bloom, that we may secure against too rapid demise of bees in

spring.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 255

CHAPTER XVIII

THE HOUSE APIARY.

DESCRIPTION.

This is a double-walled house, which may be rectangular
or octagonal in form. The outer wall should be of brick, and
made as thin as possible. Inside of this there should be
wooden strips two-inches thick, which should receive a layer
of paper-sheeting inside, which may be held by nailing strips
two-inches wide immediately inside the first mentioned strips.
These last strips should receive lath, after which all should
be plastered. This may cost more than a purely wooden
structure, but it will be more nearly frost-proof than any
other kind of wall, and in the end will be the cheapest.
There will be two dead air-chambers, each two inches deep,
one between the paper and brick, the other between the paper
and the plaster. The entire wall will be at least eight inches
thick, If desired, it may be made less thick by using one-
inch strips, though for our very severe winters the above is
none toothick. The doors and windows should be double and
should all shut closely against rubber. The outer ones should
consist of glass, and should be so hung as to swing out, and
in hot weather should be replaced with door, and window-
screens, of coarse, painted, wire gauze. A small window just
above each colony of bees is quite desirable.

Somewhere in the walls there should be a ventilating tube
—a brick flue would be very good—which should open into
the room just above the floor. Above it might open into the
attic, which should be well aired. Ventilators such as are
so common on barns might be used.

The pipe for admitting air, should, as in the cellar before
described, pass through the ground and enter the floor from
below. A good cellar, well ventilated and thoroughly dry
will be convenient, and should not be neglected. I would
have the building but one story, with joists in ceiling above

256 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

eight inches thick. Above these I would sheet with building
paper, fastened by nailing strips two inches deep on top,
above which I would ceil with matched boards. I should
lath and plaster below the joists. The hives, which are to be
kept constantly in this house, may rest on two rows of shelves,
one at the floor, the other three feet high, and should be ar-
ranged for both top and side storing in the small section
frames. Indeed, the hive need only consist of the two rab-
beted side-boards (Fig. 30, ¢), and a division-board with
quilt. The entrances of course pass through the wall. An
alighting-board, so hinged as to be let down in summer, but
tightly closed over the entrance during very severe winter
weather, I should think would. be very desirable. Between
the double windows, which it will be remembered shut closely
against rubber, sacks of chaff may be placed in winter, if
found necessary to keep the proper temperature. With few
colonies this might be very necessary. The adjacent entrances
should vary in color, so that young queens would not go
estray, when they returned from their “marriage flight.”

ARE THEY DESIRABLE ?

As yet, I think this question cannot be answered. Some
who have tried them, among whom are Messrs. Russell and
Heddon, of this State, pronounce against them. Perhaps
they have faulty houses, perhaps they have had too brief an ex-
perience to judge correctly. Others, among whom are Messrs.
A. I. Root, Burch, and Nellis, have tried them, and are loud
in their favor. I think these first trials are hardly conclusive,
as perfection seldom comes in any system with the first expe-
rience. That the early use of these houses has met with so
much favor, seems to argue that with more experience, and
greater perfection, they may become popular. Yet I would
urge people to be slow to adopt these costly houses, as enough
will do so to thoroughly test the matter ; when, if they prove
a desideratum, all can build; whereas, if they prove worth-
less, we shall not have to regret money squandered, in the
adoption of what was of doubtful value.

THE CASE AS IT NOW STANDS.

The desirable points as they now appear, are: First. The
bees are in condition to winter with no trouble or anxiety.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 257

Second. The bees are handled in the house, and as thiey fly at
once to the windows, where they can be suffered to escape,
they are very easily and safely handled, even with little or no
protection. Third. As we can extract, manipulate honey
boxes, ete., right in the same house, it is desirable on the
score of convenience. Fourth. As the bees are protected
from the sudden rise of the out-door temperature, they will
be kept from frequent flights during the cold, forbidding days
of fall, winter and spring, and will thus be more secure against
spring dwindling. Fifth. As the bees are so independent of
out-door heat, because of the thick walls, with intervening
alr-spaces, they are found less inclined to swarm. Sixth.
We can lock our house, and know that thieves cannot steal.
our hard-earned property.

The objections to them are: First. The bees leave the
hives while being handled, craw! about the house, from which
it is difficult to dislodge them, especially the young bees.
This objection may disappear with improved houses and prac-
tice. Sevond. In very severe winters, like that of 1874 and
1875, they may not offer sufficient protection, yet they would
be much safer than chaff hives, as there would be many colo-
nies all mutually helping each other to maintain the requisite
temperature, and the walls might be even thicker than speci-
fied above, without any serious inconvenience. Third. Some
think it pleasanter and. more desirable to handle bees out-
doors, where all is unconfined. Fourth. The cost of the
house ; yet this is only for once in a life-time, and saves pro-
viding shade, sawdust, packing-boxes, complex hives, ete.

So, we see the question is too complex to be settled except
by careful experiment, and this, too, for a series of years.
There are so many now in usc in the various States, that the
question must soon be settled. I predict that these structures
will grow more and more into favor,

258 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER XIX.
EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST.

There are various dangers that are likely to vex the apia-
rist, and even to stand in the way of successful apiculture.—
Yet, with knowledge, most, if not all of these evils may be
wholly vanquished. Among these are: Robbing among the
bees, disease, and dey redations from other animals.

ROBBING.

This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inex~
perienced. Bees only rob at such times as the general
scarcity of nectar forbids honest gains. When the question
comes: Famine or theft, like many another, they are not
slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by working
with the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered
about or left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be
feared in spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both
honey and bees, and thus are unable to protect their own
meager stores. The remedies for this evil are not far to
seek : ;

First. Strong colonies are very rarely molested, and are
almost sure to defend themselves against marauders ; hence,
it is only the weaklings of the apiarist’s flock that are in
danger. Therefore, regard for our motto, “Keep all colo-
nies strong,” will secure against harm from this cause.

Second. Italians, as before stated, are fully able, and quite
as ready, to protect their rights against neighboring tramps.
Woe be to the thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred
rights of the home of our beautiful Italians. For such
temerity is almost sure to cost the intruder its life.

But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and those too of black
bees, are still easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing
of the entrance so that but a single bee can pass through, is

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 259

all sufficient. With the hive we have recommended, this is
easily accomplished by simply moving the hive back.

Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to
move them into the cellar for a few days. This is a further
advantage, as less food is eaten, and the strength of the indi-
vidual bees is conserved by the quiet, and as there is no
nectar in the fields no loss is suffered.

In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey gather-
ing, we cannot be too careful to keep all honey from the bees
unless placed in the hives. The hives, too, should not be
kept open long at a time. Neat, quick work should be the
watch-word. During times when robbers are essaying to
practice their nefarious designs, the bees are likely to he
more than usually irritable, and likely to resent intrusion ;
hence the importance of more than usual caution, if it is
desired to introduce a queen.

DISEASE,

The common dysentery—indicated by the bees soiling their
hives, as they void their feces within instead of without—
which has been so free, of late, to work havoc in our apiaries,
is, without doubt, I think, consequent upon wrong manage-
ment on the part of the apiarist, as already suggested in
Chapter XVII. As the methods to prevent this have already
been sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible

FOUL BROOD.

This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle—though
this is doubtful, as a stench attends common dysentery—
though it has occurred in our State as well as in States
about us, is not familiar to me, J having never seen but one
case, and that on Kelly’s Island, in the summer of 1875,
where I found it had reduced the colonies on that Island to
two. No bee malady can compare with this in malignancy.
By it Dzierzon once lost his whole apiary of 500 colonies.—
Mr. E. Rood, first President of the Michigan Association, has
lost his bees two or three times by this same terrible plague.

The symptoms are as follows: Decline in the prosperity
of the colony, because of failure to rear brood. The brood
seems to putrefy, becomes “brown and salvy,’and gives off a

260 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

stench, which is by no means agreeable, while later, the caps
o concave instead of convex, and have a little hole through
them.

There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fear-
ful plague. Like the fell ‘Pebrine,’ which came so near
exterminating the “silk worm,’ and a most lucrative and
extensive industry in Europe, it, as conclusively shown by
Drs. Preusz and Shonfeld, of Germany, is the result of fun-
gous or vegetable growth. Shdnfeld not only infected healthy
bee larvae, but those of other insects, both by means of the
putrescent foul brood, and by taking the spores.

Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so
infinitesimally small as often to elude the sharp detection of
the expert microscopist. Most of the terrible, contagious
diseases that human flesh is heir to, like typhus, diphtheria,
cholera, small pox, &c., &¢., are now thought to be due
to microscopic germs, and hence to be spread from home
to home, and from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary
that the spores, the minute seeds, either by contact or by
some sustaining air current, be brought to new soil of flesh
blood or other tissue—their garden spot—when they at once
spring into growth, and thus lick up the very vitality of
their victims. The huge mushroom will growin anight. So
too, these other plants—the disease germs—will develop
with marvelous rapidity; and hence the horrors of yellow
fever, scarlatina, and cholera. ,

To cure such diseases, the fungi must be killed. To pre-
vent their spread, the spores must be destroyed, or else con-
fined. But as these are so small, so light, and so invisible—
easily borne and wafted by the slightest zephyr of summer,
this is often a matter of the utmost difficulty.

In “Foul Brood” these germs feed on the larve of the
bees, and thus convert life and vigor into death and decay.
If we can kill this miniature forest of the hive, and destroy
the spores, we shall extirpate the terrible plague.

REMEDIES.

If we can find a substance that will prove fatal to the
fungi, and yet not injure the bees, the problem is solved.
Our German scientists—those masters in scientific research

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 261,

and discovery, have found this valuable fungicide in salicylic:
acid, an extract from the same willows that give us pollen
and nectar. This cheap white powder is easily soluble in
alcohol, and when mixed with borax in water.

Mr. Hilbert, one of the most thoughtful of German bee-
keepers, was the first to effect a radical cure of foul brood in
his apiary by the use of this substance. He dissolved fifty
grains of the acid in five hundred grains of pure spirits.
One drop of this in a grain of distilled water is the mixture
he applied. Mr. C. F. Muth, from whom the above facts as
to Herr Hilbert are gathered, suggests a variation in. the
mixture.

Mr. Muth suggests an improvement, which takes advantage
of the fact that the acid, which alone is very insoluble
in water, is, when mixed with borax, soluble. His recipe
is as follows: One hundred and twenty-eight grains of”
salicylic acid, one hundred and twenty-eight grains of soda
borax, and sixteen ounces distilled water. There is no reason:
why water without distillation should not do as well.

This remedy is applied as follows: First uncap all the brood,
then throw the fluid over the comb in a fine spray. This.
will not injure the bees, but will prove fatal to the fungi.

If the bees are removed to an empty hive, and. given no.
comb for three or four days, till they have digested all the
honey in their stomachs, and then prevented visiting the
affected hive, they are said to be out of danger. It would
seem that the spores are in the honey, and by taking that, the
contagion is administered to the young bees. The honey may
be purified from these noxious germs, by subjecting it to the
boiling temperature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to
the spores of fungoid life. By immersing the combs in a
salicylic acid solution, or sprinkling them with the same,
they would be rendered sterile, and could be used without
much fear of spreading contagion. The disease is probably
spread by robber bees visiting affected hives, and carrying
with them in the honey the fatal germs.. sig, wate

I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and
water is very superior, and I much prefer it for either gen-
eral or special use to gum Arabic. Yet it soon sours
—which means that it is nourishing these fungoid plants— .

262 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

and thus becomes disagreeable. I have found that a very
little salicylic acid will render it sterile, and thus preserve it
indefinitely.

ENEMIES OF BEES.

Swift was no mean entomologist, as shown in the follow-

ing stanza:
“The little fleas that do us tease,
Have lesser fleas to bite them,
And these again have lesser fleas,
And so ad infinitum,”

Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave
the attacks of reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they
are beset with perils at home, and perils abroad, perils by night
and perils by day.

THE BEE MOTH—Galleria Cereana, Fabr.

This insect belongs to the family of snout moths, Pyra-
lide. This snout is not the tongue, but the palpi, which
fact was not known by Mr. Langstroth, who is usually so

Fie. 102.

accurate, as he essayed to correct Dr. Harris, who stated cor-
rectly, that the tongue, the ligula, was “very short and
hardly visible.” This family includes the destructive hop

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 263

moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its mem-
bers are very readily recognized by their unusually long
palpi, the so-called snouts.

The eggs of the bee moth are white, globular and very
small. ‘These are usually pushed into crevices by the female
moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid
of her spy-glass-like ovipositor. They may be laid in the
hive, in the crevice underneath it or about the entrance.—
Soon these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty looking cater-
pillars, with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed.
To better protect themselves from the bees, they wrap them-
selves in a silken tube (Fig. 102) which they have power to
spin. They remain in this tunnel of silk during all their
growth, enlarging it as they eat. By looking closely, the
presence of these larva may be known by this robe of glis-
tening silk, as it extends in branching outlines (Fig. 103)
along the surface of the comb. A more speedy detection,

Fig. 108.

even, than the defaced comb, comes from the particles of
comb, intermingled with the powder-like droppings of the
caterpillars, which will always be seen on the bottom-board
in case the moth-larvee are at work. Soon, in three or four
weeks, the larvee are full grown (Fig. 104). Now the six

264 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

jointed, and the ten prop-legs—making sixteen in all, the usual
number of caterpillars—are plainly visible. These larvae
are about an inch long, and show, by their plump appearance,

Fie. 104.

that they at least, can digest comb. They now spin their
cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very nu-
merous, singly (Fig. 105, «) or in clusters (Fig. 105, 6) on the
comb, or even in the drone-cells (Fig. 105, ¢) in which they

become pupz, and in two weeks, even less, sometimes, during
the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In
winter, they may remain as pupx for months. The moths or

Fie. 106.

millers—sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers—are of
an obscure gray color, and thus somimic old boards, that they

MANUAL OF TIE APIARY. 265

are very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are
about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (lig. 106)
nearly one and one-fourth inches. The females (Fig. 107) are
darker than the males (Fig. 107), possess a longer snout, and
are usually a little larger. The wings, when the moths are
quiet (Fig. 107) are flat on the back for a narrow space, then
slope very abruptly. They rest by day, yet, when disturbed,
will dart forth with great swiftness, so Réuamur styled them
“nimble-footed.” They are active by night, when they essay

Fia. 107.

Male. Female.

to enter the hive and deposit their one or two hundred eggs.
If the females are held in the hand they will often extrude
their eggs; in fact, they have been known to do this even after
the head and thorax were severed from the abdomen, and still
more strange, while the latter was being dissected.

It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first
moths occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I
have seen these moths in every month from May to Septem-
ber, and as I have proved by actual observation that they may
pass from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under
favorable conditions there may be even three broods a year.
It is true that the varied conditions of temperature—as the
moth larvee may grow in a deserted hive, in one’ with few
bees, or one crowded with bee life—will have much to do
with the rapidity of development. Circumstances may so
retard growth and development that there may not be more
than two, and possibly, in extreme cases, more than one brood
in a season.

It is stated by Mr Quinby that a freezing temperature will
kill these insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks
that a deserted hive is safe, neither of which assertions are
correct. I have seen hives, whose bees were killed by the

266 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

severe winter, crowded with moth pupz or chrysalids the
succeeding summer. I have subjected both larvae and pupe
to the freezing temperature without injuring them. I
believe, in yery mild winters, the moth and the chrysalids
might be so protected as to escape unharmed, even outside
the hive. It is probable too, that the insects may pass the
winter in any one of the various stages.

HISTORY.

These moths were known ‘to writers of antiquity, as even
Aristotle tells of their injuries. They are wholly of oriental
origin, and are often referred to by Huropean writers as a
terrible pest. Dr. Kirtland, the able scientist, the first Pres-
ident of our American Bee Convention, whose decease we
have just had to mourn, once said in a letter to Mr. Lang-
stroth, that. the moth was first introduced into America in
1805, though bees had been introduced long before. They
first seemed to be very destructive. It is quite probable, as
has been suggested, that the bees had to learn to fear and
repel them ; for, unquestionably, bees do grow in wisdom.—
In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited knowl-
edge, which once had to be acquired by the animal. Surely
bees and other animals learn to battle new enemies, and vary
their habits with changed conditions, and they also transmit
this knowledge and their acquired habits to their offspring,
as illustrated by setter and pointer dogs. In time, may not
this account for all those varied actions, usually ascribed to
instinct? At least, I believe the bee to be a creature of no
small intelligence.

REMEDIES.

In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth.
Once a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even dis-
quiet the intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call it
a blessed evil, as it will destroy the bees ot the heedless, and
thus prevent injury to the markets by their unsalable honey,
while to the attentive bee-keeper it will work no injury at
all. Neglect and ignorance are the moth breeders.

As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by
moths, and strong colonies never. As the enterprising apia-
rist will only possess these, itis clear that he is free from

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 267

danger. The intelligent apiarist will also provide, not only
against weak, but queenless colonies as well, which from their
abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth inva-
sion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not
to court death, to make no effort to delay it.

In working with bees, an occasional web will be seen
glistening in the comb, which should be picked out with a
knife till the manufacturer—the ruthless larva—is found,
when it should be crushed. Any larva seen about the bot-
tom board, seeking a place to spin its cocoon, or any pup,
either on comb or in crack, should also be killed. If,
through carelessness, a colony has become hopelessly victim-
ized by these filthy, stinking, wax devourers, then the bees
and any combs not attacked should be transferred to another
hive, after which the old hive should be sulphured by use of
the smoker, as before described (page 216), then by giving one or
two each of the remaining combs to strong colonies, after kill-
ing any pup that may be on them, they will be cleaned
and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony brood, if it
has any vigor remaining, and if necessary a good queen, it
will soon be rejoicing in strength and prosperity.

We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and
frames of comb (page 216), and so need not speak further of
them.

BEE KILLER—Asilus Jissouriensis, Riley.

This is a two-winged fly, of the predacious family Asilida,
which attacks, and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon
its fluids. It is confined to the southern part of our country.

The fly (Fig. 108) has a lcng, pointed abdomen, strong
wings, and is very powerful. I have seen an allied species
attack and overcome the powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I
took them both with my net, and now have them pinned, as
they were captured, in our College cabinet. These flies de-
light in the warm sunshine, are very quick on the wing, and
are thus not easily captured. It is to be hoped that they
will not become very numerous. If they should, I hardly
know how they could be kept from their evil work. Fright-
ening them, or catching with a net might be tried, yet these
methods would irritate the bees, and need to be tried before

268 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

they are recommended. I have received specimens of this
fly from nearly every Southern State. There are very similar
flies North, belonging to the same genus, but as yet we have

Fie. 108.

no account of their attacking bees, though such a habit might
easily be acquired, and attacks here would not be surprising.

A fly very similar to the above in appearance, and possessed
of the same evil habits, is the Nebraska bee-killer— Promachus
bastardi, Loew.

Brz-Lousse—Branla Ceca, Nitsch.

This louse (Fig. 109) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of
the uniques among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite,

b Fie. 109.

Imago. Larva.
and serves as a very good connecting link between insects.
and spiders, or, still better, between the Diptera, where it
belongs, and the Hemiptera, which contains the bugs and

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 269

most of the lice. It assumes the semi-pupa state almost as
soon as hatched, and strangest of all, is, considering the size
of the bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its nour-
ishment, enormously large. Two or three, and sometimes even
more, (the new Encyclopedia Britanica says 50 or 100), are
often foundon asingle bee. When we consider their great size
we cannot wonder that they very soon, devitalize the bees.

_ These, as yet, have done little damage, except in the south
of Continental Europe. The fact that they have not become
naturalized in the northern part of the Continent, England
or America, would go to show that there is something inimi-
eal to their welfare in our climate, especially as they are
constantly being introduced, coming as hangers-on to our im-
ported bees. Within a year I have received them from no
less than three sources—twice from New York and once
from Pennsylvania—each time taken from bees just received
from Italy. The only way that I could suggest to rid bees
of them would be to make the entrance to the hive small, so
that as the bees enter, they would be scraped off.

IMPORTANT SUGGESTION.

Tn view of the serious nature of this pest and the difficulty in
the way of its extinction, I would urge importers, and people
receiving imported queens, to be very careful to see that
these lice, which, from their size, are so easily discovered,
are surely removed before any queen harboring them is intro-
duced. This advice is especially important, in view of the
similarity in climate of our own beautiful South, to the sunny
slopes of France and Italy. Very likely the lice could not
flourish in our Southern States,. but there would be great
cause to fear the results of its introduction into our Hldo-
rado, the genial States of the West. In California, they
might be even worse than the drouth, as they might come as
@ permanent, not a temporary evil.

BEE HAWK—Libellula.

This large, fine lace wing is a neuropterous insect. It
works in the Southern States and is called Mosquito-hawk.—

270 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

Insects of the same genus are called dragon flies, devil’s
darning-necdles, &. These are exceedingly predacious. In
fact, the whole sub-order is insectivorous. From its four
netted, veined wings, we can tell it at once from the asilus
before mentioned, which has but two wings. The Bee or
Mosquito-hawk is resplendent with metallic green, while the
Bee Killer is of sober gray. The Mosquito Hawk is not
inaptly named, as it not only preys on other insects, swoop-
ing down upon them with the dexterity of a hawk, but its
graceful gyrations, as it sports in the warm sunshine at noon-
day, are not unlike those of our graceful hawks and falcons.
These insects are found most abundant near water, as they
lay their eggs in water, where the larvee live and fved upon
other animals. The larve are peculiar in breathing by gills
in their rectum. The same water that bathes these organs
and furnishes oxygen, is sent out in a jet, and thus sends the
insect darting along. The larve also possess enormous jaws,
which formidable weapons are masked till it is desired to use
them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped or unhinged
and the terrible jaws open and close upon the unsuspecting
victim, which has but a brief time to bewail its temerity.

A writer from Georgia, in Gleanings, volume 6, page 35,
states that these destroyers are easily scared away, or brought
down by boys with whips, who soon become as expert in
capturing the insects, as are the latter in seizing the bees. The
insects are very wild and wary, and I should suppose this
method would be very efficient.

TACHINA FLY.

From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain

that there isa two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 271.

(Fig. 110), that works on bees. I have never seen these,
though I have repeatedly. requested those who have, to send
them to me. My friend, Mr. J. L. Davis, put some sick
looking bees into a cage, and hatched the flies which he told
me looked not unlike a small house fly. It is the habit
of these flies, which belong to the same family as our house
flies, which they much resemble, to lay their eggs on other
insects. Their young, upon hatching, burrow into the insect
that is being victimized, and grow by eating it. It would
be difficult to cope with this evil, should it become of great.
magnitude. We may well hope that this habit of eating
bees is an exceptional one with it.

SPIDERS.

These sometimes spread their nets so as to capture bees.

If porticoes—which are, I think, worse than a useless ex-
” pense—are omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for
complaints against the spiders, which on the whole are friends.
As the bee-keeper who would permit spiders to worry his bees
would not read books, I will discuss this subject no further.

: ANTS.

These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and
seldom, if ever, I think, do any harm. Should the apiarist.
feel nervous, he can very readily brush them away, or destroy
them by use of any of the fly poisons which are kept in the
markets. As these poisons are made attyactive by adding
sweets, we must be careful to preclude the bees from gaining
access to them. As we should use them in spring, and as we
then need to keep the quilt or honey-board close above the
bees, and as the ants cluster above the brood chamber, it is
not difficult to practice poisoning. One year I tried Paris
green with perfect success. ‘

‘

WASPS.

I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South,
as in Europe, we hear of such depredations. I have received
wasps, sent by our southern brothers, which .were caught
destroying bees. The wasps are very predacious, and do

272 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect pests. - I
have seen wasps carry off “currant-worms”’ with a celerity
that was most refreshing.

As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much
damage—even if they ever do any—any great damage which
may occur would doubtless come from the social paper-
makers. In this case, we have only to find the nests and
apply the torch, or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest
and shoot. This should be done at nightfall when the wasps
have all gathered home. Let us not forget that the wasps do
much good, and so not practice wholesale slaughter unless we
have strong evidence against them.

THE KING BIRD—TZyrannus Carolinensis.

This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly-
catchers, a very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly
insectivorous, and do immense good by destroying our insect
pests. The king bird is the only one of them in the United
States that deserves censure. Another, the chimney swal-
low of Europe, has the sameevil habit. Our chimney swallow
has no evil ways. I am sure, from personal observation,
that these birds capture and eat the workers, as well as drones ;
and I dare say, they would pay no more respect to the finest
Italian Queen. Yet, in view of the good that these birds do,
unless they are far more numerous and troublesome than I
have ever observed them to be, I should certainly be slow to
recommend the death warrant.

THE TOADS.

The same may be said of the toads, which may often be
seen sitting demurcly at the entrance of the hives, and lap-
ping up the full-laden bees with the lightning-like movement
of their tongues, in a manner which can but be regarded
with interest, even by him who suffers loss. Mr. Moon, the
well known apiarist, made this an objection to low hives ;
yet, the advantage of such hives far more than compensates,
and with a bottom-board, such as described in the chapter
on hives, we shall find that the toads do very little damage.

MICE.
These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the

MANUAL OF TIIE APIARY. 273

apiary. They enter the hives in winter, mutilate the comb,
irritate, perhaps destroy, the bees, and create a very offensive
stench. ‘They often greatly injure comb which is outside the
hive, destroy smokers, by eating the leather off the bellows,
and if they get at the seeds of honey plants, they never re-
treat till they make a complete work of destruction.

In the house and cellar, these plagues should be, by use of
cat or trap, completely exterminated. If we winter on the
summer stands, the entrance should be so contracted that mice
cannot enter the hive. In case of packing as I have recom-
mended, I should prefer a more ample opening, which may be
safely secured by taking a piece of wire cloth or perforated
tin, and tacking it over the entrance, letting it come within
one-fourth of an inch of the bottom-board. This will give
more air, and still preclude the entrance of these miserable
vermin. (See Appendix, page 293).

274 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

CHAPTER XxX.
CALENDAR AND AXIOMS.

WORK FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS.*

Though every live apiarist will take one, at least, of the three
excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our country,
in which the necessary work of each month will be detailed,
yet it may be well to give some brief hints in this place.

JANUARY.

During this month the bees will need little attention. —
Should the bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy,
which will not happen if the requisite precautions are taken,
and there come a warm day, it were well to set them on their
summer stands, that they may enjoy a purifying flight. At
night when all are again quiet return them to the cellar.—
While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if
there are many dead bees. This is the time, too, to read,
visit, study and plan for the ensuing season’s work.

FEBRUARY.

No advice is necessary further than that given for Janu-
ary, though if the bees have a good fly in January, they will
scarcely need attention in this month. The presence of snow
on the ground need not deter the apiarist from giving his
bees a flight, providing the day is warm and still. It is
better to let them alone if they are quiet.

MARCH.

Bees should still be kept housed, and those outside still retain
about them the packing of straw, shavings, &c. Frequent
flights do no good, and wear out the bees. Colonies that are
uneasy, and besmear their hives should be set out, and
allowed a good flight and then returned.

*These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where the fruit trees blossom
about the first of May. By noting these flowers, the dates can be easily changed
to suit any locality

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 275

The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens
and drones should now be fed, to stimulate breeding. By
careful pruning, too, we may and should prevent the rearing
of drones in any but the best colonies. If from lack of care
the previous autumn, any of our stocks are short of stores, now
is when it will be felt. In such cases feed either honey, sugar,
syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath the quilt.

APRIL.

Early in this month the bees may all be set out. It will
be best to feed all, and give all access to flour, when they
will work at it, though usually they can get pollen as soon
as they can fly out to advantage. Keep the brood chamber
contracted so that the frames will all be covered, and cover
well above the bees to economize heat.

MAY.

Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till
bloom appears. Give room for storing. Extract if neces-
sary, and keep close watch, that you may anticipate and
forestall any attempt to swarm. Now, too, is the best time
to transfer.

JUNE.

Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens.
Divide the colonies, as may be desired, especially enough to
prevent attempts at swarming. Extract if necessary or best ;
adjust frames or sections, if comb honey is desired, and be
sure to keep all the white clover honey, in whatever form
taken, separate from all other. Now is the best time to
Italianize. :

= JULY.

The work this month is about the same as that of June.—
Supersede all poor and feeble queens. Keep the basswood
honey by itself, and remove boxes or frames as soon as full.
Be sure that queens and workers have plenty of room to do
their best, and suffer not the hot sun to strike the hives.

AUGUST.
Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between bass-

"

276 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

wood and fall bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give
plenty of room for queen and workers as fall storing com-
mences.

SEPTEMBER.

Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing
ceases, which usually occurs about the middle of this month ;
feed sparingly till the first of October. If robbing occurs,
contract the entrance of the hive robbed. If it is desired to
feed honey or sugar for winter, it should be done the last of
this month.

OCTOBER.

Prepare colonies for winter. See that all have at least
thirty pounds, by weight, of good, capped honey, and that all
are strong in bees. Contract the chamber, by using division
board, and cover well with the quilt. Be sure that one or
two central frames of comb contain many empty cells, and
that all have a central hole through which the bees can pass.

NOVEMBER.

Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar
or depository, or pack about those left out on the summer
stands.

DECEMBER.

Now is the time to make hives, honey-boxes, &c., for the
coming year. Also labels for hives. These may just con-
tain the name of the colony, in which case the full'record
will be kept in a book; or the label may be made to contain
a full register as to time of formation, age of queen, &c., &e.
Slates are also used for the same purpose.

I know from experience that any who heed all of thé above
may succeed in bee-keeping,—may win a double success :—
Receive pleasure and make money. I feel sure that many
experienced apiarists will find advice that it may pay to
follow. It is probable that errors abound, and certain that
much remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that what
they do not know is greatly in excess of what they do know.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 27T

AXIOMS.

The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just as.
true to-day as they were when written by that noted author:

There are a few first principles in bee-keeping which
ought to be as familiar to the Apiarist as the letters of the
alphabet.

First. Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack.

Second. Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing
them to accept of liquid sweets. ;

Third. Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming
on their hives, fill themselves with honcy and lose all dispo-
sition to sting, unless they are hurt.

Fourth. Bees dislike any guwick movements about their
hives, especially any motion which jars their combs.

Fifth. In districts where forage is abundant only for a
short period, the largest yield of honey will be secured by a
very moderate increase of stocks.

Sixth. A moderate increase of colonies in any one season,
will, in the long run, prove to be the easiest, safest, and
cheapest mode of managing bees.

Seventh. Queenless colonies, unless supplied with a queen,
will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-
moth, or by robber-bees.

Eighth. The formation of new colonies should ordinarily

be confined to the season when bees are accumulating
honey; and if this, or any other operation, must be per-
formed when forage is scarce, the greatest precautions
should be used to prevent robbing.
“ The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in
Oettl’s Golden Rule: KEEP YOUR sTocks sTRONG. If you
cannot succeed in doing this, the more money you invest in
bees, the heavier will be your losses ; while, if your stocks are
strong, you will show that you are a dee-master, as well as
a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous returns.
from your industrious subjects.

“ Keep ail colonies strong.”

APPHN DIX
HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES.

Movable frames have revolutionized bee-keeping, and so
out-rank the reaper and mower, and equal the cotton-gin.
Few inventions have exerted so powerful an influence upon
the art which they serve. Their history will ever be a sub-
ject of exceeding interest to bee-keepers, and their inventor
worthy the highest regard as the greatest benefactor of our
art. In writing their history, I have no personal interest or
bias, and am only impelled by a love of truth and justice. I
am the more eager to write this history, as some of our
apiarists, and they among the best informed and most influ-
ential (American Bee Journal, vol. 14, p. 380), are misin-
formed in the premises. In obtaining the data for this
account, I am under many obligations to our great American
master in apiculture, Rev. L. L. Langstroth, whose thorough
knowledge and extensive library have been wholly at my
command.

We are informed by George Wheeler, in his ‘Journey into
Greece,” published in 1682, page 411, that the Greeks had
‘partial control of the combs. “The tops’ of the willow
hives “are covered with broad flat sticks. Along each of
these sticks the bees fasten their combs ; so that a comb may
be taken out whole.”

Swammerdam had no control of the comb, nor had Réau-
mur. ‘The latter used narrow hives, which contained but two
combs ; but these were stationary. Huber was the first to
construct a hive which gave him control of the combs and
access to the interior of the hive. In August, 1879, Huber
wrote to Bonnet as follows : ‘‘I took several small fir boxes,
a foot square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them together
by hinges, so that they could be opened and shut like the
leaves of a book. When using a hive of this description, we
took care to fix a comb in cach frame, and then introduced
all the bees.” —(Edinburgh edition of Huber, p. 4). Although

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 279

Morlot and others attempted to improve this hive, it never
gained favor with practical apiarists.

The first person to adjust frames in a case appeurs to have
been Mr. W. Augustus Munn, of England. I have in my
possession a letter from Mr. Munn, dated November 9th,
1863, in which he states that the hive “had been in use since
1834.” The first printed description of any of his hives ap-
peared in the “ Gardener's Chronicle” for 1843. This article
was written by a lady, and signed “E. M. W.” Its premature
publication made it impossible for Mr. Munn to secure a

Fie. 111.

patent in Great Britain. In 1843 he secured a patent in
France. The hive patented is fully described in his “ De-
scription of the Bar and Frame Hive,” published in London,
in 1844. There is also a figure (Fig.111). I copy from the
work which is before me, pp. 7 and 8: “ An oblong box is
formed, about thirty inches long, sixteen inches high, and
twelve inches broad. One of the long sides is constructed to
open with hinges, and to hang ona level with the bottom.
As many grooves half an inch broad, half an inch deep, and

280 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

about 94 inches long, are formed 14 inches apart on the inside.
of the bottom of the box, as its length will admit. At the
top are corresponding grooves to those made in the bottom
of the box. The bee-frames are made of half inch mahogany,
being 12 inches high, 9 inches long, and not more than half
an inch broad, sliding into the fifteen grooves formed on the
bottom, and kept securely in their places by the upper grooves,”
and by propolis, the author might well have added. American
apiarists need not be told that such a hive would be wholly
impracticable. Without bees in it, the changes of weather

Fig. 112.

would make the sliding of the frames very difficult ; with the
bees inside, the removal of the frames would be practically
impossible.

In 1851 Mr. Munn issued a second edition of his book, in
the preface of which I find the following: “ Having materially
simplified the bar-frame hive, by forming the ‘oblong bar-
frames’ into ‘ triangular frames,’ and making them lift out of
the top, instead of the back of the bee-box, I have repub-
lished the pamphlet.” The triangular hive (Fig. 112) is
described and figured, and is the same as found illustrated in

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 281

Munn’s “ Bevan on the Honey Bee.” This hive, although a
possible improvement on the other, is costly, intricate, and
still very impracticable. In the price-list of J. Pettitt, Dover,
England, 1864, I find this hive priced at £3 3s., or about
$15.00. From the figure we learn that there were some wide
spaces about the frames. These would of course be filled
with comb, and render the hives entirely unsuitable for com-
mon use. That this hive lacked the essential requisites to
success is evident from words penned by the inventor in 1863:
“The hive matters little if the pasturage is good.” And it
is easy to see from the complex arrangement of the frames,
and the wide spaces about them, that as Mr. Munn said,
referring to his hive, ‘‘ When left to themselves the bees shut
up the shop.” Had invention stopped with Major Munn’s
hive, we should to-day be using the old box hive, and sighing
in vain for a better. Neighbour well says (3d edition, p. 129):
“ Probably the reason of the invention’s failure was the
expensiveness of the Major’s fittings, which make the hive
appear more like some astronomical instrument, than a box
for bees. Be this as it may, there was no such thing as a
frame hive in use in England till 1860.”

It would seem strange, that after going so far Major Munn
should have failed to give bee-keepers a hive of value. Yet
with his view that smoke injured the bees and brood (2d edi-
tion, p. 21), we can readily see, that with his hive and black
bees, 2 man would need the skin of a rhinoceros, and nerves
of brass, to do much by way of actual manipulation for prac-
tical purposes. It has been truly said that “ The Huber hive
can be used with far greater ease and safety, by a novice, than
can Munn’s.”

It will be seen by reference to “ Bee Culture with Movable
Frames,” published by Pastor George Kleine, Hanover, Ger-
many, in 1853, p. 5, that a druggist by the name of Schmidt,
in a work which he published in Freiburg, in 1851, entitled,
“The New Bee Homes,” describes a hive with the Huber
leaves having prolonged tops which hung on rabbets, much as
do our frames. These Huber leaves were close-fitting, and
so not practical. Kleine regarded this as inferior to the
Huber hive, in that the combs must be taken out from above.
With a side opening he thinks it would be a material improve-

282 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

ment. Itisevident from Kleine’s work, that he knew nothing
either of Munn or his hive.

In 1847, Jacob Shaw, Jr., then of Hinckley, Ohio, pub-
lished in the Scientific American, March 5th, 1847, p. 187,
the description of a hive devised by him. A person who has
seen the hive tells me that as described and first used, this
hive had close-fitting frames, which rested in a double-walled
tin box. By turning hot water into the chamber, the frames
would be loosened. We do not wonder that, as Mr. Shaw
deposed, he only made one hive, and that he could only per-
suade one colony of the several which he tried, to accept the
situation, and that this one soon perished. He got no surplus,
and wisely set the hive aside.

In 1847, the well known agricultural writer, Solon Robin-
son, suggested in an article published in the Albany Cultiva-
tor, a tin hive made up of unicomb apartments which should
set close side by side, and be connected by inter-communica-
ting holes. Of course, such a hive would only succeed in the
imagination.

M. Debeauvoys published, in 1847, the 2d edition of
“Guide de l’Apiculteur,’ at Angers, France, in which he
described a movable comb hive, to meet the practical wants
of French bee-keepers. This hive was not only no improve-
ment on that of Huber, but even less easy of manipulation.
The top-bar and uprights of the frames were close-fitting to
the top and sides of the hive. Says M. Hamet, editor of the
French bee paper, in his work, “Cours Pratique.D’ Apicul-
ture,” 1859 edition: “The removal of the frames is more
difficult than from the Huber hive, and it has never been
accepted by the practical bee-keepers of France.” Mr. Chas.
Dadant describes this hive, which he once made and used, in the
American Bee Journal, vol. 7,p. 197. He says of it: “The
hive worked well when new and empty; but after the bees
had glued the frames, it was difficult to remove them without
breaking the combs. It would have been entirely impos-
sible to remove them at all, without separating the ends
of the hive from the frames with a chisel. This hive, which
had gained 2,500 proselytes in France, was very soon aban-
doned by all, and the disciples of Debeauvoys returned to
the old-fashioned straw hive.” ‘ He adds, further, that these

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 283

hives were disastrous to French bee culture. Once misled by
movable frames, they ever afterwards refused them even for
trial. Of course Mr. §. S. Fisher, once commissioner of
patents, and an expert, could see nothing in this hive, or any
of the inventor’s modifications of it, to invalidate the Lang-
stroth patent. How grateful all American apiarists should
be, that Mr. Langstroth’s invention was of a different type.

As already stated, bars were used centuries ago in Greece.
Della Rocca, in a work published in 1790, also’ describes bars
as used by him. Schirach used slats across the top of a box
with rear-opening doors, as early as 1771. In Key’s work,
“Ancient Bee Master’s Farewell,” London, 1796, p. 42, such
hives are described, and beautifully illustrated, plate 1, figs.
2 and 3. Bevan, London, 1838, describes on p. 82 a similar
hive, with the bars set in rabbets, which is figured on p. 83.

In 1835, Dzierzon, who has been to Germany what Lang-
stroth has to America, commenced bee-culture. Three years
later he adopted the bar hive, and although these bar hives
were previously of little value to practical apiculture, in his
hands they became a most valuable instrument. To remove
the combs, the great German master had to cut them loose
from the sides of the hives. Yet from his great skill in
handling them, his studious habits, and invaluable researches,
which gave to the world the knowledge of parthenogenesis
among bees, his hive and system marked a new era in German
apiculture.

In 1851, our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of
what foreign apiarian inventors had done, save what he could
find in Huber, and edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive
now in common use among the advanced apiarists of America. |
It is this hive, the greatest apiarian invention ever made,
that has placed American apiculture in advance of that of
all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America
could say with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, that the im-
proved hives were without value except to the amateur, and
inferior for practical purposes? Our apiarists not native to
our shores, like the late Adam Grimm and Mr..Chas. Dadant,
always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was the inventor of this
hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. Well did the
late Mr. 8. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly and truth- -

284 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

loving editor of the early volumes of the American Bee Jour-
nal, himself of German origin, say: ‘‘ When Mr. Langstroth
took up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, and
saw wherein he had failed—failing, possibly, only because he
aimed at nothing more than constructing an observing hive,
suitable for his purposes. Mr. Langstroth’s object was other
and higher. He aimed at making frames movable, inter-
changeable, and practically serviceable in bee culture.” And
how true what follows: ‘Nobody before Mr. Langstroth ever
succeeded in devising a mode of makingand using a movable
frame that was of any practical value in bee culture.” No
man in the world, beside Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant
with this whole subject as was Mr. Wagner. His extensive:
library and thorough knowledge made him a competent judge.
Now that the invention is public property, men will cease to:
falsify and even perjure themselves, to rob an old man, whose:
words, writings, and whole life, shine with untarnished
ingenuousness. And very soon all will unite with the great.
majority of intelligent American apiarists of to-day, in ren-
dering to this benefactor of our art, the credit; though he
has been hopelessly deprived of the pecuniary benefits of his.
great invention.

Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention:
of frames contained in a case, when he made his invention,
in 1851, does not profess to have been the first to have
invented them. Every page of his book shows his transparent
honesty, and desire to give all due credit to other writers and
inventors. He does claim, and very justly, to have invented
the first practical frame hive, the one described in his patent,
= pplies for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his.

ook.

While the name of the late Baron Von Berlepsch will
always stand in the front rank of apiarists, he never gave the
world any description of a movable frame hive, until Mr.
Langstroth had applied for a patent, and not until the Lang-
stroth hive was largely in use.

It has been claimed that Mr. Andrew Harbison invented
and used in his father’s apiary, previous to 1851, the Lang-
stroth hive. In the Dollar Newspaper for January 21,1857,
a brother, Mr. W. C. Harbison, who also lived with his father

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 285

at the time the invention is said to have been made, says:
«T will venture the prediction that both Quinby’s hive and
mine will ere long be cast aside, to give place to a hive con-
‘structed in such a manner that the apiarian can have access
to every part:of the hive at pleasure, without injury to the
colony. In this particular both Mr. Quinby and myself have
signally failed. The invention of such a hive was reserved
for Mr. Langstroth.” It is significant that J. S. Harbison,
another brother, who was also with his father at the time, in
‘his “ Bee Culture,” San Francisco, 1861, speaks of the Lang-
stroth hive, p. 149, but not of that of his brother. It has
also been claimed that W. A. Flanders, Martin Metcalf,
and Edward Townley, each invented this hive prior to Mr.
Langstroth’s invention. Yet, each of these gentlemen wrote
a book, in which no mention is made of suchan invention. Well
might Mr. Langstroth say, “I can well understand what Job
meant when he said, ‘O ! that my enemy had written a book.’”’
It is also stated that Mr. A. F. Moon was a prior inventor of
this hive. Mr. Moon’s own testimony, that he not only
abandoned his invention, being unable to secure straight
‘combs, but even forgot all ubout zt, till it was discovered in
an old rubbish pile, shows that he did nothing that would, in
court, overthrow Mr. Langstroth’s claims, or that in the least
conferred any benefit upon bee-keepers. Mr. Maxwell, of
Mansfield, Ohio, was another who is said to have anticipated
Mr. Langstroth. Yet Mr. Maxwell's own son swears that he
helped his father make all his hives, and that his father never
used a movable frame till after 1851. Solon Robinson thought
his brother, Dr. Robinson, of Jamaica Plains, near Boston,
made and used movable frame hives prior to 1852. The wife
of Dr. Robinson testified that her husband bought a right to
use the Langstroth hive, and with it made his first movable
frames.

Every claim, both at home and abroad, to the invention of
a practical movable frame hive, prior to that of Mr. Lang- -
stroth, when examined, is found to have no substantial foua-
dation. All previous hives were plainly inferior to the
improved Huber hive as described in Bevan, p. 106. Itisa
sad blot upon American apiculture, that he who raised it to
the proud height which it occupies to-day, should have been

286 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

shamefully defrauded of the just reward for his great inven-
tion. But it gives me the greatest pleasure to state, that by
no possible word could I gather that Mr. Langstroth feels any
bitterness towards those who seem wilfully to have stolen his
invention, while with a mantle of charity, great as is his noble
heart, he covers the thousands who either thought he had no
valid claim, or else that the purchase of a right from others,
entitled them to hisinvention. Asan inventor and writer on
apiculture, Mr. Langstroth will ever be held in grateful
memory. How earnestly will American apiarists desire that
he may be spared to us until he completes his autobiography,
that we may learn how he arrived at his great discovery, and
may study the methods by which he gleaned so many rich and
valuable truths.

LECANIUM TULIPIFERA—Coox.

In the summer of 1870, this louse, which, so far as I
know, has never yet been described, and for which I propose:
the above very appropriate name, tulipiferee—the Lecanium of
the tulip tree—was very common on the tulip trees about the
College lawns. So destructive were they that some of the
trees were killed outright, others were much injured, and had
not the lice for some unknown reason ceased to thrive, we
should soon have missed from our grounds one of our most
attractive trees.

Since the date above given, I have received these insects,
through the several editors of our excellent bee papers, from
many of the States, especially those bordering the Ohio
River. In Tennessee they seem very common, as they are
often noticed in abundance on the fine stately tulip trees of
that goodly State—in the South this tulip tree is called the
poplar, which is very incorrect, as it is in no way related to
the latter. The poplar belongs to the willow family; the
tulip to the magnolia, which families are wide apart. In
Pennsylvania the louse has been noticed on the cucumber
tree—Magnolia acuminata.

Wherever the tulip-tree lice have been observed sucking
the sap and vitality from the trees, there the bees have also.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 287

been seen, lapping up a sweet juicy exudation, which is
secreted by the lice. In 1870 I observed that our tulip
trees were alive with bees and wasps, even as late as August,
though the trees are in blossom only in June. Examination
showed that the exuding sweets from these lice were what
attracted the bees. This was observed with some anxiety, as
the secretion gives off a very nauseating odor.

The oozing secretions from this and other lice, not only of
the bark-louse family (Coccide), but of the plant-louse family
(Aphidze), are often referred to as honey-dew. Would it not
be better to speak of these as insect secretions, and reserve
the name honey-dew for sweet secretions from plants, other
than those which come from the flowers ?

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LECANIUM TULIPIFERA,

The fully developed insect, like all bark lice, is in the form
of a scale (Fig. 113, 1), closely applied to the limb or twig .
on which it works. This insect, like most of its genus, is
brown, very convex above, (Fig. 113, 1), and concave beneath,
(Fig. 113, 2). On the under side is a cotton-like secretion,
which serves to enfold the eggs. Underneath the species in
question are two transverse parallel lines of this white down,
(Fig. 113, 2). One of them, probably the anterior, is nearly
marginal, and is interrupted in the middle; while the other
ig nearly central, and in place of the interruption at the
middle, it has a V-shaped projection back or away from the
other line. The form of the scale is quadrangular, and
not unlike that of a turtle, (Fig. 113,-1). When fully
developed it is a little more than 3-16 of an inch long, and a
little more than 2 as wide.

Here at Lansing, the small, yellow, oval eggs appear late
in August. In Tennessee they would be found under the
scales in their cotton wrappings many days earlier. The eggs
are 1-40 of an inch long, and 1-65 of an inch wide. These
eggs, which are very numerous, hatch in the locality of their
development, and the young or larval lice, quite in contrast
with their dried, inert, motionless parents, are spry and
active. They are oval, (Figs. 113, 8 and 4), yellow; and
1-23 of an inch long, and 1-40 of an inch wide. The eyes,
antenne (Fig. 113, 5), and legs, (Fig. 113, 6), are plainly

288 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

visible when magnified 30 or 40 diameters. The 9-jointed
abdomen is deeply emarginate, or cut into posteriorly, (Fig.
113, 3), and on each side of this slit is a projecting stylet or
hair, (Figs. 113, 3 and 4), while from between the eyes, on
the under side of the head, extends the long recurved beak,
(Fig. 113, 4). The larvee soon leave the scales, crawl about
the tree, and finally fasten by inserting their long slender
beaks, when they so pump up the sap that they grow with
surprising rapidity. In a few weeks their legs and antennee
seem to disappear as they become relatively so small, and

Fig. 118.
2 3

the scale-like form is assumed. In the following summer the
scale is full-formed and the eggs are developed. Soon the
scale, which is but the carcass of the once active louse, drops
from the tree, and the work of destruction is left to the
young lice, a responsibility which they seem quite ready to
assume.

In my observations I have detected no males. Judging
from others of the bark-lice, these must possess wings, and

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 289

-will never assume the scale form, though Prof. P. R. Uhler
writes’ me that the males of some bark lice are apterous.
REMEDIES.

If valued shade or honey trees are attacked by these
‘insatiate destroyers, they could probably be saved by discreet
pruning—cutting off the affected branches before serious
injury was done, or by syringing the trees with a solution of
whale oil, soap—or even common soft soap would do—just as
the young lice are leaving the scales. It would be still
better to have the solution hot. Whitman’s Fountain Pump
is admirable for making such applications.

Fig. lis slightly magnified ; the others are largely magnified.

MOTHERWORT AS A HONEY PLANT.
(Leonurus cardiaca L.)

Perhaps ‘none of our common herbs promises better, as a
honey plant, than the one in question. It is a very hardy

Fie. 114.

perennial, and once introduced in waste places, it is sure to
hold its own, until it becomes desirable to extirpate it, when,

290 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

at man’s bidding, it quickly lets go its hold, so that it is not
a dangerous plant to introduce. The blossoms appear at this
place about June 25th, and persist for a full month, and
during the entire time are crowded with bees, whatever may
be the character of the weather, whether wet or dry, warm or
cool, whether the plant is in the midst of honey plants or
isolated. We are thus assured that the plant is constantly
secreting nectar, and is also a favorite with bees. Rape,
mustards and borage scem indifferent to the weather, but are
not favorites with the bees. Motherwort, then, has three
admirable qualities: It is long in bloom, the flowers afford
fine honey at all times, and it isa favorite with the bees.

Fie. 115.

If it could be made to bloom about three weeks later, coming
in just after basswood, it would have nearly all the desired
qualities. I think that we might bring this about by mowing
the plants in May. J am led to this opinion from the fact
that some plants which we set back by transplanting in May,
are still in bloom this August 10th, and are now alive with
bees, dividing their attention with the beautiful cleome, which.
is now in full bloom, and fairly noisy with bees.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 291

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.

The stalk is square (Fig. 114), branching, and when culti-
vated, attains a height of some four feet ; though, as it grows in
waste places, it is seldom more than three feet. The branches,
and also the leaves, are opposite (Figs. 114 and 115), and in
the axiles of the latter are whorls of blossoms (Figs. 115
and 116), which succeed each other from below to the top of
the branching stems. The corolla is like that of all the
mints, while the calyx has five teeth, which are sharp and

Fie. 116.

spine-like in the nutlets as they appear at the base of the
leaves (Fig. 115). As they near the top, the whorls of blos-
soms and succeeding seeds are successively nearer together,
and finally become very crowded at the apex (Fig. 116). The
leaves are long and palmately lobed (Fig. 115). The small
blossom is purple.

292 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

THE SOUR-WOOD TREE.

The sorrel tree (Oxydendrum arboreum) (Fig. 117), so
called because of the acidity of the leaves, is a native of
the South, but has been grown even as far north as New York.

Fie. 117.

lt often attains no mean dimensions in its native home along
the Alleghanies, often reaching upward more than fifty feet,
and acquiring a diameter of twelve or fifteen inches. —

The flowers are arranged in racemes, are more drooping
than represented in the figure, are white, and with the beau-
tiful foliage make an ornamental tree of high rank. The
bark is rough, and the wood so soft as to be worthless, either
as fuel or for use in the arts. Asa honey tree, it is very
highly esteemed ; in fact, it is the linden of the South.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 293

THE JAPAN MEDLAR.

Thave received from J. M. Putnam, of New Orleans, La.,
flowers of the Mespilus Japonica, or Japan plum. He states
that it bears a most delicious fruit, blooms from August till
January, unless cut off by a severe frost, and is proof against
ordinary frosts. He statcs that it furnishes abundance of
delicious honey, and that, too, when his bees were gathering
from no other source.

The Mespilus Germanica grows in England, and is much
praised for its fruit. From Mr. Putnam’s account, the
Japonica is unprecedented in its length of bloom. We thing
two months a longtime. We pay high tribute to mignonette,
cleome and borage, when we tell of four months of bloom ;,
but this is mild praise when compared with this Japan plum,
which flowers from August first till January.

The flowers are in a dense panicle, and were still fragrant
after their long journey. The leaf is lanceolate, and very
thick, some like the wax plant. I should say it was an ever-
green. The apiarists of the South are to be congratulated
on this valuable acquisition to their bee forage. I hope it.
will thrive North as well as South.

THE STINGING-BUG.—Phymata Hrosa, Fasr.

This insect is very widely distributed throughout the Uni-
ted States. I have received it from Maryland to Missouri on
the South, and from Michigan to Minnesota on the North.
The insect will lie concealed among the flowers, and upon
occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm’s length, and suck
out its blood and life.

This is a Hemipteran, or true bug, and belongs to the
family Phymatide Uhr. Itis the Phymata Hrosa, Fabr.,
the specific name erosa referring to its jagged appearance.
It is also called the “stinging bug,” in reference to its habit
of repelling .intrusion by a painful thrust with its sharp,.
strong beak.

294 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

The “stinging bug” (Fig. 118) is somewhat jagged in
appearance, about three-eighths of an inch long, and generally
of a yellow color; though this latter seems quite variable.

Fia. 118.—Side view, natural sie.

Frequently there is a distinct greenish hue. Beneath the
abdomen, and on the back of the head, thorax and abdomen,
it is more or less specked with brown ; while across the dorsal

Fie. 119.—Magnified twice.

aspect of the broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of
brown (Fig. 119 d, d). Sometimes this stripe is almost want-
ing, sometimes a mere patch, while rarely the whole abdomen,

Fie. 120.—Beak, much magnified.

is very slightly marked, and as often we find it almost wholly
brown above and below. The legs (Fig. 119, 5), beak and

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 295

antenne (Fig. 119, a) are greenish yellow. The beak (Fig.
120) has three joints (Fig. 120, a, b,c) and a sharp point (Fig.
120, d). This beak is not only the great weapon of offense,
but also the organ through which the food is sucked. By the

Fie. 121.— Antenna, much magnified.

use of this, the insect has gained the soubriquet of stinging
bug. This compact jointed beak is peculiar to all true bugs,
and by observing it alone, we are able to distinguish all the

‘Fie. 122.— Anterior Leg, magnified—exterior view.

.very varied forms of this group. The antenna (Fig. 121) is
four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 121, a) is short, the second
and third (Fig. 121, 6 and c)are long and slim, while the ter-

Fia. 123.—Interior view.

minal one (Fig. 121, d) is much enlarged. This enlarged
joint is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as
described by Latreille. But the most curious structural
peculiarity of this insect, and the chief character of the

296 MANUAL OF TRAE APIARY.

genus Phymata, is the enlarged anterior legs (Figs. 122, 123:
and 124). These, were they only to aid in locomotion, would
seem like awkward, clumsy organs, but when we learn that they
are used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but
appreciate and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig.
122, 6) and the tarsus (Fig. 122, a) are toothed, while the

Fie. 124.—Claw, extended.

latter is greatly enlarged. From the interior lower aspect of
the femur (Fig. 123) is the small tibia, while on the lower
edge of the tarsus (Fig. 123, d) isa cavity in which rests the
single claw. ‘The other four legs (Fig. 125) are much as usual.

This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, lying
in wait, often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to vap-

Fie. 125.— Middle Leg, much magnified.

ture and destroy unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, but-
terflies, moths, and even bees and wasps. We have already
noticed how well prepared it is for this work by its jaw-like
anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, sword-like beak.

It is often caught on the golden rod. This plant, from its
very color, tends to conceal the bug, and from the very char-
acter of the plant—hbeing attractive as a honey plant to bees.

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 297

—the slow bug is enabled to catch the spry and active honey-
bee. -

As Prof. Uhler well says of the “stinging-bug”: “It is
very useful in destroying caterpillars and other vegetable-
feeding insects, but is not very discriminating in its tastes,
and would as soon seize the useful honey-bee as the pernicious
saw-tly.” .And he might have added that it is equally indif-
ferent to the virtues of our friendly insects like the parasitic
and predaceous species.

We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its
destruction would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely
scattered as are the flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest
its case, at least until its destructiveness becomes more
serious than at present.

THE SOUTHERN BEE-KILLERS.
Mallophora orcina and Mallophora bomboides.

I have received from several of our enterprising bee-keepers
of the South—Tennessee, Georgia and Florida—the above
insects, with the information that they dart forth from some

Fra. 126. Fia. 127.

convenient perch, and with swift and sure aim, grasp a bee,
bear it to some bush, when they leisurely suck out all but the
mere crust, and cast away the remains. The bee which is

298 MANUAL OF TIE APIARY.

thus victimized, is readily known by the small hole in the
back, through which the juices were pumped out.

The insects plainly belong to the family Asilidz, the sam:
that ineludes the Missouri bee-killer, Asilus Missouriensis, the
Nebraska bee-killer, Promachus bastardi, and other predatory
insects, several of which, I regret to say, have the same ev'l
habit of killing and devouring our friends of the hive.

The charactersof this family, as given by Loew, one of the
greatest authorities on Diptera, or two-winged flies, are pro-
longed basal cells of the wings, third longitudinal vein
bifureate, third joint of antenna simple, under lip forming a
horny sheath, empodium, a projection below and beneath the
claws (Fig. 131, ¢), a horny bristle,

Fie. 128. Fria. 181.

The insects in question belong to Loew’s third group,
Asilina, as the antenne end in a bristle (Fig. 128), while the
second longitudinal vein of the wing (Fig. 129, b) runs into
the first (Fig. 129, a). é

The genus is Mallophora. The venation of the wings much
resembles that of the genus Promachus, the same that con-
tains the Nebraska bee-killer, though the form of these insects
is very different. The Nebraska bee-killer is long and slim
like the Asilus Missouriensis (see Fig. 108), while the one in
question is much like the neuter bumble-bee in form..

In Mallophora and Promachus, the venation is as repre-
sented in Hie, 129, where, as will be seen, the second vein

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 299

(Fig. 129, 6) forks, while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 130) the
the third vein is forked, though in all three genera the third
joint of the antennz (Fig. 128) ends in a prolonged bristle.

One of the most common of these pests, which I am
informed by Dr. Hagen, is Mallophora orcina, Weid, (Fig.
126) is one inch long, and expands one and three-fourths
inches (Fig. 127). The head (Fig. 128) is broad, the eyes
black and prominent, the antenne three-jointed, the last joint
terminating in a bristle, while the beak is very large, strong,
and like the eyes and antennz, coal black. This is mostly
concealed by the light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick
about the mouth and between the eyes.

The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow
hairs. The abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with

Fig. 129."

yellow hairs except the tip, which is black. Beneath, the
Insect is clear black, though there are scattering hairs of
a grayish yellow color on the black legs. The pulvilli, or feet
pads (Fig. 131, 5) are two in number, bright yellow in color,
surmounted by strong black claws (Fig. 131, a), while below
and between is the sharp spine (Fig, 131, c), technically known
as the empodium.

TI cannot give the distinctions which mark the sexes, nor
can I throw any light upon the larval condition of the insect.

The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking.
Their flight is like the wind, and perched near the hive, they
rush upon the unwary bee returning to the hive with its full
load of nectar, and grasping it with their hard strong legs,

300 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

they bear it to some perch near by, when they pierce the
crust, suck out the juices, and drop the carcass, and are then
ready to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee shows the
cause of its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not
always killed at once by this rude onslaught, but often can
crawl some distance away from where it falls, before it expires.
Another insect nearly as common is the Mallophora bom-
boides, Wied. This fly might be called a larger edition of the
one just described, as in form, habits and appearance, it closely
resembles the other. It belongs to the same genus, possess-
ing all the generic characters already pointed out. It is very
difficult to capture them, as they are so quick and active.
This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and expands.
two and a half inches. The head and thorax are much as in

Fie. 130.

GED

the other species. The wings are very long and strong, and,
asin the other species, are of a smoky brown color. The -
abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to side on the
under surface,while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant on
the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is
a lighter yellow than in the other species. These insects are
powerfully built, and if they become numerous, must prove a
formidable enemy to the bees.

Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia,
though it closely resembles the two just describod, is of a
different genus. Itis the Laphria thoracica of Fabricius.
In this genus the third vein is forked, and the third joint of
the antenna is without the bristle, though it is elongated and
tapering. The insect is black, with yellow hair covering the
upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly black
both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on
the femurs and tibia. This insect belongs to the same family
as the others, and has the same habits. Itis found North as
well as South,

MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 301

HONEY-COMB CORAL.

A very common fossil found in many parts of the Hastern
and Northern United States, is, from its appearance, often
called petrified honey-comb. We have many such specimens
in our museum. In some cases the cells are hardly larger
than a pin-head ; in others a quarter of an inch in diameter.

These (Fig. 132) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led
to believe, though the resemblance is so striking that no
wonder that the public generally are-deceived. These speci-
mens are fossil coral, which the paleontologist places in the
genus Fayosites ; favosus being a common species in our State.
They are very abundant in the lime rock in northern Michi-

Fie. 132.

gan, and are very properly denominated honey-stone coral.
The animals of which these were once the skeletons, so to
speak, are not insects at all, though often called so by men
of considerable information. It would be no greater blundcr
to call an oyster or a clam an insect.

The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the
Upper Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and disap-
peared in the early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till
the Devonian age, and no Hymenoptera—hbees, wasps, etc.—
till after the Carboniferous. So the old-time Favosites reared

302 MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

its limestone columns and helped to build islands and conti-
nents untold ages—millions upon millions of years—before
any flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious nectar.
In some specimens of this honey-stone coral (Fig..133), there

Fie. 133.

are to be seen banks of cells, much resembling the paper cells
of some of our wasps. This might be called wasp-stone
coral, except that both styles were wrought by the self-same
animals.

GENERAL INDEX.

A B C oF BEE CULTURE
ABDOMEN, OF INSECTS

separate from bo
ALSIKE CLOVER—see clover
AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL

; dette

function.....

RY,
where to locate.. a
Rouse “see house apiary . 255
position of........ - 152

APIARY GROUNDS . 152
arrangement of. 152
improvement: of. - 153
screens fOR . 182
shade for. 153

APICULTURE,
adaptation to WOMED.........-0+66 16

aS an avocation . 15
fascination of . 12
for amateurs... 15
for specialists .. uu
inducements to .. ta
5

15

improves the mind lv
recreation 12
elds deli Ww
profits of.. 18
requisites 18
conventi 19
enthusiasm . 24
experience . 18
mental effor' 18
persistence . 24
Prompt attention 23
publications........ 19
study and thought..... 18
visits to other apiarists. 18
WOTK.... 20. ee. cece ee ee eee ll
unsuited to whom 12
PID FAMILY...... 34
animals of 35
instincts of . 34

APIS GENUS.... 38
animals of.... 40

BARBERRY,

gure...
BARNES’ BANE
Basswoop .

¥ Ke€p ......sene
BEE-BREAD—see pollen
BEE DRESS FOR LADIES.
BEE ENEMIES

ly for
BEE-KEEPERS’ AXIOMS..
BExE-KEEPERS’ MAGAZINE
BEE-KILLER .......+.
figure of.
remedies for .
BEE-LOUSE
figure of .
remedy for:

INDEX.

E. PAGE.
BEE-MOTH ... ... 262 | BoxEs—continued.
cocoonsof . +» 264 FEULES OF cise sinwscavcnsier ves rive vere 143
figure of ++ 264 sham ....... . 142
eggsof .. - + 263 figure of -. 148
figure of.. 264, 265 oeition of.. . 144
larva of .. «» 263 LD cicccieisiormiscasiece . 142
figure uf. . 264 special support for. .12
remedies .... 266 WSO osreaie csi saree stines » 142
silk tube of.. +. 26 Box HONEY . - 142
figure of.......... 262, 263 when to secure. +. 215
BEE PLANTS —sée plants +. 220 where to keep.. . 216
necessary to success 218 | BRANCH........ 27
221 articulata .. aT
196 of the honey-bee .. 27
! 196 | BREATHING OF INSECTS 59
201 | BREATHING-MOUTHS .
201 | BUCKWHEAT.......
201 figure o
197 | BUTTON-BA
106 figure of...
106
211 | CAGES
244 for introducing queen. . 184
238 for shipping queen. 186
22 figure of. 187
126 | CALENDAR..... 274
126 | CARPENTER BEES oe
126 | CATNIE......... 282, 240
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 113 | CHAFF HIVES oe 251
BINGHAM HIVE. 140 | CHRYSALIDS.. . 69
seawesteasn 440 | CrrcULATORY SYSTEM - - oF
Brnguam SMOKER. . 199 | CLASS...... 28
gure Of............ - ly insecta.. 28
BLACK BEES—see German bees . 41 of the honey-bee wis ictoeravereastevabaiaus rai 28
BLACKBERRIES .......... . 236 | CLEOME—see Rocky M’t’n bee plant. 238
BLOOD OF INSECTS. . 5 Bi 228
BODY OF INSECTS .. - 48
parts of ........ 48
BomBus 35
BONESET 238
figure of. ~ 241
BONNET ics sciscstn ecto sien 45
BooKS FOR THE APIARIST . 21 | CLUSTERING OUTSIDE THE HIVE
A BC of Bee Culture » 22 CATUSC OL ajereccrniainiarsstinsemure eciconare =
Bevan’s Honey-Bee 113 how prevented. 158
foreign........... 22 adding room 176
Gray's Bota 244 extracting 188
greener 113 shading 153
unteris Manu 23 | COCOONS. 69
King’s Text-Book. 52 of bees 98
Langstroth on the 21 | COLLEGE C 118
Neighbour’s Apiary 118 | COLONIES,
Quinby’s Mysteries . 22 always strong 119
BOOKS FOR THE ENTOMOLOGIST. 113 how moved 187
Duncans Transformations of bn COLUMELLA 44
e SOMB....... 108
Kirby & “Spence é cells in. . 110
Packard........ worker . 10
Wostwood 2 drone «. 110
Reports figure of. -. 109
Fitch for guide.. - 208
Harris. how fastened 157, 158
Riley how made..... 108, 110
BORAGE..... transparency of. . 10
figure of...... use of ......- gee ete ones . 0
BOTTOM-BOARD what determines kind. +» 110
igure of...... ComMB FOUNDATION..... + 203
immovable American....... « 204
Box HIVES figure of. = 203
OXES 2 aacasserescs history of = 208
Barker & Dicer. how cut..... ~» 207
crate for..... how fastened. 209
ot

Spur of..

INDEX.

inventor of.
CoMB HONEY ..
apparatus to
eare of ..
in boxes.
in frames .
in what for:
marketing.
when to se
CONVENTIONS .

COVER FOR FRAMES.
COVER FOR HIVES

DE GEE
DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

6U
DISEASES......... + 259
dysentery. \¢
foul brood «20%
DISSECTION 5)
DISSECTING INSTRUMENTS . 51, 65
eMses........... 4

needle points. .
dividers —see separators ..
DIVIDING. sCOLGNIES 2806 artificial
MIO peice aieisincaidinicigiewiscmns 171, peas

figure of

USE OT ..seeneee

Doran QUEENS

DORSATA BEE

DRESS FOR LADIES...
S

87

86

88

89

86

92

86

87

88

86

86

88

why so numerous. - 8)

‘DYSENTERY PAT, 25:

67

. 67

be . 96

EGYPTIAN BEE . 43

Empty CELLS.. . 188

importance of. . 188

how to secure. . 188

ENTRANCE TO HIVE 128

EXPICRANIUM. ....-sceceeeeceeecceceuree 48
EXTRACTOR,
of honey

figure of.
NistOry Of. ....cceee eee cee eee ee

ow to us
knives for...

53

compound .. 54
simple........... w
FABRICIUS 46
vaMey 34
eva sterocieig less oa 34

oF on honey- sbee.
FEEDER.

LOWERS BY

cause - 260
cure for - 260
ympt « 29
FOUNDATION 203
figure o: 203
histo) . 203
use 0: » 207
how cut 207
how fastened 209
how made. 206
FRAMES...... 132
arrangement for surplu: 147
block for making........ . 134
figure OF; 3 . 135
cover for.. ... 136
183, 134

ee 132

. 133

« 185

. 15

inventor rot. 13
Langstroth - 132
number of . « 132

INDEX

GALLUP FRAME

ERMAN OR BLACK
‘LEANINGS IN BEE CuLT

figure of..
GRAPES INJURED BY BEES

GRAPE VINES FOR SHADE . ai aia +» 228
GUNTHER ..... es. cece eeeeee eee nee eee 12 gust..... + 242
- 218
ist of .......... 221
HIANDLING BEES ...... 2... cee e cence eee 195 Housn APIARY . » 255
HARRIS’ INJURIOUS INSECTS. ess AT advantages of....... « 256
HARVEY.........-.. wee 4d are they desirable ?. « 256
HEAD OF INSECTS ae 48 objections to ........ . 257
organs of ..... . 48 | HUBER......... . 71
HEART OF INSECTS... . 57 | HUBER HIVE . 138
HEXAPODS—see Insects . - 30 kinds of.... . 138
HIVES. ....- eeeee eee ue ee ... 22 | HUNTER’S MANUAL...... » 2B
alighting-board of --. 127 | HyMENOPTEROUS INSECTS - 31
Bingham...... ++. 140 the highest .. - 8
e 0. -. 140 parasitic 32
bottom-board of 27

Tre 0: .
box not good . 122 70
chaff......-.. . 251 . &
cover of...... 129 . 30
division-boara 37 28
entrance to 128 30
figure of 55 30
frames fo! 32 30:
Huber.. 33 30
joints of 26 30
26 ransformations of ......... . 66
iB - 130 transformations, complete.. . 66
Langstroth ... - 123 transformations, incomplete..... 70
tigure of - 124 IyTRODUCTION OF CELL........- 1. 185
Tumber for... » Let fil eae .» 167
movable comb - 123 INTRODUCTION OF QUEEN. » 183
movable frame. 122 | INTESTINES ......... .. 61
near the ground - 128) IvaLian BEES.. 41, 180
nucleus ......... . 165 description of. , 18h
position of.. 54 figure of.. Frontispiece
figure of. 15 history of.
Quindy 36° Bs superiority of..
igure oO:
2
eee 3 BH JAWS.
HONEY .........000e eee | sopas TRE
defined...........-++ . 104 figure of.
excl : 1
or food.........--.- . ING: BURD s, s:cjcid siaaiwscioss, coneiealesnatisiseduale 22
granulated, h how dissolved. 183 | FING ete PEXT-BOOK.....0.ccsecccues 2
ow collected ...... 105 | Kinpy & SPENCE" SENTOMOLOGY 47, 13
how deposited. . 105
how transported . 1U5
marketing of 3 ane Lasium. -
natural use 0
105 | LADIES’ 197
LANGSTROTH, Rev. L. L. - 13
BANGeTROTy "FRAME... “3

HONEY-COMB—see
HONEY EXTRACTOR —see extractor.. 188 | La
figure of ............ Sisjalatn o aiers/Si83 eee. 189 LA TRENLLE..

INDEX.

LEAF-CUTTING BEE...:

NEUTERS—continued.
figure of...

MASON BEES.
MAXILLZ

MEGACHILE.. 47
MELIPONA . 2
MICE 19

nate desirable.

second swarms p

NEIGHBOUR, THE APIARY
‘Ss

Carty
function of .....
old workers.....
young workers .
honey stomach of..

ausacenansseceneacaunl
Sie SERRE Eee

figure of.......
jaws of......

figure of. figure of.
larva of ..... fruit trees...

figure of. golden-rod..
longevity of . figure of.
number of...... Judas tree .
pollen baskets of... figure of.

PLANTS—continued.
July.

mignonette...
figure of. 231
mustard..... 233,

sour-wood.
‘Spanish need]

clipping t wing of.
ow done .
not injurious
why done..
cocoon of.....
development of
eggs Of..........2..
how impregnated . sa
Wagner’s theory
fecundity of ........

St. John’s wort. 240 laying o
Sumac ........... 226 longevity of
teasel ........ . 233 must have empty cells
figure of. - 236 never to be wanting
tick-seed.. » 244 never to be poor... . 186
tulip tree. « 234 no sovereign... . &
_, igure of - 285 ovaries of. - 2
willow....... « 224 figure o - 64
figure of + 223 oviduct of. - 64
wistaria ....... 225 - 102
American.
figure of. 225 ea od,
Chinese..... . 186
figure of 226 . 7
PRIN Vivissisgerinanoase 44 spermatheca, of. - 7
POISON FROM ere rR sterility of . - 8
ignocualon, OF: 12 sting o . UW
POISON SACK . 95 tongue of 3
POLLEN........- Nl figure 0
function of . 112 wings of.
how carried. 111 | QUEEN CELLS
nature of. 1 figure of
source of.. ul how secured .
where deposi introduction o
PREPARATION FOR gu ae
college course QUEEN REARING

ererererey

PESO SES UCP SSennREnE

we
4

pollen or bee-bread.
propolis or bee-glue

ue

PRODUCTS OF INSECTS..

PROPOLIS OR BEE-GLUE
function of .
nature of .
source of..

PUBLICATIONS..
American Bee Journal...
Bee-Keepers’ Magazine. .
Gleanings 1 in Bee Pulture

PA

QUEEN SEIPEING

QUINBY SuOKB.

cage for.

figure of.

Italian or Ligurian. .

INDEX.

PAGE
RACES OF THE HONE ye BEE cont d.

history of
characters of .

REAUMUR 45

RESPIRATION 59

RILEY’S REPORTS 47

ROBBING .........- 5
how checked .

how prevented
when to fear.....
Rock Y MOUNTAIN
figure of...
ROYALJELLY.
RUSSELL HIVE.

plassing...
SECTION BLOCK.

Ww ee Spi
SECTION RACK..
Poole.

prev
brevents melting
SMOKERS
bellows. i 198
how used 201
Bingham...... . 199
figure of.... .., 199

. . PaGEe.
SMOKERS -continued.

MMs cccnicsaeaccinaca aciecea ces sewier 198

. 199

arsatiafhiga . 240°

RAd

ibeijencinnetarneenan . i

SPECIES oF Tak HONEY-BEE. - 4l

SPERMATHECA.. -. 65>

SPIDERS ..... +. RL

SPIRACLES . 59:

SPRING DWINDLING 54

STARTING AN APIARY.

SWARMING.
after-swar:
clustering...
drone-brood started
old colony—how known
preparation for...

drone-brood
queen cells .

how prevented. .

TACHINA FLY
figure of ....
TAILOR-BEE .

figure of...
TRANSFERRING .
method of ....
when easiest......
TRANSFORMATIONS O
incomplete
TRIGONA .
TULIP TRE
figure of...

VARIETIES OF THE HONEY-BEE— a

see races.

INDEX.

E. PAGE
44 | WINTERING—continued.
absorbents above bees « 253
chaff hives......... 261
WAGNER....... . 19 chamber contracte 253
WAGNER’S . 81 colonies prepared 248
WASBPS........ 271 depositories for . 252
remedies for, 272 ar.. 22
WATER, FOR BEES 98 se.
aerate sarang 106 house apiar.
‘composition of 107 good foo®.....

function of ...
how secured
importance of.

os 106
1. BB
1 204
1 223
1. 65
1 86
of queen +
of mor ker. BH
WINTEHING..... 146
Tequisites tO Safe.......seeeeee eee « 248

INDEX TO

BaRKE LOUSE

of Tulip Tree.
BEE ENEMIES ..
BERLEPSCH

DEBEAUYOx'S HIVE
DELLA Hocee

DatERZoNn HIVE....

Fosstt HoNEY CoMB
fligures of

GRECIAN HIVES.

HARBISON HIVE.. » 284
“HISTORY OF MOVABLE FRAMES..... 278
FIVES........0:seeeeee :
Berlepsch... - 284
Debeauvoy ... « 282
Della Rocca.. . 283
pete on ere . bn
bison.. 7
aber Sa cese : 28
troth .
Munn... - 29
agentes! uf
Schirach . » 283

Schmidt.
Shaw

INSECTS ....---0 60005

Mallophora bomboid
Mallophora orcina .
Phymata erosa..

late breeding...

packing” bo pnoe als

gure of..........

protected St left out

why disastrous ..........

excessive moisture

extremes of temperature.

spring dwindling

too early cessation - ‘storing. ait
unwholesome food .

WOMEN AS BEE-KEEPERS .

WORKERS—see Neuters..

fertile ....

WISTARIA,..

American .

LANGSTROTH HIVE..
LAPHRIA THORACICA
LECANIUM TULIPIFE

figure of..

figures of...
EavMArA AMEOSS,

J Nts ‘medlar
Motherwort
Sourwood

Sourwoop.
figure of.
SOUTHERN B
figures of.
STINGING B
figures of.
SWAMMERDAM

DRANG ULAR HIVE
figure of

COOK'S NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY.

NOTICES BY THE PRESS.

Needs no recommendation—recommends itself.— Western Rural, Chicago.

This work is exceedingly valuable—indeed indispensable to apiarists.— Voice of
Masonry.

Treating the art in all its different branches in a clear, concise and interesting
manner.—The Canadian Entomologist.

It is the fullest, most practical, and most satisfactory treatise on the subject
now before the public.—Oountry Gentleman.

It contains the latest developments of science connected with bee-culture and
honey production.—Chicago Evening Journal.

It contains the latest scientific discoveries in apiarian management and bee-
keeping upparatus.—Prairie Farmer, Chicago.

The latest, fullest, most practical and satisfactory treatise on the subject, now
before the public.—Lambton (Canada) Advocate.

Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear, exhaustive, yet
pithy and practical manner.—Rural New Yorker.

It is both a practical and scientific discussion, and nothing that could interest
the bee-raiser is left unsaid.—Chicago Inter-Ocean.

The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only one illus-
trating the various bee plants.—Lansing (Mich.} Republican.

Prof. Cook is an entomologist, a botanist, a ready writer, a passionate lover of
the honey-bee, and his new work savors of all these qualities.—Standard, New
Bedford, Mass.

I feel like thanking God that we have such a man as Prof. Cook to take bold of
the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he has done it.—Glean-
ings in Bee Culture.

Itisa book which does credit to our calling; one that every bee-keeper may
welcome as a fit exponent of the science which gives pleasure to all who are en-
gaged in it.—American Bee Journal.

The boney-bee comes with the perfume of summer flowers, and one of its best
friends, A. J. Cook, has written its history and, habits in a handsomely illustrated
solume.—American Poultry Journal.

Itis just what might have been expected from the distinguished author—a work
acceptable to the ordinary bee-man, and a delight to thestudent of scientific
apiculture.—Bee Keepers’ Maguzine.

Cook’s new “‘Manual of the Apiary,” comes with high encomiums from America;
and certainly it appears to have cut the ground from under future book makers,
for some time to come.—British Bee Journal. . ,

It ig the most complete and practical treatise on bee-culture in Europe or
America. Thearrangementis successive, and every topic is lucidly treated in the
Professor’s blithesome, light-hearted, pithy, suggestive style.—Post and Tribune,
Detroit, Mich.

The typogra hy and general execution of the work is handsome and neat, and
altogether we have a work that may be safely recc ded asthe M lof the
Apiarist—the book, par excellence, to which all may revert with both pleasure and
profit, for instruction in the mar nt of the apiary.—Michigan Farmer.

It must rank with Henderson’s manuals, and share with them the praise of be-
ing an indispensable adjunct to every specialist’s library, It is a scientific, practical
book, a book of “ how to do” and “why to do,” tersely written, yet fully ex-
pressed ; 2 book to the credit of American literature.—Scientijic Farmer, Boston.

Prof. A. J. Cook’s “ Manual of the Apiary” contains, besides the description of
the anatomy and physiology of the honey bee, beautifully illustrated, the pro-
ducts and races of the bees, honey plants—the instructions for the different
operations performed in the hives. All agree that it is the work of a Master, and
is of real value.—L’Apiculteur, Paris.

1 have read with a great deal of interest the copy of Cook's Manual you sent
me, and I intend to publish extracts from it in the ‘‘ Bulletin” of the Society of
Apiculture of the Department of the Somme, so that our apiarists may be aware
of the value of this estimable work. It is a credit to the author as well as the

ublishers. Ihave never yet met with a work, either French or foreign, which I

ike so much.—L’ Abbe L. DuBois, at La Malmaison Aisne, France.

(It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper and superbly
illustrated. Price, bound in cloth, $1.25; in paper, $1.00, postpaid. Per
dozen : cloth, $12.00 ; paper, $9.50.

THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,

972 and 974 West Madison Street, CHICAGO.

PUBLICATIONS FOR THE APIARY,

POR SALE AT THE OFFICE OF

The American Bee Journal,

9474 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.

COOkK’Ss NEW MANUAL OF THE APIARY,

This is a new edition of Prof. Cook’s Manual of the Apiary, entirely re-written,
greatly enlarged and supurbly illustrated.

Being new, it be tully up with the times on every conceivable subject that
interests the apiarist. It is not only instructive, but intensely interesting.

It comprises a full delineation of the anatomy and physiology of the Honey-
Bee, illustrated with costly wood engravings, full descriptions of honey-pro-
ducing plants, trees and shrubs, &c., splendidly illustrated—and last, though not
least, detailed instructions for the successful accomplishment of all the various
manipulations necessary in the apiary.

This work is a masterly production, and one that no bee-keeper, however
limited his means, can afford to do without.

It is printed in the best style of the art, on fine book paper, and superbly illus-
fated PArOUEBOUE Price, bound in cloth, $1.25, postpaid ; in paper binding, $1.00,
postpaid. :

THE HIVE AND HONEY-BEE, by L. L. Langstroth.
This is a standard volume, well illustrated and nicely printed. Price, $2.00.

MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING, by M. Quinby.

The author has treated the subject of Bee- eeping in a manner that cannot
fail to interest all who read this work. Price, $1.50.

THE DZIERZON THEORY; being a full elucidation of Scien-
tific Bee-Keeping.

This “ theory” presents in the form of distinct propositions, the fundamental
princlples of bee-culture, and in this work the late Baron of Berlepsch furnishes.
a condensed statement of the facts and arguments by which these propositions
are demonstrated. Itis of untold value to beginners and u]] others who desire
to study the subject of apiculture. Itis just what thousands want.

It contains 50 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, postpaid, 20 cents,

or three copies for 50 cents.

HONEY, AS FOOD AND MEDICINE, by the Editor of the
American Bee Journal.

This is a pamphlet of 24 pages, discoursing upon the Ancient History of Bees
and Honey ; the nature, quality, sources, and preparation of Honey for the Mar-
ket; Honey, as an article of Food, giving recipes for making Honey Cakes,
Cookies, Puddings, Foam, Wines, &c.; and Honey as Medicine, followed by
many useful Recipes. It is intended for consumers, and should be scattered by
thousands a]] over the country, and thus assist in creating a demand for honey.—
Prices: Single copies, 10 cents postpaid ; 15 copies for $1.00 by mail, postpaid ; 100
copies, with name and address of honey-producer printed on them, $5.00 by mail,
postpaid ; 250 copies, by express, at 4 cents each ; or more copies, by express,
at3centseach. Itis published in German also at the same prices.

WINTERING BEES ; How to do it Successfully.

This contains all the Prize Essays on this impartant subject that were read
before the Centennial Bee-Keepers’ Association. The prize ($25 in gold) was
awarded to Prof. Cook’s Essay, which is reported in full in this pamphlet.

It contains 30 pages and is printed on fine book paper. Price, 1 cents, or five
copies for 40 cents.

SPECIAL EDITION of the Journal.

Containing the Official Report of the Proceedings of the National Convention,
held in New York, Oct., 1t-18, 1877, with all the Essays and Discussions,—together
with a description of the implements for the Apiary, on exhibition at the Ameri-
can Institute Fair.—Price 10 cents.

Ge Send by Postal Money Order, Draft or Registered Letter at our risk.
THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,
974 West Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.

THE OLDEST, LARGEST AND BEST BEE PAPER IN AMERICA.

Forty-eight Pages Monthly; $1.50 per annum.
—0——
DEVOTED EXCLUSIVELY TO BEE-CULTURE.

——o———_-

THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL.

0
APPRECIATIVE NOTICES.

It is the most valuable publication on bee-culture in America,—
Sun, Anoka, Minn.

tis snthority in all matters pertaining to bee-culture.—Repub-
lican, Mason City, lowa.

It stands at the head of American publications devoted to bee-
culture.—Patriot, Springfield, Mo.

It is a complete guide to those interested in bee-culture.—
Everybody's Ledger, Lewiston, Pa.

It is most valuable, and will always find a hearty welcome in
every apiary.—Herald, Los Angeles, Cal a

The AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL is a publication of great value
to all honey producers.— Daily News, Danville, Va.

‘We recommend the AMERICAN BEE JOURNALas the ablest bee
paper in the United Stutes.—Furmers’ Home Journal.

It is progressive, interesting and valuable to every, one who
keeps bees, and is ably edited.—Agriculturist, Quincy, Il.

It isfull of useful suggestions and instructive articles to every
one interested in honey pruducing.—Democrat, Allegan, Mich.

It is full to overflowing with matters pertaining to the success- ©

ful management of the little honey prcducers—a thoroughly live
periodical.—_Standard, New Bedford, Mass.

The JOURNAL surpasses itself ; each issue improves upon the
last, in the bright, cheerful ep earance and instructive influence
of its whole composition.—W. Williamson, Lexington, Ky.

The AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL is increasing in influence with
each number. It is a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper, and
should be taken ‘and rea4 by all interested in bee-culture.—Stand-
ard, Cedar Rapids, lowa.

I hail the coming of the BEE JOURNAL with joy. It is the
greatest light we have on bee-culture, bringing ideas, not only
from the editor, but from all the other experienced bee men of
the land.—L. A. Taber, Holyoke, Mass.

In its depart iment of journalism, the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL
stands without arival. Devoted exclusively to bee-culture and
the production of pure honey, its columns are filled _with such
matter asa keeper of bees can read and profit by. Its table of
contents is as full as itis interesting.—Gazette, Lewiston, Pa.

The AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL ought to be taken by all bee-
keepers ; it is neatly printed and replete in useful information
about bees and honey. It fully describes the habits of those bus:
extractors of sweets from flowers and herbs, whose products, witl
the yield from our cows, makes our land literally flow with “ milk
and honey.”—Muryland Farmer.

The BEE JOURNAL is pre-eminently above all its competitors.
It is full of fire, enterprise and vim; it discusses the various

uestions pertaining to bee-culture with spirit and energetic
thought ; itis an honor to its Editor and tothe interest which
sustains it. It has no individual axe to grind, but is the fearless
champion of allthat is useful and good ; steadfast, unwavering,
honest ; never vascillating or swerving ; but true, as the needle to
the pole, to the interest of bee-keepers. It should be supported
by every une interested in bees or honey.—American Grocer.

THOMAS G, NEWMAN & SON, Publishers,

972 and 974 West Madison St., CHICAGO.

‘LI UO ALIUM SUAdAHM-HHA TVOILOVUd GNV TOASSHO0NS

Clear Ahead !--We Lead in Smokers!

Our new invention of a DOUBLE BLAST, places our smoker far
ahead of any inthe market. Doolittle suys of it: * the arrangement to change
the draft so as to make it a cold-blast after the fire is kindled, places it ahead of
any smoker in the market by a long way.” So say all who see it.

Every bee-keeper in the Jand should _see an illustration and description of it
before purchasing elsewhere. Prices—Large, 214 inch tube, $1.50 ; Medium, 2inch
tube, $1.25 ; Small, without double-blast, 75c. By mail, 25c. extra each.

QUINBY’S NEW BEE-KEEPING, by L. C. ROOT.

__ This is the most practical work published, It contains 100 illustrations, includ-
ing an excellent portrait of M. Quinby. Price, by mail, $1.50. :

Wesell everything used by practical bee-keepers. Send for our illustrated

Circular.
L. C. ROOT & BRO., Mohawk, Herk. Co., N. Y.

PERFECTION HONEY BOX.

CLOVER
& 27No,
CPDL S4 ON Arar ONE

BRO ATU,

NO

X08 WALLOVULLVY LSONW

LAMAVN FHL

QUICKEST METHOD
GLASSING HONEY.

Patented,
“BIST ‘2 ABIL

The Caps enclosing the glass to form the box, are of box pasteboard, and are
made to fit any size Section or Prize Box used ; also to inclose 2, 3, 6 or.12 sections
in one box if desired. Some of the advantages of this box are: the rapidity with
which the boxes are glassed, and the honey prepared for market. The caps are
bound with embossed paper, causing the honey to show to the best advantage.
They are handsomely labelled in gilt, making the most attractive style of Honey
Box on the market. There is no leakage, so that honey glassed with these Caps,
will not draw flies more than other goods. The 2 caps for a2-lb box weigh %
ounce. Send postal for descriptive circular. Address,

J. BE. MOORE, Sup’t of Byron Apiary, Byron, Genesee Co., N.Y.

DADANT & SON.

Colonies of Italian Bees, Imported and Home-Bred Queens, Hives, Extractors,
the BEST COMB FOUNDATION MADE, and divers Apiarian supplies.

We can give references in nearly every State of the Union, and in
Canada, and also among the most noted Apiarists of Europe.

Circulars and samples of Foundation free.

CHAS. DADANT & SON,

WMamilton, Hancock Co., Ill,

HEADQUARTERS IN THE SOUTH,

For Bee Hives, Honey Boxes, Honey and Wax Extractors, Knives, Smokers,
Comb Foundation, Dollar and Tested Queens, Nuclei and Full Colonies of Italian
Bees, ete.

Having fitted up alarge shop, with an 8-horse power steam engine to run my
saws, planing mill, and all necessary machinery to manufacture bee hives, sec-
Hone and apiarian supplies, I am now ready to fill all orders.

PAUL L. VIALLON,

BAYOU GOULA, LA.

REV. A. SALISBURY,

FINE QUEENS AND BEES

CYPRIAN BEE,

In its native purity, will doubtless be introduced this year,
and offered to the public in 1881.

Manufacturer of Comb Foundation,

HIVES, SURPLUS HONEY. BOXES,
QUEEN SHIPPING CAGES, Etc.

DEALER IN ALL NECESSARY APIARY SUPPLIES.

All work executed in good style, and at prices to suit the times.

«= Send for Circular. Address,

REV. A. SALISBURY,
Camargo, Douglas County, I.

SEEDS FOR HONEY PLANTS,

Always kept in stock, including

MELILOT CLOVER, ALSIKE CLOVER, WHITE CLOVER,
CHINESE MUSTARD, CATNIP, SUMMER RAPE,
BORAGE, BASSWOOD, TEASEL, MOTHERWORT,
MIGNONETTE, RESEDA GRANDIFLORA,

SILVER HULL BUCKWHEAT
SPIDER PLANT, CLEOME, ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT.

@™ Send for Catalogue. Address,

THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON,
972 and 974 W. Madison Street, Chicago, Ill.

THE BEST IS THE CHEAPEST!
COFFIN BERRY’S

EXCELSIOR HONEY EXTRACTOR!

From Eight to Fourteen Dollars.

Having made several improvements in the EXCELSIOR EXTRACTOR

it is now offered to the Bee-Keepers of America as the MOS‘! PERFECT
MACHINE IN THE MARKET. The universal favor with which the EXCEL-
SIOR EXTRACTOR was received in 1878, has induced other manufacturers to
adopt several of itsimprovements. My experience and experiments of last sea-
son, With the assistance and suggestions of skillful workmen, have enabled me to

erfectan Extractor that cannot be excelled, and can only be equaled

y being closely imitated.

The Excelsior is made entirely of metal, and is conse-
quently very light, strong and durable, with lugs at the
bottom for firmly attaching to the floor if desired.

The strong over-motion gearing, so necessary to ease
in running and speedy operating, was designed and is
manufactured expressly for the Excelsior. A child
ten years of age can operate the machine as rapidly as
it can be supplied with combs.

The top or cross-band, to which is attached the gear- fR
ing. is wrought iron, three inches broad, with the ends
turned down in such manner asto thoroughly brace
and strengthen the can, and holding the basket firmly
inan UPTIEDE pOsILlOn:

The Comb Basket having vertical sides, insures the
extracting power alike for top and bottom of frames.

The sides of the basket being movable and interchange-
able, greatly facilitate the operation of dusting before
and thoroughly cleaning after use if desired.

__ The basket can be taken from or replaced in the can
in a moment, there being no rusty screws to take out
or nuts to remove.

At the bottom of the can, and below the basket, isa
cone or metal standard. in the top of which revolves
the bottom pivot of the basket, thereby giving room for
sixty or seventy pounds of honey without touching the
basket or pivot below. i

Nos. 3, 4 and 5 have strainers covering the canal Jead-
ing to the faucet, which obviate the delay of several
hours in waiting for the honey to settle, and the tedious
and wasteful process of skimming. The faucet being
below the bottom level of the honey, renders unneces-
sary the usual tipping and wrenching incident to draw-
ing off the honey. These also have close-fitting metal
covers, which entirely exclude dust, dirt, flies and bees when not in use.

‘The baskets of Nos.4and 5have no center rod running from top to bottom,
which wiJl be found very convenient by those who uncap both sides of the comb
pefore putting in the basket, as they can be turned without removal.

The strong iron handles placed at the sides, a little above the center, are com-
pletely side-braced, and add much to convenience in handling. *

The wire baskets are very neat specimens of skiJlful workmanship, thoroughly
braced at every point where experience has proven it to be most requisite, and
nothing has been omitted that could add to its efficiency.

e No. 4, for three frames, hasa triangular basket, movable sides, no center
rod, runs smoothly regardless of number of frames, and is fast superseding the
demand for four-sided baskets.

A LOWER PRICED MACHINE.

A cheaper machine being called for by those having but few colonies, and not
making a specialty of bee-keeping, 1 have made a special size to take tbe Lang;
stroth frame, and one for the American, to sell ut $8.00 each. These have no
covers or strainer, and are smaller than the $12.00 and $14.00 sizes, but for the
frames named are equal to the others for effective work, and are the best cheap
Extractors made.

Sizes and Prices.

No. 1.—For 2 Langstroth frames, 10x18 inches
“9..-Ror 2 American frames, 13x13 inches : . 1000
* 3.—For 2 frames, 13x20 inches or less (embracing all standard sizes).. a4 oo

“4—For3 ‘ ae Oo

“5 Wor4d & “ “ “ “ ’ 4600

("A Wberal discount to dealers in Bee-Keepers’ Supplies and to parties order-
ing in quantity. Address, c. C. COFFINBERRY, Chicago, I1l.,

Or American Bee Journal, Chicago, I1l,, where samples can be seen,

Buecher ueber Bienenzencht.

Cools neues Handbud fiir den Bienenftand. Gs
halt gleichmigigen Sehritt mit allen Gegenjtinden die fiir den
Bienengiichter Vrtereffe haben. C8 ift nicht nur lehrveid, fon-
dern aud) dugerft intereffant und praftif. Preis in Leinwand
gebunden, Portofret $1.25; in Papierumfdlag, Portofrei $1.
Beim Dugend per Erpref, in Leinwand $12.00 ; Papier, $9.50.

Dev Bieneufiod und die Gonigbiene, von Lv.
Langftroth. Preis $2.00

Geheimnifie der Bienenzudt, von M. Quinby.
Preis $1.50.

Bienen-Kultur, oder erfolgreihe Behandlung der Bie-
nen, von Thos. G, Newman. DHiejes Pamphlet fakt Beleh-
rungen iiber folgende Gegenftinde in fidh: Oertlichfert des
BHienenftandes—Honig - Pflangen—Crgiehung der Konigin—
Gittern — Sdhwirmen—Vertheilen — Verfesen—Stalientfiren
—GCinfiihrung von Kiniginnen—Uusziehen—Bienen behandeln
und berubigen; wetter enthilt e3 ein Rapitel, worin die nevefte
Methode fiir bie Hervidhtung des Honigs fiir den Handel befdjrie-
ben ift,eb. “8 wird in deutfdher undenglifder Sprade
herausgegeben. Preis einer jeden Wusqabe 40 Cents, porto-
frei, oder $4.00 das Oubend.

Honig als Nahrung und Medizin—von Thomas
G&G. Newman. Diefed ift ein Pamphlet von 24 Seiten und giebt
eine Flare Darlegung iiber Bienen und Honig ded Wlterthums ;
die Befdhaffenheit, Qualitat, Quellen und Bubereitung des
Honigs fiir den Handel; Honig als Nahrungsmittel, angebend

-wie man Honigtuden, Formtidelden, Puddings, Gdaum-
fonfect, Weine, u. j. w. guberciten fann; und Honig als
Medizin, mit vielen Rezepten. C8 ijt fiir den Conjumenten
beftimmt, und follte vieltaufendfaltig iiber das gange Land
zerjtreut werden. Erfdeint in englifder und deutjder Sprade,
und wird zu folgenden Preifen fir jede Xusgqabe, per Poft Por-
tofrei verjdict: Cingelne Copien, 10 Gents; 15 do., $1.00;
100 do., mit Namen und Adrefe gedrudt, $5.00.

Die Dzierzgon Theorie, cine vollftindige Crlauterung
der wiffenfdaftliden Bienengucht enthaltend. Preis 20 Cents
Portofrei, oder drei Ecemplare fiir 50 Cents.

Ueberwintern der Bienen 5 Methoden um erfolareid
damit gu fein. Prei3 15 Cents, oder 5 Copien fir 50 Cents,

THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, Chicago.

We supply Books for Bee-keepers and others at Publisher's prices.

ITALIAN QUEENS,

COMPRISING

FULL COLONIES,

Movable-Frame Hives,

Honey Extractors,

BEE VEILS, RUBBER GLOVES,
ARTIFICIAL COMB FOUNDATION,
BEE SMOKERS,

Seeds for Honey Plants,

—AND—
Everything used by Bee-Keepers, for Sale by

THOS. G. NEWMAN & SON, Chicago.

Ne

Every Bee-Keeper should take
iz iN we La.

IT Is THE
Oldest, . Largest,
AND é MOST
Reliable “3 = Bee-Paper

IN THE WORLD!

It is the best scientific and practical Journal
of APICULTURE ever published. The most
successful and experienced Bee-keepers in
Europe, as well as America, write for it.

—:0:—
TERMS: $1.50 PER ANNUM.
A Sample Copy sent for 10 cts,

Address, THOS. G. NEWMAN & SON,
CHICAGO, ILL.

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