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| PRODUCTIVE

A DAIRYING

ee
Wi OR.M.WASHBURN,M.S.A.

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

THE
Hlower Weterinary Library
FOUNDED BY
ROSWELL P. FLOWER

for the use of the

N. Y. STATE VETERINARY COLLEGE
1897

This Volume is the Gift of

Cornell University Library

SF 239.W31

Productive d.

4 00

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“*The first farmer was the first man, and all historic
nobility rests on possession and use of land."
—EMERSON.

LIPPINCOTT’S
FARM MANUALS

EDITED BY
KARY C. DAVIS, Px.D. (Cornett)

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING

By R. M. WASHBURN, B.AGR., M.S.A.

PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF
ANIMAL AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI; STATE DAIRY AND
FOOD COMMISSIONER OF MISSOURI

LIPPINCOTT'S
FARM MANUALS

Edited by
K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D.

KNAPP SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, NASHVILLE, TENN.

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY | 1915
By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A.

PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY 1919
By HARRY R. LEWIS, B.S.

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY _ 1916
By CARL W. GAY, D.V.M., B.S.A.

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING | 1917
By FRED C. SEARS, MS.

PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING _ 1918
By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A.

PRODUCTIVE FEEDINGof FARM ANIMALS 1916
By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D.

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS | 1919
By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M.

PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS _ 1918
By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A.

PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING 1918
By FRANK C, PELLETT

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING _ 1919
By R. M. WASHBURN, M.S.A.

INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS 1918
By F. L. WASHBURN, M.A.

PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY 1918
By WALTER C. COFFEY, M.S.

SOIL PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT 1919
By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S.

LABORATORY MANUAL AND NOTEBOOK
ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS
SOILS, By J. F. EASTMAN and K. C. DAVIS 1915
POULTRY, By H.R. LEWIS 1918
DAIRYING, By E. L. ANTHONY 1917
FEEDING, By F.W. WOLL 1917
FARM CROPS, By F. W. LATHROP

Gay TIW ad OL ANOH ONIWOO SAUSUaL

LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pa.D. (Cornett)

PRODUCTIVE
DAIRYING

BY
R. M. WASHBURN, B.AGR., M.S.A.

181 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

“Tf vain our toil,
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil."’
PopE—Essay on Man

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

aev, 25, ¢975/ *

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req
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Hilectrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company.
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. 8. A.

PREFACE

Turs book was written for use in High Schools, Schools of
Agriculture, Colleges of Agriculture, general courses, Rural
Consolidated Schools and for the many studious young farmers
who have been deprived of systematic agricultural education.

From an experience of more than thirty years in dairy work,
covering much of the United States, the author has written,
without haste, what he feels and knows, from innumerable ques-
tions asked, to be what the thoughtful reader desires to know.
Many of the finer and more technical points have been omitted.
There is enough that is known to furnish a foundation and guide
for good practice.

The lists of questions following every chapter will aid the
student in fixing in his mind the essentials of the points
discussed.

The chapter on common diseases was written by Dr. W. L.
Boyd, Assistant Professor of Veterinary Medicine, University
of Minnesota, for this book.

Acknowledgment is due and gladly made to the secretaries
of the various breed associations, various Experiment Station
workers and business firms from whom help has been received
and to Professor T. L. Haecker, Dr. Carl W. Gay and Professors
H. H. Kildee, W. A. McKerrow, G. W. Gehrand, A. D. Wilson
and E. O. Hanson, for assistance rendered in the nature of criti-
cism and suggestions

3 R. M. Wasuzurn.

UNIVERSITY FARM,
St. Paul, Minnesota
February, 1917

CONTENTS

PART I.—THE WHY OF DAIRYING.

CHAPTER PAGE

I. Human Foop PRopuctTIon ........... 0.0 cece eee eee eeee 3

TW, Sons. PSRTIGIPY 3. cies nde dA PA eee Ra ae Lae Breet AS

III. Reauuation Or LABOR... 2.0... ee 16

PART JIi.—THE DAIRY BREEDS.

IV. Haruy Usp oF Carthb..... i... eee eens 23

V. ORIGIN oF BREEDS...........0..0 00 cece cee eee ence ae 27

VI. Evements oF Dairy TyPe.........000.000000 cece ee 31

VII. THe BREEDS OF CATTEE osc cacy ces exbeg de eeuaea ses tees 43

VIII. Houstwin-FRIESIAN ......0000000 000 cece eee eee eee 46

UX. IGUBRNSEYS: 5k feed did os Saves dns arndled ga Bisln w Stewie AA AERA REMC 62

SS. DLR J BRS BY oy 2h dcnatate onan 4 £ vay iain a ganas oeoneds Sue eet 74

DeL, CAVHSHIRIS pu: has oun aan aA BG Ae Gandia bale alg wee a ee a 90

XS REE) RED POLLS ican sates 24 wa eka ge eet RS ou Oh 100

DID. BROWN ISWISS, dae 'y eyo y wail w sal aek coare Msn aman os wanes a 108

XIV. SHORTHORN ... 1... ccc cece eens 117

XV. DUTCH BELGED) «ascedt ale d Canis aa cadac tana ae bon 123

XVI. FRENCH-CANADIAN ....0 000000 c ccc ccc cece eee eens 127

DOVE IMILGH “GOATS yiec.svi6 ais cach as Saw dae in abo eae bee wee Res 131

XVIII. Strartineg a Dairy HerpD..........0....0 00. eee eee 138
PART III.—CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS.

XIX. Darry Herp MANAGEMENT ...........0.00.0-000 000 c eee eee 153

XX. How Can I Get THE Most From tur Cows ] Have?...... 177

XXI. Some Features oF THE Dairy Barn .................. 179

XXII. Common AILMENTS OF CATTLE..........000 00000 cece eens 189

PART IV.—WINTER FEEDING.
XXIII. Winter Ferepine or Dairy Cows ..............000000- 225
DOXTV). Gate RATSIING goo sede hd undesns cole bw dana ne toed haba eed nes Bae ed eee 248
PART V.—CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION.

XXV. Crean Mik PropucTIon AND HANDLING............... 267

XXVI. MeruHops anpD STANDARDS FOR THE PRopUCTION AND Dis-

TRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK ................00.0005 278

viil CONTENTS
PART VI—FARM DAIRYING.

XXVIII. Toe Farm Miux House........ 00... cee eee 293
XXVIII. Mink anp CreAM TESTING.........0.0.002 cece eee eee 303
XXIX. CreaM SEPARATION ......... 0.0000 c ccc eee c eee eeee 332
XXX. Care anD RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FaRM........... 340
XXXI. Damy Burrer MAKING............00. 0 0c e cece ees 346
XXXII. Tests NEcEssARY IN CREAMERIES .............0000000: 363
XXXIII. Farm Darry CHEESE (GOUDA).........0000 0c ee eee 367
MXXIV. CotraGe: CABBSH oo... ae ce be cud kad gene Malden ap eee oe 372
OOO, LGR CREAM: win gav bard ee Aas bara ened mea. oanen dans 375
PART VIIL—MARKET MILK.
EXCL MAARKED MIBK: voc coun e 9 the be rcedh waeend doch eva eae wea 383
XXXVII. THe ADULTERATION OF MILK ............00 000 cece ee 389
XXXVIII. Kinps anp Ciasses oF Market MILE—METHODS OF SELLING 393
XXXLEX. Foon: V.ALuE: OF MIBK ence ee cane des $a pane Ge ee debe es 401
XL. GovERNMENT STANDARDS OF Purity For MILK aAnp Its
PRODUCTS £226 seen Saasp deh dpi Bes hese tak Be Rass Gays aaa Wie 409
APPENDIX
CoMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS...........000 000 cee cece ee ence ee eee 417
Fat EstviMATION TABLE............0. 0000s cece cent cece ence eee 424

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE
Jersey’s Home Coming...........0 00.0. c cece eee ees Frontispiece

1. Belle, the 2114 Year Old Cow......00 0000.0 c ccc cece cece eee ues 5

2, May Rilma, a Guernsey Champion... dae eR Sac RAN adaae kee WO

3. Litter Carrier, Saving Labor and Fertility , pes eset thsi tenis Se oues il

4, Concrete Bin for Preserving Manure....... ah Sia ern heat oe 13

5. “The Ideal Industry for the Home Unit.”........0....0..00.00004. 17

6. A Minnesota Farm Home............0.0.0000 00 0c cece cece ees 18

7. A Profitless Cow, Made so by Poor Treatment.................... 24

8. Sons of Cows are the Motors in Pioneer Life..... ssadise Saaislew eae Nice 25

9. Illustrating Need of Capacity in Cows. .......0..0..0 0.00 cece eevee 32
10. Illustrating Dairy Temperament.................. patch s ae tort ate 34
11. Showing Coarse Shoulders...........0.00000 0000 cece cee eee ee eeees 35
12. Showing Sharp Angular Shoulders...... Sista anneble de Bask clue adubanenine. ode 35
13. Young Cow Poorly Formed....... 0.0.0.0... 0000 c cece cece eee aees 39
14. The Points of the Cow....... 0.00.0 c ccc een cece eee cect eeees 41
15. Illustrating the Dual Function and Use of Cattle.................. 44
16. King of the Pontiacs, Holstein Bull...............00.0.0.00..00000. 48
17. Duchess Skylark Ormsby, the World’s Champion Butter Cow...... 49
18. Sir Beets Cornucopia Netherland...............0..0000000 cece eee 52
19. Pietertje Maid Ormsby, A. R. O. Cow, with 7th Calf.............. 53
20. Holstein Bull, Paul Calona and Daughter...................00.4. 54
21. May King of Linda Vista, a Champion Guernsey Bull..... See Coie 63
22. Murne Cowan, World’s Champion Guernsey Cow................. 64
23. Robinna’s Standard, a Good Guernsey Bull....................... 65
24. A Guernsey Young Herd..............00 cece cece cece cece een ees 66
25. Dairy Maid of Pinehurst, a Record Breaking Guernsey Cow........ 68
26. Imported Oxford Majesty, a Champion on Both Sides of the Sea.... 75
27. Noble’s Eminent Lad, a Champion Jersey Bull.................... Te
28. Sophie 19th of Hood Farm, the Champion Jersey Cow of the World. 79
29. Financial Daisy, a Rugged Jersey Mother......... ee ee 81
30. Bright Princess Jolly Girl, a prize winning Jersey.................. 81
31. Rosalind of Old Basing, a Productive Jersey............. 20000000 84
32. Cupid’s Noble Fontaine, a Promising Jersey Heifer................ 85
33. Bargenoch Gay Cavalier, Beautiful Ayrshire Champion Bull........ 92
34. A Typical Modern Ayrshire Cow........... 0000: ccc e eee e eee tees 93
35. An Imported Ayrshire Bull............ 00.00 c ccc cee eee 93

ILLUSTRATIONS

36. Kilnforn Bell 3rd, a Grand Champion Ayrshire Cow...........0.++ 95
37. Teddy’s Best, typical Red Polled Bull.........................-. 102
38. Jean Du Luth Beauty, World’s Champion Red Polled Cow......... 102
39. My Own Boy, Imported Champion Brown Swiss Bull.............. 111
40. Belle of Grattan, a Champion Brown Swiss Cow.................. 111
41. My Own Baby, Prize Winning Brown Swiss Cow.................. 118
42. Milking Shorthorn Bull............ 0.0.0. 00 0.0 e eee eee eee 119
43. Imported Milking Shorthorn Cow...................00000020005- 119
44, Jewell, a Good Milking Shorthorn Cow..............0.0....0005. 121
45. Good Type Milking Shorthorn Cow.......... 0.020000. c cece eens 121
46. Knox Em All, Champion Dutch Belted Bull................0..... 124
47. Julia Marlowe, Champion Dutch Belted Cow..................... 125
48. Tilma, a Good Type of Dutch Belted Cow....................... 125
49. Dennis Lord, Four Years Old, French-Canadian Bull.............. 128
50. Fortune 4th, d’Ottawa, a Champion French-Canadian Cow......... 129
51. Imported Fanette, Champion Milch Goat of America.............. 132
52. Fanette, on Milking Stand................. 0000. c eee eee 133
53. A Well-marked Toggenberg Doe.................00 0000020 e eee ee 133
54. A Milch Goat of the Saanan Breed............... 0000 c eee eee 135
55. Starlight’s Excelsior of Jean Du Luth, a Promising Young Sire...... 141
56;,. Barn and Silossis. fot roti sie Gav canny Baas aie le ate do ote wee he 154
57. Woodland Dairy Farm Barn...........0..0.00. 0000 c eee eee 156
58. Box Stall with Water Supply.........0...0.0 0.0000 c cee cece eee 161
59. Comfort in the Cow Stable............. 000 cee eee 171
60. Convenient Drinking Fountains ...............0..0.0..0.0 00000. 175
61. A Typical Vermont Barn...... 2.0.0.2... 0.0. ee ete es 180
62. A Substantially Built Cow Stable................00.0.000. 000000. 181
63. Plan of General Farm Barn. .............. 000000 e reece eee ... 188
64. Elevation of Farm Barn.............-00 cee ee cece eee feet ene 185
65..A Roomy Cow Stables .:s 00545 esa e¢eece res Sdegteryi des Ghee 188
66. A Fat, yet Tubercular Cow............ 000.000 e cece cee 191
67. A Poor and Tubercular Bull...............00.. 0.0002 eee ee .. 191
68. Heifer, Thin but not Tubercular...................0...00..0000. 195
69. Cow Coming Down with Milk Fever........................00.. 202
70. Cow in Advanced Stage of Milk Fever...................0...02... 202
71. Cow Affected with Foot and Mouth Disease................0..... 207
72. Cow Affected with Lumpy Jaw.................5.000 000002. eee 211
73. Showing where to Puncture for Bloat...............0.0.0.....00.. 218
74. Illustrating the Economy of Liberal Feeding...................... 226
75. Art and Utility Combined.......... dr are MUA cia aa wae hs wd ye aes ee 228
76. Illustrating Relation of Food to Milk............. 0.2.0.0 .00..0008. 242
77. Silo, Clay Block. ...... 0... seen eee fs waaay oie saitg Suga wide Rage cad 246

ILLUSTRATIONS xl

78. Silo, Home Made, Plaster Lined.............0.0.0.. 000. cc cece seus 246
19s Silo, Crt bor Wey pe sare agen sds wie ick sh seb ean sate oon 8d esc Coa bo i we Rk 246
80. Inexpensive Calf Stanchion...........0. 00.000 ccc eee e eee eee ees 251
81. Calf, Tender but Healthy.... 2.020000 cece ee 252
825 Calt Stan Chi gmssi sia saat vena ees cok jaro nee Bb dene oe guce Sek ieee 254
83. A Group of Skim Milk Calves........000000.0.0 00. c cece eee 254
84. Well Developed Holstein Heifer...........0..0 000.0 e eee eee 262
85. A Well Lighted Dairy Barn.........000.0.000 00000 cece eae 268
86; Sanitary: Malk--Panls . scgiew sieves Rote vals cee bee tees Seed ER 269
87. Well Made Southern Cow Stable..........0.00.0.00..0.020 00000 270
88. Well Appointed Dairy Barn.........0.0. 0000000 cece eee 271
89. Inexpensive Yet Clean Cow House................ 000 cee eee 272
90. Milk Cooled in Air vs. Water.......0.000000 000 0c 273
91. Well Finished Dairy Barn................... ee Gud ee Boats teen 279
92. Cows Kept Clean With Little Labor...........0.0..0.0..0... 0.000 ee 280
93. Clean Cows Ready to Give Clean Milk....................0000. 282
94. Elevation of Certified Milk House...........0.00. ccc eee ee 285
95. Plan of Certified Milk House..........0.0. 02 0000s cece eee 286
96. Plan of Combination Dairy and Ice House...................... 295
97. Combination Ice, Dairy and Power House ...................... 296
98. Method of Insulating Ice Houses..............0..00. 00000 cee ee 297
99. Inexpensive Milk House.............. 0.00.22 cee cee ee ee 301
100.. Old Style Ice: Mouse: so 225 nee¢ ee eos ehags es cea bees se ey ew sds eek 302
101. Babcock Milk Tester, Farm Size.........0..00.0 0.0. cee ee eae 305
LOD: Milk Bipetres eto kate doa. g.d.c michal aubteeleta aaeeh hadnt doy BNR ad acs eh UR 306
108; Acid, Measuréses.cs ccc ccaas sean acauaae nee eae awd nag wea wa es 307
104. Mille Rest :Bottlesi: sn cicue ene on Sih cchi a tekihs Step ne eeidae OES eee ins 308
105. Filling Milk Test Bottles... ........ 00.20.0000 cece eee 309
106. Controlling Temperature in Hand Tester......... .............. 312
107. Composite Sample Bottles...............00. 00000. 314
108; “Cream: Lest: Bottles. sca tax densi qctned ahs ea eats soe BEA RRR REELS 318
109;. A Cheap Mille Lester isjiccc 0 wake bea naan eee aw iy wthd nein a Loge G 319
110. Milk and: Cream Tests: » ee yee-evcoddhseods hated see b ees hoes daa 320
111, Reading the Bat Test... ccc pace gh teen gh ca ieee eae a 322
112. Hand Cream Separators.........0.. 000060 e ce eee eee 333
113., Milk Cooling Tank, Cover Off: ss ci .cccusccine icra tn peewee mbes 342
114. Milk Cooling Tank, Cover in Place...............0..02..020 0000. 343
115. Bacteria Growth Affected by Temperature.................0.... 345
116. Farm Dairy Equipment..... 0.0.0... c cece eee eee 353
117. Combined Churn and Butter Worker....................0..00005 353
118. Inexpensive Butter Printer...........-... 0:0 cece eee eee eee 354
119. Insulated: Ice: HOws6 ws as ec ees eaves ob ed BEG 4G Be Oe RES Se eee 360
120. A codperative Creamery... 2.06.00. e eee eee 361

. Dairy School Students. .ic0c cs nec eeie sa ne ee va ee seen eden 364

122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Cheese Press, Home Made........... 0.0000. c cece eee 369
Ice Cream Freezer, Showing Use of Water..............-.00-00055 378
Milk and Bacteria Under the Microscope...............----+-+5 385
be EA COMIe ber ys ta saccas se ste shah a. anhaneat Sed eset Agee Pei ea 391
Milk Bottles Variously Capped ............0.0..000 000 cece eee ee 394
Plan of Sanitary Stable and Milk House...................-..-- 398
Food Value of Various Grades of Milk.................0..000005. 403
Composition of Milk Solids........0 0.200000 cece eee 407
Micro-photograph Milk Fat Globules.............000...0.00005. 408

Chart Used in Milk Campaigns..........0.0.00 000 cece cence eee 425

PART I
THE WHY OF DAIRYING

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING
CHAPTER I

HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION

Tue history of Agriculture in civilized nations has been one
of change from grain growing with livestock farming of a
mediocre sort as a mere incident, to definite livestock farming
with better animals; stock was chiefly of beef characteristics ;
and from this grew a yet more intense cultivation of the fields
which are kept up in fertility largely by dairy cows. The best
dairy districts of Europe were once beef and grain-growing
centers and our own eastern states fifty years ago were noted
beef centers but are now systematically and intensively in the
business of producing milk.

The West that once boasted of its large herds of cattle is now
cut up into farms of moderate size where many dairy-bred cows
are kept and many others are used in a dairy way. It is evi-
dent that the United States will either be a nation of balanced
dairy farms within a few decades or be an exception to the rule.

The question may very properly be asked, Why this direc-
tion of affairs? What is there inherent in the dairy type of
animal industry that adapts itself to our more intensive con-
ditions? In this chapter, very briefly indeed, the chief reasons
are set forth.

The cow as a converter or transformer of coarse, rough
feeds into fine grained and more valuable forms has no equal.
Physically speaking, the sun is our great original source of
warmth and energy. A small portion of the heat which is
poured so lavishly upon the earth each summer is captured by the
growing plants and stored, some as grain, a little as root crops,
but much more in such forms as grass and fodder. Only about
forty per cent of the solar energy captured by our cultivated
crops is in a form sufficiently fine to be used by man direct, for

4 HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION

example, as corn and potatoes, while the remaining sixty per cent
of the energy is in the stalk, leaf, cob, and straw. If we add
to this amount the meadow hay and permanent pastures, it seems
highly probable that fully seventy-five per cent of the food energy
captured in this country, each growing season, is in such form
that it is practically useless as food to man until converted by
some animal into the form of flesh, milk, or eggs. Plants get
their energy from the sun and their substance from the soil and
air, while animals get both substance and energy from plants
(or other animals). Man is no exception.

Utilization of Waste Forage.—One important reason why
livestock is, and should be, kept on most farms, rather than
devoting them exclusively to the growing of grain, potatoes and
roots of which man can eat only a part, is because of the power
of animals to consume and work over a great quantity of com-
mon pasture grass, low land hay, corn stover, and some straw.
They consume the coarser by-products formed in the making of
human food, for example, bran and shorts, or in the making of
some other commercial article. Where linseed oil is made for
painting purposes there is left linseed oil meal, and where cot-
tonseed oil is made there is left cottonseed meal. Both are
highly nutritious as stock feed. These substances may be fed
to produce beef, milk (Fig. 1), mutton, or, to some extent,
pork. The hog has wonderful powers of flesh formation, in
fact, will produce more flesh for the quantity of feed consumed
than any other known animal, but his power to consume coarse
stuff is limited. The sheep is a highly valuable animal and
should be kept in greater numbers than at present, but its
peculiarities prevent it being kept in such numbers as adequately
to consume any large portion of the coarse feeds grown on
American farms. So, at least for the present and probably
for many years to come, the consumption and conversion of
the bulk of the coarse feeds of our farms must be done mostly
by cattle.

The Cow vs. the Steer.—.\s a food producer, or, more
strictly speaking, energy transformer and conserver, the cow,
according to Haecker of Minnesota, returns in her product

THE COW VS. THE STEER 5

twenty-nine per cent of what she consumes, while the Hesh-
forming animal, the steer, and in all likelihood the fattening
cow as well, retains as flesh scarcely fourteen per cent. That is
to say, that for every 100 units of digestible feed consumed by
the normal cow, 29 will be recovered in the milk and 71 lost in
the process of transforming, while for every 100 units fed to a
steer but 14 will be returned to man as edible flesh and 86 will
be lost.

Fie. 1.—Belle—twenty-two and one-half year old Holstein cow still yielding 40 pounds
milk per day. She has had twenty-one strong calves. She had strong twins at the age of
21 years. During this period she has produced about 200,000 pounds milk, containing fully

- 25,000 pounds of solid food. She has been fed on corn silage, clover hay, roots, corn, oats
et et meal. Property Washburn Children’s Home, Minneapolis, Minn. Photo by the
author.

A cow that yields 6000 pounds of 5 per cent milk in one
year will yield 900 pounds of food solids or 2.46 pounds per day,
which is as much as can be expected in gross gain, bone, blood,
water in tissue, and all, in the steer. A cow that produces
12,000 pounds of milk testing about 3.25 per cent fat and about
12 per cent total solids will produce 1440 pounds of food, or
nearly 4.0 pounds per day.

If comparison be made with one of the modern high-produc-
ing Holsteins such, for instance, as Lady Oak Fobes De Kol of
the Minnesota Station, we find, as pointed out by Professor
Haecker, that the 22,063.5 pounds of milk that she yielded in

6 HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION

one year contained the food equivalent of five steers weighing
1100 each, and that every three days she yielded food equivalent
to a veal calf weighing 175 pounds. If comparison be made
with the product of the noted Guernsey cow, May Rilma
(Fig. 2), we find that the food contained in her milk for her best
year equalled that in thirty steers weighing 500 pounds each or
five steers weighing 1500 pounds each.

The world’s champion cow of all breeds in butter production
in a year, viz., Duchess Skylark Ormsby, in yielding 27,761.7
pounds of milk, testing 4.34 per cent fat and about 13.25 per
cent total solids, produced 3678.4 pounds of solids. Computing

Fic. 2.—May Rilma—the Guernsey cow that produced the food equivalent to five 1500
pound steers in one year. Photo by J. F. Kelley.

this on the basis of the total starch equivalent (fat by 2.25, plus
protein, plus carbohydrate) we find that each 100 pounds of
milk equalled 18.65 pounds of starch or, better, wheat flour,
and that the total “wheat flour” value of the milk solids was
5177.5 pounds or more than 2% tons. Ata vield of 15 bushels
of wheat to the acre, more than 8 acres would be required to

QUESTIONS 7

produce an equivalent amount of human food in the form of
flour. And all this the cow did by working over hay, corn
silage and various rough or by-product grains.

From the above brief discussion it will readily be seen why
it is that in densely populated sections of the world, where the
demand for food is great, and labor cheap, milk production has
become of first importance. Dairying is an intensive form of
agriculture, requiring more labor, yet recompensing for it if
rightly done.

QUESTIONS

From what do plants obtain the heat that is stored in them?

In what forms do we handle this energy?

What per cent of field grain crops is edible by man?

How may man eat hay, grass, and silage?

. How is an animal a transformer of solar energy?

. Name the domesticated food animals.

. Which one will return to man the largest percentage of the amount
consumed ?

8. How many times more efficient as a food producer is a cow than a steer?

9. What is meant by “starch value” of milk?

10. Compare the average cow of your herd with an average yield of wheat

or corn,

Se DD OO

CHAPTER II
SOIL FERTILITY

As the dairy industry is so closely related to the maintenance
of soil fertility, the dairy farmer is bound to consider this as no
small element for consideration in the profits from the dairy.

SOIL FERTILITY

Fertilizing Value of Plant and Animal Products.—<Ag is
well known, every plant which grows from the ground absorbs
and appropriates to itself portions of the soil in which it grew.
The quantity and the proportions of the ingredients vary con-
siderably with the nature of the plants. Of the eighty odd
chemical elements known, only ten to eleven seem to be abso-
lutely essential to plant life. Of these only three are present
in such small amounts, and used in such large amounts as to
create a keen necessity that their presence be assured. These
three are: nitrogen (measured as nitrogen, N), phosphorus
(measured as phosphoric acid, P,O;), and potassium (measured
as potash, IX,0). Many soils are so lacking in one or more of
these essential substances that they must be provided in some
artificial way. This condition has brought into existence firms
dealing in commercial fertilizers. Immense quantities are regu-
larly sold in this country, especially in the eastern and southern
states. The three constituents thus marketed are nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash, in varying forms and with varying
values. Since farm crops all contain more or less of these sub-
stances they have a fertilizing value usually measured by their
composition and the market price of these three essential con-
stituents. Prices are slowly increasing. Readily available
nitrogen is now worth about 20 cents a pound; phosphoric acid
and potash each about 5 cents a pound. Below is given a table
showing the amount of these three elements contained in 1000

VALUE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS 9

pounds of various plant and animal products. The last column
to the right shows the fertilizing value per ton when the above
prices are applied.

Fertilizing Constituents in 1000 Pounds of Various Plant and
Animal Products

Phosphoric Fertilizing
Fecding Stuffs Nitrogen Acid Potash Value per Ton
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Wheat straw .......... 4.3 1.3 7.4 $2.59
Oat straw ............. 6.5 2.2 12.2 4.04
Timothy hay .......... 10.8 3.5 13.4 6.00
Clover hay ............ 20.9 4.3 20.8 10.87
CORN siaci seid .od waded dees 14.8 6.1 3.7 6.90
OBES) soa eats eran cot Gas 18.1 7.7 5.7 8.58
Wheat ................ 17.3 9.6 3.5 8.23
RYO sos edetay aes g Mend 16.2 8.1 5.2 7.81
Wheat bran ........... 25.6 29.2 15.7 14.73
Oil meal n. p. ......... 60.0 17.4 13.4 27.08
Cottonseed meal ....... T1LA4 30.9 18.2 33.47
Meat scrap ............ 76.3 81.1 38.63
Skim milk ............. 5.0 3.5 2.0 2.55
Whole milk ........... 5.8 1.9 1.7 2.68
BOUUP: ns ie scowsatededs 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.56.

From this table we learn that every ton of timothy hay sold
from the farm removes about $6.00 otf the farm, just as trmy
as though so much soil were shovelled into the river; and that
every bushel of wheat sold carries away about 25 cents’ worth
of the farm. Studying the table more fully we learn that for
every dollar’s worth of soil fertility sold in wheat there is re-
ceived in return scarcely $3.50; for every dollar’s worth sold
in timothy hay from $2.00 to $3.00; for every dollar’s worth
of fertility in average whole milk at $1.75 per hundred $13.00
are received. While $15.00 are recovered for every one of
fertility lost in the sale of beef, the great surprise comes in the
matter of butter, where $1071 are received for every one dollar’s
worth of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash sold (butter at
30 cents per pound). This remarkable showing in the case of

10 SOIL FERTILITY

butter is due to the fact that it is made almost wholly of the
three elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, which are so
common as to have no commercial value.

Butter Made of “ Wind and Water.”—Chemically speak-
ing, butter is made of those same elements which go to form
water and the carbon dioxide of air. Having no fertilizing
value the sale of butter does not impoverish the soil. Though a
highly nutritious food to the consumer, it does not rob the pro-
ducer. This explains why it is that individual farmers, neigh-
borhoods, or states engaged systematically in the production of
butter are, in the long run, prosperous, compared with those
who regularly sap their soil to derive their income from the
sale of grain or whole milk. Butter may be said to be composed
of ‘‘ wind, water and work.”

The value of manure has been known since antiquity. Ad-
monitions to fertilize and cultivate are contained in the earliest
writings. Manure has three values: A. Chemical, measured by
the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash contained
in it. These are a direct food to the next crop as would be the
same ingredients introduced in other forms. B. Physical.
Manure contains fibrous materials which, rotting, yield humus
and loosen the soil. This open condition permits water to
enter more readily, yet to drain more promptly: also allows air
freer access. Aside from the purely chemical aspect manure
improves the soil by a change in its physical character. C. Bac-
terial. Countless billions of bacteria in the manure aid in its
decomposition, while rotting acids are liberated which dis-
solve portions of the soil which had, heretofore, been locked
securely in unavailable forms.

Although the bacterial and physical properties are clearly
known to have value, they are difficult of determination. Or-
dinarily, therefore, the fertilizing value of manure is indicated
by the amount of the chemical substances carried and figured
only one-half as valuable as would be a like amount of the three
elements in a form more readily or quickly available.

COMPOSITION OF MANURE 1t

The amount of manure produced by cattle, horses and other
animals varies in amount with the liberality of the feeding, and
in chemical constituents with the character of the feeds fed

(Fig. 3). The approximate quantities of solid and liquid
excrement are shown in the table below.

Fic. 3.—Saving labor and fertility on a well-appointed farm. (Photo loaned by James
Manufacturing Co., Ft. Atkinson, Wis.)

The Daily Amount and Composition of Liquid and Solid Eacrement
Voided by Mature Animals *

Animal Solid excrement Urine Tota

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
fe Ke) g-(2): ee ene a 35.5 8.0 43.5
CabHe: ciadaing ee ane ed aa eGiD2lO 19.4 71.4
SHEEP so sas eee does 2.3 1.5 3.8
HOSS. os cise vee eiee sees ee 6.0 3.3 9.3

Though these figures are only roughly approximated they

Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, p. 726, 1912.

12 SOIL FERTILITY

may serve some useful purpose in estimating the value of the
total products derived from animals.

The Composition of Manure.—The amount of nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash in the voidings of farm animals
depends largely on the quantities of these three substances present
in the food consumed. The following table indicates as nearly
as can be stated the average composition of the solid and liquid
voidings of the four principal farm animals:

Fertilizing Constituents in 1000 Pounds of Fresh Eacrement
of Farm Animals *

In Solid Voidings

Animal Water Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Alkalies
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
in a. ee ee 760 4.95 2.99 2.40
Cate i savay ox een 840 3.24 2.07 1.49
BSAWLITE! <4 ye ean d wie ene 800 6.0 4.60 4.44
Sheep .......-..44- 580 6.50 4.60 2.28
In Urine
Animal Water Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Alkalies
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
HOrses® sc dmie cave wees 890 12.0 14.9
CAthle gece eeae evan 920 9.5 28 9.5
Swine ...2:.ss0n90% 975 3.0 1.27 10.0
Bheep oc. sec ece ene 865 16.8 3.0 21.1

The alkalies include potash, lime, ete.

The value of manure per ton has been a subject of some
discussion and naturally varies with the dryness of the manure
(Fig. 4), the feeds previously fed, the degree of decomposition,
and of leaching of the manure. _ A ton of well rotted manure is
worth more than a ton of the green stuff, but one and a half
to two tons of the green would be required to produce one of the
rotted. Based upon the chemical ingredients only, taking the
manure in its ordinary condition as removed from stables the
following table will indicate fairly closely the value per ton:

* Based on Table II.

VALUE OF MANURE PER YEAR 13

Value of Manure Per Ton Including Litter ®
Amount in One Ton

Source of Manure Nitrogen Phosphoric Acid Potash Value
Horse ............ 13.90 4.97 15.27 $3.78
Cattle ........ ,-..11.40 4.44 12.48 3.12
Sheep ....e0se000. 28.78 10.26 24.24 7.48
HOP 5 inS2n easiewen 10.00 15.34 6.58 3.10

Fie. 4,—Manure should be preserved in a concrete bin where impossible to haul directly
to the field.

While the farmers in many sections of this country would
hesitate long before they would pay $3.78 per ton for horse-
stable manure, the market gardeners about our eastern cities are
paying about that amount regularly. So keen is the demand
that many full train loads of manure are being regularly shipped
out of our eastern cities for sale to farmers at from $2.30 to $2.50
per ton. This price does not include the freight or the cost of
hauling and composting on the farm.

The Value of Manure Per Year.—Taking the ordinary rate

3 Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bul, 246, p. 726, 1912.

14 SOIL FERTILITY

of manure production as a basis and the present selling price of

the chemical constituents, we have the table as follows:

Weight and Value of Solid and Liquid Excrement and of Nitrogen, Phos-
phoric Acid and Potash Contained Therein. Per Year Animal}

Elements contained

Excre-
ment Nitrogen, N Phosphoric acid Potash, K2.0 Total
P2205 value
pounds pounds value pounds value pounds value
H ... Solid 12,957 64.14 $12.83 38.70 $1.94 31.10 $1.56 $16.33
ise Liquid 2,920 35.04 7.01 evan wees 43.45 2.17 9.18
Total 15,877 99.18 19.84 38.70 1.94 74,55 3.73 25.51
Cattle... .Solid 18,980 61.50 12.30 39.30 1.97 28.25 1.41 15.68

Liquid 7,081 67.27 13.45 1.73 0.09 67.13 3.36 16.90
Total 26,061 128.77 25.75 = 41.03 2.06 95.38 4.77 32.58

Sheep... . Solid 821 5.34 1.07 3.77 0.19 1.39 .09 1.35
Liquid 546 9.20 1.84 0.16 0.01 11.57 58 2.43
Total 1,367 14.54 2.91 3.93 0.20 13.46 67 3.78
Hogs... .. Solid 2,190 13.14 2.63 10.07 0.50 9.72 0.49 3.62
Liquid 1,205 3.62 72 1.52 0.08 12.00 0.60 1.40
Total 3,395 16.76 3.35 11.59 0.58 21.72 1.09 5.01

Tn the last column we learn that the average horse, well fed,
will void in a year both liquid and solid manure to the value
of above $25.51; that the cow voids about $32.58 worth. These
figures seem very high and are much higher than most farmers
would be able to recover because much manure is dropped by
the roadside or on the hillside pasture and washed away. The
urine, so rich in nitrogen, is often largely wasted about the
farm. Another loss probably as great as all others is the leach-
ing, and, in the case of the horse manure, heating in piles. If,
therefore, only a half or even a third, of the total amount cal-
culated were to be regularly saved the amount still would be an
item highly well worth considering, especially when we remember
that aside from its chemical, there are the physical and bacterial
values.

QUESTIONS

1. What three elements of the soil are most likely to require replacing
artificially? What would you consider as the fourth element?

2. What are they worth per pound?

3. What would a ton of clover hay be worth as manure? A ton of timothy ?

4. What substance regularly sold from the farm brings in the most money
for the soil fertility that is lost?

5. Explain in what sense butter is made of “ wind and water.”

*Ohio Agri. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, p. 726, 1912.

QUESTIONS 15

. What three values has manure?

How many pounds of manure will a cow make in twenty-four hours?
Which one of the three fertilizing elements is most valuable per pound?

. Which is richer in this element, the solid or the liquid voidings?
. What is a fair value of cow manure per ton?
. How many dollars’ worth of manure will a cow make in one year? How

much may be saved?

. How may straw be made back into soil to best advantage?
. Describe ways in which manures are wasted where you have observed

them.

. Tell how manure is best saved for farm use, and give your observations

of good methods.

CHAPTER III

REGULATION OF LABOR

Dairy farming has a number of advantages over other types
of farming as regards the farm labor problem. In the para-
graphs of this chapter are considered the several ways in which
dairying is related to the farm labor problem, which is so
often a difficult one.

Dairy Products Valuable Per Pound.—Any farmer located
some distance from market should consider carefully the value
of his commodity when measured in terms of the load to be
carried or drawn to town. Thus, while common wild hay is
worth from $6 to $10 per ton, wheat or oats from $25 to $30
per ton and cream from $150 to $200 per ton, butter is worth
$400 to $600 per ton, There are few, if any, farm crops or
products which will return as much per pound as well made
butter. In regions of bad roads, the production of well-made
dairy butter should be encouraged.

Regular Income.—The regularity and frequency of the in-
come from dairying is an argument in its favor. Current
expenses of the home may be paid as contracted so that when
the annual sale of field crops or livestock takes place these
proceeds are available for the larger items, such as making
payment on the farm, buying improved stock or machinery.

Child Labor.—The diversified livestock farm offers the best.
place in the world for the proper, profitable, employment of
children (Fig. 5). The chicks are to be fed, the calves must
have their little mess of milk, lambs need assistance, and cows
wait to be milked twice a day. Much of this sort of necessary
work may be performed by mere children, and that to their
advantage. While in calculating the cost of keep of any class
of animals the labor element should be included, the fact of
the presence of these animals makes it possible for children to
be wage earners in their own homes. Thus if the cow be charged

INDIRECT INCOMES 17

for the labor performed on her the system must be credited with
an equal amount, for the money is still in the family available
for household uses.

Direct Incomes.—By direct income is meant the proceeds
from the sale of the chief product of the dairy. In some sections
whole milk is sold for use in cities; in others, butter fat is sold
as cream for butter-making purposes, the milk being kept on,
or returned to the farm for feeding purposes. At present prices

: 4 = HONE UNIT
eyp INDUSTRY FOR THe HOME, uy
oe ‘ pein (ree COME! i

WHER

Fre. 5.—*The Ideal Industry,” the one in which every little fellow helps and is
strengthened thereby. The Dairy float during ‘‘county fair’? parade by Agricultural
College students, University of Minnesota.
of feed, labor and produce, it is often not easy to figure a
* profit” in dairying when direct incomes only are considered.

Indirect Incomes.—Skim milk has a feeding value of 25 to
75 cents per 100 pounds, but after that it has a manurial value
equal to about three cents per 100 pounds of skim milk consumed.
Barnyard manure has a chemical value of from $3 to $3.50
per ton, yet possesses physical and bacterial values which aid
materially in the production of larger crops. It is easy to

18 REGULATION OF LABOR

calculate the amount and market value of feeds consumed by
cattle, but the fact remains that a considerable quantity of the
stuff eaten throughout. the year could not have been sold except
through some form of livestock and therefore had no market
value. The labor of caring for stock naturally should be
charged against the income from the animal, but when such work
is performed by the growing family who must be maintained in
any case, to charge the animal would require a crediting of the
system by an equal amount. Time is more fully utilized on

Fia. 6.—A Minnesota farm home in which a family of useful citizens was raised.

stock farms, expecially on dairy farms (Fig. 6). Mornings,
evenings, Sundays and holidays employed productively, even
though at a moderate rate, are sure in time to amount to a con-
siderable item. These are part of the indirect incomes or sources
of profit derived from the employment of livestock, and this is
more intensely true when the cattle employed are of the dairy
sort, thus admitting of more labor and the consumption of a
larger proportionate amount of coarse fodder.

“Regulation of Farm Labor.—Most of the farms of this

BALANCED FARMING 19

country are so large that hired men either are, or should be,
employed for the proper cultivation of the soil. With the in-
crease of general education, culture and convenience of the farm
homes it is becoming increasingly unpleasant to keep the sort
of hired man, in most places available, in the home and at the
table with the family. Their labor is desired, their society is
not. <A cottage built on the farm at some distance from the
main buildings, where a hired man of steady habits, and family
anchor, may be given quarters, has been found helpful in secur-
ing better grade men and in keeping them; but to make this
profitable there must be ample employment at all times of the
year. The dairy herd furnishes such employment.

Dairying on High-priced Lands.—It is not uncommon, even
in this country, for good land near large cities to be leased for
$20 to $40 per acre per year for truck gardening, or other in-
tensive purposes. In some portions of Europe, however, not-
ably in Holland and the Chanuel Islands, where laud is seldom
sold, farms frequently rent at from $50 to $75 per acre per year
to be used for milk and butter production. The sale of high
quality butter permits high rentals to be paid. Butter is a con-
centrated product of both labor and material. Dairying requires
more labor than most other forms of livestock husbandry, yet
recompenses well if done intelligently.

Balanced Farming.—The labor problem is difficult to solve
under the one-crop system of farming. It is natural that the
settlers of any new country should turn their attention to a few
crops for which the place is best adapted, but to cling too long
to the single crop has been shown to be unwise. Thus the north
central portion of the United States suffered because her farmers
clung too long to small-grain growing. Clover, cultivated crops
and livestock were needed, and are now being introduced. The
South, as a whole, has clung too long to the single crop, cotton.
The boll-weevil may be doing for the southern farmers what
the chinch bug did for the northern, forcing them to abandon
the single-crop system and adopt crop rotation and the keeping
of livestock. While in the West an insufficient number of cattle
is kept, there are places in the East where too many are being

20 REGULATION OF LABOR

maintained for the available land. To ship grain 1000 miles
to feed is to increase the cost of the cow’s ration, and handicap
her by that much. In many parts of New England a smaller
number of more productive cows, fed far more largely from
the home farm, will be found preferable to the present system of
raising roughage and buying western grain.

QUESTIONS

1. What prices are paid as rental on land in America? Mention rentals
paid in your section.

2. Which farm’ product is most valuable per pound, wheat, potatoes, eggs,
or butter?

. Why does dairying furnish a regular income?

. What work about the farm is the child best adapted to do?

What is a direct income? An indirect?

. What is skim milk worth per 100 pounds?

. How does a dairy herd help to regulate farm labor?

. Name two dangers involved in too high specialization in production.

. What is balanced farming?

WOAIAaAP ce

PART II
THE DAIRY BREEDS

CHAPTER IV
EARLY USE OF CATTLE

Cows, goats and sheep have been used by man, not only as
flesh-producing, but also as milk-yielding animals, since a very
early period ; just when, will probably never be known.

If we go to one of our best records of ancient doings, the
Bible, we find in Genesis 18: 8: “And they took butter and milk

and they did eat.” Again, in Judges 5:25 we find:

“ He asked water and she gave him milk; ‘aie brought forth
butter in a lordly dish.” ‘Tose two passages would indicate
the early use of butter asa food. That it was at least commonly
known would be shown by the words of King David, Psalms
55:21: “ The words of his mouth were smooth as butter, but
war was in his heart.” If the word here translated as butter
did not stand for a substance well known, it is ‘not at all likely
that it would have been used to drive home such a thought.

_ Although the word itself must have been in common use, it
is also quite certain that the substance, whatever article of our
diet it may have resembled, was not so common as to cease to be
considered a luxury. This is indicated in even a later period,
for we find in Isaiah 7: 22, after mention has been made of cows
and goats: “And it shall come to pass for the abundance of milk
that they shall give, he shall eat butter; for butter and honey
shall every one eat that is left in the land.” These four distinct
references to butter have led some to believe that butter, more
or less like the modern food of that name, was known and used
at least 4000 years ago. They certainly do shed a ray of light
on the beginning of dairying.

A closer study of the matter, however, reveals a rather uncer-
tain condition. It is agreed by all scholars that the word
“butter,” as a translation of the Hebrew word in the Old Testa-
ment, is misleading. Gusenius in his Hebrew lexicon says of
the word: “In no passage of the Old Testament. does ‘ butter’

24 EARLY USE OF CATTLE

seem to be meant,” and he defines it as “ curdled milk” and
“ cheese.” The earliest references to butter and butter making
in Greek literature deal with its manufacture and use by the
Seythians, and the earliest reference in Roman literature is by
Celsus, who lived in the first half of the first century a.p.

From the various references it seems certain that the Greeks
and Romans used butter sparingly, if at all as a food, although
the surrounding people in Asia and in Europe used it freely,
especially as an ointment. Pliny speaks of it as being used for

Fie. 7.—A profitless cow made so (probably) by poor treatment.

anointing and in all passages in which it oceurs it is spoken of
as something fluid and to be poured out, although, according to
Ilippocrates, the Scythians made butter by placing milk in a
stone jar and shaking it until the fat rose to the top.

Our word butter comes to us from the Latin “ Butyrum ”
and this in turn came from the Greek “ Boutyron,” “which,
according to the New International Encyclopedia, is from
“hous,” meaning cow, and “ tyros,” meaning cheese. From all
the foregoing we may safely conclude that a rather soft cheese

THE EVOLUTION OF THE DAIRY COW 25

was common and that the fat of milk was used for the purpose of
anointing the body at an earlier period than it was used as a
food, and that its place as a food is probably not much more than
3000 years old.

Our word “dairy” seems to have come to us through the
old and middle English, “ deieris,” from “dey,” meaning a
maid-servant, especially one employed about the farm or live-
stock. We find the same in Norwegian “ deia ” as in “ bu-deia,”
a maid-servant in charge of livestock.

During what is known as the “ Middle Ages” and later, the

Fia. 8.—Sons of cows are the motors, the grass-engines in pioneer life. They will
work where horses cannot go, live on coarse foods and become marketable beef when too
old to labor. (Photo by G. G. Wiltse, Pine River, Minn.)

dairy cow as an instrument in human food production was
developed most strongly in Holland and Switzerland.

The evolution of the dairy cow from some mediocre, early
type animal (Fig. 7), to the present deep-bodied, capacious,
wonderful machine, has been a more or less gradual process, but
much more rapid during the past 200 years than during any
previous time. It cannot be thought that any man schemed to
produce an economical dairy worker and set about to develop that
form now known as the dairy type, but rather that as individual
cows varied slightly it was observed that some yielded more milk

26 EARLY USE OF CATTLE

than others and that these were naturally selected to be the
mothers of other cows who were to work in a dairy way and thus
gradually, almost unconsciously, the fundamental change took
place.

The cow, for the pioneer (Fig. 8), especially on the frontier
in this country, has been, and is, a God-send. For nearly 300
years in this country the home-maker with small means has, by
the use of a few cows, been able to provide milk, meat and shoes,
from these patient creatures. Among the stumps of the northern,
cut-over timber country, or on the winter wheat pastures of our
western prairies, she is still being used, not only as a provider of
food direct for the family, but as a means of cash income as well.

QUESTIONS

. What is our oldest record of the use of cows for dairy purposes?

. From what old time word is our word “dairy” derived?

. From what Greek words is our word “butter” derived?

. What place did the cow and the ox hold during our pioneer days?
. Why is not the ox more used at present?

of WO Ne

CHAPTER V

ORIGIN OF BREEDS

It is a general truth that an abundance of feed promotes
quick growth of the young and also encourages the production
of a larger size. A condition wherein there is an abundance
of feed through a long period of years makes for an increase in
the size of the stock. This is undoubtedly the prime reason
why the cattle of Holland are larger than other dairy breeds.
The reverse is also true, scanty feed and severe weather retard
growth and tend permanently to stunt the animals. Thus we
find the cattle of our extreme northern regions naturally smaller
and more agile than those farther south on more abundant
pastures.

A classification of the original primary stock, so far as can
be determined by fossil remains and the present representatives,
would seem to indicate that at some very early period, for some
unknown reason, the great family known as the Bos divided into
two great divisions, one represented by the present hump-backed
cattle of India and Egypt, known as the Bos Indicus; and the
other represented by the present straight-backed cattle of north-
ern Europe and known as the Bos Taurus. That they are of
the same origin would seem to be indicated by the fact that they
will readily cross breed and their crosses also breed. This
division must have taken place at a very early period, however,
because it is evident that a division of the straight-backed group
later took place, and formed the large, fierce, long-headed beasts
to which the name Bos Primigenius (Keller) has been given,
and the smaller, almost deer-like race, possessed of finer qualities,
and known by the comparatively short, broad skull. This
division is known as the Bos Sondaicus (Keller). The present
breeds and strains of the domesticated cattle of the world are
almost wholly the refined representatives of the one, the enlarged

representatives of the other, or a mixture of the two. The
27

28 ORIGIN OF BREEDS

present-day cattle of Holland, known in America as the Holstein-
Friesian, are probably the best present representatives of the
large race. The Jerseys are good representatives of the smaller
race, while the Guernseys and most of the breeds of England
and Scotland are doubtless mixtures of the two races.

Our present breeds were developed by keeping a few animals
continually in a certain valley or on a certain mountain-side
where they were subjected to the same feed and climatic changes,
and where they were, so far as the group was concerned, inbred.
The whim or fashion prevailing in one community would also
make, in time, something different from that in an adjoining
valley, even though the original stock may have been similar or
practically identical. Thus we find that the little country of
Switzerland has developed two major breeds, and several minor
ones, while the various provinces of Germany, France, Austria
and Hungary are represented by animals similar to but slightly
different from those in nearby regions. In this way breeds have
started, which when refined by skillful feeding, selection and
breeding, have developed into the magnificent breeds of the
present time.

The value of having pure breeds is chiefly that the man who
selects cattle for any particular purpose may be able to choose by
name essentially what he wants, and then be reasonably certain
that the offspring shall continue to be of the same quality, whether
it is meat or milk that is chiefly desired. It is of primary im-
portance, therefore, that the breeds be made to stand for some-
thing definite, not only in the single item of economical milk or
butter or beef production, but also in its other qualities which are
the outward mark or proof of the breed, namely, such items as
color, size and temperament. At present some breeders of both
Jersey and Guernsey cattle prefer the large size with milder
disposition, while others work for the smaller, more highly re-
fined animals. The value of both breeds unquestionably has
been lessened by these long-continued differences of aim on the
part of the breeders. This seems inevitable in a large country
and points to a reason why most of the prominent breeds have
sprung from very small places.

OUR COMMON STOCK 29

A cross is an animal resulting from the mating of two ani-
mals of different breeds. The wisdom of such depends largely
upon whether the two breeds are sufficiently similar to give fair
guarantee that the progeny will not be more or less of a mon-
strosity. For instance, refined representatives of both the Jersey
and the Guernsey breeds are as likely to produce an efficient dairy
cow as could be expected from the mating of the large angular
Jersey with a refined Jersey, while the crossing of the Holstein-
Friesian with either the Guernsey or the J ersey 1s a practice
never to be recommended. The differences in their organization
are too great. Experience has shown that the progeny of such a
cross is seldom as valuable as either parent for dairy purposes.
The mating of extremes should be avoided.

Grades are the result of mating a pure-bred with common
stock of mixed and uncertain breeding. A pure-bred animal is
usually far more prepotent than the scrub or common animal.
The qualities of the pure-bred animal usually manifest them-
selves in the improvement of the young towards the qualities of
the pure parent. Thus, so far as the qualities are concerned,
the cow resulting from the first cross may be said to be more
than half of the blood of the pure parent. The next mating
with a pure-bred should effect improvement, but such will not
usually be nearly as marked. The bulk of the dairy work of
this country must of necessity be done by grade cows for a very
long time to come. Yet their qualities should be improved as
rapidly as possible by grading up with a pure-bred sire and by
better feeding and handling.

Our common stock are the descendants of the animals
brought over in the colonial period and soon after. The founda-
tion stock of the country differs. In the southern states the
animals are largely the descendants of the Jerseys and Guern-
seys introduced to the country as Alderneys, and not kept pure.
There is a considerable admixture also of the Shorthorn blood
in the South and elsewhere. The early common stock of the
northern states are very largely the descendants of the Dutch
cattle brought over in the seventeenth century and mixed with
Shorthorns brought over later. Recent importations and at-

30 ORIGIN OF BREEDS

tempts at improvement continually add fresh elements to the
stock, but still the common cow of the middle west is largely of
the Durham or Shorthorn characteristics, while those of New
York State partake more of the Holstein nature and the New
England States more largely of the Jersey. The pure breeds
chosen by any sections are afterwards influenced by the type
of the common stock and that in turn by the kind of farming
carried on during any period of time in any section. Thus we
find a considerable increase of dairy-bred animals in the north
central states during the past twenty years with a rapid intro-
duction of dairy sires at the present time.

QUESTIONS

1, Name the two grand divisions of the Bos family. What characterizes
them?

. Into what two classes did the cattle of Europe develop?

. How were breeds of cattle naturally formed?

. What is the value of having breeds?

What items should be included in the breed characteristics?

What is a cross?

What is a grade?

. From what blood elements have the common cattle of your region
descended?

BAMA NW

CHAPTER VI
ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE

“ Tuer productive capacity of a cow depends more upon type
and conformation, than upon size or breed.” !

It has long been recognized with some classes of animals
that those of a certain conformation or type were better adapted
to certain work than those of other build; thus the greyhound
for running; the broad, massive horse for draft. But with
cattle the efficiency of type has been slow of recognition.

The essential economy of the dairy type cow was first clearly
demonstrated in 1894, when it was shown that a “ beef type”
cow used 17.5 cents’ worth of feed to produce a pound of butter
fat, whereas a “ dairy type” cow produced a pound for only
12.1 cents, it therefore costing nearly 50 per cent more feed to
produce butter fat with a beef type than with a dairy type cow.

The matter was more fully demonstrated and clearly set
forth, however, in 1900? for dairy cattle, while in 1905 the
desirability of the “ beef” type animal where meat making is
the principal aim, was shown experimentally.

The elements or factors of what is meant by dairy type may
be summed up in a few paragraphs, as follows:

Capacity for consuming an abundance of feed is the most
striking single feature of a cow possessing dairy type in marked
degree. A large barrel is necessary for the mere holding of a
large quantity of feed and the organs necessary for its digestion.
The importance of this feature becomes strikingly apparent
when we consider that the feed cost of maintenance of a cow is
practically in proportion to her live weight. That is to say, two
cows each weighing 1000 pounds will require for their daily
support essentially the same amount of feed whether they are

Haecker, T. L., Minn. Bul. No. 35.
? Haecker, T. L., Minn. Bul. No. 67.
* Kennedy, et. al., Iowa Bul. No. 81,

32 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE

able to consume a quantity much greater than maintenance or
not. This may be illustrated by Figure 9 below.

Let the top line represent a cow of moderate feed-taking
powers and her total consumption by the length of the line A C
and her feed cost of maintenance by that part of the line repre-
sented by A B. Since A B amount is burned up daily to keep
the animal warm and in strength it necessarily follows that only
that quantity of feed represented by the short line B C can
possibly be used for milk formation, whereas in the case of the
second animal, assumed to weigh the same, therefore requiring
approximately the same amount of feed for daily upkeep,
namely, amount shown by line D E, being able to consume a
quantity represented by D F and having a surplus shown by
Ki F which is twice as great as amount B C, must, of necessity,
A y=) Cc

Q & -
EZZZZZXZZZLL LLL I

Fia. 9.—Illustrating need of capacity in cows.

after supporting herself, have left in her system twice as much
nutriment for the formation of milk as the first cow. She has
not consumed twice as much feed by any means, yet the surplus
is twice as great.

This may be illustrated by two men. Smith earns $1 a
day, or $6 a week. Jones earns $2 a day, or $12 a week. If it
costs each $5 a week to live, Smith has left, at the end of the
week, only $1, whereas Jones has $7. Jones took in only two
times as much as Smith, yet has seven times as much surplus
with which to do outside work.

The capacity of a cow is produced partially from the neces-
sity of consuming liberal quantities of succulent roughage while
in her young, growing condition, but to even a greater extent is
produced after she starts milking. We must not look upon a
cow as a machine into which we may stuff so much feed and

TEMPERAMENT 33

draw out so much milk. Her organization is not of that sort.
The cow yields milk in response to the impulse given by
motherhood. As the glands secrete milk and draw upon the
blood and lymphatie system for material to transform into
milk the cow’s whole system, as it were, becomes hungry, and
the cow in response to this hunger consumes liberal quantities
of feed. Heavy consumption and the development of a large
barrel then are effect, not cause. They are the result of the
activity of the milk-secreting glands.

A cow may have capacity, however, without possessing dairy
type. A high-class beef animal must have a good middle.
Consequently the question naturally follows, “ What will the
animal do with the feed after she gets it?” and this brings us
to the second element in dairy type.

Temperament.—A cow possessing what is known as dairy
temperament is inclined to be alert and almost nervous, in fact,
just the opposite of sluggish or sleepy. Dairy temperament,
however, includes more than nervous organization, except as
the nervous system affects the general physical condition. A
cow with a thin neck, comparatively sharp withers, lean shoul]-
ders, prominent spine with the vertebra open, with thin thighs,
slender tail, and refined legs, is one which will produce milk
economically, provided the other essentials are present (Fig.
10). While it is possible to go so far with this matter of thin
angular development that the animal will be too excitable and
too tender to withstand ordinary conditions, it is also a fact that
any animal which carries appreciably more flesh than necessary
to perform her natural functions not only largely wastes the
feed which was required to build the needless meat, but is also
subjected to the constant expense or feed cost thereafter, of
maintaining the heavier body (Fig. 10).

This may be illustrated by two men. A and D are farmers
who have equal need for house room. A builds his house for
$3000 and uses all of it. D builds larger, his house costing
$4000, and he does not use all the space. D in this case has
not only wasted the extra thousand in putting it where it can
do no good, but will also be subjected to the constant expense

34 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE

thereafter of maintaining in repair the unneeded and unused
portion. Just so with the cow. She produces nothing, she only
transforms. If she transforms into flesh an unduly large amount
of feed consumed she not only has almost wasted the amount
of feed required to produce this extra weight, but is also handi-
capped thereafter by being compelled to support or maintain a
live weight larger than is needed for the work being done.
Dairy temperament suggests that lean but placid expression
commonly found in the best dairy producers.
Constitution—The question of the physical ability of the
animal made up as just described to withstand the physical
hardships of life continually arises. Any animal to be first-
class must have constitution, but what is constitution? If we
answer this question ‘“ Constitution is the ability of any animal

A B Cc
\{MA—AZCKZZZ-_EEEELEEEEE_E_EEEEX EEE ioc I ]
QO £ F
CZZZ---L-L-DE-_E_ZZZ_ZEZZZEEEZEZE_’, I I 1

Fra. 10.—With equal consumption the cow that requires least for maintenance has the
most left for production.

to perform its life work and remain in health throughout a
reasonably long life,” then we must conclude that the angular
build of the dairy cow does not lessen its constitution. It is a
popular notion that any animal to have constitution must have
a broad as well as deep chest. Immature students often con-
fuse fleshiness with constitution (Fig. 11). The dairy cow
should have a deep chest and one moderately broad at the floor
of the chest, or in other words, there must be room in the chest
cavity for large lungs for the purifying of a large quantity of
blood and for a large, strong heart for the pumping of this
large blood quantity (Fig. 12).

Constitution includes, however, that intangible item of
nerve. This element is best illustrated in the case of horses.
Some thin, deep-chested horses are able to work, run or fight
the larger, heavier horses literally to the grave. Another item

CONSTITUTION 35

in this connection is that the resistance met by the blood in its
circulation throughout the body is nearly, if not quite, as impor-
tant as the actual pumping power of the heart. itself, Any
animal when fat, is at a disadvantage in that many, or all, of
the finer blood vessels are surrounded by a more or less compact
mass which not only reduces the size of the blood-vessels some-

Fig. 11. Fie. 12.

Biot 1a eh aphig dines, ev gulan chadilcn doairaula ta dalcy- type
what, but also renders them less elastic, less responsive to the
pulsations of the heart. This throws a greater burden upon the
heart itself. Given two animals with heart power equal, one
animal in moderate flesh or lean, blood-vessels surrounded by
loose connective tissue, the other with blood-vessels surrounded
by fat, the leaner animal would be able to work or run longest
and would be said to possess the strongest constitution. In

36 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE

rating the constitution of the dairy cow, therefore, the resistance
to the heart must be taken into consideration fully as much as
the pumping power of the heart itself.

Mammary Development.—Not infrequently animals are
met which have capacity in moderate degree, and certain con-
stitution, and still do not yield milk as abundantly as we might
think they should. Such animals are usually deficient in the
mammary glands, something over which man as yet has little
control. The economical dairy cow will possess an udder with
connective tissue elastic and flexible. The good udder will milk
out and become very flabby. The udder which is so meaty
that it will hold its form after all the milk has been withdrawn
is seldom found on a good dairy cow. Accompanying the well-
developed udder are found large, crooked, elastic veins running
forward from the udder to two or more points near the region
of the heart. These so-called “ milk veins” are filled with
blood which has finished its work in and about the mammary
glands, and we reason that if a large vein is needed to carry the
blood which has been used in the gland, that the gland itself must
be reasonably active. Certain it is that the most powerful dairy
producers show veining in a marked degree, not only on the
abdomen, but on the side of the udder as well (Fig. 19). The
mammary system then furnishes an expression of dairy ability
which must be considered along with the matter of capacity,
temperament and constitution.

Femininity——The yielding of milk is pre-eminently a fune-
tion of the female. To be a good cow she must have the facial
expression of a female, rather than a male. The bold mas-
culine expression is seldom found upon a good dairy cow.

The triple wedge is an expression used formerly more than
at the present time to designate the conformation or the type of
dairy cow found to be the most efficient. Looking at the cow
from her side, taking the nose as the thin edge of the wedge, we
notice that the lines of the body draw continually farther and
farther apart until upon reaching the region of the udder the
lines are fully fifty per cent farther apart than at the chest, thus
forming the shape of a wedge. The second wedge form would

THE ESCUTCHEON 37

be noted if we could look down upon the back of the cow. The
thin edge of the wedge would be forward, the body of the cow
becoming wider towards her rear until the region of the paunch
has been reached, where the greatest dimensions will be shown.
The third wedge is seen by looking at the cow from the front.
The sharp edge of the wedge will be her shoulders, the wedge
thickening as it goes downward until a point at the floor of the
chest has been reached. Cows built thus, however, usually
spread their front feet slightly, thus continuing the wedge to
the ground. May Rilma, Fig. 2, illustrates the point of this
paragraph.

The escutcheon is that area of the cow situated immediately
above the rear portion of the udder and extending upward aud
laterally onto the thighs, on which area the hair naturally turns
upward rather than downward. Particular attention was first
drawn to this mark by Francis Guenon, in France, prior to
1837. My. Guenon classified the various kinds of escutcheons
into eight classes and eight orders, making sixty-four different
combinations, to each one of which he aftixed a figure which he
calculated would be the amount of milk which that cow would
yield under good treatment in a year. Lis statements were so
positive and his description so exact that universal credence was
given to the theory. He was honored and pensioned by the
French Government. The breed associations almost universally
adopted the escutcheon as a point of excellence and it has been
retained on most score cards until the present. With no exact
comparisons, however, the universal belief in the value of the
escutcheon has died out until few can be found now to defend
its presence on the score card of the modern breeds. More exact
evidence of the fact that there “is little or no merit in the
escutcheon was furnished by Charles Moran, senior student at
the University of Vermont, in 1910. Tis study, covering a
year of record of one hundred cows in three herds, showed no
consistent agreement between the quantity or the quality of
milk which the cow was supposed to give according to the Guenon
theory and the amount she did yield as measured by daily
weighings and the Babcock test.

38 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE

Tests of Economy.—The efficiency of cows possessing the
dairy type as against those not having such form was well brought
out by the figures contained in Minnesota Bul. No. 67 (1900),
from which the following tables are arranged:

Test I
Dairy Type Not Dairy Type
Gross receipts ........-... . 877.77 $54.40
Cost of feed...........-.-.. 30.82 28.21
Net receipts .........--.--- $46.95 $26.19
Amt. returned per $1.00 worth
Of FOC a5 ch din ca RE Se 2.52 1.93

The dairy-type group consumed 9.25 per cent more feed, but
yielded 43 per cent more butter. On the average they consumed
$2.61 worth more feed per cow but returned $21.76 more for
butter.

Test IIT*
Dairy Type Not Dairy Type
Gross receipts ...........-- $41.55 $28.03
Cost of feed.............4.- 15.14 13.86
Net receipts ............... $26.41 $14.17
Returned per $1.00 expended 2.74 2.02

The group of dairy-type cows returned nearly twice as much
profit so far as dairy returns are concerned as the non-dairy-type
group.

Test IIT
Dairy Type Not Dairy Type
Gross receipts ............. $75.71 $51.01
Cost of feed ............... 37.60 30.64
Net receipts ............... $38.11 $20.37
Return per $1.00........... 2.01 1.66

The dairy-type group, on an average, consumed 22.7 per
cent more feed but returned 48.4 per cent more butter and 87

—_—~—_

“This winter’s work was done when feed was unusually cheap.

TESTS OF ECONOMY 39

per cent more profit. It consumed $6.96 worth more feed per
cow but returned $17.74 more profit.

Test IV
Dairy Type Not Dairy Type
Gross receipts ............. $80.26 $48.83
Cost of feed................ 23.35 22.11
Net receipts ............... $56.91 $26.72
Return per $1.00........... 3.43 2.21

Fira. 13.—Young cow, a bad rump, poorly developed udder, and lacking in thrift and vigor.

The dairy-type group consumed 5.1 per cent more feed but
returned 112.9 per cent more profit. They average, per cow,
$1.24 worth more feed but returned $31.43 more for butter.

The above “ tests ” represent a winter’s work on from five to
ten cows in each group. ‘The figures prove that, dairy pro-
duction alone considered, the cows of essential dairy type are
pronouncedly more economical and profitable than those of
non-dairy type.

40 ELEMENT OF DAIRY TYPE

A secondary lesson, yet a valuable one, brought out in the
foregoing study, is the fact that the common and non-dairy type
cow when treated rationally is considerably better, even in the
dairy, than no cow at all. When charged with feed at farm
prices and credited with butter fat only (skim milk, manure
and calf paying for labor, etc.) they returned from $1.66 to
$2.21 for every dollar’s worth of feed eaten.

The farmer should hesitate long before selling off his cows
until he knows where he can replace them with better ones
(Fig. 13).

A CHAMPION COW

The perfection already reached in the various points, as
well as the degree of intensity desirable in them, varies with the
several breeds, but reviewing the question of dairy type by
means of figure 14, we find that our present ideal of what a
dairy cow ought to be will include the following points:

1. Nostril, open, clear.
2. Muzzle, broad and lips strong.
3. Forehead, broad.
4. Eyes, bright, full.
5. Jaws, strong, well muscled.
6. Neck, muscular but not thick.
7. Shoulder tops, sharp, at least not coarse or heavy.
8. Crops, well muscled.
9. Chine, vertebre open-spaced.
10. Loin, broad and strong.
11. Rump, level, long.
12. Hip bones, broad between joints.
13. Thurl joints, high far apart.
14. Pin bones, prominent, far apart.
15. Tail, long, tapering.
16. Switch, full brushed.
17. Thigh, straight or incurving, not too thick.
18. Shoulder, lean, firm, not covered over with fat.
19. Dewlap, not heavy, throat clean.
20. Brisket, more prominent on some breeds, not coarse.
21. Heart girth, deep, and wide from side to side at bottom of chest.
22. Milk wells, large, numerous.
23. Milk vein, large, crooked, elastic and running well forward,
24, Fore udder, extending well forward.

“A090 94} Jo syUIOd eYL— FL ‘Olt

A CHAMPION COW

42 ELEMENTS OF DAIRY TYPE

25. Rear udder should be full and attached high and broadly, whole well held
up, not pendulous.

26. Teats, four to five inches long. Well spaced, cylindrical in form.

27. Legs below hock and knee refined, not heavy nor coarse.

28. Pasterns, strong, upright.

Type Essential to Economy.—There are numerous instances
of cows producing large yields of milk and milk fat, which cows
carried more flesh than is usually accepted as most desirable
in dairy cows, but it has not been shown that these large-produc-
ing cows necessarily yielded milk as economically for the feed
consumed as those of large capacity, carrying less flesh. While
it is true that type is primarily more essential than breed, it is
equally true that within certain breeds the desired type is far
more likely to be found than in others. Thus any farmer
desiring cows which will give milk economically will do wisely
to go to one of the recognized standard dairy breeds for his
stock, and it is only by maintaining pure breeds and by working
within the breed to develop the strongest dairy type that we
shall secure in time the most efficient dairy animals,

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by dairy type?

2. What is meant by capacity?

3. Does a cow develop capacity by eating or does she eat because she
has capacity?

4. Illustrate how it is essential that a cow have capacity if she is to be
rated as a good dairy cow.

5. What is meant by dairy temperament?

6. What are the indications of dairy temperament?

7. What is constitution?

8. What effect has fatness on the work to be done by the heart.

9. What conditions of the mammary organs indicate high dairy quality?

10. Why is the feminine “look” of a cow a point to be noted?

1l. Explain the “triple wedge.”

12. Which was recognized first, breed or type, as being the more essential in
economy of production?

13. Does excessively large production mean economical production?

14. Where should one look for the type of animal desired?

15. What is the escutcheon, and of what importance is it?

CHAPTER VII
THE BREEDS OF CATTLE

Terre are in America seventeen or more distinct pure breeds
of cattle and many grades and crosses of each breed. The great
mass presents similar general qualities, but groups and in-
dividuals differ in vital detail with respect to degree of useful-
ness for any particular purpose. Some are blocky with broad
backs and are known as beef breeds, while others are more
angular in form and thinner over the shoulders, and are known
as dairy animals, yet there is no cow so strongly bred for beef
that she will not give some milk, which milk may be and ocea-
sionally is drawn by hand and turned into dairy channels. All
the breeds of pronounced beef-type cattle yield milk consid-
erably above the average in fat content. There is no cow, on
the other hand, so intensely bred for milk production but that
she does develop a body which may be and regularly is used for
human food when she is past usefulness in the dairy. It is a
matter of common knowledge and record that even the “‘ common
to fair” cows sell for beef at from $40 to $60 regularly on
the open market. This is fully one-half the price per pound
paid for good, well-finished beef steers, while a steer from one
of the admitted dairy breeds, such as Holstein, Ayrshire, or
Guernsey, is cut in price only one-half to one cent per pound
from that paid for good, beef-bred cattle. The loss in beefing
the male calves of dairy cows is therefore not a total, but a
fractional one and amounts to only 7 to 15 per cent of the amount
paid for top-notch cattle.

That many of the heavy breeds, such as Red Polls, Brown
Swiss and Shorthorns, will yield more freely than has for years
been required of them, has been well demonstrated within the
last few years.

The meat- and the milk-producing ability of the great mass
of cattle in this country may well be represented by figure 15.

A glance at the diagram emphasizes the fact that “ beef”
43

44 THE BREEDS OF CATTLE

cows do yield milk and that “ dairy ” cows do have bodies and
will also indicate that there may be (and we know there are)
masses of cattle occupying places all the way from one end of
the diagram to the other.

At this point the question naturally arises: ‘‘ What is a
dairy cow?” “ When is a cow a dairy cow, and when is she a
beef cow, if in fact she both functions and is used in both fields
of usefulness?”? While any one certain breed will occupy a
fairly definite position on the scale at “a” or “j” or “e” or
“h,” individual members of all the breeds will vary so greatly
as to lap over onto the position normally oceupied by another
breed. Furthermore, there are strains of common cows in some
sections of the country that would as a whole occupy a position
about “b” in meat and “ j” or “i” in milk-producing ability.
This is as a class the “ scrub” cow that is to be gotten rid of.

a Jb oe od) oes oF oe Te

apy -—{_|_ HEAT] PRODUGTS BEEF
CATTLE | Pt || | CATTLE
MIUK PRODUCTS Fae

Fie. 15.—Illustrating the dual function and use of cattle.
There are others, however, that will rank about ‘‘e” or “d” in
milk products and “h” or “i” in beef products.

Those animals that have been selected, fed and handled
chiefly for the production of milk, are known as belonging to the
“ dairy ” breeds, and those in which the production of flesh for
meat has been the principal aim are known as “beef” breeds, while
those animals that have been bred, fed and handled to occupy a
midway position, are in America called “ dual purpose” and in
England “ general purpose” cattle. They could as aptly be
termed “ heavy dairy ” or “ free-nilking beef ” cattle. In truth,
all cows are dual-purpose cows, in function and in fact.

By name the breeds of domestic cattle now regularly bred
in America are: Aberdeen Angus, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss,

QUESTIONS 45

Devon, Dexter, Duten Belted, Essex, French-Canadian, Gallo-
way, Guernsey, Iereford, Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, Kerry,
Red Polls, Shorthorn, and West Highland.

In the following pages those breeds of cattle will be dis-
cussed which have any particular claim on the subject of dairy-
ing in America and have been arranged in the order of official
records as to quantity of butter fat produced in a year, regardless
of the cost of its production. On January 1st, 1917, the order
was: Holstein-Friesian, Guernsey, Jersey, Ayrshire, Red Polls,
Brown Swiss, Shorthorn, Dutch Belted and French-Canadian.

The most pronounced beef-type cattle, such as Hereford,
Angus, and Galloway, are so seldom used for dairy purposes and
are so pronouncedly good in meat food production, and several
other breeds are represented in this country by so few animals
that no detailed study of them will be made in this valume.

Secretaries of Breed Associations.—The various breed asso-
ciations naturally change secretaries as seldom as possible. For
this reason the names and addresses given below for the breeds
discussed in this book are very likely to remain correct for a
number of years.

Breed Name Secretary’s Name Secretary’s Address
Ayrshire C. M. Winslow Brandon, Vermont
Brown Swiss Ira Inman Beloit, Wisconsin
Dutch Belted E. J. Kirby Covert, Michigan
French-Canadian J. A. Couture 49 Rue Des Jardins,

Quebec, Canada
Guernsey W. H. Caldwell Peterboro, N. H.
Holstein-Friesian F. L. Houghton Brattleboro, Vt.
Holstein Adv. Registry M. H. Gardner Delavan, Wisconsin
Jersey R. M. Gow 3824 W. 23rd Street,

New York, N. Y.
Red Polls H. A. Martin Gotham, Wisconsin
Shorthorn (milking) F. W. Harding 13 Dexter Street,

Chicago, Illinois
QUESTIONS
. How many pure breeds of cattle are there in America? Name them.
. What is a “dairy breed’?
. Explain how all breeds are two-purpose breeds?
. What nine breeds of cattle in America are considered in this dairy study
. What three beef breeds are seldom or never used for dairy purposes?

nr wwe

CHAPTER VIII
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

Tus breed is one of the oldest, of either beef or dairy
animals, represented in America. It had its beginning in
Holland, chiefly in a northeast province, Friesland, and is un-
questionably the same which made the Hollanders famous
throughout the civilized world more than a thousand years ago.
Even back during the flourishing days of the old Roman Empire,
large, black and white oxen, and cheese were continually being
sent from the regions now known as Holland. A race of
cattle with many of the present characteristics of the Holstein-
Friesians doubtless were being maintained practically pure
fully 2000 years ago and Holland has remained famous as a
dairy center during the centuries since.

Though the parent stock has been kept pure, many off-shoots
and modifications have taken place in surrounding countries;
thus, modified Holland cattle are to be found in various parts of
Belgium, Prussian Holland, North Germany, Germany, and to
some extent in Normandy of France. This blood contributed
to the development of the early Teeswater cattle, now known
as Durham or Shorthorns, as well as having also furnished
foundation for much improvement effected of late years in
portions of Russia. This breed is believed also to have been
used to some extent in establishing the Ayrshire breed.

Home Conditions.—The land upon which this breed of
stock has been pastured for many generations is largely of a low,
marshy order; in fact, much of the land is that reclaimed from
the ocean by the thrifty Hollanders, who diked across the arm
of the sea and literally pumped the water back into the ocean by
means of windmills. The land thus reclaimed is immensely
fertile but, being lower than the level of the ocean, continues
moist and comparatively cold. Grass grows luxuriantly, while
such crops as our American corn are not grown at all and small

BODY CHARACTERISTICS 47

grains but slightly. Upon these moist, rank pastures the cows
are pastured in summer. They are not permitted to roam
about, however, as in this country, but are tethered out. This
system of feeding and handling is ideal for the production of
bodily size and a quiet disposition. The grass literally grows
up before them and after them. Milking is done in the field
by the dairy maids, rather than fatigue the cows by walking
them to a stable. They are likewise protected from chilling
rains and from flies by blankets. An abundance of succulent
feed, close at hand, and a protection from all adverse conditions,
—these are the circumstances which naturally make for size of
animal, quiet disposition and an abundant flow of milk, although
of medium to low fat grade.

Great care is taken to rear breeding stock from the best
animals only, since the land is valued at from $1000 to $2000
per acre, and brings an annual rental of $30 to $50 per acre.
Under such conditions only the genuinely profitable animals
will be kept. Surplus calves are fatted for veal. To do this
most economically the little animals are kept in crates in order
that they may not run about and waste any of the milk that has
been fed them. ‘They are also kept in semi-darkness in order
that the gain may be more economically made.

Body Characteristics.—The color of the Holstein-Friesian
in this country is always black and white. Very rarely, indeed,
a red and white animal is dropped from pure parents, but it is
not eligible to registry. The size is large. A mature cow
should weigh 1300 pounds, and not infrequently individuals
attain 1500 and occasionally 1700 pounds. A mature bull of
this breed (Fig. 16) should weigh at least 1800 pounds, and
2200 or 2400 pounds are not infrequent in fully matured
animals. The disposition of the Holsteins, as a breed, is very
mild, in fact, they are so quiet as to be one of the easiest breeds
to handle. They are not resentful. They are greedy, almost
voracious, in their eating habits and naturally they are not as
particular in regard to the condition of their feed as are some of
the more sensitive breeds. The calves weigh ninety pounds or
more at birth and are easy to raise. As a breed they are com-

48 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

paratively slow in maturing, however, thus postponing the time
of income somewhat longer than with the smaller breeds.

Dairy Characteristics—The Holsteins as a breed may be
said to produce the largest quantity of the leanest milk of any of
the breeds in America. Though the fat percentage is compara-
tively low, the fact that she yields such liberal quantities of
milk has made her an easy leader in the matter of total food
production and again very recently the leader of all the breeds

Fig. 16.—King of the Pontiacs. Holstein bull, which at the age of ten years had 162
A.R.O. daughters. Developed and owned by Stevens Bros. Co.,Liverpool, N.Y.

in the quantity of fat produced in a year (Fig. 17). The table
given later in this chapter shows the milk and fat records of some
of the best representatives of the breed.

Not only is the percentage of fat in the milk of the Holstein
rather less than that in other breeds, but the size of the fat
globule is slightly smaler. This fact has been stressed in the
matter of choice of milk for infant feeding (Fig. 130). It has
recently been shown, however, that the difference is so slight as
to be all but negligible.’ The great benefit to be derived from

*Vermont Bul. No. 195, 1916.

DAIRY CHARACTERISTICS 49

the use of Holstein milk for infant feeding is due to the smaller
amount and the smaller proportionate amount of fat present
rather than to the small size of the fat globule. The milk of the
Holstein carries a comparatively higher amount of albumen to
casein. This fact may have a slight value in infant feeding.
Before the invention of the centrifugal cream separator the fact
that the Holstein fat globule was small rendered this breed
doubly handicapped in the matter of butter production, since

LENDS,

Fia. 17.—Duchess Skylark Ormsby, the world’s champion in butter fat production.
Record for one year: Milk, 27,761 pounds test, 4.34 per cent fat; butter fat, 1205.09 pounds, |
equivalent to 1507.36 pounds of 80 per cent butter. Developed and owned by John B.
Irwin, Minneapolis, Minn.
the cream of Holstein milk cannot rise as promptly nor as com-
pletely as that on the Jersey or Guernsey milk. The lack of
color, too, is an item in some markets. Holstein milk is par-
ticularly devoid of the yellow color. The color of milk or
cream, however, is an exceedingly poor gauge of its richness and
is of no consequence in commercial butter or cheese making.
Cows of this breed have held for years the world’s record for
butter production as well as for milk production. Taken in her

50 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

entirety, the Holstein cow is one of the most powerful and
valuable dairy machines.

Beef Characteristics—Since the laws of animal breeding
are but poorly known by any one and are difficult of control by
the best, we must expect that as variations occurred and in-
dividual preferences varied, the stock even in the older countries,
should vary somewhat in their intensity of dairy type. In some
descriptions of the breeds four forms have been recognized,
namely: the milk form, the milk and beef form, the beef and
milk form, and the beef form. The Holsteins, however, are not
first-rate beef animals since they are of slow maturity, com-
paratively heavy of bone and seldom place the gain either where
it will be most valuable or in the most valuable condition when
rightly placed. Although the prejudice on the part of buyers
has doubtless caused a greater difference in price than the actual
difference in carcass would warrant, it must be admitted that a
general difference exists. A Iolstein steer will gain in weight
as rapidly and as cheaply as any animal, however, and will be
but little less profitable than beef-bred steers. Grade Holstein
bull calves make a good grade of veal and since they weigh from
90 to 100 pounds at birth, they may very readily be made to
weigh 190 to 200 pounds at eight to nine weeks of age.

Introduction to America.—The first importation of cattle
from Holland occurred in 1609, or soon thereafter, upon the
settlement of New Amsterdam, now New York, by the Dutch.
Other consignments were received for the Dutch holdings
farther west in the state, but all these animals were not kept
pure. They formed, however, the foundation stock for that
section of the country and to-day New York state may be said to
be the Holstein center of the United States. Others were
brought over in 1795 and added to the general stock of the
country. The first to be imported and kept pure arrived in
1861 in Massachusetts. From 1875 to 1885 about 10,000 were
imported. From 1885 until 1903 few, if any, came over, partly
because of the presence, in Holland, of the foot and mouth disease
and partly because of the high charges for the registration of the
imported animals.

ADAPTATIONS 51

The first American association for this breed was called the
Holstein Herd Book Association. It was established in 1872.
In 1879 the Dutch-Friesian Association was formed. The
former Association was formed chiefly with the animals im-
ported from the province of Holstein, North Germany, while the
Dutch-Friesian Association admitted the animals which had
been imported from Friesland, Holland, and their descendants.
The uselessness of maintaining two associations when the ani-
mals in question were essentially the same was apparent and in
1885 they were united under the name, “ The Holstein-Friesian
Association of America.”

At the present time the breed ranks in number second only to
the Jerseys in America and, in some places, especially the north-
west regions, are gaining more rapidly than any other dairy
breed (Figs. 18, 19 and 20).

Foreign Distribution—This Holland breed is now repre-
sented in most of the civilized countries of the world. It is not
only common in Germany, France and Sweden, and in favor
with the Boer farmers of South Africa, and the peasants of
Russia, but also is to be found in liberal numbers in Japan,
Mexico and South America.

Adaptations.—There are certain places which the Holstein
cow fits better than any other breed: First, as the market milk
cow. Since she produces the largest quantity of milk, the
cheapest milk, and milk which is fully as rich as the people of
the city seem willing to pay for, she is almost universally adopted
wherever the product is to be sold by the quart or gallon.

Second, as a cheese factory cow she excels because she pro-
duces more pounds of milk solids during the year and therefore
makes more pounds of cheese than any other breed. The fat
content is so low that the cheese would be improved by the addi-
tion of the milk of the Jersey or Guernsey, yet when the cheese
maker does his part well there is no necessity for introducing the
milk of any other breed for the purpose of producing quality.

Third, milk condensing. In regions of milk condenseries,
the Holstein is largely preferred, chiefly because she will pro-

52 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

duce more pounds of total solid matter in her milk than the other
breeds. Thus, any farmer keeping Holsteins would be able to
deliver to the factory more milk from which more condensed
milk can be made.

Fourth, in very large dairies the milking must of necessity be
done either by a large number of hired men who are, as a class,
notorious for their unreliable habits and not particularly dis-
posed to be gentle in their manner or particular about the milk, or

Fria. 18.—Sir Beets Cornucopia Netherland. A champion Holstein bull owned by W. &.
Moscrip, St. Paul, Minn.

by the use of some milking machine. The mechanical milker is
an unsympathetic thing at best, but’ the Holstein cows are very
docile and while not as responsive to caresses as are the Jersey
or Guernsey, they are not as resentful of coarse handling.

Fifth, from the drift of affairs in the middle west and north-
west countries, as well as from a study of the cows themselves,
it seems evident that the Holstein is rather better adapted to the
needs and conditions of the general dairy farmer than any other
dairy breed. The man whose first interest is his fields is not

RECORDS 53

likely to stop his gang plow early in the afternoon to stable the
cows even though it is becoming chilly, and cows go situated
often must go out of the stable in the morning before the farmer
goes to the fields with his teams. The quiet, deep-bodied Hol-
stein is proving herself able to withstand such conditions. More-
over, on such farms a comparatively large number of pigs are
kept. To put young pigs in the best condition and to make the
best use of the corn, fed later, skim milk is needed. ‘When skim

Fia. 19. —Pietertje Maid Ormsby—Adv. Reg. Holstein cow, nine years old, with
seventh calf. Heavy production does not necessarily ‘‘burn out’? the cow. Owned by
John B. Irwin.

milk is present the sows may be made to farrow both spring and
fall without injury to either litter or dam. When the indirect in-
come from pigs, calves, and not infrequently colts, is considered,
with the direct income from the sale of butter fat, the Holstein
has little to fear in the competition with those breeds which
produce butter fat more cheaply per pound.

Records.—During the earlier days of all the breeds, records,
if kept, were private. From some of these unauthenticated

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

‘Tl ‘armnbuaoa[y ‘iedeeg “gq ‘Yy Aq pedag

“qyoq FO

soowreyo pesdn1 og} o}0N “J0}qGINep pue ‘euoysy [Ned “INE a1948[0H— "0 ‘PLA

RECORDS 55

sources wonderful performances have been reported. Though
they were held to be questionable at the time, many, if not all,
have since been equalled by animals working under official
supervision.

The Advanced Registry system was begun by the Holstein
breeders, and Mr. S. Hoxie, of Yorkville, New York, should be
given the credit for having developed the system by which the
various State Experiment Stations and Agricultural Colleges
are now authorized to send out official testers to verify the
records made. This association was the first to adopt the Bab-
cock test as the official method of determining the fat. This
was done in 1894. While at first the records were reported
in terms of butter at 80 per cent fat, the rules were later modified
so that the official reports now are upon the basis of fat only.
To convert the quantity of fat to butter equivalent it has been
customary to add one-sixth of the fat to the fat. In the study
of any pedigree note should be made as to whether the records
are in terms of fat or in terms of butter, and whether the butter
was figured on the basis of 80 or of 85 per cent fat.

The minimum requirements for the admittance of a Holstein
to advanced registry are as follows:

2 years old...... .. 7.2 pounds of fat in 7 days.
3 years old........ 8.8 pounds of fat in 7 days.
4 years old........ 10.4 pounds of fat in 7 days.
5 years old........ 12.0 pounds of fat in 7 days.

These requirements were established when cows were not as
well fed nor as skillfully handled as now. ‘The question may
well be raised whether the requirements for admission should
not now be raised. This would seem evident from the number
of animals capable of passing the advanced standing, and the
fact that a number of animals have more than doubled the re-
quirements. The animals standing highest in the seven-day
records up to March 1, 1916, were as follows:

56 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

Advanced Herd Lbs.
. Registry Book Lbs. Butter
Number Number Milk Fat
K. P. Pontiac Lass............ 11168 106812 585.9 35.343
Valdessa Scott 2nd ........... 10780 72311 694.6 35.500
Sadie Vale Concordia 4th...... 10840 100314 691.4 32.848
Mable Segis Korndyke......... 22540 161784 610.2 32.257
Johanna De Kol Van Beers..... 5981 75131 663.4 32.059
Sadie Vale Concordia 4th Pie-

HEPUTO hice doe arene oo Sarge tes Hee 24966 142024 729.5 30.741
Peterje Floa Artis ..... meat ee 15161 114334 794.5 30.513
Pontiac Lady Korndyke........ 11276 92700 601.4 30.422
Pontia@ Pet: sass sce. ce een has 6168 69710 590.7 30.142
Belle Mercedes Lady .........22258 77702 721.6 29.968

It will be noted from the above that there are many cows
which are doubling admission requirements and a few which are
able to produce almost three times the required amount.

Yearly Records.—Early records were largely reported in the
form of pounds of milk yielded in a year. <A few of the best
of the yearly records are reported below:

Pietentje nd iis wv sxicgeesee he 26,021 Ibs, milk in 1 yr.
Princess of Wayne ............ 29,008 lbs. milk in 1 yr.
Glothide .a.e60.%es04 ee gee whee 26,021 Ibs. milk in 1 yr.
Clothilde 2nd ................ 23,602 lbs. milk in 1 yr.
Suiltatias cence ee eantenlntengey aye 22,042 Ibs. milk in 1 yr.
BOUIG CF. apiticta, he's sateen sow wine wage’ 21,679 lbs. milk in 1 yr.

Fat records were not made from these animals. Recent
yearly records have not only been authenticated by qualified and
impartial representatives of the state but also are made to in-
clude the fat as well as the milk yielded.

Requirements for Official Yearly Records.—Cowsg freshen-
ing at two years of age or younger must produce 250.5 pounds
of butter fat, and for each day they are over two years of age,
at the beginning of the test, an additional requirement of 1/10
pound. This rate of increase for each day over two years of
age brings the five-year age requirement up to 360 pounds of
butter fat. Bulls are required to have two daughters in the
Advanced Registry before they can be listed as Advanced Reg-
istry Sires.

A few of the best official records made by mature animals
for a full year are shown below:

THE BREED’S FUTURE 57
Semi-Official Yearly or Lactation Records for Full Aged Cows

No. Pounds Milk Pounds Fat
Duchess Skylark Ormsby ......... 124514 27,7617 1205.09
Finderne Pride Johanna Rue ...... 121083 28,403.7 1176.47
Finderne Holingen Fayne ......... 144551 24,612.8 1116.05
Banostine Belle De Kol............ 90441 27,404.4 1058.34
Pontiac Clothilde De Kol 2nd...... 69991 25,318.0 1017.28
High-lawn Hartog De Kol........ 84319 25,592.5 998.34
Colantha 4th’s Johanna ..... ee ats 48577 27 432.5 998.26
Lothian Maggie De Kol........... 90209 27,967.6 990.80
Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog. .143950 25,106.3 986.11
Crown Pontiac Josey ............. 101812 28,752.38 982.23

It willbe noted that all the claims made for the cows in private
records have been equalled in recent years, so whether the earlier
reports were true or not it is evident that they could have been.

The breed’s future depends very much on what the men who
are now breeding the animal make it, and this in turn upon the
completeness of the ideal for the breed formed, held and followed
by the breeders.

That there are now, inherited from the earlier workers, sev-
eral points about the animal that need strengthening cannot be
gainsaid. A study of the animals as they are, reveals the fact
that a great many, even among the pure-bred herds, are. long
legged, high and “ upstanding” with shallow body and indiffer-
ent udder. Such should be and are being eliminated but not fast
enough. Others are too compact in build, too beefy in type to be
economical producers. It is true that breeding to sons of ad-
vanced registry * cows, tends to eliminate these two classes of
undesirable animals. It has often led into another error, less
vital yet worthy of consideration, and that is the sloping rumps
or rumpiness. Many animals possessing ugly shapes yet having
deep, strong bodies have made very satisfactory records. While
it is true that it is yield, not form, that should be first sought, it is
equally true that cows may be both good and good to the eye.
While the demand is keen for stock the bad rumps may pass, but
the calls of the near future will be for breeding stock from ad-
vanced registry dams, which are also possessed of straight top
lines and well balanced udders. The wise breeder of the present
will plan to have the stock to meet the demands of the near future,

? Official advanced registry is designated by the letters, A. R. O.

58 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Cows

Possible Student’s

Parts Description Score
Head soca ancene ee Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in
CONGUE pede niet eas aes tae de eee
Forehead............ Broad between the eyes; dishing.......
HACC isi Rei ee aes Of medium length; clean and trim, espe-

cially under the eyes; showing facial
veins; the bridge of nose straight...

MuZZ16t ios ose ys sy BA Broad with strong lips................
PAGO baad ean ees Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair
plentiful and soft; the secretions oily
and. abundant: speci weaswanine ewan <
WY OS pi ice inch de eaua dards Large; full; mild; bright .............
TLOPNS ists ¢ saree eto s Small; tapering finely towards the tips;

set moderately narrow at base; oval;
inclining forward; well bent in-
ward; of fine texture; in appearance
AVA: a ea didilal quik cand eate Sauteed wees
Neches esiiienang ae hei dsd Long; fine and clean at juncture with the
head; free from dewlap; evenly and
smoothly joined to shoulders.......
Shoulders............ Slightly lower than hips; fine and even
over tops; moderately broad and full
Bb SIDES cy ee de yu ed waa ded eee y es
CHES Cs pc aguas sra.tceieg ied Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth
and moderately full in the brisket;
full in the foreflanks (or through

the heart). s.vsucsrea geese wegeadions
C LOPS. 4.4 tui neardel aad ate Moderately full .................0055
Chines ss tars ceiecaee a Straight; strong; broadly developed;
with open vertebrae .............6.
Barrel sssicuwcn dass ...Long; of wedge shape; well rounded;

with large abdomen trimly held up;
(in judging the last items age must
be considered) ..............-204--
Loin and Hips........ Broad; level or nearly level between
hook-bones; level and strong later-
ally; spreading from chine broadly
and nearly level; hook-bones fairly
PIOMINENG s2-205.2 bc tuaed Sache S ou a eee aut
RUM Pisco adiews aes Long; high; broad; with roomy pelvis;
nearly level laterally; comparatively
full above the thurl; carried out
straight to dropping of tail.........

Score

SCALE OF POINTS

Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Iriesian Cows (continucd )

Possible Student’s

Parts Description Score Score
PRUE] scien eas Highs broad: so pciescugae ys ee yea Gees ee 3
Quarters ...... ..... Deep; comparatively full ............. 2
Mlank sec eth awa znd. Deep; comparatively full ............. 2
TORS: sect hte leceidered deceit Comparatively short; lean and nearly
straight; wide apart; firmly and
squarely set under the body; feet of
medium size, round, solid and deep.. 4
Ma rcreisi ne taeedts ates Large at base; the setting well back;
tapering finely to switch; the end ot
the bone reaching to hock or below;
the: switebo ful) 2 si. see ena sang ae 2
Hair and Handling....Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft
and furry; skin of medium thickness
and loose; mellow under the hand;
the secretions oily, abundant and of
a rich brown or yellow color....... 8
Mammary Veins...... Very large; very crooked (age must be
taken into consideration in judging
size and crookedness) ; entering very
large or numerous orifices; double
extension; with special developments
such as branches, connections, etc... 10
Udder and Teats...... Very capacious; very flexible; quarters
even; nearly filling the space in the
rear below and extending well for-
ward in front; broad and well held up 12
TeCatS ae's cece eae Well formed; wide apart; plump and of
convenient size ...... 0.6.00. e eee 2
Escutcheons ......... Largest) finest: os. ci 0ciue ok awew ewes cons 2
Totals: saws cece snvinrds 100
Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Bulls
. Possible Student’s
Parts Description Score Score
Heads vextseeye la weet Showing full vigor; elegant in contour 2
Forehead............ Broad between the eyes; dishing....... 2
POCO. 0's os ews ge ees Of medium length; clean and trim,
especially under the eyes; the bridge
of the nose straight............... 2
Muzzle io. 2s ae x ee eats Broad with strong lips...............- 1
SD) |e er Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair
plentiful and soft; the secretions oily
and abundant .........-..--. esses 1

60 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Bulls (continued)
Possible Student’s

Parts Description Score Score
TE YOSS ssc waitin o's onda Large; full; mild; bright.............. 2
HlOrns. nav enaeeee ese Short; medium size at base; gradually

diminishing towards tips; oval; in-
clining forward; moderately curved
inward; of fine texture; in appear-
ANCE: WAXY 5 caves sedan ge eure aie ews 1
ING CK ia daienans cea scant au Long; finely crested (if the animal is
mature) ; fine and clean at juncture
with the head; nearly free from dew-
lap; strongly and smoothly joined to
BNO ELS oe cd ava ere a ducers avers Ge aves eand 5
Shoulders: ci0 .<6 seas. Of medium height; medium thickness;
and smoothly rounded at tops; broad
and full at sides; smooth over front 4
HES 5 wiscdiersnicins ganar’ Deep and low; well filled and smooth in
the brisket; broad between the fore-
arms; full in the foreflanks (or

through the heart) ............... 7
CYOPS.i.c2c gees Se dats Comparatively full; nearly level with the
shouldefs: cccsiscesnd esmeyceweses 4
CHING os sis haut tednwp paps Strong; straight; broadly developed;
with open vertebrae ............... 6
Batrel ccc ocaenke senda Long; well rounded; with large ab-
domen; strongly and trimly held up 7
Loin and Hips........ Broad; level or nearly level between

hook-bones; level and strong later-

ally ; spreading out from chine broad-

ly and nearly level; hook-bones fairly

PIOMINENE 2. ao s4 dee ve dened deeds 7
RUMP .¢ cssesedeuaee as Long; broad; high; nearly level later-

ally; comparatively full above the

thurl; carried out straight to drop-

Pine Of Tail. pace na nenc wee eatieaeda 7
ARDTN Ne osctas us kiana eects Highs” PEGA! ai aca avai ge va siedo ncaa Oe 4
Quarters ............ Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and

full at sides; open in the twist..... 5
Flanks .............. Deeps Aw, 2 cee issincy veges wages es be 2
LOGS y sey ea site Mass ones Comparatively short; lean and nearly

straight; wide apart; firmly and
squarely set under the body; arms
wide, strong and tapering; feet of
medium size, round, solid and deep.. 5

Parts Description

Hair and Handling....Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft

Mammary Veins...... Large; full; entering large orifices;

QUESTIONS 61

Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Fricsian Bulls (continucd)

Possible Student’s
Score Score

es bia a. caw ee Te a Large at base; the setting well back;
tapering finely to switch; the end of
the bone reaching to hocks or below;
the switch full ................... 2

and furry; skin of medium thickness
and loose; mellow under the hand;
the secretions oily, abundant and of
a rich brown or yellow color........ 10

double extension with special develop-
ments such as forks, branches, con-

Nectlonss eles vamiiicguen seneedearss 10
Rudimentary Teats...Large; well placed .................... 2
Escutcheons ......... Largest} finest... cose ceed ad naan mecesies >
WOtal. . scp essere tiie cides bape duaeed 100

QUESTIONS

Qa Tn PR wo DN

. Where did the Holstein-Friesian breed originate?

. Describe the soil and pasturing conditions of Holland.

. Describe a Holstein-Friesian cow as to body and dairy characteristics.
. What is the disposition of the Holstein?

. What dairy characteristic is the most outstanding for this breed?

What cow and what breed now holds the world’s record for butter fat
production in a year?

. In what four respects does Holstein milk differ from Jersey milk?

. What can be said of the beef and veal quality of the Holstein?

. When and by what people were Holland cows first brought to America?
- When and where did the first to be kept pure arrive?

. When was the first American association for the breed organized? What

was it called?

. When was the second association for the breed formed?
. When did the two associations unite? What name was given to the

breed?

. How does the breed rank in point of number of dairy cattle in the

United States?

. Into what foreign countries have Holland cattle been taken?

. What four or five places do Holland cows seem best fitted to fill?

. When was official advanced registry begun?

. How much butter fat must cows of various ages produce in a week to

be admitted to advanced registry?

CHAPTER IX

GUERNSEYS

Tur Guernsey breed of cattle is one of comparatively recent
recognition, not that animals of the present Guernsey charactetis-
tics have not been in existence for a considerable time, but rather
that since their qualities and adaptations were so similar to those
of the Jersey, the two breeds were, during a considerable part of
the last century, considered as one breed and both in England and
America were spoken of as “ Alderney” cattle, from the group
of Alderney or Channel Islands to which the islands of Jersey
and Guernsey belong.

Origin.—The foundation stock for this breed was undoubt-
edly very similar to, if not practically identical with that used on
the island of Jersey. Animals probably from Normandy and
Brittany were, during a very early period, taken to the Island of
Guernsey, which is the second largest of the Channel Island
group. Here they have been bred for hundreds of years. During
the earlier period it is highly probable that some mixing took
place, especially with the animals from the Island of Jersey.
But the interchange of animals between the two islands had to
cease in one direction,in 1763 when the residents of Jersey for-
bade the introduction of breeding stock, and in the other direction
in 1819, since when animals on Guernsey Island have been kept
pure, even from Jersey influence. In that year the Guernsey
Islanders passed laws similar to those in operation in Jersey,
prohibiting the importation of animals other than for slaughter
(Fig. 21).

Although doubtless related particularly in respect to founda-
tion stock, considerable difference now exists between the Guern-
sey and the Jersey. Professor Low, writing in 1841, seems to
consider the cattle from the two islands as essentially one breed,
yet goes on to describe those on Guernsey Island as larger and
more highly marked with orange yellow skin, and as yielding a

ORIGIN 63

somewhat more yellow milk and butter. More recent investiga-
tions strongly support the theory that at some period several hun-
dred years ago animals which were the true descendants of the
“spotted cattle” or Simmenthaler, of Switzerland, had been
introduced as breeding stock on the Island of Guernsey. Not
only is this supported by the larger size, quieter disposition, and
more yellow secretions of the Guernsey, but also from the fact
that there are at present animals possessing characteristics
similar to the Guernsey and Simmenthaler on either side of the

es y
So
eo Medae p |
Fie. 21.—May King of Linda Vista, recently sold for the highest price ever paid for an
animal of the Guernsey breed. (Courtesy Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.)

Rhine River, from its source in the Alps to its mouth in the
North Sea. Much of the stock through this valley is frequently
spoken of as red or red and white, but it is recognized by the
careful observer that the so-called red is not the deep cherry red
of the Shorthorn and Hereford, but rather an orange red. It is
most natural to believe that as the people crossed the mountains
and followed the river northward they took their patient and
highly prized animal servants with them. It would then be but
a short voyage to Guernsey Island which lies so handily in the
channel. The exact facts may never be known, however.

64 GUERNSEYS

Although the Guernseys were taken at an early date to
England they were used largely by the nobility, the same as were
the Jerseys. They are now increasing rapidly in popularity in
the United States. They are not to be found in any considerable
number on the continent of Europe or in foreign countries.

Home Conditions.—Guernsey Island comprises only 16,000
acres, of which approximately 12,000 acres are tillable, the
southern end of the island being a high cliff. This island rises

“By

Fia. 22.—Guernsey cow, Murne Cowen. Record for one year, 24,008.4 pounds milk con-
taining 1098.18 pounds fat, Owned by Anna Dean Farm, Akron, Ohio.

abruptly out of the ocean to a height of nearly 300 feet and
slopes away northward for a distance of ten miles. The system
of agriculture here must be adapted to the comparatively cooler
soil of the north slope, where grass and vegetation tend to grow
less rapidly but to larger size and greater succulence. It is
possible that this has had something to do with the larger size of
the 8000 cattle kept on the island (Fig. 22). Truck gardening
with a liberal use of green houses for the supply of fresh vege-

INTRODUCTION TO AMERICA 65

tables to the English market comprises a large part of the crop-
growing business.

Introduction to America.—In 1818, 1825 and 1830,
animals known as Alderneys were brought to Pennsylvania.
They were probably imported from England. Whether these
were Jerseys or Guernseys will probably never be known. They
were known as Alderneys. The first importation to be kept
pure arrived in this country in 1850. Most of the importations
were made from 1880 to 1890, or since 1900. The interests

r saeco oa astlege o, ete Z ~ ? 4 is

Fie. 23.—Robinna’s Standard, Guernsey bull, bred by Gov. W. D. Hoard,
Fort Atkinson, Wis.

of the breed in America are looked after by the American
Guernsey Cattle Club, which was organized in 1877. This
organization was essentially a splitting away from the Amer-
ican Jersey Cattle Club, which, previous to this time, had been
admitting animals of either breed to registry. Over 50,000
animals have now been registered, of which about one-third
have been bulls. The distribution of Guernseys in America
has been largely in the northern states, few going south, and
fewer still going into Canada. Massachusetts, New York, and
Pennsylvania in the east, and Wisconsin and Minnesota in the
5

GUERNSEYS

TUT “GynNd ‘wivy YT ng usar Aq poauMGQ “peelq oY} UI UOTIUIOD 61
YoOIqA FUTYIVUA IO[OO UL UONBUeA Os[e ‘asiod pus yyy OJON “Wey o1B1g sy eaduteyy sen iennuk azig “pray Bunod AvsuronH—'FZ “Old

BODY CHARACTERISTICS 67

middle west, are the states chiefly interested in this breed.
Wisconsin may be said to be the western center, though Minne-
sota is gradually becoming a rival for this honor (Figs. 23 and
24).

Body Characteristics.—Guernsey cows should weigh, when
mature, between 1050 and 1250 pounds, and bulls from 1700 to
2000 pounds. Considerable variation in size now exists, how-
ever, due partly to the recent admission into this country, and
their registration as Guernseys, of the cattle which for centuries
have beex raised on the third largest of the CHannel Islands,
namely, Alderney. For some reason the mature cattle of
Alderney Island are not as large even as the Jersey and fall very
far short of matching the ideal Guernsey. There are many who
believe that it was a serious blunder to admit into America
these small cattle, especially to admit them in the name of a
much larger breed. Many breeders and practical dairy farmers,
who have chosen Guernseys over Jerseys, have done so because
of the reputed greater size of the former. The Guernsey
naturally carries a little more flesh than the Jersey and is not
so sensitive to the cold. To reduce the scale of the animals now
is to throw them into the Jersey class in this respect where they
will probably be easily equalled as efficient dairy animals by
Jerseys of their own size. The color of the Guernsey is orange-
yellow and white, in large patches. The shade of the yellow
varies from light to a near red. Neither extreme is desirable.
The temperament of the Guernsey is particularly agreeable.
She is intelligent, but not so nervous, not so affectionate nor so
resentful as the Jersey. Neither is she so indifferent as the
“cold blooded” Holstein. Her sunny disposition and easy
handling habits have won her many friends. There is a ten-
dency, however, for individuals and families of this breed to
lay on fat too readily.

Calves at birth should weigh from sixty to eighty pounds
and are inclined to be somewhat delicate. They are not as
easily reared as the young of either the Holstein or the Ayrshire
breed. Heifers mature rapidly and unless care is taken are
liable to begin milking too early for best growth.

68 GUERNSEYS

Dairy Characteristics——The Guernsey is outstandingly a
dairy breed. While some members of them carry considerable
flesh and fatten at a sufficiently good rate, they, in common with
other dairy breeds, do not place the gain either in the place or in
the condition to be most highly valuable. Their beef-making
qualities are entirely secondary. As a whole, the cows of this
breed yield rather more milk than the Jerseys, but it does not

Ba ae r eaizeae LD LOOT CN PCT ° ernmomeen, |

Fic. 25.—Dairy Maid of Pinehurst, Guernsey cow that, at four years of age, produced
in one year 17,285.3 pounds of milk which contained 910.67 pounds butter fat. Note deep
body, well-balanced udder and large milk vein, also the evidence of good care. Owned
by W. W. Marsh, Waterloo, lowa.

test quite as high. A yield of 6000 to 9000 pounds of milk per
year is not at all unusual, while the percentage of fat ranges
close to five. Comparing their yield with the Holstein, they
give much less milk, but it tests more. In respect to their milk-
ing habits as in other points the Guernsey occupies a position
between the Jersey and the Holstein, but rather more near the
Jersey. One value of Guernsey milk is its exceedingly yellow
color. In this respect, it outeclasses all other breeds. Not in-
frequently butter made from Guernseys on full grass pasture is 2.

ADVANCED REGISTRY 69

more highly colored than some markets desire. On the other
hand, a few animals of Guernsey blood in a herd of Iolsteins
quite naturally increase the color as well as the fat content and
enhance its selling qualities. The length of the lactation period
of this breed varies with the intensity of dairy temperament and
with their feed and handling, as with other breeds.

Adaptations.—There are a few places where the qualities of
the Guernsey are particularly needed. She fills rather better
than any other dairy breed, the needs of those small farmers who
do most of their own work and who have but a moderate quantity
of feed to use. Their problem is how to convert a moderate-
sized hay stack and other material into a product which will
bring the most money. Next to the Jersey the Guernsey con-
verts the largest proportionate amount of her feed into milk
fat (Fig. 25), but since the modern Jersey is rather sensitive
for general farm life in the northwestern sections of the United
States, the Guernsey is being largely adopted as her substitute.
A second peculiar place is, as mentioned, in the herds of some of
the breeds producing a very white milk for market.

Advanced Registry.—In 1901 asystem of advanced registry
was adopted and though the test period at first covered either
seven days or a year the rules were soon changed to recognize
only the full year test. Records included both the pounds of
milk yielded and the fat produced as measured by the Babcock
test. “ The owner of the cow keeps the milk records in detail
throughout the year.” Once every month an official represen-
tative of an experiment station or agricultural college visits the
farm to confirm the yields recorded by the owner and to test the
milk produced at that time. A two-year-old cow will not be
admitted into advanced registry unless she produces 6000
pounds of milk and 250 pounds of fat. Older cows are required
to produce 3.65 pounds of milk per day more, up to five years of
age, and for each day past two years of age at the time of begin-
ning, one-tenth of a pound of fat additional is required. Mature
cows are admitted upon the production of 360 pounds of fat per
year. Bulls are admitted to advanced registry when two or
‘more of their daughters have been admitted.

70 GUERNSEYS

It was the record made by the Guernsey cows at the World’s
Fair in Chicago, in 1893, which first attracted the attention of
the American farmer to this breed, and the record of the cow
Mary Marshall, when she led a herd of 50 cows of 10 breeds at
the model dairy at the Pan-American Exposition in 1901, that
fixed it. Since that time many handsome records have been
made by members of this breed. Particularly to be noted is the
record recently made by the cow, May Rilma (Fig. 2), in
producing in 365 days, 19,630.5 pounds of milk which contained
1059.59 pounds of fat, equivalent to 1271.5 pounds of butter
estimated upon the basis of 80 per cent fat. And later the cow
Murne Cowan produced in one year, 24,008 pounds of milk con-
taining 1098.18 pounds of fat, equivalent to 1317.82 pounds of
butter. These records established for this breed the world’s cham-
pionship in butter production—held for about a year.

The following are the best official vearly records made up to
October 1, 1915, by this breed:

Class A—5 Years and Orer

Age Pounds Pounds Percent
Murne Cowan 19597, A. R. Milk BF. B.F.
1906, Re-entry ......... 8 yr. 9 mo. 24008.00 1098.18 4.57
May Rilma 22761, A. R.
1726, Re-entry .......... 6 yr. 4 mo. 19673.00 1073.41 5.46
Spotswood Daisy Pearl 17696,
A. R. 790, Re-entry ...... 7 yr. 5 mo. 18602.80 957.38 5.15
Julie of the Chene, 30460,
A. R. 2752, Re-entry .... 6 yr. 1 mo. 17661.00 953.53 5.40
Imp. Daisy Moon III 28471,
A. R. 1909 Re-entry ..... 6 yr. 4 mo. 18019.40 928.39 5.15

Class B—41% to 5 Years
Dairymaid of Pinehurst 24656,

A. R. 843 Re-entry ....... 4 yr. 8 mo. 17285.30 910.67 5.27
Julie of the Chene 30460, A. R.

QOD. conte ste to0 5 Bue Ee acatves fae + yr. 10 mo, 15174.20 827.26 5.45
Lady Leshbia 25142, A. R. 1348

Reentry cscavensiaeeesse 4 yr. 10 mo. 13582.75 = 787.03 5.79

Pandora's Valentine of Rich

Neck 27622, A. R. 1742, Re-

CNTY aespaseenaeweeus aes 4yr. 9 mo. 14341.60 784.22 5.87
Glenanaar of the Glen 23619,

Ag Ri WOON. sah Gaia eaule was 4 yr. 7 mo. 16813.10 780.66 4.64

SCALE OF POINTS 71
Summary of 4298 Advanced Register Records
Milk Pounds Per cent
B.F. B.F.
Class A. 1275 Cows Average ..... 10065.47 494.91 4.916
Class B. 230 Cows Average ..... 9609.24 480.22 4.997
Class C. 337 Cows Average ..... 9103.39 457.34 5.023
Class D. 338 Cows Average ..... 8869.44 445.85 5.026
Class KE. 445 Cows Average ..... 8220.14 416.75 5.069
Class F. 533 Cows Average ..... 7902.34 400.95 5.073
Class G. 1140 Cows Average ..... 7579.28 379.55 5.007
Av. for 4298 Cows ............... 8752.8z 436.98 4.992
Scale of Points for Judging Guernsey Bulls
Scale of points Counts ene
Dairy Temperament, Constitution—38,
Face, lean, clean cut
Jaw, strong, sinewy
Muzzle, wide, open nostrils
Hyes, full bright, with quiet gentle expression
Forehead, long, broad ............ 0.00.00 cece eee eee 5 F
Neck, masculine, with strong juncture to head : 4
Throat, clean
Backbone, rising well between shoulders
Spinal processes, large, rugged ........... 00.00 eee ee eee 5
Pelvis, wide, arching
Rump, long
Spine, wide, strong at tail head
Tail, long, thin, full switch 5
Thighs; $hin, INCurvine® sofa e cae sag Sel Be AGatnd sadly Seas ke 5
Ribs, amply and fully sprung, wide apart
Blanks, thin, arching: gaa der ayes cae pp awn nes BRE eH 5
Abdomen, large, deep, with strong muscular and navel
GEVELOPIMENG oc. sues daacge gence gs we ore Ddalael Baa eyes 15
Hide, firm, yet loose, oily feeling and texture, hut not thick 3
Dairy Prepotency—15.
Vigor, alertness, style and resolute appearance........... 15
Rudimentaries and Milk Veins—10.
Rudimentaries, large squarely and broadly placed in front
of and free from scrotum
Milk veins, prominent ......... 0.6... cece 10
Color of Product—l15.
Skin, deep yellow in ear, end of tail, base of horns, and body
generally
Hoofs, amber colored cciaccs cece s pees went gpon au ew eum ans 15

72 GUERNSEYS

Scale of Points for Judging Guernsey Bulls (continued)

Scale of points Counts
Symmetry and Size—22.
Hair, a shade of fawn with white markings
Nose, cream colored
Horns, amber colored, light, curving and not coarse....... 8
Size for the breed, mature bulls about 1500 pounds....... 4
General appearance, as indicative of the power to beget off-
spring with strong dairy qualities.................. 10
Total gies de yeeus evn sees yess 100
Scale of Points for Judging a Guernsey Cow
Scale of Points Counts

Dairy Temperament, Constitution—38.
Face, lean, clean cut
Jaw, strong, sinewy
Muzzle, wide, open nostrils
Eyes, full, bright, with quiet gentle expression
Forehead, long, broad sce i6s sea9eesrddveadeawa deed ee 5
Neck, long, thin, with strong juncture to head
Throat, clean
Backbone, rising well between shoulders
Spinal processes, large, rugged ...............-..0000005 5
Pelvis, wide, arching
Rump, long
Spine, wide, strong at tail head
Tail, long, thin, full switch

Thiehs; Chin IMeurvin go. eg Meanie See eeawe NE F 5

Ribs, amply and fully sprung, wide apart

Blanks, than, APOHIRG usp cscaenas Gad aaSaieea sagan oaks Ha aleve 5

Abdomen, large, deep, with strong muscular and navel
GCEVElOPMeN te yic2 eae ue Fe das nia eas Wa BM deed waa Da 15

Hide, firm, yet loose, oily feeling and texture, but not thick 3
Milking Marks, Flow—10

Escutcheon, high, broad, wide on thighs with high ovals .. 2

Milk veins, long, crooked, prominent, branching with

CAPAClLOUS: WES) acc cruntr guna tates Henne aeldace goa 8

Udder Formation—26.
Udder, full. in front: s0¢ 34 ses eee dae cls pws yea bua ear wns 8
Udder, full and well up behind ......................... 8
Udder, large, capacious ................-.....000. gow 4
Teats, well apart, squarely placed, of good and even size. 6

Color of Product—15.
Skin, deep yellow in ear, end of tail, base of horns, udder,
teats, and body generally, amber color hoofs......... 15

Student's
Score

Student’s
Score

Quality of Milk—6.

Symmetry and Size—5.

QUESTIONS 73
Scale of Points for Judging a Guernsey Cow (continued)

; Student's
Scale of points Counts Score

Udder, showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty... .. 6

Hair, a shade of fawn with white markings
Nose, cream colored

Horns, amber colored, light curving .................00.- 3

Size for the breed, mature cows about 1050 pounds........ 2
RGB, cect 3 24st tes g Faaecanh ane Sree 100
QUESTIONS

Under what name were Guernsey cattle known when introduced into
England and America? Why?

. What stock probably furnished the foundation for Guernsey blood?
. What blood element probably was introduced into Guernsey Island but

not into Jersey Island?

. Trace the Rhine River from Switzerland to the North Sea.

Locate the Channel Islands, Guernsey Island. How large is it com-
pared with the county in which you live?

. What is the color of a well marked Guernsey? What undesirable color

occasionally crops out? What should be done with such animals?

. How large is an ideal Guernsey cow? Bull?

. What is the disposition of a Guernsey cow?

. What should be looked for in the matter of calves?

. How much milk and what percentage of fat ought a Guernsey cow to

yield?

. Compare milk yield and fat grade with Holsteins and Jerseys.

. What may be said regarding the color of Guernseys’ milk and butter?

. What seem to be the particular places into which the Guernsey cow fits?
. When and how were Guernseys introduced into America?

. What states are now most interested in them ?

. When and under what conditions was the advanced registry adopted

for this breed?

. What are the milk and fat requirement for admission into the advanced

registry?

. Name the cows having the five highest records,
. How much did each produce?
. What is the record in milk and fat and percentage of fat of the average

of all the advanced registry cows?

CHAPTER X

THE JERSEY

Tur Jersey is the most refined present representative of the
race of cattle which developed in southern Europe. She is
probably related very distantly to the ancient stock of Switzer-
land. As agricultural development moved northward it is
highly probable that the animals common in the south were taken
northward to form the stock of aucient Normandy and Brittany,
and that these in turn were the source of the stock for Jersey
Island, which place became the home of the breed that bears its
name. Little exact information is obtainable regarding the
manner of handling or the characteristics of the early ancestors
of the Jersey breed.

Home Conditions.—Off the north coast of France, in the
English Channel, there is a little group of islands known as
the Channel Islands. In order of size, they are Jersey, Guern-
sey, Alderney, and Sark. These belonged to Normandy before
the Conquest of England when William the Conqueror, in 1065,
made his famous invasion. The sovereignty over the islands fell
to the people who later developed the British Empire. Thus
we find that the islands, which lie so close to the French coast
and are peopled largely by folk of French characteristics and
with the French language, still owe allegiance to England. Their
affiliation, however, is unique and permits of certain liberties
in respect to self-government which are enjoyed by few of the
provinces.

In 1763 and again in 1789 laws were passed in Jersey Island
prohibiting the importation of cattle except for slaughter. The
law has been modified slightly a few times since, but has been in
force, and been enforced for more than a century and a half
since, and is still looked upon as an exceedingly valuable law. It
was done to safeguard the health of the cattle on the island,
but has been of even greater value in preserving the purity of
blood and permitting the development of one of the most valuable
breeds of cattle in the world.

74 .

IMPROVEMENT FROM WITHIN 75

The island itself is only eleven miles long, by nine miles
wide. It has a total area of about 39,500 acres, of which
25,000 are tillable. The population of 60,000 is engaged
largely in truck gardening, making a specialty of early potatoes,
The cow, however, has been given much attention and is an
important source of revenue. There are about 10,000 cows on
the island, or one for every two and one-half acres of cultivated

and.
Le

Fic, 26.—Imp. Oxford Mojesty. A champion both on Jersey Island and in America.
Note strong back, rugged build yet a conformity to the dairy type. (Owned by White
Horse Farms, Paoli, Pa.)

IMPROVEMENT FROM WITHIN

Early writers on agricultural topics mention the cows of the
island as being very ununiform in every respect; some very
beefy; some were flat and with but poor constitutions, while
yet others were fairly symmetrical dairy cows.

It is evident, however, that the essential merit of the stock
was recognized, since improvement was sought by selection within
the blood rather than by introduction of such outside elements
as were obtainable on the continent (Fig. 26).

Systematic improvement began in 1834 when a score card

76 THE JERSEY

was adopted to be used at the second annual fair held by Jersey
Royal Agricultural and Horticultural Society. This is the first
record of the application of the score card system in judging.
The scale of points has been modified from time to time, but
has served well to bring about uniformity and refinement com-
bined with useful characteristics.

The plan of registration on the island is unique. “ Cows
are registered as pedigree stock and foundation stock; bulls as
pedigree stock only.” Within twenty-four hours after a cow
drops a calf the owner must notify a representative of the
Department of Agriculture, who must satisfy himself that the
calf in question was actually born from the cow claimed by the
owner to be its mother. A certificate is then issued showing
the birth of the calf. This certificate, together with one from
the owner of the sire of the calf, is then filed with the secretary
or the registrar. This is called preliminary registration. Ex-
aminations are frequently held for the qualifications of these
registered cattle. If the young animals are growing into form
such as to indicate future high quality they are passed as “ com-
mended ” or “highly commended,” and those commended ani-
mals are at two years of age entered in full registry under the
number and name by which they may be imported to America
and transferred to the American Jersey Cattle registry. Re-
jected animals may be entered in examination later and, if satis-
factory, be approved.

In the case of males, the dam must be shown and her qual-
ities are taken together with those of the little bull, and he is
either rejected or passed, according to quality of both (Fig. 27).
An individual breeder is not compelled to use fully registered
sires, but the pressure has been so strong that most of them have
complied with the judgment of the committee of five; have dis-
posed of the rejected animals; and bred to the approved. This
system has certainly developed a wonderfully uniform and
beautiful breed. On the island little attention was paid to
the making of butter records, further than one day tests at fairs,
until 1912, when milk and butter record keeping, very much as
the Registry of Merit in America, was instituted.

BODY CHARACTERISTICS 77

The animal has meant much in the development of Jersey
Island, and is still a potent factor in its industrial affairs. The
Jersey, like the Holstein cow, is pastured at the end of a long
rope. The forage in Jersey, however, is more scanty and
richer in character than it is in IJolland. This may be due to
the fact that the island is raised nicely above sea level and that
the north side is considerably higher and more abrupt than the
southern, thus forming a southern slope which warms very
rapidly in the direct rays of the sun. The Jersey at home is a

Fig. 27.—The champion Jersey bull, Nobles Eminent Lad. (Owned by E. C. Lasater,
Talfurrics, Texas.)

pet, is handled very largely by the women, and is carefully fed
on grass, parsnips, carrots, and odds and ends from the garden.
Comparatively small amounts of grain are fed.

Body Characteristics.—The color of the Jersey is not looked
upon as an essential feature of the breed. Consequently, varla-
tion is found. Some are of a creamy white, while a few are
found that have large yellow or orange spots in a field of white,
quite similar to the Guernseys. The majority, especially in
America, have almost solid color of varying shades, from a light

78 THE JERSEY

silvery gray or fawn, through various shades of rich red, to a
seal brown, almost black. In size the Jersey is one of the small-
est of the dairy breeds (Fig. 28). Mature cows should weigh
in the neighborhood of 900 pounds, while the bulls may vary
between 1300 and 1700. The Jersey calf at birth weighs from
50 to 80 pounds, and though healthy, is quite a baby to raise.
The Jersey heifer matures at a very early age. Care must
be taken to prevent too early breeding. The fact that they
will breed early is sometimes an advantage, however, in that
there is a shorter period of unprofitable feeding. The intelli-
gence of the Jersey cow is remarkable, and her affectionate qual-
ities endear her to those who love stock. This same quality,
however, is a disadvantage when she is in the hands of one who
is rough or boisterous, or generally unfriendly. When roughly
handled the Jersey is more likely to resent the treatment than a
cow of less sensitive organization. Thus we have conspicuous
examples of cows which did exceedingly poorly under one man-
agement that proved to be wonderful producers in the hands of
another.

Dairy Characteristics—The Jersey is the most highly
specialized dairy cow in America. She is not conspicuous for
the quantity of milk (Fig. 28), but rather for the rich quality
of it. The average fat test of the milk of this breed is not far
from five and one-half per cent, while many individuals produce
milk with as high as six and even seven per cent fat. During
the earlier days of dairying the Jersey was known as the cow
for the “ butter dairy,” Her milk was so rich that only sixteen
to nineteen pounds would be required to make a pound of butter,
whereas twenty-five or more pounds of the milk of other breeds
would be required to equal it. Not only is it rich in fat, but the
globules are comparatively large in size. This fact facilitates
quick and thorough creaming by gravity. There will be less
fat washed in the skim milk, under the old system, with a Jersey
than with breeds yielding smaller fat globules. The condition
still remains but its importance is now negligible when the
centrifugal cream separator is used. The milk of the Jersey
produces cheese of very rich quality, even more fatty than the

INTRODUCTION TO AMERICA 79

trade generally cares to pay for. A small quantity, however,
added to the milk of the Holstein has a marked improving effect
in either cheese or market milk. The fact that the globules of
fat are one-nine-thousandth of an inch in diameter instead of
one-twelve-thousandth of an inch need not deter any one from
choosing such milk as an infant food. The percentage and total
quantity of fat fed a child is so much more important than the

Fie, 28.—Sophie 19th, of Hood Farm. The champion Jersey cow of the world in
butter fat production. She produced in one year 17,557 pounds 12 ounces of milk which
contained 999 pounds 2.2 ounces of butter fat. Note deep body and well-balanced udder.
(Owned by C. I. Hood, Lowell, Mass.)

size of the fat globule that the size may generally be neglected
entirely. (See chapter on [Holsteins for more of this. )
Introduction to America.—Jersey and Guernsey cattle were
taken to England at an early date and there known as Alderney
cattle, since they had come from the Alderney or Channel group
of islands. As early as 1815 cows were imported from the
Island of Alderney, and in 1818, and again in 1825, animals of
this blood were brought to America, either from England or, less
likely, from the Islands. These animals were known as Alder-

80 THE JERSEY

neys, but their blood was not kept pure. They furnished the
foundation stock, however, for much of the region in the
southern states. In 1851 a few Jerseys were imported into
Massachusetts and in 1868 a few animals were brought to Mon-
treal, Canada. From these importations have descended many
of the most famous producers in this country. From about 1870
to 1890 importations were numerous, then for a period few
were brought over. At the present time there are several impor-
tant annual importations. The interests of the breed in America
are looked after by the American Jersey Cattle Club. It was
formed in 1868. There have now been registered in America
about 300,000 Jerseys, of which one-quarter were bulls. Jerseys
are now to be found in every state (Fig. 30) and in practically
every county of most of the states. The Jersey has also been
introduced into most of the civilized countries, but is most
popular in England and America.

Island Versus American Type.—It was comparatively early
in the improvement of the Jersey breed that representatives were
first imported to America. These were for the most part handled
by practical lovers of the breed. Descendants from these early
importations have been formed into a more or less well-defined
type usually spoken of as the “American type,” because developed
in this country. These cows are comparatively large, straight,
almost coarse, and decidedly plain, compared with the present
highly finished animal of the island. The majority of the high
records for production in this country are held by representatives
of the so-called American type. The island type of Jersey is
100 to 200 pounds lighter in weight; very much more refined in
texture and feature, and is now marked by having a compara-
tively short head with dished face. These animals are more
symmetrical than those of older American breeding, not only in
top line, but also in udder development. While many of the
large records are held by the American type it does not in itself
prove that this type is essentially more productive or econom-
ical. Animals of recent importation have gone more largely
into the herds of wealthy owners who in the past were not pri-
marily interested in large milk records or economy of milk pro-

ISLAND VERSUS AMERICAN TYPE 81

Fic. 29.—Financial Daisy. A champion Jersey cow. Note deep body, well-balanced udder,
tortuous milk veins. (Owned by White Horse Farm, Paoli, Pa.)

Fig. 30.—Bright Princess Jolly Girl. A prize-winning Jersey cow belonging to Geo. T.

Slade, St. Paul, Minn.
6

82 THE JERSEY

duction. This has left the field comparatively open to the
smaller owner who is more likely to be a practical milk producer.
There are likewise a larger number of the American type of
animals available for contest purposes (Fig. 29).

Extremes of these two types are almost, if not quite, as far
apart in character as are the modern Jersey and the refined
Guernsey. Certain it is that the extremes of the two types
should not usually be mated, for the same reason that the Jersey
and the Holstein should seldom be crossed. They are too unlike.

While the American type is thought to be possessed of
greater constitution than the more highly refined island type,
one must be careful that hasty conclusions are not drawn in
the matter.

Constitution a Relative Term.—Constitution is the ability
of the animal to do its life work. Constitution is, in part, the
relation between the power of the heart of the animal to pump
blood throughout its system and the power of its lungs to purify
the blood, compared to the resistance which the blood is to meet
in coursing through the body. <A large strong heart working
against a body filled with fat might be strained far more than a
heart of only two-thirds the actual power working in a body
where the arteries are not closely surrounded by fat but are
elastic and can expand with every throb. With this view of the
matter we are not surprised to see the angular little Jersey work-
ing nervily and profitably until 16 and even 20 vears of age.
This matter is even better illustrated in the case of horses. “The
large, well-rounded horse is often outclassed at continued hard
work by one of a thinner, nervier make-up.

Beef Characteristics.—This breed has never made any claim
to true beef-making qualities, nor even vet has there been any
tendency to make of it a so-called dual purpose breed. Genera-
tions of selecting for dairy purposes have produced in the Jersey
an animal wonderfully well adapted to milk production. It will
fatten readily enough, but does not place the gain where it will
be most valuable, nor yet is the meat of quite so high quality as
that produced by a breed which has for generations been trained
for beef production. The fat of Jersey beef is likely to be rather

IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED 83

too highly colored for most trade, and is placed in patches and
layers outside of the muscle rather than being finely distributed
through the tissue as in the case of high-type beef animals. To
consider the Jersey cow as worthless for beef, however, is
incorrect. .

Adaptations.—As a breed the Jersey will produce butter
fat more cheaply per pound than any other breed. This is due
to several conditions.

_ First, she will consume more feed in proportion to her size
than will the larger breeds.

Second, the solid matter of her milk carries a much higher
percentage of fat and a less proportion of non-fat. When butter
fat is worth in the neighborhood of thirty cents a pound, the
sugar and casein of milk are worth four and a half to six cents
a pound. Naturally, therefore, that animal which converts her
feed into a substance with a higher percentage of the more valu-
able materials will have the advantage over one which produces
so much cheap milk solids. This being the case, we must expect
that on systematic dairy farms where the production of butter or
cream is the first aim of the dairy and where kindness and com-
fortable care can be assured, the Jersey cow will be found rather
more profitable than some other breeds.

Third, the Jersey is particularly well adapted to meet the
climatic and feed conditions of our southern states, the common
stock of which is already largely of the Jersey blood. It would
seem that she might well become the common cow for the southern
farmer, although the small size of the Jersey need not deter the
northern dairyman from keeping her, for good buildings can
make summer temperatures at any season.

A fourth place for the Jersey is as a town cow. She con-
sumes less total feed, occupies Icss space than other breeds, and
yields enough milk, and that of the highest quality.

Improvements Needed.—<Aside from the common imper-
fection of form, such as sloping rump (Fig. 31), and of function,
such as being occasionally only moderately valuable as dairy
animals, the present status of the Jersey is important, especially
because of the two more or less well defined but radically differ-

84 : THE JERSEY

ent types of pure bred, registered Jerseys on the market, the
crossing of which is liable to produce very unsymmetrical and
otherwise undesirable animals. Relief from the situation can-
not well take place until the breeders settle upon some type and
size as the goal toward which to select and breed. At present
some Jersey breeders contend for a small, beautiful animal and
others for a larger, less nervous, even though coarser, beast. This
inability to get together on the matter has prevented the extension

Fie. 31.—A poor rump and fore udder but a good producer for all that. Rosalind of Old
asing.

of the Jersey to as wide a field as might otherwise have been
claimed by it.

Testing System.—In 188+ the system of making seven-day
tests was inaugurated for the’ Jerseys. These were made in
private, and later oath was taken as to correctness. Mature
cows producing fourteen pounds or more of butter per week
were found and said, thereafter, to be in the fourteen-pound list.
These private records, like those reported for the Holstein cows

RECORDS 85
during the earlier days of the breed in this country, were prob-
ably correct, but people naturally had little confidence in them.
In 1903 the “ Register of Merit ” was established and the rules
so changed as to require a verification of the yield, by means of
the Babcock test. The advanced records of Jerseys are now
being supervised by representatives of the Agricultural College
or Experiment Stations of the various states and, like the records
of the advanced registry of the Holstein and Guernsey, are as

Fic. 32.—A champion Jersey heifer, eighteen months old. Cupid’s Noble Fontaine.
(Owned by Geo. T. Slade, St. Paul, Minn.)

nearly correct and free from error as can well be made. The
Jersey requirements for registry of merit are the same as the
Guernsey.

Records.—Although the Jersey has been perfected until she
is a beautiful and affectionate animal, her production has not
been overlooked. As a breed the Jersey is a wonderfully econom-
ical and constant producer (Fig. 32).

“ The records of other breeds than the Jersey are sometimes
computed on the basis of butter eighty per cent fat, instead of

86 THE JERSEY

eighty-five per cent. Eighty per cent fat is the legal standard
of butter in the states of California, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas,
New Hampshire, Ohio, South Dakota and Utah. For the pur-
poses of comparison with claims made on behalf of cows of other
breeds, a list of the Jersey pacemakers is appended hereto with
yields computed on the basis of eighty per cent fat in the butter.”

Thousand-pound Jersey Records

Milk Fat 80% butter

Name cf cow Lbs. Oz. Lbs. Oz. Lbs. Oz.

Sophie 19th of Hood Farm (189748) .. 17557 12 999 22 1246 3
Spermfield Owl’s Eva (193934)....... 16457 6.4 993 «4 1241 8
Eminent’s Bess (209719) ........... 18782 15.6 962 13.2 1203 8
Jacoba Trene (146443) ............ 17253 3.2 952 15.4 1191 3
Olympia’s Fern (252060) ........... 16147 13.6 937 13.38 1172 4
Sophie 19th of Hood Farm (189748)... 15099 6 931 15.5 1164 11
Lass 66th of Hood Farm (271896).... 17793 11 910 10 1138 «4
Lass 38th of Hood Farm (223628).... 15284 .... 890 6.0 1112 15
Temisia’s Owl’s Rose (215973)....... 17056 7 863 12 1079 «11

Lass 40th of Hood Farm (223642)....18661 7 854 14.9 1068 11
Sophie 19th of Hood Farm (189748).. 14373 3 854 13.7 1068 9

Olga 4th’s Pride (160791)........... 16275 13.2 851 11.7 1064 11
Adelaide of Beechlands (168699) ..... 15572 «16 849 9.9 1062

Rosaire’s Olga 4th’s Pride (179509).. 14104 13.6 836 15.8 1046 38
Golden Angela (225625) ........... 12795 10 829 4 1036 10
Warder’s Lady (195777) ...........-. 14820 11 819 15 1024 14
Rosalind of Old Basing (193202)..... 15734 12.8 816 1.6 1020 2
Pearly Exile St. Lambert (205101)... 12345 8 816 1.27 1020 1
St. Mawes Poppy (219992).......... 12934 4.8 800 13.5 1001 1

It should be observed that although the quantity of milk
yielded is far less than is shown in an earlier chapter for Hol-
steins, the quantity of butter fat far more nearly approaches the
production of the other breed. Neither is the total quantity
produced the criterion, since the cost of production is quite as
important as the yield. The Jersey may be said to be the con-
verse of the Holstein in the matter of milk production. The
Jersey produces a comparatively small quantity of the richest
milk, while the Holstein produces the largest amount of com-
paratively “lean” milk.

Scale of Points——The scale of points for cows now in use
for the perfecting of the breed was adopted in 1915 and follows:

SCALE OF POINTS 87

Scale of Points for Judging the Jersey Cow

Student's
Counts Score
Dairy Temperament and Constitution.

Head 7:
A—Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between the

eyes; horns medium size incurving ............... 3
B—Kyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, carried
alert; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and

muscular lips; jaw strong ................. 000s 4
Neck 4:
Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to head
and shoulders: sac: ey ina wy Pode b4G tn oa Re Se es 4
Body 37:

A—Shoulders light, good distance through from point to
point, but thin at withers; chest deep and full between
and just back of forelegs ....................004. 5

B—Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge
shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, with

strong muscular development .................... 10
C—Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal
processes; loins broad and strong .............. 5
D—Rump long to tail-setting and level from hip-bones to '
TIMP: DOMES. « ngae ea dieds ateenetine MAE 2a we Os EOS 6
E—Hip bones high and wide apart .................. 3
F—Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for
UOT vs. aaeaes ts ae tg a toad a panded ein nds Koda baie tel 3

apart, with good feet and not to weave or cross in

Walking osc. dws prac es ee eee ele ee ole eee eS 2
H—Hide loose and mellow ........... 00. e cee eee eee 2
I—Yail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting-

QDs cuyisie Gs eit dice Gist Biaatee uawtinanlih Migaadobae AERA 1

Mammary Development
Udder 26:
A—Large, flexible and not fleshy .................... 6
B—Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between

COATS sic cae Satnedd age bd eee Gee eles Se kaw gens 4
C—Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for-

ward iof front: teats) «14% <4 oe ys ee nye Sys pa eee Cees 10

D—Rear udder well rounded and well out and up behind... 6
Teats 8:
Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and
squarely placed ......... cece e cece cece e eee eens 8

88 THE JERSEY

Scale of Points for Judging the Jersey Cow (continued)

Milk Veins 4:
Large, long, tortuous and elastic, entering large and
NUMEFOUS OTIMCES hive cn cnd arse eae Paes Ba ae,
Size 4:
Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds ............--....-.
General Appearance 10:

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a proportion
of parts to each other, depending on size of animal,
with the general appearance of a high-class animal,
with capacity for feed and productiveness at pail....

Total weneses vaden
Scale of Points for Judging Jersey Bulls

Head 10:
A—Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow between
horns; horns medium in size and incurving ........

B—Aluzzle broad, nostrils open, eyes full and bold; entire

expression one of vigor, resolution and masculinity ....

Neck 7:
Medium length with full crest at maturity, clean at
THRO <a ahi dee Se adere Gd Gite 8 Sas thas hae ante, San ean
A—Shoulders full and strong, good distance through from
point to point, with well defined withers; chest deep

and full between and just back of forelegs ........
B—Barrel long, of good depth and breadth, with strong,
rounded, well sprung ribs ......... 0.0.0.2 .000 0005
C—Back straight and strong .............. cece eee
D—Rump of good length and proportion to size of body
and level from hip bones to rump bones ............
E—Loins broad and strong; hips rounded, and of medium
width compared with female ....................
F—Thighs rather flat, well cut up behind, high arched
Has 4 ececua css aoe ae has Rew ARE e a eee eRe me

G—Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well
apart with good feet not to weave or cross in walking
Rudimentary Teats 2:
Well: pla@Gd. asa sont mand de omega ue eaane ae aeckaee 4s
Hide 2:
Loose and mellow ...........c cece ee eee eee cece eeeeas
Tail 2:
Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not
coarse or high at setting on ..... sashes issagese, Sukediatoce

Counte

Counts

Student’s
Score

QUESTIONS 89

Scale of Points for Judging Jersey Bulls (continued)

Student’s
Counts , Score
Size 5:
Mature oulls, 1200 to 1500 pounds .................... 5
General Appearance 15:
Thoroughly masculine in character, with harmonious
blending of the parts to each other; thoroughly ro-
bust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild cattle
would likely become master of the herd by the law
of natural selection and survival of the fittest ...... 15
otal: o 26 eieighes cates 3 100

QUESTIONS

. Where did the Jerseys originate as a breed? Upon what foundation

stock?

. What law was most valuable in establishing this breed?

. How large is Jersey Island?

. Where is it located? Find it on the map.

. For what products, other than cows, is the Island of Jersey noted?

How was improvement in the breed brought about?

. What is the present plan of registration of cattle on the island?

. Tell how the Jersey on the island is handled and fed.

. What is the color of pure-bred Jerseys?

. What are the average sizes of cow and bull?

. How large is a Jersey calf at birth?

. What may be said of the intelligence and the affection of the Jersey?

. When may these good qualities prove a disadvantage?

. What quality of milk do Jerseys produce?

. How was the richness of Jersey stated before the Babcock test was

invented?

. Under what conditions may the larger fat globule he of value?

. When were Jerseys first imported into America?

. How widely distributed is this breed at the present time?

. What is meant by American type Jersey?

. How do they differ from the Island type Jersey?

. What precaution should be taken in mating Jerseys?

. What is constitution?

. Why can Jerseys produce butter fat cheaper per pound than any other

breed of cows in America?

. What are her particular adaptations?

. What improvement is most needed in the Jersey breed?

. What is the “ register of merit”?

. What is the best year’s record for a Jersey? What cow holds it?
. Compare the Jersey and Holstein breeds,

CHAPTER XI
AYRSHIRES

Origin In comparison with the Holstein and Brown Swiss,
which are virtually the pure descendants of the cattle of an-
tiquity, or even with the Guernsey and Jersey which are modi-
fications of the more or less mixed foundation stock, the Ayrshire
breed of cattle may be said to be “man made.” It is the
youngest dairy breed of importance. In the Shire or County of
Ayr, southwest Scotland, there lived in the early eighteenth
century a number of farmers who seemed to have become con-
vinced that their stock would admit of improvements, and set
about to doit. The animals of 1750 are described as undersized,
ill-fed, irregular, and as producing but little milk. They were,
however, extremely hardy. They were undoubtedly the domes-
ticated representatives of the aboriginal wild cow of that region
and related to the West Highlands in that respect. In the
mountains of Wales there are still to be found small black, ex-
tremely hardy, wild cattle and in England there are still a few
specimens of an aboriginal wild white cow. During the latter
half of the eighteenth century there was a strong movement
towards the improvement of all neat cattle. These cattle were
improved largely by crossing in other better developed breeds.
Just when certain bloods were introduced is not accurately
recorded, but it was evidently the early introduction of the blood
of the old Teeswater breed, later known as Durhams, and still
later more widely known as Shorthorns, that gave scale to the
hardy little native cattle. At this time the Teeswaters were
large, rather beefy and not particularly well refined. Their
cross with the little, nervy, native stock must have produced a
great mixture of characteristics, for soon, it is believed, there was
an introduction of breeding cattle from Holland, animals essen-
tially like our present Holstein. This was evidently done to
improve the milking qualities, but with such a mixture, the breed
became too large and lacking in the nimble grazing qualities
necessary for the Scottish hillside pastures. At this juncture it
is thought that there was introduced the blood of Jersey char-

BODY CHARACTERISTICS 91

acter to add refinement, to reduce the size, and yet to hold the
milking qualities. The West Highland, Iereford and Devon
bloods were probably introduced into a few herds, but whether any
appreciable amount of the blood of the latter has been handed
down in those animals that formed the Ayrshire is not known.

Home Conditions.—The land in the country of Ayr, Scot-
land, rises from the ocean on the west, rapidly into the moun-
tains 2000 or more feet in height. Though cold in winter, the
climate is not hot in summer. Plentiful rainfall keeps the
grass on the clay pastures abundant. Thus the Ayrshire eattle
were developed under the cool, rugged ae where grazing

ability was essential.

The birth-place of the Ayrshire ie of cattle in close
proximity to the magnificently developed beef breeds of both
Scotland and England doubtless had its influence in the develop-
ment of symmetry and beauty in this dairy breed. And certain
it is that the Ayrshire breeders have set a pace in the matter
of beauty and poise of the animal which the adherents of other
dairy breeds find hard to follow (Fig. 33).

Importation to America.—Early in the nineteenth century
Ayrshires were brought to Canada and soon after herds were
established in New England. Some are thought to have been
brought to Connecticut as early as 1822. Many of the Ayrshire
herds of the eastern states are the descendants of these early
importations. Larger numbers of better developed animals were
brought over later. Importations are still being made.

Body Characteristics—The Ayrshire ranks as a middle-

weight dairy breed, mature cows weighing i in the neighborhood
of 1000 pounds dad bulls ranging from 1500 to 2000 pounds.
For many years the plump oe was held to, in the endeavor to
retain the beef-making qualities along with the dairy. These
are now spoken of as “tubby” and as being too plump to be
ideal representatives of the breed. The present ideal for a cow
is an animal of greater scale, deeper body, and more angularity
‘(Fig. 34). The beautiful, straight back, level rump, long rear
quarters and symmetrical udder are being retained and the
short teats of the past are being developed past the point of
criticism. In color the American Ayrshire is often a deep red,

92 AYRSHIRES

streaked with seal brown, giving a brindle effect, but ranging
from this to a clear cherry red and white (Fig. 35). The desire _
for white on the part of the Scottish and Canadian breeders
became current a few years ago, with the result that the ideal
animals of the present are three-fourths or more pure white and
the remaining part a dark red, often assuming a seal brown
shade, especially in bulls. The temperament of the Ayrshire is
pronounced. The timid, yet forceful and active manner of the
aboriginal wild stock used as foundation stock many hundred
years ago still asserts itself. Most cows of this breed, though
not vicious, are a little hard to handle, because so headstrong.

By ai

Fie. 33.—A champion Ayrshire Bull, Bargenoch Gay Cavalier. Note the beautiful and
rugged outlines and deep chest. (Property of Adam Seitz, Waukesha, Wis.)

Their character must be taken into account in handling them.
Their grazing qualities are phenomenally good. Their feet are
sound, their legs are straight and they are buoyant. Whether for
hillside climbing or nibbling of the short grass in semi-arid west-
ern prairies, the Ayrshires lead all other breeds of dairy cows.
The calves at birth are plump, well muscled and weigh about .
seventy-five pounds. They are quick to stand and easy to raise.
The heifers do not mature very rapidly compared with the
Jersey, but sufficiently early for all practical purposes. While

Fre. 34.—A typical modern Ayrshire cow. The deep body and rugged frame are now
sought rather than the short ‘‘tubby’’ form. Note the well-balanced udder, good sized,
well-placed teats, and the large crooked milk vein.

Fia,35.—Imp. Ayrshire bull Duchrae Success. (Owned by the late J.J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn.)

94 AYRSHIRES

not immune to any of the diseases that afflict cattle, they are
more nearly free from them than other dairy breeds. They are
remarkable for the regularity with which they will-breed and the
number of years that they will keep at work.

Dairy Qualities——Most Ayrshires of the present time carry
too much meat to be pronounced dairy animals, though the
present tendency is towards the more extreme dairy type. The
yield of milk is moderate for its grade, though some very credit-
able records have been made (Fig. 36). An average of twenty-
four animals reported hy American Experiment Stations shows
a milk yield per year of 6533 pounds, having 3.85 per cent
fat and yielding 257 pounds of fat.

The advanced registry for this breed was inaugurated in
1902 with the requirements as follows: Cows two years old or
under must produce 6000 pounds of milk containing 214.3
pounds of butter fat. For each day over two years a 0.06 pound
increase in fat is demanded and 1.37 pounds in milk, with the
requirement increasing until at five years of age or older she
must produce 8500 pounds of milk containing 322 pounds of fat.
Bulls scoring 80 points and having two daughters from different
dams in the Advanced Registry, or without scoring, 54 daughters
in Advanced Registry, are themselves admitted into the Ad-
vanced Registry.

The best ten living \vrshires with official yearly records are:

Record Milk Fat

Name No Lbs. Lbs.
Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4 ............., 27943 23022 917.60
Garclaugh Spottie ...................... 27950 22589 816.25
Lily of Willowmoor 4.504 ¢¢s<a0423¢eb00 45 22269 22106 888.70
Auchenbrain Yellow Kate .............. 36910 21123 888.33
Gerranton Dora 2nd ..................02. 23853 21023 804.79
Rena, Ross (2nd. 02+ send cadaaeaecvewaege 0% 25295 18s46 713.56
Jean Armour .........-0.005 ee eee 25487 20174 T7473
Netherland Brownie 9th ................. 23985 18110 820.91
Agnes Wallace of Maple Grove ........... 25171 17657 821.45
Heepsake 2nd. ajccag vicki ay tencsagown aa we 26013 17410 71127

The above are certainly very creditable records and indicate
strongly the probability that with more thorough development
of the deep body and angularity sought at the present time, this
breed will rival the other dairy breeds even more closely in the

SCALE OF POINTS 95

future than in the past in the matter of total production.
Especially is this indicated by the recent record of 17,974
pounds of milk containing 738.32 pounds of fat produced in one
year by the senior two-year-old heifer, Henderson’s Dairy Gem
35176, which is the record for all breeds for the age.

Fie. 36.—Imp. Ayrshire cow, Kilnforn Bell 3d. Grand champion for the breed at the
National Dairy Show, Chicago, 1913.

Average of All Advanced Registry Records to November 1, 1915.

Milk Fat Fat

Lbs. Lbs. Per cent
G57 mature COWS ......... cece cere eee eee 10830 420.05 3.89
101 Senior 4 yr. old ...........202000000-- 10281 * 396.00 3.86
144 Junior 4 yr. old ..................... 9574 376.31 3.93
176 Senior 3 yr. old ..............0.00000- 8949 365.28 3.99
175 Junior 3 yr. old ..................00.. 8773 344.22 3.94
20% Senior 2 yr0ld 2 a. vesas see ee wade eae 8503 337.32 4.02
316 Junior 2 yr. old ......... awe vamiyed ee 7478 311.26 3.99

1846 tetal cows and heifers .............. .» 9405 371.88 3.94

96 AYRSHIRES

Adaptations.—It is evident from what has been said that
the place for the Ayrshire will, in the future as in the past, be
found closely associated with the mountainous sections, but that
in addition she is being sought by those farmers of our west,
whose stock must graze on the short grass pastures of the region
of scanty rainfall. The fact that the Ayrshire has been known
and advertised as a very hardy cow, doing better under hard
conditions than most or any other breed, has undoubtedly
attracted to this breed men who propose to give loose care and to
subject the animals to hardships. No breed could develop
rapidly under such management. The Ayrshire is a beautiful
and a useful cow worthy of being kept in greater numbers.

Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Cows

Student's
Counts Score
Head 10:

Forehead, broad, and clearly defined .................. 1
Horns, wide set on and inclining upward ..............
Face, of medium length, slightly dished, clean cut, show-

ANG: VOUS cap ieniidea soaee nd SA OR WRN dead te Wana ne geese ey ate 2
Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils

JAEGC on Givsaealees Sh eemme ben HR .bd de ee aulAee sane

Jaws, wide at the base and strong ....................

Eyes, full and bright with placid expression ............

Fars, of medium size and fine, carried alert ............ 1

Neck, fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to
head and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin,
nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing ...... 3

Fore Quarters 10:
Shoulders, light, good distance through from point to point,

woe

but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body 2
Chest, low, deep and full between and back of forelegs .... 6
SMISCG. MONG. x 22.u ana sa oomey cee Se cna se eawn Bea as 1
Legs and feet, legs straight and short, well apart, shanks
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, round
SOlid. “and, deep <a wa vrca wes sohtwid one eadwn ae es aen 1
Body 13:
Back, strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open
OUI BOO. Resa sy tet scx uae: Suess einiesse Masse a earlsead rose NR Se RE 4
Loin, broad, strong and level ..............0...000005 2

Ribs, long, broad, wide apart and well sprimg .......... 3

SCALE OF POINTS 97

Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Cows (continued )

Student's
Counts Score

Abdomen, capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong
muscular development .....................0.....
Flank, thin and arching ..........0..0.00.0-00-00 0000. 1

Hind Quarters 11:
Rump, wide, level, and long from hocks to pin bones, a
reasonable pelvic arch allowed .................. 3
Hocks, wide apart and not projecting above back nor
unduly overlaid with fat .....................0. :
Pin bones, high and wide apart .....................,
Thighs, thin, long and wide apart ....................
Tail, long, fine, set on a level with back ...............
Legs and feet, legs strong, short, straight when viewed
from behind and set well apart; shanks fine and
smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, round, solid
ANG: “AES Pteese gs cies car cludes he ices aye waaay ea eau woken 2
Udder, long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy,
firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind
and far forward, quarters even, sole nearly level and
not indented between teats, udder veins well developed
and plainly visible ................ 0.0... cece 22
Teats, evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal
to half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal
to one-third the length, length 2% to 3% inches, thick-
ness in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular

me Ne ww

and not tapering’... 2 ..re sess eva ce eee dace ae eed 8
Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branching and
entering large orifices ............0.....00000 000,
Escutcheon, distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and
extending well upward ............. 000 eeeeeeeeee 2
Color, red of any shade, brown, or these with white; ma-
hogany and white, or white; each color distinctly
defined. (Brindle markings allowed but not de-

BIPM LCs)’ isa feist iesedejarg spr aul pad wah cdis Soave ayaMiacasetri ard ncspenk 2
Covering 6:
Skin, of medium thickness, mellow and elastic ........ 3
Hairy Soft) and: fine) ..4 p00 04 bb ded ie PEER EE HR ER SSS
Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color ......... 1
Style, alert, vigorous, showing strong masculine character,
temperament inclined to nervous, but still docile .. 4
Weight, at maturity not less than one thousand pounds.... 4

Total «siceviatnescissvewestaecs views 100

98 AYRSHIRES

Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Bulls

Student’s
Counts Score

Head 16:

Forehead, broad and clearly defined .................

Horns, strong at base, set wide apart, inclining upward ..

Face, of medium length, clean cut, showing facial veins ..

Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness ..........

Nostrils, large and. Open) ox ssiis au idee Ge aanwa be gute y as

Jaws, wide at base and strong ..............-.0005.

Eyes, moderately large, full and bright .................

Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert ............

Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity ....

Neck 10:

Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in
the muscles on top, inclined to flatness on sides, en-
larging symmetrically towards the shoulder, throat
clean and free from loose skin ...................- 10

Fore Quarters 15:

Shoulders, strong, smoothly blending into body with good

distance through from point to point and fine on top 3

Wr We WH YY Ww

Chest, low, deep and full between back and forelegs .... 8
Brisket, deep, not too prominent, and with very little
CeW1lAp. scccccdacwde aw bas sarees nas ee a CaM we Meee 2

Legs and feet, legs well apart, straight, and short, shanks
fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of medium size,

sound, solid and deep ..............0 0.000 eee ee eee 2
Body 18:
Back, short and straight, chine strongly developed and
open: Jointed): wysside-d da te bo sty Yee SEL ee BE SSE ee es 5
Loin, broad, strong and level ....................00-5 4
Ribs, long, broad, strong, well sprung, and wide apart... 4
Abdomen, large and deep, trimly held up with muscular
development: cree hesqsani eke esdew oh eal neg WEsEs Reds
Flank, thin and arching ............ 0.0.0.0 ..00 20000] 1
Hind Quarters 16:
Rump, level, long from hocks to pin bones ............ 5

Hocks, medium distance apart, proportionately narrower
than in female, not rising above the level of the back
Pin bones, high, wide apart .................00.0.000.
Thighs, thin, long and wide apart ................0.00.
Tail, fine, long, and set on a level with back .........
Legs and feet, legs straight, set well apart, shanks fine and
smooth; feet medium size, round, solid and deep, not
to cross in walking ...... cc cece eee eee eee ee

mp Ww lo

QUESTIONS 99
Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Bulls (continued)

Student's
Counts Score

Scrotum, well deveioped and strongly carried ........... 3

Rudimentaries, veins, etc., teats of uniform size, squarely
placed, wide apart and free from scrotum; veins long,
large tortuous, with extensions entering large orifices;
escutcheon pronounced and covering a large surface 4+

Color, red of any shade, brown, or these with white,
mahogany and white, or white; each color distinctly

eine: saw ducaukccea dean tema na ee Sacked tana 3
Covering 6:
Skin, medium thickness, mellow and elastic ......... 3
Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color ......... 1
Hair. soft and. Mi: oe asec nadie tas a henge alaiy ge eye secs 2

Style, active, vigorous, showing strong masculine char-
acter, temperament inclined to nervousness, but not

irritable: or VicioUs «sinc cceene cies va es Seek aca 5

Weight at maturity not less than 1500 pounds .......... 4

Total) ajiosecandade Aenms oad aoe died agrees 100
QUESTIONS

. Where did the Ayrshire develop?

. What blood elements were used in building the breed?

. Describe the native home conditions of the Ayrshire.

. How have the near-by beef breeds influenced this dairy breed?

When were they imported into America?

. Describe an Ayrshire cow, as to color, size, temperament, grazing ability,
outline and general breeding and handling qualities.

7. What conditions seem to call for the Ayrshire cow?

8. Is she an intense dairy animal?

9. What is the best record to date?

10. How does the average fat produced compare with the other breeds of

cattle?

Onur wn re

CHAPTER XII
THE RED POLLS

Tue Red Polled cattle are of ancient English origin.
Whether the foundation stock came from the continent with the
Scandinavian settlers of Suffolk in the fifth century a.p., or
from some native aboriginal wild stock, will probably never be
known. They were developed, however, at a very early period
in the two counties of Norfolk and Suffolk in eastern England.
In Norfolk they were beefy and poor milkers, dark red in color
and hardy. In Suffolk they were of indifferent beef value, but
considered as very good dairy cows and were without horns.
The present breed is the result of an amalgamation of the two
types which was accomplished more than a hundred years ago.

Home Conditicns.—The home of this breed was on low hills
and marshes. While the soil was not always of the best, the
climate was mild and moist, thus encouraging ample pasturage.
It is natural, indeed, to expect from such conditions, coupled
with good care, that the animals should grow large, mature
early and be generally responsive. Such is found to be the ease.

Importations to America.—While it is thought that animals
of the Red Polled stock were brought to this continent with the
early English colonists at Jamestown, Virginia, because of the
prevalence in the eastern states of a red muley cow, it. is known
that better developed animals of this breed were imported in
1847 to Massachusetts. From 1873 to 1887 large numbers were
brought over. The Red Polled Cattle Club of America was
organized in November, 1883. ;

Body Characteristics——The color of the Red Polls is a
solid deep red with an occasional white patch on the udder,
belly or switch. The size is medium to large, mature cows
weighing from 1200 to 1600 pounds or more, and bulls from 1800
to 2400 pounds. As their name indicates, the breed is entirely
without horns (Fig. 37). In general bodily make-up they are

not so thick in the neck, back or leg as the beef breeds nor as
100

ADVANCED REGISTRY 101

thin as the more pronounced dairy breeds. They are not so
angular as many Shorthorns nor as compact as the Hereford.
The temperament of Red Polls is somewhat nervous but not
disagreeably so. Calves weigh from eighty to ninety pounds at
birth, are strong, easy to raise and mature in medium time com-
pared with other breeds.

Dairy Characteristics.—F rom the earliest records the Suffolk
cattle were known as good dairy cows. It is recorded that some
whole herds, while on good pasture, would average five or six
gallons of milk per day, while a few of the best cows yielded as
much as seven or eight gallons per day. The Norfolk cattle
with which the Suffolk were blended were more on the beef order,
consequently the modern Red Polls are probably not as free
milkers as were the old Suffolks. The milk, however, is richer.

The herd of Mr. Garret Taylor, of England, consisting of
ninety-eight cows, is reported as averaging 5582 pounds of milk
in 1896, while in 1895 with eighty-seven cows in corresponding
condition as to age, averaged 5540 pounds. Lord Rothschild’s
herd at Tring Park, England, has been selected with a special
view to milk production. Thirty-seven cows, in 1896, averaged
6937 pounds of milk. In smaller herds more rigidly selected
for dairy purposes there were even higher yields (Fig. 38).

In America, until recent years, the breed has been handled
more largely by beef fanciers than by dairymen, yet some very
creditable records have been made. At the Pan-American Model
Dairy at Buffalo in 1901, this breed ranked fifth in a class of
ten of the best dairy breeds of the country. Many three-day
records of three to four pounds of fat per day have since been
made at various state fairs.

The Advanced Registry was inaugurated in December,
1908. In this only yearly records are recognized. “ Only such
cows as have made officially authenticated butter fat records not
less in amount than 6000 pounds of milk or 300 pounds of
butter fat in twelve months shall be eligible to advanced regis-
try.” In addition: “A cow to be eligible to entry with descrip-
tion must scale at’ least eighty points of the official scale of
points and must weigh not less than 1100 pounds.”

102 THE RED POLLS

This last clause with respect. to size and score could well be
emulated by every other breed of dairy cows.

BSB it. ERR es

Fig. 37.—Typical Red Polled bull, Teddy’s Best, a champion at many fairs, head of the
herd at Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.
Fig. 38.—Typical Red Polled cow, Jean Du Luth Beauty (A. R.), World’s champion
Red Polled cow. Record 20,280.6 pounds milk, 891 pounds butter fat inone year. (Bred
and owned by the Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.)

SCALE OF POINTS

103

Official Milk Records.—The best ten yearly milk and fat
records for this breed up to February 1st, 1916, are as follows:

No.
31725
28991
24888
26619
31787
26378
28991
26498
11298
31726

Name Milk
Jean Du Luth Beauty .................... 20280.6
Jean Du Luth Pear ..................0.... 16598.4
POE sichiai cick Auta eS ee Gees tty eae olan tel 13160.6
ES oy cee Se PP TS 12590.0
Jean Du Luth Dorothy .................... 11614.8
DiaTiay 2H ic sie led and bade eam ea hide Red chee 1L2U22.1
Jean Du Luth Pear ..............0...0... 13538.4
TAG. aves dene 4 Weak seh eee cles GaSe a wes 10807.75
Gold: Dropiirisivcempuin acids nase ee aety edb .+. 11889.50
Jean Du Luth Peach ..................0000. 11357.20

Fat
891.58
707.24
603.66
595.73
571.46
536.80
546.34
515.25
510.62
501.08

The best record by any one herd has been made by the
Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minnesota, with mature cows as
follows:

Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows

Counts

Colors vise ea vaseniwa.s Any shade of red. The switch of the tail

and udder may be white, with some
white running forward of the navel.
Nose a clear flesh color. Interior of
ears should be a yellowish waxy color
Objections: An extreme dark or an ex-
treme light red is not desirable. A
cloudy nose or one with dark spots.

LOUD ied cis. ape ete awe Seah 13? 11274 479.93

No. Cows in Average Lbs. Average Lbs.
Herd Milk Fat
OIE ZS eAshuaaie gasod 2 AMINO ath ate 26 6529 268.00
LOU fon si atieeroad ens els 24 7645 316.27
NOV ven se teva deen < 24 9818 403.50
TOUS: sessed Re wine eas 201 10781 467.20

Student

Score

‘Include records of six heifers with first calf and one incomplete year
of a mature cow.

? Include only records of mature cows.

104

THE RED POLLS
Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows (continued)

Counts
seb asi Sanh ane Hades Of medium length, wide between the eyes,

sloping gradually from above eyes to
poll. The poll well defined and prom-
inent, with a sharp dip behind it in
center of head. Ears of medium size
and well carried. Eyes prominent;
face well dished between the eyes.
Muzzle wide with large nostrils...... 6
Objections: A rounding or flat appear-
ance of the poll. Head too long and
narrow.
ntretintidg woe Beene ela ks Of medium length, clean cut, and straight
from head to top of shoulder with
inclination to arch when fattened, and
may show folds of loose skin under-
neath when in milking form........ 3

Shoulder............. Of medium thickness and smoothly laid,

coming up level with line of back... 6

Objections: Shoulder too prominent,
giving the appearance of weakness in
heart girth, shoulder protruding
above line of back.

Chest) ss scent ae vnc Broad and deep, insuring constitution.

Brisket prominent and coming well
POT WAT) ers ata Senals cane bie rea ary tei opens 10

Back and Ribs........ Back medium long, straight and level

from withers to setting on of tail,
moderately wide, with spring of ribs
starting from the back bone, giving
a rounding appearance, with ribs
flat and fairly wide apart.......... 14
Objections: Front ribs too straight,
causing depression back of shoulders,
Drop in back or loin below the top
line.
sass uk Piairades She 4% Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well
COVEREM : gig sind go inr a aomart 2 ees ee 3

Quarters............. Of good length, full, rounding and level;

thighs wide, roomy and not too meaty 6
Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken
quarters,

Student's
Score

SCALE OF POINTS 105

Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows (continued)

Student's
Counts Score

Tail secct on sedges Tail head strong and setting well for-
ward, long and tapering to a full
BWATCH. se0) ee Snauiiese aay se anaeaanean 2

DONE wieseciens dogee ee sors wees gale RS 3
Objections: Hocks crooked, legs placed
too close together.
Fore-Udder .......... Full and flexible, reaching well forward,
extending down level with hind udder 10
Hind-Udder.......... Full and well up behind............... 10
CAIUS 2 iss autre! 5,9: lene Se se Well placed, wide apart and reasonably
POO: SIZE cane ieleu gates a evawen wey 4
Objections: Lack of development, especi-
ally in forward udder. Udder too
deep, “bottle shaped” and teats too
close together. Teats unevenly placed
and either too large or too small.
Milk Veins........... Of medium size, full, flexible, extending
well forward, well retained within
the body; milk wells of medium size 6
FIO Gita fd aed ag ecciavesn eee Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick-
ness, with a good full coat of soft hair 5
Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry
hair.
Condition............ Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh, even-
ly laid on; glossy coat; animal pre-
sented in good bloom.............. 10

General Description...Cow medium, wedge form, low set, top
and bottom lines straight except at flank; weight 1300 lbs.
to 1500 lbs. when mature and finished.

Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls

Student’s
Counts Score

Colores iincasaaava say Any shade of red. The switch of the tail
may be white, with some white run-
ning forward to the navel. Nose of a
clear flesh color. Interior of ears
should be of a yellowish, waxy color 2

106 THE RED POLLS

Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls (continued)

Student’s
Counts Score

Objections: An extreme dark or an ex-
treme light red is not desirable. A
cloudy nose or one with dark spots.
Headien sua agi cieene ae Wide, strong and masculine, relatively
short. Poll stronger and less prom-
inent than in cow. Mars of medium
size and well carried; eyes promi-
nent; muzzle wide and large nostrils 12
Objections: Long, narrow or lacking in
masculine character.
NetKacs ssamaiewee: Of medium length, full crest, of good
thickness, strong, of masculine ap-
PCaTANGe: 22 wins ougauciaamuue ap heed oe .. 5
Sligulder sce ek ie Of medium thickness and smoothly laid,
coming up level with line of back... 8
Objections: Shoulder too prominent,
giving the appearance of weakness
of heart girth, shoulder protruding
above line of hack.

GChestisn dies vere aati iene Broad and deep, insuring constitution.
Brisket prominent and coming well
forward. dccnaissesac tere ease eas 12

Back and Ribs........ Back medium long, straight and level

from withers to setting on of tail,
moderately wide, with spring of ribs
starting from the back bone, giving a
rounding appearance, with ribs flat
and fairly wide apart............. 14
Objections: Front ribs too straight,
causing depression back of shoulders.
Drop in back or loin below the top

line.

FIPS: ssushediiea ts eatiokts Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well
COVETED | oe iinede eae er niin eel as 3

QUaALters) jose i ee on Of good length, full, rounding and level;
thighs wide and moderately full,
Cp: aivxae tara eeaxtuan vee Ghee 6

Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken

quarters.

WAL ca eased stn cecagenas Tail head strong and setting well for-

ward, long and tapering to a full
BWItCH: nnyidsaweadiew ns Seen a 2

QUESTIONS

Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls (continucd)

Counts

DOP B i a.g ivecare Sonik ai nansians Short, straight, squarely placed, medium

ONES Hag dete die: gundeweag

Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed

too close together.

Rudimentaries ....... Large, wide apart and placed well for-

Conditions

Wald, favs awtinasnie tates Matas nd

Objections: Rudimentaries placed back
on scrotum, or placed too close to-
gether, indicating tendency to trans-
mit badly formed udders.

Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick-
ness, With a good, full coat of soft
ASAP are ces noe gs Beer ws ee eeeels 5

Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry
hair.

Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh, evenly
laid on; glossy coat, animal presented
in good bloom ................04.

General Description. ..Strong, impressive, low set and of good
carriage. Weight 1800 lbs. to 2000 lbs. when mature and

ew Ie

finished.

perament,

QUESTIONS

. Where did the Red Polls develop? How?

. What were their home conditions?

. When were Red Polls imported into America?
. Describe a Red Polled cow, as to color, form, size, performance, tem-

Compare with other breeds.

. Is the Red Poll a “dairy” breed?
. When was the advanced registry inaugurated for this breed?
What qualities other than amount of milk and butter production must

107

Student's
Score

cows of this breed possess for admission into the advanced registry?
9. What is the best fat record for this breed?
10. What is the best record for any herd?

CHAPTER XIII
BROWN SWISS

Tuer breed of cattle known in America as the Brown Swiss
is probably the oldest pure breed in this country, if not in the
world. Their origin is shrouded by the mists of the early dawn
of the human race in Europe. Though some believe that the
race is of Oriental origin it is practically certain that animals
much of the type of the present Brown Swiss have inhabited the
Alpine region since before human history began. Remnants of
all sorts of animals and crude tools have been found in the mud
in the bottoms of the lakes. There, amid the charred posts of
the early lake dwellings of human inhabitants, cattle skulls of
the short, broad type of the present Brown Swiss have been
found. So far as we are concerned the Brown Swiss cattle have
always lived where they are now found, in the valleys and on
the mountain sides of Switzerland.

Though the Brown Swiss is the most important and by far
the best known breed in America of all breeds having originated
in Switzerland, there is another, the large spotted Simmenthaler
or Fleckvieh breed of more importance in the home country.
Aside from these two major, some minor breeds or variations
have developed in the various valleys where the stock has been
kept for ages with little admixture from without.

Home Conditions.—Switzerland, that mountainous little
republic in southern Europe, comprises less than 16,000 square
miles and of this only about 70 per cent is productive. The hill-
side pastures are steep, making grazing laborious, but the grass
growing in patches is usually well watered from the snows above.
It is the custom there to turn the stock onto pastures as early as
possible in the spring on the low levels and as the season advances
and grass becomes green at higher altitudes, the cows are driven
to pastures up on the mountain side; later to a yet higher plain.
They are not brought back daily, but the milkmaid or man fol-
lows the herd. Every morning and every night the fresh milk

108

BODY CHARACTERISTICS 109

is made into cheese and stored in dairy houses at convenient
points to be brought down later. With the first cold of the high-
altitude pastures the cows retreat through a succession of grazing
places to the valley, where they go into winter quarters. The
cheese made from the cows while on the green grass and pure
water of the mountain side is that which has made Switzerland
famous, and from which a good share of the annual cheese income
of 26,000,000 dollars is derived. During the long winter the
cows are fed hay made from the lowland grass, carefully pre-
served roots, potatoes, and a very small quantity of grain. This
is usually linseed oil cake. Hundreds of years of life largely
in the open with the heavy climbing necessary to pasture and the
heavy work done by cows as oxen have developed in this breed the
qualities which now make it popular.

Body Characteristics—The Brown Swiss is one of the
heavy dairy breeds, the cows ordinarily reaching 1200 to 1400
pounds at maturity, while bulls frequently weigh a ton or more.
(Fig. 39.) They are rather heavy of bone and generally coarse
in make-up. Their top line is usually reasonably straight and
the body deep, which gives them a symmetry broken only by their
unusually broad heads and muzzles. The color of the animals
of this breed varies from a silvery gray to almost black, the
dark shade, however, is of a rich brown-black rather than the jet
black of the Holsteins. A light colored strip is usually present
down the back bone, and yellowish muzzles always present in the
best marked animals. The disposition of the Brown Swiss is
one of their assets, it being particularly mild and non-resentful.
The various qualities differ somewhat, the animals raised more
largely on the higher altitudes have become smaller, and those
pastured more largely on the lower levels have attained greater
size. Most cows are also used largely for working purposes as
well as for the production of oxen and milk. These have
developed heavy, coarse bones at the expense of both meat and
milk qualities.

Calves usually weigh 100 pounds or more at birth, making
quick gains for veal but maturing rather slowly as cows. This
may be due in part to the fact that in Switzerland the heifers

110 BROWN SWISS

are not bred to freshen until about three years of age. Though
late maturing they are, like the Ayrshire, noted for their ability
to continue at work until old age.

For a long period of time this breed has been considered in
the home country a dairy breed but since good amount of flesh
was desired on work animals those naturally were selected which
perpetuated the meaty thighs and well covered back, rather than
the more angular dairy type of animal. In America, however,
the Brown Swiss has been considered in the dual purpose class
and were so entered at the World’s Fair in Chicago, in 1898, at
Buffalo in 1901 and at St. Louis in 1904, but in 1908 the Brown
Swiss Cattle Breeders’ Association went on record asking fair
associations to class this breed as strictly dairy cattle, and since
then the breeding has been tending more strongly towards the
production of a less meaty animal with better developed mam-
mary organs and nervous temperament, in short, the refining of
the breed toward the dairy type (Fig. 40).

Importation to America.—So far as recorded the first ani-
mals of this breed to be brought to America: were imported in
1869, by Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mass. From Mr.
Clarke’s importation some two hundred or more animals are now
descended. In 1882 other animals were imported by Mr.
Seott of Massachusetts, and Mr. Harris of Connecticut. Since
then various importations have been made until now it is esti-
mated that ten thousand have been recorded, and that fully five
thousand animals are now kept in New England, the middle
west, and western states.

The popularity of the Brown Swiss is due quite as much to
their rich color and quiet dispositions as to their meat or milk-
making adaptations. They are so heavy, so strong, and so
tractable and easy to handle that phenomenal loads are drawn by
them as oxen. Animals of this breed are now, and have been for
years, greatly sought in all the southern European countries, in
Siberia, Russia, South America and Mexico as draft animals.
In Mexico there is no draft animal more popular, for there the
Brown Swiss cow is made to do triple service, to draw the load,
to yield milk, and her own flesh as beef in the end (Fig. 8). Some

IMPORTATION TO AMERICA 111

breeders in the United States are making a practice of catering to
the Mexican trade in supplying these triple purpose animals. Of

Fic, 39.—A champion Imp. Brown Swiss bull, My Own Boy, belonging to J.P. Allyn,
elavan, Wis.
Fie. 40.—A champion Brown Swiss cow, Belle of Grattan. Note the placid disposition and
strong frame. (Owned by J. P. Allyn, Delavan, Wis.

112 BROWN SWISS

late years the demand has been so keen for breeding stock that the
government of Switzerland has felt it necessary to intervene to
prevent the sale of their best animals to outside buyers.

Dairy Characteristics.—Since the Brown Swiss breeders
have so recently taken decided stand to produce high type single
purpose dairy animals it cannot be expected that the representa-
tives will be uniform in their dairy capacity. A goodly number
of individuals of the breed, however, have done reasonably well
(Fig. 41). One of the leading herds of the breed belonging to
E. M. Barton of Illinois is reported as having made yearly
records as follows:

cows 12,000 to 13,000 pounds milk
cows 11,000 to 12,000 pounds milk
cows 10,000 to 11,000 pounds milk
cows 9,000 to 10,000 pounds milk
cows 8,000 to 9,000 pounds milk
cows 7,000 to 8,000 pounds milk

NOR ON ND

The highest amount of fat produced in one year was 513
pounds, while twenty-three showed a production of over 400
pounds. The Agricultural School of Plantahof, Fraubuender,
Switzerland, reported the following from their herd of fifty cows:

TBO Dio cites Strapelate oreremrs 5782 pounds milk
B93 iss siacs oa sine 6 6 Yases 5500 pounds milk
USD Boers tacts eaiiateand each. 4 6117 pounds milk
DBO os cucta'e 6 enales Be sans 6307 pounds milk
NB 9G: xscss i 5 igs a ine ations 6252 pounds milk

The average percentage of fat was 3.77

F. H. Mason, U. S. Consul at Zurich, reported 6000 cows
belonging to the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company at an
average of 5115 pounds milk with 3.68 per cent fat, or a pro-
duction of 188.23 pounds of fat per cow per year.

The advanced registry for this breed, called Registry of
Production, was established in the year of 1911. The following
are a few of the official records made since that time:

ADVANCED REGISTRY 113

Official Seven-Day Records

Name Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat
INGO BLE. cis sico e shtl aces aimed eae 4 oe 14.619
TAs seg daecears Rae es aes ein MeO 343.4 13.064
Mary AMM: descieirawdsape hed ses 512.6 12.791
WORE eva ess ad rcosid cede eeaeee 291.6 12.180
BUNS: ceases gw ame wend Aids 280.7 10.670

Fic. 41.—Brown Swiss cow, My One Baby, 3378, grand champion for the breed,
National Dairy Show, 1912, andat the Michigan State Fair, 1913. Record, 15,769.6 pounds
milk, 595.94 pounds fat.

Best Ten Yearly Records of Mature Brown Swiss Cows in Registry
of Production, October 14, 1915

Name No. Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat
College Bravura 2nd ......... 2577 19460.6 798.16
Wealiste: Wri -sus ine tierd ea nie viv males 2905 16609.2' 650.32
Merney ac asicaaiase seeaeecs 2859 14674.7 596.94
Zerelda: axwivsa da eee wag rnd 2929 14145.9 575.29
Madam Laughlin ............ 2336 11960.3 522.43
Doris of Lakeview...........3210 12949.3 519.23
Nellie Bly 2nd .............. 2903 13520.2 511.63
Bee Be iscd win dar acer agcion pa he B Se 2977 12212.7 508.97
College Bravura 2nd.......... 2577 11786.2 500.39
Betty Brown ..............- 2146 11816.4 499.52

114 BROWN SWISS

Adaptations.—From the foregoing it is evident that the
places in which the Brown Swiss will serve better than other
breeds are: First, where extreme dairy production is not of first
importance. Second, as a general utility animal in the hands of
people unaccustomed to the headstrong or active manner of other
breeds. Third, the grades of this breed resemble very strongly
pure bred Swiss. Pure bulls effect rapid improvement where
dual or triple purpose animals are desired. They are a very
healthy breed and produce very vigorous calves that are
easily raised.

NSeule of Points for Judging Brown Swiss Cows

Student’s
Counts Score
1. Head, medium size and rather long.............0.+00 eee 2
2. Face, dished, narrow between horns and wide between eyes 2
3. Ears, large, fringed inside with light colored hair, skin
inside of ear a deep orange color........-..+---+++++++- 2
4, Nose, black, large and square with mouth surrounded by
mealy colored band, tongue black...........-+.+-++++55 2
5. Eyes, moderately large, full and bright.............-...-- 2
6. Horns, short, regularly set with black tips............... 2
7. Neck, straight, throat clean, neatly joined to head, shoulders
of good length, moderately thin at the withers ......... 4
8. Chest, low, deep and full between and back of fore legs.... 6
9. Back, level to setting of tail and broad across the loin...... 6
10. Ribs, Jong and broad, wide apart and well sprung with thin,
arching flanks :o22--pisgesere ke shapes HeKs re gee e ea ees 3
11. Abdomen, large and deep ...........6. 000 cece eee eee 5
12. Hips wide apart, rump long and broad.................-- 4
13. Thighs, wide, quarters: not thine, oc. cecewseeaeenlene sees oo 4
14. Legs, short and straight with good hoofs................. 2
15. Tail, slender, well set on, with good switch............... 2
16. Hide of medium thickness, mellow and elastic............. 3
17. Color—shades from dark to light brown, at some seasons of
the year grey; white splashes near udder not objection-
able, light stripe along back. White splashes on body or
sides objectionable. Hair between horns usually lighter
shade than, body 4 sav.acer cps neies vay esos een ae tes dows 4
18. Fore udder, wide, deep, well rounded but not pendulous,
nor fleshy, extending far forward on the abdomen....... 12

SCALE OF POINTS :

115

Scale of Points for Judging Brown Siviss Cows (continued)

Counts
19. Rear udder, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy, ex-
tending well up behind ......... 0.0... cee cece ee eee ees Lz
20. Teats, rather large, set well apart and hanging straight..... 8
21. Milk veins large, long, tortuous, elastic and entering good
Wells: duc sk aesk deer eeaeeg yeasts dh ee ee ees WARS Sy 6
22. DISPOSIFION, QUIEU... 52 hace ns aah ee id dg Queer aud Sd deme weecetain 2
23, Size, evidence of constitution, and stamina.............. 5
MODAL \ fs sstns si Widincasucigans oo meses: sikh total ass aaaoaee eadud Be 100
Scale of Points for Judging Brown Swiss Bull
Counts
1. Head, same as COW .. 1... eee eee eens Agent a haus 2
@, Mace, Same AS GOW ao. cok ck eu ow eu ee Ses ee gle eee hh ae eee 2
3. Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity...... 3
4,. Hars, SAME BS COW .. 6. eee eee ee ee bee seals 2
Dy. INOS) SAME AS COW eo Gina 40s 8. Qe)-44 Reet bere d e ane ob Gea 2
6. Dyes; SAME sas COW Gulvw ais Gases gcse <a ae ee eee aeed yeas 2
i; FLOrUs; SAIMNIG; HS COW a ccie ve ese we eS es ees be thes See eo See 2
8. Neck, of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong

in muscles on top, sloping symmetrically to shoulders.
Shoulders large and strong, smoothly blending into body 10

9. Chest, Satie as: COW: i. david dads acl Seed ede dew a wees 10
LO. Baek; isaime tis COW ccc d cca ae Pak totek toe pete wee 10
ll. Ribs and abdomen, same as COW.... 2.0... 0c eee ee ee eee 10
12: Hips; Same aS COWassa i. oe cna ea eaa ee ee te eee eee yee ie oe 6
18. Thighs, SaMie: AS COW «mins 5 pene ea pie nee oak ne MeN Reet Bae se 6
14; hegs, SaMe AS COW 4s 54 Hes die peep ese tage CHCA nine eules 2
15. Val, Save 88; COW wee. iasce ee 2a Sees Hey peewee oe ea we eS 2
16. Hide, same aS COW ... cece eee nents 3
17. Color, same as cow. Dark, smoky skins very objectionable 4
18. Scrotum well developed and strongly carried.......... mwas oS
19. Rudimentary teats, squarely placed wide apart and free
from: the: serotuimy 5.cnc-0is ee eens Saeed Ae a oa wie ts Aegis 6
20. Milk veins, same aS COW.......... 00s eee e cee eee eens 6
21. Disposition quiet .......... 0.00 c eee eee eens 3
22. Size, evidence of constitution and stamina.............. 4

Student’s
Score

116 BROWN SWISS

Coon oP w

a
°

QUESTIONS

. Where did the Brown Swiss breed originate?
. What other breed in Switzerland is of more importance at home?
. Describe the pasture conditions and habits of the home of the Brown

Swiss.

. Describe the Brown Swiss breed as to color, size, form and temperament.
. What may be said of a Brown Swiss calf at birth?

Is the Brown Swiss a “dairy” breed?

. When were animals of this breed imported into America?

. Where are Brown Swiss cattle particularly popular?

. Compare the yearly butter yields with other breeds.

. What places in American agriculture will this breed fill betver than

any other?

CHAPTER XIV
SHORTHORN

THERE is probably no other breed of cattle in America that is
favored by so large a number of farmers as the Shorthorn. Her
blood is the foundation of much of the common or grade stock
kept throughout the entire United States, predominating in the
middle and north central states, vet well represented in the
herds of New England, the south and the far west. <A large
portion of the milk which has made Minnesota, Iowa and Wis-
consin well known as dairy states has been drawn from grade
Shorthorn cows.

Origin.—The Shorthorn is a breed of old English origin. In
the northeastern part of the country in the valley of the River
Tees there was developed by selection and good feeding a strain
of cattle considerably superior to those in the neighboring dis-
tricts. Their improvement tock place chiefly in the three coun-
ties of Durham, York and Northumberland. Early in the
eighteenth century bulls are believed to have been imported from
Holland by a Mr. Dobinson. Years later his and his neighbors’
herds were well known for their superiority over the stock of the
surrounding country which had been more largely descended
from the native wild animals of the Island or from stock brought
in during the Roman and Norman conquests.

The real improvers, almost the originators of the breed, may
be said to have been the brothers Charles and Robert. Colling,
Robert Bakewell, Thomas Bates, Thomas Booth and Amos
Cruickshank. Mr. Bates bred for milk as well as for beef, while
Messrs. Booth and Cruickshank emphasized the meat-making
quality. To these men and others who followed close after them,
belongs most of the credit for starting the great improvement in
livestock which has meant so much in every way, not only to all
England but to all North and South America, South Africa,
Australia, New Zealand, and in fact to much of the civilized
world to-day. Not only was it the cattle produced but also the
example, the pointing out of the possibility to other men for

117

118 SHORTHORN

other breeds and classes of livestock that made their work so
lasting.

Importation to America first occurred in 1783 by Gough
and Miller of Virginia, though not under the name of Shorthorn.
In 1791 and 1796 Mr. Heaton brought Shorthorns to New York
state, then for the next fifty years importations were numerous.
During all this time the breed was multiplying rapidly and being
extended westward as rapidly as the country was developed.
Thus it may be said that the Shorthorn breed was “in on the
ground floor” in America, was the cow of the cottagers and the
frontiersmen. This unquestionably accounts for a part of its
general favor to-day.

The adaptability of this breed is excellent. It does well from
the tide meadows of the Atlantic to the mountain sides in the
west, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson Bay.

Body Characteristics.—In color the modern Shorthorn is
white, or red and white, or roan. The size is large, cows weighing
at maturity 1300 to 1600 pounds or more, and bulls from 2000 to
2600 pounds. In build they are generally blocky and broad
(Fig. 42). Naturally so, since “ all of the really great British
breeders had in mind the importance of the Shorthorn as a beef
producer and Cruickshank gave this feature special distinction,”
and since, too, the cattle business of America has until recent
years been largely one of beef raising on cheap lands with just
enough milk to furnish the home table. A very large percent-
age oe the pure bred Shorthorns in America, very natur ally, now
carry strains of the Scotch or Cruickshank blood. The calves
weigh from seventy-five to ninety porns at birth and are com-
paratively easy to raise.

The dairy characteristics of the present American Shorthorn
cattle are very variable. Those that have been selected for milk
as well as for beef purposes and have been hand milked show
considerable of the essential dairy type and are fair milkers,
while those herds and strains in which the Scotch or Cruickshank
element predominates are excellent for beef but lack in dairy
power. The beef Shorthorn, however, gives more milk than some
of the other beef breeds and for this reason start their calves off
in excellent shape. Some beef producers prefer the Shorthorn for

THE DAIRY CHARACTERISTICS 119

their calf feeding ability even though they may fall a little short
in intensity of beef form. It is not claimed, however, even by the
breed’s fanciers that the “ milking ” Shorthorn can rival the best

ilki i i Minnesota
Fre. 42.—A dt: milking Shorthorn bull, property of University of
ie pro aE riegltural College. (Courtesy T. G. Paterson.) ao eee a
+ 43.— ilking Shorthorn cow Bertha, belonging to the late J. J. ’
DES ES RE erro St. Paul, Minn. Photo by author.

120 SHORTHORN

milk breed for milk production nor that highest beef and milk
production will be found in the same animal, but rather that she
occupies a mid-way position in the scale, being fairly good at
both meat and milk production (Figs. 43 and 44).

The profitableness of such a combination will naturally vary
with the kind of farming and dairying called for by conditions
and the likes and dislikes of the owner. <A full considera-
tion of this question would fill a large chapter in a book on
farm management. ;

Advanced Registry.—With “the aim and object of pro-
moting the interests of the milking type of Shorthorn cattle” an
advanced registry called “ record of merit list”? was established
by the American Milking Shorthorn Cattle Club which was
formed in December, 1912. The official beginning of the Record
of Merit lst was May Ist, 1915.

The rules require that, to be admitted to the record of merit
list, cows must yield from 5250 pounds of milk containing 210
pounds of fat when starting the test at 30 months of age, up to
8000 pounds of milk containing 300 pounds of fat as mature
cows, five years of age or over.

Two classes of records are admitted, A. A., those made offi-
cially by representatives of an Agricultural College or Experi-
ment Station, and A, those made by cow testing association
representatives.

The first milking Shorthorn year book appeared under date
of 1915, and contained a goodly number of records.

The best ten from thirty-three, class A list, are as follows:

Record of Merit List

Name Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat
Rose of Glenside ................ 18075.2 624.76
EW? eae: cat tir dce dec Ba REE ES RRS 12341.4 514.79
Panama, Lady siacccgee oe Saeeae 13779.5 489.46
Lady Clay 3rd ............. 0... 11928.0 484,13
Pearl of Silver Creek............. 10291.3 469.70
Lady Clay 2nd.................. 10015.6 396.74
College Moore ................04 9443.0 388.44
Reward of Nora’s Dk. ........... 9326.8 385.13
Harriet 2nd ................005. 8691.1 368.82

Brookside Lassie 2nd ............ 8594.8 354.72

ADVANCED REGISTRY 121

Aa Laestens

Fig. 45.—Good type milking Shorthorn cow belonging to W. C. Davis. Chester. Ia.

122 SHORTHORN

The average of the thirty-three yearly records reported by
testing associations is 8520 pounds of milk containing 332
pounds of fat, while the 215 private records reported in the same
volume range from 5500 pounds of milk up to 16,200 pounds of
milk, fat not recorded. The lactation period recorded for these
215 unofticial records is from 168 to 365 days with an average of
344 days. Twenty-nine yearly or lactation periods (omitting
two unusually short ones) averaged 5600 pounds of milk and 221
pounds of the fat at the Iowa Station. The fat average was 3.96
per cent (Fig. 45).

QUESTIONS

1, Where did the Shorthorn breed originate?

2. What breeders’ names stand out clearly in the history of this breed?
What did they do?

3. When were animals of this breed first brought to America?

4, What are its adaptations?

5. Describe a Shorthorn as to color, size, form, temperament and grazing
qualities.

6. Tell why Shorthorn cows of this country are so very variable as dairy
cows.

7. What is the * record of merit list ” ?

8. How do the ten yearly records compare with other breeds?

CHAPTER XV
DUTCH BELTED

Tue peculiarly marked breed of dairy cattle known in this
country as the Dutch Belted, because of their color markings, are
the production of the skill of the breeders in North Holland.
Something more than 200 years ago the nobility of Holland for
some reason fancied cattle of black and white color, but seem-
ingly chose that the white should be in one piece extending around
the middle of the animal. In Holland this breed goes by the
name of “ Lahenvelden,’’ which means white field, but is also
said to convey the idea of the “ white body with black ends.”
These animals are, in all probability, closely related to the Hol-
steins or the descendants of the animals from which the present
Holsteins have sprung. The Hampshire hogs of America and
England, supposed to have originated in Hampshire, England,
and also the Lahenvelden poultry of England and America, both
of which have the white band about the middle with black extrem-
ities, are also, in all probability, the production of Holland skill.
From a study of the size and general characteristics of the Dutch
Belted cattle, it would seem evident that considerable difficulty
had been experienced in the establishment of so odd a marking.
No record is available, however, indicating the amount of in-
breeding or breeding to physically inferior animals which may
have been necessary during the earlier days of the establishment
of the breed. The by-laws of breed associations of the present
time conclude with: ‘“‘ White spots on an animal other than the
feet, the belt, and the tip of switch considered a disqualification
for registry. Color other than black and white or deformed or
constitutionally defective, considered a disqualification. Beef
form or absence of milk form emphatically objectionable.”

Importation to America.—Although the breed attracted
attention in Europe as early as 1750 there is no record of any
having been introduced to America until 1838, when D. A.
Haight brought over a few animals. In 1848 a second lot was

123

124 DUTCH BELTED

obtained. These were kept largely in New York State, and
from these have descended a good portion of the animals now
in America of that breed. In 1840 P. T. Barnum secured a
number of Dutch Belted cattle for show purposes but soon
retired them to his farm in Orange County, New York. Within
a comparatively few years several importers have introduced the
animals to Canada, Mexico, and Cuba, as well as having brought
a few more into the United States. At present, though more

Itc, 46.—Champion Dutch Belted bull, Knox Em All, No. 646. (Owned by E. J. Kirby,
Covert, Mich.)

numerous in the east, representative herds may be found in vari-
ous places in the south and a few on the Pacific Coast. There are
now about 500 breeders of Dutch Belted cattle in the
United States.

Body Characteristics— Although related to the Holstein the
Dutch Belted breed falls far short of attaining to the same size.
Mature cows weigh about 800 to 1000 pounds, and the bulls from
1500 to 1800 pounds. Their color is invariably jet black with a
white band about their middle. No white is tolerated in the field

BODY CHARACTERISTICS 125

Fra. 47.—Champion Dutch Pelted cow, Julia Marlowe, No. 1187. (Owned by Mrs. Jennie
Strader, Ceres, Cal.)

Fie. 48.—Tilma, 1302, a champion Dutch Belted cow.

126 DUTCH BELTED

of black, nor black in the field of white. In Holland white feet
are permitted but they are objected to in the United States.
They are very striking in appearance (Fig. 46). Their tem-
perament is mild though not so placid as the Holstein.

Dairy Characteristics.—Although the Dutch Belted cattle
are an old breed in Holland comparatively littlé attention has
been given to them in America and until recently those that were
maintained in this country were kept largely for their looks
(Figs. 47 and 48). The advanced registry for the breed was
established in May, 1914. Since that time official records have
been made. <A few of the best are here given.

In one herd, that of the Superintendent of the Advanced
Registry, Dr. H. W. Lance, Peapack, N. J., seven cows have
recently finished a year’s work as follows:

Name Age Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat
Peapack Anna ............. 4 yrs. 13159 484.31
Peapack Duchess ........... mature 13065 447.64
Peapack Pam .............. 3 yrs. 10681 353.17
Peapack Dawn ............. mature 9345 348.87
Peapack Prejudice .......... 4 yrs. 9243 328.22
Peapack Princess ........... 2 yrs. 8745 312.17
Peapack Polly ........... “.. 2 yrs. 7332 254.33

QUESTIONS

. What is the chief characteristic of the Dutch Belted breed?

Where was it developed? How? ;

When were animals of this. breed brought to America?

Where are Dutch Belted cattle chiefly kept?

. How many breeders are there in the United States?

- Describe a Dutch Belted cow as to color, size and temperament,

- Compare the advanced registry records of this breed with those ot
other breeds.

NON R wn

CHAPTER XVI
FRENCH-CANADIAN

Tux breed of dairy cattle which can, more nearly than any
other, claim America as its home is the one generally known as
the French-Canadian. Just when the first stock of this blood
reached America is not absolutely known, though thought to be
about 1620, or very soon thereafter. At any rate, in 1665, when
other animals were brought from Normandy and Brittany to
Quebec, cows were there discovered having the same character-
istics as those imported. The stock unquestionably came from
Northern France with the early settlers in the province of Que-
bec, Canada. Although there was for many years no particular
endeavor made to keep the blood pure it did remain essentially
pure, however, because of the very limited intercourse which
those pioneers had with the none too friendly English-speaking
people in the colonies.

For a period of about 200 years the descendants of these early
importations have served the pioneers, cottagers, and small
farmers of eastern Quebec. While sharing the pioneer life of the
people who brought them they developed wonderful hardihood
and health, and yet retained in reasonably good measure their
dairy qualities.

Since 1886 the interests of the breed have been fostered
and the breed itself materially improved by the French-Canadian
Cattle Breeders’ Association.

Body Characteristics.—The size of the French-Canadian is
about that of the Jersey, which breed they so very closely resem-
ble. Cows weigh from 700 to 900 pounds, though individuals
reach greater weight, and the bulls at maturity weigh from 1600
to 2000 pounds (Fig. 49). Though still rather coarse and with
an unfinished appearance, they are reasonably straight at top
line, with strong broad hips and deep full chests. Their color,
though ordinarily termed black, is not a true black in the sense
of the Holstein, but rather a deep seal-brown-black, They often

127

128 FRENCH-CANADIAN

though not always, have an orange or brownish line down the
back. The young stock is frequently of hghter color, showing
nearly a dark orange red. The calves of this breed are exceed-
ingly hardy and easy to raise, but slow in reaching maturity, but
like the Brown Swiss and other slowly developing breeds live
and breed to an unusually old age.

Dairy Characteristics.—As a breed, the French-Canadian
cow yields only a moderate amount of milk. Records, however,

Ais Vad ia 4%

aE aA

Fia. 49.—The champion French-Canadian bull, Denis Lord, four years old. (Owned by
Experimental Farm, Quebec, Can.)

of individuals in the herd best managed often show a milk pro-
duction of 5000 to 6000 pounds in a year and 10,767 has been
reported authoritatively. The quality of the milk ranks nearly
equal to that of the Guernsey, a test of 5 per cent being not at all
uncommon for the animals vielding a medium amount.

The Advanced Registry, called Record of Performance, was
established in 1907. The best ten yearly records officially re-
ported up to April 1st, 1916, are as follows:

ADVANCED REGISTRY 129

Reg. Lbs. of Per cent Lbs. of
Name of Cow No. Milk Fat Fat

Bille en exgcnea Qesusie ss marae 29 10767 4.20 453
Denise-Champoine, 13......... 31 10140 4.07 413
Finette 2nd ....... hued eine . 41 9747 4.13 403
ZAMOTA .eeseivccseccecescsee LO 7668 5.25 403
WOT Jac ecncas enews oe be erat 19 8412 4.81 403
Aromaz ....... Siada oananecd sieun O38 7684 5.02 386
Imoquette ............... auttehaees, ck 7876 4.80 378
Morlaisienne ........... ex wn OE 7794 4.70 366
La Belle ................. Fae 8 7196 4.96 358
Maid of Two Mountains....... 39 6947 4,95 344

Fie. 50.—A champion French-Canadian cow. Fortune 4th, d’Ottawa 946. Record,
one year, milk, 9135 pounds, test,4.67 per cent fat,428 pounds. (Courtesy Dominion
Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.)

Requirements for Admission into Record of Performance
Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat

Mature cows ..................-.-..-- 6800 306
Four year old class ...................6000 270
Three year old class .............4. ... 5200 234
Two year old class........-..-.........4400 198

130 FRENCH-CANADIAN

This breed has the hardy qualities of the Ayrshire, with the
added advantage of yielding a richer milk and of being both
easier to handle as animals and more conveniently milked. Their
teats are universally large and well placed.

The French-Canadian cattle are aptly said to be the “ Jerseys
of the north.” Their place in the eastern provinces is very sim-
ilar, indeed, to the one occupied by the Jersey farther south.
They should be looked upon, however, as a “‘ breed in the rough.”
With the excellent foundation possessed, however, there is no
reason why, if skillfully bred and handled, the breed should not
become refined and still retain a highly economic place. While
there is little reason why this breed should be introduced seri-
ously into the United States to satisfy any special need, there is
good reason why it should be retained and developed in Quebec,
Canada, and there continue to serve mankind (Fig. 50).

QUESTIONS

: What breed of dairy cattle can claim America as its home?

. Under what circumstances were the ancestors of the French-Canadian
breed brought to this country?

. From what country did they come?

. Describe a French-Canadian cow as to color, size, form and disposition.

. Discuss the dairy qualities of this breed.

. Compare records with other breeds.

. What may reasonably be expected of the French-Canadian breed?

TIO oO PR LO

CHAPTER XVII
MILCH GOATS

Tue goat has been one of the taithtul servants of man since
the dawn of history, and still continues as the efficient converter
of weeds, brush and various grasses into nutritious milk for
infant or adult, or into strong wool or mohair for garment or rug
making, or into savory flesh for food. Whether goats were
domesticated and developed at a period earlier than cattle is not
accurately known, but it is highly probable that such was the case
because of the fact that they are smaller and milder in disposition.

Milch goats are nearly, if not quite, as common in most of the
countries of Europe as are dairy cows. They have been devel-
oped to high points of usefulness in many separate sections of the
country, though those best known in America (Fig. 51) are
the descendants of one or more of the breeds which originated, or
were improved in Switzerland. But in northern Africa, Russia,
Norway, Germany, France and Spain, milch goats are to be
found. They have likewise been introduced into other sections
of the world and now occupy a small but useful place in most of
the Spanish-American countries.

The Goat Maligned.—There is probably no single animal in
America which has been the butt of more common jokes than the
goat. This is probably due to the fact that most of the goats
known in our villages and cities are of the common, scrub sort
which are thought to be the inferior descendants of those brought
to Mexico by the Spanish in the early days. They are about as
much like the modern pure bred milch goats as old Texas range
cattle are like Jerseys. The class of animals kept for the pur-
pose of cheese making, largely in foreign countries, is scarcely
known in America. The fact that the goat is spoken of as the
“poor man’s cow ” certainly does not encourage their being more
generally kept. The term is far from apt in America, however,
for the reason that a good milch goat costs as much as a good

cow. In view of the general attitude toward this animal they
131

132 MILCH GOATS

should be called, rather the “ brave man’s cow.” The humble
position held by this animal in America is not warranted by sci-
entific findings nor yet by practical experience.

Dairy Type in Goats.—It is certainly more than a coinci-
dence that the type of the animal, developed through long ages
of experience, which is found to be the most profitable as a milk
producer possesses a type essentially very similar to that known

oi
Fie. 51.—Imp. Fanette, No. 151, the champion milk producer of the Toggenburg
breed in America. She prauuece in one year 2680 pounds of milk, or nearly twenty times
her own weight. Note that she possesses the essentials of the dairy type. (Reproduced by
courtesy of ‘‘Littlelands in Amcrica,"’ San Francisco, Cal.)
as the dairy type in cows. The Saanan doe represented in
figure 54, and the Toggenburg doe, another Swiss breed, shown in
figure 52, agree essentially with the Spanish Maltese and with
the African Nubian and show the extreme dairy type.
A study of these types reveals the presence of a large capacity
for food consumption coupled with the angularity and loose con-
struction of frame work which are essentially different from the

TOGGENBURG 133

form best adapted for meat production. It will be remembered
that the compact animals, whether cattle, horses, hogs, or
sheep, are known to be the “ easy keepers,” which means “ easy
fatteners.” Coupled with the capacious body and thin angular
muscular development, the immense udder development. will
be observed.

Breeds.—Goats, varying in type all the way from the com-
pact form of the mutton and wool producing varieties to the
thin, angular, strictly dairy goats, are to be found in many sec-

Fra. 52. Fria. 53.

Fia. 52.—Fanette, the Toggenburg prize doe. Note wonderful development of udder.
(Courtesy the owner, Winthrop Howland, Redlands, Cal.)
Fia. 53.—A well-marked Toggenburg doe.

tions of the country and are known by a great variety of names.
The various breeds have not yet been classified and studied as
have the different races and breeds of cattle. The following are
brief descriptions of the dairy goats best known in America:
Toggenburg.—This breed originated in the Toggenburg
Valley of Switzerland, in the northeast section of the republic.
They are of medium size, weighing in the neighborhood of 125
pounds at maturity, rather slender, hornless, and short-haired.
Their color is a peculiar shade of brown or mouse color with
white markings, distributed with great regularity. The legs
below the knees and hocks should be white, and a white strip runs

134 MILCH GOATS

down either side of the face and around the ears (Fig. 53). They
are hardy, gentle, and tractable and are said to yield four quarts
of milk per day when fresh.

Saanen.—This pure white breed was originated and is now
kept in the Saanen Valley in Switzerland. It is a breed of com-
paratively large animals, a mature doe occasionally weighing 150
pounds. They are hornless and being short-haired their angular
form is prominent (Fig. 54). The quantity of milk accredited
to this breed is from three to four quarts per day with isolated
cases of five to six quarts, though two or three quarts would
probably be more nearly an average for the nine to twelve
months of lactation period or about 1800 pounds of milk for
the year. ; :

Spanish Maltese.—This animal from the Island of Malta is
of two varieties, the short-haired and the long-haired. This is
the breed which has been so extensively introduced into Mexico
and other Spanish-American countries, and the one from which
our common goat. was probably descended. Some varieties of this
breed grow horns, while others do not. They are about the size
of the ordinary Angora, and are better adapted to warm than to
cold climates. Their milking proclivities vary considerably
with the breeding.

Milk Records.—A goat which gives less than a quart a day is
not to be considered a good milch animal. If it yields two quarts
it is a good animal, provided the period of lactation is nine
months or more. In the European countries the goats which
yield from three to five quarts a day are numerous and the period
of lactation is a long one (Figs. 51 and 54).

It is a good goat of any breed that will average two and one-
half quarts (5.25 pounds) of milk a day for eight or nine
months of the year. One that will give more than this is
specially desirable. The Angora goat, which is not considered a
good milch animal, gives from two to three quarts of very rich
milk but for a comparatively short time. The Nubian, or Afri-
can, produces from five to ten quarts per day. The yield of the
hest goats of Switzerland averages about four quarts daily. This
amount is not produced without good care and feed, however.

MILK RECORDS 135

The yield of milk varies greatly as with cows, between breeds
and individuals. Dettweiler reports the yields of twehty-four
for a year as follows:

9 gave 1200—1400 pounds
7 gave 1400—1600 pounds
4 gave 1600—1800 pounds
1 gave 1800—2000 pounds
3 gave 2000—over pounds

Woes BE

Fie. 54.—Milch goat of the Saanan breed which produced 1845 pounds of milk in one
year at the New York (Geneva) kxperiment Station.

Individuals are reported which have produced as much as
2400 pounds of milk, testing about 4 per cent fat or 96 pounds
butter fat in one year. This would make about 115 pounds of
butter or 240 pounds of cheese.

The Toggenburg doe, Geneva, reported by the California
Experiment Station, was Grand Champion at the recent Panama-
Pacific Exposition. She weighs on an average 127 pounds and
in 812 days yielded 2158 pounds of milk containing 72.8 pounds
of fat and 256.34 pounds total milk solids. Two others tested
for a year yielded less. One half-breed, Delia, weighing only
104 pounds, produced only 1283 pounds of milk and 49.73
pounds of fat in a single lactation period of 310 days; and
Hedda, a pure bred Toggenburg, two years old, produced 1118.0
pounds of milk containing 40.7 pounds of fat.

The New York (Geneva) Experiment Station has tested a
few milch goats for infant feeding purposes. One Saanan doe
gave 1845 pounds of milk in one year on $15.82 worth of feed,

136 MILCH GOATS

charging $3 for pasture. This is about 922 quarts, at a feed cost
of about 1.7 cents per quart.

The Toggenburg doe, Fanette (Fig. 51), is one of the best
known milch goatsin America. She produced, in one year, 2680
pounds of milk, or nearly twenty times her own weight. This is
more than half as much as the average cow of this country pro-
duces. It was enough milk to supply two families with two
quarts per day each for a year. It would make about 100
pounds of butter or 268 pounds of cheese. This milk, if sold
at 25 cents per quart, would bring $335. In some places goat’s
milk sells at 50 cents per quart.

: Wilk Records
Breed of Goat 2 Name Wt., Lbs. Milk

Toggenburg.............. Fanette 136 2680
Toggenburg.......... "....Geneva 127 2158
Toggenburg (half breed) . . Delia 104 1283
Toggenburg.............. Hedda (2 yr.old) 119 1118
SaANAN so. e ees dake dae oes (at Geneva, N. Y.) 1845

“The Nature of the Product.—Goat’s milk-fat produces
rather an inferior butter, especially in color, body and grain, but
the milk is said to be remarkably valuable for feeding delicate
infants. Milk for such purpose often sells for 25 to 50 ceuts per
quart. It also serves as a household milk supply, for cooking:
purposes as well as milk for direct consumption.

Composition of Goats’ Milk

Authority Water Fat Caseinand Albumen Sugar Ash
Renesse ........... 85.50 4.80 5.00 4.00 70
Landwinth ........ $85.60 4.60 4.80 4.30
Hoffman ........ »- 86.19 4.73 3.68 4.50 90
N.Y. (Geneva Sta.) 87.88 3.82 3.21 4,54 oo

It has been shown that the milch goat will vield a food unit in
milk solids fully as economically as a good dairy cow, if not more
so, for the feed consumed and has the added advantage in relish-
ing various edible weeds. She also may be pastured on so small
a lot or pasture that but for her all of the forage on that area

QUESTIONS 137

would have gone to waste. The milch goat is now especially
needed about the mill towns of New England and the south,
and about mining towns in all sections of the country. The
State Experiment Stations of California and Geneva, New

':, York, and the United States Department of Agriculture are
studying the question of milch goats.

QUESTIONS

. What is our oldest record of the use of goats as milch animals?

. Where were most of the breeds of milch goats in America developed?

. Why are goats not more used in this country?

. Compare the dairy type of the milch goat with that of an intense
dairy cow.

. Name and describe the two principal breeds of milch goats.

How much milk will a good goat yield?

. Name the milch goat that now holds the United States Championship
for production, How much did she yield?

8. How does the composition of goat’s milk compare with cow’s milk?

9. For what is it especially valuable?

10. In what regions and sections are goats most needed in America?

mw he

CHAPTER XVIII
; STARTING A DAIRY HERD

Tue solution of the problem confronting any young man
who contemplates starting a herd of cows to be used for dairy
purposes will very naturally differ with local circumstances, but
assuming only moderate means and the necessity for getting
profitable working stock at the earliest time possible, the follow-
ing method will generally be found the most profitable:

Foundation Stock.—If the prospective dairy farmer has no
animals of any sort and is, therefore, free to select, it is highly
important that he bear in mind clearly the thoroughly proven
value of the dairy type animal, that is, the one showing capacity
for the consumption of feed, with spare and angular form, denot-
ing absence of too great a flesh-forming tendency, with udder
and milk veins developed adequately to balance the other parts
of the body and an alert temperament and good constitution.
The purchaser should not overlook the fact that the qualities
desired are more likely to be found and far more likely to be
transmitted to future workers if grades of some of the standard
dairy breeds are selected.

The prospective dairy farmer who already has on hand a
herd of good, fair, and indifferent grades of no particular breed-
ing, should bear in mind first, that it is a very poor cow indeed
which is not better than no cow at all on the farm; that cows
vary tremendously in their ability to return profit, and that life
is too short to make it wise to plod along with the inferior cow
any longer than is necessary to secure animals of higher quality.
Working on this basis, therefore, the one starting in the business
with a mixed herd of unknown quality should keep the animals
he has until such time as he has good evidence to prove that
certain members of the herd should be disposed of and raise his
stock from the better half of the herd. To improve such a herd
a strong-blooded bull of the breed desired should be placed
at its head,

138

SELECTION OF THE BULL 139

The Jersey cow, if well handled, will produce butter fat more
cheaply per pound than any other breed in America, but being
sensitive to treatment and best adapted to a moderate climate she
requires comfortable housing. When such is provided, how-
ever, the Jersey may be kept in any agricultural region.

The Holstein cow ordinarily yields more fat and a much
greater amount of skim milk. While it is true that the cost
of producing a pound of fat is higher than with the breeds yield-
ing a richer milk, it is likewise true that the skim milk has high
wail on the livestock farm. The animals of this breed are
rather better adapted to withstand the conditions practically
certain to obtain on farms where the field operations are of first
consideration. The Ilolstein animals work in exceedingly well
on those farms which produce grain and hogs as well as cream
or butter for the market.

The Guernsey and Ayrshire breeds have their peculiarities,
as explained in the chapters on those breeds, and which fit them
for particular niches: The temperament and sentiment of the
individual farmer certainly are of importance in the choice of a
breed, but in the opinion of the writer these more or less
sentimental facts should be subordinated to the adaptability of
the breed to the climate, to the type of dairying to be carried on,
and in practice to the majority sentiment. of the neighborhood.
It is being everywhere clearly demonstrated that animals of all
breeds have developed not only greater individual qualities in
those communities where a goodly number of that breed is kept,
but that they also have greater market value per unit of quality.
The individual cows of a Holstein herd, for instance, located in
‘a Jersey neighborhood would not have the market value that the
same animal would if surrounded by animals of their own breed.
The same is true of all the other dairy breeds when too
widely scattered.

Selection of the Bull—In starting a herd of working dairy
cows there is probably no single problem of greater importance,
nor one which offers greater difficulties, than the correct selec-
tion of the herd bull. With a herd of low-producing animals in

_the hands of an owner of limited means, it is not infrequently

140 STARTING A DAIRY HERD

wisest, and in the long run most economical, to purchase a high
grade bull, not any high grade, but one which shows the breed
characteristics strongly, has individual vigor and constitution
and is from a high-producing dam. The fact that cows with
which he is to be mated can never produce stock for registration
makes it entirely immaterial whether the sire has “ papers” or
not. The use of a grade sire is not recommended on cows of
higher development and not where pure animals may be pur-
chased at reasonable figures. Frequently second-hand, pure bred
bulls may be purchased at beef prices. Young animals, especially
of the Guernsey breed, are occasionally sold cheaply because of
having a “smoky” frill about the muzzle, or having more or
less dark hairs about the head and throat. This is supposed to
indicate partial reversion to some prehistoric ancestor and since
it is not the color desired in the modern breed such animals do not
become show animals themselves, nor are they likely to produce
such. Some of the strongest working blood of the breed, how-
ever, are characterized by this off-color. Farmers desiring pure
Guernsey stock to work upon a grade herd will do well to look for
such animals. Pure bred Holstein bulls are occasionally pure
white and can therefore not be registered. Such would mate
well with a herd of red and white grades.

It is agreed that the points to be looked for in selecting an
animal are constitution, thrift, masculinity, and trueneéss to
breed type, or in other words the individuality of the animal
(Fig. 55). The next point, one which some breeders would
put first, is the matter of record or power of performance on the
part of the dam and granddam, and as many other generations
back of this as possible. Such an animal then in addition to
having the prepotency of pure blood will have the strong individ-
uality, or what may be termed personality, which will increase
the likelihood that his daughters will resemble his mother and
grandmother in ability to produce abundantly. A goodly num-
ber of instances are on record indicating that some sires have
possessed such wonderful prepotency as to have almost unlimited
value, while other animals have done positive harm under the
same or similar conditions.

COMMUNITY BREEDING 141

The ideal pedigree must show performance as well as mere
relationship. The following Guernsey pedigree is considered a
good one in this respect:

Larger records have been made than those indicated in the
pedigree, yet those are good, and the fact that uniform high
milkers are on both sides increases the likelihood that the prog-
eny of May King of Linda Vista will be strong, consistent
producers.

Fic. 55.—Starlights Excelsior of Jean Du Luth, a champion Guernsey bull. A very
promising type to use as head of a herd. (Courtesy G. P. Grout, Duluth, Minn.)

Community Breeding.—One income from the keeping of
pure bred cows is the increased amount of milk, butter and by-
products obtained from them, but a secorid profitable source of
revenue is the sale of breeding stock. At present there is a good
healthy demand for more livestock to be shipped into the north-
west section of the United States and western Canada. Farm
conditions in these regions call for cattle. Those communities in
which there are a goodly number of animals of any recognized
breed are finding more ready sales at high prices for surplus
stock than those individual breeders more or less scattered.

STARTING A DAIRY HERD

142

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COMMUNITY BREEDING ASSOCIATIONS 143

Many communities throughout the country have almost ungon-
sciously, and certainly without concerted action, raised so many
animals of the same breed that the farmers are now reaping the
benefit very positively. So keen is the demand now for improved
livestock and the advantage to the buyer of being able to select a
dozen or a carload in one community that in a large number of
places the farmers are organizing codperatively to produce more
desirable stock in greater quantity.

Community Breeding Associations.—Organized, well de-
fined efforts have the advantage over the old system of encour-
aging each man to act independently, while the community
drifts, in the following respects:

First. A larger number of improved animals are secured
in much less time. The years required to raise, develop and try
out a cow are about 10 per cent of the farmer’s working lifetime.

Second. Where a dozen or more of the best farmers in any
neighborhood lead off in breeding definitely they become more
keenly interested in their livestock, take better care of the ani-
mals and, through the fact of better care, derive an additional
income.

Third. High class breeding sires may be purchased for less
money per man when purchased for community use. The econ-
omy also is increased, because when the sires have worked a
period of two years in any community they may be systematically
exchanged with little loss.

Fourth. The surplus grade stock not only rapidly takes the
place of the older cows, but also accumulates in such number as
to attract outside buyers. Another advantage noticed is that
the farmers who begin the matter of improvement in one line
of stock seldom are satisfied until all the classes of livestock
and field crops too have been studied for the purpose of
improvement.

The great advantages of a comparatively close organization
over the looser methods of conducting this business may be briefly
summarized as follows: A well organized committee attracts
farmers’ institute speakers and other community workers. Thus
the individual members have greater opportunity than they

144 STARTING A DAIRY HERD

would likely have otherwise. The national and state associa-
tions representing the breed kept are more likely to send litera-
ture and lecturers. Another feature occasionally found highly
valuable is in the control of the character of the deals made by
some of the members, where the association guarantees stock sold
and expels members selling animals of known sterility or with
a disease. Such has been found excellent advertising and highly
profitable to the farmers of the community.

Disadvantages of Community Breeding—Probably the
greatest single drawback to community effort is the possibility
of introducing and disseminating diseases, most particularly,
infectious abortion. Though this fact should be borne in mind
continually in purchasing and in exchanging sires, those com-
munities which have for five or more years carried on work of
this sort have not experienced serious difficulty. The incon-
venience and loss of time entailed in taking a cow some distance
‘or service are sufficient to deter some from joining the associa-
tion though often owning animals of the same breed. In some
communities exchanges are made between the individual and the
associated breeders. The individual ownership of bulls has its
advantages. There is nothing to prevent the two systems work-
ing in harmony in the same community. The object especially
is to increase the number of high class animals as quickly as
possible without great expense and then the organized selling of
surplus stock. .

Selection of the Individual Cow.—It must be ever remem-
bered by the breeders of livestock that the laws underlying repro-
duction are at best but poorly understood and difficult of control.
After all the care has been taken which would seem possible or
wise, individual members of the herd will, for reasons apparent
or obscure, fail to develop into sufficiently profitable cows. The
wise dairymen will watch for these variations, both that he may
eliminate the inferior, and that he may increase his herd from
the most valuable animals.

Variation is opportunity for progress, but the inferior indi-
vidual must not be used as a propagator of others or the opportun-
ity will be lost. While the causes of variation are obscure, the
fact of variation is evident.

THREE DAY RECORDS 145

Daily Records.—Farmers have for years been advised to
keep daily records of the quantity of milk produced by their cows
and to test sufficiently often to know approximately how much
fat is being yielded by each cow. The system entails consider-
able attention and some labor, but where given a fair test is found
to be a paying investment. The form of the record sheet. used
for such is similar to the sample shown. This record is designed
to accommodate twenty cows for a week but may be extended to
include the production of a month if desired. The form here
shown is that adopted by the Dairy and the Extension Divisions
in the University of Minnesota. The complaint is often made
that to weigh the milk twice a day consumes so much time that
more is lost than gained in the process. This criticism, how-
ever, is made by those who have never tried it. The advantage
of sytematically weighing every milking over a period of three
days a month is that in addition to determining the production
of the cow the added value of having what may be termed a ther-
mometer of the business is at hand. Many items, such as
scarcity of water in the pasture, short, dry grass, presence of
flies, bad hay, cold rains, or poor milkers, have a decided influence
upon the profitableness of the dairy enterprise, yet may not be
noticed for a week or more unless there be at hand a record of
production. Some cow keepers have continued the daily records
after becoming convinced that all the cows in the herd are profit-
able, purely for the effect of rivalry created among the milkers.

A sheet summarizing by months the work done by the cows
for the year will be found highly advantageous. Sample of the
sheet used in Minnesota for this purpose is shown on page 146.

Three Day Records.—At times the labor involved in daily
weighing seems so great that the farmer decides not to commence
testing. To such the system of weighing the milk on the middle
three days of each month is recommended. The yield for the
month is calculated by multiplying by ten the yield for the three
test days. This system requires scarcely 10 per cent of the labor
involved by the daily weighing system and its accuracy is found
to be about 96 percent. This is more accurate than usual records
kept of other farm operations. Where the fat test is made

STARTING A DAIRY HERD

146

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YEARLY SUMMARY 147

from a sample composited from the six milkings there is no
reason why this system should not be fully as accurate as those
now in vogue with most of the pure bred cattle associations in the
making of semi-ofticial yearly records, where the herd is visited
only two days each month by the official representative.

The three-day system of record keeping is best carried out by
ruling a cheap day book. The books recommended are those
about five inches wide by a foot long, and cost 10 cents. The

VEARLY SUMMARY.
HERD OF MINN. FROM 19,70

72)

23)

“6

eo]

ZOTAL
AVERAGE

advantages of this volume are that it is too large to be easily lost,
yet sufficiently small to be handled, and when ruled as indicated,
one writing of the cows’ names will suffice for a year. The book
is sufficiently large to contain the records of thirty cows for seven
years if desired. It is recommended, however, that in the latter
half of the book each cow be given a page upon which are recorded
all important events affecting her during the year, such as date of
service; date due to calve and trouble, if any. One volume per

148 STARTING A DAIRY HERD

year kept in a convenient place in the stable will be found highly
valuable and worth many times its cost.

Permanent Records.—It is unwise to keep the permanent
records on scraps of paper or in pocket-sized books.

A book of 200 pages, each page about five by twelve inches,
can be purchased for ten cents. Each page will hold the record
of thirty cows for a month. The names or numbers of the cows
should be written down the left margin of the left-hand page,
then ruled up as shown below.

The names need not be written on the next page but it
should be ruled so that the outer third of the leaf may be cut
off, so that when turned it will just fit the names of the cows.
Then on this narrow page the next month may be ruled, and so on.
In this way one writing of the names will answer for a whole
year or longer.

Herd Record for January, 1916

Lbs. milk Estimate Test from Lbs. fat
given in of milk composite per

Name and No. of Cow three days per month sample month
Ly. Bette: eas scccinces 60 600 3.5 21.00
B. WWGarltom ws asccs nz8 48 480 Bak 17.76
Oe CITE: gece a ewes 90 900 3.4 30.60
4. NAGLE oh oes 21 210 4.6 9.66
5. Hay stained wieeroas ete. aces
Ge hanes. Ga Gan

Dairy Testing Associations.—In 1905 the first cooperative
association in the United States of America for the testing of
cows was organized in Michigan. ‘The idea and the individual
organizing the first in the United States came from Denmark.
The plan is that twenty-five farmers join their interests in the
matter of testing and caleulating dairy rations. In sections
of the country where herds are comparatively large one dollar
per cow per year furnishes money enough to run the association.
In the middle west dairy herds are smaller on the average,
and $1.25 to $1.50 per cow per year is necessary, since only
those cows belonging to approximately twenty-five farmers can
be tested. The system is to employ a competent young man,
usually a graduate of a school of agriculture, or a short course,

SOME RESULTS OF COW TESTING 149

to go from farm to farm to weigh and test the milk; weigh old
rations fed and compute new. He remains but one day in a place,
making the circuit once each month. Whenever a good tester
is obtained, experience shows the investment to be a highly
profitable one on the farmers’ part. Aside from getting the
work done more cheaply than the farmer himself could usually
do it there is the added advantage that it is done, which is so
likely not to be the case for more than a few months, if the work
is left entirely to the owner who has so many other matters
demanding mental and physical attention.

The three requisites for improvement in livestock are breed-
ing, feeding and selection. The dairy herd is no exception. A
constant culling out process is essential to improvement.

Some Results of Cow Testing.—The nature and the amount
of improvement which codperative testing associations may be
the means of effecting are shown in an average of ten herds in
one Iowa association during four years, as follows:

Avg. animal milk Avg. animal butter Avg. animal Avg. animal

yield per cow fat per cow feed cost per profit per
Year Lbs. Lbs. cow cow.
LOUD» Sse Gisieee ab a.cen eee aes 6483 246 $26.40 $32.42
TOI2 cakes uy ge3 ae as se 7649 277 52.31 39.20
LOWS A. alas acamsuanees aus. sions 8738 285 43.67 52.95
LOWE. ssccctecnse. 8 tates ae Sara 8 8648 312 48.12 66.02
One single herd increased Lbs. Lbs.
LUN te pea cme Re kee oo eo 207.7 $43.77 $22.12
TOMS) ag eetieecb nae eeiihe x 7060 251.9 33.28 53.96
1914: 5x oe cece eee ease 9679 339.8 46.12 T2022
WO VS <2 aus a te adiepaonmstieces 10184 369.6 52.28 74.38

Similar improvements have been brought about in a great
many herds and communities.

The growth and status of the work are well shown by the fol-
lowing table compiled by the Dairy Division, United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

150 STARTING A DAIRY HERD

Number of Codperative Cow-Testing Associations in the United States,
In Opcration on July lst, Bach Year
Number of Associations in operation
States 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915
: 3 + 4 3 3
6 5 4 5 8
9 18 21 29 35
10 Il 17 28 33
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California .........
Wisconsin .... ....
Nebraska ... ......
Colorado ..........
Pennsylvania ......
CONG). 5. dun desert eet hon 5
Maryland Pi
LWinois: 1. gta hae ;
Washington .... .. 1
Minnesota ....... . :
New Hampshire

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Virginia ..........
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Indiana

Kentucky

MGSSDUTE 625.04 4408
New Jersey ......
West Virginia ... .
Connecticut .......-
North Carolina .
‘Louisiana ........
South Dakota ......
Nevada ...........

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QUESTIONS

1. Give suggestions regarding the foundation stock for a dairy herd.
2. In your section what blood predominates in the dairy herds?
3. What are the points of a good dairy bull?

4, Give important points of a good pedigree.

5. What is meant by community breeding?

6. Give advantages and disadvantages of a breeding association.
7. What dairy records should be kept by all dairymen?

8. Of what use are these?

9. Compare the three-day record with the daily record.

0. What is a dairy testing association? Explain its working.

1. What are some of the results of such associations?

PART III
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS

CHAPTER XIX

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

Mornernoop and mother-love are the very foundation of
the dairy industry. When a man comes to look upon a cow as
a mother, a calf as a baby and young stock as growing children,
he is in a very fair way to learn how to handle them.

The great force which impels or stimulates milk production
is the fact of motherhood, or, more exactly speaking, probably
an enzyme formed in connection with motherhood. If this
stimulating force be strong the cow will convert the nutriment
contained in her feed into milk more rapidly, and keep at it for
a longer time than she could if this stimulating force were weak.

We do not yet know what organ of the body secretes this
stimulating fluid nor how to test for it in advance. We can
only wait and see what the cow does under good care and feeding
and then judge her in comparison with other cows.

The largest single item in the production of the recent
phenomenal milk records of all breeds is without doubt the better
methods of handling now employed (Fig. 56), but next to this
seems to be the inherited presence in some families and in-
dividuals of an unusually strong secreting power.

This may explain, in a way, why some cows of good con-
stitution and general type are, after all, very commonplace
producers, and also why a cow of non-famous family occasionally
springs into prominence by making an unusual record. The
law of variation in breeding may have passed on to her this
mark, just as Jerseys of solid-colored parents are born with spots
or Guernseys of orange and white parents with solid color or
with dark “ smoky ” hairs about the muzzle, neck, or rear.

Without in any way minimizing the value of breed, or type
of the cows employed in the dairy, or the great importance of
the ration consumed by the cows, it should be remembered that
in the detailed management of the herd lies a very large part of
the profits or disappointments to be derived. Excellent cows

153

154 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT
PA

can be liberally fed, yet so handled as to produce little or no
profit. The common cow may be handled so as to increase her
production from twenty-five to fifty per cent over present yields.

Gestation Period.—The length of time between service and
the delivery of the calf is usually 280 to 285 days, or a little
more than 9 months. It averages a little longer for bull than
for heifer calves. In order that the cow may be dried off at the
right time it is necessary that record be kept of the date of
service of every cow.

Time to Freshen.—Under most conditions in the United
States, cows should be bred to freshen in the fall; the calves
to be dropped between October 1st and January Ist. If rea-

Fig. 56.—Evidence cf thrift and faith.

sonably well housed (Figs. 56 and 57), cows are more com-
fortable in winter than in summer. This saves feed. They
likewise travel about much less, which also is economy. These
facts enable the cow to yield milk upon less feed in winter than
in summer. This becomes the more important when consider-
able quantities of feed are purchased or where forage crops are
raised on high-priced land.

Nature forces the cow to yield milk for at least a few months
after calving for the sustenance of its own ealf. Thus the cow
when comfortably housed, liberally fed and kindly treated may
be expected to milk during the entire winter months. After a
period of four to seven months most cows begin to slack off in

18 GESTATION TABLE
re
Caleuluted at the Average Period of 282 Days, for Every Day in the Year. The Period is as Short as 269 Days, and us Long

as 292 Days ;
ia ° oO v o r ia b
ok 6 3 & so ie 3 CI 3 5 3 5 af B El 5 2 e =
ai ala AlA]A la als lA; sl laAalsl/alselAsaelalslalea
Jan. Oct. | Feb. Jan. May | Feb.| June] Mar. July | Apr. | Aug.| May | Sept.) June} Oct. | July | Nov.) Aug. | Dec Sept.
1 10 1 sol ih 1 10 1 9 ; 10 ; 10 1 10 b 10 1 9
2 11 2 9 2 & 2 11 Pe 10 11 ll 2 ll ll 2 10
3. 4 12 3 10 3 9 3 13 3 ll 3 2 3 12 3 12 3 12 3 11
& 4 | 13 4 Il 4 10 4 13 4 12 4 13 4 13 4 13 4 13 4 12
| 5° 1st 5 12 5 11 5; 14 5 13 5 14 5 14 5 14 5 14 5 13
faa} 6 15 6 13 6 13 6 15 6 14 6 15 6 15 6 15 6 15 6 14
< 7 16 7 14 7 13 7 16 7 ie is ie ; i i é 16 i 15
8 17 8 15 8 1k fa] 17 8 1 1 7 17 8 16
a 9 18 9 16 9g 15 9 18 9 17 9 18 9 18 9 18 9 18 9 ala
Z 10 19 10 rg 10 16 10 19 10 18 10 19 10 19 10 19 10 19 10 18
je) 11 20 11 18 11 17 | 11 20 11 19 M1 20 cia 20 11 20 11 20 11 20
a 12 21 12 19 | 12 18 12 2 12 20 12 21 12 21 2 21 12 21 12 2
3 13 22 13 20 13 19 13 22 13 21 fA a a 22 13 22 13 22 13 21
14 23 14 21 14 2 14 23 14 22 L 3 23 14 23 14 23 14 22
al 15 24 15 22 15 21 15 24 15 23 15 24 15 24 15 24 15 24 15 23
MQ
(ea 16 25 16 23 16 22 16 25 16 24 16 25 16 2 16 25 16 25 16 24
Oo 17 26 17 24 17 23 17 26 17 25 17 26 17 26 7 26 17 26 V7 25
18 27 18 25 18 24 18 27 18 26 18 27 18 27 18 27 18 27 18 26
19 23 19 26 19 25 19 238 19 27 19 28 19 28 19 28 10 28 19 27
20 29 29 27 20 26 20 pad 20 28 20 29 20 29 20 29 20 29 2 28
21 30 21 28 21 | 27 21 30 21 29 21 2 21 30 21 30 21 20 21 29
22 31 29 22 28 22 31 22 30 22 38 July | 22 31 22 31 22 30
Nov] 22 30 Mar Apr. May June| 22 1 Aug Sept. Oct.
23 1 23 31 23 1 23 1 23 5 23 d 23 3 a 1 cn 1 23 1
24 2 2t Feb.| 2+ 2 24 2 24 24 24 2 4. 2 24 2
25 3 25 1 25: 3 25 3 25 3 25 3 25 4 25 3 25 3 25 3
25 4 23 2 26 4 26 4 26, 4 26 4 26 5 26 4 26 4 26 4
27 5 27 3 27 5 27 5 27 5 27 5 27 6 27 5 27 5 27 4
23 6 23 4 28 6 28 6 28 6 28 6 28 7 28 6 28 6 28 6
29 7 29 5 29 7 29 7 29 7 29 7 29 8 29 7 29 7 29 7
30 8 6 30 8 30 8 20 & 30 8 € 9 30 8 30 8 30 8
31 | 9 311 9 31; 9 | 31] 9 31 | 9 31 | 9

156 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

production. If at this juncture the spring arrives with its
warm weather and succulent appetizing grass, the milk flow is
greatly stimulated. These and other forces cause the cow to in-
crease in milk flow in spring often nearly equal to the maximum
produced shortly following freshening. Later, as the pasture
grows short and the grass tough and heat and flies arrive, the
herd will decline in milk flow rapidly, but if the majority of
the cows freshened in the autumn previous, they will already
have given milk nearly a year. They may be allowed to go
dry at this time. They need a vacation anyway.

ps ee

Fria. 57.—A good general farm and dairy barn. On this farm the author was raised.

The fall-fresh cow will yield about fifteen to twenty per
cent more milk in the year than the spring-fresh cows. It is good
practice to give them their dry period while the farm work is as
pressing as is usually the case in August and September.

Milk and butter fat also bring higher prices in winter than
in summer. Thus the cow producing the bulk of her flow at a
time when it is worth most per pound becomes exceedingly more
valuable than one producing most liberally when prices are low.

The time required to care for the cows may usually be more
readily taken in winter than in summer.

Furthermore, since the amount and value of manure pro-
duced depends largely upon the kind and amount of feed con-

GIVING THE COW A REST 157

sumed, it is found that winter dairying serves to produce more
manure at a time of the year when it can be saved.

Winter dairying is more profitable than summer dairying,
then, because the cow will give more milk, will give the bulk of
it when prices are highest and when labor is cheapest, and
will produce more manure when it can be saved. In addition,
the calf born in the autumn has the advantage over spring-
born calves, as noted elsewhere.

Changing to the Fall Basis—Many cows are still permitted
to freshen in early spring. How they shall be put upon the
fall basis varies with the individual animals in question, but it
will usually be found more economical to force the herd to
“back up,” in other words, the cow is to be bred as soon after
calving as possible, thus causing her to drop the next calf in
less than a year from the time she previously freshened. By
again breeding quickly it is possible to force the calving period
back into the early winter or late fall. If, however, the cow in
question be of dairy breeding, and intense dairy temperament,
to such an extent that cstrum does not appear for three to six
months after calving, it will be practically necessary to breed as
soon as possible and to let the calf come when it will. Such ani-
mals, however, will be found the most persistent milkers, which
will enable them to give milk a year and a half, if necessary. It
is much easier to control the time of calving with the Holstein,
Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss, than with the Jersey or Guernsey.

Giving the Cow a Rest.—The yielding of two to four pounds
of solid feed per day in milk is very exhausting to the cow’s
system. When to this is added the burden of the growth of
the calf, a very considerable amount of work is being done. In
order, therefore, that the calf may be amply nourished, and
born strong, and that the cow herself may have recuperated in
flesh sufficient to enter upon a new lactation period strongly, it
is highly advisable that the cow be given a rest of at least four,
and better, six weeks. With the majority of cows no special
effort need be made to cause them to go dry, but with the
high type dairy animal with the intense dairy temperament, there
is likelihood that the secretion of milk in considerable quan-

158 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

tities will continue until the new calf is born. This is detri-
mental to the calf and the cow also. Such cows need carefully
to be forced to go dry.

Drying Off the Cow.—To hasten the drying process a large
part, or all, of the grain may be withheld from the ration, thus
forcing her to subsist Janey or wholly, upon roughage. To
this inducement may be added that of leaving a little milk in
the udder at each milking for a time, that is, not milking out
clean and shortly the milking of the cow only once a day. In
this way most cows may safely be dried off preparatory to their
rest period. To do this intelligently it is highly important that
a breeding record be kept.-

The dry cow should be looked upon as a prospective milker,
not as a mere boarder. If at all run down in flesh, grain or
other suticient feed should be given to enable her to thoroughly
recuperate her exhausted condition. If pasture is ample no grain
will be needed, but she should not be allowed to approach the
next period of exhausting labor in a thin or indifferent condition,
In fact it is now considered good practice and economy to feed
some grain, if need be, while the cow is dry in order that she
may become well recuperated, in fact almost fat. Enough more
milk with a higher test will be produced during the next lactation
period amply to repay the expense of conditioning at this time.

Preparing Cows for Record Making.—Since milk fever is
now little to be feared it has become the custom to “ condition ”’
or partially fatten cows during the dry period in order to
enable them to produce a materially greater amount of milk and
fat immediately following parturition. It has for years been
known to a few, and more recently made generally public, that
not only will a cow in good condition produce more milk, but
that she will also yield milk of a somewhat higher fat content
while milking down than would be the case if she had freshened
in a lean condition. Thus, some Holstein cows, while weigh-
ing 1400 pounds, yielded milk testing close to five per cent
fat and so much of it that they were unable to eat enough feed
to maintain such a large flow of rich milk. Consequently body
tissue was drawn upon. The cows became thinner day by day.

MANURE AN INDEX IN FEEDING 159

As che body fat disappeared the percentage amount of fat in
the milk lowered until as the cow, after a period of a few months,
reached her lean working level, the percentage of fat in the milk

had dropped gradually to about 3.25 per cent. The Ilolstein
cow, Missouri Chief Josephine, averaged a test of 4.04 per
cent fat during her seven-day recorg, but fell to only 2.81 per
cent as an average for the year. Feeding during record making
is discussed in Chapter XXIII. To prepare the cow to make
the largest seven-day or thirty-day or yearly records, therefore, it
is essential that she be given a rest period sutticient for thorough
recuperation, even to become moderately well covered with fat.

A caution here is due. If the high-milking cow is fed grain
up too close to her calving time there is danger of inflammation
of the udder. This is particularly the case if corn forms a
large part of the grain ration. All grain should be withheld
several days prior to calving, and succulent roughage, as corn
silage or roots, be fed in moderation. This is done in order that
her system shall not contain too much feed material and that her
bowels shall be loose at the time of the birth of the calf.

Manure an Index in Feeding.—Any careful herdsman of
cows, horses, or other stock, will notice the condition and odor
of the manure. If too hard the animals need some loosening
feed, if too loose, some dry feed will usually help. The odor
should also be noted. If it has a strong, rotten odor, evidence
is ample that the animal is out of condition, most. likely from
over-feeding, and is not digesting her feed. Such putrid odor
indicates that the whole system of the cow is being poisoned. In
such a case a good dose of physic to clean out the fermenting
matter should first be given and followed by a lessened amount
of feed. Undigested kernels. of grain usually call for finer
grinding of the grain feed.

‘Milking Before Calving—Occasionally it is necessary to
milk the cow partially before the calf is delivered. This should
not be done, however, unless the udder becomes severely distended
and painful, and then in quantity only sufficient to relieve the
stress. Most cows do not require this precaution. With high-

160 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

class cows one danger in milking before the calf is born is the
likelihood of bringing on milk fever.

Care at Calving.—The calving period is a critical one in
the cow’s life. Our domesticated animals are very liable indeed
to produce young so large as to require assistance in delivery
and other calves of normal size occasionally become misplaced
and demand attention to prevent suffocation. Cows in pasture
still follow their wild instincts to hide in a remote corner, to
calve in secrecy, and even to hide the young in the tall grass or
brush. Cows freshening in the early winter are, therefore, much
more easily cared for at this time. When nearly due to freshen
the cow should be put in a box stall sufficiently large to allow
free movement and turning without danger. Abundance of
water and a little coarse succulent feed should he supplied
(Fig. 58). Attention should be given that her bowels are
moderately loose. The herdsman should be near at hand at
the moment of calving to give assistance if needed. A few
minutes spent at the critical moment may save the life of a
valuable calf and occasionally the cow’s as well.

Care After Calving — The strain upon the cow’s system due
to calving brings on some fever and nervousness. She should
be given free access to water which is not too cold. No feed
need be given for some hours. If both cow and calf are normal
they may be left alone, she to clean and to lick the calf off, and
he to learn the use of his legs. The cow is usually permitted to
suckle the calf once, though this is not necessary. Cows have
strong attachment for their calves only after having lived with
them for a few days. Consequently, the removal of the calf at
once, or when but a few hours old, causes no particular bereave-
ment on the part of the cow. The calf is whollv forgotten in a
day. The calf should be removed from the sight and hearing of
the dam while she is absent from the stall. Her return is. the
psychological moment for the dairyman. The man who later
is to milk her should be on hand to caress, to speak kindly and
to feed a moderate mess of steamed oats or bran mash. While
she is consuming this delicacy the herdsman should groom her

MILK FEVER 161

with a brush, handle the udder and teats, and gently draw a
small quantity of milk. It is not at all infrequent for the eow
to transfer her affections from the calf absent to the man present,
to adopt him as it were, and to him yield milk as freely and as
gladly as she otherwise would have done to her own young. The
more intelligent and sensitive the cow and the man, the more
keenly true these facts.

Milk Fever.—The disease known as milk fever, or parturient
apoplexy, which was the dread of high-class dairymen for a
good many years, is no longer much to be feared, for whatever
may or may not be the real cause of the condition, its cure or

Fria. 58.—A supply of good water constantly within reach of the cow is an aid in milk
production. (Courtesy James Mfg. Co.)

prevention is now not difficult and reasonably certain by means
of the so-called air treatment.

To prevent this malady so far as possible the heavy milking
cow should not be fully milked out at first nor for a couple of
days. The precipitation of the condition is closely associated
with the sudden and complete removal of the contents of the
udder. By removing the first milk gradually many mishaps
may be averted. Occasionally, however, precautions fail to
prevent and the cow comes down with milk fever. For treat-
ment, see page 202,

162 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

Two or More Milkings Per Day.—Ordinarily the cow
milked twice per day, dividing the twenty-four hours into two
approximately equal periods, will give as much as she would
if milked three or more times per day. The fact remains,
however, that when the udder becomes filled with milk there
seems to be a cessation of the activity of the milk secreting
glands. Some cows are able to digest and to convert into milk a
quantity of feed considerably greater than can be stored in the
udder when removed but twice daily. Such cows should be
milked three times and most abundant milkers four times per
day, dividing the twenty-four hours into eight or six hour
periods, as the case may be. This naturally involves more
labor, but if a large yield is sought, such care will be found
necessary. The phenomenal records recently made by the lead-
ing cows of all the various breeds were produced upon the system’
of three or four milkings per day.

Period of Greatest Yield——As a rule cows give the most
milk per day between the eighteenth and the twenty-eighth day
after.calving. The most fat is usually produced during the
second week and the most milk during the third week. This
then would be the time for expecting advanced registry records
to be made if any were possible.

Breeding.— Following a normal calving, a cow should not
be bred for about three months, unless it is desired to turn the
time of calving to an earlier date; but following an abortion the
cow should be bred as early as conditions will permit. That is
as soon as all discharges have ceased and all organs are clean and
healthy again. The disease which causes abortion also induces
sterility, consequently, considerable time may elapse before con-
ception will take place. It is wise, therefore, to start early in
order that the cow may not lose any more time than necessary.

The first year’s record of a young cow, according to Eckles,
may be used as a guide as to her ability to perform in later life,
providing, of course, she is not too young when beginning work
and has been adequately fed and housed. A dairy breed heifer
freshening at twenty-four to twenty-eight months of age should
produce during the coming year about 70 per zent of the

EFFECT OF FEED ON TEST OF MILK 163

quantity which would be expected of her in her mature form
and during the second lactation year 80 per cent and the third
90 per cent.

One should not draw too hasty conclusions regarding a
young cow that is not doing well yet which is of such breeding
that better work might be expected.

The famous Holstein cow, Missouri Chief Josephine,
calved the first time when about two and one-half years old
and was fairly well fed after she calved but had not been put
into condition before freshening. ITer milk for the first three
months tested only 1.5 per cent fat. Ter first year’s work was
very ordinary, but upon maturity and with better feeding she
broke the world’s record for six months, producing 17,008
pounds of milk. Her record for the year was 26,861 pounds
of milk. On her best day she yielded 110.2 pounds of milk,
about fifty quarts, testing 2.8 per cent fat.

Effect of Feed on Test of Milk—When cows have for a
considerable time been very inadequately fed they not only
will produce a smaller quantity of milk and fat, but the milk
will have in it a slightly lower percentage amount of fat. The
same animals later liberally fed upon the ordinary feedstuffs
are known to increase very materially not only in total quantity
of milk and fat yielded, but also in percentage of fat as well.
Many reasonable and other methods have been tried for the
production of milk of higher fat content. Such artificial methods
as the feeding of fat, however, produce a higher percentage only
by throwing the cow out of condition and making her feverish.
The period of high percentage fat is then of short duration and
is usually followed by a period of depression.

The only practicable way of securing more fat for market
is by feeding the cow liberally, yet within reason, on a balanced
ration made up of ordinary feedstuffs and otherwise giving her
such care that she will be able to yield a larger quantity of milk.
The struggle to secure a higher fat content in milk is imprac-
tical with any cow except in so far as it can be influenced by
the condition of body fatness accumulated during her period of
rest; or as a long time plan, the breeding from stock which

164 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

yields milk of a fat content higher than the average for the breed.

The effect of drought on the richness of milk is to lessen it
perceptibly, especially if the drought occurs early in the season,
before the grass has become fully grown or matured. In 1906
an early drought in northern Missouri caused the fat test of milk
to decline as much as five-tenths per cent or from 3.7 to 3.2.
The solids not fat in the milk were also so low that the lactometer
reading of such milk was as low as 28 or 29 with grade Short-
horn cows, when it should and normally would have been 31.5.
The yield of cheese as well as of butter was disappointingly low
during that season.

Effect of Turning on Pasture.—One of the traditions of the
dairymen is that the quality of milk depreciates when cows are
turned from the dry feed of the stable on to the succulent spring
pasture. They were often encouraged in this belief by local
creamery men during the days of the whole milk creamery. That
there is no uniform decrease in the fat content of milk under
such conditions is proved by the thousands of tests made of milk
at the Minnesota Station. At this institution a sample of every
milking is tested by itself, not composited, as in so many places.
For more than twenty years, with a herd varying from twenty
to sixty cows, tests have been made twice a day. The breeds
included in this and other experiments included the Jersey,
Guernsey, Holstein, Ayrshire, Shorthorn and Brown Swiss.
From the mass of evidence at.hand it may be stated that the
usual opinion is incorrect where well-fed cows are concerned
that, whereas a few decrease in fat content, the average test of
the milk of the well-fed herd is greater following the turning on
to pasture than it was just prior to it. It is highly probable
that the impression gained a place during the pioneer days when
cows “spring poor” were often turned out to pasture long’ be-
fore there was enough feed even to sustain weight, to say noth-
ing of producing milk.

Large vs. Small Pasture.—A small pasture with an abund-
ance of grass is economical, in that the cows do not waste so
much of their energy in travelling about. On the other hand,
a study of the movements of the herd in pasture will reveal the

SHORT PASTURE 165

fact that they choose location according to the condition of the
weather, seeking the sheltered places if chilly, while resting on
the hill-top in hot weather. A large pasture offers greater oppor-
tunity for the cows to make themselves thoroughly comfortable.
If, however, the pasture is on a dead flat prairie country it is
probable that the smaller pasture is preferable, while on rolling
or broken land, the larger is better.

Acres Required Per Cow.—This naturally varies greatly
with the fertility of the field and the rainfall, also in many
sections with the amount of timber or brush land included in
the pasture. Dense forest yields little pasturage. Likewise in
old clearings, largely grown up to brush, grass is to be found
only in the open spaces, while within the clumps of bushes little
or nothing can be secured by cows. The open field, well seeded
to blue grass and white clover, will, on the average, yield grass
in such quantity that two to three acres will feed one mature
cow during the pasture season. The rotation pasture, however,
should produce more feed and thereby require only about one
and a half acres per cow per season. In many sections it is
calculated that the average young stock consumes one-half and
the dry cow two-thirds as much feed as the cow in milk. This
distinction is made for pasture rental purposes.

Short Pasture.—TIt is highly probable that the great dropping
off in milk flow in July and August is due more to the short, dry
pasture than to the presence of flies. The writer once tested
this matter by means of two groups of cows similarly fed, one-
half turned to pasture and the other half kept in the yard. Both
were annoyed with flies about equally and both had all the feed
they would readily consume, yet those animals that went to
pasture went dry at the rate of 15 per cent per month, while
those kept.in yard decreased at the rate of only 8 per cent
per month. If to the quiet of the yard had been added the com-
fort of a half-darkened stable during the day the difference
between the two groups would unquestionably have been yet
more marked.

Tf we will but remember that the average cow, giving the
average amount of milk, requires the feed nutrients contained

166 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

in about 100 pounds of grass per day, and will then calculate
the number of steps and bites the cow must take on a short
pasture to secure 100 pounds, it will readily be believed that she
does not continue to labor until the full amount has been
obtained, but rather that when the hunger is fairly satisfied she
ceases her search and lies down to rest. She has probably
already walked a greater distance than is really good for her
and yet has secured an insufficient quantity of feed. Her main-
tenance then would be above normal and the supply of feed
below normal, thus reducing the quantity of feed consumed
beyond maintenance, to an exceedingly small amount.

Protection Against Flies—The amount of harm done the
dairy herd by annoyance from flies is not at all a settled matter.
Two experiment stations, Connecticut and Missouri, conducted
tests to indicate the influence of the fly and, entirely inde-
pendently of each other, came to the conclusion that the damage
done by the fly had been overestimated and that the slacking off
in milk yield was due far more largely to a scarcity of feed and
short pasture. On the other hand, we find experienced and
keenly observing dairymen who attribute the falling off in milk
during fly season very largely indeed to the labor and pain
endured by the cows due to the flies. This is particularly the
case in some of our newer northern sections where various
“ deer,” “moose” and “ night” flies are particularly abundant.

It is possible, therefore, that the difference of opinion is in
part due to the difference in the sort of fly common in the section
considered. ;

Supplementing the pasture by means of a crop (of Canadian
field peas and oats) to be eut and fed green when pastures are
short and dry, is often necessary in the maintenance of milk
flow. If this is contemplated, about one acre should be used for
every twenty cows to be fed. Canada field peas and oats sown
as early as the ground can be worked, and followed by a similar
quantity sown when the first has grown to a height of two or
three inches, makes a good soiling crop for the northern states.
A more reliable crop to be fed later in the season will be found
in fodder corn, drilled thickly, at the rate of thirty-five to forty

MILKING 167

pounds of seed to the acre and put in as early as the season will
permit. This will be ready to feed in seventy-five to ninety
days after planting. If possible, the field of corn to be fed out,
should be located close beside the pasture or even enclosed within
the pasture. This nearness is for the sake of ease and economy
of labor in feeding. A few minutes with a hand corn knife
will suffice to cut and throw over the fence as much as the
animals will readily consume. If the supplementary corn field
is located by the pasture and is made long and narrow the
expense of feeding will have been reduced to “ie minimum and
it will be found to be a wonderfully well paying investment.

Milking.—The cow is a creature of habit. To return the
maximum of milk for the feed consumed she should be milked
at regular intervals, and preferably, by the same individual. In
some institutional or other large herds where the milking force
is continually changing in personnel, thus necessitating frequent
change of milkers, it is found preferable to shift the milkers
continually in order to prevent any cow from becoming attached
to any one milker. Thus the operation of milking becomes an
impersonal matter. It is more likely, too, that the damage done
by an individual poor milker will be partially rectified by the
following good milker.

In beginning the milking act care should always be taken
to start the process slowly. Sharp pains unquestionably pierce
the cow’s udder just as the milk starts. The first few streams
should be taken slowly and gently, especially in cold weather.
Many a quarrel between cow and man might have been averted if
consideration had been shown at this point.

Methods of Milking.—A few years ago the Danish or the
Heglund manipulation method of milking was quite widely dis-
cussed and was tested by the Wisconsin Station. In brief, the
result showed that following a slow or weak-handed milker the
Danish system of manipulation or massage would materially
increase the amount of milk yielded, but when it followed a
strong, active milker, little, if any, benefit was derived.

The Heglund system was devised very largely to interest
people in saccade but farm and village girls in particular, in

168 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

taking interest and pride in milking. It served that purpose
well, but also demonstrated to all the need of massage of the
mammary glands if greatest activity and yield were to be ob-
tained. Ample stimulation seems to be furnished, however,
by ordinary rapid, strong-handed milking, followed by a mod-
erate amount of drawing down of the teat and stripping out of
the udder. When once the milk flow has been well started, strong-
handed, rapid milking is preferable, as such will obtain more
milk at each milking and will keep the cow in, milk for a longer
period of months.

Stripping for some time after the major portion of the milk
has been drawn is in part a habit on the part of the cow and the
milker. This may be largely avoided if the milker will but
draw down firmly on the teat with one hand while gently but
firmly squeezing and rubbing downward on the udder with the
other. Stripping, as commonly understood, that is, the slipping
of the teat between the thumb and finger to finish getting all
the milk should not be practiced. The milk can all be drawn
with less pain to the cow by finishing with the full hand or with
thumb and two fingers.

The first and last milk drawn from a cow differ very ma-
terially in fat content. The first is thin, almost watery. The
fat in such frequently is only one quarter as great in amount as
in the last drawn or the strippings. The amount of difference
between first and last depends largely upon how much milk
the cow is giving at that particular time. If fresh in milk so
that the udder is fully distended, in fact turgid, the first milk
drawn may test as low as one-half of one per cent fat, while the
stripping test is as high as 9 per cent fat, the last being eighteen
times as rich as the first. But with a cow giving only five to
ten pounds at a milking, the first mav test 2 or 3 per cent and
the last 6 or 7 per cent, with an average of 4 per cent for the
whole mess. This emphasizes the necessity of milking the cow
dry and mixing the milk well before taking a sample for testing,
also the fact that if the cow is not milked out clean each time
the richest part of the milk is the part lost. Incomplete milking

THE MILKING MACHINE 169

“also is a very common cause of garget as well as causing the cow
to dry up ahead of time.

The Milking Machine——From the many reports by experi-
ment stations, and otherwise, regarding the efficiency and prac-
ticability of the mechanical milker it is obvious that at least some
of the machines, as now developed, and at present represented
by a dozen or more companies, will milk cows, that is, draw
from the udder most of the milk contained therein, but that it
will not strip out as thoroughly as desired nor yet massage the
mammary glands for the purpose of stimulating blood flow, and
much less excite in the cow’s nervous system the impulse to
milk secretion. The fact that some dairymen are continuing
to use the machine and are well pleased with it after an experi-
ence of from three to six years is evidence that the machine itself
is already in a reasonably high stage of perfection, but the fact
that many farmer dairymen who introduce the machine later
lay it aside, would indicate that the difficulty of finding the right
man to operate the machine is great. One is almost tempted to
draw the conclusion that the machine has reached a higher stage
of perfection than have the operators.

If on a two-man farm forty or fifty cows may be kept by the
assistance of the mechanical milker the advantages of the larger
number of cows or the small number of men is obvious. In the
dairies of fifty or more cows where transient labor must be
depended upon, it seems highly probable that one of the mechan-
ical milkers will be found a profitable investment, provided the
owner operates the machine himself.

Some machines are not provided with adequate regulators
of the suction force, while others have no way provided for the
relief of the teat from constant or near-constant suction. Cows
do not object to the feel of the teat cups nor to the click of the
machine. In fact many now on the market are easier on the
cow than are ordinary hand milkers with untrimmed finger nails.

The whole matter of mechanical milkers now resolves itself
into three questions, the cost for the number of cows to be
handled, the handling so as to keep up the flow of milk and the
sanitary character of the product drawn. If a man has feed

170 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

and barn room for twenty or thirty cows and can save hiring a
man by having a machine, it will pay to put one in, provided he
understands machinery reasonably well and understands cows
fully as well as would be required if he were to do all the work
by hand and will attend to the work in person.

Most or all the machines are now made so that all parts can
be cleaned. It is another question whether they will be kept
clean. If cared for properly cleaner milk can be produced by
machine than by hand, but in practice there is danger that the
milk will not be so clean.

The success or the failure of the machine now depends
almost wholly on the operator.

The bed of the cow naturally should be comfortable whether
made so with shavings or straw. It is the nature of cattle to
eat their feed rapidly, then to lie down to ruminate it. If a
hard, narrow, or otherwise uncomfortable bed is furnished them,
the discomfort will induce activity and needlessly increase the
amount of feed necessary for maintenance. Making the cows
completely comfortable saves feed (Fig. 59).

Dehorning the cows after maturity gives them less pain than
they would inflict upon some sister cow if permitted to wear
their useless side arms. Clippers for the removal of horns are
not to be advised, since they crush the bone and thereby leave a
large number of little slivers which make healing difficult and
very slow. A fine meat saw is preferable to any other instru-
mert vet devised. The horn should be sawed so close to the
head that a ring of hair about a quarter of an inch wide will still
cling tothe horn. Cut thus short the horn will not grow, neither
will it hurt the animal as keenly as it would if cut a half inch
longer, in which case the stub would continue growth and often
produce an ugly or annoying malformed horn. It is inadvisable
to dehorn in winter because of the cold, and it is dangerous,
indeed, to dehorn in summer when flies are bad. If, in the case
of an accident, it becomes necessary to saw off an animal’s horn
during fly season and maggots should develop in the wound, they
may be thoroughly expelled by means of turpentine. The
wound should then be covered with a wad of cotton saturated

KICKING COWS 171

with tar, to form a temporary scab, and to repel flies. It, of
course, is preferable to apply the tarred cotton as a precaution
rather than as a remedy.

Cows without horns live together so much more peaceably,
crowding about the water tank like so many sheep, that the prac-
tice of permitting the horns to remain on the working dairy herd
should be considered an extravagance, at best a luxury.

As a working practice it is preferable to prevent the horn
from growing on the calf by means of caustic.

Sucking cows are liable to develop if calves are permitted
to suckle each other after drinking. They often thus learn the

Fie. 59.—Comfort is also economy in the dairy cow stable.

taste of milk from some member of the herd and finally discover
that they themselves may be the source of that satisfaction.
Various means have been suggested, but the one which most
nearly always works is to put into the cow’s nose an ordinary
bull ring and into this ring a second ring, forming thus a two-
linked chain. This so interferes with the process of sucking as
to finally discourage it altogether.

It is often a hard habit to break, however, and should be
averted by so handling the calves that they do not learn the trick.

Kicking cows are usually developed from rough handling.
The more intelligent and sensitive the animal the more likely it
is to resent unjust treatment. The heifer with first calf is

172 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

nervous and too often unaccustomed to being handled. Quiet
self-control on the part of the milker for a few days will usually
suffice to convince the young mother that she is among friends
with no reason to fight.

In ease flies, barb-wire scratch, or other cause has made bad
sores upon the cow’s teats, greatest comfort in milking is found
by first moistening the skin with warm water or milk. A good
fly-repelling salve should be used after milking to heal the
wounds. In case it is necessary to tie the animal’s legs this
should be done by tying them together with a soft rope, put on
in “figure eight,” above the hocks. This will prevent her
doing damage and without subjecting her to the strain and excite-
ment which would follow strapping a foot back.

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the cow is a docile
creature, fully willing to be friends with her keeper, and will not
kick without cause.

Hard milkers are frequently caused by neglect of the teat
in permitting it to become too dry and harsh. This may be
overcome by the use of vaseline, which should be thoroughly
rubbed into the skin before milking. Slow and weak-handed
milking also encourages hard milking. Thus when neglect and
weak-handed milking have developed a thoroughly hard milker
she may often be brought back into normal condition by the
application of oil and strong hands.

Leaking teats are occasionally a great. annoyance, since they
not only permit the waste of a considerable amount of the milk
so preciously formed, but so saturate the floor beneath the animal
that the stall becomes sour. This in turn not only produces a
bad odor in the barn, but infects the animal as she lies in her
place and increases the likelihood of milk being produced which
will sour abnormally soon. Occasionally such leaks may be
prevented by coating the tip of the teat with a little collodion
immediately following milking. Alum rubbed on the moist
end of the teat immediately following milking may aid somewhat.

Name the Cows.—Every cow in the barn should be given a
name and be called by that name sufficiently often and clearly
to enable her to learn it. It gives individuality to the animals

WATERING 173

and increases the interest on the part of the attendants. Further,
the name often proves valuable in preventing cows from wander-
ing into forbidden parts of the barn, for when they are seen
starting, if spoken to clearly, and called by name they realize
that they have been discovered and return to their own stall or
pass out as desired.

Every cow should be given her own place in the barn, if
possible, and taken to that place upon the first visit to the barn.
When led directly to the right place and tied and fed she soon
learns her place and takes it of her own accord, thus preventing
confusion and accidents so liable to result if a barn is opened to
a herd, the individuals of which have no detinite place.

Watering.—Cows require from three to five gallons, twenty-
five to forty pounds of water, per day when dry and from three
to four times that amount when milking. In calculating tank
capacity 160 pounds or twenty gallons will be required each
day for each cow. If the cow is compelled to drink ice water
in winter the feeder may calculate that the heat in two pounds
of hay will be required simply to warm the water from the tem-
perature of the pond or icy tank to that of the animal’s body and
that half or more of this loss can be saved by tempering the
drinking water to about 70 or 80 degrees. This is particularly
desirable when cows are watered from a large tank out of doors.
The violent shivering so often seen in cows and horses just after
drinking a lot of cold water is nature’s way of giving the animal
exercise to warm the water. (See paragraph on Stable Tem-
perature.) While some cows will drink only once a day by
preference, most desire to drink at least twice. A cow milked
very heavily should be watered at least four times a day or, better,
have water available at all times, either in a pail or drinking
fountain.

Methods of Watering in Barn.—A_ private drinking foun-
tain for each cow is not essential to economical milk production, *
nor even to high production. They are expensive to install
and necessitate labor in keeping them clean. Further than this,
it will be found good practice, even in cold weather, to turn
the cows out once or twice a day to give them a chance to limber

174 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

up by a little walk and opportunity to discover one another.
Unless use is made of this fact the intense dairy cows are liable
to go over period after period of heat unnoticed. During winter
the cows should be watered in the yard on warm days and from a
tank at a convenient place in the stable during severe weather.

It, however, is exceedingly convenient to have a watering
device in the stable whereby the cows may be watered while
still in their stalls (Fig. 60). .\ convenient method of doing
this is to rum a water pipe along the top of the cement base of
the manger in front of the cows, then to have holes drilled at
intervals to allow the escape of water into the concrete manger.
Thus all cows receive water at the same moment. This pre-
vents reaching and slipping, also saves water.

Another convenient method, where the manger will not per-
mit its use as a trough, is to extend the water pipe in front of the
cows with a faucet and short hose between each two cows. A pail
may then be set into the manger and water drawn directly into
it from the pipe close by. This requires a little more time but
is cheap of installation, and will not be needed except during
severe weather when ficld work is usually not pressing.

Salt Requirement.—N ot only from nature in general, but by
exact experiments, it is known that cows require salt in order
to remain in health. In a test a few of the cows broke down
after less than a month of salt fasting, whereas others withstood
the strain for more than a year, but these finally and suddenly
developed a thoroughly miserable condition, which, however, was
quickly alleviated by the addition of salt to the ration. Heavy
milkers need more salt than those that give but little milk. Salt
not only whets the appetite of the cow, but seems also to lessen
the waste from the body of protein of feed or muscle, or in
other words, a little salt regularly fed or placed where the cow
may cut it at will tends to save other feedstuffs. The fact that
the addition of salt to hay or grain mixture makes the feed more
palatable is an important item, since feed that is well liked is
more easily and thoroughly digested. Cows need about one
ounce of salt per day on the average. Salt bricks attached to the
side of the stall are of no particular advantage. Common barrel

CHANGE OF ROUTINE 175

salt costs much less and is more casily given and also permits
being mixed with the grain or the adimixture of bone meal, which
is a special advantage to young stock.

Change of routine in doing the work of the stable should be
avoided so far as possible. It is preferable that the feed for the
dav be divided into two equal parts and fed, half in the morning
and half in the evening. The grain should be fed first and
while it is being consumed the milking should be done. This
aids in getting the cow into an agrecable frame of mind and
lessens the likelihood of a quarrel with the milker and makes for

Fic. 60.—The drinking fountain, convenient but not essential. (Photo loaned by James
Mig. Co.)

larger flow of milk. Hay should be fed after milking because
it will fill the air of the stable with dust, which dust carries
immense quantities of mould, and bacteria, which will hasten
the spoiling of the milk if permitted to enter it. Silage should
be fed after milking because of its odor. Cows should be
watered twice a day, once in the morning after eating their feed
and again in the afternoon just before being fed.
Punctuality and regularity are very positive virtues in dairy
workers, for not only does the work itself depend on it, but the
amount of milk the cows will yield as well. Even with proper

176 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

feed and comfort, if regularity is lacking, a cow will not yield
what she otherwise would.

A dog on a dairy farm may or may not be a nuisance; that

depends upon his character and training. The ordinary sort,
however, is an expensive luxury which is not to be recommended.
A good Shepherd or Collie, however, may very readily be trained
not only to save many steps, but also to do general police duty on
a livestock farm and thereby be of real value.

poe

QUESTIONS

. What is the normal gestation period for cows?
. What time of the year is generally the best time for cows to freshen?

Why?

. How may a spring cow be put on to a fall-calving schedule?

How much rest does a cow need between lactation periods?

. Tell how to dry off a cow.

. How should the dry cow be fed?

. What is meant by “conditioning” a cow?

. How may the manure serve as an index in feeding?

. When should cows be milked before calving?

. What care should be given at calving time?

. How should the cow be cared for after calving?

. How many times a day should a cow be milked when fresh?
. At what time does a cow give most milk?

. How soon after calving ought a cow to be bred?

. What percentage of a mature cow’s record is the first year of work?

Second year? Third year?

. How may the feed affect the test of milk?
. What effect has a drought on the quality of milk?
. What effect does turning cows out to pasture in the spring have upon

the quality of milk yielded?

. Which is preferable, a large or a small pasture for cows?
. How many acres are required to pasture a cow?

. How is midsummer short pasture to be met?

. How should milking be done?

. What is the value of the Heglund method of milking?

. How do the first and the last milk drawn from a cow differ?
. What of the milking machine? Have you seen one work?

. What temperature is best suited to dairy cows?

. Discuss light in the dairy barn.

. What is the best way to dehorn?

. How may hard milking be made easier?

CHAPTER XX
HOW CAN I GET THE MOST FROM THE COWS I HAVE?

THE immediate problem which confronts many, probably
most, American farmers to-day is not so much what breed or
strain of cows would be most profitable to keep if they could
have what they want, but rather how to get the greatest returns
from what they now have. All realize that a few cows are
outstandingly valuable and that there is a small horde of lesser
power that are very good, but the number of high-producing
cows is altogether too small to furnish each farmer with a herd
or even with one specimen, and that for some time the bulk of
the dairy work of this country must of necessity be done by
grades only moderately well suited to their tasks.

Common cows have repeatedly shown themselves capable of
producing much more and more economically than is generally
realized, even 50 to 100 pounds of fat per year. To secure such
results, however, the “ common” cow must be accorded “ pure
bred ” care, 7.e., she must be fed and treated right. In general,
farmers should keep the cattle they now have, and build up.
The following are the chief points in getting what we can out
of the cows we now have:

1. Fall fresh to produce more milk. See Chapter XIX.

2. Comfortably housed to save feed. See Chapter X XI.

3. Succulent feed, silage, to encourage liberal eating. See
Chapter X XIII.

4, Feeding liberally so cow can have something to work on.
See Chapter XXIII.

5. Fair amount of grain so cows may be able to consume more
nutriment. See Chapter XXIII.

6. Balance of nutrients, so the body and the milk may be
adequately fed. See Chapter XXIII.

4. Treated with kindness so she will be willing and glad to
let down the milk. See Chapter XIX.

12 177

178 QUESTIONS

8. Regularly fed and milked so the cow’s system may not
be frequently thrown out of tune. See Chapter XIX.

9. Liberally watered, twice daily. See Chapter XIX.

10. Protected from heat and flies in summer. See Chapter
XIX.

11. Milked quickly and thoroughly. See Chapter XTX.

12. Dehorned. See Chapter XIX.

13. Milk weighed and tested. See Chapter XVIII.

14. Best cows kept and bred to pure-bred bull.

Our grade cows must of necessity serve as foundation, but
we should aim to build higher than the foundation only. Life is
too short to spend on inefficient cows any longer than necessary.

QUESTIONS

1. How should a man proceed to secure a profitable dairy herd when
he has no cows to start with?

2. When he has a herd of untested grades on hand?

3. What three things should guide him in selecting a breed?

4, What points should be looked out for in selecting a bull?

5. What “off color” in Guernsey and in Holstein bulls may sometimes be
taken advantage of?

6. What must a pedigree show in order to be a good one?

7. What are the advantages of community breeding?

8. How are community breeding associations operated?

9. How are daily milk records valuable?

10. Show how the three-day record is worked.

11. What is the plan of operation of coitperative dairy test associations?

12. What results have been attained by organized cow testing?

CHAPTER XXI
SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY BARN

Tur stable need not be expensive but should be made to
furnish as nearly as possible the condition which naturally
surrounds the cows during that time of year in which they
universally produce milk most abundantly, namely, the spring
or early summer. The cow does not care for the time of year,
but rather for conditions (Fig. 61).

Certain features of the dairy barn and cow stable are very
often under discussion, chief among which are such matters as
the preferable kind of floor, whether cows should be faced out-
ward or inward, and the like.

Hay storage over a cow stable is thoroughly permissible even
in well organized cow barns, provided simply that there be a good
tight floor between the hay and the cows. ‘The breath of stock
injures, or even ruins, hay or fodder if stored above without
being protected. It is economy to provide the hay floor. Also
the dust that gathers on hay or straw over stock will so easily
and so often be knocked off into the air of the stable that clean
milk could only with difficulty be produced under such conditions.

The floor material best adapted for use in dairy cow stables
is concrete. This may well be left exposed in walks, alleys,
gutters and mangers, and may be a foundation under the cows,
but should be overlaid with some non-conductor of moisture
and heat where the cows must stand and lie. Common soft-wood
plank soaked in tar or creosote will render much good service,
but has the disadvantage of wearing out too quickly and also of
offering many cracks which, if not filled with tar, will collect
dirt. Cork bricks are made of bits of cork compressed into the
form of common bricks, being held together by asphaltum or
similar material. Such brick are good as covering for a strong,
coarse concrete foundation, especially in being warm, not severely
hard on the cow’s feet, and waterproof (Fig. 62).

The cost of cork brick is about $48 to $50 per 1000 and

179

180 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM

50 to 60 bricks will be required per cow. Of consequence too
is the fact that they are not made uniform in thickness, so that a
smooth floor top is difficult to make.

Creosote wooden blocks, such as are now so much employed
in surfacing city streets, are now being much used for cow-stable
floors. They are cheap, very durable, sanitary and warm. Of
these blocks, about ninety will be needed per cow.

An insulating layer in the concrete makes the floor dry and
warm. The time to install the insulating layer is when the

= ‘ . = = — ine.

|
|
|

Fie. 61.—A typical Vermont barn. Note team approach on three levels. (Photo by author.)

floor is being constructed. After the rough grouting is poured
a layer of tar paper is nailed on it all over the cow beds. The
nail heads are left projecting half an inch so that when the
finish coat is poured the nails will help to hold it in place. Two
coats of coal-tar paint is sometimes used instead of the tar paper.
Either will prevent the capillary action of moisture through the
cement and the floor will be warm and dry. The top layer of
cement will retain the heat of animals much as soapstone does.

Facing cows inward makes feeding easier and the cleaning
is as easy if a litter carrier be provided. But the plan has the
distinct disadvantage in that the walls are certain in a very few

FACING THE COWS OUTWARD 181

days to become fouled by the spattering manure unless a wide
walk is left behind the cows, or a deep manure gutter is provided.
Any manure on the walls must remain to be unsightly and a
reproach to the manager or be scrubbed off. It should be re-
membered too that fresh manure contains a slimy substance from
walls of the cow’s intestines which renders it sticky. On the
early-day log stables fresh cow manure was regularly used as a
mortar to plaster up the cracks between logs and chinks where
it would withstand weathering for several months. On the
wall behind the cow it will remain until scrubbed off. Such
work is expensive in time and wholly non-productive,

(ifthe

Ea iti Btls DI SALI

Fie, 62.—A substantially built cow stable. Note the deep cement gutter and the cork
brick floor where the cows are to stand.

Many good dairymen provide deep gutters tor the manure
and wide walks behind the cows, and then prefer to have the
cows face inward. They then have their eyes away from the
bright light of windows.

By facing the cows outward the walls are kept clean and the
floor between the two rows of cows may be cleaned far more
easily than the walls. Furthermore, the difference in the
standard of cleanliness for the walls and the floor renders it
many times more easy to keep a cow stable presentable when the
cows face outward rather than inward. If cows face outward

182 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM

it is very often true economy to make the stable wide enough
to permit a wagon or even a three-horse manure spreader to be
driven through the barn from end to end, in order that the
manure may be removed with the least possible amount of labor
and drawn directly to the fields (Fig. 63).

Arranged so, the cows have a wide door through which to
enter the stable, thus lessening the danger of accidents due to
crowding. It also gives the cows more room to enter and leave
their stalls in comfort and safety.

In sale stables too it is desirable to have all the animals in
sight from one point. They show up to better advantage. All
things considered, there are many who prefer the out-facing
system. Each plan has its own advantages, and both plans
will continue to be followed by good dainymtem,

Ventilation of the Stable. Ts a sense, air or the oxygen
contained in it, is a food, since the carbon contained in the feed
eaten cannot undergo oxidation and liberate heat and energy
without it. Furthermore, body tissues are constantly wearing
out and, in the form of carbon dioxide, are being thrown off
largely in the exhaled air. Much moisture and some organic
particles also escape from the body in the warm breath and in
addition to these exhaled impurities, various gases, such as
ammonia and marsh gas, are passed which aid in defiling the
air. Molds and bacteria grow abundantly in straw and hay in
an atmosphere so moist and full of organic matter.

Diseases of all sorts are more liable to be spread and con-
tracted, and to be intense in their action in a badly ventilated
stable. Even if specific diseases are not present, however, a bad
atmosphere is undesirable because it is depressing in every
respect on both the stock and the laborers who must spend a
portion of their time in it.

The amount of air breathed by an average cow is given by
King? as about 2800 cubic feet in 24 hours or about 224 pounds,
—ahbout twice the weight of feed and water required. This is
not to say that all oxygen in such a volume of air was used.

It is generally calculated that the stable should be sufficiently

*King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, Second Edition, p. 354.

183

GENERAL DAIRY BARN

Whm$

GERERAL Patry DARN Scale= mittiszs

Fie. 63.—Plan of general farm and dairying barn on Woodland Dairy Farm, Monticello, Minn. Note broad driveway and
out-facing of stock.

184 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM

commodious to permit 600 cubic feet of air space per cow. This,
as a necessity, however, must depend upon the rate of exchange
of the air. There should be some inflow and outflow of air even
in the largest stables. Too much circulation in winter is
obviously detrimental. In this aggravating matter the southern
dairyman, with his lattice-sided barns, has a decided advantage.

The forces that produce ventilation in stables are (a) a
wind pressure against the side of the building tending to force
air in; and a suction on the opposite side which tends to draw it
out; (0) the air friction over the top of the ventilator flue caus-
ing a draft as in tall chimneys and (c) the difference in the
temperature between the air of the stable and that of the outside.
The relative values of these three forces will naturally vary
continually with conditions (Tig. 64).

A Choice of Systems.—Poorly constructed stables will need
no system of ventilation. Many northern barns need battening
rather than more airing.

During much of the year, even of winter in the northern
states, windows may safely be opened to hasten air circulation,
especially if the windows be hinged at the bottom and set to slant
inward when open (Tig. 65).

On many occasions, when the wind is blowing strongly, a
curtain of common cotton cheesecloth or muslin, or burlap sack-
ing, may be tacked over the window. This is best done by
first tacking the muslin onto a frame and slipping the frame
into place when needed in cold weather. There are times and
conditions, however, when a more systematic ventilation is
desirable. For such there is probably none better than the
well known King system, developed by Prof. F. H. King, of
Wisconsin University.

The essential features of the King system are: (1) An out-
going air duct and (2) an opportunity for air to enter to take
the place of that drawn out. The out-going ventilator shaft
should be comparatively large and smooth to reduce friction
within, as straight as consistent with the plan of the barn and ex-
tending up through the roof, not terminating in the hay loft but
open into the cupola. The air duct should be of wood or if of

THE LOCATION OF THE FLUE 185

tin or galvanized iron, be covered over with boards. This insula-
tion is to prevent the eam air of the hay loft from so cooling the
out-going air as to check it, and turn it downward. The air
inlets should be smaller and of greater number than the outlets.
They consist of shorter shafts through which the air must rise

before entering the barn.
a) ~m-
Vertilakion \ Vertilakion

Shaft Shalt

KAY and stTRaw:.

StORAGE--

(} N

5 Oullel- if if 4 li
Trlek
Hb, Ss Driveway a Calves. ao
tl AY l= — A. S35) ee WS. A=

Sorlen phe toy

Fig. 64.—Elevation Woodland Dairy Farm barn. Note system of ventilation. a,
outlet in summer; b, outlet in winter; and d, inlet at all times. Also the dirt-tight floor
over the stock. Straw for bedding as well as hay for feed is stored in the loft.

The location of the flue would best be near the center of
the stable. This permits a straight duct and encourages draught
but may be against the walls aid roof. In summer the warm
air at the top of the stable may be drawn away, while in winter
the suction may commence at the floor as shown in figure 64.
The air inlets should be made in the walls so as to admit the fresh

186 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM

air near the top of the stable, just below the hay floor, or, if no
hay is stored overhead, about seven feet from the floor.

Much trouble has been experienced with the system if not
properly installed. The author hesitates to recommend it or
any other system to those who do not understand its principles.
In practice, a thoughtful use of windows and muslin curtains
will go a long way toward solving the problem.

The muslin curtain at the window furnishes an economical
and fairly efficient means of drying the atmosphere of the stable
and permits thorough mixing of fresh air with the old. If
the muslin is fastened to a frame that may be slid into place it
may often be used when the temperature or the wind would
not permit windows to be opened with safety. On mild days,
of which all parts of the United States have so many, the doors
or top half of the doors and windows may be opened with safety
and good results. Under some circumstances the muslin cur-
tain is to be recommended over any other system.

The temperature of the stable should, so far as possible, not
be permitted to go lower than about 45 and not much higher
than about 70 degrees. A temperature of about 60 degrees
seems to be the one best suited to dairy cows. A high tempera-
ture, 85 degrees or above, causes the cow to lose her appetite, and
gu “off feed” easily if being at all crowded. A cold tempera-
ture in the stable, on the other hand, cools the cow’s body just as
it would any other warm object and requires that the cow make
it up by eating more feed. The temperature must be main-
tained if life is to continue. WNature’s safety valve in this
matter is tense muscles and shivering. Literally, therefore, a
cold cow must shiver herself warm, as queer as this may sound.
We all know how tired we fecl in the morning after having
“slept cold.” We were tired because our muscles had been at
work, drawn tense, to keep us warmer.

Good light is necessary in the stable for ease in doing the
work and for keeping it clean, as well as being desirable from the
standpoint of the cow herself. Too much light, however, is
wearying to any animal and thus expensive. The most serious
objection to facing cows outward is that they will face more or

THE DIMENSIONS OF THE STALLS 187

less directly against the windows. But if these are only mod-
erate in number and placed horizontally so that the bottoin is
about four and one-half feet from the floor, the light will not be
severe on any and will be actually restful to all those located
between the windows.

To make it lighter for work throughout the stable the whole
interior may be whitewashed. In fact a good whitewashing
applied by means of a spray pump to reach the crevices and
cracks is to be recommended once or twice a year to kill disease
and other germs. Many barns have been built, of late years,
with so much glass surface as to be too warm on bright days
and too cold. on windy ones and at the same time not particu-
larly well lighted because the interior was left in some dark color.
A more wholesome and dependable condition can be procured
by employing less glass and more whitewash.

The dimensions of the stalls best suited to dairy cows nat-
urally vary with the breed or rather the size of the cows to. be
fitted. The following table will indicate the needed distances:

Width of Distance from Manger | Thick-

Name of Breed. Box Stall. Single Stall. to Gutter. aes. ot

Feet Inches

Naturally, the breed of cows to be kept should be settled
upon before the stable is built.

It is found very convenient to have the width of the bed
on which the cows stand vary from, say 5 feet 3 inches at one
end to 4 feet 3 inches at the other, if Holsteins are kept, or from
4 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 10 inches for Jerseys. In this way
smaller cows of the breed or young stock may be placed at one
end of the barn and larger ones at the other end, where they
all will be kept clean.

As to the width needed, many people try to save space and
in doing so cramp the cows and surely cause them to be uncom-

188 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM

fortable. An increase in width of a Holstein cow’s stall from
3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches is as nothing compared with
the commodious apartments generally provided beef cattle.
Bodily comfort is true economy with dairy cows.

The manger may very profitably be made of concrete, but
care should be taken to build up the bottom to at least one and
better two inches higher level than the cow’s feet. It should
also be made to slant toward the cow in order that she may reach
her feed without straining or slipping (Fig. 65).

Fic. 65.—Note broad feed alley and slant of windows.

QUESTIONS

. Under what conditions may hay very properly be stored over cows?

What material is best adapted for use as stable floors?

What material should be used on the floor where the cows stand?

. Tell the advantages of facing the cows inward in the stable.

. What are the advantages or disadvantages of facing the cows outward?

How may a stable most economically be lighted?

. What other advantages are to be gained by thorough whitewashing?

. Give the dimensions of stall best suited to the cows of various breeds.

. Explain the forces that cause a circulation of air in the King system
of ventilation,

. Explain the use of the muslin curtain.

a
o

CHAPTER XXII

COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE*

WHILE it is not intended that this volume shall be a book on
veterinary practice, it is well known that the regular herdsman
or caretaker should be able quickly to recognize when his charges
are out of health and be able to treat the commoner or simpler
afflictions. These considered here are those most frequently
to be dealt with.

TUBERCULOSIS

Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease caused by the
bacteria of tuberculosis affecting man and lower animals.

Occurrence.—Tuberculosis exists in all civilized countries.
In America the disease was introduced with early importations
of cattle and has gradually spread until no section of the country
is free from it. The exact percentage of tuberculous animals
in any country is unknown, but the relative number has been
determined by tuberculin testing and by post-mortem examina-
tions in abattoirs. The Secretary of Agriculture, in his report for
1908, estimated that one per cent of beef cattle and ten per cent
of dairy cattle were tuberculous.

Importance.—Tuberculosis is to-day the most serious prob-
lem confronting the livestock industry. The disease is prob-
ably not on the increase among cattle, but is becoming more
prevalent among swine and poultry. Thousands of infants and
young children receive cow’s milk as their chief diet and it is
usually consumed in the raw state. Milk from cows affected
with tuberculosis often contains living virulent bacilli of tuber-
culosis. Children consuming this milk may develop tuberculosis,
which is frequent cause of death. Scientific investigations show
that a certain percentage of human tuberculosis is of bovine
origin, the germs being transferred through the use of milk,
butter, and cheese, or improperly cooked meat of animals.

Nature of ‘'Tuberculosis.—Tuberculosis is, as a rule, a
chronic, insidious disease which spreads slowly from animal to
animal in a herd until most of them are affected. Tuberculosis

* Written by Dr. W. L. Boyd.

189

190 COMMON AILMEN'IS OF CATTLE

develops very slowly and for this reason many owners of cattle
do not suspect its presence in their herd until several animals
have become diseased. If tuberculosis were rapid in its develop-
ment and caused death within a few days like some of the other
infectious diseases of cattle, rigid measures would soon be
adopted in order to check its progress and dissemination. In
many parts of our country it is customary to allow hogs to feed
in the dung of cattle. If the cattle be tuberculous, their manure
will quite often be laden with virulent germs which, when
taken up by the swine, cause them to become diseased. Especially
is this so in herds where the disease has become extensive.
Tuberculosis is not hereditary, but the offspring of tuberculous
parents acquire a predisposition to the disease; 1.e., they are
more apt to become affected with tuberculosis when exposed to
the infection than are the young born from healthy parents.
Symptoms.—The symptoms or signs of tuberculosis are
numerous and while some of them are quite suggestive of tuber-
culosis, not one can be relied upon with any great degree of
certainty in the establishment of a diagnosis. In some infectious
diseases, certain symptoms occur which are characteristic of
that disease alone. Characteristic symptoms or signs are not
observed, however, in tuberculosis. Tuberculosis may be pres-
ent in fat, sleek-looking cattle which show no symptoms of ill
health (Fig. 66). Such cases can be detected by the tuberculin
test only. The symptoms of tuberculosis vary according to the
organ affected. In some instances unthriftiness and loss of
flesh will be the chief symptoms observed (Fig. 67). When the
lungs are diseased a rather weak, subdued, infrequent cough
will be noticed. This cough is most severe in the early morn-
ing or after exercise, and after drinking, respiration becomes
more difficult and at times quite rapid. The appetite gradually
decreases and intestinal derangement develops. When the in-
testines are diseased diarrhea is a prominent symptom. En-
largement of the superficial lymph glands in the region of the
throat and neck are of frequent occurrence. When the glands
of the chest become enlarged, sufficient pressure is at times
exerted on the gullet or esophagus to cause the animal to suffer

SYMPTOMS 191

Fia. 66.

Fic. 67.

Fic. 66.—Cow in good condition and apparently healthy, yet tuberculous. (Courtesy of
M. H. Reynolds.)
Fic. 67.—Bull thin and unthrifty, due to the effects of tuberculosis. (Courtesy of
M. H. Reynolds.)

192 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

from bloat. Bloating, however, is not a frequent symptom.
The body temperature may be normal, although we more fre-
quently find it to be irregular, being inclined to be much higher
in the evenings. Tuberculosis of the udder manifests itself
by the formation of hard lumps or swellings in certain parts of
the gland. Milk from such an udder should not be used, as it
is quite apt to be laden with germs.

The Manner by Which the Disease Spreads.—Tuberculous
cows sooner or later give off the germs which may escape, by the
mouth, the nose, in the milk, in the manure, and in the dis-
charges from the genito-urinary organs. When the germs are
thrown off in any of the above-named ways, the disease is known
as open tuberculosis. The germs discharged from the mouth
and nose are coughed up from the lungs, some of which are
swallowed while others are sprayed over the feed in front of the
cow. Cows in adjoining stalls may take in these germs with
the feed or the water and thus contract the disease.

The manure and urine from tuberculous animals usually
contain the germs and will spread the disease unless properly
disposed of. Manure mixed with the germs of tuberculosis
may fall into the milk pail or be carried to the milk direct by
the cow’s tail and thus contaminate the milk. The germs are
not removed when the milk is strained. When the disease affects
the udder the milk, as a rule, contains the germs in vast numbers.
Such milk will readily transmit the disease to young animals.
Milk of this kind is also very dangerous to young children.

The Manner by Which a Herd Becomes Infected.—The
principal ways through which tuberculosis may be introduced
into a’ herd are: First, through the buying of cattle from other
herds infected with the disease. Buyers should purchase only
from healthy herds in order to safeguard their healthy animals.
Second, calves may become infected by feeding them milk, butter-
milk, or whey from tuberculous cows. Such material should not
be fed unless boiled or pasteurized. Third, by allowing healthy
stock to mingle with diseased animals. Fourth, by keeping cattle
in poorly ventilated, insanitary, dark, and unclean quarters.

Tuberculin Test—Only a small percentage of tuberculous

WHAT IS TUBERCULIN? 193

animals can be detected by a physical examination. In many
cases only a few symptoms can be determined, and these are not
characteristic, as they may also occur in other diseases. The
tuberculin test is very accurate and when skillfully employed
detects the diseased animals practically without fail.

What Is Tuberculin?—Tuberculin is a fluid containing the
products (toxins) of the tubercle germ without the germs them-
selves, therefore when tuberculin is injected into healthy cattle,
it cannot cause tuberculosis. Tuberculin injected into tuber-
culous animals causes a marked temperature disturbance. The
tuberculin test may be applied by three different methods: (1)
The subcutaneous or temperature test; (2) the ophthalmic test,
and (3) the intradermal test.

The subcutaneous test is the oldest method and the one most
commonly used, although the ophthalmic and the intradermal
tests are thought to be just as accurate.

Tuberculin, when injected into diseased cattle, causes them
to become feverish within eight to sixteen hours after the tuber-
culin is administered. The fever lasts a short time and then
subsides. This temporary fever is called “the reaction,” and
the animals so affected are called “ reactors.”

In the subcutaneous test, the tuberculin is injected under
the skin, preferably in the region of the neck. Two or three
temperatures are taken, two or three hours apart, before the
tuberculin is injected in order to ascertain the animal’s normal
temperature. Eight or nine hours following the administration
of the tuberculin, the temperatures are again taken every two
hours until six temperatures have been recorded. The animals
which are found to be feverish are regarded as being tuberculous.

The ophthalmic test consists in inserting a drop of tuberculin
into the eye of the suspected animal. If the animal is healthy,
no change takes place, but if affected with tuberculosis, the eye
becomes reddened and waters profusely.

The intradermal test consists in injecting a very small
amount of tuberculin into (not under) the thin folds of the skin
at the base of the tail. A reaction consists of the appearance of
a swelling about the size of a walnut at the site of injection,

194 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

which remains for seventy-two hours or longer and disappears
very slowly.

Limitations of the Test.—The tuberculin test should not be
applied to cows that have just calved, as the temperature at
this time is apt to vary considerably from the normal. Calves
under six months of age should not be tested, as their tempera-
ture is quite changeable. Cattle in the advanced stages of
tuberculosis sometimes fail to react to the test, but such cases can
usually be detected by a physical examination. Cattle that
have just recently become infected may fail also to react. The
tuberculin test, when emploved by thoroughly competent men, is
by far the most accurate method available for detecting tuber-
culosis. The records of large numbers of tests made by govern-
ment officials show that the tuberculin test is accurate in ninety
to ninety-five per cent of animals tested (Fig. 68).

INFECTIOUS ABORTION OF CATTLE

Infectious abortion is a specific infectious disease produced
by the germ, Bacillus abortus, and characterized hy inflammation
of the mucous lining of the uterus (womb) and foetal membranes
resulting, as a rule, in the expulsion of the fcetus (calf) in an
immature condition. Infectious abortion is known also as con-
tagious abortion, epizodtie abortion, enzobtie abortion, and
“ slinking ” of calves,

Cause.—The Iicillus of abortion, which was described in
1897 by Prof. Bang of Denmark, is a short nonmotile rod pos-
sessing peculiar physical requirements which make it rather
difficult to cultivate artificially. In the diseased cow the organ-
ism lives in the mucous lining of the uterus (womb) and it is
at times found in the milk of affected cows. Abortion bacilli
inhabit the intestinal canal of the affected foetus. Outside of the
animal body little is known of the organism.

The Bacillus abortus is capable of producing abortion experi-
mentally in cattle, mares, sheep, goats and swine, by feeding and
by injecting the organisms into the circulation.

Susceptibility—JInfectious abortion is chiefly a disease of
heifers, yet in given herds there will be certain periods in which
all of the cows will abort regardless of ave. Infectious abortion
does not confine its ravages entirely to dairy breeds, but attacks

HOW ABORTION BECOMES DISSEMINATED 195

other breeds of cattle with little less severity. Many heifers
will abort once and then carry their second calf for the full
period. <A less number will abort their second calf and it is a
rare condition when a cow aborts the third time. Heifers from
aborting mothers may be less susceptible than those born to
healthy or noninfected dams.

The Manner by Which Abortion Becomes Disseminated.—
The mucous lining of the uterus of infected heifers and cows
harbors the Bacillus aborlus. The contents of the uterus, such

Tic. 68.—Heifer, thin and in poor condition, though not afiected with tuberculosis.
(Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.)

as the foetus, fwtal membranes, and the fluids, are all viruleut
and when expelled from the uterus become vehicles by which the
disease spreads. The discharge from the uterus following abor-
tion contains myriads of bacilli (germs) which may be carried
to various parts of the stable by aid of the surface drainage;
attendants may carry the infection on their boots or on the milk-
ing utensils which are at times carelessly handled. The bull
is undoubtedly a frequent carrier of the infection, especially
where several breeders use the same animal. Infected pregnant
heifers or cows introduced into healthy herds are often responsi-
ble for establishing new centers of the disease when they abort.

196 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

This is probably the chief way by which the disease disseminates,
as it is imposible to tell by a physical examination whether a
cow is diseased or not. Milk from aborting cows may be a
carrier of the infection.

Natural Mode of Infection.—The route by which the germ
gains entrance to the animal body is a debatable question. Some
authors hold that the open cervical canal at the time of cestrum is
the chief avenue of infection, being introduced into the cervix
and uterus at the time of copulation (breeding). No doubt the
bull is responsible for the transmission of the disease in a great
many cases, especially is this true in herds where only one bull is
used, he being allowed to serve both diseased and healthy cows.
In abortion occurring among range cattle, the bull is probably
responsible for carrying the infection from one cow to another,
principally at the time of breeding. The digestive tube un-
doubtedly acts as one of the chief channels of entrance, the infec-
tion being obtained from contaminated feedstuffs, including
pastures where diseased animals are allowed to graze. Artifi-
cially the disease has been produced by injecting virulent abor-
tion bacilli into the veins and under theskin. Ithas been produced
by feeding infected material. Abortion has also been produced
by placing virulent material in the vagina of pregnant cows.

Symptoms.—The period of incubation in infectious abortion
varies widely. In producing the disease experimentally certain
workers have determined the average period of incubation to be
approximately 130 days. The premonitory symptoms when
noticed consist of doughy swellings of the udder, and vulva,
followed by a mucus-like odorless discharge from the vagina.
The discharge may at times be streaked with blood, relaxation
of the sacro-sciatic ligaments, restlessness and stamping of the
hind feet. These symptoms usually appear one or two days
before the abortion occurs. Occasionally heifers have been ob-
served to make bag and even lactate at the fifth month of gesta-
tion, the abortion not taking place until the seventh month or
in its membranes, but, when the abortion occurs after the fifth
and sixth months of gestation it is not always indicative of abor-
tion. Cows will be observed to abort suddenly without mani-
festing premonitory symptoms. When heifers or cows abort in

DIAGNOSIS 197

the early stages of pregnancy the fcetus will be expelled enclosed
in its membranes, but when the abortion occurs after the fifth
month of gestation the membranes (afterbirth) are usually
retained. The large percentage of abortions take place between
the fifth and seventh months of pregnancy, although abortion
may occur any time during the period of gestation. Great ex-
citement may be noticed in heifers following an abortion and at
times will show all the signs of the heat period. The discharge
from the uterus and vagina, following abortion, continues for
two or more weeks, and may continue longer when the inflam-
mation of the lining of the uterus becomes severe. The dis-
charge is of a dirty, yellowish gray color, tenacious in character,
and accumulates on the tail and other parts to which it may come
in contact. The appetite is impaired but gradually improves
as they recover from the effects of the abortion. The milk flow
is slight but increases gradually as the animal recovers. The
foetus is, as a rule, born dead or if alive is weak and undersized
and dies within a few days with symptoms of diarrhcea or re-
mains in a stunted condition. Cases in which the foetus has be-
come mummified occur in infectious abortion. Such cases are,
however, rare. In a number of cases, cows that have appar-
ently recovered from the effects of the disease fail to conceive
though served by the bull numerous times before becoming im-
pregnated, or may never again get with calf (non-breeders).

Sterility in the greatest percentage of cases is probably
due to pyometra (pus in the uterus), the result of retained
placenta or afterbirth. In other cases the ovaries undergo cystic
degeneration, which, if extensive, often causes the cow to be
constantly bulling. Cases of this type are, as a rule, non-
breeders. Sterility is one of the chief characteristics of
infectious abortion.

Diagnosis.—In a herd where several calves have been
aborted in an immature condition, and especially if the aborting
animals be heifers, one is usually justified in regarding the
condition as infectious. The history, of course, should be taken
into consideration. Where infectious abortion cannot be diag-
nosed clinically, the following methods of diagnosis have been
recommended: (1) Bacteriologic.. (2) Serologic.

198 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

Bacteriologic Diagnosis.—Microscopically best results may
be obtained by examining smears prepared from the stomach and
intestines of the foetus soon after abortion. If small cocco-
bacilli are present in large numbers, one is quite safe in consid-
ering them as abortion bacilli. Cultures made from the stom-
ach of the foetus give, in a large percentage of positive cases,
cultures of Bacillus abortus.

Serologic Diagnosis.—The success of serum diagnosis in
other diseases induced the various workers in veterinary pathol-
ogy and bacteriology to apply the complement-fixation and ag-
glutination tests to infectious abortion. The serum method of
diagnosis is quite accurate in determining the presence of infec-
tious abortion. All heifers or cows affected with abortion form
certain substances in their blood known as anti-bodies. By the
aid of the complement-fixation or agelutination tests the greater
percentage of these cases can be determined. Some cows may
give positive reactions to the serum tests, yet not abort. The
indication, however, is that they are or have been infeeted with
the Bacillus aborlus. Positive reactions in herds where infec-
tious abortion is unknown are rare. By the aid of the serum
tests one can determine the extent of the disease in a herd.

Prevention and Treatments no drugs or medicinal
agents have thus far been discovered for the cure of this dis-
ease the treatment necessarily becomes preventive. In herds
where abortion has recently appeared it is advisable to practice
isolation of the aborting cows, not allowing them to come in con-
tact with healthy cattle until all signs of disease have disap-
peared. In cases of retained afterbirth, the same should be
removed by the hand within 24 to +8 hours after the abortion.
If the afterbirth does not come away readily it should not be
forcibly removed but the uterus should be irrigated once daily
with a warm disinfectant solution. The irrigation of the vagina
and uterus can best be done by using a soft rubber tube, one
end of which is introduced into the vagina with a funnel in the
outer elevated end. About one gallon of one-fourth or one-half
per cent solution of creolin, lysol, liquor cresolis, or a solution
of potassium permanganate (1 to 1000 solution) should be

MEDICINAL TREATMENT 199

introduced into the womb. This procedure should he practiced
once a day for 10 days. After this, twice a week as long as the
discharge continues. Cows that have aborted should not be
bred again within a period of three or four months after the
abortion occurred. The feetus and the afterbirth of aborting
cows contain innumerable bacteria, hence they should be burned
or deeply buried. Unless this precaution is taken the infection
will be carried from one place to another. Lime should be
placed in the gutters to prevent the bacteria from spreading by
surface drainage. Barns or stables that become infected should
be thoroughly disinfected. The cattle should be removed and
the barn left empty for four or five days. All bedding and
litter should be removed and the walls and floors should be
serubbed and then spraved with a strong disinfectant solution.
One of the best disinfectants for stables is lime wash. To
improve the germicidal propertics of lime one may add six
ounces of chloride of lime to every gallon of the ime wash:
This mixture may best be applied by using a spray pump so that
the disinfectant may be forced into the cracks and crevices.

The bull may be prevented from carrying the infection by
disinfecting the penis and sheath before and after each service.
The long hair around the opening of the sheath should be
clipped and the surrounding parts bathed with a mild anti-
septic solution.

In disinfecting the bull a small rubber hose will be found
quite serviceable, one end of which is inserted into the sheath
and held together by the hand so that the fluid will not imme-
diately escape. In the other end of the hose a funnel is inserted
into which the antiseptic solution is poured. In this way the
sheath pouch may be easily irrigated. Mild antiseptic solutions
should be used for this purpose. Infectious abortion may be sup-
pressed by maintaining strict preventive measures.

Medicinal Treatment—Many drugs have been used in the
treatment of abortion but none have proved to be of much value.
Certain drugs have been given credit for preventing abortion
in given herds, vet, no doubt, the same results would have been
obtained had no medicine been used. Carbolic acid and meth-

200 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

ylene blue have been used extensively in the treatment of abor-
tion. Good results reported from the use of these drugs is
probably due to the increased resistance or immunity to the
disease which occurs after one or two abortions rather than the
effects of the remedies themselves.

Immunization—Cows after aborting once or twice become
more resistant to the disease and carry the calf to the normal
termination of pregnancy. In this way the disease will gradu-
ally exhaust itself, providing susceptible animals are not added to
the herd. Because of the tendency toward natural immunity the
problem of producing an artificial immunity presented itself.
Living and dead cultures of abortion bacilli are being used in an
attempt to produce artificial immunity in young heifers.

MILK FEVER (PARTURIENT PARESIS)

This is a disease peculiar to the cow, occurring at or near
the time of calving. This disease as a rule confines itself almost
entirely to the heavy milking breeds. Generally cows are
afflicted at the third to fifth birth, although it may occur in
cows bearing their first calf. Most cases occur during hot
weather, and during rapid changes of weather. It may appear
also during the coldest weather. Milk fever usually sets in from
24 to 48 hours after birth of the calf, the maximum interval
being several days. It rarely occurs at the time of birth. Iso-
lated cases have been observed just before calving, but never
before the secretion of milk had begun.

Predisposing Causes.—Confinement in the stall predisposes
to milk fever, partly because of lack of exercise, which is very
essential in cows that are highly fed, and partly because of the
air being hotter and at times impure.

Constipation may become an accessory cause by increasing
the volume and density of the blood with certain material that
should pass off by the bowels.

Mature age is a strong predisposing cause. The disease
seldom, if ever, occurs with the first parturition and rarely with
the second. It appears with the third, fourth, or fifth birth,
when the cow has attained her normal growth and is converging
all of her energies to the production of milk.

SYMPTOMS 201

Calving is the chief predisposing factor. The manner in
which it acts as an accessory has not been definitely determined,
but is thought to be due to alteration in blood supply. It is
after easy calving when there has been little expenditure of
muscular or nervous energy that milk fever appears. Difficult
parturitions which, as a rule, occur at the time of the first or
second birth are rarely connected with parturient paralysis.

Symptoms.—Milk fever usually begins with signs of rest-
lessness and occasionally signs of brain irritation may be
observed in the beginning. After these initial stages, the char-
acteristic signs of depression and paralysis appear (Figs. 69 and
70). First, the cow shows a weakness in the use of her hind
parts; and steps unsteadily or staggers when attempting to
move or walk, may fall and struggle to rise again. The cow no
longer notices her calf or her feed. The weakness increases
and the cow lies down or falls and is unable to regain her feet.
The animal’s temperature, which becomes sub-normal, may be
slightly raised at this period. The cow may lie on her breast-
bone with her feet beneath the body, and her head turned
round with the nose resting on the right or left, usually the
left flank. In this position the cow appears to be asleep. In
cases of extreme feebleness, the cow may lie on her side with all
four legs stretched out. If an attempt is made to lift the head,
it falls back powerless into its old position. The eyes appear
glazed, and the pupils are widely dilated. The upper eyelid
droops over the eyeball and is not moved when the eyeball is
touched with the finger. At this time unconsciousness is usually
complete. The tongue hangs loosely from the mouth, and breath-
ing is performed with snoring, groaning, and rattling noises
accompanied with great distention of the nostrils. The muscles
of the bowels become paralyzed, causing obstinate constipation
and at times bloating. This is usually accompanied by paralysis
of the bladder muscles causing cessation of urination. If either
or both of these organs continue to function, a favorable prog-
nosis can usually be given. The temperature which may be
raised at first becomes sub-normal. The pulse and heart-beats are
quickened. The body temperature is unevenly distributed, the
feet, ears, and horns being exceptionally cold to the touch,

202 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

Course.—The duration of the disease is brief and the results
can usually be decided within a few hours.
Fic. 69.

Fic. 70.

Fic. 69.—Cow, showing symptoms of milk fever in the first stage. (Courtesy of M. H.
Reynolds.)

Fic. 70.—An advanced case of milk fever.

INJECTING UDDER WITH ATMOSPHERIC AIR 203

Preventive Treatment.—Ileavy milking cows should be kept
on a spare diet at least one week before calving and for four
to five days after calving. [ree access to salt and water are
beneficial, as they tend to keep the bowels in good condition.
One to one and one-half pounds of epsom salts may be admin-
istered twelve to twenty-four hours before calving. In case this
procedure is neglected, salts should be given soon after the cow
calves and the labor pains have ceased. Daily exercise is of
much importance. Rich feeds should be avoided.

Another preventive measure consists of allowing the suscepti-
ble cow to retain in the udder for twenty-four hours following
parturition all the milk except the quantity which is reyuired
by the calf, which amount should be taken, if possible, part from
each quarter.

Air Treatment.—The treatment of milk fever by the injec-
tion of sterile atmospheric air into the udder has proved to be
simple, practicable, and highly efficacious and results in no harm
to the udder when properly performed. If antiseptic precau-
tions are not observed and the injections performed in a careless
way, disease-producing bacteria will often be introduced into the
udder, causing mammitis (caked bag), a condition that may re-
sult in the loss of one or more quarters of the bag and at times in
death. The method of injecting filtered air into the udder is a
comparatively casy procedure, requiring but little time, and is
readily accomplished by the use of milk fever apparatus. A
milk fever apparatus is inexpensive and if cared for carefully
will last for years.

Technique for Injecting the Udder with Filtered Atmos-
pheric Air.—The teats and udder should be washed with soap
and water, and then carefully disinfected with a three to five per
cent solution of carbolic acid, lysol, creolin, or some other good
antiseptic. A clean towel or sheet should then be placed under
the udder to prevent the teats coming in contact with dirt or
filth. The hands of the operator should be thoroughly washed
with soap and water. The milking tube with the lower piece of
hose of the milk fever apparatus should be boiled fifteen to
twenty minutes before using. The milking tube is then inserted

204 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

into the opening of the teat and air is pumped into the quarter
until it is sufficiently distended. Careful massage of the udder
will allow the air to gain access to the innermost tubules. After
the quarter is well distended, the tube is removed. The same
treatment is applied to the other three teats until the udder is
satisfactorily distended. In certain cases it will be found neces-
sary to apply tape to the ends of the teats in order to keep the
air from escaping. The pieces of tape should be removed within
one or two hours so as to prevent sloughing. In case the air
becomes absorbed, and no improvement is noticed within four or
five hours, the treatment should be repeated, care being taken to
observe the same antiseptic precautions as at first. The air may
be left in the udder for twenty-four hours and when recovery
is certain, it should be gradually milked out. The affected cow
should not be allowed to lie on her side but kept up on the breast
bone (sternum) so as to prevent the development of pneumonia.

Simple cases of milk fever, especially in the beginning, may
be successfully treated by the layman provided he observes
strict antiseptic measures. Skilled veterinarians should be em-
ployed, however, as they will obtain more satisfactory results.
Especially is this true in the treatment of advanced and com-
plicated cases.

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE

This disease is also known as epizodtic aphtha, aphthous
fever, infectious aphtha, and may be defined as an acute, highly
contagious disease, characterized by the eruption of vesicles or
blisters in the mouth, around the coronary bands of the feet
and between the toes. Foot and mouth disease does not confine
its ravages among cattle but attacks almost as readily all other
cloven-hoofed animals. Horses, dogs, cats, and poultry at times
become infected and cases have been reported wherein man was
the victim. Foot and mouth disease is common in European
countries, where it produces great losses. The actual mortality
produced is low. However, serious losses occur from the
diminution of the milk secretion and the loss of flesh. Foot and
mouth disease spreads very rapidly and infects a large number

SYMPTOMS OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 205

of animals in a short period of time. Very little immunity is
produced by foot and mouth disease, repeated attacks having
been known to occur in the same animals.

Foot and mouth disease has appeared in the United States
on six different occasions. The recent outbreak of 1914 was
by far the most serious as well as the most extensive that has
ever occurred in this country. All of the previous outbreaks
were quickly and successfully eradicated.

Cause.—The causative factor of foot and mouth disease has
never been isolated or identified, although numerous attempts
have been made to discover the specific organism. The virus or
the disease-producing material may be found in the blisters on
the mouth, feet, udder and in the saliva, milk and various secre-
tions and excretions, and in the blood, during the time when the
‘temperature is high. Animals may become infected directly by
licking, and in calves by sucking, or indirectly by infected hay,
manure, drinking troughs, railway cars, stock-yards, barn-yards,
and pastures. The time elapsing between the exposure of an
animal to infection and the development of the disease in that
animal varies usually from three to six days. The disease may
appear in twenty-four hours, again in exceptional cases, not for
eighteen days or longer.

Symptoms.—In foot and mouth disease the early symptoms
consist of spells of shivering or chilling, quickly followed by
fever, causing the body to become exceedingly warm. The body
temperature may be as high as 105 or 106 degrees F. These
symptoms do not always occur, or may be in so mild a form as to
escape notice. Following this in one or two days, small vesicles
or blisters about the size of a pea will make their appearance
upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue or on the
lips or the margin of the dental pad. These small blisters are
filled with a yellowish watery fluid and become more extensive
as the disease progresses. Shortly after the eruptions have
appeared in the mouth (Fig. 71), it will be noticed that there is
considerable swelling and redness shown about the feet in the
region of the coronet and between the toes, The formation of

206 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

vesicles or blisters soon appears upon the swollen regions of the
foot. In milch cows the udder and especially the teats become
affected with vesicles or blisters. As the disease advances the
affected animal evidences considerable pain when attempting to
eat and in some cases on account of great pain will refuse feed
of all kinds. Salivation becomes excessive and the animal
opens and closes its mouth with a characteristic smacking sound.
The saliva is ropy and tenacious and hangs suspended from the
lips. The vesicles which are small at first become extended and
rupture soon after their appearance, leaving reddened painful
spots or sores both within the mouth and upon the feet. Similar
spots or erosions will occur on the teats of mileh cows. <All
four feet of an animal may become affected at the same time.
Again one or more of the feet may escape the infection and
remain normal throughout the course of the disease. The
affected fect become very sore and painful, causing the animal to
he down a great deal. The disease when assuming a mild form
usually ruus its course in approximately thirty days. In case of
milch cows the return of the secretion of milk is greatly retarded.
In the more destructive form of the disease several months or a
year may be required for an animal to recover.

Diagnosis.—The foot and mouth disease is not difficult to
recognize when it is known to exist in the vicinity. The services
of experts, however, are required in order to recognize or diag-
nose the initial outbreaks. By inoculating calves with the
virus from infected animals, the clinical diagnosis can be
promptly and positively substantiated.

Diseases That May Be Confused with Foot and Mouth.—
After the blisters or vesicles in foot and mouth disease rupture
the disease becomes more dificult to recognize, as other diseases
of a less contagious nature have a similar appearance. Cow-
pox may at times be confused with foot and mouth disease, but
in cow-pox the eruptions of the pocks which become pustules
have well-marked and defined stages. The eruptions in foot
and mouth disease never become more than a vesicle.

Necrotic Stomatitis (Sore Mouth Caused by Bacteria)—
This disease may be differentiated from foot and mouth disease

MYCOTIC STOMATITIS 207

by the fact that blisters do not occur in necrotic stomatitis and
the ulcerated patches that appear in the beginning of the dis-
ease, principally involving the mouth and tongue, become cov-
ered with a yellowish, cheesy-like material. Calves are more apt
to become affected with sore mouth than are adult cattle. Foot
and mouth disease spreads more rapidly through a herd than
does necrotic stomatitis and affects cattle of all ages, also sheep
and swine.

Ergotism (poison from eating ergot) may be distinguished
from foot and mouth disease in that the lesions occurring in

Fic. 71.—A cow affected with foot and mouth disease. Note the accumulation of saliva
about the lips. (I°rom report of the Bureau of Animal Industry.)

ergotism are confined to the ears, tail, and legs, usually below
the knees or hocks. Vesicles or blisters do not occur in ergot
poisoning, the lesions instead consisting of a dry-sloughing
process. The tips of the ears will become dry and slough off.
The tail may likewise become affected. The ankles swell con-
siderably and later become circumscribed with a deep crack or
fissure entirely surrounding the leg as a result of the sloughing.

Mycotic stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth caused by
molds or fungi) is characterized by the formation of a croupous
membrane or portions of the mucous lining of the mouth which

208 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

peels off, leaving a raw surface. The skin between the toes may
at times become inflamed. The absence of vesicles on the udder
and teats as well as other parts of the body together with the
slowness in which the infection spreads in a herd aids in dif-
ferentiating this affection from foot and mouth disease. Mycotic
stomatitis appears usually in late summer or early fall and
attacks from ten to fifty per cent of the animals in a herd.

Foul Foot (Foot Rot).—Foul foot is not an infectious
disease, but during warm wet seasons a number of cattle may
become affected in a certain district, giving rise to the sus-
picion on the part of some that it may be a disease of a con-
tagious nature. Foul foot, as the name implies, is a disease
of the feet only and the cause may be easily traced to filthy
stalls and badly drained grounds.

Prevention of Foot and Mouth Disease.—The highly infec-
tious nature of the disease and the easy manner of its dissemina-
tion require that rigid preventive measures be adopted to prevent
its spread. Ilealthy cattle should be guarded carefully so as to
prevent them being exposed to the infection. In a community
where an outbreak occurs owners should exercise every pre-
caution in preventing other animals, such as dogs, cats, and
poultry, from coming in contact with the diseased animals,
as they furnish excellent means for disseminating the causative
factor. The carcasses of affected animals must be destroyed,
preferably by burning or by burying them in a hole eight or ten
feet deep and covering them with air-slaked lime, so as to
prevent earthworms and similar agents from carrying the virus
to the surface. Infected stables should be thoroughly disin-
fected with one of the following disinfectants: (1) a five per
cent solution of pure carbolic acid. (2) Chloride of lime, U.
S. P., one pound to three gallons of water. (3) Formaldehyde,
one quart forty per cent solution to five gallons of water. (4)
The application of lime wash to which is added chloride of lime
in the ratio of six ounces of chloride of lime to each gallon of
the lime wash is quite efficient.

All stable utensils must be thoroughly cleansed. and disin-
fected with any of the above-named antiseptics. All manure
should be burned or disinfected. The stables should not be

LUMPY JAW (ACTINO-MYCOSIS) 209

reoccupied within a period of sixty days following disinfection.
The methods of eradication of foot and mouth disease as prac-
ticed by the United States Government consist of rigid quaran-
tine, thorough disinfection and the purchasing and slaughtering
of affected and exposed animals after proper appraisement.

LUMPY JAW (ACTINO-MYCOSIS)

This is a specific chronic infectious disease caused by a
certain fungus (actinomyces) and characterized by the forma-
tion of tumorous masses in various parts of the body, more par-
ticularly the head. The history of this fungus is not known,
but it is thought that it passes a part of its life cycle on certain
grasses. The matured fungus has the appearance of a rosette
and is commonly called “ ray fungus.”

Distribution and Extent.—Actino-mycosis or lumpy jaw is
quite prevalent in the United States. The extent of the disease
varies in the different states. According to the twenty-fourth
annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry there were
slaughtered in establishments having federal inspection, 7,621,-
717 cattle, of which 22,742 were found to be affected with
lumpy jaw. The actual percentage is even greater, for numer-
ous animals affected with this disease are slaughtered where
there is no official inspection maintained.

Source of the Fungus.—The fungus which causes the dis-
ease is probably most frequently obtained from vegetation,
especially wild rye, barley, oats and other grains. Infection is
thought to occur most often in animals fed on dry feed such
as fodder, straw, or hay. It is questionable as to whether the
disease may be transmitted directly from one animal to another,
although certain instances have been recorded wherein the infec-
tion apparently spread by actual contact.

The causative fungus may gain entrance to the animal body
by way of the digestive tract, the respiratory tract or through
the skin. The digestive tract is the most frequent channel of
entrance in cattle. Wounds of mucous lining of the mouth,
diseased teeth, or the shedding of milk teeth, provide an en-
trance for the causative fungus. The upper surface of the
tongue, which is often injured by rough feeds, frequently affords

210 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

an entrance for the ray fungus. When the disease affects
the tongue it is commonly known as “ wooden tongue.”’ Wounds
of the skin resulting from rubbing on stanchions and feed
boxes may be a source of infection in some instances. Infection
by way of air passages is not of common occurrence.

Location of the Disease.—The disease may be located both
externally and internally. The fungus may invade and produce
the disease in any tissue. It is most often found affecting the
soft tissues and bones of the lower and upper jaw. Internally
it may attack the tongue, pharynx, or larynx. It may also affect
the lungs and more rarely the digestive tract; occasionally the
udder is attacked. It is usually localized, and rarely if ever
becomes generalized. When affecting the soft tissue of the head
the disease produces rather hard, firm swellings (abscesses)
(Fig. 72), which vary in size, surrounded by a thick dense cap-
sule. The abscesses tend to rupture finally and discharge a
thick creamy pus. The pus contains small yellow bodies,
which are commonly known as “sulphur granules.” These
are the “ ray fungi.” After the abscess has ruptured, the cavity
does not disappear but is soon filled with fungus-like masses
which protrude outward through the opening. In some in-
stances the abscesses will appear in the form of a chain, extend-
ing along the jaw and upper portion of the neck. When the
abscesses form inside the throat, they seriously interfere with
swallowing and respiration. Actino-mycosis of the bone is of
common occurrence and must be regarded as one of the most
serious forms of the disease. The bone becomes disintegrated
and pockets or cavities are formed. As the diseased process
advances, there is new bone tissue formed, causing the hone to
become enlarged and have a honeycomb appearance.

The disease of the tongue, “ wooden tongue,” is also a very
serious form of the disease, as it interferes with the movement
of this important organ of mastication. The course of the
disease is quite slow. Emaciation in the affected animal results
when mastication, rumination, or breathing is affected. The
tongue and the bones of the jaws may become so badly diseased
that death will result from starvation.

Treatment.—When affected the soft structures of the lower

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER 211

and upper jaw may be satisfactorily treated, but when the
bony tissue is diseased treatment is of less value. Potassium
iodide, administered in the form of a drench once a day until
symptoms of iodine poisoning occur, has proved to be quite
beneficial in the treatment of this disease. Abscesses located
externally in the region of the head and neck require early
attention in order to effect a cure. Operations of this kind can
only be undertaken by skilled veterinarians.

Fic. 72.—Cow badly affected with lumpy jaw, unthriftiness due to the mechanical difficulty
in eating. (Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.)

INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER

Mammitis is the veterinarian’s name for inflammation of
the udder. Aggravated cases of garget may at times terminate
in active inflammation. Mammitis may occur also directly in
connection with injuries, such as blows on the udder with clubs,
horns, or feet, or from nails in the floor. Over-feeding, ex-
posure to extreme changes of weather, indigestion, and insuffi-
cient stripping of the udder during milking may also cause
the udder to become inflamed.

Symptoms.—In cases of mammitis following exposure, the
early symptoms noted consist of spells of shivering. ‘The tail,

212 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

ears, and limbs become cold and the hair in general is erect.
This condition is soon followed by fever and the body becomes
unnaturally warm. The muzzle becomes hot and dry, the
temperature rises, rapid pulse, excited breathing, impaired
appetite, cessation of rumination, and constipation. The udder
swells and becomes hard in one, two, three, or all four quarters
and the yield of milk is greatly lessened, at times becoming
entirely suppressed in the affected quarter or quarters. As
the inflammatory process extends, the udder becomes painfully
tender, causing the animal to straddle with its hind legs when
walking. In cases where the supporting tissue or framework of
the udder is inflamed, the swelling is rounded and uniform and
pits on pressure. In cases where the secreting portion of the
gland becomes inflamed, the swelling is more localized and
appears as hard, nodular masses, deep in the gland. In all
cases the milk is suppressed and replaced by a watery fluid
which is at times streaked with blood and mixed with clots of
casein. Later it becomes thickened and is usually accompanied
by an offensive odor, due to pus formation.

The course of the disease varies, some cases lasting only a
few days, while others will last several days or even weeks before
the inflammation has subsided and the gland restored to its
normal condition. Many cases terminate in complete recovery.
Others result in only partial recovery with arrested secretion
in one or more quarters. When this occurs, the affected portion
shrinks to a smaller size. In quite a number of cases, hard,
fibrous masses result, which cause permanent induration (hard-
ening). In other cases abscesses (boils) will develop. The
abscess may empty itself on the external surface or it may
break into the milk ducts and be discharged through the teats.

Treatment.—Treatment will be found to vary in accordance
with the stages of the disease.

Internally, laxatives are indicated. Epsom salts, one to
two pounds, with an ounce of ginger dissolved in a quart of
water and administered as a drench, will be found efficacious.
After the purgative action has ceased, one ounce of saltpeter
may be given once a day. Local treatment consists of hot
fomentations and gentle but frequent massage. Cloths wrung

COW-POX 213

out of warm water should be applied to the udder for an hour
or two at atime. The application of camphorated vaseline or
lard may be used with good effect. In case of abscess forma-
tion early lancing is recommended. I*requent milking is neces-
sary in order to get the best results and the affected cow should
be milked at least five or six times a day.

GARGET

This is a condition that often occurs in heavy milkers just
before or after calving. The udder becomes enlarged and is
hot and tender. At times a doughy swelling will be noticed to
extend from the udder forward along the lower surface of the
abdomen. This condition is physiological and the congestion
usually disappears within a few days after the secretion of milk
begins. Garget becomes aggravated when the animal is allowed
to stand in a draft of cold air or when compelled to lie on
unprotected cold cement or on wet floors. Incomplete milking
is probably the most frequent cause of garget even with cows
far along in milk. In some cases doughy swellings will occur
on the surface of the gland and the milk may be tinged or
streaked with blood and is usually stringy and clotted when
drawn. Such milk is unfit for food, but one gargetty quarter
does not spoil the milk of the remaining three quarters.

Treatment.—The affected animal should be placed in a dry,
clean, and well ventilated stall and the udder lightly massaged
with the finger-tips. The application of hot cloths around the
affected parts aids in restoring proper circulation and in this way
prevents or wards off inflammation. The application of turpen-
tine and lard, or, better still, camphorated vaseline, will be
found beneficial, and will aid materially in restoring the gland
to its normal condition. The administration of epsom salts
as a laxative is advised, especially in cases where the bowels are
inclined to be sluggish.

COW-POXx

Cow-pox is an infectious disease of the udder, characterized
by inflammation and the formation of vesicles or blisters which
undergo certain well-marked changes. The disease spreads

214 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

very slowly from animal to animal, but will spread readily by
the hands of the milker. Cow-pox is very closely associated
with human small-pox.

Cases of cow-pox have been reported to occur in cows that
had been milked by persons affected with small-pox. Young,
healthy calves are used for the production of small-pox vaccine.

Cause.—The cause of cow-pox has not yet been determined.
It is thought to be due, however, to germs (bacteria) which are
ultra-microseopic, too small to be seen by aid of the microscope.

Symptoms.—Cow-pox is usually accompanied by a slight
elevation of temperature. This condition is not, however,
always constant. The age of the cow is an important factor in
making a diagnosis, as the disease affects chiefly young cows.
The milk flow may or may not be decreased. The eruptions of
the vesicles (blisters) occur on the teats and the adjoining
parts of the udder. The development of the pocks are divided
into well-marked characteristic stages. The first stage of the
eruption consists of pink-colored pimples about the size of a
pea. The pimple subsequently changes into a blister which
contains a sticky, whitish fluid. The blisters on the teats vary
in form, while the ones on the udder are circular and show a
depression in the center. The blisters vary in size, some meas-
uring as much as one-half to one inch in diameter. When the
pocks oceur on the surface covered with long hair, they do not
form blisters, but discharge a straw-colored fluid which cements
the hair and forms a brownish-yellow mass. The blisters ma-
ture about the tenth day and then dry up into a dark brown
erust which drops off a few days later, leaving a sear. Many of
the pocks are ruptured during milking, causing the frequent
formation of angry-looking sores which heal slowly. Only in
rarer cases does the disease affect other parts of the body.

Treatment.—Local treatment is all that is required. A
separate attendant should be provided to care for the diseased
animals. They should be milked carefully so that the blisters
will not become ruptured. The persistent sores may be washed
with mild antiseptic solutions. The attendant should keep his
hands and arms washed with an antiseptic. Application of zine
oxide ointment to the ruptured pocks will be beneficial.

CHAPPED TEATS 215

CHAPPED TEATS

The condition, chapped teats, is quite common during the
winter season and is due to excessive local irritation of the
teats. The sucking of the calf, and sudden chilling of the teat
after the calf has finished, will often produce a chapped con-
dition. Cows kept in cold, damp stalls often suffer from
chapped teats due to the teats and udder coming in contact with
water and filth when the cow is lying down. Sudden exposure
to cold after the completion of milking with wet hands will
also cause this condition. Chapped teats may be either mild
or severe in form, depending upon the amount and the nature
of the irritant. In mild cases the fissures (cracks) are small,
and the flew of milk is unaltered, while in severe cases the
fissures may form large gaping wounds (sores) which, at times,
will cause a retention of the milk and even inflammation of the
udder (mammitis).

Treatment.—The affected animal should be placed in a
clean, dry, warm stall, and great care should be exercised when
milking so as to allow the wound to heal. The use of vaseline
is recommended because of its soothing effect on the chapped
areas. In cases where healing is tardy, the application of mild
antiseptic solution will be found beneficial.

WARTS (PAPILLOMATA )

Treatment.——Warts may be greatly benefited or entirely
are frequently located on the surface skin of the teats. They
are not only unsightly, but often become very troublesome.
Warts occurring on the teats of heifers are essentially benign
and as a rule respond readily to treatment.

Treatment.—Warts may be greatly benefitted or entirely
removed by the application of pure olive oil, the oil being
generously smeared over the surface of the warts after each
milking. Persistent warts require surgical interference.

BLOATING (HOVEN)
This is a disease characterized by swelling or distention of
the left flank, and is caused by the formation of gas in the
rumen or paunch.

216 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

Causes.—Some animals are predisposed to bloating by the,
habit of over-eating or eating too quickly. The chief cause,
however, is the introduction into the stomach of large quantities
of feed which ferments and produces great volumes of gases.
Bloating is caused most frequently by eating green feed. It is
also caused by sudden changing from dry fodder to green corn,
by feeding on rank, luxuriant grass or clover, wet or frozen
roots, rotten potatoes, or by allowing cattle to drink large quan-
tities of water soon after feeding. Bloating caused by eating
young clover is quite common, occurring mostly when the cattle
are first allowed to feed on it. Clover is not so apt to produce
bloating after it has blossomed. Calves suffering from indiges-
tion often develop hoven.

Symptoms.—The chief and characteristic symptom of bloat-
ing consists of a swelling in the region of the left flank, from
which a drum-like sound is emitted when struck with the
finger-tips.

The normal sounds of the rumen cease and the appetite and
rumination (chewing of the cud) are suspended. Frequent
passages of small amounts of manure occur at first, but gradu-
ally cease until no further passages are noticed. The animal
has an anxious expression, moves uneasily, as if in great dis-
tress, the back is frequently arched and the breathing is rapid
and difficult. As the bloating increases, the breathing becomes
more laborious and the animal experiences great difficulty in
retaining its equilibrium, and if not relieved within a short
time, falls down and suffocates. Frothing at the mouth, together
with occasional belching of gas, are frequent symptoms.

Course of the Disease-—The course of acute bloating is
very rapid. If the rumen is only moderately distended the
animal may recover unaided, while in severe cases the animal
may die in an hour or so if not relieved.

Treatment.—As regards prevention, one should avoid the
sudden changing from dry to green feed, and cut green feed
should not be fed after it has begun to ferment. Cattle should
be allowed to pasture only for a short time on clover, at first,
and the feeding of frozen, watery feeds should be avoided,

SIMPLE DIARRHEA IN CALVES 217

Mild cases of hoven may be successfully treated by placing a
rope or straw band smeared with tar or some other nauseous
material in the animal’s mouth, securing it by tying behind the
horns. Vigorous massage on the left flank tends to relieve the
distended paunch and is practiced with good results in cases
which are not severe. In severe cases the trocar and cannula
should be used without delay. To puncture the rumen (paunch)
a spot should be selected that is equally distant from the last
rib, the hip-bone, and the transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebre (Fig. 73). The trocar should be held so that the
sharp point is directed downward, inward, and slightly forward
when by a sharp blow with the palm of the hand it is plunged
into the paunch. <A previous incision about one-half inch in
length through the skin makes the operation easier. The can-
nula or sheath of the trocar should be allowed to remain in the
paunch as long as any gas escapes from it. If the cannula is
removed while gas is still forming in the paunch it may become
necessary to insert it again. In obstinate cases it is sometimes
necessary to leave the cannula in the paunch for several hours.
When a trocar is not obtainable, the operation may be performed
with a knife. After the bloating has subsided, it is advisable
to drench the animal with a pound or a pound and one-half of
epsom or Glauber salts. A recent bulletin issued by the Ken-
tucky Station recommends the use of formalin for the treat-
ment of bloat, when caused by clover. They advise drenching
the affected animal with one quart of a one and one-half per
cent solution of formalin in water.

SIMPLE DIARRHEA (SCOURING ) IN CALVES

Scours in calves is a rather common disease and is usually
caused by improper diet. The disease, white scours, is in-
fectious in nature and while occurring quite often, is not nearly
so common as the simple form.

Causes.—Simple scouring is a common result of indigestion
caused by a too liberal supply of milk or too rich milk, Scour-

218 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

ing often results from allowing too much time between meals.
Unhygienic conditions, such as dirty, sour drinking tanks or
dark, cold, damp or foul-smelling stalls or pens, tend to produce
scours. Faulty weaning, such as too early feeding on dry,
coarse feed and feeds that contain large amounts of starchy
material, are causative factors. The physical condition of the
cow bears a close relation to the health of her suckling and care
should be used in providing her with proper feed and care so

Fia. 73.—The X indicates the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with
trocar and cannula in ‘‘bloat.”

as to prevent the quality of the milk from becoming impaired,
and the quantity diminished.

Intestinal parasites (worms) may at times produce diar-
rhea by irritating the mucous lining of the stomach and
intestines.

Symptoms.—The symptoms usually occur suddenly,
although they may come on gradually. In sucklings, the
symptoms of diarrhea (scouring) may be preceded by: De

SYMPTOMS 219

pression, weakness, and disinclination to suck. When the dis-
ease is due to improper diet or exposure, symptoms of chilling
followed by fever will be noticed. The body temperature is
unevenly distributed, the legs being cold and the muzzle dry.
The diarrhea which soon sets in consists of rather pasty
manure of normal color and odor, at first, but rapidly becomes
watery and is light gray in color accompanied by a peculiarly
characteristic and offensive odor. As the disease advances, the
passages become numerous, and the tail and legs become stained
with the dung which clings to the hair and skin. The dung
will be frequently passed in the form of a jet or liquid stream.
Bloating is commonly noticed; and colicky symptoms are not
rare. Toward the end, the animal stands with its back arched.
The skin becomes dry and the odor given off by the various
channels is very offensive, and the animal becomes weak and
listless. During the later stages the dung at times becomes
streaked with blood. The course of the disease may be acute
or chronic. The affected animal may die within a few days or
may live for several weeks. When death occurs, it is usually due
to exhaustion and lung complications (pneumonia).

Prevention.— When diarrhea occurs in the suckling, the
treatment should be mainly applied to the mother. The cow
should be supplied with a proper diet and all factors which un-
favorably influence the quality of the milk should be removed.
In case the mother is suffering from disease, the calf should
be permitted to suckle a healthy cow. When diarrhea is due
to improper feeding, the error should be corrected immediately.
Hygienic measures such as proper light, ventilation and clean-
liness applied to calf pens, tend to keep the calf in good health
and prevent disease. Exercise is also of much importance.
Calves fed from pails are in danger of developing scours, unless
absolute cleanliness is maintained. The feeder has to be on
the alert also so as to prevent greedy calves from drinking an
over-amount of milk.

Treatment.—The early administrations of laxatives are in-
dicated in order to remove irritating substances from the bowels.
For this purpose, castor oil in one or two-ounce doses is recom-

220 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE

mended. The ecalf’s ration of ‘milk should be reduced one-half,
and in cases where the milk does not agree with the affected
animal, barley gruel to which raw eggs are added, may be
substituted. A mild solution of formalin, which is mixed with
the milk, is quite efficacious for the treatment of this disease.

RINGWORM (BALD SCAB)

Ringworm is a highly contagious, transmissible disease of
the skin caused by a vegetable parasite (Tinea Tonsurans).
This disease affects the root and shaft of the hair, causing it to
become brittle and finally fall out. Calves are commonly
affected, especially during winter and spring.

Ringworm is communicable to man.

Symptoms.—Ringworm is manifested by the formation of
cireular hairless patches, on the skin of the head, neck and
extremities. The patches vary in size, some being about the
size of a pea, while others will measure an inch or more across.
The patches or spots are usually scattered, although they may
run together, forming large ones. The skin becomes slightly
inflamed and the exudate, which is of a sticky nature, forms
dry, brittle and scaly crusts of a greyish color. Occasionally
the entire skin of the body will become affected, which may result
in complete nakedness. In sucking calves the patches form
mainly around the mouth. The disease is attended by itching
which is manifested by rubbing in the affected animal. Any
animal so affected is uncomfortable, restless and does poorly.

Treatment.—Preventive measures consist of removal of
affected animals, cleaning and disinfection of stalls. The
affected patches or spots anol be washed with soap and water
so as to remove all crusts and after drying, tincture of iodine

may be applied by painting the diseased areas. The treatment
may be applied once daily. If attended to faithfully recovery
should be complete in four to six weeks.

ew bo

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PoP SHS

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QUESTIONS 221

. How general is the disease, bovine tuberculosis?
. How is its presence detected?

. What dangers to the herd would result if one tubercular cow were

allowed to mingle freely with the herd?

. What is tuberculin used for?
. What is infectious abortion?

What are its symptoms?

. How does abortion affect the milk flow following?

. How is the disease spread?

. What means may be taken to prevent its spread?

. How should an aborting cow and the dead calf be handled?

. What treatment is recommended for the affected animal?

. What is milk fever?

. What are its symptoms (signs) ?

. How should'a case of milk fever be treated?

. How should a heavy milking cow be handled to reduce the danger of

milk fever to the least possible point?

. How damaging is the foot and mouth disease?

. What are the symptoms of this disease?

. How is it spread?

. What means should be taken to check an epidemic?
. What is ergotism?

. What conditions bring about foul rot in the feet of cattle?
2, What are the symptoms of mammitis?

. What causes the trouble?

. What is the best treatment for it?

. What treatment is advised for garget?

. How is cow-pox spread? How cured?

. How should chapped teats be cared for?

. What may be done to remove warts on cows’ teats?

What brings on hoven in cattle?

. What is the best treatment?

. What conditions of feed cause scours in calves?

. What conditions in stalls or pen aggravate the case?

. How should calves suffering with common scours be handled?
. How may ringworm be cured?

PART IV
WINTER FEEDING

CHAPTER XXIII
WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

Or all the problems confronting the keepers of the twenty-
two million cows in America kept for dairy purposes, adequate
and proper feeding is the most important at the present time.
Possibly because of the great variety of conditions and feed
stuffs, the knowledge of the best methods of feeding has been
very slow of development. Many discouraging statements have
been made regarding the productive capacity of the “ average”
cow in the United States. It is true that the average yield is
far below the amount obtained by the good dairy cows and only
a fraction of that produced by the few outstanding leaders.
This difference is not by any means wholly due to the incapacity
of the cows themselves to do better work. The fact that many
of them are miserably under-fed and often housed in uncom-
fortable quarters has much to do with the situation. In an en-
deavor such as inducing cows to give more milk, one will not go
far wrong if one will study the cows’ requirements on the basis of
what they receive when doing their best work and then imitate or
duplicate as nearly as possible those conditions the year round.

Copy Nature.—Cows, while living under a more or less
wild condition, usually freshen in the early spring and produce
the greatest flow of milk during the latter part of May, June,
and the first half of July. By studying the conditions of this
season of the year and desiring to duplicate them at a season when
butter fat is most valuable per pound and when field work is light
or lacking altogether, we may find a way to more profit.

Analyzing the question we note that there are several factors
influencing the returns.

Time of Calving.—Although cows may be said naturally to
calve in the spring, they very readily adapt themselves to fall
calving. In this respect then we may arrange for a spring-
time flow of milk in winter.

15 225

226 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

Comfort of body, present in the early summer to the greatest
degree, is essential to liberal production. In order that the
cow under artificial circumstances shall be as productive as her
inherited nature will permit, complete comfort, both in tem-
perature of stable and in sleeping quarters, is necessarily re-
quired for winter.

Very comfortable stables are now in use and becoming more
common. The temperature of summer may be closely duplicated
in winter.

A B
Tl ALAA LLL

D E
Th FZ.’ EAL I I

Fic. 74,—Illustrating the economy of liberal feeding.

Abundance of Feed.—Even with the heavy stocking of
pastures practiced in many parts of the country there is usually
a great abundance of feed for the cows for a few weeks and it
is observed that during this period of abundance the cows yield
milk most liberally and we find that logic, experience and scien-
tifie findings all agree that any animal, to produce freely,
must be freely fed. The value of mere abundance of feed may
be well illustrated in the diagram (Fig. 74) in which let the
upper bar indicated by the length of the line A C be the amount
of feed given to cow No, 1, and the lower line D H, the amount
of feed given to cow No. 2, of equal weight and form. These
two cows, for the maintenance of their bodies, will consume or
burn daily a quantity of feed represented by the distances A B
and D E, respectively. The maintenance amount of feed is a
fairly constant quantity.

It is evident that cow No. 1 will have a balance of feed over
and above the amount for maintenance represented by the short
line B C, whereas Cow No. 2 receives the amount of surplus
feed presented by the line E H, the same being three times as

SUCCULENCE 227

great as BC. Cow No. 2 has not received three times as much
feed by any means, but the surplus remaining for milk forma-
tion after maintenance has been subtracted, is three times as
great. It is evident, therefore, that the first portion of the feed
given to a cow is essentially wasted unless an additional amount
is given from which milk may be formed. Cows do not create
the substance of milk, they merely change its form from that of
grass, hay and grain to that of milk sugar, milk fat, casein,
albumen and ash. The Scotch have a saying, “‘ Give to a steer
a gallon of meal and it is a gallon wasted, give him two and he
will pay for three.” There is truth in it.

Palatability.— Mere abundance, however, is not all the animal
needs by any means. .\ cow might be tied to a straw stack and
starve to death. In addition, the feed must be palatable in order
to be consumed in suflicient quantities and be most valuable.
Feed eaten with repugnance might often better have remained
uneaten so far as any good to the animal is concerned.

Fresh grass is about the most palatable feed to cattle and
large quantities are eaten while it is tender. Winter hay may
often be made more valuable by sprinkling it with salty water
or molasses water to make it more palatable.

Succulence is unquestionably one of the qualities of early
summer grass which materially assists the cow in heavy pro-
duction. This quality in the winter’s feed may be provided
in ample measure in the form of corn silage or, when such is
not available, in the form of mangles, ruta-bagas, or other
roots, or potatoes. The succulent quality in feed is of value in
several ways. The cow is induced thereby to consume a larger
amount and that which she does consume is more easily mas-
ticated and more easily and economically digested, thus more
valuable per unit of feed material present. If to the succulent
quality there can be retained or added the flavors particularly
relished by cows, such for instance as well made corn silage,
the digestion of these feeds is facilitated by the fact. Over
ripe hay and dry corn stover are so hard that their net value to
the animal is only a half or less of the apparent value as in-
dicated by a table of digestible nutrients.

228 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

One value of the silo is that by its means the corn is not
only cut fine and some chewing thus saved, but it is soaked soft
and mellow, assisting the cow in the work of reduction (Fig. 75).

Balance of Nutrients.—One of the most important features
influencing the matter of large and economical yields of milk is
the balance of the nutrients in the feed given. It is in this
phase of the subject that most feeders make the most serious
mistakes. The need of any mature cow for feed may be briefly
stated as the demand for small quantities of various ash ma-
terials to maintain the bone of the body, to furnish ash to the
milk, and for other purposes. The quantity and nature of the
ash are nearly, if not quite, amply provided by a mixed rough-

Fie. 75.—Art and utility may be successfully combined. Dairy stable and two silos
: belonging to E. H. Sears.

age and grain ration, especially if a small quantity of bone meal
is mixed with the cow’s salt. The cow, however, contains large
quantities of muscular tissue or lean meat which is slowly but
continually wearing out and being voided from the system. To
make good this loss, materials of like character must be pro-
vided. Lean meat is composed very largely of proteins. Plants
contain protein, not of identical character, but similar, and
under normal conditions it is only from the plant protein that
animal tissue is built. Milk contains about 3.50 pounds pro-
tein in every 100 pounds. Cows, therefore, require especially
liberal amounts of protein in their rations.

A third element required is heat and energy. Some heat is

THE MAINTENANCE RATION 229

obtained from the protein nutrients, but it is needed in such
amount that to provide all of it in the form of protein would be
too expensive and injurious to the cow. The starchy and
sugary portions of feeds provide energy and heat most cheaply.
The fat or oil of corn, hay or other feeds goes, likewise, to the
supply of heat and energy. But since the heating power of a
feed nutrient is indicated largely by the percentage amount of
carbon in its compound, and fat is so much richer in this ele-
ment than starch or sugar, it, fat, has about 2.25 times more
heating power than starch. The fat of the animal body is not
necessarily made from the fat of plants but oily feeds naturally
encourage the laying on of fat. For convenience the purely
heat and energy-bearing feeds, such as starch and sugar, are
called carbohydrates, while all fats are grouped by themselves.

It is customary to classify all needed feed nutrients as pro-
tein, carbohydrate and fat. These are the three constituents
which we must provide in the cow’s winter ration if she is to
yield milk in winter as freely as in summer,

The maintenance ration is the name given to the amount of
feed which is required to just sustain the weight of an animal
for twenty-four hours. On a perfect maintenance ration an ani-
mal will neither gain nor lose weight. The amount of feed needed
by large cows is naturally greater than that required for small
ones, and that by very active animals greater than for slower mo-
tioned ones. Just how much of the three digestible nutrients, pro-
tein, carbohydrates and fats, a cow of 1000 pounds’ weight re-
quires was studied first in Germany, but the figures obtained there
were too high to be accurate under American conditions.

The standard now most largely usea in this country is the
one settled upon by Haecker of the Minnesota Station after
many years of careful work and is as follows: Digestible pro-
tein 0.7 pounds, digestible carbohydrates 7.0 pounds, and diges-
tible fat 0.1 pound per 24 hours, for an average cow of 1000
pounds, where kept under good practical stable conditions.

The following table gives the nutrients allowed daily for
the maintenance feed for cows of given weights, ranging from
800 pounds to 1625 pounds.?

1Minn. Bul. 130.

230 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

Table I. Feed of Maintenance

Weight Protein Carbohydrates Fat Weight Protein Carbohydrates Fat
800 560 5.60 .08 1225 .857 8.57 12
825 577 5.77 .08 1250 875 8.75 AZ
850 595 5.95 .08 1275 892 8.92 ls
875 .612 6.12 .09 1300 .910 9.10 13
900 630 6.30 .09 1325 927 9.27 Ad
925 G47 6.47 .09 1350 945 9.45 13
950 .665 6.65 -09 1375 -962 9.62 14
975 .682 6.82 10 1400 .980 9.80 14

1000 -700 7.00 10 1425 997 9.97 14

1025 aid tale 10 1450 1.015 10.15 14

1050 735 7.35 10 1475 1.032 10.32 15

1075 152 (a2 eu! 1500 1.050 10.50 15

1100 .170 7.70 all Tous 1.067 10.67 15

Lisa 787 7.87 wl 1550 1.085 10.85 15

1150 -805 8.05 ALL 1575 1.102 11.02 16

1175 822 6.22 be 1600 1.120 11.20 16

1200 .840 8.40 al 1625 1.137 11.36 16

Ration for Milk Production (The Haecker Feeding Stand-
ard).—For many years the only available standard or guide
in feeding for milk production was that of Wolf, later modified
by Lehmann, which standard took into account only roughly
the amount of milk yielded per day and no account at all of the
quality of the milk.

The following table from Minnesota Station Bulletin 130
shows that as milk increases in fat percentage it also increases
in protein and sugar.

The comparative value or cost of milks of various fat per-
centage is best shown by reducing all the nutrients to a single
term called the Starch Equivalent. This is obtained by mul-
tiplying the amount of fat by 2.25 and adding to the product the
amount of Protein and Carbohydrates.

The following table makes this matter clearer. A glance at
the table convinces one that to feed amply and yet not waste, full
account needs be taken of the quality as well as the quantity of
the milk being produced by the cow being fed.

ADJUSTING THE RATION 231

Organic Composition of Milk *

Fat Protein Carbohydrates Starch Equivalent
3.0 2.68 4.60 14.03
3.5 2.81 4.75 15.44
4.0 3.08 4.85 16.93
4.5 3.27 4.97 18.37
5.0 3.45 4.98 19.68
6.0 2,82 4.91 22.23
6.5 4.12 4.90 23.65
7.0 4,22 4.84 24.81

This has now been carefully worked out and published in
Minnesota Station Bulletin 130, from which the following
tables are taken,

A number of feeding standards have been suggested, but the
one developed by Haecker, of the Minnesota Station, is the most
workable. Haecker was the first investigator to consider the
maintenance of the cow separate from the milk, to recognize the
quality of the milk as well as the quantity, and to reduce the
whole to a unity basis.

Adjusting the Ration—There is what may be called a
triple balance in the matter of feeding dairy cows, (a) the
balance of the amount of roughage to the size of the cow, (b) the
balance of the amount of grain to be fed to the amount and
quality of the milk the cow is giving, and (c) the balance of the
chemical nutrients to the needs of the cow.

On the average a cow will eat 2 pounds of hay or its equiva-
lent per hundred pounds per day. A cow weighing 900 pounds
will eat 18 pounds of hay very readily and one of 1400 pounds
should consume 28 pounds of hay per day. Ordinarily, how-
ever, the lighter weight cows, if they are of dairy type, will eat
more for their weight than heavier ones. Where corn silage is
fed due allowance must be made for the high water content of it.

Silage as now usually made from comparatively mature
corn contains about 26 per cent dry matter, thus 3 pounds will
contain 0.78 pound dry matter, which is roughly the equivalent
of 1 pound of hay (0.87 pound of dry matter).

? Minn. Bul. 130.

232 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

TABLE HI. FEEDING STANDARD
Gryinc Net NutTRIENTS REQUIRED FOR THE PRODUCTION OF MILK CONTAINING A
Given Per CENT oF BUTTER-Fat

% FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK
Lbs. 3.0 3.1 3.2
Milk a
Pro. C-H. Fat , Pro. C-H. Fat ‘ Pro. C-H. Fat
1 .047 .20 -O17 || .047 .20 -O17 || .048 ms | .018
2 094 -40 -034 | .095 -41:) 035 |} .096 41 .036
3 -141 -60 .051 || .142 -61 -052 || .143 -62 053
4 . 188 -80 .068 | .190 .81 -070 || .191 .83 -071
5 +234 -99 .085 | .237 1.01 .087 || .239 1.04 | .089
6 .281 1.19 .102 || .284 | 1.22 -104 || .287 1.24 .107
7 328 1.39 .119 || .332 1.42 .122 || .335 1.45 125
8 375 1.59 .136 |) .379 1.62 -139 || .382 1 66 .142
9 -422 1.79 .153 || .427 1.83 .157 || .430 1.87 .160
10 . 469 1.99 -170 || .474 | 2.03 .174 || .478 | 2.07 -178
3.3 3.4 3.5
1 .048 .21 -018 | .049 «22 -018 | .049 22 .019
2 .097 42 .036 || .097 43 .037 || .098 44 .038
3 -145 64 .054 || .146 .65 -055 || .148 -66 .057
4 . 193 .85 -072 || .194 .87 -074 || .197 -88 .076
5 241 1.06 -090 || .243 1.08 | °.092 || .246 1.10 .094
6 .290 1,27 -109 || .292 1 30 «111 f} £295 1.32 .113
7 -3838 1.48 -127 || .340 1.51 -129 || 344 1.55 -132
8 386 1.69 145 |} .389 1.73 -148 || .394 Laz -151
9 435 1.91 -163 || .437 1.95 .166 || .443 1.99 .170
10 483 2.12 -181 || .486 | 2.16 .185 || .492 | 2.21 -189

“050 -22 | .019 | .051 -23 | .020 | .052 | .23 | .020
-100 -45 | .039 || .102 -46 | .039 || .104 -47 | .040
-150 -68 | .058 || .153 -69 | .059 |} .156 -70 | .060
-200 {| .90 | .077 || .204 .92 | .078 || .208 --93 | .080

1.13 | .096 || .255 | 1.15 | .098 | .260 | 1.17 | .100
1.35 | .116 || .307 | 1.38 | .118 || .312 | 1.40 | .120
-851 | 1.58 | .135 || .358 | 1.60 | .137 || .364 | 1.64 | .140
; 1.80 | .154 || .409 | 1.83 | .157 |) .416 | 1.87 | .160
2.03 | .174 ]) .460 | 2.06 | .176 | .468 | 2.10 | .180
-501 | 2/25 | .193 || .511 | 2.29 | .196 || .520 | 2.34 | .200

SCOOBNAMERAN
eo
i=)
a

1 -053 -24 | .021 || .054 -24 | .021 | .055 -25 | .021
2 - 106 -48 | .041 | .108 -48 | .042 | .109 -49 | .042
3 .159 -71 | .061 | .162 -73 | .062 || .164 -74 | .063
4 -212 -95 | .082 |) .216 .97 | .083 | .218 -99 }] .084
5 -265 | 1.19 | .102 ] .269 | 1.21 | .104 ]) .273 | 1.23 | .105
6 -318 | 1.43 | ,122 ] .323 | 1.45 | .125 |] .328°| 1.48 | .127
7 -3871 | 1.67 | .143 || .377 | 1.70 | .146 ] .382 | 1.73 | .148
8 424 | 2.90 | .163 || .431 | 1.94 | .166 ] .437 | 1.97 | .169
9 477 | 2.14 | .184 ] .485 | 2.18 | .187 ] .491 | 2.22 .190
10 530 | 2.38 | .204 | 539 | 2.42 | .208 ll .546 | 2.47 | .211

ADJUSTING THE RATION

233

TABLE II. FEEDING STANDARD—Continued
% FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK
Lbs. 4:2 4.3 4.4
Milk

Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat
1 .055 25 -021 .056 .25 .022 || .056 26 022
2 111 .50 043 |} .112 51 .044 || .113 52.) .044
3 - 166 .75 -064 167 .76 065 || -169 78 .067
4 .221 1.00 -086 || .223 1.02 .087 || .226 1.04 -089
5 .276 1.25 -107 || .279- | 1.27 .109 || .282 1.30 -111
6 .332 1.50 129 || .335 1.53 .131 || .339 1.56 .133
7 «387 1.76 .150 || .391 1.78 | '.153 |] .395 1.82°| .155
8 -442 2.01 -172 || .446 | 2.04 .174 || .452 2.08 £178
9 .497 2.26 .193 || .502 | 2.29 .196 || .508 | 2:34 .200
10 553 2.51 .215 || .558 2.55 -218 || .565 2.60 .222

4.5 4.6 4.7
1 057 .26 023 058° s27 .023 || .058 27 .023
2 114 .53 045 116 :54 .046 117 .54 047
3 .172 .79 -068 || .174 .80 .069 || .175 .81 .070
4 .229 1.06 .090 || .232 1.07 .092 || .234 1.09 .093
5 . 286 1:32 -113 || .289 1.34 115 292 1.36 -116
6 1343 1.58 -136 || .347 1.61 .138 || .350 1.63 .140
7 - 400 1.85 .158 || .405 1.88 .161 || .409 1.90 .163
8 . 458 2.11 -181 || .463 2.14 -184 || .467 | 2.17 .186
9 .515 | 2.38 -203 || .521 2.41 .207 || .526 | 2.45 .210
10 .572 2.64 .226 || .579 2.68 . 230 584 | 2.72 . 233

4.8 4.9 5.0
1 059 -28 .024 060 28 .024 || .060 128 .024
2 .118 -55 .047 119 56 048 | .121 .57 .049
3 i177 .83 ~071 179 84 -072 || .181 .85 .073
4 -236 1.11 094 239 1.12 .096 || .242 1.14 .097
5 .295 1,38 .118 298 1.40 .120 || .302 1.42 .121
6 -855 1.66 .142 358 1.68 .144 || .362 1.70 . 146
7 414 1.93 .165 418 1.96 -168 || .423 1.99 .170
8 .473 2.21 .189 478 | 2.24 .192 || .483 | 2.27 .194
9 532 2.49 .212 || .537 | 2.52 216 || .544 | 2.56 .219
10 -591 2.76 . 236 597 | 2.80 .240 || .604 | 2.84 . 243

5.1 §.2 5.3
1 -061 29 025 062 29 .025 062 .29 025
2 -122 57 .049 124 -58 -050 || .125 .59 051
3 - 183 86 074 185 87 .075 || .187 88 .076
4 244 1.15 .099 || .247 1.17 -100 || .250 1.18 .101
5 -305 1.44 -123 || .309 1.46 .125 || .312 1,47 .126
6 .367 1.73 | ..148 || .371 1.75 .150 || .375 1.77 .152
7 428 | 2.01 173 433 | 2.04 .175 || .487 | 2.06 .177
8 .489 2.30 .198 | .494 | 2.33 | -.200 | .500 | 2.36 . 202
9 -550 | 2.59 .222 || .556 | 2.62 .225 || .562 | 2.65 .228
10 611 2. .247 618 2.91 .250 2.95 253

234 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS
TABLE Il. FEEDING STANDARD—Continued
FAT IN’MILK FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK

Lbs. | sain sama 5.6
0}

MKT pro. | crt. | Fat || Pro | cu. | Fat || pro. | om. | Fat
1 -063 -30 |. .026 064 .30 -026 || .064 31 .026
2 i) .126 | .60 | .051 | .128 | .60 | .052] .129 | .61 | .053
3 |} .190 |. .90 | .077] .192 | .91 | .078]] .193 | .92 | .079
4 -253 | 1.20 -102 || .256 | 1.21 .104 || .258 | 1.23 .105
5 -316 | 1.49 .128 | .320 | 1.51 -129 || .822 | 1.53 -131
6 | .379 | 1.79 | .154 |] .383 | 1.81 | .155 |] .386 | 1.84 | .158
7 -442 | 2.09 |. .179 447 | 2.12 -181 }} .451 | 2.15 .184
8 || .506 | 2.39 | .205 |) .511 | 2.42 | .207] .515 | 2745 | .210
9 -569 | 2.69 .230 || .575 | 2.72 .233 ||. .580 | 2.76 -237

10 .632 | 2.99 .256 |} .639 | 3.02 .259 || .644 | 3.07 . 263
5.7 5.8 5.9
1 -065 31 027 066 .31 .027 || .066 .32 -027
2 -130 -62 053 131 -63 -054 || .133 64 055
3. | .195 | .93 | .080 || .197 | .94 | .081 |} .199 | .95 | .082
4 -260 | 1.24 -106 | .262 | 1.26 -108 || .265 | 1-27 | .109
5 .3825 | 1.55 .133 || .328 | 1.57 -134 | .331 | 1.59 -136
6 -391 | 1.86 -160 || .394 | 1.89 -161 || .398 | 1.91 . 164
7 | .456 | 2.17 | .186 || .459 | 2 20 | .188 | .464 | 2.23 | .191
8 -521 | 2.48 -213 | .525 | 2.51 215 || .5380 | 2.54 .218
9 | -586 | 2.79 | .239 || .590 | 2.83 | .242 || .597 | 2.86 | .246
10 -651 | 3.10 -266 | .656 | 3.14 .269 || .663 | 3.18 -273
6.0 6.1 6.2
1 -067 -382 |. .028 068 33 -028 || .069 .33 -028
2 .134 64 -055 136 65 -056 |} .138 -66 .057
3 +200 97 -083 204 ‘98 | .084 || .207 -99 | .085
4 - 267°) 1.29 -110 |} .272 | 1.30 -112 || .276 | 1.32 .113
5 .334 | 1.61 |{-.138 || .839 | 1.63 .139 || .344 | 1.65 .141
6 -401 | 1.938 - 166 || .407 | 1.96 -167 | .413 | 1.98 .170
7°) .468 | 2.25 | .193 || .475 | 2:28 | .195 || .482 | 2.31 .198
8 -534 | 2.58 (221 || .543 | 2.61 -223 || .551 | 2.64 .226
9 -601 | 2.90 -248 || .611 | 2.93 -251 || .620 | 2.97 -255
10 -668 | 3.22 |. .276 || .679 | 3.26 -279 || .689 | 3.30 . 283
6.3 6.4 6.5
1 .070 +33 -029 071 34 -029 || ,072 34 .029
2 - 140 -67 -057 142 .67 -058 || .144 -68.] .059
3 -210 | 1.00 -086 213 | 1.01 .087 |} .216 | 1.02 -088
4 -280 | 1:34 -114 | .284 | 1.35 -116 || .288 | 1.37 .117
5 | .350 | 1.67 -143 || .355 | 1.69 .144 | .360 | 1.71 . 146
6 -420 | 2.00 +172 || .426 | 2.03 -173 || .433 | 2.05 -176
7 1490 | 2.34 -200 || .497 | 2.36 -202 |} .505 | 2.39 .205
8 -560 | 2.67 -229 || .568 | 2.70 .231 || .577 | 2.73 .234
9 -630 | 3.00 -257 || .639 | 3.04 -260 |} .649 | 3.07 - 264
10 -700 | 3.34 . 286 710 | 3.38 -289 || .721 | 3.42 293

ADJUSTING THE RATION 235

If then a cow weighs 1200 pounds, she would not be given
24 pounds of hay, but 12 pounds of hay and 36 pounds (3 X 12)
of silage. When either silage or hay is abundant it may be fed in
quantity proportionally greater and the other proportionally less
than that mentioned. This is only a helpful rule, not a law.

The amount of grain a cow should receive will depend
largely on the amount and quality of the milk produced. Most
commonly one pound grain for every three pounds of milk will
suffice, but this must be increased to one to two and a half or even
one to two where the cow is yielding either a large flow of
ordinary milk or a moderate amount of very rich milk. While
if a cow is yielding only thirty pounds of 3.6 per cent milk,
a grain and milk ratio of one to three would be ample. As
much as one to two and a quarter would be desirable if sixty
pounds of 3.6 per cent milk or thirty pounds of 5.5 per cent
milk were being produced.

The digestible nutrients required in the production of milk
and the maintenance of the cow’s body are all found in the
various feeding stuffs, but in no two of them are the propor-
tions of these ingredients the same and in few, if in any, is the
proportion the same as that needed by the cow for either main-
tenance or for milk formation. To emphasize this point and
to present the matter in the form most usable, Minnesota Bul-
letin 130 is quoted as Appendix Table ILI.

The adjustment of the amount of the three nutrients fed to
the needs of the cow so that she shall be fully nourished and yet
to prevent the waste of any appreciable amount of any one of
the nutrients is called “balancing the ration.” The truly
balanced ration is the most economical ration so far as the
amount of feed is concerned and usually also is the economical
ration in respect to cost.

Example: Let us suppose a cow weighs 1150 pounds, and is
giving daily 26 pounds of milk testing 4.2 per cent fat, what is
the amount of nutrients required ?

By reference to Table III we see that a cow weighing 1150
pounds requires 0.805 pound protein, 8.05 pounds carbohydrates
and 0.11 pound fat daily for mere bodily upkeep. By turning

236 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

to Table II, under the section headed ‘“* Percentage of fat in
milk 4.2,” we may easily calculate the amount of each nutrient
by taking the amount indicated for 2 pounds of milk and mul-
tiplying by 10 and then adding in the amount needed for 6
pounds of milk. Thus we find that for the formation of 26
pounds of 4.2 per cent milk there are required 1.44 pounds of
digestible protein, 6.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates and 0.56
pound digestible fat. Adding the two amounts we have:

Protein Carbohydrates Fat
For maintenance .............+. 805 8.05 11
For 26 pounds 4.2 per cent milk.. 1.44 6.50 56
Total nutrients required ........ 2.245 14.55 67

From the above we see that the cow assumed must be pro-
vided with 214 pounds protein, 1414 pounds carbohydrates and
more than 14 pound fat per day or she will either decrease in
milk flow or lose weight, or do both.

To supply the nutriment required suppose we feed:

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat
Timothy hay .......... lz 236 5.21 168
Corn silage ........... 36 345 5.15 252
GOIN. ahiee he daisies Seavey 5 395 3.33 1215
OBS, octane eieg aoa 4 428 2.01 .152'
Nutrients provided ..... 1.404 15.70 787
Nutrients required ..... 2.245 14.55 67

It will be noted from the above example that, although the
regulation amounts of hay, silage and grain have been fed, and
that carbohydrates and fat amounts are well provided, pro-
tein is 0.84 pound short. This ration is balanced in respect to
roughage to cow and grain to milk, but far from it in the more
vital part, digestible nutrients, especially protein. Reference
to table of analysis shows that cottonseed meal, linseed oil meal,
gluten feed and bran are richer in protein than corn or oats.
To correct the balance of nutrients and to keep the number of
pounds the same, suppose we try the following:

ADJUSTING THE RATION 237

Lbs. Protein Carbohydraies Fat
Timothy hay .......... 12 236 5.21 168
Corn silage ........... 36 345 5.15 252
CORR sie 64.08 eaten eases 4 316 2.67 172
Oats: suteeanrs dys Pees 3 321 1.51 114
Cottonseed meal ....... 2 752 43 192
Nutrients provided ..... 1.970 14.97 898
Nutrients required ..... 2.245 14.55 67

In this the requirements are more nearly approached, but
the shortage in protein is still too great.

If we shift the grain slightly to contain 3 pounds corn, 3
pounds oats and 3 pounds cottonseed meal we have:

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat
Timothy hay .......... 12 .236 5.21 168
Corn silage ........... 36 345 5.15 252
COM ea<avea ne ruses ees 3 237 2.01 .129
SES Seexaiseneute ciel ens sacs 3 321 1.51 114
Cottonseed meal ....... 3 1.128 64 288
Nutrients provided ..... 2.267 14.52 952
Nutrients required ..... 2.245 14.55 67

In this case all three of the balances have been met very
satisfactorily. It will be noted that the balance of the nutrients
is almost perfect. No more feed is consumed in this case, but
more milk would be produced and a better physical condition
of the cow maintained.

A very material amount of the balancing may often be
effected by means of the roughage, by the use of alfalfa or
clover hay. Thus we may feed a ration as follows:

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat
Red clover hay ......... 12 853 4.54 216
Corn silage ...........- 36 345 5.15 252
Corn. .a55 3% ee ee 5 395 3.33 215
Oats, asuessees acess aes 4 428 2.01 152
Nutrients provided ..... 2.020 15.03 835

Nutrients required ..... 2.245 14.55 67

238 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

In this ration the addition of clover has nearly balanced it.
It is, however, 14 pound short in protein, and 14 pound over
in carbohydrates.

In the past, wheat bran has been fed largely for milk pro-
duction, but while a little is good for the stock more nutriment
can usually be obtained for the money by purchasing, instead,
some of the grains richer in protein and more digestible. Sup-

pose we try:

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat
Clover hay ............ 12 S52 4.54 216
Corn silage ........... 36 345 5.15 252
Cort sasaciediw ees dies 4 316 2.67 172
ORCS. sia Saanidonnesneien wes 4 428 2.01 152
Linseed oil meal ...... 1 302 32 069
Nutrients provided .... 2.243 14.69 861
Nutrients required ..... 2.245 14.55 67

It will be noted that the simple replacement of 1 pound
corn with 1 of linseed meal brought the protein up in amount
to the point of requirement and that no more total feed was
given by the change. This last ration would be a very good one
indeed for a 1150-pound cow yielding 26 pounds of milk testing
4.2 per cent fat, daily, and has the advantage over the other
balanced ration, both in physiological effect on the cow and of
having been produced more largely on the farm, a less amount
having been purchased.

Combinations almost without number might be made, but
the foregoing will sufticiently illustrate the necessity and the
method of ration balancing.

It is not necessary nor advisable that each grain be weighed
out separately for each cow. Such would entail altogether too
much work and too much disturbance of the cows as well. It is
not even necessary to make wp a separate mixture for each cow.

A good mixture made of three or more grains may be made
up to serve as a complement to the hay fed, and from this grain
all the cows in any herd may be fed very accurately by increas-
ing or decreasing the amount of grain and hay given.

A GENERAL RULE 239

A General Rule.—Except when a very large amount of
milk or a very rich milk in quite liberal quantity is to be pro-
vided for the following general rule will provide an approx-
imately balanced ration. The rule is: ‘ Feed 2 pounds of hay,
or 1 pound of hay and 3 pounds of silage, or 1 pound of hay and
114, of fodder per hundredweight of cow. Then make up a mix-
ture of three or more grains in such proportion as to contain
about 16 per cent digestible protein if timothy or wild hay is to
be fed, or about 13 per cent digestible protein if clover-timothy
mixture hay is to be fed, or about 11 per cent digestible protein if
clover hay is to be fed, or about 9 per cent of digestible protein if
alfalfa hay is to be fed; and then feed of the grain mixture 1
pound for every 214 to 3 pounds of milk, if Jersey or Guernsey
cows, or 1 pound to 3 pounds of milk if Shorthorn grade, or
1 pound to 8 or 314 pounds if Holstein.”

As an example, suppose grade Shorthorns or Shorthorn-Hol-
stein cows are to be fed and the hay at hand is a mixture of
wild grasses and timothy. The hay and silage or hay and fodder
would then be fed as already mentioned and would approx-
imately sustain the animal so far as maintenance requirements
are concerned. To provide such a herd with grain we may
start with corn, oats, or barley and one or two purchased high
protein feeds—say bran and cottonseed meal. The mixture to
contain between 15 and 16 per cent digestible protein would
have to be made about as follows:

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat

CORE! oe 83 ide hacia tae tiene 4 2316 2.67 162
OATS nce secede aoe Ange Snore 2 214 1.01 .076
IBTAT Qondaeaane Hales alone 1% 178 63 037
Cottonseed meal ........ 2, 840 54 240
10 1.548 4.85 525

Expressed in terms of per cent the composition of this
mixture would be, protein 15.48 per cent, carbohydrates 48.5
per cent and fat 5.25 per cent.

In this the protein is quite up to the amount usually needed

240 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

to balance the nutrients in a cow’s ration, which has been
based on non-proteinous roughage.

In case red clover or alsike clover hay is available to feed
with the silage or corn fodder, a less amount of protein will need
be purchased because so largely furnished in the leguminous hay.
A grain supplement for such would be made up as follows:

Lbs. Protein Carbohydrates Fat
COT, shai anew eae ees s 6 74 4.00 .258
Oats: 24.76 e deci Bates 2448 2Y, 267 1.26 .094
Linseed oil meal......... ly 453 48 -103
10 1.194 5.74 455

In the above grain mixture it will be noted that only 15 per
cent of the total amount of grain is purchased, all the rest is
home grown and that the mixture has a percentage composition
of protein 11.94, carbohydrates 57.4 and fat 4.55. This mix-
ture will form a very good adjunct to the clover hay fed. There
should be no hesitancy, however, in buying high protein grain
feeds, since the purchase of such high protein feed may well be
considered a double purchase, in that protein is first obtained
for the cow’s ration and that, following, the manure is made
richer in nitrogen for the fertilization of the fields.

A single caution in the use of corn meal is that it should not
be fed to a milch cow in amounts greater than about one-half
pound per hundredweight of cow per day. A 1200-pound cow
may safely be allowed to consume 6 pounds of corn meal per
day, an 800-pound cow 4 pounds. If used more freely there
is danger of a fatty deposit in the os resulting in sterility. It
is also inadvisable to feed cottonseed meal in quantities greater
than 3 pounds a day to a cow as a steady ration.

Feed During Heavy Yield—lIn all the breeds having the
most pronounced dairy type and temperament, there are cows
which, when fresh, will yield considerably more milk than can
be supported by the amount of feed that the cow can possibly
digest and assimilate. All of the substances contained in that
amount of milk given in excess of that supplied directly by the
daily ration, is obtained from the cow’s own body, by a process
of absorption. Tt is natural for cows to flesh up while carrying

FEED DURING HEAVY YIELD 241

the young, and to “ milk down ” after calving. This fact now
is made use of in the making of large milk records.

The question naturally arises, ‘‘ What should be the nature
of the ration fed during this period of losing weight? Should
it be a balanced ration to the limit of the cow’s ability to eat
feed, and thereby force her to extract from her tissue a balanced
ration for the remainder of the milk, or should the ration
contain practically enough protein to sustain the full flow and
thereby permit the cow’s vital tissue to remain unimpaired while
forcing her to use up her body fat only to provide the
deficiency ?”

The question has never been closely studied experimentally,
but the practice of the men who are now making the large
records have very generally adopted the latter method.

An abundance of protein in an easily digested and palatable
form stimulates milk production and, what is probably of equal
importance, leaves the vital organs and tissues of the cow in
good repair after the yield has declined to a point where the cow
can sustain the flow by daily consumption of feed.

An example to illustrate: Let us assume a 1400-pound Hol-
stein-Friesian cow in good condition. The matter may be illus-
trated by figure 76. Let O indicate time of calving; the
vertical line amount in pounds and the horizontal line time in
weeks; the solid curved line the milk amount and the dotted line
the feed amount.

A week or more before the cow is due to calve the heavy
grain should be withheld from the cow, she being fed on suc-
culent roughage such as silage and roots with a little hay and
just prior to parturition all feed should be withheld, but water
provided in abundance and often.

After calving she should not be crowded with feed to force
the milk, but rather the cow should be allowed to set the pace in
flow while the feed is carefully raised in amount, following, as
it were, the lead of the milk.

If in our example (Fig. 76) the cow at the end of three weeks
reached a flow of 90 pounds of 4.0 per cent milk, A-C, and is
able to consume feed for the support of only 65 pounds of milk,
A-B, she will have to make up the deficiency, B-C, 25 pounds,

16 :

“YIU OFUT 41 4IBATOD pus ensst} UMO
gunoure weaeKjoq UWOT}B[aL dUl7B14SN][T— 92 2):

*S>2B,
Ze 8s ob «| [» a eS ; : - ae eae Ga Ce
wt f a a) ——~g Tre oe ee
an i
\
\

FEED DURING HEAVY YIELD 243

from her own body. Up to this point and continuing, the feed
supplied should contain liberal quantities of protein, enough
to meet the protein requirement, if possible. The nutritive
ratio of the total ration at A B © would be about 1: 5.0, at
DEF, 1: 5.5 and at G H I, 1: 6.0.

As the milk flow naturally declines the proportion of protein
to carbohydrates should widen to reach a balanced form at as
early a period as possible. Care should be taken not to over-
feed in protein, as it is liable to bring on a rheumatic condition,
but so long as all the protein feed is needed and the whole ration
kept as cooling in nature as possible there is little or no danger
of “ burning out.”

Later in the lactation period when the milk-line falls, the
value of about one pound of grain below the feed-line, the grain
should be cut down to agree, yet to remain a little above, to sup-
port the flow instead of dragging it downwards, as would be the
case if the feed-line fell below the milk-line.

The competent herdsman will study carefully each cow that
he may provide her not simply with feed nutrients, but also in
the form most pleasing to the particular cow. Some cows dis-
like cottonseed meal, but will take linseed oil meal with zest;
some prefer less silage and more hay; some crave wheat bran, or
some form of sugar feed or roots. Each cow has a favorite
without which she will not take the maximum of feed. They
should be studied separately and humored.

Roots such as mangles and rutabagas have been fed for
many years in various parts of the world, but are only recently
coming to form a part of the cow’s ration systematically, and
in the place of some grain rather than as a competitor of corn
silage. <A field, planted to corn where corn grows even reason-
ably well, will produce more feed per acre, and per dollar cost
of growing, than if planted to roots, but either mangles or ruta-
bagas compete successfully with either oats or barley as milk
producers. Moreover, the tender succulent condition of the
feed in roots renders them more easily masticated and digested
than hay, in fact equal to good grain. Roots and potatoes may
then be systematically substituted for a part of the grain ration
called for by any cow giving milk. In practice one-half the

244 WINTER FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS

grain may be withheld and roots substituted at the rate of 11
pounds of mangles, 9 pounds of rutabagas or 5 pounds of pota-
toes to replace 1 pound of grain.

If a cow is yielding 40 pounds of 3.8 per cent milk she may
be fed hay and silage according to her weight. Then instead
of feeding (40+ 3==13) 13 pounds of grain, 614 pounds of
grain may be fed and 70 pounds of mangles or 60 pounds of ruta-
bagas, or 33 pounds of potatoes, substituted in place of the
remaining grain.

Order of Feeding.—It is natural for all animals to be more
or less nervous or even irritable when hungry. It is at such
times that the milkers are most likely to get into trouble with
the cows. It is desirable, therefore, to feed the cow her grain
first and to milk while she is eating. Hay should be fed after
milking because so often dusty, and silage and roots after milking
because of their odor.

Cows need be fed but twice a day, the total amount of hay,
silage and grain being divided equally between the morning and
evening meals.

The balancing of the nutrients of a cow’s ration is not now a
difficult task and it is no longer a question that cows consistently
fed approximately balanced rations will remain in better phys-
ical condition, drop stronger calves and yield more mi.k at less
cost than cows not so fed.

The kindly and regular care and comfort given the cows has
nearly, if not quite, as much to do with profitable returns as has
the balancing of the ration. The cow has been said to be “a
profitable recipient of affection.”

A silo is an immense barrel into which green feed, like corn,
is cut to be used as feed for livestock.

The advantage of the silo in American agriculture may be
briefly summarized as follows:

1. Silage keeps young stock thrifty and growing better than
dry fodder.

2. It produces beef more cheaply than dry hay.

3. It enables cows to produce milk and butter more econom-
ically.

EFFECT OF SILAGE ON MILK 245

4. It brings them out in the spring in such condition that
they shed their winter coats and commence gaining at once.

5. The silo prevents the waste of the corn stalks which con-
tain from 40 to 60 per cent of the total feed value of the field
of corn.

6. And, therefore, ‘a larger number of animals may be kept
on a given amount of land.

7. The silo furnishes the most economical method of preserv-
ing feed for the hot, dry period in summer when pasture is short.

8. It is usually preferable to a full soiling system for summer
feeding.

No dairy or general livestock farm is properly equipped for
economical production until a silo of some sort is provided
(Figs. 77, 78 and 79).

The kind of a silo is not essential, but rather the three
points, namely:

First, its height should be about twice as great as its diameter
to insure sufticient pressure to expel the air from the cut corn
and thus reduce the spoiling.

Second, it must be practically air-tight about the sides and
bottom to prevent admission of air which will cause or bring
about rotting of the silage.

Third, it must be made strong enough to withstand a heavy
outward pressure.

The wooden stave silo has the advantage of producing a
very sweet silage if the corn is at all right, but has also the dis-
advantage of drying out quickly when empty, with liability of
collapsing.

The cement block or monolith silo probably does not pro-
duce quite so sweet a flavored silage as a wooden silo, but it is
more permanent if well reinforced. And, so long as the cows do
not object to the slightly modified flavor, why should man ?

The acid from corn put up too green has a perceptible effect
on cement walls and foundations, but the amount generated in
silage from mature corn is negligible in effect.

Effect of Silage on Milk.—Milk produced by cows fed even
heavily and continuously on mature corn silage will not be less
tasty or valuable than any other and will be better for children

Fic, 78.

Fic. 77.

Fia. 79.

Fie. 77.—Silo, clay block, hollow wall, erected at the A.

School Farm,

ltural

gricu

Crookston, Minn.

Fria. 78.—This home-made, plaster-lined silo cost little and

gave perfect satisfaction.

(Woodland Dairy Farm.)

Fie. 79.—Octagonal barn being built around a silo made b

idly

y nailing 2x 4’s sol

(Owned by J. H. Nixon, Nevis, Minn.)

together flatwise in an eight-sided form.

QUESTIONS 247

and infants for the reason that the cows are in better physical
condition. It, however, the feed is excessively sour from being
put into the silo too green, the milk will not have the rich, full
aroma that it ordinarily possesses. Such silage should be fed
in lessened amounts with more hay.

Cows’ teeth will not be affected by silage if it has been made
from even reasonably mature corn and fed in conjunction with
dry hay or corn fodder.

Weed seeds present in hay or grain fed to cows are passed
unchanged, unless it be that they grow a little better after the
treatment,’ but seeds of all kinds except mature clover and
alfalfa are practically all destroyed by being put into a silo.4

QUESTIONS

1, At what season do cows naturally yield most milk?

2. At that season what are the conditions as to (a) feed supply, (b)
succulence of feed, (c) temperature, (d) proportion nutrients in the
feed?

3. Why should cows be made to freshen in the fall, as a general rule?

4. Illustrate on the board how one cow may by consuming 25 per cent
more feed have 100 per cent more for milk formation.

5. How may common hay be made more palatable?

6. What is meant by succulence?

7. What is a feed nutrient?

8. What is a ration?

9. What is a balanced ration?

0. What is meant by a maintenance ration?

1. As the fat per cent increases in milk how do the protein and carbohy-
drates vary? :

12. What is the particular value or use of protein in feed? Of carbohy-

drates? Of fat?

13. Is it necessary to feed each cow a separate grain mixture?

14. How may every cow be fed what she needs from one grain mixture?

15. Give the general rule in feeding.

16. Discuss the use of roots in the place of grain.

17. What is the preferable order of feeding?

18. What are the three essentials of a good silo?

19. What are the advantages of a silo?

20. Under what conditions may silage affect the milk yielded by the cows?

3 Beach, C. L. Vermont Bul. No. 138; Oswald, W. L. Minn. work in

progress.
4 Washburn, R. M. Vermont Bul. No. 170.

CHAPTER XXIV

CALF RAISING

Narure’s system in the matter of calf raising is apparently
that the calf should be born in the spring time; should suckle
its dam until six or eight months old; and during this time
gradually work on to grass and dry feed. This, however, is
entirely too extravagant for the present conditions of life in
the dairy sections of the country. By this system the owner of
the cow realizes an income on his investment equal only to the
value of the calf at the end of the year.

Furthermore, cows as now developed for dairying will pro-
duce from two to ten times as much milk as needed by the calf
and the value of butter fat on the market is too high to warrant
its being fed for any considerable length of time to calves.

Under the cheap land and scarce labor conditions, where
beef husbandry is preéminently the form of livestock found most
profitable, the system of raising the calves upon their dams is
unquestionably correct. Under opposite conditions, namely,
high-priced land and more abundant labor, it is unprofitable
indeed to permit the calf to consume whole milk for a period
longer than is really necessary to get it well started. The general
livestock and grain farms of the country will therefore present
problems varying all the way from one extreme to the other.

Veal calves are often produced in order to obviate the neces-
sity of milking for a period of six to eight weeks during the
growth of the calf. While this system has the advantages of
slightly lessening the labor on the farm, the disadvantages are
apparent when the calf is removed. Not alone has the calf been
consuming 30-cent butter fat and converting it into 10-cent veal,
but there is in nearly all cases a decided falling off in the amount
of milk which the mother will give after the removal of the calf.

Cows care very little indeed for their calves at the time of
birth, but their affection increases rapidly as they are permitted
to clean them off and especially when the little things suckle a few

248

IMPORTANCE OF RAISING CALVES 249

times. So intense does the mother love become during the
period of veal making, that at the end of six or eight weeks, when
the calf is finally removed, the mother not infrequently will
hunt for her calf, baw] about and hold wp her milk until going
nearly or quite dry. If the cow is later to be milked it will be
found a decided detriment to allow the calf so long a period
with its mother.

Occasionally a cow that is hard to milk or otherwise dis-
agreeable, may be turned over to calves and suckled by them,
one after another, and thus be made to return good value during
a period of stress.

The Importance of Raising Calves.—Many times the ques-
tion has been raised whether it were preferable for individual
dairy farmers to raise their own calves or to buy “ springers ”
when fresh cows are needed. Obviously someone must raise
calves if the number of cows is to be maintained. The economy
of the practice of dairymen living near cities, producing milk
for market use, in purchasing cows as needed and making no
attempts at raising young stock will not be questioned. Farmers,
on the other hand, who keep a limited number of cows and who
have large quantities of hay and corn fodder for consumption
should by all means raise their own young stock rather than to
trust to the market. It is common observation, too, that the
specialized dairymen near the cities are better judges of cows
than are most farmers, and that where possible it is desirable that
the best of the city dairy cows be bred and that the young stock be
raised on the farm farther back from the cities. Certain it is that
if improvement is to be made in the class of cows kept, calves
must be reared from the best individual cows.

Fall calves have the advantage over those born in the spring.
During the first few weeks of the calf’s life he lives almost
wholly upon milk, whether there be blue grass or snowdrifts
just outside the barn. As he matures, more feed, especially
grain, is consumed. All this can take place in the winter as
well asin the summer. The October or November calf will, by
May, be old enough to make use of pasture and should be given
a moderate amount of it. The autumn calf then reaches its

250 CALF RAISING

first period of dry feed without milk when nearly or quite a
year old. The spring-dropped calf, on the other hand, con-
sumes its milk during the period of good pasture and at six or
eight months of age, when it would normally be weaned from
milk, finds itself confronted with winter conditions while still
too young to withstand them well. The calf dropped in the
fall is usually as large and as valuable at a year old as the spring
calf at a year anda half. The farmer finds more time to care for
the calf in winter than in summer. From the standpoint cf the
calf as well as that of the profitableness of the.cow, dairy calves
should be dropped during the last three months of the year.

Removing the Calf from the Mother.—One mistake often
made is in allowing the calf to remain too long with the mother.
She becomes attached to it and it becomes accustomed to her,
and objects to learning to drink from a pail. Experience
teaches that it is best to remove the calf as soon as it has been
cleaned off, at any rate not allowing it to suckle more than once.
When the cow is out of the box stall for water the calf should be
removed without attracting her attention, and placed in dry com-
fortable quarters, out of hearing of its mother, if possible. When
the cow returns to the stall and notices the absence of her baby
the wise dairyman will be on hand with a palatable mass of bran
mash or steamed oats, and ready to be substituted in the affections
of the cow for the little one that has been lost. This transfer of
affection is easily accomplished at that time.

Allow the Calf to Become Hungry.—Tf the calf has been
permitted to suckle once it will not usually be sufticiently
hungry at the end of twelve hours to learn easily how to drink.
No harm whatever will come to it if twenty-four hours elapse
before its first meal after removal from the mother. When
keenly hungry it will learn very readily. From one to three
lessons only are then needed to teach the average calf the art
of drinking from the pail.

First Feeding.—The first milk drunk by the calf from the
pail should be a portion of its own mother’s milk, sweet, warm,
and clean, and not more than a quart in quantity. In teaching
the calf to drink the feeder should remember that the calf is a

FIRST FEEDING 251

baby and cannot be anything else until given time to grow. The
ridiculous struggles occasionally pictured in teaching the calf to
drink exhibit only ignorance on the part of the man. By first
backing the little fellow into a corner and then locking his neck
between the legs of the feeder, as in a stanchion (Fig. 80), the
pail may be held in the left hand; the tips of the fingers on
the right hand moistened with milk and inserted into the ecalf’s
mouth. At the taste of the milk the calf will commence to
suck. Then slowly the head may be drawn downward until the

Fia. 80.—Inexpensive calf stanchion. (Courtesy Wisconsin Station.)

milk is reached. The calf then sucks the fingers, drawing the
milk between them. When well started the fingers should be
slowly withdrawn while the right thumb is held merely on the
top of the nose. To be sure, the calf’s head may fly up at any
instant when the process will need to be repeated. An intelli-
gent calf, keenly hungry, will occasionally learn to drink with
the first lesson and usually with the second. Almost never will
the calf have to be shown more than three times before it will
proceed to drink from the pail unaided.

252 CALF RAISING

Later Feeding.—During the period of about three days,
when the cow is yielding colostrum milk, portions of such should
be fed to the calf, the quantity naturally varying with the size
and strength of the calf. No hard and fast rule can be laid
down in this any more than in any other phase of dealing with
live animals. It isa good rule to start out giving about one quart
of milk at a feeding. During the first week it is often wise to
feed the calf three times a day, especially if it is weakly and un-

Fia. 81.—Tender but healthy, Needs only good care and feed.

able to consume a large quantity. After a week or ten days two
feeds a day will be found quite as satisfactory as three.

The milk fed must be sweet, warm and from a clean pail,
and not too great in quantity, otherwise digestive disturbances
are liable to occur, resulting in diarrhea, loss of strength and
if not checked soon, the calf may either die outright, or be
stunted so that many months will be required for his recovery.

The quantity of milk which should be given the ealf will
after three or four days be not far from one pound per day for

THE GRAIN FED 253

every eight or ten pounds that the calf weighs, <A calf weigh-
ing sixty pounds then would receive six to eight pounds ot milk
per twenty-four hours, divided into two or three feedings. For
this purpose measuring is sufliciently accurate, ponsidening a
quart to weigh two pounds: The first milk given should be
whole milk, first from its own mother and later from the herd,
provided, Tioweven, such milk does not carry more than 314 to
4 per cent fat. ich milk is not good for calves. It is liable
to bring on diarrhea. This is particularly true of the thin,
tender little calves often born in Jersey and Guernsey herds.
Where the herd milk is of Jersey or Guernsey cows it is prefer-
able that a little sweet skim milk should be added to the whole
milk, even from the start, sufficient to bring the fat content
down to at least 4 per cent, and preferably down to 3 per cent.
On such milk the calf then may be fed, in quantity according
to its weight, for one to three weeks, depending upon its strength.
At the end of this period it is usually found possible to lessen
the amount of whole milk used, and to increase the amount of
skim milk used, keeping the total of the two the same, however,
and thus withdrawing the whole milk entirely from the ration.
A period of at least a week should be used in making the
transition. A common error at this point is to feel that since
skim milk is not as rich as whole milk a larger quantity should
therefore be given. This is emphatically not true. The sub-
stance withheld in skim milk feeding is fat and this cannot be
replaced by feeding more of the skim milk which does not
contain fat. The quantity of skim milk fed per day should not
be greater than would readily be consumed if the fat had been
left in it, but the deficiency should be made up by substituting
grain. Thus it is possible to make ground corn, and later shelled
corn, worth 114, cents a pound, practically take the place of butter
worth 30 to 40 cents a pound. The average calf should gain from
one to one and one-half pounds per day (Figs. 82 and 83).

The grain fed to a young calf should consist of a fine soft
meal, such as shorts, but when four weeks old the grain should
have the same ingredients which would ordinarily be fed to
dairy cows. A portion of the cow’s grain mixture, if rightly

254 CALF RAISING

made, will suffice for the calves. It should consist of corn,
oats or barley, middlings or fine bran, and oil meal. Calves
will learn, even at two weeks of age, to nibble of the mixture,
and at three weeks will regularly consume considerable quan-
tities. Grain should thereafter be fed in quantities sufficient
to keep the young animals growing thriftily. At no other

Fic. 82. = Stanchiona tor calves to prevent the strong from stealing the food of the —e
and to prevent all from sucking one another.

ere a 5 . —— ———

a
a es

Fia. 83.—A group of skim-milk calves. Note thrifty condition. (Courtesy of
G. W. Gebrand.)

time in the animal’s life will so small a quantity of grain be of
such great benefit.

Hay for Calves.—It is surprising to note how young calves
will begin regularly to eat quantities of hay, provided it is
tender and otherwise palatable. At three weeks of age they
begin to eat a few straws at a time and increese until liberal
quantities are regularly consumed. It is highly to be recom-
mended also that calves intended for dairy purpose be encour-

RAISING CALVES WITHOUT MILK 255

aged to eat hay as young and as freely as possible. By consum-
ing hay thus freely less grain is necessary for their raising, and
they are likewise to a considerable extent developed while young
in their capacity to handle roughage. The hay best adapted
to the use of young calves is second cut clover, or, if this is not
obtainable, then something approaching that as nearly as pos-
sible in character. Second cut meadow hay (rowen) is very good
indeed, because so tender and easily masticated.

By rationally combining skim milk, ordinary grains and
tender hay, calves are regularly raised on the best dairy farms
at little expense and made to be perfect beauties while young
and valuable when older.

Order of Feeding.—Warm skim milk, free from excessive
foam, is a highly nutritious feed for young animals of all kinds,
but it is delicate and easily made unfit if fed in a dirty germ-
laden pail, or if fed just after or immediately before the calf
has eaten silage. The acidity of the silage seems to sour the
milk before it can have time to digest. Calves so fed often
stand for some time belching gas and showing signs of distress.
A change in the order of feeding to grain, milk, hay and then
silage has brought relief and decidedly improved the condition
of the calves which had been so fed.

Pasture for calves is of doubtful value. While small
amounts of grass will be consumed by the calf born in autumn
or winter it should not be required to consume large quantities
or to depend very largely upon grass for its sustenance. The
heat of an unshaded yard may easily undo the beneficial effects
to be secured from the outside run and if the calves are forced
to live out of doors during the latter portion of the summer,
when the grass is more or less tough and dry, and flies numer-
ous, there will usually be a period of stagnation in growth when
no advancement is made. Under such circumstances the calves
would be much better off eating their few pounds of hay, a little
grain, water, and skim milk if available, in the barn. Calves
should gain three-fourths to one and one-half pounds per day
when three to eight months old.

Raising Calves Without Milk.—In regions which regu-
larly ship whole milk to cities the question of how to raise the

256 CALF RAISING

calves without holding back so large a quantity of milk is a
vital one. To raise calves on milk worth $1.75 a hundred
pounds makes him a rather expensive animal, while to raise no
calves and to trust to the open market to replace the dairy is un-
satisfactory from the standpoint of character or efficiency of the
animal to be secured and the likelihood of introducing disease.

For many years various concoctions have been tried and a
few recommended as substitutes for milk in calf feeding. To
make a long story short, the result of the many trials is that
calves can be successfully reared upon a very small quantity of
milk used in conjunction with an adequate amount of mixed
grains, but that milk in some amount is practically essential.
It is a settled practice in the milk-selling regions to withhold
a small amount of milk for the purpose of supplying cream for
the table and skim milk for the calves. A quart of skim milk
is then diluted with water and fed, care being taken that the
grain supply is ample and adapted to the calf’s age.

Calf Meals.—Various compounds of cereals under a variety
of names have for many years been advertised, a few for a
century or more. Careful trials of the matter have proved that
good calves may be raised on a very small amount of whole
milk (60 to 90 pounds) and a moderate amount of skim milk
(350 to 400 pounds) by the use of a calf meal. A very satis-
factory calf meal may be made, according to Lindsey, as follows:

Ingredients of Calf Meal
22 pounds ground oat flakes
10 pounds ground flaxseed meal
5 pounds ground flour middlings
11 pounds finely ground corn meal
1%, pounds prepared blood flour
¥, pound salt
Cost, about 3 cents per pound.

To use this meal with success essentially the following
method should be followed: The calf should be removed from
its mother and taught to drink in the manner already described.
At eight to twelve days of age sweet warm skim milk should be
added to the calf’s mess, a little at a time and taking the place
of the same quantity of whole milk. The second day of change
a little more skim and a little less whole milk is fed; thus the

CALF SCOURS 257

change is made to cover a week or ten days. By the time the
milk fed is about half and half, skim and whole milk, a few
ounces of the calf meal mixture should be stirred into the milk.
This can best be done by making up the meal into a paste in cold
water and then adding to the milk. The meal is gradually in-
creased as the whole milk is decreased until when the calf is about
three weeks old it is living on skim milk and calf meal. This diet
of skim milk and meal gruel should continue until the calf is
about three months old, when milk may be entirely withheld.

The calf will already have learned to eat tender hay and
small amounts of ordinary grain so that by the time the calf is
six months old the feeding of the calf meal may be stopped.
From this time forward any thrifty calf will do well on tender
hay, common grain mixtures and water.

Whey for Calves.—In regions where cheese is largely made
the problem of raising calves is one of successfully combining
whey with grain in such fashion as to produce thrifty stock. In
the process of cheese making practically all of the fat and casein
is removed from the milk. The substances remaining are
sugar, albumen, a very little casein and a little fat and ash. The
total solid content of whey is nearly one-half that of whole milk
and about two-thirds that of skim milk. One hundred pounds
of whey ordinarily carries from 51% to 6 pounds of solid feed,
while skim milk has only about 9 pounds. The problem of
raising calves in cheese districts has been solved in very much
the same way as in whole milk shipping regions, namely, the
combination of a small amount of milk with a generous amount
of calf meals and common grains.

Whey fed clean and sweet is better than water, but if allowed
to become contaminated in a dirty whey tank or barrel it may
cause scours and be worse than no whey. Whey is worth most
when mixed with grains and fed to swine.

Sweet whey combined with a calf meal will sustain a calf
at an early age, two to three months, and may be continued until
the calf is six or nine months old with profit.

Calf Scours.—The most common form of calf scours is
caused by any sort of interference with the process of digestion.
In many places the most frequent cause is over-feeding on milk

258 CALF RAISING

which is neither sweet nor sour, but in that dangerous half-
changed condition. In addition to this many farmers have
been guilty of feeding tender young calves out of pails so dirty
as to be absolutely unfit to bear feed to any animal. The germs
of decomposition growing continually in the crevices, and on
the side, are distributed through the fresh milk supply and in-
troduced into the calf, where they continue to grow and cause
various sorts of evil conditions. Worse even than this is the
practice of pouring the milk into a tub or half barrel in the
yard, permitting the calves in the yard to jam their way in and
drink at will. The strongest secure too much and the weakest
not enough, and all get dirty stuff and suffer.

For many years farmers have had difficulty in raising calves
on skim milk as it has been returned from the creamery. This
fact has been one of the reasons why the introducing of hand
separators has been so rapid and thorough within the past ten
years. With the strict enforcement of the law requiring the
pasteurization of skim milk to prevent the spreading of tuber-
culosis it was found that very good calves indeed could be raised
on the milk returned from the creamery. A few who have had
trying experiences with skim milk from the creamery have
settled upon the practice of permitting the milk to become thor-
oughly sour before feeding it to the calves. Thus, “ clab-
berred” sour milk has been successfully fed to even young
calves and to the certain knowledge of the writer produce fine,
thrifty stock. This should not be surprising, however, when
we remember how many thousand human infants are now being
reared upon buttermilk, beginning even at the age of two weeks
or less and continuing until six to eight months of age. Cer-
tain it is that milk fed to a calf should be either thoroughly
sweet or thoroughly sour and in the same condition every time.
See Chapter XXII for discussion of treatment of scours.

Blood meal has been found highly beneficial in correcting
digestive disturbance in calves. A tablespoonful of blood flour,
mixed with a small quantity of milk, fed to a calf with diarrhea
acts as a corrective in such disturbances and is a highly nutri-
tious feed as well.

Raw eggs are excellent feed for a young calf which has

YOUNG CALVES NEED REST 259

started so scour from some fermentation of the milk it has
drunk. Eggs do not ferment as does milk because they contain
no sugar. While eggs spoil readily enough, the germ of egg
decomposition is not the same as those germs that infest the in-
testines of calves; thus eggs are often a safe substitute for part or
all of the milk for a few meals for calves suffering from scours.

Bone meal is found to be a good substance to mix with salt for
young cattle. Some feeds are deficient in the bone-forming ele-
ments. This possible deficiency can be insured against by the
feeding of a very moderate amount of bone meal.

Tt has been shown experimentally that an addition of ash
to the ration of growing animals increases the size and the
strength of the bone. An excess over absolute needs does no
harm even if continued through the whole growing period.

Water should be available to growing stock at- all times
or at least be made available at least three times a day.

Young Calves Need Rest.—The size of calf pens need
not be greater than 6 X 8 feet in which not to exceed three calves
should be kept. Individual pens only about 4 x 4 feet in size
are preferable for very young calves, especially those of the Jersey
and Guernsey breeds. A young calf is an infant and requires
much rest. If placed in a pen where there are several older
calves he is jostled about until thoroughly fatigued. Young
calves doing very poorly under such conditions often pick up
rapidly when placed in small individual pens.

The floor of calf pens should be of some water-tight mate-
rial which will not conduct heat readily. A cement floor is
most easily cleaned, yet it is exceedingly hard on the young
calf, as it becomes wet so quickly. It may be cold unless very
heavily bedded or insulated as described in Chapter XXI.
Tender cow-babies should not be compelled to lie where their
soft warm stomachs may be chilled. This often causes diar-
rhea which results in increased cost in raising the calf and
produces an animal of less value. If a cement floor is used
it should be overlaid with plank, cork-brick or creosoted blocks,
or should be insulated the same as that part of the general
stable floor upon which the cows must stand and lie.

Good light, and free circulation of air are so desirable in

260 CALF RAISING

the calf pen that barns being constructed should take this class
of needs well into account and locate the “ children’s ” room on
the southeast or southwest corner of the barn.

Sucking.—Practically all calves, if permitted, will, when
through drinking their milk, turn and suckle the other calves
present. The practice should not be permitted for the good
of either calf. Heifer calves thus suckled will in a few months
develop the udder abnormally on the side usually massaged
by the process. Poorly formed udders in mature cows are
occasionally traceable to carelessness in this regard on the part
of the manager. Calves frequently, too, form the habit of
consuming the urine from a neighbor calf, which practice is very
detrimental to both. This is one reason why it is so highly
advisable to lock the calves in a stanchion before feeding and
compel them to remain there until the impulse to nurse has
left them (Fig. 82). Rub bran on the nose after drinking.

Open vs. Sucking Pails for Calves.—The theory is often
expounded that calves will do much better if compelled to take
more time in the drinking of their milk. To this end various
devices resembling cows’ udders with a single teat below have
been put upon the market. A test of the value of slow versus
fast drinking has recently been made with the evidence favor-
ing the slow consumption of the milk. Earlier tests and prac-
tice in general do not show sufiicient difference in the two
methods to warrant the extra cost of the instrument used and
the extra labor in keeping it clean. Briefly, then, if the milk
is in good condition and fed in proper amounts and in the
right order, the rate of consumption of the milk will be found
a very minor matter.

Dehorning with Caustic_—Calves at birth have no horns.
The organ develops first on the skin as a button, loose from the
skull, later attaches to the skull proper. A horn may be killed
while still a mere lump in the skin with caustic potash. The
hair should be clipped away carefully around the spot to be
treated; the skin thoroughly moistened and rubbed soft. <A
stick of caustic potash may then be touched carefully to water
and rubbed into the skin over the embryo horn. Care should
be taken that there is not so much water present as to run

THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY FEEDING 261

down the side of the face. This will burn off the hair and
cause sores. When the scab over the horn falls off a second
application will usually be found sufficient to entirely prevent
the growth of the horn. Dehorning with caustic should be done
when the calf is but two to three days old.

Age to Separate Calves.— Well fed Jersey and Guernsey
calves have been known to breed at 90 to 100 days of age. Hol-
steins and Ayrshires reach this stage of development at from
100 to 120 days. Bull calves reach a similar stage of develop-
ment at four to five months of age. The dairyman of foresight
then will separate the sexes before harm occurs. .

Condition of Dairy Calves.—While the consumption of
milk containing a liberal quantity of fat will cause the calves
to become fat enough for good:veal at six to eight weeks of age,
it is difficult indeed to fatten calves on skim milk and grain.
More liberal feeding up to the limit of their ability to consume,
results more in a rapid growth than in fattening. Further-
more, for dairy purposes there is no need that the calves be
fattened, and there is danger associated with the condition.
Calves fed too much grain, especially corn, are in danger of form-
ing the fattening habit, which may detract from their value as
dairy cows later, and if continued until the breeding age, the fat
condition is very liable indeed to cause sterility, or inability to
breed. The consumption of more hay and less grain in the
growing heifer tends to produce an efficient dairy worker in
after-life, as well as working towards economy in the raising of
the animal. Grain should be fed in amount sufficient only to
keep the animal in fair flesh and growing continually.

The influence of early feeding on the size of the mature cow
has long been suspected. Best experimental evidence has been
furnished by the University of Missouri in which it is clearly
shown that if a cow is to attain her greatest stature she should
be liberally fed while young (Fig. 84). In fact those cows
that receive very liberal rations during their early growing
period not only reach their growth at an earlier age but attain
to a greater size than those which have been more scantily fed
during the first two and a half years of their lives. Whether

262 CALF RAISING

heavier cows are desirable is another question, The practice
of our best breeders now is to crowd the young stock with an
abundance of succulent roughage, adding only as much grain
as is necessary to keep them in good condition. It is also shown
that with strong dairy cows fat laid on in the early months
rapidly disappears upon commencement of lactation.

Fic. 84.—A thrifty Holstein heifer, developed by liberal feeding.

This must not be construed as advocating over-fatness in
young stock, for such would likely impair their breeding quali-
ties. Dairy young stock does not, however, require being kept
so thin in flesh as has been recommended and practiced by many.

The age to breed the dairy heifer will depend somewhat
upon the development of the particular heifer in question. If-

COST OF RAISING CALVES 263

the individual is well grown and has a tendency to lay on
fat she should be bred at an earlier age than one not so well
grown and showing less tendency to flesh formation. The
weil developed Jersey should be bred to drop her first calf
when she is not more than twenty-six months of age, and better
twenty-four rather than twenty-eight months, while the heifer
of retarded growth should be given two or four months more
time in which to reach the size established for the breed, or
twenty-six to thirty months. The aim should be to put the
young animals off the boarder and onto the working list at as
early an age as their physical development will permit without
doing permanent harm. If bred too young the energies of the
heifer are diverted to the development of the fetus and later to
milk yielding, with the result of retarding growth, sometimes
amounting to actual stunting.

The development of the dairy bull is not essentially differ-
ent from that of the dairy heifer except that a little more grain
and a little less of the bulky feeds may be fed. Over-fatness,
however, is to be avoided as being, first, an unnecessary and
expensive condition, and second, endangering the breeding
power of the animal. Hay and skim milk may form the major
portion of the ration, with grain fed as a conditioner. A large
paunch is not desirable on the breeding sire, however, and may
be avoided by feeding less roughage and more grain.

Pasture Necessary for Young Stock.—Although the tender
calf needs the protection of the stable more than the invigorat-
ing effects of pasture, the yearling should certainly be forced to
live upon pasture. Not only can young stock of this age
make good use of cheap range, but if they are to develop hardi-
hood, good health and vitality, they should be given ample pas-
ture. One disadvantage found in the soiling system of cow feed-
ing is that it does not provide means whereby the growing heifer
can get the exercise essential to strength at maturity.

Cost of Raising Calves.—This question has been studied in
several states. By Trueman of Connecticut, the cost is fixed at
about $66 for a two year old. From records kept for 117 calves
in Wisconsin, Bennet and Cooper conclude as follows:

264 CALF RAISING

. Cost of Raising Dairy Heifers in Wisconsin
Cost tol yr. Cost to 2 yrs.

Initial cost of calf................ $ 7.04 $ 7.04
HOO) tig cisiticeveerrnw careers ah eee 24.67 40.83
PabOr 2x iien eee oe oe aed aimee eae 4.45 7.81
Interest, insurance, upkeep, ete .... 6.36 13.73
GPOBE COSEE 2.25 gunnd swears scene suas $43.52 $69.41
Credit for manure................ 3.00 8.00

Net: CO8ti-sc.ki0.%<smeaGeerewae $39.52 $61.41

The cost on any given farm will vary with the cheapness of

pasturage, value of hay on the farm and cost of labor, whether
done by a high-priced hired man or by a child in the home.

DID TB ww

QUESTIONS
Is ‘‘nature’s way” of raising calves sufficiently economical for present
conditions? Why not?
Figure the value of the milk consumed by the next veal calf produced
on your farm. What costs have you observed?

. How should calves be raised?
. Why is a fall calf usually superior to a spring calf?

Tell how to steal the calf from its mother.

. How should the calf be handled during the first 24 hours after removal?
. Tell how to teach a young calf to drink.
. Tell how to feed the calf from time of teaching to drink until three

months old.

. How fast should a calf gain in weight from one week to one month?

From one month to three months?

. How young will calves eat hay?

. In what order should calves be fed?

. How should pasture be used for calves?

- How may calves be raised with use of the least possible amount of

milk?

. What is the value of whey for calves?

. What are the chief causes of scouring in calves?
. How may calf scours be treated?

. How and why is bone meal used for young cattle?

How may sucking often be stopped?

. Tell how to dehorn a calf.

. What influence has liberal feeding while young on size at maturity?

. At what age should heifer calves of the dairy breeds be bred?

. Tell how to develop the dairy-bred bull calf.

- To what class of young stock is pasture essential?

. About what does it cost to raise a heifer from birth to two years of age?
. How may the actual cost on any particular farm vary?

PART V
CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

CHAPTER XXV
CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

Since cow’s milk is such an exceedingly important item in
our present system of living and since the true value of the
milk hinges so largely upon its cleanliness, it is highly impor-
tant that the essentials of clean milk production be under-
stood by milk producers.

The cows should not only be healthy and in good physical
condition, but also sufficiently clean to permit of milking with-
out the heavy contamination so often following that process.
To this end, the barnyards need be kept sufficiently clean and
dry as to enable cows to walk freely without becoming dirty or,
in other words, milk should not be permitted to be sold where
bad conditions cannot be rectified (Fig. 85). The ordinary
drinking ponds found in the cow pastures in so many parts
of the country are sources of contamination. The cows wade
in to drink, then defile the water until soon the whole is a
fertile medium for the growth of many forms of slime and
bacteria. The slimy stuff dries on the cows and is chaffed
off into the pail at milking time. In dairy cow pastures such
drinking ponds should be fenced and provided with a tank out
of which water may be got without its becoming polluted.

The milkers have been shown to be another fruitful source
of contamination where care is not exercised in keeping the
hands clean during milking. The milker’s clothing is also an
item in this connection. If dusty, contamination is practically
sure to follow. The ordinary dirt on the milker’s overalls,
while not at all desirable, is not necessarily a source of contam-
ination. White suits are nice if kept clean, but expensive.
Ordinary blue or khaki overalls may be kept just as sanitary as
white ones and show dirt much less. The milking should be
done with dry hands. Wet handed milking is a filthy habit and
entirely unnecessary.

267

268 CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

Milking stools made of metal and so simply constructed
that they may be readily washed are of some aid in the produc-
tion of the highest class milk. Naturally some of the effects of
hand washing and udder cleaning will be lost if the milker is
compelled to seize a dirty stool just before starting to milk.
Though this is a minor item it nevertheless is one of the points to
be observed in the process of producing the highest class milk.

The pails used are another factor. The ordinary open top
milk pail seems to have been designed to catch all the dirt pos-
sible. A pail 12 inches in diameter will have 113 square

=
a canal

Fic. 85.—A well-lighted dairy barn. Note that top sash of windows fall inward to aid
in ventilation. Owned by H. P. Hood and Sons, Boston. (Courtesy of James Mig. Co.)

inches of dirt-catching surface, whereas one with half the open-
ing will have only a quarter as much exposed area. Then
again, if this open portion is raised to an angle shown in the
accompanying illustration (Fig. 86), a much smaller dirt-
catching area will be presented. There are many so-called
sanitary milk pails on the market. Many are reasonably good,
some are ridiculous. The construction of the pail within is
quite as important as the closing of a part of the top. All seams
should have been flushed full of solder, making it possible to
clean them, or better the pail should be made of pressed tin.
Every raw edge furnishes lodgement for dirt, which means food
and home foe putrefactive bacteria.

The sterilization of pails and cans used about the dairy
is essential in the production of milk which is to have good
keeping qualities. In order to sterilize, boiling water or live

STRAINERS 269

steam is necessary, preferably the latter. This may be used
by inverting the vessel over the steam jet or by placing the article
to be sterilized in an oven which is nearly steam tight. There
are on the market immense autoclaves for this purpose, but they
are not essential to success. A concrete or even wooden box built
at. very nominal expense will serve nearly if not quite as well.
It is desirable that such sterilizer boxes be provided with a
door on either side so that the freshly washed dairy tools may
be put into the sterilizer from the wash room side and removed
from the milk bottling side of the room.

roam ae —

b. al Diba, a

Fig. 86.—Milk pails. No. 1 is the common open mouth kind. Some are too high and
sharp for comfort in milking. That on either end of the lower row is a very good pail.
‘

Strainers are at best a crude attempt to undo something
which should not have been necessary. Strainers as ordinarily
made cause the hairs, chaff and other coarse dirt to be washed
thoroughly as each successive pail is poured over them. The
best sort of strainer is a broad one consisting of a layer of
absorbent cotton between two sheets of clean cheese cloth.

A clean barn is a material aid in the production of clean
milk (Figs. 87, 88 and 89). Right here, however, distinction

270 CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

needs to be made between apparent and real dirtiness. Bacteria
cannot rise from a moist or wet floor, neither will they long
remain floating in a damp atmosphere. Therefore, if a stable
floor is not so dirty as to allow pieces of filth to be picked up by
the cow and carried to the pail, a floor which is apparently very
dirty, but moist, may be of less consequence than a thoroughly

Fic. 87.—Typical and inexpensive well-made Southern cow stable. Note the open
corn crib construction of south side (left) and ventilation loft at right. Owned by Mr.
Van Dyke, Hope, Arkansas. (Photographed by author.)
dry and apparently cleaner condition. Fine, dry dust adheres
to the hair of the cow as she lies in her bed and is with difficulty
removed by hand or brush before milking. A stable atmos-
phere filled with dust from old hay is bad.

Flies are filthy things at best. They breed in the manure
and carry portions of it on their bodies wherever they go. A
fly swimming in milk or lying in a strainer soon becomes

‘

FLIES 271

washed fairly clean. The germs with which it was more or
less covered become dissolved free from the dirt and dissemi-
nated throughout the entire mass of milk. Flies may be pre-
vented around the stable and country home to some extent by
careful removal of barnyard manure and other waste. At-
tempts are also being made to kill the larva or maggot in the
manure heap by sprinkling over it powdered borax, also by con-

Fre. 88.—Stable, cows facing outward. Note method of building in the blocks for the
cows to stand on. (Courtesy James Mfg. Co.)

structing cement pits over which the manure is laid on slats.
The larve fall through and are killed in the kerosene water
below. After flies have reached the adult form some may be
caught by means of various fly’traps. About the stable and
back door of the kitchen and like places more effective exter-
mination of flies can probably be brought about by poisoning,
one of the best means known to the writer being skim milk into
which formaldehyde has been stirred at the rate of three tea-

272 CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

spoonfuls to each pint of milk. The greatest aid of all toward
a flyless farm is the removal of manure daily to the field. This
is impracticable under many circumstances, but the knowledge of
the facts should lead to efforts in that direction.

Pure water is highly desirable. This is particularly so if
the cows are permitted to wade into the water to drink. It is
quite as much the contamination of the udder and teats of the
cow as the drinking of bad water which causes inferiority in
the milk produced. Clean water for the cow is necessary to
the production of the best flavored milk.

Fia. 89.—Inexpensive yet clean cow house. Note liberal use of whitewash. Owned by
F. Gruenhagen, Brainerd, Minn. (Photographed by author.)

Quick thorough cooling is the second most important sin-
gle item in the production of milk which shall stay sweet
(Fig. 90). Keeping the dirt out is of first importance. Vari-
ous sorts of coolers have been devised, many having merit.
Where abundance of flowing cold water is obtainable a cooler of
the form shown in figure 113 is desired, but where flowing
water is not at hand one of the type shown in figure 114, which
when filled with water will admit also a chunk of ice, is desir-
able. Either of these forms will do good work when the water
is sufficiently cold and the milk is not forced over too rapidly.
It is naturally important that there be no blowing of dust

SHIPPING 273

against this surface during cooling, otherwise precautions taken
during milking may be largely nullified.

Cold water tanks of some form are necessary on practically
all milk-producing farms. The efficiency of cold water over
air of the same temperature as cooling agent can hardly be over-
estimated. A cold water tank will be found necessary during
the summer and even all winter in some sections. The ideal tank
would be one made of cement placed low in the milk room, thus
obviating the necessity of lifting the cans high. If it is not
possible to pump water through this tank for the stock, even
greater efficiency in cooling may be got by placing in the tank-
water a few chunks of ice. A well insulated tank filled with
water in which are floating several cakes of ice forms the most

PROGENY OF A
SINGLE GERM
IN TWELVE HOURS

Fie. 90.—Showing the effect of prompt cooling on the number of bacteria in milk.

economical and efficient method known for keeping milk sweet.

Shipping.—Much remains to be accomplished in the matter
of shipping milk. No mattér how much care has been bestowed
during the milking process some dirt, which means some germs,
is sure to find its way into the milk, though germs are held
down or prevented from growing by the cold temperature imme-
diately given. They are present, however, to grow the moment
the milk becomes warm enough and this point is reached at about
50 degrees. At 60 degrees the lactic acid germ grows rapidly.
Cans of milk delivered to the railroad station and there allowed
to stand in the sun very soon warm to such a point that the
bacteria within commence growing rapidly. Insulating jackets
are on the market which aid considerably, but these are

274 CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

somewhat expensive and crude after all. Shipping cans made
with double walls are also on the market, but, being valuable,
are liable to be lost. This naturally discourages the shipper
who endeavors to do especially good work. Where possible it is
highly desirable that the company purchasing the milk or the
farmers in some co-operative arrangement provide a cold wait-
ing room for the milk at the station and then that the trans-
portation company provide well iced cars for the milk during
transit. Only by providing these final arrangements can the
efficient work done earlier in the process be supported and
sound milk be delivered to the receiving companies in the cities.

The New York Classes of Milk.—The city of New York
established three grades of milk, as follows:

Grade “ A”’—For Infants and Children —1. Raw.—Re-
quirements.—Cows to be tuberculin tested and physically ex-
amined. Milk not to contain more than 60,000 bacteria per
e.c. when delivered (Fig. 90). Dairies to score not less than
75, 25 on equipment and 50 on method. Delivered within 36
hours. Bottled. Labeled “ Grade A Raw.”

2. Pasteurized——Cows physically examined.—Milk not to
contain more than 30,000 bacteria per ¢c.c. when delivered; not
more than 200,000 before pasteurized. Pasteurization to be
done at 142 to 145 degrees Fahrenheit for 30 minutes. Dairies
to score not less than 68 per cent, 25 on equipment and 43
on method. Delivered 36 hours from production. Bottled.
Labeled “ Grade A Pasteurized.” .

Grade“ B” for Adults—1, Cows to be physically exam-
ined.—Not more than 1,500,000 bacteria per e.c. when pas-
teurized, nor more than 100,000 bacteria per ¢.c. when deliv-
ered. Pastcurized at 142 to 145 degrees—30 minutes. Dairies
to score not less than 55 per cent, 20 on equipment and 35
on method. Delivered before 36 hours old (cream may be
‘2 hours old). May be delivered in bottles, or cans, labeled
“Grade B Pasteurized.”

Grade “ C”’—For Cooking and Manufacturing.—1. Cows
physically examined.—Bacteria not more than 1,500,000 per

QUESTIONS 275

c.c. when pasteurized, nor more than 300,000 per c.c. when de
livered. To be pasteurized at 145 degrees for 30 minutes.
Dairies to score 40 points. Delivery in 48 hours after pas-
teurization. Shall be delivered in cans. Labeled ‘‘ Grade C
(for cooking.”

2. Condensed Skimmed Milk.—Cans to be painted blue, ete.

Dairy Score Card—The score card system of comparing
the cleanliness of dairy barns and the methods of handling the
product is of value not only for the direct purpose of com-
parison but to point out as well to the workers in the dairy
where to look for trouble.

Various score cards have been devised, but the one that was
developed by the Federal Dairy Division and approved by
the Official Dairy Instructors’ Association has been most widely
adopted. The score card from Rochester, New York, is typical
of the one in most general use (see pp. 276-277).

Material vs. Method.—While the dairy score card has its
uses it must not be judged that a high scoring stable will pro
duce high scoring milk, or that a low scoring stable necessar-
ily means low scoring milk. There is no relationship between
expensiveness of barn and quality of milk produced and very
little between score and quality. This becomes true because the
methods employed aresomuch more important than the material.

.\ silk garment may be soiled and a cotton one the acme of

cleanliness.
QUESTIONS
_1, How may the pasture drinking pond affect the sanitary character of
the milk produced?
. What points of cleanliness should the milker observe?
. What points about a milk pail are important in clean milk production?
. Distinguish between real and apparent dirtiness in stables.
. Where do flies breed? Name one good poison for them.
What effect does the purity of water drunk by the cow have upon the
quality of the milk produced?
7. What is the second most important point in the production of good
milk? What is the first?
8. How should milk or cream be kept cool?
9. What precautions should be taken in shipping milk into the cities?
10. Discuss the score card used for dairy barn and milk rooms,

amr wh

276 CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION AND HANDLING

Score Card for Dairies

(Rocuestpr Heatta Bureau, New York Stare Department oF HEALTH)
{Indorsed by the Official Dairy Instructors’ Association. Subject to revision at future

meetings.]
Owner or lesseesOf farm. cis scc ceca avec ee Se RS we BTR a Rae ee renee
Pi OW RAdRGSSé 4 4oe noeet sea Bees to REe RITE ivent Ss County: s4 ceria ¥ vadiene e345 shee eere
Total number of cows........ Number milking...... Gallons of milk produced daily....
Product is sold by producer in families, hotels, restaurants, stores, to........... 0+ dealer
For mill sup ply his wa wagpsiaicinsa, wise aiae 475 Saeed wh alte hans eae cmos e a REIS asa Suda
Permit Novia og.4 sede eig oe eeagiae hee Date of inspection SKE Ee aCe s awaTeE oe 2 , 19
SEU MASE Foy ayeattda 108 daa sSauinl gem Wecna lovby 8 FS roee THSCRaAS SYR des bn S eye Sede sadaagues GUE A ShaaguagyeNoss lew Go augaoneee ares
SCORE ; SCORE
EQUIPMENT SS METHODS
Perfect} Allowed i Perfect! Allowed
cows cows
Health......... cy gobatin ites 4 (C53) arene nena Clea Nis > pace a rdaienda SO gaarwas a
Apparently in good (Free from visible dirt,6.)
ERIE D 2.5.46 a sadvsnee wt J
* If tested with tubercu-
lin within a year and STABLES
no tuberculosis is Cleanliness of stables... . . G leetan segs
found, or if tested OO sis dak Skettis basis 4
within six months Wealllsisss, sancacaneaease 2.85%: 1
and all reacting ane | Ceilings and ledges....1
mals removed.... Mangers and partitions1|
(If tested within a oe Windows see ven e ides 1
and reacting animals are ‘Stable air at milking pa 1 lve ead ee
found and removed, 3.) Freedom from dust. |
Food ieee and whole- Freedom from odors. 3 |
BOMIE) ess c3a a Gees ae sae 1 Cleanliness of bedding... hie. aataen sae
Water’ ee and fresh).. 1 Barnyard 2
lesine.. seccserecs
| SSEABEES Well drained
Location of stable........ 25 lcokoeeeiey
Well drained......... 1 ‘
Free from contaminat- Removal of manure daily
ing surroundings... .1 to 50 feet from stable.. De | aca weed!
Construction of stable.... Bag a 2 pahigs
Tight, sound floor and MILK ROOM OR MILK HOUSE
proper gutter....... 2 Cleanliness of milk room. Dre ay hia
Smooth, tight walls and
Bee "he ead UTENSILS AND MILKING
manger............ 1 Care and cleanliness of
Provision for light: Four UCOMEU BS s:si6 ig aesyaceiy el eevee eae ds
sq. ft. of glass per cow 4].......,|| Thoroughly washed. i
(Three sq. ft., 3; 2. sq. ft., Sterilized in steam ee |
2; 1sq. ft., 1. Deduct 15 minutes......... 3
for uneven distribu- (Placed over steam jet,
tion.) or scalded with boil-
Bedding snc. hiacnas ee cie Alo sacaveass ing water, 2.) H

SCORE CARD FOR DAIRIES

(Score Card for Dairies. —Continued)

277

EQUIPMENT

SCORE

Perfect

Allowed

Ventilation
Provision for fresh air,
controllable flue system o
(Windows hinged at
bottom, 1.5; sliding
windows, 1; other
openings, 0.5.)
Cubic feet of space Bee
cow, 500 ft.........
(Less than 500 ft., Q:
less than 400 ft., 1;
less than 300 ft., 0.)
Provision for controlling
temperature 1

UTENSILS

Construction and condi-
tion of utensils .
Water for cleaning
(Clean, convenient, and
abundant.)
Small-top milking pail....
Milk cooler

MILE ROOM OR MILK HOUSE

Location: Free from con-
taminating surroundings
Construction of milk room
Floor, walls and ceiling 1
Light, ventilation,
SCTEENS. . 00... 0s eee 1
Separate rooms for wash-
ing utensilsand handling
ME ectet a eae emekeers

METHODS

SCORD

Perfect

Allowed

Protected from contami-
nation 3
Cleanliness of milking. .
Clean, dry hands
dders washed

moist vloth, 4; cleaned
with dry cloth or
brush at least 15 min-
utes before milking,1.)

HANDLING THE MILK

Cleanliness of attendants
in milk room..........
' Milk removed immedi-
ately from stable with-
out pouring ‘from pail. .
Cooled immediately after
milking each cow
Cooled below 50° F

60°, 2.)
Stored below 50° F......
(51° to 55°, 2; 56° to

60°, 1.
Transportation below
BOE cso ae daatat ands Sec eed

ee 1.5; 56° to

el
(If delivered twice a
day, allow perfect
score for storage and
transportation.)

Total

60 |..

* Alternate.
Reg. 12; score, 5.
Equipment

+ Methods

If pasteurized by holding process according to the Sanitary Code, Chap. III,

Final Score

. Norse 1—TIf any exceptionally filthy condition is found, pantiealocly dirty utensils, the
total score may be further limited.

Nots 2—TIf the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or there is evidence of the
presence of a dangerous disease in animals or attendants, the score shall

Inspector.

CHAPTER XXVI

METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR THE PRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK*

(Adopted by the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions, May 1, 1912.)

HYGIENE OF THE DAIRY

Under the Supervision and Control of the Veterinarian.

1. Pastures or Paddocks.—Pastures or paddocks to which
the cows have access shall be free from marshes or stagnant
pools, crossed by no stream which might become dangerously
contaminated, at sufficient distance from offensive conditions
to suffer no bad effects from them, and shall be free from plants
which affect the milk deleteriously.

2, Surroundings or Buildings—The surroundings of all
buildings shall be kept clean and free from accumulatious of
dirt, rubbish, decayed vegetable or animal matter or animal
waste, and the stable yard shall be well drained.

3. Location of Buildings.—Buildings in which certified
milk is produced and handled shall be so located as to insure
proper shelter and good drainage, and at sufficient distance
from other buildings, custy roads, cultivated and dusty fields,
and all other possible sources of contamination; provided, in
the case of unavoidable proximity to dusty roads or fields, the
exposed side shall be screened with cheesecloth.

4, Construction of Stables—The stables shall be con-
structed so as to facilitate the prompt and easy removal of waste
products (Fig. 91). The floors and platforms shall be made
of cement or other nonabsorbent material and the gutters of
cement only. The floors shall be properly graded and drained,
and the manure gutters shall be from 6 to 8 inches deep and
so placed in relation 10 the platform that all manure will drop
into them (Fig. 92).

5, The inside surface of the walls and all interior construc-

*U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 1, 1913.
278

VENTILATION 279

tion shall be smooth, with tight joints, and shall be capable of
shedding water. The ceiling shall be of smooth material and
dust tight. All horizontal and slanting surfaces which might
harbor dust shall be avoided.

6. Drinking and Feed Troughs.—Drinking troughs or
basins shall be drained and cleaned each day, and feed and mix-
ing troughs shall be kept in a clean and sauitary condition.

Fra. 91.—Well-finished dairy barn on farm of F. O. Lowden, Oregon, Ill. (Courtesy
James Mfg. Co.)

4, Stanchions.—Stanchions, when used, shall be con-
structed of iron pipes or hardwood, and throat latches shall be
provided to prevent the cows from lying down between the
time of cleaning and the time of milking.

8, Ventilation— The cow stables shall be provided with

280 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK

adequate ventilation either by means of some approved arti-
ficial device, or by the substitution of cheesecloth for glass in
the windows, each cow to be provided with a minimum of 600
cubic feet of air space.

9, Windows.—A sufficient number of windows shall be
installed and so distributed as to provide satisfactory light and
a maximum of sunshine, 2 feet square of window area to each

Fic. 92.—These cows keep themselves clean by stepping forward to lie down in front
ot the 2 x 4-inch stringer which holds the bedding in place. Note t!
safe and easy to clean. (Owned by C. C. Graver, Maryville, Moy” DRSBH SUBS RAE
600 cubic feet of air space to represent the minimum. The
coverings of such windows shall be kept free from dust and dirt.
10, Exclusion of Flies, Etc—All necessary measures should
be taken to prevent the entrance of flies and other insects and
rats and other vermin into all the buildings.
11. Exclusion of Animals fro —_N
m the Herd.—No horses,

hogs, dogs, or other animals: or fowls shall be allowed to come in

A WELL BALANCED RATION 281

contact with the certified herd, either in the stables or elsewhere.

12. Bedding —No dusty or moldy hay, or straw, bedding
from horse stalls, or other unclean animals shall be used for
bedding the cows. Only bedding which is clean, dry, and
absorbent may be used, preferably shavings or straw.

13, Cleaning Stable and Disposal of Manure.—Soiled bed-
ding and manure shall be removed at least twice daily, and the
floors shall be swept and kept free from refuse. Such cleaning
“shall be done at least one hour before the milking time.
Manure, when removed, shall be drawn to the field or tem-
porarily stored in containers so screened as to exclude flies.
Manure shall not be even temporarily stored within 300 feet of
the barn or dairy building (Fig. 93).

14, Cleaning of Cows.—Each cow in the herd shall be
groomed daily, and no manure, mud, or filth shall be allowed to
remain upon her during milking; for cleaning, a vacuum
apparatus is recommended.

15. Clipping.—Long hairs shall be clipped from the udder
and flanks of the cow and from the tail above the brush. The
hair on the tail shall be cut so that the brush may be well
above the ground. .

16. Cleaning of Udders.—The udders and teats of the cow
shall be cleaned. before milking; they shall be washed with a
cloth and water, and dry wiped with another clean sterilized
cloth—a separate cloth for drying each cow. ~

17. Feeding.—All feedstuffs shall be kept in an apartment
separate from and not directly communicating with the cow
barn. They shall be brought into the barn only immediately
before feeding hour, which shall follow the milking.

18. Only those feeds shall be used which consist of fresh,
palatable, or nutritious materials, such as will not injure the
health of the cows or unfavorably affect the taste or character of
the milk. Any dirty or moldy feed or feed in a state of decom-
position or putrefaction shall not be given.

19, A well-balanced ration shall be used, and all changes of
feed shall be made slowly. The first few feedings of grass,

282 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK

CHnosstyl ‘aytAcaey] ‘seatin *O "QO Aq peuag)
“UAIP[IYO 10} poo} yBaot0yo ay} P[Lé 0% posudeid oie pivé UBa[D B WOIj BMOd AYR] VoY ‘UBeIQ—'E6 “O14

MILK AND CALVING PERIOD 283

alfaifa, ensilage, green corn, or other green feeds shall be given
in small rations and increased gradually to full ration.

20. Exercise.—Al]l dairy cows shall be turned out for exer-
cise at least two hours in each twenty-four in suitable weather.
Exercise yards shall be kept free from manure and other filth.

21, Washing of Hands.—(‘onveniently located facilities
shall be provided for the milkers to wash their hands before and
during milking.

22, The hands of the milkers shall be thoroughly washed
with soap, water, and brush and carefully dried on a clean
towel immediately before milking. The hands of the milkers
shall be rinsed with clean water and carefully dried before
milking each cow. The practice of moistening the hands with
milk is forbidden.

23. Milking Clothes.——Clean overalls, jumper, and cap
shall be worn during milking. They shall be washed or steril-
ized each day and used for no other purpose, and when not in
use they shall be kept in a clean place, protected from dust
and dirt.

24, Things to be Avoided by Milkers.—While engaged
about the dairy or in handling the milk employees shall not use
tobacco nor intoxicating liquors. They shall keep their fingers
away from their nose and mouth, and no milker shall permit
his hands, fingers, lips, or tongue to come in contact with
milk intended for sale.

25. During milking the milkers shall be careful not to touch
anything but the clean top of the milking stool, the milk pail,
and the cow’s teats.

26. Milkers are forbidden to spit upon the walls or floors
of stables, or upon the walls or floors of milk houses, or into
the water used for cooling the milk or washing the utensils.

27. Fore Milk.—The first streams from each teat shall be
rejected, as this fore milk contains large numbers of bac-
teria. Such milk shall be collected into a separate vessel and
not milked onto the floors or into the gutters. The milking
shall be done rapidly and quietly, and the cows shall be
treated kindly.

28. Milk and Calving Period.— Milk from all cows shall be

284 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK

excluded for a period of 45 days before and 7 days after
parturition.

29. Bloody and Stringy Milk.—If milk from any cow is
bloody and stringy or of unnatural appearance, the milk from
that cow shall be rejected and the cow isolated from the herd
until the cause of such abnormal apearance has been determined
and removed, special attention being given in the meantime to
the feeding or to possible injuries. If dirt gets into the pail,
the milk shall be discarded and the pail washed before it is used.

30, Make-up of Herd.— No cows except those receiving the
same supervision and care as the certified herd shall be kept in
the same barn or brought in contact with them.

31, Employees Other Than Milkers——The requirements
for milkers, relative to garments and cleaning of hands, shall
apply to all other persons handling the milk, and children unat-
tended by adults shall not be allowed in the dairy nor in the
stable during milking.

32, Straining and Strainers.—Promptly after the milk is
drawn it shall be removed from the stable to a clean room
(Fig. 94), and then emptied from the milk pail to the can, being
strained through strainers made of a double layer of finely
meshed cheesecloth or absorbent cotton thoroughly sterilized.
Several strainers shall be provided for each milking in order
that they may be frequently changed.

33. Dairy Building.—A dairy building shall be provided
which shall be located at a distance from the stable and dwell-
ing prescribed by the local commission, and there shall be no
hog-pen, privy, or manure pile at a higher level or within 300
feet of it.

34. The dairy building shall be kept clean and shall not
be used for purposes other than the handling and storing of
milk and milk utensils (Figs. 95 and 119). It shall be pro-
vided with light and ventilation, and the floors shall be graded
and water-tight.

35. The dairy building shall be well lighted and screened
and drained through well-trapped pipes. No animals shall be
allowed therein. No part of the dairy building shall be used
for dwelling or lodging purposes, and the bottling room shall

CLEANING,AND STERILIZING OF BOTTLES 285

be used for no other purpose than to provide a place for clean
milk utensils and for handling the milk. During bottling this
room shall be entered only by persons employed therein. The
bottling room shall be kept scrupulously clean and odorless.

36, Temperature of Milk.—Proper cooling to reduce the
temperature to forty-five degrees F. shall be used, and aérators
shall be so- situated that they can be protected from flies,
dust, and odors. The milk shall be cooled immediately after
being milked, and maintained at a temperature between thirty-
five and forty-five degrees F. until delivered to the consumer.

CERTIEIED MILK ROUSE.
Seale = dutta? btey

Fra. 94.—Elevation of certified milk house showing arrangement of milk spout through the
wall from the weigh roominto the milk room. There is no door connecting the two rooms.

37. Sealing of Bottles——Milk, after being cooled and bot-
tled, shall be immediately sealed in a manner satisfactory to the
commission, but such seal shall include a sterile hood which
completely covers the lip of the bottle.

38, Cleaning and Sterilizing of Bottles——The dairy build-
ing shall be provided with approved apparatus for the cleansing
and sterilizing of all bottles and utensils used in milk pro-
duction. All bottles and utensils shall be thoroughly cleaned
by hot water and sal soda, or equally pure agent, rinsed until
the cleaning water is thoroughly removed, then exposed to live
steam or boiling water at least twenty minutes, and then kept
inverted until used in a place free from dust and other contam-
inating materials.

286 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK

39. Utensils——AIl utensils shall be so constructed as to be
easily cleaned. The milk pail should preferably have an ellip-
tical opening 5 by 7 inches in diameter. The cover of this

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aaa

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fet ae
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CERTIFIED MILK ROUSE Seale = EA E242

Fie. 95.—Plan of milk house connected to, yet iat doc from, the cow barn. There
is no door between the weigh room and the milk room. (Adapted from the certified milk
plant of ‘‘The Arden Farms,’’ St. Paul, Minn.)

pail should be so convex as to make the entire interior of the
pail visible and accessible for cleaning. The pail shall be made
of heavy seamless tin, and with seams which are flushed and
made smooth by solder. Wooden pails, galvanized-iron pails,

VETERINARY SUPERVISION OF HERD 287

or pails made of rough, porous materials, are forbidden. All
utensils used in milking shall be kept in good repair.

40. Water Supply.—The entire water supply shall be abso-
lutely free from contamination, and be suticient for all dairy
purposes. It shall be protected against flood or surface drainage,
and shall be conveniently situated in relation to the milk house.

41. Privies, etc., in Relation to Water Supply.—Privies,
pig-pens, manure piles, and all other possible sources of con-
tamination shall be so situated on the farm as to render impos-
sible the contamination of the water supply, and shall be so
protected by use of screens and other measures as to prevent
their becoming breeding grounds for flies.

42, Toilet Rooms.—Toilet facilities for the milkers shall
be provided and located outside of the stable or milk house.
These toilets shall be properly screened, shall be kept clean, and
shall be accessible to wash basins, water, nail brush, soap and
towels, and the milkers shall be required to wash and dry their
hands immediately after leaving the toilet room.

TRANSPORTATION

43. In transit the milk packages shall be kept free from
dust and dirt. The wagon, trays, and crates shall be kept
scrupulously clean. No bottles shall be collected from houses
in which communicable diseases prevail, unless a separate
wagon is used and under conditions prescribed by the depart-
ment of health and the medical milk commission.

44. All certified milk shall reach the consumer within thirty
hours after milking.

VETERINARY SUPERVISION OF THE HERD

45, Tuberculin Test.—The herd shall be free from tubereu-
losis, as shown by the proper application of the tuberculin test.
The test shall be applied in accordance with the rules and regu-
lations of the United States Government, and all reactors shall
be removed immediately from the farm.

46. No new animals shall be admitted to the herd without
first having passed a satisfactory tuberculin test, made in accord-
ance with the rules and regulations mentioned; the tuberculin

288 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK

to be obtained and applied only by the official veterinarian of
the commission.

47. Immediately following the application of the tuberculin
test to a herd for the purpose of eliminating tuberculous cattle,
the cow stable and exercising yards shall be disinfected by the
veterinary inspector in accordance with the rules and regula-
tions of the United States Government.

48. A second tuberculin test shall follow each primary test
after an interval of six months, and shall be applied in accord-
ance with the rules and regulations mentioned. Thereafter,
tuberculin tests shall be reapplied annually, but it is recom-
mended that the retests be applied semi-annually.

49, Identification of Cows.—Each dairy cow in each of the
certified herds shall be labeled or tagged with a number or mark
which will permanently identify her.

50. Herd-book Record.—Each cow in the herd shall be reg-
istered in a herd book, which register shall be accurately kept
so that her entrance and departure from the herd and her tuber-
culin testing can be identified.

51. A copy of this herd-book record shall be kept in the
hands of the veterinarian of the medical milk commission under
which the dairy farm is operating, and the veterinarian shall be
made responsible for the accuracy of this record.

52. Dates of Tuberculin Tests The dates of the annual
tuberculin tests shall be definitely arranged by the medical milk
commission, and all of the results of such tests shall be recorded
by the veterinarian and regularly reported to the secretary of
the medical milk commission issuing the certificate.

53. The results of all tuberculin tests shall be kept on file by
each medical milk commission, and a copy of all such tests
shall be made available to the American Association of Medical
Milk Commissions for statistical purposes. .

54. The properly designated officers of the American Asso-
ciation of Medical Milk Commissions should receive copies of
reports of all of the annual, semi-annual, and other official
tuberculin tests which are made and keep copies of the same on
file and compile them annually for the use of the association.

BACTERIOLOGICAL STANDARDS 289

55. Disposition of Cows Sick with Disease Other Than
Tuberculosis.—Cows having rheumatism, leucorrhea, inflam-
mation of the uterus, severe diarrhea, or disease of the udder,
or cows that from any other cause mav be a menace to the
herd shall be removed from the herd and placed in a building
separate from that which may be used for the isolation of cows
with tuberculosis, unless such building has been properly disin-
fected since it was last used for this purpose. The milk from
such cows shall not be used nor shall the cows be restored to the
herd until permission has been given by the veterinary inspector
after a careful physical examination.

56. Notification of Veterinary Inspector.—In the event of
the occurrence of any of the diseases just described between the
visits of the veterinary inspector, or if at any time a number of
cows become sick at one time in such a way as to suggest the
outbreak of a contagious disease or poisoning, it shall be the
duty of the dairyman to withdraw such sickened cattle from the
herd, to destroy their milk, and to notify the veterinary inspec-
tor by telegraph or telephone immediately.

57. Emaciated Cows.—Cows that are emaciated from
chronic diseases or from any cause that in the opinion of the
veterinary inspector may endanger the quality of the milk, shall
be removed from the herd.

BACTERIOLOGICAL STANDARDS

58. Bacterial Counts.—Certified milk shall contain less
than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered. In
case a count exceeding 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter is
found, daily counts shall be made, and if normal counts are not
restored within ten davs the certificate shall be suspended.

59. Bacterial counts shall be made at least once a week.

60. Collection of Samples.—The samples to be examined
shall be obtained from milk as offered for sale and shall be taken
by a representative of the milk commission. The samples shall
be received in the original packages, in properly iced containers,
and they shall be so kept until examined, so as to limit as far as
possible changes in their bacterial content.

61. For the purpose of ascertaining the temperature, a

290 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFIED MILK

separate original package shall be used, and the temperature
taken at the time of collecting the sample, using for the pur-
pose a standardized thermometer graduated in the centigrade
seale, *s * £ & ee + eR

CHEMICAL STANDARDS AND METHODS

The methods that must be followed in carrying out the
chemical investigations essential to the protection of certified
milks are so complicated that in order to keep the fees of the
chemist at a reasonable figure, there must be eliminated from
the examination those procedures which, whilst they might be
helpful and interesting, are in no sense necessary.

For this reason the determination of the water, the total
solids and the milk sugar is not required as a part of the
routine examination.

70. The chemical analysis shall be made by a competent
chemist designated by the medical milk commission.

71. Method of Obtaining Samples.—The samples to be ex-
amined by the chemist shall have been examined previously
by the bacteriologist designated by the medical milk commis-
sion as to temperature, odor, taste, and bacterial content.

72, Fat Standards.—The fat standard for certified milk
shall be 4 per cent, with a permissible range of variation of
from 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 3

73. The fat standard for certified cream shall be not less
than 18 per cent.

74, If it is desired to sell higher fat-percentage milks or
creams as certified milks or creams, the range of variation for
such milks shall be 0.5 per cent on either side of the advertised
percentage and the range of variations for such creams shall be 2
per cent on either side of the advertised percentage.

75. The fat content of certified milks and creams shall be
determined at least once each month.

87. Specific Gravity—The specific gravity of certified milk
shall range from 1.029 to 1.034.

88. The specific gravity shall be determined at least each
month.

PART VI
FARM DAIRYING

CHAPTER XXVII

THE FARM MILK HOUSE

Any farmer with ten or more cows used for purposes of
cream or milk production can ill afford to be without some clean
and convenient’ place in which to separate the milk and keep the
cream. The separator must be housed, preferably in a place
free from dust and away from odors. The cream-cooling tank
which occasionally is found in the vard by the pump, protected
from sun and dust by old boards or a door, would last longer
and preserve the cream better if inside a building. To keep the
cream cool in summer and to prevent it from freezing in winter
are both important. If we add to these concrete advantages the
further fact that far more pleasure and satisfaction can be got
from work when performed in a more definite and sanitary way,
we have ample reason to encourage the construction of modest
dairy buildings. The cost will vary with the requirements, from
about seventy-five dollars up, but the interest on the investment
may be many times made during the year through saving milk
or cream which otherwise would be damaged or even spoiled.

REQUIREMENTS

Plan “A” for Ten to Twenty Cows.—Where a separator is
turned by hand, milk fed out while fresh and cream sold from
two to three times a week, a building need be only 10 by 10 feet
in size and provided inside with a separator on a deep founda-
tion with a well insulated tank for holding the cream in cold
water and a small table on which to work. If it is desired with
this to have a small gasoline engine the building should be made
about two feet longer, or 10 by 12 feet, as shown in plan ‘* A.”
It is preferable that the engine be kept in an adjoining room.

The cost of the material for this house will be approximately
$90 and the labor, if done by a carpenter, about $50, or a total
of about $140.

Plan “B” for Fifteen to Thirty Cows.—Whenever twenty

293

294 THE FARM MILK HOUSE

or more cows are used in the dairy it is highly desirable indeed
that most, if not all, of the work, such as cleaning separator and
cans, be done in the dairy house rather than in the kitchen. It is
also very desirable that the well be located in conjunction with
it. This will necessitate an engine for the running of the separa-
tor and occasional pumping, an upright boiler, washing sink,
pail racks, and a Babcock milk tester outfit.

To use this quantity of equipment a milk house at least 10
by 18 feet will be needed and one 12 by 20 feet will be none too
large for convenience. Plan “ B ” is designed to indicate size and
arrangement of building for plant of this size. If the boiler or
water heater is not installed the space occupied by the boiler
and fuel bin may very conveniently be used as a work bench.

The material will cost about $150 and the labor about $100
more, making a total cost of about $250.

Plan “C” for Twenty-five to Fifty Cows with Ice House
Attached.—There are occasionally farms in which a somewhat
more eflicient, if more expensive, building is desired. In plan
‘“C” it will be noticed that the end of the milk house encloses
the base of the windmill tower and that within this space is
located the boiler, engine, and pump and that on the opposite end
of the building is the ice house. This may be of the old sort,
namely, of cheap lumber with the ice buried in saw dust; but
preferably, the ice house may be insulated so thoroughly that
the ice within will keep well without being covered by saw dust
or any other material. The milk house proper is set between the
two, the engine house and the ice house (Figs. 96 and 97).

Where the milk house can be located at a distance not too
great from the dwelling house it will be found exceedingly con-
venient to have a small refrigerator room built against the side
of the insulated ice house with conductor pipes leading from the
floor of the refrigerator to the floor of the ice house aud from
the top of the refrigerator back into the farther side and top of
the ice room (Fig. 98). This will provide a circulation of cold
air such as to maintain a temperature of 40 degrees or lower
in the refrigerator room, providing, of course, it is reasonably
well insulated, and will at the same time keep the room dry.

295

PLAN “C” WITH ICE HOUSE ATTACHED

COMPIBRGTION, DAIRY and ICE ROUSE
Cesleadd 22h cu ;

Fie. 96.—Plan for dairy and ice house combined.

296 THE FARM MILK HOUSE

The ice chute at one side is provided in order that the ice
may be taken out of the ice house without exposing the cold inter-
ior to the outdoor weather. It is also an entry for the cold
room to save waste of cold air. A simple ladder may be con-
structed on the wall of the chute next to the refrigerator room.
A series of doors in the side of the ice house, somewhat after the
manner of a silo, provides means for throwing the ice out. A
plank floor should be made at the bottom of the chute where the
ice will be found easily available for use in the cream tank, or
ready for any use. The ice house if filled ten feet high will hold
about 35 tons of ice. Built of wood with cement floor reasonably
well made, this building will cost approximately $400.

ey
1
4

ge i

Fra. 97.—Combination ice, dairy and power house on farm of F. Gruenhagen, Brainerd,
Minn. (Photo by author.)

The cold water tank for keeping milk and cream sweet is
about the most important single piece of equipment about the
dairy. This tank under most circumstances should be located in
such a place that all water pumped for the stock shall first flow
through this tank around the cans of cream and milk. In this
way the cream gets the “cold” and the animals are provided
with the more temperate water and both are benefited thereby.

Where eight-gallon or ten-gallon cans are to be handled it is
wise where possible to build the tank low in the cement floor to
avoid excessive lifting. The sides of the tank may well be built
up some six or eight inches above the floor level,

THE COLD WATER TANK 297

To keep the cans from tipping when not full, compartments
may be built by means of galvanized iron pipes, coupled to

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Fig. 98.—Showing method of insulating the walls in the insulated ice house. Repro-
duced from ‘Practical Cold Storage,’’ by Madison Cooper. (Published by Nickerson and
Collins Co., Chicago.)

branch out betweer the cans. Spaces should be of such size as to
accommodate the ordinary four-gallon “‘ shot-gun ” can (eight to
nine inches in diameter and twenty inches high) and the ordinary

298 THE FARM MILK HOUSE

ten-gallon shipping can (fourteen inches in diameter and twenty
inches high).

Two-inch wood makes a good tank. The extra expense in-
curred in providing thick non-conducting walls is soon repaid by
improved quality in the cream or a saving of ice.

Milk and cream become sour and otherwise damaged through
the action of certain bacteria. To grow at all rapidly, all bac-
teria require a temperature of at least 55 degrees F. Cream
keeps sweet more easily than milk, yet it will sour quickly if
allowed to stand at a temperature of 55 degrees or warmer. To
remain sweet for several days, even very clean cream must be
held at a temperature of 50 degrees or lower. The ordinary
kitchen ice chest seldom cools to a temperature lower than 55
degrees and is more often at 60 degrees. To keep milk most
efficiently the cans or bottles should be placed into water in
which chunks of ice are floating (Fig. 131).

Deep well water is usually cold enough in the northern
states so that if caused to flow around the cans of cream the
temperature of the whole may be very cheaply held low enough,
but when such an arrangement is impractical ice should be used
in the tanks of water, in which case insulation of the tank is
especially desirable.

A sterilizer of some sort is essential in the production and
delivery of good milk or cream. A steam jet through the drain
board of the sink is ample for most farm dairy needs, but a gal-
vanized iron oven, or a tight room, preferably made of cement, is
a good investment, since in these ovens all of the dairy tools may
be subjected to the purifying influence of live steam.

LOCATION

The milk room should not be located in the barn, but should
be close to the door through which the milk can be most con-
veniently brought (Fig. 94). It is essential, however, that good
drainage be provided. It is desirable that the space between the
barn and the milk house be sufficiently wide to permit a wagon to
be easily driven between. The sidewalk leading from the barn
door to the milk room door may be covered if desired. Not
infrequently the entire space between the barn and the milk

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION 299

house is provided with roof and concrete floor, thus making a
convenient place for the loading of the milk wagon, providing
such is used. Care should be taken that the milk house is not
located at too great a distance from the barn unless it is towards
the calf stable and hog house, since milk is such heavy stuff to
carry. In the location of the building, as well as with the
arrangement of the various features within, the object should be
to economize steps (Fig. 95).

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION

The material of which the milk house is to be made naturally
will vary, but in most instances will probably be wood, though at
present there is considerable use being made of the cement plas-
ter, stucco finish, When not inconvenient the milk house should
be made to harmonize in material and color with the other build-
ings surrounding it. Cement blocks are alsocoming into use very
largely and certainly have a place. Likewise, hollow clay blocks
are beginning to be used to some extent and like the cement
blocks have the advantage of permanency. In any case the floor
of the milk house should be concrete, made with sufficient fall
towards the drain to insure the quick removal of any water.

The cement foundation walls should be comparatively high to
keep the wood sill, if such be used, well above the constant moist-
ure and the floor within should be made with round corners up to
the top of the foundation wall, some eighteen inches to two feet
above ground. Above this point, inside and over the ceiling,
comparatively rich cement plaster may be used, but the disadvan-
tage of this is that fine bits of sand will continue to fall on
whatever machinery may be situated below. It is recommended,
therefore, that the inner walls be made of wood and then painted
heavily, first with a white filler, and then with a comparatively
heavy white enamel paint. This provides a clean bright interior,
permits shelves to be put up where necessary and saves the vari-
ous machines and the cream below from being sprinkled with
sand, as would be the case if common cement plaster were used.

Since to work quickly and to take pride in it one must be able
to see well, it is necessary that a reasonable amount of light be
provided. There should be at least two windows in order to pro-

300 THE FARM MILK HOUSE

vide ventilation when needed. These should be well screened.
It will be found convenient also in summer to have heavy roller
shades or some other means of darkening the room. This will
assist in driving the flies out of the place and also in keeping the
room cool. No particular attention need be paid to ventila-
tion except in the largest of the plants indicated, where a venti-
lating flue should be provided in wash room to assist in drying
the room as well as in giving workmen better air.

In any milk house, especially in the little, inexpensive ones
(Fig. 99), the foundation upon which the separator is set should
extend into the ground below the frost line. This is accomplished
by setting posts upon which the four legs of the separator are to
stand and then cementing up around them. If this is not done
the cement floor will heave with freezing sufficiently to throw
the separator badly out of line and cause trouble.

THE FARM ICE HOUSE

When it is realized that cream, sweet and otherwise of good
flavor, is worth from 10 to 20 per cent more than the same would
be in a stale condition; that under the present American farm
conditions one dollar invested in ice at the beginning of the
season will return from five to ten dollars in increased value of
the cream for each and every cow on the farm, the ice house will
become more common,

Water weighs 6214 pounds to the cubie foot, ice 57.5 pounds.
One ton of solid ice requires 35 cubic feet of space or, as ordi-
narily well packed, about 50 cubie feet. If the milk is sepa-
‘rated immediately after being drawn and only the cream cooled,
one-half ton of ice will suffice to cool the cream of one cow
for cne season of six months, or allowing for usual melting and
other waste, one ton of ice occupying approximately 50 cubic
feet of space will suffice for each cow. <A herd of ten cows,
therefore, would require 500 cubic feet of ice space or a building
which will accommodate a mags of ice 8 X 8 & 8 feet. Nat-
urally, if ice is to be used for houschold and other purposes,
extra accommodation will need to be provided.

The old sort of cheaply made ice house (Fig. 100), which
consisted essentially of a bin of sawdust with a roof over it, is

QUESTIONS 301

wasteful of ice and an unpleasant place from which to remove
ice. The heavy and disagreeable nature of the work of removing
the ice after it is stored undoubtedly has much to do with the
scarcity of ice houses even in our well-watered northern sections.
Most of this trouble may be easily avoided by the construction

of the so-called insulated ice house.

Fia. 99.—Inexpensive milk house.

The insulated. ice house is one in which the packing is put
in the walls rather than upon the ice itself. The ice is packed
clean and close to the walls where it will keep even more per-
fectly than when packed in the ordinary sawdust fashion. Many
of the best, moderate-sized creameries are now employing this
system and it is certainly to be recommended to the larger class
of farm dairies. The milk house and the ice house may be
built under one roof which will reduce the labor of use to the
minimum. See the plan already given of this type of combina-
tion milk and ice house.

QUESTIONS

1. What are the essentialsof a farm milk house?

4, Where should it be located?

3. Of what material should the floor and lower walls be made?

4, How much ice is required per season of six months per cow in the
northern half of the United States?

5. What is an “insulated ” ice house?

6. How may an insulated ice houseand a milk house be economically
combined ?

7. What does one cubic foot of water weigh?

8. What does: one cubic foot of ice weigh?

9. How many cubic feet will one ton of solid ice occupy?

10. How many cubic feet should be allowed for each ton of ice to be used?

302 THE FARM MILK HOUSE

Vanhilator in
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duced from ‘Practical Cold Storage,” by Madison Cooper. (Published by Nickerson and
Collins Co., Chicago.)

CHAPTER XXVIII
MILK AND CREAM TESTING

To produce milk or butter fat for market most economically
and profitably it is nearly, if not quite, as important that the
grade of milk be known as it is to know the quantity yielded.
Milk testing 7 per cent fat has nearly twice the food value of one
testing 3 per cent fat, and likewise requires nearly twice as much
feed to produce it (Chapter XXIII). There never was a time
when the dairy farmers needed to feed scientifically more than at
present, nor a time when this could more easily be done.

The dairy farmer should own a milk tester and use it, chiefly
because of its aid in economical feeding. A second reason why
the tester on the farm is needed is that by its means the un-
profitable cows may more promptly and accurately be singled out
for disposal. The man who sells to the city should be careful
never to allow milk to go to market which is below the legal stand-
ard in fat. Whether cream is shipped or drawn to local market
the thoroughness of skimming done by the separator on the farm
should, from time to time, be determined. It is also convenient
frequently to use the hand tester to check the accuracy of the
cream testing done in the city or in the local creamery.

Easy to Learn.—The process of testing milk by the Babcock
method is not difficult to learn, nor to perform. Any bright boy
or girl of fifteen can readily learn-to do very satisfactory work,
especially if shown once or twice how to do a few of the more
particular pieces of work.

Does Not Take Long.—The total time required to make a
single test of milk need not be more than fifteen minutes; two
samples can be tested nearly as quickly as one; a dozen samples
can be tested in half an hour. Testing milk makes a good “ rainy
day job” and may be worth more than the work which could be
accomplished ordinarily during the same length of time.

Equipment Needed and Cost.—A testing machine such as
shown in figure 109 may be obtained complete with glassware
for operation at from five to six dollars, but such machines are

303

304 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

not to be recommended. The reasons for not favoring such are:
(1) The small capacity prolongs the time required to do a
moderate amount of work and greatly increases the likelihood
that the testing of the herd will not often be undertaken. (2)
The bottles are so thoroughly exposed to the air that unless the
bottle pockets are filled with hot water the contents cool too
rapidly to permit either of thorough testing or accurate reading.
(8) Test bottles do occasionally break, and if such an accident
should occur in. an open machine the chances are great that it
would at least cost the suit of clothes worn, and possibly cause
greater damage.

A machine like that shown in figure 101 with a capacity of
eight to twelve bottles, enclosed with close-fitting cast-iron frame,
costs only ten to twelve dollars, with glassware complete. It pro-
tects the sample from being cooled in the air; protects the oper-
ator from accident, and increases the likelihood of a good test.

The glassware needed for the larger machine, constituting
one set, will consist of a dozen whole milk test bottles; two or
more skim milk test bottles, and preferably, two cream test
bottles, two pipettes, graduated to 17.6 c.c.; one pair needle
point dividers; and a few ordinary dishes for the pouring of
milk, and the handling of hot water. See figures 101, 102, 108,
and 104, for illustration of the various tools needed.

Since glassware is liable to be broken and is not usually
carried in stock in villages, it is highly desirable that there be
procured at least two pipettes and acid measures, and a reason-
able stock of test bottles. Pipettes may be used to measure the
acid, but it is hard on the throat on account of the acid fumes.

Properties of Milk.—Milk is a mixture of water in which is
dissolved a considerable quantity of milk sugar and a small
quantity of albumen, with casein, which is the chief substance
of which cheese is made, present in a fine suspension, and butter
fat which is present in the form of an infinite number of small
round globules. The composition of milk differs greatly between
breeds and individuals of the same breed.

Although the protein (casein and albumen) and the ash are
far more important in the growing of calves, pigs and poultry

MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 305

on the farm, the fat is commercially the most valuable. at is
also the element in which there is the greatest variation. Being
so variable in amount and so valuable on the market, it becomes
highly important that a test made shall be accurately done,

Procuring the Sample.—If the milk of a single cow is to be
tested she must be milked dry and the milk thoroughly stirred,
preterably by pouring from one pail to another before a sample
is taken. This is necessary because the last milk, or strippings,
is anywhere from two to eight times as rich as the first milk

eli

Fic. 101.—Light-bottle hand tester. Farm size.

drawn. Merely drawing the milk into the bottle will not suffice
for the securing of an accurate sample.

If a can or vat of milk is to be tested it must be very thor-
oughly stirred before the sample is taken. Fat will rise in five
minutes sufficiently to show variation between the top and
bottom of a pail or can of milk. So small an amount of milk
as a single ten gallon canful will contain over 87,000 cubic
centimeters. In testing we use only 17.6 ¢.c., which is only one
part in 2162 parts of the whole. Where so small a quantity is
used to determine the value of so large a mass it is extremely
important, indeed, that the small amount be carefully taken.

Making the Test: Drawing Sample.—With test bottle
placed conveniently and safely and with pipette near at hand,
mix again the sample of milk by pouring from one cup or dish
to another, taking care that the milk flows down the side of the

306 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

Fic. 102.—Milk pipettes. a has a thick clumsy tip which will not enter a standard 8 per
cent milk test bottle. bis very much more serviceable.

dish, rather than pouring into the center. This would intro-
duce air bubbles and cause inaccuracy. Note the ring of cream

MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE

Fie, 103.—Acid measures. a is preferable to bon account of the flaring base, which
renders it less liable to tip over, and the lip out of which the acid is poured is not so wide
from side to side, thus easier to pour from without spilling.

on the side of the container. This should be carefully rinsed off
by the rotary motion of the milk. With pipette grasped firmly
in the hand, as shown in figure 105, with thumb and two fingers
serving to hold the instrument; little finger acting as guide, and
fore finger to be used as a valve, draw the milk into the pipette,

308 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

SOxy

Fie. 104.—Milk test bottles. a is very much preferable to b.
slender neck, which will permit of accurate reading of the fat; second, in having sloping

First, in having a

shoulders. Fat will lodge under the abrupt shoulder of Bb, and thus reduce the readi
third, the top of a is not flaring as b.
these would not read the same.

. . . . ne;
A milk tested in duplicate in two bottles such as

nearly to the top, slip the fore finger over the top of the tube to
prevent air entering. This serves to hold the milk in the
pipette. Raise the charge and sample nearly to the level of the

MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 309

eyes and carefully velease the forefinger, allowing air to enter
until the milk has descended exactly to the scratch on the stem
of the pipette. Again close tightly with the tinger and transfer
the measured quantity to the test bottle. If the stem of the
pipette is sufficiently small, insert into the neck of the test bottle
(Fig. 105d) ; if not, hold the bottle and pipette at an angle, as
shown at figure 105. This is done to allow the milk to flow

,
j
4

Fie. 105.—Filling milk test bottles. In a the bottle and pipette are being well
handled where it is necessary to hold them while the pipette is being emptied. b shows a
preferable method of emptying the pipette. When the tip of the pipette is slender enough
to enter the neck of the bottle, a dise of rubber packing or cork may be slipped on it and
the pipette allowed to drain by itself. Two or three such pipettes may be used in rotation.

down the bottom side of the neck of the bottle, while permitting
air to escape on the upper side. The last drop of milk should be
saved by blowing it into the test bottle.

In testing a number of samples care should be taken to rinse
the pipette once by drawing the milk of the next sample to be
tested into the pipette and blowing it back; otherwise the quan-
tity of fat which sticks to the’ inside of the pipette goes from

310 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

one test over to the next. In going from a high testing sample
to a low testing sample one may easily cause the reading of the
low test sample to be one- or even two-tenths per cent too high.

Adding Acid.—Carefully measure out acid (temperature
55 to 65 degrees) into the acid measure. A quantity exactly
to the scratch on the little cylinder will be required if the acid is
the right strength and temperature, and the milk is not too
warm. Warm acid or a warm sample increases the chemical
action and will cause a burning of the sample unless checked.
If either is too warm use slightly less acid. Pour the acid
carefully down the side of the neck, allowing the heavy, half-
sticky substance to flow under the milk rather than through it.
If poured directly downward into the sample burning and un-
reliable reading are almost certain to follow.

Mixing Acid and Milk.—By one not especially familiar
with the process this mixing should be done immediately after
the acid has been added and by all means should be: finished
quickly when once started. Care should be taken not to shake
the sample violently, nor in a perpendicular direction, since this
would throw a mass of coagulated milk into the neck of the
bottle where it would be forced out by the heat and lost, thus
invalidating the whole sample. Shake the sample with an
elliptical, rotary motion in such a way as to mix the contents
of the bottle without throwing any of it into the neck. Observe
the sample for an instant to note the color. Allow it to con-
tinue the chemical action till a strong coffee color or deep cherry
red has been reached. If the acid is too strong or the ingredients
at such a temperature that the mixture at this point begins to
turn black, 2 or 3 ¢.c., a teaspoonful of lukewarm water should
be added and then mixed. This checks the action of the acid
and prevents charring. Care to get both milk and acid to the
favorable temperature will be time well spent, for half the secret
of making good tests is in getting the right temperatures.

Whirling.—When all the samples to be tested at one time
have been gotten ready in manner just described, the bottles are
to be placed in the centrifugal machine, taking care to balance
the load in all cases. Increase the speed gradually until the

READING 311

required force is being developed. Continue even, strong turn-
ing for four minutes, when the machine should be permitted to
stop of its own accord, or gently retarded by hand.

Adding Water.—Clean, soft water, just below the boiling
point in temperature, is to be added, at this point in the process,
to each bottle in amount sufficient only to bring the contents up
to the bottom of the neck. This enables any curdy matter
which may be floating on the heavy acid mixture to settle and
not clog the neck.

Second Whirling.—Again the machine is to be strongly
turned as before, for three minutes, and then gently stopped.

Finish Adding Water.—At this point more hot water should
be added, sufficient to bring the top of the fat column to within
about one inch of the top of the bottle, care being taken not to
run it over.

Third Whirling.—Again the machine should be run two
minutes strongly at full speed. This last whirling is particu-
larly necessary in removing or squeezing the water out of the fat
column in the neck of the bottle.

Reading.—Test bottles are graduated to agree with the
expansion of the fat when at a temperature of 130 to 140 degrees
(Fig. 106). In hand machines there is a constant danger that
the fat will be read at so low a temperature that it will not in-
dicate as high a fat percentage as necessary to secure correct
results. Furthermore, the fat column should be read from the
bottom of the bottom meniscus to the extreme top as indicated
in the figure. Although there is a depression, called the menis-
cus, on the top of the fat column it has been shown that the
quantity of fat which would be required to fill this depression
is equalled by the amount of fat which regularly remains in the
bulb of a good test bottle, and never enters into the fat column.
The amount of fat in the column is determined by spreading the
dividers from the bottom to the extreme top of the fat column,
then by placing the lower point at zero and noting the place
indicated by the upper point. The distances between the fine

312 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

division on the whole milk bottles have a value of 0.2 per cent
(Fig. 111).

Calculating the Fat in Milk.— Assuming that the milk to be
tested had been thoroughly stirred before sampling and that the
reading on the test bottle shows 4 per cent, how many pounds
of fat are there in the total quantity? It must be remembered
that the words per cent or the sign % indicates hundredths,
therefore in multiplying it is necessary to multiply the per-
centage figure by one hundred, which will make 4.0 per cent read

Fie. 106.—The control of temperatures is half the battle in Babcock milk testing.
With some makes of testers a common lamp may be used to keep the samples warm. Excel-
lent work can be done even in a cold room with such an attachment.

0.04, and likewise a reading of 3.7 per cent would be written
0.037.

If the cow has vielded 20 pounds of milk which tests + per
cent fat, there are in that quantity of milk, then, 20 times 0.04,
which equals 0.8 pound of fat. Likewise, 40 pounds testing
3 per cent fat contains 1.2 pounds of fat (40 times 0.03 equals
1.2); and 20 pounds of milk testing 6 per cent fat also has in it
1.2 pounds of fat (20 times 0.06 equals 1.2).

A ten-gallon can of milk weighs net about 85 pounds. If it

COMPOSITE SAMPLES 313

tests 3.7 per cent the quantity of fat contained would be equal to
85 (pounds of milk) times 0.037 (test) equals 3.145 pounds
of fat.

Composite Samples.—A composite sample is one made up
of a number of smaller samples. If a small quantity of the
milk yielded by a cow morning and night for a week be added to
a glass jar and adequately preserved, a single testing of the
composite sample at the end of the week will indicate the aver-
age quality of milk produced by that cow throughout the week,
provided the quantity of sample taken is in proportion to the
amount of milk given. This system is employed in whole milk
creameries where the milk delivered by each farmer is thoroughly
stirred and a small portion added to the test sample, which is held
for a period of from one to two wecks, and then tested. This
method is convenient and economical of time, but must be oper-
ated carefully or expensive errors may be made.

A glass bottle, with large ground-glass stopper (Fig. 107) is
by far the most desirable sort of container for the sample. The
two points to be guarded in the holding of the sample are: First,
the prevention of evaporation and, second, the prevention of the
loss of fat due to its sticking in the crevices of a rough cover.
A sample kept even half a day in an open dish like a tea cup is
utterly worthless as a means of determining the fat content of
the milk produced or delivered, since so large a quantity of
water would have evaporated that the remaining portion would
be too rich in fat. For the same reason, but to a less degree, a
bottle with a large cork stopper is not to be recommended, some
water would escape through and some fat would cling to the
cork. Mason fruit jars have often been used. These prevent
evaporation, but cause more or less loss of fat about the top. For
ordinary farm use they probably will serve as well as anything
to be found. In the earlier days of creamery work, and to
some extent up to the present, pint milk bottles with metal caps
which clamp more or less tightly were employed. It has been
shown by trial that the amount of water which will evaporate
from such a lid is very appreciable, indeed, and that many cream-
eries are paying for more fat than they actually receive on this
account. This reduces the percentage over-run on the part of the

314 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

butter maker and occasionally encourages him to record a test
lower than the actual reading, to recover in the operation.

If a cow is being tested and she yields 30 pounds of milk
for thirty days, she has produced 900 pounds of milk. If this
is shown to test 3.9 per cent fat, she will then be given credit
with having produced 35.1 pounds of fat, whereas a glass-
stoppered bottle which would prevent evaporation of water might
show her true test to have been 3.6 per cent fat. This would
eredit her with having produced only 32.3 pounds of butter fat,
or a difference of 2.8 pounds of fat. If the fat is figured as
worth 30 cents per pound the cow has been given credit with hav-

Tie. 107.—Composite milk sample bottles. Evaporation of moisture must be prevented.
The bottle at the right is preferable to the fruit jar.
ing produced 84 cents’ worth of product in one month more than
she is entitled to. At this rate each cow in the herd would have
been given credit during the year with having produced from
$5 to $10 worth of product more than was rightly her due. The
money value difference between a true test and one made too
high by the evaporation of water from the sample is better shown
in the case of the whole milk creameries. If a farmer have
twelve cows averaging 25 pounds of milk each, or 300 pounds
of milk per day, they will in fifteen days produce 4500 pounds
of milk. With the fat percentage in error as above mentioned,
the farmer will be given credit for having delivered 13.5 pounds
of fat in the 15 days, more than he had actually delivered. If

PRESERVATIVES FOR SAMPLES 315

the fat is worth 30 cents a pound it would amount. to $4.05, or
approximately $8 a month. If there are 75 such patrons, $600
per month may easily have been paid out to the farmers for milk
fat which was never delivered. This is one reason why some
creameries have great difficulty in maintaining an adequate or
even reasonable over-run. The sample must not only have been
thoroughly taken, but also have been protected from evaporation
of water or mechanical loss of fat in order to be of exact value.

Preservatives for Samples.—In order that it shall not be
necessary to test the milk immediately nor to test every milking,
preservatives have been brought into use for the purpose of keep-
ing the milk sweet. All milk preservatives are poisonous, other-
wise they would not destroy the bacteria and preserve the milk.
The best preserving substance to use is corrosive sublimate, made
up in tablet form, with the addition of coloring matter. The
preservative itself is colorless. The coloring matter is added to
insure safety. Tablets of this sort may be procured from any of
the dealers in creamery supplies.

Potassium bichromate in powdered form is absolutely not
to be recommended for general use. Jt unites with and increases
the strength and action of the acid and since it is extremely
difficult to measure the powder with sufficient accuracy to get
exactly the same quantity into each sample bottle, the tester will
later be unable to know how much acid to add to secure the
desired effect. This substance is now put up in tablet form,
which increases the ease with which it may be used and makes of
it a fairly satisfactory preservative. Care must be exercised,
however, in the addition of the acid to the sample that a quantity
less than usual is added, and that there is near at hand some
warm water to be added if necessary to check the burning process.

Formaldehyde is the safest of all the preservatives to use,
since it gives off a violent and disagreeable odor, and therefore is
not likely to be consumed, and not being a violent poison would
not likely cause disastrous results if it were accidentally fed
to pigs or calves. The chief objection to its use is the fact that
it seems to toughen the casein in the milk and render the thor-
ough digestion by the acid difficult. It is necessary to use more

316 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

acid and to shake more thoroughly when this preservative is used.

In all cases, regardless of what preservative has been used,
the operator should use the color of his test as his guide and not
merely the usual amount of acid.

Sampling Sour Milk.—Not infrequently milk will have be-
come sour and thick before the operator has had opportunity to
make a fat determination. To reduce such a mass to a fluid
requires the presence of some alkali to neutralize the acid. For
this purpose ammonia is occasionally used, though a few grains
of concentrated lye dissolved in a very small quantity of water
may be employed without harm. Various washing powders
such as sal soda may also be used. ‘These strong alkalies neu-
tralize the acid and render it easy for the whole curd mass to be
shaken into a thoroughly fluid condition. Care must be taken,
however, in shaking not to churn the sample, since, under these
conditions the fat particles will assemble into masses very easily.
The acid should be added slowly and cautiously to any sample
which has been neutralized, otherwise the sample may foam
badly and even boil out on the hand. It is advisable also to make
the test, at least in duplicate, to insure accuracy.

Sampling Churned Milk.—Occasionally a sample of milk
will be sent by mail and upon arrival found to have been churned
during transit. To obtain a correct sample of such the entire
quantity should be heated to 110 degrees and held until the fat
has melted, when again the entire amount should be violently
shaken sufficiently long to form an emulsion of all the ingredients
present. The fat particles, however, will still be very large
compared to their size in the original condition, and will there-
fore rise quickly. The test sample may preferably be pipetted
out of the stream while pouring the emulsified sample from one
dish to another. To be reasonably sure that a correct test has
been made at least four samples should be run, the entire
quantity being kept warm and shaken between each sampling.
If, after such treatment, the four samples show a close agreement
the average may be taken as the probable true test of the sample.

Sampling Frozen Milk—wWhen milk freezes the watery
portion crystallizes into spines and bars of ice, with a tendency

NECESSITY FOR WEIGHING CREAM 317

to throw down all substances in suspension. An application
of this principle is seen in the freezing of a shallow muddy pond
or lake. The ice will be far cleaner than the water was before
the freezing started. The dirt will have concentrated down-
ward. When a quantity of milk freezes the solid particles are
concentrated largely into the center, the outer portion being
more largely the water part of the milk. The effect of such is
the partial formation of the curd into flakes. These floating
particles interfere considerably with the taking of an accurate
sample. To obtain a true sample it may even be necessary to
weigh out 18 grams of the thoroughly warmed and poured sample
into the test bottle rather than to measure it with a pipette.

Testing Cream: Sampling (Figs. 108 and 109).—Cream
varies so greatly in fat content and in its fluid properties and
mixes with such difficulty compared with milk that much greater
care is required to be exercised in obtaining an accurate sample.
Cream will rise on cream to such an extent that the top of a can
may test 35 per cent fat while the bottom contains only 10 or
even 5 per cent fat. In order to obtain a sample which is at all
adequate in determining its value, it is essential that the cream
be either thoroughly stirred from the bottom by means of a
stirring device consisting of an iron rod fitted with a strong disc
at the lower end and by means of which an upward rotary motion
in the cream can be effected; or by pouring the cream several
times from one can to another. When the cream is thoroughly
mixed, a quantity of two to three ounces may be transferred to
the sample bottle for future work.

Composite Samples.—Although sufficiently accurate work
may readily be done from composite samples of milk the system
is not to be recommended for cream. This is chiefly due to the
great variation in fat content of the cream, and also to the vary-
ing amount which is usually taken to market.

Necessity for Weighing Cream.—The Babcock test is based
upon the use of eighteen grams of sample or some known fraction
thereof. Since butter fat weighs only about 87 per cent as much
as milk serum and since the fat content of cream will vary all
the way from 12 to 50 per cent it is evident that with the various

318 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

grades different volumes of cream would be required to weigh
18 grams. A pipette graduated to carry 17.6 ¢.c. will carry 18
grams of ordinary milk, but the cream which would be contained

Fie. 108.—Cream test bottles. a is preferable to b in three points. The narrower
neck permits more accurate reading of the fat, the neck is straight, i.e., not flaring toward
the top, and the shoulders are more sloping.

in that volume would weigh only 15 to 16.5 grams, depending
on its richness. It is therefore essential that cream be weighed
into the test bottles and not measured as in the case of whole
and skim milk,

WEIGHING OUT SAMPLES 319

Another reason why it is essential to weigh cream is the
presence in the cream of larger or smaller quantities of gas.
Naturally any cream which has been poured or stirred until it
contains a considerable amount of air or other gas will occupy
more volume for its weight than it would if it had not been so
treated.

The kind of scales to be recommended will vary with the
volume of work to be done. The finely adjusted Torsion balance
designed to accommodate two to four bottles at a time is exceed-
ingly sensitive and valuable when high-class work is to be done.

Weighing Out Samples.—It is sometimes necessary to warm
the bottle of cream to make the cream flow more readily, A

Fic. 109.—An inexpensive tester, yet one not to recommend for general farm use.
The samples cool too quickly in this and if a bottle were to break, the acid would be liable

to do injury.

quantity of cream may then be drawn into the pipette and
allowed to flow into the test bottle on the scale, care being taken
that a quantity be added sufficient only to bring about an exact
balance. In doing this, care should also be taken that no drop of
cream falls upon the outside of the bottle or upon the platform
of the scale. When the sample has been weighed out it may
be set aside to be tested at any future time. The water only can
evaporate. It is best, however, to run out the samples while they
are still fresh.

320 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

Instead of using 18 grams as indicated, nearly, if not quite,
as accurate work can be done by adding only 9 grams of sample
and then by doubling the reading secured. This is economical
of both cream and acid. ;

Adding Acid.—If 18 grams of cream are taken as sample
somewhat less than the usual measure of acid will be required.
If a 9-gram sample of cream is taken then less than half the
usual measure of acid will be needed. This is due to the fact
that so much of the sample is fat that there is not as much
solids to be dissolved as in the case of whole milk. The test
bottle should be canted so that the acid may flow down the side
of the neck as in the case of milk. Likewise it is preferable to
mix them thoroughly immediately upon the addition of the acid.
At this point it is necessary also to watch carefully the color of
the sample (Fig. 110). The reddish color soon changes to a
dark cherry-red, and may assume almost a black hue. The
sample must not be permitted to become fully black, for if this
has taken place considerable charring has been caused. To
prevent burning at this point, about half a teaspoonful of luke-
warm. water should be added and shaken into the sample. This
small amount of water “ kills” the acid.

First Whirling.—As in the case of milk the test bottles
should be so placed in the machine as to balance. They are
then turned rapidly according to the size of the machine (Fig.
109), for fully five minutes, when the machine is gently stopped
or allowed to come to rest of its own accord.

Adding Water.—Clean, soft water at a temperature of about
190 or 200 degrees may now be added. This is done simply
for the purpose of bringing the fat up into the neck of the bottle
where it can be read. In case of rich cream it may be necessary
to fill the bottle nearly to the top, otherwise, leaving a safety
space of about an inch unfilled. A single filling is found to be
sufficient in the case of cream, since the work cannot be carried
on with the same degree of accuracy as with milk in any case.

Second Whirling.—This second whirling should be done
strongly for fully four minutes to insure the ascension of all

Fia. 110—A, CREAM TEST, AND B, MILK TEST. PERFECT COLOR FOR
PERFECT WORK.

TRUE AVERAGE TEST OF CREAM 321

the fat into the neck, and also to insure separating the water:
from the column of fat.

The Use of a “ Reader.”—It will be noted, as shown in
figure 110, that the depression or concave portion on the top of
the fat column, in the case of cream, amounts to considerable.
The quantity of fat which would be necessary to fill up this
concave area, or meniscus, is altogether greater than the amount
of fat which remains in the bulb of the bottle; consequently
allowance must be made for the depression. Or better still,
some substance like amyl alcohol, colored red with some dye, or a
lightweight machine oil, as glymol, may be added to flatten the
surface. It has been the experience of the writer that the oil
obtainable varies considerably in weight and is less reliable than
the alcohol. The substance usually sold by creamery supply
companies is mostly amyl alcohol colored with a dye.

Reading the Sample——The reading is done the same as in
the case of the milk. It is a little more important, however, that
a temperature of at least 130 to 140 degrees be maintained,
since the fat column is so long. The reading should be made
from the extreme bottom to the flat surface shown between the
red reader and the fat, or in the case no “ reader” is used the
upper part of the dividers should be made to divide the distance
occupied by the meniscus about equally (Fig. 111).

It is impossible to test cream to the same point of accuracy
as that reached in the case of milk. This is due to the wide neck
in the bottle which it is necessary to use. Therefore it is found
that a variation of one-half per cent in duplicate samples of
sour cream is not at all uncommon and would almost be expected.

Calculating the Fat in Cream.—aA ten-gallon can will hold
about 84 pounds of ordinary cream. If this is shown to test 34.5
per cent, the quantity of fat in the can is found by multiplying
84 by 0.345; thus 84 times 0.345 equals 28.98 pounds of fat. An
eight-gallon can will hold about 67 pounds of ordinary cream.
If the test shows this to contain say 26.5 per cent fat there will
be contained in it a quantity of fat found by multiplying 64 by
0.265, or 17.80 pounds of fat.

True Average Test of Cream.—The chief reason why it is

322 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

difficult and unsatisfactory to try to carry on composite samples
of cream for the purpose of knowing the pounds of fat delivered,
by means of a single test, is because the test of the several lots
varies so greatly that unless a sample be taken in exact propor-
tion to the quantity of cream delivered, or received, the effect of
this method of delivery upon the sample will be out of propor-
tion. To illustrate, suppose there be delivered to the factory,
four batches of cream as follows:

ey li

4.
Cc--

wa
&

i! hil

“

Fic. 111.—In milk testing the fat should be read from a to D, not to e nor to d, but
in cream from a tod,

Lb. Cream Test Lb. Fat
20 30 6.0
180 25 45.0
70 40 28.0
220 22 48.4
490 117 127.4

The false average test, found by dividing 117 by 4, is 29.25 per cent.

The average test, found by dividing 117 by 4, is 29.25 per
cent. There will have been delivered 490 pounds of cream.
The quantity of fat delivered may readily be found by multiply-
ing the pounds of cream by the test in each and every case, and
by adding the quantities of fat. Thus we see in this case 127.4
pounds of fat were delivered. If a composite sample had been
made of these four lots of cream and the quantity of cream taken
for the sample had been the same in each case the test of the

TRUE AVERAGE TEST OF CREAM 323

composite sample would show the same as the direct average of
these four, or 29.25 per cent. That this test is too high is readily
seen when we divide the actual quantity of fat 127.4 by the
quantity of cream, 490. Performing this we see that the true
average test, instead of being 29.25 per cent is only 26 per cent.
The direct or false average, therefore, is 3.25 per cent too high.
An error of this magnitude operating upon 490 pounds of cream
throws an error of 15.925 pounds of fat. If fat is being bought
at the rate of 30 cents per pound an over-payment of $4.78 has
occurred (490 times 0.0325 equals 15.925; 15.925 times 30
equals $4.78). It is evident, therefore, that any butter maker
who makes composite samples of creain delivered hy his patrons is
almost certain to make errors of this sort. While in the long
run and on the various patrons there may be a balance or com-
pensation it certainly is an inaccurate and unreliable method of
computation. Likewise, a farmer, in endeavoring to check up
the accuracy and honesty of the creamery operatives, is more
likely than not to make an error of this kind, either one way or
the other, if he tries to make composite tests. Each and every
can or shipment of cream should be weighed, sampled, and tested
by itself. It should be remarked in passing that this is the
practice with the larger and better-conducted creamery plants.

Testing Skim Milk.—Skim milk is tested in the same man-
ner as whole milk, except that the skim milk bottle is used.
The essential difference between the skim milk bottle and
the whole milk bottle is in the size of the tube or bore of the
neck. At present most skim milk bottles are so made that the
entire length of the graduated scale equals one-fourth of one
per cent (0.25 per cent), and each of the five grand divisions
of the scale has a value of five one-hundredths per cent (0.05
per cent). In testing skim milk care must be taken to make
sure that no drop of water or other plug remains in the
graduated neck at the time of pouring the milk, or the acid, into
the bottle. A drop of water lodged in the neck, very frequently,
indeed will cause the air to bubble back against the acid or milk
while being poured down the large neck, causing same to spill.
If any portion of the sample is wasted, the whole is lost.

324 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

Skim milk has more solids not fat, for the acid to digest, thus
about 20 ¢.c. acid are needed for 17.6 ¢.c. of skim milk. A little
greater care should also be taken in mixing the acid with the
milk. All other steps are the same as with whole milk.

Ordinary gravity skim milk usually tests at least 0.1 per cent
and frequently 0.50 per cent. The centrifugal cream separator,
properly adjusted, will leave in the skim milk a quantity of fat
so small as to read 0.02 per cent or less.

If 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat is run through
a separator there will ordinarily be produced 20 pounds of 20
percentcream. This leaves 80 pounds of skim milk. If this is
found to contain 0.03 per cent fat there will remain in the 80
pounds only 0.024 pound of fat (80 times 0.0003 equals 0.024).
There is at present no excuse for a fat loss represented by
even so small amount as 0.05 per cent.

Testing Buttermilk.—So far as the testing of buttermilk is
concerned it is usually very simple, indeed, provided an accurate
sample can be taken. The difficulty in getting a sample is experi-
enced because the grains of butter are so large that to include one
in the sample will manifestly give altogether too high a reading,
while to avoid all will yield a fat reading evidently too low.

If the cream has been properly ripened and has been churned
cold there will usually be an invisible fat loss of about 0.05 per
cent, though 0.1 per cent is not as uncommon as it should be. It
is not always easy to know in advance whether to put the sample
into a skim milk bottle or into a whole milk bottle. Not infre-
quently one of each is used in order that one or the other shall
be readable.

Testing Whey.—Whey obtained in the making of cheese con-
tains little more than one-half of the solid matter contained in
skim milk of the kind which is attacked by the acid. The sugar
and the albumen only remain in appreciable amounts. Since
the work to be done by the test acid is only about half as great as
in the case of whole milk the quantity of acid to be used in testing
is only about one-half as great.

Bottles are on the market made expressly for the testing of
whey. They differ from the ordinary whole milk bottle only in
having a bulb sufficiently large to contain two charges of whey

THE CENTRIFUGE: KIND 325

and one of acid. The graduated neck is also only about half as
long as in the case of whole milk. The fat test obtained is then
divided by two, since twice the 18 grams of sample had been
’ taken. Whey may be tested, however, in the ordinary whole
milk bottles with fair accuracy by using 17.6 ¢.c. of sample and
about one-half the usual charge of acid.

Some fat is always lost in cheese making, that is, lost to the
cheese. At present this is frequently recovered by the separa-
tion of the whey by means of a cream separator, modified for
the purpose. The fat then is made up into “ whey butter.”
Whey should not test more than one-fourth of one per cent (0.25
per cent), though 0.3 per cent is a rather more common loss.

Testing Cheese.—Ordinary cheese may be tested for fat by
means of the Babcock method. This is best accomplished by secur-
ing a representative sample of the cheese in question by trim-
ming off the outside, dryer portion, using only the uniformly
moist center. This may then be cut into fine bits, on paper, and
nine grams weighed out as in cream testing. To the bottle con-
taining the crumbs of cheese about six c.c. of hot water should be
added. The whole mass is then stirred or shaken until warmed
throughout and softened. Ordinary testing acid is then added,
little by little, mixing and watching for color until the right
shade has been reached. A little more lukewarm water should
then be added to check further charring. The sample then is
run out the same as cream or milk. The amount of fat will be
found by doubling the reading obtained, since only nine, instead
of eighteen grams of sample were used.

The Centrifuge: Kind.—There are several milk-testing
machines on the market that have proven themselves thoroughly
serviceable. Aside from favoring the heavier and enclosed
machine already indicated the writer has no particular choice,
provided the machine is to be used in a warm room. If, how-
ever, the testing outfit is to be placed in the ordinary milk room
where the air is often cold, a machine provided with an opening
below, through which or into which the chimney of a small kero-
sene lamp can be inserted is preferable to the machine tightly
closed below. It is essential that the samples be kept thoroughly
warm, even hot, not only at the time of reading the fat, but dur-

326 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

ing the whirling process. Hot water in the machine is a
nuisance and does very little good. On the other hand, a little
kerosene stove arranged under the tester as shown in figure 106,
has been found to give excellent results, regardless of the tem-
perature of the work-room. ,
Size.—A tester which will hold at least 8 bottles, or in case
of a herd of 15 or 20 cows, 12 bottles will be found preferable
to anything smaller. The slight increase in cost will be readily
made up by the increased rate with which the work is done.
Speed.—The number of revolutions required to produce the
required force in the machine varies with its diameter. The
following table shows the number of revolutions needed for
machines when the revolving portion has the diameter indicated.

Diameter of Wheel No. revolutions per minute
10 1074
12 980
14 909
16 848
18 800
20 759
22 724
24 $93

Longer turning with lower speed will not produce the effect
of high speed. It will neither force the small fat globules out
of the bulb of the test bottle into the neck, nor will it squeeze the
water out of the fat, back into the lower portion of the bottle as
will be done with high speed. It is essential, therefore, that the
machines be placed on a thoroughly sound foundation and set
‘level and run at full speed.

Temperature.—So necessary is it to have a reasonably warm
temperature in the machine that the power or factory-size
machines are usually provided with a direct steam inlet. Samples
may then be warmed before or during the whirling and kept hot
until the fat percentages have been read. With the hand machine
the same effect can be obtained by having a lamp placed as
previously described (Fig. 106).

Care of the Machine.—It may be almost useless to state that

*Testing Milk and its Products, Farrington and Woll.

TO DETERMINE STRENGTH 327

this machine, like any other, requires being kept well oiled. Too
liberal oiling while in motion, however, may cause particles of
fat to be thrown into the tops of the test bottles, thus introducing
a very appreciable error.

In case of an accident causing acid to be spilled inside of the
iron frame, it is very unwise indeed, to allow it to remain. All
broken glass and every vestige of acid should be cleaned out
immediately and thoroughly, otherwise the acid will continue
slowly to act upon the iron, releasing fine dust-like particles
very disagreeable to breathe. The machine also, it may be known,
will. be rusted or corroded out rapidly under such conditions.

Acid: Kind.—The acid used in the Babcock test is the com-
mercial sulfuric. The commercial quality is much cheaper in-
deed, than the pure, yet its impurities do not introduce any error
in the test. In case it becomes necessary to procure testing acid
from, or through a drug store, it is wise to insist, not only on
sulfuric acid, but for the commercial grade. Pure acid, in
addition to being far more expensive than is needed, is altogether
too strong to be used with comfort or safety.

Strength of Acid.— Commercial sulfuric acid has a specific
gravity of about 1.82, or in other words, is 1.82 times as heavy
as water. Pure acidisheavier. The commercial grade is often
spoken of as 90 per cent strength. Thus in purchasing, the
buyer has amply described the article wanted by calling for com-
mercial sulfuric, specific gravity 1.82 or 90 per cent strength.

To Determine Strength.—The commercial acid is compara-
tively cheap and varies in strength, not greatly, but sufficient to
interfere with the test made unless a little more or less of the
acid is used, according as it is needed. There are simple devices
on the market for the purpose of determining the strength of the
acid but these are easily broken, and after all, no more reliable
than a simple test or trial of the acid in question would be. To
test a new quantity of acid, thoroughly mix a sample of sweet
milk and load into four bottles and number them. Into bottle
No. 1 add three-quarters of the usual quantity of acid; into bot-
tle No. 2, seven-eighths ; into bottle No. 3, the usual or ordinary
quantity as indicated by the acid measure, and into bottle No. 4,
a quantity of acid slightly greater than the amount indicated

3828 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

with the measure. When these have been run out in the usual
manner the quantity of acid used in the test showing up best,
will be nearly, if not quite, the quantity thereafter to be used
with that particular shipment of acid.

Care of Acid.—Sulfuric acid has a very great affinity for
water. If the bottle is left uncorked, moisture will be taken in
from the air continually and far more rapidly than one would
suspect. Such diluted acid may even have lost its strength to such
an extent as to become useless in testing. A rubber plug should
be used in preference to one made of cork, though one made
of glass is best. If the ordinary cork is used for even a few
days, particles of charred substance will be found floating in the
acid and will introduce slight, annoying errors in the test made,
Neither light, nor heat, nor cold affects the acid, provided it is not
used when too hot nor too cold.

Temperature to Use.—Hot or warm acid is far more active
than the same when cool. Many samples of milk have been
charred from using acid which had stood around the dairy room
in summer and used without first being cooled. For best results
the milk and the acid should not have a temperature much below
55 nor above 65 degrees F. It is often desirable, therefore, to
keep the acid in the basement ice chest, or to set into cold water
for a time before using.

Water.—If hard water, that is water containing a consider-
able quantity of lime, is used there is great likelihood indeed,
that chemical reaction following will cause a moss-like mass to be
formed in the neck of the bottle through which fat will be dis-
tributed. It will be manifestly incorrect to include all of the
foreign substance as fat, yet to exclude all of it introduces a
yet greater error.

Soft water, that is, rain water or snow water, or better yet,
condensed steam will be found most desirable. In case it is
impossible to obtain such soft water, ordinary hard water may be
treated in such a way as to purify it and yet not introduce an
error in the test. This is best done by adding a small quantity
of hydrochloric acid to the water. If no hydrochloric acid is
obtainable ordinary sulfuric or testing acid may be used
instead. One acid measure of acid mixed with half a pint of

CLEANING GLASSWARE 329

water has been found ample to prevent the disturbance due to
lime in the water used.

Hot water is necessary to be added to the test bottles. Lf it
is impossible, or exceedingly difficult to get good hot water where
needed, any water may be made hot by the addition of a quantity
of testing acid equal to about one-quarter of the volume of water
used. The acid will make the water hot, yet will not produce
any undesirable effects in the test. The writer has often em-
ployed this method of securing purified hot water where ordi-
nary hot water could not be obtained.

It is necessary too, for best work, that the water be clean of
the ordinary organic impurities, such as would be introduced by
using an uncleaned pipette for the addition of the water to the
test. Milky water thus added produces a dull gray cloud below
or through the fat, and to that extent renders the read-
ing unreliable.

Cleaning Glassware.—The glassware used in testing is not
difficult to clean if the washing is done at once, while everything
is fresh, but if the milk is allowed to become dry in the pipette, or
the residue of the test has been allowed to harden in the test bot-
tle the cleaning process will be many times more difficult.

The first and most important step in the cleaning of the bot-
tles is to empty them while they are still hot and to shake the con-
tents vigorously so that the gray-white sediment noticeable in the
bottom of the bottle will be thoroughly removed. The sediment
referred to is the milk ash. It is insoluble in water and if per-
mitted to dry and harden in the bottom will be difficult to
remove, but may very easily be shaken out while the sample is
fresh. All the bottles to be washed should then be rinsed, set up-
right and into them sprinkled a quantity of strong washing pow-
der. Water as hot as the hands can bear should then be intro-
duced and the neck cleaned inside and out by means of a cyl-
indrical bottle brush made for the purpose. After being thus
cleaned all the glassware should be rinsed well with hot water to
give the glass a gloss and a clean feel.

Ordinary soap should not be used in the cleaning of such
glassware, as the chemical action which takes place with the
sulfuric acid and the ingredients of the soap is such as to

330 MILK AND CREAM TESTING

form a sticky resinous deposit on the bottles which is hard
to remove.

ERRORS TO AVOID IN TESTING

The following are the chief causes of inaccuracy:

. Gross sample not a true one, because

(a) Cream sour and clotted.

(b) Cream dried on surface.

(ec) Cream partly churned.

(d) Cream good, but not well mixed before sampling.

. Test bottle sample not correct because

(a) Cream measured instead of weighed. (18 grams required.)

(b) Cream weighed with inaccurate scales. (Ieep all bearings free
from rust and gum.)

. Acid mistakes—

(a) Too much or too strong acid (burns fat).

(b) Too little or too weak acid (leaves white curd under the fat).

(d) Acid poured through cream (burns in clots).

(e) Acid not well mixed when shaking is commenced (burns in clots).
(Four or five ¢.c. lukewarm water will check acid action).

. Mistakes in whirling.

(a) Speed too slow. (Fails to secure all the fat or to dry the fat.)

(b) Not turned long enough (5 or 6 minutes necessary).

(ec) Bottles too cool while turning (fat cannot rise; should be 180 to
200 degrees F.).

. Mistakes in adding water—

(a) Water too cool (190 to 200 degrees F. right).

(b) Water dirty (causes gray cloud below fat).

(ec) Water hard (the lime in hard water often causes unreliable
results; use rain water or condensed steam).

. Mistakes in reading fat—

(a) Reading too hot (fat expanded; 130 to 140 degrees F. right).

(b) Reading too cold (fat contracted, not volume enough).

(c) Upper surface of fat not leveled (a few drops of amylic alcohol
on top of fat makes a flat surface of the concave one. ‘his is
used on cream only).

. Inaccurate graduation of test bottles—

(a) Every bottle should have been tested.

When so small a quantity of cream has to represent so large a

quantity, it is exceedingly important that every step in the
process be performed with the utmost care.

QUESTIONS 331

Strength of Sulfuric Acid—The strength of acid holds a

definite relation to its specific gravity, as shown below:

26.

Sp. gz. Per cent strength
1.841 97
1.840 96
1.839 95
1.837 94
1.834 93
1.830 92
1.825 91
1.820 90
1.815 89
1.808 88
QUESTIONS

When, where and by whom was the Babcock test invented?

. Why do we use a 17.6 ¢.c. pipette for testing milk?
. What is the specific gravity of normal milk?

. What is the specific gravity of normal cream?

. What is the specific gravity of butter fat?

Give the name, specific gravity, and strength of the acid used in testing.
How much acid should be used when testing milk?

. Should a milk sample be mixed at once after adding acid?

. What should be the temperature of milk for testing?

. Should the test bottles be kept warm while in the tester?

- How should a milk test be read?

. Describe the appearance of a perfect test.

. Wherein and why does the testing of cream differ from that of milk?
. How would a cream test be read? Why?

. How would you test skim milk?

. How much acid would you use in testing skim milk?

. How would you test whey?

. How would you test buttermilk?

. How would you test cheese?

. How would you test sour milk?

- What would you do if the water were very hard?

- How would you determine whether the acid was of proper strength?
. Would chemically pure acid give better results?

. Would it change the reading of a test to run the tester too fast?

. What style of test bottle is best for testing milk?

What color should the tests be just before they are put in machines?

'T. What can be done in case they are getting too dark?

. Would a closed machine do better work than an open one?
. How may a hand tester be heated on the farm?

. What is a centrifuge?

CHAPTER XXIX
CREAM SEPARATION

Tue centrifugal cream separator is to the dairyman what
the reaper is to the grain grower, a harvester in fact (Figs. 112
and 116).

Milk fat has a specific gravity of about 0.90 and skim milk
about 1.036. Therefore, the fat weighs S7 per cent as much as
the skim milk or milk serum in which it is floating. The
globules of fat, too, are so small, being only about 140,000 of an
inch in diameter, that they rise slowly and with difficulty in milk.

For cream to rise naturally and even reasonably well the
milk must be kept cool and left undisturbed for about twenty-
tour hours. Even then there will be a loss of butter fat of
between 0.25 and 0.50 per cent in the skim milk.

If a herd of ten cows yields an average of 5000 pounds of
milk yearly, and the skim milk tests 0.40 per cent fat, there will
be a loss and virtual waste of about 160 pounds of butter fat.
This at 30 cents a pound is worth $48, or nearly enough
to pay for a good cream separator.

This machine, now so common on the farms of the northern
and eastern states, is finding its way onto the farms of the
southern states also, as fast as livestock farming takes the place
of cotton growing.

The centrifugal cream separator leaves only from 0.01 to 0.03
per cent of fat in the skim milk, yet it is based on the same princi-
ple that operated in the case of gravity creaming, namely: The
difference in the weight per volume of the two substances, the
milk fat and the milk serum. This is known as specific gravity.
The high speed of the bowl throws the milk out against the wall
with a force of from 80 pounds in the smaller, slower-running
machines to as much as 100 pounds per square inch with even
the larger hand separators. The fat is thereby literally squeezed

inward while trying to fly outward, because the serum being
332

VARIATION OF CREAM TESTS 333

heavier is thrown outward with a yet greater force. As the bowl
fills from the hopper above it naturally overflows, the skim milk
escapes from the openings that lead from the wall, and the fat,
mixed with enough milk serum to make it flow, escapes as cream
from an opening which leads from near the center of the bowl.
To make a richer cream the normal way is to change the
relative positions of the two outlets, moving the creani screw
inward or, in some machines, moving the skim milk screws out-

RM oS Ses TD
: eo

Fie. 112.—There are many makes of hand cream separators having value. This illustrates
a few of those used at the Minnesota School of Agriculture.

ward. This makes the bowl carry more milk, increases the force,
that is, the squeeze, and results in a richer cream—and vice versa.

“Why do cream tests vary so from the same machine?”
This question has been asked and variously answered a great
many times but is still a live question. The following are the
chief causes of unintentional variation in the fat content of hand
separator cream as sent to market:

1. Speed of the separator—The faster the bowl revolves,
the richer the cream will be. Slow turning is one cause of thin
cream, though some makes of separators are more sensitive to
this influence than others. A woman or a child often is not

334 CREAM SEPARATION

strong enough to produce a rich cream. Letting down the speed
of the handle from 60 to 45 revolutions per minute, cuts the force
down nearly a half.

2. The amount of dirt in the bowl.—As the slime accumu-
lates in the bowl, the cream becomes thinner but there will be
more of it. There may not be an increased fat loss until long
after the cream has begun to run thin.

3. Rate of inflow of milk.—The faster the milk goes in, the
thinner the cream will be. If the milk hopper is kept full all the
time, the cream will test less than it will if the machine is
allowed to run empty occasionally.

4. Per cent of fat in the milk.—A rich milk yields a richer
cream than a thin milk, even when the separator is run exactly
the same in the two cases. Rich cream for whipping can easily
be produced by turning some of the cream just separated back
into the milk to come through a second time.

5. Temperature of the milk when separated—Cold cream
is thicker and more sticky than warm cream and when flowing
out of the bowl drags along the sides of the cream screw and
effects a change in relative points of outflow of skim milk and
cream, thereby causing a richer cream to be delivered when the
milk is cold than when it is warm. To do best work, most
machines require a milk temperature of 75 degrees or above.

6. Cream will rise on cream.—Cream that has stood a few
hours will be much richer at the top than towards the bottom.
If the top be poured off to make butter at home, the portion
sold will be thinner than the average.

Efficiency in Skimming.—The quantity of fat lost in the
skim milk from centrifugal cream separators is largely a con-
trollable matter. The chief factors are as follows:

1, Speed of the Machine.—The thoroughness of skimming
or completeness of the removal of the fat is a result of force act-
ing through time. If more force is applied a shorter time will
be required, or in other words, the milk need not remain in the
machine so long to have the same work done upon it. It there-
fore may be put through more rapidly. If the flow through the
machine is held constant, however, the effect is toward a more

CARE OF THE MACHINE 335

thorough skimming. Some of the very close skimming
machines get that ability from the very high speed at which the
bow] is spun.

2. Temperature of Milk.—Warm milk is more fluid than
cold milk and less viscid. Therefore, with any given speed of
bowl and flow of milk the small fat globules are going to be
most fully recovered or captured in the milk which is warm.
The same very small fat globules which would rise slowly and
with difficulty under the old gravity system will be the most
difficult to recover mechanically, therefore require a warm
fluid milk.

3. Nature of the Milk.—The milk of some breeds of cows
contains fat globules of smaller size than that of others. The
large globule milk will skim slightly more easily, but not enough
to notice in practice.

Stripper cows yield milk which is more viscid or slightly
thicker than fresh cows. Such milk should have both a warm
temperature and full speed for thorough work.

Dry feed, that is hay and fodder in winter, without silage
or roots tends also to increase the difficulty of skimming. Milk
yielded on grass separates more easily than winter milk.

Goats’ milk is said to be very difficult to separate.

4, Steadiness of Bowl.—The cream within the bowl is flung
outward with considerable force, therefore lies close against that
part of the whole mass which will eventually be delivered as
skim milk. This being true, there must be a fine line between
the cylindrical sheet of milk and cream which any vibration will
tend to destroy. A trembling bowl cannot skim as well as the
same would if it ran smoothly.

A solid foundation and a perfectly level setting are essential
to best work. In northern sections it is advisable to set one
large or four smaller posts into the ground deep enough to go
below the frost line to prevent the separator being thrown out of
line by the heaving or bulging of the cement floor in winter.

5, Care of the Machine.—Many or most cream separators
are neglected. Water or milk is allowed to gain access to the
gear box and to remain until the cogs have rusted. Poor oil is

336 CREAM SEPARATION

too often used and not enough of any sort. Those machines that
have the horizontal speeding devices especially need attention in
the matter of oiling. Care should always be taken to keep all
oil caps working freely. Dust should be kept from blowing into
the bearings.

All starting should be done gradually to save strain on cogs,
worm and bearings. Since the striking force of any moving body
varies directly with its mass but as the square of the speed, it
must be expected that those separators that are geared to be run
at a high rate of speed will require more attention if not also
wear out quicker than those that. run at a slower rate.

Cleaning the Bowl.— Unfortunately the weakness of human
nature has been added to by the advice of some separator agents
who, to make sales, have instructed the purchaser that it was not
necessary to wash the bow] every time it was used, that to wash it
every two or three days was enough if the thing be well rinsed.
Such advice is wrong, as any one will soon find who endeavors to
sell sweet cream from an unwashed separator. Merely rinsing
or spinning the discs in water is not enough to keep them in
good condition. A few mechanical washing devices work very
well for a hasty wash, but the particles of matter cling so tightly
to the discs, wings and other inner parts that a sound scrub-
bing with a brush or coarse cloth is necessary.

Directions for Modifying Milk and Cream.1—The simplest
and most accurate method of modifying or standardizing cream
or milk to any desired standard of butter fat is that developed by
Pearson. This method, discussed below, is applicable not only in
market milk and cream work but in ice cream making also.

Example 1—Given a 40 per cent cream and a 4 per cent
milk, to be mixed to produce a 16 per cent cream. The amount
to be used can be determined very readily by the following
procedure:

+ This section on the modifying of milk and cream is taken largely from
the author’s bulletin, Principles and Practice of Ice Cream Making. Vt.
Sta, 155.

DIRECTIONS FOR MODIFYING MILK AND CREAM 337

(1.) Subtracting the figure representing the desired quality
from the known cream fat percentage to obtain the amount of
milk to be used.

(2.) Subtracting the known percentage of the milk from the
desired percentage of the mixture to obtain the amount of cream
to be used.

Thus, in the above stated example, 40 —16= 924,
16—4—12. This can best be illustrated by drawing a square
and placing the figures as shown in the accompanying diagram:

40 l2

(16—4=12)

(40 — 16 = 24)

4 24

It will be noticed that in this particular example the pro-
portions of cream to milk are 12 : 24; that, in other words, by
mixing together 12 gallons of 40 per cent cream and 24 gal-
lons of 4 per cent milk there will be obtained 36 gallons of 16
per cent cream.

Example 2.—Given a 42 per cent cream to be reduced by
skim milk to a 20 per cent cream. The square will be:

42 20

(20 —0 = 20)

20 (42 —20 = 22)

6) 22

Mixing in the proportion of 20 cream and 22 skim milk, the
result is attained. Figuring as before for proof:
42 X .20 = 8.40.
.00 X .22 = 00.
8.40 + 00 — 8.40.
20 + 22 42. 8.40 42 =.20.

338 CREAM SEPARATION

If one wishes to know, for example, how much cream should
be added to 10 gallons of skim milk to make a 20 per cent cream,
one figures as before. 22 :20 ::10:x. This gives 9.09 gallons,
as may be proven thus:

42 X 9.09 3.82
00x10 = 0.00

19.09 ) 3.820 ( .20 per cent of fat
3.818

Or, reversing the proposition, if one has a 10-gallon can of
42 per cent cream and wishes to know how much skim milk to add
to it to reduce it toa 20 per cent grade, one figures 20: 22::10: x.
x= 11 gallons, which will be found sufficient.

Example 8.—Given milks carrying 34% and 5 per cent fat to
be mixed to make 4 per cent milk:

5. So

(5—4=1)

(43% =%)

3.5 I

14:1 ::1:2. Hence one can of the lower and two of the higher
grade will make three cans of the + per cent grade.

Any other figures may be used as desired; as, for example,
4.6 and 3.3 to make a 3.7 per cent grade. 4.6 —3.7=0.9
3.7 —3.5 == 0.4. Four parts of the higher grade and nine
parts of the lower are called for.

Another very convenient tool in this connection is a rule by
means of which one may find directly how many gallons (or
pounds) of rich cream and skim milk will be required to pro-
duce any definite number of gallons (or pounds) of cream test-
ing any definite percentage of fat. The rule is: Multiply the
amount of cream desired by. the test of the cream desired and
divide this product by the test of the rich cream at hand. This

QUESTIONS 339

will give the amount of the rich cream required for the mixture.
The difference between the amount of cream desired and the
amount of rich cream required will indicate the amount of skim
milk required to be mixed with the rich cream to produce the
desired result.

Weight of Cream Per Gallon.—Since butter fat is only
about 87 per cent as heavy as skim milk and since the lighter
substance varies greatly in amount in cream, it must be expected
that the weight of a given volume of cream will vary with its fat
content. When cream is sold by weight, and paid for by the gal-
lon, it is quite important to know the number of pounds in a
gallon of cream of varying grades. Below are shown the specific
gravity and weight per gallon of water, milk and cream of vari-
ous fat contents:

Weight in lbs,

Specific Gravity per Gallon
Water ws raeeeevenband 1.000 8.34
Skim milk ........... 1.037 8.64
49% TUK ses pater oe a 1.032 8.60
10%. MUK. 6 vice esis os ee 1.025 8.54
15% cream ........... 1.018 8.48
20% cream .........-- 1.013 8.44
22% cream ........... 1.011 8.42
24% cream ........... 1.009 8.40
826%: CLAM. ss 0aiascy Se 1.008 8.40
28% cream ........... 1,006 8.38
30% cream ........... 1.004 8.36
35% cream ........... 99 8.32
40% cream ........... 995 8.29

QUESTIONS

1. How does a separator separate?

2. How much fat is lost in skim milk with gravity creaming? With mechan-
ical creaming?

. What is the normal way of changing the fat content of cream?

. Explain reasons for fat variation in separator cream?

. How must a separator be set if it is to do good work?

. Explain on the board how to modify milk or cream to any given fat
percentage?

7. What is the weight of a gallon of water, skim milk, milk, and 35 per
cent cream?

Oo om me

CHAPTER XXX
CARE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FARM

Tus price of butter depends more largely upon its flavor
than upon all other qualities put together. The flavor of butter
is due almost wholly to the kind and amount of bacterial growth
which takes place in the cream before the butter is made, often
before the cream ever reaches the place of manufacture.

On March 1st, 1916, the prices of creamery butter on the
New York market were as follows: Special high score, 387 to 8744
cents; extras, 92 per cent score, 36 to 361% cents; firsts, 90 to 92
per cent score, 35 to 386 cents; seconds, 87 to 90 per cent score,
3314 cents; ladles, 28 cents. The difference in price between
the 3314-cent and the 3714-cent butter was due éntirely to
flavor or tasty quality. The price is seldom influenced mate-
rially by the amount of salt or moisture or fat in the butter and
usually not materially influenced by workmanship. The differ-
ence, 4 cents, is nearly 12 per cent of the price quoted for seconds
or, in other words, a more pleasing favor would have enabled the
manufacturers of that butter to have sold it for 12 per cent
more than was obtained. When butter is more plentiful, as in
spring and early summer, the difference in price is even greater.
In the case of the 23-cent butter, there are defects other than
mere flavor to cause the discouragingly low price, though the fat
in it cost the farmer the same to produce as that which sold for
almost twice as much.

The value of cleanliness is nowhere more manifest than in
the dairy. The price depends on flavor, flavor depends on bac-
teria, and bacteria depend on the dirtiness of the cow’s teats, the
milker’s hands, pail, strainer cloths, and separator. If all these
be clean the cream is well started on the road toward a choice
butter and high price.

A cool temperature following quickly after separating is ex-
ceedingly important to a cream and butter of good keeping
quality. The rate of growth of bacteria at the temperature of 50

340

CREAM GRADING 341

degrees compared with 70 degrees is well shown in figure 115. It
is seen that as a rule the degeneration of cream is many times
more rapid at the temperature of 70 than at 50 degrees. Only
about twenty minutes under good conditions is required for one
germ to mature and split into two germs. To prevent rapid
growth the cream should be cooled immediately after separating
to a temperature of 50 degrees or below. Clean cream cooled at
once in ice water will keep sweet a week or ten days very readily.
Milk has been kept four weeks and cream five weeks without the
aid of anything except coldness. Under plain farm conditions
the cream may, by the use of cold well water, be kept three to four
days if it were produced in a cleanly manner.

In practically all the northern states the deep well water has
a temperature of 45 to 52 degrees and serves very well in cooling
cream if arrangements be provided as in figures 113 and 114,
in which all the water pumped by windmill or gas engine for the
stock flows first around the cream cans and thence to the cattle
and horses. Where an arrangement of this sort is not prac-
ticable, ice should by all means be provided. Where the cream
only is cooled, one ton of ice will suffice for two cows for the sea-
son in the northern states. If the ice costs $2 per ton or $1 per
cow a season, the profit on the investment will amount to at least
$4 per cow after paying for the ice, and often to twice this
amount, through the increased value of the cream. :

Frequency of delivery has much to do with quality. While
it is a fact that cream may be produced so clean and kept so cold
as to remain sweet two weeks or more, it is also true that under
most American conditions, even in the recognized dairy sec-
tions, plans should be made for the delivery of the cream to the
creamery or its making up into butter at least three times a
week in summer and twice in winter.

Cream grading and payment for and on quality has long
been advocated. It has been recognized for years that clean
sound cream is worth more than that which has undergone
partial breaking down of one or more of its constituents. But
for various reasons, chiefly business rivalry, grading has not yet
become general. It is being done, however, in various localities,

342 CARE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FARM

a difference of three to four cents being made between the first
and the second class cream, and two to three cents between
second and third classes. It is both illogical and unfair to pay as
much for the fat in poor cream as for that in good.

PCOS EE PARTE Soren q

Fre. 113.—Milk cooling tank, cover off to show arrangement of cans. All water
pumped for the stock passes first through this tank. (Courtesy Minnesota Tank and Silo
Co., Minneapolis, Minn.)

Cream Ripening.—What is it? By cream ripening is
meant the process of allowing or forcing the cream to become
sour by means of a certain kind of bacteria which, while gen-

erating acid, also produces a thick glossy condition and an
agreeable flavor.

HOW IS IT DONE? 343

Why is it done? For the purpose of improving the flavor,
increasing the yield of butter through a reduced loss of fat in
the buttermilk and to shorten the time required to do the
churning. The latter two benefits are brought about by the fact
that the acid coagulates the casein and renders it brittle.

Fic, 114.—Milk cooling tank, coverin place. (Courtesy of Minnesota Tank and Silo Co.,
; Minneapolis, Minn.)

How is it done? There are two more or less distinct meth-
ods: (1) the farm dairy method; (2) the creamery method.

1. In what may be called the farm dairy method the process
is direct and simple. The cream is held after separating for one

344 CARE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FARM

to three days in cans in cold water, and then about twelve to
eighteen hours before the butter is to be made, all the cream to
be churned is poured, if possible, into one vat or can, thoroughly
mixed, warmed to about 70 degrees in summer or 75 degrees in
winter, and left to sour. It should be stirred frequently to pre-
vent curd clots from forming in the bottom of the can or vat.
When the cream has become somewhat thick and glossy and
pours like thick milk gravy it is about ripe enough and should
be cooled to about 53 degrees to prevent further rapid growth of
the lactic acid bacteria, also to temper the fat that firm butter
may be made. After the cream has stood cool for four or more
hours it will be ready for churning (Fig. 115).

If the cream is held for a longer period than about three
days there is danger of a bitter flavor and an old cream taste
developing. The bitter germ is favored by a temperature
between 40 and 50 degrees, but grows slowly. On the other
hand, if the cream be warmed to a temperature of 85 or 90
degrees it is liable to develop a gassy, foul-flavored condition. The
germ that produces gas in milk and cream is usually one of the
colon group, which lives naturally in the alimentary canal of
cows and other warm-blooded animals. The warmer tempera-
ture in cream therefore naturally favors the growth of such
bacteria.

Can cream be ripened too much? Indeed, it can. If the
souring temperature, about 70 degrees, be maintained for too
long a time the acid will literally kill off the very kind of bac-
teria that produced it and the cream will take on an old and a
harsh taste. Butter made from such over-ripe cream will not
keep as well as that made from cream containing less acid.

Cream is in best condition to churn well and still produce a
good keeping butter when it contains about 0.45 to 0.50 per cent
acid, if the cream test 35 per cent fat; or 0.55 to 0.60 per cent
acid if the cream contains only about 25 per cent fat.

“When the cream has stood warm until sufficiently sour as
shown by one of the chemical tests, and the senses, it should
then be cooled to a temperature of about 52 or 53 degrees or even
lower in summer, or 56 degrees in winter, and held at that tem-

QUESTIONS 345

perature for at least four hours in order that the butter fat may
have time to solidify, or temper.

When once thoroughly soured and cooled, cream may be held
for a day or two if necessary without great injury. The pres-
ence of the lactic acid prevents most other forms of bacteria from
growing, whereas if it were endeavored to keep the cream sweet
by low temperature for four or five days it is probable that a
bitter, unpleasant-flavored hacterial growth would have occurred.

=
‘S
x

‘.

ST ste
Fie. 115.—Showing the effect of temperature on rate of growth of bacteria.
aat50°F., bat 70°F,

2. The creamery system consists first in pasteurizing the
cream for the purpose of destroying all, or as many as possible,
of the bacteria that were brought in by the patrons and then
souring or ripening it by means of a starter prepared from a
pure culture grown for the purpose. A starter is essentially
only a quantity of clean-flavored sour milk used to hasten and
to control the growth of bacteria in the cream. This process is
too long and complicated for farm dairy use.

’ QUESTIONS

1. What relation is there between care of cream on the farm and price
received for the finished butter? Explain.

2. How does cold temperature of cream preserve its quality?

3. How long after separating is it safe to try to keep cream before it is
made into butter?

4, What difference in price is it fair to make between sweet, clean cream and

that which is sour and off flavor?

. What is meant by cream ripening?

Why is cream ripened?

. How is cream ripened?

. May cream be ripened too much?

9. What is meant by tempering cream?

10, Briefly, what is the creamery system of cream ripening?

WOMAN

CHAPTER XXXI
DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

Tue large place so long held by home-made butter is now
largely filled by that made in a factory, called creamery butter,
and the change has come about almost wholly during the past
twenty-five years. Whereas formerly every rural home was
supposed to make butter sufficient for its needs, if not for sale
as well, it is now not at all infrequent to find that on farms where
ten to twenty cows are kept no butter whatever is regularly made,
creamery butter being purchased for consumption on the farm.
This has been in most cases beneficial in relieving the housewife
in many instances of a portion of her burden, as well as render-
ing it possible to secure a greater cash return from the herd
through the production of a larger quantity of more uniformly
high class butter, and through it the finding of better market.

It is not an unmixed good, however, since some buy who
should make. Once the art of making cheese, soap, syrup and
the curing of meats was well known and practiced by the people
in general. Now these are manufactured elsewhere and the pro-
ducer must buy when he should have preserved his own. It is to
be hoped that butter making does not go the same road.

The Place for Farm-made Butter.—There are places in the
northern creamery sections of the country as well as occasional
instances in creamery territory where the production of a high
class dairy butter for market is being found highly profitable.

The principle underlying the process of butter making is
identical whether the work be done on the farm or in the factory,
on a small scale or a large. The methods and machines employed
to accomplish the work differ in size but not in principle.

Collecting the Cream.—On farms it will be found almost
universally desirable to collect the cream as produced from day
to day and hold it in well tinned cans. The ordinary four-
gallon “shot gun” can, eight inches in diameter and twenty
inches high, is excellent. If the cans are rusty or have exposed

346

THE CHURN 347

iron patches the butter is very liable indeed to have a strong
metallic or even a fishy flavor. The cream should be cooled
promptly after separation to a temperature between 50 and 45
degrees F. If warm cream is mixed with old cream the
whole mass will start souring promptly. Therefore, fresh lots
should be kept separate until cold, when they may be mixed with
that previously procured. If the cream reaches a temperature
of 55 degrees the souring process proceeds quite rapidly. There
is no particular advantage in cooling at any time below 40 de-
grees, however, and £5 degrees will do very well indeed.

For the production of best butter, cream should be churned
at least twice a week in winter and three times in summer. In
hot climates daily churnings are to be preferred.

Churning.—The churning process consists essentially in a
series of concussions which serve to break the curd and to cause
the minute globules of butter fat to come into contact with one
another and cause them to stick together, growing in size with
the addition of others until granules are formed sufficiently
large to be easily removed. ‘The process is essentially the same
whether done by stirring cream in a bowl, pounding a skin bag
filled with milk, plunging a vertical dasher or revolving a barrel
churn permitting the cream to fall.

The churn used will vary in size and kind with the amount
of work to be done, but some form of barrel is preferable to any
in which paddles only revolve or in which the cream slops from
one end of the churn to the other, the receptacle not revolving.

All of the so-called “ lightning” churns, and most of those
made of metal should be looked wpon as thoroughly impracti-
cable. Small churns made of earthenware may be perfectly
cleansed, and in this respect are desirable. Wooden churns, how-
ever, are still recognized as standard. While more difficult to
clean and keep sweet, such may be accomplished with care.
Wood has the further advantage of being a good non-conductor
of heat and therefore aids in holding the temperature of the
cream near the desired point, even though the temperature of
the atmosphere of the room is higher or lower than the cream
within. Another valuable feature of wood is that when well
scalded and soaked, butter fat will not stick to it. Butter of

348 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

better grain and texture can be made in wooden churns than in
metal churns because it is impossible to so prepare metal that
the fat will not adhere considerably even under ideal tempera-
ture conditions, and badly if the churning is being done at a
temperature which is but slightly too high.

To prepare the wooden churn for use, liberal quantities of
scalding hot water should be used, primarily, for the purpose of
soaking the wood, or in other words, driving the air out of it.
When the tissue of the wood has become filled with hot water
the whole should be well cooled with cold water in order that
the warmth contained in the walls of the churn shall not raise
the temperature of the cream. The same principles pertain
to the preparation of all woodenware, such as ladles and worker.

Straining the cream into the churn is a wise precaution for
removal of particles of curd as well as for removal of sawdust or
any other foreign matter which may have fallen into the cream.

No barrel churn should be filled more than one-third full
if quick and exhaustive churning is to be done. There must be
room left for the cream to fall.

Coloring the butter is accomplished by adding the liquid
color to the cream immediately before starting to churn. The
quantity used will vary with the breed of cattle, the feed that
they are consuming, and the market to which the butter is to
be shipped. With Guernsey and Jersey cows on pasture no
color will be needed, since their product is naturally yellow. The
shade of natural butter varies all the way from a bright orange,
produced by Guernseys on blue grass pasture, to an almost pure
white, produced by Holsteins, Ayrshires and Shorthorns on win-
ter feed. In winter, generally speaking, one cubic centimeter
of color for every pound of butter fat in the cream, or one tea-
spoonful for every gallon of cream will be found abundant. Some
colors are stronger than others and care must be exercised to not
use too much. The market requirements should also be studied.

The color used is the outer portion of the seed of the annatto
plant which grows in the South Sea Islands and South America.
The color is incorporated mechanically in cottonseed oil as a
carrier. When used, the added color accompanies the oil and
is made to surround the many globules of fat. Butter color

WHEN TO STOP CHURNING 349

is used for the purpose of maintaining a reasonable degree of
uniformity in color throughout the entire year or, in other words,
to make butter look like butter, the year round, not like butter
in summer and lard in winter.

Gas (carbon dioxide) develops in cream with the growth
of the bacteria, which is released with a few revolutions of the
churn. In all tightly closed barrel churns the gas should be
given opportunity to escape once, and usually twice.

The speed of churn should be as rapid as possible and still
secure the maximum of concussion or pounding of the cream
within. This naturally will vary with the thinness of the
cream and the amount in the churn.

At this point in the process the churning should be con-
tinued evenly until the globules of fat have assembled into
granules and the granules grown to be sufficiently large: for
easy and thorough removal.

When to Stop Churning.—If the churning process is con
tinued too long the butter will gather into larger and yet
larger lumps until finally the entire mass is in one or two
great chunks or balls. Such butter is over-churned and has
incorporated throughout its entire mass a large quantity of but-
termilk. The butter maker at this point is faced with the
option of either permitting the buttermilk to remain in the
butter mass and there sour and produce a poor butter, or of
squeezing and working the buttermilk out, which process
is very liable to produce a greasy butter with poor grain and
weak body. To obviate both these difficulties the churning
process should be stopped when the granules of butter have
reached the size of a kernel of wheat or cracked corn. If the
cream has been ripened sufficiently to render the casein brittle
and if the temperature of the cream and the fat within it has
been such that the particles of fat can stick together when they
do touch, the process of churning need not have consumed
more than twenty minutes. To churn with a hand churn more
than twenty to twenty-five minutes is a waste of labor. Where
a larger churn driven by power is used it is preferable to
cool the cream to such a temperature that the butter will not
come in less than about thirty minutes nor more than forty-five.

350 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

Drawing off the buttermilk is best done by allowing the
churn to stand quietly a few minutes until the granules of butter
have risen to the top, when the buttermilk below may be drawn
off through a sieve quickly and with slight loss of butter. The
temperature of the butter at this time should be taken.

Washing the butter is done for the purpose of removing
practically all of the buttermilk remaining in the mass. The
water, naturally, should be clean and of a temperature ranging
from the same to two degrees lower than the butter at the time
the buttermilk was drawn. In farm practice the butter should
be washed twice, using each time fully as much water as there
was cream at the start. The churn should be revolved two or
three times with each wash water to insure a more thorough
removal of the buttermilk. The last wash water should be kept
on the butter until the salt is ready to be applied when the tem-
perature of the work room is too warm, 65 degrees or above.

Salt is used in butter for two purposes: To give flavor and
to preserve the butter. .\ few people, however, prefer the flavor
of unsalted, or so-called ‘‘ sweet butter.” They should expect,
however, that such will become -rancid or moldy in a very
mouch shorter time than would be the case had salt been mixed
with the same butter. The presence of salt to the amount of
21% per cent of the total butter is protection also against mold-
ing. Neither green mold nor the ordinary black mold can grow
in the presence of such a quantity of salt. To make butter con-
tain 214 per cent of salt in the finished article it is necessary to
add it in amount from 7 to 10 per cent, varying with the fine-
ness of the salt, the amount of water left in the granules of but-
ter in the churn, and the amount of butter made in proportion
to the size of the churn. A small batch requires more in pro-
portion. The more water remaining in the butter the greater
will be the amount of salt washed away. Fine salt, likewise,
dissolves more quickly and wastes more readily than coarse salt.
Coarse salt has the disadvantage, however, of being slow in dis-
solving, requiring from fifteen minutes to an hour to go into
solution. So long a time as this, however, will often cause the
butter in the churn to become warm and altogether too soft for
good working, or in winter to become too hard. It is desirable

SALT 351

to work sooner, but if the working proccss be continued while the
coarse grains of salt are undissolved they will grind and pierce
the granules and globules of butter fat to such an extent as to
make the whole mass salvy and oily in texture and flavor. It is
highly desirable that salt for butter making be tine in texture.

Salt as ordinarily offered on the market varies considerably
in its purity. Some which is designed for use in butter is in
reality unfit because containing chemical impurities such as
plaster of Paris, which renders the salt difficult and slow of solu-
tion. These impurities are liable indeed to cause the salt to
remain hard and granular, like so much sand. So far as known
they have no injurious effect upon cattle, but certainly render
butter less valuable. Aside from these chemical impurities
some salt has been exposed to dust, so when a teaspoonful is dis-
solved in a cup of water it leaves a gray film of dust on the sur-
face. Such salt should not be used. Again, salt will absorb odors
if it has been stored where such is possible. The unpleasant odor
of a close warehouse, general store, or kitchen is not infrequently
discernible in salt and in butter when such salt is used.

To distribute the salt evenly throughout the butter with the
least possible amount of pressing or digging of the butter, the salt
should be added in the churn. This is best done by drawing the
second butter wash water thoroughly. The churn should then
be rocked backwards sufficiently to throw the granular mass of
butter against the wall of the churn opposite the drain hole. With
a small ladle a thin layer of butter is then sprinkled upon the
floor of the churn. Upon this salt is sprinkled. A second layer
of butter is then drawn lightly upon the first. Thus, layer upon
layer, the salt and butter are mixed. If the temperature of the
room will permit, the butter should, at this point, be allowed to
stand for at least five minutes to permit the salt to dissolve and
the excess water to drain away, at the end of which time
the butter should be pressed together firmly enough to permit
it to be worked. If a separate worker is used it should be thor-
oughly scalded and cooled. After a slight amount of working
to more thoroughly press together the many granules of butter
the mass should again be permitted to stand several minutes to
give the salt time to completely dissolve.

352 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

Working is done for the purpose (1) of distributing the salt
thoroughly and evenly throughout the whole mass of butter, (2)
of pressing out the superfluous water and (3) of forming the
granules of butter into a solid mass. The worker which will
do this with the least amount of grinding or smearing and
which is also inexpensive and easily cleaned is the best worker.
That known as the lever butter worker, made in various sizes,
is unquestionably the most satisfactory all-around instrument
where a small quantity of butter is to be made.

Here the butter should be spread evenly and worked by
means of the fivesided lever. The working consists in a fold-
ing and pressing process. ‘The loose crumbs of butter must
be gathered in from time to time and the near and far, not right
and left, edges of the flat layer of butter turned inward. This
folding in and pressing out process is to be continued until the
salt is dissolved and evenly distributed and the butter has
assumed a compact mellow, waxy consistency, when working
should cease. Too much working causes oily texture and flavor.

Where butter is to be made from a herd of twenty or more
cows one of the small-sized combined churn-and-worker (Figs.
116 and 117) is to be recommended. They are now made in
sizes sufficiently small to churn and work 25 to 50 pounds of
butter very satisfactorily. The principle involved in the roller
within must conform with those indicated as necessary for the
outside worker, namely, that the butter shall be folded and
pressed rather than ground and sliced. Care should be taken
in selecting a combined churn, as some are superior to others.

Packing.— Earthen jars are still recognized as the most satis-
factory receptacle for butter so far as the keeping qualities of
the butter are concerned. Butter made from mildly ripened
cream in September and October, carefully washed, moderately
salted and solidly packed in clean earthen jars, covered with a
quarter inch of salt paste, and placed in an ordinary farm cellar
will keep so well as to be very usable throughout the entire
winter. It would be desirable, however, under such circum-
stances to freeze the jars of butter at the beginning of the winter
and to thaw out one at a time when needed for use. Jars have
the disadvantage, however, of being somewhat expensive unless

WORKING 353

Fra, 117.—A cylindrical churn and butter worker combined.

354 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

they can be returned, and of being heavy and easily broken.
Butter cut from jars also is irregular and often ragged in ap-
pearance. For these various reasons the pound print has come
into favor in all sections of the country.

Print tools which will form from one to a dozen pound
cakes at one time are on the market (Fig. 118). The single
print, however, is not desirable for regular use because it is slow
and because the butter packed into it is too liable to become
smeared and greasy from much handling. It is convenient
to have one ready, however, in order that small special orders
may be more neatly filled. The print shown in figure 118, which
will make eight to twelve pound-prints at one filling, is thor-
oughly practical where small amounts are made. The form

View from above showing cutting wires.

Fie. 118.—A multiple butter printer which cuts the prints apart with wire.
known as the Friday is very convenient, especially where the
butter is liable to be soft when made and requires hardening in
the refrigerator before being cut into pound bricks and wrapped.

The paper used for wrapping butter should not be coated with
paraffin, but should be parchment paper. The carton should,
however, be thoroughly well paraftined inside to prevent evapora-
tion of moisture, and absorption of odors by the butter.

General Caution.—The fat which is later to be made into
butter exists in the milk and cream in the form of very minute
round balls, varying in size, but averaging about) 0,990 of an inch
in diameter. The reason for churning is to stick these little
globules together into larger masses called granules. The rea-
son for working is to form these granules into a single mass.
The object especially to be held in mind throughout the entire
process is to collect and assemble these small particles without in

MARKETING 355

any way bruising or disrupting the small particle itself. If one
globule is broken or pierced and made to flow into another, the
butter becomes to that extent salvy and greasy. To overwork
the butter is to give it somewhat the condition which it would
have if it had been melted. It is not incorrect in this connection
to think of the butter fat globule as a single grape. Many, when
gathered in clusters, form a unit bunch of grapes, yet each
individual on the bunch should be perfect. The bunch, or, in this
simile, the granule of butter, may then be assembled into larger
masses, the grapes into baskets, the butter into jars. Yet, just as
it is desirable that every bunch of grapes and every grape on
each bunch be perfect, so is it desirable that the fine units, the
granules and the globules of butter fat remain perfect.

Marketing.—The old way of bringing the farm butter to
the country grocery and there trading it for goods is about the
most unprofitable, uninspiring method of marketing known.
Where a passably good dairy butter is made regularly, custom-
ers can usually be found who will pay well for it. The butter
maker is also stimulated to do a little better work when the con-
sumers of the butter are known. There is a wider field open,
however, to those prepared to produce a high class dairy butter,
who also have had training in selling. Many wealthy people in
cities gladly pay from 40 to 60 cents a pound for choice dairy
butter. The chief difficulty of utilizing this market is that of
transportation. To express a small quantity in an ice box is
expensive, while to send by parcels post is unsatisfactory, be-
cause the butter will melt in transit and deteriorate in quality
very rapidly, so that when received and cooled it will not be the
choice butter that it was when started.

The selling of butter to neighboring farmers is coming to be
quite an industry in regions where whole milk is shipped to
cities, and also to some extent in communities where cream is
regularly sent to the creamery and where the housewife prefers
to buy from a neighbor rather than to go to the labor of churning
the small quantity needed for the home table. The writer has
met a few enterprising farmers doing a flourishing business in
providing butter, cured meats, and eggs to neighboring farmers.

356 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

The causes of difficult churning in winter are practically
only two in number. First, the cream from which the butter is
attempted to be made has too often been kept so cold that the
bacteria producing the lactic acid, which in turn makes the
casein of the cream brittle, have not been able to grow. Thus
the cream remains sweet and tough, almost leathery in consist-
ency. To overcome this difficulty the cream must be warmed
and given time to sour. The second cause is a low temperature.
Butter fat at a temperature of 100 degrees F. is a liquid, while
the same globules at a temperature of 40 and even at 50 degrees
are so hard that they cannot stick together when they do touch
in the churning process any more than two tallow or wax candles
will adhere when knocked together. There is no necessity for
consuming more than half an hour in the churning process. To
obtain results, however, it is essential that the cream be sour and
that the temperature be high enough to cause the butter fat to be
slightly sticky. The churning temperature will vary all the way
from 55 degrees in summer up to 65 degrees in winter. The
higher temperatures will be needed where the cows are fed
considerable quantities of cottonseed meal, lower temperatures
where more corn is fed. Asa general rule 56 to 60 degrees will
be found desirable in the west and 58 to 64 degrees in New Eng-
land and the southern states. With cream adequately ripened
the length of time required to churn will regulate the tempera-
ture at which to churn. While it is true that stale cows and dry
feed aggravate the case they become of little importance to one
who will remember to “sour the cream and churn at 60.”

Butter Overrun.—The question is often asked why or how
it is that the creamery managers can pay to the farmer as many
cents per pound for the fat as are received for the finished butter.
The question also frequently calls into question the accuracy or
honesty of the testing. Then when the farmer is able to churn a
quantity of cream and from it secure considerably more butter
than he could be given credit for in pounds of fat at the cream-
ery, he is convinced that fraud has been perpetrated upon him.
To both these questions the answer may be given that the result

THE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER 357

is due to the overrun, and that by overrun is meant the increase
in quantity of butter over butter fat secured by churning. The
butter fat paid for at the creamery is the clear oil. Butter is not
all oil, but contains water, salt and curd also. The analysis of
100 pounds of ordinary butter shows a composition about as
follows:

Per Cent
WWVALED = 5 Sa hain alec reee Rae aU eawataes 14
Dalbe. s-tot mnie ve aR Ron cew yen we 2%
Cured) ty ore aatn's re sh oe meleener ak 8 ae es I
17%
Wa! Sc Seen Malan teews We heey 821,
100

In other words, 82.5 pounds of fat, by the addition of water, salt,
and curd, has been made to become 100 pounds of butter.

Viewing the same matter slightly differently we may figure
that 100 pounds of fat taking up 19 pounds of water, 3.5 pounds
of salt, and 1 pound of curd, will produce 123.5 pounds of butter.

In good home dairy practice the test of the cream may be
ascertained with a fair degree of accuracy by churning it, weigh-
ing the butter, and subtracting from the weight of the butter,
one-sixth its weight, and then dividing the remaining five-sixths
weight by the number of pounds of cream used at the start. This
method of checking should show an agreement within 2 per
cent of fat with that allowed at the creamery.

Under skillful method of manufacture the quantity of butter
over fat may be as high as 22 per cent without the incorporation
of such a quantity of water or salt as to render the butter either
inferior or illegal. And if the overrun falls as low as about 16
per cent regularly, something is wrong. The cream may be
inaccurately sampled or tested, the fat loss in the buttermilk may
be excessive or some other leak is present. Buttermilk should
not test more than 0.05 or 0.09 per cent fat.

The composition of butter varies somewhat with the
methods and temperatures used in making. Butter may easily

358 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

vary in composition, as will be seen by the following table of com-
position of two samples, A and B:

A B

Per Cent Per Cent
Wate® cacnd adios camaeetas ~ 42 15
Galt: Gn anitet oe Gonnanseetepcnd oa 2 3
Gurd ss seess rams ken ae oe ae 1 1
PAG css o5 ok k os FRR ERAES ERTS 85 81
Tote ~iacseexhae nares 100 100

Tt will be noted from the above two examples that whereas in
“A” 85 pounds of fat were required to produce 100 pounds of
butter, only 81 pounds were required to produce 100 pounds in
the case of “ B,” a difference of 4 pounds, which at 25 cents
per pound would make a difference of one dollar per 100 pounds,
or one cent a pound. Differences even greater than those indi-
cated occur in practice. The amount of butter which a given
quantity of cream will produce will easily be one-sixth greater
than the amount of fat in that cream, as shown by the Babcock
test, and many caleulate butter yield on the basis of one-fifth
increase. It is not desirable that the butter-smaker endeavor to
incorporate any unusual amount of water. There is danger
that an illegal amount be retained as well as danger of an infe-
rior article being produced. It is desirable, however, that from
21% to 3 per cent salt be incorporated. This is to assist in pre-
serving the butter, while it is being held at moderate tempera-
tures. In cold storage where all is frozen hard the unsalted
butter keeps as well as the salted (Fig. 119).

Market Classes of Butter.—Butter now made in America
possesses all shades of quality from the choice creamery, scor-
ing 96 to 97 per cent and commanding several cents premium in
price, to packing stock or renovating stock which cannot well be
scored and is a drug on the market at less than half the price
paid for the best.

The butter which makes the market, however, scores usually
between 85 and 95 per cent. The grade is established by a score
based on the several qualities that the butter should possess. In
the following table are shown the points considered, the weight

FORMS OF SELLING 359

or count given to each and essentially or approximately how
butter of the four recognized grades would score. The flavor is
most important, yet the body may be “ weak” or “ crumbly” ;
the color a little “wavy”; the salt too light or “ undissolved,”
or the package “ untidy ” or damaged.

. Score Cards Market Classes and Scores

Points Full Score Choice Extra Firsts Seconds
Plavor 3: .2esss neues 45 41 3U 37 35.5
BOY vaii'se:4 sua das ddeloss 25 25 25 24 23.5
Color acces cannes 15 15 14.5 14.5 14
Balt 2.2 gesewlen getigien 10 10 9.5 9.5 9.5
Package ........... 5 5 5 5 4.5

Total Score..... 100 96 93 90 87
Price (Illustrative) ......... 35¢ 34e 3le 28e¢

Forms of Selling.—In what form it is preferable to sell the
product of the dairy will naturally be settled in many or most
places by local circumstances. Yet some producers are so located
that the product may be sold as market milk, as sweet cream, or
as butter fat contained in cream. If butter fat is worth 30
cents per pound, how will the sale of sweet 20 per cent cream at
60 cents per gallon compare with it? If we assume a dairy of
twenty cows yielding 25 pounds per day per cow or 500 pounds
of 3.6 per cent milk we shall have 18 pounds (500 & .036 = 18)
fat, which at 30 cents per pound is worth $5.40. If this be sold
in the form of 30 per cent cream there will be 60 pounds of such
cream and 440 pounds of skim milk, which, at 40 cents per hun-
dred, has a value of $1.76, making a total of $7.16.

The 500 pounds of 3.6 per cent milk will produce 90 pounds
of 20 per cent cream.

Pounds Milk : pounds cream :: per cent cream : per cent milk

500 : x ee 20 : 3.6

Since 20 per cent cream weighs 8.44 pounds per gallon there
will be 10.66 gallons of cream, which at 60 cents per gallon will
be worth $6.40. The skim milk remaining (500 pounds milk
minus 90 pounds cream equals 410 pounds skim milk) is worth
about 40 cents per hundred or $1.64. This brings the total

DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

360

-AIp PUB PjOo cAGOI 401INq eq} PUB SNONUTITOD oq [[l44 WOTE[NoII oy,

*qazde om 10 poz % o18 AoY} YIN0G? Vera ‘WIO0I 10;BIOFUJoI BO} OSNUY Sol Po}e[NSUL US ZUoeUT0D Jo poyxoU BuLyeI}SN]J— SIT “Pr

-~-k uF ia 252)

| ae 3 "
—e 2 —

PETIT s = PS
(cxcoey SPeaars, WOAS Bo4eysIP e 12)
-ASNOM Fl C4lLS1INsyl

FORMS OF SELLING 361

receipts up to $8.04. This shows a profit in sweet cream selling
over selling fat for butter-making purposes of 88 cents per day
on a herd of 20 cows. In practice a slightly smaller sum would
be received because of the mechanical losses of fat in handling.

If the same milk were sold at $1.50 per hundred it would
bring $7.50, or 54 cents less than in the selling of sweet cream
and 34 cents more than in selling butter fat.

If butter be made on the farm from the same milk there

Fic. 120.—Coéperative creameries make dairying profitable.

will be made about 21 pounds. If this is sold at 30 cents per
pound the sum of $6.30 will be realized. To this amount should
be added the value of the skim milk and the buttermilk remain-
ing, which will be about 480 pounds. This will be worth about
$1.92, or a total of $8.22.

Summarizing results we see that 500 pounds of 3.6 per cent
milk sold in the four different ways bring the following résults:

Milk will bring in ........------ e+ eeee $7.50
Sweet cream will bring in.........-..-- 8.04
Butter fat will bring in .........--+--.- 7.16

Butter will bring in .....-sereee reeves 8.22

362 DAIRY BUTTER MAKING

In addition to the figures given there must always be taken
into account the equipment and labor cost of caring for and de-
livering to market the commodities. Where codperative cream-
eries are organized a satisfactory method of marketing is estab-
lished (Fig. 120).

QUESTIONS

. Where should farm butter making be practiced?

. How should cream be held while collecting enough to churn? How cold?

. What is churning?

. Tell how to get a wooden churn ready for use.

When and how is butter colored?

. How long should it take to churn?

. When should the churning be stopped?

. Why and how is salt added?

. Why and how is butter “ worked’?

. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the earthen jar and the
one-pound print as forms of packing for market?

. How may difficult churning on the farm in winter be overcome?

. What is meant by overrun in butter making?

. Under what conditions will unsalted butter keep as well as salted?

. What causes light-colored streaks or wavy marbling in butter?

. Upon what points is butter scored?

DPONarnrewne

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Leu eee ll mel coll ol
apaNnre

CHAPTER XXXII

TESTS NECESSARY IN CREAMERIES

The butter fat test is naturally the most important. (Chapter
XXVIII, yet the proper conduet of any creamery includes sev-
eral others as well (Fig. 121).

The acid test is a method of determining the quantity of
acid in or degree of sourness of a cream by the use of an alkali
solution. This is made by dissolving 4 grams of caustic
(KOH) in 1000 ¢.c. pure water. This is a simple titration of
an alkali solution of known strength against a known amount
of sour cream of unknown acid strength in the presence of
phenolphthalein as an indicator, two or three drops being used.
So long as the mixture of cream and alkali solution remains
white the acid is in excess. When the acid is killed the whole
mixture turns pink. If 17.6 ¢.c. of cream be taken as sample a
normal acidity would require the use of about 12 cc. of the alkali
solution, which would indicate the presence of about 0.61 per
cent acid. The formula usually employed in the determination
of acid is that devised by Dr. Manns:

CC. alkali X .009
c.c, sample used

X 100 = per cent of acid.

The lime water test for acid is cheaper and easier of opera-
tion than the Manns and sufficiently accurate when used on sour
creams. The lime water is made by putting a quantity of quick
or air-slacked lime in any convenient jar, covering with water,
stirring and letting stand for sixty hours or more in order that
the water shall have taken up all the lime possible. When the
solution has reached its condition of constant strength the clear
liquid should be poured or drawn off into a separate bottle and
more water added to the lime and stirred for a later usage. To

make the test 17.6 c.c. of sour cream are then measured into a
363

364 TESTS NECESSARY IN CREAMERIES

white cup and the rinsings of the pipette added to the cream in
the cup. Three or four drops of phenolphthalein indicator are
then added to the sample. The lime water is then added from a
graduated cylinder or a burette until a delicate permanent pink
color is reached. So long as the mixture remains colorless, acid

Fie. 121.—Dairy School students checking up their work by means of the Babcock test.

predominates. When a constant pink color appears it may be
judged that the free acid has been destroyed by the lime water.
The quantity of lime water used may then be read from the
cylinder. The amount of acid in the cream will be indicated by

TESTS NECESSARY IN CREAMERIES 365

dividing the number of cubic centimeters of lime water re-
quired for neutralization by 5. Thus:

co. lime water |. 1

5 10

Thus, if a cream be so sour as to require 30 c.c. of saturated

lime water to neutralize the acid in 17.6 ec. of cream, we have

2 = 6, or 0.60 per cent acid. The lime water test will not work

on sweet milk or cheese making, but is of value in farm or
creamery butter making.

The moisture test is used to determine the amount of
moisture in finished butter and its use is highly important, espe-
cially in preventing the incorporation of an illegal quantity of
water. Butter must contain some water to dissolve the salt and
to prevent an oily taste. This is accomplished by about 14 or
15 per cent moisture. The law in many states and a ruling of
the Internal Revenue Department of the Federal Government
make a butter illegal if it contains 16 per cent or more of
moisture.

The test: is made by warming a carefully taken sample and
mixing it into a paste and then carefully weighing out into an
aluminum cup 10 grams or 20 grams, according to test used.
The sample is then heated slowly over an alcohol lamp or
other flame until the water is entirely expelled from the sample.
The complete absence of moisture is indicated by a slight brown-
ing of the sample. The sample is then re-weighed. The per-
centage amount of water originally present is shown by the
percentage amount of loss occasioned by drying. The apparatus
for making this test is not expensive and it is highly important
that it be used regularly in creamery butter-making.

Salt Test—The salt test now usually employed is that de-
vised by Mr. Gray of the Federal Dairy Division. The
solution used is one made by dissolving 5.81 grams silver
nitrate in 2000 cc. pure water. The indicator used is potassium
chromate. Ten grams of butter to be tested are weighed
into a flask, dissolved in hot water and made up to 500 «ac.
50 cc. of this solution is then pipetted out and discharged into

= per cent of acid.

366 SALT TEST

a white porcelain or enamel vessel. Two or three drops of
potassium chromate indicator are then added to the solution.
The silver nitrate solution is then added from a burette until
the sample assumes a reddish-brown color. Each cc. of silver
nitrate solution used will represent 0.1 per cent of salt. Thus
25.5 ¢.c. of solution used would indicate the presence of 2.55
per cent salt in the sample. The use of a salt test is essential
to uniformity of product.

QUESTIONS

. What is the purpose of the acid test in butter making?

How is it operated?

. How may lime water be used in the place of other neutralizers?
. How is the test for moisture in butter operated?

. Explain the use of the salt test.

aor wne

CHAPTER XXXIII
FARM DAIRY CHEESE (GOUDA)!

TuereE are sold in America probably a hundred or more
varieties of cheese. Although by far the greater portion, with
respect to quantity, is made here, the manifold kinds are largely
imported from Europe, chiefly from Switzerland, Italy, France
and Germany.

All cheese may be divided into two great classes, that made
from fresh sweet milk and that made from milk which has
become, or is made to become, slightly acid. The American
cheese, commonly sold simply as cheese, is of the acid curd
kind, while most of the imported cheeses are of the sweet curd
group. The Gouda is of Holland origin and is one of the sweet
curd cheeses. It is, therefore, more closely related to the Brick
and the Swiss than to our common cheese.

The ordinary process by which our American cheese is made
in factories is not applicable to farm dairy cheese making, be-
cause it requires too much time, and is so complicated that it
requires years of practice to become sufliciently familiar with
the varying conditions in which milk comes to the vat.

Process of Making.—The various changes that take place in
milk nearly all develop in the milk drawn in the evening and
kept over until the following morning. So if milk is made into
cheese immediately after it is drawn, no difficulty will be ex-
perienced, and by employing a simple and short method of manu-
facture, anyone at all accustomed to handling milk can make
a uniformly good cheese with the appliances found in any well-
regulated farm home.

The best time to make farm dairy cheese is immediately
after milking. The milk should first be poured from one vessel
to another in some locality where the air is pure and fresh,
raising the vessel from which the milk is poured high, so the

1 Adapted in part from Minnesota Circular, “ Farm Dairy Cheese.”
367

368 FARM DAIRY CHEESE (GOUDA)

air can pass through the milk and carry off the animal odor.
The milk is then poured into the vat, or if no vat is available a
large wash boiler may be used. It is not necessary to use cheese
color, but if it is desired that the cheese look rich about a tea-
spoonful of cheese color to sixteen gallons of milk may be used.
The color is best mixed by means of a large dipper, filling it
half full of milk, mixing the color thoroughly in it and stirring
it into the milk. :

At this point the milk is heated, if necessary, to make certain
it has a temperature of 86 to 89 degrees. It may be heated
by setting it on the stove for a short time, stirring continually.
Hot water must not be added to warm milk, it retards greatly
the rennet action. The rennet extract at the rate of one ounce
to a hundred pounds or twelve gallons of milk is now added.
It should first have been diluted in about ten times its bulk of
cold water before adding. It must be well stirred into the milk.
The milk should begin to curdle in from ten to twelve minutes.

If rennet tablets are used to curdle the milk it is best to
use one small tablet for every five gallons of milk, or one large
tablet to twenty-five gallons of milk. Small tablets are about
the size of a dime; large tablets are about the size of a silver
quarter of a dollar. The rennet may be procured from any
creamery supply house.

To add the rennet, if tablets are used, the required amount
is first dissolved in a small quantity of cold water and then
poured into the milk. Great care should be taken not to have
the milk at a temperature below 86 degrees when the rennet is
put in, and it should not be above 90 degrees afterward. The
milk must now be stirred gently for two or three minutes, then
let stand until the curd is firm enough to cut. To ascertain when
the curd is ready for cutting the index finger is inserted into the
milk at an angle of forty-five degrees until the thumb nail
touches the milk, a slight notch is then made in the curd with
the thumb, then the finger is gently raised; if the curd breaks
clean across it without many flakes remaining on the finger it
is ready for cutting. With a little practice one will soon know
when the curd mass is ready to cut.

PROCESS OF MAKING 369

For cutting, regular cheese knives are best, one with hori-
zontal blades and one with perpendicular blades. In ease it is
intended to make only a few cheeses a wire bread toaster or a
coil of clean hay wire may be used, the wires being about half
an inch apart. The cut is first made lengthwise, then crosswise
of the vat or boiler until the curd is cut into cubes about the
size of small kernels of corn.

After the cutting is finished the curd is gently stirred by
hand for about three minutes, then heated slowly to 98 or 100
degrees, constantly stirring gently while the curd is being heated ;
the curd is kept at this temperature for about forty minutes.
To tell when the curd is sufficiently cooked a handful is squeezed
gently, held for a moment, then the hand is opened and if the
curd falls apart it is firm enough. As soon as the curd is suffi-
ciently cooked the whey is drawn off and the mold is filled by
taking a double handful at a time and pressing gently into the
mold, continuing until the mold is full and well rounded up.

Fic. 122.—A simple cheese press for farm dairy cheese making.

The cheese curd is then taken out of the mold and turned
upside down and replaced The cover is put on and the whole is
put into the press, which may be a simple, old-fashioned lever
press, illustrated in the accompanying cut (Fig. 122). The
stick should be about twelve feet long. A broken wagon tongue
or fence rail answers the purpose very well. A pail containing
a few cobble stones will answer for a weight. Regular Gouda
molds are best, but any tin or wooden receptacle will answer
if small holes are made in it to permit the whey to escape. The
cheese should be from eight to ten inches in diameter and about
three or four inches high. The box upon which the mold is to
be placed is set about three feet from a wall, post or tree on

370 FARM DAIRY CHEESE (GOUDA)

which a slat is nailed, under which the end of the stick is placed.
A board block about six inches in diameter is set on the mold,
on this the stick is rested. Full pressure is not applied at first,
but the pail is hung about half way between the mold and the
end of the stick. The cheese remains a few hours in the press
and is then taken out and dressed.

To dress a cheese it is first put into warm water and a piece
of cheesecloth about six inches wide and long enough to go around
the cheese is wrapped smoothly around the cheese and folded
down over the sides; then a cap is put on each side. The cheese
is then returned to the mold. Both are put under the press,
moving the pail to the end of the stick. The cheese is left in
the press for about twelve hours, then taken out and salted.

The cheese may be either dry-salted or brine-salted. Brine
salting is the better way. A solution of salt and water is made
as strong as it can possibly be made; the cheese is put in this and
salt is sprinkled on the exposed surface. The cheese is left in
this for forty-eight hours, being turned every twelve hours.
When salted sufficiently long the cheese should be removed from
the brine, stripped of cloths, wiped dry and laid on a cellar shelf.
After about two or three days, when the cheese has become fairly
dry on the outside, it should be dipped in hot paraffin. This is
done to kill all mold spores that have lodged on the moist surface
and also to keep the cheese moist by preventing the evaporation
of water.

The temperature best adapted for curing is from 55 to 65
degrees. The cheese will be ready for use in from two to four
months. The lighter the cheese is salted the sooner will it be
ready for use, and the more the curd is cooked the slower it will
be in ripening and the longer it will keep,

Yield, Cost and Value.—Cheese removes from the milk most
of the casein and fat but practically none of the sugar and albu-
men. Yet a yield of cheese equal to about 10 per cent of the
weight of the milk may be expected, because in the cheese there
must and will be some water. A hundred pounds of milk test-
ing 3.7 per cent fat will yield about 10 pounds of cheese. The
butter value of the milk at 30 cents per pound for fat would be

QUESTIONS 371

about $1.11 and the skim milk about 20 cents more, making a
total of about $1.80 per hundred. The 10 pounds of cheese
would be worth, if purchased, about 25 cents per pound or $2.50,
and the whey about 10 cents more, making about $2.60; or, in
other words, the cheese for the farm home may be made at home
for less than half the usual retail price.

A gallon of milk weighs about 8.6 pounds and will make
about 0.85 pound of cheese. Therefore, to make a cheese weigh-
ing from six to seven pounds, seven to eight gallons of milk will
be required. Home-made Gouda has a food value equal to
American cheese and greater than many imported varieties.
With a little experience cheese may be made during May and
October to supply the table the year around.

QUESTIONS

. To what class of cheese does the Gouda belong?

2. How many pounds of cheese will eight gallons of milk make?

. At butter prices for fat in milk what will farm-made cheese cost per
pound?

4. How may a constant supply for the home table be most conveniently
made?

5. Why is cheese not more generally made on farms? ,

iN)

CHAPTER XXXIV

COTTAGE CHEESE

Food Value—Cost.—Cottage cheese, made from skim milk,
is one of the most healthful and economical ag well as tasty
foods which can be provided for the farm table. The usually
calculated value of skim milk for stock feeding is about 25 cents
a hundred. One hundred pounds of skim milk will produce
from 12 to 14 pounds of cottage cheese, thus entailing a cost
of about 2 cents per pound. While such cheese is about two-
thirds water, which would advance the cost of the solid sub-
stances eaten to about 6 cents per pound, it must not be forgotten
that ordinary meat costing from 15 to 25 cents per pound is
likewise about two-thirds water; also that even at 6 cents per
pound for the solid substance of cottage cheese the fact that it
is rich in protein, making for muscular growth, gives it, in
reality, a higher value than cereals which could be bought at
the same price per pound.

Method of Making.—The making of cottage cheese or pot
cheese, though simple, is controlled by certain principles which
make for quality. Flavor is the quality first to be considered.
This can be controlled only by governing the character of the
milk used. While not a very sensitive product cottage cheese
is the most tasty when clean sweet milk is properly soured at a
temperature of about 70 to 75 degrees F. A higher temperature,
one ranging in the neighborhood of 90 degrees, is liable to pro-
duce gassy fermentations and foulodors, andatemperature lower
than 70 degrees retards the growth of the bacteria which produce
the acid, and thus causes a waste of time, and if too cold the
souring process can scarcely continue at all. At times, too, it
is necessary to add to the skim milk to be soured a little starter
in the nature of clean, sharp buttermilk or a small quantity of
plain milk which has previously become sour. If the milk be-
comes too sour the tendency is to produce a hard, dry, sawdust-
like product, one not usually relished. When the milk has

372

FINISHING 373

curdled, not too thick, it should be cut into little squares or
cubes by means of an ordinary knife or a wire bread toaster may
be used if a larger quantity is being produced. This done, the
temperature of the entire mass should be raised, either by heat-
ing on the stove or by pouring hot water into the curd mass.
This is done for the purpose of “ cooking” or hardening the
curd. Water should not be added when the heating can be done
the other way, as it removes flavor. The temperature should be
raised slowly with frequent stirring until a temperature of from
95 to 98 degrees has been reached. The lower temperature to
be used would be with very sour milk, the higher with milk not
so sour. If, however, the milk is really not sour enough when
the heating is done it will produce a rubbery mass, one not
usually favored. The effect of high acid is to produce dry hard
curd; the effect of high heat is to produce rubbery curd; the
effect of long-continued heat is to produce a‘hard curd. The
total time of cooking will require from twenty-five to forty
minutes. At this point experience only can indicate just when
to stop the cooking process. The curd should be fairly firm but
not hard. The whey is removed most easily by pouring the
entire mass into a cheesecloth bag, and permitting it to hang
until thoroughly drained. If more rapid work is desired a
press, such as used for extracting cider from apples or fat from
suet, will be found serviceable.

Finishing.— After the moisture has been fairly well, but not
wholly drained or pressed out, the curd may be thoroughly
worked up by means of a ladle, or if rather firm, by hand. Many,
however, prefer that the curd remain in large flakes and lumps
rather than in fine form, in which case the curd should be cut in
large squares, stirred carefully, and mixed with a silver fork
gently. During this mixing process the salt should be added, and
if desired, a small quantity of pepper, preferably white pepper.
At this point cream may be added to further increase the tasty
quality and food value of the cheese. When thoroughly mixed
to an even consistency it may be made up into little patty-cake
balls by rolling in the hands or, if desired especially for market,
may be printed the same as butter into pound prints, and

374 COTTAGE CHEESE

wrapped in parchment or paraffin paper to prevent its drying
too rapidly. In this form it may or may not, according to the
local demands, be inserted into a paraffined butter carton, where
it will preserve its quality for a somewhat longer time than if
left more or less exposed.

Short Lived—Cottage cheese is short lived. For best re-
sults it should be consumed the same day that it is made. If
held, it should be in a cold refrigerator to prevent excessive
souring, and even under favorable conditions, cannot be ex-
pected to retain its quality longer than from two to four days.

Skim milk will yield from 12 to 14 pounds of cottage cheese
per hundred pounds of milk, and when the cheese is seasoned,
and a small quantity of cream added, and when put on the
market in attractive form, usually brings 10 cents per pound.

Farmers’ wives generally should make more use of cottage
cheese on their home tables and some are so situated that they
could earn nice pin money by putting a tasty cheese on the local

market.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the food value and cost per pound of cottage cheese?
2. What is the effect of high acid on condition of curd?
3. What is the effect of high temperature on texture of finished cheese?
4. How long will cottage cheese keep its quality if kept cold?

CHAPTER XXXV
ICE CREAM

Icr cream is one of the most universally favored desserts
in America. It is sold in most candy, fruit and drug stores
and served at practically all hotels in this country, yet: is little
known in most European cities. The ocean liners serve ice
cream to the passengers in all parts of the world, yet the ice
cream is practically all secured in the United States and stored
even for months on the vessel. Ice cream likewise is a favorite
dish in the home, where large quantities are made in small lots.

Artificial cooling in a simple way has been known for cen-
turies and the making of a frozen food somewhat resembling
our ice cream has been practiced for several hundred years.
But the ice cream industry as known to-day started in 1852 in
Baltimore.

The making of ice cream and shipping it even long dis-
tances is now a well-organized industry which consumes about
50,000,000 pounds of butter fat annually.

The formula used is important, but little more so than the
method of freezing and storing. For best results there should
not be to exceed 1414 per cent sugar in the finished article. This
is attained by adding one part sugar for every six parts of liquid
or one pint sugar to three quarts cream, for a six-quart freezer.
For a gallon freezer the following formula has been found good:

Rich Formula Children’s Formula
2 qts. 20 per cent cream 1 qt. 20 per cent cream
2/, pint sugar 1 qt. skim milk
Vanilla to taste ?/, pint sugar

Vanilla to taste.

If eggs are used the whole mass should be cooked into a
custard. This produces a very rich tasting dish but one that
is rather expensive. In general commercial trade no eggs are

used. If chocolate, coffee, or caramel flavors are desired in
375

376 ICE CREAM

addition, these flavors may be added on top of the vanilla with
no ill effects, in fact chocolate ice cream is better if there be some
vanilla present.

Condensed milk is coming to be very much used in ice cream
to give body and smoothness. For home Sunday dinners it
might not be worth while to use condensed milk, but for any
more formal occasion where continued trade is sought it cer-
tainly does not pay to do without it.

The addition of more fat, 2.e., richer cream, will not take
the place of the smooth body of condensed milk. If the sweet-
ened variety is used allowance must be made for the sugar in
it. If the unsweetened, sterilized, canned kind be used, care
neéds be taken to use not over 10 to 15 per cent of it, lest the
cooked taste be too pronounced. If condensed milk be used it
should take the place of an equal amount of cream so that the
sugar proportion will remain constant.

Formula With Condensed Milk
1 qt. 20 per cent cream
1% pints whole milk
% pint condensed milk.
?/, pint sugar
Vanilla to taste.

This will produce a smooth ice cream which will test about
12 or 13 per cent fat and have better body and standing-up
ability than when no condensed milk is used.

Ice cream powders are in most cases simply mixtures in
various proportions of some East Indian gum with powdered
sugar. Rice flour and starch are sometimes used, but are
not to be recommended. This powder is used by first being
thoroughly mixed with the dry sugar and later the sugar mixture
is beaten into the cream. In this way the powder helps to “ dry
out” the ice cream and cause it to remain in mass form.

Gelatin is now used in nearly all commercial ice creams to
prevent the formation of coarse spines or slivers of ice when the
cream stands a few days. It is used by first dissolving it in hot
water and pouring into the cream while hot, stirring vigorously

THE PREEZING OF ICE CREAM 377

the while. A teaspoonful of any table gelatin dissolved in half
a cup of water will suffice for a gallon of ice cream.

Gum tragacanth, a vegetable gum, is used but is not as
strong to prevent crystallization as gelatin and is more used to
dry out the mix, to produce a compact meaty mass. This is
used in the form of a dry powder, preferably mixed with finely
powdered sugar to aid distribution.

The freezing of ice cream is an easy matter provided too
much sugar has not been used. Water freezes at 32 degrees F.,
milk and cream at 31 degrees, and cream in which 14 per cent
sugar has been dissolved, at 28 degrees. If more sugar be
added the freezing temperature will be yet more depressed.
Water-ice and sherbets freeze with more difficulty than ice
creams because carrying more sugar.

The best simple trick in the matter of quick and easy freez-
ing is to pour cold water in among the ice lumps and salt grains
before starting to turn (Fig. 123).

When the mix is in the freezer can and all is adjusted, cracked
ice should be added to the freezer tub first, until about one-third
full, salt is then scattered over the ice, more ice is then added
to fill the tub nearly full, and salt again scattered on top of the
ice. The ice should not be packed about the can. At this point
in the process the cold water is added until it flows out the
safety hole on the side. The first thing noticed as a result of
adding the water is that it will turn much easier than without it,
and second, it will freeze in a fraction of the time often re-
quired in the dry ice-salt method. Moreover, since the mix is
comparatively warm when added and must be cooled to about
30 to 29 degrees before the swell can take place, it is useless to
turn rapidly at first. Butter lumps are formed by turning too
fast at first and churning it. The freezing process may
even be done on time schedule. During the first seven minutes
after the water has been added the freezer crank should be
turned rapidly, two or three revolutions, every half-minute to
keep the walls clear and prevent the dasher from setting. After
seven minutes of cooling the mix will be nearly ready to freeze
and will be cool enough to be viscid. In this condition it will

378 ICE CREAM

retain a part of the air beaten into it by the rapid turning which
continues from the seventh minute until the ice cream is frozen.
The whole process of freezing with water as described will not
take more than twelve or thirteen minutes and may be done in
ten minutes with a one- or two-gallon freezer and in thirteen
minutes with a ten-gallon freezer.

The quantity of salt to use to get quick freezing need not be
more than one-tenth of the amount of ice. Full value of the

wo File:

Salt
Waker.

Tee: Mixture.

Fie. 123.—Illustrating the addition of water to the salt ice mixture to hasten the freezing
of the ice cream.

salt is secured by putting it at the middle and at the top of the
ice so it will work on the ice as it trickles downward.

To freeze ice cream in ten minutes be sure the mix is not
too sweet and then pour cold water in among the lumps of ice.

Holding ice cream is best done by packing solid in can and
then dry-packing the can, using a coarse salt that will not dis-
solve too rapidly. If for any reason the ice cream melts and
then is rehardened without agitation it will not be edible on
account of spines of ice which have formed. Melting and re-
freezing is the cause of coarse spiny ice cream. The whole mass
may be put into a freezer and refrozen, however.

QUESTIONS 379

If several batches are to be frozen in quick succession the
holding can should be well packed in ice and salt in advance.
A common “ shot-gun” milk can set in a tub or half barrel
makes a very good holding can. By transferring the freshly
made batch to the iced can any desired amount may be made
even with a small freezer.

The “ swell” in ice cream is due to the incorporation of air
into the cream just as in whipped cream or beaten egg. A good
swell is 100 per cent, based on the cream, te., not considering
the sugar, or 85 per cent based on the volume of total mix. A
better way is to figure by weight. A gallon of market ice cream
should not weigh over 5.2 pounds to the gallon, and 5 pounds is
enough for quality and profit.

QUESTIONS

1. How much ice cream is consumed per capita in the United States
annually ?

. How long has ice cream making been carried on in a wholesale way?

. Why and how is condensed milk used in ice cream making?

Why and how are ice cream powders used?

. Why and how is gelatin used?

. How may ice cream be frozen in ten to twelve minutes with a 1 to 10
use of salt and ice?

7. How may the ice cream made be best stored while more is being frozen?

8. Why is a reasonable “ swell” desirable in ice cream?

arnprwn

PART VII
MARKET MILK

CHAPTER XXXVI

MARKET MILK

By market milk is meant that milk which is consumed in
the form of milk, chiefly in cities and towns.

The importance of this phase of the dairy industry has not
been fully appreciated by the producers of milk, by the con-
sumers, or by the state institutions giving instruction in the
various phases of dairy husbandry. From government figures
it appears that one-third of all the milk produced by the nearly
twenty-two million dairy cows in the United States, is sent to
town to be used as milk, cream or condensed milk, the remain-
ing two-thirds being made into butter (58 per cent) or cheese
(8 per cent). Just what portion of the third used as market
milk is sold as cream and what portion as milk has not been
shown, but from figures at hand it would seem that more than
half of the fat sold in the two has been sold in milk. Conse
quently, therefore, about 20 per cent of the total milk flow finds
its way to the consumer as milk. Although this quantity would
give to each individual less than a quart a day it is well known
that adults, as a rule, consume small quantities of milk, and that
the major portion purchased in homes is used as food for infants
and young children. In this connection it is more than of in-
terest to note that fully two-thirds of the 2,250,000 infants in
the United States, or 1,500,000, are being raised wholly, or
very largely, upon the milk of the cow rather than at the breast.
The likelihood of death during the first year of infants so reared
is also known to be about nine times as great as those nourished
on mother’s milk. It is evident, therefore, that the proper pro-
duction, care and use of the 20 per cent used as infant food is
of more vital consequence than the remaining 80 per cent which
is being consumed by adults as cream, butter or cheese. Since
this minor quantity is of major value, measured in consequences,
every milk producer should know more exactly what the conse-
quences of inferior milk are. It has been demonstrated that

383

384 MARKET MILK .

where milk can be secured clean, fresh and from healthy cows
the mortality rate drops to about two to one, showing conclu-
sively that it is not cow’s milk per se, but rather the condition
of the cow’s milk which causes the trouble.

Factors Influencing Quality.—Practically all unfavorable
conditions or qualities of milk can be related to one of the fol-
lowing causes:

A. The Cow May be Sick.—If she is, her milk should be
considered as also out of condition and undesirable as human
food. Green corn fed in excessive amounts in late summer or
early autumn will induce looseness on the part of the cow, which
condition will be promptly reflected in the child consuming the
milk. On the other hand, dry hay and fodder which bring
about a constipated condition in the cow tend to induce similar
condition on the part of the child. Some feeds such as corn
silage made from mature corn or roots should be fed to cows
in winter from which milk is sold for infant feeding, since these
feeds tend strongly to keep the cow in best physical condition.

B. Strong flavored feeds, such as rye or winter wheat pasture
or the various wild weeds that spring up in spring or autumn
in various places, also produce a milk of inferior flavor, though
not particularly detrimental if consumed.

C. Aw which contains foul odors of any sort may be the
source of disagreeable flavors in milk. Milk, therefore, should
be removed from the stable promptly and kept in a sweet, fresh
atmosphere, in the milk house. This class of trouble is, however,
of small consequence compared with the condition of the cow
and especially when compared with the detrimental effects of
bacteria.

D. Bacteria are microscopic plants which grow under a
great variety of conditions all about us. By far the greater
number are of no consequence to us so far as our health is
concerned (Fig. 124). Milk produced in the winter time in
the ordinary stable may contain a dozen or two varieties of
bacteria, yet only two or three kinds will be found present ‘
capable of modifying the milk itself to any appreciable degree.
The universally common milk organism is the bacillus which
produces lactic acid.

FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY 385

This is particularly true in summer when the cows are on
pasture. This germ does not produce heat-resisting spores and
is therefore easily killed by high temperature. Although this
organism is the one which sours milk and is so abundant in
buttermilk, which is a good beverage for both adults and infants,
it does not follow that a medium number in milk supposed to
be sweet would be beneficial to the child. Milk fed to young
animals, whether child, chicken, pig or calf, should be thoroughly
sweet or fully sour.

The second most common class of bacteria found in milk is
that known as the Colon group, “ Bacilli Coli.” There are

a0
b ,
Po GO 5 oy
°0 O-
Q o Oo ° o Cate °
Z2 oe Cp 2
Co's pt ® ~.0 Becy
10e oO” o waa:
oO. a

Fia. 124.—Milk as it appears under the microscope. The clear, round fat globules
are interspersed with bacteria. Note relative smallness of the germs, also that the bacteria
are grouped in clusters.
several varieties of this class of organisms. Some have power
of free movement, others have not, however none of them have
the power of forming within themselves spores so resistant to
heat that even boiling may not destroy them. They also pro-
duce gas while growing. It is the distending effect of the gas
produced by the growth of these bacteria which causes the pain
to infants suffering from cholera infantum and similar intes-
tinal disturbances. The natural habitat or home of this class
of bacteria is the intestinal tract of all higher animals, espe-
cially cows, and they gain entrance into the milk through par-
ticles of manure which accidentally fall into the pail during
milking, Many other methods of entrance are possible, C9.
from poorly washed pails, or even nursing bottle and nipple.

386 MARKET MILK

Ropy or stringy milk, if not in this condition when drawn
from the cow, in which case garget would be indicated, is also
the work of certain microscopic plants which feed largely upon
the sugar of the milk and reduce it to the ropy or stringy
character. This complaint is most common in the warm weather
of summer while cows are standing in stagnant pools of water
in the pasture. Ropy milk is not particularly injurious, but

Score Card for Milk

United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Dairy Division.

HOSS cca ous tha idler Ee Maume os crewed FE ERAOUE ING cia wisiwis gaan & eons ieee
PERFECT BCORE
ITEM. BCORE. ALLOWED, REMARKS.
Bacteria................ Be Wadia ecaes j Bacteria found per |,
\ cubic centimeter
Flavor and odor......... Oo jess Sse { Cowy, Bitter, Feed, |...
Flat, Strong,
Visible dirt............. 50) Poeeconereseean| er rer eemnruM Te ap ee ne ene som F
TEBE skin te, hea nies eae vara TQ. feeescs..g Per cent found ............. :
Solids not fat........... LO! ah acuce Per cent found .............
ACLdIGY sinecrscnnasy taateedoona Oi! ih atest ie Per cent found .-...........
CAD iz sissindis saatacaneeiaacrs
Bottle and cap.......... ana sadea
BOttlOs.ucstracagncantsOesgekes
Otay ecco sexneonaeses TOO: ‘assent.
TEN UD AS OF es esa bathe GCG a Ns iad ck va lad snad de ideo NCA arses tgcb vaca eho
AARC RG batten stacp ei ta assis nak AU opto sue gat ethos hdtv Set ROR a eich tana am a tn set
STG TED sl erat ei a ere aie narrate arene leben deep ead beta bgee teh ted
Judge

FACTORS INFLUENCING QUALITY 387

Directions for Scoring.
BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER—PERFECT SCORE, 35.

Points Points

Under’ 500i. cares tieaane ke va sede 35.0 25,001— 30,000..................., 29.0
500- 1,000 34.9 30,001- 35,000.............0.0.00.. 28.0
1,001- 1,5 -+. 384.8 35,001- 40,000...............0..... 27.0
1,501- 2,000 . 34.7 40,001- 45,000..............000... 26.0
2,001— 2,500 . 34.6 45,001- 50,000.................... 25.0
2,501— 3,000 . 84.5 50,001— 55,000................000.. 24.0
3,001- 3,500 34.4 55,001— 60,000................0.., 23.0
3,501— 4,000 34.3 60,001- 65.000.................000. 22.0
4,001- 5,000 34.0 65,001— 70,000.................... 21.0
5,001-— 6,000 33.8 70,001— 75,000................000. 20.0
6,001— 7,000 33.6 75,001— 80,000...............00005 19.0
7,001- 8,000 33.4 80,001- 85,000................0000. 18.0
8,001- 9,000 33.2 85,001= 90,000... cise a vnsaee aeinas 17.0
9,001-10,000 33.0 90,001— 95,000...............0000. 16.0
10,001-11,000 . 32.8 95,001-100,000................ - 15.0
11,001-12,000 32.6 | 100,001-120,000......... - 12.5
12,001-13,000 32.4 | 120,001-140,000 ..... - 10.0
13,001—14,000 32.2 | 140,001-160,000. - 7.5
14,001-15,000 32.0 | 160,001-180,000. 5.0
15,001—20,000 31.0 | 180,001-200,000..............0000.. 2.5
20,001—-25,000 30.0 | Above 200,000..............000000, 0.0

Note.—When the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter exceeds the local legal limit
the score shall be 0.
FLAVOR AND ODOR—PERFECT SCORE, 25.

Deductions for disagreeable or foreign odor or flavor should be made according to con-
ditions found. When possible to recognize the cause of the difficulty it should be described

under Remarks.
VISIBLE DIRT—PERFECT SCORE, 10.

Examination for visible dirt should be made only after the milk has stood for some time
undisturbed in any way. Raise the bottle carefully in its natural, upright position, without
tipping, until higher than the head. Observe the bottom of the milk with the naked eye
or by the aid of a reading glass. The presence of the slightest movable speck makes a
perfect score impossible. Further deductions should be made according to the amount of
dirt found. When possible the nature of the dirt should be described under Remarks.

FAT IN MILK—PERFECT SCORE, 10.

Points Points
4.0 per cent and over. (0) D:D POE: COL bind nina sweaters ysis Case e See 6
3.9 per cent Sid, DET CONG date e Head 2 seatsts-s FSM 5
3.8 per cent 3.0 per Cent. sess ecsecceescsceeee 4
3.7 per cent 2.9) Per CONE irises eaurese 60% 3
3.6 per cent 2.8 per cent.. 2
3.5 per cent 2.7 percent ....... 1
3.4 per cent Less than 2.7 per cent.......... ...00e 0
3.3 per cent

Norz.—When the per cent of fat is less than the local legal limit the score shall be 0.
SOLIDS NOT FAT—PERFECT SCORE, 10.

Points Points
8.7 per cent. and over............--45 TO! |) Bil Per COM biised vin cseuinsew s Headers ww sewn 4
8.6 per cet. ciscgicassteiwariegaaces 9 | BO per Cento. us cds ees cesgiee oe oom 3
8:5 per: Cent. ys wae tad oa sachin ae ae rs 8 | GO per cent 243 esr cise ceteris ee ce ant 2
BA men CONG: 5, ese digcessrs sa gareesavdd Oe sues @ |) CeBeper Cents cc... 3 tsa ad aon Salene Seas ess 1
8.3 Per: CON. « weed ae d-8e wines Pea eee 6 Less than 7.8 per cent...............0- 0
SS PETS CON tis. amis seas etna ec seiesnebaa era sacar oe a 5

Nore.—When the per cent of solids not fat isless than the local legal limit the score shall be 0.
ACIDITY—PERFECT SCORE, 5.

Points Points
0.2 per cent and less..............+.-- 5 | Oy238. Per Contig s/s scdsecdegia ts: orsicsies ses cee weenarevee 2
0:21 per Cent)..s 2000s woth esta Se Sot 4 |} 0.24 per cent 2: ss sci sac coupe wea tains 1
(0:22 Der Geb}. vs cacarsvs.i5 3:4e0e eperonsinus ee eka 3 | Over 0.24 per cent........-..00e anoacs 0

BOTTLE AND CAP—PERFECT SCORE, 5. :
Bottles should be made of clear glass and free from attached metal parts. ‘Caps should
be sealed in their place with hot paraffin, or both cap and top of bottle covered with parch-
ment paper or other protection against water and dirt. Deduct for tinted glass, attached
metal parts, unprotected or leaky caps, partially filled bottles, or other conditions permitting
contamination of milk or detracting from the appearance of the package. ,

388 MARKET MILK

the ropy condition 1s usually accompanied by a bitter or foul
flavor.

Bitter milk may be either the result of certain bacteria which
grow slowly at a temperature of between 40 and 50 degrees,
or it may be due tc the physical condition of the cow yielding it,
in which case the bitter taste will be evident the moment it is
drawn from the udder. This condition often occurs with cows
that are being overfed on rich protein feeds.

All that has been said or intimated with regard to the effects
of dirt germs in the baby’s milk holds just as true respecting the
germs that gain access from a dirty nursing bottle or nipple as
from the dirty tools of the milkman. Dairymen are often
blamed when carelessness in the consumer’s own home is the
source of the trouble. A bottle of milk, if set into a pail of
water in which a chunk of ice is kept floating and the whole
set into the refrigerator, will keep sweet two or three times as
long as it will if set merely in the cool air of the same ice chest.

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by market milk?

2. What per cent of the total amuunt of milk produced is used as butter,
as cheese, as milk and cream?

3. How many babies are there in the United States under one year of age?

4. What per cent and number are bottle fed? :

5. About what is the proportion of infant mortality between the breast fed
and the cow’s milk fed?

6. What three classes of factors influence the quality of cow’s milk?

7. How is milk scored?

CHAPTER XXXVII

THE ADULTERATION OF MILK

Bzcausr milk was for so long a time sold by the measure,
with no easy, accurate way of testing for quality, it is not sur-
prising that some men either skimmed or watered the milk they
sold. Of all forms of adulteration these two are most common
and in general most easily detected.

Chemical analysis of the milk to detect adulterations is not
necessary since it has been discovered that the specific gravity
(weight per volume) of milk bears a definite and constant rela-
tion to the amount of solids contained in it.

The Quevenne lactometer, which is the chief instiument
used in the detection of skimming or watering, is a glass tube
filled with air, weighted to float in milk, and graduated to indi-
cate the depth to which it sinks. Since any floating object sinks
until it displaces exactly its weight of liquid in which it is
floating, the lighter or thinner the milk, the deeper the instru-
ment will have to sink to balance.

Influence of Temperature—Water, milk and most other
liquids expand and become thinner or less dense upon becoming
warm, consequently, the.milk to be tested must be brought to
a fixed temperature, 60 degrees or close to it. For every degree
in temperature above 60, one-tenth is added to the lactometer
reading; thus: if the lactometer, L= 31.5, at temperature 64,
the corrected reading would be 31.9, and likewise for every
degree below 60, one-tenth is subtracted from the lactometer
reading, thus if L— 32.4 temperature 55, the correct reading
would be 31.9. This rule for the correction does not hold true
above 70 degrees nor below 50 degrees, and preferably should
not be worked above 65 degrees nor below 55 degrees. The
sample should be brought to within a few degrees of 60 before
it is tested.

Influence of Air.—On account of the fine bubbles of air or

other gas in freshly drawn milk, the lactometer cannot be ac-
389

390 THE ADULTERATION OF MILK

curately used at once, but the milk should be held for about
two or three hours to permit it to become of normal weight per
volume.

Influence of Preservatives.—To keep milk test-samples from
souring various chemicals are added to kill the bacteria and
thereby preserve the sample. Corrosive sublimate or mercuric
chloride is such heavy stuff that a single small tablet in one
quart of milk will raise the lactometer reading higher than
possible for even skim milk. A preservative such as formalde-
hyde is so nearly of the same weight as milk that it is prefer-
able where specific gravity determinations are to be made.

The Use of the Lactometer (Fig. 125).—It has been found
that the quantity of solids-not-fat is very nearly one-fourth the
variable portion of the specific gravity figures. For example,
the specific gravity of milk at 60 degrees varies from 1.029
with a naturally watery milk, to as high as 1.033 with a milk of
a medium-testing Jersey, the average being about 1.032. It
will be noted that the 1.0 portion of the figures is constant,
while the 29-33 varies. Milk carries from 8 to 8.6 per cent
solids-not-fat. The percentage amount of the non-fatty portion
of milk is then but little more than one-fourth these variable
figures. These figures, called lactometer reading, increase,
therefore, four times as rapidly as the per cent of non-fatty
solids. The fat in the milk also may be determined almost
wholly by physical means, the Babcock test, rather than by true
chemical anlysis.

Since fat has a specific gravity of 0.90 and skim milk or
milk serum a specific gravity of 1.036 it follows that the less
fat any given milk contains the heavier it becomes, and vice
versa. Also since water weighs only 1.000 against milk 1.032,
it follows that any addition of water to milk will lower its
weight or specific gravity. Therefore, by combining the two,
skim milk and water, it is possible to dilute a milk and still
retain its natural specific gravity.

For this reason it is occasionally necessary to combine the
use of fat test and the lactometer in order to detect adultera-
tion. Thus, if the lactometer reading is higher than normal and

THE USE OF THE LACTOMETER 391

Fia. 125.—The lactometer is used for the detection of skimming and watering of milk.
At temperature 60 degrees F. the lactometer will read about 31 or 32.

392 THE ADULTERATION OF MILK

the fat test is lower than normal, the sample has been skimmed;
while if the lactometer reading is low and the fat is low the
sample has been watered, and again if the lactometer reading is
normal and fat is low, the sample has been both skimmed and
watered. Thus:

Lactometer low

Fat Tovey \ = watered

Lactometer high | _ .. immed
Fat low :

Lactometer normal

Fat hen = skimmed and watered

The total food solids of milk may also be determined by the
use of the lactometer and Babcock test by the application of
the formula: Lactometer reading, divided by 4, plus two-tenths
of the fat, equals solids-not-fat. This may be expressed thus:

a + 0.2 f. = per cent solids-not-fat

and

2 + 1.2 f. = per cent total solids

Example: If L = 31.9, temperature 56, corrected L == 31.5.
Then if the Babcock test for the sample reads 3.8 per cent fat
we have: “2 + .2 X 3,8 = 8.64 per cent solids-not-fat, and

8.64 + 3.8 = 12.44 per cent total solids.

QUESTIONS

1. What is a lactometer?

2. What influence on its reading has temperature? Air and preservatives?

3. What preservative is most desirable when lactometer determinations are
to be made? When fat only?

4. How may skimming and watering be detected?

5. How may the lactometer and fat test be used to determine the food con-
tent of milk?

CHAPTER XXXVIII

KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK—METHODS OF
SELLING

Tue great need for a cleaner, more wholesome milk has
focused the attention of many physicians, women’s clubs, and
dairymen. to this substance, with the result that attempts are
now being made in various ways, not only to produce some
milk of vastly superior quality, but also to improve the quality
of market milk in general.

The principal kinds as regards treatment or preparation are
briefly described in this chapter.

“Loose” milk, so-called, is milk peddled about town in
large cans from which the quantity desired by the consumer is
dipped or drawn as needed. This term is used to distinguish
it from bottled milk. Such bulk milk, sometimes called “ dipped
milk,” may be just as clean and wholesome as any other. In
smaller cities such is usually the case, but in larger centers the
fact that milk can be sold loose somewhat more cheaply than
bottled naturally develops a cheap milk industry in some quarter
of the city. The inferior grades of milk are more likely to be
turned off through this channel and if adulterants are used they
are almost certain to be in such districts.

Bottled milk is sold in bottles (Fig. 126). It may be
just as unfit as any other, but is more likely to have been pro-
duced in a cleaner manner and handled to preserve quality,
since no one would willingly bestow attention, labor and the
expense of bottling upon low-grade milk.

~ Clarified milk is milk which has been purified by having
been passed through a centrifugal clarifier. This is a machine
very similar to an ordinary cream separator through which
milk is run for the purpose of abstracting from it the fine
particles of dust which pass through even the good strainer,
or any threads or clots of garget or blood, or any other foreign

or undesirable matter. They are very effective in cleaning the
393

KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK

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PASTEURIZED MILK 395

milk and do not injure either the cream line or the condition of
the fat globules. While, of course, it is preferable that the
milk be produced and handled so cleanly that no such treatment
shall be needed, it is a fact, nevertheless, that practically all
milk would be benefited more or less by the use of such a
machine.

Ordinary cream separators have often been used for this pur-
pose by turning the cream and milk spouts to discharge into
the same vessel, but though the “ slime” removed is consider-
able, the machine devised for this particular purpose is more
effective.

Standardized milk is milk to which cream or skim milk has
been added for the purpose of bringing the fat content of the
resultant mixture to the desired or required standard. Very
often standardizing may be accomplished by merely mixing
together the milk of the various breeds of cows. There is
nothing ethically wrong with standardization.and it should not
be made illegal either by law or ruling. It is now practiced
,by practically all the larger city dairy companies. Those desir-
ing to standardize the milk of a single herd may find the method
explained in Chapter X XIX helpful.

Pasteurized milk is that which has been heated for the pur-
pose of destroying whatever bacteria there are present in it.

Flash System.—When first introduced this system involved
the heating of the milk to a temperature of about 166 degrees F.,
at which temperature it was held for a mere fraction of a
minute, when it was immediately cooled to a temperature of
about 40 degrees. Various machines were developed for the
purpose of treating milk thus, despite the fact that the process
was frowned upon by most physicians and public health workers.
The milk itself, furthermore, was often not agreeable to the
consumer, since the high temperature caused a slight carameliza-
tion of the milk sugar, thus changing the flavor slightly towards
that of evaporated milk or boiled milk. The cream, too, did
not rise quite as readily on such milk, thus causing many to feel
that an insufficient amount of fat was present.

396 KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK

The Held System.—The new process of pasteurizing is to
heat the milk to a temperature of about 145 degrees; to hold it
at this temperature for about twenty-five minutes and then to
cool quickly to about 40 degrees. By this means the cream line
is not injured, the flavor is not changed and the bacteria are
even more thoroughly destroyed than by the former system.
This latter method is the one most largely employed at the
present time.

The Bottle System.—A third method is to first bottle and
cap the milk and then to immerse the bottles in warm water,
then to raise the temperature of the tank of water to 145
degrees for fifty minutes to heat the milk. This ‘nethod is
better adapted to small dairies. It is not yet in genvral use.

Pasteurization of milk is no longer forbidden by health
boards as was often the case a few years ago. On the contrary,
practically all physicians now recommend it and many cities
are compelling that milk shall have been pasteurized or shall
have been produced by tested cows under inspected conditions
before such milk shall be allowed to be sold within said city.
Pasteurization, properly done, unquestionably improves the
quality of the milk as it ordinarily comes to market and does
not impair its nutritive properties in any way.

Sanitary milk is that produced by cows which have been
examined and found free from tuberculosis and other disease
and under conditions of cleanliness such as to insure a product
containing not to exceed 100,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter.
Such milk is considerably cleaner than the ordinary market
milk before clarifying and pasteurization, but may be con-
siderably inferior to certified milk. It, however, is less ex-
pensive to produce and may be sold at a lower figure. This
milk is usually sold raw, 7.e., without being pasteurized.

Certified milk is milk the cleanliness of which has been
certified to by the local health board or certification committee
of physicians. Such milk must have been produced from cows
tested and found free from disease and produced under con-
ditions of stable and milkers, such as to insure the presence of
not to exceed 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter at the time
of delivery to the consumer.

HOMOGENIZED MILK 397

The production of certified milk involves identically the same
factors as mentioned in the production of clean milk, with the
exception that each point is carried to a greater degree; thus the
cows must be a little cleaner, the stable atmosphere a little freer
of dust, the milkers’ hands cleansed before the milking of each
cow, all pails and cans thoroughly sterilized and the milk cooled
at once to 50 degrees or below.

In the past an immense amount of unnecessary expense has
been incurred in the production of certified milk. Millionaires
of good intentions have lavished their wealth upon cow stables
and bottling outfits with the result that there was no profit in
the industry when the interest on the money invested was
taken into account. Often, too, the cooling and bottling ma-
chines were so elaborate as to be difficult of cleaning. This
naturally resulted in the production of an article considerably
inferior to that which could be produced by means of a simple
and less expensive outfit. It is gratifying to note that there
is now a tendency away from the unnecessary dairy refinements
with a more tenacious clinging to the points essential in clean
milk production. In Chapter X XVI are given the chief rules
and regulations laid down for the production of certified milk.

Homogenized milk is milk rendered homogeneous, or uni-
form, throughout. Homogenization of milk involves not only
the pulverization of the fat globules, as originally thought, but
also the breaking up of the casein shreds as well. The process
may, and usually does, also involve pasteurization, since milk
may be more readily and rapidly homogenized at a compara-
tively high temperature. The homogenizer is a machine con-
sisting essentially of three or more pumps which force the milk
through a small aperture against a hard surface under a pressure
of from two to five thousand pounds per square inch. In prac-
tice homogenization is now employed most largely by ice cream
manufacturers and the pressure and temperature employed vary
with the use to which the cream or milk is to be put. Unsalted
butter and skim milk may easily, by the aid of this machine, be
emulsified into a milk or cream of any desired fat percentage.
Thus it may be employed in cream and ice cream making in the
winter season when fresh cream is scarce and high priced.

KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK

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HOMOGENIZED MILK 399

Homogenized milk for infant feeding has been advocated for
several years and though possessing a little merit, its value has
been greatly over-estimated. The size of the fat globule,
thought to be important, has been shown to be an exceedingly
small factor compared with the percentage amount of fat in
the milk fed and its proportion to other solids. It is exceed-
ingly more important that the milk shall be medium to low in
fat than that the globules of fat be small in size. Homogenized
milk produces a fine flocculent curd, one which never clots into
the hard rubbery mass characteristic of normal milk. This pro-
duction of a friable curd is thought to be of more importance in
the digestion of the milk by the infant than the small size of
the fat globule. If, together with the breaking up of the fat
and the casein in milk, it has also been thoroughly pasteurized
and also kept low in fat percentage, then homogenized milk is
of definite value in the feeding of delicate bottle-fed infants.

METHODS OF SELLING MILK

A milk rich in food solids is worth more per quart than that
which is poor; likewise, milk which is clean is worth more than
dirty milk. In winter, milk is generally less abundant and
therefore higher in price. How to arrange sales from producer
to distributer with three varying elements and yet not make the
affair too complicated to be workable has long been a problem.
Milk is now being purchased on no less than fourteen bases,
ranging all the way from so much per “ can,” irrespective of
fat and bacteria content, to a plan involving three sliding scales,
one for cleanliness, one for fat content, and one for time of the
year. All three are just reasons for modifying the price, yet
they combine to make great complexity, which in turn makes
for suspicion and dissatisfaction.

The best plan, theoretically at least, is that now being tried
by the Borden Milk Company, New York City. For any given
month the price is fixed, based on Grade B milk (see Chapter
XXV) at say $1.75 per hundred for milk testing 3.5 per
cent fat; then for every tenth of a per cent increase in fat

400 KINDS AND CLASSES OF MARKET MILK

over 38.5, three cents extra are paid, and for every tenth below
three cents are deducted, thus a 5.0 per cent milk would bring
$2.20 and a 3.0 per cent milk would be worth $1.60. In addi-
tion five cents extra per hundred is paid for Grade A milk and
a like amount subtracted if the milk falls into the Grade C
class. Thus, 100 pounds of 5 per cent Grade A would be
worth $2.25, while 100 pounds of 3.0 per cent Grade C would
bring only $1.55. A different price standard for each month
in the year may then be announced in advance with a table
indicating just what any particular class and grade will be
worth.

There is a strong tendency throughout the middle west to
buy on the fat test solely, to buy, as it were, the fat in the form
of milk. ,

The breeders of Jersey and Guernsey cattle will welcome
any system that pays for quality.

QUESTIONS

. What is meant by “ loose” milk?

. Why is bottled milk more likely to be good than loose milk in cities?

What is clarified milk?

. What is standardized milk?

What is pasteurization? Explain the three systems.

What is “ sanitary ” milk?

What is certified milk? How is it produced?

. What is homogenized milk?

. Describe the method of selling milk in vogue in any city with which you
are familiar.

. Describe the Borden Milk Company’s plan.

CHONAAAR WY

~
f—)

CHAPTER XXXIX
FOOD VALUE OF MILK

Any serious consideration of the use of milk as a food should
take into account both the composition of the milk and the use to
be made of it, for not only does milk vary greatly in composition
but the work to be done by milk varies nearly if not quite as
much.

Milk for Adults——While milk rich in fat possesses more
food value there might easily be conditions under which skim
milk, or that from which a part of the fat has been removed,
might be more valuable, that is, would do the individual con-
suming the milk more good.

Milk varies not only in its fat content, but in other solids as
well, as will be noted from the table.

Composition of Milks

Protein, Total
Fat Casein and Albumen Carbohydrates (sugar) Starch Value
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
2.5 2.55 4.45 12.62
3.0 2.68 4.60 14.03
3.5 2.81 4.75 15.43
4.0 3.08 4.85 16.93
4.5 3.27 4.97 18.96
5.0 3.45 4.98 19.68
5.5 3.65 4.92 20.94
6.0 3.82 4.96 22.23
6.5 4.12 4.90 23.67
7.0 4,22 4.84 24.81

The solids, other than fat, in milk are chiefly casein and
albumen, which make up the protein or muscle-building portion
of the milk, and sugar, which can be used by the consumer only
to furnish energy and heat and produce fat, and ash, which is
the material from which bone is formed. The sugar of milk,
like other sugars and starches, is known as carbohydrate. From

* Minnesota Bulletin 140,

26 401

402 FOOD VALUE OF MILK

the above table it is readily observed that as the fat increases in
the milk the other solids increase likewise, though not in pro-
portion. Sugar is the most constant of all the substances and
fat the most variable. The last column in the table, indicated
as “starch value,” shows the number of pounds of starch or
other similar pure carbohydrates which would be required to
equal in total heating or energy value 100 pounds of milk of
the grade indicated. Thus, we see that 14.03 pounds of starch
would be required to equal 100 pounds of 3 per cent milk in
food value, while 22.23 pounds of starch would be required as
the equivalent of 100 pounds of 6 per cent milk. It will be
observed further that milk naturally containing 7 per cent fat,
which amount is not at all unusual with Jersey cows, possesses
practically twice the food value of milk naturally containing
only 21% per cent fat, despite the fact that sugar, casein and
albumen remain as more nearly constant qualities.

This question of relative food values of milks of varying fat
grade is best shown by figure 128. In this it is readily seen that
100 pounds or a quart of natural milk testing 5.5 per cent fat
contains nearly half again more food than one naturally yields
at 3.25 per cent fat content.

From a study of this table and figure it might naturally be
inferred that the milks which are naturally richer in fat possess
more food value and are worth actually more money per quart.
This is true under ordinary conditions. If the milk is con-
sumed by adults or by children after they are eating ordinary
foodstuffs, the more solids it contains the more valuable it will
be, not in proportion to the fat content, but in proportion to
the starch value figure. This table also clearly shows the un-
reasonableness on the part of some consumers for a rich milk
at a poor milk price, for it must be remembered that cows do
not create milk or anything else, they merely transform the
feed materials which they eat from that of hay and grain into
the milk solids. More cow feed is required to produce a quart
of rich milk than a quart of poor milk.

Most foods are firm to the touch and are sold by the pound,
while milk is watery and sold by the quart. The unit in the

MILK FOR ADULTS 403

ease of milk is more than twice that of most other food sub-
stances. For these reasons it is so easy to think of milk as a
beverage that few people realize or can appreciate when they
are clearly told that milk actually carries more food substance
per pound than most of the garden vegetables. See table of
composition.

COMPARATIVE FOOD VALUE OF MILK
VARYING FAT CONTENT.
STARCH EQUIVALENT BASIS

ease cob aeseedneeene | bel ern 9 a

403 15.43 16.93 18.36 19.68 20 94, 22.23 23.571 ony

PER CENT
FAT IN MILK 30 Bs 40 45 50 5S 60 66 70

Fie. 128.—Total food value of milk of various grades. The height of the bars is
proportional to the total food value of the milk and the distance from the base line to the
dotted line represents the value of a standardized 31% per cent milk. Note that a normal
6 per cent milk contains nearly 50 per cent more food than the standard.

A strict comparison of qualities and values in milk, however,
must take into account the fact that milk is an animal product
and like meat and eggs, very easily and thoroughly digested,
which is not the case with cereals and vegetables. Therefore,
correct and fair comparison can be made only between milk and
other animal feeds. Furthermore, the comparison should be
between milk of a definite grade and meats or other such foods
which carry enough fat to make their composition comparable;
or, in other words, they should have approximately the same

404 FOOD VALUE OF MILK

ratio of nutrients. In a study of our common animal foods on
this basis we find that the cost per pound of edible dry matter,
actual food substance, varies tremendously with the composition
of the food as well as with the price paid, as shown in the table.

Cost Per Pound Dry Matter, Milk vs. Other Foods

Cost per pound
Kind of Food Retail Price Digestible Dry Matter
Fat porter house steak ......... 30 cents per pound $ .80
Round steak ..css..s0reesavsss 20 cents per pound 64
Hamburg steak ............ .. 20 cents per pound .60
Eggs (1 dozen = 11% pounday.. 30 cents per dozen 85
Skim Mille pans. egg ccisiee roses 4 cents per quart 24
Oysters (solids) ..........-.--. 40 cents per quart 2.00
Plain milk, 3.25 per cent fat..... 7 cents per quart 28
Plain milk, 3.25 per cent fat..... 8 cents per quart 32
Hai. .jcieuneuecs cowereaacdes 25 cents per pound 65
Certified milk, 4.0 per cent fat.. 15 cents per quart 2
Sanitary milk, 3.25 per cent fat. 12 cents per quart 48,
Cream, 20 per cent Pate csiie wate 40 cents per quart 75
Bacon, ss insari sa vadasser sass 25 cents per pound 35
Ice cream, 12 per cent fat ...... 30 cents per quart 72

A study of the table reveals the surprising fact that even
though 4 cents per quart were charged for skim milk it furnishes
edible dry matter for approximately 24 cents per pound, as
against 80 cents in the case of porter house steak, 80 cents to $1
per pound in the case of eggs, and $2 per pound in the case of
oysters. It should be remembered too that these foods are similar
in their nutrients and possess chemical character making them
essentially equivalent in their bone, muscle and fat producing
qualities.

Following into the second division, where ordinary market
milk is compared with smoked ham, it is observed that even certi-
fied milk at 15 cents per quart is a cheaper food than is smoked
ham at 25 cents per pound. Ham, it will be remembered, is
covered over much of its surface by rind and possesses a bone,
neither of which is edible, and that the edible flesh itself is prac-

MILK FOR INFANTS 405

tically half water. Water is the great “joker” in the whole
food study. Good sanitary milk of 4.0 per cent fat at 12 cents
per quart (6 cents per pound) furnishes food for one-third
to one-half the price per pound that is regularly paid for
meat foods.

Certified milk costs too much for most purposes, however,
because of the excessive amount of labor required in its produc-
tion. Those having healthy young children to feed may find
that sanitary milk selling at ten to twelve cents per quart is
equally as valuable and considerably less expensive. Ordinarily,
plain market milk at 7 cents per quart furnishes food, even for
the adult, at practically one-half the cost per pound of
smoked ham.

This same question may easily be expressed in other terms,
as shown in the following table:

Value of Milk When Compared with Other Foods

Retail Selling In Comparison
Kind of Food Price Milk is worth per Qt.
Porter house steak ............ 30 cents per pound 20 cents
Round steak ...............2., 20 cents per pound 16 cents
Ham ...... bud Dine a Be ew aes soe 25 cents per pound 16 cents
EGGS ws. ceee eco dees Sa ae 30 cents per dozen 21 cents
OYSUCTS) sci: che: Sav tve cca isferd dub aye es 40 cents per quart 50 cents

All of the above refers to the use of milk by those who
consume other foods and take milk as supplementary or as an
adjunct to the regular meal.

Milk for Infants.—Infants, while too young to readily digest
starch or endure cellulose, must of necessity live largely or
wholly upon milk. The substance of the bones and muscle
grown by the child during this period must come from the milk
used. It has now been conclusively shown that the chemical
composition of the milk consumed determines the composition of
the flesh produced from it. The ratio or proportion of muscle
to fat in the experimental animal bore a constant relation to the
ratio of the protein to fat-producing elements in the milk con-

406 FOOD VALUE OF MILK

sumed. The proportion of the various food substances of milk
of varying fat grade is well shown in the accompanying table.

Percentage Composition of Water-free Substance in Milk of Varying Fat

Content ”

Grade of Milk Butter Fat Protein Carbohydrates Ash
Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
3.0 fat 27.27 24.36 41.83 6.54
3.5 fat 29.76 23.89 40.40 5.95
4.0 fat 31.70 24.40 38.45 5.46
4.5 fat 33.41 24,28 36.89 5.42
5.0 fat 35.28 24.35 35.22 5.15
5.5 fat 37.16 24.66 33.25 4.93
6.0 fat 38.78 24.69 31.75 4.78
6.5 fat 39.95 25.32 30.12 4.61
7.0 fat 41.62 25.09 28.78 4.51

The relative amounts of the chief ingredients of milk are
shown in Fig. 129, which is drawn to scale from this table. This
emphasizes the predominance of fat over other solids in such
food.

The especial attention of the reader is called to the fact that
whereas 6.54 per cent of the 3 per cent milk is ash available
for building of bone in the child, only about two-thirds of that
quantity of ash is present in the rich milk. It will be noted that
whereas only 27.27 per cent of the total milk solids are fat in
the case of 3 per cent milk, 38.78 per cent are fat in the case of
6 per cent milk, and 41.62 per cent in the case of 7 per cent
milk. Whenever the milk fed to the child brings fat and sugar.
to the child’s system, in quantities greater than needed for
normal growth, in conjunction with the muscle-building protein
and bone-building ash, that child becomes over-fat, weak, subject
to eczema, rickets, and other infantile scourges. This may be
shown to best advantage by using figures obtained in a series of
experiments carried on at the Vermont Station, reported in
Bulletin 195 (see table, top of next page).

The nation-wide habit of allowing milk to stand until the
cream has largely risen and then using the “ top-milk” with
water and sugar added for the feeding of infants is exceedingly
dangerous and has unquestionably been the foundation cause

* Minnesota Bulletin 140.

MILK FOR INFANTS 407

Effect of Composition of Food Upon the Character of Body Gain.

Rough
Skim milk...... 04 1.28 .86 Hard 16
Active
Smooth
Medium milk... 2.67 2.90 1.61 Firm 27
Active
Soft :
Rich milk...... 4.72 4.27 2.52 Sluggish 15
Tender

for weakness in the after-life of a great many American infants.

Stockmen have known for a great many years that the
milk of a Holstein cow, testing little better than 3 per cent
fat, will produce a stronger, healthier calf than will the milk

COMPOS/ TION OF THE SOLIDS OF MILK OF VARYING FAT GRADE

ORY MATTER BASIS
AATIO FAT TO NON-FATTY SOLIDS.

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Fre. 129.—Emphasizing the change of the proportion of fat to non-fatty solids in the
solid matter of mite of varying fat grades; also that 2.43 pounds of low-priced solids
accompanied each one pound of fat in the 3.0 per cent milk, whereas, only 1.29 pounds of
cheap solids were required to be produced to accompany each pound of fat with a 7 per cent

milk,

408 FOOD VALUE OF MILK

of a Jersey or Guernsey cow, which milk will test from 5 to
6 per cent fat (Fig. 129). The true value of the milk that is to
nourish two-thirds or 1,500,000 of our infant population depends

ene G23

Fia. 130.—Photomicrographs of fat globulesin milk. 1. Grade Jersey. 2. Grade
3. Human. (Courtesy of the Vermont Station.)

upon its chemical composition quite as truly, if not quite so
quickly, as upon the physical condition of the cow or the clean-
ness of the milk (Fig. 130).

QUESTIONS

. What is meant by the “ starch value ” of milk?

. How much do various natural milks vary in total food value?

. What milk is most valuable to the adult?

. How does the cost per pound of edible solid matter in milk compare with

meat, eggs and oysters?

5. In comparison what is milk worth per quart?

6. What milk is best suited to the needs of a growing infant and young child?

7. How did medium and rich milks compare in effect on infant pigs in a
Vermont test?

8. What is the experience of stockmen with regard to grade of milk best
suited to calf feeding?

Ronde

CHAPTER XL

GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY FOR MILK
AND ITS PRODUCTS

A. MILKS

1, Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the
complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and
kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and ten
days after calving, and contains not less than eight and one-
half (8.5) per cent of solids not fat, and not less than three
and one-quarter (3.25) per cent of milk fat.

2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to
have a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its
constituents.

3. Skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream
has been’ removed and contains not less than nine and one-quar-
ter (9.25) per cent of milk solids.

4, Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boil-
ing but sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present
and immediately cooled to 50 degrees F. or lower.

5. Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the tempera-
ture of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient
to kill all organisms present.

6. Condensed milk, evaporated milk, is milk from which a
considerable portion of water has been evaporated and contains
not less than twenty-eight (28) per cent of milk solids, of which
not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is
fat. Condensed milks must, then, contain 7.7 per cent of fat.

7. Sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a consid-
erable portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar
(sucrose) has been added, and contains not less than twenty-
eight (28) per cent of milk solids, of which not less than twenty-

seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is milk fat.
409

410 GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY

8, Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a consid-
erable portion of water has been evaporated.

9. Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is
removed from milk or cream in the process of churning.

10. Goat’s milk, ewe’s milk, etc., are the fresh, clean, lacteal
secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the complete milking
of healthy animals other than cows, properly fed and kept, and
conform in name to the species of animals from which they
are obtained.

B. CREAM

1, Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which
rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it
by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean and contains not less than
eighteen (18) per cent of milk fat.

9. Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a
considerable portion of water has been evaporated.

Cc. MILK FAT OR BUTTER FAT

1. Milk fat, butter fat, is the fat of milk and has the Reich-
ert-Meissel number not less than twenty-four (24) and a spe-

cific gravity of not less than 0.905 (soc) (Both fat and stand-

ard at this temperature. )

D. BUTTER

1, Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gather-
ing in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a
mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk
constituents, with or without salt, and contains not less than
eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat. By acts
of Congress approved August 2, 1886, and May 9, 1902, butter
may also contain added coloring matter.

2. Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by
melting butter and reworking, without the addition or use of
chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and
contains not more than sixteen (16) per cent of water and at
least eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk fat.

KUMISS 411

Ee CHEESE

1. Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from
milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or
lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments
and seasoning, and contains, in the water-free substance, not
less than fifty (50) per cent of milk fat. By act of Congress,
approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also contain added color-
ing matter.

2. Skim milk cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product,
made from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with
rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening
ferments and seasoning.

3. Goat’s milk cheese, ewe’s milk cheese, etc., are the sound,
ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified,
by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid,
with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning.

F. ICE CREAM

1, Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar,
with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than
fourteen (14) per cent of milk fat.

9. Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream,
sugar, and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less_
than twelve (12) per cent of milk fat.

3. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream,
sugar, and sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than
twelve (12) per cent of milk fat.

G@. MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS

1. Whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat
and casein from milk in the process of cheese-making.

9. Kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation
of mare’s or cow’s milk.

412

Cow’s milk
Cow’s milk
Cow’s milk
Cow’s milk

Colostrum milk..

Cream
Skim milk
(gravity)
Skim milk
(gravity )
Skim miik
(centrifugal). .
Buttermilk
Buttermilk
Whey
Whey

Condensed milk (n
sugar added)..

Condensed milk,

(sugar added).

Butter, salted....
Butter,

sweet cream...
Butter,

sour
Butter,
Butter,

Fair,
Cheese,
Cheese,

unsalted.
World’s
IBOS vas 5 x

cream....

full cream ..
Cheese, cheddar green
Cheese, cheddar. cured

Composition of Milk and Its Products

No of

Analyses Water

793
5,552
200,000

42
43

64
1,676

Cheese, World’s Fair,

Mammoth, 1893 ....
Cheese, half-skim...
Cheese, skim.....

Cheese,

21
4]

centrifugal skim, .

Per ct.
87.17
87.75
87.10
87.10
74.57
68.82

90.43

90.52

90.30
90.12
91.67
93.38
93.12

58.99

25.61
11.95

12.93

13.08
13.07

11.57
36.33
38.00
36.84
34.38

32.06
39.79
46.00

50.5

Casein and Milk

Fat Albumen Sugar
Perct. Perct. Per ct.
3.69 3.55 4.88
3.40 3.50 4.60
3.90 3.20 5.10
3.90 3.40 4.85
3.59 17.64 2.67
22.66 3.76 4.23
87 3.26 4.74
32
10 3.55 5.25
1.09 4.03 4.04
27 eines ge ae
32 .86 4.79
27 81 5.80
12.42 11.92 14.49
10.35 11.79 50.06
84.27 1.26
84.53 61 .68
84.26 81 .66
85.24 1.57
84.70 95 sits
40.71 18.84 1.02
30.25 25.385 1.43
33.83 23.72 5.61
32.71 26.38 2.95
34.43 28.00 5.51
23.92 29.67 1.79
11.65 34.06 3.42
1.2 43.1

GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY

Ash
Per ct.

71 Konig

75 Fleishmann
.70 Van Slyke
.75 Richmond
1.56 Konig

53 Konig

Authority

.70 Konig

. Holland

Van Slyke
72 Konig
. Holland
Konig

. Van Slyke
2.18 Kinig
2.19
2.58

Konig
Woll
1.25 Konig
1.1y Konig
12 Woll

2.78
3.10
4.97

Farrington
Konig

Konig

.... Wan Slyke
3.58 Drew
.... Shutt
4.73 Kénig
4.87 Konig

5.2 Storch

STANDARDS FOR BABCOCK GLASSWARE 413

STANDARDS FOR BABCOCK GLASSWARE
(Adopted by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists of North America.)

Src. 1. The unit of graduation for all Babcock glassware
shall be the true cubic centimeter (0.998877 gram of water at 4
degrees C.).

(a) With bottles, the capacity of each per cent on the scale
shall be two-tenths (0.20) cubic centimeter.

(b) With pipettes and acid measures the delivery shall be
the intent of the graduation and the graduation shall be read
with the bottom of the meniscus in line with the mark.

Src. 2. The official method for testing bottles shall be
calibration with mercury (13.5471 grams of clean, dry mercury
at 20 degrees C., carefully weighed on analytical balances, to be
equal to 5 per cent on the Babcock scale), the bottles being pre-
viously filled to zero with mercury.

Src. 3. Optional Methods.—The mercury and cork, alcohol
and burette, and alcohol and brass plunger methods may be em-
ployed for the rapid testing of Babcock bottles, but the accuracy
of all questionable bottles shall be determined by the official
method.

Src. 4. The official method for testing pipettes and acid
measures shall be calibration by measuring in a burette the
quantity of water (at 20 degrees C.) delivered.

Src. 5. The Limits of Error.—(a) For Babcock bottles
shall be the smallest graduation on the scale, but in no case
shall it exceed five-tenths (0.50) per cent, or for skim milk
bottles one-hundredth (0.01) per cent.

(b) For full-quantity pipettes, it shall not exceed one-tenth
(0.10) cubic centimeter, and for fractional pipettes, five-hun-
dredths (0.05) cubic centimeter.

414 GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY
Chemical Standards for Milk and Cream in Sixty American Cities.

Per cent
. Per cent of Per cent of A Per cent fat
City milk fat other solids ee for cream
Allentown, Pa. . ‘ 3.25 8.5 9 st
Atlantic City, N. J... .. 3 8.5 eaile 16
Augusta, Ga. 3.5 9 9 18
Baltimore, Md. 3.5 9 ticle 18
Birmingham, Ala. 3.5 9 9 18
Boston, Mass. 3.35 8.8 9.3 15
Battle Creek, Mich. 3 9.5 aon 13
Beaumont, Tex...... 3.25 8.5 Ae aie
Butte, Mont... 3.3 8.7 8 20
Charlotte, N. C...... 3.25 8.5 8.75 18
Chicago, Ill... 3 9 8.5 15
Cincinnati, Ohio..... 3 9 ate) 18
Cleveland, Ohio. 3 8 9 18
Columbia, 8. C.. 3 9 9.3 16
Columbus, Ohio.. 3 9 9.3 a
Denver, Colo. 3 9 ate 16
Detroit, Mich... 3 9 9.3 18
Elyria, Ohio. . 3 9 9.3 16
Fall River, Mass. 3.25 8 apis 16
Flint, Mich. . ee 3 aes ae 20
Grand Rapids, Mich.. 3 9.5 “a 18
Great Falls, Mont. 3.25 8.5 9.5 18
Houston, Tex. 3.25 8.75 we 18
Indianapolis, Ind.. 3.25 8.5 9.25 18
Jacksonville, Fla. ... 3 9 ee ae
Jersey City, N. J... . 3 8.5 wae 18
Kansas City, Mo.. 3.25 8.75 8.5 18
Little Rock, Ark....... 3.5 12.5 9 18
Long Beach, Cal. 3.5 12.5 8.8 20
Los Angeles, Cal. 3.5 9 8.8 20
Memphis, Tenn. 3.5 8.5 9.25 20
Minneapolis, Minn. 3.5 8.5 8.5 20
New ie ae La. 3.5 8.5 8 ie
Newark, N. 3 8.5 8.75 16
New Haven, TBs, 3.5 8 wie as
New York, N. Y.. 3 8.5 ae 18
North Yakima, Wash. 3.5 8.5 9.3 18
Oakland, Cal...... 3.5 8.5 oe jun
Omaha, ‘Neb... ich Se 3.2 8.5 sae 18
Philadelphia, Pa..... 7 3.25 8.75 8.5 18
Paterson, N. J. a 3 9 a hes
Portland, Ore. 3.2 8.5 20
Providence, R. I... 2.5 9.5 we
Rochester, N. Y. 3 9 ier is
Saginaw, Mich. 3 8.5 8.75 18
St. Joseph, Mo. . 3.5 8.5 9.25 18
St. Louis, Mo.. 3 9 9.25 15
St. Paul, Minn. . 3.5 9.5 we 20
Salt Lake City, Utah. . 3.2 8.8 oes 18
San Antonio, Tex.. 3.5 8.5 9.25 as
San Francisco, Cal. 3.4 8.6 wits 18
Seattle, Wash. . 3.4 Baie 9.3 18
Spokane, Wash..... 3.5 8.5 says 20
Syracuse, N. Y. . . 3 8.5 9.3 18
Tacoma, Wash.. 3.5 8.5 9.3 18
Toledo, Ohio. . eo 3 9 sim 18
Topeka, Kansas. . rae 3.5 8.5 9.25 18
Washington, D.C. . 3.5 9 " 20
Winona, Minn. 3.5 9.5 5 20

Note the inconsistency in relationship between the per cent fat and the per cent of
solids not fat, as expressed in the various ordinance requirements. See table on page 387.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX 417

TABLE III—FEEDING STUFFS

Giving Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number
of Pounds of Feed Stuff.

Currp RouGHAGE

Fodder Corn (Drilled) Corn Stover
— Digestible Dry Digestible

Lbs. || Matter Lbs, || Matter
Pro. C-H. Fat Pro, C-H. Fat
1 .76 | .037 -41 [| .015 1 .59 | .014 .31 | .007
21.52 | .074 -83 | .029 271.19 028 -62 | .014
3 |} 2.28 | .111 | 1.24 | .044 3 |} 1.78 | .042 .94 | .021
4|13.04 | .148 | 1.66 | .058 4 || 2.38 | .056 | 1.25 | .028
6 || 3.80 | .185 | 2.07 | .073 5 || 2.97 | .070 | 1.56 | .035
6 || 4.56 | .222 | 2.48 | .088 6 | 3.57 | .084 | 1.87 | ,042
75.32 | .259 | 2.90 | .102 74.16 | .098 | 2.18 | .049
86.08 | .296 | 3.31 | .117 8 || 4.76 | .112 | 2.50 | .056
9 || 6.84 | .333 | 3.73 | .131 9 || 5.35 | .126 | 2.81 | .063
10 || 7.60 .370 | 4.14 .146 10 || 5 98 .140 | 3.12 .070

Sorghum Fodder Millet
1|| .50 | .024 .382 | .016 1 || .86 | .050 .47 | .O1L
2 || 1.01 | .048 .64 | .032 241.72 | .100 .94 | .022
3 |} 1.51 | .072 .96 | .048 || 32.58 | .150 | 1.41 1 .033
4]/2.01 | .096 | 1.28 | .064 . 413.44 | .200 | 1.88 | .044
5 || 2.51 | .120 | 1.60 | .080 5 | 4.30 | .250 | 2.34 | .055
6] 3.02 | .144 | 1.93 | .096 6] 5.16 | .300 | 2.81 | .066
7 || 3.52 | .168 | 2.25 | .112 7116.02 | .350 | 3.28 | .077
8 || 4.02 | .192 | 2.57 | .128 8 || 6.88 | .400 | 3.75 | .088
9] 4.53 } .216 | 2.89 | .144 9 || 7.74 | .450 | 4.22 099
10 || 5.03 | .240 | 3.21 | .160 10 || 8.60 | .500 | 4.69 | .110
Timothy Red Top
1 .87 | .028 .43 | .014 1 -91 | .048 .47 | .010
2111.74 | .056 .87 | .028 21.82 | .096 -94 | .020
3 || 2.60 084 | 1.30 .042 3 || 2.73 .144 | 1.41 .030
4]/3.47 | .112 | 1.74 | .056 413.64 | .192 | 1.88 | .040
5 || 4.34 | .140 | 2.17 | .070 5 || 4.55 | .240 | 2.34 | .050
6] 5.21 | .168 | 2.60 | .084 6 || 5.47 | .288 | 2.81 | .060
716.08 | .196 | 3.04 | .098 7 || 6.38 | .336 | 3.28 | .070
8 || 6.94 | .224 | 3.47 | .112 8 || 7.29 | :884 | 3.75 | .080
9 || 7.8L | .252 | 2.91 | .126 9 || 8.20 | .432 | 4.22 | .090
10 | 8.68 | .280 | 4.34 | .140 10 || 9.11 | .480 | 4.69 | .100
Prairie (Upland) Prairie (Mixed)

1 87 + .03 .42 | .014 1 .84 | .029 .41 | .012
2 || 1.75 -06 .84 | .028 2/1 1.62 | .058 .83 | .024
3 || 2.62 -09 | 1.25 | .042 3 || 2.52 | .087 | 1.24 | .036
4 || 3.50 -12 | 1-67 | ..056 4 || 3.36 | .116 | 1.66 | .048
5 || 4.37 -15 | 2-09 | .070 5 || 4.20 | .145 | 2.07 | .060
6 || 5.25 18 | 2.51 | .084 6 || 5.05 | .174 | 2.49 | .072
7 6.12 .21 | 2.93 | .098 7 || 5.89 | .203 | 2.90 | .084
8 | 7.00 724 | 3.84 | .112 8 || 6.73 | .232 | 3.32 | .096
9 || 7.87 27 | 3.76 | .126 9 || 7.57 | .261 | 3.73 | .108
10 || 8.75 .80 | 4.18 | .140 10 | 8.41 | .290 | 4.15 | .120

418

APPENDIX
TABLE IIJ—Feepina Srurrs—Continued

Curen RoucHacE—Continued

Prairie (Swale) Barley

Pca eh

ee: wr, Digestible Lia, me Digestible
Pro. C-H. Fat ; Pro. C-H. Fat
1 .86 -026 42 O11 1 85 057 44 -01
2/1 1.73 | .052 ,84 | .022 211.70 | .114 .87 | .02
3 || 2.59 078 | 1.26 -033 3 2.55 2itl 1.31 1, 03
4 || 3.45 | .104 | 1.68 | .044 4/3.40 | .228 | 1.74 | .04
6 || 4.31 | -130 | 2.09 | .055 5 | 4.25 | .285 | 2.18 | .05
6.|| 5.18 | .156 | 2.51 | .066 6 | 5.10 | .342 | 2.62 | .06
7116.04 | .182 | 2.93 | .077 7 | 5.95 | .899 | 3.05 | .07
8 || 6.90 | .208 | 3.35 | .088 8 | 6,80 | .456 7 3.49 | .08
9 || 7.77 | .234 | 3.77 | .099 9] 7.65 | -.513 | 3.92 | .09
10} 8.63 | .260 | 4.19 | .110 10 | 8.50 | .570 | 4.36 | .10,

Oat Pea
1 -86 | .047 .87 | O17 1 «90 | .080 41 | .017
2 || 1.72 .094 73 -034 2 || 1.80 .160 -82 .034
3 | 2.58 .141 1.10 .051 3 || 2.71 .240 | 1.23 051
4) 3.44 -188 1.47 .068 4] 3.61 .3820 | 1.64 . 068
6 | 4.30 -235 1.83 -085 & || 4.51 400 | 2.05 085
65.16 | .282 | 2.20 | .102 6 | 5.41 | .480 | 2.47 | .102
7116.02 | .329 | 2.57 | .119 76.31 | .560 | 2.88 | .119
8 | 6.88 | .376 | 2.94 | .136 8 || 7.22 | .640 | 3.29 | .186
9 7.74 | ..423 | 3.30 | .153 9 || 8.12 | .720 | 3.70 | .153
10 || 8.60 | “470 | 3.67 | .170 10 || 9.02 | .800 | 4.11 | .170
Cow Pea Soy Bean
1 89 058 .39 -013 1 .88 . 106 41 -012
2] 1.79 116 .78 | .026 2] 1.76 | .212 82 024
3 || 2.68 174 | 1.80 039 3 || 2.65 | .318 | 1.23 | .036
4 || 3.58 232 | 1.57 052 4] 3.53 | .424 | 1.64 | .048
5 || 4.47 290 | 1.96 065 5 || 4.41 -530 | 2.04 .060
6 || 5.37 348 | 2,36 .078 6 || 5.29 -636 | 2.45 .072
7 | 6.26 406 | 2.75 .091 7 || 6.17 -742 | 2.86 -084
87.16 | .464 | 3.14 | .104 8 || 7.06 | .848 | 3.27 | .096
9 || 8.05 .922 | 3.54 -LI7 9 || 7.94 954 | 3.68 . 108
10 || 8.95 | .580 | 3.93 | .130 10 || 8.82 {1.060 | 4.09 | .120
‘White Clover Red Clover

1 90 115 42 O15 1 85 O71 38 .018
2 | 1.81 230 .84 | .030 21.69 | .142 .76 | .036
3) 2.71 345 |.1.27 | .045 3} 2.54 | .213 | 1.13 | .054
4 | 3.61 460 | 1.69 060 413.39 |..284 | 1.51 | .072
& || 4.51 575 | 2.11 | .075 5 || 4.23 | .855 | 1:89 | .090
6 || 5.42 690 | 2.53 | .090 6 || 5.08 | .426 | 2.27 | .108
76.32 | .805 | 2.95 | .105 715.93 | .497 | 2.65 | .128
8] 7.22 | .920 | 3.38 | .120 8 || 6.78 | .568 | 3.02 | .144
9 || 8.13 {1.035 | 3.80 | .135 9 || 7.62 | .639 | 3.40 | .162
10 | 9.03 |1.150..| 4.22 | .150 10 || 8.47 | .710 | 3.78 | .180

APPENDIX 419
TABLE III—Feepine Srurrs—Continued

Curep RoucHace—Continucd

Alsike Clover Alfalfa
Lbs. ues Digeetsble Lbs. Matter Digstible
Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat
1 90 | 084 42 .015 1 -94 | .117 41 .01
21.81 - 168 85 .030 2 || 1.87 | .234 -82 .02
3 | 2.71 s252 | 1x27 .045 3] 2.81 w35L | 1.23 .03
4 || 3.61 -336 | 1.70 | .060 4 || 3.74 | .467 | 1.64 04
5 | 4.51 -420 | 2.12 | .075 5 || 4.68 | .585 | 2.04 .05
6 | 5.42 | .504 | 2.55 .090 6 || 5.62 | .702 | 2.45 .06
7 || 6.32 | .588 | 2.97 | .105 7 || 6.55 .819 | 2.86 .07
8 || 7.22 | .672 | 3.40 | .120 8 || 7.49 | .936 | 3.27 .08
9 || 8.13 .756 | 3.82 .135 9 || 8.42 |1.053 | 3.68 .09
10 || 9.03 840 | 4.25 .150 10 || 9.36 [1.170 | 4.09 .10
Wheat Straw Oat Straw
1 -90 | .008 .35 004 1 -91 .013 .39 | .008
2) 1.81 .016 .70 {| .008 2) 1.82 | .026 .79 | .016
3 | 2.71 .024 | 1.06 | .012 3 || 2.72 | .0389 | 1.18 | .024
4 | 3.62 | .032 | 1.41 .016 4 || 3.63 | .052 | 1.58 | .032
5 || 4.52 { .040 | 1.76 | .020 5 || 4.54 | .065 | 1.97 | .040
& || 5.42 .048 | 2.11 -024 6 || 5.45 | .078 | 2.37 | .048
7 1/$.338 | .056 | 2.46 | .028 7 || 6.36 | .091 | 2.76 | .056
8 || 7.23 | .064 | 2.82 | -.032 8 || 7.26 | .104 | 3.16 | .064
9 || 8.14 | .072 | 3.17 | .036 9 || 8.17 | .117 | 3.55 | .072
10 || 9.04 .080 | 3.52 | .040 10 | 9.08 | .1383 | 3.95 | .080
Barley Straw Kaffr Forage
1 .86 | .009 .40 | .006 1 -48 009 26 01L
21.72 | .018 -80 | .012 2 -96 019 52 022
3 | 2.57 | .027 | 1.20 | .018 3 || 1.44 028 .78 | .033
4 || 3.43 | .036 | 1.60 | .024 4 | 1.92 038 | 1.04 044
5 || 4.29 | .045 | 2.00 | .030 § || 2.39 047 | 1.29 | ,055
65.15 | .054 | 2.41 .036 6 || 2.87 057 | 1.55 | .066
7 || 6.01 .063 | 2.81 | .042 7 || 3.35 066 | 1.81 | .077
816.86 | .072 | 3.21 .048 8 || 3.83 076 | 2.07 088
9 || 7.72 | .081 ! 3.61 054 9 | 4.31 | .085 | 2.33 | .099
10 || 8.58 | .090 | 4.01 | .060 10 | 4.79 | .095 | 2.59 f .110
Oat aud Pea Hay Oat and Vetch Hay
1 .89 | .076° -41 |..015 1 85 | .083 36 | .013
2|,1.79 | .152 -83 | .030 2\| 1.70 | .166 «72 | .026
3 2.68 | .228 | 1.24 | .045 3 || 2.55 | ,249 | 1.07 | .039
4] 3.58 | .3804.] 1.66 | .060 4 || 3.40 332 | 1.43 | .052
5 || 4.47 | .380 | 2.07 | .075 5 | 4.25 | .415 | 1.79 065
6 || 5.37 456 | 2.49 | .090 6 || 5.10 | .498 | 2.15 | .078
7 || 6.26 | .532 | 2.90 | .105 7 || 5.95 | .581 | 2.51 | .091
8 || 7.16 | .608 | 3.32) .120 8 || 6.80 | .664 | 2.86 | .104
9 || 8.05 | .684 | 3.73 | ..185 9| 7.65 | .747 | 3.22 | .117
10 1 8.95 760 | 4.15 | .150 10 8.50 830.| 3.58 130

420 APPENDIX

TABLE III—Feepine Sturrs—Continued

SILAGE
aad Corn Silage Sorghum Silage
Lbs WOH, - Digestible = is A ee Digestible
Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-l. | Fat
1 -26 | .012. .14 | .007 1 .24 | .004 -13 | .002
2 {| .53 | .025 .28 | .014 21 .48 | .008 -27 | .004
3 .79 | .037 -43 | .021 3) .72 | .012 -40 | .006
4111.06 | .050 .57 | .028 4] .96 | .016 -54 | .008
5 | 1.32 | .062 .71 | .035 5} 1.19 | .020 -67 | .010
6 || 1.58 | .075 -85 | .042 6 || 1.43 | .024 -81 | .012
7111.85 | .087 -99 | .049 711.67 | .028 .94 | .014
8 |} 2.11 | .100 | 1.14 | .056 81.91 | .032 | 1.08 | .016
9 || 2.38 | .112 | 1.28 | .063 92.15 | .0386 | 1.21 | .018
10 || 2.64 | .125 | 1.42 | .070 10 | 2.39 | .040 | 1.35 | .020
Clover Silage Alfalfa Silage

1 -28 | .020. -13 | .010 1 .27 | .030 -08 {| .019
2] .56 | .040 -27 | .020 2] .55 | .060 -17 | .038
3 || .84 | .060 -40 | .030 3 .82 | .090 .25 | .057
4} 1.12 | .080 -54 | .040 41.10 | .120 .384 | .076
5 |} 1.40 | .100 .67 | .050 5 || 1.37 | .150 42 | .095
6 || 1.68 | .120 .81 | .060 6 | 1.65 | .180 -51 | .114
711.96 | .140 .94 | .070 7 || 1.92 210 .59 | .133
8 | 2.24 | .160 | 1.08 | .080 8 | 2.20 | .240 -68 | .152
9] 2.52 | .180 | 1.21 | .090 9 || 2.47 | .270 -76 | .171
10 | 2.80 | .200 | 1.35 | .100 10 || 2.75 | .300 .85 | .190

Cow Pea Silage Soy Bean Silage
1 .21 | .015 .09 | .009 1 -26 | .027 .09 | .013
2) .41 | .030 -17 | .018 2] .52 | .054 -17 | .026
3 || .62 | .045 :26 | .027 3) .77 | .081 -26 | .039
4] .83 | .060 .34 | .036 41.03 | .108 .35 | .052
51.03 | .075 -43 | .045 5 1.29 | .185 -43 | ,065
6] 1.24 | .090 -52 [ .054 6] 1.55 | .162 .52 | .078
71.45 | .105 .60 | .063 711.81 | .189 .61 | .091
8 | 1.66 | .120 .69 | .072 8] 2.06 | .216 -70 | .104
911.86 | .135 .77 {| .081 9 || 2.32 | .243 -78 | .117
10 || 2.07 | .150 .86 | .090 10 || 2.58 | .270 .87 | .130

Pea Cannery Refuse Corn Cannery Refuse

1 -23 | .021 -13 | .008 1 -21 | .003 -12 | .006
2 {| .46 | .042 -26 | .016 2] .42 | .006 .24 | .012
3} .70 | .063 .89 | .024 3 .63 | .009 .36 | .018
4/| .93 | .084 .52 | .032 4] .84 | .012 .48 | .024
61.16 | .105 -65 | .040 5 | 1.05 | .015 .59 | .030
61.39 | .126 .79 | .048 6] 1.26 | .018 -71 | .036
711.62 | .147 -92 | .056 711.47 | .021 -83 | .042
8} 1.86 | .168 | 1.05 | .064 8] 1.68 | .024 -95 | .048
9 | 2.09 | .189 | 1.18 | .072 9 1.89 | .027 | 1.07 | .054
10 12.32 | .210.| 1.31 | .080 10 112.10 | .030 | 1.19 | .060

\ APPENDIX 421

TABLE IJI—Feepine Sturrs—Continued

Roots anp TusErs

Carrot Potato
Lbs, Hate ee Lbs. favs oy
Pro. C-H. Fat Pro, C-H. Fat
1 11 .008 -08 | .002 1 at O11 -16 | .001
2 .23 .016 .16 .004 2 -42 .022 .31 .002
3 .34 | .024 .23 -006 3 -63 | .033 -47 | .003
4 .46 | .032 .31 .008 4 84 | .044 -63 | .004
5 .57 | .040 .39 .010 5 1.04 | .055 78 | .005
6 .68 048 47 | .012 61.25 | .066 -94 | .006
7 .80 | .056 -55 | .014 7 || 1.46 | .077 | 1.10 | .007
8 .91 .064 -62 | .016 8 |.1.67 | .088 | 1.26 | .008
9 | 1.03 072 -70 | .018 91.88 | .099 | 1.41 .009
10 || 1.14 .080 -80 | .020 10 || 2.09 ; .110 | 1.57 | .010
Sugar Beet Common Beet
1 13 | .013 -10 {| .001 1 ll -012 -08 | 001
2 .27 | .026 .20 | .002 2 23 | .024 -16 | .002
3 .40 | .039 -29 | .003 3 .34 | .036 .24 | .003
4 .54 | .052 -39 | .004 4 -46 | .048 -32 | .004
5 -67 | .065 -49 | .005 5 .57 | .060 |. .39 | .005
6 -81 -078 -59 | .006 6 69 | .072 .47 | .006
7 -94 7 .091 -69 | .007 7 .80 | .084 -55 | .007
81.08 | .104 78 | .008 8 -92 | .096 -63 | .008
9] 1.21 .117 -88 | .009 9 || 1.03 | .108 71 | .009
10 | 1.35 | .130 .98 | .010 10 |) 1.15 | .120 .79 | .010
Mangel Rutabaga
1 -09 | .010 -05 | .002 a ail .010 -08 | .002
2 .18 | .020 11 .004 2 .23- | .020 -16 | .004
3 .27 | .030 -16 | .006 3 .34 | .030 .24 | .006
4 .36 | .040 -22 | .008 4 .46 | .040 .382 | .008
5 45 .050 -27 | .010 5 .57 | .050 .40 | .010
6 .55 | .060 .33 .012 6 .68 | .060 .49 | .012
7 .64 | .070 388 | .014 7 .80 | .070 .57 | .014
8. 73 .080 -44 / .016 8 91 .080 -65 | .016
9 .82 | .090 .49 018 9 | 1.03 | .090 73 | .018
10 10 || 1.14 | .100 -81 .020

-91 | .100 -55 | .020

Flat Turnip Wet Beet Pulp

-10 | .005 .08 | .000
-20 | .010 +15 | .000
.31 | .015 -23 {| .000
-41 | .020 .381 | .000
.51 | .025 -38 | .000
i .030 .46 | .000

-71 | .035 -54 | .000

-82 | .040 -62 | .000

.92 | .045 .69 | .000
1.02 | .050 77 | .000

-10 | .009 -06 | .001
-20 | .018 -13 | .002
.30 | .027 -19 | .003
-40 | .036 -26 | .004
-49 | .045 -382 | .005
. j 006
-69 | .063 -45 | .007
-79 | .072 -51 | .008
.89 | .081 .58 | .009
-99 | .090 -64 | .010

SODIRS MRO Ee
a
o
S
on
fe
ao
6
SOWIMHMRwWHHE
&
_

-_
_

422

APPENDIX

TABLE III—Feepina Sturrs— Continued

ConcenTrates—Ground Grains and By-Products

Corn Barley
i i , Digestibl
Lbs. rete Dieeetible Lbs. NR e
Pro C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat
1 .89 | .079 -67 -043 1 89 | .084 .65 .016
2) 1.78 | .158 | 1.33 | .086 21.78 | .168 | 1.31 | .032
3 || 2.67 | .237 | 2.01 | .129 3 | 2.68 | .252 | 1.96 | .048
4//3.56 | .316 | 2.67 | .172 43.57 | .336 | 2.61 | .064
5 || 4.45 | .395 | 3.33 | .215 5 || 4.46 | .420 | 3.26 | .080
6 || 5.35 | .474 | 4.00 | .258 6 || 5.35 | .504 | 3.92 | .096
7 || 6.24 | .553 | 4.67 | .301 7} 6.24 | .588 | 4.57 | .112
8 | 7.13 .632 | 5.34 .344 8 | 7.14 .672 | 5.22 .128
9 | 8.02 .711 | 6.00 - 387 9 | 8.03 .756 | 5.88 .144
10 || 8.91 .790 | 6.67 .430 10 || 8.92 .840 | 6.53 -160
Oats Wheat
1 .90 .107 .50 -038 1 .89 -088 .67 015
211.79 | .214 | 1.01 | .076 2 || 1.79 | .176 | 1.35 | .030
3 || 2.69 .321 {| 1.51 .114 3 || 2.68 .264 | 2.02 045
41] 3.58 .428 | 2.01 .152 4 || 3.58 .3852 | 2.70 . 060
§ || 4.48 .535 | 2.51 .190 5 || 4.47 .440 | 3.37 -075
6 || 5.38 | .642 | 3.19 | .228 6 || 5.37 | .528 | 4.05 | .090
7 || 6.27 -749 | 3.52 . 266 7 || 6.26 616 | 4.72 .105
8 | 7.17 | .856 | 4.02 .804 8 || 7,16 .704 | 5.40 . 120
918.06 | .963 | 4.53 .342 9 || 8.05 -792 | 6.07 -135
10 | 8.96 [1.070 | 5.03 . 380 10 || 8.95 -880 | 6.75 .150
Wheat Bran Flour Wheat Middlings
1 .88 .119 -42 .025 1 -90 «1% 54 -041
2] 1.76 . 238 84 .050 2 1.80 -34 | 1.07 .082
3 | 2.64 .3857 | 1.26 .075 3 || 2.70 51 1.61 .123
4 || 3.52 .476 | 1.68 .100 4 || 3.60 68 | 2.14 . 164
5 || 4.40 .995 | 2.10 -125 5 || 4.50 -84 | 2.68 205
6 || 5.29 (14 | 2.52 | 150 6 || 5.40 [ 1.01 | 3.22 . 246
7 || 6.17 -833 | 2.94 .175 716.30 | 1.18 | 3.75 . 287
8 || 7.05 -952 | 3.36 . 200 8 | 7.20 | 1.35 | 4.29 .328
9 | 7.93 |1.071 | 3.78 .225 9 || 8.40 | 1.52 | 4.82 | .369
10 || 8.81 {1.190 | 4.20 .250 10 || 9.00 | 1.69 | 5.36 .410
Wheat Shorts Red Dog Flour
1 .89 -130 46 045 1 .90 .162 57 -034
211.78 | .260 91 .090 2 | 1.80 .3824 | 1.14 .068
3 || 2.66 .800 | 1 37 .135 3 | 2.70 .486 | 1.71 -102
4 || 3.55 -520 | 1.83 -180 4 || 3.60 -658 | 2.28 . 136
5 || 4.44 -650 | 2 28 225 5 || 4.50 -810 | 2.85 .170
6 | 5.33 780 | 2.94 .270 6 || 5.41 972 | 3.42 .204
7 || 6.22 .910 | 3.20 2315 7,|| 6.31 [1.184 | 3.99 . 238
8 | 7.10 |/1.040 | 3.66 . 360 8 | 7.21 |1.296 | 4.56 .272
9] 7.99 }1.170 | 4.11 .405 9] 8.11 11.458 | 5.13 . 3806
10 || 8.88 {1.300 | 4.57 .450 10 | 9.01 |1.620 | 5.70 . 340

APPENDIX 423

TABLE JII—Ferepine Strurrs—Continued

CoNncENTRATES—Continued

¥Emmer (Speltz) Cor and Cob Meal
Lbs, || Mater |: a Lbs, || Mater tian
Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat
1 .92 .10 .70 02 1 .85 | .044 -60 | .029
2] 1.84 -20 | 1.41 04 21.70 2088 | 1.20 -058
3 || 2.76 -30 | 2.11 06 3 2.55 | .182 | 1.80 087
4] 3.68 240 | 2.81 -08 | 4/1 3.40 | .176 | 2.40 | .116
5 || 4.60 .60 | 3.51 10 5 || 4.24 .220 | 3.00 145
6 || 5.52 -60 | 4.22 212 6 || 5.09 | .264 | 3.60 | .174
7 | 6.44 -70 | 4.92 14 7 || 5.94 308 | 4.20 . 208
8 | 7.36 -80 | 5.62 16 8 || 6.79 3852 | 4.80 . 232
9 || 8.28 -90 | 6.33 18 9 | 7.64 | .396 | 5.40 .261
10 || 9.20 | 1.00 | 7.03 -20 10 || 8.49 .440 | 6.00 . 290
Kaffr Corn Sorghum Seed
i -90 | .052 44 014 1 .87 045 .61 .028
2) 1.80 | .104 -89 | .028 21.74 | ,090 | 1.22 .056
312.70 | .156 | 1.33 -042 3] 2.62 | .185 | 1.83 084
43.60 | .208 | 1.77 | .056 413.49 | .180 | 2.44 | .112
5 || 4.50 | .260 | 2.21 | .070 5 || 4.36 | .225 | 3.05 . 140.
6 || 5.41 =:312 | 2.66 | .084 6 || 5.23 | .270 | 3.67 .168
7 | 6.31 3864 | 3.10 | .098 7 || 6.10 | .3815 | 4.28 | .196
8] 7.21 | .416 | 3.54 | .112 8 | 6.98 | .360 | 4.89 | .224
9} 8.11 .468 | 3.99 126 9 || 7.85 -405 | 5.50 .252
0 || 9.01-] .520 | 4.43 | .140 10 || 8.72 | .450 | 6.11 . 280

Buckwheat Bran Buckwheat Middlings

1 .92 | .059 34 02 1 -87 | .227 .387 | .061
2 || 1.84 ] .118 - 68 -04 2/ 1.74 | .454 «75 | .122
3 | 2.75 | .177 | 1.02 -06 3} 2.62 | .681 | 1.12 | .183
4 || 3.67 | .236 | 1.36 08 4 || 3.49 | .908 | 1.50 | .244
5 || 4.59 | .295 | 1.70 -10 5 || 4:36 [1.185 | 1.87 | .305
6 || 5.51 | .354 | 2.04 12 6 || 5.23 {1.362 | 2.25 | .366
7 {6.43 | .413 | 2.34 14 716.10 [1.589 | 2.62 | .427
8 || 7.34 | .472 | 2.72 -16 8 || 6.98 [1.816 | 3.00 | .488
9 || 8.26 | .531 | 3.06 .18 9 || 7.85 |2.043 | 3.37 | .549
10 || 9.18 | .590 | 3.40 -20 10 || 8.72 {2.270 | 3.75 | .610

Rye Bran Rye Middlings

1 -88 | .112 .47 | .020 1 .88 | .110 .53 | .026
2i1.77 | .224 .94 | .036 2 || 1.76 | .220 | 1.06 | .052
3] 2.65 | .336 | 1.40 | .054 3 || 2.65 | .330 | 1.59 | .078
41 3.54 | .448 | 1.87 | .072 4|| 3.53 | .440 | 2.12 | .104
5 || 4.42 | .560 | 2.34 | .090 5 || 4.41 | .550 | 2.64 | .130

424

APPENDIX

TABLE III—Ferepine Sturrs—Continued

CONCENTRATES—Continued

Millet Hominy Feed
i i Di ib]
Lbs, || Matter ce tli Lbs, || mattsr be spc
Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Feat
1 .88 | .071 -48 | .025 1 -90 | .068 -60 | .074
2 | 1.76 | .142 .97 | .050 2] 1.81 -1386 |. 1.21 .148
3 || 2.64 | .213 | 1.45 | .075 3 || 2.71 -204 | 1.81 -222
4] 3.52 284 | 1.94 -100 4 || 3.62 .272 | 2.42 - 296
5 4.39 | .3855 | 2.42 | .125 5 |] 4.52 .340 | 3.02 | .370
Corn Oil Meal’ ‘Bean Meal
L .91 . 158 .39 | 108 1 .89 | .202 -42 .013
211.83 [ .3816 |. .78 | .216 211.78 | .404 85 | .026
3 2.74 | .474 | 1.16 | .324 3 | 2.67 | .606 | 1.27 | .039
413,66 | .632 | 1.55 | .432 4 | 3.56 } .808 | 1.69 | .052
5 || 4.57 | .790 | 1.94 | .540 5 | 4.45 |1.010 | 2.11 3065
Cow Pea Meal Soy Bean Meal
1 85 -168 55 011 1 88 -291 23 146°
211.71 -3836 | 1,10 | .022 211.77 ¢ 582 «47 | .292
3 || 2.56 .504 } 1.65 033 3 || 2.65 873 -70 . 438
4) 3.42 .672 | 2.20 044 43.53 {1.164 -93 - 584.
5 || 4.27 -840 | 2.74 055 5 || 4.41 |1.455 1.16 . 730
Gluten Feed Gluten Meal
1 -91 .213 -53 .029 1 .90 297 42 .061
2 || 1.82 -426 | 1.06 058 2] 1.81°} .594 .85 .122
3 || 2.72 -639 | 1.58 -087 3 |) 2:71 891 1.27 .183
4 || 3.63 -852 | 2.11 -116 4 3.62 |1.188 | 1.70 .244
5 | 4.54 {1.065 | 2.64 .145 5 || 4.52 |1.485 | 2.12 .3805
Linseed Meal Cotton-seed Meal
1 90 | .302 -32 | .069 1 -93 | .3876 21 .096
2//1.80 | .604 -64 | .138 2 | 1.86 | .752 -43 .192
3] 2.71 | .906 -96 | .207 3 | 2.79 11.128 .64 | .288
4 || 3.61 |1.208 | 1.28 | .276 4] 3.72 |1.504 -86 | .384
5 || 4.51 |1.510 | 1.60 | .345 5 | 4.65 |1.880 | 1.07 | .480
Flax Seed Tankage
1 -91 -206 .17 .290 1 || .930 .501 .00 -116
241.82 | .412 -34 | .580 2 1.860 [1.002 -00 | .232
3 || 2.72 | .618 51 .870 3 2.790 {1.503 -00 | .348
43.63 | .824 -68 11.160 4 13.720 |2.004 -00 | .464
5 |] 4.54 {1.030 -85 11.450 5 4.650 {2.505 00>} .580

APPENDIX
Table IV.—Estimating the Amount of Milk and Butter Fat Produced by a Cow in a Week When Her Average Milking and Test are Known. Ii is for Those
Who Have Not Time to Add the Weekly Milk Sheet.
CompiLep sy A. J. McGuire

A cow Will | AND WILL MAKE THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER FAT PER WEEK GIVEN IN THE COLUMNS BELOW WHEN HER TEST
giving give
this this
amount | amount Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is ] Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is
of milk | of milk | 23 | 29 | 3.0) 3.1 | 3.2] 33 | 34/35 |36/3.7|38)39/40/41/) 42/43) 44/45/46 |) 47/48] 49 | 5.0] 51 | 5.2 | 5.3) 54 | 5.5 | 5.6
at a per per | per | per } per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per’| per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per } per | per
milking | week | cent] cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.} Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.! Lbs.| Lbs.} Lbs.} Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.} Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs. Lbs.) Lbs.| Lbs.) Lbs.} Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.} Lbs.j Lbs.| Lbs.} Lbs.| Lbs.) Lbs.
2 28 .78| .81, .84] .87) .90) .92) .95] .98) 1.01) 1.04| 1.06] 1.09} 1.12) 1.15) 1.18) 1.20) 1,23] 1.26] 1.29) 1.32! 1.34] 1.37] 1.40) 1.43) 1.46)£1.48) 1.51) 1.54) 1.57
3 42 1.17] 1.22] 1.26] 1.30) 1.34] 1.89] 1.43] 1.47) 1.51] 1.55) 1.60} 1.64) 1.68] 1.72}.1.76| 1.81) 1.85} 1.89] 1.93] 1.97] 2.02] 2.06] 2.10) 2.14) 2.18) 2.23) 2.27) 2.31) 2.35
4 56 1.56| 1.62} 1.68) 1.74) 1.79) 1.85) 1.90] 1.96] 2.02} 2.07] 2.13) 2.18] 2.94; 2.30) 2.35] 2.41) 2.46] 2.52] 2.58] 2.63] 2.69] 2.74] 2.80) 2.86) 2.91) 2.97) 3.02] 3.08) 3.14
5 70 1.96] 2.03) 2.10} 2.17| 2.24] 2.31) 2.38] 2.45) 2.52) 2.59) 2.66] 2.73) 2.80) 2.87} 2.94) 3.07) 3.08} 3.15) 3.22] 3.29] 3.36] 3.43] 3.50) 3.57) 3.64) 3.71) 3.78) 3.85) 3.92
6 84 2.35| 2.44] 2.52) 2.60] 2.69) 2.77] 2.86) 2.94] 3.02] 3.11] 3.19] 3.28] 3.36) 3.44] 3.53] 3.61} 3.70] 3.78] 3.86) 3.95] 4.03) 4.12] 4.20) 4.28) 4.37) 4.45) 4.54) 4.62) 4.70
7 98 2.74) 2.84) 2.94) 3.03] 3.14) 3.23] 3.33] 3.43] 3.53) 3.63) 3.72| 3.82) 3.92) 4.02) 4.12) 4.21] 4.31] 4.41] 4.51] 4.61] 4.70) 4.80] 4.90} 5.00) 5.10} 5.19) 5.29] 5.39) 5.49
8 112 3.13] 3.25] 3.36] 3.47| 3.58) 3.70) 3.81), 3.92] 4.03] 4.14) 4.26] 4.37| 4,48) 4.59] 4.70) 4.82] 4.93] 5.04] 5.15) 5.26] 5.38] 5.49] 5.60) 5.72) 5.82) 5.94} 6.05] 6.16] 6.27
9 126 3.52| 3.65] 3.78) 3.91) 4.03) 4.16] 4.28) 4.41] 4.54) 4.66) 4.79] 4.91) 5.04) 5.17| 5.29] 5.42) 5.54| 5.67) 5.80] 5.92! 6.05] 6.17) 6.30) 6.43] 6.55] 6.68) 6.80} 6.93] 7.06
10 140 3.92) 4.06] 4.20) 4,34) 4.48) 4.62) 4.76) 4.90] 5.04] 5.18) 5.32| 5.46] 5.60| 5.74) 5.88) 6.02| 6.16] 6.30) 6.44| 6.58] 6.72) 6.86] 7.00) 7.14] 7.28) 7.42) 7,56] 7.70| 7.84
11 154 4.31] 4.47| 4.62] 4.77| 4.93] 5.08) 5.24] 5.39) 5.54] 5.70) 5.85] 6.01} 6.16) 6.31] 6.47| 6.62] 6.78] 6.93) 7.08| 7.24] 7.39] 7.55) 7.70) 7.85) 8.01] 8.16] 8.32] 8.47) 8.62
12 168 4.70) 4.87) 5.04) 5.21] 5.38) 5.54) 5.71) 5.88] 6.05| 6.22) 6.38] 6.55] 6.72) 6.89] 7.06] 7.22] 7.39] 7.56) 7.73] 7.90) 8.06] 8.23] 8.40) 8.57| 8.74] 8.90] 9.07/ 9.24) 9.41
13 182 5.10| 5.28] 5.46] 5.64) 5.82] 6.01] 6.19] 6.37) 6.55| 6.73) 6.92| 7.10|°7,.28| 7.46] 7.64] 7.83] 8.01] 8.19] 8.37] 8.55) 8.74] 8.92] 9.10] 9.28) 9.46] 9.65) 9.83/10.01)10.19
14 196 5.48] 5.68] 5.88] 6.08] 6.27| 6.47| 6.66) 6.86] 7.06] 7.25) 7.45) 7.64) 7.84) 8.04) 8.23] 8.43] 8.62] 8.82] 9.02) 9.21] 9.41] 9.60] 9.80/10.00/10.19)/10.39/10.58/10.73/10.98
15 210 5.88| 6.09} 6.30) 6.51| 6.72] 6.93) 7.14) 7.35) 7.56| 7.77) 7.98] 8.19] 8.40} 8.61] 8.82] 9.03) 9.24] 9.45] 9.66] 9.87/10.08)10.29]10.50|10.71/10.92)11.13/11.34)11.55/11.76
16 224 6.27) 6.50) 6.72] 6.94) 7.17| 7.39] 7.62] 7.84) 8.01) 8.29) 8.51] 8.74) 8.96) 9.18] 9.41) 9.63] 9.86/10.08)10.30/10.53/10.75|10.98)11.20/11.42)11.65/11.87)12.10/12.32)12.54
17 23 6.66) 6.90} 7.14| 7.38) 7.62) 7.85) 8.09} 8.33] 8.57! 8.81) 9.04] 9.28) 9.52) 9.76)10.00/10.23!10.47/10.71/10.95]11.19|11.42/11.66]11.90]12.14/12.38|12.61/12.84)13.09/13.33
18 252 7.05, 7.31) 7.56) 7.81) 8.06) 8.32] 8.57] 8.82) 9.07| 9.32} 9.58) 9.83/10.08/10.33/10.58/10.84/11.09/11.34/11.59]11.84/12.10)12.35/12.60)12.85|13.10)13.36)13.61/13.86)14.11
19 266 7.45| 7.71) 7.98] 8.25) 8.51) 8.78) 9.04, 9.31) 9.58) 9.84/10.11)10.37/10.64|10.91)11.17/11.44/11.70)11.97)12.24/12.50)12.77/13.03/13.30)13.57/13.83)/14.10/14.37|14.63)14.90
20 280 7.84, 8.12) 8.40) 8.68) 8.96) 9.24) 9.52) 9.80/10.08)10.36)10.64/10.92/11,20/11.48/11.76]12.04|12.32)12.60)12.88)13.16)13.44/13.72/14.00)14.28|/14.56/14.84/15.12)15.40)15.68
21 294 8.23] 8.53) 8.82) 9.11) 9.41] 9.70/10.00/10.29/10.58)10.88/11.17/11.47/11,76]12.05/12.35]12.64)12.94)13.23/13.52)13.82)14.11/14.41|14.70) 14.99) 15.29/15.58/15.88)16.17/16.46
22 308 8.62} 8.93] 9.24] 9.55) 9.86)10.16/10.47/10.78)11.09)11.40/11.70)12.01/12.32|12.63/12.94/13.24/13.55/13.86/14.17/14.48]14.78/15.09}15.40)15.71/16.02/16.32/16.63)16.94)17.25
23 322 9.02) 9.34| 9.66] 9.98/10.30/10.63/10.95)11.27)11.59)11.91/12.24)12.56/12.88|13.20/13.52]13.85/14.17/14.49]14.81/15.13/15.46/15.78)16.10/16.42/16.74/17.07|17.39)17.71/18.03
24 336 9.41) 9.74/10.08/10.42/10.75/11.09)11.42)11.76)12.10)12.43/12.77/13.10)13.44 13.78)14.11]14.45/14.78|15.12/15.46|15.79/ 16.13] 16.46] 16.80/17.14)17.47/17.81/18.14)18.48/18.82
25 350 9.80)10.15)10.50/10.85/11.20/11.55)11.90) 12.25) 12.60/12.95/13.30)13.65/14.00 14.35]14.70)15.05/15.40/15.75|16.10/16.45/16.80)17.15|17.50/17.85)18.20/18.55/18.90/19.25/19.60
26 364 10.19|10.56)10.92)11.28/11.65)12.01/12.38)12.74/13.10)13.47/13.83|14.20}14.56|14.92)15.29/15.65)16.02/16.38)16.74/17.11)17.47|17.84|18.20/18.56|18.93/19.29|19.66/20.02/20.38
27 878 |10.58)10.96)11.34]11.72)12.10)12.47/12.85/13.23]13.61/13.99|14.36)14.74/15,12/15.50]15.88/16.25|16.63]17.01/17.39]17.77|18.14)18.52]18.90)/19.28/19.66|20.03|20.41)20.79/21.17
28 392 10.98|11.37)11.76]12.15/12,.54)12.94/13.33)13.72/14.11)14.50/14.90/15.29]15.68/16.07|16.46/ 16.86] 17.25]17.64|18.03)18.42|18.82|19.21]19.60)19.99/20.38/20.78|21.17/21.56/21.95
29 406 11.37)11.79/12.18]12.59/12.99)13.40)13.80/14.21/|14.62/15.02/15.43/15.83]16.24| 16.65) 17.05/17.46/17.86)18.27|18.68/19.08)19.49/19.89/20.30/20.71/21.11)21.52/21.92/22.33/22.74
30 420 11.76/12.18)12.60}13.02)13.44) 13.86) 14.28)14.70) 15.12) 15.54/15.96/16.38)16.80) 17.22) 17.64) 18.06)18.48) 18.90) 19.32)19.74/20.16/20.58/21.00|21.42/21.84)/22.26/22.68)/23.10)/23.52

Nore in Exrianation or ABpove Taste—How to Estimate Mizx anp Burrer Fat Propucep sy a Cow.
The purpose of the above table is to enable an estimate to be made of the amount of milk and butter fat which a cow will produce in a week. It is

intended for the farmer who weighs the milk obtained from each cow, but who has not the time to add up the milk sheet. It is a table that is simple
and easy to understand, even though it contains many figures. If it is studied five minutes, it can be understood easily.

The first left-hand column shows the amount of milk which a cow may give at a milking. If you have a cow which gives about an average of ten
pounds at a milking, look down the first column of figures until the number ‘“‘ten pounds” is reached. The number just opposite in the second column of
figures is the amount of milk which the cow will give in a week. The butter fat the cow produces in one week is shown in the other columns of the table.
The numbers at the top of these columns designate the per cent of fat that the cow’s milk may test. The numbers in the column below the per cent of
fat designate the amount of butter fat the cow will give in a week. The amount of butter fat given by any cow in one week is measured by the figures in
the “amount of butter fat”? column which are opposite the amount of milk given at a milking—the first column.

An example: Glance down the column given to Cow No. 1 on the weekly milk sheet, and determine the average amount of milk given at a
milking. If the average number of pounds of milk at a milking seems to be 10 pounds, a comparison with the estimate table will indicate that she will
give about 140 pounds of milk in a week. Place this down as the total amount of her week’s milking. Then glance across the table to the column which

shows the per cent of fat which the cow’s milk tests, and if it is 4 per cent, the number in the 4 per cent column opposite the 10 pounds in the first column
will measure the amount of butter fat made during the week—or 5.6 pounds.

1 In a similar way, the amount of butter fat secured can be ascertained for
any given amount of milk and for any per cent test shown on the table.

APPENDIX 425

|. PROTECT THE MILK WHEN RECEIVED.

"THE DAIRYMAN IS REQUIRED

MADAM Consumer:
7 ARE YOU DOING YOUR PART ?

NEA; ASE OF TROUBLE WITH THE MILK, LOCATE THE FAULT
R HOME IF POSSIBLE, THAT YOU MAY MORE SURELY |
AND QUICKLY REMEDY iT. |

THE Mik UPON DELIVERY TO BE SET INTO THIS FIRE-LESS
COOKER LIKE BOX. iT WILL RETARD WARMING IN SUMMER
AND FREEZING IN WINTER.

ce 8 0 8 pee Ol lke ke lk lg

Il. COOL THE MILK TO 50° OR BELOW.

|. Set BOTTLE INTO PAIL.
2. App A CHUNK OF ICE,
3. Fitt THE PAIL WITH WATER.
_ 4. Set PAIL AND ALL INTO THE
ICE CHEST.
5. Mick carRep. FOR THUS WILL
KEEP SWEET TWICE AS LONG |
AS IT WILL IF MERELY SET

BY LAW TO_COOL THE MILK INTO THE REFRIGERATOR.
FOR You. Do As MUCH FOR
YOURSELF! ‘

@e 6 2 9 ©

I. RETURN BOTTLES CLEAN.

. Wash BOTTLES BEFORE THE MILK DRIES
ON THEM.
2. Dont UsE MILK BOTTLES IN SICK ROOM.
oe Dont PuT GASOLINE ETC. IN BOTTLES.
ETURN BOTTLES PROMPTLY AND CLEAN.
5. Hevp your pAIRYMAN PROTECT YOUR
FAMILY.

“Be YOUR BOTTLES YOUR NEIGHBORS KNOW YOU.
Soe é : __UNIV..OF MINN.

Fig. 131.—Chart used in milk campaigns.

INDEX

Abortion, 194
Abundance of feed, value of, 226
Acid, sulphuric, 327
care of, 328
errors to avoid, 328
kind, 327
strength, 327
strength in percentage, 331
Acid test for cream, 363
Acres required per cow, 165
Actino-mycosis, 209
Adulteration of milk, 389
Advanced registry, 95
Ayrshire, 95
Brown Swiss, 112
Dutch Belted, 126
French-Canadian, 128
Guernsey, 69
Holstein-Friesian, 55
Jersey, 85
Red Polls, 101
Shorthorn, 120
Appendix, 415
Ayrshire, 90

Babcock test, 303
Balanced farming, 19
Balanced rations, 230
Barn plans, 179
Body growth effected by food, 407
Breeding table, 155
Breeding associations, 143
milk records for, 147
selection of cow, 144
three day records, 145
Breeds of cattle, the, 43
Ayrshires, 90
adaptations, 96
advanced registry, 95
body characteristics, 91
dairy characteristics, 94
home conditions, 91
importation to America, 91
origin, 90
score card, 96
Brown Swiss, 108
adaptations, 114
advanced registry, 112
body characteristics, 109

Breeds of cattle, Brown Swiss, dairy
characteristics, 112
home conditions, 108
importation to America, 110
origin, 108
registry of production, 112
score card, 114
Dutch Belted, 123
advanced registry, 126
body characteristics, 124
dairy characteristics, 126
importation to America, 123
origin, 123
records, 126
French-Canadian, 127
advanced registry, 128
body characteristics, 127
dairy characteristics, 128
vrigin, 127
record of performance, 128
Guernsey, 62
adaptations, 69
advanced registry, 69
body characteristics, 67
dairy characteristics, 68
home conditions, 64
introduction to America, 65
origin, 62
score card, 71
Holstein-Friesian, 46
adaptations, 51
advanced registry, 55
beef characteristics, 50
body characteristics, 47
breed’s future, the, 57
dairy characteristics, 48
foreign distribution, 51
home conditions, 46
introduction to America, 50
score card, 58
Jersey, 74
adaptations, 83
advanced registry, 85
American vs. Island type,
80
beef characteristics, 82
body characteristics, 77
constitution, 82
dairy characteristics, 78

427

428 INDEX

Breeds of cattle, Jersey, home con- Calves, grain for calves, 253
ditions, 74 hay for calves, 254
improvement from within, importance of raising, 249
75 influence of early feeding, 261
improvements needed, 83 nature’s way, 248

introduction to America, 79 order of feeding, 255

Island type, 80
origin, 74
plan of registration, 76
register of merit, 85
score card, 86

Red Polls, 100
advanced registry, 101
body characteristics, 100

dairy characteristics, 101

home conditions, 100

introduction to America,

100
official milk records, 103
origin, 100
score card, 103
Shorthorn, 117
advanced registry, 120
body characteristics, 118

dairy characteristics, 118
importation to America,

118
origin, 117
record of merit list, 120
Breeds, origin of, 27
a cross, 29
a grade, 29
common stock, 29
elements of dairy type, 31
present day breeds, 28
pure breeds, value of, 28
Brown Swiss, the, 108
Butter, commercial grades of, 358

Butter making, see Dairy butter

making

Calves, dairy, raising
age to breed, 262
age to separate, 261
blood meal, 258
bone meal, 259
bull dairy development, 263
calf meals, 256
ealf scours, 217, 257
calves suckling, 260
cost of raising, 263
dehorning with caustic, 260
eges for calves, 258
fall vs. spring, 249
feeding, 250
general rule for feeding, 250

pasture for, 255, 263

raising calves without milk, 255

removing from mother, 250
rest, 259
scours, calf, 217, 257
skim milk, 253
sucking, 260
veal calves, 248
water for, 259
whey for, 257
white scours, 217, 257
Calving time, 225
Care of cream on the farm, 340
cleanliness, value of, 340
cream ripening, 342
delivery, 341
Cattle
early use, 23
evolution, 25
Centrifuge, the, 325
care of, 326
speed of, 326
temperature of, 326
Certified milk, production of, 278
standards for, 278
Change of routine, 175
Chapped teats, 215
Cheese, 367
cottage, 372
farm dairy, 367
Child labor, 16
Clarified milk, 393
Clean milk production, 267
barn, the, 269
certified milk, 267
cooling, 272
flies, 270
milkers, the, 267
pails, the, 268
shipping, 273
stools, the, 268
strainers, the, 269
water, 272
Common ailments, 189
actino-mycosis, 209
distribution, 209
location, 210
treatment, 210
bloating, 215

INDEX

Common ailments, bloating, causes,
216
symptoms, 216
treatment, 216
chapped teats, 215
cow pox, 213
ergotism, 207
foot and mouth disease, 204
causes of, 205
diagnosis, 206
prevention of, 208
symptoms, 205
foot rot, 208
garget, 213
infectious abortion, 194
cause of, 194
manner of dissemination,
195
mode of infection, 196
prevention and treatment,
198
symptoms, 196
inflammation of udder (mam-
mitis), 211]
-symptoms, 211
treatment, 212
lumpy jaw, 209
milk fever, 200
cause of, 200
prevention of, 203
symptoms of, 200
treatment for, 203
ring worm, 220
scours, white, 217, 257
cause of, 217
prevention, 189
teats, chapped, 215
tuberculosis, 189
bacilli found in milk, 189
cause of, 189
communicable to men, 189
method of distribution, 192
nature of, 189
symptoms, 190
tuberculin test for, 192
warts, 215
Community breeding, 141
advantages, 143
associations, 143
disadvantages, 144
Composition of feeds, 417
Composition of milk and its prod-
ucts, 412
Cottage cheese, 372
Cow as a food producer, the, 3

429

Cow vs. steer in food production, 4
Cream, care and ripening, 340
grading, 341
ripening, 342
Cream separation, 332
variation in cream test, 333
variation in skim milk test, 334
weight of cream per gallon, 339
Cream separators, 332
centrifugal, 332
efficiency in skimming, 333
speed effect on fat loss, 333

Dairy barn, features of, 179
cork bricks, 179
creosote blocks, 180
dimensions of stalls, 187
facing of cows, 181-182
floor material, 179
hay storage, 179
light, 186
manger, 188
ventilation, 182
Dairy butter making, 346
acid test, 363
butter, composition of, 357
butter, market classes of, 358
butter, overrun, 356
causes of difficult churning, 356
churn, the, 347
collection of cream, 346
coloring, 348
composition of butter, 357
fat test, 363
making, the, 348
market classes of butter, 358
moisture test, 365
salt test, 365
selling, 355
tests in creameries, 363
Dairy herd management, 153
acres required per cow, 165
breeding, 162
care after calving, 160
change of routine, 175
cow’s bed, 170
dehorning, 170
dog, the, 176
drought effect on milk, 164
drying off cow, 158
first vs. last milk, 168
first year’s record, 162
flies, protecting against, 166
food effect on test of milk, 163

430

Dairy herd management, fountain,
private drinking, 173
gestation period, 154
getting most from cows, 177
giving the cow a rest, 157
hard milkers, 172
kicking cows, 171
large vs. small pasture, 164
leaking teats, 172
light, 186
manure an index to feeding, 159
milk fever, 161
milking before calving, 159
milking machine, 169
milking methods, 167
muslin curtain, 186
naming the cows, 172
number times to milk, 162
pasture, large vs. small, 164
pasture, supplementing, 166
period of greatest yield, 162
preparing for record, 158
private drinking fountan, 173
protecting against flies, 166
putting onto fall basis, 157
routine, change of, 175
salt requirement, 174
short pasture, 165
sucking cows, 171
temperature, 186
time to freshen, 154
turning onto pasture, effect of,
164

ventilation, 182
watering, 173

Dairying, the why of, 3

Dairy score card, 275

Dairy testing associations, 148
number of, 150
result of, 149

Dairy type, elements of, 31
capacity for food, 31
constitution, 34
dairy temperament, 33
femininity, 36
food, capacity for, 31
mammary development, 36
temperament, dairy, 33
triple wedge, 36
type essential to economy, 42

Dehorning,
calves, 260
cows, 170

Difficult churning in winter, 356

Drought effect on milk, 164

INDEX

Drying off the cow, 158
Dutch Belted, the, 123

Early use of cattle, 23

Farm dairying, 291
Farm milk house, 293
construction, 299
ice house, 300
location, 298
requirements, 293
Fat globules, size, 408
Fat yield, estimated, 424
Feeding in winter, see Winter feeding
Feeding standard, 232
Fertilizing value of plants, 8
Flies, protecting against, 166
Foot and mouth disease, 204
Foundation stock, 138
French-Canadian, the, 127

Garget, 213
General rule for feeding, 239
Gestation table, 155
Glassware
cleaning, 329
testing, 413
Goats, milch, 131
breeds, 133
dairy type in goats, 132
goats, maligned, the, 131
milk composition, 136
milk records, 134
Gouda cheese, 367
Guernsey, the, 62

Haecker’s feeding standard, 232

Herd management, see Dairy herd
management

High-priced lands, 19

Holstein-Friesian, the, 46

Homogenized milk, 397

Human food production, 3

Ice cream, 375

Ice house, 300

Income,
direct, 17
indirect, 17
regular, 16

Infants, milk for, 405

Jersey, the, 74

Lactometer, the, 389, 390
Lumpy jaw, 209

INDEX

Maintenance ration, 229
Management of the herd, 153
Manure, 10-13
amount produced, 10
composition of, 11
value of, 10
value per ton, 12
value per year, 13
Market milk, 383
adulteration, 389
certified milk, 493
standards for, 278
elarifying milk, 393
classes of market milk, 393
factors influencing quality of,
384
homogenized milk, 397
milk for infants, 405
New York grades, 274
pasteurized milk, 395
sanitary milk, 396
seore card for dairies, 275
score card for milk, 386
standardized milk, 394
Marketing butter, 355
Methods of selling milk, 399
Milk and cream testing, 303
buttermilk, testing, 324
calculating the fat, 312
cheese, testing, 325
composite samples, 317
equipment and .cost, 303
making the test, 305
operation, 305
preservatives, 315
reading the test,
cream, 321
milk, 311
sampling, 305, 314, 316
skim milk testing, 323
sour milk testing, 316
test, true average, 321
testing cream, 317
testing frozen milk, 316
testing whey, 324
weighing cream, 317
whey test, 324
Milk, composition of, 412
adulteration of, 389
city standards for milk, 414
composition of milk and its
products, 412
cost compared, 405
food composition effect on body
growth, 407

431

Milk, food value of, 401

government standards of pur-
ity, 409

methods of selling milk, 399
milk for adults, 401
milk for infants, 405
total solids, 392

Milk fever, 200

Milk house, 293

Milk score card, 386

Milking machines, 169

Moisture test, 365

New York milk grades, 274
Nutrients, net, required, 232

Order of feeding
calves, 255
cows, 244
Over-run in butter, 356

Palatability, value of, 227
Pasteurized milk, 395

Records, feeding for, 241
Records, see Advanced registry
Red Polls, the, 100

Regulation of labor, 18
Ringworm, 220

Ripening cream, 342

Rochester score card, 276

Roots for cows, 243

Salt requirement, 174
Salt test, the, 365
Sanitary milk, 396
Sanitary milk pails, 269
Score card for
Ayrshire, the, 96
Brown Swiss, the, 114
dairies, 276
Guernsey, the, 71
Holstein-Friesian, the, 58
Jersey, the, 87
milk and cream, 386
Red Polls, the, 103
Scours in calves, 217, 257
Secretaries of breed associations, 45
Selling market milk, methods, 399
Selling milk, forms of, 359
Separators, cream, 332
Short pasture, 165
Shorthorn, the, 117
Silo, the, 244
advantages of, 244

432 INDEX

Silo. kinds, 245
Sire, selection of, 139
Skim milk for calves, 255
Standardizing milk and cream, 336
Standards for milk
cities, 414
government, 409
Starting a dairy herd, 138
daily records, 145
foundation stock, 138
ideal pedigree, 141
quality breeding, 141
selection of dam, 144
selection of sire, 139
Succulence, 227

Teeth, silage effect on, 247

Test of milk affected by feeding,
163

Testing associations, 148

Testing milk and cream, 303

Tests in butter making, 363

Tuberculosis, 189

Turning to pasture, effect on milk,
164

Utilization of waste forage, 4

Variations in cream tests, causes,
333
Veal calves, 248

Warts on cows’ teats, 215
Watering, 173 .
Weed seeds in manure, 247
in silo, 249
Weight of cream per gallon, 339
Whey for calves, 257
Winter feeding, 225
abundance of feed, value of, 226
adjusting the ration, 231
balance of nutrients, 228
calving time, 215
feeding standard, 232
general rule, a, 239
heavy yield, feeding, 240
maintenance ration, 229
order of feeding, 244
palatability, 227
ration for milk production, 230
records, feeding for, 240
silage effect on milk, 245
silo
advantages, 244
kinds, 245
succulence in feed, 227

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