PRAIRIE FARMER'S -
POULTRY BOOK
WILLIAM OSBURN
ames HE Rice
MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY
CORNELL
UNIVERSITY rrererert
THE GIFT OF
ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY
New YorK STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS
AT
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
Ornell University Library
Anna
Cornell University
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003181819
PRAIRIE FARMER’S
POULTRY BOOK
You'll get ’em by the pailful if you handle your hens
Osburn’s way
PRAIRIE FARMER’S
POULTRY BOOK
HOW TO MAKE THE FARM FLOCK PAY. FULL IN-
FORMATION ABOUT FEEDING, MANAGEMENT,
DISEASE, HOUSING, MARKETING AND
OTHER INFORMATION THAT WILL
HELP ANY FARMER TO _IN-
CREASE HIS POULTRY
PROFITS
By WILLIAM OSBURN
Poultry Editor of Prairie FARMER
This book contains the answer to
hundreds of poultry problems. It is
written by a practical farmer who has
had a lifetime of experience with
poultry. The methods he advises
have been tested and found successful.
Double Your Poultry Profits
First Epition
Price One Dollar—Postpaid
CHICAGO
PRAIRIE FARMER PUBLISHING COMPANY
og
’
CopyRIGHTED, 1922, By
PRAIRIE FARMER PUBLISHING CO.
CHICAGO
The Lakentde Press
R.R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY
CHICAGO
DEDICATED TO FARMERS’ WIVES
AND DAUGHTERS, WHOSE DILIGENCE AND
SKILL IN HANDLING THE MANAGEMENT OF THE FARM
FLOCK ARE RESPONSIBLE IN A LARGE MEASURE
FOR THE MAGNITUDE OF THE
POULTRY INDUSTRY
Mr. Osburn at work on Prairie Farmer Poultry Book
Preface
HIS book is written to help farmers make more money
from their poultry flocks.
Success with poultry on the farm depends on intelligent
care and feeding. Any farmer or farmer’s wife, or farm boy
or girl, who will study the methods described in this book, and
follow them carefully, can make the farm poultry flock a
highly profitable enterprise. We have endeavored not only
to point out profitable methods, but also to indicate dangers
and pitfalls to be avoided. :
Any branch of farming is always more interesting if we
know the “why” of things. We have therefore devoted some
space to a discussion of the scientific principles that lie back
of successful poultry methods, in order that the reader may
understand the wonderful process by which nature produces
eggs and meat through the medium of the hen.
The farm flock represents fully 80 per cent of the poultry
industry. Ninety per cent of all farms produce poultry. The
value of all chickens and eggs produced in 1919 was
$1,047,989,919. These figures do not represent the full magni-
tude of the industry, for they do not include fowls other than
chickens, such as turkeys, ducks and geese, nor poultry
produced on small estates. A safe estimate of the annual
production of poultry and eggs in the United States is
$1,500,000,000.
For this large asset to the nation the farmer and his family
deserve great credit. As the farmer himself is usually occu-
pied in the larger and heavier tasks of the farm, the care of
the poultry generally falls to the farmer’s wife or upon the
daughter or son, or possibly some elderly member of the
household. This is possible because the task does not require
heavy manual labor. Wherever the task falls it means
constant attention to minute details and a high degree of
knowledge and skill. To help solve some of the problems
which will surely present themselves is our aim.
Table of Contents
CHAPTERS
PREFACE
I. Tue Farm FtLockx
II. Tue Factory anD WorKMEN
III. Tue Raw MateriaL
IV. FEEDING
V. Tue FinisHep Propuct
VI. Eccs anp By-Propucts
VII. Tue Puzzite or THE BREEDS
VIII. THe BreepInc ProBL—EM
IX. Matinc' anp CULLING
X. Tue Pouttry House
XI. INncuBaTION AND BROODING
XII From PrRoDUCER TO CONSUMER
XIII. Pouttry SANITATION—PESTS AND PARASITES
XIV. Diseases AND REMEDIES
XV. THE Pouttry Account
XVI. Sunpry Topics
APPENDIX .
INDEX
viii
Vii
107
122
137
153
163
175
194
205
218
247
List of Illustrations
You’LL GET ’EM BY THE PAILFUL. . . . . we ) Se el
OsBurN aT Work on Pouttry Boox : . iv
EXTERNAL Parts oF FowL . . . ww we 8
DraGRAM OF SKELETON . ONS oe oats Bylo Ea » « 10
DiacRAM oF DicEsTIVE SYSTEM . . . . 1. we eee elt
DraGRAM OF OvaRY. . . bie te, a ot. Bie wie. The dy coun B 16
Or Course THEY’LL.Lay . Gio (Bs Ah ean tep cg nads 08 : a 226
Cotony HousE . . . eo ee wp A oa LE os 4x 8221302139=151
Dinner Time in Pouttry YARD ; : . . «42-106
A Goop Day’s Worx Boe, \Gh. om oe . . 44
Oats SPROUTER . Poth fs Pe toial ta ty we 92
Wuat One Hen Dip pts AL say ea ak riie as ete 53:
CAPONIZING . i Dun & dev Agligi'gls 7 57-58
DiacraM oF Ecc . . . . . ww ew ee ee . 61
Ecc Types . . ae: Bou be og F . . 62
Ecc TESTER : . 64
Ospurn FEEDING TURKEYS an Bot : ’ 68
Eccs From Hippen Nests >. oe ‘ 69
Ruopt Istanp Rep CocKEREL ; ; 80
BarreD PryMoutH Rock PULLET SG Oe Se eos 86
Barren PryMoutH Rock Cock . BS kan age PY 87
CotumMBiAN WyaNpoTtte PULLET . . . . SB eh 88
Burr Orpincton Hen .. . 0 he : 90
Wuitet LecHorn Hen me a as ee ee 91
EmpEN GOoOoSE . : Sof ie 625 5‘ F 93
Wuite HoLtLtanp TURKEY 2 ee ane ee ‘ i 94
Harr-Monitor Typr-House. . . .... . 102-125
Knock-Knerep RoosTER a de ay “kt GS : . 108
CULLING ee ee se . 112-114
Trap NESTS Bo Sy Oa ON oe Bel a Ga “aie Re Ga . 119
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
SELF-FEEDER
Floor PLAN oF Pouttry House
ELEVATION oF Pouttry House
Semi-Gas_e Type or House
INTERIOR OF Pouttry House
Ossurn’s Pouttry House
NestBox ARRANGEMENTS
Brooper House
DropPinc Board
Broop Coop
A Goon Hatcu
Ossurn Taxinc Eccs to Town
Tor-MarK CHART
Scary Lec .
WRYNECK
OVARIES
Gare WorMs
CHICKEN Pox .
Roup
TouLousE GEESE
Device to Keep Turkeys at Home
DEFECTIVE CoMBS
OSBURN AND ONE oF His HENS
Market CHARTS
Bitty Escar .
VERNE ANDERSON’S Pou.ttry Houser
Hunt’s Pouttry House
TrME SwitcH For Pouttry House
120-215
123
124
126
128
129
131
132
133
134-135-136-148-149
141
159
162
171
172
181
PRAIRIE FARMER’S
POULTRY BOOK
Chapter I
The Farm Flock
HERE is little danger of overestimating the importance
of poultry culture. Compared with other farm interests
it has earned a place of deserved recognition. This is proved
by the fact that of the 6,448,336 farms in the United States
5,800,000 are engaged in poultry production. And there are
good reasons for this recognition.
The flock furnishes a good percentage of the family
dietary. It contributes something to every meal, food of high
nutritive value. Probably 35 per cent of all poultry products
is consumed on the farm. The remaining 65 per cent goes
into the channels of trade to feed the world. The larger pro-
portion is consumed locally, but an increasing annual amount
is exported, thus adding to the wealth of the nation. It is
evident therefore that the farm flock is of no insignificant
value, not only as a source of food for the family but as a
source of revenue. Sometimes this income furnishes the
allowance for the farmer’s wife; sometimes it is sufficient to
pay all the table expenses of the household.
The farm flock contributes to other farm interests. Fowls
destroy vast numbers of insect pests. It is estimated by the
U. S. Department of Agriculture that the annual loss to the
farmer by reason of insect pests is $1,555,000,000. The annual
saving by birds is $444,000,000. Every agency that reduces
this loss aids the-farmer in his task of production. If hens are
allowed to forage in the orchard they will check the ravages
of curculios and moths; chickens and turkeys in the meadow
or cornfields destroy many larve of harmful insects.
The farm flock utilizes the waste, saving much that would
otherwise be lost. Fowls are great foragers and gather much
of their subsistence from vegetation, the seeds of noxious
[1]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
weeds, from grain gleaned after harvest, and from waste grain
in the feed-lots. These would be a total loss were it not for
the farm flock.
There is another consideration outside the commercial
importance of the industry. It is the appeal to the zsthetic.
What in nature is more beautiful than a bird? Blending
colors, symmetry of shape, curved outlines and grace of
carriage all appeal to the eye and, through the eye, to the
nobler senses, thus contributing something to the joy of living
and the development of character.
In order to keep the farm flock at a point of maximum
production there should be a program of action. Here is an
outline of procedure: ,
1. Keep a purebred flock. It will cost no more to feed
purebred than a mongrel. The mongrel will be neglected, but
the purebred will command greater interest and receive better
care and prove more productive.
2. Make conditions favorable for the flock. This means
regular care, a dry, well-ventilated building with an abundance
of light, and cleanliness in everything—clean water and food in
clean vessels for clean fowls in clean buildings upon clean
premises.
3. Select good foundation stock, strong in vitality and
prepotency, and free from hereditary taint or physical de-
formity, and follow a system of breeding that will perpetuate
the good qualities and eliminate the weaknesses.
4. Plan for early hatching. The early hatched pullet
makes the early layer in the fall and the matured breeder in
the spring.
5. Eliminate the boarders. Every poultry breeder should
qualify to do his own culling. This is especially important in
the spring when the majority of the flock is coming into laying
condition and in the fall when the “quitters” are easily de-
tected.
6. Adopt a system of feeding that will give results. This
means a balanced ration in all seasons. It means food ele-
ments which contribute to health, growth and high production.
It means planning for green feed in winter by planting cab-
bage, carrots, mangels, alsike or alfalfa in season.
7. Make a study of enemies and diseases and conduct a
vigorous campaign against them. Enormous losses are
avoided by outwitting the enemies. The growing stock must
[2]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
be protected. The first approach of disease should be noted
by watching for abnormal conditions. If disease appears, sick
fowls should be isolated promptly and dead fowls, as well as
other dead animals on the premises, should be cremated with
dispatch.
8. Store eggs for fall and winter consumption. When
prices are not remunerative, why should the poultry farmer
sacrifice? He can store for better prices as well as the grain
farmer. His product will be of better quality than eggs which
go through the cold storage plants, because packed when
perfectly fresh.
9. Study the problem of marketing. Culling for market
should begin early when prices are good. A broiler will some-
times command a better price than the same fowl held over
till the following spring. To market breeding stock and eggs
successfully requires discreet advertising.
10. Eliminate waste and all unnecessary expenses. This
program may appear visionary because so few attain to its
requirements. The ideal is important in any enterprise, for
it is only by striving for an ideal that we reach any degree of
excellence. To show how in a measure this program may be
worked out in practice is our aim in future chapters of this
book.
Don’t Neglect the Poultry
Opportunity is at the door of every enterprise. Welcomed
and seized she leads into fields of promise and reward;
neglected her invitations and counsels are in vain. Neglect
. spells loss. A beautiful damsel was encouraged by a good
genius to pass through a cornfield once, and only once. She
was urged to pluck an ear, large and beautiful, for according
to its size and beauty would be its value to her. She passed
many ears large, ripe and beautiful, but neglected to pluck,
hoping to find one yet more beautiful. As the day declined she
reached a portion of the field where the stalks were thin and
barren. And, at last, as the evening closed upon her she found
herself at the end of the field without having plucked an ear of
any kind. Opportunity had flown and with it the promised
reward.
Neglect is the cause of nearly all our disappointments in
poultry raising; it is responsible for nearly all the leaks and
[3]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
iosses which end in failures. Watch the following common
leaks and losses that often keep farm flocks from being profit-
able:
Loss in purchasing. Neglect to secure good foundation
stock is a prime cause of failure. To make a beginning with
weaklings where physical vigor has been undermined with
disease is equivalent to making no beginning at all. It would
be better to pay $100 if necessary for a pen of five birds.
physically sound, and that meet standard requirements, and
to build upon this foundation, than to spend the same money
for a hundred specimens devoid of vigor and representing care-
less breeding.
The same principle applies to the purchase of equipment
and feeds and the construction of buildings. It is true that
many poultry appliances can be made at home and will give
good service, but the things that must be purchased should
have quality and durability. Moldy feeds may be cheap but
in the end they will mean the loss of the flock, or, at least, the
loss of profits. The poultry building need not be expensive
but should be well built, sanitary and convenient.
Loss from improper feeding. Excessive feeding may cause
intestinal trouble, liver disease or apoplexy, resulting in the
loss of many fowls. The lack of a well-balanced ration means _
a loss in egg production and retarded growth of the edible
carcass, and these are the main sources of income. Wastefu!
feeding often cuts a hole in the profits.
Loss from careless handling of eggs. Let us follow an egg
from producer to consumer. It may be cracked at the outset
because the nest is not provided with suitable material. It
may be overheated, causing incubation and subsequent de-
composition. It may be frozen, cracking the shell and produe-
ing a so-called leaker. It may be rough handled, breaking up
the contents, producing a watery consistency. The same de-
terioration may happen in the hands of the country merchant
or in transportation to the wholesaler. If it goes to cold
storage it may be kept in storage too long and become stale.
When it goes to the retailer it still further may be subjected to
too much cold or heat or dampness or rough handling result-
ing in more deterioration.
On the table of the consumer it may have a small per-
centage of the value it had when fresh laid on the farm. The
losses on a 30 dozen case of eggs, due to heat and dampness,
[4]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
run from five cents to $3; due to freezing, from 10 cents to 60
cents per case; due to rough handling, from 5 cents to 25 cents.
This was the estimate of the food administration during the
world war. From producer to consumer the total annual loss
of the egg crop is estimated by the government at $50,000,000.
Leaks due to incorrect incubation. Many thousand of eggs
should never go to the sitting hen or incubator, because de-
fective in size, shape and contents. Many contain weak germs
because of weak foundation stock or improper feeding. Many
are destroyed by neglect of the hen or careless handling. A
good average hatch is counted at 50 per cent of the eggs set.
Here is a 50 per cent loss that to large extent can be eliminated
by scientific breeding and more careful management.
Losses due to enemies. Their name is legion. They popu-
late air and water, they teem in untold millions in the soil, they
congregate upon the surface of the earth in great armies of
destruction; they stand at the gateways of life and gloat over
their prospective victims.
“A constant watch they keep;
They never slumber, never sleep,
Lest they should lose their prey.”
The baby chick, emerging from its shell, looks out upon a
world of living things in innocence, but is marked for de-
struction, for there is a constant warfare of life upon life.
It is the aim of every poultry producer to bring to maturity
not less than 50 per cent of the chicks hatched. This goal is
seldom reached. Here is a 50 per cent loss that may be averted
in large measure by eternal vigilance and persistent warfare
against the foes of the flock.
Magnitude of Industry
Here are some figures showing the magnitude of the
poultry industry. The following table shows the number of
fowls of all kinds on farms, January 1, 1920, also an estimate
of all fowls not on farms, but on the back lots of towns and
cities and on small estates of less than five acres. It also
shows the value of these fowls and the value of all fowls and
eggs produced in 1919. As the government does not collect
statistics of poultry on back lots and small estates, the figures
given are merely estimates and are indicated by the figures in
black face.
[5]
PRAIRIE FARMER’?S POULTRY BOOK
Table No. 1.—Poultry in United States.
_ Total number Value of poultry |Value of fowls and
Items on farms and on farms and eggs pee
Jan. 1, 1920 small estates small estates 1919
Chickens 22.2 ssteon geisn 359,537,385 $349,508,867 $1,047 ,989,919
Turkeys ...........005 3,627,028 12,904,989 38,714,967
Dicks: estes yeewees ee 2,817,624 3,373,966 10,121,898
GEOSE? scrrgarsig ancien vos 2,939,203 5,428,806 16,286,418
Guinea Fowls ........ 2,410,421 1,582,313 4,746,939
Other Fowls .......... 1,493,861 595,116 1,758,348
On small estates...... 93,206,316 73,970,040 221,910,120
Torats, all fowls...... 466,031,838 | $447,364,097 | $1,341,528,609
“The number of chickens produced in 1919 was 473,923,935
and the number of eggs produced in that year was 1.656,267,200
dozens. In 1909 the Secretary of Agriculture estimated the
annual income from poultry products at $750,000,000, and that
was equal to the combined value of all the gold, silver, iron,
and coal mined in that year. According to the table given
above the total value of all poultry products in 1919 is esti-
mated at $1,340,000,000. This is equal to all the oats, barley.
rye, buckwheat, flax, and rice produced in that year. This
large income is a great asset to the nation for which the farmer
receives due credit and full measure of reward.
The value of the industry, measured in money, is not the
highest consideration. The food value to the nation is even
more important. Consider the quality of the food product.
What is more appetizing and nutritious than the flesh of fowl?
And the egg, the universal article of diet, finding its way into
every home, is the great tissue builder. It supplies the needs
of the brain worker as well as the manual laborer. It furnishes
the vitamines so much needed by growing children—the
growth principles so essential to health and physical develop-
ment.
If all the farms should cease in poultry production, or if for
any cause all the hens should cease to lay, it would be a
national calamity.
[6]
Chapter II
The Factory and Workmen
pele production may be likened to the operation of
a great manufacturing concern in which there are the
. factory, the workmen, the raw material and the finished
product. The factory is represented by the living bird, the
workmen are energized cells and tissues of its organism, the
raw material is the food and other materials which are trans-
formed into poultry products, and the finished product is
represented in flesh, eggs and feathers.
The Factory
Our first concern is a study of the factory, its systems of
machinery and the work to be accomplished by each. The
common hen is our illustration for she is queen of the poultry
world. Around her revolve the chief interests of economic
importance.
EXTERNAL PARTS. The external structures of a fowl are:
1. Head, consisting of the beak, comb, face, eyes, ears, ear-lobes
and wattles.
. Beak, consisting of upper and lower mandibles.
. Nostrils, located in the upper mandible.
Comb, which may be single, rose, pea, V-shaped or strawberry.
Face, naked side of head.
Eyes, the color being determined by the iris.
. Wattles, pendulous membranes beneath the lower mandible.
Ear, behind the eye and covered with tuft of feathers.
. Neck, consisting of front and cape. The cape is called the hackle
in the male and comprises the feathers of lower neck resting upon the
shoulders.
10. Breast, feathers covering breast bone.
11. Shoulder, feathers covering base of wing.
12. Wing-bow, feathers covering side of wing.
13. Secondaries, or wing-bay, large wing shafts above the primaries.
14. Primaries, lower flight feathers.
15. Primary coverts, smaller feathers covering flights.
16. Secondary coverts, covering base of secondaries.
°17. Back and sweep, the latter term applying to feathers over base
of tail, called the saddle in the male.
18. Cushion, feathers on each side of base of tail.
[7]
WHNAK AWN
PRAIRIE FAKRMER’S POULTRY BOOK
DDLE
ATMATHERS as
i
19. Saddle, a term applied to flowing feathers over base of tail in male.
20. Tail, including the main tail feathers and the sickles, the long
curved feathers covering the tail shafts.
21. Tail coverts.
22. The fluff, region below the vent.
23. Body, all between back and sternum.
24. Thigh, the leg above the shank.
25. Hock, knee joint, or joint between shank and thigh.
26. Shank, between hock and toes.
27. Spur, a horny growth on side of shank.
28. Feet, including ball of foot, toes and nails. :
29. Toes, usually four, may be five in number, and may be feathered
or naked.
[8]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A knowledge of all these sections of a fowl is necessary to
comprehend the descriptions of purebred specimens. They
perform very important functions and are designed for pro-
tection, locomotion, obtaining food, etc.
Internal Systems and Structures
In a study of the internal structures of a hen we find nine
important systems of organs, each having important work to
accomplish. They are: Skeleton, respiratory, circulatory, di-
gestive, excretory, reproductive, muscular, nervous, and tegu-
mentary. ,
The Skeleton
The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. A bone
consists of the periosteum, the white fibrous covering that
supplies nourishment; bone-proper, consisting of the carbon-
ate of lime and phosphate of lime; and the marrow, or central
soft tissue, whose chief work is to help in making red blood
cells.
The parts of the skeleton are:
SKULL:
Mandibles, upper and lower jaws. 7
Cranium, bony box containing the brain.
NECK:
13 vertebrae, the one next the cranium being called the atlas.
TRUNK:
Dorsum, or back, comprising the seven thoracic vertebrae to
which the seven pairs of ribs are attached.
Sacrum, a term used to comprise all the vertebrae between the
thoracic and the caudal vertebrae. They are fused together so as
to form one solid structure.
Caudal Vertebrae, six in number, which support the structures
of the tail.
Pelvis, comprising three distinct bones on each side, known as
the ilium, ischium and pubis. These form a protection for the kid-
neys and other viscera. They unite to form a socket for the
femur, and they are fused to the sacrum so as to form a contin-
uous arch. The points of the pubis, which can be located just
below and on each side of the vent are known as the pubic bones,
or so-called “lay-bones.”
Shoulder circle, comprising:
Scapula, or shoulder blade.
Caracoids, strong bones extending from sternum to
shoulder. They form a point of attachment for the humerus
and the hold the sternum and shoulders apart.
[9]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The Skeleton
Intermaxillary
Lower mandible
Nasal
External nares
Frontal
Eye socket
Cranium
Quadrate
Interorbital foramen
Cervical vertebrae
Dorsal vertebrae
Sacral vertebra
Lumbar vertebrae
Caudal vertebrae
15 Anterior process of
same
Sternum
Body of same
Spine of same
19 Clavicle
Ht ete OCU OC RIOR
PONE O
er
OID
y
o
Costal
same
Styloid process of
process of
teow
wow
sa
2 External process of
same
Coracoid
toto
moO
nD
°
S
3
&
r=)
g
i=]
&
Carpals
Metacarpals
Thumb
Third finger
Maal) finger
wWwwHwWwhddtb
S
Uncinate processes
same
Sternal ribs
um.
Acetabulum
Pubis
Ischium
Femur
Five
a
Tibla
Calcaneum
Tarsals
Metatarsal
7 Spur core
-51 Toes
PAP AR Pe RRO OOK OO
Clavicles, one on each side, which unite to form the so-
called “wish-bone,” or “merry-thought.”
Sternum, or breast bone, a boat-shaped structure, forming the
floor of the vital organs. The sharp, bony edge of the sternum on
the lower side is known as the keel, and to this the muscles of the
breast are attached.
[10]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
LIMBS:
Wings:
Humerus, or upper arm, attached to the shoulder girdle.
Fore-arm, comprising ulna and radius.
Hand, comprising two small bones united at their ends.
Fingers, the thumb being attached to the upper end of arm
and the two remaining fingers to the lower end.
Legs:
Femur, or thigh-bone, attached to the pelvis.
Lower leg, consisting of the tibia and fibula, the former, large,
and the latter small and splint like.
Shank, or tarso-metarsus, attached to the lower leg at the
knee joint, or hock, and bearing the spur.
Toes:
Inner toe, or hind toe, which has two joints.
Second toe, or inner, front toe, having three joints.
Middle front toe, having four joints.
Outer front toe, which has five joints.
A knowledge of the structures of the skeleton will be of value in
mating and culling and in preparing the carcass for market as well as
dissecting for table use.
The Respiratory System
Respiration in fowls includes the acts of receiving air into
the lungs (inspiration) and expelling air from the same (ex-
piration). These processes are accomplished by muscular
action, raising and lowering the sternum. By the respiratory
system oxygen is conveyed to the blood and vapor of water
and waste matter thrown off from the body. As the fowl has
no sweat glands to eliminate vapor of water and certain waste
matter which accumulates in the blood by the process of
oxidation, the respiratory system accomplishes this work to
large extent. Respiration in man is 18 times per minute, but
in the fowl it is more rapid, or 33 times per minute.
The organs and functions of the respiratory system are:
1. Nostrils, through which the air is conveyed to the pharynx.
2. Pharynx, or throat.
3. Larynx, the enlarged cartilaginous, or gristly, opening into the
windpipe, or trachea. It modifies the voice, which is produced at the
lower end of the trachea.
4. Trachea, or windpipe, the cartilaginous tube formed by rings of
gristle which conveys the air to the lungs.
_ 5. The bronchi, or bronchial tubes, branch from the trachea and
enter the lungs. Some pass through the lungs into the large air sacs
in the body. Some have blind endings. The small tubes which branch
from the bronchi are lined with blood vessels which absorb oxygen.
6. Air sacs, spaces outside of the lungs which receive the air from
the bronchial tubes. They are large and lined with thin membranes
[11]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
which contain blood vessels through the walls of which oxygen is taken
up. Air spaces also occur in the feathers, bones, and elsewhere, making
the bird’s body light and buoyant.
A knowledge of the respiratory system is important on
account of its bearing upon the hygienic care of the flock
and a comprehension of the diseases which attack its organs.
The more common diseases of the respiratory system are:
Catarrh, roup, diptheria, gapes, pharyngitis, bronchitis, asper-
gillosis, inflammation of lungs and, occasionally, tuberculosis.
Circulatory System
There are two systems of circulation, the blood vessels and
the lymphatics.
Blood circulation. The blood is the red fluid which is the
carrier of the food elements to the cells and tissues of the body
for their repair and upbuilding and of the waste matter to the
lungs and kidneys to be eliminated. About 90 per cent of the
blood is water ; the remaining portion comprises the corpuscles
and the plasma. ;
The corpuscles are red and white. The red corpuscles in a
fowl are nucleated, elliptical discs; in human blood they are
circular discs, non-nucleated, and smaller. The color of the
red corpuscle is due to the hemoglobin, containing iron and
manganese. The affinity of the hemoglobin for oxygen re-
sults in oxyhemoglobin, and this becomes the carrier of
oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body. The white
corpuscles are nucleated and consist of living protoplasm,
exhibiting amceboid movements. They perform important
functions, destroying disease germs, healing wounds and
building up tissues.
The organs of circulation are the heart, arteries, capillaries
and veins. The contraction of the heart forces the arterial,
bright red blood coming from the lungs through the arteries
to the capillaries, and the veins collect the venous, dark red
blood from the capillaries and convey it back to the heart,
whence it is forced to the lungs to be again charged with
oxygen and returned to the heart for another journey. The
heart is a muscular organ with four cavities—two auricles and
two ventricles. The pulsation of the heart is more rapid than
in other animals, hence oxidation in the lungs and capillaries
is undoubtedly more rapid and the blood is, therefore, hotter.
[12]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A temperature test of a number of chickens showed a
temperature of 101°. The average for man is 98.6°. In a
chicken the heart beat averages 150 per minute; in man it is
72 per minute. This explains why respiration is more rapid in
fowls than in many other animals and why they soon get out of
condition if kept in stuffy, ill-ventilated quarters. The average
respiration per minute of a number of chickens was found to
be 33. Human respiration averages about 16 times per minute.
Several diseases attack the circulatory system of fowls and
the blood, such as dropsy, inflammation and enlargement of the
heart; thrombosis; cholera; anemia, infectious leukemia; and
sleeping disease.
The lymph is a colorless fluid of value to the blood and
originates in the region of the capillaries, being an exudate
of serum from the blood into the intercellular spaces. It is
collected in very small tubes (lymph capillaries) which convey
it to two main vessels, one on each side of the spine, thence
upward to the base of the neck, where it is emptied into the
general circulation. The lymph vessels in the intestines are
called lacteals on account of the whitish color of the lymph
fluid, known as chyle.
The Digestive System
The digestive system, as its name suggests, receives the
crude food, grinds it, and prepares it for absorption into the
blood and for assimilation. It is the great workshop of the
factory, working over the raw material for replenishing old
cells and for the manufacture of new.
The organs of the digestive system are:
1. Pharynx, or throat, which receives the food from the beak and
mouth and forces it into the cesophagus.
2. Esophagus, or gullet, an elongate tube capable of vermicular
muscular action by which the food is forced downward into the crop.
3. Crop, a dilation of the cesophagus, where the food is softened
and held in reserve for the further processes of digestion.
4. Proventriculus, or stomach. This is the enlarged pouch to which
the food passes from the crop. It is provided with glands which secrete
the gastric juice, a digestive fluid whose action is to change the food
into a condition known as chyme.
5. Gizzard, a receptacle of the food as it passes from the proven-
triculus. The gizzard is provided with a tough inner membrane and
powerful muscular walls which assist in grinding the food and mixing
it with the digestive fluid, so that before leaving it is reduced to a
[13]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
pasty mass. The gizzard there-
fore, is the organ of mastication,
and the grit which it contains
serves as teeth.
6. Duodenum, the upper intes-
tine. It forms a curve in the shape
of the letter U, between the arms
of which lies the pancreas. The
food passes from the gizzard to
the duodenum where it mixes with
the fluid from the sweetbread and
the bile from the liver. These
fluids, acting with the intestinal
ae juices, change the fatty foods into
POOR a condition known as chyle. The
chyle is absorbed by the lacteals,
carried by the lymphatic system to
the base of the neck and emptied
into the general circulation. Other
portions of the food are absorbed
by the capillaries and carried by
the portal circulation to the liver,
there to undergo certain changes
preparatory to assimilation. Pro-
tein is changed to peptone by the
pepsin of the gastric juice, the
peptone being soluble and capable
of absorption through the intes-
tinal walls into the circulation;
carbohydrates, consisting of sugar
and starches, are changed into glu-
cose, which is also soluble and ca-
pable of absorption.
7. Small intestine, or ileum,
which receives the food fram the
duodenum. It lies in folds and
convolutions which are connected
and held together by a thin mem-
brane known as the mesentery.
At the lower end of the small in-
testine two branches are thrown
off, known as ceca. These extend forward, parallel with each other,
and are closed at their upper extremities, hence are called blind pouches.
The functions of the small intestine are to carry on the work of digestion
and complete the work of absorption. To this end it se¢retes a digestive
fluid, known as the intestinal juice, and is covered with elevations known
as villi to increase the absorbing surface.
8. Ceca.
9. Large intestine, or colon, which begins where the ceca branch off
and is a straight tube to the cloaca. Its function is to convey the
undigested portions of the food, or fecal matter, to the cloaca.
[14]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
10. Cloaca, an enlarged pouch at the end of the large intestine.
This receives the waste matter from the raw material and urates from
the kidneys and discharges them through the vent.
1], Vent.
12. Pancreas, as stated, lies in the fold of the duodenum. It secretes
the pancreatic juice, a digestive fluid which has three ferments, each of
which performs an important office in digestion. The trypsin changes
the albumin to peptone, the amylopsin changes starch to glucose, and
the steapsin acts upon the fat to emulsify it.
13. Unabsorbed yolk.
Other digestive organs are:
The liver, a large, soft, glandular organ lying between the heart
and gizzard. It is a very important organ of digestion. It acts upon
the peptone which comes to it from the intestines through the portal
circulation. The peptone is converted back to albumin and thus pre-
pared to become a constituent part of the blood and ready for assimila-
tion by the cells throughout the body. The liver also changes the
glucose into glycogen, which is taken up by the blood and is oxidized
as it is carried onward in the circulation, thus giving heat and energy
to the body. The liver also performs an important function in destroy-
ing disease germs and eliminating poisons which may come to it through
the portal circulation. The liver secretes the bile, which is collected
in a sac known as the gall sac, whence it is conveyed by the bile duct
to the duodenum. The bile plays an important role in digestion, for
it not only lubricates the walls of the intestine but aids the other di-
gestive fluids in performing their work.
Thus we see that the digestive system is a marvelous piece
of machinery. It is concerned with softening, grinding, dis-
solving, and digesting by certain chemical changes, absorbing
and assimilating the raw material. A knowledge of its organs,
their mode of work, and their functions, is very vital to the
poultry keeper. If these organs function properly, are provided
with the elements needed for the up-building of the body, as
well as their own recuperation, all goes well—the fowl is
healthy and production continues. Otherwise there are dis-
turbances throughout the factory, and fatal diseases may
follow. The whole problem of feeding and maintaining health
in the flock hangs very largely upon this knowledge.
The Reproductive System
This system is concerned in the perpetuation of the species.
It produces the egg which contains the living primordial cell
from which the new individual is to spring.
The organs of the reproductive system are the ovary,
oviduct and the cloaca.
[15]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
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duct is the infundibulum.
The ovary comprises a cluster of spherical bodies, odcytes, which lie
to the left side of the back, just beneath the spine. These bodies are at
first but microscopic points, but they are living, protoplasmic cells.
They develop into the yolks and are surrounded by a delicate membrane
known as the ovisac, or follicle. When the yolk becomes ripe, the
follicle cleaves and allows the yolk to escape into the oviduct.
The oviduct is a convoluted tube, about 18 inches in length. The
funnel-like mouth of the oviduct is called the infundibulum. As the
yolk is conveyed downward through the oviduct it receives, in the upper
portion, the albumen; in the central portion the membranes surrounding
the egg are formed; and, in the lower end, lime is secreted to form
the shell. Soon after the completed egg passes into the cloaca it is
covered with a mucous deposit, or film, which serves to prevent the
evaporation of the egg contents and also, in some degree, prevents the
access of germs and harmful substances from without. The muscular
walls of the cloaca are used to expel the egg.
[16]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Male Reproductive Organs
The principal male organs concerned in reproduction are
the testes and the seminal vesicles.
The testes lie in the same relative position as the ovary in
the female and are opposite the last two ribs on each side.
They produce the semen, which consists of the seminal fluid
and the spermatazoa, or sperm cells. The seminal vesicles are
the tubes that convey the semen to the cloaca. The sperm
cells are living cells, oblong in shape, and are provided with
whip-like flagellz, or lashes, by which they are able to swim
from place to place.
The reproductive organs, especially those of the female,
are subject to a number of abnormalities and diseases, which
will be considered in the treatment of diseases. A knowledge
of these organs and their workings has a very practical bearing
on the management of the flock.
The Nervous System
‘There are two systems of nerves in a fowl, the cerebro-
spinal and the sympathetic.
The cerebro-spinal system comprises the brain, spinal cord and
motory and sensory nerves. This system is the medium of such mental
operations as the bird possesses and presides over the senses. The
senses of sight and hearing are very acute with fowls, much more so
than with human beings. The senses of taste, smell and touch are
much more limited.
The sympathetic system consists of a series of ganglia with radiating
nerves and it is connected up very intimately with the cerebro-spinal
system, and reacts on the digestive, respiratory, circulatory, and repro-
ductive systems.
The operation of every piece of machinery in the factory
depends upon the stimulation of the nerves. They are not
often affected, but such diseases as apoplexy and epilepsy
occur occasionally. Sometimes the nervous system is attacked
by worms and other parasites which produce peculiar dis-
orders, probably due to malnutrition caused by the parasites,
or to toxic poisoning.
Other Organs and Tissues
The spleen. This is a small, dark red organ which lies above the
liver and is attached to the proventriculus. It is not provided with a
system of blood vessels and capillaries as in other organs. It is not a
digestive organ but is considered the factory of the red blood corpuscles,
[17]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
for the blood, after passing through it, is richer in these elements than
when it entered. Red corpuscles are also manufactured in the red
marrow of the bones.
The muscular system. Muscles by their contraction and relaxation
control the motions of the body. They are composed of fibers, which
are striated in the case of voluntary muscles and non-striated, or smooth,
in all involuntary muscles except the cesophagus and heart. The peris-
taltic movements of the alimentary tract, the pulsation of the heart, and
the motions of swimming, flying and walking all depend upon this won-
derful system of muscles. It is estimated that there are 12,000 muscles
in a goose, including muscles that control the movements of the feathers.
The excretory system. Excretion is accomplished by the lungs, in-
testines and kidneys. The uric acid is eliminated from the blood by
the kidneys in the form of urates. These are semi-solid and are con-
veyed to the cloaca by the urinary tubules. The urates are excreted
with the droppings, and can be observed as a white layer constituting
about one-third of the excreta. The kidneys are located in the back in
the cavities of the sacral region and can be recognized as reddish, gran-
ular masses. They often become diseased, and their failure to function
results in such serious disorders as gout, rheumatism and uremic
poisoning.
Tegumentary System, or Skin. The skin is the outer covering of
the body consisting of several layers of cells which serve as a protec-
tion to the bird. The appendages of the skin, such as feathers, spurs
and nails are modified scales. The continuation of the skin within the
body is known as the mucous membrane.
A Wonderful Machine
We have considered the wonderful machinery of the hen’s
organism. Every system of its machinery has its special
organs and every organ has its special work to perform. It is
only when all these parts work in harmony that there can be
a healthy and productive fowl.
If by any accident or disease any organ is impaired or put
out of action it may seriously affect the working of the whole
factory and limit, if not totally curtail, the output of finished
products. The importance of understanding these structures
is very evident.
A Practical Lesson
To show how this knowledge is of practical application in
the care of poultry, one illustration is given. Protein is
recognized as a very necessary constituent of the food. This
nitrogenous food is acted upon by the digestive fluids and
changed into peptone. Why? Because peptone is soluble and
readily transfuses through the walls of the intestines. But
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
peptone is a poison to the system, therefore it is carried by the
portal circulation to the liver, which has the power to change
it to albumin, which is at once assimilated by the blood, and
this carries it to the cells to be used by them in building
tissues.
If there is an excess of protein taken in the food and an
excess of peptone formed, then the liver is overworked. Some
of the peptone may go into the circulation to poison the
system. The liver becomes congested and there may follow
a train of liver diseases and gout or rheumatism, causing the
loss of the fowl. Further, uric acid is a nitrogenous compound
and is produced in excessive quantity when there is an excess
of protein in the food, as often happens in the liberal use of
tankage.
As the uric acid is eliminated by the kidneys, they are
overworked with resulting congestion and disease. Thus we
learn the importance of a balanced ration in which there is a
due proportion of protein and carbohydrate. Many illustra-
tions of this nature may be drawn from the digestive system
alone.
The Workmen
What are the workmen in the great factory? It is true
that an organ of the animal body may function as a unit to
perform a definite work, as, for example, the eye performs the
function of sight; but the eye is made up of tissues, such as
epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous, and each of these
has a definite work to do. The tissues also are made up of cells
and each cell plays a part in accomplishing the desired end. If
the cells should break down there would be failure all along
the line. The cells, therefore, are the real workers, and their
functioning makes possible the organism, for cells make
tissues, tissues make organs, and organs make up the
organism, or living bird. The cell is the working unit, just as
is the individual in the industrial concern.
[19]
Chapter III
The Raw Material
OOD is any substance which taken into the animal
organism contributes to its growth and maintenance.
Food is fuel for the engine and raw material for the factory.
The term “feed” has a similar scope but is applied more par-
ticularly to animals, not to man. The term feed may also
apply to a definite portion of food, as a feed of corn or oats.
A ration is a definite combination of foods or feeds.
A balanced ration is one prepared to meet the full needs of
the animal organism. The ration to be used depends upon the
end desired and the environment of the flock. The ration in
summer with free range should be quite different from that of
winter in confinement. The ration to force egg production
would differ somewhat from a fattening ration. The ration
during the moulting season should be adapted to the needs of
the fowl in growing new feathers. The baby chick ration
should meet the demands of the growing body.
Available Poultry Feeds
Wheat is the most desirable of all grains for poultry. It is
more nearly a balanced ration than any other grain. It is free
from an indigestible hull. As a feed for growing chicks and
laying hens it is of great value. Even though at times ex-
pensive, the results obtained warrant its use.
Corn is rich in carbohydrate and, therefore, is an excellent
winter feed. Chickens will eat it in preference to any other
grain. It is not a balanced ration and, if fed alone, will prove
disappointing unless the fowls have free range and have
opportunity to secure green feed and insects. It is valuable
as a fattening ration and as a part of developing and laying
rations,
Oats make a very valuable feed for poultry, but on account
of the thick hull with its indigestible crude fiber it is not
relished like corn and wheat. It is equal to wheat in protein
content and about equal to corn in fat. Its nitrogen-free ex-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
tract is somewhat less than either corn or wheat. Its ash
content surpasses both of these grains. The hull is often
provided with sharp beards which irritate the digestive tract
and sometimes cause serious trouble.
Clipped oats are free from these objections and, where
practical, should be used in the grain ration. Hulled oats
would be even better. They can be obtained at the mills in
500 pound lots at reasonable prices. Whole oats should con-
stitute about one-fifth of the grain ration. If fed in the same
amount as wheat or corn much of it will be left in the litter
to become contaminated and moldy and thus the cause of
disease in the flock. Ground oats make a valuable addition to
the dry mash. The hulls are objectionable, but the mash is
generally picked over and the hulls discarded by the fowls, so
that this objection is not so serious. Only heavy oats with
thin hulls should be used. Light oats with thick hulls will be
rejected by the fowls unless they are on a starvation diet.
Scalded and sprouted oats are desirable forms in which to feed
this grain.
Rye is not relished by poultry nor do they seem to thrive
upon it. The ergot of rye is a dangerous poison.
Barley is a good substitute for corn, having about the same
composition. It may be fed with corn to give variety. The
hull is objectionable.
Buckwheat has a thick, indigestible hull and otherwise is
objectionable. A small quantity in the grain ration will add
variety, but otherwise is of little value.
Milo maize, kaffir corn, sorghum seed, etc., are good sub-
stitutes for indian corn and are relished by the flock.
Millet seed adds variety when thrown in the litter with
other grains and stimulates exercise, but it is indigestible and
even injurious to growing chicks.
Ingredients for the Dry Mash
Bran is the outer layer of the wheat kernel and ‘is rich in
ash, protein, and fat. It furnishes a narrow ration on account
of its comparatively small amount of carbohydrate. The main
objection to bran is its crude fiber which is 9 per cent of its
composition. This objection disappears when it is combined
with meals having a limited amount of crude fiber. On ac-
count of its bulky nature it is valuable to mix with the denser
meals, and on account of its coarse nature it has a stimulating
[21]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
effect on the mucous membrane and is counted slightly lax-
ative.
Wheat middlings are produced from the layer of the wheat
kernel next to the bran. They are richer in carbohydrates
than bran and contain less ash and crude fiber.
Corn meal is ground corn and is of the same composition
as whole corn. Gluten meal is the portion of the kernel just
under the hull. Gluten feed consists of the corn bran and
gluten meal mixed. Corn bran is the ground hulls.
Ground oats are whole oats ground fine. They contain the
hulls and should therefore be made of heavy oats with thin
hulls. Oat middlings, or oat flour, comprise the ground
kernels after the hulls are removed. Oat meal, or rolled oats,
is the hulled oats rolled out and prepared for human con-
sumption.
Linseed meal is made from flaxseed. It has high percent-
ages of protein and fat and is a valuable feed for poultry. On
account of its very laxative nature it should be fed in limited
quantities. About 5 per cent in the mash ration will be found
advantageous. It is especially valuable in stimulating the
growth of feathers.
Animal Feeds for the Mash
Meals of animal origin are of great value in stimulating
egg-production. They promote growth in young stock and
help adult fowls to lay on flesh. Among those more commonly
used are the following: .
Meat scrap contains about 50 per cent protein. It consists
of meat trimmings, steam-cooked and pressed to sterilize and
remove fat, and then ground. Meat crisps are made from lean
meat and contain 75 cent protein. Meat meal is the same
as meat scrap only ground finer. Meat crisps, ground fine,
are very valuable in the mash for growing chicks. Poor
grades of meat scrap are unsafe as food for poultry. Purchase
your supply from a reliable house and always test before using.
Open the larger pieces and note whether mold is present.
Pour boiling water upon a small quanity to discover whether
the odor remains sweet. Also examine for hair and pieces of
horn, which should not be present.
Tankage is made of poorer grades of material and unless
prepared by a reliable house with guaranteed analysis should
not be used. High grade tankage is used very extensively,
[22]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
but on account of its high protein content should be used in
limited quantity. About 10 per cent of the mash mixture is
advised. Used in excess it is liable to produce gout, rheuma-
tism and other affections.
Fish scrap, prepared from dried fish, is valuable as a proteid
food and is used extensively in commercially prepared feeds.
It frequently imparts a fishy flavor to the flesh and eggs.
Milk in some form is very valuable for poultry. It may be
fed sour or sweet. Granulated milk and dried buttermilk are
convenient forms to use when skim milk is not accessible.
Other Constituents of the Mash
Charcoal is a corrective and aids digestion. It should be
used in every dry mash to keep it sweet and dry, and should be
kept before the fowls constantly in hoppers.
Salt stimulates the secretions and aids digestion. Used in
excess, it brings on bowel trouble and often acts as a poison,
producing death. Used sparingly, it is of great value in a dry
mash. About one-half pound in one hundred pounds of mash
is the correct quantity. Dry, finely granulated table salt, free
from lumps, is the kind to use.
Ash comprises the mineral salts such as soda, lime, salt,
magnesia. The combinations are chiefly chlorides, carbonates,
phosphates and sulphates. These substances are usually sup-
plied in foods of vegetable and animal origin.
Fowls also obtain some of the mineral salts from the soil
and the water they drink. A fowl given nothing but distilled
water and foods containing only pure protein and carbohydrate
would soon perish. Phosphate and carbonate of lime are
needed to build bone and the shell of the egg. Ash enters
into the structure of the feathers and is more or less needed
in all the tissues of the body. If the supply in food and water
is not sufficient, and this certainly occurs when fowls are
kept in confinement, it should be supplied. This is done by
feeding oyster shell, soil that is not infested, rock phosphate,
ashes, crushed limestone and granulated bone. An adequate
supply of mineral salts will prevent fowls from eating their
droppings and increase the health of the flock. Oyster shell
contains carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime and some
organic matter. It should be kept before the fowls at all
times. Its importance in egg production is shown by the
sudden decrease in eggs when the supply runs out.
[23]
PRAIRIE FARMER'S POULTRY BOOK
Granulated bone is valuable not only for the mineral matter
it contains but for its protein. If supplied in a separate com-
partment of the hopper, the poultry keeper will realize its
value by the large amount consumed. It is especially valuable
as a part of the egg-producing ration.
Water is a mineral. It is a food because it enters into al!
the tissues and structures of the body. It must be provided or
the fowl sickens and dies. It should be supplied fresh daily
in clean vessels and is especially needed to soften the food after.
a full crop is obtained of dry feed.
Green Feeds
Green feeds are greatly relished by poultry. The goose
subsists almost entirely upon weeds and grasses during the
growing season. The same is true to a large extent with ducks
and turkeys. The value of green food in promoting health and
increasing egg-production is generally underestimated, and
too little effort made to provide it. It contains an abundant
supply of ash, and its proteid and carbohydrate nutrients are
in easily digested form. When it cannot be supplied in succu-
lent form it should be furnished in dry form. Some of the dry
forms are clover meal, alfalfa meal and dried beet pulp.
Alfalfa meal can be purchased at supply houses and many
feed mills. If prepared from fresh green hay it makes a valu-
able substitute for green feed. Its abundant supply of ash and
other food elements makes it a desirable meal for the dry mash.
Asa rule alfalfa is not relished by poultry when fed alone, but
as a part of the mash it is in favor, if used in limited quantity,
about 10 per cent of the total weight.
Clover meal has about the same value as alfalfa. Alsike.
clover makes a fine litter for laying hens. The leaves are eaten
greedily.
Beets or mangel wurzels make a very desirable succulent
green food. They are greatly appreciated by the hens and
are eagerly devoured. They may be chopped fine and fed in
vessels or cut in slices and nailed to the wall. Beets contain
water-soluble C vitamine, but are especially valued for their
ash content.
Other succulent feeds are cabbages, carrots, potatoes,
turnips, pumpkins, sprouted oats, sprouted rye, swiss chard,
lettuce, dandelion leaves, etc. The poultry keeper should plan
in spring for his winter supply of succulent feed. A small
[24]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
space devoted to mangels will give a surprising return.
Carrots do not freeze readily and make a good feed that can
be grown at small cost.
Condiments
We do not advise the use of stimulants and tonics as a
practice. When the hens are healthy and happy and are doing
full service in filling the egg basket why change a system of
care and feeding that has been tried and found successful?
There are times, however, when a tonic will help the fowl
to tide over and save it from disease. Frequently the egg
organs are dormant and only need a tonic to stimulate them
to action in order to bring them into laying condition. Fowls
are like human beings, they have their ills and humors and
often need a corrective or a tonic, to which they readily re-
spond, though it would be folly to depend upon these alone.
Unless an egg tonic is used in connection with a balanced
ration more harm will result than good. If the raw material
is not present how can the egg be manufactured? If the
nervous system needs a little stimulus to action, or the diges-
tive system is sluggish and needs a tonic to correct abnormal
conditions, or the reproductive organs are inactive and need
a stimulant to incite the process of egg forming, a tonic may
serve a good purpose.
There are a large number of advertised tonics. Some of
these are of real value, some are measured by an interrogation
point. There are also private tonics which are offered as great
secrets and sold for a price. Some of the substances frequently
used are cayenne pepper, venetian red, quinine, strychnine,
sulphuric acid, ginger, onions, etc. Of these the following
deserve mention:
Cayenne pepper is a stimulant to the liver and other di-
gestive organs. It is used to relieve colds, in which case it is
given in gelatin capsules. This powerful stimulant should be
used in limited quantity, if at all.
Venetian red contains oxide of iron and calcium sulphate.
It serves as a tonic to the digestive system and is beneficial to
the blood.
Iron, quinine and strychnine are valuable tonics and com-
bined in tablets or capsules will be found a splendid help in
restoring to vigor fowls that are off their feed, anemic or
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Of course they’ll lay if they have a comfortable, well-ventilated house like this, and are
fed the way Mr. Osburn advises
emaciated. Formula No. 1 suggests how the preparation
should be made and administered.
Ginger is a tonic very beneficial to all the organs. Com-
bined with other remedies, as suggested in formula No. 2, it
provides a tonic of real value.
Mustard is a strong stimulant. Its remedial and tonic
character is not fully appreciated.
Onions are valuable as a food and serve as a tonic. They
can be fed to growing stock over four weeks old and to adult
fowls.
The following tonics and stimulants are recommended:
Formula No. I—Health Tonic
Tonic for colds, asthenia, digestive disorders, anem‘a, and general
debility due to long continued laying, sitting, or other cause.
Sulphate of quinine........... 00.0000 c cee eee 1 grain
ERVCHNING 25.2 eahahus. diind # And ature Shue 4 pomiguancds 1/30 grain
Tron: Sulphate sist osuvesz-stenvon-w pagheds gx a syseteadaee 1 grain
Given daily in two-grain capsule until recovery. Mix equal parts of
quinine and iron, then fill the capsule with the mixture after first putting
in a 1/30th grain tablet of the strychnine.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Formula No. II—Health Tonic
Tonic for indigestion, torpid liver, constipation, diarrhza, blood af-
fections, and general debility.
Gentian: 2 snwiscduew satis ss uate at here aos nahn be eee 8 ounces
DISEET. 2 cide in eG 6 Pah Danks HO OREN Ge EE 8 ounces
GIN BET Ie ce open ats Be SAS pO toad tein ee cand a 4 ounces
ESDSOmMi: Salts! fais ru acivgne eahen wee ranigdes geal Mavens 8 ounces
PO ky ites < rragid & haaid Ww Ream E DAA RY RRR 4 ounces
Tron: Sulphate: sa.cwvons aco nes ae wate a Mire ee cask 1 grain
Mix thoroughly and give two tablespoonfuls of the mixture in ten
quarts of dry or moist mash, daily until recovery.
Formula No. III—Egg Tonic
Correct feeding and exercise are the best stimulants for the egg
organs. Eggs cannot be produced without the raw material and often
hens will not lay, though correctly fed, because they do not have suf-
ficient exercise. Sometimes, however, when conditions are apparently
just right the flock is sluggish and the hens refuse to lay. Under such
conditions an egg tonic may have value. The tonic recommended below
has been used to some extent, and those who have tried it have not been
disappointed. It is claimed for it that it does not weaken the vitality,
if directions are followed, and actually increases the fertility of the eggs.
We advise its use simply as a means of stimulating the egg organs to
action and to get the hens into the laying mood. It should always be ac-
companied with a balanced ration and an abundant supply of feed. Direc-
tions follow.
To the water or milk for the daily mash add tincture of cantharides,
allowing one-fifth of a drop to each hen. A hundred hens would require
only 20 drops. A teaspoon contains 60 drops, which would be sufficient
for 300 hens. Feed in the moist mash daily for one week. During the
second week alternate the tincture of cantharides with black gunpowder,
ie., give the tincture one day and the gunpowder the following day.
Add one tablespoonful of the powder to the water or milk for the
daily mash. This will be sufficient for one hundred hens.
After the second week feed the tincture of cantharides only once a
week, but always follow it on the succeeding day with the black gun-
powder. Gunpowder is composed of 70 per cent of niter, 15 per cent
of sulphur, and 15 per cent of charcoal. It is sometimes difficult to pur-
chase. Any druggist can prepare it according to the formula given
above. Continue this feeding for four weeks and then discontinue.
Caution: Tincture of cantharides is a powerful poison and should be kept out of
the reach of children.
Formula No. IV—Egg Tonic
To the mash for 50 hens add 8 teaspoonfuls of mustard. The mix-
ture. may be fed dry or moist, the moist mash being recommended.
Mustard is a fine tonic and corrective, a splendid. stimulant to the egg
organs, and promotes the health of the flock. It is claimed that no
harmful effects follow its use.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A Word of Caution
In the foregoing discussion we have pointed out the nature,
composition and value of the raw material required by poultry
and have enumerated some of the more important foods which
are available to the farmer in preparing rations for his flock.
A few cautions regarding the selection of materials will not
be out of place.
1. Select feeds that the fowls relish. Rye is not relished
by poultry and should not be fed, if other grains are available.
Fed alone it will poison the flock and cause many losses. Oats
and buckwheat are not relished on account of their indiges-
tible hulls. Therefore they should be provided in inviting
form. Palatability is the first requisite.
2. Select feeds that are easily digested. Millet seed is
palatable but not easily digested, so is of little value as a
poultry feed. A food that has an excess of crude fiber is diffi-
cult of digestion and should be avoided.
3. Select feeds that are high in nutrient value. Polished
rice is palatable and easily digested but it lacks in protein
and is not a safe feed for poultry.
4. Select feeds that are farm produced as far as possible.
They are more available and less expensive. The concentrates
of animal and vegetable origin must be purchased, but why
purchase milo maize when corn is at hand.
5. Select feeds that are free from mold and decay. This is
the path of safety. Moldy and rotten feeds are dangerous and
account for a large percent of poultry losses. Wheat must be
free from must; corn should be hand-selected and shelled
especially for the flock; oats should be examined for musty
and rotten kernels. So also all other feeds should be given
the closest scrutiny.
How Food is Used
The changes which take place in the raw material, or food,
as it is being transformed into the component parts of the
body, involve several processes : Deglutition, swallowing ; mas-
tication, pulverizing the food; digestion or dissolving and.
chemically changing it so that it can be transfused through the
walls of the blood vessels; absorption, taking it up into the
blood and lymph; circulation, transferring it to the parts of the
body where it is needed for repair and growth; assimilation,
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
converting it into the substances which make up the or-
ganism ; and oxidation, a process by which cell substances and
organic compounds in the blood are united with oxygen, pro-
ducing heat and energy; and excretion, by which the waste
matter is thrown off from the body.
These processes have been studied to some extent in Chap-
ter II. Our discussion here pertains more especially to
digestion, assimilation and oxidation.
/
Another Practical Lesson
It has been pointed out that the albumin and other proteids
of the food are changed into peptone by the gastric juice and
this is carried by the portal circulation to the liver where it
is changed back to albumin. The gastric juice secreted by the
stomach and gizzard contains three digestive principles—hy-
drochloric acid, pepsin and rennin. The rennin coagulates
the albumin and the pepsin changes it to peptone, but this
process cannot be carried on without the aid of the hydro-
chloric acid.
Now the hydrochloric acid is manufactured from the salt
which is found in the blood. This suggests the importance
of feeding salt in the daily ration. Its aid to digestion is here
indicated.
Another digestive process is the change in the carbohy-
drates (starches and sugars) to glucose. This is also trans-
ported to the liver and there converted into glycogen, which is
taken up by the blood.
Still another change in the food is accomplished by the
pancreatic and intestinal juices by which the fats are saponi-
fied and emulsified so that they can be taken into the lymphatic
circulation and by this emptied into the general circulation.
What Becomes of Digested Food?
The emulsified fat is oxidized in the lungs, producing heat
and energy. It is probably all oxidized, as very little is found
in the blood after it leaves the lungs. It is not used to make
fatty tissue. That is made from the other elements of the
food in the body itself. |
The glycogen, representing the carbohydrate of the food, is
oxidized in the blood. It is the great source of heat and
energy. Not all is oxidized there, but a portion of it goes to
the cells and is used to manufacture fat.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The albumin of the blood is carried to the cells throughout
the body and used to repair waste and build new cells and
tissues for the body. Some of it is oxidized, but its chief func-
tion is that of supplying material for growth and maintenance.
It is a nitrogen-bearer, and there can be no protoplasm or
living matter without nitrogen. It is even used in the manu-
facture of fat, and this explains why fowls fatten readily when
there is a liberal allowance of protein in the food.
Composition of the Animal Body
The elements that enter into the composition of a fowl’s
body are: Nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, calcium. phos-
phorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, chlorine, sul-
phur, silicon and fluorine. These elements also enter into the
composition of an egg. In the body they are combined in
many substances, some of them very complex. The process
by which these elements and compounds are made a part of
the living body is called assimilation. Oxidation, on the other
hand, is a process of burning or tearing down. The chief sub-
stances produced in this process are carbonic acid gas and
water.
The Kind of Food Required
Evidently a perfect ration should contain all of the above
named elements. We are accustomed to emphasize the pro-
tein and carbohydrate content of the food but forget that the
fowl just as surely needs water and the mineral salts in its
ration.
Water is a food because it adds to the weight of the body
and is used to manufacture some of the compounds of the
body.
The mineral salts, such as salt, carbonate of lime, phos-
phate of lime, sodium carbonate, sodium phosphate, and mag-
nesium phosphate are truly foods for they enter into structures
of the body.
Food Constituents
The substances entering into the composition of foods are
classified as nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. The nitro-
genous substances are known as proteids. As the name
implies, they contain nitrogen. The non-nitrogenous sub-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
stances include the ash and the carbohydrates and the fats.
Water enters into the composition of all foods but not in
sufficient quantity to meet the demands of the animal body.
Crude fiber is the indigestible portion of the food and is
composed chiefly of cellulose.
The following table will help to fix this analysis in the mind.
Protein
Nitrogenous....
Albumin.
Water Nutrient Carbohydrate, or Nitrogen-free
Foods ~ Non-nitrogenous Ge Sets 2: exthacts
Ash Crude Fiber (Cellulose)
Fat-soluble A
Vitamines...... Water-soluble B
Water-soluble C
Protein. This is the most important solid constituent of the food.
It comprises 20 per cent of the fowl’s body. It is necessary to the
production of living matter, to cell-multiplication and growth, and to
the formation of such tissues as blood, nerve and muscle. It occurs in
nearly all grain and animal feeds. Those feeds which contain a large
percentage of protein are called proteids. Illustrations are found in
tankage, meat scrap, fish scrap, oil meal, cottonseed meal and milk
products.
Albumin. This is one of the proteids, but is given special considera-
tion on account of its peculiar properties and its prominence in the
tissues of the body, in the blood, and in the composition of the egg.
Water. About 55 per cent of the fowl’s body is water. Every cell
of its organism cries out for water. Without water an animal soon
perishes. It comprises 66 per cent of the composition of an egg.
Egg production ceases when the water supply is cut off. It con-
stitutes 87 per cent of the composition of milk, so that when milk is
fed liberally, as well as succulent green feed, the demand for water is
decreased. In the body it dissolves the food, aids in absorption, serves
as a carrier for the solid principles of the blood, makes the tissues soft
and pliable, and enters into some of the chemical changes which are
constantly going on.
Carbohydrates. These foods supply heat and energy for the body
by oxidation, and the surplus is used in the production of fat. A carbo-
hydrate is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen
and oxygen are always in the proportion found in water, so that when
it is oxidized, the oxygen uniting with the carbon to produce carbonic
acid gas, water becomes the residue. Carbohydrates abound in all grains
and their by-products. In cold weather more carbohydrate is required
than in summer. It does not occur in the structures of the body but
is found in the blood as glucose, or as glycogen, and in the egg as
glucose.
Crude fiber (cellulose) is a carbohydrate, but is insoluble, and, there-
fore, is indigestible. About 6 per cent of the dry mash may be crude
fiber.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
This ista convenient type of small colony house
Fat. Fat is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but the
hydrogen and oxygen are not in the proportion found in water. Fat,
taken as food, is oxidized in the lungs to produce heat and energy.
It occurs as vegetable oils in grains and seeds and as animal fat in meat
scrap, bone meal, etc. The fat in the fowl’s body, deposited in the inter-
cellular spaces and as masses of adipose tissue, is manufactured in the
body and serves as a reserve supply of fuel for the body and as material
for the manufacture of eggs. A hen to lay well should carry a good
supply of fat. Lean hens with thin breast bones are invariably poor
layers. ’
Ash. This term comprises the mineral salts and charcoal. They
enter into the bones and other structures and form the shell of the egg.
Grains and animal feeds usually provide sufficient ash to meet the hen’s
needs. Some is obtained from the water and some from the soil. Fowls
are fond of eating soil, especially if released from confinement, indicat-
ing that the ash element is lacking in their food. Charcoal is a cor-
rective, is not digested, but should always be supplied, as it absorbs
poisonous gases, aids indigestion, and contributes to the health of the
fowl.
Vitamines
Vitamines. A vitamine is a substance whose presence in the food is
essential to growth and health. There are three substances of this
nature, known as Fat-soluble A., Water-Soluble B, and Water-Soluble
C. Hopkins says: “No animal can live on a mixture of pure protein,
fat and carbohydrate; and even when the necessary inorganic material
is supplied the animal still cannot flourish.” Not only is a balanced
ration important, but the growth principles must be present in due pro-
portion or the results will be disappointing.
Vitamines have not been chemically analyzed. Their existence is
known by experiment, their absence invariably resulting in such serious
diseases as rickets, scurvy and polyneuritis (Beri-beri).
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“PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Fat-soluble A occurs in such feeds as whole milk, eggs, whole grains,
linseed, cabbage, lettuce, carrots, and potatoes, and meats. Its absence
results in rickets, a disease affecting the whole body.
Water-soluble B is found in skim-milk, eggs, whole grains, bran, lin-
seed, and most vegetables. Its absence results in Beri-beri, or poly-
neuritis. A fowl fed solely on polished rice contracts this disease and
may be cured by feeding whole rice or any of the feeds named above.
Water-soluble C is found in milk, cabbage, turnips, carrots, potatoes,
beets, lettuce and fruits. Feeding substances deficient in this vitamine
results in scurvy, and the cure of this disease is secured by correcting
the ration. Water-soluble C is found in all fruit juices and more or less
in nearly all vegetables and fresh meat.
All of the above nutrients are important. Even the crude
fiber is of value in limited quantity, as it furnishes material
to stimulate the peristaltic action of the intestines. In excess,
however, it hinders digestion. The enumeration of poultry
feeds given above comprises chiefly those produced on the
farm. By careful planning the poultry keeper can produce his
own feeds, thus reducing expenses and enabling him to prepare
his own rations. Grain mixtures and mashes prepared at
home are not only of known composition, but the quality of
the nutrients can be known and regulated.
[33]
Chapter IV
Feeding
ROPER feeding is the chief secret of success in poultry
raising. Large losses of young chickens, failure to get
winter eggs, and many diseases and other troubles are due to
improper feeding.
We must first understand the needs of the fowl’s organism
and then study faithfully how to supply those needs. Some
of the rations which follow have been worked out in detail so
that the reader can understand how the nutritive ratios are
determined. All the rations, except the one pertaining to fat-
tening, require a double mixture, i.e., a grain mixture and a
mash mixture.
It would be very difficult to compound a balanced ration
such as the hen requires for egg-production from whole grains
because they would be deficient in protein, but when we can
add to the grain mixtures such protein concentrates as are
found in animal and vegetable meals, it is quite easy to provide
a balanced ration for the laying hen.
The use of such a ration explains why the hens lay in
winter. Under the old system of feeding whole grains, eggs
were a great rarity in winter. Now it is the rule for the farm
flock to give a good account in the months when eggs are
supposed to be scarce. Hens always lay in summer time be-
cause then they can secure insects and green feed and thus
balance the grain ration that the farmer provides. Under
scientific feeding they will respond just as faithfully in the
winter season.
Principles of Feeding
If you will note the following outline of the composition of
the body and egg of a fowl you can understand that scientific
feeding consists in bringing to the flock all the elements needed
for growth and maintenance and production, and these ele-
ments must be provided in a manner economical and conducive
to health.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
WATER PROTEIN Fat ASH
Fowl, per cent....... 55 20 19 6
Egg, per cent....... 66 13 9 12
Body growth and maintenance come first. Unless there
is a surplus of material above that required for heat, energy,
growth and maintenance there can be no production of eggs.
In laying down the following principles of feeding the de-
mands of the fowl have been consulted.
Balanced Rations
A balanced ration is necessary, that is, a ration that
supplies the food elements that are needed, and in the proper
proportion. If poultry raisers would feed only those rations
that meet the actual needs of the fowls in each season, their
troubles would cease. The medicine chest would be forgotten
and the question, “Does poultry pay?” would receive an
immediate answer in the affirmative. This is the secret they
long have sought. Detailed grain and mash rations for all con-
ditions are given on pages 46 to 51.
Supplementary Feeds
In addition to the regular ration selected, certain supple-
mentary materials should be provided:
Grit is actually needed for grinding the feed. Its presence
in the crop is not absolutely needed for the life of the bird,
for fowls have been known to thrive for months without it.
It has been proven, however, that a supply of grit means more
.rapid mastication, more complete digestion and greater thrift.
If grit material is made of quartz or granite it is insoluble
in the digestive fluids, and a small quantity will last for a long
period. A fowl may be deprived of grit for months and yet a
quantity will be found in the crop. Oyster shell serves as grit
for a brief period only, as it is dissolved by the hydrochloric
acid of the digestive fluids. Good sharp grit should always be
in reach of the flock.
Water must be classed as a food. As it comprises 55 per
cent of the fowl’s body and 66 per cent of the composition of
an egg, its importance is evident. It is true that a bird can
live for a considerable period without water, but it cannot
produce eggs without it nor can it live indefinitely. I have
known baby chicks to thrive for two weeks without any water
outside of what they obtained in their daily ration of food.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
You consider this a cruel experiment, but probably they did
not suffer seriously, as all feeds contain a large percentage of
water and this is constantly being set free in assimilation and
taken into the blood. The importance of clean water in clean
vessels cannot be emphasized too strongly. Water gives
plumpness to the body, aids digestion, takes part in the pro-
cesses of assimilation, is the carrier of waste matter to the
lungs and kidneys, and, therefore, is essential to a healthy body.
The best method to supply water is in open vessels. These
should be placed on elevated platforms in such a position that
the fowls cannot get into them with their feet. The vessel
should have sloping sides so that in case of freezing it will
not be easily broken and the ice can be easily removed. Such
a vessel is quickly cleaned and on a platform as suggested does
not become foul from the litter.
Milk is of great value for growing stock. It can be fed sour
or sweet, but it is advised not to change from one kind to the
other. For all seasons sweet milk has preference. Sweet milk
can be used as soon as separated and, if fed in the morning,
it will usually keep sweet until all is consumed. It is of great
value in preparing moist mashes for growing stock and fatten-
ing rations. It contains considerable protein but this is bal-
anced by the carbohydrate of the succulent feeds. Chicks fed
on milk grow rapidly and are thrifty. It is claimed that the
lactic acid of milk holds in check the bacteria of white diarrhea.
It is certainly true that if a brood of chicks once becomes in-
fected with bacillary or coccidial diarrhea it has little value as
a cure.
Ash comprises the mineral salts. Of these phosphate of
lime and carbonate of lime are of especial importance in form-
ing bone and the shell of eggs. A good source of phosphate of
lime, or phosphoric acid, is bone meal or granulated bone.
It will pay to keep this before growing chicks constantly. It
contains 45 per cent of phosphoric acid and in a form that is
easy of assimilation. It also contains protein, which adds to
its value as a food. The lime for the egg shell is obtained by
feeding oyster shell. If this is withheld it means thin shells
and fewer eggs.
Green feed of a succulent nature is essential to the health
of a fowl. It is valuable not only because it contains water
and other nutrient substances but it contains the vitamines,
or growth principles so necessary to vitality and growth. The
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
white potato is anti-scorbutic and will ward off the disease
known as scurvy. Beets, carrots, Swiss chard, dandelion
leaves and rape will help prevent sore eyes due to dietary de-
ficiency ;.mustard leaves have a tonic effect and make a good
green food.
Quality of Feed
Sound and clean grains should be selected for the ration.
Sometimes shriveled and chaffy grain, caused by weather con-
ditions, contains a larger protein content in proportion to
weight than heavier grain and is perfectly safe for feeding, if
free from disease. Mill feeds purchased for the dry mash |
should be examined with the closest scrutiny. The odor and
texture will be a guide as to quality. Musty, moldy and
spoiled feeds should be rejected. Rotten potatoes will cause
ptomaine poisoning. Rotten and moldy oats will cause As-
pergillosis. Tainted meat scraps have caused untold losses.
Putrid milk sometimes brings on an epidemic of disease. Many
diseases are communicated through foul water.
Crude fiber should be avoided. It is largely cellulose and
indigestible.
How Much Feed and When?
Overfeeding results in serious disturbances of the digestive
system. An excess of protein means liver and kidney disease.
An excess of any one kind of feed, such as corn, often leads to
serious digestive disorders. Underfeeding is as serious as
overfeeding, for it means a stunted growth and weakness that
render the fowl suceptible to disease.
The quantity must be determined by the Wendant He
must study the needs of the flock and feed only what will be
consumed without waste. The average daily ration of 100
Leghorn hens is 15 pounds of grain mixture and mash. This
would mean 10 pounds of grain and 5 pounds of mash. The
average daily amount consumed by 100 hens of the dual pur-
pose type is about 18 pounds. This would mean about 12
pounds of grain mixture and 6 pounds of mash. On free
range a Leghorn hen will eat about 55 pounds of feed in a
year and a dual purpose hen about 75 pounds.
There is no fast rule as to the quantity of feed to be given.
A heavy layer will eat much more than a poor layer. Con-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
sumption will be greater in extremely cold weather than in
mild weather. Consumption will be greater in the spring when
the whole flock is busy in egg-production than in the fall when
few are laying. Jere is where the personal equation enters.
and the attendant must win or lose according to the judgment
he uses.
Cleanliness
This is one of the cardinal principles of good feeding. A
clean feeding place is vital. Damp and moldy litter is danger-
ous. A feeding floor covered with the dropping of diseased
chicks means speedy ruin to the whole brood. When the op-
pressive days of summer come it is no pleasant task to clean
out the brooder or the colony house and replenish the litter,
but it must be done promptly and regularly or failure will fol-
low. Watering vessels can be kept clean by placing them on
elevated platforms. The same is true of hoppers and self
feeders for grit, charcoal and mashes.
Exercise and Feeding
As far as possible feed should be given so as to encourage
exercise. Even the mash can be placed so that the fowl must
use some physicial exercise to get it.
The grain mixture should be fed in moderately deep litter
six to eight inches in depth. Care should be used in selecting
the litter. For young chicks short-cut alfalfa, alsike clover,
or short-cut rye straw will be found safe. Wheat and oat straw
often bear the spores of mold and smut and rust. which fre-
quently produce fatal disease.
Rye straw is usually bright and clean and if run through
the silo cutter will make a very fine litter. Chaff gathered
around the threshing machine is usually dusty, and is unsafe
to use. If the floor of the scratch pen is inclined to be damp
the litter should be shallow to allow the dampness to dry out.
The fowls in the pen with damp litter are the ones to get out
of condition. The litter should be changed monthly while the
flock is in winter quarters.
How to Feed
There are about as many systems of feeding as there are
poultry keepers. Every farmer’s wife has her own system, and
she generally wins average success. The systems given below
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
are not perfect, but if you give them a fair trial you will not be
disappointed.
Feeding the Baby Chick
Feed nothing until the third day after the chick is hatched.
Just before the chick is ready to break the shell the yolk of
the egg is absorbed into the abdomen. This is a provision of
nature to furnish nourishment for the chick during the first
few days of its growing life. During these few days the yolk
is absorbed into the circulation and assimilated. '
If the chick is fed before that process is completed, which
requires about 72 hours, the process of absorption is checked
and the yolk remains in the abdomen, a menace to its health
and growth. Many chicks that perish, if examined, would be
found to contain the unabsorbed yolk. At the end of this
period, or at the close of the third day, give a light feed of
rolled oats and give sweet milk for drink.
The feed should be very simple for the first two days,
nothing but rolled oats, with milk in the forenoon and water
in the afternoon. If the plan of removing the milk at noon,
cleansing the vessels, and replacing with water in the after-
noon is followed throughout the feeding period, there will be
little danger of harm from putrid milk. We advise sweet
milk because it is just as valuable as sour milk and is available
at all seasons.
After the second day of feeding, place the chicks on Ration
No. 1, found on page 46. Rolled oats or pinhead oats con-
stitute the scratch ration, and should be thrown in shallow
litter to induce exercise. A feeding box about three inches
deep and three feet square would answer well for 100 chicks.
This could be removed, cleaned and supplied with fresh litter
as required. The mash portion of the ration should be
placed in a hopper upon an elevated platform so as to keep it
clean. Self feeders for this purpose can be purchased at trifl-
ing cost. Near the mash feeder should be placed a hopper with
three compartments containing grit, charcoal, and granulated
bone.
At the end of the second week change gradually to Ration
No. II (page 46). This means a change from rolled or pin-
head oats to whole wheat as the scratch feed, and the change
can be made by adding a little wheat to the oats, then increas-
ing the wheat until the oats can be omitted.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
At the end of four weeks change to Ration No. III (page
46). Note that the mash mixture for No. III is the same as
for No. I and No. II, so that no change will be required in
that portion of the ration. The grain mixture, however, now
consists of corn, wheat and oats, a less expensive ration and
one presenting a greater variety.
After the first week green feed should be supplied. Sliced
raw potatoes will be greatly relished by the chicks. The tops
of sprouted oats or rape also serve well. Dandelion leaves are
especially recommended on account of their favorable action
on the liver. Beet pulp is a good succulent food. Lettuce and
rape are recommended by some poultry keepers. Swiss
chard is worth considering.
If Ration No. IV is used the same general system of feeding
is recommended.
How to Feed for Egg Production
Use Rations No. V or VI (page 49) for winter feeding.
The grain mixture should be thrown in deep clean litter to
promote exercise. The mash should be kept before the fowls
continually in hoppers on elevated: platform. Otherwise the
hoppers will be filled with litter. Near the mash should be
a four-compartment hopper with grit, charcoal, oyster shell,
and granulated bone. For litter there is nothing better than
bright alsike hay. If this cannot be obtained, chopped rye
straw or bright wheat straw is advised. If this cannot be ob-
tained oat straw should be used as a last extremity.
The aim should be to secure litter that is not dusty or
moldy. Change the litter once a month during the winter
and once in three months when the fowls are on free range.
For green feed mangel wurzels once a day are valuable.
Sprouted oats or sprouted rye are greedily consumed by
the fowls. In sprouting oats, mold often forms. This can be
avoided by washing the trays with a solution of formaldehyde
and by adding to the water in which the oats are to be soaked
over night a few drops of formaldehyde. Cabbage, carrots,
turnips, pumpkins, alfalfa leaves and alsike leaves all give good
results as succulent feeds.
When the days grow warmer a change should be made to
Ration No. VIII (page 50). This is a narrower ration but is
adapted to summer feeding. Keep the self-feeder full of mash
and feed the grain mixture once a day.
[40]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Feeding the Breeding Stock
It is not customary to make any distinction between the
utility layers and the breeders in the matter of feeding, but
where eggs are to be sold for hatching, or the poultry keeper
wishes to raise a large supply of breeding stock, the care and
feeding of the foundation stock are certainly important.
Where stock is to be used solely for the production of
market eggs, forced feeding should be used for the first year or
two, and then they should be fattened for market. In the case
of breeding stock, however, where vigorous offspring are de-
sired too much forcing may bring disaster. Whole grains are
indicated, and the mash should not be too rich in protein. Ra-
tion No. VII ‘is recommended.
This is a wide ration and will probably bring the breeding
stock to laying condition about the 15th of February. This
is about the time when the farmer begins to think of filling
the incubator. His flock has not been weakened by forced
teeding for eggs, but is in the pink of condition.
How to Feed During the Molt
For the formation of feathers a ration rich in nitrogen is
required. Ration No. IX (page 51) is advised. It should
follow the summer ration, beginning about the first of Septem-
ber and continuing till the last of November. If the fowls are
confined, the usual allowance of succulent feed and ash should
be provided. .
Feeding for the Market .
Capons, surplus cockerels and culls from the laying flock
should not be shipped to market without conditioning. Even
confinement in a room with whole corn, water and grit would
be better than no conditioning at all. If Ration No. X (page
51) is used quick results will be obtained.
The crate method of feeding, with slatted bottoms to insure
cleanliness, and a feeding trough outside the crate, is a com-
mon method of feeding. A small room with litter and an
elevated platform for the feeding trough and other vessels
will answer as well. The mash’ should be given three times
a day, all that the fowls will consume in twenty minutes. As
soon as the fowls are fat, market promptly. In crate fattening
Leghorns, provision should be made for exercise or the re-
sults will be disappointing.
[41]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Constructing a Ration
Balanced rations are determined by the ratio existing
between the protein content of the ration and the starch, sugar
and fat (nutrient carbohydrate). This ratio is called the
nutritive ratio.
For example, a balanced ration for growing chicks requires
that the starch, sugar and fat in the combination of feeds
|
|
Dinner time in the poultry yard
should be four and one-half times greater in weight than the
protein. The nutritive ratio therefore is 1 :4%.
To illustrate further, in a certain combination of feeds
which furnish a balanced ration for growing chicks it is found
that there are 10 pounds of protein and 45 pounds of starch,
sugar and fat. The ratio between the two is therefore 10 : 45.
Reducing this by dividing the ratio by 10, we get a nutritive
ratio of 1 : 4.5.
To illustrate further, in a certain combination of feeds
ratio should be approximately 1:5. It may be a little more
or a little less. If the nutrients are supplied in that ratio the
[42]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
hen will see that her ration is balanced by selecting the feeds
she needs. She cannot be fed with a spoon, or by exact rule or
measure. If the nutrients are placed before her in approxi-
mately the right proportion her own instincts will guide her
in selecting the food required.
To furnish a ration suited to fattening fowls for, market,
it has been found that the nutritive ratio should be 1 : 3,
i.e., there must be a smaller proportion of starch, sugar and
fat than in the nutritive ratio for the laying hen.
beni aa
How is the Nutritive Ratio Determined?
From the observations already made it is easy to under-
stand that the nutritive ratio is the relation existing between
the protein and the carbohydrate, it is the comparison between
the weight of the nutrient protein and the nutrient carbo-
hydrate.
How is this ratio determined? Simply by determining
the total weight of protein in all the materials of the ration
and then the weight of the carbohydrate in the same materials.
When that is done the comparison is easily made by dividing
the ratio by the number representing the weight of the
protein. To determine the weights in question it is necessary
to refer to the table showing the percentages of nutrients in
each variety of food.
In determining the carbohydrate it is necessary to reduce
the fat to terms of carbohydrate. This is done by multiplying
by 2% and adding the product to the weight of the nitrogen-
free extract. The reason for this is that fat has the power to
produce two and one-fourth times as much heat and energy
as the same weight of nutrient carbohydrate.
Illustration: A ration consists of 10 pounds of corn, 10
pounds of wheat, and 10 pounds of oats. What is the nutritive
ratio?
By referring to the table given below, showing the per-
centages of nutrients, it is possible to determine the weight of
each nutrient. The following illustration shows how the prob-
lem is worked out and the nutritive ratio determined.
[43]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Nutrient
GRAINS PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATE Fat
10 Ibs, Corn 1.05 Ibs, 6.96 lbs, 54 Ibs.
10 Ibs. Wheat 1,19 Ibs, 7.19 Ibs. 20 Ibs.
10 Ibs. Oats 1.18 Ibs. 5.97 Ibs. .50 Ibs.
Totats 3.42 Ibs. 20.12 Ibs. 1.25 Ibs.
Reducing fat to Carbohy, 2.81
Adding ots ea aan Sa baa 3.42 22.93
Dividing by 3.42 1 6.7 =the nutritive ratio.
To convert the 1.25 Ibs. of fat to terms of carbohydrate we multiply
by 2%. This gives 2.8 lbs. which is added to the 20.12 lbs. of nutrient
carbohydrate (often called nitrogen-free extract) and this gives us 22.93
lbs., which represents the carbohydrate in the 30 lbs. of food. Our ratio
therefore is 3.42 : 22.93. Dividing this ratio by 3.42 we get the nutritive
ratio, which is 1: 6.3.
Wide and Narrow Nutritive Ratios
It will be observed in the ration just given that the amount
of carbohydrate is much larger than the amount of protein,
much larger than in the nutritive ratio for laying hens, which
is 1:5. Such a ration is said to have a wide nutritive ratio.
On the other hand the nutritive ratio for growing chicks has
a smaller amount of nutrient carbohydrate than found in the
nutritive ratio for the laying hen, and such a ratio is said to be
narrow.
A good day’s work
[44]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Table I. Composition of Poultry Feeds
CrupE Nurrient
FEeps WatTeER AsH PROTEIN Fiber Carsouyprate Fat
Percent Percent Perecnt Percent Percent Percent
Whole grains:
COE: wae 5 sae cane acing Nes ReeN oe 10.9 1.5 10.5 2.1 69.6 5.4
Kati, Cort, cxcx aeactin onokears 12.8 2.1 9.1 2.6 69.8 3.6
Banley: <yesdi2.gsdisnides 08 a ayareteans. 10.9 2.4 12.4 2.7 69.8 1.8
Oats wswe oped we kieees evans & 11.0 3.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0
Wihleate w.iciss 2 Aaypceds Sods apenas 10.5 1.8 11.9 1.8 71.9 2.1
Buckwheat ..............05 12.6 2.0 10.0 8.7 64.5 2.2
Sunflower seed .......... 1 8.6 2.6 15.3 29.9 21.4 21.2
Soy. (beat .wccseck wre, Gade Viare caleusins 8.7 5.4 36.3 3.9 27.7 18.0
Ground grains:
Corn imeal: accsawny soingus 15.0 1.4 9.2 1.9 68.7 3.8
Barley: meéal, jie. iced bees 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 2.3
Soy-bean meal ............ 10.2 5.0 35.9 3.4 28.0 17.5
Gluten meal ............005 8.6 6 30.0 2.6 49.2 8.8
Gluten feed .........-....- 8.1 1.3 23.2 6.4 54.7 6.3
Wheat bran ............... 11.9 5.8 15.4 9.0 53.9 4.0
Wheat middlings .......... 12.1 3.3 15.6 4.6 60.4 4.0
O. P. Linseed meal......... 9.2 5.7 32.9 8.9 35.4 hat
Foods of animal origin:
Meat scrap 7.9 17.4 49.7 ae ie 18.5
Meat meal .......... 6.3 kahve 48.4 ee oF 12.9
Blood meal : 0.6 4.6 75.7 13 1.4 zo
Tankage 22 nagene eerie ool 0.0 10.0 60.0 3.0 cree 0.5
Fish scrap 7.5 6.0 42.0 ree eek 17.0
Whole milk ............... 87.2 6 3.6 4.9 3.7
Skin iilke vaxcocitess easels $0.6 7 3s 5.3 23
Buttermilk ............006. 90.1 af 4.0 4.0 1.2
Granulated milk ........... 28.5 3.6 13.7 51.1 3.1
Green feeds:
Green alfalfa .........--.45 80.0 1.8 4.9 CD) Baas ch
Alfalfa meal ...........-55 11.9 7.1 14.1 27.1 37.3 2.4
Green clover .....-.--++-+- 70.8 2.1 4.4 8.1 13.5 11
Clover meal ........e0e eee 10.0 8.1 16.3 17.8 46.0 17
Potatoes: vc. sicsiaue Sees CHE 78.9 1.0 2.1, -6 17.3 0.1
Mangel beets ......-.----++ 90.9 1.1 1.4 a) 5.5 0.2
Dry beet pulp...........+-- 8.0 5.4 9.5 15.4 61.3 0.4
OnionS ....... cece ee eee eee 87.6 0.6 1.4 0.7 9.4 0.3
Turnips ......-.--- Dennis 6 90.5 0.8 1,1 1.2 6.2 0.2
Carrots: ... cece sae eed ee 88.6 1.0 La 1.3 7.6 0.4
Cabbage .........eee eee ees 90.5 1.4 3.8 LS 2.4 0.4
Lettuce ....e see eee ee eee 95.5 0.8 1.6 0.5 1.0 0.2
Swiss chard .......-----++: 87.8 2.4 4.4 2.9 25 0.4
The above ‘percentages are in the main supplied by the
U. S. Department of Agriculture. As food materials vary in
composition, owing to conditions over which the analyst has
no control, no two analyses of the same substance will be
exactly the same. Those given above are sufficiently accurate
for all practical purposes.
Using the table given, the poultry keeper can compound
his own rations. Knowing the object he wishes to attain,
whether to grow the chick or provide for the laying hen or to
fatten for market and knowing the nutritive ratio required, he
can combine a ration from the feeds at hand that will give as
good results as by the purchase of more expensive feeds.
[45]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Some elements of the ration may have to be purchased, such
as protein concentrates and a few vegetable meals, but in the
main the grains and green feeds can be produced on the farm.
The balanced rations given below have been tried out and we
believe will be found safe and reliable.
Rations for Growing Chicks
Ration No. I. For first two weeks. Nutritive ratio required 1 : 4.5.
NurtRIiENT
Scratch feed: Ls. Protein CARBOHYDRATE Fat
Rolled or pin-head oats........... 100 15.00 66.00 8.00
Mash:
(Corn: ‘meal! coast ees PRESTR 20 1.84 13.74 0.76
Oat: meal ives ca wags oovae sea 20 2.94 13.48 1.42
WBA TAy Systehige sia yeheve es shcha e-oksroeare dr essaneel 20 3.08 10.78 0.80
Wheat middlings ............ ive 1Z0 3.12 12.08 0.80
Mieatt Scrap: selicaisic co tenseyetsevesaiitiiecd «. 20 9.94 0.00 3.70
Totals: drcnie t eieke Walden ft punt & 200 35.92 116.08 15.48
15,48 lbs. Fat X 2% —...... 34.83
Additig® ices pak. geese kee 35.92 150.91
Dividing by 32.92 — ........ 1 et 4.5 , the nutritive
ratio.
Ration No. II. For third and fourth weeks. Nutritive ratio re-
quired 1 : 4.5.
NutTRIENT
Scratch feed: Lss. Protein CARBOHYDRATE Fat
Wheat) oc 5 sade. d sages nite Sythe. 100 11.90 71.90 2.10
Dry Mash:
Corn: meal, caseeideaes AS coke £4 20 1.84 13.74 0.76
Oat meal + saves eee alae ohne 20 2.94 13.48 1.42
Wheat. brane scccictictsenc x Bete os 20 3.08 10.78 0.80
Wheat middlings ................ 20 3.12 12.08 0.80
Meat Scrap sqcnstan tad eases 4 20 9.94 0.00 3.70
MOtals: wesvee & tisaueys saadnrde, sewage 200 32.82 121.98 9.58
9.58 Ibs. fat X 24% —......- BASS rend ot
RA GITIG: ochre Saetenehss aie eaves 32.82 143.53
Dividing by 32.82 — ........ 1 4.4 , the nutritive
ratio.
Ration No. III. After fourth week. .
NuTRIENT
Scratch feed: Las, Protein CARBOHYDRATE Fat
Whole wheat .........-. eee eeee 40 4.76 28.76 0.84
Cracked: Cofne sisi seis oz ent aise 40 4.20 27.84 2.16
Hilled:, Oats: 2 cideeveacsssesieied noets ee 20 2.94 13.48 1.42
Dry Mash:
Corn anneal ac mags 4 te wind eae tae 1.84 13.74 0.76
Oat meal co ccc ccc cn craves seaes 2.94 13.48 1.42
Bian’ annesks caries oii cadanetas 3.08 10.78 0.80
Wheat middlings .............5- 3.12 12.08 0.80
Meat-scrap! svsuds xu. ones cs ogeiees 9.94 0.00 3.70
TP GUAIS seat d wena cece ivahettehs 32.82 120.16 11.90
11.09 lbs. Fat X 24% — 26.77
Adding .. 32.82 146.93
Dividing by 32.82 — 4.5 , the nutritive
ratio,
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Rations I, II, and III are designed to be used in the order
suggested. Note that the same mash mixture answers for all
three rations. By following the system here given the chicks
are provided with nourishing food, make rapid growth, and
are early brought to a ration of whole grains. If milk is given
it may be sweet skim milk, which is the most convenient for
all seasons. It should be placed before the chicks in the
morning and removed at noon, to be followed by water in the
afternoon. Succulent green food should be supplied after the
second day. A hopper containing chick size charcoal, chick
grit and granulated bone should be accessible at all times.
The granulated bone will furnish the ash needed for the de-
velopment of bone and other tissues.
Fine charcoal should be added to all the mashes, about six
pounds to 100 pounds of mash. No grit should be given except
in the hopper, but in ration No. III one-half pound of salt may
be added to each 100 pounds of mash. The salt must be fine
and free from lumps. These rations have been developed on
the understanding that chicks will eat equal quantities of
scratch feed and mash. Their own instincts and appetites
will help them balance their ration if given the opportunity.
Succulent feed should not be neglected, sliced potatoes, beets,
dandelion leaves, tops of sprouted oats, lettuce, mustard or
swiss chard.
Ration No. IV. From baby chick to maturity. Nutritive ratio 1 : 4.5.
Nutrient
Scratch feed: Las. ProteIN CARBOHYDRATE Fat
Cracked wheat ...........0 02s eee 40 4.76 28.76 0.84
Fine cracked corn............-05. 40 4.20 27.84 2.16
Pin-Head. Oats). ssc scence s setieree evens 20 2.94 13.48 1.42
Mash: :
Bra. caywevaGriny este ERT ee 6.93 24.25 1.80
Oatmeal cessed eaasast das 5.88 26.96 2.84
Meat scrap ....--..+--- 7.45 0.00 2.77
Potals :<icaiww cen we oa 32.16 121.29 11.83
11.83 lbs. Fat — . ; 26.62
Adding: eos eenaty, cagaiee MRE 32.16 147.91
Dividing by 32.16 — ........ 1 7 4.6 , the nutritive
ratio.
The above ration can be used from the first day. but it
would be well to start the chicks on rolled oats or bread and
hard boiled egg for the first two days. The directions given
above regarding milk, charcoal, granulated bone, grit and-
green feed should not be overlooked. If the chicks have free
range, the supply of green feed can be limited. Green feed will
[47]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
overcome scorbutus (scurvy) and lameness and help prevent
- sore eyes due to dietary deficiency.
Rations for Egg Production
If hens are to be forced for egg production a narrower
ration may be used than when they are to be fed for breeding
purposes. Ifa breeder is fed a forcing ration her vitality may
be so reduced that when the breeding season comes her eggs
will not be fertile or the chicks that hatch from them may lack
in vigor.
It would be wisdom, therefore, to pen the hens intended for
breeding purposes in separate pens and allow them a wider
ration. The laying hen requires a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5. It
has been found in the egg-laying contests that one pound of
carbohydrate will produce 3% yolks and that one pound of
protein will produce 16% whites. This results after the needs
of the hen’s body are supplied.
To produce one hundred yolks, therefore, would require
30 pounds of carbohydrate; and to produce one hundred whites
would require six pounds of protein. This gives a ratio of
one to five, that is, when there is five times as much carbo-
hydrate in the food as protein there will be produced an equal
number of whites and yolks. This shows the necessity of a
balanced ration, for if the protein is deficient there will be too
few whites produced for the number of yolks, and the process
of completing the egg will be delayed. The two rations given
below will be found helpful. It is generally supposed that a
hen will consume the same weight of grain ration as mash. In
actual experience, however, a hen usually consumes twice as
much grain as mash. This would unbalance our ration and
supply the hen with a greater proportion of carbohydrate than
the nutritive ratio requires. That these statements are true
is attested by the fact that during the winter months, when
forcing rations are used, the hen needs more carbohydrate to
maintain heat and energy. If left to her own instincts and the
materials are placed before her, she will see that the proper
‘balance is maintained for egg production. This cannot be
done if the ration is lacking in any essential.
[48]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
ie Ration No. V. For winter egg production. Nutritive ratio required
. . Nutrient
Grain mixture: Las. ProTEIN CARBOHYDRATE Fat
Cracked corn: ccionwse dona s veo 60 6.30 41.76 3.24
WHE ats jesse cctieacc tien edie a crane oe ase 40 4.76 28.76 0.84
Totals: wares ere ans hia pa pans 100 11.06 70.52 4.08
Fat to carbohydrate.......... 9.18
AGING 6. i.59 cxsntare erases ta SSS 11.06 79.70
Mash: :
Brat ae aides sutiganti eens ne Qaleionet etre 30 4.62 16.17 1.20
Oat meal: cccse es ha teas sy ee 30 4.41 20.22 2.13
Alfalfa: meal sec so seees oir s eae 20 2.82 7.46 0.48
Meat sserap: sis-esressix dcconect eld taactuas O40 20 9.94 0.00 3.70
Salt;.34; Whgatian se) tay ne eae hk i ae aid
Totals’ arsine sane wiide < caked 100 21.79 43.85 7.51
Fat to carbohydrate.......... : 16.90
Adding .......eese eee ee eee eens 21.79 60.75
Dividing by 2 = .........-.. 10.89 30.37
Adding grain mixture........ 11.06 79.70
Totals consumed —... ..-- 21.9 110.07
‘Dividing by 21.95 —........ 1 ‘ 5, the nutritive
ratio.
Note.—The nutritive ratio of the above ration, based on the equal
weights of grain mixture and mash is 1:4.3. As in actual practice
the hen consumes only half as much mash as grain mixture, we must
divide the protein and carbohydrate of the mash by two and add the
quotients to the corresponding weights in the grain mixture. The re-
sulting weights will enable us to obtain the nutritive ratio of the actual
nutrients consumed by the hen.
Ground oats can be used instead of oat meal, but add 9 per cent to
allow for crude fiber.
Ration No. VI. For winter egg production. Ratio required 1: 5.
NuTRIENT
Grain mixture: Les. Protein CARBOHYDRATE Fat
Cracked corn .....6 cece eee eee ee 75 7.87 52.20 4.05
Whole wheat .....--.0eeee eee eee 50 5.95 35.95 1.05
Hulled oats 2... ccc ee eee eee 25 3.67 16.85 177
Totals: oaaicegaceade + i RMeaNS Bae 150 17.49 105.00 6.87
Fat to carbohydrate.........- 15.46
Adding ........65 e Seapiteae hier 17.49 120.46
Mash:
Wheat bran .........-0eecereeee 25 3.85 13.47 1.00
Wheat: middlings ....:4:¢<094 44% 25 3.90 15.10 1.00
Corn meal ....c ec ee eee e cece eee 25 2.30 17.17 0.95
OBE: ACT) iti e o sievevere Gacertie eg alee 2s 3.67 16.85 1.77
Mealed alfalfa ....--...--eeeeeee 20 2.82 7.46 0.48
Meat scrap ....e cece eee ee eee ees 25 12.42 0.00 4.63
O:,.P Oil, meals scsnys-2 wert. 8 ee 5 1.64 1.77 0.39
Salt, % Ibe... etree eee ce eee eee eee biss8 aa pees eaesers
Dotals' simuwa tee Basen acne wee 150 30.60 71.82 10.22
Fat to carbohydrate.......... 22.99
AG itig esis edis sie ia sie titene eens 30.60 94.81
Dividing by 2...... cece eens 15.30 47.40
Adding grain mixture......... 17.49 120.46
Potals consumed 0005 o4enex 32.79 167.86
Dividing by 32.79.........+-. 1 : 5 , the nutritive
ratio.
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Note. This ration is more complex than the preceding but has the
advantage in providing greater variety. Charcoal should be added to
all dry mashes, about three to six pounds to 100 pounds of mash.
If ground oats or whole oats are used add 9 per cent on account of
crude fiber.
Ration No. VII. For summer egg production on free range.
Grain mixture: Mash:
Cracked: Corn: ais nein 6 Seis alaee 30 Ibs. IBRA: acaadinae aigh teers peer eene 50 lbs.
Wheat soso: ci snone« Sracauented aver tnelts in Seuss 40 Ibs. Ground! oats: sn 5:3 eee 40 Ibs.
Clipped: O88: josie esa. sa aseegas 30 Ibs. Meat iscrap: sa uses gaetesie eens 10 Ihs.
100 Ibs 100 Ibs
This ration gives a nutritive ratio of 1 : 5. Hens on the
farm do not always produce well during the summer months.
This is often because the ration is neglected. By providing a
mash as indicated in self feeders in dry and convenient places
and keeping the hoppers full, the hens will give a good account
of themselves. On free range the grain mixture should be
given once a day in the evening.
Ration for Breeding Stock
For stock intended for breeding purposes the ration should
not be too narrow, as a ration too rich in protein is too forcing.
A nutritive ratio of 1:6 is advised during the winter months.
Whole grains are best for the breeders, and they should be fed
so as to encourage exercise. In the breeding season, when an
abundance of eggs is required, the ration can be narrowed to
1:5. The following ration is recommended for the breeding
stock if they are kept separate from the general flock.
Ration No. VIII. Winter ration for breeding stock.
Grain mixture: Mash:
Wieat 2 ncsie pcs sate ad 35 lbs. Wheat bran . 25 Ibs.
Cracked ‘corny i. 2 vaca s wein< cee 40 lbs. Ground oats . $0 Ibs.
Pld! oats) os: csoccud line Gaeta leevea 25 Ibs. Corn meal ... «++.+20 Ibs.
Meat serap: si66 jcc coven b otere 5 Ibs.
100 Ibs, "100 Ibs.
This ration has a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6. One-half pound
of fine table salt and three to five pounds of charcoal are advised
for each hundred pounds of mash.
Ration for the Molting Season
Feathers are rich in nitrogen and sulphur. For their pro-
duction a narrow ration, or one rich in protein, is required.
The molting season usually begins in earnest in September
and as that is the season when there are weather changes and
[50]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
the demand of the body is for an increased supply of heat, corn
is indicated as a liberal portion of the diet. Probably the best
nutritive ratio for the production of feathers is 1:4 or even
narrower. The following will be found of value in this critical
season.
Ration No. IX. For the molt. Nutritive ratio required, 1:4.
Grain mixture: Mash:
Cracked corn .. Corn meal ‘sc.ss.20 sacks ons be
Wheat ..... Wheat bran
Hulled oats Meat meal
O. P. oil meal
100 lbs.
The nutritive ratio of this ration is 1:4.2. Wheat can be
used solely, replacing the other grains, and the same ratio will
be preserved.
Ration to Fatten Market Fowls
A large percentage of farm poultry goes to market without
any preparation. What the farmer loses by this failure to con-
dition his fowls is gained by the packers and others who make
a business of fattening the thin stuff which reaches the com-
mission merchant. With little pains and expense the farmer
could reap this profit. Fowls that come from the range are
not tender, their meat is tough and stringy. A few days in
the fattening room or crate makes a wonderful change in the
quality of the meat. A fattening ration requires a narrow
ratio. In a former chapter it was pointed out that the excess
of carbohydrate, over and above the requirements of the
fowl’s body, is converted into fat; the same is true of the excess
of protein. The fattening ration should be rich in carbohy-
drate, but the protein constituent should not be overlooked.
The ratio usually advised is 1:3. Probably a ratio of 1:4
would answer just as well. A very crude method of fattening
is to confine the fowls and place before them whole corn and
water. The nutritive ratio of corn is 1:7.5. This ration is
too wide; more variety is needed. Protein is the great fat
former and should be a prominent factor in a fattening ration.
The following ration is recommended.
Ration No. X. For fattening for the market.
Corn ‘miéall cr cians staal apna gee Stone ee 100 Ibs.
DT OCR ick a @ ten win dled Aa ooen's Ra cmdie sd Kame ee 100 lbs
Bias ware a cide Gas na liters nate he wn A Seo bos drincpouiug.a 25 Ibs.
‘Meat. meal i528 cinduriseve ss adattssrs ko weeeti asta’ cine wchanine 50 lbs
Skim milk or Buttermilk. .cs sc cacs av ses ea eowse 600 Ibs.
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Sprouted oats are a good/source‘of green _feed_for winter layers
This mixture provides a nutritive ratio of 1:3. This is
very narrow and is, therefore, very rich in protein. Ifthe mash
can be cooked before feeding, it will add to its palatability and
its digestibility, and thus shorten the period required for
fattening. About two pounds of milk should be used for each
pound of mash. A small amount of grit should be accessible
during the period. The mash should be placed in troughs, just
what the fowls will clean up, and supplied about three times
during the day. After each feeding any material left over
should be removed and the troughs cleaned. This is intensive
feeding and will make a severe tax upon the digestive organs.
The period required for fattening is about 10 days.
Fowls fattened by this method will be juicy and tender
and should command the top price’on the market.
Things to Remember
1. A balanced ration is the most economical, insuring
rapid growth and profitable production.
2. The regular ration must be supplemented with grit,
water, milk, ash and succulent feeds.
3. Dusty, moldy and damp litter is a menace.
Cleanliness is a corner stone of successful feeding.
Overfeeding is dangerous.
Underfeeding leads to disappointment.
Regularity in feeding means a contented flock.
8. Home grown feeds are more reliable than others. They
have no fillers.
SOG
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
9. Crude fiber is indigestible and should be avoided.
10. The ration should be adapted to the season and the
needs of the flock.
[53]
Chapter V
The Finished Product
HUS far we have considered the factory with its compli-
cated machinery, the workmen, invisible but countless
in number, and the raw material in multiplied forms. Now
our study concerns the finished product, consisting of the
edible carcass, the egg and the byproducts.
The Carcass
The flesh of poultry is highly prized. A fowl properly
conditioned, well cooked and served is both appetizing and
nutritious.
The process of fattening has been considered in the pre-
ceding chapter. When ready for the market or the table, food
should be withheld from fowls for a day until the crop and
intestines become empty. They should have an abundance of
clean water to flush out the system and at the same time keep
the flesh plump and juicy. For the same reason fowls intended
for home consumption should be deprived of solid food for at
least 12 hours, and provided with plenty of water.
Killing. The method of killing is very simple. Instead of
wringing the neck, according to an ancient custom, a process
which interferes with free bleeding, a knife is used to sever
the arteries in the throat. The blade should be long and sharp.
Seize the head in the left hand, and with the right hand insert
the blade in the mouth until the point reaches the base of the
skull. Make a transverse cut on the left side, severing the
arteries of the neck. If there is free bleeding, the blade should
then be forced through the slit in the roof of the mouth back-
wards into the brain and then given a twist. This produces
paralvsis and means death without pain and with very little
struggling. During the process of killing and while being
plucked, the fowl should be suspended by a cord. This method
of killing results in loosening the feathers so that dry picking
becomes an easy task.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Dry plucking is the common rule with turkeys, ducks and
geese. If plucking is done promptly after sticking it can be
practiced with chickens. It gives the carcass a more attractive
appearance. Another method of killing and plucking is to
use a table or bench. The beak is fastened to a screw hook.
Just under the head of the fowl is a hole in the bench through
which the blood passes to a receptacle below. That portion of
the bench on which the body rests is padded to prevent bruis-
ing. The legs are held with the left hand while with right
hand the incision is made on the left side of head just behind
the earlobe. Plucking is done immediately. By this method
more rapid progress can be made. During plucking the
feathers should be sorted and graded. The feet and head
should not be severed.
Plumping is accomplished by plunging the carcass into
cold water. While the parts are flexible the wings and head
should be adjusted so as to make a compact package.
Scalding. Some prefer scalding to dry picking. The water
for scalding should be of correct temperature, 180 degrees. If
too hot the skin becomes shrunken and is easily torn in pluck-
ing, and the carcass becomes discolored. Properly done,
however, this method results in a very attractive carcass. Be-
fore plumping it is customary to singe the down, and this is
best done with a gas or alcohol flame.
Cleaning. All fowls designed for market are left undrawn.
They keep better in this condition as they are not exposed to
flies and bacteria. In dressing a fowl for home consumption
it is customary first to remove the feet and head. Then a
transverse slit is made at a point about half way between the
lower point of the keel and the vent. It should be about two
inches long. From the middle of this incision another cut is
made longitudinally to the vent and around the same, so that
when the viscera are removed they will come clean. It is a
good plan to remove the crop, cesophagus and trachea first.
This is done through an incision made on the side of neck. If
the crop is removed first it will be much easier to remove the
viscera, which will come clean without leakage.
Packing. Dressed poultry can be packed in barrels or
boxes. A layer of excelsior or clean straw is laid in bottom of
receptacle, then a layer of dressed fowls with feet extending
outward, then excelsior, then another layer of carcasses, and
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
so on till the barrel is full. Any empty space at the top should
be filled with excelsior, straw, or paper. If any leakage
appears, such as might soil other specimens, it is a good plan
to plug the vent and mouth with sterilized cotton. After
putting on cover and carefully labeling, the package may be
shipped by express. A receipt always should be taken. Insist
that the expressman weigh the package, so that you will have
an official check against the commission man’s weights.
Types of Market Poultry
Broilers. A broiler is a young chicken two to three months
old and weighing 114 pounds to three pounds. Broilers,
especially those that reach a late spring or early summer
market, command high prices and are very profitable. Surplus
and undesirable cockerels should be culled and sold when
prices are high.
A squab is a young pigeon or duck not fully fledged, yet
fat and fit for human consumption. Squab farming is practised
to considerable extent and profitably in some sections.
A roaster is a matured fowl, fat and fit for roasting.
A capon is a de-sexed cockerel. Capons are docile and
easily handled. They make rapid growth and attain large size,
much larger than the standard weight for the breed. The
flesh of the capon is superior and it commands the highest
market price. The demand is greater than the supply. Cock-
erels are usually produced at a loss, but when they are con-
verted into capons, on account of the rapid growth, large size.
and better price, they become profitable. They should not be
marketed until matured and well fattened. In plucking them,
the feathers of the upper neck, the flight feathers and the tail
feathers should not be removed, the object of this being to
distinguish them from other fowl.
Caponizing. Instruments can be secured of any reliable
poultry supply house. The time to caponize is from three to
six months of age. The operation requires care and some skill,
but any person handy with tools can do the work with a little
practice.
The bird is placed upon its left side and held to the table
by weights attached by cords to feet and wings. The skin over
the right side is drawn forward and an incision made between
the last two ribs.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The incision should be about an inch long. The spreader
is now applied to keep the aperture open. A slit is made in the
omentum, or membrane surrounding the intestines, and the
intestines are pushed to one side until the testes are seen. One
or both of these is seized by the special forceps made for the
purpose and by a twist they are severed and then removed.
When both glands are removed from the same opening it is
advised to remove the lower one first, so that bleeding will not
interfere in removing the remaining one. Losses in this
operation usually occur by the severing of the spermatic artery
which lies behind the glands. In that case the chick bleeds to
death, but its carcass is perfectly good for home consumption.
As soon as the spreader is removed the skin closes over the
opening, and the wound soon heals without any stitching.
Caponizing should be more generally practised. A larger
supply would mean an increased demand and greater profits
to the industry, so that both producer and consumer would be
benefited.
.
The spreader in placing, tearing open the membranes. Note how the bird is held in position
by weights attached to wings and feet
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The testicles can be observed between the jaws of the spreader
The Egg
The egg is the chief end of poultry production. It is the
real thing in poultry culture, the goal toward which every
producer aspires, for it furnishes the promised reward for his
labors. It furnishes the ideal food for human consumption,
the protein so necessary.to build protoplasm, cells and tissues
for the human body, and the yolk of the egg is rich in vita-
mines, or growth principles, without which the animal
organism would fail to grow and maintain health.
Many fowl and other farm animals fail to develop properly,
becoming emaciated and diseased, because the food supplied
is wanting ir these growth-producing substances. So it is
with children. If not supplied with food rich in growth
principles they fail to develop normally.
So also the brain worker or manual laborer requires food
of this character that his physical and mental powers may
function normally and vigorously. Eggs, therefore, make an
ideal food for children and for all upon whom heavy demands
are made, either physical or mental. They are not appreciated
because they are so cheap. Like milk they provide a perfect
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
food from which all the structures of the animal organism can
be produced—bone, muscle, nerve, and connective tissue.
\
Origin of an Egg
Every animal organism is produced from an egg, that is,
from a primordial cell, which corresponds to the initial cell
from which every poultry egg is derived. The ovary of a hen
contains from 800 to 7000 egg possibilities. An examination
in the laying season shows the yolks, or ovules, in various
stages of development, from the smallest, which are merely
microscopic points, odcytes, to the fully formed yolk ready to
be discharged into the oviduct.
Not all of these undeveloped ovules ripen into mature eggs.
The average annual production of a farm hen is not more than
70 eggs. The poultry breeder is content to secure 300 to 400
eggs from each hen in his flock, yet hens have been known to
produce more than 1,000 eggs in a lifetime.
The Poultry Department of Purdue University has pro-
duced a hen, Joan of Arc, which has laid 1,064 eggs.
The Experiment Station of Oregon Agricultural College
has developed twenty hens with trap-nest records of more than
1,000 eggs each. The highest record was made by a hybrid hen
containing Barred Rock and White Leghorn blood. In her
ninth year she died leaving a total production record of 1,335
eggs. Undoubtedly this is the world’s highest egg-record for
an individual hen.
How is an Egg Formed?
The ovary lies in a delicate membrane known as the ovi-sac.
The ovi-sac surrounding each developing yolk is generally
known as the follicle. Under the stimulus of suitable food,
exercise and warmth, the initial cells from which the yolks are
formed begin to grow. As they develop, successive layers of
albumen are deposited. This material is furnished from the
blood through the blood vessels of the follicle. Immediately
surrounding the yolk a delicate membrane is formed known as
the vitelline membrane.
Upon the surface of the yolk lies the germinal vesicle. This
is the living germ cell with which the sperm cell must fuse to
produce the embryonic cell from which the embryonic chick
is developed. When the yolk is ripe, or fully matured, the
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
follicle cleaves and allows it to escape. By some strange
attraction it is drawn to the mouth of the oviduct, known as
the infundibulum, and enters the tortuous tube where its
development is carried on to completion.
The walls of the oviduct are lined with a network of blood
vessels which furnish the material for the further development
of the egg. In the upper portion of the oviduct the albumen
is secreted and deposited around the yolk in layers. In the
middle portion and toward the lower end, the two membranes
are formed around the albumen. The outer membrane is
covered with carbonate of lime, which is secreted and deposited
just before the egg passes into the cloaca. This is called the
shell of the egg.
The cloaca is a pouch at the end of the oviduct sufficiently
large to receive the egg. Here a secretion is formed and de-
posited upon the shell. This film in a measure makes the shell
impervious to germs and other harmful substances and pre-
vents the evaporation of the egg contents. The egg is now
fully formed and ready to be laid. The time required for the
development of the yolk in the ovary is about three weeks;
but, after the egg enters the oviduct, only 18 hours are re-
quired for its completion. It is evident, therefore, that two
eggs may be in the oviduct at the same time, especially during
the height of the laying season.
Structure of an Egg
The accompanying diagram illustrates the structure of a
normal egg. Beginning with the outside, an enumeration of
the various structures comprises the following:
1. The shell, porous to admit air and hard for protection.
2. Exterior membrane, a tough membrane calculated to exclude
germs and harmful substances.
. 3 The inner membrane immediately surrounding the albumen.
This envelops the developing chick and turns with the chick as it pips
the shell. The air space at the large end of the egg is between the two
membranes.
4. The albumen, or white, of the egg, which is formed in concen-
tric layers around the yolk.
5. Vitelline membrane, a delicate membrane surrounding the yolk.
é 6. Dense layer of albumen. This is just outside the vitelline mem-
rane.
7. Yolk, the yellow layers of albumen just within the vitelline mem-
brane. The yellow color is due to globules of fat. The white yolk is in
the center surrounded by the yellow yolk.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The important parts of an egg are discussed in the text
8. Chalazz, twisted cords of albumen which are attached to op-
posite poles of the yolk and serve to steady its position in the glbumen.
9. Germinal vesicle, the living germ cell, or nucleus, which lies
upon the surface of the yolk, recognized as a white spot. It may be
fertilized or not. As the germinal vesicle lies upon the surface of the
yolk it is easily reached by the sperm cells.
Fertility and Fertilization
An egg becomes fertile when the sperm (male) cell fuses
with the germ (female) cell. This does not always occur, so
that many eggs remain infertile. Where does fertilization
take place? Evidently not in the cloaca, nor in the lower
portion of the oviduct, for the shell and membranes and al-
bumen would interfere in these regions. Fertilization must
take place either at the mouth of the oviduct or in the ovary,
possibly in both places. The oviduct is about 18 inches in
length; and for the spermatazoa to swim from the cloaca to
the infundibulum requires several hours, as this distance must
be traversed before they can reach the unfertilized germ cells.
It is quite probable that some of the sperm cells find their
way into the ovary, as there is evidence that several eggs may
be fertilized as the result of a single copulation. In the case
of turkeys and geese one copulation seems to be all that is
necessary to fertilize all the eggs of a cycle, or clutch. It is
possible that the sperm cells remain alive in the oviduct for
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Egg types, showing variation in size, also illustrating how the eggs may decrease in size
from the first egg of the clutch to the last
a long period and that each germ cell is fertilized as it is dis-
charged into the infundibulum. It is not unlikely that the
spermatozoa gain access to the ovary and that all the eggs of
the clutch are fertilized very soon after copulation.
How long after a male bird is introduced into a pen before
the eggs will become fertile? The sperm cells are provided
with slender tail-like filaments, or flagelle, with which they
propel themselves by a whip-like motion, and it is quite
probable that some of them reach the mouth of the oviduct
within 24 hours. Some eggs, therefore, may be fertile within
two or three days. Certainly, in five to 10 days all eggs should
be fertile if conditions are normal.
Detecting Infertility and Sex of Eggs
To detect whether an egg is fertile or not before incubation
is a problem vital to the poultry industry. After a few days of
required temperature fertile eggs show plainly the developing
embryo, whereas the infertile egg gives no such evidence.
After the infertile egg has been subjected to heat in this
manner for several days it loses its freshness and is subject to
decay much more than the fresh egg. It is, therefore, unfit for
market but may be used for cooking purposes in the home.
As the embryonic cell in a fertile egg differs somewhat in
structure from an infertile cell, being enveloped with a distinct
ring, it has been thought that fertility and non-fertility could
be detected by a powerful lens, but -the structural characters
are so delicate and the shell and membranes offer such inter-
ference to light that this method will probably prove im-
practical.
It is not impossible that an instrument will yet be devised
that will determine not only fertility but the sex of the embryo.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Sex is fixed at the time of fusion of the two sexed cells and it is
determined by the chromosomes of the germ cell. Science has
accomplished greater things than the problem here presented.
To be able to detect the infertile eggs before subjecting
them to the heat of the incubator would be a great boon to
the poultry industry. These are the eggs that should be
shipped to market, because they have greater keeping quali-
ties than fertilized eggs. It would mean a saving of 25 per
cent of all the eggs used for incubation.
If sex could be determined and the poultryman desired to
produce more pullets than cockerels, eggs with pullet germs
could be selected for the incubator. The theories that sex is
developed after incubation, that large and long eggs produce
males while small and short eggs produce females, that the
first eggs of a clutch usually produce males and those towards
the end of the clutch produce females, and that eggs with
rough ends produce males while those with smooth ends pro-
duce females, may, some of them, have a grain of truth but
they cannot be relied upon as infallible.
Abnormal Eggs
We have discussed the development and structure of the
normal egg. Under certain unfavorable conditions abnormali-
ties occur. It is well to understand these conditions, as it is
possible sometimes to correct them.
A double-yolked egg is formed when two yolks are
matured and discharged into the oviduct at the same time. A
common coat of albumen, membranes and shell are formed
around these making a single egg.
Eggs with blood spots are caused by the rupture of a blood
vessel when the follicle cleaves to allow the escape of the yolk.
The clot of blood formed escapes into the oviduct and is in-
corporated in the egg as it is surrounded by the albumen.
Such eggs are good for food, as the blood spot does not affect
the contents of the egg and may be easily removed.
Bloody eggs arise from some injury, disease or hemor-
rhage in the oviduct. The blood from the walls of the oviduct
becomes distributed through the albumen, and such eggs are
not fit for food.
A yolkless egg is formed when some foreign substance
gains access to the oviduct through the cloaca. It serves as a
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A good home made egg tester
nucleus around which the albumen is deposited and eventually
the outer membranes and shell.
A double egg is an egg within an egg and is formed when
the original egg by some cause is forced back into the oviduct.
A new layer of albumen is formed around it and, as it passes
onward, a new shell is formed. Thus we have the strange
phenomenon of an egg within an egg, an egg with two layers
of albumen and two shells.
Wormy eggs are caused by the passage of worms from the
cloaca into the oviduct, where they become enveloped by the
albumen before the shell is formed.
Stale fresh-laid eggs, which are foul in odor and offensive
in taste, may be traced to individual hens and may be due
either to the feed consumed or to a diseased condition of the
egg organs.
Gangrene or vent gleet of the cloaca, inflammation of the
oviduct, or a disease of the ovary might account for this con-
dition. Probably, however, the retention of the egg in the
body of the hen, resulting in incubation and finally decom-
position, is the best explanation of this phenomenon, at least
this is the most common cause. Sometimes, when deprived
of sufficient ash, hens will eat their own droppings, and this
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
might affect the eggs. The remedy is to find the guilty hens
and dispose of them. :
Incubation
Incubation is the development of the embryo within the
egg, and is to be distinguished from fertilization, which is the
fusion of the sperm and germ cells. The period of incubation
is 21 days, though it may range from 18 to 24 days, depending
on the time occupied in supplying the required number of heat
units. If the temperature is run at too high a degree, the time
of hatching is hastened; if at too low a degree, it is delayed.
The normal temperature for incubation is 103° Fahr. Any
drop below 90° or rise above 107° is considered dangerous
to the hatch. The low temperature is least objectionable.
Eggs will sometimes hatch if allowed to cool for 24 hours
in a room of moderate temperature, but such treatment un-
doubtedly results in weakened vitality. An excess of heat is
more disastrous because it coagulates the albumen and hardens
the yolk before it is absorbed into the body of the chick, causes
the chicks to stick to the shell in hatching, causes many chicks
to die in the shell, and produces a batch of weaklings that will
never thrive.
Room Temperature for Eggs
As an egg will incubate if kept in a room for any consider-
able time at a temperature of 70° Fahr. and as the germ will be
injured or destroyed if allowed to go below 30°, it is important
to know just how to regulate the temperature for eggs intended
for incubation. The correct reom temperature is 60° Fahr.,
though a range of five degrees above or below this point will
dono harm. A temperature of 50° Fahr. is correct for market
eggs.
Size and Weight of Eggs
The standard weight of a dozen market eggs is 24 ounces,
and such eggs are of average size. Abnormally large eggs
usually have a double yolk. An abnormally small egg may be
the first egg of a pullet or the last egg of a cycle, or clutch.
When very small, it is devoid of yolk. Eggs vary in weight,
even though of the same size, due to the density of the egg
contents. The size and weight of an egg are determined to
some extent by the breed producing it.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The Minorca lays a white egg, and so large that a dozen
will weigh 30 ounces. The Rhode Island Red and Plymouth
Rock egg is large and heavy, the average for these breeds
being about 26 ounces. , In the Vineland, New Jersey, egg-
laying contests it was found that the Rhode Island Red eggs
were heavier than those of any other dual purpose breed.
Leghorns and other Mediterranean breeds lay smaller eggs
than do the American breeds, though the White Leghorn may
be counted an exception to the rule. This breed has been
cultivated for large eggs, so that they compare favorably in
size with larger breeds.
The specific gravity of an egg can be tested by placing it
in a vessel of water. If the air space is small, the egg contents
filling the shell, the egg will lie on its side on the bottom of
the vessel. If the contents are well evaporated, leaving a
large air cell, the egg may float on the surface of the water.
Between these two extremes there are gradations in specific
gravity, the determining factor being the size of the air cell.
Egg testers are on the market for determining specific gravity.
The higher the specific gravity the greater the food value of
the egg contents. Only eggs of high specific gravity should be
placed in storage.
Color of Eggs
The color of eggs is due to pigments derived from the
blood. The pigment is deposited with the carbonate of lime at
the time that the shell is formed. The color gradually fades
as the hen approaches the end of her laying period. Undoubt-
edly egg-production has some connection with the fading of
the feathers during the laying period. Mottled and variegated
eggs occur and arise from the peculiarities of individual hens.
Whether the contents of a white-shelled egg have less
nutritive value than the contents of a brown-shelled egg is a
subject worthy of investigation. White eggs receive prefer-
ence in New York city, but in Boston brown eggs are pre-
ferred. In the western states an egg is an egg, whatever the
color. In marketing, if eggs are graded according to color it
adds to the appearance and undoubtedly appeals to critical
buyers.
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Shape of Eggs
The shape of an egg is determined by the character of the
oviduct. The contraction of the oviduct forces the egg on-
ward in its course. This contraction is behind the egg, there-
fore the small end of the egg is at this point, the large end
being toward the outside. If the oviduct is small the tendency
will be to make a long egg, if it is large the tendency is toward
a round egg. Round eggs are larger in diameter than long
eggs, as a rule. Eggs that are abnormal in shape are caused
by some abnormal condition in the oviduct.
Round and elongated eggs should never be used for incuba-
tion because it is difficult, if not impossible, for chicks to ex-
tricate themselves from the shells. Pullets produced from
such eggs will lay eggs of similar shape. Such eggs are diffi-
cult to pack, the round ones being too large in diameter and
the long ones too long for the ordinary container. By careful
selection from year to year a uniform type of egg can be
established for the flock. Uniformity in product means pleased
customers and better prices.
Composition of an Egg
An egg is 66 per cent water and 34 per cent solid or semi-
solid matter. The solid matter comprises. combinations of the
following elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul-
phur, phosphorus, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium,
iron, silicon and chlorine. These elements are combined in
substances known as protein, ash and fat. The following table
shows the percentages of these substances in the whole egg,
the white, and the yolk.
Table No. I1I—Composition of egg.
WATER PROTEIN ASH Fat
Percent Percent Percent Percent
Whole egg ..... cece eee ce cence eene 65.9 12.83 10.68 10.59
White: “Anges dae ad Saas a teyan eee 87.0 12.00 0.20 0.80
MET CE 485.6, deenvtessetrecnditenig roadie tars cose Midd ama 50.0 16.00 1.00 33.00
Reference to the above table. shows the materials which
enter into an egg. What better proof do we need of the im-
portance of providing in the ration all the elements required
to manufacture this finished product? If any one of these is
lacking the development of the egg is prevented, or at least
delayed until the missing material is supplied. As well un-
dertake to build a house without lumber and nails or an engine
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
without iron as to make hens lay without the materials re-
quired for the manufacture of an egg. Water is needed, as
66 per cent of the egg is water. Here is where many fail.
Eggs cannot be produced in winter without an abundance of
water. If the water supply ceases the hens suddenly quit.
Protein is required as it comprises 13 per cent of the whole
egg and 16 per cent of the yolk. It must be supplied in a bal-
anced ration. Protein of animal origin seems to be the most
helpful in egg production, hence skim milk, dried buttermilk,
fish scrap, meat scrap and tankage are recommended to supply
this need.
Ash enters into all the structures of an egg, but is especially
needed in the shell in the form of carbonate of lime, hence
oyster shell is used to supply this need.
Fat constitutes one-third of the weight of the yolk, and as,
in the process of egg building, the yolk is the first to be devel-
oped we are reminded that a hen must be fat or in good con-
dition before she can engage in productive laying. The fat
of her body is appropriated to build the yolk. This suggests
the importance of carbohydrates and proteids in due propor-
tion in the laying ration. The reader is referred to Chapter IV.
where the subject of feeding rations is fully discussed.
Mr. Osburn feeding his turkeys
[68]
.
Eggs from hidden nests are always open to suspicion. They shouid always be candled
before they are sold.
[69]
Chapter VI
Eggs and By-products
BOUT 35 per cent of all eggs are consumed by the pro-
ducer. As it is good business to sell the best that cus-
tomers may be pleased and a reputation for quality established,
it is important to cull for home use.
Culling for Home Use
Small eggs should be kept for home consumption. They
are as good in quality as the larger eggs, but they reduce the
weight of a dozen below standard requirements and are not in
favor with purchasers.
Dirty eggs should be kept at home. If freshly gathered
their quality is not impaired and, as there can be prompt con-
sumption in the home, they can be washed without harm.
whereas washed eggs should never be marketed on account
of their poor keeping quality.
Large and elongated eggs should be culled for home use as
they are liable to breakage in an ordinary container.
Cracked eggs have such poor keeping quality and are so
likely to become leakers and damage many others that they
should be kept for home consumption.
Frozen eggs can be used in the household but are not safe
to ship.
All eggs of doubtful quality should be kept at home. Such
are eggs upon which hens have been allowed to sit for a short
period, infertile eggs from the incubator, stale eggs from newly
found nests, and bloody eggs or eggs containing blood spots
or any foreign matter.
Eggs with blood spots, blood rings, mold and rot can be
culled out with an ordinary egg tester. Incubator eggs should
never be sent to market because their freshness is destroyed
by a few hours of heat, and they are liable to spoil before they
reach the consumer.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Keeping, Preserving and Storing Eggs
Infertile eggs keep the best, hence the slogan “Swat the
Rooster” (after the breeding season) is a good one. A cool
dry cellar is the most desirable place to keep eggs. The tem-
perature should not be allowed to go above 70° nor below 35°,
the correct temperature being 50°. The place where they are
kept should be clean and sweet. Foul odors injure the quality,
and dampness produces mold. Eggs for the incubator should
be turned daily and may be kept in cabinets having drawers
with movable, slatted bottoms.
Every producer should preserve eggs for future home con-
sumption. November is the lean month, and a few dozen eggs
stored for this season of scarcity will be greatly appreciated.
Further, such eggs can be sold as storage eggs when the
prices are high. The time to do this is in the time of plenty
when eggs are cheap.
Three methods of preserving eggs are in use.
1. Preserving in salt. This method is very simple and
requires only a good tight box with a quantity of salt. The
eggs are packed in the salt, a layer-at a time, until the box is
filled. The eggs for preserving should be clean and fresh. If
there is any doubt about their freshness, they should be can-
dled. Place the container in a cool place, and the eggs will
keep several months. Infertile eggs for this purpose can be
obtained by removing the males from the flock for two or three
weeks.
2. Preserving with lime water. This method is considered
more satisfactory than the salt method. Dissolve about three
pounds of unslaked lime in a small quantity of water and
then add about seven gallons of water sterilized by boiling.
Use a five gallon or a ten gallon crock and, after scalding it,
place the eggs in position and pour upon them the clear solu-
tion of lime water. Enough water should be added to cover
the eggs about two inches.
3. Preserving with water glass. This is the most satis-
factory method, though more expensive. Ifa five gallon crock
is used it should be cleaned thoroughly and scalded. Then
pour into it nine quarts of water that has been sterilized by
boiling and to this add one quart of water glass (sodium
silicate) and put the eggs in carefully so as not to crack the
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
shells. The solution should always cover the eggs for one or
two inches. When the crock or jar is full it should receive a
tight cover and be set in a cool place.
The principle involved in these methods is that of keeping
from the egg any bacteria or other harmful substances that
might cause decay. Some follow the practice of dipping the
eggs first in the water glass solution, and then allowing them
to dry. When the water glass sets it effectually closes the
pores of the egg. It is then put into the crock and held until
ready for consumption. Preserved eggs, intended for boiling,
should be punctured with a needle in the large end to allow
the escape of the expanding air, else they will crack.
Collecting Eggs
To keep eggs clean change the nesting material occasional-
ly. To prevent cracking or breaking when the eggs are laid
use an abundance of nesting material. It is a good plan to
cover the bottom of the nest box with sand or clean soil before
adding the material. Coarse straw is not very satisfactory.
Cut straw or chaff is better. A layer of fine wild hay makes
an excellent bed for the nest box. Blind checks and dents are
often due to a bare nest box. Hens cultivate the egg-eating
habit by reason of broken eggs in faulty nests.
Collect eggs carefully in a vessel kept especially for the
purpose. It should be lined with soft material to reduce the
danger of breakage. An oval basket answers well for this pur-
pose. In cold weather eggs intended for hatching should be
collected twice a day to prevent chilling. The same is true in
summer to prevent incubation. If the producer is catering
to a private trade and desires fancy eggs, they should be
gathered twice daily to prevent soiling. In ordinary weather
and conditions, it will be sufficient to collect the eggs once a
day.
Egg Losses
The chief losses of eggs on the farm are from the following
causes:
Neglect in gathering.
Incubation by natural heat.
Freezing.
Keeping in damp or warm room.
Loss in the incubator.
Be
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Breaking, either in the nest or from careless handling.
Vermin.
Filthy conditions.
Careless packing.
OND
All of these losses can be reduced by the producer and, if
the carrier, jobber and retailer would cooperate, it would mean
the saving of $50,000,000 annually, or a half billion dollars in
a decade.
Testing Eggs
Testing or candling eggs is easily accomplished by placing
the egg between a strong light and the eye. Testers are made
especially for this purpose. The electric tester is probably
the most satisfactory.
In candling for market the following defective eggs are de-
tected and rejected:
Checks, eggs with cracked shells.
Blood rings, eggs in which incubation has started but the
germ has died.
Broken yolks, eggs in which the vitelline membrane has
ruptured and the contents of the yolk are diffused through the
albumen.
Spots; these show a dead immovable germ or some foreign
substance in the egg or a clot of blood.
Shrunken eggs, which are indicated by the large air cell.
Rots, in which decomposition has set in and the contents
appear black.
Eggs intended for hatching should be tested before being
set, and all that show the above characteristics should be
thrown out.
Testing out Infertile Eggs
It is customary to test eggs under incubation on the sev-
enth to the tenth day and again on the fifteenth to the
eighteenth day. The test is made in a warm room. The tray
from the incubator is placed on a low table and two baskets
are provided, one to receive the infertile eggs and the other
for those with dead germs and otherwise defective. Infertile
eggs will appear perfectly clear. Dead germs will often be
found adhering to the shell membrane. Shrunken eggs will
show an excessively large air space. If the air space is filled
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
up the egg is getting too much moisture. Cloudy eggs are
defective and indicate a breaking up of the egg contents.
Other defects will appear, and with a little practice the operator
will soon learn to detect the eggs with strong germs.
The By-Products
It is claimed that the great packing establishments in Chi-
cago make their profits largely on the by-products. Every-
thing is saved and utilized—the hair, blood, viscera. bones and
excreta. Some of the manufactured goods are bone meal, gran-
ulated bone, meat scrap, meat meal, tankage, blood meal and
fertilizer. ‘
The chief by-products of poultry are the feathers and the
fertilizer.
Feathers
What is a feather? It is a modified scale, being derived
from the skin, or epidermis. The types of feathers are the
perfect, the downy and the hairy. The hairy type is illus-
trated in the hairs that remain on a fowl after plucking and
which are usually removed by singeing. Down is the type
of feather found in the day-old chick and upon ducks and
geese after the outer feathers are removed. The perfect type
is developed after hatching and is described below.
The structure of a feather includes the following parts:
Quill, the naked hollow barrel which is inserted into the skin.
Shaft, which is a continuation of the quill. It is rectangular in cross-
section.
- Vane, the expanded portions of the feather attached to the sides
of the shaft.
The vane consists of the barbs, which are branches from the shaft;
the barbules, branches from the barbs; and barbicels, branches from the
barbules. The barbules and barbicels have hooklets by means of which
these structures are interlocked. Thus, by these overlapping and inter-
locking parts, the vane, or web, is formed. This makes the feather very
resistant to air in flight.
Composition of a feather. The feather is composed of a
large percentage of silica. The organic constituent consists
approximately as follows: Carbon, 50 per cent; hydrogen, 6
per cent; nitrogen, 17 per cent; oxygen, 23 per cent; sulphur,
4 per cent.
The abundance of nitrogen in the composition suggests the
importance of a nitrogenous diet during the molt.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Molting of Feathers
This is the shedding of the feathers and the growth of a
new supply. Some birds molt twice a year, in the fall when
they put on their winter clothes preparatory to cold weather
and in the spring when they put on their breeding dress.
Asa rule, however, there is but one molt, in the fall of the
year, the change in plumage which occurs in the spring being
but an increase in coloring matter. During the winter the
plumage is often of a protective nature, resembling the somber
colors of that season. Chickens and other domestic fowls
undergo a complete molt in the summer or fall.
The growth of new feathers makes a severe drain upon
the vitality of a fowl. It must have a very important bearing
upon egg-preduction, for when a hen molts the surplus food
is required to make feathers, and egg-production naturally
ceases. Some hens molt so gradually and the draught upon
the vital forces is so moderate at any one time that they keep
on laying through a portion of the molt. Others seem to shed
their feathers in a day. Then follows a long period in which
new feathers must be grown, and that means a period of rest :
from egg-production.
It is claimed that the early molter is the poor layer. This
is not necessarily so. To illustrate, a good laying pullet may
continue laying until early summer. She becomes broody
and, if allowed to sit too long, she loses flesh, in which con-
dition she is not able to resume egg-production. If such a
bird is broken of her broodiness and suddenly put on a heavy
nitrogenous diet she may be forced into an early molt. Teo
cull her from the flock for this reason would be unjust.
It has been proved that the period of molting can be con-
trolled by the system of feeding. Hens that are put on a
starvation diet for two weeks and then fed heavily will often
molt out of season, even in midsummer. When the egg-ration
is withdrawn they cease to lay, when they cease laying they
begin to molt. It is also probable that the exact time of molt-
ing is affected by the time of hatching. Pullets hatched very
early usually molt in the fall. I have known March hatched
cockerels to molt in October. Pullets hatched late may miss
the fall molt but will molt the following summer and yet be
very good layers. To prevent the summer molt it is necessary
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
to provide an egg-producing ration, so that the hens may be
kept laying as long as possible.
Late molters are good layers. This is a very safe rule.
They lay more eggs than the early layers because the laying
season continues through a longer period. Ifa hen molts late
she will have a shorter rest period. Feathers shed during the
molting season are lost for commercial purposes. The time
required to produce a complete new dress is about three
months.
Uses of Feathers
Here are some of the commercial uses of feathers:
They are used for the manufacture of pillows, beds, cush-
ions, ornaments for apparel, toys, dusters, fans, muffs, feather
bone, feather board and brooders. In Three Oaks, Michigan,
is a large factory which utilizes the tail feathers of turkeys
for the manufacture of featherbone and feather board. These
articles are used in making corsets and other apparel for
women. Feathers are always in demand and meet ready sale
if properly prepared.
Preparing Feathers for Market
Dry-picked feathers are preferred to those plucked after
scalding. Scalded feathers must be thoroughly dried before
shipping. White feathers command a better price than colored.
The most valuable are the down and fine feathers of geese.
The fine feathers of chickens also command a good price, es-
pecially if dry-picked. Feathers should be graded for market
and the different grades packed separately.
In picking turkeys, save all the feathers that grow on the
tail, also those on the two joints of the wing next the body.
The pointed, one-sided feathers, or primaries, that grow on
the end of the wing sell at a low price and should be kept
separate from the others.
In packing, lay quill feathers straight in as light boxes as
possible. If stuffed into bags they become broken. Body
feathers should be shipped in burlap sacks. Chicken feathers
should be forked over to allow the animal heat to escape and
to assist in drying. Dampness mats them together and in
that event they are liable to arrive at market in a heated or
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
moldy condition. If quill feathers are mixed in with the body
feathers it will mean a cut in the price.
Fertilizer
Poultry manure is rich in nitrogen and hence is a very
valuable fertilizer. It is usually used on the garden, where a
very rich soil is necessary. Poultry manure loses strength
rapidly when piled outdoors. It should be spread on the soil
as soon as possible. Do not mix poultry manure with wood
ashes or lime, as this causes a rapid loss of nitrogen.
A tight dropping board under the roost saves the droppings
and keeps the floor clean. It is a good thing to sprinkle the
dropping board with some good absorbent, such as peat, saw-
dust or sifted coal ashes. The dropping board should be
cleaned off once or twice a week.
Many millions of dollars are lost annually by failure to
utilize the by-products of poultry. The wise poultryman will
gather up the crumbs that nothing may be lost.
Chapter VII
The Puzzle of the Breeds
HERE are 149 varieties of land and water fowl recognized
by the American Poultry Association. Of these. 121 are
chickens, 15 are ducks, seven are geese and six are turkeys.
These varieties represent 60 breeds and 15 general classes.
Who can measure the thought and patience and skill required
to produce these results? Scientific work of a high order,
carried on through many years, has been necessary, and much
credit must be given constructive breeders for the service they
have rendered.
What is a Breed?
The term class is applied to a group of breeds having a
cominon origin and a close resemblance in type. To illustrate,
the Asiatic class is represented by Cochins, Brahmas and
Langshans, breeds that have originated in Asia, and there is
a resemblance in structural characters.
A breed is a group of individuals having a common type.
Breed is determined more by shape than by color. There may
be several varieties of the same breed. For example, the
Plymouth Rock breed which belongs to the American class.
embraces six varieties, but all of these have a common re-
semblance in shape.
A variety is a group of individuals which have common
color patterns as well as the shape characteristic of the breed.
The White Plymouth Rock is a variety of the Plymouth Rock
breed.
A strain is a group under a variety. It is produced by in-
breeding in the hands of the expert breeder. The Hawkins
strain of Barred Rocks, the Tompkins strain of Rhode Island
Reds and the Barron strain of White Leghorns are good illus-
trations. A strain comprises individuals which excel in shape.
color or egg-production, and this is brought about by the skill
of the breeder.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
How to Select a Breed
A purebred fowl is one that breeds true to breed character-
istics. There may be an occasional exception, but this is due
to reversion, the fowl breeding back to some ancestor. If
mated differently this same fowl might breed true. This ten-
dency to revert is overcome by inbreeding.
Is the Purebred Worth While?
Every breed has points of excellence. If it were not so,
it would have perished in the making. Is the farmer better
off with a purebred flock? In this connection let us note :—
1. That it costs no more to feed a purebred than a mongrel.
2. That the purebred is more attractive and will command greater
interest and receive better care than the mongrel, and will therefore
prove more profitable. In the development of a purebred, vigor and
high production are emphasized as well as fine feathers, so it will be
more productive than the mongrel, which, on account of promiscuous
breeding, will be found wanting.
3. The purebred will produce a uniform product in carcass and egg,
and this means an appeal to the purchaser, insuring a ready market
and top prices. .
4. There are sources of income from a purebred flock not found with
the mongrel, such as eggs for hatching, day-old chicks, and breeding
stock.
5. When farms are located near each other and a farmer has his
separate breed, he can indentify his own stock in case of accidental
mpixing.
6. Purebred fowls create a special interest among young people, ap-
pealing to the nobler sentiments. This benefit alone is worth all the
extra expense in establishing the flock.
It is a matter of great interest and encouragement that so
many purebred flocks are being established on the farms. It
is a safe estimate that more than 50 per cent of the flocks in
the states of leading production are comprised of standard bred
fowls. The tourist along country highways cannot fail to be
impressed with the growing interest in purebred poultry.
What is the Best Breed?
It is commonly stated that one breed is as good as another.
This statement should not go unchallenged. There is a best
breed for the individual, the environment, the end to be at-
tained, and the location of the farm or plant.
The best breed: for the individual must be determined by
his own likes and-dislikes. If he has a nervous temperament
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
he will undoubtedly choose an Orpington in preference to a
nervous Leghorn. If bright colors appeal he will probably
overlook the Black Langshan. It is the appeal to the in-
dividual that usually determines the breed selected. It would
be unwise to select a breed toward which there is any aversion.
The question of environment may determine the best breed
to be chosen. For a severely cold climate a Light Brahma
would have preferences over a Leghorn. A hot climate would
not be suited to the Buff Cochin. If the soil is damp and
poorly drained and surroundings unfavorable, a breed of great
physical stamina would be the best.
Single comb Rhode Island Red cockerel
The end sought should have some influence in determining
what is the best breed. If market fowls are desired it would
be unwise to select the Leghorn, Hamburg, or Andalusian, but
a meat breed should be selected. If eggs are the aim, then an
egg breed is best. The location with reference to market
should be a determining factor. A breed producing white
eggs would be indicated for locations near New York City and
San Francisco, but near Boston and other localities, the breed
of the brown egg would be the best. There is a best breed.
How to determine it is not always an easy task.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
How to Select a Breed
Having considered well the soil, the climate and the loca-
tion, the first thing to determine is the character of breed that
will meet the conditions and fulfill the aim of the producer.
Breeds are classified as meat breeds, dual-purpose breeds,
egg breeds and fancy breeds. A meat breed is one whose ten-
dency is to lay on flesh. Such breeds are large, docile, good
feeders, but, as a rule, poor layers. The egg breeds have been
trained for egg-production by years of careful selection. They
are usually small in size, not heavy eaters, do not fatten readily,
and make poor market fowls. They have the faculty of turn-
ing the food into eggs and this is done at less expense than by
the heavier breeds. They are as a rule nervous and excitable,
but can be trained to become very friendly. The dual-purpose
breeds partake of the qualities of the two classes just defined.
The leading dual-purpose breeds are of American origin.
They range between the meat breeds and the egg breeds in
size. They make choice table fowls and at the same time are
good egg-producers. The fancy breeds are those cultivated
because of certain marked peculiarities of shape and color.
They appeal to the fancy of the breeder and are bred as a
matter of interest and pleasure, rather than as a source of
profit.
Which one of these classes shall the poultry-keeper select?
The average farmer will select the dual-purpose breed. The
commercial poultryman, whose plant is near the great city,
will select an egg breed if he wishes to cater to the market for
choice eggs. If his aim is to produce the finished carcass, he
will select a heavier breed. The amateur, whose aim is to
satisfy his interest in the fancy, will select a breed of that
character.
But there are several breeds of each class and it is some-
times very difficult to make a definite choice. If the dual-
purpose class has been chosen, the individual must decide
whether to adopt the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode
Island Red, Orpington, or another of the several general-
purpose breeds. Having decided on the breed, there remains
the still difficult task of selecting the variety. This may be de-
termined by his own fancy or by his knowledge of some good
variety, or by the variety of some good breeder in whom he
has confidence and whose advice he is willing to consider.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
After the variety is chosen then he must decide upon the
strain, for he knows well that if he would make rapid progress
he should secure his foundation stock from an established
strain. If he does not do this he will have to build a strain
of his own and this will require years of patient effort.
At least 75 per cent of all purebred flocks are on the farms,
and farmers not only furnish the demand for purebred stock
produced by the exclusive fancier and are the means of per-
petuating existing breeds, but many of them are constructive
breeders and are to be credited with producing new breeds
or making improvements on those already established.
Standard of Perfection
It would be unwise to undertake in the limited compass
of this book even a brief description of all the standard varie-
ties of poultry. For full and accurate descriptions of all recog-
nized breeds the reader is referred to the “Standard of Per-
fection” published by the American Poultry Association. This
excellent book can be secured from Prairie Farmer’s Book
Bureau. Every farmer or fancier who is building a pure-
bred flock will receive great help by securing a copy of this
book.
Key to Poultry Breeds
The following key to the recognized poultry breeds is ac-
knowledged to be brief and incomplete. The descriptions are
only suggestive, but may help the beginner in his selection of
a breed and in identifying at least the more common breeds.
Class I. American Breeds: Dual-purpose breeds of American
origin, medium size, clean legs.
Breed No. 1.—Plymouth Rock: With long, broad and decp body with full breast.
Cock, 9% lbs.; hen, 7% Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) All feathers barred white and dark, ..............205. Barred Plymouth Rock
-(2) Plumage pure white in all sections............ cee ee eeee White Plymouth Rock
(3) Plumage rich buff in all sections........... cc cece eee eee Buff Plymouth Rock
(4) Black and white with pencilings..............65 Silver-Penciled Plymouth Rock
(5) Red, brown and black, with pencilings............... Partridge Plymouth Rock
(6) White, with black in hackle, wings and tail......... Columbian Plymouth Rock
Breed No. 2.—Wyandotte: Body short, broad, deep and round. Rose comb. Cock,
8% lbs.; hen, 6% Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) Pure white in all sections.......... Weobivewi.choiehs aus caandnecewed White Wyandotte
(2). Pure; buff in all, ‘sectionsis.. i s:cds oyeted s anseeaeailer os Seeks Buff Wyandotte
(3) Greenish: black in all sections...........c ccc ec cece eae Black Wyandotte
(4) Black ‘with, silver lacing: cc seems eesenunie hasnt a sienna e ales Silver Wyandotte
(5). Black: ‘with, golden’ lacitig’.0, 0 saws aaa kadae bere ecd eat Golden Wyandotte
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
(6) Black and white with pencilings....... seeneeesees ss ilver-Penciled Wyandotte
(7) Red, brown and black with pencilings............0..005 Partridge Wyandotte
(8) White, with black in hackle, wings and tail............ Columbian Wyandotte
Breed No. 3.—Javas: Single comb, long back, Cock, 91%4 lbs.; hen, 7% lbs.
Varieties:
(1) Black with greenish Sh@éiiias os scues o vaeys Se eARU4 ob GS eee Dhow Black Java
(2) Mottled black and whites «<saasaddias+sauedus seeeans pews «....Mottled Java.
Breed No. 4.—Dominiques: Rose comb; back with concave sweep, medium length and
\broad. Cock, 7 Ibs.; hen, 5 Ibs. :
Varieties:
(1) Irregular ars of slate and white. <: ios. es sess sciasouacs American Dominique
Breed No. 5.—Rhode Island Red: Back broad and long, breast full, body oblong,
closely feathered. Cock, 8% lbs.; hen, 6% Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) Rich red, black in tail and wings, rose comb...... Rose Comb Rhode Island Red
(2) Single comb..... Nc ciU-idnateed Ssqcarisbe Deere: atorepasece anecoisee: 2 Single Comb Rhode Island Red
Breed No, 6.—Buckeye: Broad and long back, rounded breast. Cock, 9 Ibs.; hen, 61%
lbs.
Variety:
(1) Color mahogany bay, pea comb......... cece ee se cece eneee American Buckeye
Class II. ‘Asiatic breeds: Legs and toes feathered, large size, meat
breeds.
Breed No. 1—Cochins: Round and plump body, single comb. Cock, 11 Ibs.; hen,
8% lbs.
Varieties:
(1) Prevailing color buff... .. cc cece ete eee ee enone ee eeee Buff Cochin
(2) Plumage white White Cochin
(3 )Plumage black Black Cochin
(4) Prevailing colors black and red.............. uses vdeo ones ssenicare Partridge Cochin
Breed No. 2.Brahmas: Body long, compact, closely feathered. Pea comb. Cock,
12 lbs.; hen, 9% Ibs.
‘
Varieties:
(1) White, except black in hackle, wings and tail............+-.. Light Brahma.
(2) Plumage black and white... .. cc. ccc cence cence ences Dark Brahma
Breed No. 3.—Langshans: Short body with concave sweep to back; single comb.
Cock, 9% lbs.; hen, 7% Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) Plumage black..........eee eens ok Ras BRS Geass Beeler ea hielaea te esa Black Langshan
C2) Plame Wea sie 4 ws eee tas edad oer ew me peda mee a tem White Langshan
Class III. Mediterranean breeds: Body slender and small, graceful
carriage. Legs and toes clean. Egg breeds.
Breed No. 1.—Leghorns: Moderately long body, yellow legs, white ear lobes;
sprightly carriage.
Varieties: i
(i) Plamape: white, vose or single comb. .14544.4 sews nenawa cee White Leghorn
(2) Plumage brown and black, rose or single comb bess Sse aS ahs Brown Leghorn
(3) Plumage buff, rose or single GOTH Dis i esiene 08D desse vie ah avehceuetsan, euanarehs (ochons Buff Leghorn
(4) Plumage black, SIMMS COM Disia-a-siseerery s/s Reeves, 5 a eee SMA es NS _.. Black Leghorn
(5) Silvery white, with black in sani sac comb i Sabibadsc ich Beineie:ss Silver Leghorn
(6) Dranies, ved, salmon, white... + ianes sauna Gaede SaaS EAR ew Red Pyle Leghorn
Breed No. 2.—Minorcas: Large igs. dese body. "Cock, 9 Ibs.: 3; hen, 7% lbs.
Varieties:
(2) Phomage black, rose of single Comliays ss cecasyconsss wuss ¢ can Black Minorca
(2) Plumage white, rose or single comb.........esse cece eee ee nes White Minorca
(3) Plumage buff, single comb.........eeeeee cence nee rete eee ees Buff Minorca
Breed No. 3.—Black Spanish: Plumage black; ear lobes and face white. Cock, 8 lbs.;
hen, 6% IDS... sce ects eee erence etscayeley atesatare a eneiaiehn résav ... White-Faced Black Spanish
Breed No. 4.—Andalusians: Leghorn type, medium size, graceful carriage. Cock, 6
lbs.; hen, 5 tbs. Plumage bluc........cceee ee cece sete gee eens Blue Andalusian
Breed No. 5.—Anconas: Leghorn type. Cock, 5% Ibs.; hen, in Ibs.
(1) Plumage mottled black and white........... setae 6 Ss50NG ..Mottled Ancona
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Class IV. English Breeds: Dual purpose breeds, excelling in meat
qualities. Medium to large size.
Breed No. 1.—Dorkings: Body broad, oblong, low-set; five toes; single comb. Cock,
7% Ibs.; hen, 6 Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) “Plamage: white: ssescc-careyeeesiade dole eeaewielad.s satan arent eens White Dorkings
(2) Colors white, black “and Salmon iirc’ slilais 5 clezgins avatahat Silver Gray Dorking
(3) Colors black, straw, salmon, gray; 4-toes.........+++2++++++++Colored Dorking
Breed No. 2.—Redcap: Body long, cylindrical. Rose comb. ‘
(1) Predominating colors, red and bay......e-.eeeeeeeeeeeerece English Red Cap
Breed No. 3.—Orpingtons: Large size. Body long, broad and deep. Legs and
skin white. Cock, 10 lIbs.; hen, 8 Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) Plumage white in all sectionS.............eeeeeeeee Geeta a sly White Orpington
(2) Plumage buff in all sections..... gob hat eie tenses dames seahevers .- Buff Orpington
(3) Plumage black in all sections............002ee-ee cence eeee Black Orpington
(4) Plumage blue in all sectionS.........ce se ee cece seeeeeeee .--.Blue Orpington
Breed No. 4.—Cornish: Broad breast and back, upright carriage, pea comb, stout legs.
Cock, 10 Ibs.; hen, 7% Ibs.
Varieties:
(1) Plumage greenish black........--. cece cence cece e tee e eee ...+.Dark Cornish
C2): UPA we: “Wt sao: sincera: gostei ves espe atea on Sassen 8 assests 8 ysreie ros: Were ..-.White Cornish
(3) Plumage red, with white lacing......-....e0.--eee eee White-laced Red Cornish
Breed No. 5.—Sussex: Body oblong; legs, skin and flesh white. Cock, 9 lbs.; hen,
7 Ibs.
Varieties: ;
(1) Reddish Bron White speckled sii. a wierseeg weaeisinw Hae ae eee aE Speckled Sussex
(2) Mahogany red........e.sceeeee oa yai Sie siaveyeuncsaptuckcaacaue Sisleharese seeeeeeeeRed Sussex
Class V. Polish Breeds: Moderate size, prominent crest.
Breed No. 1.—Polish: Body medium length, tapering toward rear. Pea comb. Moderate
size,
Varieties:
CT) WIBIEG: CHEST ie icieke ote wreeind wsigenns aad Rees Se White-crested Black Polish
(2) Golden crest and beard. eee 5, bavezgnceel sh sateen Rai MEGS Bearded Golden Polish
(3) Plumage white, with black lacing................-0.005- Bearded Silver Polish
<4) Plumage: whites: ewooae vette crane 5 AF Re ee ees BS ». Bearded White Polish
(5) Plumage buff, laced with pale Dat fBiaseccscheitea word rece rane. W aesrare wos Spon Buff-laced Polish
(6) Wathout’ ‘beard swases eset see tee sates odds OS Golden Non-bearded Polish
(7) Without beard......... Silver Non-bearded Polish
(8) Without beard ........ aN ace ERA ected Sceseeeyere White Non-bearded Polish
Class VI. Hamburgs: Small size, brilliant colors, white ear lobes,
blue shanks.
Breed No. 1.—Hamburgs: Body round, prominent breast, rose comb.
Varieties:
(1) Golden bay, with black spangles.............. ...-Golden Spangled Hamburg
(2) Silvery white, with black spangles.............+6. Silver Spangled Hamburg
(3) Reddish bay, penciled black........... seeseeee.Golden Penciled Hamburg
(4) Silvery white, penciled black. p -Silve- Hanciled Hamburg
(5) Pure White.........eeee eee eee se eeeeeeeeeees ees White Hamburg
(6) Greenish Black ....ce cece ee eee ee cence SUE Gn eae Black Hamburg
Class VII. French Breeds: Dual purpose breeds, excelling in table
qualities; V-shaped comb.
Breed No. 1—Houdans: Crest and beard, toes five. Cock, 7% lbs.; hen, 6% Ibs,
Varieties:
(1) Plumage black and anys were Rie Shea Mottled Houdans
(2) Plumage white.. Seiwa ..White Houdans
Breed No. 2.—Crevecoeurs: "Back broad, breast “full, body compact, “Tegs short. Cock,
8 lbs.; hen, 7 Ibs.
(1) Plumage black, crest present......cseeececeeevcneeeceeee «ee...Crevecoeur
Breed No. 3.—La Fleche: Without crest. Large and powerful body. Cock, 8% lbs.;
hen, 7% Ibs.
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(1). Plumage; ‘glossy: blaéks i224 si.uaa ec iansd seni + eracins esata bees La Fleche
Breed No. 4.—Faverolles: Single comb and with beard and muffs. Cock, 8 Ibs.;
hen, 6% lbs.
(1) Colors, salmon, brown, and black......... cece eee cree Salmon Faverolles
Class VIII. Continental: Egg breeds, active, productive.
Breed No. 1.—Campines: Long body, full breast, single comb. Cock, 6 Ibs.; hen, 4 lbs.
Varieties:
(1) Greenish-black barred with white...... 0... cc cece e ee cee Silver Campines
(2) Greenish-black barred with golden bay.............eee0ee ...».Golden Campines
Class IX. Games and Game Bantams: Comprise two breeds and
sixteen varieties.
Class X. Orientals, including Black Sumatras and Malays, three
breeds and three varieties.
Class XI. Ornamental Bantams, eight breeds and nineteen varieties.
Class XII. Miscellaneous Breeds, including Silkies, Sultans and
Frizzles.
Class XIII. Ducks.
Breeds Varieties
PCMH Gy bcs carcbevs se eenecee a2 Heres Sos BUGS & Oleg ss Riaubsae SPS ani eo wiles eee arena eS eagetee White
Aylesbury
Rouen ...... iin gece agus Se sutiees na: 6 °RGes8 esas Matsa eeue PRC Eas ov aT coed E RAN a SaS fla oe Stays Colored
BRUAH Hie Es. szeive secs vanes: S-Sec MLSS Snvchnrc Sogec wes ce dea See ese sa OE ig: Sarees aie ase Penciled
Class XIV. Geese.
Breeds Varieties
* Pealeuee a cacddasens ca taka s mekd eda apa CLiGe SE PRE Ke AG SUE eee 2 eae Gray
Emden
African
Chinese
Chinese
Wild “4 :
Egyptian occ c cece cece een eee eee eee eee e eaten teen e teens
Class XV. Turkeys.
Breed Varieties
(Bronze
| Narragansett
FE RCUS 6 sce dao § ha a BS EIST EE BH ERA SRR PROT er ODES {White Holland
| Black
| Slate
, P (Bourbon Red
Every breed in this remarkable list has a history. It may
be that all chickens hark back to a common ancestry, and the
same may be true of ducks, geese and turkeys. Under the
laws of selection (natural or artificial), variation, and pre-
potency original characters have been changed and by in-
breeding new types have been established. Much of the past
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history of every breed is covered from human knowledge, so
that our knowledge of the origin of any breed or variety is
very limited. The near-origin of some of the breeds is quite
well known. It may be helpful to cite a few of the more pop-
ular breeds, giving their anepesse origin and some of their
valuable characteristics.
Origin and Value of Popular Breeds
To know the origin of a breed puts the poultry-keeper in
possession of the good and bad characters of the ancestral
breeds and enables him to conduct his breeding operations in
such a way as to eliminate the undesirable qualities. To know
the points of value in the breed of his choice enables him in
the care and feeding of his flock to emphasize and improve
these qualities. There are other breeds than those named that
are just as good from a utility or aesthetic standpoint as those
given, but these are the breeds that seem to the writer to be
most common on the farms. They probably represent 90 per
cent of all farm poultry.
Barred Plymouth Rock Pullet, Oblong type
Barred Plymouth Rocks
This is pre-eminently the farmers’ breed, though its popu-
larity has waned in some degree since the appearance of other
breeds that vie with it in excellence. As to its origin, it is
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
claimed to have been produced from the American Dominique
as a foundation, and upon this foundation have been placed
several different courses of breeding. In this view the Barred
Rock can have more than one origin, but the consensus of
opinion is that Asiatic breeds crossed upon the Dominique
are the source of the modern Barred Rock. Dark and light
specimens appear in the breeding, and this necessitates a
Pullet Bred Barred Plymouth Rock Cockerel
double system of mating as necessary in order to produce
specimens of show-bird excellence. In recent years the two
sub-varieties are judged separately, and there are some breed-
ers who breed one type to the exclusion of the other. The
tendency of the female is to become darker in color and of the
male to become lighter. This prevents uniformity and the
fault is overcome by double mating.
The Barred Rock is a splendid dual-purpose breed. The
chicks grow rapidly and are thrifty. The flesh is highly prized.
They are good layers in all seasons if fed for egg-production.
The hens are good sitters and mothers. Eggs are large and
heavy and, as the flesh surpasses in tenderness and quality,
they are in great demand in the markets. The pictures on this
and the preceding page show a typical cockerel and pullet of
this popular breed.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
White Plymouth Rock
This variety originated as a sport from the Barred Rock,
and its color was fixed by inbreeding. White Rocks have
made a strong appeal to the farmer, and it is quite a common
thing to see large flocks. They make an attractive picture on
the lawn or meadow. The development of this variety has
been in good hands, so that strains, such as the Fishel and
Halbach, have been developed which excel as market speci-
mens and surpass in egg-production. At the national egg-
laying contest at Mountain Grove, Mo., Lady Show-you, a
White Rock hen, attracted world-wide interest by defeating
all entrants by laying 281 eggs in twelve months. In keeping
the breed pure the disqualifications to be avoided are side-
sprigs on comb, feathers on legs, white in ear-lobes, or black
in plumage.
Columbian Wyandotte Pullet showing the
tound type of body characteristic of the
Wyandotte
White Wyandotte
The Silver Wyandotte is of American origin, several breed-
ers having contributed toward its production. French, Ham-
burg and Asiatic breeds were used. The White Wyandotte
is a sport from the Silver Wyandotte. The plumage is pure
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white, ear lobes red, and shanks yellow. The comb is rose.
A single comb or a foreign color in any section is to be
avoided. This breed has a host of enthusiastic admirers. It
is famous for egg-production and the quality of the meat pro-
duced probably excels that of the Plymouth Rock. It is repre-
sented in some of the large commercial egg-farms and is a
common breed on the farm.
Rhode Island Red
The Rhode Island Red embraces two varieties, the Rose
Comb and the Single Comb. These are alike in all respects
except the comb. The Rhode Island Red is of American
origin and takes its name from the state where it is believed
to have originated. The breeds entering into its composition
are the Cochin China, the Black-breasted Red Malay, and the
Brown Leghorn.
On account of its composite character, it is a breed difficult
to breed true to shape and color. By the law of reversion
there is a constant tendency to throw specimens that are off
in type or color. It will require time to breed out this ten-
dency. Marked improvement in the breed has been made in
recent years. The Rhode Island Red is a hardy fowl, excelling
in winter egg-production and is also an excellent table fowl.
For these reasons the breed is in great demand.
The chief objection to it is the inclination to broodiness
during the summer months. As sitters and mothers the hens
excel. Chicks make rapid growth and choice broilers are made
at an early age. Pullets mature in seven months. Eggs are
large and smooth in outline, the number of abnormal eggs
being remarkably few. This breed is giving the Barred Rock
a close race for supremacy on the farm.
Buff Orpington
All varieties of Orpingtons were originated by William
Cook of Orpington, England. They are good general purpose
fowls, extelling in the quantity and quality of meat which they
furnish. In egg-production they do not equal the American
breeds, but they are considered very good winter layers. The
hens are good sitters and mothers; indeed they are so per-
sistent in sitting that this habit is counted against them. The
legs, skin, and meat are white. The white flesh is objected to
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in some localities, but this unwise prejudice will disappear
in time because of their real merit as market fowls. Orping-
tons have a strong tendency to have feathers on toes and
shanks because of their origin. This disqualification must be
guarded against.
The White Orpington is almost as popular as the Buff.
It has the same excellent qualities, but the color is white.
Single Comb]Buff Orpington hen, wedge type
to round
Light Brahma
Of the meat breeds probably the Light Brahma is bred
more extensively than any other. It is of Asiatic origin. It
has been used to good . advantage in forming some of the
American breeds. It is a handsome breed, excelling i in meat
production, and is a fair layer. It is noted for vigor and pre-
potency, and is docile, and for that reason may be kept easily
in confinement. Pullets develop to laying maturity in about
ten months.
Black Langshan
The Black Langshan is a handsome breed and not uncom-
mon on the farm. It is a good layer, the skin and flesh are
white. As a table fowl it stands in good repute. It is con-
sidered a hardy breed. Like the Brahma it is of Asiatic origin,
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The White Leghorn
This breed is of Italian origin. Since its introduction into
the United States it has been so wonderfully improved that
the original stock suffers by comparison. English breeders
come to this country for their supply of birds. The White
White Leghorn Hen, Oblong type
Leghorn, as found in America, is supreme in egg-production.
Its popularity is evident in every state, but on the Atlantic
and Pacific coasts where the great commercial egg factories
are found, this breed is most abundant.
Mottled Ancona
The Ancona is a breed of Italian origin and is being recog-
nized as one of the greatest of egg-machines. It is more or
less abundant on the farms, and is certain to increase in popu-
larity in all sections where egg-production is of prime im-
portance. The egg is white, of good size, and is produced
economically. The general color of the breed is black with
about every fifth feather tipped with white.
Campines
Silver and Golden Campines have been bred in northern
Europe for many years. They have the egg-type of the Medi-
terranean breeds and are believed to have come originally from
the shores of the Mediterranean. The general color is white
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with the feathers barred with distinct bands of white or golden
hay, according to the variety.
They are hardy, vigorous, great hustlers and wonderful
egg-machines. They are gaining in popularity in this coun-
try on account of their remarkable foraging habits, subsisting
where other fowls would perish.
DUCKS
Duck culture is quite general on the farms of the United
States, though on a limited scale. There is the meat type and
the egg type. In some sections duck culture is carried on
very extensively, as in the Long Island district.
Pekin Duck
This breed was introduced from China and is now well
distributed throughout the United States. It is the most
popular meat breed and is used almost exclusively on the great
commercial duck farms of the East. Squabs are sold at eight
to ten weeks of age, when they weigh 41% lbs. to 6 lbs.
The Pekin has a long, broad and deep body and the plumage
is creamy white. A black bean in drake or foreign color in
plumage disqualifies.
The drake weighs 9 lbs. and the duck, 8 lbs. This duck
lays about 100 eggs in a season, and the fertility is usually
good.
The Aylesbury Duck
This duck is of English origin and is probably next to the
Pekin in utility and popularity. It differs from the Pekin in
having a horizontal carriage instead of upright, the beak is
pale, flesh-colored instead of orange-yellow, the shanks and
toes are light orange instead of reddish orange, and the plum-
age is pure white instead of creamy white. The weights are
same as those of the Pekin. It is a good layer, a fine market
duck, and well adapted to commercial farming.
GEESE
Six breeds of geese are recognized, Toulouse, Emden, Afri-
can, Chinese, Canadian or Wild, and Egyptian.
The Gray Toulouse, named from the city of Toulouse in
South France, is extensively bred on account of its large size
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and good market qualities. The goose is a good layer, pro-
ducing 20 to 35 eggs in a season. The color is gray, shading
into white on abdomen. The gander weighs 26 lbs. and the
goose, 20 lbs. The sexes resemble each other, but can usually
be distinguished.
Emden Goose
The Emden goose is a native of Germany, taking its name
from the city of Emden, which was the central market for
the geese of a large district. The gander weighs 20 lbs. and
the goose 18 lbs. This is a hardy, popular and profitable breed.
TURKEYS
There are six varieties of turkeys, all originating from the
Wild Turkey of America. They still retain their wild in-
stincts, but some varieties are more domestic than others.
The Bronze turkey is the most popular of all breeds on
the farm. The general color is bronze, but in some sections .
are black and white bars. The tom weighs 30 lbs. and the hen
18 lbs. It is extensively bred, almost to the exclusion of the
other breeds.
The Bourbon Red is probably next in popularity to the
Bronze. It is more domestic than the Bronze and the flesh
is considered of finer quality. This variety has replaced the
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Buff turkey in the standard because it is bred more abundant-
ly and is bred true to color with greater ease. The Buff turkey
was difficult to breed true to standard requirements, but, on
account of its domestic habits, rapid maturity, and fine table
De
pats
White Holland Turkey Fowl
qualities, is still retained by a number of breeders. The color
of the Bourbon is a rich dark bay, the wings and tails being
white. The adult tom weighs 30 lbs. and the hen 18 lbs.
The White Holland is a sport from the other breeds. It
is now bred to large size by infusion of blood from Bronze
sports. It is especially valued as a market fowl, and the
feathers are much prized.
[94]
Chapter VIII
The Breeding Problem
| Soames is a process by which a race is established,
improved and perpetuated. This process may be natural
or artificial. Natural breeding requires long periods of time
to fix the characters of a race so that it can become entitled
to specific rank. Such a race, when once established, becomes
fixed and permanent and reproduces its kind. The Mourning
Dove may illustrate. Its characters have become fixed by
natural inbreeding. It is a species. Its sexes do not pair with
other species.
In artificial breeding, however, the human element enters
as a controlling influence. The selection is artificial. Man
selects the foundation stock, mates the sexes, and determines
the environment. He follows a system of inbreeding that fixes
the type. The result may be the Silver Campine or the Golden
Campine. These varieties of chickens have a right to specific
rank just as the Golden-winged Woodpecker and the Red-
shafted Flicker which closely resemble in type but differ in
color.
The difference between the Flicker and the Campine is that
the former is more permanent. The Campine persists as long
as its destiny is presided over by the mind of man. As soon
as his guiding hand is removed the species relapses. Then
follow cross-breeding, interbreeding, and a rapid retreat to the
jungle type. This might not occur if the group could be kept
isolated from other varieties of chickens, and, in that event.
it is probable that in time the species would become so fixed
that there would be no attempt toward interbreeding. But, if
the guiding hand of man should be withdrawn and the breeds
of chickens were all thrown together, the 300-egg hen would
soon disappear. All the beauty and utility acquired by the
thought and patience of long years of endeavor would be
quickly destroyed. Man’s controlling influence must con-
tinue, to retain what has been gained. To establish and main-
tain a race with desirable characters is the aim of breeding.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The fundamental upon which all breeding rests is repro-
duction.
Reproduction
Reproduction is the process by which the individual per-
petuates its kind. This is accomplished by producing new in-
dividuals. There are two kinds of reproduction, known as
asexual and sexual.
Asexual reproduction may occur with the higher forms ot
plant life, as in the case of grafting and slipping, where there
is no evidence of sex interference. As a rule, asexual repro-
duction is found among the lower forms of life.
Sexual reproduction occurs when one or two sexual cells
unite to reproduce a plant or animal. Among plants the sex-
ual elements are the spermatazoids and the odspheres. The
sexual elements of animals are the spermatazoa and the ova.
The varieties of sexual reproduction are conjugation, parthe-
nogenesis, and fertilization.
(a) Conjugation consists in the union of two similar cells.
In this method the cells are structurally the same, but as the
process is analagous to the sexual method—cytoplasm fusing
with cytoplasm, and nucleus with nucleus—it is considered
by the best authorities as sexual in character. Examples are
found in diatoms and animalcules.
(b) Parthenogenesis, or unisexual reproduction, is accom-
plished by the female. A single sexual cell may be concerned
or two cells of the same sex. Illustrations are found in the
honey bee, where drones are produced by unfertilized eggs
from the queen; also in the plant louse, whose female may go
on producing broods of individuals for ten or more genera-
tions without the intervention of the male. Then a male
appears, and reproduction by male and female follows.
(c) Bisexual reproduction, or fertilization, requires both
male and female and is illustrated in all species of birds.
Birds reproduce by means of an egg, or ovum, which is pro-
duced by the female. The egg is really an enlarged cell, being
much enlarged to provide room for the storage of nourish-
ment. The real center of life in the egg is found on the surface
of the yolk and is known as the germinal vesicle.
Fertilization occurs when the spermatozoon, or sperm cell,
fuses with the germinal vesicle. This cannot take place until
after the spermatazoa gain access to the cloaca. This takes
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
place in copulation or it may be brought about artificially.
After entering the cloaca, the spermatazoa swim to the in-
fundibulum in the fluid secretions of the oviduct, and here is
where fertilization takes place. The sperm cells collect at this
point in numbers, so that when the yolk is discharged into
the mouth of the ovary they are ready to penetrate the germ-
inal vesicle.
They must have wonderful vitality and be capable of liv-
ing many days, for hens have been known to produce fertile
eggs for upwards of two weeks after the male has been re-
moved from the pen. It is at the time of fertilization that sex
is determined, not after the egg is laid, as some suppose, and
the determining factor is the chromosomes. In the initial
cell formed by the union of the two parent cells reside all the
possibilities of the individual. Color, shape, temperament, pre-
potency, and productive power are all wrapped up in this
miscroscopic point.
Laws of Reproduction
Some of the laws of reproduction are stated below:
1. Like produces like. A Wyandotte will produce a Wy-
andotte. A single comb will produce a single comb. If this
law did not prevail all efforts to produce and improve new
breeds would be useless.
2. When two individuals of divergent characters are inter-
bred, some of the progeny will resemble the sire. others the
dam; some will show characters that hark back to the grand-
parents, some will exhibit variations and a blending of the
characters of sire and dam. These facts enable us to under-
stand why two unrelated birds of the same variety, though
closely resembling in type and color, will produce specimens
quite different in these respects from the parents. If we knew
fully the history and peculiarities of the grandparents we
could prophesy more accurately regarding the characters
which would appear in the offspring. This also explains why
a rose comb bred with a single comb will result in combs par-
taking of the peculiarities of both; why a white bird bred with
a black will result in a mingling of the two.
3. Atavism. While we are confident that like produces
like, we must not forget that there are certain influences which
seem to antagonize this law. Environment is one of these
influences. Modifications in the color pattern of some birds
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can be traced to climatic influence. So, also, injury or dietary
deficiency might account for foreign color in the plumage,
where none is found in the ancestry. Another factor is dis-
cordant elements that may have been introduced into the
blood somewhere along the line of ancestry. These crop out
and the law stated in paragraph one seems to be contradicted.
It is not, however, for the blood contains the very elements
which appear in the breeding. This tendency to revert to the
characters of the original ancestry is known as atavism, or
reversion, or “throwing back.” I have in my flock of Reds a
Brown Leghorn pullet which was hatched from an egg of one
of my purebred hens. There has been no Brown Leghorn on
the farm for 12 years. This pullet seemed to drop out of a
clear sky. The cause is apparent. The Brown Leghorn was
one of the foundation breeds of the Rhode Island Red. By
the law of reversion this pullet was thrown on account of the
influence of ancestral blood. Strange things are liable to
happen under this law, yet it is true that like produces like.
4. Variation. The more closely related the purebred sire
and dam and the closer the resemblance they have in type and
color, the less variation there will be in the progeny; that is,
the more closely the offspring will resemble the parents. De-
sirable characters have become fixed and the undesirable have
been eliminated. This small amount of variation is because
the blood lines are the same. This explains the advice some-
times given, that if a breed is to be improved or a new strain
established there must be close inbreeding, that the dam should
be bred to her own brother or her own sire if there is a close
resemblance in points of excellence. Many breeders believe
that this close inbreeding weakens the vitality and under-
mines the stamina of the progeny. On the other hand it is
urged that such a probability is prevented by selecting for
the sire and dam only individuals of marked vigor and vitality.
5. Persistent and diminishing characters. Whatever the
mating may be, both sire and dam will have imperfections.
These imperfections will show more or less in the progeny. If
the desirable characters overbalance the imperfections the
mating will be considered a success; and if, as the breeding
continues, the imperfections gradually disappear and the good
qualities are intensified, then the breeder knows that he will
be able to establish a worthy strain. If on the other hand the
imperfections grow stronger and the desirable characters
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
diminish, it is evident that the line of breeding should be
abandoned. A new mating should be tried. The tendency
by which a character, on the one hand, persists and intensifies
or, on the other hand, diminishes and disappears, we call the
principle of “persistent and diminishing characters.” Its
_ Operation is quite hidden from the view of the breeder.
Whether the desirable characters will become fixed and in-
tensified in any line of breeding or whether they will diminish
and disappear depends on the blood lines represented in the
sire and dam, upon the discordant elements that may have
been introduced in the line of ancestry and have not been
bred out, and upon the prepotency of the mates.
6. Transmission. In sexual reproduction the male deter-
mines color, fecundity and prepotency, while the female de-
termines type, size, temperament, and vitality. If these state-
ments are true, it follows that the male should excel in color,
prepotency and fecundity. It has been found that trap-nested
hens with high egg records do not reproduce the quality of
high production, but if a male bred from a hen with a high
record for production is used in the breeding pen, the in-
variable result is an improvement of productiveness in all the
offspring. If greater size is desired, large hens should be used
for breeding.
7. Intensifying defects. Similar defects must not be pres-
ent in both sire and dam, else they will be intensified and never
bred out. If a defect occurs in the female it must be offset
by an excellence in the male. The practice of offsetting the
evil with the good should be practiced on every farm where
pen mating is used. It will work a marked improvement in
the flock.
8. Physical deformities in reproduction are the result of
physical defects and occasionally may be due to injury or to
malnutrition or to faulty incubation.
We conclude, therefore, that the very essence of poultry
breeding consists in the selection of variations which appeal
to the breeder and so intensifying them by repetition that they
become fixed characters.
We have found that breeding is an artificial process, yet
scientific. By it man seeks to mold and develop groups of
individuals for the attainment of certain desired ends. There
are several varieties of breeding which will be described in
detail on the following pages.
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Varieties of Breeding
1. Mongrel breeding. This occurs when several varieties
are thrown together and interbreeding is followed from year
to year with little attention paid to selecting, culling and mat-
ing. Often the best are selected for market, leaving the un-
desirables to perpetuate the flock. This practice is fast dis-
appearing from the farms, and the rule now is to find purebred
flocks scattered through the farming districts in every county.
2. Cross-breeding consists in breeding together two of the
standard breeds or varieties. This is often done under the plea
that crossing the two breeds increases size, vigor and pro-
ductiveness. Occasionally some real benefit may appear but,
if followed up indiscriminately, it will result in deterioration,
and mongrelism will follow. However, cross-breeding is often
used to advantage in producing new breeds and in breeding up
a flock of poor quality to standard excellence. In this case
new males of the same breed are purchased each year and, if
this is followed up, a mongrel flock may be brought up to
show-bird excellence. There is nothing to be condemned in
this practice as it will result in better flocks than would be
produced by mere mongrel breeding.
3. In-breeding. When full brothers and sisters are bred
together we call it in-breeding, and, if this is followed up from
year to year, we call it in-and-in-breeding, or close in-breeding.
In-breeding as described results in deterioration and is to be
avoided as far as possible. If this system is used judiciously,
selecting only strong and vigorous mates, it may be used in
the hands of the expert to establish racial characters and breed
out imperfections. We do not advise it for the average breeder.
We know what happens when close relations intermarry in
the human race. Every farmer knows from experience what
happens to the herd of hogs or other farm animals if brothers
and sisters are bred together year after year. There is de-
terioration in size and vigor, and the herd becomes unprofit-
able. Line breeding, however, as will be shown in a sub-
sequent section, can be practiced by the farmer, even though
his equipment is meager.
4, Out-crossing. This consists in introducing new and un-
related blood of the same variety into a pen or flock. This is
a very common practice on the farm and occurs when new
breeding cockerels of his breed are purchased from year to
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
year. Out-crossing avoids the degeneration which sometimes
accompanies in-and-in-breeding but is attended with more or
less risk. The new blood may contain some hereditary taint.
entailing weakness or disease, or may lack in prepotency or
represent an unproductive strain or possess blood which does
not blend with the breeder’s strain, thus destroying in a single
season the work of long years of careful breeding. Out-
crossing should not be unconditionally condemned, but the
breeder should study the needs of his flock and fortify himself
by a knowledge of the requirements of a good breeding male °
and purchase accordingly, and he will not be disappointed.
It is usually safer to purchase females to introduce new
blood than to undertake to do it through the male. The male
is more than half the flock and, if an error is made in his pur-
chase, the whole flock is injured. If an outstanding female is
purchased and her blood blends with the breeder’s strain, then
her cockerels can be used to supply new blood for the whole
flock.
5. Line-breeding. This is a system of in-breeding by
which vigor, shape, color and productive power are main-
tained. By this system of breeding, size and vigor are often
increased, there is no loss of prepotency or stamina, and de-
sirable characters are established and maintained. Line breed-
ing is begun by selecting foundation stock as near the ideal
as it is possible to obtain. The breeder must study carefully
the requirements of the Standard of Perfection, so that he
may know all the disqualifications as well as the points of
excellence of the breed.
The picture that is made in his own mind after diligent
study, is the ideal toward which he must strive. The ideal
having been formed, he must select a female that has few de-
fects and that possesses the shape, color, carriage and quality
that measure up to his ideal. If he decides to have more than
one female in the pen, they should be as closely related as pos-
sible and should harmonize with the ideal. Each hen should
be leg-banded, and all should be trap-nested, and the eggs from
each dam numbered. When the chicks hatch they should be
toe-marked or wing-tagged, so that the progeny of each hen
can be identified when matured.
The male should also conform to the ideal as closely as
possible, and he should harmonize with the females. If there
are any defects in the females they should be offset by cor-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
responding points of excellence in the male, and vice versa.
Ii the male selected is a cock, the females should be pullets;
if the females are hens, the male should be a cockerel. Now
it may happen that when more than one female is used it
will be found that the progeny of one of the females is far
superior to that produced by the others. In that event, her
offspring should be chosen to continue the breeding line. The
accompanying chart shows just how the mating can be made
from year to year. It shows how a male line of breeding can
v a $
ks ax
Modern type half-monitor house with open front
be established in which the blood of the male will predominate.
Also a female line is established in which the blood of the
original female predominates, and this is done without close
inbreeding. In the third and fifth year the two lines can be
brought together in such a way that the sire and dam used
will not be closely related. The system advised is to use a
sire unrelated to the dams. If this is done, and the blood of
the sire harmonizes with that of the dam, then the breeding
lines can be established and carried on without the necessity
of using any close relationship in any of the matings.
The points to be emphasized in selecting the foundation
stock are vigor, type, color, productiveness and prepotency.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A study of the chart will explain how these characters can be
maintained without loss.
Cautions
If brother and sister are mated they should be of pro-
nounced vigor, vitality and prepotency.
If the first mating in line-breeding produces inferior stock,
the mating should be abandoned and a new one tried.
If. occasionally a sport is thrown, the breeder should not
be discouraged. By selecting the best each year this tendency
will be overcome.
If new blood is to be introduced into a strain it will be
safer to do it through one or two choice females than through
a male.
If the original sire and dam are not closely related, there
need be no close inbreeding. If they are closely related, how
can two bloodlines be made out of one?
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
CHART OF LINE BREEDING
First Year
ck1. (A) Gy lsMaless1/2 A+1/2 B
Hen(B) 2eFemalesel/2 a+l/2 B
Male Line. Second Yeer Female Line.
Coc.(A) 6) Dl-Melese3/4 A+1/4 B Hen(B) 6) El=Veleesl/4 A+3/4 B
Pullet @2) D2=Fem.=3/4 A+1/4 B. ckl. ELeFem.-1/4 A+3/4 B
Third Year
Cock 6) Fl=Meles=5/8 4+3/8 B ckl. Lenfelese3/8 A+5/8 B
Pullet (2) F2=Pemeless5/8 A+3/8 B Hen 2=Fem.23/8 A+5/8 B
ckl. (01) 6) Hl=tieles=1/2 a+1/2 B @) El) Ckl
Pullet 2) H2eFem.=1/2 A+1/2 B 02) Pullet
Fourth Yeer
Cook ® eMeles#11/16 A+5/16 B Ckl. @) sMeles25/16 A+11/16 B
Pullet (2) 2=Fem.=11/16 a+5/16 Bs Hen & 2=Fem.=5/16 A+11/16 B
Ckl. FF? ® K1sMeles=11/16 A+5/16 B Cook eo leMeles=5/16 A+11/16 B
Hen 2sFem.=11/16 A+5/16 B Pull. 2=Pem.#5/16 A+11/16 B
Cock ® Ml=Males=5/8 A+3/8 B Cook G) N1=Meless3/8 A+5/8 B
Pull M2=Pem.*5/8 A+3/8 B Pull. U2=Pem.#3/8 A+5/8 B
Fifth Yeer
Cook 6) 01=Males=21/32 A+11/32 B Cock G) Pl=Mslee=11/32 A£+21/32 8
Pull. O2=Fem.=21/32 Ae11/32 B Pull. P2=Fem.£11/32 4421/32 B
Ckl. ® Rl=Melee=19/32 A*13/32 B Ckl. 6) 1=Meles=13/32 A+19/32 B
Hen (@ R2eFem.#19/32 A+13/32 B Hen 2Fem.213/32 a+19/32 B
Ck1. (Kl leMeles#1/2 A+1/2 B @) ckl.
Pull. 2=Fem.=1/2 A+1/2 B (72) Philet
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Explanation of Chart
A little study of the chart shows that there are three lines of
matings. The first in which the blood of the original male predominates;
another in which the blood of the original female predominates; and a
third in which the mating results in offspring in which the blood of male
is equal to that of the original dam.
An outstanding cockerel having been found, he is mated to a hen or
hens of equal quality. The cockerel is unrelated to the hens and is
known as “A” and the hens as “B.” The progeny comprise the group
“C” of which half are cockerels, “C1,” and the remainder are pullets,
“C2.” If the mating gives good results the line of breeding is continued.
In the second year “A” is mated to his daughters “C2,” and the off-
spring from this mating comprise the group “D,” and each individual in
this group represents three fourths the blood of “A” and one fourth the
blood of “B.” ;
In the same year another pen contains a cockerel “C1” from the first
mating and he is mated to his dam “B.” The result of this mating is
group “E” consisting of cockerels'“E1” and pullets “E2,” each individual
containing one-fourth the blood of “A” and three-fourths the blood of
CB
In the third year similar matings are made, a tock being used with
pullets and a cockerel with hens. In this year also the male and female
lines are brought together by mating a cockerel from the male line “D1”
with a pullet from the female line “E2.” The result of this mating is
one-half the blood of “A” and one-half the blood of “B,” exactly the
same proportion that we had from the original mating. Again in the
fifth year the two lines can be brought together with the same result.
When a cockerel is mated with a pullet, both are supposed to be of
pronounced vigor and prepotency, early hatched, and widely separated
in blood lines. It will be noted that in all the thie matings shown in
the chart, brother and sister are not mated together and a cock is
always mated with a pullet and a cockerel with a hen. ae res
By following this system there is not at any time any very dase
relationships in the matings. Vigor can be maintained and by selecting
only the best each year good qualities can be preserved and intensified.
Many other combinations besides those named can be used. If the
original male has unusual vitality and is a prepotent breeder he can be
used for three successive years and this will intensify his blood in the
male line. So also can the females be used for three years intensifying
the blood of the original dam in the female line. Probably for all
practical purposes the farmer will not wish to use his males and females
longer than for two seasons.
[105]
Dinner time in_the poultry yard
[ 106]
Chapter [X
Mating and Culling
HE following are important steps in breeding:
The Ideal. The first step in breeding is determining the
ideal. This is formed by a study of the breed as exemplified
in living birds or by a careful study of distinguishing char-
acters as set forth in the Standard of Perfection. The ideal
is necessary to progress. Otherwise all efforts to produce or
improve a breed will be aimless. Chance will be the control-
ling factor. When the mind has a perfect picture of the type
and color of the variety chosen, the breeder is then ready to
select his foundation stock with discrimination.
Selecting the Foundation Stock
Success or failure will depend on this step. Here are some
of the general principles concerned in the selection of breeding
stock:
1. Sire and dam should not be related closely if it can be avoided.
2. Reject all specimens from the breeding pen that have ever been
sick or that have anv constitutional weakness.
3. Insist that every specimen shall approach the ideal, as near as
possible, in type, color, and stamina.
4. Avoid all disqualifications in either sex. The more important
general disqualifications are the following: Side sprigs on single combs;
absence of spike on rose combs; feathers on shanks or toes of clean-
legged varieties; absence of feathers on toes or shanks where they
should occur; deformed beaks, wry tails, crooked backs, crooked keels,
squirrel tail; color of feet other than required by the standard; color
of face and ear lobes white, when the standard requirement is red, and
vice versa.
4. Avoid birds too large or too small for the breed. In most cases
the standard weight will give best results.
How to Select the Male
In selecting the head of the flock or pen, the following
factors should be considered: Vigor, vitality, prepotency, pro-
ductive power. _
Vigor. Physical stamina and energy of action are the
proof of vigor. If I were asked to select a male of strong
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
constitutional vigor, I would insist on the following: Legs
well set apart; shanks strong and not too long, back broad at
shoulders, breast full, body deep and wide and the span be-
tween the lower point of keel and ends of pubic bones at least
A knock-kneed rooster, showing low vigor
and vitality. Do not select males like this
for breeding.
three fingers, eye full and bright, head wide between eves,
and a bird that has a good appetite and is pugnacious and
courageous.
Vitality. There is a difference between vitality and. vigor.
Vitality is the grip on life. It is that invisible something that
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
inheres in the individual. A fowl may be strong and vigorous
but lack in vitality because it lacks resistance to unfavorable
influences. When a bird has good vitality it resists disease
‘and survives while others quickly.succumb. A male bird that
survives two or three seasons in the breeding pen certainly
has good vitality.
Prepotency. This is the power that an individual has to
perpetuate its qualities. Vigor, vitality and prepotency often
go together, but a bird may have the first two qualities but
lack in prepotency. When a male stamps his individuality
upon his progeny he is said to be prepotent. Such a male is
invaluable. Prepotency is indicated by the’jealous attention
of the male to the female. Strongly fertile eggs are an evi-
dence of prepotency in the breeding stock.
A sure method of detecting prepotency is the trap nest.
Walter Hogan in his “Call of the Hen” gives a method which
is worth considering. A point, known as “A”, is found where
the skull joins the atlas along the median line over top of head;
and a similar point, known as “B”, is found on the side just
behind the ear where the skull joins the neck. If A is behind
B, prepotency is strong; if A and B are opposite or in the same
plane prepotency is only average; but if B is behind A pre-
potency is weak. Some consider prepotency a “breeders’
superstition” and that the Hogan test is only a “myth.” By
many breeders this test is considered reliable and that it
should always be used in selecting special matings. It is
worth a trial.
An individual may be prepotent in one character but not in
others. Again, an individual may be prepotent in several char-
acters, such as type, fecundity, vitality and color. When a
male is found to be prepotent he should be greatly treasured
on account of his influence upon the whole flock.
Producing power. It is quite generally recognized that
high egg prodtiction does not always come from females whose
dams were good producers. The male is an important factor
in securing large egg production. If the male is derived from
a hen having a high record for egg production, his progeny will
be good producers. The trap nest is necessary to select the
high producing hens. In addition to his breeding the male
should pass the culling tests usually applied to the female.
The pubic bones should be straight, not unduly thickened at
the ends, and should be separated by at least one finger. The
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
capacity measure should be at least three fingers, this being
determined by the span between the lower point of keel and
the ends of the pubic bones. The tail should be well de-
veloped and the comb, wattles and earlobes should be fine in .
texture.
How to Select the Female
The qualifications of the female are practically the same as
with the male. The head points, however, are finer and the
cranium is narrower. Special emphasis should be given to
type and size. A hen with a baggy abdomen should not be
used as a breeder. A hen that produces abnormal eggs
should be removed from the breeding pen. A hen with any
bad habit, such as egg-eating, feather pulling or laziness
should be cured or rejected.
Selecting and Mating by the Trap Nest
There is no surer method of determining laying capacity
than by the trap nest. While this method is not practical on
many farms yet the farmer can profit by the discoveries made
through this means in the experiment stations and egg-laying
contests. The valuable data collected by investigators through
trap-nest records have given a great impetus to the study of
poultry problems. Two investigators, widely separated in
space but widely known in poultry circles, are Professor James
Dryden of the Oregon University Experiment Station and Dr.
Raymond Pearl of the Maine University Experiment Station.
Their deductions from trap-nest experiments have thrown a
world of light upon the problems of fecundity and heredity.
We take pleasure in quoting from these authorities, believing
that the facts which they present should have wide circulation.
Professor Dryden’s Conclusions
“Regardless of any question of prepotency, the selection of
breeding stock on the basis of production record is a certain
method of increasing production.
“Some individuals have greater power of transmitting
high fecundity than others of the same breeding.
“Good layers are not always produced by good layers, nor
are poor layers always produced by poor layers.
“Rapid progress can be made by the breeder if he tests the
breeding quality of his stock by using for breeding those hens
and males whose progeny has shown high production.
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“Rate of laying is within certain limits and accurate meas-
ure of egg-laying capacity.
“Good laying capacity is indicated by heavy production in
any two months of the year.
“Late laying in the fall does not always indicate good
layers.”
Dr. Pearl’s Conclusions
“One of the least understood phenomena in genetics is
prepotency. It is customary to regard an animal as prepotent
in breeding for performance when the progeny of that indi-
vidual uniformly tend to resemble it closely in respect to
the character bred for, regardless of the other parent in each
mating.
“High fecundity is not inherited by the daughters from
their dam.
“High fecundity may be inherited by the daughters from
their sire independent of the dam.
“A low degree of fecundity may be inherited by the daugh-
ters from either sire or dam or both.
“Winter egg production is the best available measure of
innate capacity in respect to fecundity.
“Variations in fecundity are not determined by the number
of visible odcytes on the ovary. This number varies by actual
count from 900 to 3,600.
“Breeding for high fecundity requires the use of such
females only as have shown themselves to be high producers.
since it is only from such females that there can be any hope
of getting males capable of transmitting high laying qualities ;
and the use.as breeders of such males only as are known to be
sons of high producing dams, since only from such males can
we expect to get high producing daughters.”
Conditioning the Breeders
Selecting foundation stock is important, but to stop at this
point is to court disappointment. The stock must be con-
ditioned for best results just as a piece of machinery must be
kept oiled and in trim condition to give good service. That
breeding stock should receive different treatment from stock
that is being forced for egg production is generally admitted.
Condiments, high stimulants, and hot mashes should be
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Mr. Osburn determining the thickness of the pubic-bones
avoided. A balanced ration, pure water, plenty of exercise,
abundance of sunshine and oxygen and extreme cleanliness are
all indicated.
Culling the Flock
Culling is the final step in poultry breeding. In nearly
every farm flock there are three classes of undesirables—the
weaklings, the defectives and the non-producers. The object
of culling is to weed out the weaklings, to swat the slackers.
and to discard the defectives. When the work of culling is
completed and all the culls have been conditioned and shipped
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
to market, there should remain but two classes, the breeding
flock and the laying flock. Many fowls that would not pass
muster as breeders can be used in the laying flock.
Culling should be made at least four times in a year—
March, June, September and December. In December
breeding pens are made up. The defectives are put with the
laying flock, and those that meet standard requirements are
saved for the breeding pen. At this culling some weaklings
will be found that should not be saved for egg-production.
These can be conditioned for market along with any surplus
cockerels that are not suited to be sold as breeders. In March,
all the hens that will prove unprofitable producers can be
detected, for at this season every hen that is worth saving will
lay.
In June, another culling of the layers will weed out a few
that have passed the productive age and some poor producers
that were overlooked in earlier cullings. Early hatched
cockerels can also be culled at this time, some to be caponized,
others to be marketed as broilers.
In September a thorough culling should be made. It is
possible then to detect the early molters, and the condition of
plumage and pigmentation makes it quite easy to pick out the
good layers. At this time, also, the young stock can be
selected for the fattening crate and the laying and breeding
pens.
As an aid to memory in making culling demonstrations I
have used the word ‘“T-e-a-c-h”, each letter in this word
representing an important step in the work: Type, Energy,
Anatomy, Condition, Habit.
Type is conformity to an ideal in shape. In culling non-
layers, type is a very important item. We have discussed the
different types—meat type, dual purpose type, and egg type.
What do we mean by an egg type? Evidently that confor-
mation of body and bodily structures which is conducive to
highest egg-production. Is there an egg type and, if so, what
is it? Breeders are not agreed upon any single type of fowl
as better adapted to egg-production than all others. Some
prefer the wedge-shaped. Such a fowl is full in the abdomen
but the body gradually tapers toward the neck, If the hen is
viewed from above or the side or the rear it presents the form
of a wedge. The wedge-shape appeals to them because it
indicates large abdominal capacity.
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Capacity is shown by the space between the keel and pubic-bones.
The slab-sided type is advocated by some. The body pre-
sents the appearance of a flat side-surface which is deep and
long. Such hens are usually narrow in body, but they are
counted as good layers. Another egg-type advocated by
some is the spherical body. Viewed in any direction the
outline of the body is round. The Wyandotte is a good
illustration. Some Wyandotte breeders have had courage to
break away from standard requirements and are now breeding
for a longer body with a full breast, believing that type to
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
mean larger capacity and greater egg-production. Still
another type that has a large number of advocates is the
oblong type. The body is long and wide across the back, and
of good depth. The breast is full, the keel long, and the abdo-
men full. Viewed from above or on the side the shape is
oblong. This type is illustrated in the White Leghorn and the
Rhode Island Red, as well as many other breeds. This type
probably has more friends than any other.
Type is also indicated by the thickness and conformation
of the public bones. If they are one-eighth of an inch or less
in thickness, the egg-type is indicated. If they are moderately
thick, one-fourth of an inch or a little more or less, the dual
purpose type is indicated. If they are very thick, one-half inch
or more, the meat type is suggested, and such hens tend to lay
on fat rather than produce eggs. In making a study of the
dual purpose breeds it will be found that moderately thick
pubic bones are compatible with good egg-production.
Egg type is also indicated by the head points. A bright
eye, a short beak, a large comb, fine in texture, large wattles,
and a face with a close fitting skin are indicative of the egg
type. Ifa hen falls short in these requirements she may be
suspected of being unworthy of a place in the flock.
Energy. Energy is the power to do work. This power
depends upon health, vitality, prepotency, capacity, and
temperament.
Health is a condition in which the functions of the body
are performed without friction; disease is an abnormal con-
dition. Only healthy fowls should be allowed to remain in the
flock. If diseased, they will soon cease laying, and, if they lay,
their eggs will be unfit for human consumption.
Vitality is essential to production. If weak in vitality the
hen should be rejected. Sometimes, however, a hen may
naturally have a good grip on life, but its vitality has been
weakened by external or internal parasites. If the parasites
are destroyed, she will put on new life and become productive.
The value of prepotency has been discussed. Hens that
lack in prepotency should be culled from the breeding flock,
but may be retained in the laying flock.
Capacity is an index of energy. By capacity is meant an
abundance of room for the operation of all the machinery
engaged in egg-production. A machine in cramped quarters
will turn out only a limited amount of finished product because
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it cannot handle the raw material in abundance. If the di-
gestive and reproductive organs which constitute the egg
factory are in a cramped abdominal cavity they cannot be
expected to yield a large output in eggs. Capacity is usually
determined by the span between the ends of the pubic bones
and the lower point of the keel. This measurement should be
three fingers or more. If the measurement is four or five
fingers, capacity is large and the hen is probably a good pro-
ducer. If less than three fingers there is reason to doubt the
quality of the hen.
This caution should be given. There are times when a
good producer will be found more or less contracted in the
abdominal region. This may happen at the close of a long
siege of sitting or during the period of the molt. This must
be taken into account in culling for this defect. Again,
capacity may sometimes be abnormally large, as with a hen
excessively fat or with a drooping abdomen. A baggy abdo-
men, which hangs below the keel, indicates a breaking down
of the egg organs, and such a hen should be marketed at an
early date.
Temperament has something to do with the energy of a
fowl. Temperaments are described as nervous, sanguine,
lymphatic and bilious. A nervous temperament means
greater energy and more work accomplished than could be
possible with a bilious temperament. The Buff Cochin has
a bilious temperament and produces few eggs; a Plymouth
Rock has a sanguine temperament and is a good average layer.
A White Leghorn has a nervous temperament and excels in
egg-production. Many individuals of the dual purpose breeds
are nervous in temperament and excel in production. This is
illustrated in the White Rock hen, Lady Show-you, the
champion in the first Mountain Grove, Mo. contest. She was
nervous, exceedingly active and energetic, always searching
for food. Temperament is a good guide in selecting the good
producers of a flock.
Anatomy. This term applies to structural characters. The
most important structural characters which have a bearing on
egg-production are the pubic bones. In a good layer these are
thin, straight and well spread apart. The spread is generally
measured by the tips of the fingers. A finger measures about
one-half inch to three-fourths of an inch. When a hen is in
laying condition the distance between the pubic bones is
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
three fingers to five fingers in a good layer. When the
measurement is only two fingers or less the test is considered
unfavorable. Nearly all hens during the molt, or while sitting,
will have a much smaller spread than while laying, and this
must be considered in culling. Watch for abnormalities. There
are certain anatomical defects which should always be sought
in culling demonstrations and, if found, the hen should be
rejected. An important one is crooked pubic bones. If these
are much curved so as to approach each other at their points
and are tied together with rigid skin and muscle, the hen is a
poor producer. Such a condition interferes with the process of
laying, so that it is attended with more or less pain. Hens
with this defect lay fewer eggs. Undoubtedly crooked pubic
bones are the cause of blood-stained eggs. Such hens should
not be used as breeders, and they are unprofitable layers.
Another defect is the crooked breast bone. This defect is
hereditary, and birds affected should be discarded. A de-
formed beak and a crooked back are other defects that count
against the laying performance of a hen.
Occasionally hens are poor layers on account of structural
defects in the egg organs. Usually these cannot be detected
during the life of the hen, but sometimes the shape of the egg,
the texture of the shell, or the condition of the contents are
tell-tales which indicate that the hen should be removed, at
least, from the breeding pen.
Condition. A very good indication of the laying per-
formance of a hen is her condition at different seasons. In this
connection we should consider the condition of plumage, skin,
flesh and pigment. In September, after a long period of laying,
the plumage is worn and faded. This indicates a good layer.
The skin of a good layer upon the abdomen is found to be soft,
velvety, and pliable. A good layer, if fed properly, carries a
good supply of flesh. This is noted by the condition of the
keel, which is well covered. A poor layer is abnormally fat or
unusually thin, with little flesh on keel. At certain seasons
pigmentation is a very good clue by which to detect the poor
layers. In yellow skinned breeds the vent will continue yellow
in the non-layers, but becomes pale or pinkish-white among
the good layers. The color disappears from the beak, skin.
eye, and legs of the good layer, but a poor layer will retain the
yellow beak and skin and brilliant plumage.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Habit. This is the final test of productiveness. Habit is
the method of life. Three habits may be mentioned as bearing
on egg-production, viz., molting, feeding and exercising.
Molting, or shedding of feathers, is a common habit of
poultry, but the time of molting is not fixed. Late molters
and quick molters are invariably good layers. The reason
assigned is that late molting lengthens out the laying season,
while quick molting shortens the resting period. Molting and
egg-production are not compatible. When a hen begins to
molt she slackens in egg-production.
The hen that retains her pigmentation and molts in early
summer is counted as a poor layer and should be culled from
the flock. In culling on the basis of an early molt, this caution
should be observed, that good layers are sometimes thrown
into an early molt because of environment or a sudden change
in feed. Before such hens are thrown out they should be
tested along other lines for further proof of unproductiveness.
The habit of sitting is very trying among some breeds. The
persistent sitter, the one that, when broken, lays only a small
clutch of eggs before becoming broody again, is usually an
unprofitable layer.
The habit of feeding varies with different hens. The poor
layer is indifferent. She has no occasion to hustle for food as
she is not a producer, and for this reason she is early to roost
and late in leaving the roost.
The habit of exercise characterizes the good layer. She is
a good scratcher, and scratching makes short claws. She is
a hustler and works till sundown and is up before sunrise.
Score Card for Culling Demonstrations
OP ge cecal oe bata wtaiga, aes 9 esse 5
fa Ay pel sdrcnas beeen es 20 Thickness of Pubic Bones.............. 10
Read Deis oc.cy veka sg onan LY BROS Ge 5
Vitality atid vigor c0.s ecncssceeueee ces 5
2» Bnergy scaccc saa 20 Prepotency and Temperament.......... 5
RAAB ons vi teas tak hentia a Wages a caidalen 5 eu 10
Spread of Pubic Bones................ 10
3) SMnatomy caine 20 Shape of Pubic Bones................ 5
sais Structural Delecis: < cvewavndewaeuceaty x 5
PLUM AR Swsansecscasens sear suceeded welava aietevees 5
Pi HALTOM, © es eccue Wess arcraus ceca ensiae Syean
4. Condition ......... CI Bs gan te reir Sere TR
Flesh ....
Molting .. bis as
5... SHabitt- 2. ssties tantes 20 Feeding ..
Exercise
100
[118] |
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
]
LOLLY
Trap nests makes it possible to keep a laying record of each bird
No bird should be retained in the flock that scores less
than 75 points. Example: A hen that should be laying in
July is found to have pubic bones one-half inch thick—deduct
10 points; the capacity measurement is only two fingers—
deduct 10 points; the keel is crooked—deduct five points; the
pigmentation is yellow in beak, skin and legs—deduct five
points; the hen is in full molt and there is no evidence that she
has been laying—deduct 10 points. The total deductions
amount to 40 points. Her score therefore is 60 points. Ordi-
narily a hen with as many cuts as here given would be found
defective in several other tests. In this particular case we
assume that the other points are good. A hen should not be
rejected on one or two cuts unless they are very decidedly
unfavorable. The practice of throwing out hens simply be-
cause the pubic spread is small may lead to serious error. The
bird should be tested in all points and the decision made
according to the preponderance of evidence.
Mating the Farm Flock
On the average farm there is little or no effort made
towards line breeding. There are not even separate pens in
which to keep the breeders apart from the laying stock. The
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
stock is given free range, summer and winter. Some little
effort is made toward mating the flock by culling out every-
thing that should go to market and by purchasing new
cockerels, so as to maintain the vigor of the flock. A few
words along the line of mating the general flock may be helpful.
It would be far better if a few breeding pens could be made so
A self-feeder for’mash, charcoal and oyster shell
as to keep the breeding stock separate from the layers. Then
the laying stock could be forced for winter eggs, while the
breeders could be given the care and feeding required to
produce fertile eggs that would hatch sturdy chicks. Where
this cannot be done, the following course is advised:
1. Cull out all the undesirable females.
2. Remove from the flock all late hatched cockerels. If brothers and
sisters are to be mated they should be of outstanding quality and of
pronounced vigor and stamina.
3. Keep the yearling cock birds, if they have proven of good breed-
ing quality.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
4. If a pure-bred flock, select males strong in color and females
strong in shape and size.
5. Mate so that the defects in one sex will be counteracted by strong
points in the opposite sex.
6. Avoid all disqualifications in either scx.
7. Select males and females that qualify under the tests for the type
desired, whether meat, dual purpose, or egg type.
8. Use great care in introducing new blood. It means the introduc-
tion of new characters which may not harmonize with your own strain;
further, it may mean the introduction of some weakness or latent disease
that will bring disaster.
9. Avoid females that produce abnormal eggs, such as undersized,
oversized, elongated, round, rough-shelled, or uneven eggs.
How to Mark the Breeders
It will be found helpful to mark all the breeding stock.
Where there is a general flock, the pullets and cockerels can be
leg-banded each fall, a different color being used each year.
The celluloid rings are good for this purpose. If this is done.
there will be no difficulty in distinguishing pullets from hens.
Where line breeding or pen breeding is pursued, numbered
leg bands or wing markers should be used. The birds of each
pen can be given bands with a separate color, and different
colors can be used for each year, if necessary, to distinguish
pullets from one-year-old or two-year-old hens.
[121]
Chapter X
The Poultry House
SUCCESSFUL poultry house combines the following
characteristics :
1. It is dry. This is secured by having a concrete floor
laid upon cinders, broken stone, or coarse gravel, and elevated
about one foot above the surrounding ground. The roof and
walls are water proof and a good circulation prevents the con-
densation of moisture from the fowls upon any portion of the
room.
2. Itis well ventilated. This is accomplished by windows.
shutters, screens, or ventilators placed on one side of the
building so as to prevent drafts. The top, two ends and rear
side of a poultry house should always be air tight. The
ventilation, therefore, should be secured from the front. The
shutter method is probably the best as it prevents the entrance
of rain and snow and can be kept open in all seasons. A
frame covered with fine wire netting will be found very satis-
factory. It has the advantage of admitting light as well as
pure air. The glass windows should be adjusted so.that they
can be opened when weather conditions require.
By this system ventilation is accomplished by diffusion.
There is a constant interchange between the warm air within
and the pure air on the outside. Such a poultry house will
never be stuffy or ill-smelling. Other methods of ventilation
are by means of ventilators placed in the roof, by canvas-
covered doors, and by an open front. Ventilators in the roof
often serve a good purpose; the pores of canvas soon become
filled with dust so as to prevent the fresh air from sifting into
the house, and canvas shuts out the light; the open front is
very popular and will be satisfactory if provision is made to
protect against driving storms.
3. It is well lighted. \Windows should extend from upper
to lower plate so as to admit the sunlight to all portions of the
floor. Sunshine is a germicide, as well as oxygen, and it is not
possible to have the supply too abundant. \Vindows should be
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
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Floor plan of ideal farm poultry house for 100 laying hens. See elevation plan on
next page. This house can be built for $150 to $200
covered on the inside with half-inch wire netting to prevent
the breaking of lights by unruly fowls.
4. It is comfortable, warm in winter and cool in summer.
If the shed roof type of house is used, the slope of the roof
will be toward the north and hence will be protected from the
direct rays of the sun. Such a house will be much cooler in
summer than where the roof has a large exposure to the south.
Such a house will also be comfortable in winter, as it will
get the benefit of the sun’s rays. If necessary, canvas curtains
should be provided on rollers to be pulled down as a protection
in severely cold weather. Houses should never be heated
artificially in winter as the fowls will thrive better with a
reasonable amount of cold.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
WINDOWS
o DAOR WINDow
Ss! a eee) —3-_-»
' 5 MASH WATER.
1 PLATFORM PLATFORM [ oust Box
ie —_—____ —————— aan
1 PS ee ai ee ee Ne 60 335 = Se Se eee eas
End elevation of ideal farm poultry house. See cut of complete house on next page
5. Itisroomy. The floor space is adequate for the number
of fowls. Four square feet should be allowed for each hen. A
house 20x20 feet will accommodate 100 hens. A house 20x40
feet will accommodate 200 hens. Overcrowding does not favor
egg-production. It is better to provide too much room than
too little. Sometimes a flock of ten hens in roomy quarters
will produce more eggs than a hundred in crowded conditions,
even though given like care otherwise.
6. It is convenient. The nests, the feeding platform, the
water fount, and other devices are all so arranged as to save
labor for the attendant. The house will be accessible so as to
save labor in providing water, feed, and litter.
7. Itis vermin proof. The floor is of concrete to prevent
the entrance of rats, mink and other vermin. All nesting and
roosting places for sparrows are closed, and all hiding and
breeding places for mites and lice are avoided as far as
possible. Nests and roosts are removable so that they can be
taken outside and thoroughly cleaned and disinfected.
8. It is inexpensive. A hollow tile wall would be ideal,
but ordinary tongue and groove siding will answer all
purposes. Paper roofing will serve many years if shingles
are too expensive. If it leaks from any cause, it should be
quickly repaired as a protection to the flock and to the building.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Location
The selection of a site for the poultry house is of prime
importance. This should be on the highest, best drained
ground, not too far from the farm residence. Such a location
may be exposed to driving winds and rain and snow, but it is
easier to build windbreaks than to drain low ground. A sandy
loam or porous soil with gravel subsoil is the most desirable
for poultry, for it eliminates stagnant pools of water which
generally prove a menace to the flock. A clay soil is to be
shunned, if possible.
If a suitable soil cannot be obtained, a few loads of gravel
or cinders around the building will help matters. A site
adjacent to the orchard is ideal, for it furnishes a place of
forage for the flock, the trees furnish shade in the heat of
summer, and fowls contribute their help by destroying harmful
insects. Ifthe ground slopes in all directions from the house,
good drainage is insured. If the building is ona side hill, some
provision must be made for drainage on the high side or else
the floor of the house should be raised so as to be above the
surrounding ground.
This is the way the farm poultry house built from pians on preceding pages looks when
completed
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The semi-gable type of poultry house
Types of Poultry Houses
What type of a house is most suitable to the farm? The
shed roof has many friends. The advantages of this type are
several: It furnishes a large frontage by which sunlight can
be admitted to all parts of the building; it is more easily con-
structed and is less expensive than other types; as the roof has
a northern slope it will be more lasting than other roofs be-
cause protected from the direct rays of the sun. The shed root
has the disadvantage that it is easily torn away and destroyed
by heavy winds. When the wind strikes a sloping roof, its
force is resolved into two forces, one parallel to its surface
which has no effect, and the other perpendicular to its surface
which exerts a downward pressure and tends to hold the build-
ing in place. But when a high wind strikes the front side of
a shed-roof type of building there is no downward pressure
and, unless the building is carefully anchored, it will be torn
away by the wind. I have known shed-roof buildings to be
torn to pieces and scattered on a distant field while other
buildings with roof pitching toward the wind have been un-
moved.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The next most popular and serviceable type of poultry
house is the semi-monitor. This is illustrated on page 125.
This is a more expensive type to build as it has a broken roof.
The upper windows allow the sunshine to reach the back
portion of the building. The front portion can be used for a
scratch room and, if an open front is desired, ventilation can be
secured in that way. Such a building should be made deep,
16 ft. to 20 ft. The deeper the building, the more favorable to
the flock and the better the results.
A third type is the semi-gable. This is in common use and
has advantages over the two mentioned above.
How to Build the Poultry House
The following simple directions may assist in building a
semi-monitor house 20 feet square. The trenches should be
dug at least 18 inches deep as a protection against frost
and vermin. The dirt is thrown to the outside to be afterwards
graded against the foundation. The forms for the foundation
should be made of twelve inch or two six inch boards. After
the forms are placed the trench is filled with the concrete made
of four parts gravel and one part cement.
As the cement is being placed strong bolts with heavy
washers are set so that the top of each bolt will extend about
an inch above the top of the foundation plate. These are to
anchor the building. The concrete is brought flush with the
tops of forms and made level and smooth. As the foundation
is made six inches wide a 2” x 6” timber can be used for plates.
These are now bolted to the foundation. The floor space is
now filled with cinders, broken stone or coarse gravel to a
depth of six inches. As these substances are porous and con-
tain air spaces they prevent moisture coming up from below,
thus insuring a dry floor at all times. We are now ready for
the concrete. A layer two inches thick of the same quality as
used in the foundation is placed upon the broken stone and
made level to receive the top dressing. After the concrete has
begun to set the top coat is applied consisting of two parts of
coarse, gritty sand, and one part cement. This should be
made one inch thick and should be troweled level. After the
top coat has begun to set a skim coat of pure cement and water
is applied. This is to be very thin and should be troweled
until a smooth hard surface is formed.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A convenient poultry interior. The roosts swing up so that the droppings board can be
easily cleaned. A better position for the nests would be on the side wall as this would save
floor space, needed by the hens
Unless the walls are to be built of hollow tile, the posts can
be made of 2x4 inch stuff. If the building is to be 20 feet deep
the posts in front should be + feet 6 inches high and in
the rear 5 feet. If it is to be 16 feet deep they should be
4+ feet long in front and 4 feet in the rear. In the building
20 feet square the rafters for the front pitch can be made
of 2x4 inch stuff 9 feet long. This allows for a 1 foot pro-
jection at the eaves; and for the rear pitch the rafters should
be 2x4 inch stuff, 14 feet 8 inches long. The roof supporters,
three in number, should be 4x+ inch posts placed 8 feet from
the front.
The siding should be tungue and groove 1 inch material -
tree from knot holes. The sheeting should be matched floor-
ing if a paper roofing is to be used. In the front elevation
above front roof there should be five windows as shown on
page 125. At least one of these should be hinged to allow
of opening for ventilation. The open front should be provided
with frames covered with wire screen. The door to the
building should be on the east side. West doors should be
avoided as prevailing winds are from the west. Exits and
entrances for the fowls may he placed under the ventilators
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
and at one corner in the rear. The perches should be made of
2x3 inch stuff 9 feet long, rounded on the edges. They can be
supported by ¥4 inch iron rods which pass through holes bored
in each perch. These rods are fastened to the rear wall by
means of large screw eyes which are hooked into a ring formed
at the end of each rod. This forms a hinge so that the perches
can be raised and lowered at will. Two supporting rods and
five perches in each section would be sufficient for 100 fowls.
The'perches should be one foot apart and arranged so as to be
level. They should be placed about eight inches above the
droppings board. The droppings board is made of half inch
matched lumber in sections so as to be easily removed. They
can rest upon 2x4 inch timbers, one nailed to the rear wall and
the other supported by legs in front. The platform should
extend in front of perches about twelve inches to provide an
alighting place for the fowls. These droppings boards should
be thirty inches from the floor. Nests can be built on the side
walls or on an elevated platform between the roosting room
and the scratch room. They should not be built on the floor,
for then soft shelled eggs and cracked eggs will be eaten by
Osburn’s poultry house
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
An inexpensive colony house
the fowls, thus leading to the egg-eating habit and, by this
method, floor space is used that is needed by the hens. Plat-
forms should be provided for the self feeders and watering
vessels. All covers for nests, self feeders and hoppers should
be inclined or they will become roosting places for the fowls.
A bin for holding dry mash can be placed under the ventilators
or in one corner of the scratch room. It should be mouse proof,
so should be lined with tin and have a tight fitting cover. It
is customary with long houses to have a room at one end for
the storage of. feeds and other supplies.
In the plan proposed for this house, the top of plate is five
inches above the cement floor. This gives room on the floor
for a deep litter that will not interfere with the opening of
doors. If the house is built in more than one section, a par-
tition of half-inch material should be built between the sec-
tions. The door between the sections should be light, of half-
inch material, and hung on swinging spring hinges. The front
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
portion of the floor space is used as a scratch room, where the
grain mixture is fed. The rear portion can also be used for
that purpose if necessary.
Some poultry keepers advise a dust box to be partly filled
with soil, sifted ashes, road dust, dustyne or other material.
It can be placed under the drop boards, and surely the hens
appreciate it. The good points of a house such as described
are ventilation without a draft, an abundance of sunlight reach-
ing all parts of the building, a dry floor, it is roomy and com-
fortable, and rats and sparrows cannot infest. it.
‘ Lots
It is a great help to have one or more lots connected with
every section of the poultry house. If winter eggs are to be
forthcoming, the flock should not be allowed to roam over the
farm, but they should have access to the outdoor air at least
a portion of nearly every day. This cannot be accomplished
without chicken tight lots. If there is a lot in front and one in
the rear the ground can be cultivated, and while the hens are
using one lot, a crop of rape, oats or other green feed can be
grown in the other. In this way the soil is kept sweet and
disease is warded off. If only one lot can be provided it should
be disinfected frequently by sprinkling the ground with a solu-
tion of copperas, one pound to 50 gallons of water. Slaked
lime is also good for disinfection if scattered over the ground.
Another good method is to spade the soil. This gives oxygen
Mr. Osburn uses this convenient nestbox arrangement
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Raising baby chicks is easy with a brooder house like this
and sunshine a chance to penetrate, and they are the great
germ killers.
Other Buildings
Besides the breeding and laying house, other buildings will
be found necessary, especially if large production is expected.
Incubator House. Under average farm conditions the in-
cubator can be set in the house in some room where an even
temperature can be maintained. The cellar, also, makes a
good location. If chicks are to be produced on a large scale
an incubator house will be needed. It can be built of stone
with thick walls or of hollow tile and at least half of the room
should be below the ground level. If an upper story is made
it can be used for storage of feeds and supplies. Provision
must be made for drainage and ventilation. The incubator
should not be near a stove, or in a draft, or subject to direct
sunshine. If the incubators are to be run in cold weather pro-
vision must be made to keep the room temperature at about
60 degrees.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Brooder House. This is built after the same general plan
as the laying house, the difference being in size. A long brooder
house without partitions would not be successful on account
of drafts which are always found in such a building. It would
be better to have several smaller houses. A room or house,
&x12 feet, would accommodate 100 to 200 chicks, and we doubt
A dropping board makes it easy to keep the house clean
whether more than that number should be crowded under one
hover. A concrete floor is necessary to keep out vermin, and
ventilation without draft can be secured by muslin windows.
Platforms for water, mash, grit, etc., if made accessible to
the chicks, will be a great help toward keeping these supplies
clean.
About two inches of coarse sand on the concrete floor will
prevent rheumatism and leg weakness.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A handy brood coop for hen and chicks
Colony houses. Small colony houses for the growing stock
are of great value. A house 3x6 feet, with a shed roof, will
accommodate thirty to forty chicks. The floor should be tight
and all openings covered with wire screen to keep out vermin.
Two large doors in front may be provided, one of glass for
light and the other covered with wire netting and muslin for
ventilation and protection. Such a house should face the east
as a protection against prevailing winds and should be elevated
upon runners, stilts or stone piers as a protection against ver-
min, The runway into the house should be closed on the sides.
to assist the chicks in finding their way inside.
Brood coops. Galvanized iron coops are. considered sani-
tary but are intolerable under a hot sun. Shed roof coops,
made at home, answer well. They should have a floor.bottom
and a runway in front. A sliding door will protect against
enemies at night. If closed at night holes in the side for ven-
tilation should be provided.
The hen hatchery. Where chicks are to be hatched by
hens some provision must be made for the sitting hens. A
small house with compartments or a room set apart for that
purpose is all that is necessary.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The feed room. One of the most difficult problems on
the farm is to provide a room for grains and mill products
required for feeding poultry and other farm animals that is
absolutely rat- and mouse-proof. These vermin contaminate
the food and bring disease and must be outwitted. The floors
of bins should be covered with tin or iron unless there is a
concrete floor and all windows and openings covered with
wire netting. Mashes left in sacks become a harbor for vermin.
It would be better: to mix the mashes as soon as the materials
are obtained and put them in vermin proof bins. Many farms
are provided with machinery to grind grains so that cracked
corn, corn meal, ground oats, etc. can be produced on the
farm. Wheat can be taken to the local mill and bran, middlings,
etc. obtained in that way.
Other buildings may be required, all depending upon how
extended are the operations of the producer. Conditioning
rooms or houses, storage places, and a detention house are of
this character.
Cautions
Do not build the poultry house on low ground. Dampness
breeds disease and disease spells loss.
Do not face the poultry house toward the north or the west.
Prevailing storms are from those directions.
Do not put doors or windows on the west side of the poultry
house.
Another convenient brood coop
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Do not put nests under drop-boards upon the floor. It
means vermin, egg-eating hens, and loss of floor space.
Do not close the front of building with glass. It means a
damp building.
Do not set watering and feeding vessels on the floor, but
on elevated platforms.
Do not allow leaks in the roof.
Do not permit cracks, knot holes or other openings on the
north, east, or west.
Major Equipment
The major equipment comprises incubators, brooders, self-
feeders, grain spouters, egg cabinets, trap nests and all other
supplies of a durable nature. Most of this equipment can be
purchased of supply houses at less expense than if made by
the poultry keeper. Some, however, such as nests, self-feeders,
and outdoor brooders (fireless) can be made at home with con-
siderable saving of expense. Illustrations are given showing
how some of these are made.
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[ 136]
Chapter XI
Problems of Incubation and Brooding
E have reached the most interesting as well as most
difficult and important problem pertaining to the poultry
industry, viz., the development of the chick. Its development
in the egg as an embryo and the aftergrowth of the baby chick
are at the very foundation of successful poultry culture. If
the foundation is successfully laid there is hope that the super-
structure will be enduring. There can be but little profit in
poultry culture unless large numbers of chicks can be correctly
hatched and successfully reared.
The whole problem goes back to the quality of the egg,
and this depends on the character of the foundation stock.
This hinges on many factors, such as feeding, breeding, en-
vironment, and the personality of the breeder. Many shake
their heads and say “There’s nothing in it.’ The trouble is
they have not the patience and courage to grapple with its
problems. These are not so easy to solve as may appear on
the surface. The wisest fail at times.
Producing the Ideal Egg
Take the problem of producing a perfect egg for incuba-
tion. Does it mean nothing more than shell, albumen, and
yolk? It rather means a shell of ideal shape and texture; egg-
contents containing the exact nutrients required to develop
the embryo; and an ideal germinal vesicle, one that contains
all the possibilities of size, shape, color, vigor, and productive-
ness required to fulfill the ideal in the breeder’s mind.
It is an easy matter to err in the selection of foundation
stock. There may be some taint of disease or disqualification
that escapes observation, and years of breeding may be neces-
sary to eliminate them. Feeding, environment and heredity
determine the character of the embryo. Much that has been
said in preceding chapters bears on this problem. When the
best possible egg has been produced, if it does not receive
proper care its virtue is soon lost.
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Conserving the Fertile Egg
1. Gather the eggs twice daily. Do not jar or crack them.
The vitelline membrane is very delicate and is easily ruptured.
2. Keep eggs in a room free from drafts, dampness or bad
odors. The room temperature should be 60 degrees, not less
than 55 degrees nor more than 65 degrees. .\t 70 degrees an
egg incubates.
3. Turn the eggs daily. If they are kept in a 12-dozen
case they can be turned by shifting the case to the opposite
side. If kept in cabinet drawers with sliding frames, several
dozen can be turned with one motion.
4. Eggs received by express or parcel post should be al-
lowed to rest for twelve hours to allow the egg structures to
be properly composed.
5. Do not keep eggs for hatching longer than 10 days if
it can be avoided. From this date on the hatchability of eggs
vanishes very rapidly.
6. Do not wash eggs. After washing they deteriorate rap-
idly. If they are only slightly soiled the soiled spots can be
removed with a damp cloth without wetting the whole egg.
7. Number each egg on the large end according to the pen
from which it was obtained. In case of trapnesting and ped-
igree breeding the number of the leg-band should also be
marked.
8. It isa good plan to test all eggs for specific gravity, using
only those for setting that have dense contents.
9. It will pay to test all eggs with a lamp tester. This wil!
detect any with thin shells and with cracks, or dents, or con-
taining blood spots, or with yolks adhering to the shell. It
will also detect eggs with broken vitelline membrane, in which
the yolk becomes fused with the other contents of the egg.
A home made egg-tester will answer all purposes. Using
half inch lumber make a box six inches square and twelve
inches high. On one side opposite the lamp flame make a hole
two inches in diameter. Cover this hole with a piece of
leather and in the center make a hole one inch in diameter.
If a mirror is placed opposite this hole it will reflect the light
through the egg. The top should be covered with tin con-
taining an aperture about three inches in diameter to allow
the escape of fumes from the lamp. A picture of such a tester
will be found on page 64.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
This is the way to handle chicks for profit
Selecting Eggs for Incubation
If pedigree hatching is pursued, eggs from a given hen or
a given mating are numbered and only those used with the
sitting hen or the pedigree tray, as the case may be. Eggs
that should not be set comprise those that are unusually large
or small, uneven in shape, round eggs, elongated eggs, stale
eggs, dirty eggs, thin-shelled, rough-shelled or mottled eggs.
and eggs with low specific gravity. Eggs that may safely be
set are those that are ovate in shape with smooth and even
texture and of high specific gravity. Specific gravity may be
determined by the magic tester, or by weighing with the hand,
or by noting the size of the air cell with the lamp tester. If
cell is large the specific gravity will be low.
Changes in Incubation
During the process of incubation the air cell gradually in-
creases in size, so that when the chick is ready to be hatched
the air cell occupies about one-third of the shell. The yellow
yolk is not all used but is retained in the egg to be at the last
absorbed into the abdomen of the chick to provide nourish-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
ment during the first three or four days of chick life. The
albumen is used as nourishment by the developing embryo.
The shell becomes soft and easily broken on account of the
action of the carbon dioxide.
The most wonderful changes, however, take place in the
embryo. When the sperm cell fuses with the germ cell the
resulting embryo is but a single, primordial cell, but before
the egg leaves the oviduct the embryo has become two cells.
known as the blastoderm. At this point development is ar-
rested until favoring conditions occur outside the parent body.
Sometimes the egg is retained in the body for a considerable
period, incubation sets in, later the embryo dies, and the result
is what is known as a Stale fresh-laid egg.
The following are some of the changes that take place in
the embryo as it progresses toward the fully formed chick :—
At the end of the first day growth is apparent and blood
vessels can be seen.
At the end of the fifth day the eye and heart and lungs have
made their appearnce with radiating blood vessels.
At the end of the 10th day the bones and muscles are quite
well developed.
By the end of the 15th ‘day the skin and feathers are
well developed.
On the 18th day the first peep is heard, and on the
19th day the beak penetrates the enveloping membrane and
the process of hatching begins.
How the Chick Hatches
Before hatching takes place the embryo must be fully de-
veloped. To accomplish this requires a definite number of
heat units. When the proper temperature is maintained the
embryo receives the correct number of heat units in about
19 days, and hatching then begins. If the temperature
is run too high, hatching begins before the 19th day. If run
at too low a temperature, the time of hatching is sometimes
prolonged to the 24th day. It is a good sign when the hatch
comes off on time.
Hatching begins by thrusting the beak through the mem.
brane that encloses the chick into the air space at the large
end of the egg. The shell is then pipped. If pipping occurs
near the small end of the egg it shows an abnormal condition,
and the chick may not be able to hatch. After the shell is
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
A good hatch -
pipped the chick remains quiet for six to ten hours and then
~begins the work of extricating itself in earnest. The body
of the chick is turned in the shell, the membrane enclosing the
chick turning with it. As it turns, the shell is pipped until
a circular cut is made around the egg. The remaining process
is chiefly muscular. By pushing with its feet in one direction
and with its shoulders in the opposite direction the two parts
of the shell are separated, and the chick emerges into the outer
world. A
Kind of Incubation
There are two kinds of incubation—natural and artificial.
Natural incubation is accomplished by natural means. artificial
by human devices. Which is to be preferred? It is not un-
common to hear the following statement: “During the present
season I have had poor success. All my chicks were hatched
with an incubator. I have lost nearly all of them. Last season
I hatched with hens and lost very few.”
Two things must be noted, first, that without any doubt
a hen hatches a better chick than an incubator and, second.
that we must not blame the incubator for all the losses among
chicks. If the cause was sifted out it would undoubtedly be
found that the losses were due to faulty brooding rather than
to imperfect incubation. The art of brooding, notwithstanding
all modern improvements, is a long road from perfection.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
There is, however, a well-founded prejudice against arti-
ficial incubation. Prominent breeders hatch all their breeding
stock with hens, believing that the incubator chick has a weak-
ness entailed upon it that in time undermines the vigor of the
flock. This prejudice is only increased when a farmer’s wife
has no trouble in raising 400 to 600 hen-hatched chicks, while
her neighbor who hatches many more with an incubator has
nothing to show for her labor at the end of the season. There
is no reason why an incubator properly constructed and cor-
rectly managed should not hatch as good a chick as the hen
that dances on her nest and often deserts it at the critical
moment. When artificial incubation and brooding are brought
to exact sciences this prejudice will disappear.
Natural Incubation
Natural incubation is accomplished by heat from the sun,
‘from fermentation of decaying vegetation, and from the body
of the parent. It is usually accomplished by the heat of the
hen’s body. When a hen becomes broody she enters into a
fever (this is denied by some), and her temperature rises from
101 degrees to 107 degrees. This high temperature is com-
municated to the egg so that during most of the period of
natural incubation the upper surface of the egg records a tem-
perature of 106 degrees. For sucessful incubation three con-
ditions are required:
_ Adequate heat, sufficient moisture and a supply of oxygen.
All of these conditions are provided by the sitting hen. Her
own temperature provides the heat, her body conserves the
moisture produced by oxidation within the egg, and the porous
nature of the feather allows the access of all the oxygen needed
for the growing embryo. There is no excess of heat causing
the coagulation of albumen within the egg. There is no
excess of moisture causing the chick to drown. There is no
lack of oxygen causing suffocation and death in the shell.
Care of the Sitting Hen
The nest is first provided. This may be a box, 12 inches
by 14 inches. The depth may be six inches. It is a good plan
to put sand or sweet soil in the bottom, and, after properly
shaping it, to line the nest with cut straw or fine hay. One or
two nest eggs are then put in place, and the hen is secured.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Before placing on the nest she is carefully dusted with insect
powder and some of it is also dusted in the nest. It is a good
plan to change the hen from the laying house to the nest
at night. By morning she will probably be contented with
her new surroundings, and the setting of 13 or 14 eggs can be
placed under her. Dusting should again be done about the
15th day, and at that time the nesting material should be
changed. Occasionally the nest should be examined, and, if
any of the eggs have been soiled by a broken egg, they should
be washed in tepid water and new nesting material provided.
If this is not done the embryos will smother, as the albumen
from the broken egg completely closes the pores of all sur-
faces that it smears.
Where Shall the Hen be Kept?
Not in the laying house, for that means almost certain dis-
aster. There are three good methods of providing room for
the sitting hen. One method is to make the nest in the brood
coop. This is provided with an outside slatted runway, so that
she can secure any needed exercise, and a place is provided
where food can be placed before her without interference from
other fowls. When the hen hatches, the nesting material is
removed, and the coop becomes the home of the hen and
brood. It should be stated here that the hen should be kept
confined for at least two weeks. After that she may be allowed
to range with the brood, at least in the afternoons.
A second method is to provide a small building with com-
partments. I have used this system for several years. The
building is 12x24 feet. There is an aisle through the center
and on each side two rows of compartments. The lower floor
should be concrete and the upper floor wood. The rooms are
three feet wide and four feet deep. This provides for 32 rooms
in the building, and, if one hen is placed in each room, that
number of hens can be accommodated. Two can be put in each
room, if they are taken from the same breeding pen.
In that way 64 hens covering 800 to 900 eggs can be han-
dled with little trouble. If the nest boxes are six inches deep
there will be trouble when the hatch comes off, for some of
the chicks will creep out of the nest and, unable to get back,
will become chilled. This danger is avoided by making a few
frames of 1x4 inch boards the exact size of the nest box and
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
setting one on each nest box as the hatch comes due. Only
a few of these will be needed as only a few hens are usually
set at one time. The building described above is very useful
in many ways, providing a place for fattening market fowls
and for conditioning birds for the show.
The feed kept before sitting hens consists of equal parts
of shelled corn, whole wheat and hulled oats. \Vater is pro-
vided in cups and the feed in small boxes upon the walls. The
third method is by a large room with nests around the walls.
The hens are confined on the nests and allowed to come off
for feeding once a day. A second visit is necessary to see
that the hens get back on the nests in good shape. When the
chicks hatch, as many as 25 can be given to a single hen. The
remaining hens are returned to the laying house as it is not
best to set them a second time. Chicks from special matings
should be toe-marked or leg-banded so as to preserve their
identity. See toe-mark chart on page 162.
Artificial Incubation
For the commercial plant or the breeder who handles the
heavy meat breeds or the non-sitting Mediterranean breeds,
artificial incubation is almost a necessity. The incubator is
his boon.
There are mammoth incubators, accommodating as many as
600,000 eggs, and baby incubators, designed for only 50 eggs.
There are hot water machines and hot air machines. Some
are heated by coal stoves, others by oil burners, gas, or elec-
tricity. As to whether hot water or hot air produces the best
chicks, opinion is divided. A hot air machine with adequate
provision for moisture seems to have the preference. An in-
cubator, to have any consideration at all, should provide for
the three conditions of successful incubation, viz., heat, moist-
ure and ventilation. The incubator that fulfills these condi-
tions in the same degree as the mother hen is the one for
which poultry keepers everywhere are searching. For the
average farm, the incubator that approaches nearest to the
above requirements is the one to purchase.
It is a safe rule to follow explicitly the directions of the
manufacturer in setting up, regulating, and operating the
machine.
The following rules are of general application and may be
helpful :
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1. Set the machine in a cellar, where an even temperature
can be maintained, or in a room with a firm floor, where the
air is pure and the temperature about 60 degrees.
2. Make sure that the machine is level. If not, the high
corner will be hotter than the low corner, resulting in an un-
even hatch.
3. Do not put the eggs in the machine until it has been
regulated so at to run at an even temperature of not less than
102 degrees.
4, If the machine has been used before, give it a thorough
cleansing and disinfection. A weak solution of creolin in hot
water makes a good disinfectant. Every surface of the in-
terior of the machine should be treated, for the germs of
coccidial and white diarrhea often lurk in the incubator and
infect the whole brood at hatching time. If there are nurseries
lined with burlap, new material should be used, and all trays
should be carefully disinfected.
5. Keep the temperature at 103 degrees during the first two
weeks. During the third week the temperature should be
104 degrees, except that during the period of hatching no harm
will come if the temperature reaches 105 degrees. Remember
that. the temperature cannot go below 90 degrees or above 107
degrees without seriously injuring the quality of the chicks
that may hatch.
6. About the fourteenth day look for a sudden rise in tem-
perature. This is due to the animal heat generated by the de-
veloping embryos. It amounts to several degrees, ranging
from 4 degrees to 10 degrees. Unless the machine is watched
at this time and regulated so as to make allowance for this
natural increase, the hatch may be injured. Temperature can
be regulated by the size of the flame and by adjusting the
thermostat.
7. Begin turning the eggs on the third day and turn twice
a day until the 18th day. Turning is accomplished by removy-
ing some of the eggs and shuffling gently. Do not turn eggs
after the eighteenth day.
8. At the end of the 18th day close the machine and keep it
closed until the hatch is completed. Watch the hen. She sits
close while the chicks are hatching. When the hatch is com-
pleted, remove the tray and put the chicks in the nursery.
This will be about the end of the 21st day.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
9. Do not cool the eggs until after the seventh day. Watch
the hen. She sits close during the first week, hardly leaving
the nest for food. Beginning with the eighth day, cool the
eggs once a day up to the 18th day. Many chicks are ruined
by too much cooling. If we are so careful that the tender,
baby chick shall not become chilled, why should we not con-
sider the tender embryo in the shell? Cool the eggs grad-
ually. When they feel slightly cool when applied to the eye-
lids, then is the time to return the trays to the incubator.
Keep the incubator closed while the eggs are cooling.
10. Keep the bulb of the thermometer on a level with the
top of the eggs, but it should not touch any egg. It will then
register the temperature of the air in the brood chamber.
Every thermometer should be tested for accuracy.
11. Keep the room temperature at 60 degrees. You cannot
maintain the proper temperature in the incubator if the room
temperature goes below 50 degrees or above 70 degrees.
12. Provide an abundance of pure air. A crowded, ill-
ventilated living room is not the best place for an incubator.
Why do Chicks Die in the Shell?
Many chicks die in the shell because the germ is weak.
They develop until the hatching period and then have not the
vital energy to get out of the shell. Many are infected with
disease germs to which they succumb before thev are able to
pip the shell. Some are drowned because of too much moist-
ure. The air cell should be watched to make sure that the
eggs are properly dried out at hatching time. Some die for
want of moisture. The membrane surrounding the chick be-
comes dried to the outer membrane, and the chick is unable
to turn in the shell. Some die because overheated. The al-
bumen of their blood becomes coagulated by the excessive
heat and death ensues. Some become chilled, which means a
loss of vitality. Some perish on account of rough handling.
The vitelline membrane becomes ruptured or the shell be-
comes cracked, and in either event death ensues.
What is the Cause of Cripples?
A very common cause is excessive heat in the incubator.
It is a very rare thing for a hen to hatch a cripple. She does
not permit the temperature to rise above 107 degrees. Cripples
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
arise when the chicks are not able to turn in the shell or when
held in one cramped position for a considerable time. Uneven
temperature during the period of incubation is the cause usual-
ly assigned for these deformities.
Brooding
Brooding, as well as incubation, may. be natural or artifi-
cial. Natural brooding, with the hen, solves the problem of
heat in an inexpensive way. It isa common thing on the farm
to set a number of hens at the same time that the incubator
is set. When the incubator comes off the chicks are given to
the hens, until each hen has about twenty, and then they are
put out in coops. It has been found that incubator chicks do
not do as well under hens as chicks hatched by the natural
method. They do not do as well as under an artificial system
of brooding. When large numbers of chicks are to be raised,
the incubator and artificial brooder are a necessity. For the
average farmer, better results will be obtained by the natural
method, for there is no question but that the hen-hatched and
the hen-brooded chick is superior.
Artificial Brooding
There are several types of brooders on the market. The
fireless brooder depends upon the heat generated by the
chicks. When the chicks are a month old or older this brooder
can be used to advantage. It can also be used for smaller
chicks in a room provided with artificial heat. The feather
brooder is one type of this kind that is quite popular. The
ordinary box in which the brood chamber is heated by a lamp
is used when small numbers of chicks are handled. Some of
these give good results. The small colony house provided
with universal hover, the heat being furnished by a lamp on
the outside of building, is not always satisfactory as the lamp,
though enclosed, is exposed to more or less draft. The stove
brooder seems to have solved the brooding problem better than
any other device. The stove is heated by hard or soft coal
or kerosene, according to the type. It is provided with a
regulator so that an even temperature can be maintained. The
hover throws the heat down upon the backs of the chicks and,
as there are different zones of heat from the stove outward,
the chicks, are able to find the zone of heat adapted to their
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
needs, and there is but little danger of overheating. Some
hovers are provided with outside curtains or enclosures, but
as a rule they are open. The oil heater seems to have some
advantage over the coal heater as it maintains a steady heat
and is not so liable to go out.
The Baby Chick
When safely hatched the tender chick is just ready to
begin the struggle of life. There are many dangers ahead.
To avoid these requires all the resources and skill of the poul-
try keeper. Nature has provided it with sufficient nourishment
Plan of brood coop for hen and chicks
for 72 hours in the yolk, but recently absorbed into its ab-
domen. While the chicks are drying and cooling in the
nursery of the incubator, the brooder should be gotten ready.
If a box brooder, the lamp should be cleaned and filled with
fresh oil, the wick trimmed so as to make an even and round
flame, free from sharp points,-and the hover is cleansed and
disinfected.
If a stove brooder, it is thoroughly cleaned so as to remove
any rust or soot that would intercept the draft. The pipes
are examined, and any in bad condition are replaced with new
sections. A hole in the pipe interferes with the draft. The fire
is built and the heat regulated so that a thermometer test in-
dicates a temperature of 100 degrees in the outer zone of the
hover.
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Everything is now ready for the chicks. Only sound chicks
are brought to the brooder. Cripples and others.that were
helped out of the shell should not be saved. This is a time
when sentiment must be waived for the common good of the
brood. There is this consolation that, if not killed, they would
die a lingering death, but the chief reason is because they are
probably infected with disease germs and thus a menace to
the whole hatch. A merciful way to kill a chick is to pinch
it under the wings between the thumb and forefinger. After
the chicks have been in the nursery twenty-four hours, they
are then transferred to the brooder in a warm basket, every
Another convenient brood jcoop
precaution being taken to keep them from becoming chilled.
They are placed under the hover at once. To prevent any
danger of chilling and to get them acquainted with their foster
mother it is customary to place a guard around the outside of
the hover during the first day. This can be made of muslin
or wire screen or even of boards. After the first day or two
it can be safely removed. No feed should be given on the first
day. On the second day milk can be set before them. At
the beginning of the third day they have been out of the shell
72 hours and it will be safe to give them solid food. This
should be rolled oats or pin head oats fed in shallow litter.
Sweet milk and oats constitute their ration during the first
week. On the sixth day after being placed in the brooder, a
dry mash is given in a self feeder on an elevated platform.
The chicks will soon find their way to it. Use the mash out-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
lined in Ration No. 1 in Chapter 4. The mash, oats, and milk
constitute the ration until the end of the second week. At
that time a change is made to ration No. 2. The change is
made gradually, and at the end of the fourth week change to
Ration No. 3. If milk is available throughout the feeding
period, the amount of meat scrap in the mash may be reduced
5 per cent. The mash can be fed moist if desired.
After the second week, green or succulent feed should be
supplied daily. The milk is given in the forenoon, as it will!
always be sweet at that time. At noon it is removed, the
vessel cleaned, and water given in the afternoon.
A cool room adjoining the brooder room is always recom-
mended as an essential of successful brooding. This room is
connected with the brooder room by an opening or a hinged
door. If there is but one room, the brooder is placed in one
corner or end of the room so that the other portion can be used
as a cool room for feeding and exercise. The floors should
be covered with two inches of clean, gritty sand, and upon
this is placed about an inch of clean, bright, short-cut alfalfa
or alsike clover. Chaff from the barn or straw stack is usually
unsafe as it contains the spores of Aspergillus. Short-cut rye
straw or wheat straw might answer if bright and clean. The
scratch feed can be thrown in the litter in the cool room, but
should never be fed in litter contaminated with the droppings
of chicks or other filth. A good plan is to provide a feed box
three feet square and two inches deep. The feed is thrown
in litter upon the bottom of this box. When the chicks are
through feeding, the box is removed and in that way is kept
reasonably clean. This will answer while the chicks are small.
The temperature under the hover can be gradually reduced
during the first week from 100 degrees to 95 degrees; in the
_ second week from 95 degrees to 90 degrees; and in the third
week to 85 degrees. If the weather is mild the chicks can be
weaned from the stove brooder when they are four weeks old
and removed to a colony house with fireless brooder. A very
simple affair will answer for the fireless brooder, a frame, with
legs at corners, covered with flannel or muslin and a border
around the sides.
Chicks should never be allowed to become chilled, for a
chilled chick is a ruined chick. This happens when they are
unable to find their way to the brooder or when the lamp or
stove fails for want of fuel or attention.
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When chicks become cannibals, or toe-pickers, it indicates
a lack of protein in their feed. The dry mash recommended
will help cure the habit. It is claimed that direct sunshine
contributes to the formation of this habit. If the lights are
given a coat of white paint it will help matters.
Key to Successful Brooding
The following is a summary of the essentials of successful
artificial brooding :—
1. An even and adequate temperature; a room without
drafts and comfortable.
2. An abundance of light but without direct sunshine.
3. Plenty of room for exercise; a B shallow litter to encour-
age exercise.
A popular type of brooder and colony house
4. An opportunity to get out upon mother earth and into
fresh air as often and as early as weather conditions permit.
In case of long confinement, place green sods upon the brooder
floor.
5. A system of feeding that meets the demands of the grow-
ing chick; not too much variety at first; sharp sand for grit
is better than prepared grit; no feed for the first 72 hours after
hatching; no underfeeding, no overfeeding. Green feed and a
dry mash after the first week.
6. Extreme cleanliness; this means cleaning the brooder
room frequently and replenishing the litter; it means clean
vessels, frequently scalded; it means an elevated platform for
the mash and water fount.
7. Immediate removal from the brood of any chicks that
show symptoms of disease. This is the only road of safety.
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8. Fresh air in abundance. Look after the ventilation.
9. A constant warfare upon lice and mites. Avoid fumes
that would injure the chicks.
10. A dry floor. Concrete, covered with sand, and then lit-
ter is the best.
11. An adjacent room or a portion of the brooder room set
apart as a cool place for exercise and feeding.
12. The house must be vermin proof. The runway to the
outside should be closed at night to protect against cats, rats
and other vermin.
Artificial brooding presents one of the most difficult prob-
lems connected with poultry culture. It is the great stumbling-
stone of the industry. It is hoped that the few suggestions
given above will be helpful.
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Chapter XII
From Producer to Consumer
1 ee study and effort are given to production but often
the marketing end of the industry is neglected. To buy
the best, to produce the best, and to sell well should be the
aim in poultry culture.
Disposing of Surplus Stock
There are four possible ways in which the producer can
dispose of his surplus poultry:
He can sell direct to the consumer.
He can sell to the huckster who visits the farm.
He can sell to the local dealer in the village.
He can sell to the city commission merchant.
The first method insures a higher price and greater profit
for it eliminates one or more middlemen. This method would
be used to a greater extent were it not for the difficulty of find-
ing the purchaser and the frequent impossibility of supplying
his needs promptly and regularly. Occasionally a hotel or
restaurant can be found that will appreciate the opportunity
of purchasing direct from the producer. On one occasion I
sold a large number of springs to a Chicago restaurant. They
were crate fattened, dressed and shipped as required, and the
deal proved profitable to both parties.
The second method saves the expense of delivery, but
frequently the price is not satisfactory, and unless the huckster
is known there is some risk in encouraging him to visit the
premises.
The third method, of selling through the local merchant,
is common and usually satisfactory, but the local dealer must
have his profit, and before the product reaches the consumer
it must pass through several hands all of whom must exact
a toll.
The fourth method is perhaps one of the best. If an honest
commission man is selected, the producer is enabled to get
a larger share of the final selling price of the poultry than when
he sells to a local dealer.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
From what has been said jt will be noted that the sale of
poultry, is not usually a producer-to-consumer transaction.
The huckster, the local dealer, the public carrier, the city com-
mission merchant, the inspector, the conditioner, the jobber
and the retailer may all have a hand in bringing the finished
carcass to the table of the consumer, and each is entitled to
pay for his services. The consumer pays and the producer
loses. If the farmer properly conditions his fowls and sells
to the consumer, either direct or through his commission firm,
it would mean larger profit for him and a reduced price to the
consumer.
What About the Commission Merchant?
Undoubtedly he performs a valuable service for the pro-
ducer. If found to be honest, competent and prompt in service
he should be cherished as a friend. The dishonest dealer—for-
tunately there are few of this class—should be forsaken as soon
as discovered. Write Prairie Farmer’s Protective Union, Chi-
cago, Ill., for names of reliable commissionmen.
Story of a Farmer
An Illinois farmer shipped a coop of choice spring chickens
to a commission firm in Chicago. The gross weight at the
farm was 194 pounds, the coop weighed 54 pounds, making a
net weight for the fowls of 140 pounds. After considerable
delay he received returns for 117 pounds at 19 cents per pound,
which was the minimum price on the market for that day. The
shrinkage in this case was 23 pounds, which, valued at the sell-
ing price, meant a loss of $4.37. Under average conditions
the shrinkage should have been not more than 10 pounds.
What Happened?
Several things could have happened with this shipment to
cause such a loss, viz., failure to water and feed the fowls be-
fore cooping ; faulty condition of the coop, allowing the escape
of one or more fowls; overcrowding, which may have caused
the suffocation of one or more; work of “light fingers” among
employes of the express company or the commission firm; dis-
honest weights at the receiving end; slow action on the part
of the carrying agent.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
The Story of Another Farmer
Another Illinois farmer shipped his surplus poultry to a
certain commission firm for a number of years only to discover
that the shrinkage on each coop was from twenty to thirty
pounds. Satisfied that he was not getting a square deal, he
changed to a new comission firm, and a close comparison of
weights for a term of years showed that the shrinkage was
never more than ten pounds and often there was no shrinkage
whatever.
How He Won Out
The farmer made good by observing the following sug-
gestions:
He watered and fed all fowls before cooping.
He made a memorandum of the number of fowls in each
coop and their net weight. This was for comparison with re-
turns from the sale.
He made sure that the coop was strong and made secure
for the journey.
He avoided overcrowding; not more than twenty average
fowls in an average coop.
He provided food for the journey, especially when fowls
were to be cooped over night. This was planned so that when
the fowls appeared upon the market they could be sold with
empty crops. This plan reduces shrinkage to a minimum.
He kept tab on his commission merchant. This is often
overlooked. The very few firms that are crooked make it
necessary to watch all. Quoting Miller Purvis, an authority
on poultry wisdom: “The reputation of the commission mer-
chant should be carefully looked into before making consign-
ments as the cities are full of swindling commission merchants,
although there is no lack of honest ones if the trouble be taken
to find them.”
What to Market
The following classes of market fowls can be disposed of
in season. To hold any class longer than the demand con-
tinues or market conditions warrant means a waste of feed and
a loss of profit.
1. Springs. These are young cockerels and pullets held
over from the crop of the preceding season and are put upon
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
the market in the spring months when the prices are high. It
will pay to condition them.
2. Broilers. These are young cockerels and pullets which
are usually marketed in June and July at a weight of two
pounds to three pounds. As broilers they may command a
better price than if held over till the following winter.
3. Roasters. These are the surplus cockerels held over
till September. They are put ona fattening ration and sold for
fall consumption.
4. Culls. These are fowls which are culled from the lay-
ing flock, usually in September. If conditioned they command
good prices.
5. Capons. These are desexed cockerels, which attain
large size and are in great demand at fancy prices. They are
conditioned for the holiday trade, or in February for the late
winter market.
Selling Purebred Stock
The keeper of purebred poultry has sources of income that
the mongrel breeder does not enjoy. He can sell his eggs at
prices much better than the general market affords. Purebred
stock has several outlets, as day-old chicks, breeding stock,
and show birds.
Day-old chick industry. Those who have had experience
in selling baby chicks know that the demand is always greater
than the supply. This industry has grown to mammoth pro-
portions. There are incubators in use that will accommodate
more than 500,000 eggs. Orders are always booked in ad-
vance. Shipments are made in specially prepared cartons of
corrugated paper. It is customary to give each chick a drink
of tepid water before shipping, but no food is given. Fed
chicks invariably perish.
The bottom of box is provided with cut straw; the size of
the compartment is reduced if the ‘number of chicks is smaller
than the capacity; in very warm weather extra openings are
made for ventilation if necessary ; and chicks are shipped when
one day old, not later if a long journey is before them.
Where do the hatcheries get the eggs? It is customary to
establish purebred flocks among near-by farmers and these
furnish eggs at better than market prices. These flocks are
generally free range flocks sustained at a high standard. The
purchaser of chicks from the large hatcheries has the ad-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
vantage of securing stock from farm produced eggs and
hatched under scientific, up-to-date methods.
Breeding stock. In every purebred flock there are always
surplus cockerels and pullets that can be sold at good prices
for breeding purposes. Only the best are saved for this pur-
pose, the inferior stock going to market.
Show birds. These are extra fine specimens, and they are
always in demand for exhibition or for special matings in line
breeding.
Fabulous prices are sometimes paid for birds of outstand-
ing quality.
Breeding stock and show birds are shipped in light crates.
Before shipment they should be gone over carefully to make
sure that there are no disqualifications. Feet and shanks
should be washed and all dirt removed from under scales.
When two or more male birds are shipped to the same address
they should be put in separate coops or partitions should be
placed between them.
All this requires advertising that producer and consumer
may be brought together.
Advertising. Unusual care must be exercised that all ad-
vertising may be done with wisdom and discretion. Fortunes
have been sunk in advertising. It is folly to use large display
ads in poultry journals when the quantity and quality of the
stock in possession do not warrant. If the breeder is a be-
ginner or has a limited surplus it would be far better to use
a small classified advertisement in the local paper or a good
farm paper or in his poultry journal. This will usually sell his
surplus and the expense will be but a trifle. If the breeder
has a large surplus backed by superior quality he can well
afford to launch out into a more expensive advertising cam-
paign, and that means a display ad in the poultry journal, for
only through that source can fancy prices be obtained.
Selling Eggs
The value of eggs produced in the United States in 1919
was approximately $750,000,000. The number of chicken eggs
produced on the farms was 1,656,267,200 dozens; 35 per cent
of these were consumed on the farm. Considering that an egg
is very fragile and easily damaged, it must require an
enormous expenditure of labor and money to transport this
wonderful output from the nests on the farm to the tables of
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
the consumers. The season of large production covers only a
few months of spring and early summer.
Were it not for the cold storage plants there would be a
glut on the market in the season of high production, and prices
would be disastrously low. Storage eggs may have a tendency
to lower the prices of fresh eggs in winter, but the fresh egg
is always in demand and remunerative prices are maintained in
spite of the release of cold storage stocks.
The Chicago Mercantile Exchange gives the following rules
for grading market eggs:
1. Eggs shall be classed as fresh gathered, storage packed,
and refrigerator.
4
2. Eggs shall be graded as extras, firsts, ordinary firsts,
and dirties.
3. The term “loss” comprises all eggs that are rotten,
broken (leaking), spots, broken yolked, frozen (split), hatched
(blood veined), and sour. Very small, very dirty, cracked
(not leaking), badly heated, badly shrunken, salted, and chilled
eggs shall be counted one-third loss in all grades excepting
“Seconds,” “Dirties,” and “Checks.”
This rule applies to the grading of eggs when they are to
be sold in the shell, and does not mean that such eggs desig-
nated as “loss” (except rotten eggs) shall not be used for can-
ning or drying purposes when same are of a sweet or whole-
some nature.
4, Fresh gathered extras shall be free from small and dirty
eggs, and shall contain fresh, reasonably full, strong in body,
sweet eggs as follows:
February. 15) to: (May: U5 tris.c iccuarwsge sage ye eee ees audits earns 90%
May 15) tor Oct Bilis, aca eovas eciverica Gs dsae are areca sb 0 stlvaesvd aesnaveie se Rosacea 80%
Det. 31 te. Dee. Ble x oain< x amen ¥ een) se eeeRy «APOE SREY TS RRL 70%
December’ 31' ‘to~ February: Wd xcs 6 uiccdaeie wanducnere neonates Grow wie ai svete 80%
The balance may be defective in strength or fullness, but
must be sweet. There may be a total average loss:
September Ist to June Ist........cccceussseseees \% dozen per case
June Ist to September Ist............. 0.00 eaee 1 dozen per case
5. Fresh gathered firsts shall be reasonably clean, of good
average size, and shall contain fresh, reasonably full, strong
in body, sweet eggs as follows:
Debiiery 35 46 Way TGs sera suasa es bbti ad Abbadasaed ecw aches 70%
Balance: (of: thé: yea tas senda a4. iaaisis <i sans ahi Ww oalade & dteeatine 8 oe 45%
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
|
Mr. Osburn on his way to town with eggs. Eggs for shipment are first packed in cartons,
then in the crates. They seldom break when shipped in this way
The balance, other than the loss, may be defective in
strength or fullness, but must be sweet. There may be a total
average loss:
September 1 to June 1.............. sees ee eens 2 dozen per case
June 1 to September 1........: ccc ce eee e eee 1% dozen per case
If the loss exceeds this amount by not over 33% per cent,
the eggs shall be good delivery upon allowance of the excess.
6. Fresh gathered ordinary firsts shall contain the follow-
ing percentage of fresh, reasonably full, sweet eggs:
ebruary: 15° to? Mays 055s sis 0 toe ses ness se avapavieve acy eneyace Seayeiever'e estes aue ++ -60%
Balance of the “‘yearsesecciecs 2s seein febies eedee VRE S Lae -.30%
The balance, other than the loss, may be defective in
strength or fullness, but must be sweet. There may be a total
average loss:
September 1 to June 1......... cee cece cee eee 3 dozen per case
June 1 to September 1.5 .ccc0.0 00008 sc eegs teen 1% dozen per case
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
If the loss exceeds this amount by not more than 33% per
cent, the eggs shall be good delivery upon allowance of the
excess.
7. Dirties must be of useful quality, sweet flavared, and
must not lose over one and one-half dozen per case, loss to con-
sist of rots, spots, and checked or cracked eggs—checks or
cracks to count three for one. No. 2 Dirties may be off-
flavored, not musty, and must not lose over three dozen per
case.
Storage packed eggs are eggs put up for storage, and re-
frigerator eggs are eggs that have been in storage. The grades
of these two classes are not given, as the producer is interested
chiefly in “fresh gathered eggs.”
Outlet for Eggs
The following are some of the methods of disposing of
eggs:
1. Selling to the huckster. This saves time and labor in
delivery.
The purchaser comes to the farm door and pays cash for
his purchases. In remote sections and in busy seasons this is
a great advantage, and the farmer can well afford the sacrifice
in price.
2. Selling to the country merchant. In this event payment
is usually made in merchandise. If the merchant breaks even
on the eggs he still has opportunity for profit on goods given
in exchange.
3. Selling to private customers. This method is becoming
more popular each year. Sometimes the private customer is
secured in the town where the producer does his trading,
sometimes in the great city through the help of personal friends.
Shipments are usually made by parcel post. A good method
of packing is by using the Humpty-dumpty case. Each egg
is first wrapped in paper and then packed in suitable card-
board container holding a dozen eggs. After the case is lined
with strong paper to prevent leakage, the containers are packed
snugly, and after proper labeling, delivered to the post car-
rier. There should be no loose eggs in the package as these
are the ones that are usually broken.
Where eggs are shipped to private customers great pains
are taken to select eggs uniform in shape, size, and color, and
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
perfectly fresh. The retainer is returned at the producer’s
expense.
4. Selling to the commission merchant. This is usually
done by the local merchant, but if eggs are produced in large
numbers it is advisable to ship in 30 dozen cases to the city
merchant.
5. Selling eggs for hatching. A setting of eggs is counted
as 15. Eggs for hatching can be shipped by express or by
parcel post. The safer method is by express as the package
receives more careful handling and goes through with less
breakage. If eggs were shipped by parcel post in baskets
instead of in cartons, the results would undoubtedly be more
favorable.
Packing Eggs for Hatching
The best method is to pack in a basket with strong handle.
The basket is first lined with heavy paper, and a thin layer of
excelsior is placed in the bottom. Then each egg is wrapped
first with paper, then with excelsior, then packed in the basket.
When the first layer of eggs is placed they are covered with
excelsior and upon this the second layer is placed. When
all the eggs are in snug position they are covered with a layer
of excelsior, and over this is sewed a muslin cover. A-label
marked “EGGS FOR HATCHING” should be pasted on the
muslin, and a tag containing the shipping address and name
of sender is fastened to handle. Eggs packed in this way
can be shipped safely either by express or parcel post.
Guarantee. When eggs are sold for hatching a special
price is expected. This ranges from $1 per 15 to $1 per egg.
It is customary to give a guarantee to protect the purchaser in
event of failure to secure a good hatch. What constitutes a
good hatch? Not less than eight sound chicks. If the setting
cost $1, each chick would cost only 121% cents, and the same
quality of chick would cost about 20 cents from the hatchery.
If the setting cost $3 the chick cost would be 20 cents, and the
same grade from the special breeder would cost not less than
50 cents. It must be remembered that home-hatched chicks
are usually superior to incubator chicks that are compelled to
undergo the ordeal of a long shipment.
Even though the first cost may be greater, there is less
risk in securing new stock through eggs for hatching than
in any other way. What should the guarantee be? It is cus-
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
tomary to guarantee eight sound chicks. If the hatch falls
below this number due to a fault in the eggs, the breeder
should replace the infertile eggs free of charge. If the hen for-
sakes the nest, chilling the eggs, or dances on the nest, breaking
eggs, the purchaser will be considerate enough not to ask a
rebate under such circumstances. In all business transactions
there is more or less risk, and there is no reason why the pur-
chaser should not bear his share as well as the breeder. Where
the loss is due, not to the eggs, but to their treatment in the
hands of the purchaser, it is only right that any replacement
should be entirely optional with the breeder. In the case of
high-priced eggs, it should be a rule to replace all infertile eggs
without question, if a test is made by the tenth day. Most
purchasers are on the square and will not take advantage of
any guarantee to secure extra eggs without cost. Rules for
selecting eggs for hatching are given in Chapter VI.
R.
fey
Ss.
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Showing how to toe mark the baby chicks
[162]
Chapter XIII
Poultry Sanitation—Pests and Parasites
Nee per cent of all financial disappointments in poul-
try raising can be traced to epidemics of disease; there-
fore a study of the prevention, diagnosis, and cure of disease
is important.
What, then, is the road to success? It is not the route of
fine buildings and expensive equipment or pedigreed stock,
but rather the highway of a healthy flock.
What is health? It is a condition in which the tissues and
organs of the organism function in harmony. If there is fric-
tion anywhere there is an abnormal condition and disease.
Health in a fowl is indicated by a good appetite, sprightly
carriage, glossy plumage, a bright full eye, a bright red comb,
normal droppings, and pronounced stamina.
What is disease? It is a condition in which the cells,
tissues and organs of the organism fail to function in harmony.
If only one structure fails to function normally, it affects in a
greater or less degree all the other structures, and we conclude
that the body is diseased.
How Can Disease be Prevented?
Prevention is better than cure. If disease can be warded
off it saves loss of time and money and waste of food that
always follow in the train of every sickness. To prevent
disease should be the aim and study of every poultry keeper.
What are some of the methods of prevention? Here are a few.
1. Breeding for physical stamina. The beginner is occa-
sionally wrecked on the shoal of fancy feathers. It is possible
to combine fine plumage and vigor, but, if a choice is to be
made between the two, physical stamina should have
preference.
2. Prompt isolation. The spread of disease can be pre-
vented by prompt isolation. An epidemic often can
be averted by the quick removal of one sick fowl from the
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
flock. There should always be a hospital or pest house on
every farm where a hundred chickens can be kept. This may
be only a room with compartments or suitable coops. It should
be located at some distance from the other buildings. If dry,
well ventilated and kept clean and comfortable it will be the
means of saving many fowls and prove a good financial invest-
ment. It is sometimes urged that it does not pay to doctor
sick fowls, that they should be killed as soon as discovered.
If the same principle were applied to human beings the race
would become extinct. The truth is that there is no farm
animal that responds more promptly to treatment than the
fowl. The poultry attendant must be the judge and, if he finds
that a fowl is beyond the help of remedies, the more quickly it
is dispatched the better. In the majority of cases, however,
good care and correct remedies mean immediate recovery.
3. Removing the causes of disease. The causes of disease
have been discussed briefly in preceding chapters. It will be
sufficient at this time to enumerate the more important causes:
(a) Overcrowding: Allowing more in the house than one
for every four square feet of floor space.
(b) Lack of ventilation: Failing to supply and to dis-
tribute an abundance of fresh air.
(c) Drafts: Permitting holes and cracks in the building ;
failing to provide partitions in long buildings, which are al-
ways drafty unless this precaution is taken.
(d) Lack of sunlight: Darkness and gloom are the friends
of disease; sunshine and oxygen are the great germ killers.
(e) Dampness: Health and dampness cannot abide to-
gether.
(f) Uncleanliness: Disease germs revel in unclean sur-
roundings. Frequent and thorough cleaning and disinfection
are necessary.
(g) Lack of exercise: A watch allowed-to run down and
stand idle will corrode; the chicken is a machine that must
have exercise in every part to maintain a healthy condition.
(h) Improper feeding: The feeding of one grain continually
or the constant feeding of an unbalanced ration invariably
brings disease.
(i) Disease germs: These are brought to the flock in many
ways but more especially by domesticated and wild animals.
Rats are disease carriers, also English sparrows. They go
from farm to farm, spreading contagion. This explains why
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
there are occasional outbreaks of disease even though the flock
is kept under ideal conditions.
(j) Weather conditions: Damp and cold windy weather
often bring trouble to the flock unless there is adequate pro-
tection. This is in evidence in the fall of the year when the
young stock are still roosting on the ground or in crowded
coops unprotected from sudden weather changes.
What Should be Done When the Fowls Get Sick?
To know the nature of the disease is half the cure. This
is often a difficult task. Our knowledge of poultry ailments
is incomplete and, even in some well known diseases, the
symptoms are so obscure and the lesions so complicated that
an error in diagnosis is not improbable. In identifying dis-
eases, two things must be considered: External symptoms
and internal conditions.
How to Make a Diagnosis
First, note external symptoms. It is not always possible
to determine a disease by external symptoms alone. The
same symptom may occur in several diseases. For example,
lameness occurs in tuberculosis, liver disease, gout, bumble
foot, rheumatism, coccidiosis, and other affections. Diarrhea
occurs in cholera, enteritis, coccidiosis, liver disease, vent gleet,
and mineral poisoning. It is only by comparing all external
symptoms with conditions found in the autopsy that a correct
conclusion can be made. Symptoms should be studied care-
fully. Note whether there is lameness, diarrhea, swellings and
where located, peculiarity of action, blindness, coughing, rat-
tling, ruffled plumage, loss of appetite, empty or full crop, or
emaciation. In the case of diarrhea, the color and consistency
of the excreta should be observed. After a record is made of
outward signs, then a dead bird should be examined.
Second, Make a post mortem examination. In making an
autopsy, the following tools are needed: A sharp knife, a pair
of strong shears, small forceps, small scissors, a dissecting
needle and a pair of bone forceps or, instead, a pair of small
tin-shears. The dissecting needle can be made by forcing the
head of a needle into a wooden handle.
A board, two feet square, should be secured, and this is
covered with paper. The specimen is laid upon the board,
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
back down. Sever the skin holding the thighs to the body,
spread out the legs and tack them to the board. This will hold
the body in position while further work progresses. Cut
through the skin and flesh just below the point of keel. Lift
the keel and at the same time use the shears and make a cut
on each side from point of keel through skin and ribs to the
shoulder. By cutting through the caracoids with the tin-shears
the breast can be removed. Now make a longitudinal cut from
point of keel to vent, cutting through skin and muscle, being
careful not to cut the intestines. Spread the skin outward
and tack to the board on each side. A full view is now given
of the viscera, with no feathers to interfere in the examination.
Abnormal conditions may appear at first view, but a critical
examination should be made of all the organs. Note the heart.
Is it enlarged, or the pericardium filled with liquid? Examine
the liver. Are there any spots or discoloration? Is the liver
enlarged or is it shrunken? Note the intestines, whether they
are inflamed or discolored or enlarged. Examine the kidneys
lying in the sacral region. So also, other organs and systems
should receive careful study. If worms are suspected it will
be advisable to remove the digestive tract and place it upon
a clean sheet of paper. It can then be slit from cloaca to
proventriculus.
Now, with the facts at hand, both of external symptoms and
internal conditions, it will be possible to make a reasonably
accurate diagnosis.
After the diagnosis, what? The remedy must be deter-
mined and applied. Some assistance along this line can be
obtained from Chapter XIV. If a more exhaustive study is
desired there are valuable books on poultry diseases, such as
those of “Blair,” “Dr. Salmon,” and “Pearl, Surface, and
Curtis” which can be secured from any poultry journal com-
pany. The following list contains remedies that will be useful
for all kinds of livestock and many of them are valuable for
family use.
Poultry Remedies
Epsom Salts, MgSO,.—There is no more valuable drug for
the poultry farm than Epsom Salts. It is indicated in liver dis-
eases, rheumatism, gout and many intestinal affections. One-
half to one teaspoonful to a fowl, either in mash or water or
one pound to 100 hens in mash or water are suitable doses.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Copperas, Iron Sulphate or FeSQO,, is a blood tonic and a
good germicide, hence its use is indicated in contagious and
infectious diseases. One teaspoonful to 100 hens in drinking
water is advised.
Castor Oil—This is useful for affections of the alimentary
tract. It can be given with medicine dropper, or in warm milk
by drenching.
Bi-carbonate of Soda, Na,CO,.—It is useful in cases of fer-
mentation in crop or intestines. Dose: One-half teaspoonful in
a quart of water.
Quinine—A good remedy for colds and cases of chicken pox
and roup. It is a good tonic. Dose: A one-grain capsule to
an adult fowl.
Calomel is recommended for liver diseases and constipa-
tion. Dose: One-fourth grain to the adult fowl.
Nux Vomica is a remedy for leg weakness and indigestion.
Five drops in a pint of water is the recommended dose.
Turpentine —This remedy is good for colds, rattling in the
throat, intestinal worms, and it acts on the kidneys. It should
be given with sweet oil, one part turpentine to five of sweet
- oil, one teaspoonful of mixture constituting the dose for a fowl.
Carbolated Vaseline is useful as an ointment in cases of
colds, roup, chicken pox, sore eyes, scaly leg and frozen combs.
Permanganate of Potash, KMnO,, is a valuable disinfectant
and germicide. Its use is indicated in any contagious disease.
A saturated solution should be made ina large bottle. Crystals
should be added until the water has dissolved all that it will
hold, so that crystals still remain in the bottom of the bottle.
From this stock solution the daily supply of water for the flock
can be prepared by adding enough of the solution to turn the
water a deep red.
Sulfur is useful in preparing ointment, as a remedy for
worms, and as a germicide. Sulfur ointment is prepared by
adding one teaspoonful of sulfur to one-half teacupful of vase-
line or lard.
Strychnine in one-thirtieth grain doses is a stimulant and
tonic and is indicated in cases of asthenia and debility.
Mustard.—This is very useful as a tonic. It stimulates and
tones up the digestive and reproductive organs and promotes
the health of the flock. The dose is one heaping teaspoonful
for six hens, or about one tablespoonful for 10 hens. It is
usually fed in a moist mash.
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Iodine-——Tincture of iodine is used to prevent and de-
stroy infection. For internal use it is recommended in cases of
aspergillosis and tuberculosis. Dose, two drops to adult fowl.
Jodoform.—A powerful germicide, used as a powder on
abraded surfaces and in preparing an ointment, which is rec-
ommended in cases of diphtheria, vent gleet, favus and chicken
pox.
Unguentine.—This ointment allays pain and is very healing.
It is recommended for burns, abrasions and all exposed sur-
faces. It can be obtained of any druggist in collapsible tubes.
Disinfectants and Germicides
A disinfectant is any substance that destroys any infectious
or contagious matter. The difference between infectious and
contagious is only one of degree. A disease is said to be in-
fectious when it is communicated through food or drink or by
direct contact with the infectious material. Tuberculosis, bac-
terial enteritis, aspergillosis, coccidiosis, black head, and vent
gleet are infectious diseases.
A contagious disease is of a more virulent nature and is
communicated not only through food and water but through
the air. Cholera, roup, chicken pox, diphtheria, and favus are
contagious diseases.
A germicide is any agent that destroys disease germs,
such as bacteria, spores of fungi and animal parasites. For-
maldehyde, carbolic acid and creolin are germicides.
Valuable Disinfectants
Copperas.—A strong solution of copperas is-one of the best
of disinfectants. It removes foul and musty odors from build-
ings and grounds and is harmless to the flock. It should be
sprinkled on the floor every time the building is cleaned.
Slaked Lime—This should be used often to sprinkle on
the drop boards and in damp and musty places. It is one of
the best substances to use in disinfecting the ground. It should
be scattered on the ground when any contagious disease is
present, and when gape worms attack the young chicks it
should be scattered freely over their runs and, after the ground
is plowed or spaded, another coat should be applied.
Lime Wash.—This is made by slaking a peck of lime with
a little boiling water, just enough to keep it covered. When the
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
process of slaking is completed, add enough water to make a
thin paste. Strain this through a fine sieve to remove any
lumps or foreign particles and then add a solution of four
quarts of salt in hot water. When ready to use the mixture
add hot water to bring it to the proper consistency. The dis-
infecting power is increased by adding one pint of carbolic
acid to five gallons of wash. It may be applied with a brush or
with a spray pump.
Crude; Carbolic Acid—A good disinfecting solution is rec-
ommended as follows:—Use one pint of crude carbolic acid,
one pound of laundry soap, and one gallon of kerosene. The
soap is first dissolved in a gallon of boiling water and then the
kerosene and carbolic acid are added. When ready to spray,
add water equal to the mixture.
Creolin is a good germicide. Add a sufficient quantity, about
two per cent, to the amount of hot water required, and then
use as a spray or wash. It can be used to wash out incubators
and brooders. As it is more powerful than carbolic acid the
quantity required will be very small.
Formalin.—This is a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde
gas. A five per cent solution of formalin is used to spray the
interior of buildings, incubators, coops, etc. After the spray
is applied, the room or incubator is closed as nearly air tight as
possible. When incubators are disinfected they should be
allowed to air and dry out before putting in the eggs. This is
to avoid any possible injury to the.chick germs by the disin-
fectant.
A good stock dip makes an effective disinfectant. Zeno-
leum is one of the best. :
Parasites and Enemies
Enemies and parasites of the farm flock are found in the
soil, in the air, in the water and in the food. If there is a
creature that has more guerrillas on its trail than a chicken I
have not been advised.
Bacteria are too small to be seen by the naked eye but
accumulate in such vast numbers that they are a constant
menace to health. There are upwards of 100,000 bacteria in a
cubic centimeter of virgin soil; ordinary milk contains 20,000
to a cubic centimeter; and it is estimated that in a milligram
of fecal matter from a fowl there are upwards of 30,000,000
of these micro-organisms. This gives us some idea of the
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vast numbers of bacteria that form a part of the invisible world
of living organisms. Many of these are pathogenic and only
await an opportunity to prey upon the body. Fortunately for
the chicken there are many “anti-bodies,” or agents that prey
upon disease germs, so that a fowl in vigorous health is able
to escape infection. Such are the hydrochloric acid of the
gastric juice which acts as a germicide; the serum of the blood
which is also germicidal; the white blood corpuscles which at-
tack and destroy disease germs, the liver cells and other cells
of the body which engage in constant warfare to protect the
body. This explains why healthy fowls are often able to resist
an epidemic of disease, while the weaker ones succumb.
Lice.—The common poultry louse, Menopon pallidum, at-
tacks all parts of the fowl’s body. It can be seen moving
rapidly among the feathers. Unlike the mite it lives by biting
rather than by sucking. It remains and breeds upon the fowl’s
body, and often clusters of eggs can be seen in the region of
the vent. It causes loss of vigor and emaciation. Probably
the best treatment is the sodium fluorid powder recommended
by the government. A pinch of the powder, such as can be
seized between the thumb and forefinger, is applied to the
feathers next the skin on the head, neck, back, under wings and
at base of tail. The amount should be limited to about 10
small pinches, as it is irritating if used too freely. It should
not be used with sitting hens. One pound will treat a flock of
100 hens and effectually destroy all the lice. Other methods of
destroying lice are to dust insect powder among the feathers,
using an ointment, such as blue ointment, and by dipping.
If chicks are infested with head lice a good application is
sweet oil, which is effective and harmless unless used in too
great a quantity.
Red Mite, Dermannyssus galline.— The color of the
common mite is gray but becomes red after feeding upon the
blood of a fowl. They attack their victim at night. In the
daytime they are secreted in cracks and other hiding places
where they breed. Knowing their habits it is not a difficult mat-
ter to get rid of them. Crude petroleum or processed oil applied
to the roosts, nests, and in all cracks and crevices will do the
work. A good spray is effective, but should be repeated.
Mites are serious pests. On account of their small size they
are often overlooked until great damage has been done. If
roosts are supported as recommended in Chapter X the pests
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will not be likely to make their attacks, because unable to reach
the roosts.
Depluming Mite, Sarcoptes levis galline—This attacks
the skin at the base of the feathers producing an intense itch-
ing, which causes the fowls to pull out their feathers. Apply
an ointment to the parts affected consisting of one part sulfur
and four parts vaseline.
A bad case of scaly leg
Scaly-leg Mite, Sarcoptes mutans.—This parasite works
under the scales of the toes and shanks, filling the spaces with
a powdery substance which causes the scales to be raised, giv-
ing the roughened appearance so characteristic of the disease.
The mites can be killed and the disease cured by dipping feet
and shanks in crude petroleum, or processed oil, or a mixture
of four parts of raw linseed oil and one part of kerosene.
Other pests such as bedbugs, chiggers, ticks, and fleas are
at times very annoying and in some sections their infestations
are very Serious.
Air-sac Mite, Cytodites nudus.—This mite infests the air
sacs, occasionally in such numbers as to produce emaciation
and anemia. There appear to be no effective means of ridding
a flock of this pest. The free use of sulfur is advised. Any
substance inhaled into the air sacs sufficiently strong to destroy
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the mite would probably injure the fowl. If the whole flock is
affected it would be best to dispose of them and put the new
stock on fresh ground.
Worms
Many species of round worms and tape worms infest the
alimentary tract producing a variety of serious diseases, such
as anemia, emaciation, epilepsy, enteritis, toxic poisoning and
indigestion. Worms lay the foundation for a long train of
diseases by destroying the resisting power of the fowl so that
Wry neck
it becomes an easy prey to bacteria and other disease germs.
Santonin and male fern are usually recommended as remedies
for worms, but they are expensive. The remedies recom-
mended in Chapter XIV will be found effective and far less
expensive. They are tobacco, salts-sulfur-copperas, and gaso-
line methods.
Major Enemies
The following list is by no means complete. Only the
more common ones are named.
Cats.—It is possible to train a cat so that it will not harm
small chicks. It should be fed regularly. When the first brood
comes off place the cat near and watch. If there is any effort
to destroy one of the chicks she should be caught and punished
severely. She will probably give no further trouble. Cats are
sly and cannot be trusted unless well fed and carefully trained.
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Dogs.—They must be trained like cats. They are often very
destructive to flocks of turkeys. Only good dogs should be kept.
Hogs.—There is nothing more aggravating than a chicken-
eating hog. Its example is soon followed and the whole herd
becomes like a pack of wolves. Lock them up in chicken-proof |
pens and remove the flock as far away as possible.
Minks are very cunning. If they can find a hiding place on
the premises they will remain for weeks, each night destroying
one or more fowls. The fowl is caught behind the head, the
blood is sucked, and then the body is dragged away and the
flesh consumed, or at least a portion of it. When a mink appears
a search should be made. Better use a shot gun than to allow
it to escape. If once discovered and frightened it will probably
leave the premises.
Weasels are destructive of young chicks, destroying a score
or more in a single night and carrying their bodies to some
place of concealment. Coops should be made vermin-proof and
always closed at night.
Skunks destroy eggs and sometimes attack chicks or fowls.
Their nests should be sought and raided.
Rats.—Rats are undoubtedly the most destructive of all
poultry pests. They consume and contaminate the feed, they
destroy eggs and young chicks, they carry disease from farm to
farm and from flock to flock, and they damage buildings and
equipment. A pest that destroys property value to the amount
of $200,000,000 annually and requires the constant labor of
300,000 farmers to supply it with food should have some atten-
tion from our lawmakers. We have a good law which provides
for the eradication of the Canada thistle, and legislation en-
couraging a warfare upon the symptoms of human tuberculosis,
and have summoned the nations to discuss the limitation of
armaments that war may hide its deformed head for at least
ten years, and yet here is a pest that is more destructive than
any noxious weed, that is responsible for the spread of tuber-
culosis to a large extent, and that has caused the loss of more
lives than all the wars of history, but it is allowed to go un-
scathed, tolerated by governments and ignored by legislators.
An impatient and long suffering electorate will some day
insist that legal measures shall be adopted to protect the masses
of the people from this scourge.
There is some risk in using poison to destroy rats. If put
out in the evening all the remnants should be gathered up
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early the following morning and destroyed to avoid danger of
poisoning domestic animals.
Traps are helpful but large numbers should be used. Woven
wire traps are sometimes successful. A correspondent from
southern Illinois reports that he captured 300 rats during a
single summer by this method. The trap was baited and left
open until the rats became accustomed to conditions. Then
it was closed and a vessel of milk placed inside. Rats are fond
of milk and ina dry season can be easily enticed into the trap.
A board or sack placed over the trap helps matters.
A well trained ferret will drive out the rats from a farm.
A good rat dog will be a valuable help. A campaign of rat
extermination on the farm will mean the saving of many dol-
lars. Buildings should be made rat-proof. Remove the harbors
and the rats will disappear.
Hawks destroy large numbers of chickens and turkeys an-
nually. The Goshawk, Prairie Falcon, Marsh Hawk, Sharp-
shinned Hawk and the Sparrow Hawk are some of the more
common varieties. The shot gun seems to be the best remedy.
Crows destroy eggs and young chickens and turkeys. They
are difficult to capture, but if one can be shot and hung up in
a prominent place near the poultry buildings there will prob-
ably be no further depredations from this source.
English Sparrows are pests without one redeeming quality.
They consume and contaminate poultry feed. They are the
carriers of disease. They destroy the eggs and young of native
birds. On account of their rapid multiplication they are becom-
ing a menace to the farm. Sparrow traps are advised for their
destruction.
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Chapter XIV
Diseases and Remedies
We have come to one of the most vital subjects pertaining
to the poultry industry. The six important factors in the
maintenance of a healthy flock are isolation, sanitation, disin-
fection, cremation, diagnosis, and application of suitable reme-
dies. The first three of these items have been discussed in
Chapter XIII. The remaining items are considered in this
chapter.
Cremation
All dead animals on the farm should be cremated as soon
as possible. If allowed to remain where other animals can gain
access to them it will result in spreading of disease. Dead
fowls can be thrown into the stove, or burned upon a fire in
the open made of cobs or old wood, or they can be consumed
in a crematory. A common method of making a crematory
is as follows: Make a solid foundation of concrete. Upon this
there is built a fire box having an inside measurement of one
and one-half feet wide by two feet and sixteen inches deep.
Across the top of the fire box iron grating, or old wagon tires
or iron rods, one inch in diameter, should be laid about one
inch apart. Above this is built an oven of brick laid in cement.
This should be about 14 inches deep. A cover of galvanized
iron is made for the top. This should have a handle in the
middle and a flue opening at one end. In front of the fire-box
should be an opening to admit fuel and remove ashes.
Burying dead animals is not always satisfactory. If that
practice is followed dead fowls should be buried in places
removed from the buildings and about three feet deep.
Diagnosis and Treatment
In the following discussion of diseases an effort has been
made to give very briefly the cause, symptoms and treatment
of the more common affections. It is hoped that they are suffi-
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BOOK
ciently full to aid the reader in determining the character of
some of the diseases which affect the flock as well as the appro-
priate remedy to use.
I.—Affections caused by accidents:
1.—By external accidents:
Bruise or puncture of ball of foot........ Bumble foot............. 178
Broken bone. .............0 0002 ee ee eee Fractures, «sacs ieee 178
Torn Skins iss ye ce ene 49445 eee aS Peat cos cee seed Ay eet ss 178
Bruise with pus formation.............. INDSCESSS csr nace a 178
2.—Internal accidents:
Rupture of blood vessel on brain........ Apoplex)s sree ecyorsimtes 178
Broken egg in oviduct or cloaca.........Broken egg.............. 178
Eversion of oviduct.............0....5. Prolapsus..............-- 179
Compacted crop.............2...000 eee Crop bound.............. 179
Retention of egg.................0000-. Egg bound............... 179
Obstructions in pharynx or cloaca....... Obstructions............. 179
Cleavage of heart, kidneys, oviduct...... RUPture js, cece nian 179
II.—Affections arising from abnormalities:
1.—Abnormal development:
Tail twisted to one side............... Wry tails sicioet aie eaacee 179
Back deformed...............20.00 eee ee Crooked back............ 180
Breast bone bent or twisted............. Crooked keel............. 180
Mandibles crossed-or uneven in length. .. Deformed beak........... 180
Sprigs on side of comb................. Side spMigsisisuicisd cove 180
Abnormal size of liver, heart, etc........ Hypertrophy............. 180
Liquid in heart, abdomen, etc..........- DropsViivvs ncexiexorses eas 180
Wasting or decrease in size of liver.......Atrophy................- 180
2,—Abnormal growths:
Growth of dormant embryonic cells...... LuMOrss <egec. oases 180
Tumors of skin and mucous membranes. .Cancers..............--- 181
Calloused growth on ball of foot......... COmMmsccng conaieraun ene: 181
III.—Affections caused by climatic conditions:
Heat prostration................600005 SUNSHMOKE: 332 <i aun fs 28 182
Freezing of comb or wattles............. Frosted comb............ 182
Freezing of feet... ...........00 00 e eee Frosted feet.............. 182
IV.—Affections caused by improper sanitation and exposure:
Common colds.....-...........00.005. Catarthi.c o1.cscvuniio Gey 182
Hard crustin mouth................... Pipes. cage ie Maumee AOS 182
Inflamation of trachea or bronchi........ Bronchitis............... 182
Lungs inflamed and filled with blood... ..Congestion of lungs....... 182
~ Congestion of brain.................... WERUZO nea faaaunsie sina ee 183
Inflamation of pericardium............. Pericarditissxcw.cs cee e444 183
Lameness and swelling of joints......... Rheumatism. ............ 183
V.—Affections caused by poisons:
Poisoning from decayed food............ Ptomaine poisoning....... 183
Poisoning from eating maggots.......... Limberneck.............. 183
From eating an excess of salt..........,.Salt poisoning............ 183
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From eating copper sulphate............ Copper poisoning......... 184
From eating arsenic..................5- Arsenic poisoning......... 183
From eating paint skins................ Lead poisoning........... 184
From eating ryé......-... 0. cece eee Ergot poisoning.......... 184
VI.—Affections caused by improper feeds and feeding and malnutrition:
Failure in assimilation.................. Malnutrition............. 184
Going light from infection or malnutrition. Asthenia................ 184
Lack of nutrients in food............... SOTre EYES... eae 184
Lack of protein and vitamines........... Beri-berivig viscccag ices 185
Inflation of crop................000000. Crop fermentation........ 185
Excess of one kind of food.............. Gout ieee ee 185
Swelling of joints...................0.. Articular gout............ 185
White deposit on viscera............... Visceral gout............. 185
Failure in digestion.................... Indigestion.............. 185
Intestines plugged with fecal matter. .... Constipation............. 185
Looseness of bowels..................5. Simple diarrhea.......... 185
Inflamation of proventriculus........... Gastritists oo 4 cae ca Kaksies 185
Inflamation of liver.................... Hepatitis................ 185
Excess of bile............-.-..000000008 Jaundice...... fey wets 186
Enlargement of liver................-.. Hypertrophy............. 185
Fatty disease of liver................... Fatty degeneration of liver 186
Overfeeding of chicks.................. Leg weakness............ 186
Excessive fat or diseased oviduct........ Soft shelled eggs.......... 186
VII.—Affections caused by parasites:
1.—By animal parasites: .
(x) By external animal parasites:
BV AULCO cz 2 is.cuactaeustaseansuceasy, mataed eons tas baal Emaciation.............. 170
By Red Mite............. subs or aa ees Anemia jes tie sins ayy tenes an 170
By depluming mite.................... Feather pulling........... 171
Scaly-leg Mite... ccc swe Gee econ des Scalyleg. .scecceeeies ses 171
(2) By internal animal parasites
Air-sac mite in air sacs................. Suffocation. ............. 171
Round worms in alimentary tract........ Emaciation.............. 186
Tape worms in lower intestine........... Epilepsyiesincsos ones cugen 187
By amoebae attacking liver & ceca...... Blackhead............... 187
By coccidia attacking liver & ceca....... Coccidiosis.............. 187
Ceca plugged, yellow diarrhea........... Coccidial diarrhea........ 188
Worms in windpipe.................... Gapesen. ceesnorlsiny's cate eine oe 188
2.—By vegetable parasites: i
(1) By external vegetable parasites:
Comb and face with white powdery scurf White-comb............. 189
Comb and face with white patches....... PAWNS ec 5 5.0 Sekt Biron’ cara eee 189
Warty sores on head.................-. Chicken Pox............. 189
(2) By internal vegetable parasites:
Fungus attacking air passages........... Aspergillosis............. 190
Aspergillus attacking young chicks....... Brooder pneumonia....... 190
Swollen eyes, offensive discharge......... ROU ihn agketionaen a hes 190
Growth of false membrane in mouth..... Diphtheria .............. 191
Inflamation of bronchi, contagious....... Influenza sic. arene esac 191
Fungus growth in oesophagus........... AHPUSH co 1 tis. Giehvasnskestheudies 191
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Rapid respiration, clotted serum......... Pneumonia.............. 191
Emaciation, tubercles on liver, etc....... Tuberculosis............. 191
Blood pale, heart with gray points....... Infectious Leukaemia. .... 192
Fowls sleepy, eyes swollen.............. Sleeping disease.......... 192
White diarrhea, offensive odor........... Vent gleetisoccoteucnceon 192
Whitish discharge, pasting up behind,
drowsiness, swollen abdomen.......... Bacillary White Diarrhea. . 192
Inflamation of smallintestine.... ...... Bacterial Enteritis........ 193
Inflamation of large intestine............ Dysentery............... 193
Diarrhea, first yellow then bright green...Cholera................. 193
Causes, Diagnosis and Treatment of Poultry Diseases
I. Affections caused by accidents.
Bumble Foot is caused by a bruise on ball of foot or puncture and
infection.
Symptoms: Lameness, swelling of foot, infection.
Treatment: Lance the swelling, wash out with one per cent of creolin
or paint with iodine, anoint with carbolated vaseline, cover with ster-
ilized cotton and bind with surgeon’s linen or with adhesive tape. Keep
fowl in clean place.
Broken bones are the result of accident. Ifa clean fracture, set the
bone, wrap with a layer of cotton, apply thin splints, bind in place with
adhesive tape. A cure will be effected in three weeks.
Tears, or rents, are also accidental. Pluck feathers from around the
sore, wash with one per cent creolin solution, then sew up rent with
silk thread that has been saturated in alcohol. Apply unguentine oint-
ment to all surface sores, burns, etc.
Abscesses occur from bruises or infection. Lance and wash out with
a one per cent of creolin, then apply tincture of iodine to edges of sore
or sprinkle with iodoform or apply unguentine ointment.
II. Internal accidents
Apoplexy is caused by a rupture of a blood vessel in brain; is some-
times due to excessive fat, or to fright, or to strain in the act of laying.
It occurs more frequently with hens than with males.
Symptoms: Fowl falls from roost or dies on nest. Death is sudden
without premonitory symptoms.
Treatment: Compel exercise, feed less, give Epsom salts occasion-
ally to whole flock.
Broken Egg. Occasionally an egg becomes broken in cloaca or
oviduct. This may be due to treading of male or striking an object in
flying from perch.
Symptoms: Straining and bloody discharges.
Treatment: If in cloaca, remove with finger and swab with un-
guentine ointment or olive oil.
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Egg Bound is retention of the egg; may be due to excessive fat or
constipation or to excessive size of egg.
Symptoms: Straining, hen goes frequently to nest without laying.
Treatment: Apply hot bandages, inject olive oil into cloaca, use
gentle pressure in dislodging the egg.
Prolapsus is caused by the straining used to expel a large egg; some-
times causes an eversion of the oviduct. This is called prolapsus.
Symptoms: Straining and protrusion of the oviduct.
Treatment: Apply hot bandages and olive oil.
Crop Bound is caused by an obstruction in the outlet of the crop or
by a paralysis of the muscular walls of the crop due to impaction.
Symptoms: Distended crop, difficulty in swallowing, drowsiness,
pale comb.
Treatment: Give a tablespoonful of sweet oil, massage the contents
and force as much as possible out through the mouth. In removing
the contents by an operation, the incision should be made on upper
side of crop. Sew crop membrane and skin separately in closing up
the opening.
Obstruction of the pharynx is caused by growths or masses of food
which can be removed if discovered in time.
Obstruction of the cloaca is generally due to constipation or an
egg-bound condition. An injection of olive oil will give relief.
Internal ruptures, as of the heart, blood vessels, oviduct or kidneys,
may be due to an excess of blood with high pressure, to a very large
egg in oviduct, or to an accumulation of urates in the kidneys.
Symptoms: Weakness, drowsiness, death.
Treatment: Avoid overfeeding. Feed a balanced ration.
II. Affections arising from abnormalities
1.—Abnormal development
Wry tail. Cause: Probably inherited, though it may be due occa-
sionally to the cramped position of the tail in coops or roosting places.
Counted as a disqualification.
MALES WITH DEFECTIVE. TAL CARRIAGE
1. SQUIRREL. 2 WRY
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Symptom: Tail twisted or carried to one side.
Treatment: If a natural deformity there is no cure. Birds should
be kept in roomy quarters with roosts removed from the wall.
Crooked Back. Cause: Probably inherited in most cases, though
some cases may arise from crowding in coops.
Symptom: The bird appears as a hunchback.
Treatment: No cure and such specimens should not be used for
breeding.
Crooked Keel. Cause: Improper feeding of chicks. malnutrition,
inherited. :
Symptoms: Keel bent, twisted or curved. The rocker keel is not a
deformity, but indicates large capacity, therefore good fecundity.
Treatment: No cure, a disqualification. Chicks should be supplied
with bone-forming material.
Deformed Beak is probably due to some accident or unfavorable
environment preventing the proper development of this structure.
Symptoms: The mandibles may be crossed or one mandible is
shorter than the other. ;
Treatment: There is no cure for crossed mandibles, but when they
are of uneven length, the longer one can be trimmed to some extent
so as to make possible the seizing of food.
Sidesprigs occur on the sides of single combs and are creatures of
heredity. :
Symptoms: They may occur on the sides of blade or upon the
points. u
Treatment: They disqualify and should never be removed.
Hypertrophy is the undue enlargement of any organ, such as the
liver, spleen, kidney or heart, and may be due to any one of several
causes. The more common causes are overfeeding, lack of exercise,
malnutrition and bacterial infection.
Dropsy is an accumulation of liquid, serum or water, in heart or
abdomen. Dropsy of abdomen is caused by unsanitary conditions and
improper feeding; dropsy of the pericardium is associated with other
diseases and is probably caused by them.
Symptoms: Sluggishness, rapid heart beat. Dropsy of abdomen
can be detected by its swollen condition and it is soft to the touch.
Treatment: Puncture the skin to remove the liquid and then give
a good tonic, nux vomica, strychnine, or tonic No. 1.
Atrophy is wasting of the tissucs of any organ, due to pressure from
excessive fat, or the result of inflammation. Atrophy of the ovary and
testes occur as the result of age. Such birds should be conditioned
for market.
Treatment: Epsom salts may be helpful in carly stages. A strong
stimulant, such as mustard, would be helpful.
2.—Abnormal growths
A tumor is a new growth of tissue believed to be caused by the
development of dormant or unused embryonic cells. They begin to
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
develop under a given stimulus, which may be bacterial in character
or the result of some injury. They seem to affect organs of the body
which become inactive by reason of age, so that they seldom occur in
fowls under one year of age. The Maine Experiment Station reports
about nine per cent of cases of tumor in all autopsies made. The ovary
is more commonly affected than any other organ.
Symptoms: Tumors may be benign or malignant. A benign tumor
is usually enclosed in a capsule and is harmless because it does not
penetrate surrounding tissues. A benign fatty tumor is an illustration.
Malignant tumors penetrate the tissues and if removed reappear. They
sometimes spread from one organ to another. These tumors attack a
number of the tissues of the body.
Symptoms: The fowl becomes sluggish, appetite is poor, and there
is emaciation in some cases.
Treatment: The real cause and cure are unknown.
Cancers. Tumors of the epithelial and mucous membrane type are
known as cancers. A cancer which involves the squamous epithelial
cells of the skin is known as epithelioma. Other types attack the pro-
ventriculus, gizzard, intestines, liver, spleen and ovary.
Treatment: Kill and cremate the diseased fowl for there is no known
cure.
Internal Abscesses are in most cases probably due to infection.
If the cause is removed there may be some cases of recovery.
Corns usually result from bruises and may be caused by narrow
perches.
Normal ovary on left. Ovary from hen infected with bacterium pullanum on right
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Symptoms: Lameness, ball of foot calloused.
Treatment: As far as possible, without bleeding, remove the corn
with sharp knife. Apply tincture of iodine. Make the roosts broad
and flat.
III. Affections due to climatic conditions
Sunstroke, or heat prostration, is not uncommon during the extreme
heat of summer. It may be due to insufficient shade, lack of water or
to hot, ill-ventilated buildings.
Symptom: The fowl falls as if paralyzed.
Treatment: Apply cold water to head, which may be beneficial in
mild cases.
Frosted comb and feet. Fowls that roost in the open in rigorous
climates are often affected with frozen combs or feet. Lack of ventila-
tion in roosting quarters and access to free range in below-zero weather
are common causes. Fowls should be confined in severely cold weather.
Symptoms: Parts are stiff and swollen.
Treatment: Hold affected parts in cold water until the frost is
removed. Apply carbolated vaseline to which have been added a few
drops of turpentine. Application should be made several times.
‘IV. Affections caused by improper sanitation and exposure
Common colds or catarrh arise from overcrowding at night, and
subsequent exposure to drafts. A draft on the side of the head affects
the eye and results in inflammation and subsequent infection.
Symptoms: An offensive roupy odor, swelling of eye, discharge from
nostrils, matted feathers under wing.
Treatment: Provide ventilation without drafts and transfer young
chicks from coops to permanént roosting quarters, early in the fall.
Use a spray and force pérmanganate of potash into the slit in the roof of
the mouth and give permanganate of potash in drinking water. Remove
sick birds to comfortable quarters and give each a one-grain capsule of
quinine.
Pip is the hardening of the mucous membrane of mouth and tip of
tongue, caused by inflammation or mouth breathing when nostrils are
closed by colds.
Symptoms: Difficulty in breathing and eating.
Treatment: Open the nostrils and apply glycerine or carbolated
vaseline to the hard growth in the mouth.
Bronchitis. Causes: A drafty building, irritating gases, dusty litter.
Symptoms: Difficult breathing. Mucus forms, and young chicks
are often strangled; drowsiness; drooping wings; ruffled feathers.
Treatment: Isolate sick birds. Doctor Salmon recommends 10
drops of turpentine in a teaspoonful of castor oil. Repeat the dose for
several days. One-fourth of this dose is sufficient for chicks. Avoid
dusty litter and irritating vapors.
Congestion of Lungs. Cause: Chilling the surface of the body.
Symptoms: Distension of blood vessels in lungs and closing of air
spaces; drowsiness; rapid breathing; dark red or bluish black comb.
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Treatment: Disease generally fatal. There is no remedy. Put birds
in comfortable quarters and give a good tonic.
Congestion of Brain—Vertigo. Causes: Fright, excitement, blow
on head, intestinal worms, indigestion.
Symptoms: There is a rush of blood to brain, fowl staggers, moves
in a circle, walks backward and turns the head backward.
Treatment: Give teaspoonful of Epsom salts in water. Remove the
cause.
Pericarditis. Cause: Exposure to cold and dampness.
Symptoms: Inflammation accompanied with dropsy of the heart sac;
weakness and difficult breathing.
Treatment: Remove causes and give four grains of carbonate of
soda. Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner membrane of the
heart and should have similar treatment.
Rheumatism. Cause: Dampness and cold drafts.
Symptoms: Lameness, swellings and inflammation of joints.
Treatment: Remove affected birds to dry room with board floor.
Correct conditions in poultry house.
V. Affections caused by poisons
Ptomaine Poisoning. Cause: Eating decayed animal or vegetable
food. :
Symptoms: Lack of control of the muscles. Comb becomes black,
occasional diarrhea; prostration and limber neck; head turning toward
breast.
Treatment: A teaspoonful of castor oil in warm milk; or a level
teaspoonful of Epsom salts in water. Follow with tonic found in formula
No. 1.
Limberneck. Cause: Eating the maggots of the green bottle fly,
Lucilius Caesar; probably also caused by eating decayed matter and the
flesh of fowls that have died of the disease. It is also associated with
intestinal worms.
Symptoms: This is not a contagious disease, but is considered a
symptom of other diseases. Head hung down between feet, and there
are convulsions in which the neck is twisted in different positions.
When the head is turned backward and twisted and lies upon the back
the affection is called wry-neck.
Treatment: Blair recommends giving equal parts of oil of tur-
pentine and sweet oil, one teaspoonful at dose. Follow this in a half
hour with all the sweet milk the fowl can drink. Pure lard, a table-
spoonful melted and poured down the throat, will sometimes effect a
cure.
1
Salt Poisoning. Salt is a valuable food. Used in excess it is a fatal
poison. Convulsions, prostration, and diarrhea are symptoms. Milk
is indicated as a remedy.
Arsenic Poisoning. Fowls contract arsenic poisoning accidentally
from rat poisons and arsenical sprays. The symptoms are choking,
excessive secretion of saliva, difficult breathing, unsteady walk, con-
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vulsions. Milk, white of egg, flaxseed, or sulphate of iron are recom-
mended as antidotes.
Copper poisoning results from careless disposal of spray mixtures
containing copper sulphate. The symptoms are diarrhea of blue or
green color, prostration, convulsions, paralysis. Milk and white of egg
are antidotes.
Lead and zinc poisoning resembles copper poisoning in symptoms.
Sulphate of soda is recommended as an antidote.
Ergot poisoning occurs in feeding rye asa sole ration. The ergot
of rye is a serious poison and the symptoms are trembling, prostration,
and gangrene of comb and tongue.
Quinine in one-grain capsules should be given daily. I have known
large flocks to be lost by this affection. The ergot is produced by a
fungus which infests the rye. This grain should not be fed to chickens.
VI. Affections caused by improper feeds and feeding and
malnutrition
Malnutrition is a failure in digestion and assimilation, so that the
fowl does not flourish. It may be due to weakness and failure of the
organs of digestion and assimilation, so that they do not function
properly, or it may be due to dietary deficiency. Weakness, emaciation
and loss of appetite are the symptoms. A balanced ration should be
provided and a tonic to stimulate the digestive organs. Use formula
No. 1.
Asthenia is known as “going light” and is the result of dietary
deficiency or malnutrition, and is often produced by a specific germ.
It occurs in flocks where young stock is kept with older fowls in
crowded quarters. Those that fail to get adequate food become
emaciated. The symptoms are voracious appetite, increasing emacia-
tion, inflammation of the intestines, and constipation. Affected birds
should be isolated and given food rich in nutrients and a good tonic.
Sore eyes arise from several causes. They may be a symptom of
one of several diseases, such as colds, roup, chicken pox, diphtheria and
favus. There seems to be an infectious disease of the eyes not asso-
ciated with other diseases. The eyelids become glued together and
there is an accumulation of pus in the eye. Another cause of eye
trouble is the irritation caused by the use of insecticides or liquid lice
killers. Still another cause is dietary deficiency. The food lacks in
vitamines, or growth principles, and sore eyes is a symptom. Some-
times the eye breaks down and sloughs away.
All affected chicks or fowls should be isolated promptly and kept
in dry comfortable quarters. Open the eyelids and remove any accu-
mulation. Wash the eyes with a weak, tepid solution of creolin and
apply unguentine ointment which can be secured of any druggist in
collapsible tubes. Use permanganate of potash in drinking water and
feed a balanced ration with an abundance of green feed
Beri-beri manifests itself in paralysis of the legs, and can be pro-
duced by feeding polished rice, or any diet deficient in Water Soluble B.
Another name of the disease is polyneuritis.
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Treatment: Feed a balanced ration, and give the tonic recommended
in formula No. 2. Give an abundance of green feed.
Crop Inflation. Sometimes the crop becomes inflated with gas, the
result of bacterial fermentation. A disinfectant, such as permanganate
of potash in drinking water, or a few drops of creolin in a quart of water
will give relief.
Gout is a kidney disease resulting from failure to eliminate the
urates. There are two varieties, visceral and articular.
Visceral Gout. Cause: An excess of one kind of food, especially
a food rich in protein, such as tankage or corn. Dampness favors its
development.
Symptoms: Lameness. Visceral organs covered with white, chalky
deposit, emaciation, but good appetite.
Treatment: Give more variety in food and Epsom salts in mash or
drinking water. One pound to 100 fowls.
Articular Gout. Causc: Dampness. Lack of balanced ration. A
diet too rich in proteids.
Symptoms: Lameness, swelling of joints in toes, diarrhea in ad-
vanced stages. 7
Treatment: Remove birds to dry comfortable quarters with board
floor. Give teaspoonful of Epsom salts every third day.
Indigestion is caused by lack of balanced ration, unsanitary con-
ditions, lack of green food.
Symptoms: Dullness, loss of appetite, diarrhea.
Treatment: Give Epsom salts, one pound to 100 fowls. Follow with
a good tonic.
Constipation. Cause: It may follow enteritis, or may be due to the
character of the ration.
Symptoms: A dry condition of intestinal tract, and hard dry fecal
matter, obstructing free evacuation, dullness, straining.
Treatment: Give level teaspoonful of Epsom salts, remove obstruc-
tion in cloaca, give injection of sweet oil and glycerine. Moist mashes
and green feed are recommended.
Diarrhea. Cause: It sometimes accompanies indigestion, and is due
to overfeeding.
Symptoms: Impacted crop, dullness, excrement whitish, yellowish
or greenish, and often watery.
Treatment: One tablespoonful of castor oil to each affected fowl.
A small crystal of sulphate of iron in drinking water.
Gastritis, or Inflammation of Proventriculus. Cause: This disease
is determ'ned by the kind, quality and quantity of the food.
Symptoms: Inflammation of the proventriculus, dullness. loss of
appetite, roughness of feathers and constipation.
Treatment: Give Epsom salts in drinking water, a cooked mash and
plenty of green food, and milk to drink will be helpful.
Hepatitis, or Inflammation and Hypertrophy of Liver. Cause: Un-
balanced ration, excess of protein in diet, feeding one kind of food.
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Symptoms: Inflammation of the liver, loss of appetite, sluggishness,
yellowish color to the skin, liver enlarged, tender, and engorged with
blood.
Treatment: Epsom saits in drinking water, one pound to 100 fowls,
together with an equal quantity of bicarbonate of soda. Give a balanced
ration and compel exercise.
Jaundice. Cause: Overfeeding, lack of exercise, decayed or tainted
food.
Symptoms: Excessive formation of bile which is absorbed into the
blood, giving yellowish color to comb and wattles. .
Treatment: One teaspoonful of Epsom salts, good sanitation and
balanced ration.
Fatty Degeneration of the Liver. Cause: Ration too rich, resulting
in a deposit of fat in the liver tissue.
Symptoms: Similar to hypertrophy of the liver and it is believed
to be a stage of that disease.
Treatment: Encourage exercise, give green food and more variety
in the ration.
Leg Weakness. Cause: Improper feeding, growth of flesh out of
proportion to the bone development, lack of exercise. Board and cement
floors are unfavorable.
Symptoms: Leg weakness is the loss of control of the muscles
of the legs. There is weakness and the chick sits down to eat; this is
followed by loss of appetite.
Treatment: Give less carbohydrate and more protein in the feed,
stich as meat scrap, granulated bone and milk.
Soft Shelled Egg. Cause: It may be due to a lack of lime or the
fowl may be too fat or there may be inflammation of the oviduct.
Treatment: Give plenty of charcoal and grit and green feed. A
balanced ration and exercise will cure the disease.
VII. Affections produced by parasites
1. External animal parasites cause such affections as emaciation,
anemia, feather-pulling, scaly leg. See Chapter XIII.
’ 2, Internal animal parasites.
Emaciation, There are three species of round worms that seriously
affect poultry. ;
Ascaris inflexa is about two inches long and is generally found in
the fore part of the small intestine. It is yellowish white in color.
Heterakis perspicillum attains a length of two and one-half inches.
It is yellowish white and is found in all parts of the intestinal tract.
Sometimes it causes constipation by obstructing the course of the food.
Heterakis papillosa is a very small white worm from one-third to
three-fourths of an inch long and may be found in any part of the
digestive tract, more especially in the ceca, where it accumulates in
great numbers. It is believed to be instrumental in inciting the disease
among turkeys known as black-head. All these worms produce emacia-
tion and if unchecked result in death. Blindness, limberneck, epilepsy,
and emaciation are some of the symptoms.
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Treatment: Use one pound of Epsom salts, one pound of sulphur
and one-half pound of pulverized copperas, mix carefully, and feed one
pound of this mixture in 10 quarts of mash. This should be sufficient
for 100 to 150 fowls. Repeat this for five days, once a day, and after
that once a week for three weeks. Keep the feeding place clean and
well disinfected to prevent the further spread of the infestation.
Epilepsy.—_Tape Worms. The symptoms of epilepsy are trembling,
jerky movements and convulsions. It is produced by a species of
tape worm, known as Taenia infundibuliformis. This is about five
inches long and is found in the intestinal tract, usually near the ceca.
It burrows into the intestinal wall with its head and the segments
absorb nourishment from the food in the intestines. The terminal
segments are filled with eggs. When these break away they are de-
posited on the ground and picked up by the fowls and thus the infesta-
tion is spread.
Treatment: The New Jersey Experiment Station recommends the
tobacco treatment for worms as follows: “For each 100 birds use one
pound of finely chopped tobacco stems. Steep in water for two hours
and use the tea for the moist mash. The regular dry mash’ will answer
for making the moist mash, feeding one-half the usual amount. Feed
lightly during preceding day and nothing at all on the morning of the
day for treatment. At two o'clock feed the tobacco mash spreading it
out so that each fowl can get a portion. At four o’clock feed a second
moist mash of the same quantity as first only add 12 ounces to one
pound of Epsom salts. Dissolve in water instead of the tobacco
solution. Repeat the treatment in a week.”
Another treatment for worms is to use one pint of gasoline in the
mash for 100 birds.
Worms cause enormous losses. They are responsible for a long
list of diseases and must be fought persistently.
Blackhead. Cause: It is produced by an animal parasite known as
Amoeba meleagridis.
Symptoms: Circular yellow spots on liver, enlarged ceca plugged
with cheesy matter, and enlarged liver. Drowsiness, loss of appetite,
drooping wings and tail, head turning to a dark color, constant diarrhea.
Treatment: Isolate all infected fowls. Mix sulphur, Epsom salts,
sulphate of iron and quinine, equal parts of each, in two-grain capsules.
Two capsules constitute a dose and should be given twice daily. Keep
sulphate of iron in drinking water and sprinkle sulphate of iron crystals
in any stagnant pools about yards. Disinfect roosting places, remove
droppings and sprinkle ground with lime. The success in checking this
disease will depend on the promptness with which diseased birds are
isolated and dead birds cremated. Similar treatment should be given
in case of an epidemic among chickens, one capsule to dose.
Coccidiosis. Cause: It is produced by an animal parasite known as
Coccidium tenellum. It attacks turkeys, geese and chickens.
Symptoms: Yellow diarrhea, ceca plugged with yellowish pasty
matter, loss of appetite, drowsiness, head becomes a scarlet red in early
stages. In geese the kidneys are affected, and the fowls become pros-
trate, turning upon the back. Emaciation and death result.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Treatment: Isolate affected fowls and disinfect premises. Use two
per cent solution of creolin, or a strong solution of copperas. Scatter
lime about the roosting places. Give a teaspoonful of castor oil to
chickens, and double the dose for turkeys and geese. Follow the oil
with a capsule of Formula No. 1.
Coccidial Diarrhea attacks baby chicks and resembles white dar
rhea. A whole brood becomes infected, probably in the incubator.
Infected broods should be isolated from other chicks. The sick chicks
should be removed from the brood and destroyed as observed. The
brooder room should be thoroughly disinfected with a solution of cop-
peras and fresh litter supplied frequently. A teaspoonful of castor oil
in a quart of warm m Ik should be given to drink in the forenoon and
about two grains of copperas in a quart of water in the afternoon.
Showing full size gape worm. Also section of
trachea with worms attached
Air-Sac Mite, Cytodites nudus, crawls through the nostrils and
attacks the bronchi and air sacs of the body. When present in large
numbers it produces stupor, emaciation, suffocation and death. The
infestation will go through a whole flock unless checked. Give sulphur
in the food and keep the premises disinfected.
Gapes. The gape worm, Syngamus trachealis, is especially fatal to
young chicks. The eggs are obtained from infected soil. from earth
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
worms and by eating the worms coughed up by infested chicks. Tur-
keys harbor these parasites and communicate them to chicks.
Symptoms: Gaping, sneezing, coughing, and discharge of mucus.
Treatment: Remove the chicks to uninfected ground. Disinfect all
vessels. Cremate all dead chicks. Use permanganate of potash in drink-
ing water. Scatter lime over infected ground. Spade or plow and
then give another dressing of lime. Take two horse hairs, tie at ends
and cut off projecting portions close to knot and insert into the trachea
through the larynx. Give the hairs a twist and withdraw, removing the
worms by the operation.
3. External Vegetable Parasites
Chicken Pox. The specific germ of chicken pox has not been
isolated. Some consider it an animal parasite and some a vegetable
parasite. Some think it is a form of roup. Others consider it a blood
disease. Small wart-like nodules of a greasy appearance appear on
comb and face. Eyes become affected and are sometimes destroyed.
A high fever, thirst and stupor develop. It is estimated that 50 per
cent of all cases die.
A case of chicken pox
Treatment: Disinfect buildings and premises with creolin solution.
Put sick fowls in comfortable quarters and add a few drops of creolin
to the drinking water. Give one grain capsule of quinine to each fowl,
and after removing the scabs from head, apply iodoform-vaseline
ointment.
White Comb or Favus is caused by a fungus known as Achorion
Schonleinii. It attacks the comb or face and occurs first as white
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
powdery scurf or as white patches, sometimes round and sometimes
irregular in shape. These spread until the whole surface of comb,
face and wattles is covered and then the disease invades the feathered
regions of the neck. At first there is no noticeable effect upon health,
but as the disease progresses the fowl weakens, loses flesh and may die.
A fowl with favus should never be allowed in the breeding pen. In-
fected buildings should be disinfected to destroy the spores and supplied
with fresh litter.
Treatment: Apply an ointment of iodoform and vaseline, using one-
half teacup of vaseline and as much iodoform as can be placed upon a
dime; or apply an ointment of one part of red oxide of mercury to
eight parts of vaseline. Give a good tonic or a one-grain capsule of
quinine. Favene is a good proprietary remedy.
4. Affections Caused by Internal Vegetable Parasites
Aspergillosis is caused by several species of mold, Aspergillus, the
more common being Aspergillus fumigatus. The spores of this mold
occur on straw and grain.
Symptoms: Fever, rapid respiration, rattling in throat, diarrhea,
emaciation, spots on liver and patches in mouth.
Treatment: Disinfect frequently and supply clean litter, free from
dust and musty odor. Isolate all affected fowls. It is claimed there is
no cure. Probably the best treatment is tincture of iodine, allowing
two drops to each fowl. It can be given in a tablespoonful of water.
Follow up for several days.
Brooder Pneumonia. Aspergillosis attacks the young chicks causing
enormous losses. Watch the litter. Keep everything scrupulously
clean, disinfect frequently, isolate diseased chicks promptly, and use
the iodine treatment, five drops in a pint of drinking water.
A case of roup
Roup is a disease of the respiratory organs. The specific germ pro-
ducing it has not been discovered. It is very contagious. The eyes.
nostrils, larynx and trachea are affected.
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Symptoms: Swollen eyes, discharge from nostrils, foul odor, stupor,
emaciation, difficult breathing. Roup entails weakness upon the off-
spring for several years. Therefore, no fowl that has had roup should
be used as a breeder.
Treatment: Isolate all infected fowls promptly. Treat as follows:
Give permanganate of potash in drinking water. Dip the head of each
sick fowl in a strong solution of permanganate of potash and on the
following day apply an ointment of iodoform and vaseline to all parts
of the head, and give a small quantity internally. An ointment of lard
and sulphur can be used instead. As a tonic’give a one-grain capsule
of quinine, daily. If there is an accumulation under the eyelids remove
it carefully. A good method of applying permanganate of potash is to
force it into the slit in roof of mouth by means of a hand spray.
Diphtheria is considered an advanced stage of roup. It is sometimes
called canker. Best authorities believe it is a distinct disease, though
_ the earlier symptoms resemble those of roup. It is very contagious.
Symptoms: Stupor, sleepiness, difficult breathing, head swollen,
false membrane in mouth and throat, which becomes a thickened yel-
lowish, cheesy mass, as the disease advances.
Treatment: Where the disease is far advanced it is well to kill the
fowl and cremate the body. Isolate promptly, and treat with iodoform
ointment as advised for roup. Give permanganate of potash in drinking
water and supply soft food. Give tonic, Formula No. 1, or one-grain
capsule of quinine.
Influenza resembles a severe cold or a mild epidemic of roup. It is
probably caused by a specific germ.
Symptoms: The same as a cold and accompanied with diarrhea.
Treatment: Isolate sick birds, give a dose of Epsom salts and follow
this with a one-grain capsule of quinine.
Thrush is a fungus disease attacking the csophagus, the specific
fungus being Saccharomyces albicans.
Symptoms: Violent convulsions. White patches in the cesophagus,
and sometimes in mouth.
Treatment: Wash the mouth with a 10 per cent solution of borate
of soda and give a good tonic.
. Pneumonia generally follows congestion of the lungs. The serum
of the blood escapes through the capillary walls, and coagulates in the
air spaces. The disease is undoubtedly caused by a specific germ.
Symptoms: Ruffled plumage, dark comb, rapid respiration, loss of
appetite.
Treatment: Avoid exposure by removing sick birds to a warm room.
Use 10 drops of aconite and bryonia in each pint of drinking water.
Give soft nourishing food, a little at a time.
Tuberculosis. Cause: This destructive disease is caused by a spe-
cific germ, Bacillus tuberculosis. The organs usually affected are the
liver, spleen, intestines, mesentery, and occasionally the lungs. It is
transmitted by means of infected birds and animals. It is believed
that the specific germ which produces this disease in man is the same
as that of birds and mammals, the different types, human, bovine, and
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
avian tuberculosis, being due to environmental adaptation. Nevertheless
these types are transferable. A fowl eats the sputum of a human tuber-
cular patient, contracts the disease and dies. A rat eats the fowl, and
also contracts the disease and dies. A hog eats the rat, and becomes
diseased. Further the rat contaminates food of human beings and farm
animals and in that way communicates disease. A human being drinks
the milk of a tubercular cow and in that way becomes infected. Thus
the vicious circle is continued. It is an endless chain. English spar-
rows, without doubt, are instrumental in communicating this disease.
It is evident that it will be a hopeless task to eradicate tuberculosis
unless radical measures are taken to destroy the cause. We need clinics
on the farm. There should be state-wide campaigns against vermin
which harbor and spread the plague.
Symptoms: Lameness, pale comb, emaciation, bright eye, good ap-
petite, tubercles or raised nodules on liver, spleen, intestines, or mesen-
tery. A post mortem examination always should be made.
Treatment: Destroy the entire flock, or if the disease appears to be
restricted to a few birds, kill all that are emaciated, and isolate all the
others, giving each fowl two drops of tincture of iodine daily in drink-
ing water. Tincture of iodine is used effectively in incipient cases of
human tuberculosis and should give favorable results with fowls.
Renovate and disinfect the buildings and premises, and keep a close
watch for new cases.
Infectious Leukaemia is a blood disease produced by a specific germ
known as Bacterium sanguinarium. There is noted a decrease in the
red corpuscles and an increase in the white corpuscles.
Symptoms: Increased temperature, drowsiness; the heart, intestines
and blood are pale. An increased number of leucocytes.
Treatment: Improved sanitation and a tonic as recommended in
formula No. 2. (Page 27.)
Sleeping disease is an affection of the blood caused by a germ
known as Streptococcus capsulatus gallinarum.
Symptoms: Sleepiness, lameness, swollen eyes, pale comb.
Treatment: Improved sanitary conditions, and give a good tonic.
Vent Gleet, or Cloacitis, is an inflammation of the cloaca, probably
produced by a specific germ. It is infectious, being transferred from
one fowl to another in copulation. +
Symptoms: Inflammation of cloaca, white diarrhea, inflamed skin
around the vent, foul odor.
Treatment: Cut away the feathers around the vent and wash with
a one per cent solution of creolin. Then make a swab by wrapping
cotton around the end of a stick. cover this with iodoform ointment
and swab out the cloaca. One treatment will probably effect.a cure.
Keep the sick birds in dry comfortable quarters.
Bacillary White Diarrhea is a disease of chicks produced by a spe-
cific germ, Bacterium pullorum. A hen that has had white diarrhea in
its early life will transmit the disease through the egg to the chick.
The germs of the disease become localized in the ovary, and when the
yolks develop the bacteria hecome incorporated in the egg and are thus
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
communicated to the embryo during incubation. Only a few of the
chicks that hatch may have this disease, but it is quickly communicated
to the remainder of the brood. The contagion spreads through droppings.
Symptoms: Stupor, rough feathers, emaciation, loss of appetite,
whitish discharge, pasting up behind, sharp cries from chicks, and they
act as if chilled, and keep close to the hover.
Treatment: Begin with foundation stock and cull out all weaklings.
Dip eggs in alcohol, thoroughly scrub and disinfect the incubator, using
four per cent solution of creolin. When chicks are hatching darken
the incubator so they cannot pick at the droppings. Remove from the
brooder any chicks that show signs of the disease. This must be done
very promptly and the chicks should be destroyed and their bodies
burned. Keep the feeding floor scrupulously clean and scald all vessels.
Add to the milk and water for all chicks of an infected brood about five
drops of creolin and one teaspoonful of Epsom salts to each quart of
fluid. Good sanitation may prevent the spread of the disease, but there
is little hope of cure when it has reached an advanced stage.
Bacterial Enteritis or Mixed Infection is an inflammation of the
small intestine and is often of bacterial origin. It may be caused by
toxic poisons produced by worms, or from eating paint skins, salty
meat, or other poisons. If it is produced by infection, due to filthy
conditions and tainted food, the cause must be removed. It is then
known as bacterial enteritis.
Symptoms: Diarrhea, loss of appetite, comb pale to dark.
Treatment: Disinfect. Give each sick bird a teaspoonful of Epsom
salts and follow with a good tonic. Give one pound of Epsom salts to
100 fowls in drinking water. After which give permanganate of potash
in drinking water as long as the disease persists.
. This disease is a true mixed infection, as several species of bacteria are
known to contribute to its existence in the flock.
Dysentery is a ‘bacterial inflammation of the large intestine.
Symptoms: Diarrhea, the discharges often being bloody. There is
loss of appetite and drowsiness.
Treatment: The same as for enteritis.
Cholera is a contagious disease produced by a minute bacterium,
Bacillus avisepticus. The disease spreads rapidly and is fatal in most
cases. The bacteria are found in the blood of infected fowls.
Symptoms: The urates which are normally white assume a yellow-
ish tinge; afterwards the droppings become a bright yellow and in the
final stages turn to a bright green. There is drowsiness, ruffled feathers.
loss of appetite, thirst, fever and pale face and comb. An autopsy
shows inflammation of the digestive organs, kidneys, and mesentery.
Treatment: Renovate and disinfect buildings and yards frequently.
Remove and promptly destroy all infected birds. As a general treat-
ment for the flock give one teaspoonful of creolin in three gallons of
drinking water. Epsom salts should be given once a week until the
disease disappears. If sick birds are to be treated, give creolin in
drinking water as advised and tonic No. 1 (page 26). Remember that
this is a highly contagious and incurable disease and all infected birds
should be far removed from the healthy flock.
[193]
Chapter XV
The Poultry Account
OES poultry pay? Very few are able to answer in the
affirmative, or at least answer the question “How much
oes it pay?” because no record is kept and no balance struck
at the end of the year. A poultry account book will help
answer the question. The method here proposed requires an
inventory at the beginning of the year and at the beginning of
each quarterly period thereafter, viz., January 1, April 1, July
1, and October 1. A summary is also required at the end of
each quarter, also an annual summary at the end of the year.
The latter will show just what the poultry business has done
during the year, and the quarterly summary will show the
profit or loss during the preceding quarter.
Schedules
The schedules outlined in this chapter can be copied into a
book of convenient size, and the system can be used as success-
fully as if a book with printed forms were available. They are
based on the requirements of the income tax schedule and
cover the following topics: Inventories, Income, Expenses,
Quarterly Summary, Annual Summary, Daily Egg Record,
Incubation Record, Losses, and Orders.
Inventory
At the beginning of each quarter a count should be made
of all stock and products on hand. The number and quantity
of each should be entered in the proper column as shown in
Schedule No. 1. In determining the amount to be used in the
“value” column it is advised to use the average market value
of stock in the preceding year. If an inflated value is used,
and losses occur during the quarter or year, then the summary
will make a false showing. Under present, 1921, conditions
the following prices seem fair and safe; $1.50 each for cocks
and cockerels; $1 for hens and pullets; $5 for toms; $3 for
turkey hens; $1 for ducks; $4 for geese; and 50 cents each for
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
guinea fowl. In the case of eggs the average market value for
the quarter is advised. Whatever prices are adopted for stock.
these should be retained through the whole year. If a change
is made with every variation in the market more or less con-
fusion will result. The quarterly inventory will take care of all
losses during the quarter at the average price, for, when the
inventory is taken, it will not include any dead fowls, and,
therefore, the “value” column will show a deduction accord-
ingly. Buildings and equipment may or may not be considered
in the quarterly inventory. They are taken care of in the
annual inventory, and their repair and depreciation count as
deductions in estimating the final status of the business. The
inventory for the first day of any year or month will be the
same as for the last day of preceding year or month. Why
make a quarterly inventory? Because it enables the poultry-
man to keep in close touch with his business and brings him
face to face with losses and leaks. It stimulates an interest
in the poultry end of the farm enterprise and furnishes an ex-
hibit of the condition of the farm flock. Why should the
poultryman wait till the end of the year to discover whether
he is playing a winning or a losing game? The quarterly
summary tells the tale. If losses have occurred he will dis-
cover them and can plan to avoid them in the future.
Income
The American hen should be given credit for all she pro-
duces. It is not fair to make all sorts of demands upon the
products of the industry without giving due credit for every
item of production. This means that due credit should be
given for all sales of stock and products, all eggs and stock
used for household or given away, all eggs used for incubation,
and all feathers and fertilizer sold or used in garden or field.
If credit is given for eggs used for incubation they should be
estimated at market price, and it is advised to place only a
nominal value (not full value) on the under-month chicks at
hand when the inventory is made. The price of the egg has
gone into the chick. If the value of the egg is five cents and
there is a 50 per cent hatch, the egg-cost of each chick is 10
cents. But its real value is not less than 20 cents. Probably,
therefore, 10 cents is a fair estimate of the value of a baby
chick for the inventory in case credit is given for the eggs used
in incubation. In one month, however, this value has increased
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
to 20 cents, in two months to 35 cents, and in three months to
50 cents. At three months it is well past the danger point
and has reached a marketable age. If you give the hen credit
for all she produges, then you can know definitely whether
the industry is worth while.
Expenses
The first cost of buildings and permanent equipment should
not be entered in the expense account. It would hardly be fair
to charge against the income of any one year the cost price
of buildings, fences, incubators, brooders, and other major
equipment having a long life-period. This is charged off in
the annual inventory as depreciation, the percentage of de-
preciation being determined by the life-period of the equip-
ment. Minor equipment, such as water founts, feeders, crates
- ete., which usually last only two or three years, should be
charged off as an expense at the time of purchase and therefore
no depreciation should be entered against them. Purchased
labor should be entered as an expense, but the operator’s labor
may or may not be counted as an item of expense. If not.
his wage will be represented in the net income at the close
of the year. If desired, however, he can keep a labor record of
the number of hours actually expended on the poultry enter-
prise, and, charging a reasonable rate per hour, he can enter
this labor as an expense in the annual summary.
Keeping Feed Costs
In determining the amount of home-grown feed consumed
in a given period it is a good plan to weigh or measure the
daily ration of such feeds for several days and from these
data make an estimate of the average daily amount consumed.
Knowing this, the amount consumed for the month or quarter
is easily determined. This estimate will be sufficiently accu-
rate for all practical purposes. To be strictly accurate it will
be necessary to weigh or measure the home-grown feeds
every day, or they can be weighed in bulk and kept separate
from the feeds of other livestock on the farm. In the Expense
Schedule, No. III, there is a line for totals. These totals are
determined by adding together all the expense items. When
the totals are all brought to this line it is simply a matter of
addition to determine the total expense for the quarter. The
same rule applies to the schedule for incomes, No. II.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Quarterly Summary
When the gross income and total expenses for the quarter
have been determined and the inventory for the end of the
quarter has been taken, then, by using Schedule No. IV, it is
a simple matter to determine the quarterly gain or the quar-
terly loss as the case may be.
Annual Summary
_ The status of the year’s business is determined by using
Schedule No. V. The total of all quarterly net losses de-
ducted from the total of all quarterly net gains (incomes)
should give the net income for the year. But there may be
other receipts than those included in the quarterly schedule,
viz., from insurance, sales of equipment, show premiums, etc.,
and these should be added to the total of quarterly net incomes.
So, also, there. may be added to the total of quarterly net
losses all repairs and depreciation of buildings and other items
of expense not included in the quarterly schedules, such as
interest on borrowed money, taxes, insurance, etc. A separate
list of these expenses should be made and entered elsewhere
in the record under Schedule XII.
An annual summary based on the requirement of the in-
come tax schedule should be made as outlined in Schedule
No. V. The data for this summary can be obtained from the
statements of income and expenses as found in Schedules
No. II, No. III, No. IV, No. X, No. XI and No. XII.
Daily Egg Record
Schedule No. VI is used to make a record of all eggs
gathered and disposed of each day. The eggs may be gathered
from separate pens or from the general flock, or both. They
may be given away, devoted to table use, sold on the market,
used for incubation, or used to fill orders. This record will
be of great value if faithfully and accurately made.
Incubation Record
A record of eggs set is of value for reference. From this
record it is possible to determine the date of hatching, the
value of the eggs used in incubation, the fertility of the eggs,
and the age of a chick when it has reached maturity. Refer to
Schedule No, VII. :
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Losses
Schedule No. VIII is used for recording all losses that
occur. It'is advisable to keep such a list, even though these .
losses are taken care of in the inventory. It will be a silent
reminder of the disappearance of profits.
Orders
A record of all orders received will save many a heartache.
The record should be as complete as possible and should in-
clude the following data: Date received, name and address of
purchaser, shipping station, items ordered, conditions, price.
date paid, and date shipped. Refer to Schedule No. IX.
Depreciation
The percentage of depreciation is determined by the life-
period of the building or equipment. A building with stone or
concrete foundation and shingle roof will have a life period
of 40 years. The depreciation on the first cost should be 2%4
per cent annually. If the building sits upon the ground and
has a paper roof its life-period is reduced to 20 years. The
depreciation should be 5 per cent. All major equipment
should receive a depreciation of 10 per cent. In all cases, de-
preciation should be estimated on the original cost, else the
building will become perpetual and the cost will never be
charged off. Schedule No. XIII shows the method of record-
ing depreciation.
Sundry Schedules
Schedule No. X is for recording all purchases made of stock
and eggs.
Schedule No. XI shows a record of all miscellaneous in-
come not included in Schedule II.
Schedule No. XII gives a record of all miscellaneous ex-
penses not included in Schedule III.
These items are repairs, insurance, interest, taxes, show
expenses, etc.
A few pages set apart for memoranda will not come amiss
Value of the System
The use of the system recommended in this chapter will
be found practical and comprehensive. It is a matter of great
satisfaction to know just what any farm enterprise has ac-
[198]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
complished. The annual summary tells the tale, but this
cannot be made unless the entries are made faithfully through-
out the year. On the average farm one minute each day or
ten minutes at the end of each week will be sufficient to make
all entries. Complete the records at the end of each quarter
and make out the quarterly summary, then at the end of the
year it will be a small task to prepare the annual summary.
Try it. You will be pleased with the knowledge acquired and
probably surprised that the outcome is so favorable.
A Few Things to Remember
1. Failure ‘to keep an account is to conduct the business
on a guess.
2. A system of accounting shows up the strong points and
the weak points of the poultry enterprise.
3. To give the poultry a square deal requires that credit be
given for every item of production. Thirty-five per cent of
poultry products are consumed on the farm and the hen should
have due credit.
4. It is the waste that eats the profits. Every pound of feed
represents an outlay and should be turned into finished pro- '
ducts, and every egg should be conserved.
5. The poultry account reveals losses, discovers profits,
warns of danger, points out the safe course, and stimulates
to highest endeavor.
[199]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Schedule No. I—Inventory
YEAR
On HanpD
Jan. 1
On Hann
April 1
On HanpD
July i
On HanD
October 1
ITEMS
No. | Value
No. | Value
No. | Value
No. | Value
BUILDINGS:—
Laying and Breeding Houses...
Incubator House.............
Brooder House...............
Colony Houses........
Conditioning House. ...
Supply House.........
Other Buildings..............
Major EQuiPMENT:—
ONCING j.csntss etbbutrascse naivineenoe
Incubators.
BY OO CTS eis io -csane edna incatonaicers
Grain Sprouters. .
CC ADIN tS 5355 scsntes <a pets “i yieho in Bea a
Heating and Lighting Systems .
Office Supplies...............
Other Items. ................
GtOiN ss ntavdiies 5 uae a eas Beas
Oyster Shells. 64. 2.5003 suave vegies
Grit and Charcoal............
Other Supplies...............
STOCK
CHICKENS:—
RRS sa ccauiee ative mans Rei eration
GEESE:—
Geese: ossi3-2 Hie cet Banner acta
LR RS 5,2 oc cies cea Savtes getate Pacioeae” nterias
OTHER FowLs:—
FEATHERS AND FERTILIZER :—
Total ssiscs ssh vids aries
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Schedule No. II—Income
Date |Fow ts: All varieties, Adult and Young Eccs
N Number
Number Peete Number _ | and kind
and kind |Amount|onsumed | Value and kind |Amount|consumed,| Value
sold and given sold incubated,
given
Totals:
Schedule No. III—Expenses
Da FrEps S pS Minor
TE EE) JUPPLIES EOurpMENT LABOR
Amount
Amount and kind Amount No.
and kind | Cost home- | Value} and kind | Cost | and | Cost |Time| Cost
purchased grown purchased kind
feeds used
Totals:
Schedule No. IV—Quarterly Summary
QUARTER ENDING
Gross income for quarter. .....0. 000.0000. c cece eee s
Inventory value at end of quarter a, ict tee w Seve mntene Ts
A=Total income plus Inventory............. 00000 cece eee eee = Ss '
Total expense for quarter............... 20 -c eee eee eee $
Inventory value at beginning of quarter............-..
B=Expenses plus Inventory .......... 6.0 e eee eee eee eee $
A-B=Net gains for quarter
B-A=Net loss for quarter
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Schedule No. V—Annual Summary
For THE YEAR ENDING ¢
1.—Inventory of stock and products, End of Year............. $
2.—Sales of stock and products during year—Schedule II.......
3.—Stock and products given away and used—Schedule No. II ..
4.—Miscellaneous receipts—see Schedule No. XI..............
§.—=Totals lteme: 1/23 andes s\cgy s saw ieveaaws thew Be ws $
6.—Inventory of stock and products, beginning of year.........
7.—Cost of stock and eggs purchased during year—Schedule X. .
8:—Totalé: Items G:and Tiss se 3 cee s Aes 2 has Cue se eet $
9.—Gross profits for year; Item 5S, less item 8= $
EXPENSES
10.—Expenses (Schedule III), not including item 7.............- $
11.—Repairs of fences, buildings and major equipment—Schedule
DEL Eo eccarc, chest ware bieeve fo voaalsapionioctbnit tty Sauer Og Fah
12.—Depreciation of fences, buildings and equipment — Schedule
ODD racatcses wethaee Dhara Sols rs wespt ae Bie A ch Guecbhed Rueda te
13.—Other expenses not included above..........-...0000 eee eee
14.—Total expenses: Items 10, 11,12 and 13...............00- $
Net INcoME oR PROFIT FoR YEAR: Item 9, less item 14.... S
Loss For YEAR: Item 14, less item 9=...........-.---4-5
Schedule No. VI—Monthly Egg Record
Month of . 19,
EcGcs GATHERED Eccs DIsPosED OF
Eggs sold Eggs used Eggs set
Day |Pen 1/Pen 2/Pen 3\Pen 4|Pen 5/Flock
No. | Price | No. | Value | No. | Value
1
2
3
to
31
Totals:
‘ [202]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Schedule No. VII—Incubation Record
QUARTER ENDING __ iO"
H Ba ' Number Fertile
Date No. GbE tor Location and vari- Value ee Hatch
ety of eggs
Totals:
Schedule No. VIII—Losses
YEAR
DaTE ADULT STOCK YOuNG STOCK OTHER LossEs
No. and kind Value No. and kind Value Items Value
Totals:
Miscellaneous Schedules
Schedule No. IX—Orders
QUARTER ENDING _____ sd‘.
ORDERS RECEIVED AND FILLED
Date.—No. 1
Rec’d. Name and address Items orderea Price
Ship'd. Shipping station Conditions Date paid
Schedule No. X—Purchases
YEAR ENDING 19 :
PURCHASES
Date Stock PURCHASED Eccs PuRCHASED
No. and variety Cost No. and variety Cost
Totals:
[ 203]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Schedule No. XI—Miscellaneous Income
YEAR ENDING 19___.
Items Dat, TOTAL
INsSuraneésc cies 9 ao .te eng
Sale of equipment. .......0 0... cece eee
Show premiums.......... porte ee seen es
Feathers. 6G, be a aaate Ss
ertiliZers cat Anak ocepdaodihes saa Bae Gataes
Other receipts. ....
RotalSicawew sy ale age geacrese
Schedule No. XII—Miscellaneous Expenses
YEAR ENDING 19__.
ITEMS DaTa TotaL
Repairs. ........
Insurance,...........
THtCKESE iiss sais eee
Show expenses....
Other expenses.......
Motalséicisd pace wa
Schedule No. XIII—Depreciation
Year Enpinc Dec. 31, 19__.
ITEMS
Amount of
Depreciation
Rate of
Depreciation
First
Probable
Cost i
Life
Value at
End of
Year
Age
Laying and Breeding
HOWSeS oe cyoni. aser es
Incubator House.......
Brooder House.........
Colony House..........
[204]
Chapter XVI
Sundry Topics
N our final chapter there are sundry topics that remain for
consideration.
Duck Raising
The duck industry is one of growing proportions. On
Long Island there are about 40 duck farms and the annual
output in ducklings is more than 350,000. The Pekin duck
has preference above all others for market purposes. Duck-
lings are sold at ten to twelve weeks of age, when their average
weight is about six pounds.
The Pekin lays from 100 to 140 eggs in a season. Eggs for
hatching are always in demand. Eggs can be hatched either
with a hen or in an incubator. Successful incubation depends
upon an even temperature with adequate moisture and venti-
lation.
Ducklings should not be fed for 36 hours after hatching.
They can then be started on stale bread, hard boiled egg, milk
and sharp sand, making a crumbly mash. After the fourth
day from hatching, feed a mash as follows:
BEAN dys: a: siersis. a Sicipcoctve; rereuaneco siepeleiere: esaueiaulone-dsacolevaus aiersrvcd dcadershasereente
Wheat Middlings ... ais
Corn meal ......... oer ws
Meat: Scrap: 5:5 sesier sce. becaiey ees & ascites SRN a Reais ws Ware eater wee
Said Or Qrits acc ened saeecies ic es peisvere See speaeinse Sead Setar eee wate e wash 2 parts
Green: FOE sisevssese ig cisiecoie:se 6 oioreyase a ospverare 'sjavapscs aicadouabete-d-aleveisia’ o-0ieh 5 parts
These ingredients are determined by measure and should
be made into a moist mash and fed four times a day. Water
must be supplied in abundance. During the winter season the
breeding stock should be fed whole grains and should have
access to grit and water.
Ducks very rarely’ become sick and for that reason are
easily raised. Some of the more common diseases are cholera,
coccidiosis, enteritis and worms.
Feathers are of considerable value. Unless the producer
is skilled in plucking, it will be more profitable to ship alive
than to dress for market.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Toulouse Geese
Raising Geese
Geese are profitable for flesh, eggs and feathers. A goose
lays about 40 eggs in a season. When they are sold for hatch-
ing the price averages about 50 cents each. Incubation is
usually accomplished by a chicken hen, which makes a good
mother and brooder for the goslings until they are able to
shift for themselves. For the first two weeks the goslings
should be fed a mash of equal parts of corn meal, bran and
wheat middlings, and about ten per cent of meat scrap with
coarse sand for grit. They should have range for green feed
from the beginning, and after they are old enough to forage
they will need but little feeding, as grass and weeds make the
bulk of their ration. An abundance of water is always neces-
sary. Geese and chickens do not thrive well together on
account of the unclean habits of the former and their
pugnacious disposition. Many a choice cockerel has suffered
a broken limb or ugly rents in the skin because of their vicious
nature. If kept in separate runs or fed on separate grounds
some of the objections might disappear.
It is very difficult, if not impossible, to detect the sex of
goslings. When mature, however, it is found that the gander
has a sharp, shrill voice, while the goose has a coarse, heavy
voice. The male has a heavier, longer neck, and a larger head.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
During the breeding season the gander can be detected by his
actions. Another method is to use slight pressure upon the
sphincter muscle in the region of the anus, when the sexual
organs will be everted.
Geese very seldom succumb to disease, but occasionally are
afflicted with cholera, coccidiosis, gout, rheumatism, or liver
disease.
The feathers of geese are very valuable, commanding about
50 cents per pound. It is not a common practice, nor is it
usually safe, to pluck geese alive. In dressing for market they
should be plucked dry, and the fine feathers are always saved.
There is little demand for the coarse feathers.
The leading varieties are the Toulouse and the Embden.
In fattening for market, ground corn, bran and 10 per cent
of meat scrap make a good fattening ration. Geese should be
mated in the fall. The loss of a mate is followed by a season
of grief. A new mate is not always kindly received.
Turkey Culture
Turkey culture is both interesting and profitable. Eggs
for hatching, feathers, and market birds are always in demand.
Eggs for hatching sell for 30 cents to $1 each. Market birds for
Thanksgiving and the holidays command from 30 to 50 cents
per pound.
In mating turkeys it is customary to introduce new blood
every other year. This is a good policy if care is exercised in
selecting stock that is free from any taint of disease. Two
toms should be provided, even for a small flock, one yearling
tom and one young tom. The unexpected frequently happens,
and the loss of a tom during the breeding season is not easily
replaced. Yearling hens make the best breeders, but it is
always advisable to keep as many well matured pullets as
hens. In-breeding is considered harmful to vigor and vitality.
By using old toms with pullets and young toms with hens I
maintained a flock of turkeys for nearly ten years without the
introduction of new blood and could not observe any decline
in vigor or size.
The mating season in the northern states usually begins
in March, and the hens begin laying early in April. One copu-
lation fertilizes all the eggs of a clutch. A turkey hen lays
about 40 eggs in a:season, if not allowed to sit, in three
clutches—18 eggs in the first clutch, 12 in the second, and 10
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
in the third. Eggs laid early in the spring should be gathered
daily: to prevent chilling. Suitable nests should be provided
in barrels, boxes or brush piles, and if hens can be induced to
begin laying at home there will be little danger of their roam-
ing to find nests.
The turkey hen makes the best incubator and brooder. It
is customary to hatch the first laid eggs under a chicken hen.
In that event the poults should receive the same care and feed
as chicks. As soon as a turkey hen hatches a brood, the hen-
hatched poults can be transferred to the turkey mother. If
This will keep her from flying the fence
the weather is damp and cold at the time a brood of poults is
taken off, it is best to confine the turkey mother in a coop for
a few days. The coop should have an outside runway to give
the poults opportunity for exercise and to obtain green food.
Rolled oats, fed sparingly, three to five times a day, makes a
good starter. This, with sweet milk and sharp sand for grit,
will be all that is needed for the first week. After a week of con-
finement the hen with her brood can be given free range. They
can be taught to come home for food and shelter each night,
and as a rule this is advisable. Turkeys and chickens should
not be fed on the same ground. In the first place, the turkeys
are likely to infect the ground with gape worms; and, in the
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
second place, they are in danger of becoming infected with
certain diseases, such as coccidiosis, from the chickens.
In fattening turkeys for market it is customary to feed a
mixture of grains, such as corn, wheat, and oats. If fed an
excess of new corn, diarrhea is likely to occur, and this may
lead to serious disease. If not shipped alive, turkeys should
be dry-picked, plumped by plunging into cold water, and
shipped undrawn.
The diseases which attack turkeys are cholera, blackhead,
coccidiosis, limberneck, chicken pox, roup and _ intestinal
worms. The treatment of these diseases is given in Chapter
XIV.
Guinea Fowl
The number of guinea fowl on farms on Jan. 1, 1920, was
2,410,421, and the value of these was $1,582,313.
The system of feeding guineas resembles that of chickens,
but they eat less food. Bread crumbs and hard-boiled egg
make a good feed for the guinea chicks.
It is about as difficult to determine the sex of guineas as
of geese. The male has a longer helmet and wattles and
coarser features. The cry of the female resembles the word
“buck-wheat,” while that of the male is a one-syllable shriek.
Quoting from Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 858:
“Guinea fowl are growing in favor as a substitute for game
birds, with the result that guinea raising is becoming more
profitable.
“They are raised usually in small flocks on general farms,
and need a large range for best results.
“Domesticated guinea fowl are of three varieties: Pearl,
White and Lavender, of which the Pearl is by far the most
popular. Guinea fowl have a tendency to mate in pairs, but
one male may be mated successfully with three or four females.
“Guinea hens usually begin to lay in April or May and will
lay 20 to 30 eggs before becoming broody. If not allowed to
sit they will continue to lay throughout the summer, laying
from 40 to 60 or more eggs. Eggs may be removed from the
nest when the guinea hen is not sitting, but two or more eggs
must be left in the nest.
“Ordinary hens are used commonly to hatch and rear guinea
chicks. The period of incubation is 28 days. Guineas are
marketed late in the summer, when they weigh one to one and
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
one-half pounds at about two and one-half months of age, and
also throughout the fall when the demand is for heavier birds.”
Judging
There are two methods of judging, by score-card and by
comparison. The score-card is usually used in the smaller
shows and is a source of information to the breeder. If his
bird is disqualified or cut in any section he knows the fact
and generally the reason why.
The comparison method teaches him nothing, except that
he was a loser or that he won a ribbon, unless perchance he
should meet the judge who may take the pains to point out
the defects in his birds. There is a strong tendency to drift
away from the score-card, even in the smaller shows, on
account of the excessive amount of work that is entailed upon
the judge and secretary of the show. As an educational pro-
gram for the new beginner comparison judging is of little
value. He neither learns why he lost or why his competitor
won.
Exhibiting
Every farmer with a pure-bred flock will be benefited by
entering a few birds at the county fair or in the local poultry
show. A knowledge of the weak points is worth while, as it
may incite to greater endeavor.
Conditioning for the show requires considerable attention.
The show specimens should be caught and cooped several
days before entry. The legs and feet should be cleaned by
washing with soap and water. Use a stiff brush. Rinse and
dry and then with a toothpick or a sharpened stick remove all
dirt from under the scales. Then apply an ointment of glycer-
ine and alcohol, half and half. A numbered leg band should be
attached to the right foot below the spike. Examine each
specimen for disqualifications. White specimens should be
washed. First wet the feathers to the skin with tepid water,
then apply soap, working it into the feathers; then rinse and
use soap again. The second rinsing should be carefully done
so as to remove every trace of soap. Dry in a warm room and
allow the specimen to cool gradually to prevent catching cold.
After the birds have been returned from the show they
should be kept in quarantine for a week or ten days to detect
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
MALE HEADS SHOWING DEFECTIVE COMBS:
1 THUMB MARK. 2. LOPPED (SINGLE). 3. HOLLOW CENTER.
4 SIDE SPRIG 5 UNEVEN SERRATIONS 6. TWISTED.
the appearance of any diseases that may have been contracted
in the show room.
Be a good loser and a grateful winner.
The Poultry Show. The poultry show has done more than
any other institution, except the American Poultry Associ-
ation, to perpetuate an interest in pure-bred poultry. It should
be encouraged in every community. -In selecting a place to
exhibit the worth of his birds, the breeder should not neglect
the local show. If victorious there, and he would have other
fields to conquer, he should not forget the annual show of his
State Poultry Association. This is his own organization and
he should take advantage of the opportunities it proffers.
State Poultry Association. The State Association is affli-
ated with the American Poultry Association and it is also
fostered by the State. Membership in this organization is
always welcomed and should be counted a privilege and duty
by every breeder.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Poultry Schools. There are several well organized and
high-grade poultry schools in the United States. They are
sponsored by capable and well-trained experts, and no mistake
can be made in enrolling for a special course of study in one of
these schools. It is knowledge that counts, and its application
makes for success. Ignorance is the way of failure.
The Farm Bureau. This organization seeks to foster every
farm enterprise. It is accomplishing much-good along poultry
lines. Get in touch with your farm adviser and he will gladly
help solve some of your poultry problems.
State and University experiment stations are accomplish-
ing a work for poultry culture equal to that of any other
agency.
Egg Laying Contests. These are being conducted in some
states under the direction of the State Poultry Association.
Sometimes they are fostered by the state or by the state ex-
periment station, again by private enterprise. The facts dis-
covered and presented to the world by these contests have
given a great impetus to the industry. These facts bear upon
the problems of feeding, breeding, culling and production and
enter into the practical problems that are met on the farm.
Poultry publications. The farm paper and poultry journals
are the means of disseminating knowledge. They are working
continually for better poultry and more of it. To remove these
potent influences for good would be to set back the industry
for many years.
The Poultry Calendar
January. This is the month of severe cold. Every pre-
caution should be taken that the fowls receive proper pro-
tection. On severe days they should be confined to the poultry
house.
Mate up the fowls that are intended for flock-breeding and
give them special care. They should not have a forcing ration,
should not be overcrowded, should not be kept under artificial
lights, should be compelled to exercise for their food.
Clean up and disinfect the poultry house, replenish nesting
material and litter in the scratch rooms.
Make an inventory of stock and equipment.
Begin a systematic method of poultry accounting. See
Chapter XV.
Get the incubator ready for early hatching.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
February. The egg yield is now increasing rapidly. A few
of the breeding stock hens may become broody, but if early
hatched pullets are desired, the incubator is the main reliance.
Set the incubator early in February.
Clean up and disinfect the poultry house, supplying new
litter and nest material.
Go over the breeding pens and breeding flock carefully to
detect and remove any birds lacking in vigor.
Get the brooder house and brooder ready for the forth-
coming hatch. If artificial lights are used and there is more
than a 50 per cent yield, the lights should be reduced.
Gather eggs twice daily in severe weather.
Fatten and market all capons held over.
March. Clean up and disinfect the poultry building, sup-
plying fresh litter.
Spray roosts and nests with some good lice killer. Dust
the fresh nesting material with insect powder.
Give the laying flock and the breeding flock a thorough
culling. Condition and ship to market all culls. This is the
month of high prices for market stock.
Carefully examine the breeders and replace any male birds
that are lacking in vigor or that fail to produce fertile eggs.
Prepare chick rations for the coming broods.
Bring the poultry account down to date and prepare the
quarterly summary.
April. This is the busy month. Incubators, sitting hens,
and tender chicks require constant attention.
Clean up and disinfect all coops and buildings.
Put on a vigorous campaign against lice and mites.
Thorough work now will save future trouble.
Plant mangel-wurzels, beets, carrots, cabbage, turnips and
other vegetables to supply the winter ration of green feed.
May. Clean and disinfect buildings and coops.
Clean, disinfect and put away the incubators, as the season
for profitable incubation has passed.
All eggs set this month should be placed under hens. Hens
should be protected from lice and mites and provided with
new nesting material as required.
Provide shade for the chicks. Give the flock free range.
Give special attention to the chicks. Keep their quarters
clean and free from drafts. Protect from enemies by closing
them up at night and keeping the hen confined in the day time.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
June. Clean and disinfect all buildings and coops.
Break up sitting hens by putting them in a strange lot or
room without nests or in a breaking coop.
Produce infertile eggs for market by separating all males
from the hens. The undesirable males should be shipped to
market but those that are to be kept over may be kept in a
separate lot.
Cull the three-months-old chicks. The surplus cockerels
can be caponized or shipped as broilers.
Care should be used in culling the hens, as some of the
best layers may be taking a rest or be broody. There are
always some that cannot be profitably retained, and these
should go to market.
Do not forget shade for the growing chicks.
Provide a mash for the summer layers. See Ration No. VII.
Bring the poultry account down to date and prepare the
quarterly summary.
July. This is usually the hottest month and growing
chicks and fowls must have protection from the intense heat.
The orchard or corn field makes a fine shady run for the chicks.
Artificial shade should be provided where necessary.
Remove all young stock to colony houses or to permanent
roosting quarters.
Provide a dry mash and green feed for the young stock.
Clean and disinfect all buildings, also the brooders, storing
them for future use. ~
Avoid overcrowding of young stock.
Liberal feeding is recommended for this month to promote
growth and vigor and fortify against weather conditions.
August. Clean and disinfect all buildings. Supply roosts
for young stock ; caponize surplus cockerels; avoid overcrowd-
ing; protect against weather changes; store eggs for the time
of scarcity.
September. Clean and disinfect all buildings and grounds
as far as possible. Sprinkle slaked lime on ground, plow or
spade, then supply another coat of lime. Later sprinkle on the
ground a strong solution of copperas.
Cull the whole flock and, after conditioning, ship the culls
to market. Fatten surplus young stock for roasters.
Make the quarterly inventory, bring the poultry account
down to date, and prepare the quarterly summary. This is
done at the end of month.
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Provide a suitable mash for the molting hens, Ration IX.
October. Clean and disinfect all buildings, and make all
necessary repairs for the winter season.
Watch out for colds. Keep the young stock from crowding
and becoming overheated, afterwards to become chilled by the
cold morning air.
Put all stock in winter quarters.
Watch closely for the occurrence of disease and take
prompt measures to prevent the spread of any epidemic.
Self-feederjfor dry mash
4
November. The best layers will molt in November and
October. The molting ration should be continued until the
molt is practically finished.
Make all changes in rations gradually.
Do not force for egg production pullets that are not
matured.
Clean and disinfect all buildings and provide fresh nesting
material.
Dispose of surplus breeders.
Matured pullets should be put on a laying ration.
December. Clean and disinfect all buildings.
Select breeding stock for special pens and for the breeding
flock. Arrange to keep these in separate quarters so that they
may have special care in feeding.
Bring the poultry account down to date and prepare the
quarterly and annual summaries.
Cull the flock and ship surplus stock to market.
[215]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Postscript
Our task is finished. It is a big subject. At the best we
have only skirmished along the outskirts of a few fields, as yet
but partially explored. We have written little that is new, but
have drawn from practical experience wherever possible. To
the army of investigators who have blazed the way in many
fields belongs the credit for the accumulated facts pertaining
to the industry. We have gathered a few data with the avowed
object of being helpful to the farmer and the fancier. That
there are errors is freely admitted. Poultry writings have
many contradictions. Some must be in error, yet each has
given his contribution toward the attainment of an exact
science.
A last word. What is the most important factor in the
poultry problem? What word expresses the condition which,
probably more than any other, conserves the health of the
flock, determines its productiveness, and contributes to the
profit of the industry? Is it not “cleanliness”? And next to
cleanliness is “exercise”.
[216]
Appendix
HE following pages are devoted to articles reprinted from
PRAIRIE FARMER. The storiés of farm success with poul-
try are particularly interesting as examples of what other
farmers are actually doing to make the poultry flock add
substantially to the farm income.
When to Market Poultry
HE chart on Page 218 portrays the usual seasonal changes
in chicken prices. The lines represent five-year averages by -
months, using the prices to producers in the United States as
estimated by the Department of Agriculture in one case and
Chicago prices for spring chickens and hens for the other two
lines.
Up to the end of April, the quotations on springers at Chi-
cago are upon chickens hatched in the previous spring. Begin-
ning with May such chickens are counted as hens and stags
and the springers or broilers quoted are from the new hatch.
Since few are hatched in winter and extremely early spring
these spring chickens are very scarce in May, June and July
so that they bring a big premium over the general run. The
premium is gradually lost as such birds become more abun-
dant and quotations upon them in late fall and winter are
practically the same as upon hens. During March the spring-
ers have sold higher than hens, although the reason for this
is not clear, especially as they seem to sell again in the same
notch during April.
It is noticeable that the prices of both springers and hens
decline on the average during the late summer and fall to the
lowest point of the year in November when receipts are largest.
Holiday demand which develops late in November and is
prominent in December causes December prices to average
materially higher than November. Hens reach their highest
point as a rule in April when they are laying heavily and are
kept back on farms. From this point prices decline as sup-
plies become more abundant. June shows up as a month of
low prices for hens partly because of the fact that they are in
[217]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
SEASONAL CHANGES IN CHICKEN PRICES
sce JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
IN CENTS Ke
PER POUND < Xs
34 Sp NI
& ea
32 s| a
I | N
20 | |
28 2
=|
26 =
24 ae” ’p
1S ST
0 Ne?
= de - LIVE CHICKENS |
6 10 i ed
16 penne
om
| 14. ; {AVERAGE PRICES FIV ae —1915 10 1919J—
2.
The Chicago prices are quotations at wholesale for live hens and spring chickens. *
Note that spring chickens are highest in May and decline rapidly during the
summer to the low point in November, after which there is an advance during
the winter months. Up to the end of April the spring chickens quoted are those
hatched in the previous season. Hence the very sharp advance from April to May
when the new hatch is quoted. Hens reach the highest point in April during the
laying season. Thereafter they are marketed in larger numbers and June prices
usually are low. Another decline takes place in the fall due partly to the abundance
of spring chickens. Beginning in September and continuing through most of the
winter hens and spring chickens fluctuate together.
Prices to producers are averages for the entire United States. They show
less marked changes from month to month and are highest during the late summer
and early fall months. They also seem to behave differently from Chicago prices.
poor condition when marketed immediately after the laying
season.
The prices to producers shown are averages made up by
the Department of Agriculture from the statements of a num-
ber of country buyers located throughout the United States
[218]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
PRICES PAID TO PRODUCERS FOR LIVE CHICKENS
PRicE |JAN.|FEB.|MARJAPR.[MAY JJUNE|JULY [AUG]SEPT/0CT [NOV.|DEC JAN.
per
28+
26¢ a eam
ee
ae | Late TT | KA
22% A ted
20%
18%
_16¢
= ead [ AVERAGE 1910) ~ zc a
a
124
The prices to producers shown on the chart above are averages for the entire
United States based on the reports for the first of the month. They are highest
during the summer months. Note that the ten year average line is similar in its
course to the five year average on the other chart. Prices in 1919 and in 1920
are similar to each other in their behavior and somewhat similar to the average
for ten years except that they are on a much higher level.
who report the prices paid at country buying points. The
curve for these prices is not consistent with the curve for
Chicago prices for reasons not entirely apparent. Prices to
producers have averaged highest during late summer and
early fall and are lowest during the winter and early spring
months.
To sell best on the open market poultry should arrive from
Tuesday to Friday. Demand usually is light on Monday and
on Saturday prices are often reduced so as to effect a clearance
and avoid holding stock over till Monday.
[219]
Poultry Marketing Experience
ANY Prairie Farmer readers have added materially to
their poultry income by finding markets for their poultry
and eggs which pay more than they can secure by selling to
the village storekeeper or huckster. One Illinois farm woman,
for example, netted 60 cents per dozen by shipping eggs to a
New York commission house when eggs were bringing but
40 cents at home.
The increased returns on that transaction were 50 per cent,
but the increased profit was much more. The cost of pro-
ducing those eggs was 36 cents, according to figures kept
by this woman. The profit was four cents per dozen when the
eggs were sold locally, while the other method of marketing
gave her'a profit of 24 cents.
This case is not unusual. Rather, it is typical of what
may be done by any farm poultry raiser in the Corn Belt.
The margin is not always as much as in the case indicated,
but on the other hand it is often much more. The margin
secured from improved marketing may increase substantially
the poultry profit, or it may mean the difference between a
good profit and a discouraging loss.
In the December 3, 1921, issue of Prairie Farmer readers
who have found methods of increasing their revenue from
poultry by better methods of marketing were asked to write
us their experiences. The letters received indicate that there
are no less than 10 practical plans which may be followed by
those who want better prices for their poultry products. They
are:
Selling eggs to private customers.
. Selling eggs to city markets.
Selling eggs for hatching.
. Selling eggs to hatcheries.
Producing late fall and winter eggs.
Selling early fries.
Selling baby chicks.
. Selling dressed poultry.
. Shipping live poultry to city markets.
10. Selling cockerels and pullets for breeding purposes.
High prices for poultry and eggs mean that the quality
must be first-class. The Chicago man who pays a ten-cent
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PRONANRONS
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
premium for fresh eggs from the country will refuse to pay
that premium if the eggs are not strictly fresh, clean, uniform
in size, and first-class in every way. Live poultry won’t com-
mand the top prices if it isn’t fat, and dressed poultry must be
fat, clean and attractive in order to bring a high price. Quality
goes hand in hand with better methods of marketing, but in no
product is it more important than poultry and eggs.
Private Customers
Many farm women have secured better than market prices
by selling eggs to private customers. In small towns the
margin paid over store prices is often not more than two or
three cents per dozen. The development of the parcel post
has extended the private customer field to distant cities, and
with the city trade has come a much better premium over the
local egg markets.
Mrs. Chas. Plondke of Grant county, Wis., charges private
customers five cents more per dozen than the local market,
and the customer pays all expense of shipping the eggs and
returning the empty cases.
Mrs. Clara Elfrink of Cook county, IIl., has 14 customers in
Chicago who pay a premium of several cents per dozen for
eggs. “We got our first customer nine years ago through the
Chicago postoffice, and the others were friends of the first
customers,” she writes. “We ship in egg cartons, using the
two, three, and four dozen sizes, according to the customer’s
needs. We ship mostly by parcel post, but occasionally send
large shipments by express. We are only 30 miles from Chi-
cago, and in good weather our customers often drive out for
their eggs, dressed poultry, vegetables and fruit. When we ship,
the customers pay the postage and insurance. We have had
no trouble in regard to pay, as all have been prompt.”
Mrs. Otto Schulz of McHenry county, IIl., ships eggs in
12-dozen crates to Chicago families, several families dividing
a case when one can’t use that many eggs. “I have followed
this plan for three years and am well pleased,” she writes.
“I get a couple of cents above market price, and my customers
pay the parcel post charges. I am also selling dressed geese,
ducks, young roosters and feathers to the same customers,
charging less than they can buy them for and at the same time
giving me more than I could secure at the butcher’s or the store.
Chicago people are glad to pay well for fresh eggs and poultry.”
[221]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Another plan is followed by Mrs. C. D. Finkbeiner of Lena-
wee county, Mich., who lives 50 miles or so from Detroit.
-Many automobile parties go past the farm, and a “Fresh eggs”
‘sign stops enough automobiles to enable Mrs. Finkbeiner to
sell all the surplus eggs except in the hatching season.
It is not difficult to make connections with city families
who will pay a good premium for quality eggs shipped by
parcel post. Most people have friends and relatives in cities,
and that should enable them to get started shipping eggs. One
satisfied customer brings another. In the larger cities the post-
offices have lists of city people who want parcels post eggs.
Cartons for shipping can be secured from supply houses, and
may be secured at almost any store. Bills should be rendered
the first of every month.
Shipping to Commission Houses
Shipping eggs to commission houses in the larger cities, as
New York and Chicago, is a plan which nets a good premium
over the local market. C. H. Poland of Montgomery county,
Ill, in 1921, shipped all the surplus eggs from his 265 hens to
a New York commission house and secured $185 more for them
than his home market would pay.
A Missouri woman reports that her first shipment to New
York netted 22 cents per dozen more than she could have
secured at home, and that on the nine cases she shipped she
netted $37.50 over local prices. These were all white eggs,
which bring a good premium over other colors on the New
York and Boston markets. ,
Mrs. Ed. Fulford of Jackson county, IIl., reports much
higher prices secured in St. Louis than she could obtain at
local stores. “I use a 12-dozen case and ship by insured
parcel post,” she says. “It costs 35 cents to send it when full
and eight cents when empty. The eggs sell higher than at
home and I can use the cash any place instead of taking what
I can get, as I do at home. I ship the eggs one morning, get
the check the next morning and the empty cases the following
day.”
Another who has found it profitable to ship to city markets
is Merle Naugle of White county, Ind. “On November 22
I received $24.09 net for a 30-dozen case in New York, and the
price here was $16.50,” she says. “These were uniform white
eggs which are higher than any others. In spring and summer
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aed
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
it does not pay as well to ship east, so I sell to a man in Chicago
who pays 14 cents over local prices.”
The important things to remember in shipping to com-
mission companies are to send uniform good-quality eggs, and
to pick out a reliable commission man. There are some com-
mission houses which are not trustworthy, but they are being
rapidly weeded out by the state commission merchant laws.
The premium over local prices is rather small from March to
June, but the rest of the year it is considerable.
Eggs for Hatching
Those with well-selected purebred flocks (not necessarily
fancy) find a profitable market as a rule in selling eggs for
hatching purposes. This is true of all the common breeds like
Leghorns, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth
‘Rocks. Mrs. Lee E. McElroy of Shelby county, IIl., whose
experience is typical of many, last year sold eggs for hatching
at $1.50 per 15, selling all the extra eggs in that way from
March till June. “The best answer to the question of better
marketing of poultry is better poultry,” she says. “No matter
what market you sell to, purebreds return a good profit over
scrubs.”
Mrs. Frank Myers of Henderson county, Ill, began 10
years ago with a flock of Barred Rocks. “I culled my flock
and bought the best stock I could afford,” she writes. “By
1919 I thought my flock was good enough to advertise eggs
for sale. Ads in Prairie Farmer and a local paper cost $10.09
in all. Baskets cost $2.70. Excelsior was free at the store,
and flour sacks made the covers. I sold $92.50 worth of eggs.
They were worth $48.30 at the store, advertising and other
costs amounted to $13.40, so I had for my trouble $31.01.
Since then I have advertised eggs, baby chicks and cockerels,
Prairie Farmer and a local paper doing the work.”
It is not difficult to secure $1 to $1.50 per sitting of eggs
from well-selected hens, and eggs from flocks somewhat fancier
than on most farms bring considerably higher prices. The
expense is very small, and the returns usually are more than
ample to pay for the time and trouble.
Eggs to Hatcheries
Since the rapid growth of the baby chick business, many
farm poultry raisers with purebred flocks find that the baby
chick hatcheries provide an excellent market for eggs. This
[223]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
plan eliminates many of the costs involved in selling hatching
eggs, though it does not bring the returns which the other
plan does. Mrs. Wm. A. Klein of Putnam county, IIl., has
been selling Barred Rock eggs to a nearby hatchery, receiving
several cents per dozen above market price. Another who has
followed this practice is Mrs. Wm. M. Rhine of Montgomery
county, Ill., who received five cents each for the eggs.
This plan offers considerable possibility to those who are
near to hatcheries, and those whose flock is not large enough
to justify advertising the eggs for sale. It is doubtful, however,
if the hatchery trade is worth going after if one has a good
flock for which a reputation is already established.
Producing Winter Eggs
Egg prices are always much higher from October until the
last of January than at any other season. The farm poultry
raiser who has learned the trick of making the hens lay in this
“off” season gets ample reward in liberal egg checks. It is’at
this season, that city trade will pay the largest premium for
fresh eggs, due to the difficulty of securing them and to the
storage eggs that reach the market then.
The essential points in securing eggs in the months of high
prices are proper feeding, proper housing and a productive
flock. Complete discussion of this matter will be found
elsewhere in this volume.
Selling Baby Chicks
The baby chick business is pretty strongly established, and
offers a fine chance of financial reward to the person who has
the right knack and patience. “I sold 900 Wyandotte baby
chicks last spring at 15 cents apiece,” says Mrs. W. H. Rigsby
of Christian county, Ill. “They are easy to dispose of. Good,
lively, healthy chicks are easily sold about as fast as they can
be hatched.”
Mrs, Arthur Heap of Kendall county, IIL, sold 843 baby
chicks at 15 cents last spring, besides hatching 1,050 chicks
for her own flock. “TI sell them the day they are hatched, and
there is very little risk,” she writes. “I am satisfied that there
is more money in the baby chick business than in any other
branch of the poultry industry.”
The baby chick business calls for a healthy purebred flock,
and if managed on a modest scale does not call for any extra
[224]
PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
equipment. It is easily possible for a farm woman to sell 1,000
or more baby chicks in her immediate neighborhood without
much expense. That sort of a business must be built up from
a smaller beginning. The commercial baby chick business
cannot be undertaken as a sideline to farming, but should
be regarded as a highly specialized industry by itself.
Selling Early Fries
During the late spring and early summer months, young
fries command high prices as a rule, especially if they are fat
and plump. Mrs. Heap reports receiving 49 cents per pound
for ten-week-old fries which averaged two pounds apiece.
Others kept until they weighed five pounds apiece late in the
fall were sold for 19 cents per pound or 95 cents each. The
early chickens thus brought three cents apiece more and
required less than half the feed and work.
“We sell most of our cockerels about July 1 as broilers,”
writes Mrs. Finkbeiner. “They then weigh two pounds each
and command the highest prices of the year. To get them to
that age we feed sour milk, cracked corn, oatmeal and bran.”
Mrs. Wm. Klein of Putnam county, IIL, sold early fries the
latter part of May that weighed two pounds and a quarter.
Later when the price dropped below 35 cents, she quit selling,
caponized the cockerels and sold the capons late in the fall for
a fancy price. “There is practically no extra work in this
plan,” she writes, “and it is a very profitable marketing plan.”
The early fry requires early hatching, and feeding for rapid
gains, and if large numbers are produced a special market.
Selling Dressed Poultry
Some poultry raisers have gone a step further and elimi-
nated the butcher by selling dressed poultry. “I believe that
this is the best way to make extra money from poultry,” says
Mrs. B. C. Lawhead of Champaign county, Ill. “I make a
profit of about 10 cents per pound on the average, for dressing —
the chickens. Before Thanksgiving, ducks were 22 cents alive
and 30 cents dressed, geese 18 cents alive and 33 cents dressed.
I cleared over $1 per goose and 35 cents per duck by dressing.”
The experience of Mrs. Louis Bernhard of Effingham
county, Ill., is similar. “Two weeks before Christmas we
dressed 82 turkeys, averaging 15 pounds, for which we received
49 cents net after shipping to New York. We would have
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
received 34 cents at our local stores. Thirty-five late turkeys
were sold in February for 63 cents dressed (local price 34
cents). On these 117 turkeys we made $270 above local prices,
after paying all expenses including shrinkage.”
Mrs. Schulz, who has Chicago customers for eggs, finds that
these same people like to get dressed chickens, ducks and geese
for which they pay premiums over the market.
The dressed poultry trade is one which can be operated on
as large or as small a scale as desired. The principal points
to be remembered are to deliver the dressed poultry fresh and
to use only fat, plump fowls.
Shipping Live Poultry
Shipping live poultry is largely a matter of finding a com-
mission man who will handle the shipments properly and
honestly—which is much less difficult than is generally sup-
posed. In every large city there are many commission mer-
chants who make a specialty of handling not only live poultry
but also dressed poultry, veal, eggs, produce and a variety
of other things. The net amount received after commission
charges, express and other costs are paid is usually much
higher than what could have been secured at local markets.
PRAIRIE FARMER will help you find a reliable commission man,
if you wish our assistance.
The Brown County (Ill.) Farm Bureau began in August
1921 to make cooperative shipments of poultry in connection
with the livestock shipping association. The shipments were
sent to city markets, and the proceeds, less than the trans-
portation and commission, paid to the producers. Within a
few months, 100,000 pounds had been handled, for which more
than $6,000 above local prices were secured — an average of
more than six cents per pound.
The Purebred Market
S. M. Phelps of Warren county, Ill, tells of a.small poultry
flock from which he made sales of cockerels and pullets of more
than $100 per year for seven years—a record which is equalled
by many other farm poultry raisers. The average return from
this kind of marketing is from 50 to 100 per cent higher than
selling on the market.
Anyone with a good flock can sell a number of cockerels in
the home community without much effort, and as the flock
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becomes better established and more widely known the market
for good cockerels is enlarged. There is not so much chance to
sell pullets to the farm trade, as most people find it cheaper to
buy eggs and hatch their own pullets.
These statements do not refer to the breeders with fancy
strains. The business of producing the fancy strains of poultry
is a specialized industry by itself and hardly comes under a
discussion of marketing of farm poultry.
The methods described in this article are those found
practical by farmers and farm women who run their poultry
business purely as a sideline, though any sideline to be profit-
able must be efficiently handled. The improved methods of
marketing poultry and eggs which are described here help
promote that efficiency and make possible profits where losses
existed before, and make greater profits where there were
small profits.
The man who wins in any branch of farming during the
years following the war will be the one who farms most
efficiently. And one of the chief factors in efficient farming
is marketing products to the best advantage.
No Eight-Hour Day for Esgar’s Hens
HEN W. J. Esgar of Grundy county, IIL, gets the fire
built about half past five on a cold winter morning he
hurries down to the chicken house to call the hens. The way
he calls them is to turn on the electric lights, Unlike the
hired man, the hens never turn over in bed for another wink.
They get off the roosts at once and go after their breakfast
of sprouted oats and wheat. They get in a good two hours’
work before daylight, and by the time the late winter dawn is
waking up chickens who go by sun time, Esgar’s hens have
their crops full and are ready to go to laying.
“The value of this extra two hours’ work by electric light
is that the hens have just that much more time to eat, and
they lay in proportion to the amount of feed they consume,”
says Esgar. “When a hen is-eating she is making you money.
When she is sleeping, especially in the morning with an
empty crop, she isn’t.”
Esgar is a firm believer in poultry as a profitable branch
of the farm business. He doesn’t believe in leaving all the
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work to mother, either. He and the five boys are as much
interested in the poultry flock as mother is, and are always
ready to lend a hand when there is work to be done around
the poultry yards.
As for the actual figures—well, there was a check for
$145.25 for 130 broilers (10 weeks old) sold last June (1921).
Egg receipts for 1920 were $216.50, and about as many eggs
were used at home as were sold.
Keeping Egg Records
Esgar has been using trap nests for 12 years. The trap
nest is a nest with a little trap door in front that closes when
the hen goes in to lay. She has to stay there until she is let
out, when she is credited with her egg.
“No, it isn’t so very much trouble,” says Esgar. “We put
numbered leg bands on the pullets, and after that it isn’t much
work to open the nests and put down the records. It is the
only sure way to build up a heavy-laying strain.”
He showed me some of the records and we added up a few
of them. One pullet laid 92 eggs from Jan. 19 to May 23,
1921—124 days. At that rate her year’s record will be well
over 200 eggs. Hens like this are mated with roosters from
high-producing strains. Esgar paid $15 last spring for a
rooster whose mother had a record of 300 eggs a year.
The results of this work are rapid improvement of the
laying ability of the flock. In June, 1921, the egg production
was 90 to 100 eggs a day from 125 hens. Esgar has so much
confidence in the laying ability of his birds that he recently
sent a pen to Murphysboro to compete in the state egg-laying
contest.
Hens Lay When Eggs are High
“Trap nesting adds greatly to the interest in poultry
raising,” says Mrs. Esgar. “We have all taken much more
interest in the flock since we began keeping laying records.”
Esgar’s winter laying flock consists of about 150 hens and
pullets—mostly pullets. They are usually getting well under
way by the first of November, when eggs are getting up
toward the high point of the year. Most of his flock are
Rhode Island Reds, though he is experimenting with Rhode
Island Whites.
“We start the incubators in February so as to sell the
cockerels for early broilers,” says Esgar. “This spring we
sold them at 40 to 55 cents a pound when they were 10 weeks
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This is Billy Esgar and one of his roosters
old. They averaged over two pounds and brought a little
over a dollar apiece. The chief difficulty with early hatching
is that the pullets mature so early that they are likely to
molt the first year, which spoils the November laying. We
can usually prevent that, however, by shutting off the feed
after the cockerels are marketed, letting the pullets range for
a living. That checks their development and in most cases
prevents molting the first year.’
Esgar has a large winter laying house with an open front.
It did not cost much, but it is as warm and comfortable as
the most expensive house built. The only openings are in
front. The open front gives plenty of ventilation without
drafts.
The winter bill of fare is as follows:
Morning—Whole oats scattered in the litter.
Noon—Sprouted oats and whole wheat.
Night—Cracked corn scattered in the litter.
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As additional green feed the hens get all the mangels
they want. Self-feeders are kept full of a dry mash of equal
parts of bran, ground oats and ground corn, with 10 per cent
by weight of tankage. The hens also get all the skim milk
and water they want to drink, and oyster shell and charcoal
are kept before them all the time.
The laying hens are kept in the house all winter.
“They won't lay if they have wet or cold feet,” says Esgar.
“A few hours walking around in the snow, or even on frosty
ground, will cut the egg production severely.”
The floor of the house is covered with dry straw, changed
once a week or so. The dropping boards under the roosts are
cleaned frequently, and roosts, nests and the house itself are
disinfected often enough to keep them free from vermin..
“T don’t know of any branch of farming that beats the
poultry business, good years and bad years alike,” Esgar says.
Chester Married the Right Girl
HEN Chester Winsor came back from a year’s heavy
action in France he found that he had.a still harder
fight before him. Like many other farmer boys who gave
their service to the cause of liberty, he started farming when
everything was high, and was pretty thoroughly deflated by
the time the bills came due.
But Chester married a girl who believes that a farmer’s
wife should be his partner in every sense of the word. While
Chester is plowing corn and making hay on his 80-acre rented
farm in Grundy county, Ill, she is raising chickens and
hunting eggs.
What Do You Think of This?
While I was eating some of her fried chicken one day not
long ago she got out her account book and figured up her
poultry income. During the 10 months from Dec. 1, 1920, to
Oct. 1, 1921, her cash receipts from poultry and eggs were
$801.47. The actual cash expense was $125. This poultry
income, which has been a mighty big help during the deflation
year, was all from market stuff. Although Mrs. Winsor has
a flock of purebred Rhode Island Reds, the poultry and eggs
are sold on the market and not to the purebred trade.
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The first essential to success with poultry, particularly
in winter egg production, is a good poultry house. This is
one of the obstacles in the way of a tenant farmer who starts
out to increase his income by the poultry route. Chester
Winsor solves this problem in a way that is open to almost
any tenant farmer. He started with an old shed that was of
little value. With a few dollars’ worth of second-hand lumber
he made it into a very good substitute for a high-priced poultry
house. The completed building is about 20 feet deep, with
an open:front scratching shed to the south, and windows
above where the scratching shed joins the main building to
let sunlight on to the roosts. The outside of the building
was covered with brown building paper and painted with tar
paint. The completed house is good for several years, and
is as warm and comfortable as any laying hen could ask for.
A month or two of winter eggs will pay the entire cost.
Dirt Floor O. K.
The house is large enough for 100 hens, which is about
the size of the winter laying flock. It has.a dirt floor, which
is as good as any, Chester says, if it is kept dry. A trench
around the outside of the house carries away the surface water.
The floor is kept well bedded with dry straw. The front of
the house is open, covered only with wire netting. “It might
be an advantage to have curtains to let down in zero weather,”
Chester says. “I haven’t felt the need of them yet, however.
There are no side or rear openings, so there is never any
draft, and in the rear, where the fowls roost, it is always warm.”
The Bill of Fare
Mrs. Winsor uses a prepared dry mash for her laying
hens, and a prepared chick feed for the small chickens. The
rest of the ration is home-grown feed—skim milk, corn, wheat,
with sprouted oats and mangels for green feed.
“One of the biggest elements of success in the poultry
business is a healthy flock.” says Mrs. Winsor. “Proper care
and feeding, and a poultry house that is free from drafts and
vermin, are necessary to good health. I have a neighbor whose
poultry crop is almost a failure this year in spite of good care.
The trouble is low vitality caused by a siege of roup in the
breeding flock last winter. She would have been money ahead
if she had sold the whole flock last spring and bought baby
chicks or hatching eggs.”
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Mrs. Winsor says there is no reason why any other
tenant farmer’s wife cannot do as well with poultry as she
has done. Allit takes is the knowledge of a few fundamental
facts about care and feeding, plus a willingness to put that
knowledge into practice, plus a hubby willing to spend a little
spare time fixing up a poultry house. And if the farm woman
can show a cash income from her flock like that secured by
Mrs. Winsor, what husband wouldn’t be willing to help her
now and then?
Hens Helping to Pay for Farm
AYING for a 240-acre Illinois farm is something of an
undertaking. Ray Coop of Kendall county, Ill., realized
that when he moved to his new farm the first of March, 1921.
But he is cheered by the thought that he won’t have to do
the job alone. Mrs. Coop is one of the best poultry raisers
in all Northern Illinois, and she and her chickens are doing
effective work in helping pay for the farm.
The hens seem to realize their responsibility, too, for
they celebrated their first day on the new farm last spring
by laying 56 eggs. When you stop to consider that there
were only 99 of them, and that they had been moved several
miles over rough roads, you will have to admit that they
started out the new season with a pretty fair day’s work.
Celebrating New Year’s
The year’s work really started on New Year’s day, how-
ever, when Mrs. Coop. put into effect her resolution to make
1921 a record-breaking poultry year by setting her incubator.
The cockerels from that hatch sold as broilers in April at
72 cents a pound. They paid over $2 a bushel for the corn
they ate, according to Mrs. Coop.
When I visited Mrs. Coop Oct. 26, 1921, she had already
sold over $600 worth of poultry that year and had 50 more
cockerels shut up ready for market. And that is saying
nothing about the eggs. The egg checks for January and
February alone came to $150. So it looks as if Mrs. Coop
would make good her resolution and exceed her 1920 record
of $1,000 from her poultry flock.
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A Good Business Woman
A good deal of Mrs. Coop’s success is due to the fact that
she is a good business woman as well as a good poultry raiser.
She believes in having something to sell when prices are
good. That is why she raises so many early broilers. When
eggs went down to 18 cents last spring she stopped selling
and set her incubator, selling the eggs as baby chicks. A
little later she went to Joliet and made a contract with a large
restaurant, which netted her a price at times as high as 15
cents above the market.
Her main reliance, however, aside from the early broilers,
is winter eggs. She has 150 White Wyandotte pullets about
ready to get under way for a heavy winter’s work.
They have a deep poultry house that gives them plenty
of room for exercise. The front part is open to let in the fresh
air. A small yard will be built on the south side so that they
can get outside when the weather is good.
The dry mash, which is fed in self-feeders, is bought ready
made. Everything else is raised on the farm. The hens have
plenty of skim milk, and this, by the way, is a standard feed
for most of the successful poultry flocks in Grundy county.
Instead of giving her hens milk to drink, however, Mrs. Coop
waits until it is sour and thick before feeding it.
The scratch feed consists of wheat and cracked corn.
Sprouted oats furnish the green feed that the hens need to
keep them in good laying condition.
Mrs. Coop is an expert poultry culler, and she keeps the
loafer hens sorted out of the laying flock.
“T love my hens and enjoy nothing so much as taking care
of them,” says Mrs. Coop enthusiastically, and that enthusiasm
is one of the secrets of her success.
But then, who wouldn’t be enthusiastic over a flock of hens
that is doing so much toward paying for the farm?
Hens Help Pay the Bills
ERNE ANDERSON of Grundy county, Ill., has eaten
three square meals a day all summer. He hasn’t had to
go in debt, either, thanks to his flock of hens and his two
Hampshire sows and his four cows.
“T didn’t know how IJ was going to make it in October,
with the hens molting and the cows dry,” he told me one
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day the latter part of that month. “But the pullets are begin-
ning to lay now and the cows are coming in, so it looks like
a pretty good winter.”
Verne is farming 80 acres, which doesn’t raise enough corn
and oats to make much of an income these days. But when
you feed that corn and oats to chickens and pigs you have
another story.
“Chickens and eggs and butter money came in steadily
all summer,” Verne says, “and it was surely a big help. A
few hogs now and then helped out, too. I didn’t have enough
of them, but I’m going to have more next year.”
Anderson sold 226 dozen eggs from his flock of 110 white
Wyandotte hens from Jan. 1 to Apr. 9. During that period
he used 18 dozen in the incubator, besides eating unrecorded
dozens. The price of these eggs ranged from 65 cents down
to 18, most of them bringing 40 to 45 cents.
The Hen’s Menu
The following is the daily menu of Anderson’s flock of
100 or so laying hens: Eight pounds corn, five pounds oats,
three pounds middlings, three pounds bran, and 114 pounds
tankage. The middlings, bran and tankage are mixed together
to form a dry mash. The oats are fed whole and the corn
cracked; both are fed in the straw so the hens have to work
to get them.
“T like tankage for laying hens,” Anderson says. “It is
just as good as the more expensive beef scrap, and supplies
the protein and animal matter that the hens need. Some
farmers rely on skim milk instead of tankage, but my expe-
rience is that milk will not take the place of tankage. I feed
some skim milk—from 3 to 314 gallons a day—but even then
it pays to feed tankage too.
“You will notice that my ration is made up of cheap feeds,
mostly produced at home, so my feed bill is small. I don’t
even buy my middlings and bran, but get it from the mill
when I get my winter’s flour ground. J mix my mash feed
very carefully by weight. I used to do it by guess and found
it didn’t pay.
Anderson has a modern poultry house 20 by 20 feet, built
according to plans furnished by the farm bureau. “This
poultry house alone has much more than paid my farm bureau
dues,” he says.
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Verne Anderson’s poultry house
Comfortable Winter Quarters
The house is the half monitor type. The scratching shed
on the south has an open front. Anderson has curtains to
cover this opening but never uses them. ‘You can’t have
too much fresh air if you get it without a draft,” he says.
Above the scratching shed, on the south side of the main
part of the building, are windows which let sunlight in on the
roosts, and which can be opened for additional ventilation.
The roosts extend across the back part of the house where
there is never any draft. Roosts and nests are movable and
can be taken out for cleaning and disinfection. Just under
the roosts are dropping boards. The droppings can be easily
scraped off into a wheelbarrow with a hoe, and the space
underneath gives that much more room for the fowls to
move around when they are shut in in bad weather.
The floor of the house is made of hollow building tile—
seconds — laid flat and painted on top with a thin coat of
cement. This makes a relatively cheap floor, rat proof, dry
and easy to clean.
The materials for the house cost about $200. Anderson
did the work of putting it up himself.
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Keep the Hens Working
“No one can produce winter eggs without the right kind
of a poultry house,” says Anderson. “A house like mine is
just right for 100 laying hens. They are comfortable all
winter, and it is little work to take care of them. Such a
house will soon pay for itself. I never could see the idea
of keeping a flodk of hens doing nothing all winter when eggs
are at the highest price of the year. Proper shelter, a little
care, and the right kind of feed, will keep them working at
a profit all winter.”
One big advantage of poultry on the farm, according to
Anderson, is that it provides a steady source of income. With
poultry and butter money coming in every month it isn’t
necessary to go in debt for running expenses.
“Poultry properly taken care of is much more than a side
issue,’ he says. “It ought to be much more widely appreciated
as a substantial source of farm income. If it were, there
wouldn’t be so many farmers complaining about hard times.
A flock of good hens is the best hard times friend a man
ever had.
Poultry Pays the Rent.
F I had a fine poultry house and modern equipment I could
make money out of poultry, too.
How many times have you heard that remark? But wish-
ing will never make the farm flock pay. If you live on a rented
farm, that is all the more reason why you should make poultry
add substantially to the farm income, for you need the money
even more than the man who owns his farm and doesn’t have
to pay rent.
Let’s Go Anyway
No equipment?
Well, you remember the story of the railway superintend-
ent who was on the way to an important meeting when
he was stopped by a washout. He wired the president:
“Washout on line. Can’t come.”
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And the president wired back: “Buy a new shirt and
come anyway.”
So let’s go anyway, whether we have everything just as
we would like or not.
That’s what Mr. and Mrs. G. E. Holoch of Ford county,
Ill., did last year, and their cash income from poultry was
$802.84. They live on a rented farm, too.
“We do not have anything very up-to-date, but we make:
the best of what we have,” says Holoch. “We felt that we
couldn’t afford to sit around and wait until we have everything
just the way we want it before trying to make money from
our poultry.”
So they went at it, and made enough from the poultry to
pay the rent last year.
How the Hens Are Fed
The Holochs raise a laying strain of White Wyandottes.
For breakfast the hens get a hot mash composed of skim-
milk and water, half and half, thickened with bran and alfalfa
meal, with a pint of tankage added for each 100 hens. Dry
oats are fed in the litter for a morning scratch feed, and ear
corn is fed at night. Oyster shell and bran are kept in self-
feeders all the time, and the water fountains are supplied
with warm water.
They begin to set the incubator and hens the first of
March. Last spring the egg market was not very satisfactory
so after they had enough chicks for their own use, they hatched
1,200 for the neighbors.
The baby chicks brought $180, other poultry $364.88, and
eggs $257.96, making a total of $802.84. The cash outlay for
the year was not over $50. The feed, of course, was raised
on the farm. It is certain, says Mrs. Holoch, that the grain
fed to the poultry brought much greater returns than that
marketed in any other way.
She says, too, that they are going to raise more poultry than
ever this year, as they are convinced that there is nothing on
the farm that pays better.
The poultry house is an old building, 12x30. In order to
provide more light to supplement the four small windows they
cut an opening three by six feet in the south side and covered it
with a muslin curtain. This curtain provides ventilation, and
when removed on sunshiny days, lets in lots of sunlight.
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Feeding the Chicks
Mrs. Holoch’s baby chick feed is composed of bread crumbs,
ground corn and bran, mixed with sour milk and a little soda
and salt and baked. They also get grit, and sour milk and
fresh water to drink. They are fed nothing until they are 48
hours old.
Nothing so very difficult about that, is there? Then why
not try it on your farm, and give the hens a chance to pay your
' rent for you?
How One Farm Woman Markets Poultry
T IS necessary to use all the intelligence we have to market
what we have to sell to the best advantage, says Mrs. W. A.
McKeever, Ford county, Illinois. This applies especially to
sidelines such as extra produce, butter, eggs, and poultry. A
dollar or two here or there means more than it did when prices
were more nearly fair to the farmer. The easiest way to sell
most things is to exchange them for groceries or sell to local
buyers, but it does not bring in the most money.
The poultry buyer is not just joy riding in his old Ford, nor
is he gathering up chickens simply to accommodate his cus-
tomers. He makes his living off the the profit he makes buying
and selling. He seldom pays half the Chicago price for old
cocks, nor within from five to 10 cents of the price on other
stock. Why not ship direct to a reliable firm and make from
two to five dollars more on a coop? If you do not know any
reliable firms, ask your farm bureau to recommend one to you.
If you raise purebred stock, there is little need to sell any-
thing except culls on the market. There is a good steady de-
mand for good quality breeding stock at a nice margin of profit
above market price. The market is always close at hand
through advertising. Some think it costs too much to ad-
vertise. If it did not pay why would so many millions be spent
onit every year? It always pays if you know how to fit your ad
to your goods. The local paper is an inexpensive medium but
it is only suitable for handling a small number because of its
limited circulation. For a considerable number, 20 or more,
it’s hard to beat a good general farm paper with a strong poul-
try department.
I usually write out all that seems necessary for describing
my stuff and then condense it carefully. Some start out “For
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PRAIRIE FARMER’S POULTRY BOOK
Sale.” I think that is unnecessary. No one would think you
were telling the. world what you had, just to pass out infor-
mation. Others use the terms “Full Blood,” or worse yet
“Thoroughbred,” meaning “Purebred.” It is not even neces-
sary to pay for saying “Purebred.” No one advertises scrub or
grade poultry.
“Satisfaction Guaranteed” is another catch word that means
little. Ifa customer is really dissatisfied, it is best to refund
purchase price without argument. That’s the way big mail
order houses do, and it is their best advertising point. One
disgruntled woman can do a lot of talking. I know for I have
done it myself. When a certain commission firm gave me 25
pounds shrink on one coop of chickens, I certainly did not keep
the news to myself, and I always think that my customers may
be able to talk as much and as fast as I can. Of course no one
ought to expect a bird that will win sweepstakes at the Na-
tional Poultry Show for $5 but it is just as well not to promise
perfection. I always prefer to send something just a little
better than what is expected, if I can.
Going back to writing the advertisement it seéms better to
put a price in the first ad. I have tried both ways, and I know
that an ad with a price in it gets more business. It scares off
those who would not pay your price anyway, and saves the
trouble and expense of answering their letters. Finally, a
good clear letter often helps to finish what the advertising’
starts. A typewritten letter is preferable, and a letterhead also
adds to the appearance of a letter. Most of your customers
have only your letter to judge you and your stuff by, and the
more businesslike it appears, the better impression it will make.
Timeliness is important in advertising. Most people are
not ready to buy breeding stock, except hens or pullets, before
Christmas, though there are always some forehanded enough
to buy early in the winter so as to get first choice. The sharpest
demand for cockerels and turkey toms comes in February, but
I usually start to advertise after Christmas if I have many to
sell. The heaviest demand for hatching eggs is in April, though
some orders will come in March and some as late as May.
Turkey eggs are in demand in May and early June.
Intelligent marketing through careful, consistent advertis-
ing undoubtedly pays even when poultry is only kept as a side-
line, as it is on most Corn Belt farms. While the farmer’s wife
with her small flock of farm-bred, range-grown, chickens can-
not compete with the professional fancier, she can have the
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satisfaction that comes through owning a nice flock, and have
a few more dollars for Christmas, if she is willing to go to the
extra trouble of selling her surplus good stock for breeding
stock, instead of handing it over to the itinerant buyer. She
cannot do it without some kind of advertising, and the right
kind is by far the cheapest. Hiding your light under a bushel
does not pay in these strenuous days.
Time Switch for Henhouse
ERE is a simple device for turning on electric lights in the
poultry house in the morning, so as to get the hens to
work early. Whenever the alarm goes off, the winding stem
or key for the alarm -begins to revolve and a string wrapped
around this key or around a spool fastened to it will exert quite
a strong pull, quite enough to operate the trigger which allows
the knife switch to be pulled into place. In fact, the alarm
should be wound only a turn or two so that too strong a pull
D-244, Alara Clock Time Switch.
will not be developed and alarm run too long. The arrange-
ment is shown in the diagram (D-244), S being the single-
blade knife switch which turns on the feeding pen lights, T is
the toggle trigger which holds the switch open, W the weight
or spring which closes the switch, and K the alarm winding
key with a string which pulls on the trigger when the alarm
goes off. A trigger and weight are necessary, as the switch
contacts will be burned unless the switch is closed quickly.
The trigger should be of the toggle type; that will support the
weight easily as long as it is straight, but which will double
down whenever a small side pull is applied near the middle.
Such a toggle could be made out of an ordinary folding foot
rule.
[240]
Index
Advertising poultry............ 157
Baby chicks, care of........... 148
feeding” cvsidiee sec v4 emits 39-46
BEGEGING ssssccdis auciesescvasnndatjectio rs 95
female, selecting............. 110
foundation stock, selecting....107
laws: Ofe<c.3 34 sksceekes ooeeet od 97
male, selecting............... 107
stock, conditioning........... 111
marketing: 0 <isecscw seen
mating ......
varieties of
cross breeding ............ 100
in breeding ............... 100
line breeding ............. 100
line breeding chart ...... 104
mongrel breeding ........ 100
Breeds
Aleysbury duck ............ 92
Barred Plymouth Rock ...... 86
Black Langshan ........... 90
Bourbon Red turkey ........ 93
Bronze turkey ............... 93
Buff Orpington ..... eoulatetats 89
Camping: 2o3 95 ciiaacowes wees 91
Emden goose ............+6- 93
Gray Toulouse goose ....... 92
how to select
key £0. scasacissas%
Light Brahma
Mottled Ancona ........... a OF
OVIGIN OF sid Qerieti-g Sateen 86
Pekin: duck sce cudivesaneaeas 92
Rhode Island Red ........... 89
Standard of Perfection .... 82
WALWE Of: <5 edecietieiseeen eucie poeta 86
which is best? ............ 79
White Plymouth Rock .... 87
White Holland turkey...... 94
White eee Ses aaa 88
Brooding .........+-++.- 137-147
articifial stesiis ee sirsceraons 147
fuleS:Of: vista wceeae ee nes 151
Caponizing ................ 56-58
Gling sceesres-s aa orasoed ee 112-118
score card for ............. 118
Dressing fowls .....,...... 54-55
SCLEAMING oes cinesnesiea sees eevee 55
dry plucking ............... 55
killing: wscecdeceeds beseives 54
PACKING. 36 ohare aecvalrrsscaae sys 55
PUMPING sea.c aeeda dis wets 55
SCaldINg® dias asad sess esate 55
Digestion: ne sescs 4s aeeakouye 29
Diseases, causes and treatment ..
saabdes lack SR. O8 yhastNe ae Roe acane 178-193
diagnosing .............. 165-175
Key €0! s-cck sn chasttwetnn 176-177-178
preventing ................ 163
remedies for .............. 166
Disinfectants ................ 168
Duck Raising ............... 205
breeds: Of gine sa 4 sewexes Weta 92
Eggs, abnormal .............. 63
COlOF Of: 02 oe s-ndceney verses 66
composition of .............. 67
determining fertility of .... 62
fertility and fertilization .... 61
for hatching .......... 138-139
gathering ...............0006 72
Srading eevee vasaags cranes 70
how formed ................. 59
incubating .................. 65
laying contests .............. 212
losses Of acaicwnnese. esses 72
Marketing anechncpawces mane wntts
. 160-153-154-155-217-220
origin Oo ce eisadie: 58-59
PRESEPVINE® cnc an cunswessees 71
SOX OL enieidaneare cdaccad ae melas 62
structure: Of aise weesedwecvs 60
SIZE Of veex vas wrncis avers ans 65
specific gravity ............. 65
shape of ......-......ee eens 67
SOHNE cea Suen eedscawincanen 71
tESHNG seve seaman ess wees ees 73
weight (Of ycsceeesesssaa seuss 65
Electric lights in poultry house227
EURERCISE! ns accieiccraeniencid-c-atewweeore 8
Factors of success with poultry. .2
Farm experience with poultry
Esgar, W. J
Winsor, Chester ............. 230
INDEX
Coop, Mrs. Ray............ 232 DEVE. td aisin slat netoenns iA N Atala neat 2)
Anderson, Verne ........... 233 Salt ie scad ea wees eee 23
Holoehy: (Gis Be ceiaie <2 donee cass 236 supplementary .............-- 35
McKeever, Mrs. W. A. .... 243 PATI ARES 2. suk cucliccs hole waaree ra cutee 22
Feathers: ie cacacvarse iar c ace eacare 74 WHEAT de aamdie ceca ean a eee 20
USES: OF cavsunnasid es cucengine ats 76 Fowl, circulatory system ....... 12
preparing for market ...... 76 digestive system ............ 13
MOITING eserves wnat eee 75 external parts of ........... Z
Feeding baby chicks ........ 39-46 nervous system .............. 17
breeding stock ............ 41-50 Othef OF GANS) os oes occa ne nentivns 17
duting molt scssicwysaecacas 41-50 reproductive system ........ 17
for egg production ........ 40-48 respiratory system ........... 11
for market: +2: s.ssss4428 41-51 Skeleton: Of sgcc8252%s008 Seis 9
methods: wecscnsee cabs tees es 38 ~
Principles: Of ooo asc s 34 Germicides .................. 168
Feeds Goose raising ................ 206
alfalfa meal ................ 24 breeds: :Of- ~enicwey ae eeeadie'es > 92
ASN deny ay aeerkers sue seems 23-36 Guinea raising ............... 209
barley sca wotemenscut ede veis 21
DeCtsh techn em ten hak conc ets h ue 24 THCubation: —caceseesuycsen ios 137
DONE: Sansa gece acne rtacavseasesue 24 ATLINCIAL occu aiels wi nseustecarieses 144
DEAT a cetsses vee tpsechoncten ar tucnmndeciend 21 chicks dying in shell ........ 146
buckwheat ................ 21 cripples, cause of ........... 146
charcoal! san Meadesceds reas 23 how chick hatches .......... 140
composition of .......... 30-45 Matutall: | cjscur meme wede sree so 142
albumin .................. 31 selecting eggs for ... 137-138-139
SED eke eens A yligslas 32 Insects, damage from in U. S. . 1
carbohydrates ............. 31
crude fiber ................ 31 Losses in poultry raising ...... 4
Tab cscsisteniaonieaee ayes ¢5 32
Proteii. cwranniccetvecins 31. Marketing
vitamines ...............0.. 32 baby chicks ............. 156-226
condimental .............. 25-26 broilers: ss scgdes 4 evieiennks 156
cayenne pepper ........... 25 CADONS! <i caunseniiee ed oSn5 156
SINGEL siomccicwoaeeeeaueane 26 CUS? sire tass2ih cnnegntia ein aed 156
IRON aeedieeas acorns cannes 25 dressed poultry ............ 227
Mustard “acesavecesszsesdas 26 early fries ........... 227-155
ONIONS. Keakas avis eta cde 26 CPO isa. arenas LSE A teh a acta 160
QUININE: sic actecaaceanes 25 direct to consumers. 153-160-223
venetian red .............. 25 for hatching ......... 160-225
CORN: saseigen sean: carereranecokenvarnacuapats 20 how to ship .............. 155
CONN ined viveansveiels vers: 6% 22 to commission houses ......
fish: -SECap! wes Hi asaaennteteda oth Ae RR dy 153-154-160-222
QVC save eee seeks deengeeaaws 24 to hatcheries .............. 225
NIE wo tiaye. aur seats aSievonenentemectrnve ba 35 to local dealers ...... 153-160
how much? .................. 37 experience in .............. 220)
HOW? SEE. as suivernaian ces ae 28 grades of market eggs .... 158
linséed. meal, is nc. secaay aa dies 22 live poultry .................226
MAN GEIS’ cas crcennvernnes wanes 24 ~~ purebreds . ...... 157-156-243-226
meat SCrapi sccanc cic ccmense 22 TOASTERS: ss heen ts neteenets oo 156
MUA CGS coos casa .aveoteoroceteceenyit 2 when are prices highest?....217
Me .craaet altane neta Moen 22-36 Market poultry types of........ 56
tL EE ssccnsoeig oa tae weieacelege 21 broilers ..... Foie saoyarene pean Maas 56
milo maize ........ sia te acca 21 GAPOMS) sniccetornai wacraev canes 56
Oats: x sanchahnenpriielete gacniva Sonconats 20 FOAStENS: Ss vs.s i dataset bewes 56
oats, ground .............. 22 SQUADS. 3 i64 Kerd Koes aonsaes a arclere 56
QUANEY Of) in scccccweth ween 37. Mating farm flock ............ 119
[242]
INDEX
Parasites. vacant eencavetecads 169 JUCRING oo. Skis <a saunas 210
ACKER a: cts dseeuvelnieeines 169 TOES sti Savio sents octes5.08 131
WCE cess Saertrosarsiacbane seecisaeeases 170 MAaNULe congener swersensats 77
ATNIEES® 255s syieticerea vicsavess iain 170-171 publications ..............-45 212
WOES: euteuwore ney age seousdnts 172 SChOOIS: 55 s2ctencdvaet sees ges 212
Pests: - ved keasaepmaentn capes 172 StALISHICS: ijesiceis eda acetone 6
CALS A, dadernawe Siaauataacasant st 172 + Purebreds, value of .......... 79
CROWS cis canenaegamadoeonds 174 :
GOSS! se ssasiiiiieceosasaas yes 173. Range of poultry prices ...... 218
hawks? sea susan bees is es 174 Ration balanced ............. 35
ORS: sciccas yite RSeeieantere ses 173 constructing a ............. 42
TALS: cohen ccc aticmatireniee RG agers 173 during molting ............ 50
SKUNKS ~ {aise overs ghee ew ee 173 FAttening caneimevewd was ane 51
SPALHOWS) s0% desaaneraee eek 174 for breeding stock ........ 41-50
weasels: ss00-cse eves sauiieuais 173 fOr CRES wiawwwsg eres vena 48
Poultry, accounts ........ 194-204 for growing chicks .... 39-46-47
associations ..............6. 212 nutritive ratio of.......... 43
brood coops ...........e00ee 134 Reproduction, science of ...... 96
calendar cies oa veweees 213
CQUIDMENt scans riasarnaiens 136 Sitting hens, care of ..... 142-143
houses .................... 122 Strains of poultry ............ 78
COLONY: davidnwauwiesancece 134
essentials: sc nviies ewes ay 122 Tonite? sscsccnaoveceeer sade 26-27
feed rooms ...........4. 135 Trap nesting ................ 110
for brooder ............. 133 Turkey raising ............... 207
for incubator ............. 132 breeds: Of cpcaisacemacien wigs tees 93
how to build ............. 127 5
types Of siisiinsseeseg saan 126 ©Varieties of poultry ............ 78
[243]
Ask William Osburn
William Osburn, author of this book, writes
for Prairie Farmer every week. He answers
questions about poultry feeding, breeding and
care for Prairie Farmer readers. If you area
Prairie Farmer reader you can ask Mr. Osburn
questions.
Osburn’s Poultry Department in Prairie Farm-
er is only one of many things you want to
read in Prairie Farmer every week. The Bus-
iness and Markets page contains a report of
the poultry and egg market so that you may
know how the prices you receive compare
with Chicago market prices.
Frequent articles on what other poultry raisers are
doing are full of suggestions for you.
If you are not a subscriber send your order now. Tell
your friends about William Osburn and his practical
way of keeping chickens. Ask them to subscribe for
Prairie Farmer with you.
Subscription rates: 1 year for $1.00; 3 years for $2.00;
5 years for $3:00.
Prairie Farmer
811 Brooks Building Chicago, Illinois
Selling Your Surplus Poultry
isn’t much of a job if you know just where
the buyers are and then talk tothem. Take
the case of Ezra Phillips of Ewing, Il. He
has a large flock with lots of surplus stock
and eggs to sell but that doesn’t worry him.
He has found that Prairie Farmer reaches
the people who need his surplus. Here’s
what he writes:
“In one season I shipped for hatching, 6,500 eggs.
90% of this business came from Prairie Farmer.
For the last two years I have not advertised in any
other paper because Prairie Farmer sells all my sur-
plus stock. My advice to poultrymen is this:—if you
want to sell all your surplus stock at the best price
and least expense—advertise in Prairie Farmer.
You can benefit by Phillips’ experience. When
you have surplus poultry to sell let Prairie Farmer
readers know about it.
Write now for our special poultry advertising rates.
Address
PRAIRIE FARMER
BURRIDGE D. BUTLER, Publisher
811 Brooks Building Chicago, Illinois
A, Here Is Another
=| Prairie Farmer Book
Frank Mann’s Soil Book is a
brother of Prairie Farmer’s
Poultry Book. The Soil Book
is just as practical on soils and
crops as William Osburn’s book is on
poultry. It is similar in binding, large
type, full of pictures.
Frank Mann has helped thousands of farm-
ers increase their crop yields. On his own
farm he increased his corn 30 bushels, his oats
40 bushels and his wheat 25 bushels per acre
as an average of the last eight years. Others
are following his methods and getting big
crops, too.
In the first 88 pages Frank Mann tells
how he makes his soil more productive. In the
last 91 pages he tells how he selects crops,
handles them, harvests them to get big yields.
Frank Mann’s Soil Book is the story of how
one man won the name
of “the best farmer in /
Illinois.” Send for your ie Pr ..
copy now. $1.00 postpaid. M
Frank Mann
Prairie Farmer’s Book Bureau
811 Brooks Bldg. Chicago, Illinois
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