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ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

NEW YorK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

THE GIFT OF
PauL PoMEROY IvEs 2D
IN MEMORY OF
PAUL POMEROY IvES

‘ornell University Library

ommercial poultry raising; a thoroughly

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003058389

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Diagram reproductive organs of laying hen.

1, Ovary, with minute ovules; 2, yolk sacs; 3, suture lines; 5, empty
yolk sac; 6, funnel opening into oviduct; 8, yolk in oviduct; 9, albumen-
secreting region; 10, the same; 11, albumen being secreted; 12, yolk passing
through oviduct; 13, germinal disc; 14, uterus; 15, large intestine; 16,
isthmus; 17, glands of uterus; 18, complete egg; 19, vagina; 20, cloaca; 21,
egg shell; 22, albumen; 23, yolk; 24, chalaza.

COMMERCIAL
POULTRY RAISING

A THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL AND COMPLETE
REFERENCE WORK FOR THE AMATEUR, FAN-
CIER OR GENERAL FARMER %g *¢ ESPECIALLY
ADAPTED TO THE COMMERCIAL POULTRYMAN

Containing a Description of All Recognized Breeds of Fowls, Including
Turkeys, Ducks, Geese and Pigeons; Special Chapters on Artificial
Incubation and Brooding, Diseases of Poultry and Their Treat-
ment, Breeding for Increased Egg Production, Feeding For-
mulas, Fattening and Marketing, also Numerous Working
Plans and Descriptions of the Most Improved Types
of Houses, Yards, Labor-Saving Appliances
and Equipment Generally

By
H. ARMSTRONG ‘ROBERTS

Author of ‘“The Farmer His Own Builder,’’ Etc.

WITH OVER THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILADELPHIA
DAVID McKAY, PUBLISHER
WASHINGTON SQUARE
1918

EK 6587

To
fal. A.B.

WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT WAS A
CONSTANT SOURCE OF INSPIRATION THIS
WORK IS AFFECTIONATELY
INSCRIBED

INTRODUCTION

There are numerous poultry books on the market. Some are
valuable works, except that they are out of date. Others have
been written by persons who knew more about theory than of
practice. Still others were printed because the author had a
system to advocate, a farm to advertise, or an axe to grind.
Obviously, in reading these so-called systems the beginner gen-
erally obtains erroneous ideas, which sooner or later bring about
costly mistakes, often failure.

In the chapters that follow the author has no hobbies to ride,
no theories to advance, nothing to offer, in fact, except the prac-
tical information which he has acquired from many years of
actual experience raising fowls on a commercial scale, and from
the associations of other poultrymen with whom he has come in
contact in a business or friendly way. His effort has been to
give facts and state principles clearly, so as to establish a solid
foundation for the study of poultry culture. The real study,
of course, commences with the actual work with the fowls, and
cannot be acquired from the printed page alone.

No phase of agriculture or animal husbandry has made such
enormous progress in the past thirty years as poultry culture.
Consequently, literature written on this subject a quarter of a
century ago, or even a decade ago, is now mostly obsolete. Not
that fowls have changed their habits to such an extent, but
because we have learned more about their habits, and how to
derive the greatest benefits from them at the least possible
cost.

Poultry raising on a commercial scale could not be attempted
on the methods practised by our grandfathers. It was not until
the invention and perfection of appliances for the artificial ‘rear-
ing of little chicks in large numbers that poultry keeping really

vil

viii INTRODUCTION

passed the ‘‘pin money” stage. Even then, it was not until we
learned something about the scientific manner of feeding, breed-
ing and housing the fowls that our efforts were assured any
degree of success from the standpoint of dollars and cents. We
have long known how to keep fowls; but it has been compara-
tively recent that we found out how to make the fowls keep us.

There is money to be made from poultry. There is a living to
be made from it, and a good living. Some claim there are for-
tunes to be had from hens. The author begs leave to differ
with this last statement, or rather to qualify it. Fortunes might
be made from chickens if it were possible to look after them,
personally, in large enough numbers; but this is quite out of the
question. Very large flocks necessitate the employment of help,
and it is the uncertainty or incompetence of this help that makes
success with tens of thousands of birds more or less dependent
upon chance.

The author has purposely avoided all reference to ‘‘big stories
of big profits,”’ likewise the fads and fancies of poultry keeping,
which have brought disaster to so many beginners. He has
aimed to show that hard work is necessary, that the caretaker
must be always on the job, that some of the tasks are not as
pleasant as they might be, that common sense is required above
theoretical training, that disappointments and mistakes are to
be expected, and that it is no get-rich-quick scheme, but a safe,
sane, practical business enterprise, and as such it must be con-
ducted. Where figures are quoted, especially in respect to profits,
if anything the author has been too conservative. These figures,
however, are based on prices prevailing before our entrance into
the European War. Success does not fall into the lap of the
poultryman; he must go out and dig for it. And if he digs hard
enough, he is sure to be rewarded.

As previously inferred, the author has read most of the litera-
ture written about poultry, and having found it either obsolete,
incomplete or utterly fallacious, he has endeavored to prepare a
work that is the most up-to-date, comprehensive, practical
guide-book of its kind. Economy and efficiency are the under-

INTRODUCTION ix

lying motives of every chapter. They are what he conceives to
be the cornerstones of success with poultry.

Acknowledgment is herewith made to The Country Gentle-
man and Public Ledger, in which publications most of these
chapters have appeared, for the rights to publish them in book
form. Appreciation is also acknowledged to those who kindly
submitted photographs for reproduction as illustrations.

H. ARMSTRONG ROBERTS
Philadelphia, 1918

CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I, American Poultry Industry... .. 00.0... 0.000 ccc ee eee ee aes

II. Analyzing the Different Breeds................. 00000 e eee
TU “Ege: Breedsi20 cctchic tient yon be ins ab ecgaimeaore sewed
IV.Meat‘Breedsiisanag-conslaks pes diu ae eye vue kee ae sere eean se
V. Dual-Purpose Breeds. ¢ ¢¢s<44 ¢4 soe oaA sev ees ee seee eee es
VI. Ornamental Fowls, Games and Bantams.................
VII. A Business Enterprise. ........... 0... eee

VIII. Keeping Records... 20... cece eee eee :

IX. Principles of Poultry House Construction.................

X. Interior Arrangement of Buildings.......................

XI. Poultry House Appliances............ 00.00.0000. eee
XII.. Devices for Doors and Gates. .................- Rig eustet's,
BOLLE. Tra puNests? cao cciva ges hea eaaee tance pameleta one wade
NUV 5 Heedings 23.04 oitiem sinter amoae ean ara ren ee ere
XV. Available Grains and Meals...................002.000005
XVI. Animal and Green Foods... 2.0.2.0... 0.0000 c cece eee
XVII. Artificial Incubation. ............0.0. 00 cee eee
XVIII. Selecting Hatching Eggs..... 0... eee
XIX. Testing Eggs During Incubation.....................04.
XX. Day-Old-Chick Industry.... 0.0.00... 0... cee eee eee
XXI. Natural Incubation. ............0..0. 000 cece eee
XXII. Artificial Brooding.......... 0... ccc ce eee
XXIII. Feeds for Baby Chicks. ...........0000..0 000 cece eee eee
XXIV; Care of Young Stocks. .:cccaiwe sions mene eg hi se ere
XXV. Breaking Up Broodiness............. 00000000 cece eee
XXVI. ‘Surplus Cockerels. i... sc2 vrgeyerrdey seen eeeae veld sae seees
XXVIT. Caponizings « cxisca oes ssavaverea accesso viths aeyees tees
XXVIII. Breeding Principles.......... 0.0. eee
XXIX. Development of the Egg... 0.0.0... . eee eee
SOREN. Market Eggs oo). oin.¢es boos duce eins wra’e oainedv yak non Hale Pau
XXXI. Selling Eggs Advantageously. ............ 0.00... e ee eee ee
XXXII. Preserving Eggs..............-.0002000. eNcch de aledahretlehtlen occ
XXXIII. By-Products of Poultry... 0.0.0.0... 0.2 eee
XXXIV. Preparing Birds for the Show.....................0000..
XXXV. Ailments and Diseases...... 0.0.0.0... 00. cee cee eee
MMXVI. (Crop Bounds. . ss sis oa ce atoeees siete sek bay Made P aamiacepieéce
XXXVI Wore soca wes ch ee neces in yeaa eee wredy saaree wie es
XXXVI. White: Diarrhea: soci ceas cheese bees Sane Ta eAas Hees
XXXIX. Parasites and Pests... ....... 1c eee eee eee

SCD UM Maite wah <vrna quets een aegash Guotadeaeneapamadanaese
XE. Guinea Fowlse ssc occa v ghegerat awakes was Cag wee Dae aes 2
ELV: Pigeons. $5.4 wi awsac send domme anaes adie nies eH oe

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fic. . PAGE
Fowl's reproductive organs........ 00.00... e ee eeee Frontispiece

1, Petaluma poultry district... 0.0... cee eee a
2. Chart poultry production in U.S.....0 0.00.00. 00. ccc eee 4
3. Hen with a brood of chicks... 0.0... eee 5
4. Poultry and farm crops......... 0.000 8
5. Model backyard poultry plant........ 000.000.000.000... cece eee 10

6. Light Brahmas: 3 bn soca dt seus wo te s4 MOV AGA g BRS OE TED HOE TE Oe 17

7. White Wiyandottesss «154 se 2 cic 244 See pe bas Smee Een cos MES 18

8. White Plymouth Rocks... 2.0.0.0. .0 0.00 c ccc eee ees 19

g. White-Laced Red Cornish Fowls.................0000200 002008 21
10. Single Comb White Leghorns............... 0.0.0... eee e eee eee 24
11. Single Comb Brown Leghorns... 2.2... 00.000. 25
12. Rose-Comb Buff Leghorns... ..........0000.. 00000 c cee eee 27
13s Laken veldéfsins iics ces con bee ahs to pan beep Ree Heo BOOSH 28
14. Single Comb Black Minorcas..........0000. 00.0. c eee ee 30
15. Single Comb White Minorcas.... 0.2.00... 0000020 c eee eee ee 31
16. White-Faced Black Spanish... ............ 000.0. c eee eee 32
17; Andalusians... iangs desees che oe ced sata Be eens See See Hae ER 34
18. Single Comb Mottled Anconas............0.... 0.0002 e eee eaee 35
19. Golden Spangled Hamburgs..............00 0000022 eee ee 36
20; Sicilian Buttencupss « seid 2 cas hese ee Hed See ESAS ee HS ae ee Oo 37
1. White Hondanss: $4 s-c443 ae a sas nes vee crane avn Sie sie aig Byam ean 38
ge. Silver: Cain pine isin sae sigs sass seni Seaman Mae see aus hitb usd Bat owen 39
23 White Aseels: 5. occnicca nanan eee nat wemanh Seb iaene hum ianda wees 40
24. Long-Tailed Yokohamas..................20. 0.00 - cece eee ee 42
25. Silver. Laced -Polisht, so u.-.uce cues d ice awe nae Reece eee ee 43
26: Brabinias...04 2 henna dad wuld dae MOS? a kedlcahane seroma g emerges 47
37, White: Cochins si .ccs-ccagacqe teenie nae en eo ams yaad Se Baan 49
23. Partridge Coching xcs anc aitor amet Saag we lesetmeda wlerendg gauze Almas 50
29. White: Vangshans «iii: pase ar ection sar ewlyee Reseed 52
30. Barred Plymouth Rocks...........0. 0.00.0. ccc eee eee 54
31. Columbian Plymouth Rocks... . 2.0.0... 55
32. Silver Wyandottess «sss sads dass ee tevacuxese der eye kee eevee s 56
33. Columbian Wyandottes...... 0.0.0.0... 00. e cece e eee eee 57
34.. Rhode Island, RedSiocvsg sn sie Gis ndag wie nies wes eiee ean vate ed 58
BGs sBlaCk? JAN ASS ste cars seass'e ave eis eduana dik oun EonGne Gleait 2S ease an ged ke Nate Gutsleo ee 59
30% BUCKEYES 26 eninaig wtunke quieres a0 Gave RA cena a cain a MRS RebAIBA 60
37. Black Orpingtonsss vase thr ans den meats tf Na ek CORR Ata eee oe ye 62
38; White (OnpingtoOns «sic accsnvidseaeida ean Sy een tetas neat 64
39, Silver-Gray Dorkings:. 2... i050. 5000 cee ens cae ide ae ale ae es 65
40. Rose Comb White Dorkings.............0....0 00.00. e eee 66
41. White Faverollese: «so... s5s052cceseceeesag inns as srudwes gee tes 67
42, La Fleche: Fowlsi.:<: ce. oases des yen ee xden poh Eee RS 68
43: CreveCOeurss x c.c5556 ce Risa wale mai ae Came eas MHEG Rae foes 69

xiv ILLUSTRATIONS
Fic. PAGE
44. White-Crested Black Polish. .......... 0.0.0 e cece eee teens 71
45. Bearded Golden Polish. ............ 0.00. c cece ec eee eens 72
46. Non-Bearded White Polish................ 00 0c cece cece eeee 73
47. Silver Duckwing Games. 2.0.06. cnne ccs wean ene eee se eae es 74
48. Red Pyle Game Bantams. ............. 00000000 e eee eeeeeee Se 75
49; White Cornish Fowls. 2. cc. cca ccs naa e ce Ra Ga Sa ee ane Se 76
50. Silver Sebright Bantams. .............0.0.0.. 00 cee eee eee ere eee 77
51. Rose-Comb White Bantams...............02. 00020 e eee teers 78
52,. White: Cochin Bantams: 42.5 oie. 9/02. daisaceuns coh Saree eee Pa UmieUe eR se aute 79
53. White Japanese Bantams... .......... 0.000 ce eect eee e eee 80
54. Colony houses on range. .......... 00. eee eee cee eee ete n eens 83
55. Centralized plant. ...0.. 02.000 ccs eb ees a ener eres eens ee nes 84
56. Laying house in grove of trees........... 00-2 c cee eee eee eee es 85
57. Box-packed poultry for shipment...............00-00000 see eee 87
58. Arch of poultry success... 2c accc es ere ses ae ee E PEERS EC RR Oe 88
59. Broiling chickens packed for shipment......00........-..-0----- 90
60. Roasting chickens packed for shipment...............-..-----5- 92
61. Dressed poultry in cartons. ..........00 0.00 eee eee 93
62. Wagon load of live poultry. ... 0... 0.0.0.0 0002 cee eee eee eee ee 96
63. Suburbanite’s poultry plant............... 0000.00 e eee eee eee 97
64. Fowls:-of frée Tange cha ea cada cara es ba ped Bade bal ay 98
68... “A good ate aco. c jek hdc edn ene whew RRs relaccaulaw ) eRe ain 99
66. Aluminum leg bands.... 2.2.0.0... 00000 c cece eee eee 100
67. Making incision for wing band..............0-- 2000 eee eee eens 101
68. Wing: bandl in place: <i sue sane mines dena seeing oars Aenean dala diese eee 102
69. Methods of marking toes of chicks...............00000 00020000. 103
70. Laying house on sloping ground..................00220022000ee 105
71. Outdoor feed hopper... . 2.2.2.0... 0000000 c ee eee eects 106
72. Substantial set of poultry buildings..................22....005. 107
73. Plans for medium-size hen house.............-.....0000002-0 00 110
74. Site for sanitary yards ors ca eagy os ceed sea Gweeeee ee esa eee ewe es Ill
75. Diagram angle of sun’s rayS... 2.0.0... 006. c cece eee ee eee 112
76. Diagram yard arrangement.............0. 0.0.0.0 00 ee ee eee eee ee 113
77. Diagram types of pens..... 0.2.0.2... 00... c eee Sec ce eee 1I4
78. Poultry house under construction. ...........0.......0.00200000, 115
79. Diagram types of roofs... ....... 02... eee cee eee eee aae 116
80. Interior continuous laying house...................0..0.0000005 117
81. Diagram floor construction. ............00000 00000 c eee ee eee 118
82. Cross-section model hen house... ................000000-.0000e 120
83. Floor plan model hen house.............. 0.0.0.0 00 cee eee eens 121
84. Front elevation model hen house....................002--2--005 122
85. End view model hen house. ..........0... 00020 c cee eee eee e eee 123
86. Framing for continuous laying house......................0.00 12
87. Diagram arrangement colony house on range.................... 125
88. Wire-covered yardsy ssi. .4.cstuies Ho aie na day das mbes awesomeness 127
89. Section intensive broiler plant..............0.000 0.0 c cece cece eee 129
go. Floor plans intensive broiler plant........................00008 130
91. House at Wisconsin College... 2.000.000... ccc cee eee 131
92. Interior laying house divided into pens....................00008 133
93. Section of laying house 20 feet deep. ...............0.000000000, 134
94. Floor plan of 20-foot house... 0.0... eee eee 135
95. Interior arrangement house. ............. 000000 ce cece eee ee eee 136
96. Section laying house 16 feet deep... 0... cece eee eee eee 137

Fic.

97.

98.

99.
100,
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108,

109.
110.

Til.
II2.

113.

114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.

138.
139.
140.
141.
142.

143.

144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.

ILLUSTRATIONS xv

PaGE
Front elevation 16-foot house. .........0..0 000s ccc eens 138
Commercial flock Leghorns. . 0... 0.0.6... cee eee eee 140
Elevated walk in front of house........0.0....0.00 00 cece eens 141
Slatted openings for ventilation... 0.0.6.2... eee 142
Diagram arrangement roosts and nests. ........... 0.000 eee eee 145
Roosting compartment. ....... 006... betes 146
Floor plan well-arranged house... ........0... 00000 c eee eee eres 147
Perches hinged upwatd.s #35 cvaevsa did seecaee spue shar Roane vans 148
Shelf ‘for water fountains. .as2e¢4 oave o4s eee ee DORE ES AER ERO 149
Plans for dry mash hopper. .............. 000 cece eee eee ee I5I
Indoor mash, hoppers ¢s¢ 2 accaccscaauet ke ork ee does eee NBIC aes 152
“Tn for the PIG E iea cs fe Saicn aionedia HA Uy AP Rw NA cE RM aoNe Ree SOS 154
Plans for ‘‘self-rising door’... 6... eee 156
Maryland poultry farm building... ........000 000000 157
Inexpensive colony house. ......... 0.0 cece eee 158
Details ‘self-closing door”. .........0.. 0.00 ccc eee 161
Hook for catching fowls. ..c06.c6 ce ceca ye nce enna inne nae 162
Device for securing open door... 1.1.0.0... 0.0.00 eee eee 163
Stake for securing open door... ........ 0... cece ee ee 164
Home-made trap nests. 6: i ssaceereeage ries risa deerieeuesudse: 167
Plans ‘Storrs’ trap nest). 4:4 eecaus ey bogs se ee eG ASS THE GR Raed oes 168
Corner of well-designed laying house..................0000 00005 169
Plans of Maine trap mest e-.:... ei sacs sided ean pawn eee ee ee ee aE 170
Single-compartment trap nest... 2.0.2.0... 0. cee eee eee 172
Two-compartment trap nest....... 02.00.26 cece eee eee 173
Feed house in center of laying house.............. 000.000 eee eee 176
Feed carrier suspended from track... ........... 2000 c eee ee eee 178
Automatic feed hoppers. cgescasrser irae ivesaneins REE wed ea 180
Outdoor feed hopper on skids... 2.2.0.0... eee 182
Overhead rail system for feed..... 01... ee ee 185
Designs for feed hoppers........... 0.000 c cee ee cee eens 188
Qutdoor feed hoppers .14 eines erygas ines ee euee es ebenas wes amd aes 190
Low-wheeled truck for feeding range... ...........0 00.000 eee ae I9I
Growing stock on alfalfa pasture... 0.0.0.0... .00 0000 ee eee eee ee 195
Fowls scratching occg4 evened coceeueeaceee hehe aah Cee ed Oo wEded 197
Chick fointainS:, ¢¢ ga-ds.e wee icincatnans gto wees S Aza awd A pale See YOO
Feeding time in a fattening station...................00.0 0005: 201
Peediig: Dattery:. :.2 pcs2 ganesans dpageeecd ae anors Bed gad toned Sie Sao eues 202
Poor: feeder: 3.24.) mau anion ain s ea.miasiutce Ki Reach ind belie, Quid aebeto Roars 203
Good type of feeder... 0.1... eee eee 203
FarmsflockOn:rangeésicwc ner ek Gee cete erence qe eed Dee 204
Chickens in feeding batteries... .......00... 000 0c cece cece 209
Grading poultry in packing house................ 0.002.002.0000 213
Spading over soil in poultry runs... 0.1... eee eee 216
Milk-feeding experiments...............: Pi Mauris Gn ater ale thames 219
Equipment for chicks’ range... 20.016. 222
Gathering greenstuffs. .. 0.00... cee ce eee este nsdn ecee ents 224
Feed oats and sprouted oats... 0.0.0... ccc eee 226
Commercial fattening plant... 0.0.0... 00.0 eee eee 228
Home-made rack for sprouting oats... 0.1.0.2. 2c ee eee eee 230
Killing room in a Western packing house Wola Gaile aeet 4 catia Goh ase 233
Small single-tray incubator... 0.0... eee eee 236

Double-tray lamp incubator... 0... ccc eee eee eee 237

xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

F PAGE
1G ae 3
150. Diagram hot-air incubator................000 000s ee eens ot a
151. Egg tray and thermometer..............-.---00 00050 Agee a
152. Double-deck coal-burning incubator.........-------- : . a
153. Interior incubator cellar............. 0.200222 é ms
154. Erection of mammoth incubator..... ..-.----- : 4 ott
155. Completion of mammoth incubator...... o> Ge tes : ay
156. Well-built incubator heater............. a) Geen a : ah
157. Diagram incubator heater and lamp......-. -.---- a ee eZ |
158. Gas heater for incubator............. Aud bag eSer te ote be d pe

159. Design for concrete incubator cellar........--- 200020 te

160. Oil-burning lamp approved by fire underwriters.....------+ 0-5 -> 252
161. Mammoth incubator with trays arranged in tiers......---------> 253
162. Doing the work of four hens with an incubator........---.-----> 257
163. Sectional view coal-burning incubator.......----.+ +2550 s2 rte 258
164. Plans for hatching egg cabinet.........-.--6 22-0022 t errr 260
165. End view of egg cabinet... ........... 00000 eee ett 261
166. Turning and cooling eggs for hatching.........---- sy wa Ra Se 264
167. Plans for electric egg tester.............-000 0 eee e eee eee nee: 2O5
168. Appearance of hatching eggs through tester........ -.-- ----->- 266
169. Testing hatching eggs... .........0.2 206 cee eee ees re 267
170. Simple egg-testing outfit... 2.000.000.0000. cee 268
171. Diagram showing growth of air cell..............-.-- agitie parte SOD
172. Double-deck mammoth incubators in large hatchery..........-.-- 271
173. Interior of a California hatchery...............--000-552 2225 273
174. Incubator room in a large hatchery..................-- 27h
175. 10,000 chicks ready for shipment.......... ep) Gaga » 275
176. Well-designed incubator building............ Be aes 276
177. Hatchery of 600,000 egg capacity.......... Moto * & & aiveccutes 278
178. Express shipment of chicks...................000 eee eee 279
179. Double-deck mammoth incubators........... Sy eee 281
180. A farm brood...............00--4-- ay aes iw se, Hee 284
181. Simple devices for sitting hens..... ........ = e * bale 285
182. Broods on a grassy range........... (a3 2 Bexcpsrekwededeers 286
183. Section through outdoor incubator.... .. . .....--2-2--2-2-4- 287
184. Plan of coop for sitting hens..................2.2..-0----0---- 288
185. Front elevation of coop for sitting hens..................2-.24-. 289
186. Rear perspective of coop..... 2.0... .. 0 eee ee eee eee © Steet 290
187, Dusting:sitting hens... 03. cane cca ee ness sees anew ndanadaaeea 292
188. Makéshift 6600p). 4 ah s.2¢ gsaee og dea wearers gachw dae eee we nak cae s+ 293
189. Rectangular brood coop..... 2.0.0.0... 000 eee e eee eee 294
190. V-shaped brood coop and run... . 2.02... 2... 20 ee eee eee eee 294
191. Hot-water brooding system.......... 0.2.0... cee ee ee eee eee 296
192. Brooder house with outdoor runs....... ............5.. 297
193. Brooder stoves are great labor savers.... .............. - 2. 299
194. Colony brooders on Government station. ............... -. 22. 300
195. Homemade fireless brooder............00 oo. ee eee ee sa 4 GOI
196. 50-chick size lamp brooding hover.. ... .......... SHE 8) me B02
197. Outdoor colony brooder..........00..00 000.002 eee ees : 303
198. Brooder—complete outfit... 0.0.0.0... 0. ee cee . 304
199. Sectional view coal-burning brooder stove...............- 305
200. Chicks sleeping around stove. .............00 2.0002. e eee. . 306
201. Combination brooder and colony house. ............-..-..... 307

202. Filling coal hopper of a brooder stove... ..........-......., 308

ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

Fic. PaGE
203. Sectional view of brooder stove. ........0. 000 ccc ect es 309
204. Summer chicks require plenty of shade................00 0000 eee 313
205. Feeding frame for chicks... 0... 0... cece cece eee 314
206. Cleaning around brooder stove... 1.0... 0.0... c cece eee 315
207. Lamp hovers are easily moved... .... 0.0.00. e eee es 316
208. Portable yard for young chicks... ........ 000.0000 cece eee nae 317
209. Sectional view of brooder stove.......... 0... c cece cece 318
210. Colony house with gasoline brooder..............0.0.00.020 000s 319
211. Orchard an ideal location for growing chicks...............-.... 320
212. Privacy for the hen and brood. ..............02.000 cece eee ees 322
213. Portable hover in simply constructed coop....................4. 326
214. Separating the mother hens............ 0.0.00 cece eee aes 327
215. Covered runaway ics ccc wucaecie gue nd area dd eee E ae ee eee bmn La) doe 329
216. A husky broGds..:5 06s wins 40g cchdadidamesemeeetemanned eugene ae 332
217. Colony house from piano cases... 2.0... 00660 ce eee 334
218. Inexpensive colony growing Coop................ 00s cece eee eee 336
219. Secluded spot for the brood... ....... 20.00.0000 0 cece eens 337
220. Hinged front for colony house.............000.0 000. c cece 337
221. Indoor coop for discouraging broodiness........... 0.0.0.0. 0000 340
222. Outdoor coop for broody hens. ........... 0... cee eee eee eee 341
223. Contest house at Storrs, Connecticut................0. 00s aee 343
224. A-shaped colony house..... 2... . ee eee eee 345
225. Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels...............-..-.-005 348
226. Homemade fattening crate....... 0.2.0... c eee eee 349
227. Pouring feed in fattening crates... 2... 0... 2.2 351
228. Plans for 2-compartment fattening crate..................0.000. 352
229. Killing and dressing broilers... .. 0.0.0.0... ccc eee eee 353
230. Correct way to grasp fowl for sticking. ............ 0.0... cee eaee 354
231. Anatomy of skull showing position of :veins..................4.. 355
232. Heads of fowls with jaws removed.............. 00. eevee eee es 356
233. Well-finished market fowl......................0- eee fe gta eae ee 359
234. Capons dressed for market. .......... 00... c cece eee eee 360
235. Side view of capons dressed for market..............0..00000 005 361
236. Caponizing instruments. ...... 0.0.0.0... 0c eee eee eee ut etn 363
237. Layout for caponizing......... 0... cece ee etna 365
238. Diagram showing where incision should be made........ id sec act 366
239. Inserting the spreaders... 1.2.0.2... 0. cc eect eee ene 367
240: Using; the probe ic is aca: cis: don tae eae ne chi Mer aan er alee asl 368
241. Pushing the intestines aside............. 0... eee eee 368
243 Grasping the gland). visa 43444950 8e5 Renae Rae Rees MERLE Swe ee AE 369
243: Operation: finished... o .ccssiewe dead ney teensy eae macseaeen ee aae 369
244. Class in killing and dressing......... 0... cece cee eee eee 370
245. Permanent quarters for pullets.................. 0... cesses 373
246. Three thousand pullets on range......... 2.0... 0. cece cece eee 375
247. Busy moment for the trap nest... 1.00.2... cece cece eee 376
248. Brood coop with slatted run... 1... eee 377
249. Pullets on a California ranch... 2.0... eee eee 379
250. Packing house equipment. ........... 0066 c cece eee eens 381
251. Breeders handled in large units... ........ 06. oc cece eee eee 383
252. Plans for a catching COOP... . 1.1... cece cece teeta 384
253. Brood coop made from rough lumber.............. 000000 eaae 386
254. Practical method for catching fowls... .............. 0000 c ceca 388
255. Diagram digestive apparatus of a fowl...............000ee eee, 392

xviii

Fic.

256.
257.
258.
259.
260.
261.
262.
263.
264.
265.
266,
267.
268,
269.
270.
271.
272.
273)
274.
275.
276.
2770
278.
279.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
285.
286,
287.
288.
289.
290.
291.
292.
293.
294.
295.
296.
297.
298.
299.
300.
301.
302.
303.
304.
305.
306.
307.
308.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Outer shell membrane of fresh egg.... 0.0.0... 000 e eee e nner
Inner shell membrane of fresh egg... 0.200... 00sec eee
Sectional view*ol eggs..s24 vueagagvineece nde ewsanne de Nee EREM PS
Yellow yolk of fresh egg... 2.0.0... cece ee ett
White yolk of fresh egg... 0... cette
Class in candling and grading eggs. .........----0 000s reece
Changes affecting the appearance of eggs...... sane ROBE
Eggs during period of incubation..............- ay oy « wie aera
Fertile and infertile eggs.................. Seen ky BOS RATER
Vegetable cellar for storing eggs............. eed, eee Poe Se
Gravity test for telling age of eggs..............--- a. ba ORAL CdN
Freight car for shipping live poultry................00 see eee eee
A FUND HOUSES. bes te ae ood uo aeo0.ek won Ed eae & Vind bugaboo: “BEET PRATER A
Refrigerator car loaded with poultry................ go geen aes
Candling eggs at farmer’s gate........... Sk heels SEGA SoS eHOAS
StolenoneSt: if CLG, 4. 2 eat cad aed Ge GOS R Se ates AS EOE EDT REE SUT
Other Stolen MESS iii ios ar eeteele he eed Gon aunals RAEN bedne e SORES &
Typical forms of egg breakage.............. 00000002000 e eee
Grading and packing eggs. . 0... acca ecu snes chem eeeenesbea es
Well-equipped feeding plant..............000. 000.20 cee eee ee
Interior of a feeding plant... ... 0.2.00... 0.00.0 e eee ee
Metal chilling racks. ¢2d0.s 26) ii bnee eee c eae ada sed sere tas ele hs
Bench killing and picking. .......... 000.0000... c eee eee eee ee
California type of laying house...............0 0000 cece ce eee
Elevated laying houses............000. 000 ee cece e eee eee
Preparing water glass: s ga.dhsepeaayeevaeivertee aan eared sew as
Receptacles for preserving eggs... 0.200.500 eee eee ee eee ee
Examining eggs by means of candler...................00-00-5-
Arrangement of houses and runs. ............0... 000.00 eee cues
Indiana, poultry houses. <o3sieya5) dacs Sk ee hws Bad GS He tows See
Metal chilling racks for hanging poultry...... ...........-..00.
Small fattening station... 00.20.0000... 0c eee eee
Removing small feathers from poultry..........................
String killing and picking... 2.2... 000... ec ee
Holding birds on lap while picking........................0000.
Glossary chart of the sections of a fowl.............. Bid scale Sane a Se
Catching coop for fowls... 2... 0... eee
Well-arranged poultry exhibit... .............0.0.000..0-.00000200.
Prize-winning Black Langshan................000 00 eee seen
Skeleton’ of: a:fOwh)nacepaicuusierssx eadveaig Gare on HOU Rane va eee
Commercial feeding station. ............0..00 00000 cee cee eee ee
Open-front poultry house...................00000-002

Pen of Pekin ducks... 2.6... cc cc cc cee ee cece eee eee ree
Good ity petof feeders «eos eecd ed iw dase4.h occa og a bie are 3 whammy pone
Indifferent type of feeder... 2.00.0... 0.00000. c eee eee
POOr TEE EI 8 i. scu aon seandauec nck Snead haWOH ob allie xed aGueri ears Gardoaralsleds
Ducks require low fences... 0.0.0... occ eee
Household scales for weighing poultry.................... ace

Brooder house with covered front platform.....................
Promising looking flock of Leghorn pullets..................0...
Ducks raised near water... 0.0... ccc eee eee eee
Feed hopper on raised platform. .... 0.0.0.0... 0.0 cece eee eens
Colony houses grouped in winter... 2... 002.0... 0c cece ee eee eee

Fic.

309.
310.
311.
312.
313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323-
324.
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332).
333-
334-
335-
336.
337-
338.
339.
340.
34I.

ILLUSTRATIONS

Feeding with tramcars... 1... 0... ccc cece een eee eee eee
Ideal location for ducks and geese... 1.1.0... cece eect eens
Artificial. duck pond yx s<siu% cosa epee huesees eed aesawhe eses eee
Well-proportioned poultry house........... 0.000. c cece eee eee ee
White Pekin ducklings... 0.0.6... eee cece teenies
Painting the perches with crude oil.... 0.0.0.0... 0... e eee ee eee
Dusting a fowl with insect powder... ......... 000.00 cece eee ee
Spraying the roosting compartments. ............. 0.00.00 ee eee
Outfit for whitewashing. ......... 00... cece eee eee eee
Interior of pigeon house... 1.0... 2... eee eens
Pekin: ducks oss sccm essa en vras eee ed PERC RG EYES Mee ee a eleD
White: Muscovy ducks. ce: saccades vuswea pen taer ens ee ens sinaes
Indian Runner ducksis. jscc300.. ccc ceas eae gae eee eaeee ee ce seas
Aylesbury ducky. iacicc soa dacs pak duane Het uN eae s Gan ees worse ee Mees
RO MEM AA UGRES i552 4. ain aivestatiny ts exdas mae dnstalecuigr Saad wuss 9 sie aasads aoe eNRTASs
Ducks are heavy drinkers.........0 0.00.00 cee cece cece eee eee
Toulouse gees@s..i0c ci adcimavidiwad ea geatnn ts dane einen aaa gs
Emden Geese: gctta can ta teedalamenaee MePet ace bea eee ane HD
White: China geese: os. 4.0. cats au onnenoeann cou Renee wien areca eS Seem &
Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese. ..............-.
Bronze -turkeyse! i. iene vera ncavihs semaine ae nen eeu ait elon nates
White Holland turkeys: « .ccssese0u vada rece re eau nee awin acne tHe
Shelters for protection against elements................000+-05:
Combination chicken and squab farm. .............0.0000000005
Typical pigeon house and fly... 0.22... eee eee
Open-front poultry house in summer... .. 0.0.0.0... eee e eee
Same House I WINGER. wee soc cso selena wd betas, Hae Widow ate de A Bn
Ideal range for growing stock... 1... kee eee
Homer pigeon... .. 2.00... ieee eee eee teens
Carmeaux DpIgeoni. «nce nts d ood mes beams HAREM a ee OFM
White runt, female pigeon... .. 16.66. o ieee eee eee ee
Runt cross pigeon... eee eect eee teen eens
Runt cross pigeon. 6... eee een ene

COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

CHAPTER I
AMERICAN POULTRY INDUSTRY

The term poultry, as it is commonly understood, applies col-
lectively to those species of domestic birds which are kept for
the purpose of furnishing eggs and meat for human consump-
tion. Game birds are used on the table, but so long as they re-
main in a wild state they cannot be classed as poultry. On the
other hand, we are disposed to consider certain species of birds
as poultry, such as pigeons which are bred for ornament or as
carriers, whereas they do not rightfully belong under this head.
Peafowls are considered as poultry, and while formerly they were
bred for the table, they are now raised almost exclusively for orna-
ment. Swans are in pretty much the same position as peafowls.

Main Divisions.—Technically there are three main divisions
of poultry: (1) GALLINACEA, or comb bearers, which include
chickens, turkeys, guinea fowls, pheasants and quail. All re-
semble each other in general structure and habits, and all are
distinguished from other birds in that the flesh on the breast
and wings is lighter in color than on the rest of the body. (2)
NATATORES, or swimmers, include ducks, geese and swans, and
are characterized by their web feet and long, thick bills. (3)
COLUMBIDAE, or doves, is the other order; pigeons are its only
representatives in the poultry world.

Chickens comprise the bulk of the poultry industry, especially
in this country, and their relation to the animal kingdom is as
follows: They belong to the series, METAzoA, because they con-
sist of animals with cellular tissues and true eggs. They are of
the branch, VERTEBRATA, inasmuch as they are animals having an

internal skeleton and backbone. They are in the division known
I 1

‘yay a1 susoyay SUM UOT v ory ‘eIUIOpTeD ‘3011381q un] e}aqG—'I *31y
(fo ko) fo daquioyD DULNIDIAT KSajanoy)

AMERICAN POULTRY INDUSTRY 3

as CRANIOTA, because they have a skull, heart and brain. They
are classed as Aves, because they are true birds, feathered, and
have four limbs, one pair for progression on land and one pair
for flight; no teeth. They are sub-divided into the order,
Rasores, because they are terrestrial in their habits, having
stout legs suitable for scratching, and strong arched beaks suit-
able for seed eating. GALLUs is a true representative of this
order, and is the common ancestor of all our domestic fowls;
it was a jungle fowl native to southwestern Asia and Oceania.

To-day there are over a hundred different varieties of chickens.
By variety we mean species of certain well defined character-
istics, which are officially recognized, as by the American Stan-
dard of Perfection.

Scope of Poultry Industry—The importance of the poultry
industry, and the relative importance of chickens to the industry,
may be gathered from the United States census report for 1910,
as shown in Table I.

Taste I.—SprciEs oF PouLTry IN UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO I9I0

CENSUS
FARMS REPORTING
NUMBER OF EsTIMATED
PouLTRY VALUE

Per Cent

Number of Farms
Total Poultry...... 5,585,012 88.1 295,876,176 $153,394,142
Chickens.......... 5,577,218 88.0 280,340,643 $140,192,912
Turkeys........... 852,679 13.4 3,688,688 6,605,640
Ducks isa. ese 503,673 7.9 2,904,359 1,566,176
Geese sn euls ees dass 661,189 10.4 4,431,623 3,192,861
Guinea fowls....... 339,922 5.4 1,765,033 613,282
Pigeons........... 99,409 1.6 2,730,996 162,372
All others......... 2,005 .OOI 14,834 460,899

Unfortunately, Table I fails to take into account the numbers
of poultry under three months of age, or those which are raised
and kept in backyards of towns and villages all over the country.
If these were added they would constitute a big increase over the

*Aqjnod jo pray ooo‘oS
Sjudssido1 Jop Yoey — “snsuad 0161 0} Burpsovoe sayze}g payuy) ur uoronposd Asynod Surjeoipur weyg—z ‘314

EQUALS VALUE OF WHEAT 5

figures in the census report, and also raise the ratio of chickens
to other species.

Regarding the magnitude of the industry in still another way,
in 1911 the Secretary of Agriculture placed the national income
from poultry products at $750,000,000 for the year. This figure
equaled the combined value of all the gold, silver, iron and coal
mined that year, and exceeded the value of the wheat crop for
the same period. To-day, the income from poultry products
is estimated at one billion dollars annually, or one-twelfth the
value of all agricultural products, or one-fiftieth of our total
wealth on all manufactures and industries of every description.
Manifestly, the poultry
industry occupies a very
important part.in our de-
velopment, a very much
more important part
than most of us have any
idea.

Eggs Leading Prod-
uct.—According to the
1910 census the income

se a ke Get hae 3
from poultry products (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)
for the average farm was Fig. 3.—A hen with a brood of sturdy chicks

A ,
$104.98, or about two is one of the farmer’s best assets.

dollars per bird. Eggs

are the leading poultry product, and constitute about sixty-five
per cent of the total value of the poultry asa whole. That most
of these eggs are hens’ eggs goes without saying. True, the eggs
from ducks and guinea fowls find their way into the trade chan-
nels, but in such small numbers as to be a negligible factor.
Turkey eggs and goose eggs are used almost exclusively for hatch-
ing purposes.

Demand Greater Than Supply.—The output of eggs is in-
creasing each year, yet there are no gluts for the reason that the
demand is always greater than the supply. According to the
Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for t910 the aver-

6 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

age price paid to farmers in 1899 was 11.5 cents a dozen. In
1909 the average price was 19.7 cents per dozen, an increase of
almost a hundred per cent in ten years. In 1917 the average
price was about 25 cents a dozen.

Table II shows a comparison of the prices paid for poultry and
eggs in New York City for a number of years. The prices are
those paid by wholesalers, all grades considered, except those of
the strictly fancy marks from nearby points, which are in small
volume, and handled mostly by express shipments.

TABLE II.—WHOLESALE Prices or EGcs AND PouLtry IN NEW YORK CITY

Prices PAID IN CENTS
YEAR
Live Poultry Dressed Poultry
Eggs Per Dozen Per Pound Per Pound

1896 14.0 9.0 10.0
1897 14.5 8.5 9.0
1898 15.5 8.8 9.1
1899 17.0 9.8 II.0
1900 16.0 9.3 10.0
1901 18.0 9.5 11.0
1902 20.0 11.5 14.5
1903, 18.5 12.5 15.5
1904 20.0 12.5 15.0
1905 20.0 13.0 16.0
1906 19.0 12.8 15.0
1907 18.5 13.8 15.5
1908 19.0 13.5 15.8
1909 23.5 16.0 18.3
1910 23.0 17.0 19.8
IQII 19.3 15.0 17.8
1912 22.8 15.5 18.3

For 1917 the average price on eggs was about 30 cents, for live
poultry 22 cents, and for dressed poultry 26 cents.

Export Trade.—Aside from the increase in our home consump-
tion of poultry products, our export trade is steadily growing.
In 1912 we imported eggs to the extent of $147,173. For the same
period we exported eggs to the extent of $3,400,000. Table ITI
shows how these exports have grown, and to which continental
divisions they were sent:

DEMAND INCREASING STEADILY 7

TABLE III]—Exports or Eccs From U. S.

YEAR 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912
Purope? sy oscvodtweae's $44,095| $2,265 $574 $639] $15,613
North America....... 1,490,279 | 1,195,446 | 1,256,998 | 1,782,141 | 3,375,413
South America....... 2,692 1,342 1,921 3,218 3,135
AS lass. a.n iy aarti ones 597 135 337 43 60
Oceania............. 1,451 334 666 978 1,731

The figures in Table III apply to eggs in the shell. There were
additional exports, amounting to about thirty thousand dollars
a year, for canned eggs, yolks, and so on.

Distribution of Poultry—Geographically the poultry produc-
tion of this country may be divided into three principal sections:
(1) the northeastern states, including New England and the
Middle Atlantic States, (2) the states bordering on the Pacific
coast, and (3) the states lying in the Mississippi Valley. Each
principal section is more or less distinctive for its kind of products.
In the northeastern territory the poultry industry is highly spe-
cialized. A great many large farms devoted to nothing but fowls
are found there, and their outputs are consumed in nearby mar-
kets in the large cities. In the Vineland, New Jersey, tract there
are upwards of a quarter of a million White Leghorn hens, bred
for high egg production.

The Pacific territory is pretty much the same as the north-
eastern section, only on a smaller scale. Conditions are pretty
much identical, both as to methods of production and marketing.
The Petaluma district corresponds to the Vineland tract, and it
is the largest single poultry producing section in the world.
See Fig. 1. It has close to a million White Leghorn hens.

Mississippi Valley Poultry——tThings are very different in the
Mississippi Valley, which comprises the states of Minnesota, Wis-
consin, Illinois, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Nebraska, Iowa, Kan-
sas, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and
Texas. In this vast territory the great bulk of our poultry is
produced, yet for all, there are very few farms which might be

‘sdoid wavy J9Yy}0 YW Asjpnod Bururquros yo Av oy} Ul BUOP oy UL }EYM $3s988Ns ainjoid sIy[—‘P “Biz

(to1pDIS juauetdagxgy anpang &sazAnoD)

VALUE OF POULTRY 9

termed strictly poultry farms, or where the poultry reared is con-
sidered anything more than a by-product. The farms are devoted
to other forms of livestock or to other agricultural pursuits, chiefly
grain, and what chickens are kept represent small flocks, mostly
of indiscriminate origin.

TABLE IV.—VALUE oF POULTRY IN TEN LEADING STATES, ACCORDING TO
CENSUS OF IQIO

RANK STATE TOTAL VALUE
I Iowa $12,270,000
2 Missouri 11,871,000
3 Illinois 11,697,000
4 Ohio 9,533,000
5 New York 7,879,000
6 Indiana 7,762,000
7 Pennsylvania 7,674,000
8 Kansas 7,377,000
9 Michigan ‘ 5,611,000

10 Texas 4,807,000

Collectively these flocks produce over fifty per cent of the
total valuation of our poultry industry, the greater part of
which is marketed elsewhere. The quality of the products pro-
duced in the Mississippi Valley is inferior to the grades pro-
duced in the other sections.. This is especially true of eggs, and
is due to the fact that the average farmer does not give his
hens the correct care, neither does he take sufficient pains in
marketing the eggs promptly. The bulk of the poultry and eggs
produced in this section is sold to local buyers, thence to the city
packing houses and wholesalers.

*queyd Arynod predyorq Japoyy—’S ‘317

CHAPTER II
ANALYZING THE DIFFERENT BREEDS

Best Breed.—No inquiry comes to hand more frequently than:
“Which is the best breed of fowls?”’ ‘‘ Which variety of chickens
is the most profitable?”

These and similar questions are entirely pertinent ones, of
course, yet none are so difficult to answer, except at great length,
accompanied by much explanatory matter. I have always held
that there is no one BEST breed of chickens. And I am still of
the same opinion.

To be sure, there are best breeds for a particular purpose, and
there may be superior breeds for a given locality, also, there are
varieties better suited to a special taste for ornamental fowls;
but, these qualifications make the subject more or less specific,
which is the only way that it can be discussed intelligently. Let
us consider it from this impartial standpoint.

Standard Varieties.—It may surprise the layman to learn that
there are upward of 110 standard and a large number of non-
standard varieties of chickens. See Table V. By non-standard
breeds is meant those that are well established, but not as yet
admitted to the American Standard of Perfection, which is the
authority on poultry in this country, just as the American Kennel
Club is the authority on dogs. The American Standard of Per-
fection is a very illuminating work, by the way, gotten up by the
American Poultry Association, and should find a place on every
poultryman’s bookshelf. No fancier should attempt to raise
fowls for exhibition purposes without this authority, and even
for commercial ends it will be found decidedly helpful.

12 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

TaBLE V.—STANDARD CLAssES, BREEDS, AND VARIETIES OF POULTRY
ACCORDING TO AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION FOR I910
CLass BREED VARIETY

Plymouth Rock. . Silver Pencilled
Partridge
Columbian

Silver

Golden

White
Wyandotte...... Bue
Partridge
Silver Pencilled
Columbian

Black
J BV@as staat eyed Mottled

Dominique...... | Rose Comb

Single Comb
Rhode Island Red { Rose Comb

American..............

Buckeye........ Pea Comb

Light
Brahma......... { Dark
Buff 3
. Partridge
geek e Pah aude waee Cochin. ........ 4 White
Black

Black
White

Asiatic

Single Comb Brown
Rose Comb Brown
Single Comb White
Rose Comb White
Leghorn........ Single Comb Buff
Rose Comb Buff
Single Comb Black
Silver

Single Comb Red Pyle

Single Comb Black
Rose Comb Black

Mediterranean.........

Minorca........ Single Comb White
Single Comb Buff

Spanish. ........ White-faced Black

Andalusians... .. Blue

Ancona......... Mottled

GREAT DIVISIONS OF CHICKENS 13

TaBLE V.—STANDARD CLASSES, BREEDS, AND VARIETIES OF POULTRY—

CLass

PONiShys 29 nists 28 Gate heed eels

Hamburg..............

Pench isc ssisns sages aaxcea

Game and Game Bantam

(Continued)
BREED

Dorkings........

Red Caps.......

Orpingtons......

Polish... .......

Game Bantam...

White

VARIETY

Silver Gray
Colored

Rose Comb

Single Comb Black
Single Comb White

| Single Comb Buff

White-crested Black
Bearded Golden
Bearded Silver
Bearded White

Buff Laced
Non-bearded Golden
Non-bearded Silver
Non-bearded White

Golden Spangled
Silver Spangled
Golden Pencilled
Silver Pencilled
White

Black

Mottled
Black
Black

Black-breasted Red
Brown Red

Golden Duckwing
Silver Duckwing
Birchen

Red Pyle

White

Black

Black-breasted Red
Brown Red

Golden Duckwing
Silver Duckwing
Birchen

Red Pyle

White

| Black

14 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

TABLE V.—STANDARD CLASSES, BREEDS, AND VARIETIES OF POULTRY—

(Continued)
CLass BREED VARIETY
Dark
Cornish......... White
White-laced Red
Oriental............... SHinatta cokes, Black
Malay.......... Black-breasted Red
Malay Bantam Black-breasted Red
Sebright........ { eg
Rose Comb ..... { eee
Booted......... White
Brahma......... { pitt
Ornamental Bantam... . Buff
2 Partridge
Cochin ......... White
Black
Black Tailed
Japanese........ White
Black
Bearded White
Polish. cov 532 S24 sc Buff Laced
Non-bearded
Silkies... 2.0.0... White
Miscellaneous. ......... Sultans........, White
Frizzles......... Any Color
Bronze
Narragansett
White
Turkey's ssaie cigars deen’ Turkey... ...... Black
Buff
Slate

Bourbon

CLASSES OF POULTRY 15

TaBLE V.—STANDARD CLASSE3, BREEDS, AND VARIETIES OF POULTRY—

(Continued)
CLass BREED VARIETY
Pekin. 25 eeveagas White
Aylesbury....... White
Rouen.......... Colored
Cayuga......... Black
Gray

Callan a ceiagee | Weze

Duck 2 ee ae Ss a Se East India 8 Seataee Black
Crested......... White

Colored
Muscovy........ { White
: Fawn and White

Indian Runner... { White
Swedish......... Blue
Toulouse........... Gray
Embden........... White
African ............ Gray

GOOS8E: 655 wb8led eae : Brown
Chinese......... { White
Wild or Canadian ...Gray
Egyptian .......... Colored

The standard varieties are generally divided into the following
classes:

® N

ON AND

American Class: Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode
Island Reds, Javas, Dominiques, Buckeyes.

. Asiatic Class: Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans.
. Mediterranean Class: Leghorns, Minorcas, Spanish, An-

dalusians, Campines and Anconas.

. English Class: Dorkings, Orpingtons and Redcaps.
. Polish Class: Polish fowls of which there are eight varieties.
. Dutch Class: Hamburgs, of which there are six varieties.

French Class: Houdans, Crevecoeurs and La Fleche.

. Games and Game Bantams: Eight varieties of games, and

the same number and kind of game bantams.

16 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

9. Oriental Class: Cornish, Sumatras, Malays and Malay
Bantams.

10. Ornamental Bantam Class: Sebrights, Rose-Comb, Booted,
Brahmas, Cochins, Japanese and Polish.

1r. Miscellaneous: Silkies, Sultans and Frizzles.

For practical purposes the above eleven classes are grouped
into four general classes, about as follows:

1. Egg breeds, commonly called the non-sitting breeds.

2. Meat or table breeds.

3. General purpose breeds, sometimes spoken of as dual-pur-

pose fowls.

4. Ornamental breeds, which, as the term implies, includes such
ornamental varieties as the Polish, Games, and Bantams,
and are raised almost exclusively by fanciers for exhibition
purposes.

General Discussion.—It will appear obvious that the question
of selecting a particular variety of poultry is one having consider-
able scope and many sides. It is manifestly impossible to take
care of the subject in a single chapter. Therefore, in this chapter
we will devote our attention toa general discussion of the problem.

No Iron-Clad Rules.—The writer has always worked on the
assumption, if such it be, that there are no iron-clad rules for
poultry keeping. It has been said that a man must be half hen
with feathers growing on his back to make a success with chickens.
We interpret this to mean that a man (or woman, we use the
masculine form merely to simplify expression) must be fond of the
work, and understand the nature of his charge, otherwise he can
not attain that insight and competence, in a sense comradeship,
which is the foundation of all success in handling animals. In
other words, he must always have the interests of his birds at
heart. Such a man can make a success of any breed of poultry.

Hens are considered downright stupid by some. However true
this may be, there is considerable human nature in a chicken,
more character, perhaps, than one would suppose. Failure to
appreciate this is probably one of the reasons why many breeders
are unsuccessful. There are temperaments in chickens, just as
there are temperaments in the human kind. The point is to seek

BREED FOR DEFINITE END 17

the fowl having some basis for mutual exchange—a similarity or
congeniality between the keeper and his flock. For this reason
I do not care to say offhand that a certain breed is best. I prefer
to leave this selection to the individual. .The wisdom of this stand
will become apparent in the succeeding paragraphs.

Some prospective poultrymen contemplate a start in the busi-
ness with a fixed interest or fondness for a particular variety
firmly established in their minds. Others enter the field witha

(I
uh )
WW
AN

(Hay
NY \i\;

ee al aaa

Fig. 6.—Light Brahmas.

definite end, but no particular interest in any one breed. Still
others engage in the work without any special interest in any
breed or any particular phase of the work, simply a desire to raise
chickens. There is yet another class of prospective poultrymen
who, being possessed of certain real estate, from which it is im-
practicable to move, we will say, should select breeds that are
best adapted to their particular localities.

Have a Definite Aim.—At first glance you may conclude that

18 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

this analysis is hair-splitting. Not so. It is common sense in the
extreme. One of the fundamentals of good business is to apply
one’s talents to the best advantage, where they are the most con-
genial, the most productive, and where they can be made to
specialize. Aimlessness is almost fatal to success in any line of
endeavor. It is like the proverbial rolling stone. Fix your mind
on a specific end, and then select the conditions best suited to
accomplish that end.

Fig. 7.—White Wyandottes.

The person who starts out with a fondness for a particular
breed of chickens should capitalize on that fondness if it is at all
feasible. For example, we will say that a person is partial to
Light Brahmas. See Fig. 6. That person should make his spe-
cialty meat, and not eggs. If, on the other hand, he favors Silver
Campines to the exclusion of all other breeds, he should make his
specialty eggs, and not meat. The Light Brahma is one of the

WYANDOTTES ARE GOOD BROILERS 19

best meat breeds, either for soft roasters or capons; the Silver
Campine is essentially an egg producer, and is not desirable for
,table poultry. When I say ‘‘not desirable for table poultry” I
mean that it is not in popular demand, and not particularly pro-
fitable as such. The Campine is small, inclined to be dry and
stringy, and the color of its carcass does not meet with market
requirements. They find a sale, of course, but the prices received
are below those gotten for the Brahmas.

L/)\

1
| ik
HIS
yy,
v

MW \
~t wi WN %

Breeds for Particular Purposes.—The person who starts out
with a particular specialty firmly fixed in his mind should make
everything subordinate to this end. If he has his mind made up
on a broiler plant, well and good, he will do well to choose the
Wyandotte, all other things being equal. See Fig. 7. He might
also select the Plymouth Rock or the Rhode Island Red, or nu-
merous others, but he would be heading wrong to pick out, let

20 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

TaBLE VI.—WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS AS REQUIRED BY THE
AMERICAN STANDARD OF PERFECTION OF IQIO

Crass CocKs HENS COCKERELS | PULLETS
Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds

American class:

Plymouth Rocks............. 9% 74 8 6

Wyandottes................. 8% 6% 7% 5%

NAVAS oie na raced aMiotadam anaes 9% 74% 8 6%

Dominiques................. 7 5 6 4

Rhode Island Reds........... 8% 6% 71% 5

Buckeyes...............0000. 9 6 8 5
Asiatic class:

Brahmas.................0.. 12 9% 10 8

Cochins =. 2 20s ce baebawed ee ays II 9% 9 7

Langshans................... 9% 1% 8 6%
Mediterranean class:

MinOrcas's 2 ieidl onde eae geeied 9 4 7% 6%

Spanishi: cds soca daw dave 8 6% 6% 5%

Blue Andalusians............. 6 5 5 4
English class:

Dorkings:s :.ac0 eraueseens Gees 7% 6 6% 5

Redcaps: icies25ivescisenees. LA 6 6 5

Orpingtons.................. 10 8 8% 7
French class:

Houdanss soa ccsasuacr ie nha: 74% 6% 6% 5%

Creveceeurs... 0.2.00... 000600. 8 7 7 6

J ot (els ee re 8% 7% 7% 6%
Oriental class:

Cornish). «i 'acicuisa windows dee-acantes 9 7 8 6

Malays! ices see sis ona sine Sac eon 9 7 7 5

Ounces Ounces Ounces Ounces

Malay Bantams.... ......... 26 24 24 22
Game Bantam class:

Game Bantams......... rae 22 20 20 18
Ornamental Bantam class:

Sebrights su: csaapwiw Rey ena 26 22 22 20

Rose-Comb.................. 26 22 22 20

Booted spe sae ceeds ate Sepusd see 26 22 22 20

Brahmas asesannes xen eer eas 30 26 26 2

Cochin. sesesagaed aces coven: 30 26 26 24

Japanese. ......... cece e eee 26 22 22 20

POlish 2 65 sax ecigoed gigecuiaa ens 26 22 22 20

us say, the Hamburg or the Polish. On the contrary, if this fellow
wanted to establish a specialty in fancy eggs for a select trade,
and the trade called for white eggs, he would do well to raise
Leghorns, and not Cornish or Red Pyle Games. If the market

COLD CLIMATE BREEDS 21

requirements demanded brown shelled eggs, he must forget about
Leghorns and turn to one of the American breeds or English
‘breeds. New York, for instance, is very partial to white eggs—
they command premium prices over brown eggs; whereas Boston
favors brown eggs, as do other New England cities.

We now come to the fellow who has few if any convictions as

ANN
i AN <<

Fig. 9.—White-Laced Red Cornish Fowls.

to breeds or purposes. He will be influenced by his circumstances,
of course, the amount of available capital, the amount of labor he
intends putting into the project, and the locality in which he
hopes to make a start. This prospective poultryman is pretty
much in the same class with the fellow who is possessed of a loca-
tion, and must make his specialty suit that property.

In extremely cold climates where the winters are long and

22 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

severe, it is sometimes best to adopt one of the heavier breeds,
such as the Plymouth Rocks, for these are hardy birds. See Fig.
8. If the location is adjacent to water, ducks should be considered.
If there is an abundance of pasture land, geese would be profitable.
Where there is wide range in a wood lot, turkeys and guineas do
well. If the chickens are to be kept in a backyard, in restricted
quarters, it is advisable to select a docile breed rather than a
nervous, excitable variety. If the flock is to be restrained within
a low fence, the meat or general purpose breeds are best. They
can be confined within a three or four foot fence, whereas the
Mediterranean breeds are high flyers and generally require a
seven-foot yard.

The popularity of the breed is another factor worthy of one’s
consideration. Whimsical and illogical as this may sound, it is
nevertheless an important item toward the success of a poultry
venture.

CHAPTER III
EGG BREEDS

Definition—The term Ecc BREEDs is used to designate those
varieties whose greatest usefulness lies in the production of eggs.
Most of these fowls comprise the Mediterranean class. They are
mostly small or medium-size birds, of a nervous, active tempera-
ment, take flight readily when frightened, excellent foragers, gen-
erally poor sitters, and not very dependable mothers. For best
results their eggs must be hatched in incubators, and the chicks
raised artificially. They mature quickly, and feather at an early
age, the chicks often developing wing feathers when but a few
days old. The meat of the egg breeds does not rank very high
for table purposes, except when the fowls are young. They make
fair broilers up to twelve weeks of age. Surplus cockerels are
used to this end, though it would hardly pay the poultryman who
specializes in broilers to think of adopting these breeds, He would
do better to select one of the meat or general purpose breeds.

Broad Generalities.—In discussing a subject of this kind it
must be borne in mind that these descriptions are based upon
broad generalities—the popularly accepted rules. There are ex-
ceptions, of course, since many natural instincts have been out-
bred in certain strains of fowls by long periods of intense domes-
tication. Chickens are made docile by training, just as wild
animals are made to live peaceably in a domestic state. I have
seen Leghorns that were a lot more approachable than Plymouth
Rocks, though the rule is not the case. I mention this here that.
the reader will not be misguided into the belief that all egg breeds
of fowls are wild, or even semi-wild, uncontrollable birds, because
they are not.

Vigor of Mediterranean Varieties.—Until the past decade,

most of the Mediterranean varieties were thought to be more or
23

24 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

less delicate. This is accounted for by several reasons. Nearly
all of the eggs breeds have large combs and pendulous wattles,
hence they are sensitive to cold. It has been found, however, that
if the poultry houses are kept dry by adequate ventilation, and
the fowls are given suitable roosting quarters, there is little trouble
from frost-bite, even in climates where the temperature goes below
freezing for months at a time. The fact that the young chicks

nA ee
WAZ
iba,

ae,
yy

Fig. 10.—Single Comb White Leghorn.

feather very quickly, which is a great drain on their systems, was
accepted as another reason for making them delicate for a time.

Being imported from countries that are warm and sunny the
greater part of the year, it was to be expected that these Mediter-
ranean breeds should be influenced by our northern winters at
first. Now, however, they have been bred here so long that they
are in the main thoroughly acclimated, and little fear need be
entertained as to their hardihood.

MOST COMMON EGG BREEDS 25

The Leghorn is probably the best example of the non-sitting
class. See Fig.1o. It iscertainly the most popular and the most
widely bred of any European fowl. Other egg breeds include the
Minorcas, Anconas, Andalusians, Campines and Spanish, all
Mediterranean breeds. To these should be added the Hamburg,
Houdan, the Redcap and possibly some others. They all lay
white-shelled eggs.

j YE:

tA St
fy SS
Se

Fig. 11.—Single Comb Brown Leghorn.

The most common varieties of Leghorns are White, Brown,
Buff, Black and Silver, and most of these color varieties are again
sub-divided into Single and Rose-Comb species. The White and
Brown Leghorns are the most widely bred, and they were the
first varieties known. There seems to be excellent ground for the
belief that they were first introduced into America from Italy.
There is a story to the effect that in 1834 a sailing vessel from

26 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Leghorn, Italy, brought a small cargo of fowls to this country,
which were at once named Leghorns. They were found to be
prolific layers, which at once gave rise to their popularity.

Improvement.—Since their first importation the Leghorns have
been greatly improved, needless to say, and American breeders
are also responsible for creating most of the sub-varieties of the
breed. I am of the opinion that the Browns run a trifle smaller
than the Whites, and that they lay a smaller egg. See Fig. 11.
The Browns are probably hardier, but to offset this advantage,
they are harder to breed true to color, especially in large flocks,
and they do not make so good a carcass as the Whites when
dressed.

The White Leghorn is acknowledged to be the premier in lay-
ing, so much so that it has come to be recognized as the standard
by which the prolificness of other breeds are judged. It may be
said to represent in the poultry world what the Jersey cow does
in the dairy—small in size, but great in production. Some of the
most successful poultry plants in the country use the White
Leghorn exclusively, especially those catering to a fancy egg trade.

The Buff Leghorn is a beautiful variety, and has many ad-
mirers. See Fig. 12. It has the same general characteristics as
its White cousin, only its plumage is a rich golden buff color.
The Black Leghorn is another striking example of this breed, and
is a favorite among those who are partial to dark-colored birds.
This variety is sometimes mistaken for the Black Minorca, though
the latter is larger in size, has a longer body, larger comb, and
dark slate or nearly black shanks and toes. The Black Leghorn
is a glossy black throughout its plumage; comb, face and wattles
are bright red; the ear lobes white, and the shanks yellow or
yellowish black.

Silver Leghorns, sometimes called Silver Duckwing Leghorns,
are not so widely bred in this country, though they are frequently
seen in the show rooms. In point of beauty they are considered
very interesting, but they are likewise difficult to breed true to
color in large flocks. In other ways they are considered as profit-
able as the other varieties.

RIGHT BREED IN RIGHT PLACE 27

The only distinguishing difference between the single-comb and
rose-comb varieties is in the comb. The former has a blade, while
the latter has a spike. Rose-comb varieties are preferred by some
because there is less danger from frost-bite.

There is no standard weight given for Leghorns, though the
average may be said to be 334 pounds for hens, and 414 pounds
for cocks. Pullets and cockerels are a trifle under these weights.
Some strains run heavier, which is obtained by introducing

Fig. 12.—Rose-Comb Buff Leghorn.

Minorca blood. It is thought that some of the English breeders
have crossed a little Wyandotte blood, for their Leghorns are of
a much different type.

Correct Circumstances.—The Leghorn, while it is a breed of
great merit, should not be confused as the right breed for every
man and every place. Put the Leghorn in its proper environment
and there is no fowl that will surpass it. On the contrary, if sub-
jected to conditions that are not suitable for it, it will be an end-
less source of trouble and disappointment. Leghorns are ambi-

28 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

tious fowls, tireless foragers. If there is any scratching in sight,
whether it be a garbage heap, truck garden, cold-frame, manure
pile, or rose-bed, the Leghorn will make strenuous efforts to get
into it. Therefore, the person who would keep a garden, for
flowers or vegetables, had better see to it that his hen yard is
securely inclosed with wire netting if he expects to raise Leghorns.

If the runs are large enough, Leghorns can be confined within

Fig. 13.—Lakenvelders.

a seven-foot fence, as a rule. Once they develop the habit of
‘‘yard-breaking,’’ however, they will clear this with ease, for they
make a practice of half-flying and half-climbing up the netting.

Nervousness.—As previously mentioned, the Leghorn is a
nervous bird. Whenever danger approaches, or anything that
they imagine is dangerous or unusual, their first impulse is to
fly out of the way. They abominate the feeling of being cornered.

MINORCAS 29

In a large yard, especially if it is square, this condition is not so
likely to occur. And if a flock is not made to resort to its wings,
in time it seems to forget their real power, in which event they
are confined with less trouble. It is a mistake to place rails at
the top of a fence, or anything that appears as a perch. These
tempt the birds to fly to them.

Small Size.—One argument that is used in favor of the Leghorn
is its small size, which will enable one to keep a large number in
a small space, such as a backyard or town lot. It is true that Leg-
horns require smaller house room than some other breeds, which
is an important factor on the commercial plant, but at the same
time they should have greater outdoor freedom. From my ex-
perience, I would prefer one of the American breeds in limited
areas. Asa rule they are more docile and will stand close confine-
ment with better results.

The eggs from the Leghorn run high in fertility, which has
made this breed a favorite in the day-old-chick trade. It is not
unusual for breeders to secure 98 per cent fertility. An average
of 90 per cent would be considered equal to 65 per cent in the
heavier varieties. The pullets often begin laying when 414 months
old, though 534 months should be reckoned as the average. The
cockerels commence to crow at two months, or younger, and are
very precocious.

Leghorns, and in fact, other egg breeds, are comparatively
small eaters, and the cost of raising them to maturity is about
one-half that of the meat breeds. Under proper conditions a
flock of Leghorns that has been bred for heavy egg production
should average between 130 and 180 eggs a year. Many indi-
viduals have scored over 250 eggs in a single year, and even 300
eggs.

General Characteristics —The Minorcas belong to the Medi-
terranean class, and are often rated next to the Leghorn in laying
qualities. They are bred in two colors, white and black. The
Whites have a single comb, whereas the Blacks are bred with a
single comb, also rose comb, which is now accepted as a standard
variety. The single comb Black is the most widely bred of this
family, a truly beautiful and useful fowl. See Fig. 14.

30 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Origin of Name.—Why these fowls are called Minorcas is one
of the mysteries so common to the history of poultry. The breed
was formerly called the Red-Faced Black Spanish, or Portugal
fowl. Some persons got the idea that they originally came from
the island of Minorca, hence the name.

Weight.—Minorcas are heavier than Leghorns, and are there-
fore more to be recommended as table fowls. The standard

Fig. 14.—Single Comb Black Minorca.

weight of the Single Comb Black variety is 9 pounds for cocks,
7% pounds for hens, 714 pounds for cockerels and 64 pounds for
pullets. The weights for the Whites are one pound lighter. See
Fig. 15.

Popularity.—The Minorcas have long been a popular fowl in all
sections of the country, and this popularity has been attained
solely on the merits of this breed. They are non-sitters and year-

MINORCAS 31

round layers. For table purposes they would be classed as “‘ fair.”
Their flesh is sweet and juicy, but owing to its being white, and
the shanks black or slate-color, it is discounted by American
housewives, who prefer a yellow-skinned carcass. While the Leg-
horns as a class surpass the Minorcas in the number of eggs laid,
the latter are considered to lay a larger egg, and to equal the Leg-
horn in actual bulk of egg material.

ha Wade
S vy ia
f a SY sae
_ v rest Ons

che

Fig. 15.—Single Comb White Minorca,

In recent years, however, so much improvement has been made
in the Leghorn in the way of selecting layers of large-size eggs,
that I am inclined to think this superiority of the Minorca is
more romance than fact. I have seen whole flocks of Leghorns
that laid uniformly large eggs, eggs that seemed out of all propor-
tion to the hens’ bodies.

Good Breed for Farmers.—Minorcas make a desirable fowl for
the farmer; they have an active disposition and are excellent fora-

32 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

gers. Perhaps their most striking feature is the comb, which is
almost ponderous in size and quite thick. This feature is often
raised as an objection because of the susceptibility to frost bite.
In climates where the winters are long and severe Minorcas are
not to be recommended on this account. This huge comb and
proportionately pendulous wattles offer another disadvantage in
marketing the fowls for table poultry. Large combs are con-
sidered an indication of age, which makes it difficult for dealers

Fig. 16.—White-Faced Black Spanish.

to secure top prices. Then, too, buyers do not want to pay fancy
prices for this extra weight, which is, after all, waste. To obviate
this drawback the combs of dressed birds are often torn off, but
this removal presents an unattractive appearance, and is suscep-
tible of deception.

Black Spanish fowls, sometimes called White-Faced Black
Spanish, constitute one of the oldest varieties of domestic poul-
try, and are probably the oldest pure-bred fowl in the Mediter-

BLACK SPANISH 33

ranean class. Moubray, one of the earliest writers on poultry,
includes this variety in his descriptions of fowls. See Fig. 16.

They were more widely bred in this country a quarter of a cen-
tury ago than now, probably because of the increased popularity
of the Leghorn. In size they are about equal to the White Min-
orca, though their mold is somewhat different, being shorter and
perhaps more erect. Their haughty bearing, and the white face
and lobes peculiar to the breed, contrasting with their glossy
black plumage, render them strikingly beautiful birds. This dis-
tinguishing white face, rising well over the eyes and extending to
the back of the head, should be pure white and free from wrinkles.
The greater the extent of surface the better. Needless to say,
this is the one difficult problem in breeding Spanish, though from
a fancier’s point of view it is this very feature that adds interest.

Black Spanish lay a white-shelled egg, and for productiveness
and other qualifications they can be rated with the Minorca.
The males are said to be wonderful fighters, and to be capable of
holding their own against all comers, save the Games. Recently
they have not been bred in any numbers except by fanciers.
Lack of the more accepted utility qualities is probably the reason
for this falling off in popularity.

The Andalusian, sometimes called the Blue Andaiusian, the
prefix ‘‘blue’’ being superfluous, since there is only the one variety
of this breed, has the rather unique distinction of wearing the
national colors. See Fig. 17. The face, eyes, comb and wattles
are red, the ear-lobes are white, and the plumage is a beautiful
light and dark blue.

There is considerable confusion concerning the origin of this
breed. Judging from its name, it might have come from Anda-
lusia, a province in Spain, which is celebrated for its bulls for the
ring, though Mr. Weir, an English authority on poultry, who
visited this section with the view to learning something about this
breed, failed to find any convincing evidence.

Anatomically the Andalusians and Minorcas are noticeably
alike, though the former are somewhat smaller, the standard
weight for cocks being 6 pounds, for hens and cockerels 5 pounds,

34 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

and for pullets 4 pounds. For farm purposes they are an admir-
able breed, good lavers, non-sitters, active and vigorous. The
chicks are hardy and mature early, and the pullets begin laying
at five or six months of age. They are rather difficult to breed a
uniform color in large flocks, because the plumage is likely to show
many shades of blue, from light gray to a slate-black.

The Jersey Blue, once very popular as a farm fowl, is some-

Fig. 17.—Andalusian Fowls.

times confused with the Andalusian, but this is a mistake. The
Jersey Blue was the counterpart of the Andalusian in disposition
and color, but favored the Brahma in size and shape. Jersey
Blues were large fowls, and bore indications of a cross between
Asiatic and Spanish breeds.

The ‘Ancona, or Mottled Ancona, is one of the least common
varieties of the Mediterranean class. See Fig. 18. In shape and

ANCONAS AND HAMBURGS 35

size and general characteristics they are the same as the Leghorn.
They are hardy, quick to mature, and are prolific layers of white-
shelled eggs. Recognition of their virtues as Ecc MAcuHINES is
becoming more widespread every year. The color of the plumage
should be a beetle-green or lustrous greenish-black, with about
every fifth feather tipped with white. This mottling should be
uniform throughout, with no tendency to lacing. It is this uni-

z : - aes 3 ee ae =

Ms Wry é
yy a7 ~
Ry My hig vei re

Fig. 18.—Single Comb Mottled Anconas.

formity that makes for careful selection at breeding times. Like
the Leghorn, there is no standard weight for the Anconas. They
are Italian fowls, and are sometimes referred to as‘such.

The Hamburgs originated in Holland and derived their name
from the city of Hamburg. See Fig. 19. They are one of the
oldest standard bred fowls, and were first known as the Dutch
Every-Day Layers, or Dutch Everlasting Layers. They are in

36 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the front rank of egg producers to this day, but lay rather small
eggs, and for this reason they are outstripped by the Leghorns.
They are small in size, and by some are considered as ornamentals.
There is no mistake concerning their beauty, the Hamburg, espe-
cially the Silver Spangled variety, is one of the most beautiful,
striking domestic fowls.

There are six varieties of this breed, the Silver Spangled,
Golden Spangled, Silver Laced, Golden Laced, White, and Black.

NOS ar —

Fig. 19.—Golden Spangled Hamburgs.

The first named variety is probably the most popular. Hamburgs
are economical fowls to keep, beside being small eaters, they are
great foragers. The only serious objection to them is the small-
ness of their egg. By careful selection this may be remedied and
the size of the egg improved. One of the distinctive features of
the Hamburg is its rose comb, which should be developed into a
straight spike. There are no standard weights given for Ham-
burgs.

HOUDANS 37

The blood from the Hamburgs has been used in establishing
some of our most useful American breeds. Though they breed
remarkably true to color and shape, especially for fowls that have
such a wide range of color, the problem of securing perfection
demands the skill and patience of the most inveterate fancier.
In this country. they are bred more for exhibition purposes than
anything else.

N\A
|

~ on MAT

Fig. 20.—Sicilian Buttercups.

French Breeds.—There are three varieties of poultry listed in
the French class—Houdans, Crevecoeurs and La Fleche. Of
these, only the Houdans can be classified as an egg breed, and, in
fact, they might just as well be called a dual-purpose fowl, for
they are highly esteemed for table purposes. See Fig. 21. They
are the most popular French breed in this country, and while not
raised in such large numbers as many other varieties of chickens,
still they are bred to a fair extent throughout the States.

38 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Houdans are hardy, prolific layers of white-shelled eggs, non-
sitters and light feeders. They have small bones and the flesh is
tender and of a delicious flavor. It is white, however, which is
discredited in America as prime table poultry. Some day it is
to be hoped we will get over this foolish prejudice.

Crested Variety——Houdans are a crested variety; their crest
or ‘‘top knot” is their most conspicuous mark of distinction.
Another peculiarity is their having five toes, like the Dorking.

Fig. 21.—White Houdans.

Both sexes have a V-shaped comb which rests against the front
of the crest. It is often partly hidden by the crest. Houdans have
mottled plumage, black and white, with the black predominating.
Recently a variety of White Houdans has been developed, which
is quite attractive. The standard weight of the Houdan is 714
pounds for cocks, 61% pounds for hens and cockerels, and 513
pounds for pullets.

Campines.—Though comparatively new in America, the Cam-

SILVER CAMPINES 39

pine (pronounced kampeen) is a very old breed, and derives its
name from the sandy plains of La Campine, in Belgium. See
Fig. 22. Thus we are accustomed to credit this country with the
ancestral dignity of this breed. Lapse of centuries and the ab-
sence of authentic records make it impossible to trace the exact
origin of the Campines, though tradition has it that they were
first taken into Flanders (Belgium and northern France) by
Charlemagne from the shores of the Mediterranean. They cer-

Fig. 22.—Silver Campines.

tainly bear a close resemblance to other Mediterranean varieties,
especially the Leghorn, in shape and habits, though not so much
in color. The color of the Campine is quite distinctive, and prob-
ably creates the greatest interest in the breed.

There are two color varieties of Campines, Silvers and Goldens.
Both lay a white-shelled egg, and the fowls are precisely the same
in shape, size and general characteristics. It is said that the
Goldens are likely to lay a slightly tinted white egg, and that they

40 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

are more difficult to breed true to color in plumage. The ground
color of the Silver is white, in the Golden it is yellow.

Both varieties were admitted to the American Standard in
1893, but through lack of interest in the breeds, due chiefly to
the absence of a uniform size, shape, and color, they were dropped
in 1898. These defects, if they should be termed such, did not

Wee

Wie
aly
ity: HA
Ls

Hs
mia “an. [3A
/ i

Fig. 23.—White Aseels.

make the fowls any the less valuable for utility purposes, but
the early importations were too crude and indefinite for the
American fancier.

Even at this date their color qualifications are open to argu-
ment, though in the past ten years they have been greatly im-
proved and standardized, especially by the English breeders,

THE BRAEKEL 41

The breeds are now pretty widely bred in this country, and in-
variably render an excellent account of themselves.

Plumage.—It is generally accepted that the ideal plumage
should represent two distinct colors, silvery white (substituting
golden yellow for the Golden variety), overlaid by black barrings
that possess a rich purplish green sheen. The barrings should be
clean-cut, about three times the width of the ground color, and
run transversely across the feather, with such regularity as to
form the appearance of rings around the bird’s body. With due
allowance for a slight departure in the breast, wings, and tail,
every feather should conform to this idea of symmetry, excepting
the neck hackle, which is clear white, or clear yellow, in both
sexes.

The Braekel (sometimes spelled Brackel) is a similar breed,
frequently confused with the Campine, and is also indigenous to
Belgium. It flourished in the more fertile regions of the southern
districts, where it is supposed to have gained greater size. Both
have the same progenitors, there can be no mistake on this point,
but the Braekel, having the good fortune to live in a plenteous
land, waxed big and fat, whereas her northern sister, the Cam-
pine, residing in a less fruitful section, was obliged to pass a more
frugal existence. In consequence her growth was in proportion
to her living, small and lean. This training, however, has made
the Campine a very thrifty fowl, and given it a hardihood and
vigor for which it is celebrated.

The two names, Campine and Braekel, were intermingled—
large and small Campines, and large and small Braekels—until
about fifteen years ago, when the English fanciers took up the
breeds and set about standardizing them, and at the same time
eliminating several objectionable features. They found the Cam-
pine too small, and by infusing Braekel blood increased the size.
The Braekel, however, had a white saddle hackle, similar to the
neck hackle, which was objectionable, because it required a
double mating to secure any degree of uniformity in the color of
the plumage.

By careful selection this white saddle was removed; in fact,

42 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the hackle feathers themselves were eliminated, until to-day we
have the males feathered on the saddles precisely the same as the
females, or what is termed ‘‘hen-feathered males.’’ This develop-
ment of the breed became known as the Improved English Cam-
pine, and is the accepted standard to-day.

The carriage and mold of the Campine is alert and graceful,
and may be compared to the Leghorn or Hamburg. In size and

Fig. 24.—Long-Tailed Yokohamas.

weight it is also the counterpart of these other egg breeds. The
comb of the male is of fair size, with an erect blade; in the female
it falls gracefully to one side. Like other breeds of the Mediter-
ranean class, the Campine is rated as a non-sitting variety. The
hens seldom become broody, and if they do, they are easily dis-
couraged.

PROMINENT EYE 43

A large prominent eye is peculiar to this interesting breed. It
is a brilliant red, and like the proverbial hawk’s eye, it is always
searching and never failing in its accuracy. It seems almost to be
endowed with a kind of supernatural power, an obscure sense of
being aware of the existence of an object before the object has
actually appeared. This readiness of eye, coupled with a wonder-
ful sagacity, and strong constitutional vigor, serves to make the

Ziyi Wy!
Wy ys
HH

yi) if,
XT

i mS

Fig. 25.—Silver Laced Polish.

Campine a peerless forager, and easily adaptable to any condi-
tions.

Campines resemble game birds in many respects. They are
strong flyers, fast runners and good fighters, yet no fowl is more
domesticated than the Campine, and none more docile and re-
sponsive. Though quick to scent an enemy, they are almost
equally quick to make friends with the attendant or feeder. The

44 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

writer’s tamest pets in the poultry yard were Silver Campines.
They haunted the kitchen door for tid-bits, and at the first oppor-
tunity would enter the house and beg for food. An English Bull
Terrier and these Campines often ate from the same platter at
the same time.

A breed that will show the maximum production at the least
expense is the desirable commercial fowl, and on this score the
Campine extends her challenge to the world. Not that Campines
are necessarily smaller feeders than other breeds of the same size,
for they are not; but if given the opportunity they will forage
for two-thirds of their food. Furthermore, they will thrive out-
doors the greater part of the year, and all year, if the climate is
at all temperate. They resemble the guinea in this respect.

Energy of Campines.—In any kind of weather, rain, wind, heat,
and cold, when most other breeds are content to remain snugly
indoors, the Campine is abroad, wrestling for its daily keep. In
fact, from close observations I have concluded that if a Campine
seeks shelter, it is an ill omen, similar to that drawn from the
guinea’s entering the hen house at night, that a terrific storm is
in the making, and that it is high time to make things snug and
secure.

It is always unwise, and sometimes inhuman, to neglect birds
or animals of any kind; yet there are various degrees of negli-
gence. In most cases where chickens are raised in the backyard
or on the farm the owner is unable to devote any more time to the
flock than is required by the bare necessities—feeding and water-
ing. The point to be emphasized is this: where it is impossible
to give frequent attention to the needs and requirements of a
flock of chickens, that flock should consist of a breed that is com-
petent to shift for itself. The Campine is an ideal fowl for this
purpose. Literally speaking, it will thrive where many other
birds would starve.

Redcaps.—There is another breed frequently classed as an egg-
variety, though it is seldom found in the poultry yards of this
country—the Redcap. This is the modern name for a very old
English breed, commonly bred in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Stafford-

RED CAPS 45

shire and Cumberland. Its exact origin is unknown. Redcaps
were called by different names in different localities, such as Cop-
heads, Corals, Rosetops, Redheads, Derbyshire Redcaps and
Yorkshire Everlayers.

The colors of the Redcaps are red, brown and black, the red a
mahogany tint, and the black a bluish black. Each body feather
ends with a black spangle, shaped like a half-moon, in which re-
spect they resemble the Hamburgs. They havea large rose comb,
terminating in the rear in a well-developed, straight spike. The
cock, especially, isa very handsome bird. The hens lay large-size
white-shelled eggs and are generally prolific. The standard
weights call for 74 pounds for cocks, 6 pounds for hens and cock-
erels, and 5 pounds for pullets.

Of late years, probably due to the improvement and increased
popularity of some other breeds, the Redcaps have lost caste,
notwithstanding their many useful, practical qualities. In habit
they are alert, given to roaming, and somewhat wild unless
thoughtfully managed. Their flesh is light and of a good flavor,
though not so rich as some of the. meat varieties.

CHAPTER IV
MEAT BREEDS

Definition.—The term ‘‘meat breeds’’ is intended to designate
those varieties of chickens whose greatest usefulness lies in the
production of meat. Do not be misled by this definition. It does
not mean that these meat breeds are only useful for the produc-
tion of meat alone; nor that others of the dual-purpose and other
classes are undesirable as meat producers. The term simply
means that these breeds excel in this branch of the poultry in-
dustry, reasons for which will become apparent in the following
paragraphs.

Largest Fowls.—As might be expected, the meat breeds are
the largest fowls, the heaviest, broader and deeper in the body,
with a full breast, heavy limbs, and relatively short legs and neck.
They are mostly of Asiatic origin, and are popularly conceived to
be rather poor layers, persistent sitters, weak fliers, docile and
easily controlled. They lay large brown eggs, which are not likely
to run so high in fertility as the lighter breeds, consequently they
are seldom used in the day-old-chick trade. Because of their size
their development is slow, or rather a longer time is required for
them to reach maturity. Leghorns mature in from five to six
months, sometimes earlier; whereas the Asiatic Breeds take from
eight to ten months, often longer. The chicks do not feather
quickly, and are often almost-nude at the age of two months.
This feature has its advantages and disadvantages. Chicks that
start to feather as soon as they leave the shell, such as the Leg-
horns, are often weakened by this rapid growth of plumage. On
the other hand, chicks that are bare of feathers are sometimes
affected by cold weather in the early Spring hatches.

The leading varieties of the Asiatic class are the Brahmas,
46

BRAHMAS 47

Cochins and the Langshans. The Brahmas are conceded to be
the most popular, and are divided into two varieties, Light Brah-
mas and Dark Brahmas, of which the former are the most widely
bred.

The Light Brahma is the largest chicken. See Fig. 26. The
standard weight calls for 12 pounds for cocks, ro pounds for
cockerels, 914 pounds for hens, and 8 pounds for pullets. These
weights are often exceeded; I have seen specimens that weighed
from twelve to seventeen pounds, regular giants, they seemed.

SSS

Fig, 26.—Light Brahmas.

History.—It would take a large volume to hold the-history of
the Light Brahma. It was probably the first breed of poultry to
be popularized in this country, where it was greatly improved by
American fanciers. Though fundamentally an Asiatic, it is really
an American output. They were first known as Brahma Pootras,
Gray Shanghais, Chittagongs and.Cochin Chinas. In fact, the
early breeders were disposed to give them high-sounding, fanciful
names, for the sake of the benefit these names might have in

48 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

helping them to sell stock at fancy prices. Records show that in
many cases fabulous prices were received. The hen fever ran
high about this time, which was in the early fifties. There was a
craze for pure-bred poultry, and the Light Brahma occupied the
center of attraction. In later years their popularity abated some-
what with the advent of other breeds, though to this day they
still remain high in the esteem of poultry lovers who prefer a
heavy fowl.

Shape.—The Brahma is different from the other meat breeds,
and must not be confounded with the Cochin or the Langshan.
It has a long, deep body, with full, broad and round breast, carried
well forward, which is characteristic of prolific birds. It is by far
the best layer of the Asiatic breeds. Numerous hens have made

“enviable records in laying contests, though the average flock pro-
duction should be placed at about ten dozen per year.

The plumage of the Light Brahma is white and black, with the
white predominating. Any other color is a disqualification. ‘The
body plumage is white, the tail feathers are black, with the sickles
a greenish black. The neck hackle is white with a black stripe
running down the center of each feather and terminating in a
point. The shanks are well feathered, with the feathering ex-
tending down the middle toe. This feathering may be white, or
white marked with black.

Feathered shanks and toes is probably the most distinguishing
feature of the meat breeds, for all of the Asiatics have them.

The Light Brahma has a small pea comb; its face, wattles and
earlobes are a bright red. The shanks and toes are yellow.

Brahmas are excellent mothers; they will hatch and rear large
broods of chicks. In fact, their maternal instincts constitute a
drawback to the poultryman who is after eggs in large numbers.
For capons the Brahma is in a class by itself; it has size, shape, a
small comb and all the other qualifications that make for prime
table poultry.

Dark Brahmas are not so popular, and never have been. This
is due to the great difficulty of breeding them true to a uniform
color. The head and neck of a Dark Brahma male are similar to

COCHINS 49

the Light for hackle, but the neck other than the hackle should be
black. The back is silvery white, the breast is black, the thighs
are black, and the fluff either black, solid, or very slightly mottled
with white. The saddle feathers are similar to the neck hackle,
and as they approach the tail the stripes become a broader black
until they merge into the tail coverts, which are a glossy, greenish-
black. The wing coverts are greenish-black, the secondaries and

vu ——

sf Ay
NaHS Eg er WY
ee Wipe Z 7 hs Nie "vai
Nh a = Rey Wry sy SW ise

Fig. 27,—White Cochins.

flight feathers are mostly black, and the shank feathering is black,
or black mottled with white.

The weights of the Dark Brahmas are one pound lighter than
the Light Brahmas, or about the same weights as the Cochins.
The plumage of the Dark Brahma hen is a white ground, closely
penciled with a dark steel gray. This produces a beautiful effect,
if it is correct; but unless extreme care is taken in the mating, the
plumage is likely to be a dingy color, and lack uniformity.

The Cochins probably rank next to the Brahmas as meat
breeds, and are bred in four colors: Buff, Partridge, White and

50 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Black. See Fig. 27. The Buffs are the most widely bred; they
are, indeed, beautiful birds, and have a color that is golden
throughout in both sexes. They have the purest buff color of
any of the buff breeds of poultry, and have been used quite exten-
sively in improving this color in other breeds. They are bred with
loose feathers, so that the general effect is that of a ball of feathers.
The shank feathering is more profuse than the Brahmas. And
unlike the Brahmas, the Cochins have a small, single comb. In

Fig. 28.—Partridge Cochins.

disposition it might be said without fear of controversy the Co-
chins are the least restive of all fowls. They havea quiet, sluggish
nature, and are the most determined sitters. They stand confine-
ment well, and may be resttained within a three-foot fence.

The Partridge Cochin is a beautiful bird, but like all penciled
varieties, it is difficult to breed true to color. See Fig. 28. The
plumage arrangement of the Partridge Cochin is not unlike the
Dark Brahma, except the colors are red and brown instead of

LANGSHAN IS A RANGY BIRD 51

steel-gray and black. In breeding penciled or parti-colored birds
it is so often necessary to mate them so close in order to secure
the correct characteristics, that the productiveness of the birds
is likely to be slighted. In consequence a solid-color bird is the
more practical one for the farmer or general market poulterer.
They can be raised in large flocks with the least amount of atten-
tion paid to color, and all the attention bestowed on their utility
qualities.

Black and White Cochins.—In this respect the Black Cochin
or the White Cochin is the more desirable variety. The Black is
of a rich, glossy, greenish-black throughout its entire plumage,
and the White is pure white throughout. A flock of Black Co-
chins present a handsome sight, and being dark they do not soil
so readily, as do the Whites. On the other hand, the Whites
dress better for market purposes, for there are no dark pin feathers
to mar the clean appearance of the flesh.

Langshans are the smallest and the most active of the Asiatic
breeds, also the most rangy-looking birds. See Fig. 29. They
are bred in two colors, White and Black, and the latter is probably
the most widely bred in this country.

The Langshan is distinct from the Brahma or Cochin in shape.
The male, especially, has a very majestic carriage, tall and stylish,
not the least gawky, a splendid leader for the flock, attentive to
the hens, and an excellent forager. Langshans are good sitters
and mothers, and having a gentle disposition, they are ideal fowls
for the farm. They are fair layers, particularly during the winter
months, and the chicks are hardy and grow well. Langshan
chicks mature earlier than the other Asiatic breeds.

To the inexperienced eye some confusion exists between the
Black Langshan and the Black Cochin; but this should not be.
The Cochin is a stocky bird, with heavy-looking neck and legs,
whereas the Langshan is very erect, with a high tail and sweeping
curve to the neck. The Langshan fluff is moderate and close,
while the Cochin fluff is extreme and loose. Then, too, the feath-
ering on the shanks of the Langshan is not so profuse, and the
shanks are longer in proportion. The comb of the Langshan is

52 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

relatively larger than the Cochin’s comb, well up in front, and
arch-shaped. The wattles are longer and more pendulous.

The quality of the flesh of the Langshan is all that could be
desired in a sense; it is fine-grained, tender and nicely flavored;
but it is white, a feature that is not so acceptable to American
housewives. The skin of the Cochin is yellow. Another objec-

Fig. 29.—White Langshans.

tionable feature is the bluish-black shank in the Langshan. In
the Cochin it is yellow.

The plumage of the Black Langshan is a glossy, metallic black
throughout; in the White it is pure white throughout. The stan-
dard weight of cocks for both varieties is 9!4 pounds, for cockerels
8 pounds, for hens 74 pounds, and for pullets 614 pounds.

CHAPTER V
DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS

Definition.—The terms ‘‘dual-purpose”’ or ‘‘ general-purpose,”
for the expressions are used interchangeably, are intended to
designate such fowls as may be found useful and profitable in the
production of both meat and eggs, and if need be—under condi-
tions that require natural incubation. In other words, instead
of possessing qualities of a particular nature, such as intensive
egg production, ‘‘dual-purpose”’ birds are adapted to the com-
mon and more general conditions of the country—the farmer and
backyard poultryman.

The farmer and backyard poultryman want hens that are good
layers, of course, but they also want fowls that produce an abun-
dance of meat, so that when the hens’ days of usefulness in the
egg basket are over, they can terminate their utility on the dinner
table.

The “dual-purpose” breeds meet these requirements. Most
of them belong to the American class, in addition to which there
are breeds of like type, such as the Orpingtons, Dorkings and
Faverolles. We will take the American breeds first. There are
no finer specimens of poultry in the world than these products of
American fanciers.

American Class—The American Standard of Perfection of
1910 admits six breeds in the American class, as follows: Ply-
mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, Javas, Domin-
iques and Buckeyes. The first three named breeds are the most
widely bred, and of these three the Plymouth Rocks are un-
doubtedly the most popular. It has been said, and there seems

to be excellent ground for the opinion, that Plymouth Rocks,
53

54 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

notably the Barred variety, are the most widely bred fowls in
America. They are business birds from the ground up; intensely
practical and utilitarian, at the same time they possess enough
caste and beauty to satisfy the most fastidious fancier. In any
climate, north, south, east or west, and in any locality or under
any circumstances that will permit other fowls to live, there also
will the Plymouth Rocks thrive and be of profit to their keeper.

Fig. 30.—Barred Plymouth Rock.

There are six varieties of Rocks, differing only in the color of
their plumage: Barred, White, Buff, Silver-Penciled, Partridge
and Columbian. See Figs. 8, 30, 31. Popular fancy delights in
the sentiment that the Plymouth Rock was named after the land-
ing place of the Pilgrim Fathers. This fancy exemplifies the en-
during qualities of the breed; but it must not be construed as
establishing their age. The name was first given to a nondescript

PLYMOUTH ROCKS 55

breed about 1849, but not until twenty years later was the real
Plymouth Rock established.

The Barred variety was the original Plymouth Rock, and to it
rightfully belongs the title of the pioneer of American fancy
poultry. See Fig.30. There were two other breeds of fowls pro-
duced before the Barred Rock, namely, the Dominique and the

Vif

TIA
i \
i \\

\\Y

ih
1

HG G seen ie Wigeay- 2
é ns Witty, beg Go ta
‘ YG Mf, on,

RIN toy, IRMA

Fig. 31.—Columbian Plymouth Rocks.

Java, but at that time they were not bred to anything like a
fixed standard, as were the Rocks.

The weights of the Rocks show a betwixt-and-between fowl,
cocks 91% pounds, cockerels 8 pounds, hens 714 pounds, and
pullets 6 pounds. Neither too small for meat purposes, nor too
large for egg production, hence the name ‘‘dual-purpose.” For
the farmer or market poulterer these fowls are favorites, being of
medium-size, well proportioned, with a deep, full, round breast.
They are hardy, mature in about eight months, and are excellent

56 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

layers the year round. The eggs are brown, as with all American
breeds; the hens are good sitters and excellent mothers.

The other varieties of Rocks followed in the wake of the Barred,
of which the White, Buff and Columbian, in the order named, are
the most widely bred. It is doubtful, however, if all of the other
varieties combined, equal the popularity of the Barred Rock; it
seems to stand supreme. Besides being a thoroughly practical

Fig. 32.—Silver Wyandottes.

fowl, it is highly esteemed by fanciers for exhibition purposes.
No class is offered to keener competition in the show room.

The Wyandottes stand next to the Rocks in popular favor.
There are eight varieties, differing only in the color of their plum-
age, as follows: White, Silver, Golden, Buff, Black, Partridge,
Silver-Penciled, and Columbian. The Silver Wyandotte is the
original and the foundation of all the other varieties. See Fig. 32.
It was admitted to the Standard as the Wyandotte, and later, as

EIGHT VARIETIES OF WYANDOTTES 57

the other varieties were brought out, it was called the Silver
Laced Wyandotte, which has been shortened to Silver Wyandotte.

The White Wyandotte is by far the most popular variety. See
Fig. 7. In fact, it is conceded to be the most popular white fowl
of all-round capabilities in the world. The popularity of the
Plymouth Rocks was the main stimulus of the origin of the Wyan-
dottes, which came into being about 1875, though they were not

i ilk
iN
\\\

y
Ee

S let, ,

Fig. 33.—Columbian Wyandottes.

admitted to the Standard until about eight years later. They
have been a huge success ever since. They weigh about a pound
less than the Rocks, are prolific layers, easily cared for, and stand
confinement well. For table poultry, especially broilers, they are
ideal. They have plump, round bodies, and the flesh is sweet and
of excellent flavor. Furthermore, the skin is a rich yellow, so
much sought after by the average housewife.

58 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

All Wyandottes have rose combs, which is an indication of
Brahma blood in their make-up. The Rocks have a single comb,
of moderate size. Often, the comb is the only distinguishing
feature between some varieties of Wyandottes and Rocks. For
example, except in shape, which is not always so apparent to the
inexperienced eye, the Buff, White, Silver-Penciled, Partridge and

GM) 4

Ups

o> "i =.

Fig. 34.—Single Comb Rhode Island Reds.

Columbian varieties of Wyandottes and Rocks are virtually the
same, only for the difference in the comb. See Fig. 33.

The Rhode Island Reds probably come third in popularity
among the American breeds, and this popularity is growing by
leaps and bounds. See Fig. 34. They are of comparatively recent
origin, in the sense that they have only been admitted to the
Standard since 1895; yet they are the result of over fifty vears
persistent breeding toward a very definite end. That goal was

RHODE ISLAND REDS AND WHITES 59

to produce a utility fowl of red plumage, of the greatest hardihood
and the most enduring qualities, and a fowl that would tend to
great fecundity and all-round, general qualifications under all
conditions and in any climate.

The Reds are the result of out-crossing, rather than out-
breeding, which probably accounts for their great vigor and pro-
ductiveness. Out-crossing is the mating of breeds that are en-

Fig. 35.—Black Javas.

tirely foreign to each other; for instance, a Brahma mated to a
Cornish fowl. Out-breeding is mating fowls of the same breed,
but not related by blood.

In the make-up of the Reds new males were used each year,
but always of some red breed, such as Malay Games, Red Pit
Games, and Brown Leghorns. The Red is truly a composite
fowl. Many breeders were of the opinion that red plumage stood
for stamina, and it is certain that this belief has been confirmed
in the Rhode Island Red, at least.

60 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

The Reds are divided into two varieties—single comb and rose
comb. Except for these head points they are identical. In the
past few years another division has been created—the Rhode
Island Whites, which gives promise of making a splendid showing.
There does not seem to be so much demand for another white
breed, however, in view of the great popularity of the White Rock
and White Wyandotte, not to mention the white varieties of
numerous other breeds.

ay
. . mA

; Fig. 36.—Buckeyes.

The Reds are ideal birds for farmers, not only because of their
size and prolificness, but because their plumage is well adapted
to farm conditions. Being dark in color, it does not soil so readily.
The weights for the Reds are the same as for the Wyandottes,
though the mold or contour of the former is not’ so round.

The Javas, see Fig. 35, of which there are two varieties, Black
and Mottled, the Dominiques and the Buckeyes complete the
list of the purely American breeds. None are bred so extensively

ENGLISH BREEDS 61

as the breeds described above, though all of them are well suited
to the class of general-purpose fowls.

Buckeyes, named after the state of Ohio, where they were
originated, were obtained from Barred Rock crosses on Buff
Cochins, with an infusion of Cornish and Pit Game blood to give
the flesh quantity, and the offspring vigor. See Fig. 36. In 1905
they were admitted to the ranks of the Standard of Perfection.

The name of the Dominique is closely interwoven with our
early history of poultry, yet the real origin is very obscure. Some
claim that the breed is a product of the Island of Dominica, but
apparently this idea is purely fanciful, since a breed of these char-
acteristics was never found there. A more reasonable theory is
that the name just evolved—as an ambiguous term to cover a
mixed origin. The similarity of the Barred Rock has no doubt
been responsible for the falling off in the popularity of the Dom-
inique, for it is no longer bred by so many poultrymen. In fact,
it is seldom seen to-day. The same holds true of the Javas and
the Buckeyes.

For poultrymen specializing in eggs, we were glad to doff our
hat to the sprightly little Leghorn; it holds first place among all
comers in the egg class. But, for all-round, general poultry busi-
ness, which includes all of the different branches of the industry
—eggs, meat, broilers, roasters, capons, feathers and maternal
instincts, not to forget caste and beauty—the American breeds
are at the top of the heap, and not likely to be supplanted.

There are numerous other varieties closely resembling the
American breeds in shape, disposition and size, and are commonly
classed as general-purpose fowls.

English Breeds.—First, let us take the English breeds. With-
out question the most popular of these are the Orpingtons, of
which there are ten or more distinct varieties,—single-comb
White, single-comb Black, single-comb Buff, single-comb Span-
gled, and single-comb Diamond Jubilee; also, rose-comb varieties
of the same colors. See Fig. 37. In the past few years a couple
of other varieties have been originated, notably the Blues, but
these are so recent and bred in such limited numbers that we will

62 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

not devote special attention to them. As a matter of fact, the
Whites, Blacks and Buffs are the only varieties bred in large
numbers in this country, and the Whites are the most popular of
these.

Orpingtons.—This remarkable family of fowls, and J qualify
them as such because of the perfection and enormous popularity
that they received in such a brief space of time, were originated

Fig. 37.—Single-Comb Black Orpingtons.

by one man, William Cook, of Orpington, England, whence they
take their name.

Mr. Cook had a definite object in producing these birds. He
found that most of the old varieties of English poultry were inbred
too closely for egg production, and that no one breed combined
laying and table qualities to any marked degree. Then, too, he
noted the success of the Plymouth Rocks in America, which were
then coming to the fore, and he was determined to produce a like

ORPINGTON FOWLS 63

general utility fowl, one that would answer the prime requisites—
eggs, table and show qualities.

The first Orpingtons to be produced and exhibited by Mr.
Cook were the Blacks. This was in 1886. In 1889 the Whites
were brought out, and in 1894 the Buffs. Later the Jubilee and
Spangled were developed.

Composite Birds——The Orpingtons are an amalgamation or
composite bird, which is largely responsible for their productive-
ness and vigor. We all know of the hardihood and other excellent
qualities of the Barred Plymouth Rocks. The black sports, or
“off colors” of this American breed were made the basis of the
Black Orpington. To this was added Minorca blood, for produc-
tiveness and to intensify the color, and finally Langshan blood,
which was calculated to give the breed size and a superior flavor
to the flesh. Several years were required to eliminate the feath-
ered shanks of the Langshan. To this day stubs are likely to
appear on the shanks of some specimens, indicating a throw-back,
though as a whole the breed develops with unusual dependability
as to type and color.

Origin.—Mr. Cook realized that poultry raisers were more or
less partial to buff colored fowls, therefore he set about producing
the Buff Orpington, having the same characteristics as the Black
as to shape, size and so on, but of buff plumage. The Cochin was
the basis of this variety, crossed with Golden-Spangled Hamburg
blood, and Dark Dorkings. He took the Hamburg for its laying
qualities, and the Dorking for its length of breast and the quality
of its meat. The latter had a fifth toe that required years to
eliminate, which was only one of the many problems that had to
be solved, for here again, in the Cochin, was the feathered shank.
And the Orpington must have a clean shank.

In producing the White Orpington Mr. Cook turned to the
White Leghorn for color and productiveness, and to the Hamburg.
For size and table qualities he used the White Dorking. With
this combination it is no wonder that the White Orpingtons should
have gained prominence as good layers. See Fig. 38. The chief
difficulty in this cross arose from the tendency to throw cream-

64 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

colored plumage, especially brassiness in the neck and saddle
feathers. Even now this is a problem. There are few flocks that
are entirely free from this defect, though each year satisfactory
progress is being made. The females breed true without diffi-
culty; the trouble lies with the males, because of their hackles.
The standard weights for Orpingtons are 10 pounds for cocks,
81% pounds for cockerels, 8 pounds for hens, and 7 pounds for

[
i Ss

Z—\\

wdgus

N es
SSE Soe

Fig. 38.—Single-Comb White Orpingtons.

he, uss.
Mas?

pullets. These run about a half-pound heavier than the weights
called for in the Plymouth Rocks. In shape the Orpington re-
sembles the Wyandotte or Cochin more than it does the Rock,
since it is a round, short-legged, short-necked, chunky sort of
fowl. The plumage, too, is more fluffy than the Rock, thereby
giving the Orpington a more rotund appearance.

All Orpingtons lay exceedingly well, and they are exceptionally
good winter layers. From the writer's experience, which seems

ORPINGTON EGGS 65

to be borne out by the experiences of others, though the opinion
may be denied by some, the eggs are not so large as they might be,
nor so uniform in shape, texture nor color as is to be desired by
poultrymen catering to a fancy egg trade. The eggs have not
the ‘‘egg-shape’’ nor uniformity of Rock eggs. They are rounder
and more elliptical in contour, and are given to a polished surface

Fig. 39.—Silver-Gray Dorkings.

rather than a dull, matt surface, which makes the characteristic
“bloom” of a Rock egg so desirable.

I have found this virtue about the Orpington, however, it
matures earlier than the Rock, and can be made to put on more
weight at the least expense. Furthermore, the Orpington is not
so prone to put on fat, which means that they are better able to
stand forced feeding for egg production.

The habits and demeanor of the Orpingtons are practically the

66 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

same as the American breeds. They are quiet birds, easily made
pets, are confined within low fences, become broody, sit and hatch
well, and make excellent mothers. The chicks are hardy and grow
rapidly, and make good broilers at an early age.

The meat of the Orpington is delicious. It is soft, juicy and
abundant. But, unfortunately for American markets, which cater
to yellow-skinned poultry, the skin of the Orpington is a pinkish-
white. In the Blacks it is likely to be a bluish-white. Moreover,

“ ais OS

Fig. 40.—Rose Comb White Dorkings.

the shanks are pink instead of yellow. In the Blacks they are
bluish-black. It isan absurd notion, but these qualities are some-
times interpreted to be indications of cold storage poultry.

Poultry growers are gradually educating the public on the
fallacies of its prejudices, and in time they will succeed, in which
event the Orpington will rank among the best of the meat-pro-
ducing breeds. In Europe, and we are inclined to concede the
honors to its chefs, notably the French, the white-skinned fowls
are acknowledged to be more highly esteemed.

DORKINGS AND FAVEROLLES 67

The Dorkings, of which there are three varieties—White,
Silver-Gray, and Colored, constitute another favorite English
breed, and one of the oldest of domestic fowls. There are no
accurate records to show its exact origin, but the supposition is
that it was carried to England by the Romans.

Weight.—The Dorking is not so heavy as the Orpington, but
it is highly prized for table meat. See Fig. 39. The flesh is
white and possesses a very delicate texture and flavor, and there

| Nh \
“A

Fig. ae WE Faverolles.

is an abundance of meat on the breast, which is broad, deep and
full. The weights given for Dorkings are somewhat variable;
the Colored Dorkings are heaviest: 9 pounds for cocks, 8 pounds
for cockerels, 7 pounds for hens, and 6 pounds for pullets. The
standard weights for the Silver-Gray Dorking run about a pound
under the above, while the weights for the White Dorking are
about a half-pound under the Silver-Grays.

Fifth Toe.—The most distinguishing feature of this breed is
the presence of a fifth toe, or supernumerary toe, extending a

68 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

little behind, above the foot and below the spur, similar to the
fifth toe of the Houdan.

Dorkings could not be rated as a popular breed in this coun-
try. They are rather indifferent layers, and while nice looking
fowls, there are too many other breeds of superior qualities.

Faverolles.—Excepting in France, very little was known of
the Faverolles until 1896, when they were taken up by English

Fig. 42.—La Fleche Fowls.

breeders and later, by Americans. They are bred in several
colors, white, salmon, ermine and black. The Whites and the
Salmons are probably the most popular in this country. See
Fig.-41. They are considered good layers, and weighing about
the same as the Dorkings, they are valued as table poultry.

The odd feature of the Faverolle is the growth of feathers,
resembling a beard and mutton chops, around the throat and
ears. This whiskering is one of the fixed characteristics of the
entire breed. Another feature is the fifth toe, like the Dorking,

FRENCH BREEDS 69

also, a booted or feathered shank, such as is found on the Brahma.
For those who prefer the unusual, the Faverolle is to be highly
recommended. Because so little is known about it, however,
its sale for breeding purposes is likely to be restricted.
Crevecoeurs and La Fleche fowls are two other French breeds
little known in this country, though they are widely bred in their
native homes. See Figs. 42 and 43. They are kept for general

Fig. 43.—Crevecoeurs.

farm purposes, but are best for the table. The former are the
better layers. The weights of both breeds are about the same
as the Dorkings.

The plumage of the Fleche fowls is a glossy, greenish black.
Their chief claim to distinction is the peculiar comb, which is
in the form of two well defined spikes, resembling horns. Cre-
vecoeurs have a similar comb, only it looses its distinction by
reason of the crest of feathers growing on the top of its head, like
the Houdan or Polish.

CHAPTER VI
ORNAMENTAL FOWLS, GAMES AND BANTAMS

Ornamental Varieties.—Some varieties of poultry are purely
ornamental in character and purpose. They have no particular
virtues as to egg production, neither are they superior for table
purposes. The Bantams are in this class. They are raised
simply for the interest attached to their oddity or beauty. Other
breeds are deemed fancy, by reason of some unusual character-
istic, or scarcity, though in reality they may be good layers, or
splendid table poultry. Custom has placed them in the orna-
mental class, because few are adapted to the farm or general
commercial use. It is easily understood that the more varie-
gated the fowl’s plumage, or the more eccentric its shape and
feathering, the more difficult, almost impossible it is to breed
them to any degree of uniformity in large flocks. Ornamental
breeds almost invariably require special matings, and years of
experience to know how to make such matings, hence their ap-
peal to the fancier.

No one will deny that the work of raising fowls for purely
ornamental purposes is most interesting, and some fanciers have
found a big outlet for their products, thereby making their work
profitable, but these cases are the exceptions and not the rule.
Those who would enter the poultry industry for pecuniary gain
had better start with one of the breeds described in the earlier
chapters of this Analysis of Chickens, such as the egg breeds,
meat breeds, or dual-purpose breeds.

The Polish varieties are generally regarded as strictly fancy
chickens, though they are known to be one of the oldest breeds

of pure-bred fowls. Their ancestry has been traced back to the
70

TOP KNOT CHICKENS 71

sixteenth century. The eight varieties of Polish are: White
Crested Black (see Fig. 44), Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver,
Bearded White, Buff Laced, Non-Bearded Golden, Non-Bearded
Silver, and Non-Bearded White. (See Figs. 25-45-46.)

It will be seen that there are two distinct sub-breeds of Polish,
the plain, or non-bearded varieties, and the bearded ones. All
have crests, or ‘‘top knots,”’ which is their chief mark of distinc-
tion, in addition to which the bearded varieties have a thick,

Fig. 44.—White-Crested Black Polish.

full beard of feathers running under the beak from eye to eye in
a graceful curve. The plain varieties are without this beard.
The White-Crested Black is the most extensively bred in this
country, and the Bearded Silver variety probably comes next.
They are beautiful fowls, all of them, and by some are considered
good layers. As with all crested varieties of fowls, their ‘top
knots” are really against them. This head feathering obstructs
the vision, causing them to be timid and suspicious, an easy

72 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

prey to vermin, and much subject to colds if the birds are allowed
to run in the wet. No standard weights are given for Polish.
They are medium-size birds, about that of Leghorns.

The Sultans, as the name implies, are from Turkey, and might
with propriety be classed with the Polish, except the former have
additional peculiarities. Sultans, in fact, possess about every
peculiarity possible for a fowl of its size. A compact crest sur-
mounts the head, more profuse even than the Polish, and they
are full bearded. For a comb they have two small spikes, re-

eo BRAN

Fig. 45.—Bearded Golden Polish.

minding one of horns; their legs are feathered and booted, their
hocks are vultured, and they possess a fifth, or supernumerary
toe. They have an abundant neck hackle and a large tail, which
is erect and contains many flowing sickles. The color of the
plumage is pure white throughout. They seem to thrive well,
but are too small for practical purposes.

The Game is one of the most interesting of the ornamental
breeds, and perhaps the most widely bred. It is noted for its

GAMES AND GAME BANTAMS 73

vigor and courage, and were formerly raised for fighting. They
are still raised for this purpose in countries where cock-fighting
is permitted.

The beauty of the Game is unquestioned. It is a tall, slim
bird, very erect in carriage, with long legs, and short, close
feathering. The carriage of the Game is peculiar to it, and is
spoken of as ‘‘station.’’ Specimens with the highest “station”

Fig. 46.—Non-Bearded White Polish.

are the most desirable. It is customary to remove the comb and
wattles of the cocks, a practice that is termed ‘‘dubbing.” This
adds to their sleekness and general fighting trim.

Games are not without their practical qualities, though they
are seldom bred for general farm purposes. They are fair layers,
and their flesh is excellent, the meat being fine-grained, tender
and juicy. The chicks are said to require considerable care, but

74 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

this is probably due to weakened constitutions from too much
close breeding for strictly ornamental purposes. There is no
reason why the Game should not be as easy to rear as the Leg-
horn.

The varieties of the Games are: Black-Breasted Red, Brown

; ID SNARES
4 RAS ssl

\N |
ph it

{
M

fh il
4

\ on e
(ny

At
“u/ Sr
Riis

Fig. 47.—Silver Duckwing Games.

Red, Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing (see Fig. 47), Birchen,
Red Pyle, White, and Black.

Game Bantams.—For every Game there is a Game Bantam.
See Fig. 48. The color of the plumage in the Bantam, its mark-
ings, shape and carriage correspond precisely to the Game that
bears its name. The Bantam’s diminutive size is the only dis-

ORIENTAL GAMES AND BANTAMS 75

tinguishing feature between the two. Bantam cocks average
twenty-two ounces, and the hens twenty ounces.

Oriental fowls comprise the Cornish, Sumatras and Malays,
and the Malay Bantams. Cornish fowls, sometimes spoken of
as Cornish Indian Games, are really an English product, having
been originated in Cornwall, whence their name. They were
produced from Black-Breasted Red Games crossed on Red Aseel

—

Y ; Sid
y SA HY

HA B.
‘oven
Heal

ame oe SE

Fig. 48.—Red Pyle Game Bantams.

fowls imported from India. This cross produced what is known
as the Dark Cornish. There are three varieties: Dark, White,
and White-Laced Red. See Figs. 9-49. The Whites were pro-
duced from ‘‘sports’’ from the dark variety, crossed with White
Aseel. See Fig. 23. The White-Laced are of Yankee origin,
using both the Dark and White varieties, with some infusion of
White Georgia Game blood..

76 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Cornish.—As layers the Cornish fowls do not rank very high,
but they make excellent table poultry. They are frequently
crossed with the meat breeds for this purpose, especially for
capons. The shape of the Cornish creates the impression of
massiveness and great muscular strength, also pugnaciousness.
They are stockily built birds, with heavy thighs, legs set far

Dy)\prude
; fy.

Fig. 49.—White Cornish Fowls.

apart, and a full round breast and broad shoulders. Then, too,
they have the characteristic feathering of the Game—closely
set, thin hackle and small tails, which gives them a rather fero-
cious appearance. The standard weights of the Cornish are 9
pounds for cocks, 8 pounds for cockerels, 7 pounds for hens, and
6 pounds for pullets. It will be seen from these weights that
they are very worthy birds for the table.

MALAYS AND SUMATRAS 77

Malays are little known in this country except for crossing
with other breeds to infuse vigor and size. They have about the
same weights as the Cornish, and are strong and powerful look-
ing. They are reputed to be extremely savage, and in battle
often actually tear their opponents to pieces. The plumage of
the Malay is very close, like other Games, only perhaps more

Fig. 50.—Silver Sebright Bantams.

scanty, and the color is red or maroon and black. The head is
long, with a projecting crown, which gives the cock a cruel and
fierce expression. The wattles and earlobes are small.
Sumatras, or Black Sumatra Games, differ from the Malays,
in that they are of a gentle disposition, though once started in
a conflict, there is no Game that will show greater staying power

78 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

than the Sumatra, especially if it is in defense of its mates and
young. The quality that really removes the Sumatra from the
Pit Game class is its long, flowing tail, with an abundance of
sickles and coverts. The plumage is of a rich, greenish black
throughout. Sumatras and Malays are little bred in America
except for exhibition purposes, and even this is more or less
restricted.

FEY

Fig. 51.—Rose-Comb White Bantams.

The Malay Bantam, or Black-Breasted Red Malay Bantam,
should be the same in color, shape and general characteristics as
the full-size Malay. Cocks should not weigh over 30 ounces,
nor the hens over 28 ounces.

Other Bantams.—In addition to the Bantams previously
described, there are numerous other varieties, almost all of which
are made to imitate in miniature the standard size breeds of
fowls. There are: Sebright Bantams (see Fig. 50), in two

ORNAMENTAL BANTAMS 79

varieties—Golden and Silver; Rose-Comb Black Bantams and
Rose-Comb White Bantams (see Fig. 51), which are counter-
parts of the Hamburgs; Booted White Bantams; Light Brahma
Bantams and Dark Brahma Bantams, which are miniatures of
the regular Brahmas; Cochin Bantams (see Fig. 52) in four
varieties—Buff, Partridge, White and Black; Polish Bantams in
three varieties—Bearded White, Buff Laced, and Non-Bearded;

Fig. 52.—White Cochin Bantams.

and the Japanese Bantams (see Fig. 53) in three colors—Black
Tailed, White, and Black.

Bantams are raised almost exclusively for pleasure, though
they are sometimes used to hatch the eggs of Pheasants and other
fowls, since as a rule Bantam hens are good sitters and mothers.
Some of them are good layers, and for their size they lay un-
usually large eggs. These, however, are not marketable as prime
eggs, for they are too small.

80 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Any of the Bantams will make delightful pets for children.
With their cute and saucy ways they are a constant source of
amusement. Where is there a small boy who has not sometime
yearned for a pair of these little feathered friends?

Silkies——We could continue to enumerate other varieties of
ornamental poultry, but most of them are so rare, that to devote
space to them would serve no practical end. Silkies are fowls
of small size, whose chief peculiarity consists of very soft, web-

Fig. 53.—White Japanese Bantams.

less feathers, which are exceedingly loose when in prime condition,
and stand out from the body in all directions. They are purely
ornamental birds.

Frizzles are another grotesque member of the poultry family.
The ends of their feathers curl backwards, giving them a frizzled
look, hence the name.

Long Tailed Yokohamas represent still another odd variety.
See Fig. 24. They are Japanese birds, having very long tails,

SICILIAN BUTTERCUPS 81

sometimes attaining a length of fifteen or eighteen feet, and are
quite beautiful in coloring. Occasionally specimens are ex-
hibited in American poultry shows.

Sicilian Buttercups have appeared in the poultry exhibits
from time to time, but they never won any particular favor.
See Fig. 20. They have an odd comb, resembling a cup. In
Sicily, their native home, they were known as ‘‘ Patera Opulentz,”’
meaning sacred cup of riches, and were formerly used in religious
sacrifices.

CHAPTER VII
A BUSINESS ENTERPRISE

Principles.—Fine feathers usually make fine birds, for the same
reason that up-to-date business methods make satisfied custo-
mers, than which there is no greater asset to the poultryman, be
he conducting a large or small industry. Fine feathers indicate
quality—careful breeding of known reliability, proper feeding
and good care generally. Up-to-date business methods bear
the hall-marks of ambition to please, of progressiveness, of pains-
taking, workmanlike ability, of superiority and dependability.
Business to-day demands certain conventionalities, and those
who do not appreciate the fact, and who remain in the rut of a
past generation, thinking that they can do things as their grand-
fathers did, are sooner or later destined to become relegated to
obscurity.

Conducting a poultry farm is no different from any other
enterprise in this respect; if the poultryman wants to make a
success of his business, and derive other than laborer’s wages
from his investment, he must conduct his operations on what
have come to be recognized as the standards of modern business.
He must produce commodities which are in popular demand, not
has beens; he must exercise good salesmanship, by using every
means at his command to get his commodity before the public;
following which he must keep his products up to their representa-
tion, and never tolerate a sag in quality; and above everything
else he must give good value, and wherever possible—just a little
bit more than the other fellow. Perhaps not in a reduction in
price, for under-cutting is sometimes accompanied by retaliative
measures; but in the excellence of the product, or the manner in
which it is packed and distributed, in the service—the prompt-

*yo0js ZuUNOA ay} MOIZ 0} 4J0}e] ‘suad Zurpaeiq se Js1y pasn ‘sasnoy Auojod a81eJ— tS ‘317

84 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

ness and courteous treatment accorded a customer; these are
values, more or less intangible, no doubt, but nevertheless potent.
Furthermore, the buying public is quick to appreciate them.
Food Products.—Primarily, the poultryman should always
bear in mind that he is producing food products, not coal or iron
castings, consequently his wares have an esthetic appeal. There
is much agitation these days over sanitary conditions in factories
where food stuffs are made, and it is right that there should be;
the slogan is cleanliness to a most exacting degree. We do not

(Courtesy Monmouth Poultry Farm)
Fig. 55.—A centralized plant.

look for purity in articles of food that are made in dirt-infested,
antiquated factory buildings, where the workers must toil amid
sordid conditions,—filth, improper ventilation and unhealthful
environments generally. Pure food commissions are empowered
to regulate these affairs. If it is important that milk should be
produced and sold under certain restrictions, it is also impor-
tant that poultry and eggs should be produced likewise. At
least the commercial aspects are the same.

The buildings on a poultry farm, their yards and all the acces-
sories should be built with the idea of maintaining them in a

ESSENTIALS OF GOOD BUSINESS 85

strictly sanitary condition. Dirt, disorder and dereliction must
not be tolerated. By this it is not necessary to erect unduly
expensive buildings, nor to install elaborate equipment; for the
margin of profit in the business will not warrant the expenditure
of unnecessary capital. Besides, unnecessary capital brings no
return on the investment.

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)

Fig. 56.—There is no better spot for poultry than a grove of trees, providing
the sun is able to shine on the house.

Show Place.—Every poultryman should aim to make his farm
a show place, where visitors can be allowed at regulated times,
and where prospective customers can be shown the articles that
are for sale, and note for themselves that what has been said about
the articles is true. None of us like to buy ‘‘a pig in a poke,” if
we can help it. And do not think that a show place should con-
sist of show in the sense of elegance, a mere spending of money.

86 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Simply constructed buildings, in an orderly arrangement, neatly
painted or white-washed, and having an air of practical utility,
make the most impressive showing, provided they are clean and
stocked with vigorous, healthy-looking poultry. By all means
avoid an accumulation of junk or rubbish lying about the
premises; it is bad for the fowls, and a constant eyesore. Have
a place for everything, and everything kept in its place. The
appointments necessary for the convenience of the fowls and their
caretaker are really very simple, and most of them can be bought
for a small outlay, or they can be made at home.

Home made devices should not necessarily mean makeshifts—
odds and ends, broken china, discarded kitchen utensils, old
buckets, rusty pans and other receptacles that have long since
passed their age of usefulness, and which only serve to clutter up
the yards and houses. Visitors and customers observe these
things, and their opinions are formed accordingly. Nothing
is more enbarrassing than to have to make excuses for the ap-
pearances of everything; and besides excuses are futile. All
the excuses in the world fail to make a reason that will justify
shiftlessness; it is inexcusable.

Visitors.—Notwithstanding the poultryman’s time is very
much occupied by routine work, and that visitors are sometimes
rather troublesome to entertain, also that their presence is dis-
turbing to the birds unless precautions are taken, experience
has proved that one of the best selling methods is to get the pub-
lic’s interest in your work. Every family living in the commu-
nity, or who might be visiting the community, is a prospective
customer if their interest is aroused, and they are assured of a
courteous reception when they seek information. If you have
something to sell, you must let it be known, following which
you must be perfectly willing to exhibit your goods.

Sign.—The first step toward publicity is to erect a neat sign,
setting forth the name of the farm or that of the owner, which-
ever is used to trade under, together with any other advice,
clearly and concisely worded, such as the names of the breeds
raised, and whether hatching eggs, breeding stock, day-old-

ADVANTAGES OF A SIGN 87

chicks, market eggs or table poultry are for sale. If you wish to
allow visitors, or have a particular place for customers to call,
mention the facts or directions. If necessary state that visitors
will be welcomed on certain days or between certain hours.
Place the sign in a conspicuous position, preferably at the entrance

HROTEERS

_ (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 57.—Box-packed poultry, well-graded and ready for shipment.

to the grounds, and endeavor to make it as attractive as possible,
yet in harmony with its surrounding.

If there is a wind-mill tower on the premises, and your business
warrants the display, have your name neatly lettered on the
rudder, or on the water tank, or on the roof of the barn, so that
it can be seen for long distances, especially if it can be seen from
a railroad or trolley line over which many people travel.

If there is likelihood of the fowls being disturbed by the in-

88 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

trusion of strangers, a question that is largely determined by the
arrangement of the yards and buildings, there is no harm in
putting up a sign to the effect: Visitors are invited to inspect

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(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)
Fig. 58.—Elements which make for success in poultry raising.

the farm, but they are requested not to enter the buildings, or
to frighten the fowls in any way.

Printed Matter.—Another factor that plays an important part
in the farm's publicity, and one that inspires confidence in its

SHIPPING TAGS, STATIONERY, LABELS 89

establishment, is the use of a neatly printed letter-head and bill-
head in all business transactions. On farms of any size there is
quite a little correspondence, inquiries are received, asking for
prices on stock, eggs and so on, and if these are answered in a
poor handwriting on scraps of paper, or if bills are rendered in
some obscure, back-woods style, they are sure to create a very
unfavorable impression. It is unfortunate, perhaps, but we are
frequently judged by these apparently trivial details.

Mail.—It should be a hard and fast rule, that all mail be
answered promptly, preferably the same day it is received, and
it should be answered courteously and fully, paying the same at-
tention to a small order as toa large one. The person who writes
for a setting of eggs to-day, or this season, may be in the market
for a thousand eggs next month or next year. If bills are paid,
or money is received on deposit, it must be acknowledged, with
thanks, immediately. Indifference to these matters has a far-
reaching effect. Business men are accustomed to extending and
receiving certain formalities, and they expect them; it is a part
of our great commercialism.

Printing is so cheap these days, there is seldom any excuse for
a farm being without printed stationery, which should include a
letter-head, bill-head, envelopes, shipping tags and labels, if such
are used in place of tags, as, for example, on egg cases. There is
usually a printer in every town of any size, who will get up some
ideas at a small cost; or, stationery may be obtained through
mail order houses, such as the publishers of agricultural journals
and weekly papers. Aim to have the printing as attractive as
possible, on fairly good quality paper, and to include the name of
the farm, its location, its products, any of its most salient fea-
tures, and wherever possible a trade-mark. Do not use anti-
quated wood cuts, meaningless ornaments, poor half-tone re-
productions of the owner, or his house, or one of the hackneyed,
conventional electrotypes of a trio of fowls; people are not in-
terested in such things, because they convey absolutely no mark
of originality or distinction.

Trade-Mark.—Try to think up an original idea for a trade-

90 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

mark or brand, and incorporate with it something that is sig-
nificant, an idea that means something besides printers’ ink;
either the name, the farm’s specialty, or its policy will do nicely.

sa mY <a See: f
(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 59.—Broiling chickens, packed breast up, twelve to the box.

Thereafter, this trade-mark should be embodied in all of the sta-
tionery, shipping tags, labels and any advertising literature or
price lists that may be gotten out from time to time. If neces-

LABELS ON EGG CASES 91

sary have the design copyrighted or registered, or later, some un-
scrupulous fellow may try to take advantage of an established
publicity.

Reputation.—At first a trade-mark has very little significance,
but as soon as a farm gains a reputation for straightforward deal-
ings and a uniform quality in its products, its trade will look for
some means of identification, and will insist upon having the
goods of known reliability, even if it has to pay more for them.
A well-known duck breeder, who makes a specialty of market
ducks of prime quality, inserts a neatly printed tin tag in the
web of the foot of each duck. Patrons of high-priced hotels and
cafés where these ducks are served, have come to recognize that
this tag, which is not unlike the tin tags inserted in plug tobacco,
stands for quality, and the proprietors of these places, realizing
the importance of the name, see to it that the tag is left in the foot
when the duck is cooked and served.

The egg case is another advertising medium that should not
be overlooked. If gift crates are used, those of light material
that are not to be returned to the shipper, the poultryman should
have a stencil made, giving the farm’s name and address, and
apply it to each side of the crate before it is packed. Another
method is to paste an attractive label or sticker on the ends of
the crates, similar to those seen on orange crates. They are not
expensive to have printed, and while they require a little trouble
gluing them on, the benefits to be derived therefrom will more
than compensate for the time expended. It is a job that can be
done on rainy days or at odd moments, and need not intrude
itself upon routine work.

If returnable crates are employed, and these are desirable for
certain classes of trade, they should be painted a serviceable
color, and neatly lettered with the farm’s name and address.
In addition to this, it may be desirable to include the farm’s
specialty, such as: DAay-OLD STERILE WHITE EGGs, or SELECTED
Farm EcGs.

The proprietors of many. high class stores like to offer their
eggs for sale in the original carriers, and will take particular

92 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

pains to give them a conspicuous display, especially when they
can afford to recommend goods from a reliable poultry farm. It
is therefore a good plan to have the farm's name lettered on the
inside of the lid, so that when it is thrown back the lettering will

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 60.—Roasting chickens, side-packed, six to the box.

attract attention. The interior of the crate must be kept
scrupulously clean, of course, and to aid in this it is well to shellac
or varnish the inside of the crate when it is new. A hard oil
finish on the outside of the crate is also effective.

PACKAGES 93

Packages.—Many poultrymen are rather careless about the
appearance of their packages, and pay no attention to them, any
more than to see that they are securely packed. This is an error
in judgment. Not only will the crates come under the observa-
tion of the consignee and his customers, if shipped to a wholesale

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 61.—Dressed poultry packed in cartons.

firm, but they will also be noted by many persons at the express
depots and while in transit. This fact is especially true of crates
of live fowls; there seems to be a sort of fascination about them
for most people, who will go out of their way sometimes to in-
spect the tags, and note the name of the sender and to whom
they are being shipped.

94 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Publicity.—Summing up the entire situation, it behooves the
poultryman to take advantage of every means at his command
to gain publicity for his plant and its products; he should leave
no stone unturned to keep in the limelight, and in so doing he
should be careful to conduct his affairs in a dignified, reputable,
business-like manner—paying the same strict attention to de-
tails that are found among progressive merchants generally.

CHAPTER VIII
KEEPING RECORDS

Know Where You Stand.—To have an accurate understanding
of one’s position or progress in any line of work it is essential
to keep accounts. Conducting a poultry farm is no different
from any other enterprise in this respect. To raise chickens
intelligently and profitably, one must consider, precisely, such
factors as labor, feed, the number of eggs laid by different flocks,
cost of equipment, housing and so on. Haphazard, hit-or-miss,
guess-work methods belong to the time when chickens were
raised as a by-product of the farm, merely to supply the home
table with a few tempting viands. Such methods are inexcus-
able to-day; they are shiftless.

Imagine the confusion that would exist if the general run of
business houses attempted to conduct their affairs without some
system of book-keeping. It is hardly likely they would survive
a week. Yet it is safe to say the general run of poultry raisers
are very lax in this respect, many of them keeping no records
whatever, not even a memorandum of their feed bills. They
have no way of telling whether their hens are an asset or a lia-
bility, or what it costs to produce a dozen eggs or a pound of
meat. For all they know, it may be cheaper to buy poultry
products at the store.

Leaks.—Farms specializing in poultry products, progressive
poultrymen, must have a definite knowledge of the performance
of their flocks, and what it costs to maintain that performance.
Experienced breeders, those who helped to make poultry raising
a billion dollar industry, and thus take front rank in the country’s
industrial activities, laid the foundation of their success on the
leaks and shortcomings that were detected by some system of

96 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

records. Every day valuable information is brought to light
by the simple recording of a series of experiments; witness our
agricultural experiment stations.

Eliminate the drones, the nonproducers, and cull the unde-
sirables and defectives, is the twentieth century farmer’s slogan.
Get rid of the boarders, either as a class or as individuals; in-
stall breeds or stock of known reliability, those that are good

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 62.—Wagon load of live poultry unloading at a Western packing house.

tenants. Except for resolutions of this kind the two-hundred-
egg-hen would still be a myth; our flocks would never have
progressed beyond the average of five dozen eggs per year. In
fact, raising chickens could never have been made profitable,
not even as a side line, except for consistent efforts of careful
selection for many generations, which established a standard.
Simple Records.— Unless detailed information is desired, it is

SIMPLE SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS 97

not necessary to employ a highly involved system of book-
keeping, but a simple record of costs and sales, the revenue
derived from eggs, meat, and other sources, such as feathers and
manure, and the cost of production, the feed, labor, repairs,
improvements and general overhead expenses. A good record
should be complete, concise and convenient; above all else it

Fig. 63.—Suburbanite’s poultry plant.

should be accurate. The best way to insure accuracy is to
keep the account up to-date by a few minutes’ work each day.

To those who are unaccustomed to keeping accounts, it may
seem rather difficult on first thought to keep tabs on a flock of
hens. In reality it is quite easy. Some subjects are rather
obscure at first, but if they are initiated, one by one, a simple
general scheme will evolve, one that will be easy to follow there-
after, and prove unquestionably helpful.

Back lot poultrymen, those who raise but a few hens a year,

98 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

mostly for home consumption, need not concern themselves with
but two columns of figures—a debit and a credit column. The
debit column, though it may be the least desirable, will be con-
sidered first; it is a necessary evtl.

Feed bills are the chief occupants of this column. Be sure
to enter every item. The cost of the grain is seldom the only
item. What about sacks, freight on the feed, hauling and so on?
These are chargeable. Include all the labor required to care for
the birds, for cleaning, feeding, watering and general supervision,
whether it is performed by the owner of the flock, or assisted by

Fame eS en bag ehes
(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 64.—Fowls on range are stronger, more thrifty and less liable to contract
disease.

his wife and children. Perhaps only a few minutes are required
several times a day; estimate their total in hours and multiply
by a fair wage rate.

Original Investment.—It is not fair to charge the cost of the
poultry building and all equipment, also the value of the flock,
to the expense account. They represent capital. Figure the
original investment, and on this it is fair to charge an interest
rate of six per cent per annum, which should be added to the debit
column. Against the value of the buildings, fencing and equip-
ment should be charged another six per cent for depreciation.

KNOW YOUR BUSINESS 99

Repairs and any other incidental expenses are also charge-
able.

On the credit side of the ledger must be entered items covering
the sale of any eggs or stock, the products consumed on the
home table, and an allowance made for the value of the manure
as a fertilizer, or perhaps feathers. As much should be charged
for the eggs used in the home kitchen as would have to be paid
for eggs of a similar grade in the retail store.

Information.—Those engaged in the poultry business as a

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 65.—“‘A good hatch.’’ Note the tray of empty egg shells on top of the
incubator, and the leg bands on the chicks.

specialty and who raise fowls on an extensive scale, will find it
to their advantage to gather as much additional information
about their flocks as possible. They should ascertain the laying
capacity of each flock, and what it costs to feed each flock.
These facts enable you to estimate the cost of producing a dozen
eggs at different seasons of the year. If itemized records are
kept of the feed consumed by different flocks and by broods of
chicks, it is possible to figure out the cost of raising certain breeds
to maturity, and of keeping different varieties for a year.

100 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Of what practical benefit is it to know these things? Simply
this, the question constantly arises, which is the most profitable
breed of chickens? Or, beginners will ask, which is the more
profitable specialty—meat or eggs?

It is impossible to furnish a reliable answer to these queries
with a general statement. The fact of the matter is, there is no
one best breed, and no one branch of poultry culture can be said
to be the most profitable. There is no greater proof of this than
the reports from the Egg Laying Contests for the past six years.
Some breeds are more desirable for certain purposes. Even so,
there-is as much difference between different strains—different
blood lines, of the same variety, as there is between totally different
breeds.

The only way to be sure of the best breed for a certain purpose,
or the best strain of a certain breed, is
to experiment with it and keep an ac-
curate record of its behavior. Never
take too much for granted in any line
(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) of work, especially in the poultry in-

Fig. 66.— Aluminum leg dustry. Not that there is any at-
bands. Smalloneisforchicks, tempt at willful misrepresentation,
and for inserting in the web of : :
the wing. but it does not necessarily follow

that every one will succeed with cer-
tain conditions because some have done so. Do your own think-
ing; conduct your own investigations; establish your own rates
and records. In no other way will it be possible to really know
your business.

Breeding Records.—To return to our subject, if one wishes to
breed from none but the heaviest producers, or from specimens
of a particular type, records must be kept of the hatching and
brooding. A single great performance really conveys nothing to
the poultryman so far as breeding progress is concerned, unless
it can be definitely located in the preceding generation and later,
in the succeeding generation. It is the heavy layer with the
faculty for producing heavy layers, or the fowl of superior type
with the capacity to beget offspring of the same superior type,

HATCHING AND BROODING RECORDS 101

that are sought. Such matings are proved by records established
for several generations.

In the breeding of other kinds of pedigreed livestock, such as
horses, cows and dogs, permanent records are maintained by the
officers of a society or association of breeders. In other words,
the stock is registered; and an examination of the records of a
certain society will disclose the ancestry of any animal of note.
Because the poultryman
must keep his own pedi-
gree, it becomes none the
less important.

The trap nest and the
numbered leg band are
the only positive means
of determining the exact
laying ability of a hen,’
which hens lay the best
shaped eggs, which the
largest sized, which the
strongest in point of fer-
tility, which are the best
winter layers, which pul-
lets begin early and lay
the greatest number of
eggs in succession, the y ae j
number of times they be- (Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)
come broody, and many Fig. 67.—Making incision for wing band.
other facts of vital im-
portance to the poultryman. But whether or not this informa-
tion is considered of sufficient value to warrant the additional time,
trouble and expense of operating the trap nest system is the de-
batable question that must be determined by every poultryman
for himself.

The use of the trap nest is described in another chapter.

Fertility——A fair idea of the fertility and hatchability of the
eggs, and the stamina and growth of the chicks may be ascer-

102 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

tained by flocks, where the poultryman does not wish to trap nest
his birds. Let us assume the breeding pens consist of units of
from twenty to a hundred fowls, and that they have been mated
with the view to some definite purpose. As the eggs are col-
lected from these pens let the collector mark the number of the
pen on the receptacle in which the eggs are gathered; later, when
the eggs are selected for
incubation this number
is marked on the egg shells
and they are placed in the
incubator or under hens.
A card is made out for
each hatching, and on it
is marked the date the
eggs are set. When the
eggs are tested for fertil-
ity a report is made on
the card of the number of
clear eggs removed, and
to what pen numbers
they belong. The same
idea is carried out at
hatching time—the un-
hatched eggs are counted
and credited to their re-
spective pens.
Marking Chicks.—This
Fig. 68.—Wing band in place on a mature data will keep a Bic eey
bird. good line on the fertility
of the different pens, and
the hatchability of their eggs. If the operator wishes to go further,
and follow the progress of the chicks in the brooder, he can mark
them when they are removed from the incubator, by leg bands, such
as are used for pigeons. See Fig.65. In keeping track of the eggs
in the incubator they are given ordinary treatment up to the eigh-
teenth day, or when the eggs are turned for last time. Then, by

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

TOE MARKING 103

means of wire baskets, pedigree trays, or mosquito-netting sacks,
the eggs are segregated according to the numbers on their shells,
and when the hatch is completed these numbers are designated
on the leg bands placed on the chicks.

This method permits the breeder to follow the progress of the
chicks from different pens, and to note the results of his selection
for given matings. It also keeps a check on the mortality and
on early development. When the chick is five or six weeks old,

«IN JN 2 AN AN
2~/\ /N # AN AN
2M I # A A
#/\ ~\ 2 AN AN
6/\ My #2 AX Ad
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Fig. 69.—Sixteen different methods of marking the toes of chicks.

and has outgrown the size of the first leg band, it must be removed
and a larger one substituted, or the original band may be secured
to the web of the wing, where it will remain throughout life.

Wing Bands.—Attaching the band to the web of the wing is
accomplished without serious discomfort to the bird. See Fig.
67. Select a spot free from blood vessels of any size, pierce it
with the point of a sharp knife and adjust the band.

Toe Marking.—The advantages of having the fowls marked are
numerous; it is always possible to tell the bird’s age, and if the

104 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

records are properly kept there will be no likelihood of inbreed-
ing. Another method of marking the chicks is to punch a small
hole in the web of the foot. Special punches may be purchased
for this purpose. The chicks should be marked the day they are
hatched, as the web is then soft, does not bleed so much as later,
consequently there is little risk of the other chicks pecking the
toes, as they would do when older. By different combinations
there are sixteen markings possible, and a chart should be kept
illustrating the marks. See Fig. 69. In my experience leg-
banding is better than toe-punching.

Feed Records.—In keeping a record of the amount of feed con-
sumed by the different flocks it is not necessary to go to the
trouble of weighing the feed every day. To do so might prove
very tedious. A fowl’s appetite is never the same; it varies
from one year’s end to the other, much the same as the prices of
grain and other commodities fluctuate. During a period of
heavy laying hens eat more than at other times; when they are
molting or sitting they eat very little; in cold weather they con-
sume more grain than in warm weather, providing their egg
yield is the same; and on a bright sun-shiny day in winter they
will eat more than on a dull, stormy day. Experienced poultry-
men seldom feed a prescribed amount of grain to each flock every
day; they cater to the flock’s appetite and general conditions.
It is the only intelligent way to feed.

Except for these variations in the quantities of the feed and
in the prices of the feed, it would be a comparatively simple task
to figure the cost of the feed for a given pen.

On most farms it is customary to feed the layers a certain
amount of scratch grains in the morning, just enough to keep
them at work in the litter, and all they will clean up in the late
afternoon. At the same time a dry mash is kept before the flock
all day, together with oyster shells, grit, charcoal and beef scrap,
unless the last two of these articles are included in the mash.
Naturally, the quantities vary considerably. Furthermore, the
numerous kinds of feed are purchased at varying intervals, in

“punos3 Suidojs uo payenyis ]JaM asnoy BuAeT— od “31

105

106 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

different quantities, and at such times as they may be bought
advantageously.

Obtain a Rate.—The only simple way to surmount these
irregularities is to reduce them to a unit basis or rate—the cost
of a pound or quart for a given period, as, for example, the cost
of a pound of dry mash for the month of October is $0.0195, or
the cost of a quart of scratch grains for November is $0.0198.
If large quantities are handled the unit may be raised to a hun-
dred pounds or a hun-
dred quarts.

A scheme of this kind
is in use on a farm of
my acquaintance, and it
works out very nicely.
Every consignment of
feed received is appor-
tioned to dry mash,
scratch grains, chick feed
or whichever way the
Fig. 71.—Outdoor feed hopper for growing meals and grains are to

stock. be used, in two totals,

weight and price. At

the end of each month the total costs are added, and divided by

the sum of the total weights, and the quotients are the rates per
pound for each classification for that particular month.

The rates are then applied to the quantities consumed by the
various flocks, whose records are kept daily in each house or pen,
then totaled for the month.

The manner of keeping the records of the feed consumed is
rather unique. A card or slate is fastened near the door of each
pen, and as the attendant goes about distributing the feed, an
entry is made of the quantity of each kind of feed, dry mash,
scratch grains, shells and so on. Large hoppers are employed
for the storage of dry mash, some of them having a capacity of
two and three hundred pounds, hence there may be only five or
six entries for mash in a month. Similar devices are installed

(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)

TELL-TALES 107

for shells and grit, which are replenished on an average of once
a month.

Buckets of known uniform capacity are used for distributing
the feed and other supplies, which obviates the necessity for
weighing and feeding. Let us say, a certain-sized bucket con-
tains forty pounds of scratch grains: If the feeder throws half
of it to one pen and a quarter to another, and then four buckets

Fig. 72.—-Substantial set of poultry buildings.

to a larger house, he enters twenty, ten and a hundred and sixty
pounds respectively on each slate.

The same bucket will probably hold about thirty pounds of
dry mash, and about eighty pounds of grit or shells. At the end
of the month all slates are brought to the office, totaled, entered
in a book and wiped clean for the next month.

Tell-Tales.—If the record of a particular house indicates a
falling off in feed along with a decrease in eggs, or if the egg record

108 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

does not compare favorably with the cost of the feed, it proves
substantially that something is wrong, or that a certain flock
is not up to standard. An inquiry is then held and the reasons
ascertained. The system also acts as a check on the feed; since
the total amount of feed placed before the fowls must compare
with the amount of feed purchased. This is a feature not to be
ignored; we have known feed to be wasted, sold short weight
and. stolen. The question of keeping records on a poultry farm
is in harmony with this age of time clocks and cash registers.

CHAPTER IX
PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY HOUSE CONSTRUCTION

The question often arises, which is the best ‘system of poultry
management?

Many persons have been led to believe that such systems exist,
even to the extent of being patented, and for the use of which it
is necessary to pay certain sums of money. The truth is, that
while hundreds of books and pamphlets have been published on
this subject, purporting to be secret methods and systems, many
of which contain extravagant claims, there is no such thing as a
hard and fast system of poultry culture.

On the contrary, the only principle which might be said to con-
stitute a system, and upon which all of the so-called systems and
secret methods agree, is—that the management or care shall be
systematically done. Beyond this every poultryman must
evolve his own individual methods and practices, those which
are best suited to a given purpose in a given locality. It is im-
portant that one should have a definite purpose, for in that way
only is it possible to determine the most suitable location, the
best type of housing, the most profitable breeds, and so on.

Location.—While fowls can be kept almost anywhere and
everywhere, they do best in congenial locations. Soil conditions
and the arrangement and construction of buildings have much
to do with their health and profit. We must also consider the
means and inclinations of their owner.

Briefly, the ideal location may be summarized as follows:
Choose a soil which is light enough to provide good natural
drainage, yet heavy enough to grow grass, and a site having a
south or southeast exposure, protected from prevailing high
winds.

109

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LOCATION OF HOUSES 111

A dry porous soil, such as sandy or gravelly loam, is preferable
to a heavy clay soil, because the former is easily kept sanitary.
A purely sandy soil, however, is not desirable, because it will not
support the plant and insect life which poultry should have. If
it is impracticable to select a naturally dry soil, it should be made
sanitary by underdrainage.

Build the houses in the lee of a wind-break if possible, and on an
elevation having a natural drainage away from the buildings.
When a direct southern exposure is not obtainable, aim to have

(Courtesy Monmouth Poultry Farm)
Fig. 74.—A site like this means well-drained, sanitary yards.

the buildings face the southeast rather than southwest, for fowls
seem to enjoy morning to afternoon sun, and other things being
equal the quarters should be warmer.

In the manner of housing fowls there are two general ideas—
the colony plan, which consists in placing small houses for small
flocks far enough apart so that they will have an abundance of
rarige, and with little chance of intermingling, and the more in-
tensive plan of keeping the birds in long continuous laying houses.
See Fig. 76. This latter arrangement of housing may consist

112 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of a series of separate pens under one roof, connected by an alley-
way at the rear, or by doors or gates between the pens, or it may
be one long house capable of accommodating units of from 500
to 1000 birds.

The advantages and disadvantages of the two ideas are nu-
merous. Birds on free range require less scrupulous attention to
cleanliness, no expense for fencing, and they will pick up the
greater part of their green and animal food. Moreover, should
sickness break out there is less likelihood of its becoming an epi-
demic. On the other hand, the colony plan involves considerably

tana

15-0

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 75.—Diagram illustrating the angle of the sun’s rays during December.
Sunlight should be permitted to reach the rear of the building, where it is most
needed.

more labor in the performance of routine work, such as feeding
and watering, cleaning and gathering eggs, than the continuous
house plan, which is especially true in stormy weather.

The cost of building houses on the colony plan is much higher
per bird, not only because a number of smaller houses require so
many additional end walls, but being smaller the allowance of
floor area per bird in the colony house should be almost double
that required in the long continuous house.

The relative merits as to productiveness are debatable, although
there is a tendency to accept the idea that small flocks produce
the greater egg yield. To offset this, however, it costs more in

IDEAL TYPE OF HOUSE 113

labor to produce a dozen eggs by the colony plan than by a more
intensive arrangement.

The ideal type of poultry house is not necessarily the most ex-
pensive building. It should be serviceable above all things, fairly
roomy, well ventilated and yet free from direct drafts, capable of
being flooded with sunlight, and dry and sanitary at all times.
It should be built wherever possible with the view to simplicity,
economy and convenience. To spend large sums on it is almost
as grave an error as to slight it, for money expended for unneces-

500+ ' 300*

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To Toa Po

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 76.—Housing plans. Diagram on left indicates colony house system;
dotted line shows the distance travelled to reach all the buildings. In the
right-hand diagram the same number of pens are brought together in a con-
tinuous house; aote the amount of walking saved.

sary purposes on a poultry farm is dead capital and brings no re-
turn on the investment.

It is impossible, of course, to meet all conditions or suit all
tastes in one or two types of houses, but if one gains a familiarity
with the fundamental principles of poultry house construction,
it is then a simple matter to incorporate those principles into a
type suitable to any tastes, conveniences, soils and climatic con-
ditions.

Warmth.—A warm house, or at least warm sleeping quarters,
is one of the prime requisites for winter egg production; yet arti-

114 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

ficial heat is not to be recommended. In fact, it has been tried
very thoroughly, and with unsatisfactory results. Birds so kept
quickly lose their vitality, and sickness and other troubles de-
velop. It is better to build the house substantially, and thus in-
sure it against drafts and dampness, for these are the poultryman’s
greatest foes.

Egg production is really the result of a secondary circulation,
hence if the fowls require all their surplus energy and vitality
to combat improper conditions and to keep warm, there is none
left for egg production.

4 4 fa

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(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 77.—Types of pens, illustrating arrangement of roosts, partitions, alley-
ways and scratching sheds.

The size of a poultry house is largely influenced by the breed
and number of birds kept in each flock. If the fowls are kept in
small flocks, more floor space per bird is needed, and the reason
is quite apparent. In the small flock, say twenty birds in a house
10 by 12 feet, each hen is confined to a very narrow area, although
she has an allotment of six square feet; whereas in a large flock
of 500 layers, housed in a building 16 by 100 feet, each bird would
have but a trifle over three square feet of floor space, yet it would
have the freedom of roaming and scratching over the entire area,
and would not be oppressed with the feeling of constraint.

Ordinarily, the heavier breeds require about one-half again as

SIZE AND PROPORTION 115

much floor space as the Leghorn and other Mediterranean classes;
but the smaller breeds, being more active and more nervous, are
more apt to become unduly excited and panicky when crowded
inasmall pen. It is difficult for the attendant to work in a small
house or pen without getting the flock into a condition of unrest
and excitability for fear of being cornered, and such is not con-
ducive to egg production.

The situation may be summarized about as follows: Allow 6
to 7 square feet per bird for all classes, if the houses are small.

Fig. 78.—Poultry house under construction by students at Purdue University.

Provide 5 to 6 square feet per bird of the Plymouth Rock or
Wyandotte type, in houses where the flocks are made up of large
units. Allow 3 to 4 square feet per bird for Leghorns and similar
classes, when they are kept in large flocks. This is the practice
on many of the largest commercial farms.

To obtain the greatest amount of floor space at the least cost,
the building should be designed as wide as possible, yet not exceed
a point where long timbers are required, for these are certain to
be expensive. Sixteen feet is a good width for the shed roof type
of house; the timbers required are stock lengths, therefore sold

116 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

at regular rates; and the front wall need not be so high but that
the sun will-reach the rear wall, where it is most needed on account
of the roosting compartments.

There are three general types of roofs for poultry buildings—
the single pitch or shed roof, the gable roof, or double pitch,
having equal or unequal slopes; and the half-monitor style of
house, which consists of a shed roof in the rear of the house,
covering about two-thirds of the building, then from the front
eaves a wall is built for perhaps a distance of three or four feet,
consisting mainly of windows, and from which there extends

TT CON

(Cornetl Experiment Station)

Fig. 79.—Types of roofs for poultry houses. A, shed roof; B, two-thirds spdn;
C, gable; D, monitor; EZ, half monitor; F, hip roof. .

another plane or shed roof, covering the front third of the build-
ing. See Fig. 79. Houses of this type can be erected wider than
sixteen feet and not require exceptionally long timbers, and it is
also practicable to have the sun’s rays reach the rear of the in-
terior without a high front wall.

The single-pitch roof is the easiest to build, and is probably
the most generally used on that account. It furnishes the highest
front wall, and sheds all the rain water to the rear.

All poultry buildings should be built as low as possible, not
only to save material, but to conserve warmth in cold weather;
yet they should be built with standing room in all sections where

ROOF 117

the routine work is performed. If the rear wall is built of suffi-
cient height for the attendant to perform his work without bump-
ing his head, and the front wall is to be kept as low as practicable,
the roof will necessarily have to be of comparatively low pitch.
Since shingles do not wear well on roofs of low pitch, houses of
the shed roof type are usually roofed with a good grade of ready-
to-lay patent roofing. These roofings, providing they are of
known reliability, have rendered satisfaction, and are to be
recommended. They require few repairs, but an occasional

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 80.—Interior of continuous poultry house in course of construction.
Note the framing for pen partitions, ceiling against the rear wall in way of the
roosting compartments, and the dirt floor The sills are laid on concrete walls.

painting, and are very economical in the amount of labor in-
volved in laying them.

When to Build.—Whenever possible it is best to build during
the spring or early summer, for the building then has time to dry
out during the hot days. This is especially true of houses which
are intended to have dirt floors, or those having cement floors
and foundation walls. Much of the sickness attributed to damp-
ness will be avoided in this way, also considerable trouble and
annoyance caused by wet, mucky litter.

118 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Kinds of Floors.—The floor may be of earth, wood or cement;
location and soil conditions are the determining factors. See
Fig. 81. It is highly important that the floor be dry, otherwise
it will be impossible to keep the litter dry and sweet enough for
the fowls to work in. Straw and similar materials absorb mois-
ture very quickly, whereupon they give off foul odors and are
very apt to contaminate the scratch grains thrown into them.

Earth Floor.—There is no better floor for poultry than an earth
one, providing it is practicable to keep it dry, and it is also the
most economical. A light sandy loam is best. A dirt floor
should be about a foot above the outside ground level, hence the

(Cornell Experiment Station)
Fig. 81.—Methods of constructing foundations and floors.

best method of construction for such a house is to erect a concrete
wall for a foundation. This should be built deep enough to pre-
vent heaving by frost action, and extend about a foot above
ground, after which it is filled in with soil, preferably sand, before
the balance of the structure is erected.

A wooden sill is laid on the top of this wall, upon which the
frame studding is built, with the weather boards or siding carried
three or four inches down on the outside of the concrete. An ar-
rangement of this kind promotes great durability, for there is no
part of the frame structure in contact with dampness and there-
fore likely to deteriorate.

FOUNDATION AND FLOOR 119

Board floors are usually short-lived unless a free circulation of
air is allowed under them, in which case it is well to build the
house on piers two feet from the ground, or on a wall having ade-
quate openings for ventilation The piers should be built of
concrete, stone or brick for permanence. If posts are used, they
should be charred or treated with a wood-preserving compound
to prolong their life.

Another objection to the wood floor which is built close to the
ground, it offers a refuge to rats and mice and, perhaps, other
animals. These pests are likely to occur on any farm, and if
means are not provided to combat them, they will rapidly be-
come a serious nuisance.

Cement floors are the only absolutely vermin-proof ones; they
are easily cleaned and durable, but apt to be cold and hard on the
fowls’ feet, unless covered with a thick layer of sand and litter.
In constructing a cement floor the ground should be excavated
for a depth of eight or ten inches, and filled in with broken stones
or cinders to make a good foundation, which also acts as a sort
of French drain and keeps the floor dry. The concrete slab
should be about two or three inches thick, poured over the broken
stones or cinders after they are well tamped to a solid bed, and
mixed in the proportion of 1 part Portland cement, 2% parts
crushed stone or cinders, and 5 parts clean sharp sand. It is
advisable to pitch the floor to a drain, which will greatly facilitate
house cleaning.

Floor Joists.—If the floor is of wood, built upon piers, the sills
should be of fairly heavy timbers, running the long way of the
house, which support the floor joists; these latter of 2 by 8, or 2
by Io material, and spaced about 20 inches on centers. If a
single floor is to be installed, it should consist of a good grade of
matched flooring; otherwise, if a double floor is contemplated,
the rough flooring may be of 1 by 12 inch sheathing boards, laid
diagonally across the joists, and over-laid lengthwise of the house
with 1 by 3 inch matched flooring. The finished floor should
be blind nailed, so that no nail heads project to hamper the use
of a shovel or scraper in cleaning. Where necessary a layer of

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WALL CONSTRUCTION 123

felt building paper may be inserted between the two floors, which
will add greatly to the warmth of the building.

The framework is constructed mainly from 2 by 4 inch lumber,
as are the rafters of buildings less than fourteen feet in width.
The walls may consist of one thickness of matched boards covered
with 1-ply smooth-surfaced patent roofing, similar to the roof
covering, novelty siding, weather boards, or rough sheathing
shingled. Or, as is the custom in extremely cold climates, the
walls may be made double, with a dead air space between, or

r i il ;

Fig. 85.—End view of model hen house, as shown in Fig. 82.

filled in with straw, hay or shavings for insulating purposes.
These precautions, however, are not necessary unless the temper-
ature goes below zero for long periods at a time.

Another practice is to ceil the inside edge of the studding in
way of the roosting compartments, and also the under side of the
rafters. This makes a very neat interior, and helps to carry off
any foul odors from the perches. Some poultrymen advocate the
use of felt or tar paper on the inside of laying houses, lining the walls
with it; but in the writer’s experience this is very unsatisfactory.

124 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

It affords a breeding ground for lice and mites, and it cannot be
cleaned. Then, too, it is inflammable.

Openings.—The best arrangement is to have all the openings
in the house on one side—the front wall—so that by keeping the
other three sides tightly closed, drafts are prevented.

Too much glass in a poultry house makes it cold in winter and
hot in summer. In recent years curtain frames have taken the

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 86,—Framing for a continuous poultry house. Note the concrete walls;
building is intended to have a dirt floor.

place of glass windows to a great extent. In fact, many farms
use curtain frames exclusively, although this practice makes for
a dark interior, when on very stormy days it becomes necessary
to close the curtains. The semi-open front house should consist
of one-third board partition for its front wall, commencing at the
floor line, one-third curtain frame openings, and one-third win-
dows and ventilators. See Fig. 84.

Curtain Frames.—A medium-weight, unbleached muslin is

WINDOWS AND CURTAIN FRAMES 125

the proper material for the curtains, not heavy duck; the idea
being that they should be porous and permit a circulation of
fresh air without direct drafts. The frames may be hinged at the
top and made to swing inward or outward, or they may be made
portable and held in place by wooden buttons, operated from the
outside. Inasmuch as they are in use for only about four months
in the year, and then only at night or at such times when there is
a severe storm from.the south, it is best to make the frames
portable, and to store them elsewhere when not needed.

The position of the glass windows in the upper section of the
South

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(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 87.—Methods of arranging colony houses and yards to save unnecessary
steps.

front wall should allow the maximum amount of sunlight to enter
the building. They may be made portable, similar to the cur-
tains, and stored elsewhere when not in use, or they can be opened
by sliding to one side, or by swinging outward, which also serves
the purpose of shedding driving rains from the south.
Doors.—A small opening should be cut in the front wall as a
means of egress for the birds, and fitted with a door. The main
entrance door should be located at the end of the building, and
be of generous proportions. There is no economy, only incon-
venience, in a small entrance door. It should be large enough

126 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

to permit the passage of a wheelbarrow or push-cart for cleaning,
replenishing the litter and other routine work. In houses fifty
feet in length and longer it will be found advisable to have a door
at each end of the building. With this convenience a great many
unnecessary steps may be avoided.

Yard Space.—Chickens do not require unlimited range to give
results, providing the deficiencies of a small enclosure are met
by supplying them with an abundance of green food, animal food,
and so on from other sources. Yet it is a bad plan to attempt to
keep a large flock in a very small yard, unless considerable labor
is expended in spading or plowing up the soil at frequent in-
tervals.

The earth in a yard crowded with fowls, especially if the soil
is heavy, will become contaminated by their droppings, which is
particularly objectionable in wet weather. It is therefore best
to have double yards, one on either side of the house, or if this
is not practicable, have them arranged side by side; so that when
the flock is occupying one yard, the other may be sown to clover,
rye, rape, or other green crop, and given time to make a start.
This cultivation not only sweetens the soil, but it will provide a
large portion of the necessary green food.

Permanent Pasture.—If the yards are intended to be kept in
permanent sod and furnish all of the green food, it will be ad-
visable to allow at least 100 square feet per fowl, otherwise the
birds will destroy the entire growth. If yards are intended for
exercise only, and the greens are supplied from other sources,
about 25 square feet per bird is sufficient.

In any event, it is well to remember that the nearer square a
yard is made the less it costs to fence a given area and the flock
is more easily confined. Obviously, the small yard requires a
higher fence than the large one, although the question of height
is largely determined by the breed one keeps. The meat breeds,
such as the Brahmas, may be confined within a 3- to 4-foot fence,
general-purpose fowls within a 4- to 5-foot fence, and the egg
breeds within a 6- to 7-foot fence.

Erecting wire netting is sometimes attended by difficulties,

ERECTING WIRE NETTING 127

which are generally due to lack of experience with this com-
modity, and not to the netting itself. It is contrary material
to work, yet if a few principles are followed, the task may be
made comparatively simple, and one that can be done single-
handed.

In purchasing poultry netting, even the best grades, it some-
times happens that one selvage is slightly longer than the other,
which will be responsible for trouble in hanging it, unless pre-
cautionary measures are taken. To ascertain if such is the case,

Fig. 88.—Wire-covered yards for cross-breeding experiments at the Kansas
Agricultural Station.

unroll the netting on a level stretch of ground, and if instead of
lying in a straight line, the netting describes a slight curve, it
is because one edge or selvage is longer than the other, perhaps
but a few inches, which will not interfere with its efficiency, if
the defect is borne in mind.

Netting having uneven edges should always be hung with the
shortest selvage—the selvage on the inside of the curve—at
the top. Otherwise, if the longest selvage—the one on the out-
side of the curve—is placed at the top, the upper section of the

128 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

netting, after it is hung, will sag between the posts in spite of
every effort to remedy it.

There is one exception to this rule, which will explain the prin-
ciple of it: If a fence is to be erected on ground which is rolling,
and the contour of the ground is such that the highest ground is
in the center of the curve, grading away uniformly on both sides,
it is quite likely that this curve will conform to the curve in the
netting, in which case the wire may be hung with the longest
edge uppermost.

Top Rails.—A poultry yard should never be constructed with
a rail at the top, unless the top is to be covered with netting also,
or unless the fence is to be built very high for a particular breed.
To build rails only invites the birds to fly and alight on them.
Fowls are not so apt to attempt to fly over plain wire, though now
and again the more venturesome members of a flock will try to
elude the mysterious barrier by climbing up and over it.

If a rail is necessary at the top of a fence, as over gateways,
it is well to erect a piece of netting over the top of the rail, which
will baffle and discourage those who attempt an aérial escape.

Base boards 12 inches wide, securely nailed to the fence posts,
make the best bottom for a poultry fence, and assist greatly in
stretching the netting, but they are also expensive if large areas
are to be inclosed. They are not absolutely essential; in fact,
equally good results can be obtained without them, for which a
method is herewith described.

The fence posts should be well planted in the ground, from 10
to 12 feet apart, and braced at the corners, or in way of gates, to
take the strain of stretching the wire. Then, commencing at a
corner, unroll the bale of netting on the ground for its entire
length, ascertain if it is straight, and decide which is the best
edge for the top.

Start to hang the netting by the top selvage at the proper
height from the ground, driving one staple—no more—in each
post, until the entire length is hung, all the while stretching the
selvage away from the starting point. Be careful not to walk on
the netting unnecessarily, or to handle it in such a way that it

HOW TO BUILD A FENCE 129

develops bulges or sagged places, and do not attempt to stretch
the middle of the netting. To do so will only result in a dis-
torted sagged section which can never be straightened without

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Fig. 89.—Section of intensive broiler plant.

130 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

great difficulty, if at all. It is also a bad plan to try and carry
the netting around a corner without cutting it and making a
new place of beginning, especially if the posts are round.
Stapling.—When the netting is entirely hung by a single staple
at each post, commence at the middle of the length of wire and

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Fig. 90.—General arrangement of broiler plant, as shown in Fig. 89.

secure the bottom selvage at each post at the ground line or an
inch below, working each way from the center, and being careful
not to stretch the netting beyond the distance allotted to it by
each post interval. This method apportions the correct amount
of netting over the entire area, whereupon it is then a simple

TO HOLD NETTING AT BOTTOM 131

matter to return and staple the wire to each post individually,
stretching it slightly here and there as it is required.

To hold the bottom of the netting in place and make it hug the
ground closely, drive stakes at intervals of three or four feet—
two stakes between the posts are generally sufficient—and secure
the netting to them by a staple. Discarded wooden fence palings
are splendid for this purpose, especially if they are tapered.
Drive the largest end in the ground first, for a distance of about
eighteen inches, whereupon they are less likely to heave upward
by frost action.

The life of these stakes will be prolonged if they are first
dipped or soaked in a wood preservative, or else charred.

Fig. 91.—Poultry house at Wisconsin College of Agriculture.

By the use of stakes in this manner, especially in a light soil,
it is possible to sink the netting six inches into the ground with-
out difficulty, which in some respects is better than the wooden
base boards, the bottoms of which soon rot away, or under which
the fowls are able to dig their way to freedom. Moreover, with
a little practice one will soon develop the skill and judgment of
being able to drive the stakes with just enough tension on the
netting to stretch it perfectly flat and tight.

Chick Runs.—For inclosing yards intended for chicks, a course
of inch mesh wire netting should be used at the bottom, twelve
or eighteen inches high is sufficient, to which the coarser mesh
netting is fastened by pieces of pliable wire bound around the
two selvage edges.

CHAPTER X
INTERIOR ARRANGEMENT OF BUILDINGS

Convenience.—In the design and construction of poultry
buildings not only the health and comfort of the fowls must be
carefully considered, but the convenience of the caretaker should
receive equally thoughtful attention. If not, and the arrange-
ment of a building or plant is inconvenient, or its facilities are
meager and of such a character that the performance of one’s
work is made unnecessarily tedious and laborious, it is quite
likely to have a demoralizing effect upon the attendant’s interest
and ability. In consequence, some of the routine chores are
apt to be overlooked or slighted, and in due time carelessness
takes the place of thoroughness.

The interior fittings of a poultry house—the arrangement. of
nests, perches, feed hoppers, watering devicés and so forth—
are no less important than the construction of the building itself.

Cleanliness.—The paramount issue is cleanliness, or rather,
let us say, facilities which will obtain cleanliness at the least pos-
sible effort. It is a subject that admits of much argument and
varying principles. Some methods achieve their end at too
great a cost for labor; others simplify labor at the expense of
sanitation. Various degrees of cleanliness are maintained either
by an intricate or simple operation, and the same ease or effort
may be expended upon the feeding, watering and egg collecting.
If the methods are so antiquated or so involved as to require
an unreasonable amount of labor, the efficiency of such a system
is defective and should be corrected at once.

Roosting Compartments.—The warmest part of the building,
that which is freest from drafts, should be selected for the roost-
ing compartments, which is usually against the rear wall. Each

132

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 92.—Interior of continuous laying house divided into pens. Note the
abundance of litter, swinging doors, and platform for water crock, shell box
and mash hopper.

133

134 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

fowl should be allowed about ten inches linear perch room, and
all the perches must be of the same height, or the birds will
fight and struggle for the highest ones. Running the perches
the long way of the house, that is, parallel with the rear wall, is
generally the most economical, convenient arrangement, and
their height from the floor is determined by the breed of poultry
kept, and whether dropping-board platforms and nests are in-
tended to be installed under the roosts.

When dropping-boards are used, which are advisable, the roosts

a ee

Gravel ¥ cobble sore ©

Concrete woll
4 _-stune filled Tench

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 93.—Cross-section of laying house 20 feet deep, built on continuous plan,
any length desired.

should be located high enough to make their removal unneces-
sary when cleaning the boards, and yet not so high but that the
fowls can fly to them without difficulty. When fowls jump to a
hard floor from a considerable height, especially to a concrete
floor which is scantily covered with litter, they are in danger of
bruising their feet, causing a very painful condition which later
develops into bumblefoot. On this point the dirt floor is de-
sirable; it is so resilient that cases of bumblefoot or corns are
virtually unknown.

Height of Boards.—As a general rule the dropping-boards for

HEIGHT OF PERCHES 135

the Asiatic classes should not be over eighteen inches from the
floor; for the general-purpose or American breeds, twenty-four
inches; and for the Leghorn and other light weight Mediter-
ranean classes, forty inches. The perches should be located

42" ——>

ny r
f a

eee aE Se

U&~ Support jer ae’

Ory Tash Hoppers

Floor Ala ofttouse

— wil :
Pens 20'Square

Woler Par or

Slatted Platform:
= llindow tinged
g Yo oper lke
: ¢ dour

‘wire

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 94.—Floor plan of 20-foot laying house, as shown in Fig. 93. View shows
the width of a single pen, 20 feet wide.

about twelve inches above the boards, and so constructed as to
permit them to be readily removed and cleaned.

Perches.—A 2- by 3-inch timber stood on edge, with the upper
edge slightly rounded, makes an excellent perch. If these are
supported at the ends by U-shaped wooden sockets, they may be

136 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

made to span ten feet without need for an intervening support.
Spans greater than this should be supported in the middle by a
third cleat, a piece of 1- by 3-inch stuff stood on edge, otherwise
the perches will sway heavily and disturb the sense of security in
the fowls.

The end walls in houses sixteen feet long and less may be made
to support the perches, dropping-boards and nests. In buildings
of the continuous laying-house type it is customary to erect

Leet

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 95.—Floors of poultry buildings should be unobstructed. Note how
this battery of trap nests is arranged, together with the perches and dropping-
boards.

transverse partitions, at intervals of twelve or sixteen feet, ex-
tending five or six feet from the rear wall, which are designed to
prevent currents of air from forming dangerous drafts in the
roosting compartments, and which serve the additional purpose
of a foundation for the perches and so forth.

Construction of Boards.—The dropping-boards should be
made fairly heavy and rigid, for it must be remembered that they
will be made to carry considerable weight, not alone the weight

ROOSTING COMPARTMENTS 137

of the fowls, but perhaps the nests as well. They should consist
of matched boards—8-inch roofers or 6-inch tongue-and-grooved
fence boards are just the thing, and secured to their framework
at right angles to the rear wall, never lengthwise of the house.
The reason for this is apparent: there is a tendency for the boards
to warp and curl, which would seriously interfere with scraping

‘ap Vi00k

door bekveen pers <2 i |

immer Vibvyilion © swings bol ways ae n
5
1 oe
4 ; ri 1 Vbase board —tils |
= : t 2% prerenT rain com-
rn ing im under curigia,
. H 2O00r, thru b
& g/which eggs) °
f o¢e _galherca, }
iN 5 — ke -—3’--1---4
ba posed alley Bigests, |
caly Thruvsrn
door of oad, it = i
+
4 i N_— Concrete floor.
— Cobblestones KGravel/_— ©) evsiaie bine
16° on

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 96.—Cross-section of laying house 16 feet deep, built on continuous plan,
any length desired.

the boards at cleaning time if the hoe or similar implement had
to oppose these cracks and irregular places.

Roosting Curtains—When the roosting compartments are
arranged as described above, it is a simple matter to fit the fronts
of them with curtains, which may be lowered on extremely cold
nights and hooked up to the ceiling in the daytime, a practice,
however, which is not necessary except in very cold climates.
Heavy unbleached muslin or a light duck tacked to a wooden
batten cr pole makes a good arrangement.

138 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Still another point concerning the dropping-boards: they should.
be arranged with the view to scraping them into a push-cart or
wheelbarrow, preferably the former. No part of the poultry-
man’s equipment is more generally useful and a greater labor
saver than a well-built push-cart with fairly high wheels. It
need not be an expensive one with springs.

16°

(7 i 28 ——-f
‘ fl LY i q
i 2x & plale $ é
+ =
Hiadpw sds ‘
q fastaned hpgeliier i
i ng — Com Curnmin— »
. 1 '
o sot ob of ieee eee we" “| 4
IN Rs
R
'
'
‘
'
'
1
t
! pis r
= Ex)
uN
: tw x
L ¢ 2K! Sil. : =
>

— Concrere Wall —

— Sone filled Feenche —

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 97.—Front elevation of laying house shown in Fig. 96. View shows the
width of a sifgle pen, 16 feet wide.

Nests.—Next in importance to the roosting compartments is
the arrangement of nests, of which there should be one to every
four or five hens. Under natural conditions the hen seeks a se-
cluded spot in which to lay, hence it behooves the poultry house
designer to imitate the natural environment as much as practic-
able. The nests should be situated in a more or less dark place,
easily accessible, and in such a way that they do not obstruct

ARRANGEMENT OF NESTS 139

passageways or intrude upon the floor area. An unobstructed
floor area is a vital consideration, and it,should not be robbed
in any way unless absolutely necessary.

A good location for the nests is underneath the dropping-
boards, suspended from them in light portable sections or bat-
teries, which may be removed conveniently for cleaning. This
practice, however, is not possible in houses intended for the
heavier breeds, where the dropping-boards are built close to the
floor, but it is admirably well suited to Leghorns.

The nests should be arranged so that the hens enter from the
side toward the rear wall, and have a shelf upon which they may
alight before entering a particular compartment. Each nest
should be from 12 to 14 inches square and about 12 inches high,
with solid partitions between them to prevent the hens from.
fighting. The side from which the fowls enter should have a.
front piece—a batten about three inches high—to keep the nest-,
ing material in its proper place; the side of the nests exposed to
the interior of the house and from which the attendant is sup-
posed to gather the eggs, consists of a hinged lid, arranged to
operate with the greatest facility.

Portable Nests.—The advantages of nests built in portable
sections are numerous. It is necessary to clean them frequently
in order to secure clean eggs at all times, and to replenish the
nesting material. Moreover, they should be sprayed or scrubbed
with a disinfectant at regular intervals to avoid a pestilence of
lice and mites. The easiest way to perform this work is to re-
move the nests outdoors, dump out their old contents, wash or
spray them, place them in the sun to dry, refill with fresh straw,
excelsior or other material and return them to their proper place.

Built-in nests, those which are not portable, are very difficult
and tedious to clean, and should not be tolerated.

Cleanliness.—It is also important that the nests be protected
against the fowls roosting in or on top of them, thereby soiling
them unnecessarily. Soiled eggs are very bothersome, and even
when thoroughly cleaned they are apt to be detected as washed
eggs, and will be discounted accordingly. Furthermore, the

‘squejd 33a JeIssauWi0d jo yeoIdAy

‘asnoy SulAery jo Jol41a}Uuy]—

140

BROODY HEN COOP 141

nests should be built so that it is convenient for the caretaker
to remove any setting hens. In the brooding season, especially
on the commercial egg farm, it is necessary to go over all the nests
every night and remove all hens showing any broody inclination.
Therefore, unless the nests are suitably arranged, this detail in
the day’s routine will consume a great deal of time and is likely
to prove a severe tax on one’s patience.

Broody Hen Coop.—On farms where incubation and brooding
are entirely artificial, the hen is not made responsible for the rear-
ing of next year’s pullets, hence her maternal instincts should

Fig. 99.—The elevated walk in front of this house, under which the birds
pass to gain entrance to the yards, enables the attendant to observe the dif-
ferent pens without entering the building.

never be allowed to develop. When a hen has laid a series or
clutch of eggs, a rest period follows before another clutch de-
velops, and at certain seasons of the year this dormant period is
usually accompanied by broodiness. This condition must be
broken up at once or there will be a heavy falling off in the egg
yield. When a hen is allowed to remain on the nest she eats and
drinks very little, draws heavily upon her internal storehouse for
sustenance, and in a few days she becomes thin and emaciated.

For economical reasons alone it is imperative that this self-

142 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

imposed starvation be intercepted at the earliest possible moment.
Moreover, a hen that is removed from the nest on the first or
second day of her broody spell is much more easily discouraged
than if she is.allowed to remain longer, and thus have her in-
clination become confirmed.

There are many ways of breaking up broodiness, but common
sense dictates that the proper method shall not subject the hen
to cruelty or privation. To do so only further retards egg de-

(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)

Fig. 100.—Poultry house with slatted openings for ventilation instead of
curtains,

velopment, and thus defeats the whole idea. A sitting hen should
be induced to eat and drink freely and to exercise, for only in this
way can her productive organs be stimulated.

Slatted Bottom.—If only a few hens are to be considered, a
good plan is to construct a packing box or coop with a slatted
bottom, and to raise it about six inches from the floor. The
hens’ feet slip between the slats, the birds are unable to squat
in a comfortable position, and the sensation of currents of air
under them instead of eggs is disconcerting and harmlessly an-

PROVISION FOR DUST BATH 143

noying, so that in a few days they are disgusted with the whole
maternal idea and are only too glad to rejoin their comrades in
the laying pens. It is understood, of course, that food and water
must be kept before the hens while they occupy their place of
incarceration. In long laying houses, where a great number of
sitting hens may have to be discouraged at one time, it is ad-
visable to set aside a section of the roosting compartments at
one end of the building for this special purpose, and to build it
with a removable slatted floor, and with a wire netting front, so
that the section may be converted into a brood coop as desired.
At other times it may be used for an ordinary roosting space.

To return to the subject of nests, if it is impracticable to erect
the nests under the dropping-boards, as in the case of houses in-
tended for the heavy breeds, they may be built in transverse
tiers at the ends of the building, and in several sections in the
interior of the house. But, as far as possible they should be
built upon posts, with inclined runways leading to the nests,
to obviate obstructing the floor space. In the monitor type of
laying house they may be conveniently located along the line of
columns supporting the roof, and where the front roof plane
joins the main structure.

Some poultrymen are opposed to locating the nests under the
dropping-boards because of their proximity to the danger of
lice and mites. This argument does not seem to be well taken,
however, inasmuch as if the dropping-boards are infested with
vermin to that extent, the conditions are as bad for sleeping as
they are for laying and should be remedied at once.

A dust bath is as essential to the well-being of poultry as is
the soap and water variety to the human. Consequently, unless
the poultry houses have dirt floors, which will answer the purpose
nicely, provision must be made for a space devoted to dusting,
preferably where there is sunlight, for the fowls seem to relish the
combination. They like to dust themselves and then recline lux-
uriously and bask in the sun. Any sort of a board partition about
twelve inches high will answer the purpose, and about twenty-
five square feet should be allowed for every hundred birds.

CHAPTER XI]
POULTRY HOUSE APPLIANCES

Interior Equipment.—In laying out the interior arrangement
of a poultry house attention is first given to the location of the
roosting compartments, perches and nests. See Fig. 101. After
these are installed the poultryman must turn his inventive
ability to ideas for equipping the house with feeding and water-
ing devices.

These appliances should be arranged in the most convenient
places left vacant after doors, windows, curtain frames, roosts,
and so on have been located, and in such a way that they are not
only easily accessible to the fowls, but equally handy for the
caretaker to attend.

Water fountains, shell boxes and mash hoppers require daily
attention, consequently they should be simple in design, easy to
clean and especially easy to replenish, otherwise a great deal of
time will be needlessly consumed. They should be elevated from
the floor as much as possible, not alone to avoid obstructing the
floor area, but to prevent litter being scratched into them. This
is especially true of the water fountains, hence it is sometimes best
to locate these receptacles on a platform built about eighteen
inches above the floor, and to which the fowls will jump when they
want a drink.

Poultry supply houses display such an array of equipment and
of such a wide variety and completeness, the layman is ofttimes
amazed at the thought and consideration expended on the up-
to-date hen. From a gapeworm extractor to a mammoth incu-
bator or a coal-burning brooder stove, there is an endless assort-
ment of appliances. Many of these devices can be bought more
cheaply than one could make them at home; in fact, it would be

144

SUPPLYING DRINKING WATER 145

impossible to make some of them without special machinery and
costly tools. There are some men, however, for whom the pleas-
ure of making can never be equalled by the satisfaction of buy-
ing a ready-made article, hence there is a splendid opportunity
for them to exercise their ingenuity and skill as an amateur car-
penter and mechanic.

Water Supply.—If left to her own inclinations a hen would
rather drink from a cow’s hoof-print in preference to a fountain

7 “Ss
7

(Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 101.—Different arrangements for roosts and nests. A, Roosts and
nests suspended from rafters, clear of rear wall; B, roosts and nests built on
shelf attached to rear wall; C, a complicated arrangement; D, nests are too
low for convenience; E, no provision for nests; Ff, no dropping-boards—
manure falls to floor; G, wall arrangement for nests; H, open nest, which per-
mits fowls to roost upon it.

of clean, fresh water; yet that is no reason why she should be
allowed to do so, any more than she should be permitted to eat
putrid animal matter, which this perverse creature is sure to do
if given the opportunity. Nature, it seems, has not seen fit to
modify the fowl’s instincts to conform to a civilization more in-
tensive than was her original state; consequently, inasmuch as
we have taken upon ourselves the responsibility of surrounding
the hen with more or less artificial conditions, and induced her
to be several times more productive than normal, it behooves us
10

146 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

to go even further and be responsible for every detail that makes
for her safety and well-being.

An unlimited supply of pure drinking water must be kept be-
fore the flocks at all times, and on large commercial egg farms
this is a factor worthy of serious consideration. If there is water
pressure on the premises, either from an overhead tank or from
a municipal water supply, the problem is greatly simplified, for it

Fig. 102.—Interior of well-designed laying house. Note how curtains are
stowed against under side of rafters, and the partitions between the roosting
compartments.

is then only necessary to run pipe connections to the various build-
ings and fit them with non-freezing hydrants. The water may be
allowed to trickle continuously into a trough equipped with an
overflow leading to the outside of the house, or fountains of gen-
erous capacity may be filled at the hydrant and distributed
throughout the building.

Installing a water system does not necessarily require the ser-

PIPE FITTINGS AND TOOLS 147

vices of a skilled plumber. On the contrary, any one who is
handy with tools will find pipe-fitting a comparatively simple
task. The most laborious part of the work is digging the trenches,
for these should be excavated deep enough for the pipes to lie
below frost line—thirty inches or thereabouts. A pipe vise, pipe
cutter, set of dies for cutting threads, and a couple of Stillson
wrenches are the essential tools.

Pipe.—It is better to use galvanized pipe throughout the sys-
tem, although black iron pipe will answer the purpose. In laying

lf if u
Posts Oud 1 Foosts 22d, i proody
i ‘board Copal F oi Li
A H it ‘J
1 |
ba Concrete, floor fi F | Concrete floor. a |
i cones
3 | hi@ilea
ae bal $ Door 341s Or
= q Mode
lapse = sheathing
IvAw Ld Cerra
bu our Bab 2eytate Bf ia
i — 30'0" = -|

(Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 103.—Floor plan of a well-arranged poultry house.

out the piping underground, it is well to make provision for ex-
tending the system at some future time. That is—put in tee
connections here and there, at points where you may want to
run off pipe lines to new buildings. These tees can be shut off by
plugs made for the purpose, and they will also act as clean-outs
should any trouble occur. If these tee connections are not in-
stalled, and later one wishes to tap into the main feed pipe, it
will be very difficult to do so without taking up a great deal of the
system. The reason for this is obvious: The pipe and fittings
are all threaded right-handed, and unless unions are installed,

148 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

it is then necessary to commence at the end of the system, work
backward, and take down the entire system.

Make a rough diagram of the proposed scheme first, measure
the distances accurately, and, bearing in mind that pipe is pur-
chased in sixteen- and twenty-foot lengths, ascertain the number
and kinds of fittings required. One-inch pipe is plenty large

Fig. 104.—Perches arranged in sections which hinge upward clear of the drop-
ping-boards for cleaning.

enough for the mains, reducing to 34-inch pipe for the branch
lines and connections.

In addition to the enormous saving in labor of watering the
flocks, a water system having connections in all the principal
houses is a very vital factor toward fire protection. A plant thus
equipped is usually able to obtain fire insurance at a lower rate,
hence this saving should be credited to the original outlay for the
water system.

WATER WITHOUT PRESSURE 149

If there is no municipal water supply available, no reservoir
and no overhead tank on the premises, and an investment for
same is not warranted, the following scheme may be substituted,
and it is entirely practicable and satisfactory. The writer
worked out the idea and has used it for several years.

The most expensive part of a water system is the tower and
overhead tank, both of which may be eliminated. Install a sound
oak barrel of about 50-gallon capacity, preferably a charred

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 105.—A raised shelf for the fountain insures clean drinking water.

whiskey container (the charred lining serves to clear the water,
absorb any impurities and keep it sweet), in each house and on
the range where desired, and connect these with underground
piping to an ordinary force-pump at the well. Erect a pump-
jack, back-geared about seven to one, over the pump, and oper-
ate this with a small gasoline engine—one horse power is ade-
quate.

The‘barrels are left with their heads in, and an inlet pipe fitted
with a valve or spigot is inserted in the top of each, also an over-

150 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

flow pipe leading to the outside of the building. Suppose, for
example, there are ten of these barrels on a plant; at feeding and
egg-collecting time in the evening the attendant first starts the
engine, having the spigots or valves to all barrels open. One
by one the barrels fill up and overflow, and as they do so the
attendant shuts them off as he pursues his other work, until they
are all filled, which will require about a half hour’s pumping.
The cost of the gasoline and lubricating oil is negligible, amount-
ing to but a couple of cents; whereas the saving in labor is enor-
mous. Moreover, among farm hands there seems to be a deep-
rooted antipathy against carrying water for livestock, and they
will either openly rebel against the task, or purposely neglect to
furnish the necessary quantity. At least, such has been the
writer’s experience and observations.

Trough System.—In the above system the water is placed
before the fowls in 15-foot galvanized sheet iron troughs, made
from roof gutters, and supported by metal brackets designed for
the purpose. The troughs are located against the front walls of
the laying houses, about twelve inches above the floors, and
covered over by a hinged board to prevent the birds fouling the
water. Each trough is fitted with an overflow and a drain for
cleaning, both of which lead to the outside of the building. The
barrel is bored at the lowest convenient level, fitted with a wooden
tap, such as is used for wine, oils or molasses, which is allowed to
trickle in a very thin stream at all times, and which keeps the
water in circulation and therefore fresh.

The water will not freeze seriously in the barrels of a system
of this kind, because having their heads in, the air is virtually
excluded from the water; the taps are not apt to freeze because
they are wood, and the water in the trough, while ice may form
around the metal in the bottom, is always open to the fowls be-
cause they are constantly drinking from it. At night the water is
drained off entirely, and a plug is substituted for the wooden
spigot, consequently the latter cannot freeze.

A barrel of water in a house of 500 fowls is a day’s supply,
except in very warm weather, when to keep the water cool and

FEED HOPPERS 151

fresh it is advisable to fill the barrels twice a day—at noon and
in the evening—and to allow twice the ordinary flow from the
spigots. The troughs should be brushed out daily with a disin-
fectant, which is not a tedious task if a cheap scrubbing brush
and a small supply of disinfecting fluid is kept handy in each
building.

The manner of placing feed before the fowls constitutes an-
other phase of the daily work in which a great deal of time and
labor may be conserved by providing the right sort of appliances.
It is impossible, of course, to establish rules that will meet the
demands of all farms, for feeding principles vary. The most
generally accepted practice, however, is to give a light feeding

pa —7 s LEZ.
aT
Bays FP 2 r-2 =, a
ee 77 7
LE LEAT PE Va
Tse JEL pobed J ES Fe
Cy al Piet ee ae
a

Pili
R039 SECTION

(California Experi-nent Station)

Fig. 106.—Plans for a dry mash hopper.

of scratch grains in the morning, all the grain the fowls will clean
up at night, and to keep a dry mash, beef scrap, charcoal, grit
and oyster shells before the birds constantly. Or, the beef scrap
and charcoal may be placed in the mash.

Automatic feeders may be installed to distribute the scratch
grains. These devices insure clean food, save labor and induce
exercise, and it is surprising how quickly a pen of fowls will learn
the trick of operating them. They are constructed mainly of
galvanized sheet iron, and those having the largest capacity are
usually the most desirable. Many of the largest commercial
farms are equipped with them, not alone in the laying houses for
mature stock, but in the rearing of young stock on the range and
for little chicks in the brooder.

152 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Mash Hoppers.—Assuming that a dry mash is fed, and this is
conceded to be the most advanced method of feeding poultry,
there is no economy in placing it before the fowls in small quan-
tities, which necessitate filling the hoppers every day. Self-
feeding, reliable, sanitary, non-wasteful hoppers of sufficient size
to store large quantities, say, two or three hundred pounds, or
a week’s supply, should be pro-
vided.

There are no limitations to
the style and construction of
dry mash hoppers, any more
than they should be as simple
as possible, both for the birds
toeat from, and for the atten-
dant to fill, and care should be
taken that the mash cannot be
wasted by the fowls dragging
it out on the floor with their
beaks. Neither should they be
allowed to scratch in it, nor

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station) foul it in any way, as they are

Fig. 107.—Indoor mash hopper for use prone to do if the hoppers are
against a wall. not fitted with lids or covers.

Hoppers having slatted sides

with openings just large enough for the birds to enter their heads,
and fitted with a lip on the inside to prevent waste, are among the
best types. They may be built as long and as high as desired,
cheaply constructed, and made for both indoor and outdoor use.

Shell Boxes.—In addition to dry mash hoppers, each pen
should be equipped with a box for oyster shells and grit. These
need not be large affairs, but convenient and accessible, sanitary
and non-wasteful. The supply houses carry a wide assortment of
them, built mostly of galvanized iron.

3
#

fas

CHAPTER XII
DEVICES FOR DOORS AND GATES

The experienced poultryman never fails to close his hen houses
at night. He will tell you this practice is a part of the daily
routine, quite as important as the feeding and watering. This
closing up does not necessarily mean shutting the windows, cur-
tains and doors with the view to keeping the house warm or pro-
tected against storms. In fact, it has nothing to do with the
temperature of the interior, but with its security—against intru-
sion.

Protection against burglars! Yes, that is correct. But not so
much two-legged gentry, as four-footed raiders. The measure is
inspired by a simple natural law—that poultry is the prey of dogs,
cats, rats, weasels, foxes, minks and other varmints, and against
which fowls must be protected by artificial means.

For the sake of ventilation it is customary to build the greater
part of the fronts of poultry houses in the form of windows, cur-
tains and openings of one type or another. To close these would
make the interior stuffy and humid, unhealthful, and in warm
weather suffocatingly hot. The most approved type of poultry
house is that which is known as the open-front house. In good
practice these openings are carefully covered with small mesh
netting, preferably cellar window screening, though inch mesh
poultry netting will do nicely, which not only prevents the escape
of the occupants of the house, but safeguards them against in-
truders.

Thus with netting over all openings the windows and curtains
may be left in any position night or day with perfect safety. But
—what about provision for the fowls to enter and leave the house?

Fowls are Abroad Early.—At the first streak of light from the
East, chickens stir themselves from their perches. At the earliest

153

154 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

opportunity they start afield, and how they revel in these morn-
ing hours, especially during the spring and summer months, be-
fore sun-up, while the dew hangs heavily on the foliage, and every-
thing seems fresh and full of life! During warm weather particu-
larly, this wandering abroad in the early morning is the most bene-
ficial exercise a fowl can take. It not only provides exercise, but
if the flock is given sufficient range, the fowls will forage for a
considerable part of their keep, in the shape of greens and insect

. (Courtesy Million Egg Farm)
Fig. 108.—‘‘In for the night.”

life. All things considered this early morning outing should be
encouraged wherever possible.

Do Not Confine Chicks.—It is also true of young chickens.
The growth of a brood is often stunted by keeping it confined to
the sleeping quarters until the sun is high. Every minute in
which a brood is kept off the grass, when conditions are such that
it should be abroad, is detrimental to the flock’s development and
to the keeper’s pocketbook. Like grown fowls, chicks are astir at
daybreak, and from the moment it is light enough for them to
even grope about, they struggle to gain their liberty.

EARLY-RISING DOOR 155

Unfortunately, most of us humans have not the same point of
view as poultry. We do not struggle and trample one another to
get outdoors at four o’clock in the morning. Just about that
hour we would be willing to struggle against getting up, and the
chances are we would put up a pretty lively struggle against it.

Automatic Device.—Yet the fowls should be at liberty. If you
leave a door open all night, though it may be but a hen door, you
take the chance of having the house entered and robbed—not
robbed of a single fowl, perhaps, but of.a dozen, or maybe the
entire flock will be killed, just for the sake of killing.

The remedy is to install or equip the house with an automatic
device that will permit the fowls to liberate themselves at dawn,
in other words, to construct a self-opening door. I have called it
the early-rising door.

Chickens are creatures of habit. If they are accustomed to
drinking at a particular spot, there they will look for water, even
to the point of going through the motions of taking a drink. If
they are in the habit of leaving a house or coop at a certain door,
there they will congregate for admittance. It is due to this char-
acteristic that it is so easy for the poultryman to contrive some-
thing; for he has but to utilize the hen’s weight to release a catch
—and presto! the door is open.

A swinging door or a sliding door can be operated, whichever
is the most convenient; in most cases the latter is the easiest to
build. In either case the mechanism should be completely located
on the inside, so that the door cannot be accidentally released by
the raider. Above everything else, keep the device as simple as
possible, for the fewer the parts the less likely they are to get out
of order. The wear and tear is heavy, more especially in the ac-
cumulation of dirt, consequently it must be cleaned easily, and
without danger of throwing the appliance out of adjustment.

In the drawing shown in Fig. 109 there is shown a simple device
for releasing a catch, which is applied to both a swinging and a
vertically sliding door. It involves the simplest kind of a principle.
The platform, or trigger board ‘‘A,”’ is hinged to the threshold or
wall of the house, and supported in a horizontal position by means

156 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of a light spring ‘‘B.”’ The trigger ‘‘C,’’ made from a piece of
metal, preferably brass, since that material will not rust, engages
a trip or cleat ‘‘D,’”’ when the platform is set. This cleat is also
made of metal and is screwed to the door proper. It is not neces-
sary for this part to be of brass, particularly if the trigger ‘‘C”’

PuLt ey

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SECTION] THROUGH, BR SPRING -B kK
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ARRANGEMENT OF FIAT-P ROOF |

Door

Fig. 109.—Details of a self-rising door.

is composition, since brass against steel makes a good bearing
surface.

If a swinging door is used, it should be hinged on the outside
of the building, using spring hinges similar to those commonly
found on screen doors; but, of course, the hinges must be reversed
so that the action of the door is to open outward instead of in-

HEN’S WEIGHT RELEASES TRIP 157

ward. Or, plain hinges may be employed, and a weight or simple
spring can be fastened to the door in such a way that it will be
forced open as soon as the trigger disengages the cleat ‘‘D.” If
a sliding door is used, the force to raise it upward may consist
of a spring or weight, as shown in diagram. The spring is the
cheapest device, but the weight is probably the most generally
satisfactory. Two awning pulleys fitted with screw-eyes, screwed
into the wall of the house, a short length of cotton rope—clothes-

Bl OR OD
(Courtesy C. L. Opperman)
Fig. 110.—Laying house on a Maryland poultry farm.

line will do, and a cast iron window-cord weight are the articles
required.

When the house is closed for the night the early-rising door is
set, as previously described, which only takes a couple of seconds.
In the small hours of the morning, when the hens leave the perches
and start to roam in quest of freedom outdoors, they are sure to
go to their customary place of exit, and to walk onto the trigger
platform ‘‘A.” If necessary, at the beginning they can be trained
to walk on the platform by placing a little grain on it, though I
have never found this compulsory. Instantly the weight of the
hen is transmitted to the platform, it sags an inch or two at the

158 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

inward end, which releases the cleat ‘‘D,’’ and the door flies open.
This may surprise the fowls at first, but they soon become ac-
customed to it. In fact, they will actually learn to operate it,
just as they learn to operate an automatic feeder.
Thus, Mr. Poultryman, you can finish your nap in peace; let
Biddy do this early-rising work.
It would be impracticable to make the adjustment of the

(Courtesy C. L. Opperman) *

Fig. 111.—Serviceable, inexpensive colony house, constructed of rough lumber
covered with patent roofing paper.

door so fine that the weight of a month-old chick could depress
the platform; but this is not necessary. Chicks move about in
crowds, especially when they are trying to get out of a building.
Very good, the crowd passes across the trigger platform—and the
trap is sprung! Liberty!

In connection with the early-rising door it may be desirable to
make the exit as near proof against raiders as possible, even in
the daytime. Rats do most of their marauding at night, under

MAKING OPEN DOOR RAT-PROOF 159

cover of darkness, but they are not afraid of a daylight attack if
conditions seem at all favorable. If rats abound in large numbers
and food is scarce, they will become exceedingly bold. I have
seen them search for food in broad daylight under the very eyes
of an attendant, and fairly defy him to make any defence against
their mischief.

Rats appear to be good jumpers, but that is because they half
climb and half jump to gain a certain position. They cannot
jump straight into the air for any distance—two feet is easily their
limit. They are good climbers, of course, yet they cannot pass
a vertical surface of metal, because their claws will not grip the
slippery metal. Thus, if a house is elevated a couple of feet from
the ground, which is desirable anyhow if the house be frame, to
prevent decay due to moisture, and its foundations are covered
with a strip of tin, as shown in Fig. 109, the rats will not be able
to climb into the building. And if the exits are kept clear of any
inclined runways, save for a projected shelf, as indicated, which
is kept a couple of feet from the ground, the rats will not be able
to jump into the building.

Excepting the very heaviest breeds, it is no trouble for fowls to
jump two feet, and thus gain entrance to the house. Mediter-
raneans find it easy to jump three and four feet. Similarly,
Mediterranean chicks, whose wing feathers develop at an early
age, have no difficulty in flying two or three feet.

Avoid Tedious Methods.—Ultimately the poultryman is bound
to discover that the arrangement, accessibility and operation of
doors and gates have a great deal to do with the labor expended on
a flock. They have an important bearing on the ease and com-
fort with which the numerous chores are performed, and this
factor has a greater influence on the efficiency of a plant than
many are inclined to suppose. It is especially vital where hired
labor is concerned. Whatever the ethics or circumstances may
be, it is a fact that an intelligent worker resents having to per-
form a task by some tedious method, and in the course of time
this worker is likely to slight the task by reason thereof. Finally,
it may necessitate discharging the worker for negligence.

160 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Most doors and gates are used constantly, and they are gen-
erally used under more or less trying circumstances—either the
fowls are being fed and watered, in which case the feeder has his
hands very much occupied with buckets, or the eggs are being
collected, or the buildings are being cleaned, both of which engage
one’s hands with equipment. Obviously, all doors and gates
should operate freely, which means that they should be properly
fitted, hung on strong hinges, and wherever possible they should
be equipped with a self-closing device.

Door Check.—There are numerous patented articles for closing
doors, some of which close the door securely without slamming,
but most of these are too expensive for general use on a chicken
plant. Screen door springs are useful contrivances for doors or
gates that open one way. Substitutes for them may be made out
of a light piece of rope rove through a pulley and secured to a
counterpoise weight of sufficient bulk to move the door. We have
all seen this principle. It has been used for centuries—long before
a steel spring was deemed possible.

For doors and gates between pens and yards it has been found
convenient to have them open both ways. In fact, they involve
considerable inconvenience if they do not open both ways. This
feature requires double-acting hinges. If the door is to be self-
closing, which is virtually an indispensable feature, special spring
double-acting hinges are necessary, unless the door is equipped
with a double-acting self-closing device apart from the hinges.
Reliable double-acting spring hinges are rather expensive, and
‘most of them are of such material that if exposed to the weather
for any length of time they soon deteriorate and become worth-
less.

Diagram in Fig. 112 shows two ideas for a home made double-
acting self-closing device, based on the simple principle of the
rope, pulley and weight employed for the one-way door. In
detail 1 a wooden cross-piece ‘‘A”’ is nailed at right-angles to the
top of the door, near the end that is hinged. A hole is bored in
each end of this cross-piece, from which a light rope is run to a
point, ‘‘B,” thus forming a bridle. The single rope, ‘‘C,’’ runs

SELF-CLOSING DOOR 161

from the point, ‘‘B,”’ to a pulley, ‘‘D,” thence to a counterpoise
weight.

Whichever way the door is opened the cross-piece pulls on the
bridle, one end of which draws tight as the other end loosens,
which in turn lifts the weight. As soon as the door is released a
corresponding strain is placed on the bridle by the weight, which
closes the door.

Fig. 112.—Details of a self-closing door.

It is more complicated to describe this device than to build it.
The essential idea is to have the weight evenly distributed on
both sides of the cross-piece, which really amounts to having the
cross-piece and bridle of the same length on both sides of the door.
Thus, when the weight is distributed, and the door remains at
what we might call a dead center, it will be in a closed position.

The size of the counterpoise will necessarily depend upon the
Il

162 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

weight of the door or gate. The counterpoise should be amply
heavy, so that the action of closing will be quick. Sash weights
answer the purpose nicely, or narrow canvas bags filled with sand
will do for indoor use. Naturally, the doors or gates between par-
titions should be made as light as possible, which makes for ease
of operation. White pine frames covered with wire netting are
best.

Detail 2, Fig. 112, illustrates a more direct principle of the rope
and weight idea, though it is not always practicable to install it,
because of the rope interfering with head room in the doorway.
In this arrangement the pulley, ‘‘Ds’’ is fastened to the center of
the jamb, or to a point on the partition which corresponds to the
door-jamb. The rope, ‘‘C,”’ is rove through the pulley, and one

H
‘ 2Ft. — I ft. . 2 ft.

J. -t--!

(California Experiment Station)
Fig. 113.—Hook for catching fowls.

end is secured to the top of the door or gate, in such a way that
it receives the least chafe. The other end is made fast to the
counterpoise.

Either way the gate or door is opened it pulls the rope and
raises the weight, which reacts as soon as the pressure is removed,
the tendency being to draw the point, ‘B,” toward the pulley.
There is no leverage obtained by this arrangement, like that
shown in detail 1, consequently the door offers more resistance
when being opened, which might be considered an objection under
certain circumstances.

Hinges Out of Perpendicular.—Doors can be made self-closing
by placing the hinges slightly out of the perpendicular, as shown
in detail 3, Fig. 112, which alters the center of gravity of the door

SECURING THE OPEN DOOR 163

the more it is opened. It is understood, of course, that the hinges
themselves are in perfect line, otherwise they would not operate;
it is the line of the door-jamb that is thrown out of plumb.
Regular double-acting hinges are not necessary for partition
doors and gates. They are apt to be too expensive. A simple
gate hinge, or something
fashioned after it, such as
indicated in detail 4, Fig.
112, will work just as well.
Keeping a Door Open.— Ly (hd
Sometimes it is just as im-
portant to keep a door open
asit is to keep it closed. For ei
example, in warm weather
the doors to poultry build-
ings should be kept open as

much as possible. The in- —) ~_»

teriors need all the fresh air Door

available, which is espe-
cially desirable in colony moe House
houses for growing stock. |

Then, too, very often the
entrance door is the only
means of egress for the
fowls, there being no |
special hen door; in which
case it is important that L-4
the main door be held Fig. 114.—Convenient device for securing
open at all times the flock the open door.

is at liberty.

Sudden storms are likely to occur, accompanied by high winds,
which will slam and play havoc with doors if they are not firmly
secured. If the doors blow shut, the fowls will be unable to seek
the shelter of the houses, and such exposure to very young stock
is almost certain to result in fatalities. On the other hand, if the
door sways violently with the wind, though it does not actually

164 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

break from its hinges, it will frighten the birds away from the
entrance. :

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Fig. 115.—Details of stake for securing the open door, as shown in Fig. 114.

Sticks or pieces of lumber, logs, bricks, stones and trash are
frequently propped against doors to keep them open. These
makeshifts are not only unsightly, but they are insecure and

DEVICE THAT WORKS WITH THE FOOT 165

troublesome. Instead of representing an economy, they are ac-
tually wasteful, both in the probable damage to the door and live-
stock, and in the loss of one’s time in adjusting them. I have
seen doors fastened by an involved system of cord, wire, hooks,
leather and other bits of junk that were more intricate to open
than a bank vault door, which means lost time—waste.

If a door or gate hinges so that it opens against the building,
and there is nothing to prevent it from swinging flat against the
wall, it may be secured by a common gate hook. It is not always
convenient nor practicable to do this, however, on account of
windows, curtain frames and other projections. A similar strong
fastening may be made by driving a stake into the ground and
attaching the door to it by a gate hook. But this operation
requires stooping -over, and perhaps the use of two hands, there-
fore an improvement is suggested in Figs. 114-115. This fasten-
ing is operated by a simple movement of the foot, and if the device
is securely made there is no chance of the door working loose.

The stake is cut from any timber that may be available, though
two-by-four material is about the right size, pointed at one end
to facilitate driving it into the soil. See Fig.115. The rest of the
device consists of a button that is movable, and an off-set block,
which is nailed to the stake. The off-set block is cut from ma-
terial slightly thicker than the door, to allow a certain amount of
play. A carriage bolt and washer complete the affair.

The hole in the button should be bored slightly larger than the
bolt on which it turns; the button, being longer at one end, there-
fore heavier, will always assume an upright position, which en-
gages the bottom of the door, as shown. By turning the button
with the toe of one’s shoe to a horizontal position the door may be
released or secured. The stake may be removed complete and
driven elsewhere when desired.

CHAPTER XIII
TRAP NESTS

While the value of trap nests for breeding purposes is still a
subject for argument, there is no controverting the fact that they
constitute the only positive means of determining the exact laying
ability of a hen. Moreover, their use makes it possible to ascer-
tain which hens lay the best shaped eggs, which the largest sized,
which the strongest in point of fertility, which are the best winter
layers, which pullets begin early and lay the greatest number of
eggs in succession, the number of times they become broody,
and many other facts of vital interest to the poultryman. But
whether or not this information is considered of sufficient value
to warrant the additional time, trouble and expense of operating
a trap nest system is the debatable question that must be deter-
mined by every poultryman for himself.

Some authorities swear by them as the only means of building
up a heavy-laying strain; others condemn their use as too ex-
pensive a method of selection for the average breeder. The New
York State Experiment Station estimated the cost of maintaining
a trap nest system to be fifty cents per hen per year, while the
Maine Agricultural Experiment Station states their system can
be operated on the basis of one active person to 500 nests for 2500
hens—which, at a wage of $40 per month, amounts to about
twenty cents per hen per year. Thus, there is a wide difference
of opinion on the subject. There seems to be truth in the argu-
ments for and against the trap nest as a commercial proposition;
but for purposes of investigation, and where a breeder of show
stock wishes to record pedigrees accurately, they are unques-
tionably indispensable.

My intention in this chapter is not to discuss the pros and cons

166

ELEMENTS OF A GOOD TRAP NEST 167

for the employment of the device, so much as to describe the con-
struction and operation of a few simple types of trap nests,
home-made appliances which I have found to be mechanically
satisfactory. There are reliable makes of trap nests on the
market, at such nominal prices that in many cases it does not
pay the poultryman to make them himself.

Primarily, a good trap nest must be certain in action. It
must not only imprison the hen that enters, but it must refuse
admittance to all others until a record of the first performer has
been secured. It should also offer an inviting, quiet, comfort-
able retreat for the hen, care being taken that the locking device
is not so violent in its action as to engender fright, and that when
closed, the interior, especially
in summer time, is not suffo-
catingly warm. Furthermore,
the nest should be accessible,
convenient for the attendant
to open and remove the hen,
and with no intricate parts to
dislodge and get out of order,
or require unnecessary time in (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)
resetting the trigger or door. Fig. 116.—Home-made trap nest, simi-

The nest should be of ample lar to the Storrs’ nest.
size, usually larger than the or-
dinary nest, so that when the hen has laid her egg and commences
moving about in an effort to rejoin the flock, she is not obliged
to trample or stand on the egg and thus run the risk of breaking it.
The nest should offer easy means of cleaning its interior and re-
plenishing it with nesting material.

Storrs’ Nest.—The trap nest employed at the Storrs egg-laying
contest, plans of which are shown in Fig. 117, was developed at
the Connecticut Agricultural College, and has given entire satis-
faction for several years.

It consists mainly of two movable parts, the trigger and the
door, both of which are comparatively easy to make and may be
fitted to any box of suitable size. The door is 8% inches high,

168 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

111% inches wide at the top and 11 inches wide at the bottom, and
being narrower at the bottom, as it swings shut it has no tendency

Sa ane a

DOOR SET |f DooR™- Close |F—-aooe ce

PORE RD
UK =

DOOR SET
i: CO Ti as

> LS iP
‘- ae ee

PPS wi
eS pe age ee
4 SSS ——
ayes pee = le Sag
=
Section through nest Dimensions of door.

Detail of trigger.
Fig. 117.—General arrangement of the Storrs’ trap nest.

to rub or bind against the sides of the nest box. It is bound with
a thin piece of metal, galvanized sheet iron strips cut from stove

DESCRIPTION OF STORRS’ NEST 169

pipes or other similar material will answer the purpose nicely,
which project above the top for about an inch, or far enough to
permit of punching a small hole in each end of the strip, through
which a piece of fairly rigid wire is slipped, forming a hinge upon
which the door swings.

The trigger is a trifle more difficult to make than the door, for
it is small and must be accurately cut as shown in the diagram,

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 118.—Corner of a well-designed laying house. Trap nests are arranged
under dropping-boards. Note broody hen coop at extreme end.

or it will not balance properly. This is an easy matter with a
jig saw or band saw. It should be made from 34” or 1” close-
grained stock, the harder the wood the better. The hole bored
for the screw that is to fasten the trigger to the side of the box
should be slightly larger than the screw itself, to secure free action.

To set the nest, the front end of the trigger is slightly depressed
and the door pushed inward until it engages the notch in the

170 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

trigger. When the hen enters, she pushes against the door with
her back; this disengages the trigger, allowing the door to close
after her, and by the same operation locks the door from within,
—for the trigger has simultaneously assumed a horizontal posi-

NNN

Treadle sprung—door closed.
Fig. 119.—Details of the Maine trap nest.

tion. Small wooden buttons or bent screw-eyes are screwed to
the partitions, turned in such a manner as to prevent the doors
swinging outward when the nest is sprung. To open the nest,
the attendant has but to turn the little button, open the door
outward, and remove the hen.

MAINE TRAP NEST 171

Batteries of Nests.—The floor and sides of the nest should be
solid, the top is slatted for ventilation, and if the back of the nest
is to be placed against a wall of the poultry building it may be
left entirely open, which will facilitate cleaning when the boxes
are removed. It isa good plan to construct the nests in portable
sections or batteries of about four each, and if built of light ma-
terial,—half-inch white pine or poplar will do nicely,—they may
be conveniently handled for cleaning by one man. A four-inch
board is fastened to the lower portion of the front to stiffen the
partitions and retain the nesting material, and if it is found that
small hens can walk over this board without disturbing the door,
the distance between the nesting material and the lower edge of
the door should be reduced accordingly, either by increasing the
quantity of nesting material, increasing the depth of the front
board or extending the length of the door. A platform or shelf
of some kind should be built in front of the nests for the hens to
walk upon in entering and leaving the traps.

Maine Nest.—The Maine Agricultural Experiment Station
has developed a two-compartment nest which seems to possess
several important advantages over the single type previously
described; yet because of them it is considerably more trouble-
some and expensive to build. Diagrams of this nest are shown in
Fig. 119, and represent longitudinal views with one side removed
to illustrate the construction and method of operation.

The nest is a box-like structure, without front or cover, 28
inches long, 13 inches wide and 16 inches deep, inside measure-
ments,—divided in the middle with a partition extending 6 inches
from the bottom. The rear compartment is the nest proper,
and contains the nesting material, while the front section is de-
voted to a treadle for closing the front entrance, and need not
have any other bottom. This treadle is hinged to the door, and
by a nice balance it can be so delicately adjusted that a weight
of less than half a pound on the treadle will spring the trap.

When the nest is set, ready for occupancy, the door extends
outward in a horizontal position as shown in upper diagram. A
hen about to lay steps on the door and walks in toward the rear

172 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of the nest; as she passes the point where the door is hinged to
the treadle, her weight causes it to fall, which pulls up the door
behind her, as shown in lower view. It is then impossible for the
hen to leave the nest or for other hens to enter, until the atten-

Knew EYE
«i _<.
ty a
7
-r—
| Lepr Osanatee
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7 evTsIoe DEON sTOR TT
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ai mil ae wes
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5 petty a Mo OHUI ELE

My MULL. Al

a Depa $7 doce Srop

rT | J
WoWwRe

. a
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Mega

(California Experiment Station)

Fig. 120.—Plans for a single-compartment trap nest.

dant resets the trap by depressing the door to its original hori-
zontal position. The operation is extremely simple, consists of
but one movement, with no triggers or other locking devices to
adjust.

When a hen has laid an egg and desires to leave the nest, she

TWO-COMPARTMENT NEST 5 173

steps into the front section, toward the light, entering the screen
door, and remains there until released. There is little danger
of her trampling on the egg she has just laid, or soiling or dis-

Seaew Eve .
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4 *
S| Le Bi ceanance
Xb ae ke qhar
h
Texan
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eed es <p 2 eee Se ee =
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hl | maT 6
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Je Mtn HARDWARE CLOTH
Front view.

MLL

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me VA
Ks tT
y ee toa
J ean
=, aan wie
BQ7HALE ROUND ~~
ect aa aaa

CLOTH WITH STRIPS
MOULDING TO BIND IT

Cross-section.
(California Experiment Station)

Fig. 121.—Plans for a two-compartment trap nest.

turbing the nesting material. Dry manure collecting on the
treadle is easily scraped off with a putty knife or similar imple-
ment, and allowed to fall through the open bottom.

At the Maine Station these nests are arranged in tiers and

174. COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

operated like drawers. To remove a hen, the nest is pulled part
way out, and as it has no cover, the bird is easily caught. Usually,
after having been taken off the nests a few times, hens become
accustomed to this handling and remain perfectly quiet, appar-
ently expecting to be picked up.

For the sake of greater durability, it is advisable to build all
parts connected with the treadle and door of fairly good material,
especially the bevelled cleat on which the door bears and the
side frames of the door, which should be of beech or other hard
wood that will become polished with wear. One-quarter inch
mesh galvanized wire netting, commonly used on cellar window
screens, is securely stapled to the inside of the door frame, thus
admitting light and air to the nest. The hinges used in fastening
the door to the treadle, and the treadle to the middle partition,
should have brass pins, otherwise they are likely to rust and work
stiffly. It may also be necessary to file the pins slightly, to in-
sure the hinges working with perfect freedom.

Diagrams shown in Figs. 120 and 121 illustrate other types
of nests. An examination of them will suffice to explain their
principles of operation. They were developed at the California
Experiment Station.

CHAPTER XIV
FEEDING

The feeding operations on a poultry farm, large or small, con-
stitute the largest part of routine work. It is work that is done
every day, and several times a day. No other work must be
done so punctually and with such care as feeding. Feeding—
promptly, properly and economically, makes for success or fail-
ure. It is one of the fundamentals of the enterprise.

Need for System.—Before discussing the virtues of different
feeds and how to compound them in rations suitable for given
purposes, we will review some of the methods of handling feed
and placing it before the flocks. The facilities for storage and
distribution are highly important, and result either in needless
waste of time and labor, or in a corresponding saving of these
factors. It is to be deplored that so many farms fail to give this
subject the attention which it deserves, and no doubt a great
many failures might be attributed to this oversight.

Simplicity of Operation—The best feeding system is one that
reduces and simplifies the number of handlings and operations,
and at the same time renders the greatest ease and convenience
to the feeder. The first consideration is the location of the feed
storage. Obviously, this location should be a central one. The
feed house should be as nearly equidistant to the laying houses,
brooder houses and colony houses as it is possible to make it;
not at one end of the group of buildings, which necessitates long
walks in getting the feed to the farthest houses.

If a special feed house is to be built it is a simple matter to
locate this structure where it will have the fullest accessibility.
On large plants it may be found advisable to have two or more
feed houses, for in no other way is it possible to have the feed

175

*19}U99 UT asnNoYy pay YW asnoy ZulAeJ—'zzI “31

SPECIAL FEED HOUSE 177

close to the flocks. Some po:ltrymen build a feed room in con-
nection with each long laying house, usually in the center of the
building, and sometimes with overhead tracks to convey the
feed to the birds. See Fig. 122. An important saving in labor
is accomplished by such equipment, and where large quantities
of heavy feed are used, as on duck plants of any size, these meas-
ures are essential.

The overhead track system, from which cars are swung and
made to run by pushing them, similar to litter carriers in dairy
barns, is thoroughly practical in every way. Another method is
to employ tramcars operated on rails, which may be of wood or
steel. For indoor use the overhead rail is cheapest, because the
building can be made to support the track. See Fig. 123. Out-
doors the tramway is generally the most economical.

It is doubtful if the average size poultry plant would be justi-
fied in expending the capital required to install any sort of a
carrier. Certainly plants under 3000 birds would not be war-
ranted in so doing.

Converting Old Buildings.—Then, again, many poultry farms
are started on premises which have certain buildings erected, as,
for example, a barn or wagon house, which with a few improve-
ments may be converted into satisfactory feed houses. In this
event the poultry houses should be built on sites adjacent to the
barn, and on all sides of it, though not too close, which will inter-
fere with a satisfactory arrangement of yards. Another objection
to having the buildings too close arises from the fire hazard. It
is a good plan to have the buildings at least a hundred feet apart,
preferably two hundred feet. In this way, should a fire occur
in some part of the plant, it can be fought and confined to the one
building.

Avoid Crowding the Buildings.—You will find some farms with
the buildings all bunched up together; incubator cellar with
brooder house and feed room overhead, and leading off from the
feed room are the laying houses, breeding pens and yards for
young stock. Such an arrangement is convenient by reason of

its compactness, but when carried to extremes it is likely to result ~
12

178 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

in grave risks, not alone from fire, but from the evils of too in-
tensive methods—insanitation and disease.

The size, character and appointments of the feed house will be
determined largely by the capacity of the plant and its stock.
For instance, duck farms need different equipment from chicken
farms, and the requirements of the egg farm are different from
the broiler plant. Following are some of the points to be con-

(Courtesy C. L. Opperman)

Fig. 123.—Feed carrier suspended from overhead track which runs continu-
ously through all the houses. :

sidered: Have the building large enough for the storage of at
least a month’s supply of feed, preferably larger, because during
certain seasons of the year it is possible to buy grain at reduced
prices, and important savings can be made thereby. Make the
building as near rat and mouse proof as possible. When these
pests gain access to a feed house there is no end to their thievery.
They will consume or spcil hundreds of dollars’ worth of feed in a

FEED STORAGE 179

season, and in many cases this loss may go on for months before
it is noticed.

Construction.—Masonry or: metal is the best construction to
obstruct vermin. Hollow tile or concrete makes splendid walls
and floors for granaries. If this is too expensive, and frame con-
struction is used, then some provision must be made to keep the
rodents from gnawing through the partitions and floors. If the
building is raised from the ground and supported on piers, it
is feasible to baffle the rats and mice by means of tin so arranged
that they cannot climb up the piers because of the slippery sur-
face of the tin. Where this is impracticable small mesh wire
netting should be laid over the floor joists and wall studs, through
which the rodents cannot pass.

Storage bins are not necessary unless feed is purchased in
bulk, or unless the original sacks must be returned as soon as the
feed is received. The use of bins for storing unmixed feed in-
volves two unnecessary handlings—the emptying of the feed into
the bin, and its removal when required for mixing. Then, too,
feed keeps better in sacks, and it may be piled up almost as com-
pactly asin bins. When feed is stored in bulk provision must be
made to ventilate it, otherwise it will heat and spoil. If stored
in sacks, and piled up so that air can circulate freely around the
bags, there is little or no danger from heating.

In the majority of times a charge of about ten cents is made for
the bags, which charge is redeemable when the bags are returned
in good condition. This is another reason why the feed room
should be free from vermin: rats and mice gnaw through the
sacks and play havoc with them.

Since most poultry feeds consist of a mixture of grains or meals,
it is advisable to have a few bins (barrels will answer the purpose
on small farms) wherein these mixtures are stored for every-day
use. It is more convenient to remove a bucketful of feed from
a barrel or bin than from a sack. And the most convenient bin
is one from which the feed may be scooped out with a bucket,
preferably the actual feeding bucket. To fill the feed buckets
with a shovel or other implement involves needless operations.

180 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Place for Mixing.—If the poultry feeds are mixed on the farm,
it will be necessary to provide a suitable place for this work. It
is no small task to mix the dry mash mixture for several thousand
birds, or even one thousand hens. The mixing will probably be
done in lots of from five hundred toa thousand pounds, maybe in
ton batches.

How to Mix.—The best place for this work is the feed room
floor, consequently it
should be tight, con-
structed of tongue
and grooved boards,
and smooth, so as to
offer no obstructions
to the use of shovels
or scoops. Suppos-
ing that the feed is
piled up around the
walls of the room,
the most convenient
way to proceed with
the mixing is to
empty the required
number of bags ina
pile. Begin with the
ingredient having
as the greatest bulk,

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm) such as bran or alfal-

Fig. 124.—Combination automatic feeder, gritand fa; dump it, spread

shell box. it outa bit, and then

add the other ingre-

dients, reserving the most concentrated feed, such as beef scrap,

until last. When the ingredients are all heaped in a pile, turn

the mass over with a broadcasting motion of the shovel ar scoop,

repeating the operation two or three times, or until the mash is
uniformly mixed.

If two men do the mixing, one man should rake the mass back

FEED-HOUSE IMPLEMENTS 181

and forward, while the other fellow turns it over. A large, half-
bushel grain scoop is the most efficient implement for the shovel-
ing, because it handles such a large quantity in a single operation.

Storage in Hoppers.—As soon as the mash is mixed, it should
be stored in a bin ready for use, though a good plan is to have self-
feeding mash hoppers in all of the poultry houses of such capacity
that they will accommodate the bulk of the mash mixed at each
operation. Unnecessary handling is eliminated in this way, for
the mash is carried right from the mixing floor to the hoppers,
and only a small surplus is stored in the feed-house bins. Savings
of this sort are considerable in the course of a year’s work.

Unless automatic feeders are installed throughout the plant,
it is not practicable to handle the scratch grain mixtures the same
as the mash. See Fig. 124. Scratch grains are usually dis-
tributed by hand twice a day, morning and evening. Sometimes
the grains are fed separately. If mixed, which seems to be the
most accepted practice, these scratch grains usually consist of
but a few grains, such as corn, wheat and oats (except the chick
feeds), which are much easier to mix than the mash, which con-
sists of meals. Dumping the grains into a barrel or bin and stir-
ring them with a potato fork will perform all the mixing neces-
sary.

Need for Power.—On plants of considerable size it is poor
economy to mix and prepare the feed by hand. Power should be
installed. If electric power is available, this will probably prove
the cheapest, otherwise a gasoline engine is necessary. Get a
motor or engine plenty large enough to handle all of the machines
without danger of over-loading it, and so arrange it that it can
be hooked up to each machine with the least amount of time and
worry. An overhead system of belts and pulleys is the safest
and most convenient arrangement. Provide a tight and loose
pulley for each machine, so that the drive can be thrown on and
off at will. An engine or motor of three or four horsepower will
take care of the average poultry plant equipment.

The machines necessary to lighten the burden of hand labor
are as follows: BoNE CUTTER, for grinding fresh bones, com-

182 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

monly called green bones, which is fed in place of the cured meat
scrap and similar prepared animal feeds.

Hay Cutter, for cutting clover, rye, alfalfa and other succu-
lent feeds, also to be used for cutting dry hay and straw for litter
in the brooder houses.

: ey :
(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 125.—Outdoor feed hopper built on skids or runners. Cover is raised,
showing partitions for different kinds of feed. Note the small lids hooked
against body of hopper, which can be lowered to keep rats or mice from stealing
the feed.

VEGETABLE CuTTER: This is really a shredder, and is used to cut
and tear mangels, turnips and other vegetables into short lengths.
Fowls eat vegetables with greater relish if they are cut into bits,
and there is less waste than feeding them whole.

Masu Mixer: This is indispensable if wet mashes are fed in any
quantity. Mixers are made in a number of sizes, heavily built

ELEMENTS OF POULTRY FEEDING 183

and geared, and so devised that they can be made to dump their
contents. They consist mainly of a cylinder-shaped body, in
the center of which a shaft is operated. This shaft is fitted with
propeller-like blades or flukes that revolve and agitate the mash.

A COOKER OR STEAMING KETTLE is another valuable adjunct
to the feed-room equipment, especially where it is desirable to
feed hot mashes during the winter. The caldron may be used
to heat water for scalding feeding utensils, and for scalding ducks
for picking. It will be found useful in many ways where heat is
required.

Poultry supply houses keep a full line of these accessories, or
they may be purchased direct from the manufacturers. It will
undoubtedly prove worth while for the poultry keeper to in-
vestigate them.

Feeding poultry has more angles and arguments to it than is
generally supposed. The broad understanding of the office of
food is that it supports life. In the case of animals this objective
becomes more definite. We feed them that we may convert
certain vegetable, animal and mineral substances, which are not
palatable to the human taste in their raw state, into finished food
products which are edible by man.

In this respect stock feeding may be compared to a manu-
facturing process. And this process may be divided into three
principal stages: First, growth of the fowl; second, reproduction
of the species; and third, the storing of surplus energy in the form
of flesh.

These factors are inseparable. We must supply materials
with which to build bone, muscle, tissues and feathers in growing
stock. See Table VII. We must furnish the fuel for muscular
energy, digestion, repairs to tissues and the renewal of organic
secretions. In the young fowl these elements promote growth.
When this growth is complete, or nearly so, reproduction com-
mences. If there is a surplus of material in excess of the require-
ments of reproduction and maintenance, which there should be in
the healthy, normal fowl, this surplus is stored up in the body asa

184 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

reserve in the event of a failure of the regular supply. Usually
this surplus consists of fat.

TABLE VII

DiGEsTIBLE NuTRIENTS REQUIRED PER Day For EAcH 100 PounDs OF FOWLS
FoR BopILy MAINTENANCE

TOTAL Cxnad- ig
Mar..| Ast | bem [my | Far |NGESIOY™
TER z DRATES
Capons (9 to 12 pounds)...... 2.30 | 0.06 | 0.30 | 1.74 | 0.20 | I to 7.5
Hens (5 to 7 pounds)........ 2.70 | 0.10 | 0.40 | 2.00 | 0.26 | I to 6.2
Hens (3 to 5 pounds)........ 3.90 | 0.15 | 0.50 | 2.95 | 0.30 | 1 to 7.4

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS REQUIRED PER DAY FOR EACH 100 POUNDS OF FOWLS
IN FuLt LAYING
Hens (5 to 8 pounds)........ 3.30 | 0.20 | 0.65

110 4.2
Hens (3 to 5 pounds)........ 5.50 | 0.30

25 | 0.20
T to 4.6

2
1.00 | 3.75 | 0.35

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS REQUIRED PER DAy For EAcuH 100 Pounps
OF GROWING CHICKS

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS REQUIRED PER Day FoR EAcH 100 Pounps
oF GrRoWING DUCKLINGS

First 2 weeks............... 17.2 I.1 4.0 11.2 I.4 | I to 3.7
From 2 to 4 weeks........... 17.0 1.5 4.1 10.1 1.3 | I to 3.2
From 4 to 6 weeks........... 11.2 | 0.8 2.7 7-0 | 0.7 | I to 3.3
From 6 to 8 weeks........... 8.0 | 0.6 1.7 5.2 | 0.5 | 1 to 3.8
From 8 to 10 weeks.......... 7.0 0.5 1.4 4.7 0.4 | Ito 4.1
From 10 to 15 weeks......... 4.6 | 0.3 0.9 3-2 | 02 | 1 to 4s

Throwing a pailful of food to a flock of birds at regular intervals
is not feeding them in the strict sense of the term. To feed stock
intelligently, which is to say economically and properly, means to
cater to their bodily requirements in every particular. First
of all we must have some knowledge of the demands of the body
and its functions. We must have a similar knowledge of the
composition of the different foodstuffs and their availability in
meeting the demands of the body. We must consider the me-

POINTS TO CONSIDER 185

chanical condition of the various foods, since some are more
convenient to use than others. And we must pay attention
to their digestibility and palatability. For example, some
feeds possess most of the elements of a well-proportioned diet,
but if fed exclusively
or in large quantities,
they are harmful in
that they tax the fowl’s
digestion. Then again,
some feeds are practi-
cally incapable of diges-
tion by fowls.

Palatability and Di-
gestibility—On the
other hand, no matter
how digestible and nour-
ishing a particular food
may be, if it is not palat-
able to the fowls, they
will not eat freely enough
of it to sustain them in
proper condition. It has
been found in practice,
however, that highly di-
gestible foods are usually
equally palatable, pro-
viding they are fed in
sufficient variety, hence =
this point is a consider- : : ee pacatie

: . Fig. 126.—Overhead rail system for carrying
ation. Moreover, it has feed and other supplies.
been found that certain
foods are made more digestible when fed in conjunction with
certain other foods.

The cost of the feed is another vital consideration, if not the
most vital point. Economical feeding means to use those ma-
terials which render the greatest benefit at the least cost. This is

aad | y

186 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

saying a great deal, as we shall see. A food that costs very little
money is not necessarily a cheap food. On the contrary the most
expensive feeds to buy are sometimes the cheapest. In other
words, price alone should not determine the cost of afood. Price
plus results should form the decision.

No matter how cheap a food may be, if the fowl cannot secure
substantial benefits from it, it is expensive to use in that it is
largely wasted. See Table X. For example, rye, though similar
to wheat, has little value as a poultry feed. The fat of rye is
quite indigestible, and tends to cause organic disturbances.
And there is something about rye grain which is distasteful to
birds; they do not care for it, and seldom eat it unless compelled
todo so. On the other hand, sprouted rye is exceedingly palat-
able, and fowls do well on it. This is characteristic of the knowl-
edge which the successful poultryman must have.

Composition of Fowl.—Let us begin with the composition of the
fowl’s body. We should know its analysis, or how are we to
supply the necessary elements? This is going to lead us into a
technical discussion, though it is the writer’s intention to devote
as little space as possible to scientific expression. It is wearisome
to the practical poultryman, and of little value outside of the
laboratory.

The fowl’s body, as with any form of life, consists of numerous
substances or compounds. For convenience they are grouped
under four general headings: water, protein, ash and fat. Table
VIII shows the percentages of these elements.

TABLE VIII.—ComposiITION OF FOWL AND EGG

WATER PROTEIN ASH Fat

Per cent | Per cent | Percent | Per cent

Leghorn Henn ice gcceen eae enn eee 55.8 21.6 3.8 17.0
Plymouth Rock capon.............. 41.6 19.4 3:7 33.9
New-laid egg, complete............. 65.7 II.4 12.2 8.9
Egg, without shell.................. 74.45 12.16 0.97 9.74
White of egg) its ccn cess cagae pegs Ss 86.2 12.3 0.2 0.6

Volk: Of C2925 sbssseuisin exe sto 's gens 49.5 15.7 lest 33-3

ANALYSIS OF FOWL’S BODY 187

It will be seen from Table VIII that the hen’s body is over half
water, and that the egg which she produces is nearly three-
fourths water. Obviously water is as essential to her welfare as
food. In fact, a fowl can go without food with fewer ill effects
than it can go without water, especially during warm weather.
Lack of water retards every function of the body, thickens the
blood and raises the body temperature. Failure to supply a liberal
quantity of clean fresh water is particularly hard on growing
chicks. It stunts their development quite as much as sickness.

TaBLeE IX.—Cost oF PROTEIN FROM DIFFERENT FoopstTuFFs, ACCORDING
TO CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

DIGESTIBLE
PROTEIN IN PROTEIN.
Price PER TON! pounns PER ‘PRICE PER
n DoLtars Ton Pounp IN
CENTS
Alfalfa hay: « :o2s424+e%. 00s e605 16 210 7.6
Alfalfa meal.................... 21 210 10.0
BarleVie esc ee 6s ous sa cantoavede 30 168 17.8
Blood, dried... 0.020 eee ee 60 1216 4.9
Casein, dried................... 80 1500 5-3
COM sis kae ae Se eeueae ana aes 22 140 15.7
Cottonseed meal................ 33 752 4.3
Linseed-oil cake meal (n.p.)...... 34 630 5-4
Linseed-oil cake meal (0. p.)...... 60 582 5.8
Meat, fresh cst cic xt cee 4 aisedges 60 400 15.0
Meat scraps................000. 60 1324 4.6
Milk, skim..................... 4 66 6.0
Milk, granulated............... 80 1000 8.0
Oats. ipeacieeacnens peemtee 4 25 178 14.04.
Peds nai dos peatae hws aes: 80 380 21.0
Ricey e 2 fvsaco Sees ene oak eee Meck 36 128 28.1
Rice: brats io sea iceg cede sowed 30 214 14.0
RV Cee 2 wisi dac caused ceten Bae le 27 150 18.0
Soya-bean meal................ 45 600 7.5
Wheat bran.................... 23 220 10.4
Wheat, plump.............0..... 27 170 14.8
Wheat, shrunken........ neg ih le es 31 264 11.7
Wheat shorts................... 28 246 11.3

Protein, sometimes spoken of as nitrogenous matter, because
nitrogen is its most distinguishing characteristic, is the most im-
portant group of materials found in the body. In reality protein

188 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

is the foundation or base of all living tissue—the substance
through which life is manifested. The muscles, skin, tendons,
brain, feathers, blood and internal organs are composed chiefly
of protein. The white of the egg when dry is almost all protein,
while the dried yolk is one-third protein.

TAR PAPER —-CANVAS

kb 6"

l i Tm

UNDER SIDE of CoverR

z Wa" 1g" BATTEN

lu ee i u

Fi~——_______ ABouT G-oO F

iF fo) ie bed

ka mio hs

ay + ae o a A

- ABout 7-3 =

Rj a

4 L 4
q

3/4" x2" BATTEN

[-s

Fig. 3S

Fig. 127.—Designs for feed hoppers that are sanitary and non-wasteful.

Ash, or the mineral substances, such as lime, silicon, mag-
nesium and so on, form the incombustible material of the body.
In short, ash is that part of the body which is left after the vola-
tile and combustible elements are driven off by heat, the heat
being created by the fats. Considerable ash enters into the egg,
and it is an important element in the structure of bone and

COMPOSITION OF FOODS 189

feathers. Foods which supply ash are especially vital to the
growth of young stock.

Fats comprise the fuel of the body. They are burned to main-
tain the body temperature, to produce the energy required in all
muscular action, and where the supply is greater than the im-
mediate needs of the fowl, they are stored up in fatty tissues under
the skin or in globules distributed throughout the muscles, giving
the fowl a full, plump appearance. This fat constitutes a re-
serve force, and will vary according to the health and condition
of the fowl. Too much fat is as bad as too little, because it
tends to make the fowl sluggish and non-productive.

TABLE X.—AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS OF DIFFERENT FooDs WITH
CHICKENS, ACCORDING TO THE MAINE EXPERIMENT STATION

NUMBER
OF Orcanic | Crupe | Nitro- | ErTuer

Experi- | Matter | Protern | GEN-FREE| Extract

MENTS EXTRACT (Fat)
Bran (wheat)............... 3 46.70 71.70 46.00 37.00
Beef scraps eins eve eaae gree 2 80.20 92.60 v4 95-00
Beef (lean meat)............ 2 87.65 90.20 = 86.30
Barleys ope ceanmasies Gergana 3 77.17 77.32 85.09 67.86
Buckwheat: ...04 2 cede 2 wea ste 2 69.38 59.40 86.99 89.22
Corn (whole)............... 16 86.87 81.58 91.32 88.11
Corn (cracked)............. 2 83.30 72.20 88.10 87.60
Corn (meal)............005. 2 83.10 74.60 86.00 87.60
COVER: fesse s eacacteeies s SRS 3 27.70 70.60 14.30 35.50
India wheat................ 3 72.70 75.00 83.40 83.80
IVES oe. 05 access roiaiceey tie hd 2 a 62.40 98.39 85.71
Oats (whole)............... 13 62.69 71.31 90.10 87.89

CASH etary amine ad ae H ome 3 77.07 87.00 84.80 80.01

Wheateccicn coveiag ance nia 10 82.26 75-05 | 87.04 53-00
Ry Cie dais gad Myeae Maleamentooiaes 2 79.20 66.90 86.70 22.60
POtAtOeS ss aa 3 grease gown ai aes 6 78.33 46.94 84.46 es

Composition of Foods.—The same elements which are found in
the fowl’s body or in the egg are also found in different foods.
But it should be understood that these elements are not trans-
ferred as such direct from the food to the body tissues. On the
contrary, they are entirely remade. The food elements are taken
into the body, digested and assimilated, and when they are in such

190 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

form that the blood can absorb them, they are distributed
throughout the body as required. Water is a great aid in this
respect, in that it softens the food in the crop and prepares it for
the grinding process in the gizzard. It also serves as a carrier
in transporting the food through the digestive tract, and being a
liquid it dilutes the digested elements so that they can be more
readily absorbed.

Se) |
|
(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 128.—Simple type of outdoor feed hopper. Cover is made water-tight
by means of patent roofing material.

Nutrients.—Those portions of the food which yield heat or
energy or serve the body in any way are termed nutrients.
Nourishing elements would be another way of expressing the
parts or constituents of food. They are classified in five groups,
as follows: (1) water, (2) protein, (3) carbohydrates, (4) fats,
(5) ash.

NUTRIENTS 191

Water and ash are the inorganic nutrients; protein, carbo-
hydrates and fats are the organic elements. For convenience
carbohydrates and fats are sometimes grouped together. They
contain the same compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
only in different proportions. The one great difference is that
the fats have a greater power than the carbohydrates, being
rated at two and a quarter times the power of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates include the starches, sugars and gums, and
like fats, they are burned to produce heat and energy. Carbo-
hydrates as found in plants or grains are stored in a structure
of cellulose, which con-
stitutes the framework
of the plant or the kernel
of the grain. This frame-
work or fibrous sub-
stance is mostly indi-
gestible, and in livestock
feeding, especially poul-
try feeding, it is spoken
of as crude fiber. The

digestible portions of the : d
ative lled Fig. 129.—Where fowls are grown in large
carbohydrates are calle numbers on free range it is economy to tend

collectively NITROGEN- the houses with a team, preferably a low-
Free Expract. wheeled truck, containing water-barrel, feed
and so on.

Avoid Fiber.—The
poultryman aims to feed materials which have the greatest
quantity of nitrogen-free extract, with the least amount of crude
fiber, since fiber is not only indigestible, but it is voided and
therefore of no food value.

Protein nutrients are by far the most expensive portion of the
fowl’s diet. See Table IX. Asa matter of fact, protein usually
forms the basis upon which prices of feeds are determined.
Wheat and its by-products rank first in popularity as sources of
vegetable protein. Beef scrap, green cut bone and fish scrap are
the most common sources of animal protein. Fowls require

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

192 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

both animal and vegetable protein for best results, though chemic-
ally there is very little difference between the two kinds.

Most of the ash elements are found in sufficient quantities in
the ordinary poultry feeds, except lime, which should be fur-
nished in the form of oyster shells for laying hens, and in granu-
lated bone for growing stock. Bran and alfalfa are both rich
in ash, hence they are valuable feeds for chickens.

Wheat is the most efficient single feed for poultry, because it
furnishes the nearest thing to a perfectly balanced ration. When
fed in conjunction with corn and oats as a scratch feed, supple-
mented by a mash consisting of various meals, including a meat
ingredient, properly compounded, wheat produces the best re-
sults at the least cost. When fed by itself corn is too fattening.
Oats is a fattening feed, too, in addition to which it has a high per-
centage of fiber in the hulls, which is objectionable when fed in
large quantities. Hulled oats or oatmeal, without this fiber,
makes a splendid feed for young chicks.

CHAPTER XV
AVAILABLE GRAINS AND MEALS

Fowls are omnivorous feeders, in that they eat both animal
and vegetable foods. They require both kinds of food to do their
best. Under domestic conditions, they might be classed as
granivorous, or grain eaters, because they subsist mainly on a
grain diet. Their digestive tract is especially well adapted to
the grinding and digesting of cereals, which the fowls relish.

Left to forage for themselves over a range that is abundant in
plant life, the natural food of fowls would consist of grains, seeds,
roots, grasses, worms and insects, tidbits of greens, berries and
soon. The ration would comprise a wide variety of things, and
in the main it would be wisely balanced. When kept in confine-
ment the fowls must be given food that resembles this natural
diet. It is impracticable to give them precisely the same articles
which are found on free range, but these articles can be closely
imitated, and the poultry keeper has a large list from which to
choose.

How Foods are Grouped.—For convenience we will divide the
available foodstuffs into four groups, about as they are grouped
in everyday practice: (I) grains; (2) meals and prepared foods,
or mash constituents; (3) green foods, or succulents; (4) mineral
and condimental foods. We will analyze them in this order,
confining ourselves more or less to the commonplace products.

Value of Wheat.—If it were necessary to limit the flock to a
single article, wheat would probably give the best results, be-
cause it is the nearest thing to a well-balanced ration. It is not
perfectly balanced, however, and gives best results only when
fed in conjunction with other products. Wheat contains more

protein and ash than corn, and less fiber than oats. At the same
13 193

194 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

TABLE XI.—ComposiTIon OF VARIOUS GRAINS AND THEIR By-PRODUCTS

(The nutrients are given regardless of their digestibility. And it should
be borne in mind that analyses of this kind vary somewhat according to
different authorities.)

CARBO-
FEED WATER ASH PROTEIN| FIBRE HY- Fat
DRATES
Corn group Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent
Dent corn.............. 10.6 1.5 10.3 2.2 70.4 5.0
Flint Goff. ...2 oa eesames 11.3 1.4 10.5 17 70.1 5.0
Sweet corn............. 8.8 1.9 11.6 2.8 66.8 8.1
Pop corn.............-. 10.7 1.5 11.6 1.8 69.2 5.2
Corn meal............. 12.0 1.3 8.7 2.1 71.2 4.7
Corn meal (sifted)....... 12.0 1.0 8.9 1.3 72.0 4.8
Corn-and-cob-meal..... . 15.1 1.5 8.5 6.6 64.8 3-5
Gluten meal............ 8.2 9 29.3 Bee 46.5 11.8
Gluten feed............. 8.5 1.7 26.2 vee 53-3 3.1
Hominy meal........... 11.0 2.5 10.4 4.2 64.1 7.8
Wheat group
Whole wheat........... 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2.1
Wheat screenings........ 11.6 2.9 12.5 4.9 65.1 3.0
Wheat bran............ 11.9 5.8 15.4 9.0 53-9 4.0
Wheat middlings........ 12.1 3:3, 15.6 4.6 60.4 4.0
Low-grade flour...... ; 12.4 6 10.0 9 75.0 1.1
Old bread.... 2.02.22... 31.2 | Variable 6.9 | Variable} 44.2 9
Oat group
Oats, whole or ground....| 11.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 60.7 5.0
Clipped oats............ 11.2 2.8 12.0 Wed 61.6 5.0
Oatmeal coca eedeaaaa a 7-9 2.0 14.7 9 67.4 7.1
Rolled oats............. 8.5 1.9 15.0 6 66.0 8.9
Buckwheat group
Buckwheat............. 12.6 2.0 10.0 8.7 64.5 2.2
Buckwheat bran........ 10.5 3.1 12. 31.9 38.8 363
Buckwheat middlings....} 13.2 4.9 28.9 aor 41.9 7.0
Barley group
Barley e< s.c se < asttee awd dake 10.9 2.4 12.4 297 69.8 1.8
Barley meal............ 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 XD
Barley screenings........ 12.4 3.6 12.2 7.6 61.6 2.6
Malt sprouts............ 10,2 5.7 23.2 10.7 48.5 L7
Other grains
Linseed meal (old process)| 9.2 5.7 32.9 8.9 35-4 7.9
Cottonseed............. 10.2 3-5 18.4 | 23.2 24.7 19.9
Cottonseed meal........ 8.2 Vee 42.3 5.6 23.6 13.1
Rye. sein B20 obs 11.6 1.9 10.6 1.7 72.5 1.7
RiGee ssa aoe eaodin Faaeidy ha 12.8 27 7.5 5 78.1 4
Sorghum seed........... 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6
Broom corn seed........ 12.7 2.4 10.2 7.1 63.6 3.0
Millet seed.............) 14.0 3.3 11.8 9.5 57-4 4.0
Sunflower-seed.......... 8.6 2.6 16.3 29.9 21.4 21.2
Canada field peas........ 13.4 2.4 22.4 6.4 52.6 3.0
Cowpeas...............] 14.8 3.2 20.8 41 55:7 T.4
Soy beans..............] 10.8 4.7 34.0 4.8 28.8 16.9

WHEAT THE LEADING GRAIN 195

time it contains materially less digestible fat than corn, and
slightly less nitrogen-free extract.

Fowls fed on a pure wheat diet are subject to digestive dis-
turbances. When fed on a mixture of wheat, corn and oats, these
troubles are minimized. This mixture constitutes the bulk of
so-called Scratch Feeds on the majority of poultry farms in this
country.

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 130.—Growing stock on alfalfa pasture.

Cost of Wheat.—Considering the high cost of wheat, it is
likely that too much importance has been laid upon it in respect
to poultry feeding. Pound for pound, the by-products of wheat—
bran and middlings—are more valuable than the whole grain,
and they are very much less expensive. True, the whole grain
of wheat has all the qualities—attractiveness of size, color, shape
and texture—which go to make a palatable ration for fowls,
and it should be used in the scratch feed by way of variety be-

196

COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

cause of this palatability; but wheat need not be depended upon

as a mainstay of the diet.

Wheat is a better growing feed than
a fattening feed, hence itis valuable in rearing young stock.

has been found that wheat gives a lighter color to the yolks of
eggs and to fat, and according to many packers, it imparts a
redder color to the flesh, the lean meat, than does corn.

TaBLE XII.—Frepinc Rations FoR LayincG HENs RECOMMENDED BY
PouLtTry DEPARTMENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY

WHOLE-GRAIN MIxtTuRE FED MorNnING AND AFTERNOON IN LITTER

By WEIGHT, WINTER

By MEasurRE, WINTER

By WEIGHT, SUMMER

By MEASURE, SUMMER

60 lbs. wheat -

60 Ibs. corn

30 lbs. oats

30 lbs. buckwheat

32 qts. wheat

36 qts. corn

30 qts. oats

20 qts. buckwheat

60 Ibs. wheat
60 Ibs. corn
30 lbs. oats

32 qts. wheat
36 qts. corn
30 qts. oats

Dry Masi FEp IN A Hopper, OPEN AFTERNOONS ONLY

By WEIGHT, WINTER AND SUMMER By MEASURE, WINTER AND SUMMER

60 Ibs. corn meal 57 qts. corn meal
60 lbs. wheat middlings 71 qts. wheat middlings
30 lbs. wheat bran 57 qts. wheat bran
10 lbs. alfalfa meal 20 qts. alfalfa meal
10 lbs. oil meal 8 qts. oil meal
50 lbs. beef scrap 43 qts. beef scrap
1 lb. salt ¥% qt. salt

“The fowls should eat about one-half as much mash by weight as whole
grain. Regulate the proportion of grain and ground feed by giving a light
feeding of grain in the morning and about all they will consume at the after-
noon feeding (in time to find grain before dark). In the case of pullets or
fowls in heavy laying, restrict both night and morning feeding to induce
heavy eating of dry mash, especially in the case of hens. This ration should
be supplemented with beets, cabbage, sprouted oats, green clover, or other
succulent feed, unless running on grass-covered range. Grit, cracked oyster
shell, and charcoal should be accessible at all times. Green feed should not
be fed in a frozen condition. All feed and litter used should be strictly sweet,
clean, and free from mustiness, mold, or decay. Serious losses frequently
occur from disease, due to the fowls taking into their bodies, through their
intestinal tract or lungs, the spores of molds.”

No Need for Best Wheat.—It is a mistake to assume that the
best grades of milling wheat are the best for poultry. Plump

POPULARITY OF CORN 197

wheat is slightly more palatable, but it has been shown that
shrunken wheat, caused by frost or drought, contains a higher
percentage of protein, therefore it is more economical as a stock
feed. Frequently the poorer grades of wheat, which are not
suitable for the best grades of flour, can be had at prices which
are so low that they are cheaper than corn and oats.

Musty, smutty and heated wheat should be carefully avoided,
no matter how cheap they can be bought, because of the in-
jurious effect they may have on the fowls’ digestion. There is no
objection to wheat
screenings, however,
which constitute the
refuse or ‘‘screen-
ings’ from the bet-
ter grades of wheat.
The feeding value of
‘screenings depends
upon quality, and
quality variesineach
purchase. Screen-
ings contain broken
and shrunken wheat
kernels, weed seeds, (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)
chaff and often con- Fig. 131.—Fowls seldom derive sufficient exer-
wanes Waeadles Gee unless there are opportunities and incentives

5 g.
trash. If the price
is low enough, screenings can be fed to an advantage. The point
to consider is the price and quality of the screenings in relation
to the price of sound feeding wheat.

Corn and its products are the principal sources of grain feed
for poultry. It is the best relished of all the grains, it is easily
digested, contains no poisonous substances, and except that it is
too concentrated when fed alone, too fattening, it is an ideal
ration. Corn has many advantages; it is attractive looking,
free from shuck or husk, it is easily swallowed, and contains large
amounts of oil and sugar which give it flavor and ease of diges-

198 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

tion. It satisfies the cravings of appetite and furnishes warmth.
It is not the most desirable food for egg production and the de-
velopment of lean meat, because it is deficient in protein. Corn
is a fattening food, and it is most valuable in this respect. When
fed in conjunction with foods which are rich in protein, and some
bulky material, such as green stuff or vegetables, it makes an
indispensable article of diet.

With the exception of flaxseed and sunflower seed, corn is the
richest grain in carbohydrates and fat formers. As previously
mentioned, it is a little low in protein, and quite low in mineral
substances. To make up for this deficiency in mineral matter,
oats are usually compounded with corn in poultry feeding.
Barley is also used, though there is no better food for ash or
mineral matter than wheat bran.

Cheapness of Corn.—Ordinarily, corn is the cheapest food for
poultry, not alone because of its price per bushel, but because
fowls obtain the greatest amount of digestible material from corn.
With oats at 40 cents a bushel, corn at 60 cents and wheat at 80
cents, it has been found that the protein in wheat or oats costs
practically fifty per cent more than the protein in corn. Simi-
larly, the cost of fat in wheat is about twice as much as the cost
of fat in corn. From every standpoint corn is the cheapest
food, but since it does not contain the nutrients in the propor-
tion in which they are required in the production of eggs and
lean meat, it must be mixed with other products.

The majority of farm flocks of poultry are maintained on an
exclusive corn diet, largely because the corn is grown at home,
and because it is not sold so readily as wheat. This practice is
a great mistake, and cannot be condemned too harshly. It
invariably results in a small egg yield, and frequently no eggs at
all. Properly fed, corn isa most valuable feed—quite as valuable
as wheat. This is especially true in America, where corn is
plentiful, and under normal circumstances cheap.

The value of oats as a poultry feed is determined largely by the
percentage of fiber in the hulls. This fiber is the greatest ob-
jection, because it is a tax on the fowls’ digestion. Light oats,

OATS AND BARLEY 199

so called because of the large proportion of hull to kernel, which
makes a bushel of oats weigh light, is not a desirable poultry feed.
Heavy oats, with a smaller percentage of husk, are greatly rel-
ished by chickens, and should form an important part of the
diet. Hens are quick to recognize the quality of oats. They
will refuse to eat oats which contain a great deal of shuck, seeming
to know instinctively that it is as indigestible as straw.

No grain varies so much in weight per bushel as oats, which, of
course, is due to the variation in the proportion of husk to kernel.
It will pay to get heavy oats, though the price is more, because

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 132.—Chickens require an abundance of fresh drinking water at all times.

of the waste in the hulls. Hulled oats or oatmeal is an excellent
food for growing chicks. Some breeders maintain that oats con-
tain an ingredient not found in other grains, which has a stimu-
lating effect on the nerves and thereby promotes rapid growth.
Whether or not there is any truth in this belief, the fact remains
that there is no better food for baby chicks than pinhead oat-
meal or hulled oats. It is expensive, but the results seem to
warrant the additional expense. Ground oats are used ex-
tensively in fattening poultry.

Barley ranks between oats and corn as a growing and fattening
feed. It contains less fat, fiber and ash than oats, but more

200 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

protein and carbohydrates. It does not rate so high in digestible
protein as wheat, and barley is not so palatable as either wheat,
corn or oats; but it is a splendid ingredient for the scratch feed
because of its variety.

The husk and beard of barley are somewhat against it, though
not so much as in oats. So long as the fowls will eat freely of it,
barley can be fed in liberal quantities. In Europe barley oc-
cupies the place filled by corn in America, in fact, it has much the
same feeding value. The great demand for barley for brewing
purposes tends to keep the price high. Malt sprouts and
brewer’s grains, which are the by-products of barley, are useful
stock feeds, but because they are in such demand as dairy feed,
little attention has been given to them as poultry feed, though
they are a good source of succulent material.

Buckwheat.—Strictly speaking, buckwheat is a poor poultry
feed. It contains properties which supply heat and energy, but
because of the black, woody hulls, which are both unappetizing
and indigestible by reason of the fiber, fowls do not eat it readily.
In fact, until the hens are accustomed to buckwheat, they are
likely to ignore it completely. Compared with other grains,
buckwheat cannot be called a rich food, nor an economical food.
It has a lower percentage of digestible organic matter than most
grains, and is low in mineral matter. The only excuse for feeding
buckwheat is to add a little variety to the ration, but even this
virtue is questionable because of its unattractiveness.

Rye is even less of a success as a poultry feed than buckwheat.
Though virtually the same as wheat in composition, appearance,
size and color, rye is not relished by fowls. There is something
about it which is distasteful, and if birds are compelled to eat it
in grain form there is a tendency to create digestive trouble. On
the other hand, sprouted rye is exceedingly palatable, and fowls
do well on it. The fat of rye is said to be the indigestible portion
of the grain, and apparently it has some medicinal quality or
flavor which is objectionable. In view of these facts, it is poor
economy to try and use rye grain as a poultry feed.

Rice.—Though rice is reckoned among the available grains for

RICE, PEAS, AND BEANS 201

poultry, it is used in very limited quantities. Even in the South,
where it is grown, rice is not generally used, except as a chick
feed, and then only in small quantities. The commercial chick
feeds contain a small percentage of broken rice. Its value, how-
ever, is questioned by most breeders. Chicks do not seem to
care for it, and for this reason it is not generally recommended.
Boiled rice is sometimes fed to chicks as a wet mash, and the water

hee U.S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 133.—Feeding time in a fattening station.

which is drained off the rice is cooled and given as drinking water.
As a commercial proposition this is too troublesome.

Field peas, cowpeas and Soy beans are three nitrogenous
seeds which may be used to vary the ration, though it is not ad-
visable to feed them to poultry unless they can be bought at a
reasonable price. Usually they are scarce and correspondingly
high in price.

Kafir corn, milo maize, sorghum seeds and broom corn seeds
may be added to the scratch grain ration to give variety. They
can be made to take the place of corn, because they are pretty

202 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

much the same in character. Fowlseat them witha relish. The
one objection is cost; they are usually high in price, therefore
prohibitive, except in small quantities.

Millet is fairly reasonable in price, and is found in most of the
commercial chick feeds. It has practically the same composi-
tion as oats. Owing to
an extremely hard shell, it
isindigestible. Thereisa
high percentage of fiber,
which is against it as an
economical feed. Because
the seeds are small and
brilliantly colored, little
chicks are attracted to
millet, and willeat it read-
ily. Thisisaccompanied
by risks, since the bullet-
like structure of the seeds
resists the grinding action
of the gizzard. Many
breeders are opposed to
the use of millet on this
account. The writerdis-
carded it long since.

Sunflower seeds are

nat awit: recommended for the
(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) molting season, and for
et Hescing tten ase ingask; birds intended for exhi-
the cages. bitions, because of the
vegetable oil which im-

parts a gloss to the plumage. They have a high fiber content
(about 30 per cent) which renders them indigestible and wasteful.
Then, too, sunflower seed is expensive. In the writer's opinion,
it is not worthy of notice. The plumage can be stimulated by
the use of cake meal (old process), which is the residue from linseed

FOWLS HAVE INTENSIVE ORGANISMS

after the oil has been extracted.

nutrients, and is reasonable in
price.

Every Process is Intensive.—
Fowls have a higher tempera-
ture, increased respiration, and
a more rapid digestion than
most other animals. Their
young is brought into being very
quickly; they mature in from
five to nine months; and their
life is limited to about five years.
Thus, every function, process
and phase of the fowl’s existence
may be called intensive or rapid.
In many respects the fowl may

203

This oi] meal contains valuable

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 135.—Fowls with long, crow-
like heads are usually poor feeders and
do not make rapid gains.

be compared to a high-geared machine, which is delicate of oper-

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 136.—This bird’s head is typi- .

cal of a good feeder, one that can be
depended upon to make rapid gains
in flesh.

care of themselves, and of which they are fully capable.

ation, but thoroughly reliable,
providing the adjustments are
properly maintained.

We know that a low-geared
machine can withstand more
neglect than the fast-running,
high-tensioned mechanism. In
a similar way, the relation of
food to bodily requirements is
more exacting in fowls than in
other animals of slower growth.

Do not misconstrue this state-
ment: Fowls do not require
greater care than other animals.
On the contrary, they require
much less attention. But fowls
must be provided with the
means by which they can take
This

204 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

provision consists chiefly in giving the fowls access to the right
sort of foodstuffs.

As explained in a preceding chapter, poultry must be fed those
products which yield certain elements, such as protein, fats and
mineral substances, which are necessary to meet the daily de-
mands of the body. Moreover, these elements must be fed in a
mechanical condition which will render the greatest good at the
least expense. Expense in this instance embraces both the
poultryman’s pocketbook and the fowls’ health.

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)
Fig. 137.—The farm flock can be made to forage for the greater part of its
keep.

Exclusive Grain Diet——Time was when poultry was fed al-
most exclusively on whole grain. Such a diet was expensive and
improperly balanced. Also, it was wasteful, because certain
portions of whole grain were not necessary to a fowl’s welfare.
They were of greater value as human food. For example, wheat
middlings and wheat bran are better poultry foods than wheat
flour, whereas the latter is considered more desirable as human
food. Therefore the logical thing is to mill and separate the
whole grain. In recent years this has been done, with the result

TasLe XIII.—FEEpinc Rations For LayinG HENS RECOMMENDED BY THE
NEw JERSEY STATION

Dry Mash MIxturE (WINTER)

QUANTITY
Kinp or FEED
Pounds : Quarts
Wheat brats. .gcwss sss da yeree pines 200 380
Wheat middlings....................005. 200 240
Ground: Oats wa iaiees eh cae dae nagnind vnwie 200 200
Commmealli:ii.0 saers ae ss aa nee pee eee we 100 95
Gluten meal....... Aa Gaby $E4 Gin b tee AS BN 100 80
Meat scrap (high grade)................. 100 86
Alfalfa (short cut).......0..0.0...00.0004 100 200
STOtal yaccicte 2 seceus Revs ca nen Rta ich ad Peeudiea taba 1000 1281
Nutritive Ratio, 1: 3.02
Dry Mash Mixture (SUMMER)
QUANTITY
Kinp oF FEED
Pounds Quarts
Wheat bran..... Ag aD ae gov ose wy aes BS 200 380
Wheat middlings............0........000.. 100 120
Ground Oats’. 244 swsaes ease ssaed ae kee & 100 100
Gluten meal... 00... . 0... cece eee eee 50 40
Meat scrap (high grade)................. 25 21
ARORA se. Spat cage vo aie eae dine a insta dk soln Sane 475 661

Nutritive Ratio, 1: 3.22
For Leghorns and other egg breeds the feed hoppers are kept open all day.
For the heavier breeds, which are prone to put on too much fat, the hoppers
are kept open in the afternoon only. :
ScratcH Grain Mixture (Morninc) Five Pounps To 100 Brrps FED IN
Deep LITTER

QUANTITY
KIND OF FEED
Pounds Quarts
Wheat: eusescauheralse tein eth wakes auaiach tags aes 100 53
OAtS 25 ss ujiisca: a lis osc Suis Re dy cone byee essed 100 98
LGU all iets costed aaa tote Oa alee Stein on ade 200 151

Nutritive Ratio, 1: 6.6
ScraTcH GRAIN MIxtuRE (EVENING) TEN Pounps To 100 Birps

QUANTITY
Kinp oF FEED
Pounds Quarts
Cracked corn........... Rate ae noes he 200 120
Wheat on cag dams cba oki oe eae beeaees 100 53
Oats acs ce tan Tae Sune ieseicies ae angaernee ep eas 100 98
Buckwheat: sii on ein yclecwic beg telah alanis deck 100 66
Totals vcieeeiecss sei eet eenewyace ME Con 500 337

Nutritive Ratio, 1: 7.8
The above is intended for cold weather feeding. In the summer half the

cracked corn is used, and barley is substituted for the buckwheat.
eerre 205

206 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

that we now have a valuable list of by-products, most of them
meals, which are available as stock foods, at a much lower cost
than the whole grain.

Merits of Mash Feeding.—To-day, instead of feeding their
flocks exclusively on whole or broken grain, practical poultry
raisers feed about half grain and half meals. The grain feed,
which consists of a mixture of grains, such as corn, wheat and
oats, is termed the ‘‘scratch feed’’; the meals are mixed together
in certain proportions and called a ‘‘mash.”’ This mash is fed
dry or moist, depending upon the object desired. Of late the
dry mash has gained considerable favor over the wet mash, and
largely because of the inconvenience in placing the wet mash be-
fore the birds. It must be fed at regular intervals and in specific
quantities, because if moist feed is allowed to stand for any length
of time, it will spoil in hot weather and freeze in cold weather.
A dry mash is always available; it can be placed before the flocks
in large quantities, providing the hoppers are suitable, and the
mash remains sweet and wholesome until consumed.

TABLE XIV
At the Maine Experiment Station under Prof. Gowell the following quanti-
ties of feed were consumed per hen in one year by a flock of Barred Plymouth
Rocks, averaging 144 eggs each:

Pounps
Grain aiid Mashioui. 2. wasn gs aule< dwelt es 90.0
Oystéf shell) 3 ccs ttese eee aana.an sae ee BRM 4.0
Granulated bone ..............0 00 eeeuee 2.4
Giibe.g cee cohen ron ates eta artist © 2.0
Charcoal cic gescsiatn ants pauls aussie tiga sakes’ 2.4
Clover sinc syns seagate eee ee ee Cea Gaw 10.0

Forced Feeding.—Excellent results have been secured through
mash feeding. It is particularly valuable in fattening, and in
forced feeding for increased egg production. This is due to the
fact that meals are digested more quickly than the whole grains,
therefore the nourishment which they contain is more readily
available for absorption. Dry mash feeding is the only method
by which fowls can be made to consume large quantities of food,
which are so essential to rapid development.

ACTION OF THE GIZZARD 207

The point to remember, however, is this, forced feeding must
not be carried to the point where it affects and impairs stamina
and health. In fattening poultry for market there is little need
for caution in this respect, because the birds are killed before any
ill effects are manifested. But in feeding laying stock, especially
breeders, prolonged over-feeding is almost certain to result in
weak offspring and a general deterioration in the vigor and pro-
ductiveness of the flocks.

On first thought, ground feed or meals would seem to be more
digestible than whole grains, because, as stated above, the meals
are more quickly digested than the grains. It does not follow,
however, that the meals are more thoroughly digested, as we
shall see.

Gizzard.—Fowls are endowed with a powerful muscular organ
—the gizzard, for the express purpose of grinding solid foods.
The action of the gizzard is involuntary. If it is equipped with
sufficient ‘‘molars”’ in the form of hard, sharp, angular grit, its
grinding process is consistently thorough.

Gastric Juice.—The crushing and grinding process is not the
only function of the gizzard. The food is partially digested in
this organ, and to accomplish this digestion the food must re-
main in this part of the digestive tract for a certain length of
time. It has been found that the gizzard secretes a gastric
juice, which is one of the most powerful agents of digestion,
especially in respect to digesting protein and in dissolving the
mineral elements. Naturally, the harder the food the longer
it is required for the gizzard to grind it, and the longer the food
remains in the gizzard the greater is the action of the gastric
secretion.

Sparing the Gizzard.—As might be supposed, meals pass
through the gizzard much quicker than whole grains, and this
spares the gizzard considerable work. In forced feeding it is
found cheaper to do this work with power millstones. But the
point to remember is this: If the gizzard is spared too much, it
soon loses its efficiency, and thereafter the food will not be
thoroughly digested, which is both a tax on the fowls’ health and

208 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

wasteful of food. In short, the fowls must be fed enough hard
grain to maintain the gizzard and all other organs in their normal
state. It is therefore considered good practice to feed from one-
third to one-half ground feed.

TABLE XV
In a test at the Maine Experiment Station it was found that a flock of two
thousand Barred Plymouth Rocks were raised to laying age on an average of
the following quantities of feed per fowl:

Pounps
Grain and mash...............¢.00 ee eee 28.0
Granulated bone...............00.0000- 0.75
Oyster shells ccre.d2 Adee apace econe abd 0.5
Gee dence sepia Rektagns ih Gack Gustto ty race inianaintavon tees 2.25
Charcdale ss ck adgisyg peeing tee Aa eae oe 0.5
Total v.datd-eyet seamen var see scenes se 32.00

Controlling the Diet.—There is still another important point
about mash feeding: The feeder is better able to control the
flock’s diet. This statement is easily explained. When whole
or broken grain is fed, it is more good luck than good manage-
ment if some hens do not eat more corn, others wheat, and others
oats, or whatever are the ingredients. And since no one kind of
grain is a complete ration, the error of this method is apparent.

In a properly compounded, well-mixed mash, which has the
exact proportion of protein, carbohydrates and mineral sub-
stances required to preserve health and stimulate egg production,
the hen has no selection. She simply gulps mouthfuls of the
mash, and every mouthful has practically the same ingredients,
consequently she is made to eat just what the feeder has pre-
scribed. Furthermore, if the mash is accessible at all times,
which is the generally accepted method of feeding it, the fowls
soon learn that they can eat it at will, and this habit tends to
eliminate gorging by the stronger birds, and under-feeding on
the part of the weaker or more timid members of the flock. In
other words, there is no mad rush for the mash hopper like there
is for a periodical distribution of scratch feed.

Mash Constituents.—The feeder has a wide list from which to

AVAILABLE GROUND FEEDS 209

select the ingredients for a mash. We will commence with the
by-products of wheat.

Bran is probably the most commonly used, all-round stock
food. It is the outer layer of the wheat kernel and is rich in
mineral matter. By reason of its flaky nature, bran gives the

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 138.—Chickens in feeding batteries, being fattened for market.

mash a light, bulky texture, and this condition is preferred by

fowls. Bran is fibrous and slightly laxative. It is compara-

tively rich in nutrients, though its digestibility is rather low.

Bran and corn meal comprise the bulk of most poultry mashes.

As might be supposed, there is a wide variation in the quality

of bran, which is due to the milling process—how thin the out-
14

210 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

side shuck of the wheat kernel is taken off and how much of the
gluten is retained. The more gluten it contains the richer the
bran is in protein.

TABLE XVI

Two Dry Mash Formulas Recommended by California Experiment Station

Quarts | PouNnps Quarts | Pounps
Bran eisis ccd ec ces 6.0 3.0 Branioss% + aesee 4.0 2.0
Middlings........ 0.5 0.5 Alfalfa meal... . 1.0 0.5
Linseed meal (0. p.) 0.5 0.5 Corn meal ..... 1.0 1.5
Gluten feed....... 0.8 1.0 || Shorts......... 2.0 1.5
Ground oats ...... 1.0 0.75 Barley meal... . 1.0 1.1
Corn meal........ 1.5 2.25 Ground beans . . 1.0 I.I
Beef scrap........ 1.0 1.5 Beef scrap ..... 1.0 0.5
Bone meal........ 0.5 1.0 Bone meal ..... 0.5 1.0

The above rations are calculated for 100 hens a day, to be fed in conjunction
with from 9 to 12 pounds of scratch grains and sufficient green stuffs.

Middlings and Shorts.—In the center of the wheat kernel is
the flour, which is largely starch. Between the flour and the outer
shuck or bran is a.layer of gluten, called middlings or shorts.
Shorts are practically the same as middlings, except that a larger
percentage of fine bran may be present in the former. Asa rule
middlings are ground finer than shorts and resemble a low-grade
flour. Middlings are richer in carbohydrates and fats than bran;
and lower in mineral matter and fiber, therefore more digestible.
Middlings are heavy and form:a compact mass, and for best
results they should be mixed with a bulky feed, such as bran,
mealed alfalfa or ground oats.

Feeding Flour.—Some feed markets do not distinguish between
middlings and shorts. Then again, there is only a slight dif-
ference between middlings and low-grade feeding flour. The
feeding flour resembles the patent grades of white flour intended
for human consumption, and is richer in gluten than middlings.

Corn meal, sometimes spoken of as regular feed meal, as the
name implies, is simply the whole corn kernel ground fine, or
it may be the siftings from cracked corn. It possesses virtually
the same merits as the whole grain, and is used extensively for
fattening purposes.

CORN PRODUCTS 211

Corn-and-Cob Meal.—When the cob is ground with the corn
the product is called corn-and-cob meal. No matter how fine
the cob is reduced to a meal, it consists mainly of fiber, with low
feeding value, which is objectionable in feeding poultry. A little
corn-and-cob meal can be used in the mash if bulk is desired, but
it should not be made to take the place of straight corn meal.

Gluten Meal.—In the manufacture of starch the kernels of
corn are separated into hulls or bran, gluten and starch. Gluten
meal is therefore corn less the bran and starch. It is rich in fat
and protein and highly concentrated. When fed in large quanti-
ties it produces ill effects. To overcome this concentration, and
to provide a market for the corn bran, manufacturers now mix
the gluten meal with the bran and sell the mixture as gluten feed.

TaBLeE XVII

War TIME RATIONS RECOMMENDED BY HARE, OF THE SOUTH CAROLINA
EXPERIMENT STATION

Dry MasuH FoR SOUTHERN BREEDERS Dry MAsH FoR WESTERN BREEDERS

Pounds Pounds

Corn meal. 00. cena ses ce eee Too || Corn meals. 45 ssc y ney vee ewan 250

Wheat middlings.............. 100 || Ground oats.................. 200

Ricé: brani 2:0 o.ake 8 sense oew se 100 || Wheat middlings.............. 200

Ground oats.................. 200 || Wheat bran :

Velvet bean meal............. too || Meat scrap............-..2-..-

Cottonseed meal.............. 100 |] Alfalfa meal............0000.. 50

Salta setustw ie naan ba Aah Hk te cede BG I Sal b's seco ne sane, Sees Gasuar WHE pane aide 5

Gluten feed contains less fat and protein than gluten meal, and
greater bulk, therefore it should be bought on a guaranteed
analysis, depending upon its content of protein. Gluten feed
and gluten meal are both palatable and digestible. They are
valuable sources of protein, as will be observed, and are excellent
egg producers. It is a mistake, however, to depend entirely
upon this vegetable protein. Some animal protein is necessary
in the mash, such as bone meal or meat scrap.

Hominy meal or hominy chop is still another valuable by-prod-
uct of corn, useful as a poultry feed, but not so generally used

212 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

because of the limited supply. It consists of the hull, germ and
portions of the starch cells—the residue from the process of
making hulled corn or hominy. It is similar to gluten and may
be used in about the same way.

Ground oats, as the name suggests, is simply the whole oats
ground fine. The fiber is not reduced in any way, though it is
rendered more palatable. In buying ground oats care should be
taken that there is not an excess of hulls, since unreliable manu-
facturers sometimes use a very light or poor grade of oats for this
feed. Ground oats are useful in all mashes, but because of the
‘high percentage of fiber, they must be used judiciously. For ex-
ample, it would be a mistake to compound a mash having large
quantities of mealed alfalfa, ground oats and bran, because all
three have large percentages of fiber, whereas the fiber content
in poultry feeds should be kept as low as possible.

Ground barley, sometimes called barley meal, has pretty much
the same value as the whole grain. Like ground oats, it must be
used carefully because of the hulls. It is not a common feed in
this country. Dried brewers’ grains, a by-product of barley
from the breweries, is a valuable addition to the mash, rich in
fat and protein, and used about the same as corn meal and wheat
middlings. It is more widely used as a dairy feed than for
poultry.

Buckwheat bran and middlings, which are the by-products of
buckwheat flour, are not particularly desirable as a poultry feed
because of the large percentage of indigestible matter. The
middlings are sometimes used in fattening poultry for slaughter,
especially where white flesh is desired.

Cottonseed meal, a by-product from the manufacture of cotton-
seed oil from cotton seed, is thought by some to be a substitute
for meat scrap. Fowls do not take kindly to it, however, and the
general opinion among poultry feeders is that it is not a desirable
feed. The consensus of opinion is that cottonseed meal should
be used with extreme caution, or not at all.

Oil meal, or linseed meal, a by-product of the manufacture
of linseed oil from flaxseed, is rich in protein and fat, and a valu-

“wool Suryoed poyzeseSt1yer & UT syoeI Sursuey ayy utory Arqnod Surpery—

SQ &sazsnoD)

6f1

214 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

able feed for molting fowls. It is exceedingly laxative, however,
and because of this tendency it must be fed sparingly. Oil
meal contains about three times as much protein as wheat or
oats, and about five times the protein of rice. It is one of the
richest foods available for poultry, fairly reasonable in price,
and it should find a place in all mashes for mature stock; but
because of its concentrated nature, oil meal should not form over
five per cent of the ration.

Old process oil meal, or O. P. cake meal, are other names given
to this product. In the old process of manufacturing linseed
oil the flaxseed is crushed and the oil extracted by great pressure.
In the newer methods the oil is dissolved by means of naptha.
The old process meal is best, because it contains more oil, which
stimulates the growth of feathers, and gives the plumage a glossy
appearance, so much desired by fanciers. When moist, oil meal
is very sticky, and this quality tends to thicken or gum the mash.
It is therefore objectionable in wet mashes.

CHAPTER XVI
ANIMAL AND GREEN FOODS

Animal Protein.—A controversy has existed for some time over
the relative merits of vegetable protein and animal protein.
From the chemist’s standpoint they may be practically the same;
but not so from the fowls’ point of view, which is the all-impor-
tant angle for consideration. We cannot escape the fact that
chickens are scavengers. They are meat eaters, naturally.
Witness their eagerness for worms and insects, or for dead ani-
mal matter, if they findit. Apparently they crave meat in some
form, hence it behooves the feeder to furnish it.

Important feeding experiments have shown that protein and
fats are more digestible when supplied from animal sources than
from vegetable sources. Chicks and ducklings fed on rations
containing animal food consume greater quantities of food and
make faster gains in growth. Pullets are brought to maturity,
and older hens lay more eggs when fed animal protein. It might
be said that animal food is essential to economical production—
an absolute necessity. No other food constituent stimulates
the ovaries into activity in such a brief space of time. Because
of this stimulation, however, animal foods must be used judi-
ciously or ill effects will result.

Meat Scrap.—There are several sources of animal food, though
meat scrap, otherwise known as beef scrap, poultry meat, ani-
mal meal and similar names, is unquestionably the most widely
used. It consists of meat trimmings from slaughter houses and
butcher shops, including considerable bone, which are cooked
under steam pressure to render out most of the fat, and then dried
and ground to different degrees of fineness. The cooking and
curing process, if properly done, also sterilizes the product,

215

216 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

thereby destroying any bacteria which might prove harmful to
the fowls.

Guaranteed Analysis.—In the cheaper grades of meat scrap
the product is not so carefully purified, and in some instances it is
treated with acid, which is injurious. These grades should be
avoided. In no other form of food is it so essential to use the
best grades as in meat scrap. And usually the best grades are
the cheapest in the long run, because they are almost certain to

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 140.—Spading and turning over the soil not only keeps the yards sani-
tary, but it affords worms and insect life for the fowls.

contain higher percentages of protein, which is the sole reason
for buying this sort of food. High-grade scrap will contain from
50 to 60 per cent protein, the low grades from 25 to 40 per cent.
Obviously the price should be based on a guaranteed analysis.
Testing Meat.—The appearance of meat scrap will go far in
convincing the purchaser as to its quality. To test it, pour
scalding water over a sample, and if it continues to smell sweet,
the chances are it is all right. If it gives off a putrid odor—be-
ware. Then examine it in a dry state: If it seems to have large

POULTRY MEAT 217

quantities of hair, horn and hoof, it is not desirable. Particles
of horn and hoof resemble bits of brown glass.

Tankage, dried blood and kindred packing-house by-products,
though suitable for hog feeding, are not relished by poultry.
They are rich in nitrogen, but not-capable of digestion by fowls.
Shun them.

Green cut bone is one of the most palatable foods of animal
origin, and also one of the most forcing foods for egg production.
It must be fed sweet by all means, which renders it a difficult
food to handle on a large scale, especially in the summer time.
The practice is to collect the bones, together with meat trimmings,
from nearby butcher shops, and grind them at home by means of
a power bone cutter. The ground bone and mangled bits of
meat which cling to the bone are then fed separately or mixed
with a little dry mash.

Green cut bone heats and spoils very quickly, even in cold
weather, unless it is spread out so that the air can circulate freely
through it. If fed in a heated condition it is almost certain to
develop diarrhea and kindred troubles. It is laxative at best,
therefore it is not a good food for young chickens. When given
to laying stock to assist egg production, green bone should not
comprise more than ten per cent of the ration. Excessive use of
such stimulating food is a serious tax on the liver, and brings
about symptoms similar to gout in man. Very few egg farms of
any size have the facilities to feed green bone, consequently they
depend upon the commercial forms of meat scrap, which can be
kept indefinitely in any climate, providing they are stored in a
dry place, and are not allowed to heat.

Granulated bone, or bone meal, which is a finer grinding of
the bones, are both excellent foods for poultry, and especially
for young stock, since they are valuable sources of both protein
and mineral substances. This product is free from meat. The
raw bones are dried, then ground to a meal. The best way to
feed it isin the mash. It has no laxative properties to speak of,
and fowls relish it. From five to ten per cent of bone meal
should enter all mashes for chicks of all ages.

218 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Fish scrap corresponds to meat scrap in many respects, and
in some localities it is extensively used. The great difficulty
with it is that it is likely to impart a fishy flavor to the eggs and
flesh. This is due to the oil. In the best grades, wherein this
oil is practically all removed, fish scrap makes a valuable substi-
tute for meat scrap, and in most cases it it much cheaper than the
latter.

TABLE XVIII.—ComposiTIon oF DIFFERENT ANIMAL Foops

CARBO-
FEED WatTER| ASH PROTEIN | FIBER HY- Fat
DRATES

Per Per Per Per Per

cent cent Per cent cent cent cent
Meat scrap (high grade)...... 10.70 | 4.10 | 60.20 os .. | 25.00
Meat scrap (low grade) ...... 15.40 | 2.50] 45.00 ae .. | 37-10

Poérkiscraps «2 acccwhed easy eee 11.0 2.2 55-0 Bs .. | 31.8
Ground bone (dry).......... 8.19 | 56.95 | 31.36 a i 3.50
Green cut bone............. 38.94 | 26.12 | 20.37 aa et 11.67
Animal meal................ 4.90 | 42.65 | 30.45 3.30 | 10.32 | 8.38
Blood meal................. 10.61 | 4.65] 75.69 1.28] 1.46] 7.11
Dried blood): 2 .u.c5 ess yee eens 6.70 | 6.60] 65.10 as 5.30 | 16.30
Fresh fishy «.o%3 eises estas 44.0 1.00] 10.50 | 42.00] .. 2.50
Fish scrap (variable)......... 5-10 | 2-8 | 34.0-50] .. As 17.0
Clams and other shell fish... . . 34.10 | 2.30 6.00 | 55.00] 2.00 60
Whole milk................. ‘) 87.2 6 3.6 he 4.9 37
Skim milk os. cscevee% ced 90.6 7 3.1 5-3 3
Buttermilk, oc gees wiswww. 90.1 7 4.0 4.0 1.20

WHEY ii, welt ase aces bates Gan aaa ee 93.8 4 6 5.1 I
GHOGSE is sce cg diese a ioe buat dias 40.6 3.4 23.7 1.7. | 30.6

Granulated milk............ 28.5 3.6 13.7 51.1 3.1

Milk albumen, a by-product from the manufacture of milk
sugar, is a good source of animal protein, but in the main it is
too expensive for general use as a poultry food. Some breeders
use it for their chicks. It is largely casein and lime, ground to a
meal, and contains no crude fiber.

Granulated milk is another product of this kind, except that
it is whole milk evaporated and crystallized. Sometimes it is
spoken of as powdered milk. It is useful for chick feeding for
the first few weeks, but its cost is high, therefore prohibitive for
general use.

VIRTUES OF MILK 219

Milk in any form—fresh, sour, skimmed or buttermilk—is a
wholesome feed for all forms of livestock, and should be used
wherever possible in regular quantities. See Fig. 141. It is

Chicks fed corn and green clover Chicks fed wheat and green clover

cf
|

Chicks fed corn, green clover and milk

Fig. 141.—Experiment illustrating the benefit of milk in the chicks’ diet. All
three lots are the same age. (Wisconsin Experiment Station.)

palatable, aids digestion, carries a high nitrogenous content, and
the presence of lactic acid tends to correct bowel troubles and re-
duces the spread of white diarrhea. Fowls will consume large
quantities of it with the greatest relish.

220 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Clean Fountains.—As previously mentioned, milk may be fed
sweet or sour, but wherever possible it should be given one way
or the other, and not alternated. To change it about constantly
sometimes results in digestive disorders. Milk is given to fowls
in drinking fountains, or it may be used to moisten the mash.
When given to drink, the vessels must be scalded at regular
periods, otherwise the milk is likely to become putrefied, espe-
cially in warm weather, which is equivalent to putrid meat, and
is injurious, resulting in limberneck and similar troubles.

Milk whey, a by-product from the manufacture of cheese,
is not so valuable as the other forms of milk, but it may be used
whenever it can be obtained conveniently. It is relished by

poultry.

TaBLE XIX.—THE FoLLowING FEEDING FoRMULAS WERE USED IN Four
LayING COMPETITIONS AT STORRS, CONNECTICUT

ScRATCH GRAINS Dry Masu
Pounds Pounds
Cracked corn............. 60 Wheat bran............. 200
WHEAT ca chee ete eee oe 60 Corn meal.... ......... 100
Heavy oats............... 40 Gluten feed. ............ 100
Barley s.ccaccccme ene getenes 20 Ground oats............. 100
Kafir corn... ............. 10 Middlings............... 75
Buckwheat............... 10 Beef scrap.............. 60
Coarse beef scrap......... 10 Low grade flour.......... 25

In the fifth contest the formulas were simplified, as follows:

ScRATCH GRAINS Dry Masu

Pounds Pounds
Wheédts ssiicesadeordeectes 100 Wheat bran............. 100
Cracked corn............ 100 Corn meal.............. 100
Ground oats............. 100
Middlings............... 100
Fish Scraps. os. ccainda vax 50
Beef scrap.............. 50

Salt adds to the palatability of the fowl’s diet the same as it
does for human food, also it assists digestion; but it must be
used with more or less caution. Too much salt will result in
diarrhea, while excessive quantities will prove fatal in very short
order. Authorities recommend the use of four ounces of salt
to each hundred mature fowls, and none to stock under ten weeks
of age.

CONDIMENTAL FOODS 221

Ground salt, or the kind used in the preparation of human food,
is best. It should be well distributed through the dry mash. If
wet mashes are used, the salt should be dissolved in the water
used to moisten the mash. Avoid rock or coarsely granulated
salt, because the fowls are likely to mistake it for grit, in which
event they will eat excessive quantities, and perhaps die. In
most cases where fowls have died from salt it was attributed to
this mistake. The writer was once called in by a neighbor who
lost several hens suddenly, and on examination it was found that
an ice-cream tub had been dumped near the kitchen door, and
the hens had devoured most of the rock salt used in connection
with the ice around the cream container.

Condiments, such as Cayenne pepper, should be used very
sparingly, if used at all. By some they are severely condemned;
others claim increased production with no ill effects. Opinion
is divided on the subject, though one’s common sense dictates
that if certain elements are highly stimulating, there must follow
a corresponding reaction.

Condiments should be given in moderation, for the purpose of

.seasoning the food about as would be desired by the human
taste. This adds palatability to the ration and increases the fowls’
appetites. With increased appetite more food is consumed,
which is the sort of stimulation to be sought, not the direct action
of the condiments themselves. Ground mustard or mustard
bran and some of the reliable poultry regulators are to be recom-
mended.

Charcoal is a very necessary part of the bill-of-fare. It is
not a condiment, and strictly speaking, it is not a food. It is
given for its effect as an absorbent and intestinal corrective. It
has a marked influence on gases, impurities and acids, relieves
sour stomach and indigestion, and generally sweetens the whole
of the inner workings. It is thought to be a laxative when eaten
in large quantities, and for this reason many breeders are opposed
to giving charcoal to little chicks. The writer has never ex-
perienced such trouble. Some fowls do not take kindly to char-
coal. The best plan is to keep it before the birds at all times in a

222 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

separate hopper, the same as grit and oyster shells, or to mix it
with the dry mash. Granulated charcoal is a commercial article,
usually sold in three grades, coarse, medium and fine.

Shredded alfalfa, or mealed alfalfa, which is finely ground
alfalfa hay, makes an excellent mash constituent, providing the
quality is good. It is high in protein, ash and fat, resembling
wheat bran in this respect. Moreover, it contains a great deal

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 142.—Complete equipment for chicks on range: colony house, feed hopper
and water-barrel.

of fiber, like bran, which is the worst feature about it as a poultry
food.

If manufacturers would only use the leaves of the alfalfa in
the preparation of mealed alfalfa for poultry, instead of including
the stalks, which have very little feeding value for fowls, this
product would find much greater favor. Another objection is
found in the susceptibility to adulteration. Timothy and other
grasses are sometimes used as fillers.

It is not advisable to use more than fifteen per cent of alfalfa
in the mash, and then only as a substitute for bran or ground

BEET PULP AND PEAS 223

oats. If bran, ground oats and alfalfa are to be included, their
combined total should not exceed twenty-five per cent of the
ration.

Short-cut clover and clover meal are very similar to the alfalfa
_ products, and are used in about the same way. If anything, the
clover is richer in ash, protein and carbohydrates, with a trifle
less fiber; but it is not so attractive looking as alfalfa in a dry
state. Alfalfa is a bright green and has the true alfalfa smell,
whereas the clover is brown and not so volatile.

Cut clover or finely shredded alfalfa soaked in boiling water
or steamed over night, and fed separately or with a little mash,
makes a good substitute for green food in the winter months.
They could hardly be termed succulent food, however, any more
than they contain considerable moisture.

Dried beet pulp, shredded, a by-product of the sugar-beet in-
dustry, and dried green cracked peas are two other substitutes
for green food. Either one may be fed to advantage, and a com-
bination of the two makes an ideal ration. It is appetizing in
appearance, highly nutritious, a bulky food, comparatively in-
expensive, and one that has given satisfactory results for a num-
ber of years. Most feed dealers carry these products in stock,
or they will order them for a customer. The best pulp is used
extensively as a dairy food, and is rich in carbohydrates. It
contains considerable fiber.

To prepare this mixture, put equal parts of the pulp and peas
into a tub or other receptacle, and add about three times their
volume of water. Allow them to soak over night, and they will
absorb all the water and swell to three or four times their original
bulk. Before feeding next morning, loosen the mass from its
compact state by turning it over a couple of times with a fork,
and then place it before the fowls in troughs or hoppers.

If the fowls do not eat freely of the mixture at first, it is be-
cause they are not accustomed toit. To overcome this hesitancy
mix some middlings or the regular dry mash with the pulp. This
will give it a more familiar smell and appearance, and in a short
time the birds will take to it readily.

224 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Importance of Succulence.—Green foods. are likely to be re-
garded more as an accessory to the fowl’s bill-of-fare than an
essential requirement. This notion is a mistake. Greenstuffs,
sometimes spoken of as succulents, are just as important as
grains, meals and animal foods—not so much from the stand-
point of nutrition, because in this respect they are far below grain,

zs ate
(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)
Fig. 143.—Gathering greenstuffs for the fowls,

rather because of their medicinal and hygienic value. Greens
act as a tonic. They tone the system; counteract the evils of
the more concentrated foods, and assist in their assimilation.
Besides, they do furnish some nutrients, especially the mineral
elements; also they contribute water.

‘ The human taste craves lettuce, celery, water-cress and other
crisp greens, not so much for their food value, but because of their

GREEN FOODS 225

beneficial effect on the system. If we tried to sustain ourselves
on lettuce and celery alone, we would fail, because they do not
contain sufficient nourishment. On the contrary, if we tried to
sustain ourselves without greens of any kind, we would fail also,
because the more concentrated foods would soon reduce our
systems toa break-down. The same condition applies to poultry.

TABLE X_X.—COMPOSITION OF GREEN Foops

FEED WATER ASH PROTEIN] FIBER HY- Fat
DRATES
Grasses Per cent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent | Percent
Alfalfa (green).......... 80.00 1.80 4.90 4.70 7.90 .07
Alfalfa (dry). ........... II.90 7.13 | 14.12 | 27.09 | 37.34 2.42
Clover (green).......... 70.80 2.10 4.40 8.10 | 13.50 1.10
Clover (dry)............ 10.00 8.10 | 16.32 | 17.84 | 45.99 1.75
Lawn clippings (green). ..| 76.40 2.40 2.30 4.16 | 13.80 1.00
Lawn clippings (dry) ....| 15.30 5.50 | 7.40 | 27.20 | 42.10 2.50
Barley (green).......... 76.00 7.30 2:71 6.90 7.00 . .09
Peas and oats (green)... .| 80.50 1.74 2.90 6.00 8.80 .c6
Roots
Potatoes (white)........ 78.9 1.0 2.1 6 17.3 OI
Potatoes (sweet)........ 71.1 1.0 1.6 1.3 24.6 4
Beets (mangel).......... 90.9 I.I T.4 Re) 5-55 2
Beets (sugar)........... 86.4 9 1.8 9 9.8 a
Beet pulp (dry)......... 8.0 5-4 9.5 15.4 61.3 4
Beet pulp (wet)......... 89.8 6 Re) 2.4 6.3 e
NIOUS bia ta pea yews 87.6 6 1.4 7 9.4 a3
"Puriipss ¢ % «enews nana neers 90.5 8 LI 1.2 6.2 22
Carrots: 4s ae ¢ onawees 88.6 1.0 I.1 1.3. 7.6 4
Artichokes.............. 80.0 1.0 2.5 8 15.5 .2
Leaves
Cabbage............2.5. 90.5 1.4 3.8 1.5 2.4 4
TSettuGes's <.8:2 ek tans aoe ra be 95-9 8 1.6 5 1.0 2
Beet tops............... 88.0 2.4 4-4 2.2 2.6 2.2
Rape....... deat ee Ate 89.2 2.0 3.4 2.6 2.3 5
Onion tops...........-. gI.0 I.1 3.9 3.0 8 2
Chard (Swiss)........... 87.8 2.4 4.4 2.9 2.5 4

Fowls are vegetable eaters, and they are grazers, though not
to the same extent as geese and ducks. They like to forage,
which affords much needed exercise as well as tidbits of greens.
On the majority of egg farms, and the same thing is true of most
of the backyard flocks, there is not sufficient range to maintain

226 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

abundant pasture. It takes a large acreage of land to support
any considerable number of birds on the natural vegetation, be-
cause the fowls soon destroy it. Result, bare yards and runs,
in which event it becomes necessary to supply the greens in a
more or less artificial manner.

When the poultry raiser’s yards become bare, and this erst-
while plant food is not supplemented from the outside, his venture
is in a fair way to quit the business. He may not be aware of
this fact, but it is true nevertheless. Fowls will not thrive pro-

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)

Fig. 144.—Relation of ordinary feed oats to sprouted oats. The pile on the
left was sprouted from the same quantity as shown in the right-hand pile.

fitably without greenstuffs of some kind. Their eggs are likely
to be weak and to lack fertility. Weak eggs mean poor hatches
and chicks with weakened constitutions, than which nothing is
more difficult to combat in the brooder. It is unreasonable to
expect strong, productive pullets from chicks with impaired
stamina, hence in a few generations the vigor and productive-
ness of the flock is reduced to an unprofitable level. The next
step is failure.

Failure to appreciate the importance of green food is not so
much ignorance as indifference. Most poultry keepers are

AVOID BARE YARDS 227

aware of the benefits of succulence, but because it is the most
troublesome part of the ration to supply, particularly in winter,
there is a tendency to side-step it—to take chances on getting
by without it. As cold weather approaches the fowls receive
less and less green food, finally none at all, until the advent of
spring, when the problem is temporarily solved by the sprouting
of a new crop of grass and weeds.

There can be no doubt as to the trouble involved in supplying
greenstuffs, especially for large flocks. You can buy grains
and meals and most of the other supplies in sacks, and there is
very little care required to store them. But not so with green-
stuffs. Plant food involves farming; the crops must be sowed,
cultivated and harvested, and then carefully stored for the
winter so that they will not freeze. The alternatives are to
sprout oats in rotation, or to purchase plant food in the form of
vegetables, such as cabbage, turnips and small potatoes, from
nearby growers.

TABLE XXI.—FEEDING RATIONS FoR LAYING HENS RECOMMENDED BY IN-
DIANA EXPERIMENT STATION

ScrATCH GRAINS Dry Mas
Pounds Pounds
Cracked corn................. 10 Wheat bran............. 5
Wheat 32 eee cm eccntyans sands 10 Middlings............... 5
Oat Shiess 5cc4 2 uae d ceie panistauee semsass 5 Meat scrap.............. 3.5

A light feeding of the scratch grains is given in the morning, and all the
birds will clean up at night. Dry mash is kept before the light breeds all the
time, and for the heavier breeds from noon on. Succulent food is supplied in
the form of sprouted oats, cabbage or mangels. The following variations are
suggested: (1) Replace the beef scrap with 62 pounds of skim milk; (2) drop
the wheat and increase the corn and oats; (3) give fowls abundant range and
cut down a portion of the mash.

The poultryman has a wide list of plants from which to derive
greenstuffs, and a great number of ways of placing them before
the fowls. Practically speaking, almost anything that has
tender, juicy foliage, fruit or roots is suitable, from the grasses
to beets—mangel wurtzels. The point to bear in mind is, that
the product must be appetizing and palatable, or made so.

Clover and alfalfa pasturage are considered to be the finest
sources of greenstuffs. Rye is another excellent crop, especially

228 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

for a fall planting, because it will germinate in cold weather,
following which the sprouts are available in the early spring,
weeks ahead of any other crop, except wheat, which can be used
for the same purpose.

Oats and peas sown together, with a thin sprinkling of clover
and rape seed, make a good planting for poultry pasture. The
oats and peas furnish the first growth of greens, and serve to
protect the more delicate shoots of the clover and rape. The
latter will grow late into the
fall, and so long as the crown
of the rape plants is not de-
stroyed, they will continue to
bear foliage in abundance,
which is much relished by
fowls of all ages.

If fowls are not accustomed
to unlimited quantities of
green food, it must be fed with
more or less caution at first,
especially rye pasture, or the
birds are likely to develop a
mild form of diarrhea.

Turning fowls out on pas-
ture is the easiest way to fur-
“8a| nish greens, but unless the

(Courtesy U.S. Dep't Agriculture) pasture is given an oppor-

Fig. 145.—Commercial fattening plant, tunity to obtain a strong

well lighted and ventilated. growth, the birds will quickly

destroy it. Toovercome this,

the practice is to have two or more yards, and to use them

successively. Or the greenstuffs can be cut with a scythe or

mower, raked up and fed to the birds inside their houses. If this

method is followed, the greens must be fed in small quantities,

once or twice a day, to keep them fresh. As soon as they wilt
they are not eaten with any degree of relish.

The best grasses to sow for permanent poultry pasture are

GRASSES FOR PASTURE 229

blue grass, red top, low, Dutch or white clover. Other seeds,
such as red clover, timothy, alsike and alfalfa, make very good
hay, but they are not durable enough for poultry. They are
soon killed off. :

Swiss chard and lettuce are useful for feeding baby chicks in
the early spring. They should be cut into short lengths and fed
in small quantities to keep them fresh.

Onion tops and sliced onions are both excellent for chicks. If
you have a brood which is inclined to mope around, out of sorts,
so to speak, and you want to put a little ‘‘pep”’ into the chicks,
try a few onions sliced fine. In short order the chicks will be
tussling and tugging at the slices of onion as though they were
bugs or worms.

Onions are very good for mature stock, too, except that when
fed in large quantities to laying hens they are.apt to impart the
flavor of the onion to the eggs.

Beets—mangel wurtzels—is the best all-round vegetable for
poultry. They are easy to grow, and keep well for winter feed-
ing. From twenty to twenty-five pounds per day per hundred
hens is about the correct ration. Shredding the beets by means
of a root cutter is the best way to feed them; or they may be cut
into large pieces and spiked on nails in the poultry houses. Sus-
pending the halved beets in a fish net is another way to place this
sort of food before fowls. The idea is to keep the beets from being
tracked around in the dirt and litter. In cold weather the middle
of the day is the only time to feed succulent food, so that it will
not freeze and become unpalatable.

TaBLE XXII.—War-TimE Rations ror LAyiInG HENS RECOMMENDED BY

THE AMERICAN EGG LAYING CONTEST
ScraATcH GRAINS Dry MasH

Cracked corn............ 400

Cabbage is relished by fowls, though it should be fed in modera-
tion, lest it impart an objectionable flavor to the eggs. It is

230 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

somewhat difficult to store in winter, and not always available
at an economical price. If the cabbage is grown at home, a good
plan for its storage is to take up the heads with the roots, then
turn a fairly deep furrow, place the cabbages head downward in

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 146.—Home-made rack for sprouting oats. Note the seven trays, one for
each day in the week, grown in rotation.

this furrow, cover them over with soil, allowing the roots to stick
above ground, whence they can be taken up as desired.

So much of the cabbage grown for market is not saleable, due
to small, misshapen and loosely headed specimens, that it is

SPROUTED OATS 231

possible for the poultry keeper to bargain with farmers for this
condemned cabbage at a low price. The writer has bought large
quantities of cabbage for fifty cents a load, and, of course, I fur-

enished the labor of picking and hauling. In this way cabbage
is a very cheap food.

Undersized potatoes and similar vegetables are often pro-
curable at low prices, and make good succulent food for winter
use. Hard vegetables, like potatoes and turnips, should be
boiled first, or they will not be eaten in large quantities. Cook
them in their skins, and when soft crush them slightly and mix
with a little dry mash. Fed warm, this is a splendid food for
cold mornings.

Waste fruits, pumpkins, melons and other garden products
are available for poultry. Fowls eat them with the greatest
avidity. The main consideration is to try and feed them in
regular quantities, rather than in large doses some days and none
at other times. And always feed them in troughs or hoppers to
keep them as clean as possible.

Sprouted oats make a convenient form of raising greenstuff
in limited quarters, or during the winter months when plants
cannot be grown outdoors. Chickens eat them greedily. They
are commonly used and possess unquestioned merits. Some
writers refer to them as a cheap food, and they have been widely
advertised as the secret of feed at fifteen cents per bushel. This
idea is a delusion. Oats are oats, whether you feed them as dry
hard grains or in the form of sprouts. Sprouting changes the
form of the feed and increases the bulk by means of water, but
it does not add nutriment. According to some authorities,
sprouted oats contain about 76 per cent water, 3.2 per cent pro-
tein, 0.8 per cent ash, 16.3 per cent carbohydrates, 1.3 per cent
fat and 2.5 per cent fiber.

Warmth and moisture are the essential conditions for sprouting
oats. Use a good grade of heavy feed oats, natural oats, not
bleached or clipped oats. Soak them in a pail of warm water
for about forty-eight hours, and then spread them out on trays
to a thickness of about an inch. At this time the excess water is

232 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

drained off, but each day the oats must be sprinkled and kept
as moist as possible without having the oats actually immersed
in water.

A good plan is to cover the oats with pieces of burlap, some- -
thing to act as a blanket and conserve the moisture. For the
first couple of days, or until there is danger-of breaking the roots
and sprouts, the oats are stirred about on the trays. In about a
week they are ready for feeding; the sprouts will be two or three
inches long, and the roots will be so closely interwoven that the
whole tray of oats can be picked up in a mass or cake.

Mould.—The one difficulty in sprouting oats is mould. To
prevent it the oats should be treated with a solution of formalin.
In the pail of water in which the oats are first soaked, add about
ten drops of formalin. All trays and other fixtures should be
sprayed with a solution of formalin at regular intervals.

There are numerous types of oat-sprouting cabinets on the
market, heated by kerosene lamps, which are convenient of
operation. Similar appliances are easily contrived by anyone
who is mechanically inclined.

Mineral Matter.—As will be noted from the analyses of dif-
ferent grains and feeds, practically all foodstuffs contain a cer-
tain percentage of mineral substances or ash. Mineral matter
may be said to determine the efficiency of a ration, in that it
increases the digestibility of all the other nutrients, especially
protein. Besides, it is required for the upbuilding of bone and
in the formation of egg shells, not to mention many other uses
throughout the body.

Mineral matter should be supplied in two forms: that which
is quickly available as such; and in a hard form, not so easily
assimilable, but for use in the gizzard for the purpose of crushing
and grinding the other feeds. A diet consisting of a well-bal-
anced mash, scratch feed and an abundance of green food will
supply the first-named sort of mineral matter, especially if the
mash contains either granulated bone, bone meal or meat scrap.
The second kind of mineral matter, the hard variety, is supplied

(aanynotusy 1,42q ‘S “AQ &sa4anoD)

‘asnoy Sulyoed usajsom & Ul WOOL 3UTI[IY

—LtI

314

233

234 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

by grit and oyster shells. No pen of poultry should be without
these two products.

Oyster shells, also other kinds of sea shells, crushed to small
particles, are rich in carbonate of lime, so necessary for the forma-
tion of egg shells. They are quickly dissolved by the action of
the gizzard, hence they will not answer the purpose of grit.

Grit, to aid the gizzard in grinding solids, corresponds to teeth
in other animals, consequently it must be hard, sharp ard angu-
lar, and preferably bright, so that fowls will be attracted to it.
The commercial forms of poultry grit are usually made from
crushed quartz, granite, phosphate rock and feldspar. They
come in various sizes for poultry of all ages.

TaBLE XXIII.—ComposiTIon OF OysTER SHELLS

PER CENT
Carbonateior limieiae) 25 leaded decd Saeed a cops Guboa doe gune Ree ee 93.71
Carbonate of magnesia... 2.0.2.0... 000.00 c cee eee 1.39
Phosphate: of lie: 0.6 .ccecuw ence a etd eee eet eoes 0.76
Organi matters wisdom. dnd Ge hae pate ta haa hare RA mR 4.24

Grit contains very little lime, and very little of the other min-
eral substances in soluble form. What nutrients it may supply
are but incidental; its chief function is a mechanical one—grinding.

Grit and oyster shells should be kept before fowls in separate
hoppers at all times. It is surprising the quantities they will
consume. If fowls have been deprived of grit for a considerable
period, they will eat it as ravenously as though it were grain.
Lack of grit, especially among flocks kept away from the soil,
has had much to do with the failures in the poultry industry.
Apparently, the soil furnishes some material which the system
of the fowl craves, and which is deficient in most of our foods.
Witness how hens revel in scratching in free earth.

CHAPTER XVII
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION

Simplicity of Operation.—To-day few people question the value
and convenience of the incubator, though there are some who
suspect that hatching machines might be difficult to operate,
or that they require special training and considerable experience
before good results are to be expected. This is a mistaken idea.
Incubators are not difficult to run, and previous, experience is
altogether unnecessary. Naturally, however, the more practice
one has with a machine, whether it be an incubator, gas engine,
cream separator or other implement, the more proficiency one de-
velops. On the other hand, there is a kind of beginner’s luck
in the matter of these things. The writer has seen some un-
usually large hatches brought off by novices.

Regularity and Care.—Perhaps it is a discredit to call this
success luck. Let us call it the beginner's watchfulness, or be-
ginner’s faithfulness in observing the necessary rules, for such it
really is. Later, when we become fully experienced, we are apt
to develop over-confidence, or a sort of carelessness, which may
cause difficulties. Regularity and carefulness, both in the man-
agement of the heating device and in the handling of the eggs, go
far toward insuring success. Reliable incubators are made al-
most automatic and fool-proof these days. They are so simple
that children can operate them. Therefore when poor hatches
result, it is well to look for other causes beside the machine.

Condition of the Eggs.—No incubator can vitalize eggs with
weak germs, or overcome conditions which may have had a del-
eterious effect on the eggs before they were even taken to the
incubator cellar. The first and one of the most important steps
in the process of either natural or artificial incubation begins in

235

236 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the condition of the eggs. See chapter on selecting eggs for
incubation. If the eggs are in every way strong and hatchable,
the incubator will hatch them almost as well as the hen, and a
great deal more economically, because the machine can handle
such large quantities.

The prospective purchaser of an incubator is sometimes per-

Fig. 148.—Small single tray incubator suitable for the farmer and backyard
enterprise.

plexed as to which is the best type of machine for his purpose.
There are many different makes of incubators on the market,
which may be divided into two general classes: hot-air machines
and hot-water machines, all of which are constructed along
moisture and non-moisture designs. In principle they are es-
sentially the same. The reason for this is clear: the whole
theory of incubation is based upon the fact that, if a fertile egg

TYPES OF INCUBATORS 237

is kept for a sufficient period of time under certain conditions of
heat, ventilation, moisture, and position, it will be transformed
into a healthy fowl.

Small incubators are heated by gas or kerosene, though most
of them use the latter. Gas burners require less attention and
are desirable in every way, but it is unfortunate that gas is not

Fig. 149.—Double tray lamp incubator with capacity of from 200 to 400 eggs.

available in all localities. Electricity is also used for heating
incubators, and has proved satisfactory, but it requires a totally
different method of radiation. The large incubators—those
which have a capacity of many thousands of eggs, popularly
known as mammoth machines, are mostly heated by a coal-
burning stove, though gas is used to some extent.

The hot-air-heated machines are those in which fresh air is

‘

238 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

taken in at the lamp, heated as it passes around the drum, which
corresponds to the chimney of a lamp, and passed through the
egg chamber by means of a diaphragm in the ceiling of the ma-
chine, and then out through variously arranged outlets. See
Fig. 150. In some machines the heated air only passes over the

(California Experiment Station)

Fig. 150.—Cross-section of a hot-air incubator, showing method of regu-
lating the temperature and ventilation. a, Counterpoise weight; 5, regulator
arm; c, connecting rod; d, thumb-screw; e, pivot casting; f, heater disc; g,
cotton batting filling between inside and outside cases; h, thermostat; 2,
egg chamber; j, moisture pan; k, nursery; m, bottom ventilator; 1, insula-
tion in bottom of incubator; /, outlet to discharge air from egg chamber into
false bottom beneath moisture pan; 7, fresh air intake; s, outlet for escape of
lamp fumes.

radiator above the egg trays, and never actually enters the egg
chambers.

Hot-water machines are heated by tanks or a system of pipes
above the egg trays. In both types the heat is supplied with a
regulator which, acting upon a valve or damper, controls the
admission of heat to the egg chamber. Such a device is called
the thermostat.

Moisture.—Whether moisture should or should not be sup-

MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE 239

plied has never been definitely decided; both principles have
their advocates. Some machines are built with pans to hold
moist sand or water, others have none. Some machines are
built with a solid bottom, the idea being to conserve the moisture
within the eggs, and others are built with slatted bottoms,
through which there is a constant circulation of air. All types
are in general use, and all give equally good results. The ques-
tion of moisture is one that must be solved by the individual
operator. Common sense should tell us, however, to conform
in a general way to the instructions of the manufacturer. In-
cubators which are designed to use moisture pans seldom give
best results when operated without the pans. Similarly, the
non-moisture machines are seldom improved by the addition of
moisture pans.

In the opinion of the writer there can be no set rule advanced
on the subject of moisture. That excessive evaporation is bad
for a hatch, there can be no doubt. And too much moisture will
ruin a hatch, also. It seems to be better to err upon the side of
too little than too much. But everything depends upon the
incubator, its location, the season of the year, climate and the
external atmosphere at the time of the hatch. If the weather
is extremely dry and hot, more evaporation will take place than
when the weather is cool and damp; this is only natural. An ex-
amination of the air cell in the egg by means of a candle will
reveal the exact condition of the contents. See chapter. on test-
ing hatching eggs.

Temperature.—An absolutely uniform temperature is not at all
necessary to success, and in fact, it is seldom obtainable. That
statement does not mean the operator should disregard tempera-
ture or cease his vigilance. On the contrary he should aim to
keep the thermometer as near a certain degree as possible. The
point is this, variations of a degree or so either up or down, if
corrected within a reasonable length of time, will cause no dam-
age. The operator should aim to maintain a temperature of
102% degrees for the entire hatch. If the temperature drops
to 100 degrees or rises to 104% degrees, no ill effects will result,

240 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

providing either extreme is discovered and corrected. These
temperatures might be termed the limits of natural incubation.
Some operators prefer to start a hatch at 102 degrees, and grad-
ually allow it to creep up to 103% degrees at the close.

Hen’s Temperature.—Personally, I think there is no -better
authority than an imitation of the hen’s ways. If we insert a ther-
mometer under a sitting hen we will find a temperature of 104% de-
grees against her bare breast; in her plumage in about the center of
the nest the temperature is a trifle more than 103 degrees; while
the temperature inside the sitter’s wings, a position that corre-
sponds to the outside row of eggs, is about 100 degrees, sometimes a
little less. Thus, the eggs are
exposed to a constant vari-
ation in temperature, with an
average of 10214 degrees. The
hen turns her eggs about eight
times daily in order to over-
come this variation, but it
cannot be doubted that some
eggs will remain in the

(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Gonpans WHUMIESE Part of the nest fora

Fig. 151.—Incubator tray showing the ereater length of time, no

relation of thermometer to the eggs. matter how faithful and care-
ful the hen may be.

Thermometer.—Notwithstanding the existence of this varia-
tion, it should not be construed to mean that the office of the
thermometer is unimportant. The thermometer should be
absolutely accurate, since it is only by this instrument that the
operator.can attempt an average temperature. We have shown
where a variation of a degree or so will not seriously affect a
hatch, if it is shortly corrected, but if the temperature varies a
degree or even a half degree for the entire period, it will make a
big change in the hatch.

There are two general styles of incubator thermometers, while
each style has numerous modifications. One is mounted on a
metal frame and placed on the egg tray, with the bulb located

TESTING THE THERMOMETER 241

at the level of the centers of the eggs; the other is hung directly
above the eggs, with the bulb as close to the eggs as is practic-
able, but not touching them. See Fig. 151. It is a mistake to
have the thermometer in contact with the eggs, because the
temperature will vary with the vitality of the egg touched by it.
Touching good eggs it will be high; next to weak or dead germs it
will be low, thus never registering the real temperature of the
egg chamber.

Unless there is a very good reason for changing the position of
the thermometer, it should be used in strict accordance with the
manufacturer’s directions. In some egg chambers a difference
of an inch in the height of the bulb will make a difference of a
degree in the temperature.

Testing Thermometer.—It is a good plan to test the ther-
mometer once a year, even with a new machine. This can be
done by comparing it with a clinical thermometer, which has
about the same scale and range; place both instruments in warm
water, heated to about 103 degrees, which should be stirred, and
the bulbs kept in about the same position. Or a thermometer
can be certified by an optical goods store or a reliable drug store.

The thermometer is placed near the front of the egg chamber
so that it can be easily read without opening the door to the
machine. Even so some thermometers are particularly difficult
to read, and it is surprising that so little improvement has been
made in this respect. An electric flash lamp is very helpful in
reading a thermometer. By all means learn to read the ther-
mometer without opening the door; to so do will cause the tem-
perature to fall.

Set Machine Level.—The incubator should be set up level by
all means. Heat rises to the highest point, and if the machine
is not plumb, one part of the egg chamber will be warmer than
the other. Do not guess at the level of the machine, but test it
with a spirit level, both ways, for length and breadth, and cor-
rect any irregularity with thin blocks of wood under the legs of
the machine.

Some manufacturers are careless about the fit of the door, or
16

242 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the tracks for the egg trays. The door should fit snugly, but it
must open and close easily, without jarring, which will tend to
throw the regulator out of adjustment, and the machine out of
plumb. If the doors stick, which they are likely to do with the
first hatch, plane them down a bit, or rub the edges with sand-
paper. If the trays do not run smoothly, plane them also, and
then rub the bearing edges with soapstone, or some other sub-
stance that will reduce friction. Do not use oil.

(Courtesy Newton Giant Incubator Com pany)

Fig. 152.—9,600-egg double deck coal-burning incubator. Note handles at
end of machine which operate the egg-turning mechanism.

In selecting a machine here are a few pointers: The size to buy
will depend upon circumstances, of course, but it should be
borne in mind that it does not take any more time to care for
the heating device on a 400-egg machine than it does for a 60-egg
machine. And in most cases the fuel cost per egg is reduced with
the increased capacity of the machine. Furthermore, the larger
the machine the less likelihood there is for a variation in the
temperature.

VIRTUES OF A CELLAR 243

In regard to price, it is well to consider that the value of the
machine is small compared to the value of the eggs placed in it
during the lifetime of the incubator; hence it is poor economy
to purchase a machine just because it is cheap. Buy one that
isreliable. The good hatches that it will produce will soon return
its initial cost.

Where to locate the machine?—This question is important.
It has much to do with the convenience of running the machine,
and when a device is conveniently run, it goes a long way towards
successful operation. One needs room to work about an incu-

tile (mt ad
(Courtesy Niagara Farm)

Fig. 153.—Interior incubator cellar.

bator, and sufficient light to perform the work properly. Then
there must be plenty of fresh air, yet without direct drafts, and
the place must be clean, free from shocks and vibrations, such
as are transmitted by a weak floor and which would disturb the
adjustment of the heating apparatus, and the location should be
permanent and easy of access for the attendant.

Cellar is Best—Incubators are run in a great variety of places
and under the most varying conditions; I have seen them
operated in the barn, attic, loft, cellar, shed, spring-house, parlor
and inatent. Be that as it may, authorities agree that the best

(Courtesy Candee Incubator Company)

Fig. 154.—Erection of a mammoth incubator. Upper picture shows ‘the
sections and parts ready to be assembled. Middle picture shows the heater
set up and the foundations temporarily braced to receive the body of the ma-
chine. Lower picture shows the first section in place.

244

Fig. 155.—Erection of a mammoth incubator, continued from opposite
page. Upper picture shows the second section in place., Lower picture
illustrates the completed machine, with temporary bracing removed.

245

246 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

location is where the atmosphere is more or less moist, where the
temperature is practically uniform, and cool, and where at the
same time it is possible to obtain ventilation without draft.
The air in the incubator apartment must be sweet and fresh or
the eggs will not receive the oxygen which they absolutely re-
quire at all times. —

These conditions are seldom found in buildings above ground,
especially in frame structures, consequently it has become cus-
tomary to run incubators in cellars and basements. In fact,
there is a generally accepted view that they must be run in
cellars for best results.

If only a few machines are in use, they may be operated in the
cellar of the poultryman’s house, which is perfectly practicable,
except that it is advisable to partition off a tight room for the in-
cubators, so that the heat from a furnace or other objectionable
influence will not affect the hatches. Where the incubating
equipment is extensive, particularly if mammoth machines are
contemplated, it is better to have the apparatus housed in a cellar
specially built for the purpose. See Fig. 155. Common sense
teaches us that if equipment of any kind is not afforded suitable
quarters, we cannot hope for its fullest efficiency.

For convenience in shipping and to save freight incubators are
packed and crated within the smallest compass. With each ship-
ment the manufacturer sends out a book or card of directions,
telling how to unpack and set up the machine, and how to
operate it. These instructions should be carefully followed.
Read them carefully before attempting to set up the machine,
count and inspect the parts, and then put them together in a
workmanlike manner. See Fig. 154.

In the case of a second-hand machine, it should be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected, and the heating apparatus carefully
examined—taken down and re-assembled, if necessary.

Care of Lamp.—In oil-burning machines be particularly care-
ful of the lamp. Always start with a new wick, which should be
slightly trimmed at the corners, so as to produce a nicely rounded
flame. Avoid the fish-tailed flame, for it is apt to smoke and

CARE OF LAMP HEATER 247

start trouble. Fill the bowl of the lamp with a good grade of oil,
not too full, because as the oil warms it will expand and may over-
flow. This is not dangerous, of course, any more than it is dis-
agreeable to have oil spilled on things. It may cause smoke, or
the oil may find its way to the eggs by means of the operator’s
hands, which will endanger the hatch. For this reason it is a
good plan to turn and handle the eggs before caring for the lamp.
Regulating Flame.—If{ the
machine is of the hot-water type,
then, of course, the tank must be
filled with water before the lamp
is lighted. After lighting the
lamp and placing it firmly in
position, which should be accom-
plished without jolting the ma-
chine, regulate the burner so that
the flame is about half as high as
it should be finally. The reason
for this is, as soon as the chimney
or heater warms, it will draw the
flame upward and increase its
height. It is, therefore, a safe
practice to return about a half- ihe
hour after the lamp is lighted, (Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company)
to see that the flame is all right. Fig. 156.— Well-built incubator
Skilled operators visit their in- _HfBter Protected by metal easing
cubators at frequent intervals, proval of fire underwriters.
including an inspection the last
thing at night. The machines seldom need attention, but it is
gratifying to assure oneself that everything is running properly.
In hot weather, when the temperature of the cellar is likely to rise
in the middle of the day, especially toward the close of a hatch,
when the eggs themselves radiate considerable heat, it is often
necessary to lower the burner of an oil-burning machine almost
to the point of extinguishing it. In some cases I have found it

248 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

expedient to turn the lamp out completely, sometimes for several
hours, re-lighting it again toward evening.

Always test an incubator before filling it with eggs. This ad-
vice applies to both old and new machines. A few hours spent
in adjustment will be time and money saved later on, perhaps.

Just because a machine

Wee bd worked satisfactorily the last

=H ius t| time it was used the preceding

ri iq season, is no guarantee that it

- iN a has remained in perfect adjust-

Me ; 2 ment. During the six months

RS MES or more in which it was idle a

my 3 a 6 great many things could hap-

pen to it. Dust or dirt may

i 2 have clogged some of the parts,

Sonrity eerie 6 dampness may have caused

eee swelling or warping, a child,

pie ectecea al” da is stray fowl, cat, rat or mouse

¢ paveulten ys ; may have interfered with the

8 freshen z regulator or some other vital

sbesios \usulotion 14

oa a ;

metamy Soars | Heat Control.—It is impos-

ce | pee : am sible, of course, to attempt to

irene 7 Syren en explain the individual peculi-

aT ie act aire ly arities of the.heating devices

Vigne Sewn . 3
(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Company) of different makes of machines.

Fig. 157—Diagram of an incubator ‘The card or book of directions
heater and lamp. which accompanies the incu-

bator should be followed for

this advice. The general principle, however, is the same in all
machines. Inside the egg chamber there is a thermostat, an instru-
ment made of a combination of metals, such as steel, zinc and
aluminum, which contract and expand, and thereby operate a
damper. Wafer or disc thermostats, which contain some fluid used
for expanding the disc, are also used. The point is this, they are
connected by a thin rod to a bar or regulating arm, which is

TESTING AND REGULATING 249

nicely balanced by means of a counterpoise weight. On the
other end of this arm there is a damper, suspended over the top

of the heater, which opens and
closes, thereby permitting the
heat to enter the machine or to
escape around the damper. Some
thermostats regulate the size of
the flame as well as the position
of the damper.

The position of the counter-
poise weight is usually located at
the factory, and seldom needs
attention; but it should be so
placed in point of balance that
it will develop sufficient leverage
to raise the damper which is hung
at the other end, as soon as there
is the slightest pull on the con-
necting rod which leads to the
thermostat. Inother words, the
damper or tin wafer over the
heater should be a trifle heavier
than the counterpoise weight,
consequently lie flat over the vent
in the heater when the machine is
cold.

We are cautioned not to tam-
per with the heat-regulating ap-
pliance, which is good advice in
a way, except that intelligent
tampering, which amounts to ad-
justing, is sometimes necessary.
Occasionally the regulator arm is

Heater without chimney

(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company)

Fig. 158.—Complete gas heater for
incubator or brooder.

found bent out of line, if it is metal, or perhaps warped, if it is
wood, in which case the alignment will have to be corrected, or
the damper will not fall directly over the vent in the top of the

250 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

heater. Then again, the tin wafer which acts as the damper may
be bent or twisted in some trifling manner, or thrown out of poise,
which will not allow it to settle evenly over the vent. Note these
things carefully, and your common sense will tell you if they seem
to function correctly.

Adjusting Regulator.—As soon as the thermometer registers
102 degrees, the connecting rod between the regulator arm and
the thermostat should be adjusted by means of a thumb-screw
so that sufficient tension is placed on the regulator to raise the
damper about an eighth of an inch, perhaps a sixteenth of an
inch, over the vent in the heater. Then, if the heat increases
and the thermostat expands, this expansion will transfer greater
tension to the connecting rod, which in turn lifts the damper and
permits the excess heat to escape.

The temperature of 102 degrees should be maintained for
several hours, preferably twenty-four hours, before the eggs are
placed in the machine, and this temperature should be attained
without having to turn the flame up so high as to be in danger of
smoking. Once the machine has been adjusted to ‘‘blow off,”
so to speak, at 102 degrees, and it has been found to work satis-
factorily, do not meddle with it.

When the eggs are first placed in the chamber, though the
temperature was correct previously, the heat will fall instantly.
In fact, the thermometer will probably fall so low as not to read
at all; but do not be alarmed, this is to be expected, and is due
to the temperature of the eggs. It is likely that the eggs had a
temperature of 50 degrees, and if there are several hundred of
them in the one chamber, it will take twelve hours or more for
the incubator to warm them to the correct temperature.

Remember that you have this latitude to depend upon in the
operation of a machine: Several hours are required to affect the
interior of the egg a single degree. That is, if you should sud-
denly find something wrong with the heating apparatus and the
thermometer registering 98 degrees or 106 degrees, it does not
necessarily follow that the interior of the eggs is that temperature.
And the more advanced the hatch, the greater the increase in this

LOADING EGG TRAYS 251

reserve so far as a deficiency in heat is concerned, by reason of
the heat generated by the embryos. From the fourteenth day
this natural heat is quite noticeable.

Cases have come to my attention in which chickens have
hatched from eggs left out of the incubator all night, due to for-
getfulness. Therefore, if you meet with accidents, do not as-
sume that the hatch is ruined, and destroy the eggs; but correct
the error, and then in a day or so test the eggs to see what.dam-

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Fig. 159.—Design for concrete incubator cellar.

age, if any, has been done. It is surprising to learn the extent
of improper usage and handling to which eggs can be subjected
at times, and still develop into perfectly formed chicks. I have
thrown presumably unhatchable eggs into a manure pit, and had
them hatch chicks.

Loading the Trays.—If a machine can be operated for a couple
of days with no appreciable variation in temperature, one can
feel reasonably sure there is no fault in its mechanism, and that
it is safe to commence hatching. Place the eggs on the trays on

252 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

their sides, never on end, and never on top of one another. Fill
the trays comfortably full, but avoid crowding them. This is
most unwise and poor economy; it will make turning very diff-

Fig. 160.—Type of oil-
burning incubator lamp
which is approved by the
fire underwriters.

cult, and breakage is likely to occur.
A good plan is to allow room for two
or three more eggs at each end of the
tray.

For the first three days after the eggs
are placed in the machine, little atten-
tion is required save the daily filling
and trimming of the lamp. This, of
course, must be done punctiliously. It
is advisable to have a special time to
do this work, and never deviate from
it, any more than you would neglect
your breakfast. Morning is the best
time, because there is then all day in
which to note the behavior of the
lamp.

In trimming the lamp, a term that
really means caring for it, it is not
necessary to actually trim the wick.
In fact, this should not be done after
the wick is first lighted, unless it be to
cut off a pointed thread or corner.
Simply rub the charred portion of the
wick, using a rag for this purpose, tak-
ing care to remove all dirt from the per-
forated screen through which the air
passes to feed the flame, or the lamp
will smoke. Try to make a practice
of rubbing the wick in the one direc-

tion. In this way there will be no trouble in keeping the wick

perfectly level.

Turning the Eggs.—On the evening of the third day, and twice
daily thereafter, the eggs should be turned. By turning it is not

TURNING THE EGGS 253

meant that each egg should be turned over an exact 180 degrees,
simply that the position of the egg should be sufficiently altered,
so that the germ will not gravitate and adhere to the mem-
branous lining of the shell. Some operators turn their eggs
three or four times a day. It has never been satisfactorily
demonstrated that these extra turnings insure better hatches,

(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company)

Fig. 161.—Phantom view of mammoth incubator in which the egg trays
are arranged in tiers to save space. An even distribution of heat is main-
tained by means of electric fans inverted in the top of the machine.

though it is reasonable to suppose that they do. The hen is
known to turn her eggs eight or ten times a day; but in her case
this is necessary to overcome the variation in temperature in the
different parts of the nest.

Best results are obtained when the eggs are turned by rolling
them with the hands. The trays of the larger sized machines

254 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

are built with inclined bottoms, divided in the center with a low
partition, therefore it is a simple matter to remove a few of the
eggs from the middle rows, gently roll the others toward the
center, replacing the middle eggs at the ends of the trays. Lay
the palms of the hands flat on the eggs and endeavor to move
them with a slight rotary motion. Avoid jarring them or hand-
ling them roughly, for the delicate membranes and blood-vessels
are apt to be ruptured.

When the tray is replaced in the machine, it should be reversed
end for end, and if there are two trays to a compartment, which
is the customary arrangement in large incubators, the trays
should be alternated from side to side. This is done to equalize
any irregularity in the temperature of the egg chamber; the eggs
are constantly moved to every point in the interior. In per-
forming this work the hands should be clean, and particularly
free from any kerosene that might have been acquired in handling
the lamp. For this reason, it is well to handle the eggs first, and
then trim the lamp.

Cooling the Eggs.—Some operators declare that cooling the
eggs is unnecessary. I do not agree with this idea. I believe
that cooling is just as necessary as turning the eggs, perhaps more
so. I have found it to be a decided help in hatching chicks of
strong vitality, whereas lack of cooling often produced weak
chicks. The amount of cooling depends almost entirely upon the
season of the year and the temperature of the cellar. During
the first week of incubation sufficient cooling is obtained in turn-
ing the eggs. After the seventh day leave the trays on top of
the machine or on tables until the eggs are almost cool, or until
an egg when it is placed against the eyelid feels neither warm nor
cool. From fifteen minutes to a half-hour is about the correct
time.

While the eggs are cooling in this fashion see that they are not
in a draft, and always keep the doors to the egg chambers closed.
The temperature in the machine should be maintained, though,
of course, it will fall as soon as the trays are replaced, by reason
of the lower temperature‘of the eggs. It is customary to cool

COOLING MEANS STRONG CHICKS 255

the eggs at the morning turning only, not in the evening, unless
the hatch is pretty well advanced and the weather is exceedingly
warm. On the eighteenth day the eggs are turned and cooled
for the last time, after which the machine is closed and not opened
until the hatch is off.

This cooling process not only exposes the eggs to fresh air, but
it causes the contents of the eggs to contract, and thereby draw
through the pores of the shell a fresh supply of oxygen, without
which the embryo could not thrive.

The above methods are really in imitation of the hen’s ways.
For the first few days the sitter remains close to her nest, after
which she leaves it once or twice a day, sometimes staying away
for an hour or more. Cooling can be overdone, like anything
else. But in most cases I have found too little cooling rather than
too much, to be in practice. After all, there can be no set rules
for an operation of this kind. The rules must be flexible, and
governed largely by the operator’s judgment. For example,
in addition to weather conditions and the temperature of the
cellar, the amount of cooling should be regulated according to
the temperature of the machine for the past twenty-four hours.
If the temperature has been low, little or no cooling is advisable;
if the temperature has been high, then extra cooling is in order.
Moderation—common sense—that is the watchword in running
an incubator. Live up to the reason for a rule, rather than to
the letter of it.

CHAPTER XVIII
SELECTING HATCHING EGGS

Composition of Eggs.—Chemically, the composition of an egg
remains practically constant, notwithstanding serious changes
may take place in the hen’s bill-of-fare, her environment and
general care, which are in turn reflected in her state of health.
In other words, we find in this condition, which has been estab-
lished by careful scientific experiments, one of the highest laws
in nature—that the animal will sacrifice its own bodily strength
and health in a supreme effort to produce a perfect offspring.

Comparisons have been made between the eggs of fowls in
robust health and those in a more or less anemic, sickly condition,
and it has been found that they are almost identical in composi-
tion. Also, there is little or no difference in the composition of
eggs from different breeds. This is an interesting idea, especially
so when we consider the controversy that sometimes breaks
forth between the advocates of brown-shelled and white-shelled
eggs.

This does not mean, however, and should not be so construed,
that there is no difference in the flavor of eggs, because there is
a vast difference in this quality—a very great difference. Further-
more, there is a great difference in the fertility of eggs and in
their hatchability, also in the vitality of the chicks, which are
manifestations of the differences between the well-fed, vigorous
fowl, and the bird which is impoverished by disease or improperly
nourished. In short, though the chemist may not detect any
difference in the make-up of the egg, from a reproductive point of
view it is there, nevertheless.

The most logical way to account for this is due to the fact that
egg making is in reality a double process—it is a reproductive

256

STRENGTH REQUIRED IN EGGS 257

and secretory process combined. It differs from milk-making
in this respect, which is purely secretory, consequently egg-
making is a lot more exhaustive and vital. The perfect egg not
only contains the embryo from which the chick is developed,
but it also contains the materials for the embryo to draw upon,
a complete shelter for the chick during its development, and
last of all it provides the chick with several days’ food after it is
hatched, and until it is strong enough to learn to eat. We are

Fig. 162.—‘' Doing the work of four hens with a small incubator.”

speaking of the yolk, which is absorbed by the chick before it
pips the shell.

Thus, if we consider that the profitable hen is expected to
produce at least ten dozen eggs a year, and in some cases speci-
mens have laid three hundred and over, which is many times the
weight of the hen, it is easy to understand what a terrific strain
this must be on the fowl’s constitution, and illustrates as nothing
else can, what a really intensive organism we have in the hen.

258 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Some idea of the effort and strain may be gleaned from the fact
that the temperature of the hen, which under normal conditions
burns with much greater vitality than the temperature of man,
rises two or three degrees above normal at the time the egg is
being laid.

The first step in the important work of incubation lies in the
selection of the eggs. Hatching eggs of prime quality must be
laid by hens which are intelligently bred, carefully fed and quar-
tered, and from blood lines of known
reliability as to stamina and prolific-
ness.

Poor hatches are often blamed on
the incubator, on the eccentricities of
a perverse hen, or the poultry raiser will
rail against weather conditions, or what
not, as the cause of his failure, when,in
reality the quality of the eggsis entirely
at fault. The first essential being the
character of the parent stock, the next
step is the selection of eggs suitable for
incubation, for all eggs, even though
they are laid by strong, healthy birds,
(CourtesyNewtownGiantIncubatorCo) ate not equally hatchable. A third

Fig. 163.—Sectional view step might be called the care of the
of coal-burning incubator eggs prior to hatching them, since they
stove, “with automatic fuel : =
feeder: are extremely susceptible to surround-

ing conditions.

It is useless to attempt to obtain strong, vigorous, livable
chicks, the kind that are calculated to perpetuate one’s stock
with profitable, productive fowls, from a sickly, poorly fed,
listless, degenerate, in-bred, dwarfed and anemic flock of breeders,
for the reason that it is impossible to produce any first-class article
from inferior materials. This is a natural law, and it is im-
mutable.

Eggs from over-fat breeding stock seldom produce a large
percentage of chicks. Hens that are closely confined, without

SELECTING HATCHING EGGS 259

sufficient exercise, and where they have little sunshine and fresh
air, are almost certain to lay eggs which are low in fertility, and
even lower in vitality. Fowls that are fed on highly concen-
trated foods and forced to the limit for egg production usually
lay eggs which are so nearly devoid of the life-giving principles
that they are virtually useless as breeders.

To get fertile eggs, with strong, hatchable germs, plenty of
fresh air, sunshine, exercise, green food and a well-balanced
rational diet throughout are necessary. For this reason the
breeding stock should be kept on free range as much as possible.
Abundant range is the greatest panacea in the world for chick
and grown fowl alike.

The importance of selecting none but well-formed eggs for
hatching purposes cannot be overestimated. Not only is this
essential to the actual hatching capacity of the eggs, but it goes
a long way toward improvement generally. Eggs which are
well shaped and normal are almost certain to produce chickens
which will later mature and lay well-shaped eggs, consequently
the poultryman is enabled to secure better prices for his products
by reason of their uniformity and superior quality. °

Select the eggs of a medium size and an average as to color
and shape. By that I mean, let the selection be governed by the
average product of the hen or breed, rather than by some arbi-
trary standard. Eggs that would be considered abnormally
large on one farm, might be considered medium-sized on another
plant, or even small on a third. Discard all eggs which are un-
usually long, too round, flattened on one side, elliptical, wedge-
shaped, and those which have any excrescence or ridge. Mon-
strosities cannot be expected to hatch.

The ideal hatching egg is the real egg-shaped specimen, nicely
rounded at.one end, with a gradual taper to the other, and having
a firm shell of good texture, free from bumps, corrugations and
other imperfections. Avoid eggs with very thin shells or ex-
ceedingly thick shells, or those with invisible cracks. A good
plan is to sound each egg as it is selected, by tapping it gently
with a lead-pencil or with one’s finger-nail. I have seen eggs

260 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

with cracked shells hatch, providing the cracks were sealed
with adhesive plaster, but as a rule it does not pay to bother with
them. Cracks mean excessive evaporation or ruptured blood-

vessels.
pi! i Cea
MAO Eas pez
Pause tad

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ye

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Top view
(California Experiment Station)
Fig. 164.—Plans for a revolving hatching egg cabinet.

There is a commonplace that round eggs will hatch pullets
and long eggs cockerels. This is a notion and should not be
taken seriously. The shape of an egg is influenced entirely by
the contour of the oviduct in which it is cast, and has nothing to
do with the sex of its embryo. For further proof of this, we ob-

KEEPING HATCHING EGGS 261

serve that the hen laying a long egg or round egg will continue
to lay the form peculiar to her with very little variation, pro-
viding she is not frightened or injured in any way.
Freshness.—Common sense teaches us that freshness is a
prime necessity in hatching eggs. Successful poultrymen aim
to set eggs as soon as possible after they are laid. Not only be-
cause eggs a day or two old hatch from 12 to 24 hours earlier
than those kept a couple of weeks, but because the longer an
egg is kept the more evaporation takes place, which weakens
its vitality. If eggs are held in too low a temperature, the chilling
is likely to injure them. If they are stored where it is too warm

Fig. 165.—End view and section of egg cabinet as shown in Fig. 164.

the development of the germ is apt to start, and later die. A
temperature of about 50 degrees F. seems to be best.

The eggs should not be permitted to stand in a direct draft,
or expased to steam, vapor or fumes of a deleterious nature.
The shells of eggs are exceedingly porous, therefore they are pre-
disposed to outside influences. It is a bad plan to wash eggs
intended for incubation. If they are so dirty as to make this
necessary, they had better be discarded altogether. Moisture
only helps to convey any soiled matter into the interior of the
egg through the pores in the shell.

In cold weather eggs intended for hatching should be gathered
several times a day to prevent chilling, and in hot weather they

262 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

should be collected frequently to avoid heating. If they are to
be kept more than two or three days before being set, it is best
to turn them onceaday. There are revolving egg cabinets made
for this purpose (see Fig. 164), but equally satisfactory results
can be had by packing the eggs in an ordinary egg crate and turn-
ing it over gently from day to day. This is done to prevent the
yolk, also the germ, from gravitating to the membranous lining
of the shell and adhering to it.

A little attention paid to the foregoing simple directions will
work wonders in the possibilities of hatching eggs, and will in-
sure much better results in the brooder. It is another applica-
tion of the doctrine of preparedness,

CHAPTER XIX
TESTING EGGS DURING INCUBATION

Inasmuch as all eggs are not fertile, and because all fertile
eggs do not contain embryos that develop properly, it has be-
come a rule to test the eggs during the period of incubation, first
for fertility, and later for the strength of the embryo. It will be
readily understood why this information is desirable: In the
first place, by removing the infertile or clear eggs, which may be
used for culinary purposes or hard boiled and fed to little chicks,
additional room will be created on the egg trays, which means
greater ease and convenience in the operation of the incubator.
Then again, if the dead germs are removed the egg chamber is
more easily kept free from bad odors, and this is a worthy factor.

Since there is no way. to determine if an egg is fertile before
placing it in the incubator, we must endeavor to gain this in-
formation while the eggs are being hatched. Claims have been
made that fertility can be told before incubation. These theories
have no basis in scientific fact. They are usually offered for
some pecuniary gain, and should be discarded.

Construction of an Egg.—The yolk of a fresh egg floats in a
dense mass of albumen, popularly known as the white, which is
in the form of layers. These layers are particularly noticeable
in the hard-boiled egg. Attached to the yolk are two cords,
called the chalaza. The office of these cords is to suspend the
yolk in the white and keep it from injury, and to keep the life
germ which is attached to the vitelline membrane of the yolk
in a certain position where it will receive the fullest effect of heat
during incubation. See chapter on the development of an egg.

Experiment and you will soon see that no matter how you twist
or turn an egg, the yolk will always return to a definite position.

263

264 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

That is—it will do so providing the egg is fresh. These cords,
or chalaza, lose strength with age, the albumen becomes thin and
watery, and the yolk, instead of being supported in the center of
the white, settles or gravitates to the surface, where it finally
adheres to the membranous lining of the shell. In time the
vitelline membrane which surrounds the yolk loses its strength
and ruptures, and thereby allows the escape of the yellow sub-
stance—called the vitellus—into the albumen.

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)

Fig. 166.—Turning and cooling eggs for hatching.

There are several fallacies in connection with the production
of eggs which all breeders should aim to clarify. One is that a
pen of fowls must be headed by a male bird for the production of
eggs. Another idea is that only fertile eggs contain life germs,
sometimes called germinal spots. Still another supposition is
that the germ contains an infinitesimally small chick, and that
the process of development is simply enlargement. All of these
ideas are logical enough in their conception: nevertheless all
are wrong.

NECESSITY FOR MALE BIRDS 265

The presence of the male is not essential to the production of
eggs. Hens will lay just as well without his society as with him.
Some breeders claim that their hens do better without males.
I do not think there is anything of importance to this idea, ex-
cept in rare cases where it might be found that a large number of
males were annoying the hens. If anything, I am inclined to
think that egg production is slightly improved by the presence
of a few males. They are very attentive in the matter of lo-
cating food, and in escorting the flock afield, which induces exer-
cise and encourages foraging. This value, however, is more

—
=e
J

(California Experiment Station)

Fig. 167.—Plans for an electric egg candler or tester.

than offset by the disadvantage in having fertile eggs at times
when they are not required for hatching purposes, because they
are so easily affected by heat. These days the slogan is—‘‘swat
the rooster,” and in the long run it is a good rule.

Now for the second fallacy: An egg, whether fertile or not, has
a small grayish spot the size of a pin-head on the surface of the
yolk, known as the life germ, because it is the vital principle of
the egg. If an egg is broken into a saucer, this germ is usually
plainly visible to the. naked eye; sometimes it is quite con-
spicuous. Examine it closely; if it has a clear outer rim or circle

266 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

with little white dots in the center, it is fertile. The infertile
germ is whitish in appearance and lacks the clear outer ring.

The activity of this life germ is temporarily suspended as soon
as the egg is laid. But as soon as the egg becomes heated to the
proper temperature, either by contact with the hen’s body or by
other means, its development is resumed. It has been found that
this germ contains no definite organs, but that its function is to
reproduce other cells like itself, each enlarging and reproducing
more cells with the same functions, which ultimately establish
the form and body of the chick.

Signs of Life——After about 24 hours’ incubation life is per-

ness

Dead Germ Fertile Egg Infertile Egg
(California Experiment Station)

Fig. 168.—Appearance of hatching eggs through candle on seventh day of in-
cubation.

ceptible, but only if the egg is broken open. Blood-vessels may
be seen, and on the third day the heart appears. On the fourth
day the eye can be distinguished, and from the eye and heart
blood-vessels radiate in all directions, which, to the mind of the
candler, resemble a sort of spider. See Fig. 168. This network
of blood-vessels continues to grow until it completely surrounds
the shell membrane. Its function is to take up oxygen penetrat-
ing the shell, and act as a respiratory apparatus until the lungs
are completed on or about the nineteenth day.

The lungs start to take form on the fifth day, and on the seventh
day the bill is noticeable. The bones are pretty well shaped by

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 267

the ninth day, later the muscles of the wings are visible, and by
the eleventh day the arteries are quite distinct. Up to the end
of the first week the embryo lies very still, after which it shows
unmistakable signs of voluntary motion. The yolk is now per-
ceptibly thinner, for the growing embryo draws heavily upon it

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)
Fig. 169.—Testing hatching eggs.

for nourishment. The feathers are well developed by the four-
teenth day; on the eighteenth day the first cry is usually heard.
On the day following the yolk should be nearly all taken into the
body. The beak of the chick then breaks through the membrane
into the air cell, after which it soon pips the shell and extricates
itself.

268 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Testing Eggs.—It is customary to test hatching eggs twice,
the first time on or about the seventh day, for fertility, in which
the clear eggs are removed; and the second time at the end of
the second week, though some operators, if they make their first
test on the seventh day, which is pretty sure to remove most of
the dead germs, prefer to make the last test on the evening of the
eighteenth Hays when the eggs are turned and cooled for the last
time, and the machine
is to be closed until the
hatch is completed.

The shells of white
eggs are so translu-
cent that they can be
tested on the third
day, which is a big
convenience. The
shells of brown are so
dense and thick that
it is difficult to see the
contents with any de-
gree of accuracy until
the seventh day.

The process of test-
ing eggs is simple
Fig. 170.—Simple egg candling outfit—ordinary enough after = little

lamp and cardboard box. experience isacquired.

It consists mainly in

holding the egg between the eye and a strong light, which illu-

minates the interior of the egg. In fact, it is precisely the same
as candling eggs. See Fig. 169.

Egg Testers.—There are many types of egg testers on the
market, and the manufacturers of incubators usually furnish
one with each machine. The simplest device is a tube or chim-
ney of tin to fit over an oil lamp, and on one side of the tube there
is a small opening, against which the egg is held for an examina-
tion. See Fig. 170. Eggs may also be tested by sunlight, using

HOW TO TEST EGGS 269

a shutter or curtain with a small hole in it for the light to shine
through.

Evening is the best time to make a test by artificial light.
Arrange all the details as conveniently as possible before the
eggs are removed from the machine, especially for the first test,
as the work should be done rapidly to avoid prolonged exposure.
Have a low table, large enough to accommodate two egg trays,
and locate them on either side of the tester. Two baskets should
be placed near at hand, one for the clear eggs, and the other for
the dead germs. One by one the eggs
are held before the spot of light from seers ae
the tester. If fertile, they are placed = A-—————-\---- 14th day
on the empty tray, and if infertile or fone
dead, they go into one of the two
baskets.

Experience soon teaches the most
unfamiliar operator how to distin-
guish between the spoiled egg and the
egg which is developing properly.
And there is no difficulty at all in LTR TEE ST ete em)
detecting the clear egg. If the for- of ae ‘cell, phy ae
mation appears as a black, station- during period of incubation.
ary spot, the egg is one that was fer-
tile, but the germ of which is now dead. Other manifestations of
a dead germ are blood rings, which indicate a hemorrhage, or, if
the albumen appears cloudy and watery, it is a sign that life has
started and then died. See Fig. 168. Some dead germs show
only a streak of blood.

Eggs from the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns,
often run so high in fertility that some breeders do not bother
to test them for fertility at all, preferring to test them but once—
about the fourteenth day—for dead germs. Or the eggs may be
given their first test without handling, by passing an electric
torch under the eggs as they lie on the wire bottom of the incu-
bator trays, which quickly discloses the clear ones.

CHAPTER XX
DAY-OLD-CHICK INDUSTRY

Unique Development.—The day-old-chick industry probably
constitutes the most remarkable development in the history of
animal husbandry. Chick producers themselves do not boast
about this achievement, and the industry is still too young to
have gained the distinction to which it is rightfully entitled.
In sharp contrast to other discoveries of its kind, the baby chick
trade is one of those evolutions which arrived unheralded and
unnoticed, but which instantly secured recognition through sheer
merit alone.

Accidental Beginning.—The baby chick business is unique
in that the discoverer of it did not know that he had discovered
anything. The idea came into being by accident, one might say.
And from this accidental beginning it has progressed by leaps and
bounds that are almost bewildering even to those who have made
a practice of following the enormous strides taken by other
branches of the poultry industry in the past twenty years.

Old Idea.—We speak of the baby chick trade as a new idea,
whereas it is little more than the adaptation of a very ancient
practice. Artificial incubation is an old custom. It was prac-
ticed by the Chinese and Egyptians centuries before the Christian
Era. Tradition credits the invention to the priests of the ancient
Temple of Isis. The Egyptian hatcheries, which were little
more than brick ovens heated by wood fires, were public institu-
tions, operated on a toll basis. The farmers brought their eggs
to the hatcheries, and later they returned for the chicks. Prac-
tically the same idea is carried on in this country, and it is called
custom hatching.

It remained for an American farmer to expand this custom

270

ORIGIN OF CHICK TRADE 271

hatching into the actual sale of baby chicks. The story goes
that a poultryman agreed to do some hatching for a neighbor as
an accommodation. This neighbor died suddenly while the
hatch was in progress, whereupon the poultryman was at a loss
to know what to do with the five hundred chicks which he had
incubated. He had no facilities for brooding the extra chicks,
and he could not afford to kill them. It occurred to him that
some of the townspeople might buy them to place under their
sitting hens.

Accordingly this poultryman placed some of the chicks in a

(Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company)

Fig. 172.—Series of double-deck mammoths in a large Eastern
hatchery.

basket, covered them over carefully to keep them warm, and set
out to peddle what he conceived to be a very strange assortment
of wares.

Sold Out.—To make a long story short, this poultryman not
only sold all of his extra chicks without any trouble, but he dis-
covered that he could have disposed of hundreds more. He found
that farmers and backyard poultry keepers were only too eager to
avail themselves of the opportunity, and to pay a fair price for
the chicks. It was an inspiration to the poultryman. He rea-
soned that if farmers in his own community wanted to buy chicks

272 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

already hatched, in preference to going to the trouble of incubat-
ing their own eggs, it was likely that people in other communities
would want to buy them for the same reasons.

Forthwith this poultryman increased his incubator capacity,
and for the remainder of the season he found a ready sale for all
the chicks he could hatch. The following year he added more
incubators, and to be sure of a sale for his increased output, the
poultryman inserted a small advertisement in a local paper.
The notice was to the effect that he had little chicks for sale,
and that he would deliver or ship them when one day old. Orders
came in thick and fast, and in a comparatively short time the
season’s output was sold or reserved.

The next year this progressive poultryman’s incubator ca-
pacity was trebled, also he did more advertising. He sold out
again. Most of the buyers to whom he sold the first season
wanted more and more chicks. They were satisfied customers
and told their friends about the scheme. Whereas the first
year’s chicks were sold to farmers living in nearby sections, now
orders began to come in from more distant points and from other
states. The poultryman soon found that he had more business
than he could possibly handle.

Idea Spreads.—Then it was that others engaged in the enter-
prise, until the baby chick industry quickly spread throughout
the entire country. In less than five years hatcheries were dotted
in almost every state from the Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific,
and almost all reported a thriving business.

To-day the chick industry has assumed operations on a gigantic
scale. It has capital invested in plants and equipment running
into millions of dollars. Millions of chicks are produced each
year, and the demand is constantly growing. In the opinion of
many, the business is still in its infancy.

Capacities of Hatcheries.—Apparently the size of a hatchery
has no limitation. There is one in Ohio which has an incubator
capacity of over 600,000 eggs—about forty tons of eggs—at
each hatching. See Fig. 174. During the spring of 1917 this
establishment produced 1,500,000 chicks. Numerous other

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274 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

hatcheries ship from a quarter to a half million chicks in a season,
while scores of smaller plants turn out numbers varying from
twenty thousand to a hundred thousand chicks.

It is doubtful if any enterprise could make the enormous growth
of the day-old-chick trade within such a short space of time, unless
it possessed some peculiar advantages. That is the secret of the
success of the chick trade—it has
unique advantages, and natural
ones.

The first poultryman stumbled
over them, but even he did not
see the commercial possibilities
atthetime. His awakening was
not so much in the baby chick,
as in the realization of the extent
to which farmers and poultry
keepers generally were disgusted
with their own efforts in trying to
hatch eggs. The opportunity to
purchase chicks already hatched
filled a long-felt want, unques-
tionably the greatest want in the
poultry industry. Itran counter

, to the familiar proverb—‘‘ Never

(Courtesy Smith Standard Company) count your chickens before they
ae a ieetes oe are hatched,” of which everyone
capacity. who had struggled with the
mechanics of an incubator or

the eccentricities of a perverse hen, had the fullest appreciation.

Specialization.—What is even of greater importance, the chick
trade is an application of the principle of specialization. It is
generally admitted that the man who devotes all his time, energy
and thought to one thing exclusively is likely to become more
skillful in that particular line than the man who must do the same
thing and a dozen others besides. The poultryman who pro-
duces baby chicks is a specialist. He has trained himself for

ADVANTAGES OF CHICK INDUSTRY 275

the work. He has experimented and put into operation methods
and appliances best suited to secure maximum results at the
minimum cost.

The beginner with poultry, who is the chick producer’s best
customer, as a rule, is especially benefitted by the merits of
specialization. While the beginner’s attention is occupied with
a hundred and one details incident to the commencement of
operations, and before he has had time to learn his own lessons in

cinta hed

BEL eee ae

ean AML Saree Ta Te

(Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company)
Fig. 175.—10,000 chicks ready for shipment.

the economical operation of an incubator, he has at his command
for a very nominal charge the services of a veteran operator.

Still another advantage: If a poultryman meets with a mis-
fortune of some kind, either with sitting hens, artificial incuba-
tion or brooding, and there is no time in which to make a fresh
start, his project sustains a severe setback, maybe for a year,
except for the baby chick operator.

To-day it is comforting to think that if you are caught in a
tight place through unforeseen circumstances, you can turn to
the baby chick man. He takes the responsibility of counting

276 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

your chickens before they are hatched. He assumes the risk
of your not having broody hens early enough to produce chicks
for autumn layers. Hecan furnish you with broods without your
having hens at all, and in whatever quantity and at whatever
time or times you want them. Hence a start can be made on
short notice, and the only equipment required is a brooder.

The baby chick man, perhaps, has forgotten more about the

——ee

Fig. 176,—Incubator building on a large hatchery in Ohio.

operation of an incubator than the average operator will ever
take the time to learn. Therefore its eccentricities, if it has any,
do not keep him awake nights. He is operating on a very large
scale, consequently he can afford to hire the services of trained
assistants. And the scale on which his business is conducted
enables him to incubate an egg for maybe one-third the cost
others could do it. Briefly, the baby chick man is one of the
greatest assets to the poultry industry. He is a sort of fly-wheel,

WHY CHICKS CAN BE SHIPPED 277

with sufficient impetus to carry other breeders over their fluctua-
tions in power. As the baseball fan would say—He’s a good
pinch hitter.

Many were prejudiced against the day-old-chick trade at one
time, and a few are still opposed to it. They feel that baby
chicks, above all creatures, seem so tiny and delicate as to re-
quire the utmost care and attention for the first hours of their
existence, and that to ship them hundreds of miles at the mercy
of a cardboard box is little short of barbarous. Others .ask:
“Will the little fellows survive the shipment in express cars with-
out being chilled, or without permanent injury to their vitality
and productiveness?”’

Natural Provision.—Let us consider these fears: Chicks re-
quire neither food nor drink for the first couple of days of their
life. Practically the only attention needed consists of rest,
warmth and air. During the period immediately following in-
cubation the chick is sustained by the assimilation of the yolk
of the egg. The general practice is to allow the chicks to remain
in the incubator for about twenty-four hours after the hatch is
completed, then to place them in the brooder for another day
before giving them food. In fact, some poultrymen do not give
their first feeding until after the third day, believing that this
much time is required for the proper assimilation of the yolk.

In any event it is this provision of nature which gave rise to
the possibility of shipping chicks long distances while they were
in this dormant state. This natural provision was greatly
aided by the invention ‘and perfection of special boxes or carriers,
which were designed with the idea of conserving the warmth
radiated by the chicks themselves. See Fig. 175.

The principle of this shipping box for chicks is much the same
as the fireless cooker or the vacuum bottle, both of which were
regarded rather skeptically at first. The principle is based on a
very simple law, that of retaining heat or cold by non-conducting
enclosures, and corresponds to the insulation in a refrigerator.

One of the best packages yet devised for the shipment of baby
chicks is that made from corrugated fibre-board, than which

278 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

there is no greater non-conductor of heat or cold, weight, strength
and other qualities being considered. Carriers of this descrip-
tion are made expressly for the purpose. They are strong,—
capable of withstanding the weight of a man,—durable, easy to
assemble and handle, and represent a great saving in transporta-
tion charges by reason of their light weight. They are usually
made in three sizes, for shipments of 25, 50 or 100 chicks; the
small size containing but one compartment, the 50-chick size
two compartments, and the large size four compartments.

Early in the season, when the weather is quite cold, more chicks
may be shipped in each
box than is stated above,
because the chicks huddle
closely together and re-
quire very little space.
Similarly, in very warm
weather the number
should be reduced to about
twenty chicks to a com-
partment, to prevent over-
heating.

(Courtesy Smith Standard Company) ;
Fig. 177.—Hatchery of 600,000 egg capa- Ventilation is obtained
city; it resembles a warehouse or refrigerat- by cutting small holes in

i lant. ‘
meer the sides of the box near

the lid, and in such a way that drafts are prevented. In the winter
very few holes will supply all the air necessary, while as the season
advances, depending also upon the climate to which the shipment
is made, more holes should be cut.

To prevent the chicks from slipping around over the smooth
surface of the bottom of the box, cut hay, straw, alfalfa or other
rnaterial is placed in the bottom to give them a foothold, and to
absorb any manure. If the weather is extremely cold, feathers
may be substituted, which will make the little fellows as warm
and comfortable as though in a brooder. As a matter of fact,
these shipping boxes are precisely the same as fireless brooders,
in which the heat from the chicks’ bodies is bound to keep them

DISTANCES SHIPPED 279

sufficiently warm. The point to remember is to place the correct
number of chicks in a given size box. With this done, there is
no question as to their security.

Mortality.—A visit to any of the large hatcheries will show that
it is now a common thing to ship chicks a thousand miles and
have them arrive at their destination in as healthy and active a
condition as the day they were removed from the incubator.
The average mortality during shipment is two per cent, which is
a negligible factor, and would probably exist anyhow, in placing
the chicks under the
hover in a brooder for the
first twenty-four hours.
Most hatcheries make a
practice of including
three or four extra chicks,
to allow for this mortal-
ity. In addition to this,
they guarantee safe ar-
rival and full count, and
will make good anylosses,
providing these are re-
ported at the time the
packages are delivered
by the carrier’s agent. ‘ocesnsy Eline Live Barns

A poultry plant in Fig. 178.—500 chicks ready for express ship-
Maine shipped a box of ment. Corrugated boxes are slipped into a

fifty chicks to a town in wooden crate for extra protection.
Wyoming, a distance of 2600 miles, and only four of the birds per-
ished. Another shipment was made to New Orleans, in which the
chicks were two days and three nights on the road, and they arrived
none the worse for their long journey. Express messengers and other
railroad employees are now so accustomed to handling baby chick
shipments, and they seem to have such a great deal of sympathy for
them, that the shipper is usually assured of the very best treatment.
Pet Shop Trade.—For the past couple of years the hatcheries
have found a big outlet for chicks in pet shops and 5-and-10-cent

280 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

stores. Hundreds of thousands have been sold to eager buyers
in this way, mostly to women and children who find it difficult
to resist the attractiveness of little chicks. Seemingly nothing
arouses the human interest so quickly as a flock of chicks, which
fact constitutes a potent advantage, in that the chicks advertise
themselves. Every child and most women have an impulse to
love and fondle a tiny chick, though generally to the discomfort
and injury of the latter.

It is doubtful if this phase of the business should be encouraged.
The chicks are sold almost exclusively as pets, and the stores
handle them largely as a drawing card, often at prices less than
they have to pay, simply to attract buyers for other goods—an
advertising scheme. Very few of the chicks outlive the pet stage
or serve a useful purpose, thus the practice amounts to a waste.
If stores insist upon retailing chicks, they should distribute a
pamphlet on the care of the birds, or make some attempt to en-
lighten inexperienced persons not to kill their pets with kindness.

Many of the objections against the baby chick trade were raised
by fanciers who claimed that the increased sale of chicks had
seriously impaired their business in breeding stock and hatching
eggs, for which they were accustomed to receiving good prices.
If there is any truth in this belief, which is doubtful, to complain
about it is working on the wrong tack. Poultrymen must sell
what the buyers want, and not what the breeders choose to offer
them. It is quite evident that customers want chicks, because
they represent the most convenient form of acquiring stock, in
which event it is up to the fanciers to get into the chick game,
as many are now doing. To oppose the progress of the chick
trade is a policy that is almost certain to result in a reaction
against the fancier.

Appeal to Farmers.—For years State Experiment Stations and
agricultural organs have been endeavoring to induce the farmers
to substitute standard-bred poultry for their flocks of mongrels.
But the farmer has never been a heavy buyer of hatching eggs
from thoroughbred stock, chiefly because of the uncertainty of
success with his hatches. Now that he can buy well-bred poultry

COMPLAINTS ARE FEW 281

in the form of baby chicks, ready for the brooder, his interest is
aroused, and the farmer is fast becoming a regular customer.

Chick producers will do well to direct their appeal more directly
to this class of trade, and not so much to the beginners. The
farmers produce the bulk of our poultry, and the chances are
they always will. Furthermore, they produce it more or less
as a side line, at the least possible outlay for grain, labor, housing
and range.

(Courtesy Watson Mfg. Company)

Fig. 179.—Double-deck mammoth incubators of large capacity.

Few Complaints.—It is curious, perhaps, but poultrymen de-
clare they receive fewer complaints over the sale of baby chicks
than with hatching eggs, therefore they prefer to sell chicks.
This anomaly is attributed to the fact that the customer may se-
cure unsatisfactory results from eggs, for which he is practically
certain to blame the poultryman, when in reality the customer’s
ignorance or carelessness, or the integrity of his hens or incubator,
is entirely at fault.

It must be admitted that any one of a dozen things can befall

282 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

a shipment of eggs, which may weaken or destroy their hatch-
ability, and over which the poultryman has no control. Never-
theless he is held responsible. He seldom has a chance to defend
himself. He must either endure a dissatisfied customer, which
is a poor business associate, or he must make good the losses,
which wipes out his profit on the transaction.

Most of this obscurity is eliminated with baby chicks. The
purchaser sees at a glance what he is getting, and thereafter if he
mismanages the chicks in the brooder, he cannot blame his in-
competence on the shipper.

Of course, there will always be some doubt as to the quality
and productiveness of a flock of fowls raised from a shipment of
chicks. It is a matter of dealing with responsible hatcheries.
The reliable chick man is in business, not for a season, but for
an indefinite time; he has made a considerable investment on
plant and equipment, and to hope to derive profit from this in-
vestment it is absolutely necessary for him to render satisfaction.
As in all enterprises, satisfied customers are his chief assets.

Satisfaction is more than landing baby chicks alive at the ex-
press station of the customer. It is giving the customer chicks
hatched from strong, vigorous, well-bred productive parent
stock, chicks which were properly incubated, and those which
should make rapid growth in the brooder, mature early and be-
come prolific layers. In other words, the success of the hatchery
depends largely upon what becomes of its products under the
care and management of its customers. It behooves the chick
man to aid his customers wherever possible, and to give them a -
little more value than what was promised.

On the other hand, the customer should not expect unreason-
able things. He must not anticipate exhibition specimens from
utility chicks, which were sold at utility stock prices. The aver-
age hatchery chicks, which sell for about ten dollars a hundred,
should be from well-bred, standard stock, but not show birds.
They cannot be expected to have the refinements in shape and
plumage of specially mated pens, whose eggs are seen advertised
at from five to twenty-five dollars per setting.

CHAPTER XXI
NATURAL INCUBATION

Artificial incubation and brooding are to be recommended
because of their economy. They save the hen’s time, and in so
doirig the hen is enabled to produce more eggs. Very often,
however, it is more important to save the poultry-keeper’s time,
as in the case of farmers and backyard growers, in which event
the business of rearing young stock is left entirely to Mistress
Biddy.

Though incubators are widely used on farms, it is not likely
that they will entirely replace hens, because the hens are capable
of looking after hatching and brooding details with practically
no outside attention. Unfortunately, the hatching season comes
at a time when farm work—plowing and planting—is most press-
ing. To escape the responsibility of looking after an incubator,
the farmer prefers to depend upon his hens, knowing that they
are fully competent to secure results, if not so economically, at
least as thoroughly, as the machine.

It is a mistake, however, to ignore the hens completely. Unless
the quarters intended for the sitting hens are convenient, sani-
tary and comfortable, not alone for the hens, but for the person
who feeds them, it is likely that the results will be disappointing.
The hens will do their part, providing they are given the oppor-
tunity, and it is this opportunity which is so often neglected.

Avoid Stolen Nests.—On farms where little or no attention is
paid to the chickens, it is customary to allow the hens to steal
their nests in out-of-the-way corners of the buildings, sometimes
in the hen house, under the barn, in the loft, or in barrels or boxes
scattered about the barnyard. This hit or miss plan neither
gives comfort to the hen nor security to her brood; it is wrong.

283

284 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

The sitting hen is entitled to just as much consideration as the
brood mare or cow. Aside from the humanity involved, to
treat animals decently is the only way to obtain the full benefit
of their efficiency.

Give the Sitters Privacy.—It is a mistake to allow the sitters
to bring off their hatches in the regular poultry house along with
the rest of the flock. In the first place, the sitting hens are al-
most certain to be pitilessly tormented by the other fowls. The
layers will fight for possession of the sitters’ nests, lay in them,
sometimes drive the rightful owners off the nests entirely, or
break their eggs, which is not
only a loss in itself, but the
presence of broken eggs seri-
ously endangers the safety of
the rest of the hatch. There
is also the risk of allowing
fresh laid eggs to become
heated and spoiled by the
sitters, or of removing the
hatching eggs in mistake for
fresh eggs. Or, if the nests
are entirely ignored, it is
likely that the layers will fill
them to over-flowing with

Fig. 180.—A farm brood. their eggs, making it impossi-

ble for the sitting hens to

cover the real hatching eggs, in which case they are chilled and
the hatch is a failure.

Vermin.—Then, again, hens set in the poultry house are more
apt to be troubled with vermin than if they are given a clean,
new nest of their own somewhere else. This is an important
consideration.

We like to think that our flocks and houses are free from lice
and mites; but free from these pests they seldom are; make no
mistake on this point. To delude ourselves on this score is to
invite trouble and losses. The brood is no sooner hatched than

GIVE THE HENS SECURITY 285

it becomes infested with vermin, both from the mother hen and
from the nesting material. Nothing is more devastating. The
chicks are weakened, their growth and development are dwarfed,
they fall easy prey to disease, and those that survive are finally
reckoned as unprofitable.

Remote corners in the outbuildings, in mows and under sheds,
are objectionable places for sitting hens because they are so re-
mote. With nests scattered or stolen in this way the hens are

yoeecces!
pocoscacens

Bencoceeres
cose

ists

PROTECTED
SIELTER FOR
SEVERAL
MENS

SMALL WINDOLY
ACTS AS DOOR

sy
BARREL ISA

CONTROLS i
CONVEMIENT AND SWIABLE VEST

VENTILATH

Fig. 181.—Simple devices for sitting hens,

troublesome to feed and water; frequently the hens are neg-
lected, either through ignorance of their whereabouts or because
it is too inconvenient to reach them.

Stolen nests may be free from vermin and free from the dis-
turbances of other layers, but as a rule they are not so secure
as the hens suppose. Rats are likely to abound in obscure cor-
ners, and thése pests are a constant menace, or the nests may be
visited by an inquisitive cat or dog. Then, again, hens sometimes

286 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

choose locations which are insanitary or wet, and both are detri-
mental to good hatches.

Fowls are accredited with astounding judgment in some re-
spects, yet for all this show of intuition they do stupid things.
This point is mentioned to emphasize the fact that no matter
how attentive a hen may be to her eggs or to her brood, in a
general way her efforts must be supervised by the owner of the

Fig, 182.—Give the hens and their broods a grassy range and they will thrive
like weeds.

flock. Your labor will be amply repaid by the additional chicks
reared.

To set eggs successfully the first step is to get the hen—the
right hen, because they are not all good hatchers. Chickens
have a certain amount of individuality; some, indeed, might be
said to be temperamental. Some hens are quiet and long-suf-
fering; in spite of everything you do to them they will remain on
the nest. Others are wild and nervous, and take flight at the
approach of the attendant. These excitable birds are not to be
intrusted with eggs. Usually they make poor work of hatch-

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288 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

ing, and later they are found incompetent to manage a brood of
chicks.

Hens from the heavy breeds, such as Plymouth Rocks, Brah-
mas, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and Orpingtons, make the
best sitters. The lighter breeds, such as Minorcas, Leghorns
and Campines, are too flighty, and they are seldom used on that
account. Their size is against them, too. It is economy to use

it
Nest] PEN u
t
Nest WIRE COVERED Runs
it t
x F
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Fig. 184.—Plan of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183, sometimes
called an outdoor natural incubator.

large hens because they cover more eggs, though this advantage
should not be carried to the extreme of using clumsy hens. The
ungainly bird is apt to break the eggs while moving about on the
nest, or she is likely to trample and kill some of the chicks before
the little fellows are strong enough to get out of her wav.

Test the Sitters.—The hen that is observed to leave and return
to the nest with care and precision and to step lightly is the bird

TEST THE SITTERS 289

to select for setting. But do not be misled into thinking that
all hens found on the nest after nightfall are really and truly
sitters. When broody hens are removed from the laying nests
to the place where it is desired to have them sit, some may go on
a strike and not sit at all. It is therefore best to first test the
hens. Give them some dummy eggs for a couple of days, and
if they show unmistakable signs of settling down to business,
give them real eggs.

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Fig. 185.—Front elevation of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183.

Quarters.—A clean, cool, well-ventilated room or coop is the
best place for the sitters. If it can be darkened after feeding
time, so much the better, as the hens will be quieter. Arrange
the nests along the walls and in such a manner that the hens will
not have to fly or jump into them, a practice which is likely to
break the eggs. If the coop has a dirt floor, the earth will serve
as a dust wallow; otherwise the building should be fitted with
a special dust bath. It is customary for sitting hens to take a
dust wallow about once a day, which they seem to realize is

290 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

necessary to rid themselves of vermin. Therefore encourage
this habit.

Nests.—A nest fifteen inches square is none too big for the
sitter, and six inches is about the right depth. Place some clean
earth or sand—better still, a piece of sod—in the bottom of the
nest, about two inches deep, nicely hollowed to receive the litter
and finally the eggs. Avoid corners into which the eggs can be
rolled and left to chill; yet do not have the nest so much like a

Fig. 186.—Rear perspective of coop for sitting hens, as shown in Fig. 183.

hole that there is a tendency for the eggs to pile on top of each
other.

Litter.—Straw, cut hay, excelsior, shavings or fresh pine needles
make excellent nesting material, and shape the stuff so that it
will conform to the body of the hen. Never use old nesting ma-
terial, because of the germs or vermin which it might contain.
If the nest boxes have been used for previous hatches, it is ad-
visable to give them a thorough cleaning with some disinfectant,
or to whitewash them.

SET HENS IN PAIRS OR TRIOS 291

The number of eggs to allow a hen will depend upon the bird’s
ability to cover them properly. Never put so many eggs under
a hen that they are even slightly visible from beneath her plum-
age. This is especially important in cold weather; the outer row
of eggs is almost certain to be chilled, and in view of the fact™
that the hen changes the position of the eggs from six to ten times
a day, it means that all of the eggs are likely to be chilled at in-
tervals. Even if this does not spoil the hatch, it is sure to retard
it, which is not good for the chicks.

From ten to eighteen eggs is correct; thirteen eggs are reckoned
as a setting. When a number of hens are set, it is well to start
them in pairs or trios, then at hatching time the chicks from three
hens may be divided between two hens, or the chicks from two
hens may be given to one hen, thereby saving the toil of extra
hens.

On farms it is quite common to see a number of hens with their
broods, each brood having perhaps six chicks. If these broods
were doubled up, the efficiency of the hens would be greatly in-
creased, since it is no trouble for a good biddy to care for fifteen
chicks. The work of transferring the chicks must be done at the
start, however, or the hens are likely to refuse to accept the extra
chicks. A good plan is to make the transfer on the evening of the
day the hatches are completed, before the hens have left their
nests. Slip the chicks under the hens when it is dark, and on the
day following the chicks will not be able to distinguish their
foster mothers, neither will the hens be able to detect their
adopted offspring.

Dusting the Sitters.—Special efforts must be made to render
the sitters free from vermin. When the hatches are started, the
hens should be thoroughly dusted with a good insect powder.
See Fig. 187. Repeat the operation at the end of the first and
second. weeks of the incubating period. Watch for mites, and
in case any are discovered, move the hen and eggs to a clean
nest. Lice and mites are not only a danger to the health of the
chicks, but they annoy the sitters to such an extent that some-

292 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

times the hens are driven from their nests to escape torment

from the pests.

It is unwise to dust the hens at hatching time, unless one is
familiar with the nature of the insect powder, because some of

ee s au
(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 187.—Sitting hens should be carefully
dusted to eradicate vermin.

them are of such strength
that they may injure or kill
the newly hatched chicks.
As soon as the chicks area
week old it is safe to dust
the mother, and this dust-
ing should be repeated
weekly until the chicks are
weaned. If, despite these
efforts, the chicks are
bothered with head lice,
which sap their vitality
and stunt their growth, it
is necessary to grease the
heads of the chicks with
lard or carbolated vase-
line. This method will
drive the lice away, and
tend to prevent others
from coming.
Feeding.—It is a good
plan to feed the sitters at
regular times each day, for
this teaches them to expect
it at certain intervals, and
they will come off the
nests, eat and return,

promptly. Wholegrain should be fed together withadry mash, but
nothing in the shape of sloppy feed should be given, because moist
food tends to loosen the bowels. Provide clean water in abun-
dance, gritand charcoal. In warm weather it isa good plan to place
acan of water beside each nest, so that the hen can drink at will

TESTING THE EGGS 293

without leaving the nest. Whole corn is an excellent food for
sitters; it is fattening, which is a desirable effect, because the
broody hen is prone to become very thin and poor. Should
undue looseness of the bowels occur, the addition of a little sul-
phate of iron in the drinking water will usually correct the trouble.

Disturb the hens as little as possible while they are sitting. If
the nests need attention, because they are sometimes soiled from
one cause or another, clean them while the hens are off eating.

Fig. 188.—The makeshift coop is all right, providing it is weather-proof,
vermin-proof and sanitary.

See to it that cats, dogs or other animals are unable to gain en-
trance to the room or coop, also other poultry.

Testing Eggs.—Few farmers bother to test the hatching eggs,
though this is advisable, because the infertile eggs may be used
as food for other broods. Then, too, if the fertility is poor, let
us say if half of the eggs are clear, the eggs from two hens may
be placed under one sitter, providing the hatches were started
at the same time, and fresh eggs started under the hen from
whom the eggs were removed. Here again we add to the effi-
ciency of the hens.

By all means darken the nests at hatching time, and do not

294 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

disturb the hens unless they step around on the nests a great
deal, in which event they are likely to trample the chicks, or if
they pick at the chicks, then the chicks should be removed as
soon as they are hatched and placed in a basket lined with flannel
or some other warm material, and kept near a stove until the
balance of the hatch is completed. Occasionally a hen will
manifest a vicious attitude toward the brood from the start,
and nothing that the attendant can do will alter the situation,
in which case it is best to take the chicks away from the vicious
mother and give them to a quieter bird.

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 189.—Rectangular brood coop Fig. 190.—V-shaped brood coop
and run. and run.

If the sitters are well fed immediately before hatching time,
they are not so likely to leave the nests in search of food, there-
fore the brood is not chilled before the chicks have had a chance
to dry off. Confine the hens for a few days after the hatches
come off, or they will take their broods too far afield and tire
them. It is well to provide separate coops for the broods, and
wherever possible place the coops on a grassy range, preferably
where there is some shade. For the first two weeks confine the
hens to the coops in the early morning, or until the grass has had
time to dry off; otherwise the hens will stalk their young through
the dew-laden undergrowth and get them soaking wet.

CHAPTER XXII
ARTIFICIAL BROODING

If artificial incubation is practiced
it necessitates artificial brooding, unless
the hatches are small, in which case
the chicks can be given to hens, though
this practice really defeats the idea of
the incubator, which is to conserve the
hen’stime. It takesatleast four weeks
to wean a brood of chicks, sometimes
six weeks, and during this period the
mother hen is a non-layer. In fact,
she seldom starts to lay for a month after she has weaned her
brood, due to the fact that she is usually so run down and out of
condition, as the result of her maternal efforts and responsibili-
ties, that she must first rebuild her vitality. This represents a
great deal of lost time so far as egg production is concerned, and
the time lost is usually during April, May and June, the months
of heaviest laying.

Farmers are the greatest patrons of this combination method,
and their idea is to escape the care of the brooder, which they
regard more or less with suspicion. It must be admitted, of
course, that no brooder is equal to the hen as a mother; we can-
not improve on nature in this respect; but we can do the work a
whole lot cheaper with the brooder, and this is an important con-
sideration.

Were it not for artificial incubation and brooding it would be
impossible for commercial poultry plants to conduct their opera-
tions on such a vast scale. It is not practicable to raise large
numbers of chicks by hens. In the first place, it is virtually im-
295

296 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

possible to secure enough sitting hens at the right time—early
enough to hatch pullets which will mature as fall layers. In the
second place, a large number of sitting hens and their broods
require a great deal of equipment and range, not to mention care
in feeding; and in the third place, the expense of maintaining the
hens, without egg production, would wipe out the profits which
might be made from their broods.

(Courtesy Candee Incubator Company)

Fig. 191.—Double hot-water brooding system. A row of hovers located on
either side of a central alleyway.

These factors have always been of importance: to-day they
are vital to success. The hen must be kept on the job of laying.
Her work of rearing young must be left to the machine.

Makes of Brooders.—There are a number of brooding systems
in vogue, and a wide variety of makes from which to select or
evolve a particular scheme, one that is adaptable to given cir-
cumstances. There is as much, if not more, choice with brooders

*syoryo COOL ‘AqIoeded ‘sapis y}0q UO sUNI JOOpjno YUM asnoy Japooig—'z6I “3Iy

297

298 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

than with incubators. One might say, there is a brooder for any
or all circumstances.

It goes without saying that artificial brooding should be in
imitation of natural brooding, except that the hen’s shortcomings
should be eliminated. And the hen has her faults, make no mis-
take on this point. For example, she will take her brood afield
in wet weather, or lead them through wet grass in the early morn-
ing, where the chicks may become chilled and die.

The chief requirements of artificial brooding are these: (1) a
compartment in which the temperature is equal to the warmth
of the hen’s body, which is accessible to the chicks at all times; (2)
an abundance of fresh air as well as warmth, because if heat is
obtained at the expense of ventilation, the chicks will not thrive;
(3) a well-lighted, moderately warm compartment in connection
with the heated hover, which will provide a place for exercise,
feeding and everyday activities; (4) a protected run or yard
where the chicks can be given outdoor freedom in nice weather,
and an opportunity to pick up greens and grits; (5) the interior
of the brooder must be dry, capable of being flooded with sun-
light, and safe from fire risks; (6) every compartment and all
appliances must provide means for convenience in cleaning and
disinfecting.

Common Defects.—The absence of one or more of the fore-
going requirements is quite common in many of the brooding
systems in use. The greatest difficulty seems to be that the in-
stallation of the average brooding system is without sufficient
latitude—a margin of safety which will automatically take up
the slack resulting from sudden changes in temperature and so
forth. Many brooders are run too hot or too cold, some have
insufficient ventilation, and others are over-crowded. Heavy
losses are likely to occur from these conditions, for which perhaps
the operator condemns his apparatus, when as a matter of fact
the trouble probably exists solely in its management.

Careless Operation—Nine times out of ten losses in the
brooder are due to carelessness or mismanagement, and the most
conspicuous blunders are made at the beginning of a new brood,

SOME COMMON MISTAKES 299

in that the brood is not properly broken to the brooder. Briefly,
the brooder will provide warmth and so on, but the operator must
teach the brood of chicks how to avail themselves of its care.

No one make of brooder or system of brooding is superior to
the others. The poultry raiser must choose one that is best suited
to particular requirements, such as the size of the flock, size and

(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company)

Fig. 193.—Brooder stoves are great labor-savers inasmuch as they can be made
to care for chicks in large flocks.

type of houses, climate and so on. Also the funds available for
permanent equipment of this sort.

There are two principal ways of brooding: one is in small units,
consisting of about fifty chicks, and the other is in large flocks,
ranging from 200 to 1500 chicks. Then again, the small unit plan
may be carried out in two ways: either by single hovers in small
coops (see Fig. 194), usually spoken of as colony brooder coops,
or by a long, continuous brooder house in which the hovers are

300 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

arranged side by side and heated from a central plant, which is
generally a hot-water system. See Fig. 191.

Hot-Water System.—The earliest method of heating the hovers
in a long brooder house was by means of a series of hot-water pipes
arranged about eight inches above the floor of the brooder. The
chicks huddled together under these pipes, and ventilation was
controlled by means of apertures in the tops of the hovers. A
development of this idea was found by heating a compartment

Fig. 194.—Colony coop brooders on a Government experiment station.

or duct under the brooder floor with a hot-water system of piping,
and then conveying the warmed air up through a vent in each
hover.

Fireless Brooders.—Another method is to heat the brooder
house to a moderate temperature by the use of a few coils of hot-
water pipes, but to heat the hovers themselves by means of indi-
vidual kerosene lamps. An adaptation of this method is to use
fireless hovers, so constructed as to conserve the heat thrown off
from the chicks’ bodies. See Fig. 195. These fireless brooders

INDIVIDUAL HOVERS AND BROODERS 301

have never been widely used; the whole principle is against them.
Adequate ventilation is impossible, since to ventilate the hovers
means to lose the warmth created by the chicks.

As a matter of fact, all long brooder house systems are rapidly
disappearing in favor of large flock systems reared with brooder
stoves. The long brooder house usually represented the most
expensive building on a poultry farm, and because of its equip-
ment it could not be used for any other purpose, consequently
for six months each year it was idle. See Fig. 192. And capital
invested in idle equip-
ment is unprofitable.

Individual Hovers.—
For farmers and back-
yard flocks, where but a
hundred or so chicks are
raised each year, the in-
dividual hover, heated
by hot air or hot water,
with a kerosene lamp as ©
the source of heat, seems

to be the most popular i ee ee
; : ig. 195.—Homemade fireless brooder. The
device. See Fig. 196. principle is that of conserving the warmth

Most of these hoverscan _ given off by the chicks’ bodies.

be installed in any sort of :

a coop or building without alterations, or with some minor prepara-
tion, such as cutting a hole for the exhaust pipe from the lamp.
Some makes have the lamp in the center and are entirely portable,
others have the lamp on one side, which is housed in a separate
box fastened to the outside of the house. They are called uni-
versal or adaptable hovers, and practically all makes can be de-
pended upon to give satisfactory results.

Colony Brooders.—Some manufacturers of portable hovers
make a brooder coop in connection with the hover. The coop
is built in sections, screwed together and easily handled. See
Fig. 197. The coop is about six feet long, three feet wide and
about three feet high at the front; it has a shed roof, which is

ye nue

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

302 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

removable, and the interior of the coop is divided by a removable
partition. One compartment is fitted for the hover; the other
is intended for an exercising pen or nursery. Both compart-
ments are easily ventilated, comfortable and convenient for the
chicks, and the entire coop is readily cleaned.

This type of brooder is commonly known as the outdoor colony
brooder. It can be purchased complete at a reasonable price,
and there is no better outfit for the beginner or for one who in-

“ea,

Stan Le) vane ert a, ‘ es
ed tennant ti cm

(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.)

Fig. 196.—50-chick size lamp brooding hover which may be adapted to any
type of house.

tends to raise but a few chickens. The average capacity is
fifty chicks. When artificial heat is no longer required, the hover,
lamp and central partition can be removed and the coop used for
a growing coop. It is also convenient for housing extra male
birds at odd times, as a conditioning coop for show specimens,
or as an isolation pen for sick birds. When not in use, it can be
taken apart and stored under a shed. Paint it occasionally and
it will last for many years.

COLONY BROODER STOVES 303

Brooder Stoves.—Whereas the outdoor colony brooder is a
splendid outfit for the farmer, backyard flock and small poultry
plant, the colony brooder stove is to be recommended for larger
operations. In reality the brooder stove is a development or
enlargement of the colony brooder idea. It is of recent origin,
yet for all it has gained greater popularity than all the other ap-
pliances. It is the one device which permits of a gradation of
heat and a reserve heat, and it is by far the most economical
system of brooding, both as to labor and fuel.

jel
(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.)

Fig. 197.—Outdoor colony brooder. The front and top are removed to
show interior equipment, which consists of a hover similar to that shown in
Fig. 196. The lamp box is on the outside, and all fumes from the lamp are
carried off by means of the T-shaped duct leading from the top of the hover.

Works on a Large Scale.—The brooder stove had its inception
in the need for performing its work on a large scale, at the least
possible cost for special buildings, for fuel, for operating costs
and for the care of the chicks, and this it does. These stoves
are made in various sizes, with capacities ranging from 200 to
1500 chicks. They have passed the experimental stage; they
are giving. results, though until one has had considerable ex-
perience in raising chicks in fairly large numbers, it is not ad-

304 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

visable to attempt a brood greater than, say, 300 chicks. Then,
as skill is developed, the flocks can be enlarged. Not that
brooder stoves will fail to perform the functions required of
them, but the operator must become familiar with ways of feed-
ing large flocks of chicks running together, so that they can be
induced to exercise sufficiently, and not get into bad habits, such
as toe-pecking and feather-pulling.

Gradations of Heat.—In many of the earlier brooding ap-
pliances there were, generally speaking, two distinct tempera-
tures and no gradations of heat; the interior temperature of the
hover, so frequently stuffy and hot, and the outside air, which

(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.)

Fig. 198.—Outdoor colony brooder—a complete outfit.
*

was very apt to be too cold. Either of these the chick had to
accept, and both were weakening—to be chilled or partly suf-
focated.

The brooder stove is a high-power furnace capable of radiating
a great deal of heat, which, by means of a wide-spread sheet-iron
deflector, is distributed downward over the backs of the chicks,
where it is most needed. See Fig. 199. When taken from the
incubator direct to the brooder, the chicks instinctively learn to
form a circle around the stove. In the majority of times they
will gauge their distance from the base of the stove entirely by
the intensity of the heat most comfortable to them. See Fig.

HIGH-POWERED FURNACE : 305

200. In short, the brooder stove provides a gradual decrease in
temperature, from the base of the stove, which is very hot, to
the farthest corners of the room, which can be kept as cool as
desired by means of ventilation.

This arrangement of providing warmth is thoroughly practical,
for it permits every chick to seek the degree of warmth best
suited to its individual comfort. The plan is in imitation of
natural brooding, which is best, except that it is not economical.

CHECK DRAUGHT-
VENTILATING
PORT

WAFER
THERMOSTAT
. ee

REGULATOR — ne
AOJUSTMENT

Ain CELL / GALVANIZED
ASBESTOS BOARD PROTECTING SHEET

(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company)

_ Fig. 199.—Sectional view of a coal-burning brooder stove. All the warmth
is eee downward over the backs of the chicks, where it does the greatest
good.

The bare breast of a sitting hen has a temperature of about 105
degrees, which is greater heat than the chicks require under
ordinary circumstances. The temperature of the hen’s plumage
ranges from about 100 degrees to 90 degrees. But the chicks
are not compelled to accept any one of these temperatures for
all time. They may seek that which is most comfortable at a
particular time. If they have been exposed and are cold, the
chicks can be quickly warmed by nestling close to the bare breast
of the hen. Later they can seek a lower temperature within the

306 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

confines of the wing feathers; or, if they are too warm, they can
push out their heads and cool off. Thus it will be seen that the
natural condition is a very flexible one, and we should aim to
imitate this flexibility as much as possible in artificial brooding.
No Special Buildings——A brooder stove does not require a
special type of building, and this factor is one of its greatest
virtues. It can be installed anywhere, providing the room or

(Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Co.)
Fig. 200.—Coal-burning brooder stove. Note the circle formed by the chicks.

building is fairly well constructed, weather-proof, dry, and
capable of being well ventilated without direct drafts.

Stoves may be set up in colony houses, and later, when the
brood no longer require artificial heat, the stoves may be removed
and the same quarters used for rearing the young stock. See
Fig. 201. Stoves may be erected in laying houses, and when the
broods are weaned the stoves are taken down and stored else-
where, or removed to other quarters to take care of new broods.
The idea is simplicity itself; it is flexible and economical.

Fuel.—There are various types of brooder stoves on the mar-

NO SPECIAL BUILDINGS 307

ket; some designed for crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, distillate and
coal; but, since no form of combustion is safer than that confined
within the iron castings of a coal stove, where coal is obtainable
for anything like a reasonable price, this fuel should become the

(xe Ringe Cuimney CAP
} 6-0" ‘ our

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ww
ak jy * VENTILATING WeLL
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OTEN) ouT | NIH 5]
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lad a ‘° : | |r
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DoeoR sre sere INLET Py Fy We
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MATCHED FLOORING 4
2x6" Fost 16° SB" 2xé6"Foist bE 3x8"
1G'- 0"

PIADE LINE

BER

"FRONT ELEVATION END VIEW
Dd

Fig. 201.—Combination brooder house, colony house and laying house.

most popular. One scuttle of coal will run a good-sized brooder
stove for twenty-four hours.

The ideal house for an 800-chick stove is a building about fifteen
by thirty feet, divided in the middle by a solid partition. This
affords two rooms, one to be heated by the stove, and the other
without heat, to be utilized as a scratching pen after the chicks
are about a week old. There should be large windows on at

308 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

least three sides, and so arranged as to flood the interior with sun-
light. Except in very warm weather, these windows should not
be relied upon for ventilation, for it is almost impossible to venti-
late in this manner without creating drafts. It is the draft, not
fresh air, that causes trouble.

Ventilation.—The’ following system of ventilation has given
excellent results, and it may be installed in any house at a moder-

(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.)
Fig. 202.—Filling the coal hopper of a brooder stove.

ate cost: In the four corners of the brooder house, and about
one foot above the floor line, cut circular openings in the walls
about six inches in diameter, and with ordinary stove-pipe and
elbows construct an S-shape ventilator, pointing downward on
the outside and upward on the inside. Over the inside opening
place a screen to prevent chicks from flying into it, also a damper
to control the intake of air. In the center of the roof install an
exhaust vent or cupola having an area twice as great as the com-

TEST THE BROODING SYSTEM 309

bined areas of the fresh air intakes. Cold air expands when
heated, hence the necessity for doubling the size of the exhaust
ventilator.

Ventilating cupolas of galvanized iron may be purchased in
varying sizes from sheet-iron workers, or a similar device may be
made of wood which will answer the purpose nicely. If one does
not wish to cut an opening in the roof, the highest point in the

(Courtesy Prairie State Incubator Co.)

Fig. 203.—Sectional view of coal-burning brooder stove. A, Base; B, ash-
pit; C, grate; D, fire draft; E, thermostat wafer; F, counterpoise weight;
G, regulator arm; H, escape vent; I, metal hover; J, curtain.

front wall of the building may be converted into a ventilator,
and fitted with a shield or baffling plate to prevent back currents
of air or driving rains from entering the house.

Test the System.—When the brooder stove and ct SURion
system are installed, it is advisable to try out the scheme for a
few days before the chicks are brought out, in order that the
operator may familiarize himself with every phase of the work.
Ascertain the exact heating capacity of the stove under severe

310 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

weather conditions, how often the fire requires stoking, if it is a
coal fire, and how to bank the fire at night.

A thermometer should be hung three feet from the base of the
stove and one inch above the litter, for that is where the chicks
sleep and rest. The stove should be hot enough to make the
thermometer in that position register 90 degrees. No harm will
ensue if it registers, more than 90 degrees, but try not to have
it register less particularly if the night is coming on cold. When
the brood has settled down comfortably for the night, the nearest
chicks should be about two feet from the base of the stove, and
this intervening distance amounts to a reserve heat, so that as
the night advances and the fire cools off somewhat, the chicks
may draw closer to the stove for the desired warmth.

Hover Breaking.—Late afternoon or early evening is the best
time to remove the chicks from the incubator and place them in
the brooder, for the darkness will serve to restrain the more
venturesome fellows from exploring the building and becoming
chilled. Furthermore, when they are quiet they can be made to
obtain their first impression of where the warmth is to be had.
This is termed hover breaking, and itis the first and paramount
issue in the artificial brooding of chicks; they must be taught to
seek the hover or the base of the stove, which corresponds to a
hover, for warmth, and until the attendant is absolutely assured
that this instinct is firmly established, he must adopt special
means of confining them within or very close to the stove.

Wire Partition.—A good plan is to erect a small mesh-wire
partition, poultry netting will do, in a circle around what is con-
sidered to be a safe distance from the stove, removing it in the
daytime, or when it is found the chicks no longer require it as a
safeguard. See Fig. 193. If the chicks are not confined close
to the stove in this manner for the first few nights, it is quite
likely that some of them will stray from the warmth and be
unable to find their way back, whereupon they will soon become
chilled and die.

With proper training, two or three days is usually sufficient
to break a brood of chicks to the hover, and the attendant must

BREAKING BROOD TO THE HOVER 311

be as patient as possible, for the success of the brood later on
largely depends upon this early discipline. It sometimes happens
that a brood will be particularly obstinate, and insist upon spend-
ing the night in every place but the right one, all of which is very
exasperating and likely to tax the patience of the most careful
operator; yet the will of the operator must dominate.

The expert brooder operator realizes the importance of this,
and aims to break his brood into the ways of a particular ap-
paratus, much as a dog is trained to follow a scent, or a horse is
broken to the harness. Poor results are often blamed on the
brooding appliances, when in reality the fault rests entirely on
the persons running them. A brooder stove, no matter what
make or type, is seldom better than the operator in charge of it.

CHAPTER XXIII
FEEDS FOR BABY CHICKS

Baby chicks seem like such helpless, frail little creatures that
the first month of their life is likely to be a period of much con-
cern to their keeper, especially the beginner. A certain mystery
seems to attach itself to the undertaking, which forebodes dis-
tressing, troublesome times ahead, maybe serious losses, even
failure. We speak of it as the brooding period, and it is well
named. According to the dictionary, brooding means “to dwell
upon with anxiety.”

Rearing young stock is the most difficult operation, though
largely because it requires the closest attention to details. Other
than this it need hold no fears, even for the novice, because the
work is really quite simple, and almost certain of success, pro-
viding a few elemental facts are borne in mind. Moreover, there
is comfort in the fact that once a chick is weaned from the brood-
ing period, which lasts from four to six weeks, depending upon the
season and weather conditions, it is practically as hardy as a
mature fowl.

In its fullest sense, brooding means to provide shelter, warmth
and comfort, a quiet retreat for the chicks, a resting place and a
place to sleep, under the most healthful conditions, such as sani-
tation and ventilation, which will promote rapid development
and a strong constitution.

Hatch all the chicks you can during March, April and May and
the problems of brooding are greatly simplified, because condi-
tions at this time are naturally favorable. The weather is on
your side, also plant life, because it is fresh and appetizing. Then,
too, March, April and May hatched pullets will start laying in
the fall and furnish winter eggs, which is the goal of every poultry
raiser.

312

HIGH-POWERED ORGANISMS 313

Remarkable Growth.—When one considers the remarkable
growth made by chicks during the first month or two, it is easy
to understand why they require a watchful attendant. At
hatching time the chick weighs about one and a half ounces. It
doubles this weight in six days, and under normal circumstances
it can be made to weigh two and a half pounds in three months, °
which is more than twenty-five times its original weight.

If we humans grew that fast, we would weigh about two hun-
dred pounds at the age of three months. This comparison fur-
nished some idea of the naturally intensive, high-powered ca-
pacity of the chick, and of the need for suitable nourishment.

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 204.—Summer-hatched chicks require plenty of shade. Inexpensive
coops like these are easily moved from place to place, which moving gives
the chicks fresh greens and clean soil.

Proper nourishment is the crux of the whole business. Chicks
require a great deal of food in relation to their size, but do not
mistake this to mean that you should simply pile the food in
front of them. On the contrary, they must be fed in just the
right quantities. The feeding program is the most important
consideration; it is paramount; it makes for success or failure.

Overfeeding.—Oddly enough, perhaps, more chicks die from
overfeeding than from underfeeding. And the trouble usually
starts by feeding the brood too soon after it has left the incubator.

The last development in incubation prior to breaking the shell
is the embryo chick’s absorption of the yolk. This highly nutri-

314 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

tive material is capable of sustaining life for two or three days, or
until the chick is strong enough to walk about freely and pick up
food. Investigations have shown that this absorbed yolk con-
tains almost half of the original energy of the egg. It is a wise
provision of nature, with which it is folly to interfere. There
‘is no need for additional nourishment at this time, and to supply
any will invariably work more harm than good, in that it inter-
feres with the proper assimilation of the yolk. We might say

(Courtesy U, S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 205.—Feeding frame for young chicks. It is wire-covered, and none but
the small chicks can crawl under the lower rail.

that the chick’s system is not ready for food until the third day
after incubation.

This condition makes it possible to ship chicks hundreds of
miles without imposing any hardships through lack of feeding
and watering. It is a good plan, however, to place water before
the chicks as soon as they are removed to the brooder, preferably
water with the chill taken off, if the weather is cold. Care should
be taken that the little fellows do not wallow in the water and
get wet; therefore it is best to use shallow vessels protected in
some way so that the chicks cannot fall inside.

FEED LITTLE BUT OFTEN 315

As a rule, chicks learn to eat as soon as they are able to stand.
They will even commence picking at things while they are in the

(Courtesy Buckeye Incubator Company)

Fig. 206.—Brooder stove with the hover or heat deflector raised to permit
sweeping and cleaning around the base of the stove. The deflector is suspended
by means of rope and pulleys attached to a counterpoise weight.

incubator. The idea seems to come to them as instinctively as
walking. In the case of drinking it is sometimes necessary to
teach them, or at least to point out the presence of water. This

316 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

is easily done by dipping the bills of two or three chicks in the
water. They will catch on to the idea in a few minutes, where-
upon the rest of the flock will quickly imitate them.

Feed little but often, is the slogan to be adopted in the brooder.
This is especially important with flocks which are confined in-
doors, or leg weakness is
apt toresult. Chicks on
free range are not sus-
ceptible to this ailment.
Leg weakness comes
from excessive feeding
without sufficient exer-
cise; the bodies of the
chicks become too heavy
for the muscles and bones
of the legs, consequently
the chicks are unable to
walk or stand. They
present a pitiable ap-
pearance and are likely
to be trampled and killed
by the rest of the flock.
+ On the morning of the
third day, which is to
° ie say when the chicks are
ae forty-eight hours old,
rigs. Seance) give them aight mea

“teow place to. place J of easily digested food,

preferably soft food,
which has been sprinkled with fine grit. Repeat this feeding
every two or three hours, so that the chicks receive four or five
meals a day.

The first feed may consist of bread crumbs moistened with
milk, bread crumbs and hard-boiled eggs ground fine, shells and
all, johnnycake, or pinhead oatmeal. Food moistened with
milk is of great value in giving the chicks a good start, but the

IMPORTANCE OF MILK 317

mixtures must be fed in a crumbly state, never in a sloppy con-
dition. In the case of bread crumbs a good plan is to moisten
them with milk and then squeeze out the greater part of the liquid.
It is also important to feed these mixtures fresh. Do not mix
up a large quantity and then allow it to stand around until it
turns bad.

Johnnycake.—The following is a good recipe for johnnycake:
One dozen eggs (wherever possible use clear eggs removed from
the incubator), or one pound of sifted beef scrap, to ten pounds

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 208.—Where flocks of different ages are likely to run together, the
young broods should be given a fenced yard for the first few weeks so that
they will not be molested by the older chickens.

of corn meal; add enough milk to make a dough, and one table-
spoonful of baking soda; bake into cakes. .

Milk.—Many breeders are having good results by feeding
milk and no water the first week or ten days, and even longer.
Sour milk should be fed just as it begins to thicken and before
it separates, as the chicks like it better in that condition. Milk
is more than a food; it contains lactic acid, which tends to pre-
vent and correct white diarrhea and kindred bowel troubles.
It should be placed before the chicks in shallow pans or founts,
so designed that the birds cannot wade in it or contaminate it.

318 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Scratch Grains.—Continue with the soft food for three er four
days, then gradually substitute a scratch grain mixture consisting
of cracked wheat, finely cracked corn and hulled oats in equal
parts, to which may be added about five per cent of cracked peas
or broken rice, and two per cent of millet or rape seed. At the
same time a dry mash should be fed, which may consist of ten
pounds of corn meal, ten pounds of wheat bran, two pounds of
bone meal and one-half pound of granulated charcoal.

Only as much of the scratching feed should be given as the
chicks will scratch out in ten minutes. If the chicks have range,
the dry mash may be kept
before them all the time, in
shallow troughs or hoppers.
If they are confined to the
brooder, the mash should be
left before them for about
fifteen minutes at each feed-
ing.

If it is impossible to sup-
ply the chicks with milk in
any form, add a half pound
of sifted beef scrap to the

(Courtesy Newtown Giant Incubator Company) dry mash after the first
Fig. 209.—Sectional view of brooder stove. | week. Increase the propor-
tion of scrap each week,

until it amounts to about four pounds at the end of a month.

After the first week the number of feedings may be reduced to
four a day, and after. the second week to three a day. In the
morning the feeds are light, so as to encourage exercise. To-
ward evening the heaviest feed is given, so that every chick may
go under the hover with a full crop. The last meal should be
given about an hour before sundown.

The best way to feed the soft mixtures is on boards or heavy
sheets of cardboard. Tin pie plates are good, except that the
chicks slip about on them. Never feed the soft mixtures in the
litter, where they are likely to absorb filth from the droppings.

BEEF SCRAP AND GREENS 319

On the other hand, it is a bad plan to feed the scratch grains on
a board, once the chicks have learned how to hunt for them, be-
cause they are likely to gorge themselves, which defeats the idea
of the scratch grains. These grains should be sprinkled in the
litter, where the chicks are obliged to dig and work for them.

Green Food.—Unless the chicks are given outdoor freedom
where they have access to an abundance of tender green shoots,
they must be given succulence in some other form, such as lettuce,
sprouted oats, sliced onions and tops, or ground vegetables, such
as mangels or turnips. Chicks are very fond of onions, which
seem to act as a tonic.
Slice a good-sized onion
for each fifty chicks; cut it
soas to form rings, and the
chicks will tussle and fight
for them as though they
were worms.

Clover, alfalfa and rape
are all excellent green
foods for chicks, and
wherever possible they
should be given liberty s
where these crops are ‘Copalesie E Gapanion’
growing. Thisisthemost pig. 210—Colony house fitted with gasoline
convenient way to furnish brooder.
green food, and_ the
cheapest way. If a grass range is not available, substitutes must
be found, because no brood will thrive without greens. Succulence
supplies them with roughage for crop development, mineral ele-
ments to aid the digestion of concentrated foods, and with certain
tonic properties which sustain the appetite. In short, if chicks are
given unlimited freedom on a grassy range, they are almost certain
to thrive even if the rest of the feeding system is seriously defec-
tive.

Avoid Moldy Feed.—Chicks are susceptible to bowel trouble
if given moldy or musty grain or decomposed food, therefore it

320 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

behooves the poultryman to investigate his feeds very carefully.
Grain which has heated in the bin, or allowed to become damp and
mildewed, is the equivalent to so much poison. Bear this point
in mind if you are offered cheap grain, because it is likely that
the grain has suffered some such deterioration, hence the reduced
price. Bargain foods are usually inferior goods, and the most
expensive in the long run. It pays to get reliable stuff from a
responsible dealer, and then to store it properly so that it will
not spoil.

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)
Fig. 211.—An orchard makes an ideal location for growing chicks.

ae See ate

Finely broken grit and oyster shells should be kept before the
chicks at all times after they are a week old. It is best not to
put these articles before them in hoppers until this time, because
some of the chicks are likely to mistake the grits for food and gorge
themselves forthwith. As previously mentioned, the early
feedings of soft food should be sprinkled with the grit; sharp
sand will answer the purpose.

If charcoal is not included in the mash, it is well to keep this
before the chicks along with the grit and shells, also a box of

FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS 321

granulated bone or bone meal. These articles are inexpensive
and they will last along time. The charcoal acts as an absorbent
and aids digestion; it serves to keep the crop sweet. Granulated
bone is rich in nitrogenous matter and makes bone and muscle;
it keeps the chicks sturdy.

TaBLE XXIV.—FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS RECOMMENDED BY THE
INDIANA EXPERIMENT STATION

ScratcH GRAINS Dry MasH
Pounds Pounds
Cracked corn (sifted).......... 10 Wheat bran................- 10
Wheat (cracked).............. 10 Middlings.................. 10
ILS ves tices cosa dh aoe eae Spans gion Bone acs 10 Corn meal... 0.0. cc cee eee 5
Meat scrap................. 5
Charcoal. .................. 2.5

Plenty of sour milk or buttermilk to drink. If milk is not available, the
meat scrap may be increased to 15 pounds in the mash. Scratch grains are
fed in litter from the first. The mash is supplied in a hopper when the chicks
are five to seven days old.

TABLE XXV.—FEEDING RATIONS FOR CHICKS RECOMMENDED BY THE
CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION

ScratTcH GRAINS Pounds
WhEAG nics cannes Pam named maeeee ad enews 20
‘Oats: (steel CU) ci coe ngain ven vecamtedeaand ten BS
MN Cbs 26a cca cnlars yuna t dtcaiatiecd danas ath arsael Sekai 5
RICE Sx drocenn che ed aed eunenm ae GMO ARE AE EOE 2
Cracked Gori. sc aisca caus ene eh ioe ihe eae g 6
GEICE, sevseraperaonse Pact + sak ea aa actin nenaiees Mine 10
Charcoal 3c siasee ayant ils tunes do nen tere ane 5

Bone-meahincs 7 aun wees dau oad s Geet haan de

The ingredients are crushed to the size of millet. The mixture is fed from
the first. Toward the end of the second. week the cracked wheat and oats are
increased until by the sixth or seventh week these two grains have replaced all
others, except the cracked corn. From the seventh week on the grains con-
sist of cracked corn and wheat. A mash is given after the eighth day, con-
sisting of either of the following mixtures:

Mash Mixture I Masn Mrxture II :

Pounds Pounds
Bran (wheat)...............0.. 3. Bran (wheat).................. 4
Middlings:. 2 sic ec accra as 2 Alfalfa meal................... 2
Corn meal (coarse)............. 1 Corn meal (coarse)............. I
Oatmeal oa sso eee ey elses once 1 Meat meal..................0. Y%
Meat«meal «os02 402.064 eee reas a4 Bone: meal si. sia stevens sexeen \y
Bone meal................00.. VY -Chatcoall a0:2046.5-05-acieaiees tens ee 8 ‘A
Charcoal occ aivsacnaace oo baie ht ye

One teaspoonful of salt is added to each gallon of either mixture. The
mixtures are intended for chicks from ten days old to six weeks. After this
the meat meal and the bone meal should be increased gradually, until the meal
equals one pound of the ration and the bone meal a half pound.

322 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Fresh Water.—Needless to say, the fountains must be kept
full of pure, clean water at all times. If they are permitted to
go dry, though only for a short time, the chicks soon become
famished for a drink, whereupon they fight for room around the
refilled fountains and in so doing seriously wet themselves.

As soon as the flock can be weaned from artificial heat or from
the care of the brooder, the chicks are old enough to be given a
scratch-grain ration of whole wheat, cracked corn and other small

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 212.—The hen and ber brood must be given privacy for the first couple of
weeks.

grains, such as milo maize, kafir corn and barley. The corn meal
in the mash can be increased somewhat and other meals added,
such as ground oats and wheat middlings.

Essentials to Health.—If called upon to suggest the proper
care of baby chicks, and my expression were limited to ten words,
it would be something in this fashion: Keep them warm, dry,
exercised, aired, watered, and somewhat hungry. The question
might then arise, how can one feed liberally and vet keep the
chicks somewhat hungry? An answer is difficult without ap-

CORNELL FEEDING METHODS 323

pearing to argue in a circle, which is really the case: If a chick is
dry, warm, exercised, aired and watered, he is sure to be hungry,
and when hungry he will search continually for food; and thereon
hangs the secret of successful brooding. Keep all the conditions
such that every chick is exercising for food, and always re-
ceiving a reward for its pains, from dawn to dark.

TaBLE XXVI.—RatTIons AND METHODS OF FEEDING CuicKs RECOMMENDED

BY PouLTRY DEPARTMENT OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY

TuE RATION
Mixture No. 1

8 pounds rolled oats.
8 pounds bread-crumbs or
cracker waste.
2 pounds sifted meat scrap
(best grade).
I pound bone meal.

Mixture No. 2
3 pounds wheat (cracked).

2 pounds cracked corn (fine).

I pound pinhead oatmeal.

Mixture No. 3

3, pounds wheat bran.

3 pounds corn meal.

3 pounds wheat middlings.

3 pounds meat scrap (best
grade).

I pound bone meal.

Mixture No. 4

3 pounds wheat (whole).
2 pounds cracked corn.
I pound hulled oats.

Mixture No. 5

3 pounds wheat.
3 pounds cracked corn.

THE METHOD
One to Five Days

Mixture No. 1, moistened with sour
skimmed milk, fed five times a day;
Mixture No. 2 in shallow tray containing
a little of No. 3 (dry) always before
chicks. Shredded green food and fine
grit and. charcoal scattered over food.

Five Days to Two Weeks

No. 2 in light litter twice a day; No.
moistened with sour skimmed milk, fed
three times a day; No. 3 (dry) always
available.

Twoto Four Weeks

As above, except that the moist mash is
given twice a day.

Four to Six Weeks (until Chicks are on
Range)
Reduce meals of moist mash to onea day;
Mixture No. 4 in litter twice a day; dry
mash always available.

Six Weeks to Maturity
No. 3 and No. 5 hopper fed. One meal a
day of moist mash if it is desired to
hasten development.

Further instructions: Provide fine grit, charcoal, oyster shells and bone
from the start. Give grass range or plenty of green food. Keep chickens
active by allowing them to become hungry once daily.

The incubator chick is born with just as many instincts as the
chick hatched under a hen, it is just as sturdy if the period of in-

324 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

cubation has been properly conducted, hence there is no reason
why it should not develop just as quickly and profitably. Like
most of us, however, the chick is a creature of habits, some of
which are pernicious, and generally inspired by simply watching
the other fellow do it. For example, toe-pecking and feather-
pulling are two of the most troublesome habits to combat in the
brooder, and unless controlled at their inception, they will fre-
quently lead to a heavy mortality. Therefore while it may be
perfectly normal for a brood to develop toe-pecking, yet the
habit must have been induced by an abnormal condition—lack
of exercise, idleness due to exhaustion from overheating, over-
feeding or improper feeding. Usually it is improper feeding,
either as to quantity or an insufficient variety; not necessarily
a lack of variety in the grains, but an improper balance of the
nutritive elements—the greens, grains, grits and grubs.

Last, but not least, of the suggestions for brooding—be sure
to get chicks on the soil at the earliest possible moment. No
matter how well equipped the brooder, Mother Earth is the
chick’s natural habitat. The chick has an affinity for dirt,—
and it won’t be genuinely happy till it gets the dirt

CHAPTER XXIV
CARE OF YOUNG STOCK

The hatching season is admitted to be the critical period for
the poultry keeper. It is the time when affairs are most pressing,
and when the prospects for next season’s flock are either secured
or discouraged. As soon as this season is past, and the brooders
and incubators have cooled off for the last time, say about the
first of August, poultrymen are likely to relax their vigilance,
which is natural enough, except that it must not be carried to
extremes.

When chicks reach the age of four weeks, and are fairly well
feathered, they are as good as grown, barring accidents, and pro-
viding they receive reasonable care. Most of them are inde-
pendent of their mothers or brooders, and quite competent to
shift for themselves; yet too much confidence must not be re-
posed in them. Young chickens are susceptible of indiscretions,
just as are children. They need a watchful eye more or less at
all times for best results.

The breeder who gets the most from his flock is the fellow with
this watchful eye, to see that all are sufficiently fed, that they
are not tortured by vermin, that they are not menaced by rats,
hawks, crows and other pests, that none are killed accidentally and
their bodies left to decay in some obscure place where the rest
of the flock can eat this putrid matter, with its resultant ill effects.
They must have an abundance of clean, cool water. They must
have plenty of green food, and_an opportunity to roam for insect
life and mineral food.

Exercise.—They must have plenty of exercise, especially in
the cool morning hours or in the late afternoons. Exercise
sharpens the appetite and encourages eating large quantities of

325

326 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

food, so essential to rapid development, and it also wards off
any tendency toward leg weakness which is apt to result from
heavy eating without exercise. Exercise on a grassy range is
the greatest boon of all. Give fowls range and clean living

(Courtesy Million Ege Farm)

Fig. 213.—Portable hover installed in a simply constructed coop.

quarters and their keeper can almost afford to throw away all
the medicine bottles.

Over-crowding.—By all means avoid over-crowding at this
season, which is saying a good deal. Where large flocks are kept
it is not so easy as it sounds, even if sufficient buildings are
available. Chicks have strange ways. They are gregarious;

EXERCISE AND OVER-CROWDING 327

they like to assemble in large numbers. Where one goes they
all want to go, despite the fact that there may not be room for
them.

However carefully the attendant may have been to distribute
the young stock among brood coops and colony houses, if these
buildings are on the one range, with no partition fences, the chicks
are likely to desert some houses, and crowd into others. I never
heard of a poultryman of any experience who was not bothered
with this perversity. It is as sure to occur as two or three hens

(Courtesy U.S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 214.—A number of broods can be kept together if the mother hens are
confined.

trying to crowd into one nest, though there may be a dozen or
twenty other empty nests.

Keeping the houses fairly far apart tends to discourage this
practice of .over-crowding, but to do so is not always possible,
nor practicable. Where large numbers of chickens are grown a
great deal of ground is required. And when the houses are
spread over a big acreage, it means considerable additional labor
to distribute feed and water, and to perform the cleaning and
other chores. Very large farms do this work with a team, which
is the only practical, economical method.

328 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Abandoned Houses.—Usually the houses that are farthest
away from the central part of the farm are the ones most likely
to be abandoned. The reasons for this are very apparent.
Chickens soon learn the ways of an attendant and the hours when
feed is distributed. Day after day they watch the feeder ap-
proach from the central part of the farm, and they go to meet
him. The stock from the farthest points on the range comes in
and joins the flocks close by; in a large herd they congregate,
impatiently waiting for the dinner pail. It is natural enough,
even if it is troublesome.

Change Feeding Ground.—Efforts should be made to avert
the forming of these habits, though I confess, it is not always
possible to do so. The first step is to keep the flocks guessing
as to where the attendant is going to make his approach. In
other words, if practicable alternate the routine as much as pos-
sible; approach the colony field from different points, so that no
particular place exists as a feeding ground. On some farms this
is easy to do, on others it is out of the question.

Another stunt is to avoid distributing feed near the houses that
are nearest the central part of the farm, but to carry it to the
farthest houses. In this way the flock will follow to the farthest
points, and when the chicks have finished, especially if it is
the evening meal, they are more likely to remain in the vicin-
ity of the farthest houses, and to take shelter in them as night
falls.

In our haste and efforts to reduce our steps it is natural to
want to distribute the feed at the nearest point where the flocks
can get it; but this is wrong, and will only pile up additional
work in the long run. Short-sightedness is one of the worst
characteristics a poultryman can have, yet it is strangely common
in the matter of feeding. Avoid the spirit of doing a thing for the
sake of getting it done. It is almost always fatal to success with
poultry, just as it is a serious handicap in other lines of work.
Watch the flock and not the clock, isa pretty good slogan for the
chicken man.

Unlimited Feed.—Some of the most successful poultry raisers

WHEN THE FLOCK EATS AT WILL 329

work on the assumption that the fowls know what is best for
them in the matter of food, better than the man who does the
feeding. Certainly this is true of some feeders, for I have seen
some farm laborers who appeared to have as little interest in
their tasks, and as little knowledge of the importance of their
work, as they might have over a translation of Sanskrit. Where
this condition obtains it is infinitely better to permit the stock to

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 215.—A covered runway which can be moved from place to place is
best for very young chicks until they are strong enough to battle with the older
stock on free range.

exercise its own judgment, by keeping all feeds before them at all
times, and giving them access to the feeds at will.

There is another virtue about this method: the birds do not
establish any habits of waiting for the feeder two or three times
a day, and then gorging themselves forthwith, only to go off in
the shade somewhere, like a snake after it has swallowed a toad,
and wait for digestion. Instead, if they have always been ac-
customed to feeding at will, they generally eat a little, run around,
return and eat some more, run off again, and repeat the process

330 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

allday long. This is the best thing for them—a lot better than
gorging at stated intervals.

When chickens have feed before them in hoppers situated at
convenient places throughout the range, they have nothing to
draw them in a herd in any one spot, consequently they are not
so likely to find one location more attractive than another, and
will remain pretty much as they are distributed over the range
in the first place. The ‘‘always filled hopper” principle goes a
great way toward eliminating the bother of over-crowding due to
the abandonment of certain houses.

Feed Hoppers.—There should be plenty of hoppers, of a non-
wasteful type, and great care should be taken to make them
water-tight and weather-proof. Some of them can be placed
indoors. A good plan is to keep the mash hoppers inside the
house, where the feed will not be wasted by high winds blowing
the lighter meals away. Scratch feed hoppers may be left out-
side, in sheltered spots, accessible to the fowls, but in such a way
that the hoppers will have protection from sparrows and other
thieves.

Watertight Covers.—Positively the hoppers must be made
watertight, not only for the economy of the thing, but to avoid
moldy, sour or spoiled food. If the hoppers leak ever so little,
it means musty grain, and musty grains mean bowel troubles,
maybe serious ones, and heavy losses. Take a little extra care
in the making of the hoppers and provide tight lids or covers.
And the covers must extend far enough over the sides of the
hoppers to prevent driving rains from reaching the contents.
The hoppers should have slatted sides through which the birds
can reach the grain without difficulty, but not large enough for
them to crawl through and perhaps soil the feed.

The pullet is the favorite—the “star boarder.’ She is espe-
cially cherished on egg farms, and held in preference to the hen
for fall and winter egg production—the periods of highest prices,
which mean so much to the year’s profits.

Every poultry raiser’s experience will substantiate the belief
that a fowl’s greatest egg-producing capacity is in her first

CARE OF PULLETS 331

laying year—the pullet year, providing, of course, all conditions
are equal and as they should be. Therefore, under favorable
conditions the pullet is the most profitable bird on the farm; and
as such she is deserving of special care and attention.

We are enjoined to get our hatches out early, in time to have
pullets mature as autumn layers; but it is well to remember
that age is not the only important consideration. While it is
necessary to hatch chicks early to get mature pullets before cold
weather sets in, especially among the heavier breeds, the feeding
and general care of the growing stock have much to do with the
flock’s start as layers.

To be fitted for laying a pullet must be in full flesh, of normal
size, with a fair amount of surplus fat, and these conditions are
obtained only by an abundance of food of the right sort. See
special chapters on feeding.

The pens from which the old stock has been removed should
be carefully cleaned, sprayed “or whitewashed before the pullets
are turned into them; the yards should be plowed or spaded
under, and if possible sown to green food to sweeten them. In
short, everything must be made as fresh and comfortable as
possible for the new tenants. Cleanliness and roominess tend
to keep the growing pullets healthy and vigorous, which are
essential to egg production.

The young stock should be kept growing steadily, yet it is a
mistake to force pullets too rapidly. If their egg-producing
organs are developed into a state of production in advance of
their bodies having attained full growth, they will lay under-
sized eggs, or they may lay a few eggs and then enter a molt,
which will postpone further egg production until late in the
winter. By no means force pullets by excessive feeding of highly
concentrated animal protein foods.

Transfer Pullets Early —Many poultrymen make the mistake
of allowing their pullets to remain on the range, in colony houses,
too far into the fall, sometimes until the birds are ready to lay.
The error in this practice is this: Chickens are creatures of habit,
and nothing disturbs them more than changing their accommo-

332 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

dations, even though they may be moved to a more desirable.
They will fuss and foolishly agitate themselves when placed in an
unfamiliar building, which invariably results in a falling off in
the egg yield. For proof of this, take a pen of fowls that are
laying nicely and remove them to another building; then note
the egg yield.

(Courtesy Petal Chamber of C ce)
Fig. 216.—A husky brood; count them.

It should be a rule to get the pullets into their permanent
winter quarters several weeks in advance of the time they are
expected to commence laying, and to train them to accept their
more regulated method of living and confinement with as much
grace as possible.

CREMATE OR BURY THE DEAD 333

Dangers of Poisons.—No experienced poultryman willfully
feeds his flock on spoiled grain, because he knows that to do so is
almost certain to result in sickness. No one with common sense
would think of leaving poisons about, such as arsenate of lead
or Paris green, where the fowls have access to them, or where
children are likely to play with them. Common sense dictates
that these poisonous things are in the class with high explosives,
to be treated with the greatest caution and forethought, lest
they result in some terrible fatality. In other words, we are im-
pressed with the danger of explosives and poisons, therefore we
handle them accordingly.

Decayed Animal Matter—It is unfortunate that poultry
raisers generally do not extend this caution in the matter of
poisons, and make it cover all such risks, since others exist
which are almost equally as potent as the arsenate of lead,
despite the fact that little or no attention is paid to them. Iam
speaking of the decaying carcasses of fowls and rotten eggs which
are so often carelessly left about the premises, thrown on rub-
bish piles, in manure pits, or in adjoining woods and fields.

Such carcasses, in fact, dead animal matter of any kind, really
constitute just so much poison as soon as they start to putrefy.
If death was caused by disease, the bodies are poisonous even
before they start to putrefy, for reasons too obvious for further
explanation. They are the carriers of contagion, which is the
equivalent of poison.

Destroy the Dead.—Every authority who writes about poultry
or gives advice on the subject is sure to say—‘‘ Destroy the bodies
of dead fowls. Either burn them, put them in quicklime, or
deeply bury them.”

Perhaps poultry keepers have been told this so often that it
has lost its power, for certain it is that the advice is not followed
as a general practice, at least, not with the scrupulousness that is
weighed against the skull and cross-bones poison label or the
explosive. Yet it should be, every mite as carefully.

Chickens Are Scavengers.—It is not a very pleasant idea to
contemplate chickens as scavengers, though in treating a subject

334 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of this kind we are obliged to deal with facts and not fancies.
Chickens are scavengers. Almost all fowls are scavengers to a
certain degree. Whether this is the result of intense domestica-
tion or a natural impulse, I am not prepared to say, but I do
know that fowls will eat dead animal matter at the slightest op-
portunity, and, what is more, they eat it with apparent relish.

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 217.—Growing coop for young stock constructed from piano cases covered
with tar paper. Note runway in front of right-hand window.

In the early stages of decomposition, if the animal matter
has not been infected with a malignant disease, little harm will
result from eating it, unless eaten in large quantities, which will
bring about bowel troubles. But as soon as an advanced state
of putrefaction sets in, the carcass fairly swarms with bacteria—
microbes of one kind or another, not to mention worms and the

WHEN DISINFECTANTS ARE USELESS 335

eggs of flies, which are highly poisonous. Taken into the bodies
of the fowls these bacteria soon attack healthy tissue.

Since few fowls or animals meet with accidental deaths, or
die without cause, it is well to consider all dead animal matter as
being highly poisonous, therefore unfit for food.

All the disinfectants in the world are useless, and spraying,
white-washing and cleaning go for naught if the carcasses of
dead birds are left about the premises. We can treat disease till
the end of time, but we can never hope to exterminate it.so long
as a single infected specimen remains on the plant. These are
not the vaporings of a crank. They are plain truths. And the
sooner we recognize them, the better it will be for our poultry
and other folks’ poultry as well.

If the evils resulting from the careless handling of dead animal
matter were a little more tangible, no doubt we would be held
accountable unto the law for spreading contagion. The fact
that these evils are not tangible, and we are not held technically
responsible, does not alter the moral obligation, however, conse-
quently we owe it to the community, as well as to our own security,
to provide every precaution.

Flies thrive and breed upon carrion. They are notorious germ
carriers, traveling far and wide and doing untold damage. Your
flock of fowls may be perfectly well, and the conditions under
which the birds are kept may be the acme of sanitation, but if
your neighbor's ways are negligent, it will be only good fortune
if at some time or other your birds do not suddenly break down
with illness of some kind, which, if it could be traced, would be
chargeable to this neighbor.

The Easiest Way.—Dead bodies, especially those of little
chicks, are improperly disposed of largely because it is deemed
easier to get rid of them by the shortest route. This is a fallacy,
if the bodies return in the form of disease, for nothing is more
troublesome to combat than a flock of sick chickens. In back-
yard flocks the bodies of dead chicks are frequently thrown into
the garbage cans, many of which are without tops. With or
without lids to the cans, this is a bad practice.

336 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

On farms where fowls are kept merely as a side line, the bodies
are apt to be tossed into the manure pit. Sometimes an effort
is made to cover them with the manure, but this does not remove
the evil, if the bodies were infected with disease. At some time
or other this manure is going to be spread about as fertilizer, and
with it will go the diseased remains of the dead fowls. Most of
the remains will be consumed, though not always the disease,

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 218.—Inexpensive colony growing coop built on skids.

for some disease germs live for months in the soil, especially
where there is heat, as in a manure pile, to further nurture them.

Hog Pen.—Frequently dead fowls are thrown into the hog
pen. Even when they are consumed by the hogs, this is not fit
food for hogs. Usually some parts of the remains lie about
long enough for other fowls to find it, and run off with it. Maybe
a dog will steal a body from the pen.

Pit or Well.—Some poultry keepers throw their dead into a

PRECAUTION SEEMS TROUBLESOME 337

pit or abandoned well. It may be that the hole is covered over
so that other fowls or animals cannot gain access to the carcasses,
but the chances are that flies will have no trouble in finding them.
Maggots, the larve of flies, worms and other ‘‘crawling things”
abide in putrid matter. Later these insects may be eaten by the
chickens.

The most careless method is to throw the dead bodies under
buildings, into hedge rows, along fences, on rubbish heaps or
other seemingly out-of-the-way places. Fowls and dogs, not to
mention rats, cats, skunks, crows and other flesh-eaters, soon

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 219.—Choose a secluded spot Fig. 220. — Open-front colony
for the brood coop. house with hinged front to exclude
driving rains.

learn the whereabouts of such places, and thereafter they will
make a practice of haunting them, like scavengers. If they
would consume all of the waste matter, it would not be so bad,
but they do not. They eat portions, and distribute the balance
around the grounds.

Bad eggs, especially those removed from the incubator, are
often left lying about, together with the empty shells and a small
percentage of dead chicks gathered at the close of a hatch. On
some of the largest hatcheries I have seen whole barrels of un-
hatched eggs, in various stages of decomposition, standing un-

338 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

covered outside the incubator cellars. In some cases the odors
were so bad as to be sickening. Eggs are animal matter, and
should be destroyed as thoroughly as dead bodies, especially
during warm weather.

In the winter time, when snow is on the ground, it is not un-
common to find carcasses thrown into the snow right outside of
the hen houses, on the assumption, I presume, that the cold will
prevent their decay. No doubt it was the intention of these
poultry raisers to gather the bodies before a thaw, but in most
cases they were forgotten, or hidden by the snow, until decay
had set in. Furthermore, cold does not kill all germs. Some-
times it simply suspends life, which will be renewed at the ap-
proach of warm weather.

There are but three really effectual methods of destroying dead
animal matter: Incineration, quicklime and deep burial. ‘

Placing the bodies in quicklime destroys them and all germ
life utterly, but it is rather troublesome to do this every time a
dead chick is found. Burial places the matter out of sight, and
may or may not destroy it. In any event, the burial should be
deep, so that other fowls or animals cannot dig it up.

Cremation is the best method, not only because burning puts
an end to any possibility of infection, but because it is the easiest
to perform. Contrive some kind of an incinerator out of an old
garbage can or metal receptacle, raise it off the ground about
eighteen inches, either by iron legs or a brick or stone foundation,
so that a fire can be built underneath, and every time you have
any waste paper or rubbish from the house, keep it handy for
this purpose.

Aside from destroying the bodies of all dead fowls which are
found in the brooders, laying houses and other buildings, do not
forget to look around the range at regular intervals. Sometimes
chickens are killed by strange causes, or they will go off in the
brush and die as the result of sickness or exposure. If their
bodies are not found by the attendant, they are sure to be found
by the rest of the flock, which is likely to prove a serious menace,
the importance of which cannot be over-estimated.

CHAPTER XXV
BREAKING UP BROODINESS

Hen’s Business is to Lay Eggs.—On farms devoted to egg pro-
duction it is the hen’s exclusive business to produce this product
in the greatest number, and it is her manager’s duty to see that
she is equipped with every facility toward this end, with no chance
for even a temporary cessation of activities. Where poultry is
raised on a large scale the hen is not held responsible for rearing
next season’s flock of pullets. It is far more economical to per-
form this work by artificial means—with the aid of incubators
and brooders; in consequence the hen is denied any participa-
tion in the furtherance of her species, save the laying of the egg,
and any inclination toward these maternal ambitions must be
promptly discouraged.

Production is not Continuous.—Contrary, perhaps, to the
opinion of the novice, egg production is not a sequence of certain
quantities of correctly proportioned nutrients taken into the
body daily, digested, assimilated and then converted into a
regular supply of eggs—a continuous operation, as it were, un-
interrupted so long as the hen’s health and vigor are maintained,
and her care is as it should be.

The egg cells, scarcely visible to the naked eye, of which there
are many hundred in the well-bred normal fowl, and some author-
ities place the number of latent eggs at upwards of five thou-
sand, are stimulated and developed in series or clusters, sometimes
called ‘‘clutches”’ or ‘‘litters’’; each series being ripened or held
dormant in accordance with the fowl’s general health and her
capacity to consume sufficient quantities of nutrients essential
to the stimulation of the egg-producing organs.

The number of cells in each series varies widely with different

339

340 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

breeds and with different specimens, and there seems to be no
basis for an approximation. There may be a dozen cells in a
litter, or five dozen, and in rare cases, such as the hens that have
attained wonderful records at egg-laying contests, fowls will con-
tinue to lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for
a couple of years. Ordinarily, between clusters there is a period

= ~ a

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)
Fig. 221.—Every laying house should be equipped with a broody hen coop.

of non-production, a sort of rest period, which varies in duration
the same as the size of the litter. It may be a week or a month,
or perhaps three months; and not infrequently a hen will lay
but the one cluster of eggs and then stay off the nest for the re-
mainder of the year. Such specimens are to be rated as drones,
and dealt with accordingly. Birds that are impoverished and
those that are not bred along the lines of heavy egg production are

EGGS ARE LAID IN SERIES 341

usually in this class, and for which the poultryman should keepa
sharplookout; they are not fitted for the highly organized egg plant.

Intervals Between Litters.—Generally speaking, hens that lay
short litters take but a few days to the intervals between them,
whereas those that lay from thirty to sixty eggs in almost daily
succession will require a much longer period, which seems per-
fectly natural. Egg production is a severe tax on the hen’s
body; it is a secretory and a reproductive process combined,
and as such it de- °
mands time in which [7
to recuperate.

When a hen com-
pletes laying a litter,
especially during the
spring months, she is
usually attended by a
maternal instinct—a
desire to hatch the
eggs, all of which is
very natural, indeed,
but not in accordance
with the poultryman’s

views on the subject. (Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)

Producing eggs for Fig. 222.—Outdoor coop for breaking up broody
table purposes does hens. Note the slatted bottom.

not concern Mistress
Biddy. She performs her labors in response to the highest
ideal—that of reproducing her kind, .and having completed the
first step in the operation, the laying of the eggs, she cannot
acquit herself of the responsibility until they are transformed into
a fluffy flock of youngsters. It is a noble resolve, but, unfor-
tunately for the hen, it has no place on the commercial egg farm.
Hens of the general purpose and meat varieties, such as Ply-
mouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, Wyandottes and Brahmas are
more addicted to this form of domesticity than are the lighter
breeds; though the desire is pretty well founded in all classes of
poultry, even to the so-called non-sitting breeds—Leghorns,

342 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Campines and Minorcas. The non-sitting breeds, however,
are not so habitually broody, nor so likely to be difficult to dis-
courage.

In the fall of the year strict attention is paid to the require-
ments of the pullets to induce them to commence laying, and
during the severe winter months that follow everything is done to
sustain this yield. By March, which is the natural season for
egg production, wherein almost anything that resembles a chicken
is giving a good account of itself, the poultryman relaxes his
vigilance over the egg basket and turns his energies toward other
problems—mating, fertility, incubating and brooding. There
is such an abundance of eggs at this time that this phase of the
business seems to take care of itself.

Watch Out for Broodiness.—March, April and May are the
months of heaviest production, after which the egg yield will
fall off very rapidly if the poultryman is not watchful of his
flock—on the lookout for broody hens. From the first of March
and well into the summer the poultry keeper should make it a
hard and fast rule to go over all the nests every evening, an hour
after the last feeding time is best, and remove therefrom any fowls
that show signs of broodiness. Very few hens lay after four
o'clock in the afternoon, and inasmuch as they have no business
on the nests after nightfall anyhow, it is a pretty safe practice
to take up all birds found in the nests at that time, on the assump-
tion that they are suspicious characters, and confine them in
quarters specially built for their accommodation, which will be
described in another paragraph.

Easily Broken at First.—Those who are inexperienced may rea-
son that it seems unnecessary to make this a daily task, and that
to go over the nests once a week or every few days will answer the
same purpose; but such is not the case. A hen removed from
the nest on the first day of her inclination to sit is very much
easier to discourage than when she has been permitted to indulge
her fancy for a week or more. She is usually rather indifferent
about the matter at first and can be diverted with little effort,
whereas at the end of a week the notion is a confirmed habit—
a firm resolve, lodged crosswise in her mind and clinched on the

EFFECT ON EGG PRODUCTION 343

inside, from which it is a tedious job to break her. Everyone
who has raised chickens, no doubt, has had an opportunity to
observe the tenacity and stubbornness of a sitting hen; her will-
power is almost unconquerable.

Failure to discourage broodiness is probably the most potent
cause for the low rate of egg production in the farm flock, and for
which the farmer has nothing to blame but his own indifference
or ignorance. The broody hen eats and drinks very little and
takes practically no exercise, consequently she soon becomes thin
and emaciated and we
are apt to marvel how
she sustains life at all.
She could not survive
if it were not for her
ability to draw upon
her internal store-
house for sustenance.
It is the depreciation
of this store of energy
that causes her egg-
producing organs to
become contracted Fig. 223.—Egg-laying contest house for two pens
and dormant, and in of birds, Storrs, Connecticut.
the same _ inactive,
shrunken condition that we find in the immature pullet or the
fowl that is going through the molt. Her entire attitude is
that of sluggishness; the abdominal section that was once re-
laxed and distended, is drawn well up into her body; the pelvic
bones that were formerly pliable and spread far apart, are rigid
and close together; and the comb and wattles that were pendu-
lous and brightly colored, are now pale and shrivelled.

Time Lost.—Briefly, when the hen becomes broody she reverts
to the state of an undeveloped pullet, and the time involved is
very short. Once she has been reduced to this condition, and
with all things favorable, from four to six weeks are required to
bring her back into laying. If conditions are not favorable;
for example, if the weather is very hot, or she is not fed the proper

344 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

ration, or if she was never but an indifferent layer at best, the
chances are she will not resume laying until next season. In-
stead, it is highly probable that she will enter the molt.

Loss of Plumage.—When a hen is permitted to get in poor
condition, especially in warm weather, either by illness, idleness
on the nest, or by raising a brood of chicks, her plumage, like her
body, dries up. It loses its sleek, glossy appearance; the oil
in the quills is impoverished, and in consequence the fowl enters
an early molt. The early molt is the longest, sometimes re-
quiring four and five months, so that on farms devoted to egg
production it is seldom considered profitable to carry the early
“molters”’ over to the next season, and they are disposed of as meat.

Egg Production Is Secondary.— We might term egg production
a supplementary function, for such it really is—secondary circu-
lation, the result of over-stimulation. Strictly speaking, fowls
eat to repair and restore the daily wear and tear to the body
tissues—to maintain them in a healthy, normal state. If the
amount of nourishment that they consume is merely equal to
this task alone, there is none left for the work of stimulating the
egg-producing organs to a point of activity. On the other hand,
if there is an excess of nourishment, that which is assimilated over
and above the daily requirements of the body, it goes into the
development of the reproductive organs, which progress no faster
than this nourishment is provided.

In the late winter and early spring the hen will instinctively
labor to bring about this excess of nourishment for egg develop-
ment. It is the natural season for her to commence laying.
- With the advent of milder weather she will forage for tidbits
of greens, seeds, bugs, worms and other morsels in addition
to her regular bill-of-fare, all of which is highly nutritious and
places her in the pink of condition. When she has completed
laying her first clutch of eggs, especially if it be a long one, the
chances are she will manifest a desire to hatch them. Or, she
may continue to lay another litter and then try to hatch it.
Certain it is that she will try to hatch at least once during the
spring months, and maybe three or four times.

BREAKING UP BROODINESS 345

If the poultryman is not alert, the hen will steal a march on
him, for she is very persistent. The operator must thwart her
plans immediately, and frustrate them in such a way that she
is induced to continue to eat large quantities of food, and thus
maintain her appetite, keep her body well nourished and prolong
the life of her plumage, in which case she will continue laying
throughout the summer.

Avoid Cruel Measures.—There are many ways of discouraging

broodiness, but, remem-
bering that the real rea-
son for so doing is to in-
duce further egg produc-
tion, any practice or
method that subjects the
hen to cruelty or pri-
vation will only defeat
the idea, therefore it
should not be tolerated.
The old-fashioned ideas
of inflicting some form of
punishment on the un- (Courlesy Kansas Experiment Station)
offending biddy because Fig. 224.—“‘ A"’-shaped colony house covered
she responded to a nat- with tar paper.
ural impulse were wrong.
Aside from humane reasons, to half starve or ill treat fowls, or to
keep them from water, invites further loss in eggs, since these cus-
toms are sure to bring about the very condition that should be
avoided—the reversion of the egg organs to a dormant state.

Small Flocks.— Where the birds are kept in small flocks, a good
plan is to build a coop with a slatted bottom at the end of the
roosting compartment, having it well ventilated and easy of
access. See Fig. 221. Or an ordinary packing-case may be
converted into a broody-hen coop: Remove the bottom and re-
place it with slats, mount the box on legs that will keep it about
six inches off the floor, and then construct a simple wire-netting-
covered-frame for a lid. As the clucks are taken from the nests

346 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

they are placed in this coop, and the sensation of currents of air
under them instead of eggs is disconcerting, to say the least.

The hens are unable to squat in a comfortable position, due
to their legs protruding through the openings between the slats;
they have no sense of privacy nor security, hence two or three
days of this harmless pillory usually disgusts them with the idea
of wanting to hatch a brood of chicks, and when released they
are only too anxious to rejoin their companions in the laying
house. It is understood, of course, that food and water are kept
before them during their confinement, and that they are not to be
treated like prisoners, but as hospital inmates.

In long laying houses of the continuous type, where the birds
are kept in large units, a section of the roosting compartment
may be given over to the broody-hen coop and fitted with a
temporary slatted floor. It is better, however, to partition an
end of the house in which there is the maximum amount of sun-
shine, and to remove all fixtures or nests that may offer secluded
nooks. Green food in abundance should be placed in the pen
along with fresh water and the regular grain rations, and if pos-
sible the inmates should be induced to exercise. The presence
of a few lively cockerels in the pen will go a long way in breaking
the obstinate clucks.

If the weather is mild, as it usually is when one has a large
number of broody hens, another good plan is to place them in an
open yard, giving them no access to a house even at night, except
during a violent storm. Without refuge of any sort, and nothing
to do but fuss with others of their kind, life holds very little en-
joyment for them, so that even the most persistent members are
readily converted.

However troublesome it may be to remove the broody hens
every day, positively it must be done if eggs are to be secured in
large numbers during the summer months. It is a part of the
general scheme of intensive progressive poultry culture—equally
as important as artificial incubation and brooding. Furthermore,
it means greatly increased profits, for it should be remembered
that August eggs bring about the same prices as January eggs.

CHAPTER XXVI
SURPLUS COCKERELS

Cockerels a Necessary Evil.—On poultry farms specializing
in egg production the aim is to rear pullets. Cockerels are looked
upon more or less as a nuisance. Yet, no matter how hard we
try to mate our pens so that the hatches will run to females, as a
general rule fifty per cent of the chickens are cockerels.

It is one of those natural laws over which we have no control.
To the beginner this is sometimes discouraging, in view of the
fact there is not a great deal of profit to be made from the average
flock of surplus cockerels. In fact, some breeders complain that
their cockerels actually become a liability, and sell for less than
the cost of production. Where such is the case, there is some-
thing wrong with the management.

Poor Returns.—It is true, very few breeders derive any ap-
preciable returns from their surplus cockerels, especially from
males of the egg-laying varieties, such as the Leghorns. This
is due in a large measure, however, to mismanagement. Either
the birds are not properly fattened and prepared for market pur-
poses, or they are not marketed at the right time. Many poul-
try raisers sell their cockerels at an early age, profit or no profit,
regardless of the prevailing prices, in order to get them out of the
way, retaining only the most promising specimens for future
breeding purposes.

It is a mistake to force these birds on the market at a sacrifice,
since they can be turned into easy money if one has sufficient
space in which to segregate them, and then fatten and hold them
for greater weight and better prices.

Separate at Early Age.—As soon as the cockerels are old enough
for their sex to be determined they should be separated from the

347

348 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

pullets and kept by themselves. If permitted to run with older
fowls, they are constantly bullied and do not receive their proper
share of food, which, of course, retards their development. If
they are allowed to mature with the pullets, the males not only
get the lion’s share, but they bother the pullets as well, which is
not good for the pullets’ growth. If the pullets develop slowly,
they are not fitted for early egg production.

Cockerels that are penned by themselves at the age of two

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 225.—Wire-covered shed for housing cockerels in warm weather. Shed
is built in the lee of a barn.

months live peacefully together, require very little attention, and
if properly fed they can be made to put on flesh very rapidly.
The quality of their flesh is greatly improved in this manner;
instead of being dry and tough, it is tender and juicy, comparing
favorably with the capon, and in place of angular bodies their
carcasses will be plump and well-rounded.

The people of the United States are probably the greatest
consumers of poultry and eggs in the world, and yet we are said

NEED FOR FATTENING 349

to be satisfied with a very poor quality. The average quality
of chicken seen in the retail store and on hotel tables in this
country is far below that found abroad—in France, England,
Belgium, Denmark and so on. This is largely due to the great
consumption of broilers, which, however good they may be
in some respects, lack the tenderness and abundance of flesh
found on fowls that have been properly fattened before killing.

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 226.—Home-made fattening crate located in the lee of a building. These
crates can be utilized for broody hens as well.

In fact, as a general practice the fattening or finishing of poultry
by special processes is virtually an unknown industry in this
country.

The common plan has been to let the fowls eat all the corn they
will consume for a couple of weeks before marketing, but this
method does not produce prime table poultry in a strict sense of
the term. Corn has a distinct tendency to put on weight—this
is unquestionable; but this weight consists mainly of a heavy

350 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

deposit of oily fat in layers under the skin, and in masses in the
abdominal cavity, which is not particularly desirable inasmuch
as it does not really constitute edible meat. In fowls that are
properly fattened this excess weight is distributed in tiny globules
of fat throughout all the body tissues, where it belongs; conse-
quently in cooking this fat is not wasted, but renders the tissues
soft and juicy.

The average American farmer is very careful to see that his
steers and hogs are properly fattened before sending them to
market, but to the poultry he pays little or no attention. It is
difficult to find any excuse for this indifference, because a pound
of grain can be converted into more poultry meat of greater value
and in less time than through any fowr-footed medium.

Fattening Feeds.—Common sense dictates that if fowls are
confined in small pens and kept quiet they will fatten much
quicker than if allowed their liberty. The flesh of a chicken on
unlimited range is tough and stringy, no matter how young the
bird may be. Ground barley or oats, with one-third corn meal,
thoroughly moistened with skim milk, makes a splendid growing
and fattening food.

Cramming is practised by experts who wish to produce fowls
of the highest quality table meat, and while it gives excellent
results, the crate fattening method is almost as good, and will
answer the purpose of the average poultry raiser. In the long
run the crate method is probably the most profitable. See Fig.
227. It is practised very extensively in England, and in recent
years many of the large American packing houses have specialized

tein it.

Rations.—The Ontario Agricultural College conducted a series
of experiments in fattening poultry, and found that a mixture of
two parts corn meal, two parts ground buckwheat and one part
pearl oat dust, with an equal weight of skim milk, gave excellent
results at a cost of three and a half cents per pound for the weight
gained. Oats and skim milk made the gain cost slightly over five
cents per pound.

Another good fattening ration is made up of roo pounds of

FATTENING METHODS 351

corn meal, 100 pounds of wheat middlings, and 40 pounds of
animal meal. The fowls should have access to plenty of sharp
grit to aid digestion, and as a blood purifier, some poultrymen
mix a little sulphur in the mash once every two weeks. At the
close of the fattening period, which usually lasts about six weeks,
a little tallow may be added to the feed.

It is unquestionable that the breeder of heavy fowls, such as
Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds, has the
advantage over the Leghorn breeder when it comes to disposing
of cockerels. If desired, the heavier breeds can be caponized,
or they can be held for roasters, and made to weigh six or eight

3 (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 227.—Pouring feed into the troughs of fattening crates.

pounds. Furthermore, breeders of heavy fowls usually hatch a
month or two earlier than Leghorn breeders, consequently their
young stock can be made to weigh four to five pounds to the pair
at a time when broilers and fryers command top prices.

Squab Broilers.—March, April and May are the best months
for hatching. Leghorns, hence cockerels from these hatches are
not large enough to be sold as broilers or fryers until June or
July, at which time market prices have materially declined. In
some localities there is a fair outlet for Leghorn cockerels as
squab broilers, weighing about three-quarters of a pound each,
during April and May. They are sometimes called asparagus
chickens, and the price is about a dollar per pair.

352 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Costs.—Leghorn breeders will do well to take advantage of
this market whenever possible, since it means a very fair profit,
and it also offers an opportunity to relieve any congestion in the
colony houses. It is comparatively easy to bring Leghorns to
weigh a pound in six weeks’ time, and under normal circumstances
the cost of production, including the original value of the egg and
its incubation, together with the labor and expense of dressing
and shipping, should not exceed twenty-five cents. This leaves
a net profit of twenty-five cents per bird—nothing to brag about,

all bree ZAI 9 |

Pid a

FRONT VIEW
er

juan

T1111

fi mesh hertware cloth
bottom *

hoe PF 4 VE A , END ELEVATION

Bach, Top and Ends
are covered with I lach
rag.

it e
(California Experiment Station)
Fig. 228.—Plans for a 2-compartment fattening crate.

r1€ drssed | |

perhaps, yet all things considered it is a very fair return on the
investment. This profit will defray the expense of maintaining
a pullet for two months.

When Prices Are Low.—When prices on young chickens fall
below twenty cents per pound live weight, as they do in July and
August, there is very little profit to be had over the cost of pro-
duction, especially for Leghorns weighing about two pounds each.
The market is usually so glutted that buyers can afford to dis-
criminate in favor of the heavier breeds. At such times, rather
than sacrifice the shipments, it will pay the poultryman to fatten

SQUAB BROILERS 353

the cockerels for small roasters. True, the fact that they are
Leghorns will always discount the highest prices, yet if they are
properly fattened and neatly dressed their returns will be pretty
nearly commensurate with their cost of production.
Quarters.—Some breeders argue against the idea of keeping
surplus cockerels for the reason that they cannot provide suitable
living quarters for them. Admitting that the poultryman’s

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)
Fig. 229.—Killing and dressing broilers—surplus cockerels.

space is limited, the cockerels come along at a time when it is
usually advisable to dispose of some of the older fowls for meat,
especially the breeding males, whereupon, by combining other
pens, there will be left one or more empty pens for the accommo-
dation of the cockerels. See Fig. 225. Before the breeding
season opens again, or before these pens are required by the pul-
lets, the cockerels will have been sold or used on the home table.

Quality Counts.—Many a consignment of poultry has brought

i ale

354 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

poor returns and bitter disappointment to the shipper simply
because it was not uniformly graded, or becaus2 the fowls were
carelessly dressed or improperly packed. Nine times out of ten
the poultryman has no one but himself to blame for poor prices.
Specimens that are thin and emaciated, malformed in any way,
those having crooked breast-bones, or those with bruised or
mutilated skins, should not be included in a shipment intended
to be sold at top prices.

It is far better to leave a few undesirable carcasses out of a
shipment, to be used on
the home table, than to
include them, no matter
how tempting it may be
to add this additional
weight. Remember
that the sales account is
going to be returned on
the basis of quality. To
keep the undesirables at
home you may lose a
few pounds, from which
at least you derive a

(U.S. Dep't Agriculture) meal or two for the

Fig. 230.—Correct way to grasp head of fowl f amily; whereas to
for killing and bleeding. Note position of knife E ‘
in respect to veins. send them in the ship-

ment may be the means
of reducing the price a couple of cents per pound on the entire lot.
Nothing appeals to a dealer so much as uniform quality. Each
grade should be uniform in size, shape, color of skin and shanks,
age and degree of plumpness.

Scalding is the most rapid method of removing the feathers,
and there is less loss in dressed weights than by drv picking, due
to the absorption of a small amount of water by the body in the
plumping process, but it is almost impossible to practise this
method without destroying the natural appearance of the skin.
If the water is too hot, or the fowl is immersed too long, the skin

STICKING AND PICKING 355

is partly cooked and the thin
scarf skin peels off, which
causes the flesh to become dis-
colored. If the water is not
hot enough, it is then difficult
to remove the feathers with-
out tearing theskin. The cor-
rect temperature is about 180
degrees. When the feathers
are removed, singe the body
with an alcohol flame to re-
move hairs, and then plunge it
in cold water to remove the
animal heat, and to plump the
carcass.

Dry Picking.—It requires
more time and skill to dry pick
fowls, yet one is usually com-
pensated for this additional
trouble. Dry picked poultry
is more attractive and brings
higher prices, and in many
markets no other sort will be
tolerated, except toa cheaper
class of trade.

The success of dry picking
depends on getting the right
bleed and the correct stick.
Hang the fowl by a cord (see
Fig. 229), or hold in the hands
while sitting, seize the head in
the left hand (see Fig. 230),
and with the right hand run
the blade of the sticking knife
into the throat until the large
artery in the left side of the

EYE

CORRECT CUr

GROOVE IN
ROOF OF MOUTH

EYE
ENO OF BEAK

(U.S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 231.—Anatomy of skull, showing
position of veins and correct way to cut
for killing.

356 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

throat is severed. This operation is termed bleeding, and must
be successfully done before the fowl is stuck. See Fig. 231.
As soon as the blood spurts freely insert the knife-blade in the
slit of the roof of the mouth and plunge it backward into the
brain directly back of the eye. When the brain is reached, there
will be a violent muscular contraction, whereupon give the knife
a sharp twist and withdraw it.

(U.S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 232.—Heads of fowls with lower jaw removed, showing poor attempts at
severing veins in throat.

If the operation has been successful, paralysis will be induced,
and the feathers will loosen. Begin picking immediately; rough
pick the breast and body feathers first, then wing and tail feathers
and finally the wing and tail quills. Always remove the greater
bulk of all the feathers before attempting to clean off the small
feathers. Avoid pulling too many feathers at one stroke to pre-
vent tearing the skin, and remember that tearing is most likely

PACKING AND SHIPPING 357

to occur on each side of the breast and on the neck. A neat job
and rapid work are only acquired after considerable practice.
To the uninitiated it looks very simple, indeed, until experience
proves that there is quite a knack to be learned.

Give No Food.—All poultry intended for slaughter should be
kept without food for twenty-four hours, and in many states this
is required by law. In so doing the intestines are given time to
become empty, which helps to prevent decomposition of food
materials within the body, and adds greatly to the keeping qual-
ity of the carcass. Water should be supplied during this fasting
period, for it aids in cleansing the intestines.

A few markets prefer poultry drawn, but that sent to New
York, Chicago and cities in general is not drawn. Undrawn
poultry keeps best.

Shipping.—Bearing in mind that the package frequently sells
the product which it contains, the poultryman should prepare
his shipments in the most attractive manner, so they will arrive
in the best possible condition. Each box or barrel should be
lined with paper, preferably parchment paper, which will help
to prevent evaporation, or injury to the contents through rough
handling. Clean rye or wheat straw may be used to advantage.

For icing poultry in barrels in warm weather, bore a hole in the
bottom for drainage, then place a layer of ice, then alternate layers
of poultry and ice until the package is full. Pack the poultry
breast down and back up, with the legs straight towards the
center of the barrel, making a ring of fowls side by side around
the outside. The middle of the barrel may be filled with bodies
or with cracked ice. Over the top layer of poultry place a layer
of ice, then a piece of burlap, and finally a layer of ice on which
the head rests. Poultry packed in this manner can be shipped
long distances and should arrive at its destination in perfect
condition. In cold weather it is seldom necessary to use ice.

Mark all shipments clearly, giving the name and address of
the consignee, name and address of the shipper, and the contents
of the package. A stencil is useful for this purpose; it is much
neater than amateur printing. Besides, it is more business-like.

CHAPTER XXVII
CAPONIZING

Does Caponizing Pay?—There is a wide difference of opinion
on the subject.

Without attempting to answer this question offhand, let us
first consider the matter fully, and from different points of view.

Delicious Meat.—Capons are undoubtedly a more delicious
meat than an uncaponized bird, which is especially true of fowls
that are held past six months of age. The flesh is sweeter and of
a superior flavor in the capon, consequently it brings much
higher prices. The markets of the entire country are sparingly
supplied with capon flesh, hence there is a constant demand for it
at uniformly good prices. There is no definite capon season,
apparently, but most breeders market their stock after the holi-
days, from January to March. Usually the highest prices pre-
vail at this time. Even so it is almost impossible for the chance
buyer to pick up any capons in the general markets, because the
supply is seldom equal to the demand.

Advantages of the Capon.—The capon has many advantages
over the rooster: In the first place he is very docile, his disposi-
tion is entirely changed, he seldom if ever fights, he declines any
great amount of exercise, and will stand close confinement well.
Life holds very little for him, except to eat and sit around and grow
large and heavy. The meat of capons is more economically
grown than that of cockerels, because more of the food consumed
is stored up on the body as flesh and less is devoted to energy.
What is most important, capons can be kept longer than cock-
erels, because they will continue to grow larger and heavier, with-
out becoming coarse and staggy. They can be kept for a year
or longer, and sold profitably when poultry is scarce and bringing

358

SURPLUS MALES INTO CAPONS * 359

higher prices. Not caponized, it is quite likely they could not be
kept in prime condition for market longer than the fall of the
year, at which time poultry is so plentiful that prices are usually
low. Capons command

from twenty-five toforty [fF

centsapound,depending |
upon locality and the
season, while the ordi-
nary rooster brings from
twelve to twenty-five
cents. These are pre-
war prices.

Surplus Cockerels.—
On the average farm,
especially those devoted
to egg production, cock-
erels are taboo—unwel-
comed guests. Every
year several hundred
thousand male birds are
sold at an actual loss to
producers, because poul-
trymen believe they are
a nuisance. It is. con-
tended that they do not
more than pay the ex-
pense of raising. Thisis ee
true if the young cock- (Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)
erlsare marketed direct F285, shed, mare fot
from the range without and short thighs.
any special preparation.

Cockerels sold off the range are too thin and muscular. As prime
table poultry they should be fattened for a couple of weeks in
crates, as described in the previous chapter.

Increased Profits.—In our efforts to secure pullets for egg
production, we cannot evade raising an equal number of cockerels,

SALA S

360 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of which only a very small percentage are required for breeding
purposes. Therefore, as a simple business principle, if we must
raise surplus cockerels, we should strive to convert them into a
profit, if only as a by-product. And if caponizing will bring this
about, it is the strongest argument in favor of the practice.
Since the poultry department at Cornell University has been

AL 7

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 234.—Capons dressed for market. Conventional method of picking; the
birds, however, are not in perfect condition of flesh.

caponizing their surplus males, it has added several hundred
dollars a year to the net profits. Not only are better prices re-
ceived for capons, but there is an increase in weight over the nor-
mal state for the same age and under precisely the same care and
feeding. In the same length of time it is possible to raise capons
that will weigh almost a half more than they would have weighed

LARGE BREEDS ARE BEST 361

as cockerels. At six months of age cockerels have received their
most rapid growth. The same birds, if caponized when about
twelve weeks old, can be made to continue their growth until
they are eight and ten months old.

Larger Breeds Are Best.—Cockerels of any breed can be made
to increase in weight by being caponized; yet the larger breeds

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 235.—Side view of capons dressed for market.

are by far the most desirable. Ifa poultryman is going to special-
ize in capons, rather than develop surplus males as a side line, then
of course, the selection of the breed to be used is of primary im-:
portance. The operator must keep before him the idea of well-
finished, well-rounded, solid meat, a bird that has the greatest
amount of flesh for the least amount of bone, and the shortest
shank. See Fig. 233. This ideal condition is shown by the use

362 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of Asiatic breeds—Brahmas and Langshans, which are still
further improved by the admission of Plymouth Rock and English
Game blood.

Cross Breeds.—It is not uncommon for Light Brahma capons
to weigh from twelve to fifteen pounds each at eight or ten months
of age. Smaller capons, however, will more nearly supply the
needs of the average family, consequently the Plymouth Rocks
and Wyandottes will be found very satisfactory. White Ply-
mouth Rocks, straight or crossed with White Cornish Game, give
excellent results, a long full breast, clean yellow legs, and no
dark pinfeathers.

Another practice is to cross the Barred Plymouth Rock with
the Light Brahma, which will give greater weight, but the dark
pinfeathers are an objection. A bird with handsome plumage is
more attractive as a capon, for in dressing this class of poultry
much of the plumage is left on the body. See Figs. 234 and
235.

The conventional way to dress capons is to leave the head and
hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the
tail feathers, including those a little way up the back, and the
feathers on the legs halfway up the thighs.. These feathers
serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market,
and for this reason partridge-colored birds are used to a great
extent. The undeveloped comb and wattles are other distin-
guishing features of the capon, also a long, rather pointed head.

Time to Caponize.—Cockerels may be caponized at any age,
but for the comfort of the bird and convenience of the operator,
it is not advisable to perform the operation when the birds are
too young or after they are more than six months old. In de-
termining the proper time, the size of the bird should be the
governing factor, the most desirable time being when the birds
weigh from two and a half to three pounds, or when they are
about three months old. The operation will succeed on older
birds, but the percentage of deaths and slips will be greater. A
slip is a bird that is neither capon nor cockerel, and brings no
better price than a cockerel.

(U.S. Department of Agriculture)

Fig. 236.—Caponizing instruments: a, hollow tube cannula; 6, scoop can-
nula; c, knife; d, spring spreader; e, sliding spreader; f, tweezers; g, probe;
h, sharp-pointed hook; 2, sliding cannula; &, spoon forceps.

363

364 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Caponizing is simple and easy to learn; in France it has
been practised for centuries, and practically without instruments
except a sharp knife. Anyone with average intelligence and a
fair amount of dexterity can learn to caponize in a short time.
The beginner should practise first with dead fowls, and wherever
possible it is well to first attend a practical demonstration. The
Agricultural Stations of some states give free lessons at certain
seasons.

Reliable Instruments—The beginner should purchase a re-
liable set of instruments (see Fig. 236), and once he has become
familiar with the use of each instrument, and with the manner
of making the incision, there will be little difficulty in doing the
work. Dexterity is simply a matter of practice. The beginner
should caponize a bird in about fifteen minutes; after one has
gained the confidence and dexterity that come with practice,
this time may be reduced to four or five minutes. The operation
is performed with apparently little pain to the subject, and the
moment the bird is released he will walk about as if nothing had
occurred.

Two conditions are essential to success in caponizing: One is
that the intestines of the bird should be entirely empty, so that
there will be the least amount of bulk in the abdominal cavity;
the other condition is strong light, which will permit the organs
of the bird to be clearly distinguished. Sunlight is best, conse-
quently if the weather is favorable it is a good plan to operate
outdoors. Withhold all food and water from the fowls for at
least twenty-four hours before the operation. Some operators
keep the birds off food for forty-eight hours, which insures empty
intestines.

The bird must be secured to the operating table in a convenient
manner; pass a noose of cord about the legs, as shown in Fig.
237, and tie the wings in the same way. Attach weights to the
ends of the cords, which will hold the bird in any desired position.

Have the instruments conveniently at hand, also a basin of
water, to which have been added a few drops of carbolic acid, and

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 237.—Layout for caponizing. First step in the operation is to locate the
last two ribs and make the incision.

365

366 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

some absorbent cotton. Once the operation is started, carry it
through as quickly as possible.

Locate the area for the incision, between the last two ribs,
as shown in Fig. 238, and then remove a few feathers where the
cut is to be made. Moisten the surrounding feathers to keep
them out of the way. Before making the incision, stretch the
outer skin as far as possible toward the thigh; thus when the
operation is completed the opening in the outer skin will not be
over the cut between the ribs, inasmuch as it will have slipped
back to its normal position. Make the incision as neatly as
possible, about an inch long. There is little danger of cutting the
intestines, providing the bird has
been sufficiently starved. Insert
the spreader, being careful that
it presses against the ribs, thus
springing the ribs apart and ex-
posing the intestines. See Fig.
239.

The intestines are covered with
a thin membrane called the omen-

(U.S. Department of Agriculture) tym, Tear this membrane apart
corsa eee se of with the point of a sharp hook
be made between the last two ribs. | (see Fig. 240); push the intestines

aside witha probe, and up against
the backbone the glands or testicles should bein plain sight. See
Fig. 241. These glands are a creamy yellow and about the size
and shape of a bean. In very young birds the glands are little
bigger than a grain of wheat.

Skilled operators remove both glands through one incision,
in which case the lower gland should be removed first, so that
any bleeding will not obscure the other gland. Inexperienced
operators remove only the upper or nearer gland, and then make
a second incision on the opposite side of the body for the removal
of the other gland. This takes double the time, and is much
harder on the bird. It is not a good practice.

Back of the gland is a large blood-vessel, the spermatic artery,

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 239.—After the incision is made the spreaders are inserted to hold the
cut open,

367

368 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

which constitutes the delicate part of the operation, because if
this artery is ruptured the bird is almost certain to bleed to death.
The whole trick is to grasp the gland without grasping the artery
or the tissues surrounding it. The cannula or spoon forceps is
used for this purpose. Having grasped the gland, twist the
instrument around several times, then tear the gland from the
body and remove it. Repeat the operation on the other gland.
See Fig. 242.

After removing the glands, if the bleeding is at all profuse, it

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 240.—The hooked end of a Fig. 241.—When this is done the
sharp probe is then used to tear intestines are pushed aside, revealing
away the thin membranes covering the gland, which is about the size and
the intestines. shape of a small bean.

is advisable to remove a portion of the blood by means of small
pieces of absorbent cotton, inserted in the wound with the aid of
the tweezers or probe. Be sure to remove all blood-clots,
feathers or other matter that may have gathered inside the
wound, then take out the spreaders, thus allowing the skin to
slip back over the cut. See Fig. 243.

Losses are likely to occur with the best operators. The mor-
tality, however, should not exceed five per cent under average
circumstances, and with a skilled person it will not be more than

CARE AND FEEDING 369

two per cent. If the birds are killed accidentally, they are per-
fectly good to eat, hence they are not wasted.

A Slip.—Sometimes the operation appears to be very success-
ful, yet the bird develops much the same as a cockerel. This
condition is due to the fact that a small portion of the gland
has been left in the body. Such specimens are termed slips.
They are neither cockerels nor capons.

Following the operation the birds should be placed in a clean °
pen by themselves. Give them all the water they want, and for

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 242.—The gland is grasped by Fig. 243.—When the second gland
means of the spoon forceps or can- is removed, or if both glands are re-
nula, twisted round and removed. moved at once, unfasten the spreaders

and allow the skin to cover the open-
ing between the ribs, as shown, and
the operation is finished.

the next few days keep them confined on soft feed. A few of
them will bloat during the first week, but this is not serious and
can easily be remedied by pricking the skin with a needle. It is
caused by air getting under the skin, raising a slight swelling or
wind puff.

No stitching is required by the operation; the wound will
heal in a few days, and in a couple of weeks it will be hard to find
even a scar. Capons should be fed nourishing rather than fat-
tening feed for the first few months, the object being to keep them

370 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

growing. About three weeks before marketing they should be
fattened, either in small yards or crates. Corn meal and ground
oats, equal parts by weight, or corn meal and middlings, moist-
ened with water or milk, make a good mash for fattening capons
or other poultry.

The one great mistake in raising capons is in marketing them
too early and not having them fat enough. After caponizing
they can be made to put on flesh in a surprising manner, and they

Fig. 244.—Class in killing and dressing at the Kansas Agricultural College.

should be kept growing as fast as possible until they attain full
size, which will take from six to ten months.

After caponizing the comb and wattles cease to develop; the
hackle, saddle feathers and tail feathers grow very long, and the
plumage assumes a heavy, glossy appearance. Capons never
crow, manifest no interest in the rest of the flock, and are
generally despised for their peculiarities by other fowls. They
are exceedingly gentle and tractable, and often show a fondness
for little chicks. In fact, there are instances in which they have
been utilized in rearing broods of chickens.

Their behavior with chicks, in the main, is very much like that

COSTS AND PROFITS 371

of a hen; such differences being of a minor character and difficult
to distinguish clearly from those of a broody hen. They will
cluck, though in an imperfect way, hunt food for the chicks, and
attack anyone who approaches the brood.

Darwin states that capons are said to incubate eggs as well
as care for chicks, but the writer has no proof of this statement.
In fact, tests of capons are not extensive enough to warrant de-
finite conclusions, but it would appear entirely plausible that the
brooding instincts are after all not necessarily female character-
istics. Male pigeons, for example, assist in brooding and rearing
the young, as do guinea cocks and many wild birds.

In housing capons very little space is required, providing the
quarters are kept clean. About two square feet per bird is
sufficient. They require very little care; one man can easily
take care of three to five thousand capons, which is a point in
favor of the practice.

The cost of feeding a capon to maturity, or for twelve months,
is from eighty cents to a dollar and a quarter, depending upon the
cost of feed, and whether a fair portion of the daily fare is picked
up on the range. Add to this the cost of the operation, let us
say, five cents, and the cost of the chick at hatching time, and
we have a total cost of about a dollar and a quarter. Assuming
an average weight of eight and a half pounds for a twelve months’
bird, which is very conservative, with a selling price of thirty
cents a pound, the market value at killing time is two dollars
and fifty-five cents. This leaves a net profit of more than a
dollar and a quarter—a profit that compares very favorably
with the results obtained from a heavy laying hen.

CHAPTER XXVIII
BREEDING PRINCIPLES

In the minds of many who raise chickens and other fowls there
is but one idea and one kind of breeding—that of mating males
and females, regardless of type, strain, variety, prolificness or
relationship. Needless to add, that such matings sooner or
later—usually sooner—prove of little value to their owner, and
are finally completely dissipated. It is Nature’s way of eliminat-
ing the unfit.

Definitions of Breeding Methods.—To be precise, there are the
following methods: JIn-breeding, line-breeding, out-breeding, and
cross-breeding; and—shall we say—no breeding at all, meaning
rank mongrelism.

Line-Breeding.—Primarily, it is not advisable to make a
practice of mating birds more closely related than first cousins,
and the more distant this relationship can be drawn apart, the
better the chances for success. In making a start with a flock
of fowls, however, where one wishes to preserve the same strain
of blood, or in creating a new breed, it is usually necessary to
breed pretty close for a number of years, or until certain quali-
fications become intensified and fixed. If this breeding of re-
lated birds is done intelligently, with the view of fixing superiority
in color, shape and so on, it is called line-breeding. If the breed-
ing of related stock is done indiscriminately, and brothers and
sisters are bred together for generations for no particular purpose,
it is called in-breeding.

In other words, /ine-breeding, or breeding in line, is keeping
to the same ancestry—the same blood lines, without the disas-
trous effects of im-breeding. It is carefully selected, systematic
in-breeding.

372

EXCHANGING MALES 373

Out-breeding is a term applied to the practice of introducing
new blood every year, but blood of the same breed. Cross-
breeding is introducing entirely new blood of a distinctly different
breed. :

New Males.—Through fear of the flock degenerating many
poultry raisers consider it absolutely necessary to bring in new
males each year. Very often they make a practice of exchanging

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 245.—Pullets should be placed in their permanent laying quarters as soon
as they show signs of maturity.

males with nearby farms, which is the vogue among farmers,
especially. This is inspired by the right idea, but it is likely to
be accompanied by trouble. If it is desirable to introduce new
blood, the rule should be to do so—not just because it is new
blood, but because it is superior to your own in vigor and other
ways.

Speculation.—It is very difficult to raise standard bred birds
if new blood is added to the flock each year. You may buy a

374 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

pure-bred male to mate with your pure-bred females, and later
find that the two strains failed to nick properly. That is, the
mating may throw offspring with defective combs, dispropor-
tion or poor color, which will take several generations of special
breeding to eliminate. In short, the advent of new blood is a
speculation.

A better way to introduce new blood is to take two years to
do it, and experiment with individuals. Purchase a few hens of
the desired strain and mate them to your best males, or secure
a couple of outside males and mate them to your best females;
then study their offspring for a year, and if satisfactory, mate the
new blood to the balance of the flock.

There is no evidence to prove that line-breeding initiates de-
generacy, providing reasonable care is exercised each year in
selecting only vigorous breeders, and there is a large number of
fowls from which to choose. The danger becomes even more
remote if two divisions of the same blood are kept going year
after year. This consists of keeping two distinct strains or
matings on the same farm, both of which have a common an-
cestry, but which grow farther apart every year.

Every season the males of one line are mated to the females of
the other line, and vice versa, these lines having been started by
mating the best male to the best female, and continuing the
second generation by mating the original male to his daughters,
or the original hen to the son. Proceeding in a similar manner
for the third generation, the original male is mated to grand-
daughters and the original hen to her grandson, which practically
eliminates from each line its original respective sire or dam. It
is difficult to explain this system of line-breeding in writing, but
if you will make a chart of it and get down to actual figures, you
will soon see that it is very simple.

Cross-Breeding.—Some time in the career of every poultry-
man there is the temptation to cross-breed with a view to im-
proving certain qualities. In most instances the crossing of
two pure breeds is a mistake. The appearance alone of a flock
of cross-bred fowls when compared with the pure breeds whence

‘adues Auojod uo sjajjnd usoysay ayy puesnoy} sey [—‘9bz “31

376 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

they originated should convince any one that this is a bad plan.
The first cross is not so bad, as a rule, and occasionally it possesses
some slight advantages in egg production or weight, but these
hybrids should not be mated in any way, either among them-
selves or back to their parents. Therefore, to continue cross-
breeding it is necessary to maintain two distinct pure breeds year
after year, and to destroy the hybrids as soon as they cease to be
profitable. This occasions many separate houses and yards,
for the sexes of each pure breed, and for the crosses, a practice
that is both expensive and troublesome.

Grading Up Mongrels.—Sometimes it is profitable to grade up

(Courtesy Maryland Experiment Station)
Fig. 247.—‘‘ Busy moment for the trap nests.”

a flock of mongrels, such as are found on many general farms,
by introducing pure bred males. Pure bred males of the same
variety should be used year after year, however, and not the males
from the offspring of the first cross. In the course of four or
five generations, with careful selection, it is possible to grade up
the original flock of mongrels to the level of the pure bred male
in appearances, but scarcely in breeding qualities. There is
always more or less chance of a reversion to type in breeding
from mongrels, hence it is often cheaper in the long run to com-
mence with pure bred stock.

Barnyard fowls are better than none, of course, but why keep

TO CHOOSE BEST LAYERS 377

mongrels when pure bred birds can be had for almost the same
price. Those who appreciate the value of uniformity in body
and eggs, and who realize the need of transmitting these qualities
to the progeny, find no argument in favor of the manure pile
diggers. There are more beauty and more dollars in the thorough-
bred—be it hog, horse, cow or fowl.

Heavy Laying Strain.—The trap nest is the only positive index
to the hen’s performance as a layer. It has furnished the only
means of establishing many facts leading to a more or less definite
conception of just what characteristics belong to the heavy layer,
also, the qualifications of the fowl possessing the faculty of trans-

(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)

Fig. 248.—Brood coop with slatted run for chicks.

mitting certain desirable qualities to its offspring. In fact, the
trap nest has collected such a vast amount of data, that it is now
possible to dispense with its service, if need be, and still profit
from it. In other words, we are now able to verify certain ex-
ternal indications, actions and habits as belonging to this or that
type of fowl.

Thus, the progressive poultryman who wishes to mate his birds
along definite lines, but who is not in a position to trap them, can
select his breeders so that their increase in efficiency compares
favorably with flocks that are trap-nested.

Relation of Size and Shape.—No sensible person questions the
importance of shape and size in the matter of breeding horses

378 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

and cows. One does not mate Percheron stock for speed in
horses, nor Hereford cattle for a dairy farm. The same idea holds
true of poultry. The general shape of the laying type of chicken
is agreed upon as a V or wedge when viewed from the top, side
and rear, the supposition being that in this conformation the
egg-producing organs have the greatest opportunity for develop-
ment. This shape is sometimes called by the term Capacity,
which really amounts to abdominal power.

Capacity means the ability of the crop and digestive tract to
receive, consume and assimilate large quantities of food. Con-
tinuous egg production is an intensive, exhausting process. It
necessitates the consumption of vast quantities of food, other-
wise it would be physically impossible for the hen to turn out an
egg a day. This is only common sense reasoning. Beware of
the small eater, or the hen that goes to roost on a crop half full
of food. She is either a defective, a drone or an invalid.

The depth of the abdomen, as well as the length, indicates
Capacity. Hence the good layer is described as having a long
body, deep in the keel, which is another term for the breast bone.
To ascertain or measure the abdominal capacity of a hen, the
fowl is grasped by the legs in the left hand, and its head and wings
are held under the arm in a horizontal position in what is ad-
mitted to be the correct method of holding or carrying a chicken.
Then the fingers of the right hand are placed on the abdomen
between the two pelvic bones on either side of the vent and the
rear of the breast bone. This distance will be found to vary
quite considerably with different hens. In some the width of
one finger will be found to be sufficient to occupy the space be-
tween the pelvic bones and the breast bone, in others two fingers
will be required, in others three, four, five and six fingers, and in
rare cases seven fingers.

The pelvic bones are sometimes called the lay bones or vent
bones. They, too, are measured for the distance or spread be-
tween them; but do not mistake the abdominal measurement for
the distance between the pelvic bones. This latter test is for
another purpose. The tips of the fingers are used for this test,

WHAT TO EXPECT IN COLOR 379

whereas for the abdominal measurement the widths of the fingers
are used between the tips and the knuckles.

Further indications are found in a large comb and wattles of
good color, a high tail rather than one carried low, medium-size
head with a short, stocky beak, rather short legs well spread apart,
and as much weight as the specimen should have to conform to
the standard requirements for a particular variety.

Under-size specimens are seldom exceptional performers.

(Courtesy Petal: Chamber of C ce)

Fig. 249.—Leghorn pullets on a California poultry ranch.

The same is true of over-developed birds, though of the two con-
ditions, small and large, the latter is the least objectionable.
There are many exceptions to this rule, of course, just as there
are many exceptions to every rule. The findings in this chapter
are based on the general run of fowls, and must be considered as
such, or averages.

Next to shape, color is probably the most reliable sign of a
hen’s ability as a layer. And the chief advantage of this test

380 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

lies in the fact that it is discernible without having to handle the
bird.

Color.—In virtually all of the yellow-skinned breeds of chickens
the shanks, beak and flesh of the posterior parts of the birds are
a rich yellow at the commencement of laying, and gradually
undergo a fading out as the laying progresses, until these parts
become a real pale color, sometimes pink, or white, as the laying
season advances. This change in color is so consistent, in fact,
and so quickly made, especially in the region of the flesh sur-
rounding the vent, that it will be clearly apparent even to the
layman.

The theory of this test is based on the fact that the same color-
ing matter that gives the shank, beak and skin its rich yellow
look is also used in the color of the yolks of eggs. Heavy layers
produce eggs faster than they can supply the coloring matter
for the shanks, beak and so on, consequently the color becomes
lighter and lighter, until it is frequently scarcely visible.

Furthermore, hens that are not in laying condition are prone
to store up a certain amount, and sometimes a very large amount,
of fat in the region surrounding the vent, and this fat, being of a
rich yellow color, transmits its color to the flesh. When these
hens start to lay and lay heavily, this fat is drawn upon to supply
the body tissues with the necessary energy, until its supply is
virtually depleted, in which case the skin loses its former rich
yellow appearance.

In selecting hens by the color test, allowances must be made
for the natural difference in color between different breeds and
different individuals of the same breed. For example, it is
manifestly unreasonable to compare the color of a Rhode Island
Red or Barred Plymouth Rock with a White Orpington or White
Leghorn. The color test should be made relatively and with the
exercise of much common sense.

An examination should be made at the commencement of
laying, and not during the molt or when the birds are immature,
and the degree or shade of color carefully noted. Later, when
the flock should be laying heavily, say about April first, the color

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(aanyno1a3 VY 1.429q *S "GQ fsajanoD)

382 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

is observed again, and the hens which have little or no color in
the parts mentioned may be selected as the best layers.

To prove this, if you observe any birds which are noticeably
yellower than the others, transfer them to a separate pen and
note if they are not poor layers. If you have trap nests, these
ideas are easily verified.

Conduct and Other Indications.—It is pretty generally estab-
lished that pullets which begin to lay early in life, providing they
are fully matured, are pretty sure to be the most prolific members
of the flock. Ordinarily this means that the pullets which com-
mence laying in the fall, before snow flies, are the most desirable.
Fowls that fail to start production until after Christmas seldom
attain high scores. By high scores is meant records of excep-
tional merit, say over 150 eggs a year. It usually follows, also,
that pullets continuing to lay late into the fall, thereby post-
poning the molt until cold weather is at hand, are almost without
exception heavy producers.

Late Molters.—Hens that have a nice new coat of feathers by
July look well, but they are not often profitable. The late
molters, those that look ragged and dirty when the others are
sleek and clean, are almost always the best layers in the flock.
Moreover, it will be noted that the late molters get through with
this task very quickly, seemingly, which is an appreciable saving
in time.

The appetite and general conduct of the hen are other indica-
tions of productiveness. The heavy layer is the first off the perch
in the morning and the last to go to sleep at night. She is active,
constantly searching for food, and when observed on the roost
after dark, she will be found to have a very large crop tightly
packed with food. It is also found that the hens which have the
most confidence in their keeper, and are not foolishly disturbed
or frightened, are the most consistent performers and the most
reliable breeders.

Importance of the Male.—It is said that the male bird is
half of the flock, meaning, of course, that his characteristics will
be transmitted to the offspring in equal proportion to the hens,

(u4Dq DAvD3v1N Xsajz4noD)

‘aSues aaqy uO s}uN a81e] Ul pe[puey siepac1g— Sz ‘31

384 *COMMERCIAL POULTRY: RAISING

though the latter may outnumber the male fifteen to one. This
is not an idle thought; it is true. In fact, in some cases it is
highly probable that the influence of the male is even greater
than a half—maybe three-quarters.

Prepotency of the Male.—This belief is certainly true of the
male’s ability to transmit type and color to his progeny. There-
fore, if he-can dominate certain important characteristics, is it
not reasonable to suppose that he: may dominate all of them?
We assume, of course, that to so do, his vitality and constitu-

<
=p,
: “S23.
Axi stews END GATE, ~Say.
beet Faw Wonce ue Ars L Sy _mnee,

f XL MEE
174 FOORING ~ :
2x2 DRESSED 1x1 ORESDED

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f]
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RETTING — OREDIEOL, eT TING

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FLOOR PLAN DETAIL gf END GATE
(California Experiment Station)
Fig. 252.—Plans for a catching coop.

tional vigor are equally as strong as the female's, if not stronger.
More than that, we assume that he possesses the faculty or capa-
city of transmitting his qualities. This qualification is sometimes
spoken of as prepotency.

Like Does Not Always Beget Like.—One of the greatest im-
pediments to the successful breeder of poultry is the inability to
select male birds of the required type. There is an old saying
that ‘‘like begets like.” In a general sense this is true, but not
always so, because of which the idea becomes a subject worthy

TYPE AND NUMBER OF MALES 385

of study. We often see children who resemble and act like one
parent, let us say the father, while others resemble and act like
the mother. And yet some children will be like neither of the
parents, nor like any of their immediate kin. Breeders of horses
and cattle and other branches of livestock are fully aware of the
variations in offspring in this respect, and it is probably because
of their persistent quest of knowledge along these lines that they
have made so much more progress in scientific breeding than
poultrymen.

Among those who have never given mating other than casual
thought, and such persons are in the majority, there is the belief
that heavy layers are bound to produce chicks which will develop
into heavy layers. In their minds, to produce a heavy laying
strain all that is necessary is to trap-nest the flock, and breed
only from such hens as have made a certain record. This is a
step in the right direction; the idea is a splendid one, and makes
for careful selection. But, unfortunately, it does not go far
enough. In the first place, we cannot trap-nest male birds; and
pedigree, while useful and essential, is not alone a sufficient basis
for the selection of that element which is to dominate future
generations, and probably the success or failure of the poultry-
man.

Maine Experiment.—Some years ago the Maine Experiment
Station endeavored to establish a 200-egg strain of fowls by
breeding only from those which laid the most eggs. The experi-
ments extended over ‘a number of years, the plan was well con-
ducted, it received the most favorable attention, and everything
was done to further the idea. The work was finally abandoned
asa failure. Those in charge of the work were trying to establish
an extreme in egg production, by breeding from high-producing
hens. They failed to appreciate the need for that other faculty—
prepotency—the capacity to transmit high-producing qualities.

Number of Males.—Let us first consider the ratio of males to
females. No fixed rule can be given, because the breed, size of
the flock, living quarters, extent of range and the general health
and vigor of the stock are all determining factors. For example,

386 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the Mediterranean breeds, such as the Leghorns, are usually
mated one male to fifteen females, providing the flocks are single.
In the American or general-purpose class, it is customary to mate
one male to about ten females; and in the Asiatic or meat class,
it is advisable to use one male to six or eight females.

Single Flocks.—As previously mentioned, these ratios apply
to single flocks—pens in which but a single male is to be used.
In larger flocks the ratio of males to females may be greatly re-

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 253.—Handy brood coop made from rough lumber, small sliding window
serves as a door. ,

duced. The reason for this is easily understood. In a flock of
fifteen Leghorns there may be two or three hens uncongenial to
the male, or the male may be uncongenial to two or three females
who will fight him away from them, in which case the fertility
from such a pen will run about eighty-five per cent.

In a flock of 35 females to 2 males there is almost certain to be
rivalry or jealousy, which tends to eliminate favoritism, and
thereby increases the fertility. In a flock of 60 hens to 3 males
there is still greater rivalry, while in a unit of 500 hens to about

OUTWARD QUALIFICATIONS 387

20 males little, if any, discrimination is found, and the fertility
of the eggs should run ninety-five per cent or better.

The same general ratio applies to the heavier breeds, but in no
case can they be expected to equal the Mediterraneans in the
matter of fertility. The heavier breeds have a more sluggish
nature, and they are naturally less active fowls. From the
writer’s experience, sixty-five per cent fertility in the Asiatics
is equal to seventy-five per cent in the Americans, or ninety-five
per cent in the Mediterraneans.

In selecting males for breeding purposes the first qualities to
be considered are those in plainest evidence, in other words, the
general appearance of the birds. If a specimen has malformed
feet, wry tail or serious squirrel tail, brassiness or other color
defects, lopped comb or exceedingly ponderous or poorly shaped
comb, under-developed ear lobes or wattles, or if a bird is ab-
normally large or small, noticeably disproportionate and un-
gainly, it goes without further argument that he should be dis-
carded.

A fowl’s actions is one of the best guides to its breéding ability.
Males that are too greedy, or those that are so gallant that they
will not eat until the hens have helped themselves, are likely to
prove of little value in the breeding pen. The former are apt to
become over-fat, due to over-feeding, and the latter under-fed
and anemic. Crowing is an excellent indication of vigor and
vitality, and should always be borne in mind in selecting breeding
males. It characterizes physical strength and masculinity. The
desirable breeding cockerel is always on the alert, strikingly erect
in carriage, aristocratic and combative—a good fighter, and one
who believes in crowing about it. Fear and physical weakness
usually go together. A cowardly bird, or one that becomes
unduly excited, which amounts to a rattle-brained nature, should
never be placed in the breeding pen. He is too apt to be a
degenerate.

Some Naked Truths.—Selecting breeders from the fancier’s
point of view—the show room—is more discriminating, perhaps,
than for commercial purposes, yet it is also more superficial.

388 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Color, shape, carriage, texture of plumage, comb, wattles and
ear lobes are the essentials to success in the exhibition; but as
they constitute a study in themselves, we will not attempt to
cover them in this chapter, which is intended more for the-com-
mercial poultry raiser.

Having selected a group of birds of the desired appearance
and most precocious habits, final judgment is passed upon their

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 254.—Practical method of catching fowls. Crate is placed against small
entrance door, through which the chickens are driven into the crate.

physical qualifications—literally speaking, their naked truths.
There is a distinct correlation between the different parts of a
fowl, make no mistake about this. The body of the vigorous
fowl is broad, deep and blocky, as contrasted with the long, thin,
slender type. And since the fowl’s plumage is often very de-
ceiving, they must be carefully handled. In a sense they must
be measured.

In a foregoing paragraph on selecting pullets for heavy egg

MALE’S SHAPE RESEMBLES FEMALE’S 389

production we emphasized the following requirements: Large
crop and abdominal capacity; thin pelvic bones that are pliable
and well spread apart; ‘a fairly long back, depth in the keel and
width between the legs. In selecting males as breeders for heavy
egg production, the same analysis should be applied to their
anatomy—relatively, of course, for the male never has the spread
of pelvic bones nor the abdominal capacity of a hen of the same
size.

CHAPTER XXIX
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG

Embryology.—It is certain that the majority of poultry keepers
do not know as much about the formation and development of
the egg as they should. Yet this is a very important subject,
a knowledge of which is essential before one can really exercise
intelligent care and feeding. To do certain things blindly or on
a guesswork principle is archaic; they may be correct, and the
results therefrom may be entirely satisfactory up to a given point,
when, without any warning, trouble may come. Then, if the
foundation of one’s knowledge is meager, or perhaps there is no
foundation at all, which is frequently the case, the poultryman
is at a loss for a solution or remedy. It is like trying to run an
engine without some understanding of its construction; when
trouble occurs, instead of being able to repair or adjust the defect,
the situation becomes aggravated and serious.

Every phase of the poultryman’s work should have a definite
purpose, and in view of the fact that the egg is the first stage in the
production of fowls, whether for meat, eggs or the show room, it
behooves him to have at least a general idea of embryology.

Some hens are absolutely sterile; of this there is no doubt,
but they are rare, and are to be compared with any other mal-
formation. Others have the power to produce a few eggs in
short litters, followed by long rest periods, whereas others have
reproductive organs which are so strong and easily stimulated
that they lay almost without cessation, and continue to do so for
a couple of years. In fact, they seem almost to have a super-
natural power.

Prolific Power of a Hen.—Some experts tell us there are more
than 7,000 latent eggs in the normal hen, but whether or not this

390

OVARY AND OVISAC 391

is correct we need only concern ourselves with about 700. The
number is not a fixed quantity, and those which will be developed
is still less certain. The prolific power of a hen is largely an in-
herited tendency, the result of careful selection and breeding, made
potent by careful handling and feeding. Both elements are abso-
lutely essential, as we have shown in preceding chapters.

The ovary or egg cell cluster which contains the latent eggs is a
muscular tissue on the left side of the spine. In it, in various
stages of development, from the full-sized yolk, ready to be de-
tached, to the cells which are so small as to be invisible without
the aid of a microscope, are the yolks or ova. When a yolk is
fully matured and ripe, it bursts from the tough membrane of the
ovisac and enters the neck of the oviduct, a convoluted, muscular
tube some twenty inches long, wherein the albumen or white is
deposited, and later the shell is formed. See Frontispiece.

The ovisac is lined with blood-vessels, yet provision is made in
the healthy, normal hen that when the yolk ruptures this mem-
brane the blood-vessels are parted to one side and not broken.
It occasionally happens, however, either through an injury to the
fowl, fright or weakness due to a debilitated condition, that one
of the blood-vessels may become slightly ruptured, whereupon a
blood clot will escape with the yolk and later be incorporated with
the albumen. This accounts for spots of blood found in strictly
fresh eggs, and which have led many consumers to believe they
have purchased partly incubated eggs.

Double Yolk Eggs.—It sometimes happens that two yolks
mature and burst through the ovisac at the same time; in this
event they are likely to become encased with albumen together,
and subsequently surrounded by the same shell, producing a
double-yolked egg. Occasionally a mass of albumen will be de-
posited without yolk or shell, or it may be laid with a perfectly
formed shell but without a yolk; or a yolk will be laid without
albumen or shell, and in rare cases a perfectly formed egg has
been found within an outer egg shell. These freak conditions
are brought about by improper care and feeding, but more
especially by fright, neglect or injury.

Fig. 255.—Diagram of digestive apparatus of a fowl.

392

I, Tongue; 2,
pharynx; 3, first
portion of esopha-
gus; 4, crop; 5,
second portion of
esophagus; 6, suc-
centric ventricle;
7, gizzard; 8, ori-
gin of the duoden-
um; 9, first branch
of the duodenal
flexure; 10, second
branch of same;
II, origin of the
floating portion of
the small intes-
tine; 12, small in-
testine; 13, free
extremities of the
cecums; 14, in-
sertion of these
two culs-de- sac
into the intestinal
tube; 15, rectum;
16, cloaca; 17,
anus; 18, mesen-
tery; 19, left lobe
of liver; 20, right
lobe of liver; 21,
gall-bladder; 22,
insertion of the
pancreatic and
biliary ducts; 23,
pancreas; 24, dia-
phragmatic aspect
of the lung; 25,
ovary in a state
of atrophy; 26,
oviduct.

SPOILED FRESH EGG 393

Held Eggs Within the Body.—It is not positively established
whether a hen can of her own will stop the development of the
yolks prior to their entrance to the oviduct, and it is hardly
likely that she can, but it is certain that she can control the egg
after that period. She can retain it for a considerable time after

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 256.—Outer shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times.

it is completely formed, whereupon, instead of the life germ re-
maining dormant in the fertile egg after it is laid and until such
time as it is subjected to the proper uniform temperature for
incubation, it will commence to develop within the egg within
the hen. Obviously, although such an egg may be freshly laid,
it is not a fresh egg. On the contrary, it is a spoiled egg;

394 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

sometimes very badly spoiled, which is apt to lead to diffi-
culties with the customer who has been unfortunate enough to
receive it.

Egg-Bound.—Hens that delay their laying in this manner are
usually egg-bound, a condition brought about through injudicious

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 257.—Inner shell membrane of fresh egg. Magnified 150 times.

feeding, injury and by the drying up of the secretions in the
cloaca, where the egg rests before it is laid, thus failing to assist
in the passage of the egg. Over-fat hens and pullets producing
their first eggs are apt to be troubled in this manner.

The most common symptoms are repeated trips to the nests,
accompanied by prolonged squatting and straining, and in ex-

HOW THE SHAPE OF AN EGG IS DETERMINED 395

treme cases a fowl so afflicted will crawl with her body upright
and her tail dragging on the ground.

The shape of an egg is largely determined by the contours in
the oviduct in which it is cast. During the passage of the yolk
in the oviduct it is pushed forward by the muscles of this
tissue, at the same time receiving a deposit of albumen. The
oviduct being twisted and contracted, imparts a turning motion
to the yolk as it advances, which causes the albumen to be formed
in layers. These layers are sometimes visible in a raw egg, but
are better seen in a hard-boiled egg.

Chalaza.—Two principal cords or fibers, technically known as
the chalaza, support the yolk in about the center of the al-
buminous mass, and serve to protect the yolk from injury by
undue jarring or rough handling. See Fig. 258. We have all
noticed, perhaps, that whatever way an egg is turned the yolk
quickly assumes its original position; this is due to the influence
of the chalaza, and to the fact that the yolk, containing a large
amount of fat, which is lighter than the albumen, has a tendency
to float upward.

Shell Membrane.—When sufficient albumen has been se-
creted, at which time the entire mass has reached the lower part
of the oviduct, the shell membrane is formed, after which it
passes still further and the outer membrane is added. Here,
glands which contain a secretion of carbonate of lime and other
mineral substances, also the color pigment, deposit their liquid,
which quickly hardens the outer membrane. This hardening
process is very rapid, and frequently takes place while the hen is
on the nest.

Bloom of the Egg.—The egg has now reached the lowest part
of the oviduct, known as the cloaca, whence it is ready to be laid.
While in this section it is covered with an oily secretion which,
as previously mentioned, aids in the delivery of the egg. This
secretion dries almost immediately the egg is laid, and gives it
the bloom or fresh appearance found in a newly laid egg. When
eggs are washed this bloom is destroyed, or partly so, which
makes washed eggs rather easily detected by experienced handlers.

396 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Texture of Shell.—It will be noted that the shell of an egg is
exceedingly porous, which enables the embryo to take in oxygen
through the shell, otherwise it could not breathe. See Fig. 256.
During the early stages of incubation a network of blood-vessels
surround the inner membrane of the egg, close to the shell. See
Fig. 257. These blood-vessels absorb the oxygen and act as the
respiratory apparatus for the embryo until about the nineteenth
day of incubation, when the lungs are completed and brought
into use. The oily secre-
tion deposited on the shell
in the cloaca tends to stop
up the pores temporarily,
so as to prevent undue
evaporation of the con-
tents of the egg, and to
keep the pores clear. Ob-
viously, a hatching egg
should not be washed;

Fig. 258.—Sectional view of fowl’s egg. and if very badly soiled it
1, Yellow yolk composed of successive layers; should not be used for
2, vitelline membrane; 3, layers of albumen 2
(white); 4, two layers of the lining mem- hatching purposes at all.

brane of the shell; 5, calcareous shell; 6, turn :
chalaza; 7, air space between the two layers To re to the yolk, it

of the shell membranes; 8, cicatricula, with must be very apparent
its nucleus, beneath which is seen the canal = Bee oe

leading down to the white yolk cavity, or that if production is to be
latebra, 9. successfully carried out,

the yolk or ovum,which is
the real beginning, must be carefully and normally developed,
otherwise the succeeding processes are all thrown out of kelter.
Egg making is a very exhaustive process, if we stop to consider that
a profitable hen is expected to lay about 150 times a year, which
is equivalent to almost five times her weight; hence the drain
on her system is enormous. The activity of the ovary, then,
depends upon the health of the bird.
The over-fat hen does not lay because over-fatness is an indi-
cation of improper or immoderate feeding, usually accompanied
by lack of exercise. The poor, anemic, emaciated hen cannot

LOCATION OF THE LIFE GERM 397

lay because there is not sufficient fat to develop the yolk. There-
fore, it will be found that the best layers are neither too thin nor
over-fat; rather those which are active and in good spirits from
dawn to dark.

Germ.—Although invisible to the naked eye, the yolk is

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 259.— Yellow yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times.

covered by a delicate membrane, called the vitelline membrane,
so named, perhaps, because clinging to this membrane is found
the life germ, the really vital part of the egg. The contents of
the yolk is called the vitellus, upon which the life germ draws
for its sustenance. When a hen’s vitality becomes weakened it
is generally manifested in the composition of the vitelline mem-

398 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

brane, which is easily ruptured, causing the vitellus to escape
and mix with the albumen. Naturally, this condition gives the
egg an addled, unsavory appearance, undesirable as food, even
though it may be strictly fresh. Nine times out of ten the house-
wife condemns it as a bad egg.

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 260.—White yolk of fresh egg. Magnified 250 times.

Keeping eggs for any length of time weakens the vitelline
membrane, also, consequently eggs intended for hatching pur-
poses should be set as fresh as possible. An example of this de-
terioration is found in storage eggs, which, if kept for many months,
frequently result in ruptured yolks as soon as they are opened.
Moreover, in a stale egg the albumen loses its firm consistency

TIME REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPMENT 399

and becomes watery, hence it fails to support the yolk, which
then gravitates to the membranous lining of the shell and adheres
to it.

Fertility —All normal eggs contain a life germ, but all life
germs are not fertile, and there is no way to determine the fer-
tility of the embryo before incubation, except by breaking the
shell and examining the contents very closely, and even this is
not infallible. The fertile germ has a ring or film surrounding
it, which is clear, and in the center may be seen little white dots—
rudimentary cells. The sterile germ has a whitish appearance
and does not possess the outer ring or the dots. After 24 hours’
incubation life is perceptible if the egg is opened.

Shape and Color of Shells.—Notwithstanding many claims
to the contrary, the shape of an egg has nothing whatever to
do with its sex. We have shown that the shape of an egg is
governed almost entirely by the shape of the oviduct, which is
peculiar to every individual and practically constant. The
same individuality applies to the color of an egg, which also re-
mains more or less constant, except that as the laying season ad-
vances the color gradually fades to a lighter shade. The reason
for this is plain: the glands which secrete the color pigment are
more heavily drawn upon, consequently the supply is somewhat
weakened. ,

Time for Development.—Just how much time is required for
the development of an'egg is not definitely known. The forma-
tion of the yolk is the longest period, and probably requires three
weeks before it is ready to leave the ovisac. The second process,
that of accumulating the albumen and forming the shell, is com-
paratively short, and requires about eighteen hours. It fre-
quently happens that two eggs are under completion in the ovi-
duct at the same time.

Like all secretory organs, these reproductive tissues, glands,
and so on, are shrunken and very much contracted when not in
use, and enlarge to many times their former size when stimulated
to a point of productivity. It is this stimulation—the time re-
quired to overcome the inert condition—which is of vital im-
portance to the poultryman’s pocket-book.

CHAPTER XXX
MARKET EGGS

Quality in Eggs.—Housewives and consumers generally are
seldom concerned with any but two kinds of eggs—good eggs and
bad eggs. The term good in this sense usually means fresh, and
has become synonymous with the idea of desirable quality. A
bad egg—is a bad egg, commonly thought to be the result of old
age, and as such it is condemned. The actual age of an egg,
however, is only one of the factors that affect its quality. There
are many other equally potent influences, a knowledge of which
will be beneficial to those engaged in the production, handling
or consumption of eggs. Strictly speaking, the term fresh should
mean a definite quality rather than a definite age, for all newly
laid eggs are not necessarily good eggs, in a sense that they are
desirable as food. An explanation of the reasons for these
peculiarities will be set forth in this chapter. In the succeeding
paragraphs the term fresh is intended to express prime—superior
—dquality.

Strictly Fresh Normal Egg.—Eggs are one of the most difficult
food products to grade, not only because each egg must be con-
sidered separately, but because an accurate knowledge of the
contents cannot be ascertained without destroying the egg.
They can be selected for size, shape, color, cleanliness and texture
of shell, and freedom from cracks, from external appearances,
which is the most common method of grading them. The best
method of determining the interior quality is by the process of
candling, which is used for commercial purposes. See Fig. 261.

Composition of the Egg.—The purpose of the normal egg in
nature requires that it be of a fairly uniform composition; its
contents must be so proportioned as to form the chick without

400

COMPOSITION OF THE EGG 401

surplus matter, and naturally this demands a uniform chemical
composition. When the egg is first laid it is completely filled,
but as soon as it cools the contents contract and an air space or
air cell is formed. This cell usually lies between the two shell
membranes, and at the large end of the egg, where it is plainly
visible with the aid of a candle. As the age of the egg increases
evaporation takes place, which enlarges the air cell to consider-
able size, and therefore denotes, approximately, the degree of
freshness.

The composition of hens’ eggs is somewhat variable, with

Fig. 261.—Class in candling, grading and packing eggs at the Kansas
Agricultural College.

breeds and with individuals, and also as the result of care and
feeding. A general idea may be had from the following table:

ALBUMEN
WHOLE Ecc Yok OR WHITE
Water...... Neel den de Sogtte 70 to 76% 46 to 52% 80 to 88%
Pea tee ae irs atc k te ale mene ernment cece ees 9 to 14% 30 to 35% Traces

PROtEIR ig ue ba aues. cee was'se vas eed 10 to 15% 14 to 16% 10 to 13%

The precise chemical analysis of a hen’s egg is too technical
for the subject of this book, and it is really unimportant so far
as the average poultryman is concerned. The eggs of turkeys,
geese, ducks, guineas and other birds vary slightly from the above
table, and are, therefore, more desirable for certain purposes.

402 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Size.— Although certain breeds are credited with laying larger
eggs than others, as a general rule the size of an egg is controlled
principally by selection of layers of large eggs and judicious
breeding toward this end. In a number of tests conducted by
Experiment Stations it has been found that care and feeding
have slight influences in the sizes of eggs, but this does not estab-
lish anything beyond the fact that the condition and general
health of the fowls are directly responsible. At the beginning of
their laying period pullets lay a much smaller egg than those laid
during the height of their laying season. Similarly, as a hen
approaches the molt, her eggs become smaller. The difference in
food value per pound is in favor of the large eggs, because they
have a smaller percentage of shell.

Food Value.—It should be borne in mind, however, that there
is considerable difference in the food value of eggs of different
grades. Furthermore, the season of the year has something to
do with the quality of eggs. Those produced in summer are of
lower quality; the albumen is more watery than the eggs pro-
duced in the spring, hence they are not so desirable for storage
purposes. In candling, the yolks of summer eggs float lower in
the albumen, which is a sign of weakness, and the yolks appear
slightly darker than in spring eggs. Packing houses always aim
to store eggs produced during March, April and May for best
results.

It is almost certain that some hens have an inherited tendency
to produce eggs of poor quality, for the same reason that certain
hens will almost invariably lay a malformed egg. If this is true,
it is reasonable to suppose that this characteristic will descend
to their progeny. Flocks should be culled for the quality of their
eggs as well as for their productiveness. In no other way is it
possible to develop a flock that will lay a uniformly high grade of
eggs.

Abnormal Eggs.—To further illustrate the remark that a
newly laid egg is not always a desirable egg, some of the most
common abnormalities will be discussed. Double-yolk eggs
result from the joining together of two yolk sacs during their de-

ABNORMAL EGGS 403

velopment; their growth is identical, they have the same blood
supply, and both drop into the oviduct at the same time. The

Normal fresh egg. Fresh egg showing blood clot.

Fertile egg after 24 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 24 hours of incubation.
(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 262.—Changes affecting the appearance of eggs.

formation of the albumen seems to be entirely automatic, hence
the same mass surrounds both yolks, and later they are framed
by the same shell.

404 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Most double-yolk eggs have the same quality as normal eggs,
but the poultryman should not try to pack them in ordinary car-
tons or fillers on account of their increased size. They will project
above the level of the filler, or fit too snugly into the filler, and be
broken by the eggs surrounding them. One broken egg in a
shipment will damage perhaps four or five dozen eggs by reason
of its leaking contents. A broken egg is a very messy, unpleasant
looking article, consequently a moment of carelessness in packing
is often responsible for a serious discount on the sales statement,
or a disgruntled, indignant customer.

Yolks are sometimes forced into the oviduct before they are
mature, and thus appear very small, and in some cases they are
little more than specks, in the completed egg.

Blood Clots.—At certain seasons, usually during the first
laying period of pullets and during the spring months of heavy
egg production, especially if the flock is excessively forced by
highly concentrated foods, blood clots appear in the eggs, ad-
hering to the yolks. This is probably the commonest defect
arising in the ovary, and often a very troublesome one for the
poultryman, since he can not detect it without candling. Blood
clots are different from bloody eggs. The former are usually
caused by the rupture of a blood-vessel when the yolk sac
splits to allow the escape of the mature yolk into the oviduct.
The clot adheres to the yolk as it passes through the oviduct,
and is encased by the albumen. It is easily detected by the
candle. When the egg is opened the clot can be removed and
the egg is suitable for food. For table purposes this is very ob-
jectionable, for the appearance of the blood is disagreeable.
To those unfamiliar with the physiological reasons, it sug-
gests a partly hatched egg, for which many poultrymen have
been unjustly blamed. Obviously, when catering to a fancy
retail trade, or when eggs are represented as being of the
finest quality, they should be candled as a guard against this
trouble.

Bloody Eggs.—An ordinary blood clot does not color the al-
bumen. If the white of an egg is bloody, it is from a different

BLOODY EGGS 405

cause, and such an egg is termed a bloody egg. When boiled,
such eggs appear brownish, and they are distinctly unappetizing-

Fertile egg allowed to die after 36 hours of Infertile egg after 36 hours of incubation.
incubation. .

Fertile egg after 48 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 48 hours of incubation.
(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 263.—Changes affecting the appearance of eggs.

looking. It is virtually impossible to remove the affected part,
as in the case of the blood clot, hence the egg is useless. Bloody
eggs are caused by an irritation or injury to the wall of the ovi-

406 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

duct, whereupon blood is exuded with the albumen, thereby
making the white of the egg bloody-looking or streaked with
blood. It is generally caused by over-exertion or constitutional
weakness, and is not nearly so common as blood clots. Wherever
possible the poultryman should strive to find out the hen that is
responsible and to remove her from the flock.

Fresh Laid Stale Eggs.—It sounds incredible that a fowl should
lay a stale egg, or a spoiled egg, but this frequently happens.
The condition responsible for this peculiarity is sometimes chronic
with certain hens, or merely occasional, and if the victims can be
spotted they had better be killed for Sunday’s dinner. If not,
the poultryman will have to assume the burden of a tedious
explanation to the customer who is unfortunate enough to receive
such eggs.

After the yolk enters the oviduct it is forced through this tube
by a circular movement or contraction of the muscles of the
oviduct wall, and at the same time receiving layer after layer of
albumen, and finally the shell, when it is ready for expulsion
from the body. At some stage in this development, which under
normal circumstances should only require about eighteen hours,
from the time the yolk enters the oviduct until the finished egg
is laid, this action ceases temporarily, maybe as the result of
fright or due to an injury, and the egg is held in the body of the
fowl for several days after it is completed.

It must be remembered that the life germ, or germinal disk,
is complete when the yolk leaves the yolk sac, hence it is subject
to heat for its development into the embryo chick. If the egg is
held in the body, the life germ comes under the influence of the body
temperature and incubation begins, providing, of course, the egg
is fertile. If the egg is infertile, the results are not so disastrous:
the egg has a stale flavor, or maybe the contents are of a peculiar
color. In the fertile egg, when it is finally laid, the germ dies,
and immediately it starts to decay. Such eggs are called body-
heated eggs.

There are other minor abnormalities, those of such rare oc-
currence, such as an egg within an egg, foreign substances within

MINOR ABNORMALITIES IN EGGS 407

eggs, intestinal worms within eggs, connected eggs, multigerminal
disks, meat spots, soft-shell eggs and eggs with loose shell mem-
branes, that space will not be devoted to their description.

Fertile egg after 72 hours of incubation. Infertile egg after 72 hours of incubation.

Fertile egg after % days of incubation. Infertile egg after 7 days of incubation.
(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 264.—Changes affecting the appearance of eggs.

External Influences.—In the foregoing paragraphs we have
discussed only the internal factors affecting the quality of eggs.

408 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

There are as many, perhaps more, external ‘influences. The
most potent of these influences are evaporation, heating, musti-
ness, mold, bacterial contamination, moisture, bad odors and so
on.

The egg shell is porous, so that the embryo chick may obtain
air, and this porosity exposes the contents to the drying influence
of the atmosphere surrounding it. The rate at which the in-
terior moisture is lost depends upon the humidity and tempera-
ture of the air in which the eggs are stored, also the rate at which
the air is moving over or among the eggs, and the texture of their
shells and membranes.
As evaporation con-
tinues, air replaces the
moisture, which enlarges
the air cell, and if the eggs
are kept long enough,
and at the same time pro-
tected against heating or
contamination, all the
moisture will evaporate
and the yolk and albu-

Fig. 265.—A- well-ventilated, clean vege- men will become a dried
table cellar is a good place for the farmer
to hold his eggs until ready for market. mass.

Storage Place.—A
cool, sweet cellar or refrigerator is the most desirable place for stor-
ing eggs, in which they may be kept for three or four weeks without
serious evaporation. See Fig. 265. Never store eggs in the kitchen
or shed, or where they are subjected to warm air or currents of air.
The best receptacle is a pail or box, something that will prevent the
free circulation of air through the eggs, and yet allow a moderate
amount of ventilation, hung in a cool, moderately dry place where
there are no odors to be absorbed by the eggs. Avoid excessive
dampness, for this may cause mold or other changes to take place.

If eggs are allowed to remain in the one position for a long time,
the yolks will rise and stick to the shell membranes, which is,
of course, an objectionable feature. Moreover, if they are stored

LOSSES IN MARKETING 409

in a damp place, mold spots are very apt to form at the points
where the yolks come in contact with the shell membranes, in
which case they are unfit for food. It is sometimes possible to
shake the yolk loose without rupturing the vitelline membrane
of the yolk, but it more often breaks.

Water Test.—Some housewives attempt to ascertain the con-
dition of their eggs by placing them in water, and they will argue
that if the egg sinks it is fresh, and if it floats it is bad. See Fig.
266. This test is fairly accurate in determining the age of an egg,
but only so far as the extent of its evaporation. It will not dis-
close the interior quality of
the egg, nor determine the
other peculiarities that we
havediscussed. A newly laid
egg will lie nearly flat on the
bottom of a dish filled with
water. If the eggis slightly
Sepa Nea ene wall Fig. 266.—Specific gravity test for

tip slightly upward, and this determining the age and condition of eggs.

tendency will increase with 4, Fresh egg; note smallness of air cell
haa f ‘ and the horizontal position of the egg
the degree of evaporation. when immersed in water; 8, slight evapor-

If the egg rises to the surface ation causes the egg to tip; ¢, increased
f th 8 baal evaporation causes egg to stand on end;
of the water, itispretty badly @ badly evaporated egg which floats:

evaporated; sometimes they ¢,an egg so badly evaporated that it is
will oat with half of their 'M*lY f° Pe unfit for use.
surface exposed.

The best way to inspect eggs is to candle them, a simple method
of placing the egg before a bright light and looking through the
egg toward the light. Anyone can become proficient in the use
of this method in a very few trials.

Our Two Billion Egg Waste.—Immediately it is laid the prod-
uct of the American hen is worth $50,000,000 more than when
it is opened by the consumer. In other words, the value of the
eggs produced in this country each year depreciates, shrinks,
to the extent of $50,000,000 by reason of deterioration and dam-
age due to improper care of the eggs on the farm, most of which

(Cornell Experiment Station)

410 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

may be attributed to gross negligence and inexcusable ignorance,
and through careless packing and shipping, resulting in heavy
breakage losses, and because of antiquated selling metheds, such
as the practice of exchanging eggs at the general store for mer-
chandise.

Think of it, in a single commodity in a single country in a
single year there is a loss of fifty millions of dollars. And it has
been going on right under our noses year after year. Sounds
incredible, no doubt.

The Department of Agriculture and other bureaus of statistics
are authority for these figures. A journey through the egg
trade—all the devious channels from the hen’s nest to the con-
sumer’s household—will convince the most skeptical that this
estimate of the depreciation in eggs is absolutely reliable. If
anything, it is too conservative. For example, the above figures
represent only actual losses, in addition to which there are cer-
tain intangible losses, which are none the less real because of
their intangibility.

The intangible losses are those induced by curtailed consump-
tion due to the presence of inferior eggs. Let me explain this
point: All are agreed, I think, that nothing disturbs the appetite
more than bad eggs. Perhaps this is because of the sensitiveness
of our olfactory membranes. However, when we open a bad egg,
even though it is only somewhat stale or of poor flavor, what is
the result? Disgust—repulsion. We push it from us, or cause
it to be removed from sight. At certain seasons of the year
when fresh eggs are scarce this dénouement happens frequently.
In fact, it is the rule rather than the exception, and what is the
result?) We regard all eggs with suspicion; they are persona
non grata, and in consequence we turn to something else for our

‘breakfast dishes. This cuts down the demand and lowers the
price.

Statistics are sometimes wearisome, especially if they involve
large numerals, yet they offer the only means of a convincing
argument, outside of the actual conditions. Therefore, at the
risk of seeming too statistical I am going to indulge in a few

(24N]NILT PF

1,42d

*Arynod aaqy 10

"AQ &sajano))

J SIO PYBIo1y pazonsysu0s Aypeneds— Loz “314

411

412 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

figures. I want it to become vividly apparent and to sink in—
just how appalling, how profligate, is this enormous waste.

Such a loss should be considered sinful, not alone because of
the financial loss to the farmers, who bear the greater part of the
burden, but because it is a community loss of so much valuable
food, the most nourishing kind of food, of which thousands are
in such urgent need.

A depreciation of fifty millions of dollars in the value of our
eggs is equivalent to throwing away 2,000,000,000 eggs, or about
280,000,000 pounds of one of our finest food staples. Reducing
this loss to a per capita basis, it means that every man, woman
and child in the country is deprived of about twenty eggs each
year. If we consider that very young infants do not eat eggs in
any form, also that the majority of the poorer classes can seldom
afford them except in the preparation of other foods, the loss
pro rata to those who do eat table eggs would probably be in the
neighborhood of four dozen each year.

Breakage.—Let us regard the waste in still another way: In
New York City about 5,000,000 cases of eggs, or 150,000,000
dozens, are reccived each year. Records show that in the spring
and early summer months it is not unusual for 200,000 cases to
be received in a single week. The breakage on this egg supply,
not the total damage, together with the depreciation result-
ing from such breakage, is about three and a half per cent, or
5,250,000 dozens annually.

Until a few years ago the railroads and other carriers were
held accountable for the greater part of this breakage, and their
claims in the New York district alone amounted to over a million
dollars a year. Their claims still amount to about a half million
dollars annually. This reduction in claims does not mean that
the breakage has lessenec, merely that the carriers have shifted
a certain portion of the responsibility to the shoulders of the pro-
ducers, shippers, packers and wholesale distributors, where it
rightfully belongs, as I will explain later.

In a case heard before the Interstate Commerce Commission
two years ago, between the New York Mercantile Exchange, a

CLAIMS FOR DAMAGED EGGS 413

corporation of about five hundred merchants engaged in dealing
in eggs and dairy products, which exchange corresponds to the
Chicago Grain Exchange or the New York Stock Exchange, and
six leading railway systems entering the metropolitan district,
it was shown of record that one railroad’s gross revenue on eggs
and the total claims presented for loss and damage thereon
amounted in the periods of 1912 below noted to the following

amounts:
ToTaL REVENUE TOTAL CLAIMS PER CENT

1A pr il ssee ose, or tis ean Ta Aes ee oA Ig es $34,014.54 $2,774.40 8.1
Ma yienantt eaten atten coy naka 23,298.59 4,717.58 20.25
JUNE. dss vos mee ea A eee EEE Au des 16,762.41, 2,423.66 14.5
September, first week................. 5,589.58 3,190.71 57-25
September, second week............... 5,594.70 3,338.12 59.66
September, third week................ 4,578.70 2,661.28 58.1
ptember, fourth week............... 4,125.46 1,746.67 42.1

During the above periods there were no wrecks or derailments,
and no unusual weather conditions or labor disturbances to
account for these losses. At the same hearing it was also shown
that in 1913 another railroad paid claims on eggs from its New
York office alone amounting to $100,207.35. With this and
similar losses going on constantly all over the country is it any
wonder that the railroads find themselves financially embar-
rassed, or that they have had to forego dividends to their stock-
holders? In 1916 their total claim bill for loss and damage on all
commodities amounted to thirty-five million dollars, which ab-
sorbed about two per cent of their total earnings.

For convenience in analyzing this subject we will divide the
egg trade as a whole into four principal divisions or classes:
First, the producers, second, the shippers, third, the carriers,
and fourth, the distributors, both wholesale and retail.

All Are to Blame.—It cannot be said that any one class is re-
sponsible for our fifty-million-dollar egg-loss, and certainly no
class is exempt from it. All are to blame, and:all are equally
culpable.

Losses in eggs occur at all stages of handling, on the farm, in
the country store, with the local shipper, the egg-collecting center,
the railroad, the packer, the jobber, the commission merchant,

414 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the teamster and the retailer. Strictly fresh eggs, generally
known as nearby hennery, which tickle the palates of the well
to do at the rate of eighty cents to a dollar a dozen, come largely
from the environs of the large cities, where they are produced by
poultrymen who make a specialty of fancy eggs. Such eggs
constitute a very small percentage of the trade, however,—about
ten per cent,—and their damage aside from breakage is not ap-
preciable because most of the shipments are made by fast ex-
press. For the present we will not concern ourselves with this
class of eggs.

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)

Fig. 268.—‘' A full house.”’

The great bulk of the egg trade must travel a thousand or two
thousand miles before it reaches its destination. These are the
eggs wherein the serious losses occur. Not so much because of
the distances transported, though this is an important factor,
but because of the numerous hands through which they pass,
and the personal equation in each instance, and because the
character of the egg is such that any slight defect visited upon it
at its place of origin rapidly accumulates further deterioration.
A slightly heated egg on the farm, or an egg with a blind check,
so termed because the crack is not visible without the aid of a
strong candle, may reach the market in such an advanced state

‘spe1req pue saxoq ur Ary[nod yu papeo] sed 10yeIaSrayaI JOLIEZU]—
(a4nqn9143 Y 1,4ag “S$ &saj4noQ)

692

Sty

416 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

of decomposition that, unless carted to a crematory or dump-
heap, its only use is a manufacturing one, such as tanning leather,
and for which eggs are worth about fifty cents a case.

All Bear the Burden.—While the burden of these losses falls
upon all who handle the eggs, they are borne chiefly by the pro-
ducers and the consumers. The producers’ loss is represented in
a decrease in price because of spoilage or poor quality; the con-
sumers’ loss is reflected in a decreased supply by reason of the
spoilage, which compels the consumer to pay a higher price for
the sound portions which finally reach him.

Investigations.—Exhaustive special inquiries have been con-
ducted in different parts of the country for a number of years,
both by the Department of Agriculture and other interested
bodies, with the view to finding out the exact conditions of eggs
in the numerous stages of handling, and to ascertain ways of
remedying the defective practices.

A test was made in an egg-collecting center in the West made
up of twenty prominent shippers, wherein it was found that the
percentage of eggs that were so bad as to be an absolute loss
amounted to 8.33 per cent. This was in November. In other
sections during the warmer months as high as thirty per cent of
the eggs were totally unfit for food.

An investigation among some country stores during October,
which is considered a fairly favorable month for eggs, showed
that only twenty-five per cent of the eggs collected from the ad-
jacent farmers would rank as firsts, that sixty per cent were
seconds, due to long holding on the farms, that five per cent were
cracked, and that four per cent were rotten or stuck to the shell.
In this experiment, as with many others, it was found that the
majority of the farmers had held their eggs for four and six weeks
before turning them into the village store.

Grades.—For the benefit of those who are not familiar with
the different grades of eggs from a commercial standpoint,—and
few are,—I want to explain the definitions of these grades as em-
ployed by the trade. The term firsts does not mean one hundred
per cent strictly fresh eggs, or even good eggs, by any manner

GRADING OF EGGS 417

of means, though the term implies such a quality. The rules
governing transactions in eggs on the New York Mercantile
Exchange, which constitute the standard or basis by which all
trading is carried on, and which are published in booklet form and
distributed throughout the trade, are set forth in part as follows:

Rule I.—Classification and Grading:

1. Eggs shall be classified as ‘fresh gathered,” “held,”

“refrigerator,” and ‘‘limed.”

2. There shall be grades of ‘‘extras,” ‘‘extra firsts,’’ ‘‘firsts,”’

“seconds,” ‘‘thirds,’’ ‘‘No. 1 and 2 dirties,”’ and ‘‘checks.”’
Rule II.—Qualities:

FRESH GATHERED EXxTRAs shall be free from dirty eggs, of

good uniform size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea-
sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs.

Quality Ae i iwdars bt eae dae dae okiina faite go per cent
Quai y IB ita) aie eseoicduiea Whe 4 eines dad ig) F Recevacane EO 80 per cent
Quality’ C)..50iica ines hy Re an Ap ered = eee 65 per cent

The balance, other than loss, may be slightly defective in
strength or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum
total average loss per case permitted in ‘‘extras’’ shall vary
with the requirement of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs,
as follows:

Quality As ws v2 sdas caves ¥ cages 1 dozen maximum loss

Quality B............00.. .. 134 dozen maximum loss
Quality Gace s.vncsei as tad os . 2 dozen maximum loss

FRESH GATHERED Firsts shall be reasonably clean and of
good average ‘size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, rea-
sonably full, strong-bodied, sweet eggs.

Quality A... . ee eee eee 75 per cent
Quality Bow... eee eee eee eee 65 per cent
Quality Ce wiss ssaneeya yates ae wale ei ta 50 per cent
Quality: Dias sv saw sees al pe slates gost gann'e gle als 40 per cent

The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength
or fullness, but must be sweet. The maximum total loss
per case permitted in “firsts” shall vary with the require-
ment of reasonably full, strong-bodied eggs, as follows:

Quahty A neg canes ac cw Bo 14 dozen maximum loss
Quality B ssc asst na pices Gabe ea 2 dozen maximum loss
Quality CG iai-y ssid ited 3 snacensest ions 3 dozen maximum loss
Quality Diisice my ese iiwd owen 4 dozen maximum loss

418 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

FRESH GATHERED SECONDS shall be reasonably clean and of
fair average size, and shall contain reasonably fresh, reason-
ably full eggs:

Quality A... ee eee e eee es 65 per cent
Quality Bo... 1 eee ene ees 50 per cent
Quality Greene tis yea shes cow deer RE Hes 40 per cent
Quality Ds cxnesmap aces ged weewigs gad dik ei 30 per cent

The balance, other than loss, may be defective in strength
and fullness, but must be merchantable stock. The maxi-
mum total average loss per case permitted in ‘‘seconds”
shall vary with the proportion of reasonably full eggs re-
quired, as follows:

Oia ity Ae a ask eth a tease dosiasd Suns 2 dozen maximum loss
Quality By.disiss see seauens sedis 3 dozen maximum loss
Quality Cus cnc kee ea dean tines 4 dozen maximum loss
Quality Diye.2s css ence eaten tes 5 dozen maximum loss

‘‘Loss’’ as used in these rules, shall comprise all rotten,
spotted, broken (leaking), broken yolked, hatched (blood
veined) and sour eggs. Very small eggs, very dirty,-cracked
(not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken and salt eggs
shall be counted as half loss in all grades excepting ‘‘dirties”
and “checks.”

The foregoing rules cover but three grades of eggs. There are
about twenty grades all told, with exceptions and modifications
to each. Some of their names follow: Fresh gathered thirds,
held firsts, held seconds, refrigerator extras, refrigerator firsts,
refrigerator seconds, refrigerator thirds; limed extras, limed firsts,
limed seconds, No. I dirties, No. 2 dirties, checks and so on.

To describe all of these different grades would take up too
much space. The point that I wish to bring out is this, not-
withstanding certain eggs are good enough to be rated as ‘‘fresh
gathered firsts,’’ they are still a long way from being perfect.
And this way constitutes waste. As will be noted from the fore-
going rules, the shrinkage in ‘‘fresh gathered firsts” runs from
twenty-five to sixty per cent, with an actual loss of from one and
a half to four dozen to the case.

A certain amount of shrinkage is to be expected in storage eggs,
even when they are stored under the most favorable refrigera-

HEAT LOSSES 419

tion. It is a natural evaporation of the contents of the egg, re-
sulting in an air cell which is familiar to all, and cannot be over-
come.

Excessive shrinkage, badly shrunken eggs, is another matter.
Its responsibility usually commences on the farm, due to holding
the eggs too long, though the rural buyer or country store and
the egg-collecting center are in no wise innocent of the same poor
practice. Actual physical deterioration, or total loss, as de-

(Courtesy U. S. Dep" t Agriculture)
Fig. 270,—Candling eggs at the farmer’s gate.

scribed in the foregoing rules of the Mercantile Exchange, is
still another matter, and includes such depreciation as heat affec-
tion, bacterial contamination, mustiness, mold and sour eggs.
The conditions which bring about these changes are almost
wholly due to negligence and antiquated methods. They are
unpardonable because in the main they are preventable.

Heat Losses.—As might be supposed, heat is the worst enemy
of the egg. The loss to the trade as the result of heated eggs is

420 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

greater than from any other source, especially if male birds are
allowed to run with the hens.

Heat in connection with eggs does not necessarily mean ex-
cessive heat, which we know will injure the quality of eggs. The
fertile egg is susceptible to even a moderate temperature. If
allowed to remain in a temperature of 70 degrees F. for any
length of time, it starts to incubate, slowly, of course, neverthe-
less development goes on, and every day it is exposed to this
warmth it is hastened on its downward career. The first stage
of this deterioration ap-
pears as blood on the
yolk. Later a blood ring
is formed, which indi-
cates that the embryo is
dead, and like all dead
animal matter forthwith
itstartstodecay. Com-
mercially, heated eggs are
known as floaters and
blood rings. Light floats
correspond to about
Ae : twenty-four hours’ in-
Fig. 271.—Stolen nest in the hollow of a tree. cubation at a_temper-

ature of 102 degrees,
whereas heavy floats are equal to about forty-eight hours’ incu-
bation.

Infertile eggs, sometimes called sterile eggs, those laid by hens
kept apart from male birds, withstand heat much better than
fertile eggs, though it is an utter fallacy to assume that the
former will not spoil. This mistaken notion is all too common.
Without a vitalized life germ, there is no incubation in sterile
eggs, hence there are no blood rings to develop; nevertheless
they undergo certain chemical and physical changes which sooner
or later impair the quality of their contents. They shrink as
badly as the fertile eggs, and the yolks are likely to weaken and
break or Stick to the shells.

LOSSES ON THE FARM 421

Farm Losses.—It is not uncommon for farm eggs to remain
under a wheat shock or in some out-of-the-way corner for two or
three days, maybe a week, before they are found, or before it is
convenient to collect them, during which time probably they
have been subjected to summer heat of perhaps 95 degrees.
See Fig. 272. Frequently the eggs are stored in the kitchen or
back porch, or in a closet in one of the outbuildings, where the
thermometer hovers around 85 degrees at midday. Often the
eggs are hauled to the village store or shipping point in an open
wagon, maybe a wagon without springs, exposed to the direct
rays of the sun and a temperature of 105 degrees, and then left on
a truck at the railway station for several hours.

General Store.—If the eggs are delivered at the village store
for credit, it is quite likely that the storekeeper, receiving the
eggs over the counter, will let them remain in the store until the
close of the day, and then carry them down to the cellar, where
they will remain for perhaps a week, until a large enough quantity
is gathered to ship to a local buyer or egg-collecting center.
What if the cellar is warm or damp or musty or poorly ventilated,
the storekeeper has no particular interest in the eggs, any more
than as a means of keeping the farmer’s trade in merchandise.

Local Buyer.—When the local buyer or egg-collecting depot
receives the eggs, probably it is by way-freight, the eggs are
again held for several days or a week until there is enough to
make up a carlot, whereupon they are dispatched to a city jobber
or to a packer. This last lap of the journey may be made in a
refrigerator car, or it may not. In either event there is enough
iniquity already stored up inside the eggs or their cases to account
for a large portion of our fifty million dollar loss.

This system of marketing is not incidental. It is general. It
is in vogue all over the country. Its evils are perfectly obvious.
Exchanging eggs for merchandise or credit at the general store,
as at present practised, is pernicious. It is the weakest spot in
the egg trade.

A graphic idea of the loss due to heated stock can be obtained
from the fact that in the South and Southwest the egg industry

422 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

is practically dead from the first of June until cool weather in
the fall. The losses are so great, and the net returns so small,
that the majority of the farmers hardly consider it worth while
to collect their eggs at all during the summer months. It is a
common thing to find fully hatched, live chicks in cases of market
eggs from these sections. In fact, the heat damage and other
losses are so heavy that producers do well to receive a net price
of five cents per dozen.

An average lot of summer southern eggs would candle about as
follows: Light floats, 80 per cent; heavy floats, 15 per cent;

Weed nest. Nest in straw stack.
(Courtesy U.S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 272.—Stolen nests are responsible for a huge wastage of eggs.

blood rings and checks, 5 per cent. As bakers’ stock the light
floats might bring twelve cents a dozen, the heavy floats five
cents a dozen, and the blood rings nothing. Deduct for break-
age, commission, candling, freight and haulage, and the net re-
turns are insignificant.

One in Four Lost.—As near as it can be estimated, the loss in
southern and western eggs due to heat is one-fourth of the original
value of the crop. For the entire country this element of waste
is estimated at fully five per cent of the total valuation of the

LOSSES DUE TO BREAKAGE 423

egg trade. Mind you, this percentage represents actual wastage,
and nothing more. It does not include the losses resulting from
decreased prices by reason of the inferiority of most farm eggs.
The losses attributable to the inferior quality of the bulk of our
egg trade are intangible, the same as the losses due to curtailed
consumption are intangible; but they are real nevertheless. It is
doubtful if one hundred million dollars a year would cover them.

The most significant testimony to this statement is found in
the twenty or more grades of low quality eggs, selling at low
prices, and their relation to a few grades of high class eggs, which
sell at high prices. The farmer’s eggs comprise the bulk of the
low grade marks, which include storage eggs, and sell at prices
from a third to two-thirds the value of strictly fresh, prime eggs.
The following is a typical set of wholesale quotations in the New
York market for December:

Nearby hennery whites, fine to fancy...... 76 to 82 cents
Nearby hennery browns................. 57 to 63 cents
Fresh gathered extras................... 54 to 55 cents
Extra ‘fists; ox 325 ans te see eye cay sea sen es 52 to 53 cents
Pins tSirwg xb wake & Gia BEG a nee iene aes 48 to 50 cents
SECO MA Sie inieh hace eal copa euaehadansad-cne sae es 42 to 46 cents
Refrigerator extras...........-.0..00000- 38 to 39 cents
Refrigerator firsts... ................00.. 35 to 36 cents
Refrigerator seconds................0..4. 32 to 33 cents
Refrigerator thirds. .................-4.. 30 to 31 cents
Limed-extrasct ccd aide teat es ee eenae 28 to 29 cents
Teamed firsts ix, «cov cnciwaree Canine Aux ete tities 26 to 27 cents
Limed seconds iis. ici 2. gig gid tate shi ae ie aide 24.to 25 cents
No. 1 dirties, refrigerator................ 23 to 24 cents
Cheeks 4: 2-s sda aga cdisepnig onan een nes ees 22 to 24 cents

It is not possible, of course, to bring the entire egg crop of the
country up to the level of the ‘‘nearby hennery whites,’’ but it is
possible to create a vast improvement in the lower grades, which
improvement will redound to the benefit of the farmers. Strange
that they do not see it this way!

Breakage.—Next to heat, the greatest damage is occasioned
by breakage. Indeed, it is nip and tuck which is the most in-
fluential factor in piling up our monument of worthless eggs—
heat or breakage. A broken egg is such a malicious sort of

424° COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

breakage. It is not only a less to itself, but it contaminates
everything around it.

Trade Terms.—In the trade, breakage is designated by various
names, some of which are descriptive, if not picturesque. Cracked
eggs are termed checks. When the shells are pushed in without
rupturing the inner membrane, they are called dents. If the
eggs are partly open, or if they have lost a portion of their con-
tents, they are known as leakers. When the eggs are com-
pletely broken—among the missing, as it were—they are spoken
of as mashers.

Leakers and mashers not only produce smeared eggs, which

(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)

Fig. 273.—Typical forms of breakage which usually result from careless hand-
ling or packing.

are heavily discounted as dirties, but they account for a great
many moldy eggs, also rots and spots. The checks and dents
constitute a heavy loss because they do not keep in storage. It
is estimated that thirteen million dollars’ worth of eggs spoil in
storage each year because of cracks, some of which are scarcely
visible to the naked eye.

Mechanical Injury.—The responsibility for mechanical injury
—breakage—is the bugbear of the egg trade. It has been the
cause of so many claims, controversies and law suits between
shippers, receivers and railroads that many of the latter have
wanted to give up handling case eggs altogether. Even now

FRAUDULENT PRACTICES 425

these relations are far from amicable. It is hardly likely that
they ever will be harmonious until we abandon some of our
obsolete practices.

If you listen to the shipper’s or receiver’s tale of woe in regard
to breakage, you gain the impression that the carriers are a set
of beats, who, for no reason at all, kick egg cases all over the
map, smash them into bits, and then refuse to pay claims for
damages.

True, the railroads, express companies and other carriers have
adopted rather drastic measures of late, one of which is the allow-
ance of five per cent breakage on each case of eggs. Their tariff
files now state that they will not be held accountable for breakage
unless it exceeds five per cent, and that claims will be considered
only on the damage in excess of five per cent on each case or
crate.

Shippers and receivers regard this regulation as an unjust im-
position. They go so far as to call it confiscation. The carriers
have been put to it in self-defense. There was a time, and only
a few years back, when the greatest asset that many of the men
engaged in the egg trade had, was the volume of claims which they
collected from the carriers. Apparently, the carriers were re-
garded as legitimate prey. They were set upon and gouged in
a merciless manner by the most unscrupulous practices. The
carriers knew they were being gouged, and, like the proverbial
worm, they turned. They got the goods on various gentlemen,
and said gentlemen were indicted for fraudulent practices.

CHAPTER XXXI
SELLING EGGS ADVANTAGEOUSLY

Many poultrymen, especially those who raise but a few
chickens, concern themselves chiefly with the problem of pro-
ducing eggs, with insufficient attention to the best methods of
selling them. They are accustomed to think that there is an un-
limited demand, which is true—there is always a regular outlet for
eggs, just as there is a regular market for corn, wheat and other
staple products; but, to secure top prices, or to obtain the full
value of the product, as much thought and care must be devoted
to the selling end of the business as to the subject of production.

Eggs are probably the easiest commodity to sell.—In fact,
the demand for strictly fresh goods of prime quality is always
greater than the supply. If we so desire we do not have to stir
from our doorstep to find a buyer. The buyer will come to us,
pay spot cash if he is a dealer, or give us credit for merchandise
at his store. Transactions of this sort are very common, and
they are so simple and call for so little effort on the part of the
producer that they have induced the poultry raiser to accept
them as a regular practice—along the lines of the least resistance.
In other words, it is so easy to sell eggs through the regular chan-
nels—the country store, commission merchant or wholesale
dealer—that the practice has encouraged a form of laziness on the
part of the producer. Instead of making him independent and
resourceful, and stimulating a desire to seek the most profitable
outlet for his wares, it has made him dependent and submissive
—a sort of ‘take what I can get” spirit.

Middleman’s Charges.—It is very convenient to dispose of
one’s output at the back door, but it is a great mistake to think
that the producer is not paying for this convenience. He is

426

MANY HANDLINGS REDUCE PRICE 427

paying for it in the form of a reduction in price. Eggs for which
the producer is paid twenty-five cents a dozen usually retail to
the consumer for thirty-five and thirty-eight cents, or higher.
Thus, the middlemen’s profits and handlers’ charges amount to
over ten cents a dozen. These charges are legitimate, because

Bate Vad Litt fag &

(Courtesy Million Egg Farm)
Fig. 274.—Grading and packing eggs.

these distributing agents have rendered service for the poultry-
man. They have received, shipped, stored, graded, sold, de-
livered and collected for his goods. On each operation the mid-
dleman has been put to an expense, which is chargeable, and
on each operation the middleman wants a profit above his ex-

428 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

pense, or there would be no incentive to do business. The sum
total of all expenses and profits is therefore quite considerable.
Admitting that the poultryman is put to a similar expense when
he markets his goods direct to the consumer, the profits on these
expenses, at least, are diverted to his own bank account.

In talking to poultrymen on this subject I have heard remarks
as follows: ‘‘It doesn’t pay me to sell eggs retail. I haven’t
the time to bother with small shipments. I’d rather take a
lower price and ship to a commission merchant—let him peddle
the eggs. A private trade is all right in a way, but the pay is too

ime > =

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 275.—Well-equipped feeding plant. Note the complete lighting and
ventilating system.

slow. I’ve got feed bills to meet, and I’ve got to get my check
for a shipment promptly. Besides, when you ship to customers
direct, and there is breakage or a delay of some kind, there are
too many complaints. Let the other fellow do the worrying.”
Retailing Troubles.—There is a great deal of truth in the fore-
going remarks; it is troublesome to sell eggs retail; yet it is the
only way to get the greatest profits from the business. The de-
tails of any enterprise require close attention, and it behooves the
man in charge to evolve a system or scheme whereby they are
simplified as much as possible. Certain it is that if the middle-

COMMISSION MERCHANTS’ WORK 429

men find it profitable to distribute retail or direct to the con-
sumer, the producer should find it equally profitable, providing
he follows practical methods.

In addition to the loss in price due to the charges and profits
previously mentioned, it should also be borne in mind that the
more eggs are handled the more their quality depreciates, conse-
quently their value is discounted, as we have shown in a pre-
ceding chapter.

Number of Handlings.—Though transportation facilities are
relatively simple, it is surprising to note the number of times a
shipment of eggs is handled even when the eggs are produced
within a hundred miles of their ultimate market. Eggs produced
on a Pennsylvania or New Jersey poultry farm and consigned to
a New York commission merchant are packed in 30-dozen crates.
The crate is delivered to the express agent by the poultryman,
the agent puts it aboard the train, and while it is in the care of
the express company it may be handled four or five times before
it reaches New York. At the railroad terminal the crate is re-
moved from the car to the warehouse, and later loaded into a truck
and delivered to the commission house to which it is consigned.

Commission Merchants’ Work.—Most commission merchants
find it necessary to unpack, candle and grade the shipment, after
which the eggs are sold to a retail store or hotel, or frequently the
wholesale house will sell the shipment to a jobber, who will dis-
tribute to the retail stores, restaurants and other consumers in
one or two case lots. The retail store distributes the eggs to the
ultimate consumer in dozen lots. The eggs have probably been
handled twenty times, which does not improve their quality,
particularly if they have been kept in warm temperatures or
where the atmosphere is not as fresh as it might be. Such is the
devious route by which a local shipment of eggs is received, and
if they are of prime quality, they are known to the trade as
“Nearby Hennery Fancy.”

Eggs of this grade, however, are more or less limited, and if the
public had to depend upon them alone, there would be an egg
famine. The greater number of eggs consumed in the large

430 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Eastern cities come from the Central States, over a route about
as follows:

The farmer collects his eggs whenever he is of the mind to do
so—maybe it is every day or twice a week, and from nests scattered
about the farm buildings, under wheat shocks and in the brush.
If they are fairly plentiful, he will take them to the general store
(just as he has found them), in a basket, on an average of once a
week. Or, perhaps the farmer lives in a section visited by an
agent who drives from farm to farm gathering eggs in small

ee—ecenilll é gs

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 276.—Interior of a Western feeding station for handling live poultry.

quantities. See Fig. 270. When the local merchant has col-
lected a number of cases he disposes of them to a wholesale buyer,
who is usually the representative of a large commission house in
the East. The local merchant probably makes his shipment by
freight to save expense. The wholesale buyer collects in case
lots until he has enough for a carload, which is generally sent
East in a refrigerator car. He may have repacked the eggs
in new cases after candling them, or sold them case count. When
the commission house receives the carload, the eggs are sorted

TO OBTAIN BEST PRICES 431

into a number of grades, which are sold to jobbers, and there-
after the same route is followed as for the local eggs, only to a
different class of trade. These eggs seldom come in competition
with local eggs, for they are usually of inferior quality.

Selling Direct.—If eggs are worth producing, every effort
should be made to get their full value, and to do this they must
be marketed as quickly as possible, so as to avoid any deteriora-
tion, and sold wherever possible direct to the consumer, all other
arguments to the contrary notwithstanding. Hotels, restaurants
of the better class, clubs, steamships, railroads and soda fountains
are among the highest bidders for strictly first-grade eggs, and
many are supplied directly from large poultry farms. The prices
at which these eggs are sold are usually at a given premium over
top market quotation, or at a fixed rate per dozen on a year’s
contract for a given number of crates per week.’ The premium
method is probably the best for all concerned, and may be made
from three to ten cents above the market.

Business of this character is generally done on a standing order,
and the shipments are seldom more troublesome than dealing
with commission merchants. Collections may be slower, of
course, but the progressive poultryman must endeavor to take
a position where he can extend a certain amount of credit; it
is one of the principles of modern business.

Another class of trade may be found, among the first-class
grocers who make a specialty in eggs of known quality, and to
dealers who carry on a strictly high grade butter and egg delivery.
Special terms can be made with a trade of this kind, similar to
the hotel patronage—a premium over market quotations, and
if those dealers who cater to a discriminating class can rely upon
the poultryman for an absolutely uniform product, they will take
special pains to create a high price market.

Unscrupulous poultrymen have abused the practice of receiving
premiums, hence those who have suffered by the abuse are apt
to be a little skeptical, and justly so. The weakness of the plan
is this: The premium offered sometimes tempts the poultryman
into buying eggs from his neighbors and other outside sources,

(g4nyn143 y 4,4aq "S$ *fQ &sayanoD)
ee

*£13]nod

“

pe73enbs

JO} SyOVI BurpIYyS [ey —

Llz “31g

432

DISTRIBUTING BY PARCEL POST 433

all in good faith, no doubt, but unless the eggs are produced on
his own farm, the poultryman has no real warranty as to their
quality. He must depend upon the word of others, and fre-
quently such .assurances are not dependable. The quality be-
comes uncertain, complaints are made, and confidence is shat-
tered. Altogether, the practice is a risky one, and in a measure
it is a misrepresentation—unfair dealing.

Lost Confidence.—It is strange, perhaps, how quickly a cus-
tomer will lose faith in the source of an egg supply, especially if
the dealer is making attractive claims for the product. You
may serve a household with eggs of the best quality for weeks
and months, with never a complaint, when suddenly there is
trouble. Maybe two or three eggs in a consignment are slightly
stale, or they have a peculiar flavor, or they contain blood clots;
immediately the consumer loses confidence, the loss of which is
no easy task to recover.

Private Trade.—lIn the outlets just described the business is
more or less of a wholesale nature, yet many of the middle profits,
notably those of the commission merchant and jobber, have been
eliminated. There still remains, however, the profit taken by
the retail dealer, which usually amounts to about five cents a
dozen. Surely this profit is worth striving for, and may be had
if the poultryman will make an effort to reach a private trade
direct.

If the farm is situated within easy driving distance of a large
community, the problem is a simple one: the poultryman can
make regular deliveries about twice a week. If this is not
practicable, shipments can be made by parcel post, or by express,
or the poultryman can establish a delivery in the city and have
his eggs shipped to the city in large quantities, whence they are
distributed.

Parcel Post.—It is practicable to ship eggs by parcel post, so
far as the security of the packages is concerned. If the containers
are returned and used over and over, the charges are greatly re-
duced. There are many types of carriers on the market, generally
made of corrugated paper, which are strong and durable and yet

434 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

very light. The prices range from ten to thirty cents, depending
upon the style and size, and from the writer’s experience each
carrier will make on an average of eight trips before it becomes
too badly worn for further use. The customer is requested to
hold the empties until four or five are collected, when they are then
tied together and returned for the one charge. Thus, a carrier

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 278.—Bench killing and picking.

holding four dozen eggs and costing twenty cents can be made
to transport the eggs for about one cent a dozen, which includes
the return charges on the carriers. The parcel post charges will
amount to about three cents a dozen, bringing the total cost to
four cents a dozen.

Charges on Case Eggs.—At a glance this seems very high and
to defeat the idea of shipping by parcel post; but if we consider

CLUB PLAN OF SELLING 435

the cost of shipping eggs wholesale in case lots there is not a great
deal of difference. Consignments made to commission merchants
are usually made in gift crates and the express charges must be
borne by the shipper, the cost of which comes to about two cents
a dozen. The difference of two cents a dozen can be made up
in the price charged for the eggs when catering to a select trade,
over and above the retail profit of five cents a dozen.

The club plan is probably the best method of selling eggs retail,
and the easiest for the poultryman, although he should not expect
to receive quite as high a price for his product. The plan is
this—two or three families residing close together place a standing
order for a case or a half case of eggs once a week; the shipment is
made to one address and the bill collected from there; the work
of distributing the eggs being left to the consignee, who must
also collect for them and remit to the poultryman.

The additional profits accruing to the poultryman who sells
retail are probably equal to the regular profits to be made on
wholesale shipments. The practice requires more work and
closer supervision, of course, but if one is engaged in the business
for what can be taken out of it, why not try to take all the profits
possible? If one thousand layers can be made to show a profit
of two dollars a year per bird by selling retail, why raise and
maintain two thousand layers at a profit of a dollar per bird per
year selling wholesale?

CHAPTER XXXII
PRESERVING EGGS

No article of diet of animal origin is more commonty eaten by
all classes in all countries and in a greater variety of ways than
eggs. They form one of our principal elements of food, and as
such they are always in great demand. Unfortunately, however,
the daily supply is not in proportion to the daily demand. We
want just as many eggs in the fall and winter as we do in the
spring and summer, but unless we store them, they are not avail-
able. Dealers realize the importance of this—witness the stocks
they place in cold storage each year. Why should the individual
not exercise the same forethought? It is entirely practicable,
and the investment required is small, outside of the cost of the
eggs themselves.

Virtues of Cold Storage.—lIt is strange and interesting to note
how some of our conventions and prejudices have evolved, and
how far removed from the truth are some of the popular beliefs.
Many people regard cold storage eggs, and all those connected
with the business, including the producer, middleman and re-
tailer, as being traffickers in a more or less illegitimate product.
Among some the very name cold storage is as odious as adultera-
tion; and they rail against the practice as though it were a form
of knavery. Such a belief is absolutely false.

The cold-storage industry is a development of the past thirty
years, and as a whole it has been of enormous benefit to both the
producer and the consumer. Of this there can be no doubt
if one will only take the trouble to look into the subject a little.
Placing eggs in storage has tended to make the prices of this com-
modity more uniform throughout the year, and to increase fall
and winter consumption.

“How is that?’ someone will ask. ‘‘I remember when you

436

COLD STORAGE 437

could buy eggs in the spring for ten cents a dozen.’ True; but
at that time it was difficult to buy eggs in the fall and winter for
any price. They were not to be had in any quantity. Hens
lay very few eggs in the autumn, especially on general farms;
which farm flocks produce about 80 per cent of the country’s
supply. It is a perfectly natural condition. The old hens are
in the molt, and the pullets have not reached maturity; and not
until scientific methods were perfected, such as artificial incu-
bating and brooding, and improved housing and feeding, was it
possible to obtain any sort of a yield except in the spring and
early summer.

(Courtesy Petaluma Chamber of Commerce)

Fig. 279.—California type of laying house. Note that there are no dropping
boards.

In earlier times eggs were marketed at the time of and near
the place where they were produced. During the spring and
summer months there was an over-production; farmers found it
difficult to find a market for their eggs, and at times were lucky
to get five cents a dozen. In the South and Southwest it has
only been in very recent years that the farmers ever bothered to
collect their eggs during these seasons, they were that unprofit-
able. To-day conditions are very different. Since the advent
of the cold storage system and improved methods of transporta-
tion, we are able to take advantage of this over-production, and
to preserve it for our needs when there is no production.

438 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

The farmer is therefore paid a fair price for what he previously
wasted—usually from fifteen to twenty-five cents per dozen.

Eggs are preserved in a number of ways. For convenience
they may be divided into two general classes: The use of low
temperature, from 31 to 32 degrees F.; and by excluding the air
by coating, covering or immersing in a solution or dry substance.
The first classification is the only way they can be preserved on
a commercial scale, i. e., cold storage. Two methods are fol-
lowed: storing the eggs in crates in a fairly dry atmosphere,
and removing them from their shells and freezing them in bulk
in cans containing about fifty pounds each.

Under proper conditions, when fresh-laid eggs are placed in
storage, very little change takes place in their quality, except
evaporation. But they must not be allowed to remain long out
of storage before they are used. It is failure on the part of the
consumer and retailer to observe this point that results in most
of the difficulties with storage eggs. :

As for the other methods, their aim being to exclude air con-
veying micro-organisms to the interior of the egg, and for sup-
pressing the growth of those already present, the results obtained
are by no means uniform, which is largely due to the condition
of the eggs at the time they are placed in storage.

One of the old-fashioned domestic methods was to pack the
eggs in bran, or in salt, or by covering them with limewater.
Sometimes the eggs remained in good flavor, other times they
spoiled. Their degree of preservation was commonly referred
to as luck; whereas it was chiefly due to ignorance. Only eggs
of known freshness and quality, and preferably non-fertile eggs,
should be preserved by these methods.

Twenty methods of preserving eggs were tested, with the fol-
lowing results, according to the Department of Agriculture:
Those preserved in salt water, brine, were all bad, not rotten,
but unpalatable, the salt having penetrated the eggs. Of the
eggs preserved by wrapping in paper, 80 per cent were bad; and
the same proportion of those preserved in a solution of salicylic
acid and glycerin were unfit for use. Seventy per cent of the

“yyeOUDq
Joyeys pue apeys epraoid Aay} se yonuseur ‘sasnoy A10}s-0M} pey[eo sautjaurog

(ming KANO ItH inujsayD &sajAnod)

‘sasnoy SulAe pajeaayyq—ogz “31q

439

440 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

eggs rubbed with salt were bad, and the same proportion of
those preserved by packing in bran, or covered with paraffin or
varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic acid. Of the
eggs sterilized by placing in boiling water for 12 to 15 seconds,
50 per cent were bad. One-half of those treated with a solution
of alum or put in a solution of salicylic acid were also bad. Forty
per cent of the eggs varnished with water glass, collodion or
shellac were spoiled. Twenty per cent of the eggs packed in peat
dust were unfit for use, the same percentage of those preserved in
wood ashes, or treated with a solution of boracic acid and water
glass, or with a solu-
tion of permangan-
ate of potash, were
also bad. Some of
the eggs were var-
nished with vaseline;
these were all good,
as were those pre-
served in limewater
or in a solution of
water glass.

Of the three meth-
Cs os ods that were en-
(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station) tirely successful, the
Fig. 281.—Preparing water glass for preservingeggs. Water glass treat-

ment is to be recom-
mended. Covering eggs with vaseline requires too much time, and
the idea is not a particularly pleasant one. The limewater treat-
ment sometimes communicates an odor to the eggs.

Water glass, or soluble glass, is the popular term for sodium
silicate or potassium silicate, the commercial article often being a
mixture of the two. The commercial product is generally used
for preserving eggs, if it is of a good grade, inasmuch as the
chemically pure article, which is used for medical and other pur-
poses, is very much more expensive. Inferior grades are likely
to be alkaline, which should not be used, as the alkali will

EXPLANATION OF WATER GLASS 441

impart a bad flavor to the eggs. Moreover, they do not keep
well in it.

Water glass is offered for sale in two forms—a thick liquid hav-
ing the consistency of molasses, and in a powder. See Fig. 281.
The former is perhaps the most commonly used, and may be
purchased at any drug store for about forty cents a quart. In
larger quantities it may be bought of wholesale druggists very
much cheaper. In buying it, it is well to state the purpose for
which you intend to use it, and to receive some assurance as to
its quality.

The North Dakota Experiment Station conducted a series of
experiments with water
glass which were very
successful, and their re-
ports recommend a solu-
tion of I part water glass
in liquid form to 9 parts
water. If the powder is
used, a smaller quantity
of the water glass is re-
quired for the same
amount of water. Only.
Dee ; welt. should be Fig. 282,—Earthenware crocks make the best
used in making the solu- _ receptacles for preserving eggs in water glass.
tion, hence it is well to
boil the water for about twenty minutes and then allow it to
cool before mixing it with the water glass. One gallon of the
water glass should make sufficient solution for covering 50 dozen
eggs, if they are economically packed; hence, at a cost of $1.25
for the water glass, the cost of storing eggs, including the cost of
the container, should not exceed 3 cents a dozen.

Earthenware crocks make the best containers (see Fig. 282),
though good results have been obtained with wooden kegs and
barrels. In any event, the container must be thoroughly cleaned,
scalded, scrubbed and then rinsed. The receptacles should be
stored in a cool, clean place, preferably in a well-ventilated cellar,

(Courtesy C. L, Opperman)

442 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

one that would be suitable for the storage of preserves. If they
are placed where. it is too warm, the eggs will not keep well, the
solution will evaporate rapidly, and the silicate is likely to form
a deposit on the egg shells.

Only clean eggs should be preserved, and by that is meant,
only eggs which have
always been clean, and
not washed. Washing
the eggs removes the nat-
ural mucilaginous coat-
ing on the shell, which
was intended by Nature
to make the egg more or
less impervious to foreign
substances. The fresher
the eggs the _ better,
naturally, for thereisless
likelihood of their having
been contaminated in
any way. Eggs known
to be older than a week
should not be used as a
general practice; and
wherever possible use
non-fertile eggs—those
from flocks having no

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station) male birds. Sterile eggs

Fig. 283.—Examining eggs by means of an do not contain an active

electric candler. life germ or embryo, con-

sequently they are safe

from any state of animal growth, if at any time, no matter how

short the period may be, they were subjected to a temperature
that would start incubation.

As a further safeguard, it is well to candle all eggs before they
are stored, which will determine their freshness and detect any
eggs containing blood clots. See Fig. 283. The importance of

SELECTING AND PACKING EGGS 443

this is not over-estimated, if we consider that one or two spoiled
eggs may ruin the entire container.

Packing.—The eggs should be packed with the small end down,
which-will help to keep the yolks from gravitating and adhering
to the shells. The solution is then poured over the eggs, covering
them to a depth of about two inches. Later, if much of the
liquid has evaporated, it may be necessary to add more of the
solution. If one is unable to fill a receptacle with eggs at one
operation, which is hardly likely except on a large egg farm, the
eggs may be packed a layer at a time and covered with the liquid,
adding more eggs and more of the solution until the container

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 284.—Houses and runs should be arranged to render the greatest facility
in caring for the flocks.

is filled. If earthenware crocks are used and they have lids,
place the Jids on, for this will reduce the amount of evaporation.
Otherwise, the containers should be protected in some way, and
a good plan is to cover them with paper, glued fast, and then
shellacked.

Influence on Eggs.—The eggs should be removed as they are
desired, and not kept out of the water glass for any considerable
time. If the eggs and all other conditions are right, they may
be kept for six to nine months and be perfectly edible. That is,
they may be used for any purposes, but they will not have the
consistency of fresh eggs. The white or albumen will be more

444 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

watery than the strictly fresh egg, and the yolk will not have its
former firmness. These are the conditions found in the storage
egg, and they are to be expected. The membranes of the yolk
and the entire structure of the egg are weakened by its age, yet
their value as food is in no way impaired.

Preserved eggs will not stand the handling that fresh eggs can
receive, consequently the housewife should not be disappointed
to find some of the yolks broken. When boiling preserved eggs
a tiny hole should be pricked with a needle in the air cell end,
to prevent the shell from cracking. This is easily done by in-
serting the point of the needle once. It is sometimes difficult
to poach preserved eggs, because the yolks are apt to run into
the whites, and the same difficulties may be met in frying them;
but for cooking purposes generally these shortcomings are unim-
portant. When we consider the saving made over eggs pur-
chased from the store at certain seasons, which, by the way, are
not always as represented, the deficiencies of the preserved eggs
are amply compensated.

This subject should not be construed to mean that poultrymen
should adopt this means for other than home use; for they should
not. It is a mistake to think that eggs can be preserved in this
way and then sold for fresh eggs. They cannot be made to de-
ceive anyone. If sold, they should be offered for just what they
are,— preserved eggs,—and no attempt made to misrepresent them.
If sent to an egg dealer in one of the large cities, they will be
candled and their contents will be noted. As previously men-
tioned, since they do not withstand handling well, their contents
are very apt to be addled, and a price paid accordingly.

Preserved eggs are intended for home use, or for sale as such,
and the results obtained for a number of years in every way war-
rant a more widespread practice. The subject is now being
taken up by many of the leading Women's Clubs throughout the
country, and the State Experiment Stations.

CHAPTER XXXIII
BY-PRODUCTS OF POULTRY

The progressive poultryman is interested in any device that
will add to his profits. He will spare no expense to make his
fowls comfortable; he will take great pains with the feeding and
watering, and he will devise every conceivable plan to increase
egg production, if that is his specialty. Not for a moment would
he tolerate conditions that might endanger the welfare of his
establishment. No doubt he prides himself that he is on the look-
out for opportunities to buy and sell to the best advantage, and
perhaps he also flatters himself that he can detect a leak in any
of the farm’s operations.

At the same time it is likely this very same poultryman may
be neglecting one of the most important, or at least one of the
most stable, sources of income—the revenue to be derived from
by-products—those things which are usually held as a nuisance.

Many thousands of dollars are wasted each year in the careless
handling or neglect of poultry droppings, while still other thou-
sands are wasted because no attention is paid to saving feathers.

The manure from fowls is rich in nitrogen; it heads the list
of farm manures, being worth four or five times the value of stable
manure.

Quantity Produced.—The Maine Experiment Station con-
ducted a series of tests on the subject of hen manure, and in one
of its bulletins it states that the weight of night droppings from
a fowl will average thirty pounds a year, and that this manure
contains 0.8 pound of organic nitrogen, 0.5 pound of phosphoric
acid, and 0.25 pound of potash. Ordinarily, the value of these
elements would amount to a trifle over twenty cents. The way
prices have soared on fertilizers, these elements are now worth
considerably more.

, 445

446 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

There are no reliable data to show the total quantity of matter
voided by the fowl, yet because the chicken is more than half its
time off the roost, it is safe to estimate that the weight of its
manure while off the roost will be at least thirty pounds a year,
probably nearer forty pounds, of which a fair percentage can be
conserved in the litter of the poultry buildings.

The writer has visited large poultry establishments where no
effort was made to preserve this by-product. In fact, I have

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 285.—Indiana poultry house erected on concrete walls which extend
two feet above the ground level. Walls are built of novelty siding, making a
very neat exterior.

been on plants where the droppings, as they were gathered from
beneath the perches in the laying houses, were thrown outdoors,
actually cast on an open pile, exposed to rains and winds which
quickly rob such matter of its chemical value.

On one farm the disposal of the droppings was flagrantly in
error. I might add that it was fragrantly wrong, as well. The
houses were of the continuous type, located on a hillside, and
erected on piling several feet from the ground. In the front of
each building, in the yards proper, there was a huge mound of

SAVING THE NITROGEN 447

manure and discarded litter, probably the accumulation of several
years. Needless to say, these mounds furnished anything but
sanitary scratching quarters for the fowls. They were objec-
tionable enough in dry weather. In wet weather they were
abominable—a slimy, unsanitary, steaming, stinking mass.
The proprietor of this place was not only wasting several hundred
dollars annually in the loss of this by-product, but he was menac-
ing the success and health of the flocks by imposing such un-
sanitary conditions.

Yet many persons wonder at the number of failures in the
chicken business.

Loss of NitrogenSome poultrymen profess to take care of
the droppings, and really do go to considerable trouble; but their
care consists merely in storing the manure under cover. Keeping
it from the weather, of course, will preserve it to a certain extent,
because there is no leaching; but it will not prevent the escape
of a large percentage of the nitrogen, which is its most valuable
product, and the most expensive element.

Physical Condition.—Undoubtedly,. the chief reason for the
great waste of poultry manure is due to its physical condition,
which is such that it requires special treatment to conserve it.
Its greatest value, as mentioned before, is in its nitrogen content,
which is subject to what are termed putrefactive processes, which
convert it into ammonia compounds. These compounds are
highly volatile, and unless they are conserved in some way, a
third or more of the nitrogen will pass off as ammonia gas. You
can smell this gas in almost every poultry house, and it is par-
ticularly noticeable in damp, humid weather, especially in the
winter months.

By itself, hen manure, like all other natural manures, is not
a well-balanced fertilizer. It contains too much nitrogen in
proportion to the amount of potash and phosphoric acid. Used
alone it is wasteful, because of this excess of nitrogen. To
properly balance this manure, and thus afford an economical
distribution of the nitrogen, suitable amounts of potash salts

‘WOOL [][IYo pejooo Ayyeoueyoau v ul Zutpueys
(a4nyn9143 V 4,49 “S ‘1 &sat4noD)

‘Aaynod Bursuvy 10j syoes Burry [eyayl—"98z

448

USE AN ABSORBENT 449

and phosphoric acid should be added. This will make it a more
efficient fertilizer generally.

To Preserve Manure.—From an agricultural standpoint, the
successful treatment of poultry manure resolves itself into three
problems: First, to prevent the loss of the nitrogen; second, to add
sufficient phosphorus and potassium in forms available for plant
food to make a balanced fertilizer; and third, to improve the phy-
sical condition so that it can be applied to the land in an econom-
ical manner, either in a fertilizer drill or with a manure spreader.

From the poultryman’s point of view, these same questions
are of interest, and the idea is to work out a scheme that will
serve every purpose. The poultryman is anxious to prevent the
loss of nitrogen, because in so doing offensive odors are kept
down; and it is desirable to improve the condition of the drop-
pings by drying them out, because they are handled easier at
cleaning time, and the condition of the roosting compartments
is vastly more sanitary.

Acid phosphate and kainit both prevent the loss of nitrogen,
and if these are added to the manure in connection with sawdust,
land plaster or some other absorbent (good dry loam or peat will
answer nicely), there will result a well-balanced fertilizer. For
example, a mixture of 30 pounds of hen manure, Io pounds of
sawdust, 16 pounds of acid phosphate, and 8 pounds of kainit
will test about 0.25 per cent nitrogen, 4.5 per cent phosphoric
acid, and 2.0 per cent potash.

Need for Absorbent.—The addition of kainit or acid phosphate
by itself makes the manure quite moist and sticky, hence the
necessity for a drier. Any absorbent may be used that can be
obtained at low cost, for the amount of plant food added by the
drier is of small consequence. Because of its slight acidity,
peat has some advantage, since it will help to preserve the
nitrogen. As a general rule, however, the farmer need only
concern himself with the selection of a material that will keep
down odors and absorb the moisture, since the addition of
kainit and acid phosphate will prevent the loss of the nitrogen.
Do not use wood ashes, for they tend to liberate the ammonia.

450 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Roosts and perches should have tight platforms under them,
popularly known as dropping-boards, which should be cleaned
daily, or as often as it is necessary to maintain the quarters in a
sanitary condition. If the houses are not crowded, and the
weather is mild and dry, once a week will probably suffice for
cleaning.

The absorbent should be kept conveniently at hand, and each
time the dropping-boards are cleaned, if they are cleaned daily,
the platforms should be sprinkled with the drier. If the boards
are cleaned weekly, then each morning the droppings should be

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 287.—Small fattening station with feed room in the rear.

sprinkled with the absorbent material. This is quickly done, and
will work wonders with the general improvement of the house.
When cleaning time comes the waste matter is easily removed
with a hoe or scraper, leaving the boards comparatively clean
anddry. It isa big help in the winter months, for it will prevent
the droppings freezing to the boards, which condition makes
cleaning exceedingly laborious.

Each time the droppings are collected they should be treated
with the kainit and acid phosphate, and then carefully stored in a
sheltered bin or shed. At first it will be necessary to weigh the

MIXTURES FOR GARDEN CROPS 451

ingredients, to insure the correct proportion, after which it will
be possible to make a fairly accurate guess at the desired amounts.

Any form of shelter can be used, though on a poultry farm of
large size it will pay to erect or remodel a small building for this
special purpose. One having a watertight floor, which will
prevent the entrance of moisture from without, and the escape
of any liquids from within, is the ideal shelter, and will soon pay
for itself many times over in the increased valuation of the manure.

Fertilizer Formulas.—To aid those who wish to compound their
own fertilizer mixtures, the following analysis of hen manure
is given, which is in accordance with the investigations of the
Massachusetts Experiment Station:

COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MANURE Per Centr

Wales snescc hod Ree Baad ame tee Ai dtm egy oman me SeNR Ee 5.00
INTECO Se fk soas, Gee nek Me oe en ao Simi Header Grae aR BASS 1.56
Potash cacao ada caval as Makaha re ong ie baun eras Rew elene ts 44
Phosphoric acid isk’; see evnes gai serge yeeneee sed sates 1.09
Galeiumoxide (lime). «4 oss 452 cbs oe cdcsseeeresaes eda Sears 1.62
FORMULA FOR LAWNS Pounps

FROM THA MUEE! so wee cere ss ec a SIL4 Brahese Goede acenana: # ign Run Faun aiade aves 1800
Muriate of potash ... 0.0... .. cece ccc eee nneee 75
Acids phosphates io: oc dnds age ae ae pauereldeeanad Melt kaawulalies 125
2000

Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid I.9 per
cent, potash 2.2 per cent. Apply from one to one and a half tons to the acre.

FORMULA FOR CORN Pounps

Hen midnure:.35 ccegesansanes aeenes Heda aae hase eee ere 1510
Acid: phosphates ¢:2¢+ se uassera we Phe pee eee he ER an Mee 340
Muriatevot potash) «oo: auc eseundirede ganda ae eee Seanaiar 150
2000

Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.2 per
cent, potash 4.0 per cent.

FORMULA FOR FRUIT TREES Pounps

Hen Manure: so sag by aces Rewer eed nhs PRON cA eweew ee eR acee 1500
High-grade sulphate potash... 1... 0.0.0... cc cee e eee eee 170
16 per cent acid phosphate.......... 0... eee eee ee eee ee 330
2000

Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.1 per cent, phosphoric acid 3.3 per
cent, potash 4.5 per cent.

452 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

FORMULA FOR BEANS AND PEAS Pounps

HIG nima Nunes, 6c ee, oh 3, x eita ene dl ores eased Sos wuee ARMA A eth cp iets 550
Ammonium. sulphate... ..c. cos sesias cca tae reuse a nbs ae ee aie 100
High-grade sulphate potash. ... 0.0.0.0... 00.00 cece eee eee 350
Acid phosphate: cc: iicseega hoor se eses sake anna sett aes alae 1000
2000

Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 1.4 per cent, phosphoric acid 8.0 per
cent, potash 8.8 per cent.

FORMULA FOR STRAWBERRIES Pounps

FA SA SMMAN UTE yy. ale tae oe doch ded aged pee RIED ur cutee sammie aAe RES 1000
INitratesof soda... 059 + dcupee date ie one mA Soe oA GONE 100
Ammoniumysul phates «<<, ¢a4sc0 a2eGmeie ee peel hep Maken Devens 100
High-grade sulphate potash. .......... 0.00.00. e eee eee eee 200
Acid phosphatets 43.403 i2suatvad sce poeamkanes on peer < dtive 600
2000

Approximate analysis: Nitrogen 2.5 per cent, phosphoric acid 5.0 per
cent, potash 5.2 per cent.

The disregard of the value of feathers is another source of
waste to many poultry raisers. There is a uniformly steady
demand for feathers in all sections of the country, some dealers
send out buyers for this purpose, yet thousands of dollars are
lost annually because farms pay no attention to this product.
With some system of saving, sorting and curing the feathers,
they can be made to defray the cost of dressing and marketing
the poultry, which is an item worthy of consideration. As proof
of the demand for feathers, government reports show that in
recent years nearly $2,000,000 worth are imported annually, ex-
clusive of ostrich and similar ornamental varieties. Evidently,
the foreigner finds that it pays to save feathers. Why should
the American farmer not follow this example?

There are many kinds and grades of feathers, and prices
vary accordingly. Geese feathers are the most highly prized,
and bring about sixty cents a pound. When we consider that
geese may be plucked twice a year, maybe three times, it is
easy to see that the feathers are a source of profit, similar to the
wool of sheep. All white feathers sell for more than colored
ones or mixed feathers, and dry-picked feathers are preferred to
scalded ones. Usually duck feathers are rated next to goose

DOLLARS WASTED IN FEATHERS 453

feathers, though very often carefully selected white turkey feath-
ers are sold as high as the best grades of goose feathers. The
body feathers from white chickens come next to duck feathers,
and some grades compare favorably with goose feathers.

The down and very finest feathers from geese often sell for a
dollar a pound, and are used for quilts. The finer body feathers
of ducks and chickens are used for pillows, beds, cushions and
soon. Tail and wing feathers, those with quills, are used mostly
in making dusters and screens; feather boas are made from

pessti er ie
(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 288.—Removing small feathers while the birds hang by the feet.

hackle feathers, or from feathers curled with a hot iron; thou-
sands of pounds of feathers are glued together in the forms of
wings and breasts in imitation of birds of paradise, which are
no longer permitted to be imported, and sold to milliners; and
large quantities are used in the manufacture of feather flowers,
fans, muffs and toys. For decorative purposes the feathers of
peacocks, large turkey feathers and the tail plumage from chick-
ens are in great demand. If you stop to think a moment, numer-
ous other uses for feathers will present themselves. Feather-

454 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

bone, for example, is made from the shafts or quills of large flight
feathers.

Prime feathers are those that are dry-picked, clean and fully
cured, and properly sorted. By all means keep the different
grades separate. Tail feathers should not be mixed with body
feathers, not even with wing feathers, unless they resemble them.
Make bundles of the quills, and either tie them together or pack

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 289.—“‘String”’ killing and picking.

them in boxes. One-sided quills, usually the flight feathers from
the wing tips, are not worth as much as the full feathers, hence
they should be kept separate.

Remember, that an inferior article packed with a superior one
will invariably reduce the value of all to the level of the inferior
article. The call for feathers is constantly changing, conse-
quently it is well to consult the dealers as to just what is wanted,
and for any details in packing and shipping. Commission men

CLEAN FEATHERS SELL BEST 455

who handle poultry can usually dispose of feathers to an advan-
tage, or they will be glad to put you in touch with firms who
make a specialty of this business.

Feathers should be thoroughly dried before they are packed,
or they mat together, turn musty and maybe spoil. Only a few
precautions are necessary to save feathers properly. In the first
place, the poultry must be dry-picked, but then, dry-picked
poultry always brings a better price than scalded poultry, conse-
quently it is to the grower’s advantage to follow this method
regardless of the feathers.

Provide barrels or boxes, have them arranged beside the
picker, and as the pluck-
ing is done drop the body
feathers in one receptacle
and tail feathers in an-
other, and so on. This
also helps to keep the
feathers clean, for if they
are allowed to fall at the
picker’s feet, it is quite
likely they will be satu-
rated or spattered with
blood. Before the feathers (Courtesy U. S. Dep't penne
ae stored ewer spread Fig. 290.—Holding birds on the lap to re-
the different kinds in trays move small feathers.
or on the floor of a dry,
well-ventilated room, to a depth of four to six inches, and every
day for a week, or until they appear to be thoroughly dry, stir them
with a stick. They are then ready to be packed or shipped. If
they are packed green, the animal heat will make them damp
and moldy, and greatly reduce their value.

Cleaning.—Most of the feathers shipped to the dealers are
just as they come from the fowls, and quite naturally they must
be cleaned. Clean feathers, of course, bring higher prices than
soiled ones, but whether it will pay the poultryman to go to
this extra work is a question that each person must find out

hs f Z :

G De

456 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

himself. I am inclined to think that it pays to clean them at
home, since they bring almost twice the price, and the work is
not difficult.

Manufacturers and feather houses have facilities for washing
the feathers by machinery, treating them with live steam, and
then drying them with wringers and subjecting them to strong
drafts of air from fans which lay all animal odors and leave the
feathers in a fine, fluffy condition.

Shipping Methods.—Feathers are shipped in burlap sacks,
tightly compressed, and the quills in boxes. Or the quills may
be tied securely in bundles and packed in sacks. Do not pack
the quills loosely in bags, all jumbled together, for they will not
bring a good price. And I repeat, keep the white feathers sepa-
rate; they are the most valuable. White chicken feathers are
worth about eighteen cents a pound; colored chicken feathers
about six cents a pound.

Feathers which are too badly soiled for use as such can be
utilized as fertilizer. They are valuable for this purpose, though
they decay slowly and are therefore a long time in the ground
before they become available for plant food.

CHAPTER XXXIV
PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW

Educational Value.—Next to the poultry press, the show room
has done more for the poultry industry than anything else. It is
probably the most potent educational factor, and one of the
greatest advertising mediums. Without these annual displays
interest in poultry affairs would be dwarfed. The strongest
proof of their popularity lies in the fact that the number of shows
increases every year.

Every one who raises good poultry should take an active in-
terest in poultry shows, especially in the local shows. This
includes the utility breeder as well as the fancier. The man who
discredits the value of the show room simply because he raises
chickens for eggs and meat is short-sighted. The progressive
utility breeder is one who opposes mongrelism. For any pur-
pose he appreciates that pure breeds are superior. In the show
room not alone fine feathers and correct markings are displayed,
but the qualifications that go to make the egg or meat type of
bird are also shown.

Exhibit whenever possible, but whether you are an’ exhibitor
or not you will find it to your advantage to patronize the shows,
to be in attendance, and to contribute any assistance at your
command. One may not carry off blue ribbons, and yet win
many things of even greater value. You can obtain a closer
friendship with your fellow breeders, a broader view of the con-
ditions that make for success, poultry wisdom, some new points
on salesmanship or advertising, a better knowledge of how to
mate next season’s contestants, an exhibition of the latest im-
proved apparatus, and last, but not least, a good time.

It is not always the poultry association with the largest mem-

457

458 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

bership that is the most successful. One of the best exhibitions
in Pennsylvania has only a dozen members, but these men are

POINTS

Rabe Sart
ae nd AN

ES) i ies

Ww hae S

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 291.—Glossary chart giving the names of the various sections of a

male fowl. In the female the cushion takes the place of the saddle of the male,
and the sickle feathers are absent.

up-to-date, hard workers and they work with a co-operative
spirit. Every year they set aside the week of the show for that

IMPORTANCE OF CONDITION 459

particular purpose. They don’t stand round with their hands in
their pockets, giving advice, and paying some one else to do the
work. Except for the judges’ fees, prizes, hall rent, feed, light
and similar expenses, there are no other charges; in consequence
the show is a financial success.

Selecting Specimens.—There was a time when a breeder could

(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station)

Fig. 292.—Catching coop for fowls. It is placed in front of a small door in
the main house, through which the birds are driven into the coop.

look over his birds, select the most promising specimens, and
without any further ado pack them off to the show and win.
That day is past. To-day, though a specimen ranks high in
size, shape, color and most of the other points that contribute
to the ideal, if it is not shown in perfect condition the chances
for a ribbon are limited. In fact, it is the art of conditioning

460 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

specimens, as well as breeding them, that brings success in this
generation.

Some breeders are opposed to conditioning, and condemn it
as faking. There is a vast difference between the two, however,
even though it may be difficult to establish in some cases. The
mere fact that you have grown a fowl that conforms to certain
requirements, such as weight, shape, the angle at which the tail
is carried, length of shank and so on, is by no means as far as
it is possible to exert your skill. The other fellow, let us say,
has done the same thing, and a little more. He improved on the
fowl’s ability to keep itself sleek and clean. Maybe he influenced
the bird’s conduct, by training it to pose and strut about, to
exhibit its virtues to the best advantage, and not object to
handling. A wild, unruly bird is an abomination, and will try
the patience of the most skillful judge.

Show Conduct.—To properly demonstrate his or her points of
superiority, a bird must be docile, accustomed to pose when the
judge’s stick is placed on its back, and in all ways assume an
aristocratic air. These characteristics are seldom born in a speci-
men; they are the result of careful training on the part of the
exhibitor, and as such they are worthy of consideration. Some-
times it requires weeks of careful handling and training before
a bird is in perfect show condition. Many a superior bird has
failed to be placed because it was impossible for the judge to
keep it quiet long enough to form any idea of its correct type.

In the selection for the show room every section of the bird
must receive exacting scrutiny. In some breeds color must be
more carefully considered, in others, as, for example, the Mediter-
ranean varieties, the head points are of great importance. In
the Hamburg breeds, if tail be not full and flowing, its long
sickles well curved and carried at the right angle with the back,
or if it approaches a squirrel position, the whole Hamburg char-
acter is lost or seriously marred. If the sickles are short and the
tail pinched, or carried in a trailing low carriage, they fail to
attract the necessary attention.

Like the tail, unless a fowl’s shanks are of the right length,

NEED FOR WASHING 461

and the angle formed by thigh and shank shows apparent strength
and perfect poise, the specimen appears at a disadvantage. The
shanks in the Cochin classes, because of their excessively heavy
plumage, will look short, but they must not look dwarfed. In
the American classes we describe the length of the shanks as
medium, meaning that they free the specimen from any stilted
appearance; at the same time they must not look short for the
size of the specimen.

Thus, different breeds require different judgment, and the
only way to gain complete information about a particular breed
is to study the American Standard of Perfection, which is the
authority by which show specimens are judged.

Birds intended for the show room should be selected a month
or two before the show dates, and the males separated from the
females to avoid broken feathers. They should be given more or
less isolated quarters, where they cannot fight, or in trying to
do so, injure their combs in any way. The specimens should be
carefully dusted with an insect powder to free them of lice, and
if they are badly soiled they may require a preliminary washing.

Washing.—It is seldom necessary to wash the dark-colored
breeds, such as the Rhode Island Reds, unless they have been
reared in an atmosphere of coal smoke, in bare yards, or have
become very dirty, in which case a thorough washing will mean
a great improvement. Washing is sometimes used to improve
the shape of certain breeds, such as Cochins and Orpingtons,
which should have loose, fluffy plumage. By drying before a
fire, one that is not too hot, for this will make the feathers curl,
and fanning the feathers while they are drying, the plumage
will remain loose and fluffy. This gives the birds a fuller, rounder
appearance, and adds much to their beauty.

White birds are the hardest to condition. To insure a good
job they should be washed twice, the first time about two weeks
before the show, and again'a day or two before shipping. The
idea of washing chickens sounds like a difficult task, but after a
little experience it becomes a pleasure. It is surprising how
placidly most fowls submit to the work. If the specimens have

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‘uoriqryxe Ayjnod pasuese []aA\—

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462

FACILITIES FOR WASHING 463

received proper training, which is but another term for sufficient
petting and handling, they will allow their master to perform
these ablutions in a very orderly fashion. A warm room, plenty
of soft water, good soap, a couple of tubs, some towels or cloths,
a sponge, patience and common sense are the requirements.

Quarters.—On many of the large farms, those that make a
specialty of exhibiting, special quarters are provided for con-
ditioning the fowls. In fact, some of the conditioning rooms
resemble exhibitions themselves, being fitted with show cages
in much the same manner. The small breeder may obtain
equally good results without going to this expense. An outside
kitchen or sheltered porch, some place where members of the
household frequently pass, is a good location to erect temporary
cages, and as often as one can spare the time, handle the birds
and make them accustomed to persons coming close to the cage.

Always handle fowls with quiet movements yet with a firm
grip, being careful to keep their wings closely folded against their
bodies when removing them from the cages, so as to avoid any
damage to the feathers. Sometimes it is best to commence the
training at night, for light seems to fascinate them, and they are
less wild. Teach the specimens to assume certain poses, and by
gently stroking them between the wattles they can be made to
retain a pose indefinitely. A few minutes spent in training every
morning and night for a couple of weeks will usually conquer
the wildest of birds. If you find a specimen that no amount of
training will tame, better discard it; the chances are it will try
to pull down the cage in the judge’s presence.

Preparations for Washing.—Everything should be in readi-
ness before washing the birds, and a start made in the morning,
so that by night the fowls are dried off. Fill two tubs with warm
water of a temperature that is comfortable to the hands; use
the first for washing and the second for rinsing and sponging.
Provide a third tub of cold water for the final rinsing, to which
a small amount of laundry bluing may be added if desired. This
is a very particular part of the operaticn. The tub should con-
tain enough water to entirely immerse the bird, except the head,

464 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

because if one portion of the plumage is submerged longer than
another, the bird will not be evenly blued. Use about as much
bluing as would be proper for laundering clothes.

Lather Each Section.—When all is ready, carefully immerse
the specimen, and then starting with the head, thoroughly lather
each section until every particle of dirt has been freed. Cover
each feather with lather clear to the skin and then rub the feath-
ers well between the hands. Don’t be afraid of damaging the
feathers; once wet they are very pliable and may be rubbed
much the same as shampooing one’s hair. After washing the
upper part of the bird place a clean board across the sides of
the tub and stand the bird on this while you wash the breast
and body. A nail-brush or discarded tooth-brush should be used
for washing the comb and face, legs and toes, especially the claws.

Rinsing.—When you are assured of a good job of cleaning,
squeeze off the greater part of the lather into the first tub, re-
move the bird to the second tub, and with the aid of a sponge or
dipper thoroughly rinse every trace of soap-suds and dirty water.
If any soap is left in the plumage it will stick together. This
rinsing operation is the secret of a satisfactory result. If any
traces of soapy water remain the plumage will dry blotchy and
streaked, and if bluing is used in the third tub, any presence of
soap tends to prevent the feathers from taking the bluing evenly.

Third Tub.—When the specimen is thoroughly sponged and
rinsed, plunge it into the third tub of cold water, agitate and
ruffle the feathers so that the clean water, especially if bluing
is used, comes in contact with every section; then drain the
bulk of the water from the plumage by squeezing it; take the
specimen in your lap and wrap it in an absorbent towel or cloth.

When it has ceased to drip, return the bird to the conditioning
coop, which should be previously replenished with clean shav-
ings, straw or other material. A good plan is to cover the top,
sides and back of the cage with muslin to prevent drafts, and
leave only the front open. If convenient arrange the cages
around a stove while the birds are drying, or in a room where
the temperature is about 80 degrees. As previously mentioned,

Fig. 294.—Prize-winning black Langshan cock.
30 465

466 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

if too hot the feathers are apt to crimp and curl, which is un-
desirable.

Black and red varieties may be improved in lustre and bril-
liancy of plumage by rubbing the feathers with a little sweet
oil. Use very little—a couple of drops on the palm of the hand
are sufficient.

Shanks.—Many exhibitors are careless in not cleaning the
shanks. If the legs are soaked in warm water and well washed
with a stiff brush, and a wooden tooth-pick is inserted under the
scales that lodge dirt, every bit of discoloration can be removed
as readily as one can clean his finger-nails. A little oil applied
to the shank, or carbolated vaseline, rubbed with a woolen cloth,
will work wonders. This brings out the true color nicely, and
gives them a fresh, immaculate appearance. It is not generally
known, perhaps, but fowls molt the scales on their shanks and
toes about the same time they molt their feathers. Look care-
fully to see that any dead scales are removed.

The comb, wattles, face and earlobes should be rubbed with
vaseline, using very little, but rubbing it in well. Those are the
finishing touches and should be given attention at the last minute.

Under Weight.—If show aspirants are a little under weight,
careful feeding for a few weeks will usually bring them up to
specifications. Vary the birds’ rations so their appetites are not
’ cloyed, using a mixture of some of the following articles: boiled
potatoes, cornmeal, boiled rice, buckwheat meal, barley meal,
middlings, ground oats, wheat, skimmed milk, a little beef tal-
low, linseed meal or cottonseed meal. At the same time give
them a little sweetened water to drink, and a good tonic or
regulator to offset any ill effects from the forcing. If the birds
have lost weight in shipment to the show room, as they are
likely to do, feed them liberally on the regularly cooked and
seasoned bologna sausage.

In conditioning old hens that are over-fat and inactive, no
soft food should be given except green vegetables. The whole
grain should be largely oats scattered in deep litter.

Many beginners make the mistake of cooping the birds too

SHIP IN LARGE CRATES 467

closely and too long before the show, which makes them dull
and sluggish. A pullet is at her best just before she lays her
first egg; after that she loses her bloom and goes off shape.

Buff color is the hardest to maintain at an even shade. The
secret of getting even, rich, golden buff color is never to allow
the sun or rain to touch the surface of a showbird. Some of
the most successful breeders of buff plumaged birds do not give
their birds freedom in the open from the time their final plumage
begins to show, but keep them in shady runs or under sheds.

Shipping Crates.—Above all things, do not try to save space
or a few cents on expressage by crowding show specimens into
small crates. There is no economy in it. Use standard exhibi-
tion crates, which may be purchased at a reasonable price. If
made at home, build them high enough for the birds to stand
upright, and wide enough for them to turn round without in-
juring their tails. Label or tag the crates neatly, and in strict
accordance with the instructions of the show secretary. See
that the crates are bedded with clean straw or some material
that is free from dust. We have seen instances where birds that
had been carefully washed and groomed were hopelessly marred
by a deposit of dust on face, shanks and plumage, caused by
scratching in dusty litter.

To insure identification every specimen should be leg-banded,
and the number or distinguishing feature of the band should be
marked on the entry blank and shipping crate.

Sportsmanship.—It has been said, any one can win blue rib-
bons, but it takes a real fancier to lose. If there is one thing
in a show room that is detestable, it is the exhibitor who has not
sufficient sportsmanship to abide by the. decision of the judge.
If you can’t understand an award, have it out with the judge in
a gentlemanly way, but if he can’t convince you that his opinion
is correct, take your medicine like a man. A good loser is always
respected and admired.

Chickens are great imitators, and their imitations frequently
lead to habits which are very troublesome and difficult to com-
bat, among which are egg-eating, feather-pulling, cannibalism

Fig. 295.—Skeleton of a
fowl.

1, Premaxillary bone
or upper jaw; 2, maxilla
or lower jaw; 3, jugal
bone; 4, nasal cavity;
5, eye cavity; 6, skull;
7, neck vertebra; 8,
scapula; 9, humerus; 10,
clavicles (wishbone); 11,
ulna; 12, radius; 13,
bones of forewing; 14, backbone; 15, ribs; 16, ilium; 17, pygostyle or tail
bones; 18, breastbone; 19, ischium; 20, pubis; 21, sternum; 22, keel; 23, femur;
24, tibia; 25, tarso-metatarsus; 26, spur; 27, digits or toes; 28, rear toe.

468

CLIPPING WINGS WITHOUT DISFIGURATION 469

and high-flying. Nothing is more distressing to the poultry
keeper than these four habits once they have become confirmed
practices, for then they amount to vices. They usually start
through accidents, or from the example set by a chief offender—
a ringleader, which should be removed as soon as the trouble is
discovered. Then, if the offender cannot be reformed, rather
than return it to the flock, it should be made to pay the death
penalty. Usually, these habits can be broken up if taken in
time and dealt with accordingly.

Flying over the fences is likely to become one of the troubles
among the Mediterranean
breeds, which is not serious
in itself, except that where
two or more varieties are
kept it is almost certain to
result in cross-breeding. And
even if one breed of chickens
is kept, in all probability the
poultryman has mated his
pens with a definite purpose,
hence he cannot tolerate pro-
miscuous changes. For one : ‘ ;
thing, it may lead toinbreed- 2 295,Commersal feeding, sa
ing; and then again it may 30,000 birds.
lead to unpleasant difficulties
with one’s neighbors—their gardens or flower-beds.

Clipping Wings.—It is natural that we should hesitate to clip
a fowl’s wings, as is customarily done to prevent high-flying,
for the usual method is sure to disfigure the bird. Clipping off
the flight feathers completely is not necessary, however, and if
a little care is taken in cutting, the wings can be deprived of
their power in such a manner that the mutilated feathers will
not be detected unless the fowl is caught and closely examined.

Flight Feathers.—The primaries or flight feathers are the long
quill feathers that grow on the first joint of the fowl’s wing, and
are hidden, or nearly so, when the wing is folded against the

©. INS”

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

470 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

body. The secondaries are the quill feathers that grow on the
second joint of the fowl’s wing, which are visible when the wing
is closed, and which form the section known as the wing-bay.
Together with the primaries they constitute the main feathers
of the wing or the flying feathers.

The ordinary way of clipping a fowl’s wings is to clip off both
primaries and secondaries within a few inches of the fleshy por-
tion of the wings, and which always leaves a ragged, badly dis-
figured appearance, and seriously detracts from the bird’s sleek-
ness. The practice is unnecessary and should be condemned.

Clipping Without Disfiguration.—The following method is
equally effective in restraining high-fliers, and while it takes a
little more time to perform the operation, the results seem to
warrant the additional trouble: Take the bird under your arm,
or better still, sit down to the work and hold the fowl between
your knees; then spread the feathers of a wing wide open, and
with a pair of scissors clip the web or plumed portion of each
primary close to the shaft; but do not cut off the shaft and do
not strip the webs of the secondaries. Repeat the operation on
the other wing.

When the fowl resumes its natural poise and the wings are
folded against its body, the clipped portions of the primaries
will be hidden from view by the secondaries, and it will take a
very acute observer to discover that the wings have been tam-
pered with at all.

CHAPTER XXXV
AILMENTS AND DISEASES

When to Doctor.—It has been said that the best cure for ailing
fowls is a sharp hatchet.

The writer will not take issue with this treatment as an effec-
tive remedy for some ailments, yet as a hard and fast rule to
be recommended for general practice, the hatchet cure is a little
too stringent.

There is no question but that a sickly flock of fowls are a con-
stant source of vexation and financial loss to their owner, and
while it is very often unprofitable to expend much time and
trouble doctoring them, in my experience it will pay to administer
first-aid treatment in the early stages of a disorder; and if the
patient responds within a reasonable time, continue the treat-
ment; otherwise, call in the assistance of the hatchet.

Health Is Everything.—It does not matter how valuable a
strain of blood there may be in a flock of chickens, how long a
pedigree, or how many blue ribbons are back of them; how
splendidly equipped are their buildings; nor yet how attractive
and convenient may be the location and environment of a farm,
the foundation for success with poultry is built on perfect health,
—a strong, vigorous vitality,—and to this all else is subordinate.

Sickness in some form, though it may be of a trivial nature,
visits every flock at some time or other, and whether the trouble
finds a permanent abiding place, a home, so to speak, in which
to thrive, or whether it is met with an aggressive inhospitality
and promptly driven off and exterminated, depends almost
wholly upon the caliber and energy of the attendant in charge
of the flock.

Unfortunately, the beginner’s farm usually endures the greatest

471

472 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

hardships on this score,—not because he neglects to give his
fowls the best of care, rather because, lacking the experience and
practical knowledge of the more seasoned poultryman, the novice
frequently fails to detect the first symptoms of a disease. Then,
too, when the novice does discover trouble, very often he has
not the courage to sacrifice a few birds as a precautionary meas-
ure. Yet drastic measures are sometimes necessary for the safety
of the rest of the flock, just as in a serious conflagration dynamite

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 297.—Open-front house with irregular gable roof designed to afford suffi-
cient head room inside where it is required.

is used to raze whole blocks of houses, and thus check the spread
of the fire.

Trivial or Contagious.—Poultry diseases may be divided into
two general classes: Those of a more or less trivial nature, which
will respond to flock treatment through the drinking water or
feed, and those of a highly contagious, virulent action, which
require individual treatment—if treated at all, for in badly in-
fected birds it is usually advisable to kill them at once and destroy
the carcass, thereby preventing the spread of contagion.

Burying the carcass, unless it is buried very deep, is not always

LOOK FOR SYMPTOMS 473

a safe method; for at some future time it may be dug up by a
dog, or accidentally plowed up, and the infection again spread
about the premises. Instead, such a carcass should be burned,
or put in quicklime.

Indications of Illness.—The competent poultryman makes it
his business to note the physical condition of every bird,
every day—which is a much simpler task than it sounds. In
the early morning and at feeding times, it is an easy matter to
detect a bird that is feeling out of sorts. If a fowl remains on
the perches, with ruffled feathers, head drawn close to its body,
and is otherwise sluggish and disinterested, it should be taken
out of the pen and examined. Or if a fowl is seen to rub its eye
on its wing frequently, or if a soiled spot appears on its wing;
if it sneezes often, gasps for breath, mopes in the corners and has
a purplish comb—these conditions are all abnormal, and the
fowl should be removed for a closer examination and diagnosis.

Detention Coop.—On a farm of any size there should be a
small house or coop isolated from the rest of the buildings,
which should be equipped with a few cages, or crates, and desig-
nated as a hospital, or detention ward. When a fowl is discovered
out of condition, if only with a cold, it should be removed to this
hospital, carefully examined for the nature of its ailment, and
treated accordingly. A small closet should be convenient, fitted
for the storage of bottles, clean rags, a sponge, basin, and so on.
With the knowledge of a few simple drugs and remedies many of
these hospital inmates can be promptly and permanently cured.

Determine the Cause.—When an abnormal condition is first
ciscovered, the poultryman should analyze every symptom, not
only with the view to ascertaining the nature of the ailment,
but to determine the cause of the disorder. There is sure to be
a cause, and of course it should be immediately removed or cor-
rected, to prevent further trouble. It is then up to the atten-
dant to decide if the ailment is curable, and what the chances
are for an early recovery. If the chances are poor, he had better’
stifle all sympathetic feelings and sentence the victim to be
executed—the hatchet.

474 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Simple Remedies.—The following drugs are simple remedies
that should be found in the poultryman’s dispensary, and their
actions are no doubt familiar to everyone. They are all inex-
pensive, and a supply should be kept on hand for instant use.
Like the ‘‘stitch in time,” first-aid treatment in the early stages
of a fowl’s ailment is the secret of a successful cure.

Castor oil is one of the most commonly used remedies for dis-
orders of the crop and other digestive organs. It not only removes
the irritant, but also helps to soothe and heal any inflamed tis-
sues. In fact, it is a pretty good rule to commence the treatment

(Courtesy Atlantic Farm)
Fig. 298.—Pen of Pekin breeders. Duck houses are simple affairs.

of every ailment with a dose of castor oil. Give about two table-
spoonfuls to a grown bird, administering it with the aid of a
dropper or glass syringe.

Epsom salts and Rochelle salts are both splendid laxatives,
and will correct liver troubles and relieve diarrhea. Half a tea-
spoonful is the correct dose. In treating a large flock, the salts
may be mixed with the mash,—but the fowls should first be
. allowed to become quite hungry, to insure their eating a sufficient
quantity of the mash.

Bi-carbonate of soda, or Baking Soda, will relieve a sour or

MEDICINE LOCKER 475

distended crop, which is equivalent to indigestion. An amount
sufficient to cover a dime is the average dose for a single bird.
For flock treatment, dissolve a half-teaspoonful in a quart of
water, and keep it before the birds for several days.

Tincture of aconite is a well-known drug for the relief of colds,
catarrh, and in allaying fever. About five drops is the custom-
ary dose for a bird.

Sulphate of magnesia, ten drops to a pint of drinking water,
will relieve costiveness.

Spirits of camphor is another good remedy for slight cases of
diarrhea. Add a few drops to the drinking water.

Quinine will work wonders with colds and chicken pox; and
Iron, Quinine and Strychnine tablets make an excellent tonic
for birds. whose vitality has been lowered through loss of blood,
excessive breeding or illness.

Bismuth nitrate will frequently cure the more serious intes-
tinal disorders,—bloody diarrhea or enteritis.

Tincture of nux vomica, about ten drops to a quart of drinking
water, is recommended for cases of leg weakness, and it also stimu-
lates the digestive organs.

Calomel is another excellent corrective for liver troubles, and
a strong laxative. Use a quarter of a grain to a grain.

Carbolated vaseline, or some one of the petroleum products,
should be on hand to use in anointing wounds and sores, and
for chicken pox, scaly legs, and frozen combs.

Gas tar, or one-third carbolic acid mixed with two-thirds gly-
cerine, are two other remedies for scaly leg. Cover the affected
shanks with the gas tar, and allow it to remain until it wears off.
The scales will come off with the tar.

Liver Pills.—When a fowl is somewhat mopish, the ordinary
family liver pill will very often correct this sluggishness, much
the same as it does with the human being.

Spirits of turpentine and sweet oil will usually relieve any
bronchial affection, such as a rattling or bubbling sound in the
throat. One part turpentine to five parts oil is the proper mix-
ture: administer about ten drops daily to the individual bird.

476 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Fowls seem more susceptible to roup, canker, and other
respiratory derangements in the fall of the year than at other
seasons, and as either preventative or balm for these ills, the
Missouri State Experimental Station reports excellent results
from the use of the following mixture:

Magnesium Sulphate.......... tsa a weahsrad ack iene) Bees ees 10 ounces
SUPRUR.. cosue. aoe be the eee Marese nee eee aes eee oe ee
Magnesium: Oxide v5.04 sisson de een tebe oe eee ee eek eee I ounce
Sulphate Ob Troms -i.2 des ais caidas Hoe SHES Boe eae 2 ounces
GPOUNG GINGER, co dod soa gis ietscd wae hie A Siare edn epee, Pa adam go

A tablespoonful is fed in moist mash for 12 birds, for three
days. The Magnesium Sulphate acts on the intestines, as pre-
viously mentioned; the
Sulphur is a general anti-
septic; the Magnesium
Oxide acts on the kidneys;
Sulphate of Iron stimu-
lates the blood; and
Ground Ginger is bene-
ficial to all organs.

A strong disinfectant,
preferably one of the coal-
tar products, should be in-
cluded in the poultry-
man’s dispensary, and it
should be used freely as a
Ex , LEER spray whenever an infec-
Fig. 299.—Good type of feeder. Note the tious disease breaks out.

short, thick head. Permanganate of pot-

ash is frequently used in

the drinking water for antiseptic and disinfecting purposes, and will

prevent the spread of colds, coughs, bronchitis and similar troubles.

Use enough of the crystals to turn the water a deep purple color.

About as much as would cover a dime is sufficient for a gallon
of water.

It would seem as though chickens were heir to as many ills
as man yet since most of them are but very occasional, we need

Cees

POULTRY AILMENTS 477

only concern ourselves with the more common troubles herein-
after mentioned, together with their principal symptoms and
causes.

Asthenia, or ‘‘Going Light.”—A term applied to fowls that
persistently lose weight, become emaciated, anemic, weak and
unproductive. It is not a form of consumption, as some sup-
pose, but may be due to several causes. Sometimes it is the
result of lice or mites; at other times it is due to worms—this
is the most common cause; or the birds may be afflicted with
bacteria harbored in the
small intestine, which
subsist on the food con-
sumed by the fowls. On
investigation, if no defect
is found in the rations, one
of the birds should be
killed and examined for
worms. If many are
found, the emaciation is
probably due to this cause,
and the flock should be
treated accordingly. See
chapter on Worms.

If no worms are found,
and the fowls are not Fig. 300,—Indifferent type of feeder. Note
bothered with lice and crow-like shape of head.
mites, and their rations
and living quarters are O. K., the cause of the trouble is probably
infection by microbes mentioned above. In this case a slight in-
flammation may be noted. The treatment should be, first, the
removal of the bacteria by purgation, using Epsom salts, castor oil
or calomel, following which the flock should be given a tonic to
build up the system, and an abundance of easily digested foods.
At the same time look carefully into the housing conditions;
clean and disinfect everything.

The following tonic is recommended: 30 grains each of pow-

478 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

dered fennel, anise, coriander seed, cinchona; I dram each of
powdered gentian and ginger; and 15 grains of powdered sul-
phate of iron. Mix these ingredients thoroughly. Dosage:
from two to four grains of the mixture added to the food twice
a day for each fowl.

Bagging Down.—The posterior parts of a fowl hang down and
even drag on the ground. It is not a disease, but the result of
improper feeding and lack of exercise, an over-fat condition, and
very hard to correct. Better kill such specimens for the table;
they are not sick birds, remember.

Blackhead (Entero-Hepatitis) —This is a disease that attacks
young turkeys, and is seldom found in other fowls. In the course
of the disease the head generally becomes dark colored or nearly
black, hence the name. It is an infection of the liver, similar in
its nature to human dysentery. It is highly contagious and very
difficult to cure. If the birds are in an advanced stage of the
disease, they had better be killed, and the bodies carefully dis-
posed of, because thus far the treatment for blackhead has not
given satisfactory results. If treated at all, the afflicted birds
must be isolated.

The symptoms are loss of appetite and condition, diarrhea,
and finally prostration. The liver is found to be more or less
enlarged, and spotted with yellowish or greenish-yellow nodules.

The remedies used are sulphur 5 grains, sulphate of iron 1
grain; or benzonaphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth I grain;
or sulphate of iron I grain, salicylate of soda 1 grain. These
remedies are followed by a purgative. Fifteen grains of catechu
to the gallon of drinking water is found to be beneficial.

Do not be afraid to use the axe in this disease, because sacri-
ficing a few birds may be the means of saving the balance of the
flock. Dissemination of this contagion has made some localities
almost impossible to raise turkeys. Every effort should be made
to check the disease.

Bronchitis.— Usually caused by exposure to sudden changes in
temperature, dampness or irritating particles of dust, like lime.
The symptoms are dullness, loss of appetite, coughing, which is

BUMBLE FOOT 479

accompanied by a whistling or bubbling sound in the throat.
Though simply an inflammation of the breathing tubes, which
‘may be treated successfully in large flocks, if only a few birds
are affected, it is well to isolate them and administer the tur-
pentine remedy.

Baldness.—See Favus.

Blood Spots in Eggs.—This trouble is due to the escape of
blood from ruptured blood-vessels, which generally occurs at the
time the yolk is freed from the ovary and enters the oviduct,
where it receives the coat-
ing of albumen. These
hemorrhages are thought
to be the result of great
functional activity and
congestion induced by the
excessive use of stimulants
or highly concentrated
foods; or they may be
caused by the general
breaking down of a hen’s
vitality.

Relieving any causes
which might lead to con-
gestion or inflammation is
the logical way toattempt Fig. 301.—Poor feeder. A ediuele, or bird
a remedy. Reduce the off feed.
amount of grain or animal
‘food, and increase the green food. Givea little Epsom salts in the
drinking water. Some hens habitually lay eggs with blood spots or
streaks, and these should be killed for the table, to escape this
nuisance.

Bumble Foot.—-One of the minor ailments. A callus or corn
that forms on the bottom of the foot and later becomes a pain-
ful swelling attended by ulcerations. It is caused by the birds’
jumping from perches that are too high, bruises and irritations
from splinters. A fowl! so afflicted will limp and stand on one

480 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

foot. Painting with tincture of iodine will dissipate the callus
if taken in the early stages; but if it has ulcerated, open it,
remove any pus, cleanse the wound with an antiseptic, and then
bind the foot in an application of carbolated vaseline.

Canker.—This is probably the most disgusting ailment, and
is usually caused by contaminated food, also chronic cases of
roup. It is very contagious, hence the sick birds should be iso-
lated, and if they are badly afflicted, it is advisable to kill them
and destroy their carcasses. A yellow, cheesy, foul-smelling
matter forms in the corners of the mouth and in the windpipe,
which when removed reveals the raw flesh. Remove this foreign
matter and apply carbolated vaseline, or sulpho-carbolate of
zinc on the sores. See Roup.

Catarrh.—See Roup.

Chicken Pox (Bird Pox).—While this is contagious and will
spread rapidly throughout an entire flock, it is not necessarily a
serious trouble. It is usually caused by dampness or filth. It
may be introduced by new birds, or exhibition birds which return
from show rooms infected. Or it may be carried into the flock
by pigeons, sparrows and other birds, or by the attendant.
Scabby, yellow nodules or pimples appear on the face and comb,
especially around the beak, and frequently discharge a thick,
yellow matter. Isolate the sick birds at once, and anoint the
sores with carbolated vaseline. Administer the iron, quinine
and strychnine tonic, or a good poultry regulator, and simple,
nourishing food.

Cholera.—See Enteritis. A bacterial disease caused by con-
taminated food or drinking water. Highly contagious, with a
heavy mortality.

Colds.—See Roup.

Crop Bound.—A hard and swollen condition of the crop caused
by an obstruction to the gullet from the crop, or by gorging large
quantities of grain, which swell and ferment. This trouble is
described elsewhere in a special chapter.

Diarrhea.—See White Diarrhea, described in a_ separate
chapter.

ENTERITIS 481

Egg Eating.—This is a pernicious habit that is almost always
the result of accidents, though the accidents are very often due
to the carelessness or ignorance of the keeper. Cramped nests
or an insufficient number of nests are generally responsible for
broken eggs, the hens taste them, form a liking for them, and
thenceforth eat them whenever an opportunity presents itself.
The ringleaders should be caught and broken of the habit, even
if they have to be killed for the table. If not, they are sure to
set a bad example to the rest of the flock. This trouble will

(Courtesy Atlantic Farm)

Fig. 302.—Ducks require low fences, which make it possible for the attendant
to walk from yard to yard without the bother of entrance gates.

spread through a flock much the same as Cannibalism or Feather-
eating. As a precautionary measure, install your nests in ac-
cordance with the best practices, as described in the chapter on
poultry house fittings.

Enteritis.—This disease is caused by irritant poisons or bac-
teria, which develop an inflammation of the mucous membrane
of the intestines. The fowls have poor appetite, roughness of
feathers, pale comb, and their excrement is of a greenish color,
or bluish green. The trouble is almost always fatal if allowed
to reach an advanced stage. Administer nitrate of bismuth,

482 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

keep the birds isolated, and give them olive oil for nourishment.
Clean up the premises, look for the cause of the trouble, and
disinfect all drinking vessels and other utensils. This disease is
quite serious, and can create havoc with the strongest, healthiest
flocks. It is one of the cholera-like diseases.

Favus or White Comb.—This is a contagious disease caused by
growth of a fungus, the filaments or roots of which do not pene-
trate deeply into the skin, but remain very near the surface,
consequently the general health of the victim is not seriously
impaired in the early stages. The trouble usually breaks out on
the comb first, then the wattles and earlobes and, finally, the
neck and other parts of the body are affected.

When limited to the comb and wattles, the trouble responds
very nicely to treatment, and may even disappear of its own
account. If it has invaded the feathered portions of the body
it is extremely obstinate, and in very severe cases the ‘‘hatchet
and block”’ is the safest and most satisfactory remedy.

First, wash the affected parts with warm water containing a
mild disinfectant, at the same time removing any scabs that can
be rubbed off without bleeding, and then apply sulphur ointment
or carbolated vaseline. Good results have been obtained by
painting the spots with tincture of iodine. Some breeders recom-
mend an ointment of red oxide of mercury I part and vaseline
8 parts.

Feather-eating.—See chapter on Crop Bound.

Gapes.—See chapter on Worms.

Indigestion.—See chapter on Crop Bound.

Leg Weakness.—See chapters on the Care of Chicks.

Lice.—See chapter on Parasites.

Limber Neck.—Partial loss of control of the muscles of the
neck, and is generally caused by eating putrid animal matter.
A fowl so afflicted cannot hold its head upright, but twists it
around from side to side and staggers about drunkenly. The
disease is not contagious, though very often it is stubborn to
cure. A pill of asafetida night and morning for a couple of days
is a good remedy, also, borax in water, a tablespoonful to a pint,

ROUP 483

pouring a large dose of the solution down the fowl's throat three
or four times a day. Castor oil and turpentine and warm water
are two other highly recommended remedies.

Mange (Scabies).—This is caused by mites which live at the
base of the feathers, where they bite the skin and cause intense
itching. It is quickly spread throughout the flock, and while
the general health of the birds does not suffer greatly, still the
trouble is discomforting, and if allowed to continue the birds
will lose flesh and become unproductive. Moreover, as the mites
spread the plumage is destroyed until the birds are almost naked.

Apply to the affected parts, and for some distance around
them, an ointment made by mixing 1 part flowers of sulphur
with 4 parts of vaseline or lard. Carbolated vaseline may be
used, too, and if it is mixed at home, use I part carbolic acid to
50 parts of vaseline. It is sometimes beneficial to wash the irri-
tated surfaces with a solution of creolin or some other disinfectant.

Mites.—See chapter on Parasites.

Pasting Up.—Seée chapter on White Diarrhea.

Parasites.—See special chapter devoted to these pests.

Roup.—This is probably the most dangerous, fatal and con-
tagious disease with which the poultryman must contend, and
it is certainly the most disagreeable to treat. It is a contagious
catarrh, resembling the more malignant forms of influenza in
the larger animals and in man; this and canker, which is a
chronic form of roup, are generally the aftermath of such ail-
ments as colds.

The first symptoms of roup are similar to those of a cold,
except in the former there are more fever, dullness and prostration.
There is sneezing, accompanied by a watery discharge from the
eyes and nostrils. Later this discharge becomes thick and ob-
structs the breathing, and as the inflammation, which begins in
the nasal passages, extends to the eyes and the spaces below the
eyeballs, the fevered condition hardens the secretions into a
cheesy matter, which accumulates in the tissues of the head,
causing the eyes or other parts of the face to bulge. This cheesy
matter has a very offensive smell, sometimes it obstructs the

484 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

windpipe and the victim is suffocated. Other times the head
swells twice its normal size, blinding both eyes, and the victim
is a miserable-looking creature, indeed. When this stage is
reached it is quite useless to attempt a cure.

The most common form of roup is an exaggerated cold, and
nothing worse. It is caused by exposure for a prolonged period
to those conditions which produce colds. Obviously, the first
step is to rectify the conditions which foster the disease. Imme-

ce -

} ‘aie ae el os)

Fig. 303.—The ordinary household scales come in handy for the poultryman.

diately a case of roup is detected, it is a good plan to treat the
entire flock with a roup preventative for about a week, or until
one is assured the remaining birds have not been infected. This
may be done through the drinking water. Sick birds should
be isolated at once, and the houses whence they are removed,
particularly the drinking fountains, thoroughly cleaned and dis-
infected.

Treatment for roup, if it is to be treated at all, must begin in

SCALY LEG 485

the early stages. The affected membranes should be given appli-
cations of antiseptic and healing mixtures, either sprayed on, or
by dipping the fowl’s head in the solution. The following are
simple remedies for this treatment: One ounce of permanganate
of potash to three pints of water, or one and one-half ounces of
boric acid and a half ounce of borate of soda to a quart of water,
or one ounce of peroxide of hydrogen to three ounces of water,
or a two per cent solution of carbolic acid.

There are several reliable roup remedies on the market which
have given excellent results for a number of years; they should
be used according to the directions which accompany them.

Chlorate of potash, alone, or mixed with sulphur, is recom-
mended for dusting on the inflamed tissues caused by cankerous
growths. Another way is to dissolve 1 part of chlorate of pot-
ash in 10 parts of glycerin, and swab it on the affected parts.

Scabies.—See Mange.

Scaly Leg.—This condition is caused by a parasite that lives
under the scales of the shanks. The scabs or crusts that appear
is the excrement thrown off by these mites. It can be cured by
rubbing the shanks with an ointment containing a little sulphur
or kerosene. Gas tar is excellent, also—a mixture of one-third
carbolic acid and two-thirds glycerin. The trouble is harmful
in that it is very discomforting to the fowls. It is easily spread
by fowls coming in contact with the parasites on the perches.
No careful poultryman will tolerate this condition, and there is
no excuse for its existence, though it is frequently seen.

Sore Head.—See Mange or Favus.

Vent Gleet.—An inflammation of the cloaca, which causes fre-
quent passages of a white, offensive discharge that collects on
the skin and feathers around the vent. It is very difficult to
cure, and such specimens are better off dead. Though not con-
tagious, the trouble is transmissible, especially by the males,
consequently such birds should be removed from the flock.

White Diarrhea.—See chapter on this subject.

Worms.—See chapter on this subject.

CHAPTER XXXV
CROP BOUND

Common Form of Indigestion——Almost everyone who raises
chickens in any numbers will be troubled at some time or other
with an ailment known as crop bound. It is a form of indi-
gestion, perhaps the commonest form of crop trouble, and is
generally caused by improper feeding. The poultryman, how-
ever, is not always to blame, for the condition is very often
brought about by the stupidity or gluttony of the fowls.

Easy to Detect.—As the name implies, crop bound is a com-
paction or hardening of the crop, and fortunately, it is easily
discernible. Instead of the crop having a full, close appearance,
in fact, scarcely noticeable in the well-proportioned bird, it is
seen to hang down like a bag, and on closer inspection it will be
found to be greatly enlarged, hard and heavy. The fowl thus
afflicted is usually droopy and inactive, and frequently a bad-
smelling liquid runs from the mouth. In an advanced stage of
the ailment the fowl’s comb will be purple in color, and the bird
may gasp for breath.

Two Forms.—Generally speaking, there are two forms of crop
bound: One is the result of a weakened or paralyzed condition
of the crop muscle, and is usually observed in old fowls whose
vitality has been impoverished by old age and improper care, or
in chicks of low stamina. It is possible to relieve this condition
by careful medical treatment, though a permanent cure is sel-
dom effected. Therefore, unless the victim is considered very
valuable for some particular purpose, it is generally more profit-
able to kill the sufferer, and to devote one’s time and energy to
correcting the conditions that brought about the trouble.

Clogging of the Crop.—The other form of crop bound is induced

486

FIRST-AID TREATMENT 487

by a clogging of the outlet of the crop by twisted grass or rough
grain. It occurs most frequently among birds that are fed in-
sufficient green food, and as a result of this craving they attempt
to swallow pieces of hay, straw, tough blades of grass, cabbage
ribs or some other bulky article. This obstructs the outlet of
the crop and finally becomes so entangled and solidified with
other food that the mass presses on the windpipe, or fermenta-
tion sets in and induces a form of poisoning.

Occasionally a ration contains too much middlings, or other
sticky meal, fed either dry or moist, which, under certain condi-
tions, bake together and clog the passageway. This food, al-

(Courtesy Kansas Experiment Station)

Fig. 304.—Brooder house. Note the covered platform in front of the building,
under which the chickens emerge from the house.

though taken into the body, offers no nourishment until it is
digested, consequently the bird continues to eat, which only dis-
tends the crop further. In a few days the fowl shows signs of
weakness, and unless the obstruction is removed the bird dies.
If the trouble is discovered early, the treatment is compara-
tively simple and a cure is virtually assured. In the latter stages
a surgical operation is necessary which, though simple in itself,
is often accompanied by other complications that prove fatal.
Experienced, practical poultrymen make it their business to
inspect their flocks very closely every day, especially at meal
times and in the early morning. At these times it is easy to
detect birds that are out of condition, no matter how trivial

488 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

may be their ailment. If a fowl remains on the roost after day-
light, or manifests little or no interest in food, it should be caught
and examined. If the bird is crop bound the symptoms will be
noticed as soon as the fowl is handled. The bird will be slow to
avoid capture, its crop will be distended and hard, and in most
cases a sour-smelling liquid will run from its mouth.

The treatment usually prescribed is an injection of castor oil
or olive oil into the crop. If these are not available, melted lard
will answer the purpose, or warm water, although the latter is
not so active or effective in its action. A good plan is to begin
by draining off any liquid in the crop, which may be accomplished
by holding the bird head downward. Then inject the oil, about
two tablespoonfuls, using a medicine dropper, small syringe or
spoon. Hold the bird upright and gently knead and work the
mass in the crop. After some minutes this operation will cause
the injected liquid to mix with the solids, and when the mass is
thoroughly broken up an effort should be made to remove it
through the mouth.

Dislodging the Obstruction.—This is sometimes a matter of
difficulty, particularly if the offending substance is long and
fibrous, such as grass. If the massaging process is ineffectual in
removing the contents of the crop through the mouth, and the
case is not a- serious one, it may be well to wait and see if the
trouble will not pass off naturally. Kneading the crop some-
times dislodges the obstruction in the outlet from the crop, and
with the aid of the oil the mass will be assimilated.

When to Operate.—lIf, however, the crop is not materially
reduced in six hours, there is but one remedy—an operation.
It is a very simple one, requires no great skill, and if the fowl is
in a vigorous condition it has a splendid chance to recover.
Young chickens weighing under a pound are too small to undergo
the surgical treatment, and had better be killed.

Instruments.—The task will be much easier if one person holds
the bird while another performs the operation. The only instru-
ments required are a sharp knife, lancet or scalpel, a pair of small
scissors, a small spoon, preferably a mustard spoon—one that

‘sjay[nd u10yZe7T] pjo-syaem-ua} jo YoY Zuryjoo] Surstw01g—So€ 317
(wd satapjaq &sajanoD)

490 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

has a narrow bowl, and a needle threaded with white silk or sur-
gical gut. Common sense dictates that the instruments should
be absolutely clean, also the operator’s hands, so as to prevent
infection.

The first step is to trim the feathers from a space about one
by two inches over the center of the crop, and to moisten and
brush aside any other feathers that may be in the way. Clip
the feathers with the scissors; do not pull them out. Wipe the
bird’s flesh with an antiseptic where the incision is to be made,
and with the fingers of one hand draw the outer skin fairly tight;
then make an incision with the point of the knife. Insert the
point of the scissors and enlarge the cut until it is about an inch
and a quarter long. Separate this outer skin by spreading the
slit, and then make a similar incision in the crop wall.

Care should be taken to make the cut where there are fewest
blood-vessels, and to avoid the largest ones altogether. A little
blood will flow, and this should be removed with bits of absorbent
cotton. The cut should not be made any larger than is neces-
sary to gain access to the interior of the crop and to remove its
contents with the small spoon. Sometimes the mass is so hard
that it is difficult to remove it without first manipulating to
break it up. It is usually very offensive, and considerable pa-
tience is necessary to perform the work thoroughly. The opera-
tion is practically painless, so that the operator need have no
unnecessary qualms over the victim’s comfort.

Washing the Crop.—After the contents are thoroughly re-
moved, the crop should be washed out with a weak solution of
boracic acid, permanganate of potash, or a similar non-poisonous
disinfectant. To be sure that the fermented matter is entirely
removed it is well to insert a finger in the orifice, otherwise the
whole process may have to be done over again, or the operation
will be unsuccessful. This done, the incision must be drawn
together and sewed up. A bent needle is best, making the stitches
about an eighth inch apart and tying them carefully. Sew the
inner skin first, and then the outer skin, and tie each stitch
separately.

FEATHER EATING A VICE 491

Next swab off the wound with the antiseptic solution, and
place the fowl in a clean, comfortable coop to rest. Food should
be withheld for about twenty-four hours, and then only light
feeds of an easily digested mash should be given at the regular
feeding hours. In about a week’s time the bird will have recov-
ered sufficiently to be returned to the flock.

Some authorities advocate making the incision at the right of
the neck and at the top of the crop, at the point where it is
quite easy to see the contents of the crop, owing to the trans-
.parent nature of the flesh at this point. After the contents are
removed the cut is allowed to heal naturally, without stitches,
which is practicable because the opening is made in the top of
the crop wall. In either method the subject must be kept iso-
lated and on a very light diet. If permitted to join the flock too
soon, the other birds will be attracted by the wound, and they
will peck and aggravate it.

Mortality—Many poultrymen consider it rather futile to op-
erate for crop bound because the chances for recovery are dis-
couragingly small. This is true in a sense, yet in most cases
death is not the result of the operation, but because the com-
plaint had reached an advanced stage. It is easy to understand
that as soon as fermentation starts, poisons are formed, which
are quickly absorbed by the victim's body, and which will even-
tually prove fatal. Or the crop may be so enlarged and create
such pressure against the windpipe that breathing is made ex-
ceedingly difficult, and this is a great strain on the heart. Asa
general rule, if the fowl’s comb has not turned a purplish color
as the result of the trouble, it is well worth while trying to
operate. If, however, the bird is already weakened, one had
better use ‘‘the axe.”’

Feather Pulling.—One of the most distressing, troublesome and
unmanageable habits of fowls is feather pulling, or feather eat-
ing, and it is this vice that frequently brings about a crop bound
condition. Sometimes the feathers are merely plucked, for no
apparent reason except the ‘‘joy” of plucking them, and at
other times they are eaten as fast as they are removed. Quite

492 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

naturally they are extremely indigestible; they are likely to
form a mat inside the crop, and to obstruct the canal leading
from the crop to the gizzard.

Causes.—The vice usually starts through fighting or accidents,
or it may develop through lack of sufficient mineral and animal
food—generally from insufficient animal food. It is also caused
by idleness—close confinement or no opportunity for exercise.
The vice spreads rapidly throughout an entire flock, unless the
ringleaders are promptly caught and removed. Erroneous meth-
ods of feeding and management are largely responsible for this .

(Courtesy Atlantic Farm)
Fig. 306.—Ducks can be raised without water, but not so successfully as with it.

trouble, so that the poultryman seldom has anyone to blame but
himself, and the same general conditions are likely to encourage
egg eating—another pernicious habit.

There is no medical treatment for feather eating, any more
than the amount of animal food should be increased, and the
fowls given as much liberty and exercise as possible. If the pens
are small and the yards are destitute of green food, and there is
no room in which to increase the range, the habit is sometimes
controlled by changing the fowls to a different pen. This change
in environment may arrest their attention long enough for the
alteration in their diet to satisfy their peculiar craving for blood.

SUPPLY MINERAL SUBSTANCES 493

An old-fashioned remedy was to apply something very bitter
to the plumage, such as oil of aloes, but in the writer’s experience
this practice was little more than a faith cure; the fowls continue
to pluck the aloe-flavored feathers as though they considered
this bitterness a relish. The nearest approach to a successful
method for controlling the vice is to cut the tip of the lower
part of the beak, which tends to prevent the fowl from getting a
firm grip on the feather.

Occasionally feather pulling is developed by lice and mites,
consequently the caretaker should investigate his fowls for these
pests and treat them accordingly. The important measure
adopted should be a well-balanced ration, one that contains skim
milk, beef scrap, fish scrap, meat bone, vegetables or green feed,
and frequently varied. A piece of fresh beef hung from a nail
where the hens will have to jump for it slightly is one of the
surest tricks for dissipating the feather pulling habit.

Failure to furnish the flock with a liberal supply of mineral
substances is one of the contributing causes of crop bound and
indigestion. Nature has not endowed birds with teeth as a
means of masticating their food, but she has given them the
equivalent in the gizzard. This is a tough, muscular organ, so
situated that all food taken into the mouth must pass through it.
When the food is received in the crop it remains there until
soaked and acted upon by a secretion similar to that of the saliva
in the mouth of animals. This partially digested food gradually
leaves the crop and passes into the gizzard, where it is ground
up, and thence it goes to the intestines, where, after being acted
upon by other fluids, it passes on and the nutriment is absorbed.

Supply Grit.—We know that the gizzard is marvelously strong
when provided with sharp grit, for it is the rotary action of these
grindstones that crushes and masticates the solids. Hard, sharp
substances are necessary, and without them the harder parts of
the food are not digested. Husks and green food accumulate
between the crop and the gizzard, and frequently cause a stop-
page so that nothing but liquids can pass. In time this passage
is completely obstructed, and the result is a sour or bound crop.

494 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

A person may live with defective teeth for years, or perhaps
with none at all, yet we know that such persons seldom énjoy
their food or good health. Surely, if the birds do not have the
means of properly masticating their food, they can neither be
healthy nor derive the greatest benefits from their food. In
consequence they cannot be expected to give their master a good
return for their food and care.

CHAPTER XXXVII
WORMS

Losses from Worms.—The question of worms in poultry is of
far greater importance toward the success of the venture than
most poultrymen realize. Well-built houses, carefully prepared
food, close attention to sanitation, and good care generally are
of little avail if the fowls are infested with worms. Where there
are worms losses follow: if not actual death, at least there is a
falling off in the egg yield. In any event the poultry keeper is
not getting the proper returns from his feed and care, which is
the equivalent to loss.

A postmortem examination at one of the State Egg Laying
Contests suggested a careful examination of the dropping
boards, which finally led to the conclusion that some of the pens
were infested with intestinal worms. The flocks were given a
vermifuge, followed by a purgative, which had the desired effect,
and in a couple of weeks’ time the change in the flocks was sur-
prising. They were eating more, took on weight and their egg
yield improved.

Widespread Trouble-——Numerous instances of anemia, liver
trouble, indigestion, diarrhea, general physical debility and other
complaints, due supposedly to lack of vigor in the breeding stock,
have been traced to worms within the fowl’s body. In fact, it
has been said that of the strictly parasitic forms of life that
affect poultry, worms play the leading réle. I am not prepared
to agree that worms are a greater menace to fowls than some
other varmints of our acquaintance, such as mites and lice, but
I do know that they work a great deal of loss and failure.

Kinds of Worms.—There are several varieties of worms, some
of which take up their abode in the crop, stomach and intestines,

495

496 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

not to mention the gape worm, which attaches itself to the wind-
pipe and is made evident by frequent gaping, hence its name.
Those that breed in the intestinal section are probably the most
common and the most destructive.

There is something revolting about the idea of worms exist-
ing in the organs of a living creature; it is an unpleasant subject

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 307.—Feed hoppers and water fountains should be located on a raised
platform to prevent litter from being scratched into them.

to discuss. Nevertheless, since it is a foe, and a deadly one, we
must take up arms against it, and to do so intelligently we must
go into some detail.

Tapeworms.—It has been found that there are two principal
kinds of intestinal worms, round worms and _ ribbon-shaped
worms, commonly called tapeworms. The commonplace that
tapeworms actually consume food is all wrong; they do not. If

WHAT TO GIVE FOR WORMS 497

we examine them under a microscope, we find that they have no
mouth or intestinal tract at all. They are a very low order of
life, and attach themselves to the intestinal lining by means of
a hook-like appendage. Free to come in contact with the digested
nutrients in the intestines, they absorb these elements, much as
the intestines themselves absorb this food. Obviously the fowl
is robbed of so much nutriment, and in due time it becomes
poor and emaciated, depending upon the extent of the worms.

Under a strong glass we note that the worms consist of seg-
ments, each of which is a complete organism, if you can call it
such. It absorbs its own food, develops its own eggs, and later
separates itself from the other segments and finally is passed out
to the soil. In each segment there are hundreds of tiny eggs
which are scattered on the ground, among food and in the drink-
ing water, only to be picked up by other birds, which are then
contaminated. It has been discovered that flies devour these
eggs, and that the eggs are hatched within the fly; and, of course,
chickens eat flies, therefore they take over the incipient worms
as well.

Numerous remedies are used to dislodge these parasites, and
for best results they should be administered when the birds are
fasting. The best way is to give the flock a light feeding at
night and the following morning give them the vermifuge. Sev-
eral hours later they are given a purgative, such as Epsom salts
or castor oil, and the treatment is complete. :

One of the most commonly recommended remedies and one
of the easiest to administer is powdered pomegranate root bark.
The dose is one teaspoonful for each fifty fowls given in a wet
mash. Another good remedy is oil of wormseed (Jerusalem Oak).
Mix a teaspoonful of the oil in a moist mash for every 12 fowls.
In both treatments the purgative is given a few hours after the
vermicide.

For individual treatment oil of turpentine is excellent, which
may be mixed with an equal quantity of olive oil, and 20 to 30
drops of the mixture given at a dose. This is followed in a
couple of hours with a tablespoonful of castor oil. Thymol is

‘suad 3utpaaiq se asn JazuIM 10} padnosZ sasnoy Auojoj—'got ‘317

498

HOW TO DETECT WORMS 499

also used, I grain to each fowl, or powdered areca nut, 30 to 45
grains; powdered male fern, 30 to 60 grains; and kamala, 30
to 40 grains for each fowl.

Clean Premises.—At the same time the flock is being treated
medically, the premises must be treated by powerful disinfec-
tants to destroy the worms and their eggs, otherwise the
birds will only become re-infested. Be careful to drain off any
stagnant water, and fill in any marshy places. Sunlight is
one of the greatest insecticides, and the cheapest, therefore
the soil should be exposed to it by thorough plowing and har-
rowing.

Slaked lime is highly recommended, and in extreme cases it
may be well to spray the ground with a solution of carbolic acid.
Birds that have died from worms should always be incinerated,
or buried in quicklime, never allowed to decay on the surface
of the ground.

The houses, especially the dropping boards and floors, should
be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, also all feeding troughs,
-hoppers and drinking fountains. Bear in mind, there is little
use in combating worms in anything but a thorough, practical
manner. To do the task half is wasted energy, for only strenuous
efforts will rid the premises of these pests.

‘A heavy clay soil is much harder to rid of worms than a light,
sandy loam. For that reason the latter soil is recommended for
poultry. It is usually perfectly sanitary at all times.

Manifestations of Worms.—Enterprising poultrymen realize
the danger of worms and keep on the lookout for manifestations
of them. If a bird should die from any cause whatever it is
examined, not only for the immediate cause of death, but for
indications of worms. ‘The intestines, stomach and crop are
opened and their contents noted. Birds that are killed for the
home table are also examined. If one fowl is troubled with
worms it is pretty safe to assume that the remainder of the flock
is afflicted also, in which case treatment is begun at once. Birds
that are dull and listless, with pale combs and shrunken wattles,
are likely victims of worms. Post one of them and see what the

500 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

trouble is. It is better to lose one bird, and thereby determine
the evil, than to risk losing half a flock later on.

Gape Worms.—Strictly speaking, gape worms do not come
under the head of worms, as they are commonly understood,
but under the term gapes, which is reckoned as a disease of
chicks. Nevertheless, it is equally abominable, a kindred ill,
hence its place in this chapter.

(Courtesy Atlantic Farm)

Fig. 309.—On commercial duck farms feeding is done almost exclusively by
means of tramcars,

Gape worms exist at all seasons, though they are seldom ob-
served as troublesome until the hatching months, when they
affect young birds. Chicks are most susceptible from 10 days
to 6 weeks old, since at this age they are not large enough nor
strong enough to dislodge the worms from their throats. Vigor-
ous birds and older stock are attacked by the worms, but they
usually succeed in getting rid of them without the keeper’s aid.

NATURE OF THE GAPE WORM 501

The worm which causes gapes is in reality two worms—male
and female, and they are so firmly grown together that they
cannot be separated without tearing the tissues. The female
worm is the principal member; it is about a half-inch long, while
the male is little more than one-fifth of an inch. The heads
of both are attached to the mucous lining of the windpipe or
trachea, which causes such an irritation that undue secretions
collect and make breathing difficult. Sometimes so many worms
collect in the trachea, and grow to such size, for their eggs
develop while they are in this state, that breathing becomes im-
possible and the host, the afflicted chick, dies from suffocation.

Chicks affected with gape worms will be seen to cough and
sneeze with labored effort in a vain attempt to dislodge the
pests, which is very difficult to accomplish. Soon they commence
to gape, extending the neck and opening the beak, indicating
that they are having great trouble in breathing. Later, as they
become weakened by their struggles against the parasites, their
appetites fail and they grow dull and listless, their wings droop
and they stand with half-closed eyes and head drawn back into
the body feathers. In this condition they are apt to die from
suffocation, or be trampled by their fellows.

In dealing with this complaint the poultryman should learn to
rely more upon a preventative than a cure, because very young
chicks are very difficult to treat individually and therefore ex-
pensive. Good results have been obtained by extracting the
worms with a feather, twisted horsehair, or one of the patented
extractors. These devices are forced down the victim’s throat,
either dry or moistened with turpentine, then twisted about
vigorously in an effort to dislodge the worms, and removed.

Recently, good results have been reported from medicating
drinking water, or by injecting 3 to 10 drops of a 5 per cent
solution of salicylate of soda. The best method of prevention
is to put the chicks on fresh ground, or soil that is known to be
perfectly sanitary, and if any trouble is experienced, to treat
the yards and premises with a strong disinfectant, the same as
for other kinds of worms or parasites.

CHAPTER XXXVIII
WHITE DIARRHEA

Terror and Plague.—No term, perhaps, strikes greater terror
to the poultryman than white diarrhea. It is synonymous with
such words as plague, scourge, epidemic and pestilence. That
it has earned this opprobrium is attested by the fact that thou-
sands of chicks are lost annually by this infection, and also be-
cause of its resistance to any known treatment. It is success-
fully combated, of course, but by preventative measures rather
than curative ones.

Exaggeration.—There is no gainsaying the malady exacts an
enormous toll from the poultry raisers, yet I am inclined to think
that much of the alarm is the result of sensational writers and
highly imaginative persons, who find it more to the liking of
their morbid minds to spread terrorism instead of optimism.
Calamity is always more lurid than sublimity. These scares,
like the alarm about cholera, small pox and infantile paralysis
in the human species, are very much exaggerated and do more
harm than good.

Investigations.—It is natural that white diarrhea should have
been the object of a great deal of investigation; chemists and
bacteriologists have struggled with its mysteries for many years.
While, perhaps, they have not been particularly successful thus
far in establishing a positive cure for the disease, they have at
least succeeded in isolating the germ, learned how to detect it,
studied its development and propagation, and the conditions
under which it thrives best, and devised satisfactory methods of
preventing its spread.

Causes.—We are told that white diarrhea is caused by at
least four different kinds of infection, the most common of which
is a bacillus called bacterium pullorum, which means in ordinary

502

KINDS OF WHITE DIARRHEA 503

terms, the bacteria or germs of the pullets. Coccidiosis and
aspergillus fungus are two other forms of the disease, but so far
as we are concerned these technical phrases are merely names,
difficult to pronounce, harder to remember, and of no value to
the unsophisticated mind.

All of these microbes infect the adult fowls and are generally
communicated from them to the chicks directly or indirectly.

Fig. 310.—Ideal location for ducks and geese.

It is not necessary for the affected hen to have any external ap-
pearance of having white diarrhea or a diarrhea of any kind. In
fact, the affected bird may be in the pink of condition, a good
layer and a fine-looking fowl. By analyzing the eggs laid from
an infected hen, we may find white diarrhea germs in very active
form, or none at all. Apparently, some eggs are inoculated
while others escape, though there is no method of determining
this from external appearances

504 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Symptoms.—In chicks the symptoms of white diarrhea are
virtually unmistakable, the most prominent one being a more or
less profuse diarrhea, the droppings consisting almost entirely
of mucus from the intestinal tube and the white secretion of the
kidneys. The white substance predominates, hence the name
white diarrhea. It is caused by an irritation of the intestines,
fever, and a rapid breaking down of the tissues of the kidneys.

Hens infected with this malady produce chicks which have the
germs of the disease within them when they are hatched, and
these chicks usually show manifestations of the trouble within
the first few days of their life. From the experiments conducted
it appears as though chicks are most susceptible to infection dur-
ing the first twenty-four hours, and that after the fourth or fifth
day they are practically immune.

Chicks which sicken of the disease later must have taken the
microbes into their systems at an early age, which for some
reason remained dormant for a time. Adult fowls are practically
resistant to the germs, and do not show any symptoms though
they may be inoculated with the disease and lay infected eggs.
Thus incubators and brooders, as well as coops, become infected
with the disease and preserve the contagion indefinitely, unless
scrupulous measures are taken to destroy it. The ground is also
impregnated with the contagion, and should be plowed under
and sowed to plant life.

Pasting Up.—A large brood of chicks may be hatched from
eggs subject to the germs of white diarrhea, and to all appear-
ances they are hail and hearty when taken from the machine.
But they soon commence to wilt. The first indication of some-
thing wrong is a disposition to huddle togecher and remain under
the hover or under the hen, as the case might be. Apparently
they suffer from chills. They are listless, stupid and sleepy, and
take no interest in food or their environment. They stand still,
heads drawn in, eyes closed, and chirp and peep almost con-
stantly. Their wings droop or project slightly from the body,
instead of being folded tightly against it, and the characteristic
diarrhea soon appears. Usually the excreta is mucilaginous,

HEAVY MORTALITY 505

adhering to the downy feathers about the vent, where it dries
and cakes and continues to accumulate until it completely
covers the opening and causes a stoppage. Unless relieved, this
condition, known as pasting up, will bring about an early death.
The mass should be removed as gently as possible, and the
affected parts treated with vaseline or soothing ointment.
Spread of Contagion.—There is added mischief in these masses
of excreta due to the chicks picking at them and thereby con-

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)
Fig. 311.—Artificial pond constructed of concrete. Ducks can be raised
without a swimming hole, though best results are secured with one. The eggs
are likely to run. more fertile.

tracting the disease. In this manner the germs are spread through
an entire flock, unless the caretaker adopts prompt means of.
isolating the affected members.

Chronic Type.—Sometimes the disease is less severe, but of a
more chronic type, and takes longer to run its course. The
chicks thus afflicted waste away and gradually become weaker
and more emaciated, until their legs are unable to support their
bodies. They lean against walls or other objects for support,

506 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

or squat down with outstretched wings until they die. As death
approaches the breathing becomes labored, and at intervals the
poor little creatures give utterance to a faint shrill cry, indi-
cating that they are seized with paroxysms of intense pain.
Most of these victims have the peculiar form of body described
as short back, which results from the distension of the abdomen.

The most disastrous phase of this complaint is the heavy
mortality. The losses vary from 50 to 80 per cent of the chicks

(Courtesy Cornell Experiment Station)

Fig. 312.—Well-proportioned poultry house. Front wall is of novelty
siding, ends and rear wall are made of matched lumber covered with patent
roofing, as is the roof. Note position of doors, curtain frames, windows and
ventilator.

affected, and often it is impossible to raise any of them. Further-
more, it is questionable if it is advisable to try and raise any of
them, in view of the probability that they may later become what
is termed bacillus carriers. Because those that do not succumb
still carry the germs in their bodies, lodged in the ova—the un-
developed eggs, which are ultimately laid, perhaps, and thus
transmit the disease from one generation to the next.

VALUE OF SOUR MILK 507

No Absolute Cure.—For bacillary white diarrhea in young
chicks there is no absolute cure so far as is known. Several
so-called remedies have been extensively advertised, but most of
these are in reality preventatives. Furthermore, the medical
treatment of individual chicks is virtually impracticable, as it
is too expensive, and flock treatment, once the chicks are afflicted,

(Courtesy Atlantic Farm)
Fig. 313.—White Pekin ducklings.

is of little consequence because the chicks cannot be induced to
eat or drink in sufficient quantity to be of any avail.

The feeding of sour milk to young chicks as soon as they
are taken from the incubator appears to be the most successful
treatment toward controlling the disease. The purpose of the
sour milk is to suppress any intestinal putrefaction which the
bacillus may set up. In other words, the sour milk contains
ferments or bacteria, which are calculated to counteract or offset
the parasites of the white diarrhea.

508 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Lacking the sour milk, it has been found that 15 grains of
powdered catechu dissolved in a gallon of drinking water tends
to prevent the development of the diarrhea. This treatment
should be continued for about ten days, or until the danger
period is past.

Preventative measures should begin, of course, with the eggs
used for hatching. In the first place, no eggs should be used
which are known to be laid by hens afflicted with white diarrhea
or any other communicable disease at any time. If the eggs are
purchased the buyer should insist upon some assurance as to the
health of the parent stock, and if possible he should visit the
farm and inspect the flock.

Before the eggs are set under hens or placed in the incubator
they should be disinfected, which is easily-accomplished by sev-
‘eral methods. Wipe the shells with a soft cloth saturated with
‘grain alcohol of 70 to 80 per cent strength. Or the eggs may be
‘dipped in a weak solution of creolin and water. Both methods
-have been used effectively, and neither treatment has had any
.serious influence on the hatchability of the eggs.

If the hatching is done in an incubator it goes without saying
‘that the interior of the machine, especially the egg trays and
nursery drawers, should be carefully disinfected after each hatch.
‘The same precautions should be adopted in regard to the brooder
and any other coop or device that is used by the chicks. If the
hatching is done by hens the broods should be put upon fresh
ground, and frequently moved to fresh ground, so that if any
cases develop the risk of contagion will be reduced to a minimum.
It may be asserted positively that, though there is no positive
cure for the disease, it may be eliminated, and if reasonable
sanitary measures are practised as a part of the routine work,
there is little reason to fear the ravages of white diarrhea.

Agglutination Test.—It is possible to detect the presence of
white diarrhea in grown fowls by a blood test, called the aggluti-
nation test, but owing to the delicate nature of the work it
must be performed in a laboratory. Some of the Experiment
Stations will perform this work for a nominal charge.

CHAPTER XXXIX
PARASITES AND PESTS

Fowls are Subject to Vermin.—In every enterprise there are
certain realities and circumstances which may be classified as
grim realities. To combat them seems to be a part of the philos-
ophy of life. Therefore, to attempt a task without due allowance
for this struggle is in the nature of folly, since it is quite likely to
result in bitter disappointment, maybe failure.

Farming is no exception to the above. In fact;,it is probably
the most graphic example of a struggle against adverse circum-
stances. There is scarcely a tree, shrub, vine or- plant that is
without its natural enemy. For almost every stalk that sprouts
there is some other form of life eager to feast upon it. Horti-
culture is a constant battle against blight, worms, beetles, weevils,
moths, grubs and countless other insects. Successful animal hus-
bandry necessitates a corresponding struggle against similar
pests, for as such we have come to know these lower forms of
life. And not the least of these are the parasites affecting poultry,

No matter how much we would like to think of our fowls as
being nice and clean and free from anything so objectionable in
name and nature as lice and mites, just as certain as dogs are
likely to be bothered with fleas, and cattle and sheep are sus-
ceptible to ticks, poultry, especially chickens, are prone to become
infested with vermin. It seems to be a part of the general scheme
of things.

Be on the Lookout.—On the well-organized, progressive farm,
where poultry is made a specialty, there is less trouble resulting
from the ravages of vermin than on the general farm or back-
yard, where small flocks of fowls are kept principally as a side
line. There are several reasons to account for this condition.

509

510 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

In the first place, the operator of large numbers of fowls, having
considerable capital invested in his plant, is more likely to have
a keener appreciation of the needs and requirements of his stock.

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 314.—Painting the perches with crude oil
or disinfectant to exterminate mites,

Usually he makes a
thorough study of the
conditions affecting his
birds, for he knows only
too well if he is an experi-
enced poultry man, that
the conditions which
affect his flocks adversely
or beneficially are almost
immediately reflected in
his bank account.
Owners of small flocks
are sometimes indiffer-
ent to improved meth-
ods, for no reason except
they do not take the work
seriously. Then, again,
on large farms where the
hatching is done in incu-
bators and the chicks
are brooded artificially,
never coming in contact
with hens, it is very much
easier to keep vermin
in check on the young
stock. They are not so
apt to become infested
until they are fairly well
grown, and not even

then, unless the buildings are seriously over-run with vermin. This

is quite a factor, indeed, because vermin is particularly fatal to

young chicks, and is responsible for all kinds of trouble.
Realizing the importance of safeguarding his flocks against

KINDS OF VERMIN 511

parasites, the owner of a well-organized poultry plant makes it
his business to establish a regular sanitary schedule—a system
of spraying and disinfecting, also whitewashing, which he adheres
to quite as rigorously as feeding and watering. Not so frequently,
of course, but just as systematically.

The point is—that it is equally important for the keeper of a
small flock to exercise propor-
tionate care. Because the
flock is small, or because it is
kept merely as a side line is
no excuse for exemption, and
no guarantee that the birds
will not be troubled. How-
ever unpleasant the idea may
be, you must make up your
mind to the fact that wher-
ever you keep fowls you are
going to have vermin, unless
you fight these pests, and
fight them strenuously and
continuously. There is an
affinity between fowls and
vermin. They must be fought
the same as the farmer fights
potato-bugs and cut-worms.

Kinds of Parasites.—The SE -
parasites that attack poultry (Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
are of two kinds, commonly Fig. 315.—Dusting a fowl with insect

: Z powder.

known as lice and mites.

There are several varieties of

the former, but since they have the same general characteris-
tics and are combated in the same way, we need not concern
ourselves with a study of individual species. They live mainly
on the secretions of the body, feathers and skin, and inhabit
the fowls day and night. They are found largely on the head
and neck, under the wings and about the vent. When allowed

$12 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

to multiply in great numbers, as they are prone to do, they will
sometimes become so thick as to cause death. Sitting hens are
especially annoyed by them.

The female lice deposit their eggs on the feathers of the fowls,
cementing them to the quills near the skin. In a few days these
eggs hatch, in a short time they breed, also, propagating more and
more, so that it is possible for thousands to be multiplied in a
couple of months. In warm weather conditions are particularly
favorable for their reproduction, consequently with the approach
of spring and throughout the summer months extra care must be
taken to destroy them.

Mites.—If anything mites are more troublesome than lice.
They abound in larger numbers, and aside from tormenting the
fowls, they actually subsist on the blood of the birds. They are not
usually found on the bodies of the fowls except when on the roost
or in the nest. During the day mites inhabit cracks and crevices
of the walls, roosts and other fittings. Many houses, unsuspected,
actually swarm with them. When these pests have accumulated
in such hordes that they are unable to get enough blood from
the fowls during the night, they are found to remain on the birds
during the day.

Potent Enemy.—Though infinitesimal in size and, therefore,
almost insignificant individually, collectively mites represent an
enemy with the potentiality of a fair-sized animal. A host of
blood-sucking mites is capable of absorbing more blood, more
vitality over night than the fowl can replace by the assimilation
of large quantities of food during the day. In addition to this
actual loss of blood, which is a terrific drain on the fowl’s strength,
the bird must endure the torment of being constantly pierced
and chewed by these pests. Sitting hens are often so tormented
that they are compelled to leave their nests in order to relieve
themselves.

The mouth of the louse is formed for biting and chewing, and
since they have a fondness for moisture, they can be poisoned by
spreading a mercurial ointment where they are seen to congre-
gate on the fowls. This treatment should be used on mature

FORMULAS FOR DUSTING POWDERS 513

fowls only, since the mercury is likely to prove dangerous to
chicks.

Lice breathe through spiracles or pores in their sides, hence
they can be suffocated by stopping up these breathing tubes
with a fine powder.. The instinct for a hen to take a dust bath
is nature’s way to kill these pests. The most effective powder
for this purpose is that which contains a drying and burning
ingredient, or one giving off fumes.

(Courtesy Wisconsin Experiment Station)

Fig. 316.—Spraying the roosting compartments with an insecticide is part of
the sanitary schedule on a well-regulated poultry farm.

A reliable home made powder can be mixed as follows: Add
an ounce of 90 per cent carbolic acid to a peck of sifted coal
ashes, mix thoroughly, and then add an equal quantity of tobacco
stem dust.

Here is another recipe which has given satisfaction at the
Maine and Cornell Experiment Stations for a number of years:
Add one part crude carbolic acid to three parts gasoline, mix
these together carefully, and while stirring add enough plaster-of-
Paris to take up the moisture. When enough plaster has been

514 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

added, the resulting mixture should be a dry pinkish—brown
powder, having a fairly strong odor of carbolic acid.

The dusting powder should be worked into the plumage of the
fowl, the greater part of the application being in the fluff feath-
ers, near the vent and under the wings. See Fig. 315. Its effect
is noticeable almost immediately. The dusting should be re-
peated in about two weeks to catch the new brood of lice, which
are in the form of eggs at the first dusting, and are not disturbed
by it to any extent. Fumigation and spraying with a good dis-
infectant will destroy lice about the roosting compartments and
cracks of the house. Once the hens are fairly rid of lice, it is no
trouble to keep these parasites under control by a systematic
spraying. See Fig. 316.

Destroying Mites.—Unlike lice, the‘ young of the mites are
not hatched on the fowls, but in the hiding places where the
mites live. Consequently, to destroy mites the poultryman
should confine his attack to their breeding places in the structure
of the building, and not on the fowls.

Spraying or painting the perches, nests, drop boards, and all
other interior fixtures, including the ceiling and walls, with a
solution of crude oil or other powerful disinfectant, is the surest
way to rid a house of mites. See Fig. 314. Enough of the liquid
should be used to thoroughly saturate the surface of the wood,
and to run freely into all cracks and openings. Frequently a
poultry house is so dusty that unless large quantities of the spray
are used, the dust will absorb the greater part of the liquid. To
overcome this, it is well to first give the building a good brush-
ing down with a stiff broom, and then follow with the spraying.

It is a mistake to think that because a house is idle for some
-time it will rid itself of mites, believing that the mites will starve
where there are no fowls to feed upon. They will live for months
without food, if necessary an entire winter, only to reappear as
soon as a flock of chickens is placed in the house.

Whitewashing.—In the minds of many, whitewashing means
slaking some lime in water and splashing this solution rather
carelessly over a prescribed surface. The result is all too familiar

WHITEWASHING AND SPRAYING 515

—whitewash so badly streaked as to be most unsightly, and at
the slightest touch brushing off the woodwork. In fact, fre-
quently it does not remain long enough to be of any real value.

To execute a good, permanent job—a job that will not only
clean and disinfect the building, but improve its appearance as
well—one must regard the task much the sameas painting. First
of all, the walls, sills, and all projections that have accumulated
large quantities of dust should be carefully brushed clean with

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)

Fig. 317.—Spraying outfit for disinfecting and whitewashing.

a stiff broom; otherwise the whitewash will simply form a coat-
ing or deposit over the dust and will subsequently curl up and
fall off, thus exposing the original dirt. Moreover, this dust is
frequently the refuge and abiding place for disease germs and
vermin and should be removed, not merely put out of sight
temporarily. Whitewash is a good exterminator if allowed to
come in contact with vermin, and will penetrate cracks and cre-
vices which are in a horizontal position, such as those on dropping

516 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

boards, in a thorough manner; but if sprayed on the dusty sides
of a building, it is very apt to run off the dust like water from an
oiled surface.

Spraying is much easier and quicker than applying the white-
wash with a brush, and if the above cleaning precautions are
taken, it is equally as effectual. But if one insists on following
the careless method, by all means use a brush, and put some car-
bolic acid in the wash—for in so doing the woodwork is at least
partially scrubbed with the solution.

Formulas.—The following are formulas for whitewash that
will not rub off: Slake a half-bushel of good strong lime in boil-
ing water, using just enough water to cover the lime and keep it
from burning. When the slaking process is completed, add a
little more water, and then strain the solution to remove any
sediment of sand or foreign substance. Dissolve a peck of salt in
warm water and add this to the lime solution; mix it thoroughly
and allow it to stand for a couple of days. When ready for use,
thin to the proper consistency and apply it hot.

Mixing Wash with Skimmed Milk.—Another well-known
recipe: Slake the lime as before, and then add two pounds of
sulphate of zinc and one pound of salt dissolved in water. The
addition of a half-pound of whiting will improve the wash for
outside use, and if skimmed milk is used instead of water, the
results will compare favorably with oil paint.

Disinfectant—The following is an inexpensive and efficient
poultry house disinfectant for spraying purposes, and one that
is very simple to make at home: Dissolve a pound of strong,
hard soap or soap powder in a gallon of boiling water; imme-
diately this is removed from the fire add a gallon of kerosene
and one pint of crude carbolic acid, and churn and agitate the
solution until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed. If the oil
and water separate, it is because the soap was not sufficiently
caustic. It is important that crude carbolic acid be used and
not the refined product, for the crude acid—a dark brown,
dirty-looking liquid—contains tar oil, which is to be desired.
Add ten gallons of water to the above to make a stock solution,

PROVISIONS FOR DUST BATH 517

and when ready for use, mix this stock solution with an equal
quantity of water. It is then in condition for spraying.

(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 318.—Interior of pigeon house showing feed hopper, roosts, nest boxes
and different kinds of nest pans.

Coal ashes are an asset rather than a nuisance on the poultry
farm, and may be used to splendid advantage. They are an

518 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

excellent absorbent, and when sprinkled under the perches and
mixed with the droppings, the volatile properties of the hen
manure are carefully preserved. They differ from wooed ashes in
this respect, for wood ashes, though a good insecticide, contain
considerable lime, which liberates the ammonia in the droppings
and thus destroys much of their fertilizing value.

Finely screened coal ashes make the most effective sort of a
dust bath for the hens. The fine dust penetrates the fowl’s
feathers, and coming in contact with lice serves to stop the
breathing passages of these parasites, causing them to suffocate
and die. Wood ashes are even better for this purpose, because
the particles of dust are finer, but here again the lime is objec-
tionable, since it tends to take the gloss off the plumage.

Coal ashes should be used freely on the floors of poultry build-
ings, for they penetrate cracks and crevices and assist in destroy-
ing mites and other vermin, dissipate noxious odors, and improve
conditions generally. Still another advantage—large quantities
of the cinders will be eaten by the birds as grit, and will contri-
bute some of the mineral nutrients.

Road Dust.—Dust removed from a road during dry weather,
and which is only an annoyance to travelers, will be found bene-
ficial in the dust boxes also. Every poultry farm should have a
supply on hand for winter use, for unless dirt floors are used,
these artificial means of supplying the fowl’s toilet requisites
must be provided. A dust bath is quite as essential to the well
being of poultry as is the soap-and-water variety to the human.

CHAPTER XL
DUCKS

Popularity of Duck Meat.—Time was when the duck was not
considered sufficiently profitable to warrant the trouble in rais-
ing it. Its flesh was never keenly sought after by the masses,
consequently it returned low prices and farmers generally de-
clined to show any enthusiasm. In those days, however, ducks
were raised without constraint in waterways and made to forage
for their living, subsisting almost entirely upon fish and other
water foods, which naturally imparted a strong fishy flavor to
their flesh and made them undesired except by the few who
might be partial to that kind of diet.

In the last twenty years breeders have awakened to the neces-
sity for improving the flavor of the flesh by feeding grain almost
exclusively, whereupon their efforts have been rewarded by a
steadily increasing demand, until to-day duck raising has devel-
oped into a flourishing industry, and on some of the well-known
plants, especially those on Long Island, a single farm will market
100,000 ducks a year.

Standard Varieties.—There are numerous standard varieties
of ducks, among which are the following: Pekin, Muscovy,
Indian Runner, Aylesbury (see Fig. 322), Rouen (see Fig. 323),
Cayuga, Call and Swedish. Of these the Pekin, Muscovy and
Indian Runner are the most widely bred, and probably the best
suited to farm purposes.

Pekins.—None stands higher in popular esteem than the White
Pekin, which was imported from China in the early seventies.
See Fig. 319. It is valuable for raising on a large scale, and while
naturally a very timid bird, it may be raised more easily, perhaps,
than any other. It has a distinct type of its own, and differs

519

520 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

from all others in the shape and carriage of its body. They are
large birds, sometimes attaining twenty pounds to the pair;
yet their flesh, if properly nourished, is delicate and free from
any taint, and they are considered among the best of table fowls.
They mature early, are excellent layers, non-sitters, and require
no particular skill in breeding.

Shape of Pekins.—The standard-bred Pekin has a long, finely
formed head, neatly curved neck, and a bill of orange yellow,

Fig. 319.—Pekin ducks.

medium-sized, with no trace of any other color. The eyes are
of a deep, leaden-blue color. The back is long and broad, the
keel proportionately long and deep, the breast round, full and
very prominent, and the carriage of the body elevated in front,
sloping downward toward the rear. The wings are short, folded
closely against the body, and are not capable of sustaining
flight; hence a two-foot fence is sufficient to restrain the Pekin.
The plumage is downy and of a faint creamy tint throughout,
though recently there is a preference for an absolute white. The

MUSCOVY DUCKS 521

standard weight of the drake is 8 pounds, and of the duck 7
pounds.

Muscovy ducks, of which there are two varieties—White and
Colored, the plumage of the latter being black and white—have
several distinct peculiarities. See Fig. 320. They are sometimes
called the Musk duck, owing to the odor of musk which pervades
the skin, but which is not objectionable when the fowl is cooked.
Also, their appearance is rather grotesque by reason of the long,
crest-like feathers on the head, the sides of which and the face are

—

Fig. 320.—White Muscovy ducks.

covered with scarlet caruncles. This large, red face gives them
a savage look, and to some minds it makes them quite hideous.

They are found in a wild state in the warmer regions of South
America, but in Brazil they have been extensively domesticated
and are highly prized for eating. They find great favor in Europe
as well, especially in Germany, where they are raised in large
numbers. They are the largest of all ducks, the standard weight
of the drake being Io pounds and of the duck 8 pounds.

522 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

The Muscovy is notorious for its pugnacious, quarrelsome
nature, and for this reason it is frequently inadvisable to keep
them on the farm with other poultry. The temper of the drake
is violent, indeed; he will fight with another drake, inflicting
serious harm, if possible; and his persecution of other poultry is
unceasing and abominable.

Unlike Pekins, the Muscovy is a strong flier, and when fright-

Fig. 321.—Indian runner ducks.

ened, they will fly into trees or into high places of concealment
where they remain for long periods of time. When bred, they
must be kept in yards by themselves, care being taken to clip
their wings to keep them from flying. The flesh of the Muscovy
compares favorably with that of any other duck, if eaten young,
but they cannot be credited with laying so many eggs as some
of the other breeds.

LEGHORN OF THE DUCK FAMILY $23

The Indian Runner duck, which is said to have its origin in
India—hence the forepart of its name—has rapidly come into
wide popularity by reason of its prolific egg yield, and by reason
of which it is aptly termed the Leghorn of the duck family. See
Fig. 321. The name Runner is appropriate, for they literally
run, instead of waddle, as do other ducks, and sometimes present
a very comical appearance.

Runner ducks are exceedingly active in their habits, and by
reason of their willingness to forage are able to find a large part
of their food. Though easily domesticated, they do not stand
confinement well; they are non-sitters, are hardy and easy to
raise, and while their flesh is of prime quality, their size is rather
against them for market purposes, except as broilers. The stan-
dard weight of the drake is 414 pounds and of the duck 4 pounds.

The body of the Runner somewhat resembles the shape of the
Penguin; it is long, narrow and carried very erect, with little or
no indication of keel. They are very good-looking, the plumage
being light fawn or gray and white, which blends admirably
with the orange-red of their shanks and the green of their bills.
In the past five years White Indian Runners have become very
popular, and are probably destined to be more extensively bred
than the Fawn variety.

Water is not Necessary.—We naturally associate ducks with
water—but as a matter of fact it is not at all necessary that
they have access to it, except such as is given them for drinking
purposes. If a pond or stream is available, it is well to allow the
breeders the freedom of it, also the young ducks until they are
about eight weeks old, when they should be penned and fattened
for market. On the other hand, equally good results are being
obtained by poultrymen who have no water on their premises;
the only noticeable difference between these ducks and those
having access to water is that the water ducks have somewhat
prettier and cleaner plumage.

Duck raising is to be recommended for those who wish to
make use of marshy land not suitable for chickens; yet this fact
must not deceive one in the belief that damp, wet quarters are

524 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

available for ducks. Houses for ducks are simple affairs, but
they must be free from dampness and located so as to be assured
of good drainage—preferably on sandy soil. The feathers of a
duck are almost impenetrable to cold, but its feet are rather sus-
ceptible, much as a hen’s comb and wattles. The duck likes to
warm its feet, and to this end it is advisable to have a dry dirt
floor in the duck house, covered with straw, hay, shavings or

1 Sree
~ Se
RS u Gee= aa
SSeS
“Ss -

Fig. 322.—Aylesbury ducks.

other litter. Some breeders advocate a board floor, but this is
scarcely necessary unless it is impossible to maintain a com-
paratively dry earth floor.

The beginner should start modestly and develop his plant
only as his experience increases and his capital warrants; for
duck raising is an arduous task and requires an absolute know]-
edge of the business before success can be reached. Every phase
of the work should be carefully studied with the idea of minimiz-

REQUIREMENTS TO BE SOUGHT 525

ing labor, and each department—the incubator cellar, brooder
house, breeding pens, fattening pens, picking room and feed
house—located where they are the most convenient and the
most accessible. The task of feeding and watering ducks alone
is no small one, and on large plants this factor receives very
careful consideration. Artificial incubation and brooding, com-

Fig. 323.—Rouen ducks.

bined with improved machinery for handling and mixing the
feeds, are largely responsible for the growth of the duck industry.

Inspire Confidence.—One of the essentials in breeding ducks is
a quiet, even-tempered caretaker—the man or woman who will
inspire confidence in the flocks and become, in a sense, a com-
panion to them. Ducks are high-strung, excitable birds, skep-
tical toward strangers, and yet responsive to good treatment and
regular attention. Furthermore, they are confirmed creatures
of habit, and any serious change in their diet or management is

526 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

likely to disturb their appetite and egg yield. For example,
mature stock that has never been fed on corn will not eat it
at first, and may never really learn to relish it, whereas if they
are brought up on a part corn diet it is one of their best-liked
grains.

Feeding and Watering.—Under natural conditions, the food of
the duck is both animal and vegetable, consisting of fish, water
insects, grasses and so forth, therefore when the birds are raised
under a somewhat artificial environment this diet must be imi-
tated to secure the most satisfactory results. Unlike the hen,

Fig. 324.—Ducks are heavy drinkers.

the duck has no crop, the food passing from the bill to the giz-
zard; in consequence the food must be largely of a soft char-
acter. Too much hard food does not agree with these birds—
they will not thrive upon it, hence it is inadvisable.

While a proper selection of the food is highly important to
secure rapid growth, the necessary ingredients are the simplest
grains, usually wheat middlings, wheat bran, corn meal and low
grade flour, to which should be added beef scraps and, where
necessary, shredded alfalfa or other green food. The following
is an excellent ration for breeders, whose food should not, of

FOOD AND DRINK 527

course, be so forcing as that intended for the market birds:
Equal parts corn meal, wheat bran, green food; 5 per cent beef
scraps, and 5 per cent coarse sand or grit. Mix with water to
a moistened, crumbly state—not sloppy—and feed three times a
day, the last feed to be given an hour before sundown.

Grit is as essential to ducks as it is to chickens, and should
be kept before the birds at all times, in addition to being fed in
the mash. The sand used in the mash supplies a certain amount
of the necessary grinding material, and the duck will pick up
more on range; yet this is not sufficient to fully satisfy the diges-
tive demands. A supply of oyster shells should also be kept in
a convenient place.

Heavy Drinkers.—As previously stated, water for bathing is
not necessary for growing ducks, but it is most important that
they have access to a liberal supply of fresh drinking water at
all times. Ducks are heavy drinkers, and it has been said that
the only neglect which will kill young ducks is failure to provide
them with sufficient water, in a vessel deep enough for them to
get their heads beneath the surface. Ducklings like to immerse
their eyes—a habit which seems to be essential to their well-
being. Obviously, the water should be kept as fresh as possible.

CHAPTER XLI
GEESE

Virtues of Geese.—It is pretty safe to say that we Americans
do not raise enough geese, and do not fully appreciate their
possibilities. Like the guinea, the goose is not taken seriously
enough by the average farmer; yet there is no kind of livestock
that can be fed with so little loss, and so little attention, and
that requires such inexpensive equipment, as the goose. They
are heir to very little sickness; in fact, a gosling one week old
is virtually a grown bird, requiring little else but a stretch of
pasture over which to roam and forage for itself.

Need of Grazing Land.—That goose raising is not practised
so extensively as duck growing is probably due to the fact that
geese require an abundance of grazing land, and will thrive best
where there is a certain amount of water. They are the most
persistent grazers of any kind of poultry, and though they prefer
meadowland rich in plant life, which will sustain them in prime
condition, they are, nevertheless, capable of adapting themselves
to poor, waste land on which, perhaps, no other form of live-
stock could be supported. For this reason alone they should be
considered by farmers, especially those who have tidewater
farms, or low land bordering on rivers or ponds. A day’s ride
through the Eastern Shore section of Maryland will convince
the most skeptical that there must be profit in geese, for nearly
every farm will be seen to have its flock. Many times, when
other crops have proved disastrous, the returns from the geese
have been the mainstay of these farmers.

There are seven standard varieties of geese: Gray Toulouse,
White Emden, Gray African, Brown Chinese, White Chinese,
Wild or Canadian, and Colored Egyptian. Of these, the first

528

MOST COMMON VARIETIES 529

two breeds are the most widely bred in this country, and are
to be recommended for the average farm.

Toulouse geese (see Fig. 325) are named for a district in
France where they are extensively bred. They are fairly good
layers, and are well thought of as market birds, though their
flesh is somewhat coarser and not so white as some of the other
varieties. Their plumage being a dull gray in parts, merging

= s Oe

Fig. 325.—Toulouse geese.

into a lighter gray and then white on the underbody, they are
not so valuable for their feathers as the pure white breeds.
The Emden geese (see Fig. 326) are probably the most desir-
able for all round purposes. They are rapid growers, good for-
agers, and are more suitable for the early markets. They orig-
inally came from Emden, hence their name, but they have been
bred in this country for many years. Although not so prolific as
the Toulouse and other breeds, they have other qualities which
commend them as the most profitable, or at least the most

530 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

desirable. Their flesh is finer, whiter and of a better flavor; they
have a wealth of pure white plumage which has a higher market-
able value, and in disposition they are less pugnacious, more
placid and more contented than the other breeds. In point of
weight they are about the same as the Toulouse, according to
the Standard, though as a general thing the Emden is bred
somewhat smaller than the Toulouse.

Gray African geese are considered by many to be the most

Fig. 326.—Emden geese.

profitable, because of their great gain in weight in the least pos-
sible time. They are also very prolific, and many breeders cross
them with the Emden for this purpose. According to the Stan-
dard they are the same weight as the Toulouse and Emden geese,
yet they generally exceed the weights of these two. They have
rather long necks, and their heads are conspicuous for the knobs
which protrude from the base of the bill, the same as in the
Chinese varieties. They also have a heavy dewlap under the

CHINESE GEESE 531

throat, which is of a gray color. The knob of the African goose
is black, and in the White Chinese it is orange colored.

The Chinese geese (see Fig. 327), of which there are two
varieties, Brown and White, have never become extensively
bred in this country, probably because of their small size. What
they lack in size, however, they endeavor to make up in egg
production, for they are the most prolific of all breeds of geese,
averaging about sixty eggs a year. Their flesh has a superior

Fig. 327.—White China geese.

flavor and texture, and they are easy to fatten and manage.
The standard weight of the adult gander is 12 pounds, and the
adult goose 10 pounds, as against 20 pounds and 18 pounds for
the other three varieties.

Gray wild geese, or Canadian geese, as they are also called,
are about the same weight as the Chinese. Recently they seem
to have come to the fore, and are prized very highly for table
purposes. They are frequently crossed with African ganders,

532 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

which has increased their weight as goslings. They are very
hardy and easy to rear. The head and bill are black; neck
black, shading to a light gray on the chest, and to a dark gray
on the back. The plumage of the underparts of the body is
white.

Colored Egyptian geese, sometimes called Nile geese, are the
smallest of the goose family, also the most beautiful. The
standard weight is 10 pounds for the adult gander and 8 pounds
for the goose. They are not to be recommended for general
farm use, and are bred almost exclusively for ornamental pur-
poses. They are of a very quarrelsome nature, especially the
males, who will frequently fight among themselves until dead.

Houses of the most simple construction are used for shelters
for geese, little more than sheds, in fact, having nothing but a
supply of straw or other material for litter on the floors. These
may be of dirt or concrete; the latter is best to conserve the
manure, which is in large quantities and a very valuable by-
product. If ground phosphate rock is sprinkled over the manure
at regular intervals, and fresh litter is added as required to
keep the houses in a sanitary condition, there will be a surprising
amount of the finest kind of fertilizer produced by even a mod-
erate sized flock. .

Fields that are worthless for cultivation may be turned into
goose pastures, and those which have streams or unused springs
are especially suitable. Unless too many birds are turned into a
small area, which is then likely to become depleted of its plant
life, the geese will gather the largest portion of their food, con-
sisting of grasses, insects, and other animal and vegetable life.
Or they may be made to work in the stubble of the grain fields,
in place of hogs, for it is a simple matter to drive geese to dis-
tant pasture and home again at night.

Geese are much maligned, in that they are accused of destroy-
ing pasture for cattle and horses, which is true only if they are
kept in large numbers in a comparatively small area. The same
is true of sheep or almost any other form of livestock. \Where
there is a sufficiency of grass and other plant life, they may be

MATING AND SETTING 533

left to graze in the same pasture with cattle and horses. Many
poor pieces of land have been converted into good pasture lots
by being stocked with geese for a few years.

They require drinking water in abundance, consequently,
unless they have access to large bodies of water in which to
swim, their drinking water should be supplied in fountains in
which they can only get their bills to drink. Otherwise they
will contaminate the water.

Although the goose is aquatic, and it must be admitted they
seem to do better when given access to a body of water, especially
in the summer, it is not absolutely essential for them to have a
swimming place, any more than for ducks. They will keep
themselves cleaner if a stream is available, and the chances are
the fertility of their eggs will be greater. Then, too, the stream
of water affords a large element of their food, which is of immense
value in the cost of their upkeep. But it does not follow that
they are not to be reared on farms without a watering place.

Age.—One of the most remarkable characteristics of the goose
is its long life. Many have been known to attain the age of
forty years, and have been handed down from father to son, as
though they were a fixture on the farm. It is not at all uncom-
mon for birds to live fifteen years, and as a general rule they
will maintain their laying and hatching qualities throughout
their life. anders are at their best as breeders at three years
of age. The use of immature stock should be avoided as much
as possible, especially for the renewal of breeding geese. To
produce early goslings for market it is sometimes necessary to
use eggs from young stock, as they usually lay earlier than the
older birds, which is perfectly proper.

In selecting geese for breeders excessive size should not be
sought at the expense of other important features, such as width
of breast in proportion to length of body, depth of keel and
shortness of leg. Care should be taken to avoid inbreeding, and
to be sure of this it is sometimes necessary to procure ganders
from a distant point. If so, the ganders should come from the
same flock to insure their dwelling together amicably.

534 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Mating.—As a rule three geese are mated to one gander, but
in the case of very large specimens it is sometimes better to
mate two geese to one gander. It is well to start this mating in
the autumn, for geese are rather eccentric creatures, and require
some time before they become accustomed to new surroundings
and settle down to work in earnest. They also make strong
companionships, and will pine and worry for weeks at the loss
of a mate.

It is usually more economical to keep geese in one large flock,
in preference to several small flocks, particularly if they have to
be driven to pasture. When the ganders are admitted to the
flock for the first time, and they are to be mated one to three,
each gander will select his three wives to whom he will remain
devoted for years. One of these three will probably receive the
most attention, however, and will be his chief consort in their
ramblings.

Laying.— Young geese usually commence laying in February,
and the older ones in March, although if the weather is unusually
mild they will start a month earlier. During the winter months,
preparatory to this breeding season, the stock should not be
allowed to become too fat, for an over-fat condition is not con-
ducive to either productiveness or fertility. So long as there is
pasture for them, they require very little grain.

When pasture is not to be had, and they are fed a grain diet,
the greater part of this ration should be soft food, such as bran,
middlings, corn meal and so on, with a little beef scrap. At
least ten per cent of the bulk of this food should be green stuffs
of some kind, either parings, cooked vegetables, or steamed
clover or alfalfa. It should be moistened by skimmed milk or
water. Grit and oyster shells are kept before them at all times
the same as for chickens. Most breeders feed the soft food in
the early morning, and a light feeding of cracked corn at night.

Broodiness.—The goose usually lays an egg every other day,
until from ten to fifteen eggs have been laid, when she will
become broody. As soon as this inclination presents itself, the
goose should be removed from the nest and her maternal in-

CARE OF GOSLINGS 535

stincts broken up, whereupon she will join the flock and again
commence laying. After she lays the second clutch and becomes
broody, she should be discouraged again, and made to complete
the third laying. The second and third clutches are not apt to
be so large as the first, being one to three eggs less.

Nests.—Geese make their own nests from straw on the floor
of their houses, if they are encouraged to do so, otherwise they
may lay outdoors or in remote spots where the eggs are likely
to spoil. By the time the goose has completed laying a clutch
of eggs, she will have lined the nest with a thick covering of down
plucked from her breast, which makes a nice warm place for the
goslings to hatch. From ten.to twelve eggs is the correct number
to place under a goose, and care should be taken that the broody
one is not too warlike in her attitude. If such is the case, she is
very apt to crush her eggs, especially during the last few days
of hatching, when the shells become more or less fragile. For this
reason many goose breeders prefer to have the hatching done by
hens, giving the hens about four eggs each. It is well to give
the first eggs laid by the geese to hens, or they may be hatched
in incubators with good success.

Hatching.—From twenty-eight to thirty days are required to
incubate goose eggs, and they require a great deal of moisture,
much the same as duck eggs. They should be sprinkled at fre-
quent intervals, and given plenty: of time to cool after the first
week.

When the hatching is done by geese, the little goslings should
be carefully removed from under the goose as they are hatched,
allowing but one to remain to reassure the mother; otherwise
the great weight of the goose is apt to crush them, or she will
trample them. The goslings may be kept in a warm box, and
when the hatch is completed and they are sturdy enough to
walk about, which is usually on the second day, and at which
time the yolks have been absorbed, they may be given back to
their mother. The goose and her brood should be housed in a
sheltered spot, and the mother confined for the first week, at
the same time giving the goslings their freedom, which prevents

536 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the old goose from taking her charge too far afield and exhausting
them.

When a gosling is a week old it is usually reckoned as a grown
bird, for, barring accidents, it is a very hardy creature and will
make rapid growth. If given good pasture they require but one
feeding daily after they are two weeks old, but they should be
returned to the security of the goose house every night.

;

Fig. 328.—Muscovy ducks are sometimes regarded as geese.

Turkey hens make good mothers for geese, because they can
cover so many eggs; but they should be confined with their
broods for the first week. When goose eggs are placed under
chicken hens, the caretaker should make it a point to turn the
eggs daily, for they are too heavy for the hen to do this.

The prices obtained for geese in the large city markets run
from fourteen to twenty cents per pound live weight, which
quickly mounts up when we consider their great weight. In

PROFITS FROM FEATHERS 537

addition to this revenue, there is a nice profit to be made from
the feathers. A prime goose will average about one pound of
feathers a year, and feathers of good quality will bring from
forty-five to sixty cents a pound. If the down is separated from
the feathers, it will bring about a dollar a pound. The feathers
should be plucked when there is no blood in the ends of the
quills.

CHAPTER XLII
TURKEYS

Turkey Hearsay.—There is a widespread impression in some
localities that turkeys are exceedingly difficult to raise, and that
due to a heavy mortality among young turkeys the chances for
profit are very precarious. Much of this hearsay is nonsense,
gossip—pure and simple, or let us call it turkey tradition,
mysticism. Like other traditions or prejudices, these notions
are hard to eradicate. The beginner with turkeys should dis-
abuse his mind of these notions, discard them utterly, since
they contribute nothing to the industry but fear and worriment.

Susceptible to Exposure.—It is true that young turkeys are
delicate and that they are susceptible to exposure, to cold and
dampness, but they are nothing like as frail as one might sup-
pose, judging from the popular idea. For that matter chicks
are delicate creatures, too, and unable to endure exposure. The
young of all fowls require a great deal of care for the first few
weeks; it is a part of the business of growing livestock of any
kind. The point is to master the details in the most practical,
labor-saving manner. With proper care a good proportion of
the poults can be raised, and when the holiday season comes
round a handsome profit has accrued.

Standard Varieties.—No doubt it will surprise those who have
but a casual knowledge of turkeys to learn that there are seven
different varieties of domestic turkeys in the United States, each
with certain points of excellence, and ranging in color from white
to black. Many of us think of turkeys as being of a single breed,
commonly known as the Bronze, or Mammoth Bronze; a few
are familiar with the White Holland and Narragansett varieties;
whereas only those who have made a study of these fowls know

538

STANDARD VARIETIES 539

about the Bourbon Reds, Slate turkeys, Black turkeys and Buff
turkeys. The Buffs and Slates have always been rare, and to-day
the Blacks are seldom bred. The Bronze is the most popular,
next comes the Narragansett, and then the White Holland,
though in recent years the Bourbon Red has grown into con-
siderable favor and may be entitled to third position.

The exact origin of the domestic turkey will probably never
be satisfactorily settled, for ornithologists are greatly at variance
on this subject. The most accepted view of the matter is that
all the turkeys of the world have descended in some way from
the three forms of wild turkeys, the North American, the Mexi-
can, and the Honduras, or Ocellated turkey. There seems to be
no question concerning the transportation of these birds from
America to Spain about the year 1520, and that they were sub-
sequently shipped to England, in 1524, where they soon became
very popular and were extensively bred. Many improvements
were made among the English breeders, but it remained for
American fanciers to develop the present standard varieties.

The color of the North American wild turkey is much the same
as the Bronze. It is black, wonderfully shaded with bronze,
the breast plumage being dark bronze, illuminated with a lus-
trous copper or gold color. The name Bronze is derived from
this beautiful metallic sheen.

Mexican Turkey.—The wild turkey of the southern part of
the continent, known as the Mexican turkey, is shorter in shank
than the North American species. The color is much the same,
except for the white markings on the tips of the feathers, which
is considered to be responsible for the color of the domestic
variety known as the Narragansett. From the meager records
available, the Mexican turkey was the first variety to be taken
to Europe by the Spaniards.

The Ocellated turkey, indigenous to Honduras and other
Central American countries, is considered to be the most beauti-
ful in color, and may be compared to the Impeyan pheasant.
The ground color of the plumage is a bronze-green, banded with
bars of gold, blue and red, or a lustrous black. The head and

540 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

neck are devoid of feathers, and unlike the other wild varieties,
it has no breast tuft. Unfortunately, this breed will not thrive
in northern climates; it seems to be too sensitive to cold.

The domestic Bronze turkey is too well known to require
any particular description. See Fig. 329. It is being raised
almost to the exclusion of all other varieties, and holds the post
of honor for size and market requirements. Hens of this species

Fig. 329.—Bronze turkeys.

run from sixteen to twenty pounds or more, and while the Stan-
dard of Perfection calls for a weight of thirty-six pounds for
gobblers, they are often brought to much higher figures—even
exceeding fifty pounds.

The Narragansett is next in size to the Bronze, and back in
the days when Rhode Island was the leading turkey state of
the Union, this variety was one of the most widely bred through-

BOURBON REDS 541

out New England. The ground color of the plumage is black,
with markings of white and black which imparts a grayish cast
to the entire surface. The female is lighter in color throughout
than the male. The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds,
and for cocks thirty pounds, though they are grown almost as
heavy as the Bronzes. If anything, the Narragansett is more
suitable for market purposes than the Bronze, inasmuch as it
has fuller, plumper breast, and will mature slightly earlier.
Furthermore, they seem to bear confinement better.

The Bourbon Reds have attained great popularity in the West,
though still rarely bred in the Eastern states, and rank very
high as a market bird. They are hardy, mature rapidly, have
excellent quality of flesh, and their weights are about equal to
the Narragansett. The plumage is a chestnut color, which is
made strikingly beautiful by brownish red markings and pure
white tail and wing feathers.

White Holland turkeys are now quite widely known; at first
they were small and delicate and not so desirable. See Fig. 330.
They are beautiful birds, with snowy white plumage and pink
bills and shanks, and are considered sports from other turkeys.
In recent years the breed has been improved in size and vigor
by the infusion of blood from the white’ sports of Bronze and
Narragansett varieties. Just why the name Holland attaches
to this species is not definitely understood. They may have
originated in Holland or been brought to this country by Hol-
landers, but it is certain that they were not natural to the Nether-
lands. They have been known to exist in England for over a
hundred years, and are sometimes referred to as “Austrian
Whites.”

Dress Well for Market.—It is thought that the Whites are
more difficult to raise than the darker varieties, though they
mature rapidly, attaining market size in five to eight months.
They dress splendidly for market, as with all white poultry,
the pin feathers show less than in darker birds, and their feath-
ers command higher prices than those of the colored breeds.
The standard weight for hens is eighteen pounds, and for cocks

542 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

twenty-eight pounds. At recent exhibitions I have seen toms
that weighed thirty-five pounds, but this is unusual.

The Black turkey is much the same as the English Norfolk
turkey, and is very desirable for table purposes. The young are
quite hardy when produced by strong, non-related stock, and
when it is necessary to confine turkeys upon a more or less
restricted area, the average farmer will do well to select this
variety. They are not so large as the other breeds, except the

Fig. 330.—White Holland turkeys.

Giant Blacks, which closely resemble the Bronzes in everything
but plumage.

The Slate turkey, sometimes called the Blue turkey, and the
Buff turkey, range from ten to twenty-five pounds, according
to age and sex, and may be raised to advantage in almost any
locality. These varieties have been neglected for some reason
or other, in spite of the fact that they possess qualities that are
the equal of the more popular varieties. Lately, fanciers have

VIGOROUS PARENT STOCK REQUIRED 543

devoted considerable attention to the Buffs, which are truly
beautiful specimens.

Profitable-—When we consider that from the time turkeys
are six weeks old until winter sets in, they will obtain the greater
part of their sustenance from the fields and woods over which
they roam, and this assures their keep at virtually no expense
to the grower, the question naturally arises: Why is the farmer
not more enthusiastic about growing them? And what is re-
sponsible for the losses that we hear so much about?

These losses really do exist, of this there can be no doubt,
and with the industry in its present stage it is likely to be accom-
panied by grave uncertainties. Turkey raising demands the
best efforts of which we are capable—and then some. It is no
secret, however, that many of the failures are attributable to
gross carelessness or ignorance, or both. The whole question of
deriving a profit from turkeys resolves itself into the ability of
the grower to rear the poults, the young turkeys. If the same
intelligent care in selecting the breeders is applied to turkeys
as we unquestionably devote to the scientific breeding of cattle,
sheep, hogs and horses, then we are in a fair way to achieve
success.

Deterioration through inbreeding is the greatest foe of the
turkey industry, and it has been brought about by the heed-
lessness of hundreds of farmers who have declined to consider
the necessity of infusing new blood into their flocks. For gen-
erations turkey growers in many of our eastern states have de-
pended upon their neighbors for the service of male birds, giving
no thought to the inevitable consequences, until in some localities
it is difficult to find any unrelated stock. This total disregard of
the fundamental laws of nature has in some sections reduced the
condition of turkeys almost to a state of imbecility, and so
undermined the vitality of the birds as to make it difficult to
rear a.tenth of the number of poults hatched.

Avoid Inbreeding as You Would a Plague.—New blood is of
vital importance. It is better to send a thousand miles for a
new male than to run the chances of inbreeding. Whenever

544 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

possible the tom should be a yearling, and the hens not less than
two years old. The hens from good stock will cost about five
dollars each, and the gobbler from six to ten dollars. A less
expensive way to start may be made with eggs purchased from
reliable breeders. When this is done, it is better to secure set-
tings from different localities, and the poults carefully marked when
hatched so that they can be properly crossed another season.

Time to Start.—The fall and early winter is the best time to
make a start with turkeys, for at these seasons there is a greater
number of birds from which to make a selection, and they are
generally offered at better prices. Furthermore, stock bought
at this time will become accustomed to each other and to their
new quarters before the breeding season commences, conse-
quently better results are likely to be secured.

Parent Stock.—Every precaution should be taken to obtain
strong, vigorous stock. Do not imagine that size is the main
point of excellence. A medium-sized gobbler weighing about
twenty-five pounds will usually render more satisfactory results
than an over-heavy specimen. In all fowls, remember that
size is largely influenced by the female, and the color and dis-
tinguishing characteristics by the male. The hens should be
well matured, weighing not less than fourteen pounds, intelli-
gent and tame, as distinguished from wild and unduly excitable
birds, and of pronounced constitutional vigor.

A safe rule for mating is to have a tom for every four to six
hens. Good fertility is reported from matings of a male to every
twelve females, but I am inclined to think this is unusual. On
farms where the flocks are yarded it is customary to keep two
cocks for every eight or ten hens, and to alternate the males
about twice a week, keeping one penned aloof, while the other
is with the flock. When turkeys are given unlimited range,
which is the most successful method of raising them, they natur-
ally divide into flocks.

Management.—It is said that the real secret of success in
rearing turkeys is exercise. They must have an abundance of
food, and te maintain the necessary health to assimilate large

‘sto}s Usppns Jsulede u01}99}01d pue apeys apraoid sty} se yons siayayS—Ie “Bry

545

546 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

quantities of food, they must have an abundance of exercise.
The idea is entirely logical.. Turkeys are large birds, semi-wild
by nature, possessed of a roving disposition, and fully capable of
taking care of themselves. To confine them is to impose a feel-
ing of constraint and worriment, over which they never cease to
fret. To do well turkeys must have range. Only a few should
be attempted in a confined space, and even then they will require
painstaking care.

Feeds.—Much of the so-called bad luck in turkey raising—infer-
tility, soft-shelled eggs and impaired vigor—is due to improper
feeding. Avoid having the breeding stock too fat. If they have
become so during the winter season, endeavor to reduce them to
medium flesh before the mating season. Oats is one of the best
feeds during the breeding months, with an occasional feeding of
wheat, corn, barley and ground bone. Grit, oyster shells and
charcoal should be kept within easy reach of the birds at all
times, also a plentiful supply of fresh drinking water.

Roosts.—Turkeys do better when they can roost in the open.
Only in storms do they seek protection, and not always then.
Fences and trees are preferable to tight houses, for the turkey
must have unrestricted ventilation. It is most unwise to com.
pel them to roost with other poultry. If found necessary to
house them, which is recommended in extremely cold climates,
their quarters should be roomy and perfectly ventilated. The
ideal shelter consists of an open-front shed or house, which is
sufficient to protect them from heavy storms and from enemies,
such as dogs. Foxes take a heavy toll of turkeys annually,
especially if there is much brush or wooded areas nearby.

With the approach of cold weather, when insect food and
greens become scarce, an increased grain diet must be provided
for the growing turkeys. Do not give the flock large quantities
at first, but work up the supply gradually, until they are having
all they will eat up clean. Wheat and corn is about the best
ration. Keep them growing and fattening as fast as possible,
so that by the time Thanksgiving week arrives, and prices are
usually the best, they will be in prime condition for marketing.

PREPARING TURKEYS FOR MARKET 547

To grow the best is more expensive than to grow the poorer
grades, but the profits to be gained are almost double.

After the turkeys are ready for market quite as much care
should be given to the killing, dressing and shipping, not to
forget grading, as to the growing. If these conditions cannot
be obtained, it is better to sell the birds alive to someone who
makes a business of handling such stock.

Kill Nothing but Well-fattened Stock.—It never pays to send
poor stock to market. Skinny, gawky, crooked-breasted car-
casses are undesirable. Keep the stock away from food or water
for at least twelve hours before killing, preferably for twenty-
four hours. The food tract must be emptied, otherwise there is
danger of discoloration or spoiling. Full crops and full entrails
may increase the weight slightly, but they discount the price
so heavily, there is nothing to be gained, only disappointment.
Crops distended with food are sour, sometimes tainting the
flesh, but in any event they are uninviting to the careful buyer.

There are several methods of killing, but the most popular
way is to suspend the fowl by the shanks, head down, and cut
or stick it in the roof of the mouth with a sharp, narrow-bladed
knife. This severs the arteries, causing a hemorrhage, and at
the same time pierces the brain, causing insensibility. The flow
of blood should be copious, for poorly bled fowls are likely to
be purplish-tinted.

Dislocation—Another method is to dislocate the neck by a
sudden twist and jerk. The disjointed part of the neck is then
pulled away, so as to form an open space into which the blood
may settle. Dislocation is claimed by some to be the only sani-
tary, up-to-date method of killing, since there is no opening by
which air can get into the body. It is used more for chickens
than for turkeys, and requires considerable practice to do it
well. Then there is the old-fashioned method of beheading
with an ax, which should never be used, except on birds intended
for home use, and even then it is a very poor mode.

Dry-picking is the only way to pluck poultry for a fancy
market. As soon as the bird is stuck, and while the blood is

548 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

still flowing, commence to remove the feathers, taking great
care not to break the skin or tear the flesh. Purple abrasions,
often noticeable on plucked fowls, are due to bruises and rough
handling. Avoid these. Nothing detracts so much from the
appearance of dressed poultry as careless workmanship in the
picking. It will also mean a reduction in the selling price.
Remove the pin feathers with a blunt knife.

In dressing turkeys a small ruff of neck feathers and the wing
tips are undisturbed; this is a conventionality found in most
markets. To complete the dressing, cleanse the mouth and
head of any blood, and wash the feet thoroughly. Never remove
the head, feet or entrails. Some years ago it was the practice
to remove the viscera, but modern efficiency has found that
the undrawn carcass, from which all animal heat has been
expelled, is the most sanitary.

Cooling.—When the fowl is plucked hang it in a cool place,
head down, until the heat is entirely gone from the body; it is
then ready for packing. Poultry should not be allowed to freeze
for it will spoil the appearance.

Packing and Shipping.—Barrels are generally preferable to
boxes for shipping poultry, and they are easily obtained at a
small cost. Line the package with manila paper,—do not use
soiled or printed paper,—and pack as tightly as possible to avoid
shifting about in transit. In warm weather use ice, or if the con-
signment is billed for a long distance. Head the barrel securely,
and mark its contents plainly on the head to whom it is shipped,
and the name of the shipper. Never ship mixed lots of poultry
in the same package if it can be avoided. Graded shipments
invite good treatment on the part of the merchants, facilitate
sales, and are rewarded by larger returns. In short, it pays
handsomely to take a. few extra pains.

Turkey Nests.—If left to follow her own inclinations the hen
turkey will select some secluded place for her nest, probably
under a pile of logs, in the brush or in the lee of a stone wall;
but, unless the flock is particularly wild, the hens can be induced
to adopt more suitable laying quarters, than which nothing is

TURKEY NESTS 549

more practical than barrels laid on their sides and blocked to
keep them from rolling, and lined on the bottom with sod cov-
ered with straw or hay for nesting material. Sugar barrels
answer the purpose nicely; they are easy to handle, and not only
make an excellent protection from cold winds and rains, but hot
days as well. Later, when the brood is hatched a board may be

Fig. 332.—Combination chicken and squab farm in New Jersey.

nailed to the lower end so that the little turkeys cannot start to
roam at too tender an age.

Turkeys usually commence laying about the first of April,
and the earlier the eggs can be hatched after the middle of May
the longer the period of growth before the first holiday demand.
Six months at least are required to bring them to a profitable
marketable size, yet if their environment and feeding are cor-
rect this can be readily done.

The hen will lay from 15 to 20 eggs before becoming broody,

550 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

and if one wishes to obtain a second clutch of eggs, it is not diffi-
cult to break her of broodiness, whereupon she will soon start
laying again. The first clutch of eggs may either be sold or
placed under chicken hens to be hatched. The eggs should be
gathered as promptly as possible and stored in a clean, cool
place. They should not be kept too long, for their vitality de-
preciates rapidly. The poult issuing from the egg that is set
within a few days of its being laid is noticeably sturdy.

As a rule 18 eggs are sufficient for a turkey hen to cover
properly, and 10 eggs for the chicken hen to manage. If more
than these are placed under the birds there is danger of the eggs
being chilled at times, and poor hatches will result. Before set-
ting the hen dust her thoroughly with a lice-expelling powder,
also the nest and nesting material. This will prevent trouble
from lice or mites, either of which may cause the hen to desert
her nest. When the hatch is ready to come off the hen and nest
should be dusted for the second time. Nothing is more fatal to
turkey health than parasites.

Eternal vigilance should be the watchword. When the little
ones droop search for vermin, and be satisfied with only the
closest scrutiny. Vermin is responsible for some of the greatest
losses. How the turkeys become infested is sometimes an
enigma—from coops, from other poultry, from sparrows—despite
the best care these pests will put in an appearance, and a vig-
orous campaign against them is necessary. Poults so afflicted
will sicken and die as though stricken with some wasting
disease. In fact, the poor little things are frequently dosed
internally with medicine, when their dire need is an insect
powder.

From 27 to 29 days are required to hatch turkey eggs, depend-
ing upon their freshness, weather conditions and the devotion of
the hen in charge. During this time she should not be disturbed
in any way. If frightened or driven from the nest the hen is
apt to abandon the eggs entirely. Some hens will rear two
broods in a season, and while the late-hatched brood will not
mature early enough to meet the demand of roasters, nor are

FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 551

they so desirable as breeders, they may be grown as broiler
poults and as such sold to advantage.

Poults Unlike Chicks.—Many poultrymen have met with dis-
aster with turkeys because they tried to apply the same care to
the poults that they were accustomed to giving little chicks.
This is a great mistake, for on vital points the turk and the chick
are widely different. Poults have a ravenous appetite, without
the chicks’ capacity for digesting and assimilating large quan-
tities of food within a short space of time. They require a cer-
tain amount of exercise as an aid to digestion, yet too much

re.

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(Courtesy U. S. Dep't Agriculture)
Fig. 333.—Typical pigeon house and fly.

running around wearies them to the point of complete exhaustion.
To guard against this, especially if chicken hens are being used
for mothers, the hens should be confined for the greater part
of the day for the first week, or until the poults have gained
sufficient strength to be taken far afield. Chicks seldom tire in
this way, and will trudge along unceasingly from dawn to dark
without ill effects. Still another point: soured food or partially
decayed food, which a chicken might eat with safety, works
havoc with the turk’s digestion.

Diet.—Many of the difficulties with turkeys spring from the

552 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

attempt to make them conform to an unnatural diet and man-
agement. The turkey raiser should always bear in mind that
poults are seed-eating chicks, not slop eaters. In the wild state
their food consisted of the bugs, worms, seed sand other tid-
bits which they hunted for in the woods and fields. In this
habitat there was no overfeeding of unnatural, concentrated
foods, likely to impair health and produce bowel troubles.

Like quail and other wild birds, turkeys subsisted by their
own efforts as foragers, and they were strong and vigorous,
whereas in a domestic or even semi-domestic state, they are too
often forced to eat unnatural foods with the idea of forcing them
to make an unnaturally rapid growth. Some breeders feed bread
and milk as soon as the poults will eat, while others feed dry
bread; some adhere strictly to a grain diet, while others feed
anything that happens to come to hand. The writer has seen
farmers’ wives feed an exclusive diet of corn meal and skim milk
curds, believing that they were taking special pains with their
turkeys. Either the corn meal or the curds alone was enough
to kill the brood, and about the only thing that saved them was
the combination. The evil of the corn meal helped to offset the
evil effects of the curds.

Foods.—As a general practice dry foods are safer than moist
ones, though milk is very beneficial when fed judiciously. Stale
bread soaked in milk, with the milk pressed from the bread
before feeding, is a good food for the first few days, and it should
be sprinkled with a fine grit. The addition of a little hard-
boiled egg is good. Fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat and
corn and a little granulated beef scrap are excellent rations.
Bread baked from corn meal, middlings, bran and ground oats
may be used, and after a few days add a little meat scrap. A
small quantity of lean beef cooked and chopped into fine bits is
a strengthening ration, but care must be taken that the meat is
sweet. Nothing will start bowel troubles quicker than tainted
beef. Raw meat and green bone should be avoided for this
reason.

Feed the poults frequently, giving them but a little at a time,

FEED AND CARE OF POULTS 553

and be particularly sparing with the concentrated foods, such as
grains in the hulls—millet, kaffir corn and so on. Too much
hard-boiled egg or milk curds will congest the bowels. Do not
forget to provide succulence; green stuff should constitute at
least a half of the fare. Keep an abundance of clean water
before the poults at all times, also a plentiful supply of sharp
grit. Charcoal should be mixed with the food or fed separately;
it aids digestion and guards against fermentation in the crop and
gizzard.

Attention Required.—It should also be remembered that turkey
hens are not apt to be so attentive to their young as chicken hens,
especially*in the matter of feeding; moreover, the turks are not
so apt as chicks in learning how to eat. The chick commences
to peck at objects almost as soon as it is hatched, but not so
with poults. They seem particularly unintelligent little creatures
in this respect, and the idea of looking on the ground or floor
for food never seems to occur to them. Indeed, sometimes they
run about with their heads in the air crying for food, until they
weaken and die from exhaustion. The turkey grower must be
on the lookout for this, and if necessary teach the poults by hand
feeding. It involves considerable time and trouble, of course,
but the advantages gained in giving the little turks a good start
will more than compensate for one’s pains.

By all means keep the brood dry—dampness is fatal. Do not
allow the hen to take her brood into the tall grass early in the
morning when the dew is on it, or trudge about on rainy days.
Keep her penned up in an airy, roomy coop until conditions are
favorable. It is also imprudent to expose the brood to intense
heat, for they will wilt under it as though suffering with sun-
stroke. Shade of some kind must be provided in hot weather so
that they can escape the direct rays of the sun.

Moderation in all things is the secret to success. Avoid damp-
ness and filth, guard against vermin, do not overfeed and do not
overcrowd; these are the essential features.

CHAPTER XLIII
GUINEA FOWLS

Nature of Guineas.—Generally speaking, until recent years
the guinea has merely been tolerated on the farm, and seldom
regarded as profitable. Semi-wild by nature, noisy, flighty and
unmanageable, they exhausted the patience of the farmer and
were too troublesome for serious consideration. Their chief
virtue, it seemed, was their well-known habit of setting up a
discordant chorus at the slightest provocation. If a hawk ap-
peared, or an animal or person approached the barnyard, these
alarmists immediately burst into a raucous denunciation. Woe
betide those who trespass on lands where guineas abound; nothing
seems to escape their notice.

Left to their own devices guineas will skirt the edges of civil-
ized poultrydom, multiplying in distant fields and hedge rows,
but rarely reproducing more than their own number. Though
a hen will often hatch a large brood, it is seldom that she man-
ages to raise more than two or three chicks, and often not that
many. For some obscure reason the mother guinea does not
seem to realize that her little ones are frail creatures, unable to
withstand extremes of heat and cold, moisture and long tramps
afield. Their habits with their young seem to be about as sense-
less as their noise, which probably accounts in a large measure
for their culture having been neglected.

Snows and stormy weather sometimes drive the guineas to.
the barnyard for food and shelter, but as a rule they are very
independent. Therefore, having cost the farmer nothing, he
was satisfied to sell them in an indifferent market for forty or
fifty cents a pair, or to tolerate them for the sake of an occa-
sional Sunday dinner for the family. No one will ever become
rich raising guineas, and it is hardly likely that any one will

554

DOMESTIC BIRD WITH GAME FLAVOR 555

find it feasible to raise them as a commercial proposition, that
is—to make a living by keeping them as a specialty; but they
can be kept as a profitable side line.

The delicately wild flavor of the guinea’s flesh and its tenderly
plump, dark breast commend it to the epicure. The appetites of
hotel and restaurant patrons are keen for game birds, but owing
to the increasing scarcity of these delicacies, those who cater to
epicurean tastes have had to seek substitutes for quail and

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 334.—Open-front poultry house. Windows at top permit sunlight to flood
the rear of thé building, where it is most needed.

pheasant that were hitherto plentiful. In consequence, much of
the so-called game listed on menus is—guinea. Whether the
epicure eats it under its own name, or deludes his palate with
the thought of wild fowl, he must admit that the guinea rivals
quail. Hence more young guineas are eaten now than ever
before, and the demand is steadily growing. The truth of this
is reflected in the prices received from dealers; instead of forty
or fifty cents a pair, guineas now bring about a dollar a pair and
more. And their eggs are considered quite a delicacy.

556 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

Varieties.—There are two popular varieties of guineas—Pearl
and White, the only difference being in their color. The Pearl
variety should be bluish-gray in color, each feather marked with
white spots resembling pearls, hence its name, but it must be
free from any solid white feathers in any part of its plumage.
The White variety should be a pure white in plumage, with orange
or yellowish-white bill and legs.

In the Pearl variety the bill and legs are brown. Some speci-
mens of this variety have white breasts, or breasts of a lighter
gray color than the back and other plumage, which denotes a
cross between the Pearl and White, hence they are mongrels.
For size, egg production and other characteristics both varieties
are equally desirable, although the Pearl Guinea is probably the
most common. The flesh of both is dark, but that of the White,
or of the White crossed with Pearl, is a shade lighter.

Except in size, a newly hatched Pearl Guinea is the replica
of a baby partridge; markings, colorings and contour are iden-
tical. Lately, there has come to be another variety known as
the Dove Guinea, but it is scarcely popular enough to be recog-
nized.

Sex.—The amateur has great difficulty in telling males from
females; at a casual glance they are indistinguishable. The
most accurate method of distinguishing the sex is by the cry—
the hen has the preponderance of vocabulary. The well-known
potrack, buckwheat or too quick is uttered by the female only,
while the che or tck is typical of both male and female. More-
over, the female seldom screeches like the cock. Those who are
well acquainted with the fowl will observe that the male has a
larger spike on his head, and that the ear-lobes are also larger
than those of the hen, and that the lobes generally curl in a sort
of semi-circle toward the beak. It will also be noted that the
cocks usually hold their heads higher than the hens.

The male selects his mate and his devotion is steadfast.
While the hen attends to the duties of maternity, the male
remains close by, ready at the least sign of danger to utter his
shrill cry of alarm. When the brood appears, he shares the

responsibility of food and shelter, and should misfortune over-
take the hen, the cock assumes her duties in a thoroughly com-
petent manner.

Nests are often located by the observance of guineas feeding
solitarily, since this is a pretty sure sign of the male bird, and
that the hen is laying nearby. They will make their nests in
remote, out-of-the-way places, under hedges, bushes, brush-
heaps or wheat shocks, and if their nests are disturbed they will
move to another place. Laying begins about the middle of April,

er aaa Di
ae al
Ag eee

(Courtesy Purdue Experiment Station)

Fig. 335.—Another view of house shown in Fig. 334, taken in midwinter.
Fowls are in splendid condition, proving that they require an abundance of
fresh air, providing the house is free from drafts and dampness.

and if broodiness is discouraged it will continue throughout the
summer.

Rearing Young.—Owing to the heavy mortality among broods
reared by guinea hens all attempts to raise a large flock by
natural methods will be discouragingly slow. On the other hand,
to raise the guinea chicks by artificial brooding methods is
equally difficult. When placed in a hover, they either remain
there all the time, or come out and cannot find their way back.
Unlike young chickens, they are particularly stupid in learning

558 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

how to eat or drink without the aid of a hen, consequently they
soon pine away and die. They do not seem to have the imita-
tive ways of other young fowls, and in many respects they re-
semble young turkeys.

Experiments have been made by placing newly hatched chick-
ens with the young guineas, with the hope that the guineas
would learn how to eat and drink from their companions and
become hover broken; but not so. The guineas stood around
until they were weakened by cold and hunger, while the chickens
thrived. Apparently, the only other way to raise guinea chicks
is under chicken hens, and this may be done very successfully.

Hatching with Chicken Hens.—The eggs should be given to
reliable sitting hens, such as Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes—
about sixteen eggs to each hen, or the eggs may be started in
an incubator and later given to the hens. From twenty-six to
twenty-eight days are required to hatch guinea eggs, and true
to their heritage of fear, as soon as they leave their shells the
little fellows slink into corners of the nest away from the prying
eyes of the attendant. Naturally, their foster-mother’s call is a
foreign language to them, which they find difficult to understand
at first, and until they get to know the meaning of cluck, and
the hen becomes accustomed to their peculiarities, they must
not be allowed to roam.

Care should be taken at the beginning to see that the hen
accepts her responsibility kindly, for sometimes chicken hens are
antagonistic to young that is not their own, and will kill the
guineas. When the hen has proved her dependability she may
be given twenty chicks; she can easily take care of this number;
and if she is a very large hen, twenty-five chicks are not too
many.

The hen and her brood must be confined in a coop for the
first few days, after which they may be given the freedom of a
small yard. Later, after the attendant has observed that the
chicks respond to their foster-mother’s guidance, they may be
allowed complete freedom with the hen. Do not confine the hen
within a slatted coop and allow the chicks to run abroad, as is

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560 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

the custom with young chickens, for unlike young chickens, the
guinea chicks will not always return to the hen in the coop.

Furthermore, it is important to keep the chicks off the wet
grass and out of the rain for the first month, for like young
turkeys, dampness is fatal. Failure to appreciate this fact is
responsible for the heavy losses among broods reared by guinea
hens. They have been known to start out in the morning with
large healthy broods, and return at night without a single chick
—the entire flock having perished along the route from exposure
and exhaustion.

Guinea chicks are ravenous little creatures, and for the first
week they should be fed five or six times a day. If allowed to
become too hungry they will over-eat, and digestive troubles
may result. They thrive on bread crumbs and rolled oats, mixed
with hard-boiled egg, or on fine ground chick-food. Sour or
fresh milk may be substituted for the egg. Owing to its insec-
tivorous nature, the guinea requires a large proportion of animal
food, also green food, and they must have plenty of water to
drink, grit and charcoal. As soon as they are large enough to
be given free range, which should be done at the earliest possible
moment, for guineas do not thrive well in confinement, they will
forage for the greater part of their keep. At such times they
may be fed a coarser chick-feed, wheat, and later, corn.

Maturity——Broods hatch from May to September, and in
three or four months they will reach the marketable weight of
one and a half to two and a half pounds. They rarely suffer
from any of the countless diseases that poultrydom is heir to,
and no houses are essential for their comfort, except during the
brooding season. The hens are prolific layers, and as the chicks
reach a marketable size at an early age, they yield a quick return
for their feed and care. The one serious problem is in raising
the chicks for the first month, after which success is assured.

Guineas should be killed by sticking—severing the blood-
vessels on the inside of the throat, so that no cuts are visible,
and after the birds are dead and have finished bleeding, all
blood clots and smears should be carefully washed off, that they

DISTRUSTFUL NATURE 561

may present an attractive appearance when marketed. Guineas
are almost always shipped without removing any of the feathers,
which is another factor in favor of the producer. Ninety cents
a pair is probably the average price in the large Eastern markets,
and at this figure there is a nice profit for the producer.

Distrustful Nature.—In no other fowl does the instinct of dis-
trust seem such a conspicuous characteristic as in the guinea,
and this timorousness is responsible for its hitherto limited list
of friends; yet for all this senseless hysteria and shyness, they
can be made to yield a certain amount of confidence to the
attendant who treats them kindly and feeds them regularly, and
in so doing there is both profit and interest in their culture. To
frighten or treat them roughly is to alienate them beyond hope,
and their propensity for flying makes them exceedingly difficult
to capture; in which case they will have to be shot. In this
wild state they are likely to be pugnacious, and to frighten and
drive off other poultry. It is also found that the wilder they
are the noiser they will be; hence it behooves those who raise
guineas, for their own peace of mind, to treat them as gently
and sympathetically as possible.

The guinea may shriek hysterically at a shadow, and it is
subject to peculiar nightmares—seeing ghosts and goblins; never-
theless they are excellent guards, and for this reason alone they
are a valuable adjunct to the barnyard.

In buying mature guineas, the poultryman should confine them
for about two weeks, so that they may become accustomed to
their new home; otherwise, on giving them their freedom, they
are very apt to take flight and never come back. The best plan
is to purchase eggs from a reliable breeder and to raise one’s
own stock.

CHAPTER XLIV
PIGEONS

Fad.—Some years ago there was a big boom in the squab in-
dustry; it became quite a fad and received a great deal of pub-
licity. Many failed, and considerable money was lost before
people awakened to the fact that the profits in the business had
been greatly over-estimated, and that the care required by the
birds, the necessary skill, was greatly underestimated. Further-
more, there was not the demand for their products that begin-
ners were led to expect. High prices were not sustained.

Failures.—It is quite likely that more money has been lost
on plants erected for the production of squabs on a large scale,
than in any other branch of the poultry business. Stories were
told of the great success of a few breeders; they were plausible,
and the figures were so seductive that many unfortunate men
and women were led to invest all their savings in ventures they
were in no way equipped to operate. Failures became so numer-
ous that the business was viewed askance, as a sort of joke, and
detracted much from its real credit. If one spoke of being in the
squab business he was apt to be regarded with suspicion. Most
of this feeling has passed, along with the boom spirit, and left
in its wake a great deal of knowledge of practical value.

Profits.—There is profit to be made from the breeding of
pigeons, just as there is a profit to be had from chickens or from
ducks, but we would not advise the amateur to expect to make
a fortune or even a good living at producing squabs, unless he
is trained and equipped to operate a fairly large plant. From
my observation, only large lofts return substantial profits, and
most of the successful pigeon farms make a business of selling
breeding stock, and are not devoted primarily to the production
of squabs for market.

562

PROFITABLE AS SIDE LINE 563

My advice to the beginner would be to start with a few pairs
of birds, and not attempt to engage in the business on a com-
mercial scale unless experiments with a few pigeons clearly indi-
cate a worthwhile profit and success. Fifteen pairs can be
handled nicely in a back lot, and will help the beginner to splen-
did working knowledge, furnish squabs for home use, and add
to the future mating-pen. Do not plunge into the enterprise
under any circumstances, especially if you have never had actual
experience with livestock, and fail to appreciate that careful

Fig. 337.—Homer pigeon.

attention to details and the most exacting personal supervision
are required.

Side Line.—On general farms, where a flock of pigeons may
obtain the greater part of their living from the fields, they will
return a nice revenue, at very little expense or trouble to their
keeper. The one difficulty with a flock at large, the pigeons may
be a nuisance to neighbors, or losses may occur by shooting and
by cats and hawks. Many pigeons are kept as a side issue on
general farms in the Middle West, but they are mostly of com-

564 COMMERCIAL POULTRY RAISING

mon origin and, therefore, not worth much as squab-producers.
Common pigeons are not so prolific, and they produce small
squabs of poorer quality. In consequence, the average value of
pigeons in the Middle West and in the South is only from fifteen
to twenty-five cents apiece. Compared with the prices received
by reliable specialty breeders, the foregoing figures are insignifi-
cant. If a little more attention was paid to these general farm
flocks, and a fresh supply of properly bred stock was introduced,
they could easily be converted into a profitable side line.

The squab is a young pigeon just before it leaves the nest,
and is considered quite a delicacy. It makes a delicate food for
invalids, and is used to replace the supply of game, notably the
quail. There is a fairly uniform demand for squabs in the large
cities, and they bring from two dollars to six dollars per dozen,
depending on quality and the season of the year.

Weights of squabs run from six to eighteen pounds to the
dozen, with nine pounds as a good average. Four to six weeks,
depending upon the variety, the stamina of the flock, and the
care they receive, is the time required to bring squabs to market-
able size. When the down disappears from the head and they
are fully feathered under the wings, these are indications of the
correct time for killing. At this stage they are plumpest and
heaviest. If allowed to pass this period their fat decreases, and
the flesh that was once tender becomes hardened. They soon
learn the use of their wings and are likely to leave the nest.

There is a feeling that squabs must be kept stuffed with food
from hatching time until they are ready for market. It is mar-
velous the quantities of food they can consume without ill effects
from lack of exercise. They just sit contentedly in the nest,
while the parent birds feed patiently and faithfully. :

Varieties.—There are a great many varieties of pigeons, and
though all will give squabs, only a few breeds are used exten-
sively for squab culture. Of these the Homer was generally
considered the most desirable variety. See Fig. 337. It is the
popular standard breed, hardy, prolific and of fair size. Lately
it is being supplanted by the Carneaux. See Fig. 338. Several

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