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THE ,
COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY
OF NORTH AMERICA

J. C. FOLGER

Assistant Secretary
International Apple Shippers’ Association
AND

S. M. THOMSON

Formerly Fruit Crop Specialist, United States
Department of Agriculture

IQew Pork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1921

@
S3BS65

oP. 2

(rx gi %
OoPyRIcHT, 1921,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

Set up and electrotyped. Published February, x92.

EDWARD H. THOMSON

WHOSE VISION, ENCOURAGEMENT AND WISE COUNSEL
HAVE BEEN OF THE GREATEST AID IN THE
PREPARATION OF THIS WORK
THE AUTHORS
INSCRIBE THE BOOK

PREFACE

In collecting material for this work, the authors have
visited practically every important apple-growing county
in the United States; first in connection with a special
investigation of the cost of producing apples in important
regions, conducted by the Office of Farm Management,
United States Department of Agriculture; and later as
Fruit Crop Specialists engaged in organizing a system
for estimating important fruit crops and particularly
_ the commercial apple crop of the United States. The au-
thors were impressed with a need of this kind of book, as the
many published works on the apple have not dealt system-
atically with the commercial phase of apple-growing which
only recently has become a well defined industry entirely
separate from the home orchard. The whole subject of
propagation has been omitted, as this is now well treated
in separate books. The apple is approached in this book
from the point of view of commerce.

In the preparation of this work, credit is due to Roy E.
Marshall and Fred R. Motz of the Virginia Station for
aid in the chapter on pruning; to Prof. W. H. Chandler
of Ithaca, New York, for his advice and suggestions; to
E. H. Siegler and W. V. Cruess, and to many others
both in the Federal Department of Agriculture and the va-

rious state schools of agriculture and experiment stations.
vii :

Preface

For the Canadian material, the authors are indebted to Mr.
C. W. Baxter, and for the Australian and New Zealand
material, to Mr. 8. P. Vaughn of Tasmania, P. Val Kerr
of Victoria, and R. A. Clayton of New Zealand.

Tue AUTHORS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

ImprorTANCE AND History or tHe APPLE INDUSTRY .

Decline of farm orchards . ‘
Centralized plantings in favored regions
Outlook for the apple industry
Favorable factors . . .
Increase in population
Movement to the city :
Development of foreign market
Education and advertising .
Transportation
Distribution F
Improved cultural ‘guethuda ‘ ;
Increase in the use of by-products .
Future production
Unfavorable factors
Increased commercial ens
Poor outlook for unfavored region .
Danger from boom development
Competition with citrus fruit .

Conclusions .
History of commercial epple-growing in the ‘United
States < 2 z
Scientific claastfration Bh ie. ts -

CHAPTER II _—-

Leapina Appts KeEcions or THe Unirep States .

Western New York. . .... «+ =s-

Hudson Valley . . . - + «© © «© «© «
ix

Contents

New England Baldwin belt . . . . .
The Champlain district bie
New Jersey . . . . . se
Delaware .

Shenandoah- Cumbetland district,

Piedmont district of Virginia

Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia ‘and
Virginia és je A. 4G

Mountain region of North Onreling :

Mountain region of Georgia

Ohio :

Southern Ohio Remo Beauty disiriet, Paar:

Minor regions in Ohio a> cota oer Ag
Kentucky . ; ge Bad AB ee CP oe
Michigan. . . . . 2. 1 se ee we
Illinois oe

Southern Wknois early apple resion :

Mississippi Valley region of Illinois
Southeastern Illinois . 2G

Ozark region . F

Missouri River region . .

Arkansas ia of Kansas

Colorado

New Mexico . ee ee ey ee ee ee
Utah. 2 2 ws ee Je le ee AS
Montana dg FBS Me, 2 . xB toy on oe
Washington

Yakima alice 4 a
Wenatchee North Central Washington district
Spokane district
Walla Walla district
Oregon ;
Hood Rives Valley
Rogue River Valley . . . .
Other apple districts in pores ‘
Idaho . j
Payette district:
Boise Valley

eo.
.

Contents xi
PAGES
Twin Falls . . . .. . 15
Lewiston section : iy 15
California st ca. 76-79
Watsonville distrivt ‘8 8 %6-77
- Sebastopol apple district . 78
Yucaipa section 78-79
Wisconsin 79-80
Minnesota ‘ 80
Early apple vesions Dents 80-84
New York and New England 81
New Jersey 81-82
Delaware. . 82
Southern and Middle ‘Atlantic tiated ; 83
East North Central states 83
Southern Illinois 83
California . . . . . .. « 83-84
CHAPTER III
CommerciaL APPLE Propuction iv CanapAa, AUSTRALIA
anp New ZEALAND . 85-99
Canada 85-95
Nova Scotia ; . 86-88
Prince Edward Island ‘and New “Brunswick . 88-89
Quebec 89
Ontario 90-92
British Columbia BW ok. 8 92-95
Australia and New Zealand . . . .. . . 95-99
CHAPTER IV
Looatrry ann Sire ror THE Commercian OrcHarp . . 100-132
Choosing the locality ue al ok - 100-132
Western New York .. . - 100-101
Hudson Valley . a4 - 101-102
Champlain district ae ~ 102-103
New England .. . ee 103
New Jersey-Delaware Peninsula BE ee a's 104

xii Contents —

PAGES
Shenandoah-Cumberland region . . . ~ 104-105
Piedmont region of Virginia . . . . ~ 105-106
Southern Ohio Rome Beauty section. . . 106
Western een wee ew ew we + 106-107
Tilinois . . pan Set, Beet Mik! St Se 8 a 107
Ozark region . . . oe ee ew ee 107-108
Missouri River resin ~ oe ew ew ee) 6 108-109
Western Slope of Colorado. . . .. . 109
Utah. . . . 2 oe ee eh) 109-110
Idaho wat we atl a i ae Se Oa Oe Se os, SLOSS
Washington. . . ..... . © © ALL-112
Montana Pe ee ee ee 112
Oregon . .~. «© «© «© «© «© «© © « « 142-113
California . . . . . . . . «© « « 113-115

New Mexico .~ gt get Santas be 115
Choosing the site for a = aise » oe « « ~ 116-182
Raw versus planted land. . .... . 116
Time to buy . . .. . .« «© © «© «© = 117
Syndicate projects. . . . . . . . «. 417-118
Yields and varieties . . . . .... 118

Proximity to market . . . . . . . . 118-119
Distance from shipping station. . . . . 119-120
Bearing age of trees. . . . . . . . 120-122

Diseases and insect pests. . . . . « « 122-123
Climatic influences . . . . . . « « 123-125
Size of farm . . . . . . s © Se 195-126
Necessary capital . . . . . . . . « 126-128
Labor conditions . . . . . . . © «© 128-129
Social conditions . . . . . .. .e . 129
Regional ae as: SR: teak: can tees “O28 130
Soil . .. Bo a he ae we Gp BO=1389
CHAPTER V

Tue Farm-ManaceMent Puases or AppLe-Growina . 133-143

Farm organization in relation to the orchard . . 183-140
Systems of tenantry . .. . .*. . . . 140-148

Contents

CHAPTER VI

EstaBLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD .

Nursery stock

Systems of planting
Square system .
Hexagonal system .
Quincunx system

Planting distances .

Time to plant

Setting trees .

Heading trees a

Use of fillers and intemeropa é

CHAPTER VII

f
Cuutivation oF THE ORCHARD .

Clean cultivation
Sod- or grass-mulch

Clean cultivation with cover- crops :

Cover-crops

Value of cultivation and methods
Implements :

The tractor in oe epple grohard .
Truck . .

CHAPTER VIII

IRRIGATION . we

Choosing an ‘nrivated district .
Irrigating the orchard .
Quantity of water to supply .
Time to irrigate orchards .
Number of applications
Methods of irrigation

xiii

PAGES

. 144-154
. 145-147
. 147-150
. 148-149
. 149-150

150

. 150-151

151

151-152
. 152-153
. 153-154

. 155-171
. 156-157
. 157-158
. 159-160
. 160-162
. 162-165

165

~ 165-171

171

. 172-185
. 177-180
. 181-183
. 181-182

182

| 182-183
| 483-185

xiv Contents

CHAPTER IX

PAGES
FErtTILizINg THE COMMERCIAL APPLE OrncHARD . . . 186-205

Present practices in fertilizing . . . . . . 187-188.

Value of stable manure . ... . . . « 188-189
‘Experiments with fertilizers . . . . 189-198

Research work of Kraus and Kraybill . . . 189-191

Experiments in Pennsylvania . . . . . 191-195

Nitrate experiments by Lewis . . . . . 195-198
Amount of fertilizer toa tree. . . . . . ~- 198-199
Needs of irrigated regions. . . . . . . . 199-200
Nitrate of soda . . So cee cia 1 SP ey 200
Methods of applying Partilizera 2 oe ee) e) . 200-202
Pruning with reference to fertilizing . . . .. 202
Fertilizer tests . . . 202-203

General summary and specific veeimmendations . 204-205

CHAPTER X
Diseases AND Pests or THE APPLE AND THER Conrron 206-248
Important insect enemies of the apple. . . . 206-216
| Theeodlin-moth . ..... . . . 206-210

San José scale . . . . . we he) 20-211
Oyster-shell scale . . . 1. we eel 211

Apple aphids . . . . . . . . . ) . 211-218

\ Plum eureulio . . 2... we eee 213
‘Apple red bugs. . . iD fon Verh reic ott, 214

| Apple-tree tenteaatonpillar ees ae ee ee 214
Round-headed auplonyres borer . . . .) . 214-915
Cutworms . . Be He, de: OWN caer Onto 215
‘Bud-moth .. S Gh ch wa sa. GL oe 215
The fruit-tree leaf-roller oe ew ew ew ew 215-2916
Important apple diseases . . . . we. 216-223
Applescab . . . 2. 1. ww ee 216-217
Apple-blotch . A stele vats ey, Seo 217
Sooty-blotch. and Ay-speck Be: dé Gi a cs, 217
Cedar-rust . . et: oH: ak: ten, west, Op 218

_ Bitter-rot 2. 2 2. 2. . 1. ee 6 218-219

Contents

Blister-canker . . . . .
-Collar-rot oe qlee ee “#5
Fire-blight . . . . ..
Apple rosette . . . 1. 1.
Baldwin-spot
Animal pests of the apple .
Meadow mice
Pine mice
Control of mice ‘by. poisoning
Spraying . we Man ae oe
Cost of Sicacipe
Spray equipment
Hired sprayers . to
Regional spraying notes .
Dusting :
Insecticides ‘
For biting dsaats : 5
For sucking insects, contact epraya

Spreaders for the different insecticides .

Fungicides

CHAPTER XI

Frurr Serrive anp Po.iination

Causes for the failure to set fruit
Essentials for a good pollinizer

CHAPTER XII

Pruyine ann THINNING . 4
Types of training apple trees .
Natural form
Central leader sytem «
Open center, or vase-shape .
The double-headed type .
The modified leader tree .
General treatment of young trees
After first season i

PAGES

« 219-220
. 220-221
. 221-222
. 222-223

223

. 223-226
. 223-224
« 224-225
. 225-226
« 226-235
. 228-230
. 280-232
. 232-2383
. 233-235
. 235-238
. 238-247
. 239-241
. 241-246
. 246-247
. 247-248

. 249-257

. 250-255
. 255-257

. 258-283
. 259-268

260
261

. 262-264
. 264-265
. 266-268
. 268-270
. 268-269

xvi Contents

PAGES
After second season . . - « 6 © 269
After third season. . . «+ 269-270

Vegetative, transitory and fraitaze stares . . « 270-276
Transition period . . . . - «. - +. 270-271

The fruiting period . . . . ... 271

Fruit-buds . . . woe ee ee 2T1-2'72

Changing system of proniny toe ew we QT2-274

Bearing trees. . 274-275
Distribution and establishment of fruiting

wood . . . . se ew ew ew ee 275-276

Time of pruning . . . . . . . « © « 276-277

Pruning tools . . . . . . - « « « « 277-278
Wound dressings . .. ... +6 « «© » 278
Thinning . . 2 ew ee 278-283
Time and method a ¢hinnine 2 ee ee 281-282
Cost of thinning . . . . . . 6. ee 283

CHAPTER XIII

Renovation of Otp OrcHaRDS . . . . «© «© « « 284-290

General treatment . . . . . . . « «© ~ 285-286
Pruning .,. . . . 2. © «© «© «© + «+ 286-288
Spraying . . Me Soh Gah. cao aap feed CPE eile «28 288
Soil Taneeene woe we ee ww we 289-290

CHAPTER XIV:
Hanpuing tHE Crop. . . we ee we ww Cw 291-812.

Picking . . - » © « 291-296
Contract mibkeae versus day labor eo Se CG 294
Picking utensils . . . . . . . « « 294-296

Packing . . . « . 296-312
Sorting and ‘packing harteled anoles - . « 296-302

Orchard packing . . . . 297-298

Packing-houses for beceeled, pauls . . 298-302
Handling the western box apple crop. . . 302-807
Orchard carriers . f 303
Sorting and packing the boxed apples . 803-305

Contents

xvii

PAGES

Packing-house arrangement and operation 305-307

Mechanical sizers

Community packing-houses .
Methods of operating community pack

ing-houses

Packing-house conntaieton.

Bulk shipments

CHAPTER XV

MARKETING AND STORAGE .

Selling on consignment

Selling to cash buyers . 3
The lump-sum cash buyer
Tree-run cash buyer Z

Cooperative methods of selling

. 807-808
. 808-312

. 809-310
. 310-312
312

- 313-338
. 3138-314
. 314-316
: 315
. 315-316

. 316-322

Form of organization for cobperative 4 associa-

tions

Pooling :

Purchase of scandens 3
Distribution . ir one

Commission-man . .

The broker .

Carlot operator .

Carlot distributor
Field of distribution

Foreign markets

Improved distribution within

States . °.
Physical Handling «
Grades and standards . .
Standard package .

Inspection at point of origin .

Storage
Local vs. distance storeee
Common storage

Handling and qultural methods ; as relating to

storage Pa ee

. 819-321
. 3821-322
: 822
. 822-3825
3 323
. 823-324
. 824-325
¢ 325
. 825-329 |

. oe ee 825-327
the United
2. «2 827-829
: 329
. 829-333
. 830-332
. 3832-333
. 338-336
. 884-335
. 335-336

336

Xviii Contents

Government agencies in marketing . . |
Crop estimates . '
Market and storage eenorte -

Codperative vs. individual effort. . .

CHAPTER XVI

SV IRUDS)= 200 MRS, tec Ce aye ak Gay Sig Ge: ee eae

CHAPTER XVII

By-Propucts oF THE APPLE INDUSTRY. . . «

Evaporators
Natural draft evaporators.
Forced draft evaporators . ‘
Distillation types of evaporators

Canning, jelly manufacturing

Cider and vinegar .

CHAPTER XVIII

Cost or Propuction .

Importance of yields

Influence of size of orchard .

Effect of size and type of farm

Effect of climate and soil on cost of production

Influence of varieties

Accessibility to market .

Cost of materials ‘

Labor and cost production .

Orchard maintenance ‘
Cost of pruning and bruh disvosal
Soil management of cee 2
Thinning

Harvesting costs

Conclusions

PAGES

. 336-338

337

| 387-838

338

339-347

. 348-356
- 350-355
. 850-352
- 852-354

354-355
355-356
356

. 357-386

. 361-364
. 364-366
. 366-369
. 369-370
. 870-371

372
372

. 373-3874
. 374-379
. 875-376
. 376-378
. 378-879

. 379-383

- 883-386

Contents xix

CHAPTER XIX

PAGES
VaRIETIES OF APPLES. . . . 1 ww ew ws 387-487
Summer varieties . . . . . 1. we ss 894-395

Late varieties . . 2. . 1. ww ew ew ws 895-426
- Baldwin. . . ... ..hehee”™”*é«*O;

Ben Davis . . ..... . ew ee 397
Winesap. . eof tt he 398
.. Rhode Island Greening * - oe ee we). 898-899
~ Jonathan... - 2 ee ele. 899-400
York Imperial . . . 1... ee 400
Rome . be cael. Sat, Gel tig! aa! VSS. Nat Jee. Us 401
~ Northern Spy RS es . . . 401-402
- Yellow Newtown (Alberta. Pippin) . . « 402-408
” Regus Spitzenburg Sn . . . 4038-404
Grimes Golden. . . . . . . © «. . 404405
Stayman foe & S s w # = =» & « 405-406
“Delicious. oe ew ee eee 406-407
Gano and Blagk Ben ee ee oe ee 407
Yellow Bellflower . . . . . . . . ~« 407-408
Russets . . woe ee ee ee) 408-410
Tompkins King : . . . 410-411
Arkansas rei Black Twig) « el eb) Aes 411
Wagener. : . 2... 411-412
Arkansas Black po lo we oe oe ak ae < LID EATS,
Willow Twig . 413
White Pearmain (White Winter Pearman: . 414
Red sae ape Ta NR ee GbE Ge 414
Yates ok ae ie ten we be het Be Oe cee 415
Stark . woe ee eee ee « 415-416
Hubberdston > mw ee et ee Ce ge Oe ee OT
Tolman Sweet . . . . - ee ee 417
“SWinter Banana . ....+-.s... 418
Missouri Pippin . . . . . . . . . 418-419
Northwestern Greening . . .... =: 419
Rambo ..... + + +s. « « + 419-420

Ortley . 2. . 2 ee ee ee pe + 420-421
Red Canada ......+.-s.e-s AQt

XX Contents

Monmouth . ......
Collins F
Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Swert) 3
Wolf River . Pa ee
Sutton. 2. 6 3 cos = Wow ww Ss
Ingram . . z
Black Gilliflower
SLady. .
Early and fall verintios
Oldenburg (Duchess) .
‘Wealthy . .
Yellow ‘Teavisparent
‘ Twenty Ounce .
Gravenstein
“McIntosh .
Maiden Blush (Lady Blak; Red Cheek) .
~ Fameuse (Snow) . . F
Williams acai Early Red, Williams
Favorite) . a. Taw sab SS Ms
Benoni
Bonum (Magnum Bonum)
Red Astrachan .
Early Ripe .
Alexander
Starr. .
Red June (Caroline Red J ‘ane Carolina jh mn,
Carolina Red) 5
Chenango (Chenango Strawberry) «
Fall Pippin .
Status of commercial vanetica
Age varieties begin to bear’ :
Relative productivity of varieties in full bearing .
Relative hardiness of commercial varieties .
Varieties in greatest demand .
Export varieties...
Varieties for the home orchards: .

INDEX

LIST OF PLATES

Pruate I.— Typical western New York scene. Full bearing

trees forty to fifty years of age. . . . . Frontispiece
FACING

4 ‘ 4 PAGE

Puate II.— Low-headed trees in a Virginia orchard . . 20

Pzate III.— A typical commercial apple orchard in the
Missouri Valley, Kansas. A fifteen-year-old Newtown
orchard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. Red

Astrachan orchard in Delaware .. 38
Puate IV.— Looking across the floor of the wieinidhas Val
ley at Cashmere, Washington . . . “ é -e e B8

Puatt V.— View of the’ Hood River Valley fruit section . 70

Puate VI.— King apne growing in sain bias
Nova Scotia . . 88

Puate VIL— A young setpeted outa in the Bitter Root
Valley of Montana, showing the clean cultivation
formerly practiced in the Northwest. . . .. . . 108

Prare VIIL—Eight-foot disk in operation in the Rogue
River Valley, Oregon. suai harrow in use in
a northwest orchard . . . . : . 180

Piate IX.— Weeder in use in a Hood River ee
of float commonly used at Hood River after cultivation 152

Puatze X.— Irrigating five-year-old bapa trees in the

Yakima Valley ... . e 8 eo we ee OS
Priate XI.— Insect pests of the ats Oo add oa BS. Gr. SO
Puate XII.—San José scale . . . we we we 208
Piate XIII.— Insect enemies of the an oo Bae ee 220

xxi

xxii List of Plates

\ ' FAOING

PAGE

Puate XIV.— The woolly aphis . . ... =... ~~ 284
Puate XV.— The tent caterpillar. Rosy apple aphis - . 246
Piate XVI.— Diseases of the apple. . . . . 260

Puatze XVII.— This tree has produced as high as 20 im
rels of fine fruit in one season and averages about 10

barrels a year. . . . O14
PLatE ol eae etied < of poking practiced in
Virginia rar . 292
Puate XIX.— Packing the fruit We ie A Oe Ode ee ey B06
Piatre XX.— Sizing and grading machines . . . . . 826
Pirate XXI— A Baldwin tree near Paonia, Colorado . . 346
Puate XXII.— A typical yellow Newtown orchard in the
Watsonville, California, district . . . - . 368
Puate XXTIT.— ssi oes or in the
Northwest . . . . 890

Puate XXIV.—A Nebraska orchard of Missouri issn
trees. . ‘ ae ee - . « 418

THE COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY
OF NORTH AMERICA

CHAPTER I

IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY OF THE APPLE
INDUSTRY

Tue object of this work is to deal particularly with
the commercial phases of the apple-growing industry with
reference to: (1) Distribution of important commercial
plantings under which heading will be discussed the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of various regions; (2) eco-
nomic problems such as cost of production and marketing;
(3) scientific cultural methods.

In presenting the subject, attention is first given to
the geography of commercial apple-growing in the United
States and competing foreign countries. It is important
to know not only where commercial apples are grown but
also the cultural methods employed in different regions.
The wide distribution of apple plantings in the United
States and the extreme variation in the character of the
orchards makes it difficult for one to determine the rela-
tive importance of any region, much less to have a definite
conception of the conditions which prevail in remote dis-
tricts.

Few agricultural enterprises have experienced the

vicissitudes which seem inherent in the fruit-growing in-
1

2 The Commercial Apple Industry

dustry. No small factor in bringing about the changing
fortunes of the apple-growers has been a lack of definite
information regarding the status of the industry in com-
peting regions Temporary high prices determined in a
large measure the rate of planting in most sections.
Census figures giving agricultural, but not commercial,
production of apples, have been used in forecasting cycles
of either over- or under-planting. In census figures
no line was drawn between commercial and agricultural
production. Many times when the agricultural produc-
tion was decreasing, the commercial production, or that
portion of the crop which reaches the market and affects
prices, was actually increasing, in some instances very
materially. A sharp line must, therefore, be drawn be-
tween commercial and non-commercial production if we
are to make a correct analysis of the industry and view
the future in the proper light.

It has been only within comparatively recent years that
commercial apple-growing in the United States has ex-
perienced such a very noticeable change from what might
be termed a local, home orchard or semi-commercial enter-
prise into a highly specialized and scientific industry of.
national proportions, centralized in certain favored local-
ities, involving intensive and technical methods of culture,
and necessitating very complex and intricate methods of
distribution and marketing. In other words, the apple
crop has been taken from the list of general farm products
and has been placed among the foremost specialized crops.

In 1919 the apple crop of the United States was valued
at $275,463,000. It ordinarily ranks about ninth in the
list of farm crops, being exceeded in total value only by
wheat, oats, cotton, corn, potatoes, barley, hay and tobacco.

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 3

Some’ idea of the relative importance of the apple crop
may be obtained by a study of the following table:

TaBLe I.— Estimatep Vatue or Important Crops oF THE
Unrrep Srares, Basep on Five-Year Average 1914-1918

CORD) i ca gui sane ae Beso incad oes $2,634,804,000
OUENS. sock acd auny vemeleuce 1,198,737,000
EGS 5 oiptseludac cs eee ste 1,132,276,000
OURO desi ose Gkieas wale 1,097,039,000
Oats) sco 5 sg ibe boka dreieanet aoecsad.c 4 773,752,000
Potatoes: a cise isdeed.es 80 342s 372,239,000
PODRECO 3 Ses quaide Vs «ek BE Ries 208,426,000
APPles) ieeog Haste ecer>awad 184,774,000

DECLINE OF FARM ORCHARDS

At present commercial apples can be grown successfully
only when scientific and intensive cultural methods are
employed. The farmer can no longer give his orchard in-
different care and expect to compete with the commercial
grower. With the advent of new districts, competition
has necessitated the adoption of improved methods mark-
ing the decline of the farm orchard and the corresponding
rise in importance of specialized commercial plantings.

About 1850, apple-growing began to assume important
commercial proportions, but for many years the farm
orchards remained an important factor. The demand for
apples in the towns and cities was at first supplied from
the farm orchards in adjacent territory. No great effort
was made to locate distant markets and in years of heavy
production most of the crops would remain on the farm.
About 1860 certain highly productive sections of western
New York demonstrated their superiority in producing
high quality fruit and this fruit outsold that from other
districts. These inherent advantages overcame the dis-

4 The Commercial Apple Industry.

tance from market so that the center of commercial apple -
production was established and has remained in western
New York. (See Plate 1.)

Despite the rapid centralization of commercial plantings
in more favored regions, the apple is adapted to a wide,
variation of soil and climatic conditions, and is widely cul-
tivated throughout the United States. A great many
farms produce a few more apples than are needed at home.
Many of these go to waste, but sometimes the surplus is
pressed into cider, used for other by-products, or in some
quantity finds its way into commercial channels during the
years when prices warrant. Just how great a part the
last factor plays in the commercial apple industry is diffi-
cult to determine, but obviously in the aggregate it is of
no little importance. Particularly is this true throughout
such states as Iowa, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania where
apples from farm orchards are hauled to nearby towns and
supply the market. which might otherwise exist for the |
so-called “ strictly” commercial crop. The line of dis- ~
tinction between commercial and non-commercial produc-
tion is being more and more closely drawn, however, so
that the strictly commercial crop stands out in sharp con-
trast. a ae

Practically speaking, ‘the spraying operation gives rise
to one of the first sharp distinctions between commercial
and non-commercial orchards. Insect pests and diseases
have exacted a heavy toll from unsprayed orchards and
to-day thousands of acres of farm orchards, especially east
of the Mississippi River and in such states as Pennsyl- -
vania, Ohio and Kentucky are slowly dying out. When
it is known that more than 90 per cent of the orchards in
some states have never been sprayed, the wide disparage-

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 5

TaBLe IT.— AveraGE CoMMERCIAL AND AVERAGE ToTAL Propuc-
TION oF APPLES IN UNITED States For Four YrEars.

(1916-1919)

‘ Percentage of
Commercial

\ state Maree] Tee Grow | teal ep

duction.

1 Figures in parentheses rank states in order of importance in total pro-

6 The Commercial Apple Industry

ment between the agricultural and the commercial crop is
not surprising.

Table II shows the average agricultural and commer-
cial apple prqduction in the different states for the period
1916-1919 inclusive. It will be seen that of an average

total production of approximately 56,000,000 barrels, only © ~

25,000,000 are commercial. In other Sronds, about 44
per cent of the total production during this period reached
commercial channels.

Apples used for by-products are not included in the com-
mercial crop. Allowing for this factor, it would still ap-
pear that from 40 to 45 per cent of our total apple crop
is either consumed in the county where grown or goes to

waste.

CENTRALIZED PLANTINGS IN FAVORED REGIONS

The centralization of commercial plantings in favored
regions has been an interesting process. The most notable
feature in the development of the apple industry has been
the rapidly increasing commercial crop from western
states, particularly Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Calli-
fornia and Colorado. Twenty years ago commercial pro-
duction in these states, with the exception of California,
was practically negligible. To-day over 40 per cent of
the commercial apple crop of the United States is grown
in the Far West and at no distant date western production
may represent one-half of this total. Although far from
the centers of population and markets, millions of dollars
have been expended in the development of apple orchards
in the irrigated valleys of far western states. Heavy
yields and fine market quality have combined to over-
come the disadvantages of long shipments to market.

Importance and History of the Apple Industry v4

Along with the development of the commercial apple
industry there has been built up, and particularly in
recent years, extensive machinery for the handling, dis-
tributing and marketing of apples. Sectional lines have
been broken down and this product has become distinctly
a national and even international commodity of exchange.
Thousands of cars of this fruit move across the entire
continent and large cargoes are exported to Europe, Aus-
tralia and South America. New and interesting relations
between the producer and consumer have been established
in an intricate system of marketing. Competition in the
production of high quality fruit has worked great changes
in cultural methods. Scientific investigation has thrown
light on many phases of the industry, all of which will
require separate treatment.

OUTLOOK FOR THE APPLE INDUSTRY

Apple production does not respond quickly to supply
and demand, and for this reason there tends to be less
stability in the matter of prices than with other products.
It requires several years for trees to come into full bearing,
and over-production as the result of excessive planting is
not felt for a considerable period. If the production of
potatoes, wheat or oats exceeds the demand, the land can
be put in other crops. But when it has required ten or
fifteen years, and much expense, to bring an apple or-
chard to bearing, the owner is loath to pull out his trees
and will usually wait several years in the hope that price
and production will become adjusted.

The history of apple production in the United States
has run in cycles. In the middle of the past century,
when apples first began to be grown commercially, prices

8 The Commercial Apple Industry

were good. During the decade 1865 to 1875, prices con-
tinued high, and during the period 1850 to 1875 over half
of the present bearing orchards in western New York
were set. Over-production began to be felt in about 1880.
From this time on commercial production increased and
prices fell until 1896, when the 76,000,000 barrel crop
(agricultural) was grown and the industry reached low
price ebb.

From 1890 to 1896 many growers pulled out their trees,
confident that the good prices would never return. Very
little planting was undertaken in this period. In about
fifteen years prices began to climb back until the crest of
another wave was reached between 1907 and 1911. As
prices improved, beginning in 1900 and continuing up
until 1908-9, there occurred another heavy planting pe-
riod which assumed the proportions of a boom in many
western states. It was during this period that most of
the acreage in such box-apple sections as Yakima, Wen-
atchee, Hood River, southern Idaho and Colorado, which
in 1919 produced nearly half of the commercial apples
in the United States, was set. Five consecutive failures
in the Ozark, Missouri, crop, from frost-injury, contributed
to this inflation by creating a strong demand for northwest
fruit in a territory ordinarily supplied.

The productiveness of such valleys as the Yakima and
Wenatchee in Washington was phenomenal. Trees were
young and free from disease, the yields on bearing
trees were unusual and the returns to the acre were far
greater than had been thought possible from any com-
mercial orchard. Gross sales sometimes exceeded $2,000
an acre and in some instances orchards sold for as high as

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 9

$3,500 an acre. The price for raw land reached $500
to $1,000 an acre. A reaction in prices followed this
period of heavy planting and the country is just now
recovering from the effects of the boom.

While once suffering from inflation, such districts as
Yakima, Hood River, Wenatchee and other well known
valleys have been and will remain as centers of production.
Unfortunately, however, a large acreage of land unsuited
to commercial production was set to trees and exploited
as apple land, with disastrous results to investors.
Projects including thousands of acres of land were laid
out and planted to trees in some states only to fall into
entire neglect. Thus far there has never been any con-
certed movement toward actually pulling out trees. How-
ever, to the same effect, many trees receive little or in-
different care and never attain full commercial bearing.
This is the principle which tends to limit production.
Growers slip behind, omit cultivation and spraying and
other necessary cultural operations, with the result that
their orchards will not produce commercial fruit. It is
for this reason that census figures, giving mere number of
trees, are very often misleading and need careful analysis
without which the industry may be led into periods of
over- and under-planting.

Favorable factors.

It is often asked by those who contemplate setting an
apple orchard whether it will be a good business proposi-
tion or whether there will be over-production in the years
to come. A definite reply is impossible. However, a
careful study of these points, in the light of present facts

10 The Commercial Apple Industry’

and conditions, leads to certain probabilities.. The fol-
lowing factors are favorable to the future of the apple
industry.

1. Increase in population.

The first point to be considered is the probable increase
or decrease in consumption. There may be periods of
very heavy planting, but if population and demand in-
crease proportionately, an equilibrium is maintained.
Obviously the most favorable factor in the outlook is the
rapid normal increase in the population of the United
States. If the same rate of increase continues, in 1930
there will be 130,000,000 people, while in 1940, when
many of the apple orchards not yet in bearing will reach
their highest productivity, there will be 165,000,000 peo-
ple. If the same rate of increase continues until 1950,
there will be 210,000,000. Rate of increase in population
depends, of course, on a number of factors. ,

2. Movement to the city.

The important factor in the increase in population is
that there is a constantly increasing percentage living in
cities and towns. For example, in 1790 96 per cent of
the inhabitants lived on farms and only 4 per cent lived
in towns and did not raise the food they consumed; in
1860 84 per cent lived on farms and 16 per cent in.
towns; in 1880 44 per cent on farms and 56 per cent in
towns; in 1900 35 per cent on farms and 65 per cent in
towns and in 1910 30 per cent on farms and 70 per cent
in towns. The drift towards the city is distinctly in the
orchardist’s favor. In fact, this would seem to be the

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 11

most favorable of all factors in the outlook of the apple
industry and a potent influence against over-production.

3. Development of foreign market.

In past, years varying quantities, seldom exceeding two
million barrels of the best apples, were exported annually.
There are great possibilities in the export trade, not only
in those countries which at the present time consume large
quantities of American apples, but also in undeveloped
foreign markets. South America is as yet a market
largely undeveloped.

At present, the United States produces the larger part
of the world’s commercial apple crop. Most of this is
consumed at home. In addition, foreign fruit is im-
ported to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars
from countries which do not consume apples except in a
very limited quantity. The apple is one of the least
perishable and at the same time one of the most popular
fruits, once a demand is stimulated. At present Eng-
land is the leading export market. Other north European
countries consume American apples in lesser quantities.
When it is considered that in the face of an abundance of
other fresh fruits and food stuffs the people of the United
States consume over 20,000,000 barrels of commercial
apples and export only about 2,000,000 barrels annually,

‘the possibilities of export can be more fully appreciated,
particularly as the European countries with their millions
of population produce commercial apples only in limited
quantities. It must be remembered, however, that by the
time a package of high-grade apples reaches the European
market, the price is out of the reach of such classes as in
this country consume much of our own commercial crop.

12 ; The Commercial Apple Industry

4. Education and advertising.

_ There is no doubt that consumption of high-grade fruit
has been greatly stimulated in recent years by judicious
advertising. This is particularly true of the northwest
apples. Advertising and educational campaigns will con-
tinue to increase consumption. The improved quality of
commercial apples is unquestionably stimulating the de-
mand for this fruit among all-classes. The fruit-stand
has played no small part in creating this demand by dis-
playing and familiarizing the people of the cities with
the superb quality of certain high-grade brands and va-
rieties of apples. A large portion of the northwest boxed
apple crop is retailed an apple at a time. As the con-
suming public becomes more and more familiar with
high quality apples, the demand for this fruit becomes
more and more pronounced.

5. Transportation. -

The success of commercial apple-growing in various
regions is greatly affected by transportation and railroad
facilities. Some of the more southern districts, for ex-
ample, have poor transportation facilities and orchards
are very often located in hilly sections where hauling the
fruit to the shipping point represents one of the principal
costs of production. With improved roads and shipping
facilities, distance from market and inaccessibility will
be largely overcome.

6. Distribution.

With the improved storage facilities and the progress
already made in distribution, it is not surprising that the
domestic markets have been able to absorb the increasing

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 13

commercial apple crop. Should the apple-grower be able
to duplicate even in part the distributing methods used
in the citrus industry, it becomes apparent that he might
share in the increased demand for high-grade fruit. The
sale of oranges has inereased in recent years more rap-
idly than population. Many potential consuming centers
are represented in towns which can no longer depend on
good apples from nearby farms, but are as yet scarcely
touched by the present system of distribution. These
will eventually be supplied and will absorb a large amount
of high-grade fruit, ever though at the present time a
demand for such a product seems relatively slight.
Storage facilities now established in all large consuming
centers have played a most important part in developing:
city trade. The extension of storage facilities and better
methods of distribution represent one of the favorable
factors in the outlook for the commercial apple industry.

7. Improved cultural methods.

There has been a great improvement in every phase of
orchard management. Improved methods of spraying,.
pruning, cultivating, and the like have made possible the
production of high-grade fruit. Orchard management
has probably reached its highest development in the
Northwest. Careful orchard management is expensive,
but there is compensation in increased yield, which is the
big factor in reducing cost production a unit. The com-
mercial grower has been able to produce high-grade fruit
economically, sell it at good prices and outstrip his more
careless neighbor or the producer of inferior apples. In
other words, keen competition is forcing the home or-
chard and semi-commercial fruit off the market,

14 The Commercial Apple Industry

8. Increase in the use of by-products. ;

One of the most favorable factors in the outlook of
apple production is the increasing importance and use of
apple by-products. It is only in recent years that the
canned apple industry assumed great importance. Dried
apples are more in demand than before. With the advent
of prohibition, the demand for apple juice products is
increasing greatly. Jellies, apple-butter and similar prod-
ucts are being manufactured in increasing quantities.
The apples required in the manufacture of these by-
products will remove from the market much of the low-
grade fruit. Enormous by-product plants have been built
in the heart of the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the
Middle Atlantic states, in western New York, in the Ya-
kima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington and in fact in
all important apple regions. Numerous breweries and dis-
tilleries have been converted into plants for the production
of apple by-products.

9. Future production.

It is important to note, in connection with possible
future production, that there has been little concerted ap-
ple planting in any part of the United States since 1910.
This lack of planting can not fail to have effect on the
production of the next two decades. In speculating on
future production, one instinctively turns to New York
State, which until very recently was credited with one-
fourth of the normal commercial apple production of the
United States. In the Hudson Valley are many new or-
chards which will increase materially the production from
this region. However, in western New York, which is

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 15

responsible for the bulk of New York apple production,
the average bearing orchard is over forty years of age.
Although they have had a remarkable record for longevity,
production can not be maintained indefinitely on these
old orchards which were for the most part planted in the
sixties and seventies of the preceding century. Therefore,
unless planting proceeds much more rapidly than in the
past, no increase and in fact a possible decrease in pro-
duction can be expected from western New York.

New England apple orchards have been going back
rapidly the past several years. As a matter of fact, no-
where in the eastern states with the exception of the Shen-
andoah-Cumberland region, in New Jersey and Delaware,
does there seem likely to be any material increase in
production. It is a notable fact that a great decrease has
occurred in. the number of apple trees all through the
Middle West and although a revival of interest is serving
to hold production at its present point, it does not seem
that on the whole this section of the United States will
show an increased apple production in the near future.

The Pacific Northwest will unquestionably show an
increased production during the next several years and
will be an increasingly important factor in the commercial
apple situation. While the Northwest will continue to
ship more and more cars of apples, there will be no such
relative increase in production as that which occurred in
the past ten years.

Unfavorable factors.

To mistake hopes for facts in the determination to
see only the favorable side, regardless of true conditions,
has been too frequent. Production in the western

16 The Commercial Apple Industry

states has not’ yet reached its maximum. Twenty-six
per cent of the new planting in the decade 1900 to 1910
was in the Pacific Northwest. This region will have a
normal increase in production of high quality fruit. It is,
to a great extent, commercial, and most of it will reach
eastern markets. This will unquestionably be the biggest
factor in the apple problem. Even to-day the average ap-
plegrower does not seem to appreciate the importance of
the western crop which has grown so rapidly that it has
been difficult to keep fully informed as to the normal size.

¥ . U
1. Increased commercial crop.

It is very evident that there has been an increase in the
strictly commercial apple crop of the United States, census
figures to the contrary notwithstanding. It is important
to be on guard against statistics and figures showing de
creases in acreage. The fraction of the crop which reaches
commercial channels is of the greatest importance. Ordi-
narily the commercial crop is estimated at approximately
40 per cent of the total production. Commercial apples
are defined to include only that portion of the crop which
reaches strictly commercial channels. All fruit left or
eaten on the farm, wasted or used for by-products, was not
considered as commercial. The agricultural crop may de-
crease, but if there is a greater portion of it directed into
commercial channels, the decrease may be more than offset
by the increasing commercial crop. In many sections the
commercial crop is and has been increasing rapidly during
the past few years. |

Even with the expected increase in population and the
better distribution discussed as favorable factors, years
are likely to occur when bumper crops will cause prices to

é Importance and History of the Apple Industry 1%

fall as low as the cost of production. However, unless
there is a decided tendency towards new planting, it seems
improbable that these years will be successive or very fre
quent. There should always be a margin of safety and
these lean years should be considered by prospective apple-
growers.

2. Poor outlook for unfavored region.

One of the principal factors in lowering cost of produc-
tion is increased yields. In other words, high yielding sec-
tions have a distinct advantage and sometimes increased
cost of production actually reacts in their favor by elim-
inating less favored regions, and thereby limiting competi-
tion. The great increase in the cost of labor and material
has made it necessary to receive a price for fruit consider-
ably in advance of that required formerly to pay the costs
and leave a profit. Many sections can overcome these in-
creased costs by increasing yields and better management.
Less favored districts in so-called marginal regions will be
the first to suffer. The grower who has good yields and
manages well will ordinarily be successful.

3. Danger from boom development.

During a period of high prices for fruit, there will al-
ways be danger of land-selling booms. Promoters will buy
up large tracts of land, set them to trees and then en-
deavor to unload on unsuspecting city men and farmers
not familiar with fruit-growing. Needless to say, the
growth of the industry by such methods is unhealthy and
honest and intelligent growers and horticulturists should
combat such efforts with merciless publicity. This is not

18 The Commercial Apple Industry

intended to discourage legitimate investments. Well se
lected farms have been known to pay for themselves in a
year. Syndicate farming schemes, however, are always
questionable. They sound well, but they seldom work out.
Attempts of this kind were numerous a few years ago, were
largely discontinued for a time, but may revive following
high price years. After a few years of inactivity, “ pro-
moters ” will appear to prey on a new class of investors.
Careful investigation on the part of investors should enable
them to determine which orchards were set to produce fruit
and which were set for speculation. By curbing this spec-
ulative influence, a long step will be taken towards pre-
venting over-planting.

Among the favorable factors mentioned in the forego-
ing paragraphs are the extension of foreign markets and
the increase in exportations to meet this demand. In pass-
ing, one should not fail to note that in a certain part of the
world there are being developed important apple-produc-
ing regions. Notable among these is Tasmania, which has
produced as many as 2,000,000 cases of commercial ap-
ples and exported as many as 800,000 cases (bushels) to
England in one year. Canada will be an increasingly im-
portant factor in the apple industry. Many lotalities are
suitable for apple-growing in this country and new regions
are constantly being developed.

4, Competition with citrus fruit.

In discussing the outlook for the apple industry, some
consideration must be given to its relative status in com-
parison with the rapidly growing citrus fruit industry.
In 1896, when one of the largest apple crops in the his-
tory of the industry was harvested, citrus fruit-growing in

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 19

the United States was comparatively in its infancy. Since
1896, citrus production has doubled and trebled: in size
until during the year 1917 approximately 100,000 carloads
of citrus’ fruits were produced and sold in the United
States. Of these, 54,000 carloads were grown in Cali-
fornia alone; the remainder largely in Florida. It is dif-
ficult definitely to establish the significance of this growth
in relation to the apple industry. In the first place, cit-
rus fruits can be grown only within comparatively small
areas and their production is thereby limited. Citrus-
growers have perfected a better system of distribution and
have placed their products in a greater number of markets.
This competition may check apple consumption, but on the .
whole, it seems to indicate that the possibilities of apple
distribution have not been as well recognized as they might
have been. Citrus production has increased much more
rapidly than population and yet distributing agencies have
sought out markets, stimulated demand and have disposed
of their vastly increased product in most instances at a
profit.

Conclusions.

On the whole, although our commercial apple produc-
tion may increase perceptibly in the next few years, due
principally to increased production from such regions as
the Pacific Northwest and the Shenandoah-Cumberland,
there will be no such relative increases as in the period
from 1905 to 1920.

The population is increasing, with a resulting demand
for more fruit. The extension of foreign markets, better
means of distribution and wider uses of the apple, com-
bine in giving a promising outlook for the apple industry.

20 The Commercial Apple Industry

There seems no reason to believe that over a period of |: «

years, taking the good with the bad, apples will make any
materially better returns than many other farm crops;
yet apple-growing is a specialized industry and will always
afford exceptional opportunity for individual effort.

HISTORY OF COMMERCIAL APPLE-GROWING IN THE
UNITED STATES

The cultivated apple comes to us from prehistoric time.
While several species of native crab-apples were growing
wild in the forests at the time of the discovery of this
country, these species have never attained commercial im-

portance. Practically all the commercial varieties are , ,

from the Pyrus Malus stock, which is a native of southwest
Asia and adjacent Europe ‘and which has been cultivated
since time immemorial. Crab-apples came chiefly from
Pyrus baccata, or Siberian crab, which comes from the
more northern and eastern parts of Asia.

At present the apple is the most widely cultivated and
important fruit in existence, being grown in practically
every country and in every climate. It has reached its
greatest cultural development in the United States, which
is the principal apple-producing country in the world.

It is interesting to know that apple-culture in this coun-
try developed almost simultaneously with the settling of
the early colonies. Early records show that apple trees
were being grown in New England within a few years after
the founding of the Plymouth colony. In 1648 Governor

Endicott exchanged with Wm. Trask 500 apple trees of.
three years’ growth for 200 acres of land. Other frag-.

mentary information taken from the history of the New
England settlements indicates that apples were being

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Importance and History of the Apple Industry 21

grown in that region as early as 1650, and that numerous
plantings there and elsewhere had been made by 1700.
Among the early varieties mentioned were Pearmain, Rus-
setin, Long Apple and Kreton Pippins.

The two leading apple regions in New York State, the
Hudson Valley and western New York or Lake Shore
region, were recognized in the early development of the
apple industry in New York. It appears in the early
history of the Dutch settlements in the Hudson Valley that
apple trees were planted near Kinderhook not long after
1700. Plantings also occurred in Long Island at about
the same date.

Pioneers report apple plantings in western New York as
early as 1750. It must be remembered that this region
was in a much more primitive state of development at this
time than the New England and Hudson Valley sections.
Legendary history suggests that apple seeds preceded the
progress of civilization into western New York and, falling
into the hands of Indian tribes, notably the Senecas and
Cayugas, were scattered throughout this part of the state.
General Sullivan is reported to have found bearing apple
trees laden with fruit near Seneca Lake as early as 1779.

It must not be thought that these early plantings were of
commercial importance. They were isolated, small in ex-
tent, but nevertheless represented interesting landmarks in
the development of apple-culture in this country. Com-
mercial applegrowing in New York really dates back to
about 1860. Prior to this time A. J. Downing, who was
born in 1802 and later conducted a nursery at Newburgh,
had been a very important and influencing factor in the
development of the apple industry in the Hudson Valley
region, A. J. Downing died in 1852 after having pub-

22 The Commercial Apple Industry

lished in 1845 his “ Fruits and Fruit Trees of America.”
Charles Downing, his brother, remained a leading author-
ity on apple varieties and apple-growing until 1885.

In 1840 George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry started
the Mt. Hope nurseries at Rochester, New York. Barry
was one of the pioneers in the apple industry and had much
to do in making western New York the leading nursery
and apple-growing region.

Jonathan Chapman, or Johnny Appleseed, the name by
which he was more commonly known, had much to do with
the spread of the apple westward from New York. Chap-
man was an eccentric character. It seems that he spent
much of the first half of the nineteenth century in roaming
through Ohio and Indiana, at that time a wild undeveloped
country. By carrying apple seeds about with him and
sowing them broadcast, he effected a wide extension in
apple plantings throughout this region. Being of an in-
tense religious nature, his life and activities have a roman-
tie interest which have been the subject of much writing.
His descendants are actively interested apple-growers in
southern Ohio to-day.

From the standpoint of historic interest, few regions ex-
cel the Piedmont of Virginia. Although the Newtown ap-
ple originated on Long Island, it was later introduced into
Albemarle County, Virginia, early in the eighteenth cen-
tury and has been prominently identified with the develop-
ment of the apple industry in this region, under the name
of Albemarle Pippin. Albemarle Pippins were exported.
to England from Virginia as early as 1759. Thomas Jef-
ferson was cultivating this variety at Monticello, his coun-
try place in Virginia, before the Revolution. It has been
authentically stated that so pleased was Queen Victoria

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 23

with several barrels of Virginia Albemarle Pippins pre-
sented to her during the first year of her reign by the late
Arthur Stevenson, American minister to England, that she
caused the import tax on apples to be removed. Since that
time apple exportations to England have rapidly increased.

While certain species of wild crabs are native to the
prairie states and doubtless isolated plantings occurred in
this region prior to the Civil War, it was after 1860, at
the time of the influx of many early pioneers, that apple
trees were brought into the country west of the Mississippi
River. ‘The apple industry in this section did not begin to
assume commercial importance until the eighties and the
decade following. It was at this time that many of the
older orchards were planted in the Ozarks, Missouri River
region and southern Ilinois. Good prices for apples in
the late eighties stimulated planting and it was during the
nineties that the heavy commercial apple plantings were
made in the Middle West.

The rapidly increasing’ importance of the western apple
regions attracts considerable attention to the history and
development of apple culture of the Far West. Probably
the first apple trees on the Pacific Coast were grown at
Fort Vancouver, Washington, where employees of the
Hudson Bay Company are reported to havd planted seeds,
carried from England, as early in 1825.

The Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section of California
is the oldest commercial apple region in the Far West.
The agricultural history of this region dates back to about
1820 when Don Antonia Maria Castro applied ‘to the gov-
ernment of Spain for a grant of land along the Pajaro
River, which he called Vega del Rio del Pajaro. Several
large land grants were given to the Spanish Dons during

24 The Commercial Apple Industry

the next twenty years, but all were used for stock-
raising. ;

In 1858 the first apple orchard planted by an American
in this region was set out on the Jesse D, Carr place, now
the Sillman homestead. This orchard was about two acres
in extent and contained a mixture of fruit. Some of
- these trees are still in bearing. The second apple orchard
in the Pajaro Valley was planted by Wm. F. White in
1854. These first two plantings were home orchards.
The first commercial orchards in the Pajaro Valley were
set out by Isaac Williams and Judge R. F. Peckman in
1858. One planted thirteen acres and the other six acres.
The early varieties‘grown were Smith’s Cider, Rhode Is-
land Greening, Gravenstein, Newtown Pippin and Belle-
flower. The first shipment of apples from the Pajaro Val:
ley was made in 1867 by Isaac Williams who sold his fruit
in San Francisco. Increased demand for fruit stimulated
apple planting and a large number of the present orchards
were set out in the period between 1880 and 1900.

The output of the Watsonville section was assuming
commercial proportions many years before such sections as
the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in the Northwest had
come into prominence.

It is generally thought that the oldest apple orchards in

the Yakima Valley were planted about 1875 to 1876.
Near Fort Simcoe, twenty-seven miles south of North
Yakima, stands an orchard planted by an Indian, Klickitat
Peter, in 1877. This is probably the oldest apple planting
in what was later destined to become one of the premier
apple-growing regions.

In 1888 there were a few family orchards in the Yakima
district, but probably the first commercial planting of

rrr

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 25

fruit-trees in Yakima was made in 1888 by H. J. Bicknell,
in what is known as Parker Bottom. In the spring of
1889, Fred Thompson set out in the same locality what was
probably the first commercial apple orchard in the valley.
The whole planting consisted of ten acres and included
three acres of prunes, three acres of peaches, three acres
of Ben Davis apples and one acre of pears.

In 1888 and 1889 two irrigation companies, one to un-
dertake the Selah project and the other what is now the
Sunnyside Government project, were organized. At this
time a few express shipments of fresh fruit had been sent
to the coast from the small home orchards.

In 1894 the total apple output shipped from the Yakima
Valley probably did not exceed twenty-five cars. Fruit
was layer packed, but not wrapped, the old sixty-pound
box being in common use. In 1896 ‘Fred Thompson
shipped from the Yakima Valley what was probably the
first car of fruit from this region to be sold east of the
Mississippi River. It was in 1894 that the apple planting
period really began, and the most extensive plantings were
made in the years 1900 to 1908.

The history and development of the Wenatchee Valley,
which is probably the most intensive apple region in the
country, was even more recent than the development of
the Yakima Valley. The date of the first apple plantings
in Wenatchee is given by some as 1873, others 1876. The
first fruit-trees were set out by Miller Brothers who later
established the first irrigating ditch in this region in 1883.

Practically the entire Wenatchee Valley was a barren
waste until 1896 when the Gunn ditch was built to water
600 acres of land. In 1901 W. T. Clark, coming from
North Yakima, interested himself in the organization of

26 The Commercial Apple Industry

the High Line Canal, designed to water 9000 acres of or-
chard land. This ditch was completed to Wenatchee in
October, 1903. The completion of the High Line Canal
marked the beginning of important orchard development
in the Wenatchee Valley. By 1913 there were about
20,000 acres of irrigable land under the different ditches
established in the Wenatchee Valley.

The Indians occupied the Grand Valley until 1880, at
which time the history of fruit-growing in western Color-
ado begins. In the spring of 1883 several hundred root-
grafts were put out in the Grand Valley, only a fraction
of which lived. The first fruit plantings were made in
the lower lands of the Valley about 1885 or 1886. In
1882 a farmer living at Paonia, in Delta County, a local-
ity of lesser importance than the Grand Valley, purchased
twenty-six trees of mixed varieties from Rochester, New
York, at one dollar each. Of these, three survived. As
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, principal orchard
development occurred in Colorado after 1900.

From this fragmentary history of apple-culture in the
United States, it may be seen that while apple trees have
been grown in home orchards for nearly 300 years, it has
only been within comparatively recent years that the in-

dustry has assumed commercial proportions.
/

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION

The apple belongs to the important genus Pyrus, of the
Rose family (Rosacese). “This genus includes the apples
and pears. The common apple is Pyrus Malus, sup-
posed to be native to Europe and Western Temperate Asia.
Within this species, as it is commonly broadly accepted,
are included the commercial apples, the Paradise and

Importance and History of the Apple Industry 2"

Doucin dwarf forms, so-called bloomless apple, and others.
The Siberian crab is Pyrus baccata. The growth is more
slender and wiry than in P. Malus, twigs and leaves not
woolly as in that species, the fruit small, long-stemmed,
and with the calyx falling away at the blossom end. Hy-
' brids oceur between Pyrus Malus and P. baccata. Some
of the apples known as “crabs”’ are only small and acrid
fruit-forms of P. Malus.

Several species of crab-apple are native to North Amer-
ica. One of them is Pyrus ioensis, the prairie crab. It
is not cultivated for its fruit, but the Soulard, Fluke, and
others are supposed to be hybrids between this species
and Pyrus Malus.

Some botanists separate the pears and apples into dif-
ferent genera. Under this disposition, the pears are re-
tained in Pyrus and the apples take the generic name
Malus. The common apple then becomes Malus com-
mumis, and the wild or run-wild form of it in Europe is
called M. sylvestris.

A number of oriental species of Pyrus (Malus) are
grown for ornament, but they need not be discussed here.

CHAPTER II

LEADING APPLE REGIONS OF THE
UNITED STATES

Tuere has been a noticeable tendency in recent years
towards the centralization of the commercial apple indus-
try in a relatively few intensive regions. A glance at the

SECKWAL LISTRUBUTION CF COUR CUAL ALLL LE ORAL

Fie, 1.— The principal ape eros regions in the United
“ States,

outline map showing the principal apple-growing regions
reveals this. (See Fig. 1.) It is estimated that approx-_

imately 80 per cent of the total commercial apple crop of
28 ;

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 29

the United States is produced in these relatively few re-
stricted districts. In many parts of this country there is
scarcely a farm that has not a small home orchard of apple
trees. As has been emphasized elsewhere, production
from these home orchards is having less and less commer-
cial significance and interest centers in a few well-defined
regions. ; a

By describing each important apple region and pointing
out its individual characteristics, it is hoped to convey to
the reader a mental picture of the commercial apple indus-
try as it has been developed in these well-favored regions.

WESTERN NEW YORK (PLATE 1)

From the standpoint of quantity production and total
acreage, western New York is the most important apple
region in the United States. As early as 1860 the produc-
tivity of this section became apparent, and the high qual-
ity apples outsold those from other localities. Good qual-
ity and high yields were sufficient to overcome the ‘ad-
vantages which many other regions may have enjoyed from:
being closer to the Atlantic seaboard cities; and the center
of commercial barreled apple production was established
and has remained ip western New York:

Previous to 1919, one-fourth of the normal commercial
apple crop of the United States was produced in the state
of New York, but the Northwest now produces so many
_ apples that this will probably never be true again. Heav-
iest plantings are in Niagara, Monroe, Orleans and Wayne
counties which border on Lake Ontario. Each of these
counties has an apple acreage of 25,000 to 35,000 \acres
and each is capable of producing from a half to a million
barrels of apples annually. Counties of less importance

30 The Commercial Apple Industry

included in this region are Ontario, Yates, Seneca, Cayuga,
Genesee, Onondaga, Oswego, Wyoming and Tompkins.

In reality, the world’s most important barreled apple
region is largely in a ten-mile belt along Lake Ontario, ex-
tending from Niagara Falls to Oswego, New York, a dis-
tance of about 125 miles. In this section much of the
present bearing acreage was planted in the late sixties
and in the seventies of the preceding century. In other
words, the average age of bearing orchards is over forty
years. Probably nowhere else in this country will trees
retain such vigor and productivity at forty to fifty years
of age as in western New York. The old apple orchards
along the ridge road from Buffalo to Rochester have with-
stood alternate periods of neglect and care, according to
the vicissitudes of the apple industry, and yet they remain
in most instances vigorous and productive at advanced age.

The permanency of western New York as a leading
apple region may be explained partly by the conservatism
of the New York grower. Instead of devoting himself
entirely to apples, the average farmer in western New
York has 100 acres or more of farm land of which only 10
to 20. acres are in apples. His other crops have main-
tained him in poor apple years. The yields on the com”
mercial full bearing orchards average from 75 to 100 bar-
rels to the acre.

Some idea of the importance of New York as an apple
state may be gained from the fact that the 1918 commercial
apple crop was estimated at 5,950,000 barrels, over two-
thirds of which came from western New York. Baldwin
represents nearly one-half and Rhode Island Greening
about 20 per cent of the total production. Northern Spy,
Roxbury. Russet, Tompkins King, Duchess of Oldenburg,

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 31

Hubbardston, Wealthy and Twenty Ounce comprise the
greater part of the remaining commercial production.

As might be expected, large storage plants have been
built in nearly all of the apple towns, | Some of the more
important apple centers are Rochester, Lockport, Medina,
Albion, Brockport, Sodus, East Williamson, North Rose,
Canandaigua and Holcomb. The barrel is used almost
exclusively and very little of the crop moves in bulk.

A high percentage of the dried apple production of this
country comes from the western New York apple region.
For many years Wayne County has been the center of
dried apple production and in some seasons as much as 40
per cent of its crop is used for drying. Nearly every
orchardist in this county has his own drier, and the pro-
duction comes largely from small home driers rather than
from large commercial plants.

There is considerable variation in the types of orchards
in western "New York. Probably 80 to 90 per cent of
the bearing orchards are over twenty years of age and
there are many profitable orchards over fifty years old. It
is believed that the trees in this region reach their maxi-
mum bearing capacity at forty to fifty years. The earlier
plantings were set about 33 x 33 which proved too close
on account of the large size which the trees attained. New
plantings are being made 40 x 40.

Orchard values in western New York have never reached
the high figure attained in some apple regions. Seldom
are bearing orchards valued at more than $500 an acre.
It is difficult to give orchard values in any region and
particularly in western New York where the orchard us-
ually goes with the farm and where varying care is given.
Some orchards are worth little more than the land they

32 The Commercial Apple Industry

occupy. These are the old orchards which’ have received
indifferent care for many years.

HUDSON VALLEY

The Hudson Valley is one of the well known eastern
regions, the important commercial plantings extending
along the Hudson River from Saratoga County south to
Westchester County, and including both sides of the val-
ley for a width of several milés. Tbe normal production
for this region is about 600,000 barrels and originates
largely in the counties of Columbia, Dutchess, Greene and
Ulster, with lesser amounts in Albany, Saratoga, Rensse-
laer, Orange, Putnam and Westchester. The industry is
very intensive about the towns of Coxsackie, Ravena, Ger-
mantown, Red Hook, Millbrook, Athens, Milton and Ulster
Park.

Much of the land is rough and hard to work and this
region is not as well adapted to general farming as western
New York. The soil in some instances is more or less de-
ficient in fertility.

The varieties grown are principally Baldwin, Greening,
Ben Davis and Spy, with considerable commercial quanti-
ties of McIntosh, Duchess, Gravenstein, Holland Pippin,
Fall Pippin, English and Roxbury Russet.

Trees are much the same in age as in western New
York, the orchards in many cases being. even older.. How-
ever, there is a larger proportion of young plantings and
orchards coming into bearing in the Hudson Valley than in
the western part of the state and particularly is this true of
Dutchess and Columbia counties.

The apples from the Hudson Valley are shipped largely
by. boat and rail to New York and eastern markets. Many

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 33

apples are grown here for the fancy trade demand and
su rieties usually bring good returns, due to the ‘prox-

to market. The average annual yields are less than
in western New York, due largely to soil conditions. The
future of the Hudson Valley fruit industry seems assured
on account of its proximity to market.

NEW ENGLAND BALDWIN BELT

The intensive apple sections of Maine, New Hampshire
and Massachusetts are included in what is known as the
New England Baldwin Belt, so called on account of the
prominence of the Baldwin variety. Beginning in south-
ern Maine, this region extends through southern New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, and into Connecticut, includ-
ing both the intensive and more scattered and outlying
apple plantings in this territory. In Maine the leading
apple counties are Oxford, Kennebec, Franklin and Andro-
scoggin; in New Hampshire, Rockingham and Hills-
boro; while the heaviest apple production in Massachu-
setts comes from. Middlesex, Franklin and Worcester coun- ,
ties. ‘

As above stated, Baldwin is the leading New England
variety, while Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Mc-
Intosh,.Wealthy, Gravenstein, Tolman, Ben Davis, Porter
and Stark have commercial importance. ‘The New Eng-
land apple trees, like those of New York, are for the most
part old. Great numbers of them have gone out of com-
mercial bearing in recent years and especially during the
very cold winter of 1917-1918, when it was estimated that
over a million Baldwin trees of this section were killed.

The gipsy-moth has done heavy damage to the orchards
in New Hampshire, and the commercial production for the

34 The Commercial Apple Industry

‘New England Baldwin belt has decreased within recent

years. A great number of young orchards are coming in,’
particularly in favored spots of New Hampshire and Mass-
achusetts, and these new orchards will tend to make up loss
among older trees. Many varieties, such as Wealthy, Mc-
Intosh and other fall or early winter sorts, are proving
profitable. McIntosh and Wealthy are becoming espe
cially popular in the newer plantings. Such varieties as
Stark, Yellow Bellflower, Porter, Tolman Sweet, Russets,
and many other old varieties are still found in considernble
quantity, but are no longer being planted.

The orchards of New England for the most part are
small in size and come more nearly being farm orchards
than do those of any other commercial section. They are
in many cases too small to be operated profitably on a
strictly commercial basis.

A large part of the New England apple crop is marketed
locally, particularly in Massachusetts where many apples
are shipped in bulk or hauled in trucks to Boston and
nearby markets. In normal times New England exports
large quantities of apples, particularly of the Baldwin va-
riety. The barrel is the standard package for New Eng-
land apples when shipped in quantity to outside markets,
although for local consumption basket, box or bulk trade
predominates. In many cases, striatly high-grade apples
are put up in boxes. The normal commercial produc-
tion for this region is about 1,250,000 barrels, and it is
not likely to increase ; in fact, unless planting is stimulated
to a greater degree than at present, production will de-
crease somewhat on account of the number of old orchards

_ which are dying or are losing their vigor. Production of -
high-grade fruit will increase. ‘

Leading' Apple Regions of the United States 35

THE CHAMPLAIN DISTRICT

The Champlain district includes that portion of New
York and Vermont bordering on Lake Champlain and
Lake George. It is situated in a very rigorous climate
and only hardy varieties will grow there. It is famous
for its fine quality fruit which brings high prices on the
market. In area the Champlain region is small as com-
pared with most other commercial districts. It includes
the counties of Grand Isle, Addison, Chittenden and Rut-
land, Vermont, and the counties of Clinton and Essex,
New York. The bulk of the production originates near
~ the towns of Middlebury, Shelburne, Rutland and Danby
in Vermont. From a strictly commercial standpoint,
Grand Isle County, Vermont, an island in Lake Cham-
plain, is the most important of all the counties in this -
region. Peru, Plattsburg, Lewis and Crown Point are
towns about which the apple industry centers on the New
York side.

The varieties grown in the Champlain region are Me-
Intosh, Fameuse, Rhode Island Greening and Northern
Spy. Varieties of less importance are Baldwin, Ben
Davis and Wealthy. The district is best known for its Mc-
Intosh, Northern Spy and Fameuse production.

Champlain orchards are in the main much younger than
those in other parts of Vermont and New York. The-
Grand Isle plantings, largely McIntosh, are particularly
young. Although great damage was done to the whole
Champlain district by the severe winter of 1917-1918, the
young plantings will no doubt soon make up for this loss
and bring the production up to normal. McIntosh trees
survived the severe winter better than any other variety, a

36 The Commercial Apple Industry

fact which will stimulate their planting to an even greater

degree.
NEW JERSEY

The commercial apple production of New Jersey orig-
inates largely in Burlington, Camden and Gloucester coun-
ties in the southwestern part of the state and in Monmouth
County in the northeast. The southwestern apple counties

of New Jersey are all within easy access by truck to Phil- :

adelphia, while Monmouth County production reaches New
York City easily by rail.

In former years, plantings in the western and north-
western part of the state along the Pennsylvania border
were responsible for a considerable production of winter
apples, but this region has declined in importance in re-
cent years. The new orchards in New Jersey are made up
largely of summer varieties. The varieties of importance
in Monmouth County are Ben Davis, Winesap, Graven-
stein, English Codling, Wealthy, Twenty Ounce, Olden-
burg and Red Astrachan. For the counties in the south-
western part of the state, Starr, Early Ripe, Williams
Early Red and Yellow Transparent predominate, while
Winesap and Stayman are favorite late varieties,

Considerable interest in apple-growing is being taken in
the group of counties near Philadelphia, of which Burling-
ton, Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland are most im-
portant. Considerable planting is being done and much
young acreage is to be found in these counties. Riverton,
Moorestown and Burlington are towns about which many
commercial orchards are located. :

The early apple crop, which makes up such a large por-
tion of the New Jersey production, is shipped largely in
five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets. A small part of the

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 37

crop moves out in barrels, but the five-eighths-bushel basket
is popular for winter as well as summer varieties. The
commercial apple production for New Jersey is increasing,
due to the greater output from the group of southwestern
counties, including Burlington, Camden, Gloucester and
Cumberland counties.

The average commercial production for the state is esti-
mated at about 500,000 barrels, of which a considerable
percentage is made up of early varieties. The commercial
apple sections in New Jersey are very favorably located
with respect to markets and the future of the industry in
this state seems bright.

DELAWARD (PLATE III)

The apple section in Delaware is really more or less of
a continuation of the New Jersey district. Varieties,
methods of marketing and even soil conditions are very
much the same. The commercial apple orchards of Dela-
ware are principally in Kent and Sussex counties.
‘Plantings are intensive about the towns of Wyoming and
Bridgeville. The average production for the state is
nearly 200,000 barrels, much of this being made up of
early varieties which are entirely off the market by
August Ist.

The early apple industry in Delaware proved profitable,
especially during the few years prior to 1919, and at the
present time it is experiencing a marked growth. Many
new and very large orchards are being set out. Williams
Early Red, Red Astrachan, Yellow Transparent and Early
Ripe are particularly popular among the early varieties,
while Stayman leads among the late varieties.

Large orchards are not uncommon in Delaware, there

38 The Commercial Apple Industry

being several commercial orchards, over 500 acres in
size. For the most part, these large tracts are carefully
and systematically managed, although many have not yet
attained full bearing.

Delaware growers ship practically all their early fruit
in five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets, particularly the
former, while the late apples are usually barreled. Dela-
ware is primarily devoted to the production of early var-
ieties and this has brought about its prominence in the
commercial apple industry. Much of the acreage is young
and an increased production is to be expected.

SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT

The Shenandoah-Cumberland district is the term applied
to that section of Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia and’
Pennsylvania which is included in the Shenandoah: and
' Cumberland valleys. This region has somewhat recéntly
come into prominence and is yet only approaching its max-
imum production. By mentioning Frederick County,
Virginia; Berkeley County, West Virginia; Washington
County, Maryland; Franklin and Adams counties, Penn-
sylvania; and counties in close proximity to these, a more
or less compact region is defined which rivals western
irrigated districts in intensity and exceeds New England
in normal production.. A full or normal crop for the
Shenandoah-Cumberland would be over 3,000,000 barrels.

The two towns about which the apple industry of this
region centers are Martinsburg, West Virginia, and
Winchester, Virginia. Other important apple towns are
Staunton, Virginia, Chambersburg, Biglerville and
Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, and Hancock, Maryland.
The counties of Berkeley, West Virginia, and. Frederick,

VP me 7 2

PLatTe III.— (1) A typical commercial apple orchard in the
Missouri Valley, Kansas. (2) A fifteen-year old Newtown or-
chard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. (3) Red Astra-
chan orchard in Delaware. Trees are too high and difficult to
harvest. 2, 7

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 39

Virginia, rank among the highest producing counties in
the country. Each is capable of yielding over a half
million barrels of high quality fruit in good crop years.
Augusta County, Virginia, has an enormous acreage of
young trees and will soon rival these counties in produc-
tion. Franklin and Adams counties, Pennsylvania, with
but 20 to 30 per cent of their trees in bearing, produce a
quarter million barrels each annually and their production
is rapidly increasing. The same is true of Washington
County, Maryland.

The York Imperial is the leading variety for the Shen-
andoah-Cumberland and the Ben Davis is second in import-
ance. Grimes Golden, Stayman, Black Twig, Delicious
and Yellow Transparent have been planted extensively.
The York Imperial represents fully 40 per cent and Ben
Davis about 20 per cent of the regional production.
Stayman and Delicious will increase in commercial pro-
duction in the upper Shenandoah Valley and particularly
in Augusta County. Stayman yields are increasing very
rapidly in Pennsylvania, particularly Adams and Frank-
lin counties.

The average orchard in the Shenandoah-Cumberland is
fully twenty years younger than those in New York. Most
of the orchards have not yet reached maximum bearing;
in fact a very large percentage of the trees are not in
bearing at all; particularly is this true for Shenandoah,
Rockingham and Augusta counties, Virginia, where enorm-
ous acreages are just coming into bearing.

“Taken as a whole, the commercial apple plantings in the
Shenandoah*Cumberland represent one of the most promis-
ing regions in the country. The trees are young, and rela-
tively free frpm disease; the yields are high; plantings

1
I
'

west. &

40 The Commercial Apple Industry

are centralized; and possibilities are strong for a rapidl
increasing production. Practically all of the apples ar
shipped out in barrels, largely to northern markets. .
greater relative increase in production may be expecte
from this district than from any other outside.of the Nortl

PIEDMONT DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA (PLATE IZ)

In total production several regions excel the Piedmon
of Virginia, but in historic interest and beauty it is unsui
passed. The Piedmont region extends from Patric
County in’ the southern part of Virginia, north along th
eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Potoma
at Loudoun County. This area includes the famous Albe
marle Pippin and old Winesap district of Virginia, whic
centers in the counties of Albemarle and Nelson. Othe
counties of importance are Franklin, Roanoke, Bedford
Amherst, Patrick, Rappahannock, Loudoun and Culpepper
The most intensive plantings are about the towns of Crozet
Afton, Covesville, in the heart of the Piedmont, and als
about Roanoke, Salem, and Stuart farther south.

The Albemarle Pippin plantings for which the Pied
mont is famous are found largely in the old orchards, par
ticularly those in the Rock Fish Valley in Nelson Count)
and about Covesville, Crozet and Charléttesville in Albe
marle County. Pippin plantings also occur in the eastert
part of Nelson County and farther south through Amherst.
Bedford, and as far as the Bent Mountain district in Roa
noke County. Most of these Albemarle Pippin plantings
of the Piedmont are well advanced in age and only a few
young trees are coming on to replace them.

While the Piedmont has been best known for its Albe

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 41

marle Pippins for more than a century and a half, the old
Winesap is more widely grown and is produced in greater
commercial quantities than any other variety. York Im-
perial represents from 15 to 20 per cent of the regional
production, while Stayman and Black Twig occur in some
commercial plantings. The age of the Piedmont orchards
varies from a few years to a century. The oldest trees in
profitable bearing are those of the Albemarle Pippin or
Newtown variety which was highly prized in the English
markets a century ago. On account of late bearing and
susceptibility to bitter-rot, this variety is less popular in
the newer plantings. Principal commercial plantings
average from fifteen to twenty years of age and lean rather
strongly to Winesap, Stayman and York Imperial. A full
crop for this region would be about 800,000 barrels but
the average is not much over 500,000 barrels.

Piedmont orchards are distinctly mountainous in char-
acter, most of them being situated on hill or mountain
sides. They are somewhat difficult to work and harvesting
operations are expensive. Practically all the fruit is
barreled and moves to outside markets, there being little
home trade. Many of the York Imperials and Albemarle
Pippins are exported. While annual yields do not gener-
ally equal those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland on the
west, higher quality varieties are grown and better prices
are received. Among the disadvantages to be considered
in this region is the prevalence of bitter-rot. Root-rot has
also caused considerable loss and the growers find it impos-
sible to control.

A considerable acreage of young trees will attain full
bearing soon after 1920 and the production of this section
will doubtless be increased. High quality fruit and a

42 The Commercial Apple Industry

progressive spirit among its growers insures growth and
development of the apple industry in the Piedmont.

MINOR REGIONS IN PENNSYLVANIA, WEST VIRGINIA
AND VIRGINIA

Aside from the important apple regions described, a
number of minor regions throughout Pennsylvania, West
Virginia and Virginia are worthy of mention.

In the northeastern part of Pennsylvania, particularly
in Luzerne and Lycoming counties, are considerable com-
mercial apple plantings of Baldwin, Northern Spy and
Rhode Island Greening. These conform more to the type
of orchards in western New York than to those in Penn-
sylvania’s leading apple region in the Cumberland Valley
district.

Outside of the eastern Panhandle section included in the
Shenandoah-Cumberland region already described, there
are no extensive commercial apple plantings in West Vir-
ginia except in Hancock County which is situated at the tip
of the northern Panhandle which extends northward be-
tween Pennsylvania and Ohio. This was originally the
most important commercial apple district in West Vir-
ginia, but it has long since been eclipsed by the great
development in Berkeley and surrounding counties. The
important variety grown in Hancock County is the Willow
Twig, well known on the Pittsburg markets. The or-

chards are for the most part old and increased commercial — _.

production seems unlikely.

In southwestern Virginia there are many commercial
orchards. This district is not included in either the
Shenandoah-Cumberland or Piedmont region. The var-

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 43

ieties grown are Winesap, York Imperial, Rome Beauty,
Stayman, Lowry, Virginia Beauty and Delicious.

MOUNTAIN REGION OF NORTH CAROLINA

The mountain district of North Carolina is more or less
a continuation of the Virginia Piedmont. Apples have
been grown in the mountains of western North Carolina
for many years; it is said that many of the old plantings
were for the purpose of producing apples to be used
in the manufacture of apple brandy. Certainly a great
many of the old orchards are located in relatively inaccess-

-ible and remote localities. It is doubtful whether more

}

than 5 per cent: of the North Carolina apple acreage has
ever been sprayed.

When the manufacture of apple brandy was discon-
tinued, it was found that there was a market for apples in
their fresh state and at the present time many thousand
bushels of fruit produced on the old unsprayed orchards
are hauled down the mountain-sides in wagons to find their .
way to the market in bulk. Improved cultural practices
are being adopted more and more each year.

Apple orchards are planted in the western part of North
Carolina, extending from Surry County, bordering on

Patrick County, Virginia, on the north, almost to the

extreme southwestern corner of the state. North Carolina
apple orchards represent two distinct types. While for
the most part the older trees are neglected and unsprayed,
there are very intensive and strictly commercial plantings
in a few localities, such as in Surry Comnty in the vicinity

of Mt. Airy in the northwestern part of the state. A little

farther south other commercial plantings have been set out

44 The Commercial Apple Industry

in the vicinity of Taylorsville and Wilkesboro. The dried
apple industry has assumed considerable proportions in
this locality.

The most progressive apple section in North Carolina
is in Haywood County near Waynesville. Here a con-
siderable number of strictly commercial apple orchards
have been set out, which are responsible for the increasing
commercial output of this section. A third important
commercial region is in Polk and Henderson counties in
the vicinity of Saluda and Hendersonville.

While most of the North Carolina apple crop is handled
in bulk, the product from the later commercial plantings is
nearly all barreled, and finds a ready sale at good prices
in southern markets. In addition to the apple counties
already named, some commercial planting is found in
Watauga, Madison, Rutherford, Alexander, and Jackson
counties.

The leading variety of the old orchards is the Limber-
twig of which there are several types, including the Royal
or Brushy Mountain Limbertwig. Winesap, Stayman,
Delicious, and Arkansas (Black Twig) are among the new
varieties predominating in the younger plantings. Pro
duction of these varieties will increase materially. The
Limbertwig, although a very good apple, owes its early
popularity to the fact that it is a late keeper. Better
known and higher quality varieties are supplanting the
Limbertwig in the younger orchards. It is quite apparent
that the strictly commercial production of apples from
North Carolina will be increased materially when the
young plantings attain full bearing. Surry County in the
northwest central part of the state, and Haywood County

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 45

in the western part, will be the main centers of commer-
cial production.

A full crop for western North Carolina at this time
would not exceed 300,000 barrels of commercial apples,
of which the larger part would be sold in bulk.

MOUNTAIN REGION OF GEORGIA

While not as yet representing great commercial pro-
duction, an apple region is developing in the extreme north-
eastern part of Georgia which is of particular interest
since most of its fruit is boxed. Strictly speaking, the
commercial apple district in Georgia includes but two
counties: Rabun and Habersham, in the extreme north-
eastern part of the state. Habersham County is the more
important of the two and has experienced a period of
heavy planting, which promises a greatly increased com-
mercial output. A single orchard in this region ships as
many as 40,000 packed boxes of apples in a season, which
is a large boxed apple crop for any orchard East or West,
but more particularly the East where boxing of apples is
little practiced. H.R. State, whose orchard is one of the
finest and most profitable for its size in Georgia, had much
to do with the early development of this region. The most
intensive apple plantings are about the towns of Cornelia,
Demorest, Tallulah Falls and Clarksville.

The leading variety in northeast Georgia is the Yates,
which seems particularly adapted to the southern climatic
and soil conditions, and has proved very popular on account
of its heavy annual bearing habit. Other varieties of
commercial importance are Terry’s Winter, Stayman
‘Winesap, Black Twig, Shockley and Winesap. Delicious

46 The Commercial Apple Industry

appears prominently in newer plantings. The Limber-
twig and Nickajack are found in the older orchards, but
are not common in newer ones. A very large percentage
of the commercial plantings in both Rabun and Haber-
sham counties have been made since 1910.

This region enjoys close proximity to the southern
markets, and for that reason a good outlet for its fruit is
assured. Several very favorable tracts of land have been
set to apple trees in northeast Georgia and while for the
most part these orchards are promising and well cared for,
it is unfortunate that some unworthy promotion schemes .
have been planned for the exploitation rather than the
development of the apple industry in this region. Most
of the trees not yet being in full bearing, it is difficult to
state the possible output; the largest crop year prior to
1919 ‘included over 100,000 bushels of boxed apples, as
well as considerable quantities shipped in bulk.. A greatly.
increased production may be expected.

OHIO

Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district.

The Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district is fairly well-
defined and centralized and has come into prominence since
1910. The most important plantings in this region are
in Lawrence, Gallia, Meigs, Athens and Washington coun-
ties, bordering on the Ohio River, Lawrence and Washing-
ton being particularly noteworthy. Extensive plantings
occur about the towns of Marietta, Proctorville and Gal-
lipolis.

Apple land of this region’is mountainous in character,
and the orchards are very often isolated and more or less

Leading Apple Regions of the United States AY

inaccessible. On account of the rolling character of the
land, orchard operations are somewhat difficult. In many
cases terraces have been made to facilitate the operation
of power spray outfits. It is common to find the orchards
situated on the tops of the hills. Trees are set close
together and do not attain the size of those in most eastern
regions. Orchards for the most part are under twenty-
five years of age. A lack of symmetry is noticeable in
some commercial plantings on account of missing and
varying sized trees. Much of the fruit is ferried across
the Ohio River to Huntington and Parkersburg on the
West Virginia side. These cities, together with Marietta
in Ohio, are the principal distribution centers for the
southern Ohio crop.

With the exception of some summer varieties which
are often sold in bulk in nearby markets, most of the
apples are barreled. The commercial production of the
region has reached 750,000 barrels in certain years.
Rome Beauty, the leading variety, originated in southern
Ohio and is especially adapted to this section. Ben Davis,
Grimes, York Imperial, Oldenburg and Yellow Trans-
parent are among other important varieties grown com-
mercially, of these Ben Davis and Grimes being most
widely grown.

The average annual yields in this region are rather
small and unless planting proceeds more rapidly than for
thé period 1915 to 1919, no greatly increased production

can. be expected.

. « Minor regions in Ohao.
Columbiana County in the eastern part of Ohio is a

rather important apple county with a number of old

48 The Commercial Apple Industry

orchards, many of which are not very well taken care of.
The leading varieties are Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis,
Hubbardston and Flushing Spitzenburg, the latter known
commercially only in this locality.

In northern Ohio along the lake belt, particularly in
Ottawa, Sandusky, Huron and Erie counties, are some-

what limited apple plantings consisting largely of Baldwin,

Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, MeIn-
tosh, and Duchess.

Farther south in Ohio, about midway between the south-
ern Rome Beauty section and Lake Erie is another small
apple district consisting of more or less scattered plant-
ings about Chillicothe. Early varieties such as Yellow
Transparent figure in the production of this locality. .

KENTUCKY

For many years Kentucky has been credited with a very
large apple production. However, this is for the most
part non-commercial and originates almost entirely in old
neglected orchards. The strictly commercial apple plant-
ings of Kentucky are largely in Henderson County on the
Ohio River just south of Evansville, Indiana. The apple
industry has not attained very great proportions even
here, although there are a number of important plantings
and the orchards are generally well taken care of. The
leading varieties are Winesap, Stayman, and Ben Davis,
although there are considerable plantings of early kinds.
In some years the total production of this small section
reaches 40,000 barrels, although it is more commonly
under 30,000 barrels of strictly commercial apples. The
industry is being fostered in this section and further
growth seems probable.

aaa

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 49

MICHIGAN

Commercial apple-growing has been an important enter-
prise in Michigan for forty years or more. While apple
plantings are not confined to any one county or group of
counties, they are centralized in the region bordering on
the eastern‘ shore of Lake Michigan where the tempering
influence of the lake favors the culture of many deciduous
fruits. Some of the soils in this region are extremely
sandy and are more particularly adapted to peach-growing
than to apple-culture. A large portion of land, however,
is a sandy clay loam, we]l suited to apples.

The region is known as the western Michigan fruit belt
and extends from Berrien County on the south to Che
boygan County on the north. The most important apple
counties of this region are Van Buren, Allegan, Kent, Ber-
rien, Oceana and Grand Traverse. Apple plantings are
also found in adjoining counties and widely scattered
throughout most of the lower peninsula of Michigan.
Some of the oldest orchards in the state are in the south
and southeastern counties, but the importance of this re-
gion has given way to the newer plantings, particu-
larly in the northern end of the western Michigan fruit
belt.

Production for western Michigan in a full crop year
would approximate 1,200,000 barrels or about 75 per cent
of the total commercial apple production of the state of
Michigan. The plantings in the southern part of the belt
suffered severe loss from San José scale, while those in the
northern part are much younger and have experienced less
injury from scale. There has undoubtedly been a decline
in the production in Michigan as compared with 1910.

50 The Commercial Apple Industry

However, with the young orchards just coming into bear-
ing and with better care being given to the older trees, it
seems highly probable that this loss will be made up within
the next few years.

The leading variety grown in western Michigan is the
Baldwin, which comprises over one-fourth of the total pro-
duction. Northern Spy and Oldenburg (Duchess) each
represents about 14 per cent of the total production. Ac-
cording to a recent survey, varieties next in order of im-
portance are Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Wealthy,
Ben Davis, and Jonathan; the last named being prominent
in the newer orchards of Van Buren, Allegan and Berrien
counties. Ben Davis is outstanding in the older orchards
in the southernmost counties. Oldenburg (Duchess) and
Wealthy are the leading summer and fall varieties.

Most of the apples of this region are packed out in
barrels and a large proportion of the crop is marketed in
Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities nearby.
Producing communities situated close to cities market
much of their apple crop by wagon or truck, crates and
bushel baskets figuring in this movement. An increased
interest in the apple industry in western Michigan is
evidenced in better cultural and marketing methods.
Codperative associations are-increasing in prominence in
many localities.

ILLINOIS.

r
Illinois occupies a position of Sates cael

in the commercial production of apples. Soil conditions
generally throughout the entire state are very well adapted
to apple-growing, and nearly every county has a consider-

able acreage of trees.

ve"

Strictly commercN] areas are largel
southern part of the $ POM 8
three fairly well-defined rept extreme ‘south-
ern portion; (2) the Mississippi Valley region centering
about Pike and Calhoun counties; (3) the southeastern
part of the state, centering in Marion County.

Illinois is probably under-estimated from a commercial
standpoint. New orchards coming into bearing, and the
renovation ‘of old ones have combined in making this the
most important middle western apple state. Its central
location and proximity to market serve as distinct
advantages.

Southern Illinois early apple region.

The extreme southern or early apple section in Illinois
may be defined to include the eleven southernmost coun-
ties, but only Union and Johnson are of great commercial
importance. These counties probably comprise one of the
most important early apple-producing sections in the
United States. J. C. B. Heaton of New Burnside is one
of the persons largely responsible for the early develop-
ment of this industry. Good returns for apples have
Stimulated planting and an increasing production may be
expected from this region.

The principal early varieties are Yellow Transparent,
Duchess of Oldenburg, Benoni, Red June, Chenango and
Sops of Wine. Summer varieties comprise nearly three-
fourths of the total production.

Prominent among winter varieties are Winesap, Ben
Davis, Gano, Jonathan, and Rome Beauty. Early apples
. dre shipped in baskets to Chicago, St. Louis and other
nearby cities. The shipping season for these apples

52 The Commercial Apple Industry

begins the last week -in June and is usually over by
August first. Winter apples are sold either in bulk or
in barrels,

In some ways this extreme southern portion of Illinois
is a continuation of the Ozark uplift. The country is
somewhat mountainous and unlike northern Illinois.
The soil is rather thin and in general well suited for the
quick early growth of summer varieties.

Mississippi Valley region of Illinois.

Adams, Pike and Calhoun counties bordering on the
Mississippi River are responsible for the heavy produc-
tion of apples in western Illinois. Calhoun leads in ton-
nage shipped and a large part of its output goes down the
Mississippi River by boat.

Conditions are dissimilar to those in the early apple
region in the southern part of the state. With the excep-
tion of Calhoun and Pike counties, land in western
Illinois is more typical of the prairie states. Calhoun
County apple production is being more than maintained
by new plantings. While the total acreage in the other
counties may have suffered more or less decrease from
1910 to 1918, a greater interest generally is exhibited
among the leading and strictly commercial growers.
Nearly 90 per cent of the acreage in this section is
sprayed, while for the state as a whole it is doubtful
whether 25 per cent of the acreage is sprayed.

Leading varieties for this region are Ben Davis, Gano,
Jonathan, Grimes, Willow Twig and Winesap. Ben
Davis and Willow Twig predominate. Practically all
commercial apples are shipped in barrels, ‘%

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 53

Southeastern Illinois.

The Marion County district in southeast Illinois is
sometimes spoken of as the Flora section, since Flora
is the principal shipping point and_one of the important
apple centers in the state. Clay, Richland, Wayne, Ef-
fingham and Jasper counties are also included in this
general region. Marion County was at one time credited
as leading in the state in total number of trees, but in
recent years has suffered heavily from loss in trees.
Practically all of the orchards are of bearing age and
very few trees are coming into bearing to replace a great
percentage which passed out prior to 1918. Neglect, old
age, and infection with disease and insects, notably San
José scale, have exacted a heavy toll. Some commercial
growers are maintaining their orchards, but it is doubtful
whether over 50 per cent of the total acreage is sprayed
at all. Yields throughout this section are generally low.

Most of the apples are sold in bulk; the remainder in
barrels. Ben Davis is the leading commercial variety and
represents over half of the total production. Jonathan,
Winesap, Rome Beauty and Grimes Golden are less ex-
tensively grown. Of the summer varieties which prob-
ably represent 15 per cent of the total production, Benoni,
Transparent, Duchess and Wealthy are important. Con-
sidered as a whole, Illinois is one of the few if not the
only middle western state to maintain its commercial
production in the face of a general decline in apple
acreage throughout the Middle West during the period
1905 to 1918. Of its three commercial apple regions,
two are showing increased production. High production
is possible with good care and it seems probable. that

54 The Commercial Apple Industry

Illinois will remain the leading apple state of the Middle
West for some years to come.

OZARK REGION

The Ozark region in southern Missouri and northwest-
ern Arkansas is one of the best known apple sections in
the United States, although in production it ranks third
among the four important Middle West districts.

Essentially it is a Ben Davis region, since this variety
and Gano represent over 65 per cent of its plantings, and
an even greater proportion of its production. During the
decade 1890 to 1900, the entire Ozark region experienced
an era of planting unequalled in any other section of the
country. Prices for apples in the late eighties stimulated
and encouraged plantings, and the good yields produced
by the Ozark orchards then in bearing afforded excellent
returns. The over-planting which occurred in the
nineties resolved itself into somewhat of a land-selling
boom, a repetition of which was experienced in the west-
ern states from 1900 to 1910. Thousands of acres of
both suitable and unsuitable land throughout the Ozarks
have been set to. trees, but of this great acreage only
a portion has been cared for and much has been neglected
and abandoned. The Ozark region includes some of the
best and some of the worst orchards in the country. A
period of late spring frosts in 1900 to 1910, when a num-
ber of consecutive crops were lost or severely damaged,
contributed to the lack of care accorded to many of these
trees. .

A full crop for the entire Ozark region would probably
not exceed 1,600,000 barrels. Arkansas’ contribution to
the Ozark apple production originates almost entirely in

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 55

two counties, Benton and Washington, situated in the ex-
treme northwestern part of the state. Madison, Boone,
Carroll and Crawford counties in Arkansas are of much
less importance. Bentonville and Rogers in Benton
County, and Springdale and Lincoln in Washington
County are important apple centers in Arkansas.

In Missouri the commercial apple plantings of the
Ozarks continue from the extreme southwestern part of
the state, along the Frisco Railway to the northeast’ as
far as Crawford County. Lawrence, Greene, followed by
Newton, Barry, Webster and Howell, are the most impor-
tant Missouri counties in the Ozark region. Marionville
in Lawrence County is the center of the best orchard sec-

‘tion in southern Missouri. Orchards in the vicinity of
this town illustrate the possibilities to be attained in the
Ozark region. , y

Probably -no other commercial apple district in the
United States has suffered such a loss in trees as has
the Ozark since 1910. Conservative estimates place the
loss at more than 50 per cent, much of which has been
due to blister-canker. With such conditions prevailing,
one is not surprised in finding two very divergent types
of orchards. There are the old, neglected dying orchards
which have received practically no care while in some
communities a revival of interest has brought many or-
chards into a high state of cultivation and profitable bear-
ing. - In such counties as Texas in the extreme southern
part of Missouri are orchards which look almost like virgin
forests, branches interlock, trees are unsprayed, unpruned
and uncared for. The price of the land is established by
its value for general crops, less the cost of removing the

neglected trees.

56 The Commercial Apple Industry

Orchards in the Ozark region vary from a few acres to
over 100 in size, many of them being from 30 to 100
acres in extent. Large orchards discourage intensive cul-
tural methods and yields tend to be low and biennial as
trees grow older. In some localities there is a progres-
sive element in the farming population, evidenced by
greater attention given to orchard management. Despite
this revival of interest it is doubtful whether over 35
per cent of the trees in the Ozark region are ever sprayed,
with a result that not more than 35 per cent of the total
acreage can be considered as strictly commercial.

As stated above, Ben Davis and Gano represent over 65
per cent of the Ozark production. Jonathan, Ingram,
Maiden Blush, Grimes, York Imperial, Collins and Ar-
kansas Black are found in limited plantings, more partic-
ularly in younger acreage.

More than half of the production from this region is
shipped in bulk, only the better grades and the higher
quality varieties being shipped in barrels. It must be re-
membered, however, that the bulk production competes
directly with the barreled stock and is frequently not in-
ferior in quality.

MISSOURI RIVER REGION (PLATE II)

Important commercial apple plantings of Towa,
Nebraska, Kansas and northern Missouri are at the in-
tersection of these four states, in what is known as the
Loess Apple Belt, along the Missouri River in north-
western Missouri, southwestern JIowa, southeastern
Nebraska, and northeastern Kansas. This section has
been placed in a district by itself, since the important

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 5Y

plantings are centralized in a well known and fairly well
defined commercial region.

The most extensive apple plantings in the Missouri
River region are in Buchanan County in the vicinity of
St. Joseph in northwestern -Missouri, and across the Mis-
souri River in Doniphan County in northeastern Kansas.
Towa and .Nebraska plantings are of less importance
although the Missouri River region properly includes
small corners of the above two states. In Nebraska,
Nemaha and Richardson are two important counties, while
across the Missouri River, Fremont, Mills and Pottawa-
tomie counties lead in the commercial production for Iowa.

All of the counties named border on the Missouri River
and with several other counties in close proximity, com-
prise a fairly compact region which extends into four states
and has a normal production of nearly 2,000,000 barrels,
which is greater than can be credited to the Ozark region.
Ben Davis and Gano comprise approximately 50 per cent
of the production from the Missouri River district, while
Jonathan, Winesap, Arkansas (Black Twig) and Missouri
Pippin trees-have been extensively planted, particularly in
the younger orchards. A large part of the crop moves out
in bulk as is the casé in the Ozarks.

Doniphan County, Kansas, deserves particular mention
as one of the most important and highly commercial
counties in the Middle West. Community spirit has
stimulated development of the apple industry and extensive
plantings are found in the vicinity of Wathena and Troy.
A high percentage of the yield of Doniphan County is
barreled and more of the trees are sprayed than in prob-
ably any other middle western apple section. Carload
shipments from Doniphan County alone have amounted

_—

58 The Commercial Apple Industry

to more than 1,000 cars for a single season. In most
instances the orchards reflect the careful attention which
always insures a high state of productiveness. :

Orchards in northwest Missouri are older, have a larger
proportion of Ben Davis trees and in the main have re-
ceived less attention than those on the Kansas side.
Buchanan County on the Missouri River ranks,among the
foremost, if not'the foremost apple county in Missouri,
and yet it is doubtful whether 50 per cent of the trees
are sprayed. While Buchanan County has been singled
out on account of its central location and relative impor-
tance, other counties in northwest Missouri, including
Nodaway, Holt, Jackson and Lafayette, are of almost
equal importance.

The orchards in the Missouri River region are more
uniform in type than those in the Ozarks and are, as a
whole, better cared for. There are many old neglected
orchards in northwest Missouri, but these are fast going
out and the production from strictly commercial orchards
promises to dominate the output of the region. The great-
est increase in production may be expected from the young
plantings in Kansas, many of which are just coming into
bearing.

Outside of the intensive commercial apple regions, the
Middle West has suffered a tremendous loss in trees.
However, most of these were in the farm orchards and it
is felt that such regions as the Missouri River or loess
soil region will serve to maintain the commercial produc-
tion of the Middle West at some point near its present fig-
ure. It must be remembered that apple-growing along the
Missouri River has never reached the intensity of many
other regions. General farming with here and there a

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 59

commercial orchard describes the general farm manage-
ment scheme. As may be expected, where apple-growing
is only one of a number of enterprises, the general care
given orchards is not as highly intensive as in some sec-
tions. Commercial production at the present time comes
from a comparatively few well-cared-for orchards.
;
ARKANSAS VALLEY OF KANSAS

The Arkansas River Valley in south central Kansas
is a distinct region which requires separate treatment.
Apple plantings in this valley are confined largely to the
sandy loam soil along the river and are in Reno, Sedg-
wick, Sumner and Cowley counties. Not all the valley
land is suited to apples and plantings are spotted. Many
of the orchards are irrigated with water pumped from
wells and it is the only section east of Colorado in which
irrigation is practiced in the growing of apples.

. Heavy plantings were made in the period 1907 to
1910 and this region will be of. increasing importance as
trees attain full bearing. Winesap and Ben Davis are
the leading varieties, while Jonathan, Black Twig, Gano,
York Imperial, Grimes and Rome Beauty are of less
importance. On account of irrigation and other farm
management practices in vogue, the Arkansas Valley has
more in common with the western irrigated districts than
with the typical Middle West sections. Furthermore,
while bulk shipments represent a large portion of the
cfop, a considerable percentage of the output is marketed
in boxes. No barreling is done. A full crop from this
region would be equivalent to about 250,000 barrels at
present. Increased production may be expected.

60 The Commercial Apple Industry

COLORADO

Colorado stands out prominently as the most important
apple state in the inter-mountain district. Practically the
entire commercial apple crop of Colorado is produced on
the western slope of the Rockies, in the Grand and Gunni-
son valleys. The Grand Valley, extending in either
direction from Grand Junction, in Mesa County, for a.
distance of about twelve miles, is the most highly developed
district in the state. This valley is comparable in many
ways with typical northwest apple districts, being essen-
tially boxed apple-producing, relying on irrigation, and
employing northwest methods of culture and farm man-
agement.

Heaviest planting in the Grand Valley was in the
period 1905-1910. Practically no planting occurred
between 1912 and 1918. In 1918 there were about
10,250 acres of apples, of which 7,500 were over ten
years of age. Alkali outcroppings in certain parts of
the valley caused a considerable loss in acreage, amounting
to probably 2,000 or 3,000 acres. It is possible that
further decreases in acreage will occur and yet increased
bearing capaeity of the remaining acreage will doubtless
bring about increased production. The principal ship-
ping stations in Mesa County are Grand Junction, Fruita
and Clifton.

The Grand Valley, while primarily an apple section, is
not exclusively apple-producing. Nearly half of its fruit
acreage consists of other fruits than apples. Peach and
pear plantings, with smaller acreages of cherries and
plums, represent in the aggregate nearly as extensive
acreage as the apple. In the vicinity of Palisades, some

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 61

ten miles from Grand J unction, is the famous Elberta:
peach section, which has shipped 1,000 cars of peaches
in a single season.

The Grand Valley did not escape inflation. In fact,
difficulties with irrigation systems and outcropping of
alkali have brought this district its full share of troubles.
In recent years the codlin-moth has become a most serious
menace. In one respect, however, notably proximity to
markets, Colorado has the advantage of states farther west.
It is particularly adapted to the growing of Jonathan
apples, which comprise nearly a third of its production.
Winesap, Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Rome
Beauty are among the other important varieties. The
northwest box is used almost exclusively for the packed
fruit, although bulk shipments figure more prominently in
Colorado than in any other of the leading western apple
states. Codperative marketing has been an important
factor in the development of this district.

The western slope of Colorado includes two other apple
districts, one in Delta and the other in Montrose County,
both of less importance than the Grand Valley. In Delta
County the apple acreage is in Gunnison Valley, with
heaviest plantings at Hotchkiss and Paonia. The Uncom-
pahgre, a branch of the Gunnison, supplies water for the
orchard plantings in Montrose County which centers about
the town of Montrose. Both of these districts are irri-
gated and conditions conform largely to those given for
the Grand Valley. Varieties are very much the same,
although less attention is given to other fruits.

On the eastern slope, the Canyon City district in Fre-
mont County, along the Arkansas Valley, is the only other
apple section of importance in the state. A distinctive

62 The Commercial Apple Industry

feature of Colorado commercial apple plantings is that
they occur at an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea
level,

NEW MEXICO:

The Pecos Valley in Chaves County is the coming
apple district in New Mexico, and is one of the important
sections of the inter-mountain states. Over half of New
Mexico’s commercial apple crop is produced in’ Chaves
County. Heaviest plantings are in the vicinity of Ros-
well, Greenfield, Dexter and Hagerman. The latter lies
thirty miles south of Roswell along the Pecos River.
County assessor’s figures indicate about 4,500 acres of
trees planted before 1910 and about 2,500 acres planted
1910 to 1919. Little planting has been made since 1912.

Ben Davis and Gano are the principal varieties, with
Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Black Twig, York
Imperial and Arkansas Black among the less important.

The northwest box is the common package for this
district, although bulk shipments are important. Less
care is taken in grading and packing the boxed fruit than
in the Northwest and much of the crop is jumble packed.
The Texas farming section immediately to the east affords
an outlet for most of the Pecos apple crop. Jonathans
come on the market earlier than in most sections, and -
for that reason Pecos apples have priority in Texas
markets. A marked increase in production may be
expected from this section. Heavy frosts are not infre-
quent and have checked the normal increase in production.
While 600 or 700 cars has been the largest production
of this valley to date, a decided increase may be expected.

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63

The only distinct apple region in New Mexico outside
of the Pecos Valley is known as the Farmington district
and is in San Juan County in the extreme northwestern
corner of the state. ‘The isolation of this region, com-
bined with poor railroad facilities, has checked its develop-
ment. Principal varieties are Gano, Jonathan, Romé
Beauty and Winesap.

UTAH

Commercial apple growing in Utah is largely confined
to irrigated valleys in Boxelder, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake,
and Utah counties, which lie along the eastern shores of
the Great Salt. Lake and Utah Lake, in north central
Utah. The most highly commercial districts are near
Provo in Utah, which has shipped as high as 300 cars
of apples in a year, and also near Tremonton in Box-
elder County. Both are irrigated and market their com-
mercial apples largely in boxes, although bulk shipments
are not uncommon.

Principal varieties for the Provo district are Jonathan,
Rome Beauty, Winesap, and Lawver; for the Tremonton
section Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan and Winesap. The
apple acreage in Utah County is approximately 5,000
acres, of which two-thirds was planted before 1910. Of
the 2,000 acres in apples in Boxelder County, most of
the trees were planted between 1906 and 1910. Local
consumption and nearby mining camps largely absorb the
production of Weber and Davis counties. Limited
increase in commercial production may be expected from
this state as the acreage increases in age. It is improb-
able that commercial shipments will exceed 1,000 cars
within the next few years.

64 The Commercial Apple Industry

MONTANA’

The Bitter Root Valley, extending south from Missoula
to Hamilton, Montana, at one time had an apple acreage
amounting to 23,000 acres. Most of this acreage was
represented in large projects which have since gone into
the hands of receivers and are being neglected. Probably
the greatest loss in acreage in any of the western districts
has occurred in the Bitter Root Valley. The McIntosh
apple is suited to this region but trees do not attain large
size nor is growth rapid. Yields are smaller than in
many other irrigated sections. The slump in apple pro-
motion struck the Bitter Root Valley at an inopportune
time, and as a result much of its acreage will be lost or
will not reach full commercial bearing.

WASHINGTON

Interest in apple production west of the Rockies centers
chiefly in the Pacifie Northwest and particularly in the
state of Washington. In 1917 and 1919 Washington
was the heaviest commercial apple-producing state in
the Union, taking precedence even over New York which,
on account of exceedingly light crops, dropped into second
place for those years. Washington must be credited with
over one-half of the total boxed apple production and in
an average year now ranks first in quantity of commer-
cial apples produced.

It is interesting to note the very rapid growth and
development of the apple industry in such regions as the
Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, which have recently come
into prominence and are largely responsible for Washing-
ton’s heavy production. Although very similar in many

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 65

respects, these two districts will be discussed separately on
account of their importance.

Yakima Valley.

The Yakima district is located in the south central part
of the state and includes approximately 40;000 acres of
apple plantings which are for the most part situated in the
valley land lying along the Yakima River and its tribu-
tary streams.

As stated in the history of the Yakima district, the first
commercial planting was made in this region about 1888
and as late as 1900 the total acreage of all orchard land
was not more than 3,000 acres, and the total production
did not exceed 200 carloads of fruit. Heaviest planting
occurred after 1900 and reached a climax about 1908.

Apple-growing is the principal industry in the Yakima
Valley and, as might be expected, intensive methods of cul-
tivation are practiced, every effort being directed at the
production of high marketable quality fruit. The average
fruit farm is under twenty acres and is devoted almost
exclusively to apples. Peaches and pears are grown in
lesser quantities and represent approximately 12 per cent
of the total fruit acreage of the county. In more recent
years greater diversification has been emphasized, with the
result that growers with larger acreages are planting sugar-
beets, potatoes and other crops.

The productivity and ideal climatic conditions of the
Yakima Valley attracted an unusually high type of settlers.
The community spirit and social conditions are unsur-
passed by those in any other apple. region. Good roads
have been constructed and excellent facilities for handling,
packing and storing the fruit are available. Probably

66 The Commercial Apple Industry

nowhere else in the country have scientific horticultural
methods been more assiduously practiced’ than in the
Yakima Valley. 5

The productivity of the Yakima orchards is very high.
Their annual yields are greater tHan those in any other
region with the exception of the Wenatchee district.

The average annual rainfall in the Yakima Valley is
under twelve inches, and irrigation is necessary. Millions
of dollars have been expended in irrigation projects
designed to bring water from the mountain streams and
fructify the otherwise desert land. A large part of the
acreage is watered from canals operated under the United
States Reclamation Service, although private projects are
also found. Water rights in some instances have cost as
high as $175.00 an acre; the average has been much lower,
however. Annual maintenance of the irrigation ditches
once installed often represents as much as $4.00 an acre.
When to these costs are added the high price for raw land
and the expense of bringing an orchard into bearing under
the most intensive care, some idea may be obtained of the
reason for high valuation of western irrigated orchards.
Two thousand dollars an acre has not been an uncommon
price for full bearing orchards. In some instances
unsuited land was planted and the district suffered from
over-development of ‘ boom ” projects.

The Yakima Valley is under a severe handicap by its
distance from consuming centers. It must rely on large
annual yields of high marketable apples for its survival.
Production has been rapidly increasing and reached 11,500
cars in 1919. Less than 25 per cent of the acreage was
over ten years of age in 1918 and an increased production
may be expected from this region in the next few years.

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 67

Winesap is the leading variety and in some years repre-
sents as high as one-half of the total production. Heavy
plantings have been made of J onathan, Ben Davis, Ronie
Beauty, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Yellow Newtown, De-
licious, Stayman, Gano and lesser plantings of Arkansas
(Black Twig), Baldwin, Wagener, Grimes Golden and
Arkansas Black. Probably in no other region is there a
larger list of extensively grown varieties and yet most of
those named are good commercial kinds well adapted to the
region.

Wenatchee North Central Washington district (Plate IV).

The Wenatchee Valley is included in what is commonly
spoken of as the North Central Washington fruit region.
‘Although less than fifty miles apart, the Yakima and
Wenatchee valleys are separated by a range of mountains
and there are no rail connections except by a very circuit-
ous route. These two very important fruit regions have
grown up almost simultaneously under very similar condi-
tions, vieing with each other in the production of high
marketable quality apples.

The Wenatchee Valley proper is in Chelan County,
although in speaking of the North Central Washington
district one commonly includes apple plantings along the
Columbia River and its tributaries, extending northward
from Wenatchee into Okanogan County. Annual rainfall
varies from, eight to fifteen inches and irrigation is neces-
sary.

The principal producing area of this region lies in the
‘Wenatchee Valley in the vicinity of the towns of Wenat-
chee, Monitor and Cashmere, and extends as far up the
valley as Leavenworth, the latter being situated at the

68 The Commercial Apple Industry

base of the Cascades. A very intensive region is in a
semi-circular area about the town of Wenatchee. There
is a considerable variation of altitude throughout the valley,
but most of the orchards are at an elevation of 700 to 1,000
feet.

_ The Wenatchee Valley is even more intensive and com-
pact than the Yakima Valley. Its development dates back
to about 1900, when the first large irrigation canal, later
known as the Wenatchee Highline Canal, was begun. The
planting of fruit-trees was more or less correlated with the
development of irrigation. The total apple acreage in
North Central Washington, including the Wenatchee Val-
ley and the upper Columbia, is approximately 40,000
acres. Some of this acreage is in Okanogan, Douglas and
Grant counties adjoining Chelan County on the east.
The shipments reached a maximum in 1919-1920 of
12,300 cars of 756 boxes each. \

The farms in general throughout the Wenatchee region
are small, most of them averaging not over fifteen acres
and many even less. Some large projects embrace as
many as several hundred acres each, but the region is not
adapted to the extensive type of pemonltane The two
‘ predominating limiting factors are the high price of land
and the small area of irrigable land. Peaches and pears
are grown in limited quantities and there is also a consider-
able acreage of alfalfa, but most of the latter occurs as an
inter- or shade crop in the apple orchards.

An intensive survey made by the authors in the Wenat-
chee Valley indicated an average investment to the acre
of nearly $2,000. It may be seen that with such a high
valuation only a highly specialized crop like apples can
ever be made to bring a sufficient return on the invest-

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 69

ment. It seems, then, that the Wenatchee Valley offers
less opportunity for diversification than almost any other
region in the United States. At the same time it is unsur-
passed in productivity and high marketable quality of its
fruit. The surveys indicate that of all the apple regions
of this country the highest annual yields and the highest
percentage of extra fancy and fancy fruit were produced
in the Wenatchee Valley. Like the Yakima Valley, the
Wenatchee district must rely on heavy yields and high
marketable quality fruit to overcome a severe handicap of
extreme distance from markets. ‘The possibility for
codperative movement among growers is explained by the
intensity of plantings and by excellent community spirit.

As in Yakima, the most intensive and careful orchard
practices are in use. The Wenatchee region is practically
free from fungus trouble, and with the exception of the
codlin-moth, which is a decided menace, is infested with
but few serious insect pests. In their early development,
the Wenatchee orchards were almost without exception com-
mitted to a practice of entire clean cultivation, without
either shade or cover-crops. More recently, as in all irri-
gated districts, the use of leguminous shade crops has
become common.

The highest production from the Wenatchee North Cen-
tral Washington district prior to 1919 was the crop of 1917
which amounted to approximately 8,500 cars of 756 boxes
each. At least 75 per cent of the acreage was under ten
years of age in 1918 and an increased production from
this region may be expected. Winesap, Jonathan, De
licious, Spitzenburg, Stayman, Rome and Yellow New-
town are listed in the order of their importance.

70 Commercial Apple Industry

Spokane district.

The third most important apple district in Washington
is in Spokane County and is commonly spoken of as the
Spokane apple district. Acreage of this county at one
time was nearly as great as that in Yakima, but the pro-
duction has never approached that of the latter. The
region was developed after the Yakima and Wenatchee dis-
tricts and considerable acreage of unsuited land was set in
trees. The most intensive plantings are in the Spokane
Valley west of Spokane, extending along the river for a
distance of twenty-five miles to the east. Production
from the county reached about 1,400 cars in 1920. <A con-
siderable increase in production may be expected, although
it seems probable that much of the acreage originally set
to trees, and particularly the trees on non-irrigated land,
will never attain full commercial bearing. The principal
varieties are Jonathan, Rome Beauty and Wagener.

Walla Walla district.

The Walla Walla district is the fourth important section
in Washington. It is largely an upland region of rolling
hills. Irrigation is not generally practiced. The produc-
tion has reached 1,000 cars in a single season. Much of
the acreage is not yet in full bearing and increasingly
large crops may be anticipated.

OREGON (PLATES III, Vv)

Hood River Valley.

Oregon apples have come into prominence largely
through the production from the very.well known Hood

d i

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QIGISIA LB SPILYOIO IAAT POOF] OY} JO YSOPY “WOLZOoS FINAF Aa[eA IaATY Pooyy oy} JO MILA —'A BLVIG

Leading Apple Regions of the United States val

River Valley, which stands out pre-eminently as the prin-
cipal apple-producing region in Oregon, and which must
be credited with approximately half of the state’s com-
mercial production. In many ways the Hood River Val-
ley is not comparable with the other western irrigated
regions. Instead of a dry arid climate, it has a rainfall
equaling that of New York. The trees have a different
habit of growth and lower average yields are obtained
than in most other apple sections of the Northwest.
Lighter yields are very largely accounted for by the fact
that Yellow Newtown and Esopus (Spitzenburg), well
known as high quality but rather shy bearing varieties,
predominate.

The development of the Hood River Valley occurred
simultaneously with, or slightly in advance of, that of the
Wenatchee and Yakima valleys. The Hood River district
lies almost entirely in Hood River County, the latter being
situated on the Columbia River at the northern boundary
of the state.* The valley is narrow, varying from two to
eight miles in width, and the cultivated area extends from
the town of Hood River, south to Parkdale in the upper
valley, a distance of about twenty-four miles. This region
is divided into what are known locally as the lower, middle
and upper valleys. The lower valley contains the most
bearing fruit and the greater percentage of tillable land.

The Hood River, a fast flowing mountain stream rising
at the foot of Mount Hood, divides the valley into the east
and west sides. The orchards are located on the benches
and rolling land on either side. For the most part, the
orchards are small and receive the same-cultural treatment
which prevails in the Wenatchee and Yakima districts.
Irrigation, although not always necessary, has been found

7 The Commercial Apple Industry

advisable in the growing of cover-crops and is common
among most of the orchards.

Many persons were attracted by the unusual scenic
beauty of this little valley, which lies at the foot of Mount
Hood. Unfortunately Hood River did not escape the
effects of inflated land values and growers experienced a
period of depression for a few years prior to 1917. The
region has become widely advertised and known, although
its production has never exceeded 2,200,000 boxes and
will never approach in quantity that of the Yakima and
Wenatchee valleys. Cooperative marketing has featured
in the development of this region and the output of the
valley commands unusually high prices. As stated above,
the production in this region is largely confined to two
varieties, the Yellow Newtown and the Esopus (Spitzen-
burg).

Rogue River Valley.

The Rogue River Valley, although now widely known
as a pear section, is the second largest apple-producing
region in Oregon. The valley is somewhat highly special-
ized, although its development has been slower than in most
other apple districts in the Northwest. Land values at
one time were very high and a large number of easterners
were attracted to the valley. A period of drought years,
during which the annual rainfall dropped from the normal
twenty-two inches to as low as twelve inches, caused great
loss and emphasized the need o of irrigation, which is now
practiced in about a third of the orchards and is being
extended to the others. ,

The fruit acreage lies almost eho in Jackson County
and plantings are centralized in Stewart Oreek and Rogue

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 13

River valleys, about the towns of Medford, Ashland, Tal-
_ ent and Phoenix. Of the approximate acreage of 23,000
acres of commercial fruit plantings, about 13,000 acres
are in pears and 10,000 in apple trees. In the apple acre-
age, Yellow Newtowns, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Jonathan,
and Ben Davis are the predominating varieties. Prob-
ably 75 per cent of the present production consists of
Yellow Newtowns. As in other northwest districts, the
summer apple is an almost negligible factor. Approx-
imately half of the apple acreage of this region was ten
years of age or over in 1918.

The prevalence of spring frost-injury led to a rather
wide use of oil-heaters, particularly in the orchards on the
floor of the valley. Foothill orchards are less subject to
frost and as a rule are not smudged. Despite the dry
atmosphere, the apple-scab is more or less prevalent and
requires summer spraying. Fire-blight, particularly
among the pear trees and Esopus (Spitzenburg) apple
trees, caused great loss in the years 1913-1915.

The droughts between 1914 and 1918 checked the normal
increase in production. The largest crop of apples prior
to 1919 was harvested in 1917 and consisted of about 700
ears. Practically all of the marketable apples are packed
out in boxes.

Other apple districts in Oregon.

In addition to the apple plantings in the Hood and
Rogue River valleys are some very promising apple
orchards in the Willamette Valley and Roseburg section;
and also in the Milton-Freewater district in the north-
eastern part of the state. Commercial projects are also
found in Wasco County.

74 The Commercial Apple Industry

IDAHO.

The following four fairly well defined, yet more or less
isolated, apple sections are found in Idaho: Payette Val-
ley, Boise Valley, Lewiston district and Twin Falls dis-
trict. Idaho was somewhat behind Oregon and Washing-
ton in the time of the development of its fruit industry
and probably has a greater proportion of young trees
than either of the other two. The commercial production
of Idaho exceeded 3,600 cars in 1919.

Payette district.

The apple acreage of the Payette district is largely in
the Payette Valley, with extensive plantings in the vicin-
ity of Fruitland, Payette, Weiser and New Plymouth.
This district represents the heaviest producing area in the

‘state. Its production has exceeded 2,000 cars in a single
season and an even greater output is promised on account
of the new acreages just coming into bearing.

As in all of Idaho’s plantings, the Jonathan grows to
‘perfection and is the predominating variety. Other
important varieties of the Payette are Rome Beauty, Gano,
Ben Davis, and Winesap. The northwest box system of
packing and general orchard management is used through-
out this region, although there is not the intensity of cul-
tural methods, nor quite the high state of specialization,
as in the Yakima and Wenatchee districts. Severe frost-
injury has destroyed the crop in certain years and frost
liability- has somewhat deterred the development of the
region. The Payette district was known as a hay andj
stock raising country long before an impetus was given to
its apple industry. , Although the orchards are small, con-

Leading A pple Regions of the United States "5

siderable fertile land unplanted to trees offers oppor-
tunity for diversification.

Boise Valley.

Much the same conditions obtain in the Boise Valley
as in the Payette district, these two sections being only °
a few miles apart and having been developed under much
the same conditions. Plantings in the Boise Valley are
much more limited than in the Payette district.

. Twin Falls.

In the extreme southern part of Idaho and in the vicin-
ity of Twin Falls is an irrigated region which has intensive
apple plantings, amounting to 4,000 or 5,000 acres, most
of which have not attained full bearing and considerable
of which have been taken out to provide for more general
farming. The production in 1919 reached approximately
500 cars and the output of the region may be expected
to increase. Varieties and general orchard conditions
are much the same as in the Payette district.

Lewiston section.

Near Lewiston in Nez Perce County, an irrigated pro-
ject of 6,000 acres was planted largely in the period 1906
to 1910. This was developed by a single company and
was sold out in small tracts to investors who in some
instances have taken up their residence and are develop-
ing the subdivisions. Very few orchards have reached
full bearing, and although they were planted and have
been cared for on a strictly commercial basis, the future
of the region can not be definitely determined at this time.

16 The Commercial Apple Industry

CALIFORNIA

Watsonville district.

The Pajaro Valley, centering about Watsonville, is the
oldest and from the standpoint of total past production,
’ one of the most important of the western apple regions.
In later years, however, both the Yakima and Wenatchee
valleys of Washington have far outstripped it in produc--
tion. With the possible exception of the Wenatchee Val-
ley, it is doubtful whether any apple region ir the country
exceeds the Watsonville district for intensity of planting.
The most important orchards are included in an area of
five by ten miles about the town of Watsonville. This
limited area is responsible for nearly two-thirds of Cal-
ifornia’s commercial apple crop, and has a production
record of almost 3,300,000 boxes of apples for a single
season.

Apple plantings were known to have been made in
the Pajaro Valley in the early fifties. Commercial or-
chards existed as early as 1870. The period of greatest
commercial growth occurred in the decade 1890-1900.
Crop failures are uncommon in the Pajaro and this valley
has a very high record for annual production. Irriga-
tion is little practiced, the normal annual rainfall of
forty inches being sufficient to insure heavy annual pro-
duction. Yellow Newtown is the leading variety and
comprises over, 50 per cent of the regional production.
Yellow Bellflower is next in importance while both Red
and White Winter Pearmain, Langford Seedling and
Missouri Pippin are grown in limited quantities. Red
varieties, however, are not adapted to this region.

A most peculiar system of handling the crop prevails

Leading Apple Regions of the United States VW

in the Watsonville section. A large colony of Slavonians
has for many years been closely identified with the indus-
try in the buying and packing of apples. A large per-
centage of the growers sell the fruit on the trees for a lump
sum to these Slavonian packers, who care for the orchard,
do such spraying, thinning and propping as is practiced,
later harvesting and packing the fruit. Seasonal contracts
are very often. made at blooming time, although some
growers contract their crops for a period of several years
in advance. The speculative side of such transactions
need not be emphasized. Disastrous crop failures may
mean ruin for the buyer, while high prices very often
mean large profits. The Slavonians assume the growers’
risk and naturally require a margin commensurate with
the risk. :
Despite many natural advantages, the Watsonville dis-
trict has been slow to adopt high standards for the grade
and pack of its fruit, and as a result it has not kept pace
with northwest production in this respect. Codperative
handling and marketing has been developed to a limited
extent among the progressive growers. Until recently,
the California box (914 x 11x 22), a slightly larger and
longer box than that used in the Northwest, has been in
most common use, as has also the straight line pack in-
stead of the northwest diagonal pack. More recently a

state law has sought to make the northwest box the stand- -

ard. Export trade normally absorbs a large portion of
the Yellow Newtown production. The Yellow Bell-
flowers are largely sold in domestic markets, many in
California.

78 The Commercial Apple Industry

Sebastopol apple district.

The Sehastopol apple district is considerably less
important than the Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section |
and yet it is the second region in California. The most
extensive plantings are in the vicinity of Sebastopol
which is situated in Sonoma County about sixty miles
north of San Francisco. This is the only distinctive early’
apple section in the West and has come to prominence
largely through its production of Gravensteins. mn

In normal years the shipments of fresh apples from
this region seldom have exceeded 600 cars and most of
these have been Gravensteins. The apple plantings are
much more recent than those near Watsonville and an
increased production may be expected: Sebastopol
deserves mention as a dried apple center. In normal
years more of its crop is dried than is shipped fresh. This
section has produced as high as 2,000 tons of dried apples
in a season. Among the winter varieties, Esopus (Spitz-
enburg), Baldwin, Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower,
and Rome Beauty are more or less prominent. A large
part of the production of the latter varieties is dried.

There is little similarity between the type and charac-
ter of the Sebastopol orchards and those of the more
important Watsonville section. In the former, the or-
chards conform more to the mountain type and are of al-
most entirely different varieties than at Watsonville.
Irrigation is not practiced.

Yucaipa section.

A third apple region has more recently developed in
California in San Bernardino and Riverside counties in

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 79

the extreme southern part of the state. The Yucaipa sec-
tion, as it is known, consists largely of young more or less /
mountain plantings which, although limited in extent, are
somewhat intensively, cared for and will doubtless be
responsible for an increasingly large production. Already
this region has shipped as many as 200,000 boxes of apples

in a season.
-

Tabie ITI.— Averace Propuction or THE Leaping Appts Dis-
TRICTS OF THE WEST

Districts, egies

1916—1919.

Packed Boxes,
Wenatchee, Wash. 6,686,675
Yakima, Wash. ............. . 6,015,250
Watsonville, Cal. ........... ... 2,787,500
South Idaho ................. ... 1,894,750
Western slope Colorado 1,492,500
Hood River, Ore. ........ 00.0 c cece cece aee 1,625,000

WISCONSIN

Apples are grown largely. in home orchards, most of
which are distributed throughout the southeastern part of
‘the state and particularly in the counties bordering Lake
Michigan.- Taking the state as a whole, Fameuse, McIn-
tosh, Oldenburg, Northwestern Greening, and Wealthy are
the principal varieties. Harvesting period is somewhat
later there than in some states. | 7

There are three limited commercial areas in the state:
(1) The Sturgeon Bay district in Door County on Lake
Michigan, in which heaviest plantings are about Sturgeon _
Bay, Egg Harbor, and Ephraim on the west shore of the
peninsula; (2) limited plantings, chiefly about Richland |
Center in Richland County, Gays Mills in Crawford
County and Baraboo in Sauk County in the southwestern

80 The Commercial Apple Industry

part of the state; ( 3) Eau Claire district in which limited
plantings are found 3 in Eau Claire, Chippewa, and Trem-
pealeau counties. Duchess of Oldenburg and Wealthy
are the leading varieties.

MINNESOTA

Minnesota is even less important commercially than
Wisconsin, although there ‘are many scattering home
orchards through the south and particularly southeastern
part. of the state. In the vicinity of Lake Minnetonka,
Long Lake and Howard Lake, in Hennepin, Meeker and
Wright counties, are commercial plantings in which
Wealthy, Patten’s Greening, Hibernal, and the following
crabs are grown: Florence, Whitney, and Lyman’s Pro-
lific. Some of these apples are jumble packed in boxes
and others shipped in baskets. Another very limited com-
mercial area is in Houston and Winona counties, in the
extreme southeastern part of the state. In addition to
the varieties named above, Wealthy, Northwestern Green-
ing, and Wolf River are common for Minnesota. Crabs
are widely grown.

‘

EARLY APPLE REGIONS

Only a few counties in the United States produce early
apples in quantity for commercial purposes. Early
apples are grown to a greater or less extent in nearly all
important apple regions and in nearly every farm orchard.
By far the larger part of this production, however, is not
strietly commercial, but is used only for local or home
consumption. In this discussion particular attention will
be given to the few specialized early apple regions.

Leading Apple Regions of the United States 81

New York and New England.

Although New York is not commonly considered a spe-
cialized early apple region, there is a heavy production of
such varieties as Oldenburg (Duchess), Twenty Ounce
and Wealthy in the western part of the state. Alexander
and Yellow Transparent are grown in more limited quan-
tities. The plantings of Oldenburg (Duchess) and
Wealthy are found particularly in Niagara County while
Twenty Ounce is grown extensively in Monroe County,
about the town of Hilton. Scattered plantings of
Wealthy, Gravenstein, Oldenburg (Duchess), and Will-
iams Early Red are grown in the Hudson Valley, particu-
larly near the Hudson River in Dutchess, Columbia,
Ulster, and Greene counties. Very few apples are moved
out of New York prior to August ist. With a good
crop, however, New York has shipped as many as
300,000 barrels of commercial early apples prior to
September 15th, most of which originated in western
New York.

Early apple varieties for New England are largely the
same as those given for the Hudson Valley, the most
extensive plantings being in Worcester, Middlesex and
Franklin counties of Massachusetts.

New Jersey. :

New Jersey, and particularly Monmouth County, has
long been known as one of the most intensive early apple
regions. Important early varieties for Monmouth County
are English Codling, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Gra-
venstein, Red Astrachan and Twenty Ounce. New Jersey
has still another intensive and even more important early

82 _ The Commercial Apple Industry

apple district which includes the counties of Burlington,
Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland in the southwestern
part of the state. The most intensive plantings of this re-
gion are about the towns of Moorestown, Riverton and
Burlington, not far from Philadelphia. The leading va-
rieties are Starr, Williams Early Red, Yellow Transparent
and Wealthy, with lesser quantities of Red Astrachan,
Oldenburg (Duchess), and Early Ripe.

New Jersey as a whole is one of the leading early
apple states of the Union. Its commercial production
comes largely from the two regions described and has
amounted to the equivalent of approximately 200,000
barrels in a good crop year.

Delaware.

Delaware is the most intensive early apple state in this
country and at the present time 150,000 barrels of early~
apples would not be an excessive crop for the state as a
whole. The most intensive plantings are in Kent and
Sussex counties, about the towns of Wyoming, Bridge-
ville and Seaford. Yellow Transparent, Williams Early
Red, Wealthy and Early Ripe are leading varieties.

wenty Ounce, Red Astrachan and Oldenburg (Duchess)
are grown to a more limited extent. The early apple
industry in Delaware is showing a marked growth at
present. It is the only important region outside of New
Jersey and southern Illinois which is able to put its fruit
on the market in any great quantity prior to August first.
The favorite method of marketing the fruit is in 5¢-bushel
baskets. The Delaware early apple district extends into
the eastern shore of Maryland.

i
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 83

Southern and Middle Atlantic states.

Yellow Transparent is the leading variety in the more
southern districts. Early apple plantings, however, are
more or less scattered and limited in extent. The produc-
tion of Yellow Transparent in the vicinity of Bowling
Green, Kentucky, and central Tennessee is increasing.

East North Central states.

Along the north side of the Ohio River in Ohio and
Indiana are considerable plantings of early varieties, par-
ticularly of Oldenburg (Duchess) and Yellow Transpar-
ent. Large commercial plantings of the latter variety are
also found in central Ohio.

In Michigan and Wisconsin the Oldenburg (Duchess)
and Wealthy are prominent varieties. Their maturity,
however, is greatly delayed in these regions with the result
that they enter the market too late to be classed as distinctly
early varieties.

Southern Illinois.

One of the most intensive early apple regions in the
country is in the extreme southern part of Illinois. Union
and Johnson are the leading counties and include extensive
plantings of Benoni, Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg
(Duchess), Sops of Wine, Red June, Chenango, and
Cornell Red Streak. This region has produced as many
as 800 cars of early apples in a season. Production is

likely to increase.

California.
Scattered plantings of early apples are found throughout

84 The Commercial Apple Industry

the western states, but they are relatively limited and
unimportant commercially with the exception of the Sebas-
topol region of Sonoma County, California. This region
has become well known through its production of Graven-
steins, shipping over 500 cars of this variety in a single

season.

CHAPTER III

COMMERCIAL APPLE PRODUCTION IN
CANADA, AUSTRALIA AND
NEW ZEALAND

Unttep Stars is far ahead of any other country in the
production of commercial apples. Only in some of the
British Dominions has apple-growing attained commercial
proportions on an organized scale. England, France, Ger-
many, Russia and many parts of Europe have enormous
numbers of apple trees but most of the fruit does not enter
the world market, and in France nearly 90 per cent of the
crop is used for cider or beverage purposes. Europe
depends on United States, Canada, Australia and New Zea-
land for its supply of high grade fruit. South Africa is
developing commercial apple-growing but as yet the pro-
duction is not a factor in the world’s markets.

CANADA

Canada at present (1920) will normally produce from
18 to 20 per cent as many commercial apples as the United
States. The last decennial census (1911) credited Canada
with 16,217,176 trees, about 60 per cent of which were
then bearing. Apples are grown commercially in British
Columbia, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Quebec, New Brunswick
and Prince Edward Island, but the principal commercial

sections are in the first three provinces. The commercial
85

86 The Commercial Apple Industry

crop in 1912 was estimated at 5,000,000 barrels, An
estimate of 3,568,000 barrels was made for 1918, of which
British Columbia produced 459,300, Nova Scotia 808,600,
Quebec and New Brunswick perkana 100,000, ieavins
Ontario with an estimated production of 2,200,000 barrels.
In 1919, the Canadian crop amounted to 1,500,000 barrels
in Nova Scotia alone.

The exports of apples from Canada for the past eleven
years have been as follows:

TaBLte [V.— APPLE Exports rromM CANADA

1,604,477
523,658
1,664,165
. 1,824,769
947,382
1,117,336

For the five years from 1909 to 1913, the average export
was 1,212,000 barrels, while the average for the years
1914 to 1918 was only 510,865. This, of course, is partly
due to the British embargo on apples in 1917. About 90
per cent of the Canadian exports are to Great Britain
‘under ordinary circumstances.

Nova Scotia (Plate VI).

The commercial apple growing district embraces a com-
paratively small area, roughly described as the Annapolis
Valley, about one hundred miles long and from six to eleven
miles wide. The principal apple-growing counties are
Kings, Annapolis and Hants, which produce about 75 per

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 87

cent of the total crop. The commercial production in
N ova Scotia for the years 1911 to 1919 inclusive, together
with the exports, are as follows:

TaBLeE V.— Propuction anp Exports or APPLES IN Nova Scotia

Commercial

Year. Brpeucton, Exports.
8. (

TOY cite dary iS: WBE B76... cece cece 1,408,700
TOD 2s see op 8-3 eens Shee 998 528. a sing -aGb/s «tine oe 801,000
FOS ec 8 ensue crane eeataah : 651,390.:..........00.. 519,582
WO | Mibehaeeewa ox aoe, 981,437 .. 152,500
LOTS iss ew stew sk kes opcaace 613,882 .. 416,500
LOUG) eee ieicen in ceed 681,470 . 416,808
MOLE ccs gicwlodanta vaya 744,730 P 13,700
VOUS! basic oe aia does bck 808,600.... .{ 271,170
oD! eee eee eit 1,500,000. ............... 492,180

During the past five war years, production has undoubt-
edly suffered through lack of care and it is probable that
planting in Nova Scotia in the last ten years has not been
more than sufficient to take care of the average annual
mortality. Some fairly large orchards, however, are only
now coming into bearing, and it seems reasonable to expect
an annual commercial crop in Nova Scotia for the next
decade of about 1,000,000 barrels. ‘

The leading commercial varieties of this district are the
King, Gravenstein,, Golden Russet, Roxbury Russet,
Blenheim Orange, Ribston, Baldwin, Bishop Pippin (Bell-
flower), Stark and Ben Davis. The Nova Scotian Grav-
enstein, King, Blenheim and Russet are particularly well
and favorably known on the English markets. The.Grav-
enstein is undoubtedly the outstanding variety.

The climatic conditions are particularly favorable inas-
much as the apple area is practically an island, preventing
extremes of temperature, and irrigation is, of course,
unnecessary. Clean cultivation is the general rule, about

88 The Commercial Apple Industry

50 per cent of the orchards depending almost solely on
commercial fertilizers.

For many years Nova Scotia has shipped her surplus
crop to Great Britain, principally to London. Her ship-
pers are particularly well situated to take advantage of
this trade as they are all within a few hours of the ports

” of Halifax and St. John.

The chief disadvantage of the district is its comparative
isolation from the large home markets. In order to com-
pete with Ontario fruit on the large consuming markets of
the northwestern provinces, Nova Scotian shippers start
with a handicap of a rail haul of over twenty-four hours.
With the European market open, this is not serious inas-
much as this market is capable of some extension.

Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick.

Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick do not grow
enough apples for home consumption at the present time.
Both these provinces, however, possess large areas with a
soil and climate well adapted to the commercial production
of the hardier varieties. Prince Edward Island has suf-
fered in the past from the poor transportation between the
island and the mainland but this has improved of late,
and the apple industry should consequently be encouraged.

The St. John Valley of New Brunswick has excellent
prospects as a commercial apple-growing district, and it is
‘probable that the next ten years will show a very marked
increase in the production in this province, which during
the past decade ranged from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels.
Fairly low temperatures are experienced in the winter,
and the leading varieties are the Duchess, Fameuse, Alex-

1a.

Valley, Nova Scoti

in Annapol

growing

PuiaTe VI.— King apples

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 89

‘ander, McIntosh Red, Wolf River and Bethel. Most of
the orchards are in sod. Transportation facilities are
good from the St. John Valley, and its nearness to the sea-
board would be a decided advantage when the production
is sufficient to make an export trade desirable.

Quebec.

Apples have been grown in Quebec longer perhaps than
in any other district in Canada, with the exception of Nova
Scotia, records showing that they were produced in this
province as early as 1663. The industry, however, has not
developed to any great extent. The Fameuse is claimed
to have originated in Quebec, and it and other varieties of
the same type (Wealthy, McIntosh Red, St. Lawrence)
reach a very high state of perfection. Pomme Grise, or
French Russet, as it is sometimes called, has long been
grown in Quebec. The commercial production is confined
largely to the Island of Montreal, Como, LaTrappe, St.
Joseph du Lac, Hemmingford and Covey Hill, Chateau-
guay, St. Hilaire, Rougemont and Abbotsford districts.
The Census of 1911 gave the production of Quebec as over
400,000 barrels, but it is not probable that the average
annual commercial production of the past two or three
years has been more than 100,000 barrels. The orchards
are principally in sod, many of them have not received
proper attention and, in addition, it is estimated that fully
40 per cent of the trees were destroyed by the severe win-
ter of 1917. There is. evidence, however, of a revival in
apple-growing, and some of the highest average returns for
Canadian apples, in late years, have been made by Quebec

orchardists.

90 The Commercial Apple Industry

Ontario.

Ontario still produces considerably over 50 per cent of
the crop of apples in Canada, but only in limited areas is
the industry specialized as it is in Nova Scotia and British
Columbia. The exports in the past ten years have not
been nearly so great as those of Nova Scotia, but this is
due to the many large markets within the province, to the
greater ease with which the Ontario shippers can reach the
markets of the Northwest, which have been tremendously
developed during the past decade, to the fact that the ports
of export are not as convenient to Ontario shippers as to
those of Nova Scotia and, particularly in the past four or
five years, to the great risk and uncertainty attending ocean
transportation. In the eastern part of the province, along
the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, are some very fine
orchards of the Duchess, Wealthy, McIntosh Red and
Fameuse type. The McIntosh Red, which for some years
has been the highest priced apple on the Canadian markets,
was originated at the town of Dundela in the County of
Dundas in this district in 1830.

The largest orchards of Ontario are between Kingston
and Toronto in what is commonly known as the Lake
Ontario district. Prince Edward County, the southern
part of Hastings, Northumberland, Durham and the south- ,
ern part of the County of Ontario, grow all the standard
varieties, and ship thousands of cars of apples annually to
the large eastern markets and to the markets of Canadian
Northwest. In addition, this section does a large export
trade with Great Britain. The leading varieties for export
are the Baldwin, Spy, King, Russet, Ontario, Pewaukee,
Stark and Ben Davis, but large quantities of Duchess,

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 91

Wealthy, Fameuse, Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Tol-
man, Canada Red, and Cranberry, are also produced.
Many of the orchards in this district are more than a hun-
dred years old, and the apple industry is perhaps more spe-
cialized and better organized than in any other part of On-
tario. An outstanding feature of the apples grown here is
their keeping quality. The climatic conditions are such
that the trees do not start into growth as early as in south-
ern Ontario and yet the season is sufficiently long for the
best varieties to mature. Consequently the apples are just
ready to pick at the approach of freezing weather and,
when stored in ordinary warehouses, go into a natural eld
storage where they retain their keeping qualities until the
following spring. This saves the cost of cold storage, giv-
ing the shippers of this district a considerable advantage
over more southern regions. Large storehouses have been
erected along the railway lines at such points as Belleville,
Trenton, Brighton, Colborne, Grafton, Port Hope, New-
castle, Bowmanville, Oshawa and Whitby. Colborne, for
example, has over a dozen warehouses, with a capacity of
more than 100,000 barrels.

In southwestern Ontario (including the Niagara
Peninsula), while apples of high quality are produced in
considerable quantities, the industry is not specialized,
except in a few localities, such as Norfolk and Lambton
counties. This district, however, has one great advantage
as it is able to get its early apples on the market about two
weeks earlier than any other part of eastern Canada.

Throughout western Ontario, particularly along the
shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay, large quantities
of apples of the standard varieties are grown. In the
Georgian Bay district, the conditions are very similar to

92 The Commercial Apple Industry

those in the region north of Lake Ontario, and orcharding
is carried on as a special industry, but in the greater part
of western Ontario the apple orchard is usually a side line;
to general farming, and consequently the same attention is
not given to the details of spraying, pruning, cultivating,
packing and marketing as in the districts where apple-
growing is the main industry. In the aggregate, however,
the crop of western Ontario has a very marked influence on
the commercial production of the province. The leading
varieties are the Spy, Baldwin, King, Greening, Ben
Davis and other standard sorts but as the distance from
Lake Huron and Georgian Bay increases, the earlier and
hardier varieties are more in evidence.

British Columbia.

The apple industry in this province is comparatively
new, but has developed rapidly and along highly specialized
lines, so that it is now a considerable factor in the market-
able crop of Canada. The Dominion Census of 1901
credited British Columbia with 220,000 bearing and 170,--
960 non-bearing apple trees, while in 1911 the figures were
510,763 bearing and 1,465,622 non-bearing trees; and the
increase in the last nine years has probably been fully 50
per cent. Following is a statement of the commercial pro-
duction for the years 1911 to 1919 inclusive:

Taste VI.— Propuction or APPLes In BrivisH CoLuMBIA

993,060

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 93

Year. Boxes

LOUD sisal slave tipsriav ie waa aoa a awe ae 1,785,405
VOUS ecco ns Bess Wea do coeviacch wd slvbde aenlgh & 1,378,005
DOO a cette chalte vy Be Wich ee alien ols ets auchce eek 2,500,000

Many thousands of acres have just come into bearing
within the past two or three years, while a considerable
acreage is still not bearing commercial crops, and there
will undoubtedly be a steadily increasing production for
the next decade. To offset this, however, consideration
should be given to the fact that there has been very little
planting in the past five years and in addition the orchards
of British Columbia have in some cases suffered through
lack of care.

The most noted section is the Okanogan Valley, where
the Coldstream Ranch, consisting of some 600 acres of
orchard in various stages, is located; this was established
about twenty years ago by Lord Aberdeen when Governor
General of Canada, and is one of the oldest commercial
orchards in the province. While the Okanogan is the
largest section, in point of acreage devoted to apple-grow-
ing, thousands of acres of orchard have been planted during
the past ten or twenty years in the Arrow Lakes, Kootenay
and contiguous districts, along the Thompson and Fraser
rivers to the Coast, and also on the Island of Vancouver.

The climatic conditions are very varied, both dry and
wet growing seasons being found in the different fruit
regions. In the Okanogan, a very extensive system of
irrigation is in operation. ‘he district being new, it has
not yet suffered to any serious extent from the insect pests
and diseases common to the more established fruit sections.
In addition, a very rigid system of inspecting imported
nursery stock has been in force for many years. The

94 The Commercial Apple Industry

apples are generally large in size, possibly owing to the
fact that most of them are produced on young trees, are,
usually very highly colored and of high quality and,
packed in boxes, reach the market in excellent condition.
Practically all the standard varieties of the East
(Wealthy, Duchess, McIntosh Red, Spy, Wagener) are
produced in large quantities in British Columbia, but in
addition the Jonathan, Newtown, Rome Beauty, Winesap,
Ontario, Grimes Golden, Winter Banana and Esopus
(Spitzenburg) are grown to perfection. The crop is mar-
keted principally within the province and throughout
Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. When there are
light crops in eastern Canada, comparatively large ‘quan-
tities of British Columbia apples have been shipped to
Toronto, Montreal and Quebec and as far east as St. John,
New Brunswick. Up to the present time, the largest ex-
port trade has been with Australia and New Zealand, the
following table showing the exports to these countries
during the years 1913 to 1917 inclusive:

TaBLeE VII.— Exports to AUSTRALIA AND NEw ZEALAND

In 1918, owing to the Australian embargo on apples,
there were no exports to that country, and only some
15,000 boxes to New Zealand.

British Columbia apples have also been exported to the
markets of Great Britain, South America, the West Indies
and South Africa, and an outlet is, therefore, being pre-

}

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 95

pared to take care profitably of the anticipated increase in
production.

a
i

AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

Australia, Tasmania’ and New Zealand have claimed
attention in the commercial apple world only within recent
years, Outside of North America, these countries are now
the most important commercial apple regions in the world.
The area in bearing apple trees is about 50,000 acres in
Australia mainland, 25,000 acres in Tasmania and 15,000
acres in New Zealand and in all cases the acreage is increas-
ing. The acreage of New Zealand is strictly commercial
while some of that of Australia and Tasmania is not. The
export to foreign markets amounts to several million boxes,
and promises to increase. The commercial production of
Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania is now about one-
half that of Canada and one-tenth that of United States.

On the mainland of Australia, the orchard areas are
principally along the coast, the larger portion being in
the southern states and along the southwest coast of west
Australia. In Tasmania the plantings are general and
the only sections unsuitable for fruit-culture are the mid-
lands along the west coast. In New Zealand the distribu-
tion is fairly general in both north and south islands except
on the west coast. The main commercial plantings, how-
ever, are in the Nelson-Auckland districts.

The bulk of the crop in Australia, Tasmania and New
Zealand is at the present time consumed locally, the annual
foreign exports amounting to about one-fourth of the pro-
duction. The principal outlet or foreign markets for these
apples have been England and Germany, and the export
trade prior to the war was increasing very rapidly.

96 The Commercial Apple Industry

From about 1910 to 1915, the plantings were very
heavy but owing to war conditions and the consequent
dislocation of markets, there has been very little increase
in areas in trees since that date. However, with the re-
turn to normal conditions one may expect to see a decided
spurt in planting. The tendency is to specialize in small
holdings in order to overcome labor difficulties, and in some
districts apple-growing is combined with genera] farming.
The average orchard has from fifteen to twenty-five acres,
so that most individual plantings are small. In this re
spect it is more like the northwestern orchards than the
barreled apple sections of eastern United States.

The harvest season for Australian apples is a long one.
Trees are picked over for the largest fruit about every
two weeks from the middle of February to the middle of
April, for export to England and foreign markets. The
remainder of the crop and those varieties maturing too
late for export are picked and stored either in packing-
houses, in orchards, or in common storage and are then
packed out at the owner’s discretion. This means that
fruit is being packed out nearly all the year. Picking and
packing is nearly all by day labor. The fruit is wrapped
and packed in a similar manner to the northwestern
method. No standardization of grades has thus far been
attempted, each individual grower making his own grades.
The bulk of the Australian apples is harvested from Feb-
ruary to May and reaches the foreign markets during April,
May and June. They could be placed on American mar-
kets from March to August. In shipping the fruit, it is
usually packed in bulk or boxes containing one imperial
bushel or half bushel. Many canning factories buy fruit
by weight. The general export varieties of Australia,

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 97

Tasmania and New Zealand are quite different from the
sorts grown in the United States, although in many cases
the more important Australian varieties are very important
commercially“in this country. The following gives the
general export varieties somewhat in order of their im-
portance:

VICTORIA TASMANIA New ZEALAND
Jonathan Sturmer Dunn’s
Ortley (Cleopatra) Ortley Coxe’s Orange Pippin
Dunn’s Scarlet Nonpareil Sturmer
Reinette Jonathan Jonathan
Coxe’s Orange Pippin Coxe’s Orange Pippin Yates
Sturmer Ribston
Emperor Alexander Worcester

London Pippin

These varieties are among the more important, although
others are constantly increasing. Jonathan is increasing
everywhere on account of its good bearing qualities and
relative freedom from diseases. Delicious is still in its
infancy, but is taking well with both producer and con-
sumer, and promises to increase rapidly. Esopus (Spitz-
enburg) is going out of favor as it is very subject to scab
and is a biennial bearer. The Stayman is coming into
favor in New Zealand.

In the care of the orchard, much the same method is
followed as in the northwestern orchards, although very
few sections are irrigated.

The trees are pruned on similar lines in Australia, Tas-
mania and New Zealand. They are usually cut back very
severely for the first five years, and growers favor a strong
frame-work of twelve to sixteen limbs, at as nearly equal
distances from each other as possible; thereafter lighter
pruning is practiced as trees come into bearing. The trees

98 The Commercial Apple Industry

are formed with an open center to admit light, thus en-
couraging fruiting, particularly in the lower part of the
tree. Strong fruit-spurs on the main limbs are preferred,
but laterals are used on some varieties, notably the Jona-
than, in order to bring extra vigorous growers into earlier
bearing. Most trees are planted from sixteen to twenty
feet apart, and the orchards are kept more compact than
in the Northwest. Australian growers claim that this
gives greater efficiency in the orchard operations. The
ladder is seldom needed for picking or pruning for the
first ten years. The closer planting makes the yield to
the acre equal to that of America. No doubt when these
orchards obtain considerable age, the disadvantages of this
closer planting system will be brought out.

The orchards are cultivated much the same as in
America, and commercial fertilizers are used very exten-
sively.: It is also a common practice to sow cover-crops.
Thinning the fruit is not a general practice and many
growers try to combat over-cropping by systematic bud or
spur thinning. Australian growers have not found that
thinning has any marked effect in making annual bearers
of those varieties given to biennial bearing.

Many of the same diseases and insects are prevalent as
in America. The black-spot or scab is the worst disease
with which the Australian growers have to contend.
Woolly aphis (Australian blight) comes next, closely fol-
lowed by the codlin-moth. In some of the more humid
districts, mildew seriously affects many varieties. Bitter-
pit has been especially bad on young trees. Fire-blight is
not yet known.

Cooperative marketing is as yet little in evidence ex-
cept in the direction and management of cold-storage

Canada, Australia and New Zealand 99

houses. Such propositions as these were formerly in the
hands of the government, but under the codperative man-
agement the charges have been reduced. Codperation i in
this respect is increasing rapidly, especially in Victoria
on the mainland. The Northwest in the United States is
far ahead of Australia in codperative methods of handling
and distributing.

The Australians are agreed that they may learn much
from America in the equipment. of packing-houses, es-
pecially on labor-saving devices. Many Australians are
particularly proud of their pruning methods and in this
respect they are convinced that the American orchardist
might learn something from them.

CHAPTER. IV

LOCALITY AND SITE FOR THE COMMERCIAL
ORCHARD

BzFore investing in an apple orchard, both the locality
and specific site should be carefully considered. Cir-
cumstances may often prevent the free choice of a locality,
but the site of the orchard is usually within the direct
control of the grower, and may determine largely the suc-
cess of the enterprise.

CHOOSING THE LOCALITY

The fruit-grower should know the advantages and dis-
advantages of the different apple-producing regions; there-
fore, each important apple region will be discussed briefly
and some of the factors of interest in this connection set
down. In Chapter V will be discussed the factors which
govern the proper selection of the site for an orchard
within a given region.

WESTERN NEW YORK
Advantages.

1. Western New York is an established, well developed and
productive apple region, prominent in the apple industry for
over a century. : .

2. Land values have been reasonable in comparison with those
in other apple regions.

3. The bulk of the production is of standard commercial
varieties well adapted to the section.

100

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 101

4. Western New York is a stable progressive region, where
land booms do not flourish and where there is not over-special-
ization of any particular crop.

5. It enjoys proximity to market and has excellent facilities
for storing and handling fruit.

6. The land is easily worked and the maintenance cost is not
excessive.

7. This region is rather densely populated and sufficient labor
is usually available from the nearby towns and cities during
harvest time.

8. Good yields.

Disadvantages.

1. The varieties, Baldwin and Greening, for which this sec-
tion is best known, are not of the highest quality and as a rule
under-sell such varieties ‘as Winesap, Jonathan and Grimes.

2. Orchards are susceptible to scab and in many cases the
crop has been practically ruined and the percentage of high-
grade fruit cut to a minimum on account of this disease.

3. The average orchard in western New York does not receive
the highly intensive care which characterizes some other regions.
This disadvantage can be remedied by the individual owner,
however, and is not inherent to the region.

4, Bearing orchards are well advanced in years and do not
as a rule bear the high percentage of fancy fruit which may be
expected from young trees.

5. Trees are slow coming into bearing.

6. Rigorous winters are common.

HUDSON VALLEY
Advantages.

1. The Hudson Valley enjoys the distinct advantage of close
proximity to market. The growers in this region are enabled
to keep in intimate touch with trade conditions in New York
City and are able to place their fruit on the market within a
few hours from the time it is shipped.

9. Fancy trade varieties of apples can be grown profitably and

102 The Commercial Apple Industry

marketed successfully by catering to specialized trade. Such
varieties as McIntosh, Northern Spy, Oldenburg (Duchess),
Gravenstein, Wealthy and Fall Pippin, which are adapted to
this region, lend themselves well to the development of such
trade. 7s

3. Land values have been very reasonable in the Hudson
Valley. :

Disadvantages.

1. The annual yields of the Hudson Valley are smaller than
those of western New York; also smaller than the Shenandoah-
Cumberland region.

2. On the whole the soil is not as rich as in western New
York and, although adapted to many varieties, requires con-
siderable fertilization in some instances to secure good annual
crops. ;

8. Orchards are not entirely free from occasional severe
winter injury.

4. Land does not lend itself so well to general farming and is
in places quite rolling.

5. Rigorous winters are common.

CHAMPLAIN DISTRICT
Advantages.

1. The Champlain district, bordering Lake Champlain and
Lake George in New York and Vermont, is especially adapted
to such high quality varieties as Northern Spy and McIntosh.

2. The high prices for its fruit, fair yields and reasonable
proximity to important markets argue in favor of this region.

Disadvantages.

1. Trees in this region are rather slow growing, seldom attain.
the size, and do not as a rule produce the high annual crops
common to western New York.

2. Although McIntosh seems to be reasonably safe from
winter-injury, other varieties occasionally suffer severely from
winter-killing.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 103

3. This locality is not of sufficient size to warrant the com-
petition among the buyers which is generally found in the larger
districts.

4. The region is less accessible than such districts as the
Hudson Valley.

5. Rigorous winters are common.

NEW ENGLAND
Advantages.

1. The outstanding advantage of New England orchards is
their proximity to centers of consumption such as Boston and
other large cities.

2. Foreign export trade draws rather heavily on New England
production, particularly has it béen partial to Maine Baldwins.

3. Land values are reasonable.

4, The revived interest in apple-growing is serving to bring
to prominence a number of specialized districts which are capa-
ble of producing exceptionally fine fruit. An instance is the
Wilton district in southern New Hampshire.

5. Particular localities in New England gre suited for growers
who desire to specialize on such fancy varieties as McIntosh and
Wealthy for which a special trade can be built up.
Disadvantages.

1. In general, New England orchards are small, rather
scraggy, and include relatively few highly commercial and in-
tensive plantings such as are found in' western New York and
the Shenandoah-Cumberland region.

2. Scattered plantings and limited production from any par-
ticular region naturally limit the possibility of codperative effort
among growers in marketing their fruit at the highest prices.

3. The industry and production of New England as a whole
has declined very materially in the ten years prior to 1919. The
future of apple-growing in this region probably depends on ‘the
development of small specialized projects rather than on large
or general commercial planting.

‘4. Rigorous winters are common.

104 The Commercial Apple Industry

NEW JERSEY-DELAWARE PENINSULA

Advantages.

1. This region enjoys an almost unequaled advantage of close
proximity to New York and Philadelphia markets.

2. It is adapted to the production of varieties such as Yellow
Transparent, Wealthy, Williams, Early Ripe and Starr. South-
ern New Jersey is particularly suited to the production of
Yellow Transparent, Williams, Early Ripe and Starr, while
English Codling, Gravenstein, Duchess, Twenty Ounce and
Wealthy are well suited to Monmouth County.

3. Orchards in this region respond to good care, and, although
fertilization is sometimes necessary, are generally productive. -

4. Cost of production in this section has not been excessively
high and good prices have made the orchards profitable as a
rule.

Disadvantages.

1. Orchard diseases and pests present a somewhat difficult
problem for the commercial grower. Late attacks of codling-
moth are occasionally very destructive.

2. This region igs not as well adapted to the growing of winter
varieties as some of the other eastern districts.

SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND REGION

Included in this region are the following important apple
counties of southern Pennsylvania: Adams, Franklin and
York; also Washington County, Maryland; Berkeley and ad-
joining Panhandle counties of West Virginia, and the Shenan-
doah Valley of Virginia.

Advantages.

1. A large part of the apple acreage of this region is just
coming into bearing and an increased production of high-grade
fruit may be expected from this young and well-cared-for
acreage.

2. The leading varieties, York Imperial, Ben Davis, Stay-

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 105

man and Grimes, comprise the bulk of the production and are
well known as profitable varieties.

3. Yields average with those of the best eastern orchards.

4. The region enjoys reasonable proximity to markets.

5. Centralization and intensity of plantings offer excellent
opportunity for codperation and regional development.

6. Fairly cheap labor is ordinarily available.

Disadvantages.

1. Although one of the most promising eastern apple regions,
the Shenandoah-Cumberland is not entirely free from certain
disadvantages. Cedar rust is severe in some parts of this region
on York Imperial and Ben Davis trees; pine and meadow mice
have been doing considerable damage to many of the trees and
root-rot occurs in some localities.

2. Land values at this time are relatively high, and for that
reason the prospective investor would need considerable capital
to get started.

3. Hail injury is not uncommon.

PIEDMONT REGION OF VIRGINIA

Advantages.

1. For scenic beauty this region is unexcelled.

2. Land is cheap and plentiful. Orchard values have been
fairly reasonable.

3. Good transportation facilities.

4, Labor conditions are generally satisfactory throughout the
region.

5. High-grade varieties such as Winesap and Yellow New-
town (Albemarle Pippin) predominate and sell for high prices.

Disadvantages.
1. Bitter-rot is particularly injurious in certain seasons.
2. Yields are lighter than in the Shenandoah-Cumberland or

western New York regions.
3. The orchard land is generally mountainous and somewhat

hard to work.

106 The Commercial Apple Industry

4. Very poor roads occur in some localities and some of the
best apple land is relatively inaccessible.

5. Hail damage is very common, particularly on higher ele-
vations, and unfavorable conditions are often present at bloom-
ing time, rendering the crop uncertain.

SOUTHERN OHIO ROME BEAUTY SECTION
Advantages.
1. Land values have been relatively reasonable in price.
2. The region is fairly close to important markets.
8. Quality of fruit, particularly that of the Rome ponss
is good.

Disadvantages.

1. Yields are generally lower than in western New York or
most other eastern districts.

2. The land is rough and mountainous and the orchard plant-
ings are somewhat isolated.

3. Much of the fruit has to be ferried across the Ohio River.

4, Frost-injury does occasional damage in the spring.

5. The soil is naturally poor and requires considerable fertil-
ization, particularly in the form of nitrates.

WESTERN MICHIGAN
Advantages.

1. Western Michigan is an established, well developed and
productive apple region, prominent in the apple industry for
many years.

2. Land values have been reasonable.

3. It enjoys proximity to important markets in large central
west cities.

4. Yields are good.

5. Higher quality varieties are grown in Michigan than in
most other middle western states.

Disadvantages.
1. Frost-injury is not uncommon.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 10%

2. There are many old and rather neglected orchards, partic-
ularly in the south and southeastern part of the state which
lower the quality of the general output from the state.

8. Michigan orchards are susceptible to apple-scab and in
some cases the crop has been severely injured on account of
prevalence of this disease.

4, Winter-injury to trees is not uncommon.

ILLINOIS
Advantages.

1. Proximity to markets.

2. Relatively good yields in western Illinois, but rather light
yields in southern part of the state.

3. Orchard values have been relatively low in comparison with
land values.

4, Early apple section in extreme southern Illinois is partic-
ularly adapted to the production of early varieties.

Disadvantages.

1. Fungous diseases are more or less prevalent and blister-
canker has caused considerable loss among Ben Davis and Gano
plantings. -

2. Apple plantings are less centralized than in most commer-
cial districts and community interest is lacking in some
instances.

3. Quality of fruit is variable. Such low-grade varieties as
Ben Davis and Willow Twig predominate in many regions.

4. Unfavorable climatic conditions at blooming time are not
uncommon.

OZARK REGION

This region includes intensive apple plantings in northwest
Arkansas and southwest Missouri.

Advantages.

1. Labor conditions usually favorable.
2. Possibility for the renovation of old orchards.

108 The Commercial Apple Industry

3. Yield and quality in well-cared-for orchards good in certain
years.
4, Land values reasonable.

Disadvantages.

1. The region has many old and neglected orchards which
decidedly detract from community spirit and progressiveness
and lower the quality of the output from the region as a whole.

2. Ben Davis and Gano plantings which predominate are
particularly susceptible to very serious attacks of blister-canker.

3. Unfavorable weather at blooming time often prevails and
crop failures are not uncommon.

4, Average yields low.

5. System of bulk handling of a large part of the crop is
not conducive to close grading and the maintenance of high
commercial standards.

MISSOURI RIVER REGION

In this region are included the intensive commercial apple
districts of northwestern Missouri, northeastern Kansas, south-
eastern Nebraska, and southwestern Iowa, in what is sometimes
ealled the loess soil apple region.

Advantages.

1. A progressive-spirit prevails to a greater extent than among
most other middle western regions.

2. The loess soil of this region is exceptionally fertile and
exceptionally productive.

8. Yields are good on the well-cared-for orchards.

4. Although Ben Davis and Gano predominate, considerable
importance is being given to Jonathan and Winesap plantings
which do very well in this region.

Disadvantages,

1. Fungous diseases are more or less prevalent.
‘2, Unfavorable weather conditions at blooming time are not
uncommon. :

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Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 109

8. The region is not entirely free from many old and neglected
orchards, particularly throughout northwestern Missouri.

4. The bulk handling of a large part of the crop does not
encourage high uniform grades.

WESTERN SLOPE OF COLORADO
In this region are included Mesa, Montrose and Delta counties.

Advantages.

1. This enjoys the advantage of being closer to eastern
markets than the other boxed apple regions.

2. Although the orchard land is somewhat spotted, high qual-
ity fruit and good yields are possible in favorable seasons.

3. Facilities for handling and marketing the crop are fairly
well developed.

Disadvantages.

1. Much unsuitable land has been planted and exploited to
the disadvantage of the incautious investor.

2. This region includes some very fine orchards and at the
same time some very poor ones, making generalities very difficult.
3. The average yields are not as high as in the Northwest.

4, Frost-injury in the spring occasionally causes heavy loss,
particularly in the Grand Valley. The menace of the codlin-
moth is another factor which should be considered by the pros-
pective investor.

5. Alkali seep has destroyed entire areas of orchard lands in
certain localities, particularly in parts of the Grand Valley.

6. Distance from market.

UTAH

Commercial apples in Utah are produced almost entirely in
the irrigated valleys along the western slope of the Wasatch
Mountains. Important counties are Boxelder, Weber, Davis
and Utah, which include many commercial apple plantings.
Conditions are somewhat variable, but in the main the advant-

ages are:

110 The Commercial Apple Industry

1. A somewhat greater local demand for apples than occurs in
the Northwest.

2. Lower orchard values. !

8. Good quality fruit and considerable young acreage.

Disadvantages.

1. In some instances unsuited land has been set to apple trees
and conditions are variable.

2, Annual yields, although very good, are somewhat less than
in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys.

8. The limited size of the industry does not permit of the
development of marketing facilities such as may prevail in
heavier producing regions.

4,.Frost damage is occasionally severe.

IDAHO

Heaviest commercial apple plantings in Idaho are in the
Payette and Boise valleys, tributary to such towns as Payette,
Fruitland, Caldwell and Boise. The advantages of this region
are: .

1. Young acreage, very little of which has attained full bear-
ing and most of which is relatively free from insects and
diseases. ‘

2. Quality of the fruit is excellent, particularly Jonathan,
which is the leading variety.

8. Yields are good, but somewhat lower than in the Yakima
and Wenatchee regions.

4, Orchard values are somewhat lower than in some of the
other northwestern orchard sections. The region described is
a very good general farming section, having a rich soil which
responds well to irrigation, a universal practice.

Disadvantages.

1. Some unsuited land was developed and exploited with apple
plantings.

2. Frost damage has almost entirely destroyed the crop of
this region in certain years.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 111

8. Distance from market is a severe handicap.

4. Some alkali trouble in the lower lands.

The Twin Falls irrigated region in the extreme southern part
of the state is a very fertile general farming country, with con-
siderable apple plantings, some of which have been pulled out
in recent years. Apple-growing as a specialized \industry is
being supplanted by greater diversification.

WASHINGTON

Yakima Valley
Advantages.

1. Exceptionally high annual yields of fine marketable fruit.

2. The prevalence of good commercial and heavy bearing
varieties.

8. Ideal climatic conditions.

4. Highly centralized plantings, with Steplioaial facilities
for handling and storing fruit.

5. Greater possibilities for diversification than in the Wen-
atchee Valley.

6. Good roads.

4%. Freedom from fungous diseases.

8. Exceptionally high class of people engaged in the fruit
industry, with exceptionally good social conditions.

Disadvantages.

1. Land values very high.

2. Irrigation necessary.

3. Excessive distance to market.

4, Heavy infestation of codlin-moth.

5. Fire-blight prevalent, particularly among Fuanitd (Spitz-
enburg) trees.

6. Many farms do not permit of any diversification.

Wenatchee

Advantages and disadvantages in the Wenatchee Valley are’
in the main identical with those in the Yakima Valley. Yields
in Wenatchee are somewhat higher and the percentage of extra

112 The Commercial Apple Industry

faney and fancy fruit will run somewhat higher. On the other
hand, the limited area in the Wenatchee district will not permit
of the diversification possible in the Yakima Valley. Fire-
blight has not caused serious loss to the Wenatchee growers.
In general, land values for the Wenatchee Valley are somewhat
higher than in Yakima. Frost damage at blooming time in the
Wenatchee Valley is almost unknown and heavy annual crops
are fairly certain. Considerable difficulty is often experienced
in getting the fruit to market in the fall.

Spokane district

Many of the same advantages and disadvantages prevail in the
Spokane district as in the Yakima and Wenatchee. However, a
greater proportion of unsuited land is planted to trees in
Spokane County than in either the Yakima or the Wenatchee
district; the yields are generally lower and more uncertain;
frost-injury is more frequent; and fungous diseases are more
prevalent. While nearly as many acres have been set in
Spokane County as in Yakima County, a considerable percent-
age of this acreage was planted on non-irrigated and less pro-
ductive soil than is in the Yakima and Wenatchee Valleys.

MONTANA

Commercial plantings in Montana were largely centralized
in the Bitter Root Valley which suffered considerable: over-
development. Many boom projects were planted which never
attained commercial bearing. The region is adapted to growing
of McIntosh apples; the elevation is high; frosts are not uncom-
mon and -the trees do not attain the size, nor do they produce
the high annual crops that are common in many of the other
northwest irrigated regions.

OREGON |
Hood River yy

Advantages.

1. High-grade varieties such as Yellow Newtown and Esopus
(Spitzenburg) predominate.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 113

2. A high class of persons is engaged in fruit-growing;
ee is delightful; scenery beautiful and social conditions
good.

3. Centralized planting.

4, Good storage and shipping facilities.

5. Fruit very well known and widely advertised.

6. Prices received for output relatively high.

Disadvantages.

1. High land values.

2. Little opportunity for diversification.

3. Yields much lower than the average for the Wenatchee and
Yakimas valleys.

4. Apple-scab bad in certain years.

5. Distance from market.

Rogue River Valley
Advantages. _ ,

1. Climatic and social conditions ideal; beautiful scenery.
2. Good roads and centralized. planting.

Disadvantages.

1. Drought has greatly reduced the crop in certain years,
although irrigation is being adopted in some sections.

2. Land values relatively high.

3. Adapted to pear- rather than apple-growing.

4. Frost-injury occasional.

5. Yields low. Na

6. Distance from market.

CALIFORNIA
Watsonville district (Santa Cruz and Monterey counties). J
Advantages.

1. Heavy annual yields, particularly where orchards have been
grown in the heavy “redwood” soils.

\
114 The Commercial Apple Industry ,

2. Marketable quality of fruit good, but lower than in the
Northwest.

8. Good shipping and storing facilities, also good roads.

4. Very centralized planting, practically all within ten miles
of Watsonville.

5. Cost production of apples relatively low.

6. Good varieties grown, consisting almost exclusively of
Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower.

4. No irrigation required.

8. Highly developed dried apple industry.

Disadvantages.

1. Internal browning, a physiological disease, prevalent in
Yellow Newtown apples in certain years, detracts from storing
qualities of this leading variety.

2. Codperative movement among growers working for high
grades and better marketing facilities has not beer as great as
in many of the northwest apple-growing regions.

3. Lack of effort towards establishment of high grades has
resulted in a lower price received for the fruit than for the same
variety grown in such regions as the Hood River Valley.

4. Rvral social conditions are inferior to those found in the
newer regions of the Northwest.

5. Distance from eastern markets.

Sebastopol section (Sonoma County) wf
vi

Advantages.

1. Particularly adapted to the production of Gravenstein, a
profitable variety.

2. Relatively free from serious insect and disease injury.

8. Local demand for output tends to offset the great distance
from eastern markets. : :

4. Highly developed dried apple industry

5. Codperative and community spirit apparent in most of the
apple-growers.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 115

Disadvantages.

1. Yields more uncertain and somewhat lighter than in the
Watsonville section.
2. Distance from eastern markets.

NEW MEXICO

Although some commercial apple plantings are found in the
Rio Grande Valley and in the Farmington district in San Juan
County in the extreme \northwestern part of the state, interest
in New Mexico centers chiefly in the Pecos Valley where the
heaviest apple plantings are in Chaves County in the vicinity of
Roswell. The advantages of this county are:

1. Acreage is young, in many cases well cared for and capable
of producing high quality fruit in favorable seasons.

2. Proximity to Texas markets, particularly: advantageous for
the Jonathan crop which matures earlier than in the Northwest.

Disadvantages.

1. Occasional frost-injury which destroys large portions of the
crop.

9. Lighter yields than in many of the northwest irrigated
sections.

8. Region difficult of access.

The above discussion of some of the advantages and
disadvantages common to the more important apple re-
gions will serve in a general way to outline briefly the
conditions to be expected in different parts of the United
States. It is not to be considered complete and is un-
doubtedly ‘inapplicable to many individual cases.

The purchase of a farm is one which requires more in-
tensive study and consideration than such’ generalizations
as have been given. The long period of years required
to bring an orchard to full bearing signifies a long term of
ownership. Fruit-growing is not entirely comparable with

116 The Commercial Apple Industry

general farming and as is the case with all specialized
industries the inexperienced individual is at somewhat of
a disadvantage in passing on the relative merits of dif-
ferent investments.

CHOOSING THE SITE FOR A FRUIT-FARM

In the purchase of a fruit-farm, the prospective in-
vestor should keep many points in mind. In the following '
discussion, the more important points will be considered.
in the purchase or selection of a site for an apple orchard.

Raw versus planted land.

The first problem is whether to purchase a bearing
orchard or to buy raw land and set trees. The relative
cheapness of undeveloped land is usually a most attrac-
tive feature and the investor very often overlooks the fact
that it requires from eight to ten years in irrigated sec
tions and from twelve to fifteen years in non-irrigated
districts for an apple orchard to attain real commercial
bearing. If the investor has other income or can afford
to wait for returns, the planting of an orchard in a favor-
able locality will usually prove profitable.

Buying raw land in the hope of paying for its develop-
ment and of making a living at the same time by farming
between the rows is seldom feasible. No definite recom-
mendations can be made to fit all cases, but as a rule
the more profitable ventures result from the investment of
at least a part of the available capital in bearing orchard.
Very often adjoining raw land may be purchased which
can be set to trees if the owner desires to extend his
plantings.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 117

Time to buy.

The time to buy is usually when every one wants to
sell, although this does not determine the relative merits
of the different purchases. The place to buy is in a rec-
ognized fruit region. Apple-growing is an established
industry and one which will prove profitable over a long
period of years, but which may not pay for a short period.
No farming enterprise has experienced the ups and downs
of fruit-growing. The men who made money were those
who, through far-sightedness or good fortune, invested
when the tide was low and who remained in the business.
A period of good years will always follow one of poor
years, and the fact that apple production is not highly
sensitive to demand protects the man who invests at the
proper time. For example, the total acreage set to apple
trees in the decade 1910 to 1920 has been small con-
sidering the United States as a whole. It would appear
from this that the present apple-growers are approaching
a period of prosperity. The cyclic tendencies of apple-
growing are exceedingly important from the investor’s
standpoint, and much depends on the particular time
that an investment is made.

'" Syndicate projects.

Investment in syndicate farms or large orchard pro-
jects has been discussed elsewhere. It has been the obser-
vation of the writers that syndicate farming of any kind,
on any type of soil where the owner does not directly over-
see the operations, is seldom successful. The same is
true to a great extent for large orchard projects. Pros-
pective investors would do well to avoid strictly all so-

118 The Commercial Apple Industry

called orchard projects, particularly those in which the
tracts are to be managed by promoters and turned over
to the purchaser after a period of years. The purchase
of slightly run-down orchards at reasonable prices has
‘ often resulted in good returns, particularly when the
trees are of good varieties. The question of renovation
‘will receive separate treatment.

Yields and varieties.

Separate chapters are devoted to the discussion of yields
and to the selection of varieties. Before choosing a farm,
both of these points should be carefully considered. Re
liable performance records over a period of five years
will indicate the relative productivity of different varieties
on typical orchards of any given region. This is a far
more reliable guide than to judge productivity by the
apparent size and vigor of the trees. A few well-known
commercial varieties adapted to the district are always
to be desired. Phenomenal yields occur at times in nearly
every region, therefore the average rather than the maxi-
mum should be sought as a basis for calculation. The
biennial bearing is fairly well pronounced in most regions
and the lean years must always be considered.

Proximity to market.

In years of low prices the marginal regions or those
remote from market suffer most keenly, since freight rates
consume an inordinate proportion of the returns. This
should not be overlooked when one contemplates buying
an orchard at a great distance from market. Exception-
ally high yields and excellent quality of the fruit may

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 119
6

overcome in a measure the burden of heavy freight charges.
Thus two of the most extensive apple-growing regions in
the United States have developed in Washington, many
hundreds of miles from the primary apple markets. The
freight on apples from the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys
represents a very considerable item. Granting such no-
table exceptions, great distance from market must always
be viewed as a decided handicap. Losses incident to car
shortage, damage in shipment and difficulties due to long
range business transactions are always emphasized under
such conditions. Railroad facilities, advantages of com-
petitive systems, and the possibility of boat shipping are
worthy of careful consideration. "

Distance from shipping station.

Improved roads and automobile trucks are making long
hauls more economical and yet the distance from the or-
chard to the shipping station is a most important factor
in determining the price of land. The investor can af-
ford to pay considerably more for orchard land near a
shipping station. Investigations in 1914 on 179 farms in
the Hood River Valley and in western Colorado indicate
that the average cost of hauling the shooks to the farm
and the packed fruit to the station represents approxi-
mately one cent a bushel for each mile. The cost to-day,
however, is about two cents.

Taking this present figure in considering an orchard
yielding 225 bushels or 75 barrels to the acre, each addi-
tional mile in the distance from the shipping station
would represent in these two items alone an annual cost of
$4.50 an acre, or $45 an acre where the distance was ten
miles. The cost of hauling other supplies has not been

120 The Commercial Apple Industry

considered, nor the social proximity to towns and cities.
Furtherniore, possible injury to fruit subjected to exces-
sively long hauls over rough roads is not an unimportant
feature.

In considering long hauls to shipping stations, it is
interesting to note that in the Piedmont section of Virginia
not infrequently a load of Albemarle Pippins may be
hauled thirty miles over rough mountain roads. In the
mountains of North Carolina and Georgia one may see a
mountain schooner laden with apples en route to a town
some seventy-five miles distant. The latter somewhat
commonplace occurrence is usually in complete disregard
of any existing railroad facilities. In many of these more
remote regions oxen furnish the motive power. In such
regions a three- or four-day trip to town with a load of
apples takes more the form of an outing and cost produc-
tion is irrelevant.

Unfortunately, long hauls and poor roads commonly
go together. As roads improve and automobile trucks
come into more common use, distances to stations will as-
sume less importance. At present the prospective investor
should consider it highly desirable to have less than a
six-mile haul.

Bearing age of trees.

In considering the purchase of a very young orchard,
one should not be misled by exaggerated accounts of early
bearing The age at which trees come into full bearing is
somewhat variable, depending on the variety and the
region. Statements regarding the large annual yields
which may be expected from five- and six-year-old trees
are largely untrue. Occasionally trees of this age bear

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 121

considerable fruit, but in buying young acreage one should
seldom figure that an orchard will attain even fair com-
mercial bearing before eight years for irrigated sections
or ten to twelve years for non-irrigated districts. The age
at which trees cease to be profitable depends somewhat on
the region, but more on the care and variety. Most of the
bearing orchards in western New York are forty or more
years old and some remain profitable at fifty and even
sixty years. These trees have received moderately good
care. Those which have been allowed to break down, to
become infected with disease and insect pests, and which
have not received proper cultural treatment have long since
passed out of profitable bearing. :

The. matter of longevity is often brought up in con-
nection with investment in irrigated orchards. The
question is asked whether irrigated trees forced into early
bearing will be profitable at the end of fifty years as is
the case with some New York orchards. Early maturity
usually indicates shorter life. If the western growers
would maintain fertility by cover-crops and by the appli-
cation of fertilizer in quantities commensurate with crop
production, the drain on soil fertility would be largely
offset. Greater care and protection given the trees
against insects and diseases will also have an important
influence on the life of the trees in these intensive regions.
Since practically all the commercial orchards on irri-
gated land have been set out in the past twenty-five years,
there are no concrete examples as a basis for comparison.

In speculating on the longevity of the irrigated orchards,
it is safe to say that the present plan of close planting
must be greatly modified to meet the increased size of
the trees. At present the average planting distance is

122 The Commercial Apple Industry

under thirty feet. An ultimate. removal of one-third to
one-half of the trees seems almost unavoidable. Even
under such circumstances it hardly seems probable that
the western irrigated orchards will remain in profitable
bearing as long, for example, as the western New York
orchards, the reason being not the longevity of the trees
so much as the necessity for producing the highest grade
fruit. The success of western irrigated orchards has been
in the marketable superiority of its fruit. High quality
fruit is more easily produced on young trees and it seems
probable that the western grower will be inclined to aban-
don older orchards and set new trees which quickly come
into bearing under his system of orchard management.

Diseases and insect pests.

Several commercial apple regions have entirely passed
out of existence on account of the prevalence of certain
insects and diseases. A bewildering list of insects and
diseases might be suggested to the prospective investor _
since each locality has a special number of pests which
are more or less serious. This subject is treated more
fully in Chapter X.

In most regions spraying enters very materially into
the cost of production, representing in some cases over
12 per cent of all costs. This figure, however, is only
an item of expense. It in no way indicates the loss in
fruit or injury to trees which may result from the depre-
dation of prevalent orchard pests. +

The prospective investor would do well to study the
spraying program of the locality which he is considering
and inform himself as to the number and character of the
applications necessary to the production of high marketable

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 123

quality fruit. There may be a great variation even among
orchards in the same locality. Once pests have gained a
foothold in an orchard, their eradication may be an ex-
pensive process. Newly developed regions with young
trees are as a rule singularly free from insects and disease.
They are not guaranteed immune, however, for sooner or
later the pests which might be expected to thrive under
such conditions usually, appear. Vigilance in controlling
early infection will very materially reduce later loss.

Some pests are very much more expensive to control
than others. Apple-scab, apple-blotch, and bitter-rot are
serious fungous diseases which the prospective purchaser
should keep in mind, not that they shdyld be absolutely
avoided, for one or more appears in many Very important
regions, but that their degree of prevalence should be con-
sidered. It makes a difference whether one or two fun-
gicide applications will suffice for their control or whether
five or six may be necessary. In some regions one spray
controls codlin-moth, in others six to seven applications
may be required.

A careful inspection of an orchard at harvest time will
usually reveal the loss in fruit which may be expected
from insects and diseases, although in some instances and
particularly with fungous diseases, the extent of the in-
jury varies widely in different seasons.

Climatic influences.

Climatic influences should be carefully considered in
relation to the purchase of a fruit-farm. The critical
period for the apple crop is at the time the trees are in
bloom. Frost-injury to the blossoms or damp rainy
weather to prevent pollination are the most frequent

124 The Commercial Apple Industry

causes of crop failures. Official weather reports will as-
sist the investor in determining whether damp rainy
weather and days of low temperature are common during
the blooming period. A commercial project embracing
several thousand acres of orchard land has developed in
a region where frost occurs in practically every month of
the year and where the minimum temperature during the
blossoming time clearly indicates that frost-injury is un-
avoidable. An occasional dip in temperature to a point
slightly below freezing does not necessarily signify exces-
sive frost-injury, but recurring temperature at this criti-
cal period of 27° F. or lower is significant of probable
injury.

The question of a particular site within a given region
very often has an important bearing on susceptibility to
frost-injury. A north or northeastern slope is usually
preferred on account of its tendency to retard growth in the
spring until danger has passed. FF rost-injury is extremely
erratic at times, striking here and there in an almost in-
explicable manner. A fatal temperature on one occa-
sion may result in very slight damage at other times.
Other things being equal, higher. elevation is preferable
on account of better air drainage, and also soil drainage.
The tendency of cold air to settle from high to lower land
makes pockets and valleys without broad outlets compara-
tively dangerous. An example is afforded in the Rogue
River Valley near Medford, Oregon. The orchards on the
higher land, known as the foothill orchards, are much less
susceptible to frost-injury than those on the floor of the
valley; sufficiently so that the practice of smudging, still
common in the latter orchards, has been largely discon-
tinued on the foothills. ,

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 125

Damp rainy weather at blossoming time may be even a
more serious factor than frost, since it prevents insect
activity in pollination; furthermore, it interferes greatly
with necessary spraying operations. Such unfavorable
weather conditions often exist throughout the Middle
West at blooming time. Hail injury and loss by heavy
windstorms are much more prevalent in certain regions
than in others. While personal investigation of the im-
portant points is necessary, reference to official weather
records will prove an invaluable guide. Meteorologists
agree that climate does not change, but state that it may
run in cycles. A study of a several year period is, there-
fore, advisable.

Size of farm.

The size of farm to buy depends on whether apple-grow-
ing is to be the sole or only one of several important enter-
prises. A discussion of farm organizations has been given
elsewhere. An orchard of less than fifteen acres even in
the most intensive regions seems hardly advisable, since
the overhead for equipment and general supervision would
searcely permit economical management of a smaller
acreage; furthermore, the gross income would necessarily
limit very large returns. The average farm in the inten-
sive irrigated sections is scarcely over ten acres and twenty
acres is often considered more tham one man can handle.
There is a surprising relation between the maximum yields
and limited acreage, particularly for the farmer who
diversifies. In other words, a small acreage well cared
for very often gives a greater total production than a much
larger acreage. For the intensive apple-grower, an annual
production of at least 5,000 bushels is necessary to insure

126 The Commercial Apple Industry

a fair labor income. The acreage will of course vary with
the regions. For the more general farmer, the size of
the orchard should be governed by the acreage to which
careful attention can be given. Ten acres or even less may
be advisable since an orchard very often suffers from a
pressure of other farm work. “The day of poorly cared
for commercial orchards has passed.

Necessary capital.

All available capital should not be invested in raw land
for planting or in non-bearing orchards. The more or
less hazardous nature of specialized farming emphasizes
the need for sufficient capital to tide the farmer over the
poor years. The fruit-grower must follow a far-sighted
policy if he is to maintain his orchard in a high state of
productivity. Such a policy requires considerable expen-
diture at times when there may be no returns. If the
trees are allowed to suffer one year, the effect may be
noticeable for many years to come. Neglected orchards
are explained in many instances by the owners not actually
having available capital to meet necessary expenses. It
is not because they fail to recognize the wisdom and im-
‘ portance of careful spraying, pruning and the like, but
rather because immediate needs for living expenses must
receive first consideration.

Specialized apple-growing can not be undertaken suc-
cessfully on the small margin which suffices for general
farming. In other words, the investor who expects to
devote himself exclusively to apple-growing should have
several thousand dollars or outside income in order that he
may safely buy and operate a farm sufficiently large to
yield a good labor income. Nothing less than a 50 per

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 127

cent payment should be considered as a safe margin in
buying a full bearing orchard. Fora non-bearing orchard,
the buyer must carefully figure the outlay required to
bring the trees to full bearing and also his living expenses
for the meantime. Inter-crops may help to defray some
of the running expenses, although there is a tendency to
over-estimate income from this source.

This leads to a discussion of the amount of money which
the investor may expect to borrow when apple land is
given for security. Attractive terms often may be se-
cured at the time of purchase, particularly when the
owner is anxious to sell or is getting a good price for his
land. In such cases the purchaser may not require addi-
tional capital beyond his first payment. However, if he
is obliged to seek credit from a banker, he may be sur-
prised to learn that apple trees are not always considered
a permanent improvement and in such cases appraisals for
loans are based on the value of the land for general
crops. Such has been the decision rendered by the Fed-
eral Loan Board in establishing a basis for loans on fruit
lands throughout the country. Individuals may of course
show a different attitude, considering that although the
fruit-trees may not be considered permanent improvement,
the land may have a greater value on account of its
ability to produce exceptionally fine fruit. Credit will
always retain much of the personal element and will
vary with the prosperity of the apple industry. Further-
more, codperation among growers and the influences tend-

ving to stabilize the industry may be expected to reflect
materially on credit and current interest rates.

For the farmer with less than several thousand dol-
lars’ capital or who does not wish to devote himself ex-

128 The Commercial Apple Industry

clusively to apple-growing, the selection of a more general
farm in a recognized apple section where land values are
not too high, will afford an opportunity of gradually work-
ing into the apple industry. A small bearing orchard
would serve as a nucleus and the returns from it could be
used in developing additional plantings. Furthermore,
the experience Sained from caring for the older orchard
would be profitable as a guide for the development of more
acreage. A 100° to 200-acre farm with five to twenty
acres of well-cared-for apple trees is a good arrangement
and one which would have the advantage of safety, better
eredit and lower interest rates. The farmer’s living ex-
penses could be secured from the general farm land, leav-
ing him independent of his apple crop in years of failure.

Labor conditions.

Labor conditions may affect greatly the advisability of
choosing a fruit-farm in certain localities. Labor costs
in some instances exceed 50 per cent of the total cost of
producing apples, exclusive of interest on investments.
Much of this labor is performed by the grower himself,
although at harvest time and with such intensive opera-
tions as spraying and thinning, the character and price
of available labor is very important. A study of the scale
of wages for orchard labor reveals a disparagement of 50
per cent between different regions. Beginning with the
low wage scale in southern states, labor rates increase
and are at their highest in the Northwest.

The amount of work done in a day enters into all cal-
culations and cheap labor may be the most expensive
in theend. For example, the average picker in the North-
west picks about twice as many apples as the average

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 129

southern laborer. The losses incident to a scarcity of
labor at harvest time, when all the fruit may be lost if
not picked and disposed of within proper season, need not
be emphasized. The subject of available local labor sup-
ply should receive careful attention by the investor. —

Social conditions.

A factor which has entered very materially into the
development of most commercial apple regions is the ques-
tion of social advantages. One should carefully. consider
social conditions before investing in fruit land. Fruit-
growing is usually looked on as a pleasurable and inter-
esting pursuit. Furthermore, intensive fruit regions are
necessarily thickly settled and provide social advantages
superior to those in the average rural communities. The
desire to live among educated persons and to have the
advantages of excellent schools amd-ehurches and means of
social recreation is strong. A farm in a community where
such conditions prevail unquestionably has an added com-
mercial value.

Fruit-growing has always attracted city people, and in
specialized fruit regions to-day are many who, after re-
tirement from business, sought fruit-growing as a health-
ful vocation and yet one which might be expected to offer
fair returns on investment. If one seeks an isolated loca-

tion for a fruit-farm, opportunities for converting the

property into cash in case it is desirable to sell will be few,
since the class of persons attracted to fruit-growing will
look particularly for favorable social conditions. Social
advantages should not completely sway one’s business
judgment, however, and should enter into consideration
as only one of a number of important factors.

130 The Commercial Apple Industry

Regional developments.

Closely allied with social conditions as a factor in influ-
encing choice of a farm is the question of regional devel-
opment. The advantages of a centralized industry where
all are interested in a common end need scarcely be
enumerated. Within this category will come all the bene-
fits resulting from codperation and community effort.
Shipping and storage facilities, sales organizations and
availability of skilled labor may be mentioned as largely
dependent on the state of regional development. Buyers
are attracted to the regions where fruit may be purchased
in considerable quantities. The reputation of a region for
shipping high class fruit has much to do with the selling
price of the individual’s crop. Western New York, Shen-
andoah and Hood River are names which immediately
summon to the buyer’s mind a fairly well defined idea of
the quality and variety of apples grown in each respective
region. The difficulties in keeping an orchard free from
pests and diseases are greatly increased in a community
where neglected orchards abound. Furthermore, if the
region has the reputation of shipping rather poor quality
fruit, the grower will encounter an inherent prejudice
against all fruit from that particular section.

Soil.

No other item should receive more careful consideration
in choosing a fruit-farm than the question of soil. <Soil
requirements for the apple vary somewhat with the variety,
but practically all authorities agree that a deep, friable,
loamy soil with good water drainage, describes briefly the
soil condition to which the apple is best adapted. This

PLatTeE VIII.— Upper, Hight-foot disk in operation in the
Rogue River Valley, Oregon, showing a common method of culti-
vation. Lower, Spring-tooth harrow in use in a northwest. or-
chard. This implement is very generally used where clean culti-
vation is practiced.

Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 131

somewhat general description will imply that the apple
might find a suitable soil habitat in almost all of our
better general farming regions, and this fact is attested by
the very wide distribution of apple plantings throughout
the United States.

Good drainage and soil depth are prime soil requisites

for apple land. Natural drainage is essential since the

apple tree does not thrive with wet feet. A subsoil depth
of at least six or eight feet is necessary to insure proper
root development and a sufficiently large water reservoir.
The presence of hardpan, ledges of rock, or similar strata,
within a few feet of the surface tends to obstruct root
growth and the capillary movement of soil-moisture, and
for this reason is highly undesirable, if not prohibitive.
Deep-rooted leguminous crops such as alfalfa may remedy
soil defects of this nature, while dynamiting tree holes be-
fore planting can be depended on to loosen up the subsoil
to a greater or less extent. It is much safer, however,
to avoid all shallow soils or those with the objectionable
subsoil strata. In one widely advertised apple region,
dynamiting all tree holes before planting was recom-
mended and universally practiced. All the trees grew
well until they attained four or five years of age, at which
time the root system began to permeate soils unaffected
by the dynamite and the result was a greatly checked
growth. It would, therefore, seem advisable to select a

- soil in which dynamiting is not necessary, although the

practice may be beneficial in some instances.

In non-irrigated sections, soil depth has an even greater
significance, namely in the conservation of soil-moisture
against drought. The importance of an upward movement
of moisture by capillarity is well known. If an imperme-

132 The Commercial Apple Industry

able stratum obstructs this movement, the water-holding
capacity of a particular soil may be very greatly reduced.
Furthermore, when heavy rains occur in the spring, this
same stratum will prevent the downward course of the
moisture and cause the condition known as wet feet.

CHAPTER V

THE FARM-MANAGEMENT PHASES OF APPLE-
GROWING

Tse problem confronting the farmer who would pro-
duce apples is not alone to raise the fruit successfully.
The enterprise must pay, and this depends on many :con-
siderations aside from good crops of apples and good
markets for them. He must maintain a farm enterprise,
or an establishment. What some of these considerations
are, we may now discover.

FARM ORGANIZATION IN RELATION TO THE ORCHARD

The relation which the apple orchard bears to. other
farm enterprises differs greatly in the various states and
regions. It varies from a subsidiary or secondary under-
taking in many of the eastern states to a highly specialized
and major enterprise in the Pacific Northwest regions.

The type of orchard which is fast taking the lead in
production of high quality commercial fruit is the spe-
cialized planting operated by the individual farmer or his
manager. ‘This type is prevalent in the box-apple-produc-
ing sections and is also found, to a large extent, in Vir-
ginia, northwest Arkansas, parts of western New York,
southern Pennsylvania, and many other limited localities.
In fact, in all the well-defined commercial areas, the apple

orchard is usually the main enterprise on the farm.
FB 133

134 The Commercial Apple Industry

There are many obvious advantages in this system. If an
orchard is the main enterprise, it will usually be given the
care and detailed attention necessary to insure its success
as a separate proposition.

However, highly specialized orcharding leaves out two
very important points which must be considered — the
danger of low prices and the difficulty in employing labor
effectively. There is always the possibility of a period
of low fruit prices, in which case the old adage “ Do not
have all your eggs in one basket,” holds true. One-crop
farming is successful from the standpoint of heavy yields
and high quality production, but the average grower or
farmer needs an income every year to meet his current
expenses. If some year the frost takes his crop or prices
are so low as to be below cost of production, he has nothing
for his investment or year’s labor, and in the case of two
or three successive failures, such as have occurred in many
sections, it is only the exceptional grower who can survive.
Such conditions actually force farmers into diversification.
It is much better for a grower to plan originally for a
sufficient degree of diversification to insure his living in
case of crop failure, for if he is later forced to adjust his
business, extra land may not be available and the future
of his whole farm organization may be seriously impaired
and disrupted. In many cases, orchard enterprises which
would have been successful had they been connected with
general farms, failed for lack of income in poor years. _

Another principal advantage in diversification is that it
insures better distribution of labor. Help may be hired
and profitably employed by the month or year. In the
same way, the owner or operator may engage himself in
productive labor on the farm throughout the entire year.

Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 185

It is important to recognize, however, that the diversi-
fied fruit-farm may become so varied that the operator is
giving practically all of his attention to other crops and
is neglecting the orchard.

In low price years, diversification was urged in the

Pacific’ Northwest and elsewhere, since orchards often did

not pay interest on the high-priced land. If the invest-
ment is already in the land, it does not follow that apples
should not be grown when they do not pay interest on the
investment. They may pay a better rate of interest than
would any other crop. In sections in which trees are
capable of high production, and land is held at such fig-
ures as $1,500 to $2,500 an acre, diversification cannot be
recommended beyond a limited degree sufficient to provide
home garden truck for the family and feed for the work
horses. In districts such as Wenatchee and Yakima, the
prevailing labor is by the day, employed when needed.
This form of employment obviates the necessity for the
grower to find work for his men outside of the busy season.

The advantages of a highly specialized and cultivated
orchard located in a specialized district are: (1) The as-
surance that the orchard will be given detailed care and
attention since the operator depends directly on it for
a living. (2) Labor is likely to be more skilled and
more expert if employed only in fruit-growing and not
in the cultivation of other crops. (3) Growers are forced
to coéperate and work in harmony in order that the fruit
may be marketed successfully. (4) Standardization is
emphasized and encouraged, both in scientific methods of
management and in handling and putting up the fruit for
the market. (5) The best varieties survive and the poor
ones are soon eliminated under keen competition. (6)

136 The Commercial Apple Industry

The specialist is nearly always more thorough, more ef-
ficient, and produces a better quality of product.

The outstanding advantages of a modified system of
diversified farming, with the orchard still the main en-
terprise, are: (1) There is an assurance of more profit-
able distribution of labor throughout the season. (2)
Month labor can usually be employed, thus effecting con-
siderable saving in labor rates, and insuring a constant
supply. With a specialized orchard, unless it is very
large, only day labor may be employed profitably. (3)
The grower is protected against years of poor fruit prices
by having sufficient crops and diversification to insure a
living. (4) When live-stock is kept on farms, a part of
the manure thus produced may be used to build up the fer-
tility of the orchard. (5) The orchard is a long-time
investment, and unless supported by a diversified farm
requires much capital to bring to full bearing age and
productivity.

Many instances might be cited to emphasize the im-
portance of diversification in connection with fruit-grow-
ing. Ninety-nine mortgages are said to have been fore,
closed in a certain western fruit district in one day.
These failures resulted from paying a high price for
land when the purchaser had insufficient capital to wait for
the orchard to come into profitable bearing. Low prices ©
for fruit added to the number of failures. Much the same
occurred in several districts, particularly in the Rogue
River Valley, Oregon, Grand Valley, Colorado, the Bitter
Root Valley, Montana, and parts of Idaho and Washington.
These failures were in most cases due to false advertising
stating that fortunes were to be made in the apple busi-
ness with profitable crops when the trees were five years

Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 137

old. These failures do not necessarily argue against the
regions themselves but against specialized farming with too
little capital in sections not adapted to that type of enter-
prise.

The Bitter Root Valley, Montana, one of the finest gen-
eral farming, grain and stock localities, is hardly adapted
to specialized fruit-growing. Of localities in the United
States probably best adapted to high specialization in ap-
ples are the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, W ashington,
Hood River Valley, Oregon, and Pajaro Valley, Califor-
nia. There are sections in the East where specialized ap-
ple-growing may be justified even to the extent of ignor-
ing all other types of farming. However, it must be con-
ceded that some diversification is usually advisable for
the man with limited capital.

A third type of farm organization is common in non-
commercial districts, and even in the heart of such com-
mercial regions in New York and the central west states:
This third type is seen on the general farm where the
orchard is of secondary importance, too large for a family
or home orchard, yet too small and poorly cultivated to
be classed as commercial. In practice, orchards, when
made a secondary or an incidental enterprise, are seldom
a financial success. When orchards of this type are elim-
inated or put on a first-class commercial basis, the com-
mercial industry of the Central West and East will assume
new vigor. Production will be more standardized and will
enable eastern growers to hold their markets against fruit
from other regions.

Semi-commercial orchards of this type, partly or wholl
neglected, occur on thousands of farms in the Kast to-day.
A visit to Genesee or Oswego County, New York, will

138 The Commercial Apple Industry

reveal striking illustrations of such conditions. Genesee
County is interested in potatoes and beans; Oswego in
growing pears, dairying, and other kinds of farming. In
these counties the average orchard is decidedly a side-
line. Some of the orchards might be renovated profitably
but this is only advisable when the owners intend to give
their trees continual attention. It is impossible to pro-
duce strictly commercial fruit if careless methods are em-
ployed. A neglected orchard which is not a source of
profit should be cut down rather than be allowed to breed
disease and insect pests to attack good trees in the neigh-
borhood. The semi-commercial orchard was the prevail-
ing type in the past but it is rapidly giving way under
competition.

The family orchard need not be discussed here, other
than to say that it fits in well with nearly any farm organi-
zation. It serves an entirely different purpose and is not
considered from a purely profit-making standpoint:

The fourth type of farm organization to be discussed in
relation to apple-growing is the stock company or cor-
poration. It is often spoken of as “syndicate farming.”
Much depends on the motive behind such corporations.
As a rule, they are merely stock-selling schemes. The
record of such organizations in various parts of the
country has been one of conspicuous failures, particularly
with those which capitalized orchard land at so much an
acre in an endeavor to sell stock or bonds to a large num-
ber of investors. This type of promotion lends itself to
fraud and misrepresentation since it flourishes in times
of prosperity and in good fruit years when profits are
large. Glittering prospects are held out to investors and
appeals are made to a class of persons unfamiliar with

Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 139

any type of farming. Fruit-growing is essentially a
specialized one-man enterprise.

Following are listed some of the advantages and disad-
vantages of so-called “syndicate farming” where the or-
ganization is legitimate and well managed:

Advantages: (1) Economy in the purchase of sup-
plies; (2) possibility for more effective marketing of the
produce; (3) improved standardization of grade and
pack.

Disadvantages: (1) Possibility that overhead in the
way of salaries and other expenses will become excessive
and disastrous in poor years. The farmer can retrench
but fixed and overhead expenses of a syndicate are not
easily lowered. (2) Lack of personal interest in super-
vision and labor. Farming is not comparable with man-
ufacturing plants in this respect. There can not be the
organization and division of labor as in a factory. In
an orchard, men are being constantly shifted from one
task to another with the accompanying tendency to saun-
ter. The hired employee is more wasteful of material and
careless with equipment if not immediately supervised by
the owner. (3) The possibilities of greatly increasing
production in order to meet expensive overhead are lim-
ited.. A frost may offset the most scientific and carefully
prepared program. ,

Syndicate farming sounds plausible but seldom works
out. If land is purchased at reasonable figures, very often
profit is made on increased values. As a type of farm or-
ganization, however, it has not been precedented with.
general success.

The foregoing discussion relating to farm organiza-
tion must of necessity apply to average conditions and to

140 The Commercial Apple Industry

the average individual. The individual must adapt the
organization of his plans to the economic conditions as they
exist in his particular community. He must take advan-
tage of the favorable conditions in order to combat the
unfavorable ones. It must be recognized that commercial
orcharding is seldom successful as a side-line enterprise
and, while it is important that there should be diversifi-
cation in order to provide some. outside income, the or
chard should always remain a leading if not specialized
undertaking.

SYSTEMS OF TENANTRY

The problem of renting enters less into the apple-grow-
ing industry than into almost any other type of farming.
It is seldom profitable to entrust the care of an orchard to
the tenant system and this has discouraged the practice of
renting among the owners of fruit-land generally. In
years of crop failure, the tenant will not and can not be
expected to devote himself to the intense care which might
result in a profitable crop after his lease has expired.
Obviously a long-term lease with detailed specifications as
to the number and character of sprays to be applied, the
amount of pruning and cultivation to be given, and a, com-
plete understanding as to the harvesting methods, would
have many advantages over a short-time lease. And yet
even with such specifications, it is almost impossible to se-
cure the personal attention which is the secret of success.

The basis for renting apple orchards depends largely
on the individual orchard and also varies considerably in
different regions. A system in which the owner has sup-
ervision is obviously desirable from the owner’s standpoint.
A number of systems of tenantry will be discussed briefly.

Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 141

System I.

Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes:
1. Half of all labor and material 1. Half of all labor and material

costs. costs.
2. Half of all equipment and 2. Half of all equipment and
live-stock. live-stock.

3. Dwelling for tenant.
Renter takes: Owner takes:
1, One-third of packed fruit. 1. Two-thirds of packed fruit.

Under the above system, the owner and tenant enter into
a straight partnership to operate the fruit-farm, first set-
ting aside one-third of the packed fruit to go to the owner
for rental on his farm. When the tenant works alone he
receives half wages. If one additional man is needed, his
services are paid for by the owner to offset the labor of the
tenant. Under this plan a desirable man with little capi-
tal would be able to get a start, while the owner would
be protected by having a direct voice in the operation of
his orchard.

System IT.

Renter furnishes:

1. All labor, material, and equip-
ment with the exception of
fertilizer and material for
the winter spray.

2. One-half of the barrels or
boxes.

Renter takes:

1, Half of packed fruit and de-
livers the other half to the
warehouse.

Owner furnishes:
1. Farm and suitable dwelling.
2. All of the fertilizer and mate-
rial for the winter spray.
3. One-half of the barrels or
boxes.

Owner takes:
1. Half of the packed fruit.
a

In western New York where very often the orchard is
only one of several enterprises on a general farm, the

above system of tenantry is common.

Under this system

the owner exercises an appreciable, yet less far-reaching
influence in the management of his orchard than under

142 The Commercial Apple Industry

plan No. I. The second plan affords the owner an at-
tractive contract, since it gives to him a large part of the
crop with little cash outlay. On the whole, the system
is fairly equitable, although in years of low prices the
tenant might be put at a relative disadvantage. The
owner furnishes the fertilizer, since that is somewhat in
the nature of a permanent improvement. He also fur-
nishes material for winter spray, an expensive item which
the tenant could ill afford to bear in years of total crop
failure, and yet one which the owner cannot venture to
omit if he values the vigor of his trees.

System II.
Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes:

1, All labor, material, and equip- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling.

ment. :
Renter takes: Owner takes:

1, Three-fifths of crop. 1. Two-fifths of crop, delivered
in town and packed out in
barrels.

System IV.
Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes:

1. Equipment, all labor and ma-_ 1. Farm and suitable dwelling.
terial costs up to harvest.

2. Labor and material costs for 2. One-half of picking labor.
picking, packing and han-
dling one-half of the fruit.

Renter takes: Owner takes:
1. One-half of picked fruit, packs 1. One-half of picked fruit, packs
and handles it according to and handles it according to

his own judgment. his own judgment.

‘Under the above system, the owner is allowed the privi-
lege of grading and packing out his own fruit while the
same privilege is reserved for the tenant. A modified

Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 143

form of the above is seen when the owner furnishes half
of the picking labor and half of all labor and material
costs incident to the harvesting of the fruit, taking one-
_ half of the crop, but allowing the tenant entire supervision
of the orchard operations.

A study of an equitable basis for tenantry has revealed
that when the tenant is furnishing all the labor he is en-
titled to a larger proportion of the crop in years of exceed-
ingly heavy production. Otherwise the owner reaps prac-
tically all the benefits of a large crop. Unfortunately,
low prices prevail in heavy crop years. With straight
share rentals in such years, the owner obtains a large
amount of fruit which even at low prices makes good re-
turns. If the tenant, however, receives low prices for his
fruit, he has insufficient margin to cover the heavy ex-
penditure in harvesting the landlord’s portion of the
crop. Some division of the labor and handling costs at
harvest time would seem more equitable.

Occasionally a long-term cash lease at a reasonable figure
can be secured on somewhat run-down orchards in a fav-
orable locality. Frequently such an orchard is making
little or no returns and a cash offer will be attractive to the
owner. For the experienced man with little capital, a
long-term lease with a view to building up and increasing
the yields from such an orchard sometimes proves a profit- |
able venture, particularly when the owner considers that
his orchard will be improved and for such a reason grants
an otherwise low cash rental figure. Some special induce-
ment must be offered to a tenant, otherwise he can not
afford to devote his best energy towards building up a suc-
cessful orchard from which another will reap the ultimate

reward.

CHAPTER VI
ESTABLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD

THorovex preparation of the land before planting is
exceedingly important if the apple orchard is to be well
established. Very often orchards are planted on pasture,
timbered, or sage-brush land where the soil has been un-
tilled. Timbered land, once cleared of stumps and brush,
usually lends itself well to early planting because of an

‘abundance of humus available for young trees. It is best
in nearly all cases, however, to anticipate planting by a
year or two in order thoroughly to subjugate the soil by
the growing of tilled or cover-crops. Soils which have
been depleted in fertility or which are low in humus-con-
tent may be built up by the growing of such legumes as
alfalfa or clover. In the case of arid or sage-brush lands
reclaimed for irrigation, the soil is usually low in humus-
content. In such instances the growing of alfalfa for one
or two seasons will usually repay the orchardist for delay
in planting.

Deep plowing should precede planting in every case,
for once the trees are established, deep cultivation is likely
to injure the rooting system. Dynamiting is sometimes
recommended when a hardpan or thin stratum of rock
occurs near the surface, but ordinarily this practice is not
to be advised and such soils should be avoided. When
spring planting is to be employed, fall plowing is recom-

144

Establishing the Apple Orchard 145

mended, since it exposes the soil to the ameliorating in-
fluences of the winter and causes the destruction of many
insect pests and rodents. In the case of sod land, it is best
to plow and cross-plow in the fall, leaving the land rough
throughout the winter, working it up thoroughly with the
disc and harrow the following spring. When cover-crops
are grown to improve the soil, plowing is usually deferred
from fall until spring. =

Land which is to be irrigated should be leveled and care-
fully laid off with irrigation ditches prior to planting,
since it is not easy to effect changes in the contour once
trees have been set.

NURSERY STOCK

Apple trees are propagated either by grafting or bud-
ding, the former being the most common method. No
attempt will be made to discuss methods of propagation
since it is usually advisable for the orchardist to buy his
trees from a reliable nurseryman rather than to propa-
gate them himself.

The purchase of nursery stock should receive most
careful attention. The grower should consult with state
or government horticulturists or with successful growers
in order to establish the integrity of the firm with which
he proposes to deal. The orchardist should buy only the
best trees, dealing directly with the nursery and avoiding
tree peddlers. The purchase of inferior stock is always
poor economy.

All horticulturists do not agree as to the proper age of
trees to plant. However, the one-year whip is usually
most desirable, since it can be trained properly and has

146 The Commercial Apple Industry

more fibrous roots. Trees older than one year are often
poorly shaped.

It is advisable to purchase nursery stock well in advance
of planting in order than one may secure stock of desired
variety and quality. If trees are to be planted in the
spring, they may be purchased safely in the preceding fall
and “heeled-in” by the grower himself. On arrival, all
trees should be carefully inspected for disease, attention
being given particularly to infestation of scale or woolly
aphis, or the presence of crown-gall. If possible, a com-
petent inspector should pass on the stock to see that the
trees are healthy, vigorous, and of smooth bright bark.
One-year old whips should be about 5 feet tall and A inch
in diameter at the base.

The subject of varieties is thoroughly discussed in
Chapter XIX. Selection should be confined to three or
four standard varieties for commercial planting.

Immediately on arrival, all trees should either be
planted or “ heeled-in.” le trees arrive in freezing
weather, they should be left in the original package and
kept in a cool damp place until thawed out. Ordinarily,
however, the grower should avoid leaving the trees in the
original package lest they become seriously ie or
entirely worthless from drying out.

‘When planting is not to be done sommaiinieny thie
bundles should be cut open and the trees unpacked and
“heeled-in” singly. Too much emphasis can not be
placed on the importance of “ heeling-in” the trees on
their arrival. In this operation, a trench is dug about 18
inches deep and the trees placed in the trench with their
tops slauting to the south at an angle of about 45 degrees.
Moist soil should be carefully worked in about the roots of

Establishing the Apple Orchard 147

the trees so that they will not dry out. Care must be taken
in order that the varieties will not become mixed.

SYSTEMS OF PLANTING (FIG. 2)

The following are the three best-known planting
systems:

(1) In the square planting system, the rows run at right
angles and the trees are the same distance apart each
way. This method facilitates cultivation, spraying, har-
vesting, and other cultural operations.

(2) In the hexagonal system the trees are éqnally dis-
tant in every direction, being set in equilateral triangles
or alternate rows, so that the space between each group of
four trees is diamond-shaped. The hexagonal system does
not lend itself well to the use of fillers, but since all the
trees are equidistant there is an equal distribution of air,
light and soil. This system provides for about 15 per
cent more trees to the acre than could be planted on the
square plan at the same planting distance.

(3) With the quincunx system, the trees are set in
squares with a tree in the center. This latter plan is
adapted to plantings where fillers are used, it being possi-
ble to remove the tree in the center of the square without
disturbing the permanent planting system.

The symmetry of the orchard depends to a large ex-
tent on the evenness of the rows. When a large orchard
is being set, it may pay to employ the use of a transit so
that the trees may be spaced with utmost accuracy.
This is not absolutely necessary, however, since more sim-
ple methods may be practiced, particularly with more
limited plantings. Whatever system of planting is fol-
lowed in laying out the orchard, the first trees should be

148 The Commercial Apple Industry

. f
RECTANGULAR ’ HEXAGONAL
wT

Fic. 2.— The rectangular or square, the hexagonal or equilateral
triangle and the quincunx systems of planting. Planting-board of
type often used in setting illustrated at bottom of figure.

from 20 to 25 feet from the fence in order to ‘afford room
for turning a team or tractor engaged in orchard operations.
Square system.

By laying off the base line parallel with the fence on
one side of the field and by placing stakes at regular in-

Establishing the Apple Orchard 149

tervals in this line, it will be possible to establish the
position of the trees in this first row. By establishing
another line at right angles to the first, it will be possible
with the use of stakes to sight across and establish par-
allel lines which will serve as guides in lining up the rows.
It is usually advisable to set a stake at the place for each
tree. Then after sighting across from the base lines,
it will be possible to determine the stakes which are not in
alignment. Figure 2 shows the three important systems
for laying out commercial plantings. Table VIII indi-
cates the number of trees to the acre under different plant-
ing distances and systems.

Taste VIII.— Numser or TREES TO THE ACRE

Distance Apart Square Hexagonal Quincunx
16x16 170 196 303
18x 18 134 154 239
20 x 20 108 124 129
22 x 22 90 104 148
24x 24 76 87 132
25 x 25 70 80 125
26 x 26 64 74 114
28 x 28 56 64 100
30 x 30 48 55 85
32 x 32 43 49 76
33 x 33 40 46: 71
35 x 35 35 41 65
36 x 36 34 39 60
40x 40 27 32 48
45 x 45 22 25 39

Hexagonal system.

The use of a wire triangle is recommended for planting
trees under the hexagonal system. Each side of the tri-
angle should represent the distance between the permanent
trees. The wires should be connected at each angle by
means of rings. The triangle is then carried about by

‘6

150 The Commercial Apple Industry

three workmen, and if kept tightly drawn and held level,
stakes marking the exact site of the trees may be located
after the first base line along the side of the orchard has
been laid off.

Attention is called to the fact that in laying off planting
distances on uneven land, care must be taken in keeping
the measuring line level so that the distance between trees
does not include the slope of the land.
Quincunx system. ie

The quincunx being a modification of the square system,
may be laid off in the same manner as the latter. The
location of the center tree may be established by placing
an additional stake midway between the tree stakes in the
base line.

PLANTING DISTANCES

Close planting is a common tendency in laying out
commercial apple orchards. While planting distances
vary with the variety and with the region, it is seldom
advisable to space permanent trees closer than 30 feet
apart. Spreading trees such as Baldwin, Rhode Island
Greening and Arkansas (Black Twig) should be planted
at greater distances, not closer than 40 feet apart when
growth is vigorous. A great mistake was made in plant-
ing New York orchards closer than 40 feet. Varieties
such as Wagener, Yellow Transparent, and Twenty Ounce,
which have an upright habit of growth, do not require
extreme distances and may be planted as close as 30 feet.
In regions in which trees attain smaller size, the planting
distances of these upright growing trees may be reduced

Establishing the Apple Orchard 151

to 28 or even 25 feet. Orchardists should bear in mind,
however, that trees set too close together very seriously
handicap orchard operations, for branches interlock when
full growth is attained.

TIME TO PLANT

The time of planting depends entirely on local condi-
tions. Fall plantings may offer one distinct advantage if.
the trees become established before winter sets in and are
able to start growth early in the spring. However, if the |
winter is cold, dry, or otherwise unfavorable, the fall
planted trees may be seriously checked in their early
growth. For this reason spring planting is preferred in
most northern regions. In the southern latitudes, late fall
or early winter is usually considered safe.

If there is any question, it is safer to plant in the
‘spring as soon as the soil can be placed in good tilth.
Trees should be kept dormant until setting.

SETTING TREES

The use of the plantifig-board is important in securing
perfect alignment. (See Fig. 2.) Such a board is usu-
ally 4 or 5 feet long, 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick with
a notch in one side at the center and a hole in each end. -
In using this device, the notch in the center is first placed
tightly against the stake which stands where the tree is
to be set. Other stakes are then driven through the holes
in either end and the board is later removed to permit the
digging of the hole. After the hole is dug, the board may
be placed over the pins and the tree set so as to gceupy the
same position in the notch as did the original stake.

152 The Commercial Apple Industry

A four-man crew is efficient when a large number of
trees are to be planted. Holes should be dug large enough
to accommodate the root system without crowding or
bunching the roots, also sufficiently deep to permit the
planting of the tree two or three inches deeper than it
stood in the nursery row. It is important that all broken,
bruised or interlacing roots be cut away at the time of
transplanting. Long roots should be cut back to about
six inches. After the tree has been located with the aid of
the planting-board, rich soil from the surface should be
worked tightly under and among the roots with the fingers.
The hole should then be filled about half full of dirt and
tramped. Hard lumpy soil should be avoided since it
dries out easily. The remainder of the hole should be
filled and the earth carefully tamped about the roots. A
few shovelfuls of loose dirt or a few forkfuls of loose
manure thrown about the tree is a last precaution to pre-
vent the loss of moisture and completes the operation of
planting. When strong winds prevail as in many local-
ities, it is important that the tree be leaned strongly
against prevailing winds. When: large numbers of trees
are being planted, the roots should be covered with saw-
dust or placed in a tub of loamy soil mixed with water.
This precaution will prevent drying out of the trees when
they are being distributed for planting.

HEADING TREES

In transplanting, a large part of the root system of the
young tree is removed. In order to preserve the proper
balance between the top and the roots, it is necessary that
the former be cut back as severely or even more so than the

iat Moe wel

Prater IX.— Upper, Weeder
Lower, Type of float commonly
tion.

in use in a Hood River orchard.
used at Hood River after cultiva-

Establishing the Apple Orchard 153

toot system. Not only does this maintain the proper bal-
ance between root and top, but it permits the proper head-
ing of the tree. While no definite height is given for
heading, it. is suggested that one-year apple whips should
be cut to about 24 inches at time of planting in order that
the proper shaped trees may be developed. Emphasis is
laid on the advantages of low-headed trees. Such opera-
tions as spraying, pruning, thinning and harvesting can
be done more economically and effectively when the bear-
ing surface is close to the ground.

USE OF FILLERS AND INTER-CROPS

The practice of planting “fillers” to utilize the land
between young trees is common and may have the advant-
age of bringing early returns before the permanent orchard
attains bearing. Peaches or early bearing varieties of
apples such as the Yellow Transparent are used most com-
monly as fillers. The grower usually makes the mistake
of allowing these temporary trees to remain too long, with
the result that the permanent trees are crowded and their
productivity jeopardized. If the orchard is favorably sit-
uated for the production of peaches, the grower will find
that this fruit lends itself well to a system of fillers. Va-
rieties of apples such as McIntosh, Wealthy, Wagener,
Duchess and Yellow Transparent, which come into bear-
ing early, are adapted for use as fillers.

The growing of small-fruits between the rows, such as
strawberries, blackberries and raspberries, has been very
profitable in some regions. Notable among such instances
is the Hood River Valley, well known for its strawberries
produced as an inter-crop in the young apple orchards.

154 ‘ The Commercial Apple Industry

Cultivated crops such as potatoes and tomatoes may prove
profitable as inter-crops, although care must be taken not
to encroach on the soil and water requirements of the young
trees.

CHAPTER VII
CULTIVATION OF THE ORCHARD

In this chapter will be discussed methods of tillage and
‘systems involving the use of cover-crops and sod-mulch, and
the use of the tractor in orchard cultivation.

No hard and fast rules can be laid down for soil man-
agement since conditions vary greatly in different regions,
but a number of principles should be followed everywhere,
Usually the correct system is worked out eventually by the
most successful grower in any community and it is by
following in a general way methods which by demonstra-
tion have established their efficiency that one may hope
for the best results. .

In reacting from the neglectful practices of soil man-
agement which prevailed in many eastern orchards, the
western apple-growers for a period of years adopted a pro-
gram of intensive and absolutely clean cultivation. (See
Plate VII.) Conservation of moisture and stimulation of *
tree growth were the two principal reasons for such a pro-
gram. Until 1915 absolutely clean cultivation was the
practice in all of the leading apple regions of the Pacific
Northwest. As the trees grew older, greater demands
were made on the soil and it became apparent that this
system of soil management led to a depletion of fertility
and failed particularly in maintaining the necessary hu- »
mus-content. A rapid change occurred in the system of

soil management and at present a cover- or shade-crop sys-
155

156 The Commercial Apple Industry

tem has come into common use. Alfalfa seems best suited ¥ »

to the irrigated orchard land of the West and although it
is spoken of there as a cover-crop, it is more properly either
an inter-crop or a sod-mulch, for it remains in the orchard
for several years and as a als one or two cuttings are taken
off in the form of hay.

CLEAN CULTIVATION

Clean cultivation has many evils which are not at once
apparent. The most striking example occurred in the
Hood River Valley, Oregon, where clean cultivation was
practiced until about 1915 when the bearing orchards
began to show marked signs of lack of vigor, evidenced by
\pale foliage, light yields of small fruit and poor annual
growth. The Hood River orchards made a marked recov-
_ery in the next two or three years, following wider use of
irrigation in growing leguminous cover-crops and on appli-
cation of nitrate of soda.

Except in special cases, continued clean cultivation can
have only disastrous results. Where there is sufficient
nitrogen and humus in the soil, there is no particular
objection to clean cultivation for a limited period of years.
Clean culture for a time unquestionably stimulates tree
growth and increases yields. It has been observed that
this practice is followed continuously in some of the best
. paying and finest apple orchards in the United States.
Invariably, however, i in such instances the original soil was
unusually rich in humus and other plant-food and this

reservoir has not been exhausted. It is better to maintain

fertility, for once depleted its restoration is difficult.

In starting young orchards, clean cultivation is not “p

harmful for the first three or four years. In fact, it may

Cultivation of the Orchard 157

be very beneficial and is probably advisable when inter-
crops are not particularly profitable. In certain seasons
and in certain regions, lack of sufficient moisture is a crit-
ical factor. Obviously the only method to follow in dry
years is to practice intensive cultivation in order to pre-
serve the soil-mulch so necessary for moisture conserva-
tion. Ordinarily regions in which such an extreme short-
age of moisture might take place would hardly be recom-
mended for apples, although dry years are likely to occur
in almost every section.

When clean cultivation is practiced, humus should be
‘supplied. Barnyard manure, when available, is the most
suitable form, since it not only supplies humus but nitrogen
and other elements of plant-food as well. Straw, shredded
cow fodder, or stubble clippings when scattered under trees
and incorporated in the soil, increase the humus-content.
Applications of the latter materials at the rate of 50 to 75
pounds each for trees under six years and from 75 to 150
pounds each for trees six to ten years will prove beneficial.

SOD- OR GRASS-MULCH

Many apple orchards of the United States are allowed
to remain in sod- or grass-mulch. The sod-mulch system
offers the line of least resistance and represents the least
expenditure of time and effort. It is particularly common
throughout eastern and middle west orchards. Its possi-
ble advantages are: (1) increased color of fruit; (2)
reduced cost an acre; (3) prevents hilly or mountainous
soils from washing.

The sod-mulch is probably the only practicable system
for certain hilly districts in New England and throughout
the Piedmont region in Virginia where the orchard land

158 The Commercial Apple Industry

is too steep to cultivate and where clean cultivation would
result in bad washing. The natural vegetative growth
supplemented by fertilization in some instances and occa-
sional cultivation about trees serves to maintain the fertil-
ity of these soils.

‘ The disadvantages of the sod-mulch system are: (1)
reduces yields; (2) reduces vitality and tree growth; (3)
provides harbor for mice, insects and diseases; (4) has
‘tendency to encourage general neglect; (5) reduces soil
aération ; (6) sheds rain.

In all cost-production studies, the question of yield
appears as the critical factor. It is not the acre cost of -
operation, but the barrel or box cost of production that ~
determines profit. If the yield can be increased, the cost
of production is usually materially decredsed. Records
taken by the writers show that in general yields are re-
duced under the sod-mulch system.

While the sod-mulch may be depended on to return
humus to the soil and commercial fertilizer may maintain
fertility, the lack of cultivation will undoubtedly be felt,
and as a general rule trees in sod-mulch have less vitality
and make less growth than those which are cultivated.

Some growers, notably one very successful grower in
western New York and many in southern Ohio, use the
sod-mulch system very profitably. It can not be con-
demned under all conditions but it unquestionably tends
to encourage general neglect of the orchard. The grower
with the sod orchard is not brought into such intimate
touch with his trees as the one who practices more intensive
culture and who is working about among his trees every
few days. Furthermore, the sod furnishes a harbor for
mice, insects and diseases.

Cultiwation of the Orchard 159

CLEAN CULTIVATION WITH COVER-CROPS:

The best general method of soil management for all
commercial apple regions, with two possible exceptions, is
clean cultivation with the use of a cover-crop. The two
general exceptions are: (1) western irrigated orchards
which at present are committed largely to the system of
leguminous inter-crop or perennial cover-crop; and (2)
orchards which are too hilly to permit of cultivation, such
as have been described for parts of New England and
Virginia.

The term “ cover-crop ” is correctly applied to a crop.
sown in the late summer months, usually in July or
August, which is plowed under the following spring. By
cultivating the orchard until late summer, the grower is
using the best method for conserving the moisture and is
insuring other benefits to be derived from cultivation.

In sowing the cover-crop in the summer or fall, the
orchardist can check the growth of his trees and insure the
hardening of their growth before winter without robbing
them of the plant-food necessary to mature the crop. The
cover-crop acts as a protection during the winter months
and when plowed under in the spring increases the supply
of humus, improves the physical condition of the soil and
makes more plant-food available. This system of soil
management is most common in western New York where
mammoth red clover and vetch are the best suited
leguminous cover-crops and rye, buckwheat, oats, barley,
rape and cow-horn turnips are the widely grown non-
leguminous cover-crops. Leguminous cover-crops are
usually more desirable since they not only add humus, but
make more nitrogen available.

160 The Commercial Apple ‘Industry

By combining cover-crops with cultivation, it is possible
to secure nearly all of the benefits to be derived from the
varying methods of soil treatment. Such a system is
designed to preserve and promote permanent soil fertility.

COVER-CROPS

Theré are two important kinds of cover-crops: (1)
leguminous, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, vetch and beans;
(2) non-leguminous, such as rye, rape and buckwheat.
These crops may be further subdivided into those which
live over the winter, such as clover, vetch and rye, and
those like rape, buckwheat and peas which die down in the
fall. Leguminous crops are recommended at least once in
three years or more often, especially when trees are not
making sufficient annual growth and when foliage is pale.
-As a general rule, they are preferable to non-leguminous
crops since they add nitrogen to the soil. Cover-crops
which live through the winter protect the trees against
winter-injury in the absence of snow and also prevent
the washing and leaching of soluble plant-foods.

Alfalfa is by far the most popular cover-crop in western
irrigated orchards where it has largely supplanted the
clean culture system. Vetch, clover and other cover-crops
are also recommended. Although alfalfa is known in the
West as a cover-crop, a distinction should be made between
the eastern cover-crop planted in the fall and plowed under
the following spring and the western cover-crop which is
left in the orchard for several years. In reality the west-
ern cover-crop is an inter-crop, but since its purpose is
primarily to benefit the orchard rather than to provide
immediate returns to the grower, the word cover-crop has
been retained.

Cultivation of the Orchard 161

The benefits of a leguminous cover-crop as grown in the
‘West (alfalfa most common) are as follows: (1) supplies
nitrogen and humus — both limiting factors in the western
desert soils which have been reclaimed by irrigation; (2) is
thought to have beneficial effect in controlling apple-rosette,
a physiological disease somewhat common in the West; (3)
provides a source of income — usually two cuttings of hay
are removed, the third being left. Whether this is the
best practice remains to be proved. Some investigators
maintain that the taking of two cuttings of hay removes
too much nitrogen. Much depends on what disposition is
made of the hay: whether it is fed and returned in form
of manure or sold off the farm; (4) improves texture of
soil; (5) promotes aération of subsoil after plants are
killed and the roots decay; (6) permits of deeper penetra-
tion of the roots.

Disadvantages of leguminous shade-crop system may be
summed up as follows: (1) shade-crops may rob trees of
water-and other plant-food; alfalfa is particularly a close
feeder, likely to crowd young trees; it should be grown
only where water supply is ample and strip cultivation is
practiced among young trees; (2) alfalfa if once started
is difficult to eradicate; (3) in some regions, particularly
in the East, alfalfa is costly. and difficult to start.

With alfalfa as a perennial cover-crop, soil management
includes a thorough discing in the spring. Time of seed-
ing varies with the region and should follow established
precedent. In passing from clean cultivation to ‘shade
crops, the western apple-grower may swerve to the other
extreme and allow alfalfa or other crops to remain in his
orchard too long. Clover lends ‘itself to short rotations
better than alfalfa, although it is less profitable. In any

162 The Commercial Apple Industry

event, shade-crops should seldom be allowed to remain
more than four or five years. Cultivation for a year or
two will preserve a judicial balance.

The quantity of seed to the acre for cover-crops may vary
somewhat with the region. However, the following table
will serve as a rough guide:

TasLe TX.— Quantity oF SEED TO THE ACRE

Mammoth clover ...........00 cece cece ee ee eeee 10 pounds
Common red clover ......... St uss arte Uaslos Secereepu els 10 =“
Alsike clover ag is's vslésisig estvan's maeee'aeaes $ wanes 8 ee
Crimson clover ec: siscc 504 eee adGe eee we Peas 15 id
PAVE ALES sous, a: ded depths aire denny dasa lal dnd acdusbaas ww a Tavmyevense-oeaene 20 s
Cowpeas ........ sinha elala GG hahancresidsa die ane eee TO. 8%
Soybeans 2. sciecssrsskecaeevieges geenage ees 75
Haity or winter vetch ...........0... sees eee 50“
Summer vetch ............ cece eee eee 60 es
Canada peas ............, eee 90 ee
RYO: suctisseg Win gee bh eee ee se vec buly Haeees See 75 «
Buckwheat ................ ees Baws 4 Ates tek x 60 of
RA PO ti’ cs taare'yis dads jr hie nd eaaeas a denied, CMabapad ana 6 “
TUPTIDS: seins saad Pumas asad saiesog wtisekect ones 1 pound

VALUE OF CULTIVATION AND METHODS

The philosophy of tillage and its absolute necessity in
maintaining soil fertility need as much emphasis in apple-
growing as in any other phase of agriculture. Above all,
tillage is the principal determining factor in moisture con-
servation. It increases the availability of plant-food by
promoting the decomposition of organic matter ; it fines the
soil and thereby increases the feeding surface for the roots
and it promotes many favorable chemical and biological
activities.

Hard, lumpy, untilled soil will no more produce profit-
able apple trees than any other crop. The bad effects of
continued clean cultivation have been emphasized, but the

Cultivation of the Orchard 163

entire omission of tillage will be even more injurious than
too much cultivation.

Plowing every year or every other year is highly recom-
mended for all orchards except those in shade-crops or on
land unsuited for cultivation. The operation may be per-
formed either in the fall or spring. The only danger in
plowing is too great disturbance of root systems. For that
reason regular plowing is more advisable than plowing at
intervals of several years. Most commercial apple-growers
plow from 4 to 6 inches deep. The general use of cover-
crops makes spring plowing more common. Very often
discing is the first operation in the spring since it may be
done earlier than plowing. When clover or alfalfa. is
grown in the orchard, plowing may not be advisable oftener
than every three years.

Early cultivation is essential to moisture conservation
and the soil should be worked as early in the spring as
possible. When water is not a critical factor and when a
cover-crop is grown, it is sometimes permissible to allow
the cover-crop to get a good start in the spring before turn-
ing it under. In plowing, the orchardist should plow
toward the tree one year and away from the tree in the
next in order to prevent the tendency toward ridging. As
stated above, when perennial shade-crops such as alfalfa
are being grown, plowing of course is not practiced. A
thorough discing in the spring is recommended, however,
for shade-crops and may take the place of plowing. (See
Plate VIII.)

After the first discing or plowing, frequent cultivation,
preferably every two weeks, is the program followed by
‘most successful apple-growers. By preserving a soil-
mulch until August, the critical drought period usually

yew

The Commercial Apple Industry

164

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Cultwation of the Orchard 165

can be passed successfully.” By that time it is difficult to
cultivate among laden trees. Furthermore, cover-crops
are usually sown in July and August and as early as June.

The various soil management systems are summed up
in Table X.

IMPLEMENTS (PLATE IX)

Various tools are employed by the successful apple
grower. For plowing, a twelve- to fourteen-inch plow,
either single or with two or more bottoms, is a necessary
part of orchard equipment. For stony land the spade disc
is popular, although the cutaway is more generally used.
For late cultivation, various tools are employed. Spike
and spring-tooth harrows, drags and weeders of various
description are commonly utilized. In the West a light
spring-tooth harrow is very popular. The latter is an
excellent tool, stirs the soil well, and has many advantages.
Clod-mashers, drags or harrows may be equally effective
in pulverizing the soil. Special care and precaution
should be taken in working among trees to prevent injury.

THE TRACTOR IN THE APPLE ORCHARD

While the tractor has grown rapidly in popularity, use-
fulness and value for general farm operations during the
past decade, there is probably: no other type of farming
for which it has proved more universally satisfactory and
profitable than for commercial fruit-growing when the
acreage is of sufficient size to warrant the investment.
There seems no question but that the tractor will event-
ually be used in nearly all of the large orchards and in
fact is being used in a great many to-day. In comparing
the efficiency of the tractor with horse labor, the tractor

has the following advantages:

166 The. Commercial Apple Industry

1. The tractor does work more rapidly. Cultivation,
which comprises the major part of the work for which
draft power is required on the fruit-farm, is ordinarily
restricted to a comparatively limited period. As a tractor
works much more rapidly than a team, the orchard may be
thoroughly disced and harrowed in a comparatively short
time. The number of acres which a tractor will cover in
a day will vary greatly. It depends entirely on the make
and horse-power of the tractor, the skill with which it is
handled, the amount of turning necessary and the time lost
due to breakdowns, and the like. However, on the aver-

age, a tractor will till many times the area covered by a
” team and do it much more thoroughly.

The tractor ordinarily does not move any faster than a
team, but it draws a much wider disc, harrow or other
tool. A good two-plow tractor will pull an eight-foot
double dise at the same rate that a four-horse team will
draw an eight-foot single disc. The tractor is, therefore,
doing the work of six to eight horses.

2. A maximum of work may be done at rush seasons by
use of the tractor. Since certain work must be done within
limited periods, there is frequently more or less difficulty
in obtaining the necessary help just when it is needed.
It is, therefore, desirable that the power plant be large
enough to permit one man to do a large amount of work
in a day and thereby reduce to a minimum the extra help
required. It is difficult to use more than a two-horse team
in an orchard, as a larger team usually proves unhandy
and unsatisfactory among the trees. In the case of large
acreages where no tractor is employed, it is often necessary
to keep a large number of men and horses at considerable

1 ete

— Cultivation of the Orchard 167

expense, in order to permit rapid work in the proper
season.

3. The tractor has only overhead expense when not
in use, while it is necessary to keep and feed horses whether
or not they are working. Interest and depreciation on the
tractor, however, are no small items of expense. If the
whole farm is in orchard, a larger percentage of the draft
work can be done with the tractor than is usually the case
on general farms. When the orchardist buys a tractor, he
ean dispose of a larger percentage of his horses than can
the general farmer.

4, The tractor permits thorough work. Since the
. tractor has so much more motive power than a team, it
can draw tools which will cultivate much more deeply and
thoroughly. When thorough and deep discing is desired,
tractors are particularly advantageous. Many tractors
draw both a‘dise and harrow at the same time, the dise
following the harrow or vice versa as the grower may
desire. This is not feasible when a two-horse team is used. |

5. Less injury is caused the trees with tractor. There
is a greater danger of injuring the fruit on the lower limbs
in cultivating with teams than with tractors. Fruit-
growers who have used the tractor emphasize that it may
not only be more economical in cultivation, but that it is
superior to horses for work in large orchards. They claim
that the tractor does less damage to the branches and trees
than horses, partly because fewer trips are required to
accomplish a given amount of work and partly because the
greater width of the implement pulled by the tractor makes
it unnecessary to travel as close to the trees as when horses

are used.

168 The Commercial Apple Industry

6. A tractor may work close to trees. The tractor can
easily cultivate close to the tree row. In many cases prac-
tically all the work of cultivation can be done when the
tractor travels in the center of the row. It is sometimes
necessary that the motive power, whether horses or tractor,
must pass under the limbs and close to the trees, but even
in such cases the tractor does considerably less damage
than horses. A suitable type of tractor is not as high as
horses and furthermore may be equipped with guards to
raise the limbs gently while the machine passes underneath
without breaking the limbs or jarring off the fruit.

7. The tractor may be useful in doing other work than
cultivating.’ The usefulness of the tractor in many
orchards is not confined to cultivation. Growers who have
used tractors state that they save much time and expense
in pulling out trees which need to be removed because of
disease or crowding. A medium-sized tractor will pull
most trees without difficulty if a chain is fastened well up
on the stump or on some of the heavy limbs and then
hitched to the tractor. Some growers use the tractor in
the orchard for hauling manure, lime, spray materials, and
the like, and in rare cases the spray outfit. While the full
possibilities of the tractor have not been realized, it must
be remembered that if there are idle horses on the farm it
will not usually be profitable to employ the tractor for
work which two or three horses could do.

Tractors have proved popular and highly profitable with.
most orchardists who have used them. It is well to state,
however, that there are some disadvantages which many
growers have found and which should be given fully as
much weight as the advantages.

1. The tractor is feasible only on a large farm. An

Cultivation of the Orchard 169

ordinary tractor at present is not adapted for use on the
small farm, particularly a small intensive fruit-farm. It
is not necessary that the orchard be large, but if the fruit
acreage is small a tractor will not be profitable unless con-
siderable general farm land is being operated in conjunc-
tion with the orchard. Orchards of less than 30 to 40
acres, unless connected with a general farm, will hardly
warrant the purchase of a tractor at present prices. There
should be at least twenty days’ work a year for a tractor in
order that it may be profitable. Four to 5 acres of plow-
ing or 18 to 20 acres of double discing may be considered
a day’s work for the average tractor. A two-horse team
will plow about 114 acres a day in the orchard and disc
from 6 to 7 acres,

2. A tractor represents a considerable investment. On
account of the initial cost of a good tractor, efficiency is
necessary if sufficient returns are made to pay such over-
head charges as interest, depreciation, upkeep, and the
- like. A man of limited capital, particularly if he is oper-
ating a young orchard from which there is little cash
return, is likely to find a tractor a rather heavy burden
on his working capital.

3. Experienced labor is necessary to operate and care
for a tractor. While the use of such a machine may save
the labor of one or two additional men, it is important to
realize that the man who operates a tractor should be exper-
ienced and have some knowledge of machinery. When
traced back to their origin, it has been found that a great
number of complaints with reference to the use of tractors
are primarily due to the lack of experience and mechanical
knowledge on the part of the operator.

4, There is a heavy depreciation when tractors are care-

170 The Commercial Apple Industry

lessly handled. -When an expensive machine is operated
by men who have little interest in their work, it will rapidly
depreciate in value. Careless handling will ruin a good
tractor in a single season or even in a day. It is exceed-
ingly important, therefore, that care should be taken to
keep the machine properly oiled, and in good working
order.

5. When a tractor gets out of order, considerable time
may be lost. Even with experienced operators, break-
downs may occur, and if a part breaks which can not be
replaced short of the factory, days may be lost. The prin-
cipal criticism which many growers have against the trac-
tor is that some part is always breaking and that it requires
considerable time and expense for repairs. There is no-
doubt that the average tractor has given considerable
trouble in this regard, especially when handled by inex-
perienced men.

6. Where the fences are near the trees, turning at the end
of the row is rather difficult on account of the wide culti-
vating implements commonly drawn by a tractor. This is
more particularly true of the early tractors than of the
modern machines recommended for orchard work. In
most cases, if the tractor is properly hitched to the imple-
‘ment, the turn can be made into-the next row of trees. It
is seldom necessary, however, that the turn be made into
the adjoining row, since the work of cultivation can nearly
always be carried on just as well by turning into the second
or third row each time, following the same method as is
frequently used in cultivating corn in order to avoid short
turns. Of course in terraced orchards or those planted in
irregular rows, this plan can not be followed. There is

Cultivation of the Orchard 171

nearly always a way to manage the turning if a little ingen-
uity is exercised.

In conclusion it may be said that the uses of the tractor
in fruit-growing have not yet been fully determined or
appreciated. At present tractors are being used in some
of the larger orchards of the Middle West, Northwest and
middle Atlantic states. They are becoming more and
more popular in connection with the operation of orchards
and on general farms of western New York. It seems
only a question of time until the tractor will largely dis-
place the team in cultivating the commercial orchard.

TRUCK

The use of the motor truck in connection with apple-
raising is growing in popularity as rapidly as that of the
tractor. When long hauls are necessary and the tonnage
of fruit is large, the motor truck has found great favor.
In general, the use of a truck will be profitable wherever
the purchase of a tractor is warranted and in many cases
in which a tractor is not profitable.

CHAPTER VIII
IRRIGATION

Irrigation is the process of watering land by artificial
means and is widely practiced in the arid and semi-arid
apple regions throughout the western states.

The history of irrigation dates from the earliest times.
Egyptian and Babylonian records show clearly that irriga-
tion was known several thousand years s.c. Irrigation
in America was practiced in prehistoric times by Indian
tribes of the Southwest, but the first irrigation by English
speaking people of the United States was by the Mormons
near Salt Lake City, Utah. Under the guidance of Brig-
ham Young, the Mormons succeeded in turning the waters
from the canyons and streams into the desert and first
proved the possibilities of western irrigation. The history
of the western fruit regions in nearly every case dates
from the time that water was put on the land. The Wen-
atchee district as recently as 1900 was largely a barren
desert. Now it is one of the leading apple regions of the
world, producing 12,000 cars of box apples in 1919.

Irrigation as a factor in the commercial apple industry
of North America is confined to the apple-growing regions
west of the Mississippi and the Okanogan district of
British Columbia. It is most widely practiced in the
Pacific Northwest. Practically all of the Idaho, Wash-

ington, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and much of the
172

Irrigation 173

Oregon commercial apple crop is grown under a system of
intensive irrigation.

The Hood River Valley of Oregon, while not an arid
region, employs irrigation in many of its orchards. The
Rogue River or the Medford district in Oregon was form-
erly a non-irrigated section but continued drought com-
pelled the practice of irrigation when possible. The only
important non-irrigated apple regions in the West are the
Watsonville and Sebastopol sections of California located
within a few miles of the coast.

The irrigated fruit regions differ in many ways from the
apple sections of the Central West and East. Some of
their most outstanding characteristics are:

1. Compactness. All irrigated fruit districts are very
intensive and compact. They are generally confined
within a certain limited and well defined area. The typ-
ical farms are small and the orchards average only about
ten to twenty acres. Often the orchard of one grower
borders directly on that of his neighbor, so that the plant-
ings in an irrigated valley appear as one large orchard
with but few breaks of land not in trees.

2. Productivity. Orchards in irrigated sections free
from frequent frost-injury bear larger annual crops, partly
because the water supply is largely under control.

3. Rapid tree growth. Trees in irrigated districts grow
very rapidly and attain maturity early. Often trees at
ten years of age are practically in full bearing and in many ,
cases even at seven or eight years of age they bear vei
heavily. Trees in the Wenatchee Valley attain maturity
in about one-half the time required for the same varieties

in the East.
4. Trees are set close together. The trees in the irri-

174 The Commercial Apple Industry

gated districts usually will average twice as many to the
acre as under the same conditions in the East; that is, a
ten-year-old orchard in Wenatchee will have from 80 to
100 trees to the acre, while in New York 40 to 50 trees
would be considered sufficient. A fully matured orchard
in the northwestern regions will usually contain as many
as 75 trees to the acre, while the New York growers claim
that 30 trees is sufficient. Thus the trees of the North-
west do not attain such large size although they grow more
rapidly and attain maturity more quickly.

~ 5. Trees of the irrigated regions have a shorter life
than those under natural or un-irrigated conditions.
Although most irrigated sections.are as yet young, there
are definite evidences that the irrigated orchard ‘is much
shorter lived than the eastern plantation. Trees that
attain maturity at such an early age under artificial condi-
tions cannot continue to maintain vegetative vigor and
health indefinitely. As yet it cannot be said just what
the life of an irrigated orchard under good management
may be, but from present indications it would seem that
thirty years would about mark the life of the average irri-
gated orchard. It is certain that trees are ordinarily most
profitable and at their best under irrigated conditions
between the ages of ten and twenty years.

6. Irrigated regions are usually free from fungus. Se-
rious trouble only appears in the semi-irrigated regions like
Hood River Valley where the rainfall is as great as that in
western New York, but where orchards generally are under
irrigation, due to the rainfall coming at the wrong season
of the year. There is little fungus difficulty in the
famous Yakima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington or
in the irrigated districts of Idaho, Colorado, Utah and

aay} spavyoro Sunok uy = ‘AaT[eA VUIYVA 2Y} Ul Saat} desaut, plo iwed-aay Suryesii1y —Yy ALVIg

Irrigation 175

New Mexico. In this connection, however, it might be
well to say that the codlin-moth is generally very much
more active and difficult to control than under eastern con-
ditions and particularly has this been true of late years.

7. Trees in irrigated regions require detailed care every
year. A grower in an irrigated district, must pay strict
attention to his orchard if it is to survive or he is to
secure any profit out of it. It is absolutely necessary that
it be irrigated and if this highly important operation is
neglected for a single season, the orchard is ruined. Fur-
thermore, if the irrigating is left to inexperienced hands,
the trees are likely to be over-irrigated or under-irrigated
to such an extent that they will be injured permanently.
Great care also is necessary to see that the water is not
allowed to stand on the land or applied at the wrong time.
Under eastern conditions, none of these things is necessary,
so that orchards which have \been neglected not for one
year but perhaps several, may often be brought back to
profitable bearing. This, however, cannot happen in the
Northwegt. This partly accounts for the fact that the
average northwestern grower is as a rule more thorough
and scientific than the average eastern grower. The north-
western owner must be thorough or his orchard will not
live. The orchard under eastern conditions can usually
survive even if somewhat neglected.

8. In irrigated regions the fruit is usually graded,
packed, wrapped and boxed very carefully, while apples
under non-irrigated conditions, as a general rule, are not
graded or packed as carefully and are seldom wrapped.
With the exception of California, fruit in non-irrigated
regions is not boxed to any great: degree. Fruit is never
barreled in irrigated regions. It may be said that 1 in 90

!
t

176 The Commercial Apple Industry

per cent of all cases, irrigated regions produce boxed fruit
and non-irrigated regions barreled or bulk fruit.

9. Land in irrigated regions is expensive and the fixed
costs or overhead charges are high. Bearing orchard land
in the Wenatchee Valley is capitalized at nearly $2,000 an
acre. In fact, land in bearing orchards in nearly all irri-
gated districts is valued at $1,000 an acre or more. Fur-
thermore, interest rates in the Northwest, where these irri-
gated regions are located, are higher than in the East.
From 7 to 8 per cent in the Northwest is a common interest
rate which growers have to face. Thus it is important to
realize that orchards in irrigated districts, even though the
acreage is small, are often valued and actually capitalized
at a much larger figure than those of the Central West and
fast which may be from two to three times their acreage.

10. Irrigated districts are as yet somewhat isolated,
while non-irrigated localities are close to important
markets. The great bulk of the fruit from irrigated
regions has to travel from 1,000 to 3,000 miles to market.
Only a very high grade of fruit of superior marketable
quality can hope to compete successfully with fruit grown
in eastern districts. At present the northwestern grower
puts his fruit up in such good condition that he can put it
on the market in the heart of the barreled producing sec-
tion and sell it quite readily even if there is great barreled
competition. The difficulty of moving the fruit, due to car
shortages, has been a drawback to the Northwest fruit in-
dustry the past few years.

The above points are important in differentiating
between the characteristics of the irrigated and non-irri-
gated regions of the United States. There are many minor
ones, such as systems of orchard management which are

Irrigation 177

practiced in irrigated regions and which differ somewhat
from eastern conditions, but in general the above differ-
ences define quite clearly the characteristics of the two
types of orcharding.

CHOOSING AN IRRIGATED DISTRICT

Certain points are important to remember when selecting
an irrigated district. When the great orchard irrigation
projects of the West were widely advertised, men from
middle west and eastern farms and cities flocked to the |
West and bought orchard land indiscriminately. They
paid, at first, too much attention to scenery and the adver-
tising pamphlets of the promoters. It did not seem to
enter their minds that such things as liability to frost
damage, air drainage, priority of water right and the loca-
tion of the land, as to whether it could be economically
irrigated or not, were of great importance. One of the
greatest mistakes which early investors made was in locat- -
ing on land liable to seepage, that is, land on which alkali
showed up after a few years of irrigation, caused either by
direct irrigation of that particular plot of land or some-
times by the water seeping down from the tracts of land
higher up. .

The definite points to consider when locating in the irri-
gated regions are:

1. The history of the region as regards frosts should be
studied. Frosts have been the limiting factor in success-
ful production in many parts of Colorado, New Mexico,
Utah, and Idaho. More orchardists have failed through
frost,damage in successive years than from any other single
factor affecting production. Certain parts of western
Colorado are so liable to frost damage as to render profit-

178 The Commercial Apple Industry

able fruit-growing impossible. Frosts seem to be very
local in these irrigated regions, that is, certain mesas or
limited areas are much more liable to damage than others.
The most notable example of how important it is to note
the liability to frost in these irrigated districts occurs in
the Grand Valley. A few miles above the town of Grand
Junction is located the town of Palisades, about which is
grouped a very intensive and highly specialized peach in-
dustry. Palisades lies in a very narrow part of the Grand
Valley on either side of which are large cliffs known as
the Book Cliffs. These radiate heat during the night which
together with better air drainage combine so that frosts
in the blooming season are rare. A few miles down the
valley and about Grand Junction itself, frosts are so com-
mon that fruit-growers have become somewhat discouraged.
Peach-growing on this account has been entirely elim-
inated. Destructive frosts seldom occur in the Wenatchee
Valley of Washington and rarely in the Hood River Valley
of Oregon. They occur very frequently in most of the
irrigated districts of Colorado, New Mexico, Idaho, Utah
and Montana and in some of the irrigated sections of
Oregon and Washington.

2. Land not liable to seepage should be chosen. In some
districts alkali has appeared on the surface of the soil and
the trees have lost their vigor and died. Thousands of
acres of land have been lost in the Grand Valley of Colo-
rado through this cause alone and many have become bank-
rupt who started out with the rosiest prospect. Land in
trees which has gone to seep is hardly worth trying to re-
claim as far as saving the orchard is concerned.

It is extremely important that irrigated lands be well
drained so that water cannot stand on them for indefinite

Irrigation 179

periods. It is also important that these lands lie so that
waste water from orchards which may be higher up or
nearer the irrigation canal does not continually seep down
on to the land at lower levels. :

To go fully into a discussion of alkali and the danger
and causes of its appearance would require a book in itself.
It is sufficient to state here that too great emphasis cannot
be placed on the problem of alkali soil and it is very im-
portant that the.fruit-growers strive to avoid orchard sites
where it is present. Enough is known about the liabilities
of soils to seep at the present time so that any engineer
or topography expert familiar with the particular region
should be able to state quite definitely the relative danger
in this regard. Narrow valleys are much less liable to
be troubled with alkali than the broader and larger valleys.
There is no alkali in the Hood River Valley of Oregon
and the Wenatchee Valley of Washington and very little in
the Yakima Valley.

3. The third important point to be remembered in select-
ing soil for irrigation is to see that the land can be irrigated
economically. In numberless instances, orchards have
been set out on land above the main irrigation canal or on
land near no canal and dependence put entirely on pump-
ing systems or small private irrigation systems. In many
cases orchards irrigated in this way have succeeded ;
however, in most cases irrigation is so expensive and
water has so often been difficult to obtain at the proper
time, that in years of poor prices or light crops the grower
has not been able to compete with orchards under system-
atically installed and bonded irrigation systems. In cer-
tain limited sections, the annual water rent charge is as
high as $25 an acre, This is prohibitive. In most dis-

180 The Commercial Apple Industry

tricts it is between 50 cents and $2.50 an acre; $1.50 is
about the average annual charge. Aside from this, how-
ever, the original water right usually costs around $75 an
acre under private irrigation projects. Therefore, it is
extremely important when purchasing land to see that it
can be irrigated economically and that the annual water
rent charge is not prohibitive, or if it is necessary to pump
the water one should carefully determine whether or not
this is feasible. There are of course artesian wells in some
_of the more southern sections, but as they occur in so few
of the fruit districts they hardly enter the discussion here.

4. It is important to consider the priority of water right.
It often happens that growers are located at the end of
the irrigating system or canal and in cases in which the
water supply is scarce they sometimes have insufficient
water for their orchards. This has happened sometimes
in the Wenatchee Valley of Washington, where growers in
the lower part of the valley were insufficiently supplied
with water at the critical time. In other valleys of the
Northwest, many instances might be cited where the
grower has been forced to use the waste water from the
orchard of his neighbor in order to secure sufficient to
supply his own land. The buyer unacquainted with irri-
gation and irrigating systems, tlerefore, should look care-
fully into the probability of having guaranteed water
rights. One year without irrigation in most sections will
usually mean the destruction of the trees. There are many
other points to be considered, such as the proper slope for
easy irrigation.

It is impossible here to enter into the engineering fea-
tures of irrigation and one should have the advice of a
competent engineer in laying out the main laterals.

Irrigation 181

IRRIGATING THE ORCHARD

In the discussion of orchard irrigation, so many factors
enter into the problem, each of which is modified to a great
degree, depending on the soil, ages of trees and various
other conditions, that no set of rules can be laid down.
The three problems to consider in actually irrigating an
orchard are: amount of water-to apply, when to ‘apply it,
and the means of application.

Quantity of water to supply.

When water is abundant, there is always a tendency to
over-irrigate. It should be borne in mind that irrigation
is only supplemental to natural precipitation and every
effort should be made to conserve the natural moisture.
Excessive irrigation causes leaching of plant-food and is
injurious to the soil. The basis of water distribution is
variable. In general it may be said to vary from 35 to
100 acres to a second-foot. )Expressed in acre-inches, the
average amount used in a year would cover each acre to a
depth of about 36 inches. This is augmented by the
normal precipitation which in most irrigated districts does
not exceed 10 to 12 inches per annum. The common unit,
for instance, for water distribution in the Wenatchee Val.
ley is the miner’s inch (one-fiftieth of a cubic foot a second).
The prevailing rate of distribution in this region is one
miner’s inch to two acres.

The water requirement of different soils is somewhat '

variable. With a rich soil the water requirement is rela-
tively low, while with a leached soil it is high. The prac-
tice of growing leguminous shade or cover-crops in irrigated
orchards (usually alfalfa) has appreciably increased the

182 The Commercial Apple Industry

water requirements. The Hood River Valley, with an
average rainfall of about 35 inches per annum, found
irrigation necessary, whenever cover-crops were grown.

Time to irrigate orchards.

In practice, the fruit-grower recognizes the need of
applying water by a slight change i in the color and rigidity
of the foliage. It is unwise to wait until the trees begin
to show signs of wilting, since this delay may prove injur-
ious. It is equally unwise to pour on water just because
it is available. Over-irrigation should be guarded against.

It is generally thought that the amount of free water in
the upper three or four feet of soil should range between
6 to 10 per cent. For the inexperienced, the following
simple test is suggested : Soil samples should be taken from
a depth of about 3 feet. Measure out 6 pounds and 4
ounces (100 ounces) of soil, expose this to a bright sun for
the greater part of a day, and then re-weigh. The number
of ounces lost will correspond to the percentage of free
water. If the loss is less than 6 ounces the soil probably
should be irrigated. More than 10 per cent loss will indi-
cate a super-abundance of water.

Number of applications.

In the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, the first irriga- -
tion is usually given about the first of May, depending
on the soil, the slope, and amount of winter rains. A south
slope requires water probably two or three weeks earlier
than heavy soil or a steep north slope. In Idaho, the
first application of water is usually about the first of June,
while in Hood River the water is turned on between June
first and fifteenth.

Irrigation 183

Correct timing of the first irrigation is exceedingly
important and will depend somewhat on the amount of
winter rains. It is thought that early irrigation tends
materially to reduce the June drop. If the trees are kept
growing vigorously, they will not usually suffer excessive
drop. The spraying operations must be considered in rela-
tion to the time of irrigation in order that the soil may be
sufficiently dry to permit the hauling of the spray outfit.
It is desirable that the water supply be continuous rather
than intermittent in order that the grower may definitely
plan his work and not be kept waiting for water at critical
times.

The number of irrigations varies but will average from
four to five in a season, being made at intervals of twenty
to thirty days. <A light sandy soil which is not retentive
of moisture must be irrigated every two or three weeks.

There is a noticeable tendency in late irrigations to
swell the size of the fruit. This practice detracts from its
keeping qualities and flavor. Excessively large apples
tend to go down in storage. Heavy late irrigations, fur-
thermore, increase loss from scald and bitter-pit. It is
best to irrigate heavily up until about August fifteenth
and then gradually taper off. Ordinarily no irrigation
should be made after September fifth.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION

Originally water was supplied to the western apple
orchards through earthen ditches. With the increasing
‘scarcity of water, there has been a pronounced tendency
towards lining the main canals in order to make them
water-tight and to install underground piping to distribute
water to the highest point in the orchard or along the high-

184 The Commercial Apple Industry

est ridge. The use of concrete or. other underground
piping, together with standpipes, for carrying the water
to the upper end of the furrows is unquestionably the most
efficient system of distribution. ‘Whether such an invest-
ment will prove economical depends on the scarcity of
water and the returns obtained from the land. The
earthen ditch or cheap wooden flume may be the more
economical.

The actual application of water to the soil is usually
accomplished by means of furrows or rills. The length
of the rills ordinarily varies from 200 to 600 feet, depend-
ing on the slope and character of the soil. With sandy
soils or steep slopes, the rills should be short and narrow
at the bottom in order that washing will not occur or over-
irrigation of the upper end of the tract at the expense of
the lower lands. With gentler slopes and heavy soil, the
furrows may be very much longer and also wider at the
bottom, in order to promote percolation. The depth of
furrows usually varies from four to six inches, although
there is a tendency towards deeper rilling, eight inches
being recommended by some in order that the first few
inches of surface soil may be kept partially dry. When
the top of the soil is moist, there is excessive loss through
evaporation. If the land is very steep, a very small stream
is necessary in order to prevent washing. With light
porous soils the furrows are made shallow, narrow at the
bottom and relatively close together, the water being run
through quickly and under a heavy head of water.

The number of furrows in a tree row varies from two
to six, five being the most common. (See Plate X.) The
irrigator tries to get the first row within three feet of the
tree row and spaces the remaining ones at a distance of

Irrigation 185

three to four feet apart. Shallow rills require closer spac-
ing. -With very young trees, a furrow on either side of
the tree row is usually sufficient. This plan is also fol-
lowed with mature trees where a shortage of water occurs
in order to get over as much land as possible. Ordinarily
with full bearing trees, the entire surface of the land is
watered. :

The most common implements for making furrows are
the six-foot cultivator, with the three shovels attached and
the single shovel plow. The latter implement is frequently
used for making the furrows close to the tree rows. A
single furrowing during a season usually suffices when the
orchards are in alfalfa, although occasionally the orchardist
finds it necessary to open up the rills late in the season.
Cultivation between irrigations entails the replacing of the
rills.

The operation of turning the water on the land is termed
a “set.” It is usually necessary to make several sets if
the orchard is large. The irrigator turns his entire head
of water into a few furrows and allows it to run from
twelve to seventy-two hours, varying with the type and
condition of the soil. The water is allowed to run, until
by a slow lateral movement it saturates the soil between
the furrows. When the orchardist finds that sufficient
saturation has taken place, he turns the water into another
portion of the orchard and so on until the entire area is
irrigated. ‘

Flooding is practiced in a limited way and under this
system the water seeks its own course over a strip usually
a few tree rows wide. This practice has been largely

superceded by furrowing.

CHAPTER IX

FERTILIZING THE COMMERCIAL
APPLE ORCHARD

Fertizizine is one of the many important orchard oper-
ations and one about which much has been said and writ-
ten, and yet few definite conclusions have been published,
Many state experiment stations and individuals have exper-
imented with orchard fertilizing from time to time and
much has been written about the values of different sys-
tems. In many cases, however, erroneous conclusions have
been drawn because of outside influences which intervened
to destroy the value of the experiment. For that reason
increased or decreased yields have been attributed to the
use of certain fertilizers, when as a matter of fact they
were due to other causes. As a result of the many contra-
dictory statements published on fertilizing, this important
orchard operation is the one practiced least systematically.

The wide difference in soil conditions complicates much
of the experimental data on this subject. Means and
methods of application practiced in the different regions
are also variable. In all experimental reports there are
some definite conclusions on which most investigators
agree. One point definitely brought out is the great value
of such nitrogenous fertilizers as nitrate of soda and stable
manure to nearly all orchard ‘sections.

A prominent investigator of orchard fertilization is J.

P. Stewart, and long-standing and interesting experiments
186

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 187

have been conducted by the Pennsylvania State College
under his direction. The results of his work in general
are of great interest and are more applicable to the
eastern conditions under which they were obtained. Other
important experiments have been made by various state
experiment stations, particularly those of Ohio and Oregon.
C. I. Lewis and E. J. Kraus of Oregon have offered valu-
able contributions on this subject. Thorough investiga-
tions have been conducted by experiment stations in Ohio,
New York, New Hampshire, Virginia, Indiana and other
’ states. ; ‘

PRESENT PRACTICES IN FERTILIZING

Before discussing the results and conclusions arrived
at by these and other investigators, it is of interest to note
the general practices followed throughout the different
commercial areas and the attitude of the average com-
mercial grower toward fertilizing. It is only within recent
years that the grower has given any great degree of atten-
tion to this important subject. However, as with spray-
ing, fertilizing is becoming more and more general and
necessary. As yet, however, great numbers of growers
do not realize its value. Many are content to allow their
orchards to bear very small or medium-sized crops when a
few dollars expended in the purchase and. application of
stable manure or commercial fertilizers would greatly in-
crease their returns at a minimum price a barrel or box.
It is only a question of time until the fertility of soils will
become depleted. It remains, therefore, for the minority
of growers, those few who use fertilizer, to convince or-
chardists generally of the great value and increased profit
to be derived from judicious use of various fertilizers.

188 The Commercial Apple Industry

Throughout the East and Middle West it is rather a
4 comin practice to apply stable manure to the orchard.
This is particularly the case in western New York where
considerable stable manure is available for this purpose,
and where its value seems to be appreciated as much or
more than in any. other section. The value of stable
manure is recognized to a greater or less extent in most
of the important apple regions of the East and fruit-
growers usually apply to their orchards all the manure
which is readily available. As yet, however, many grow-
ers hesitate to go to any considerable expense in buying
\ manure from the cities in carload lots. In general, those
who have adopted the latter practice have found that it is
highly profitable.

In the Far West, the practice of using stable manure is
not general. The orchards are small, highly intensive and
do not permit the keeping of much livestock. For this
reason manure is not readily available. In western
orchards the general method of securing nitrogenous fertil-
izer is by growing leguminous shade and cover-crops. The
Hood River region in Oregon has probably used more
commercial fertilizer than any other western section.

In the southern Ohio Rome Beauty district, nitrate of
soda is employed extensively as an orchard fertilizer.
Annual applications vary from 3 to 9 pounds to a tree.
Nitrate of soda is used to a greater or less extent in various
other eastern districts, but in no section. is its application
so general as the Rome Beauty district of southern Ohio.

VALUE OF STABLE MANURE

Nearly all growers agree that the beneficial effects of
stable manure are apparent in increased tree growth and

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 189

fruit production. Stable manure not only supplements
the available plant-food, but has the additional advantage
of keeping the soil “alive” and of adding to its capacity
to conserve moisture. It makes the food already in the
soil more available and permits freer circulation of air.

It may be definitely stated that stable manure has given
uniformly excellent results in the various commercial dis-
tricts throughout the country. (Other fertilizers have not
been so widely tested.) Annual application of 8 to 10
tons to the acre in a well-managed orchard is usually suffi-
cient to secure good annual crops, although a less amount
is very beneficial. Some growers prefer to make heavy
applications every three or four years, applying from 25
to 30 tons to the acre, or from 15 to 20 tons every other
year. A few New York growers are the most common
practitioners of this method. New York orchards with
their large and old trees can utilize profitably a very large
_ amount of plant-food.

Careful cost-accounting records taken on about 400 farms
in the western New York apple belt show that orchards
which are given annual applications of manure, and in
which leguminous cover-crops are grown, give the highest
annual yields and are the most profitable.

EXPERIMENTS WITH FERTILIZERS
Research work of Kraus and Kraybill.

A discussion of fertilizing would not be complete with-
out a consideration of the work of Kraus and Kraybill,
who have made the most exhaustive research investigation
regarding the relation of plant vigor to cultivation and
nitrogenous fertilizer.

190 The Commercial Apple Industry

These investigators found that by dividing plants into
three groups a certain definite relation is brought out
between the nitrogen and carbohydrates present in the
different groups. These groups are divided as follows:

Group 1. Those plants which seem to be extremely vig-
orous but rarely bloom, and if they do bloom, set but little
fruit.

Group 2. Those plants which make a very fair growth
and seem to be in good vigor, bear very abundantly and
produce a large number of clusters, the blossoms of which
readily set fruit.

Group 3. Those plants which are less vigorous than the
second group, bloom profusely, but set fruit very sparingly.

A chemical analysis of the plants in these groups shows
that: (1) those of the first group always contain an abund-
ance of moisture and nitrogenous compounds; (2) those
in the second contain a relatively smaller amount of nitro-
genous compound as compared with the carbohydrates
(sugars and starches) ; (3) the plants of the third group
contain still less of the nitrates and proportionately much
more of the carbohydrates than the second group. It is
shown rather conclusively from these experiments that
there must be a certain mathematical relation between the
nitrates and the carbohydrates in order to secure the best
results.

The results of these studies directly apply to the apple.
Examples of the first group. are commonly found in trees
from one to seven years of age which have a great abund-
ance of nitrogen as compared with the amount of carbo-
hydrates, such a condition being encouraged by intensive
tillage, severe heading of trees or use of nitrogenous fertil-
izers. As a result, considerable wood growth but little

Pirate XI.— Insect pests of the apple. Upper, On left, apples
in proper condition for first codlin-moth spray; on the right too
late for effective spraying. Middle, Work of codlin-moth or
common apple worm in the apple. Lower, Young apples injured
by the fruit-tree leaf-roller, an insect prevalent in Fremont
County, Colorado, and often in New York and other barreled

sections.

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 191

fruit is secured. It is found by reducing tillage, pruning
and other stimulating operations, that one automatically
reduces the relative proportion of raw sap and_ nitrogen
and allows the increased leaf areas to manufacture more
concentrated food, such as sugars and starches. As a
result, such trees begin to form buds, produce fruit and
thereby pass into the second class.

In the third group or class of trees, the nitrates have
become much reduced in proportion to the carbohydrates.
As a result, the leaves become yellow and thin, the spurs
begin to die and the set of fruit is poor. The trees are
starving for nitrates amid plenty of sugars and starches. '
This explains how a relatively small amount of nitrate
added in the spring often produces such remarkable results.
It once more restores the balance between the carbohydrates
and the nitrates. When a proper balance is seemingly
reached between thése two, the proper vegetative growth
and fruitfulness is secured. Such trees then would be
classed in Group 2 and, therefore, approach the ideal con-
dition for fruitfulness. Every effort should be made to
maintain them in this condition. Good cultivation, the
growth of legumes or moderate applications of nitrate of
soda will usually serve to maintain the proper balance
between the nitrates and carbohydrates. Acid phosphates
may also be necessary.

Experiments in Pennsylvania.

In a series of experiments carried out under the direc-
tion of J. P. Stewart in Pennsylvania, the following con-
clusions seemed to be more or less definitely established:

1. It was found that nitrogen, of all food elements, was

192 The Commercial Apple Industry

the most influential in improving both annual yield and
growth.

2. In order to dispel any apprehension of great expense
involved in applying nitrate of soda, it may be stated that
during a ten-year period nitrate of soda was applied at a
cost of 9 cents a bushel of fruit produced, or 27 cents a
barrel; and as nitrate was figured at a war time cost of
$100 a ton, this shows that even with a very high price the
great increase in yield would soon pay for the fertilizer.
In these experiments, nitrate of soda was applied at the
rate of 4 to 8 pounds to a tree.

7 13. “It was found that nitrogen from commercial

sources or from stable manure proved more effective than
that from cover-crop as a rule.” Nitrogen from commer-
cial fertilizers and from stable manure was particularly
effective when accompanied with the proper cultural
methods.

4, “The addition of phosphorus or potash to nitrogen
applications has usually given larger returns than nitrogen
alone. The nitrogen and phosphorus combination has pro-
duced an average increase over the normal yields in two
experiments of 265 and 308 bushels per acre annually dur-
ing 9- and 10-year periods. This combination is also
proving important in one of the experiments in young
orchards. In at least three of the other bearing orchards,
however, the addition of phosphorus has resulted in no
important benefit.”

5. “ Neither phosphorus nor lime, when used alone, has
shown any important influence on either yield or growth
in apples. Lime may often have some indirect value, how-
ever, through its favorable influence on leguminous covers

1 Quotations from State Coll. Bull., No. 153.

Fertilizing the Oommercial Apple Orchard 193

or intercrops, and possibly as an accompaniment of fertil-
izer applications. In the latter relation its chief effect
has been on growth. Phosphorus is also generally valu-
able in connection with leguminous covers.”

6. Potash, when applied alone, gave an increased yield
in some experiments, a material increase in a few, but in
some instances had an injurious effect. On account of the
impossibility of defining just what the soil needs without
experimentation, it is better to defer general use of potash
until definite evidence of its value is secured. This can
be done through a home experiment as outlined later in
this chapter.

7. “The red color in apples can not be increased mate-
rially by any kind of fertilization, although potash and
possibly phosphorus “may sometimes assist very slightly.
These colors are directly dependent on sunlight and matur-
ity, with the latter occurring preferably on the tree.
Hence such influences as normal development, late picking,
light soils, open pruning, and mildly injurious or defoliat-
ing sprays are the chief practical means of increasing the
reds in fruits, while opposite conditions tend to decrease

hem.”

f 8. “The distinctly retarding influence of nitrogenous
fertilizers and manure on color is simply due to delayed
maturity, and is often an advantage in the case of the more
northern varieties, such as Baldwin, Hubbardston and
McIntosh, when grown in Pennsylvania. In such varie-
ties, the color reduction is readily overcome by deferring
the picking. With the York Imperial and similar, long-
seasoned varieties, however, it may also be necessary to use
nitrogen more sparingly and to utilize the other direct
aids to color as much as possible.”

194 The Commercial Apple Industry -

V5, “In these experiments, fertilization has usually had
very little influence on the average size of the fruit. This
is apparently because it acted primarily in increasing the
total amount of fruit and foliage on the tree, both of which
influences tended to decrease the average size of the fruit.
Manure, however, usually secured a fair increase in size,
probably chiefly because of its moisture-conserving effect.
The importance of moisture is evident from the fact that
water forms about 85 per cent of the average fruit. The
chief means of increasing the size of the fruit, therefore,
are proper thinning and moisture conservation.”

10. “ Evidence elsewhere indicates that the time of ap-
plication is important, especially, for nitrogen. It ap-
pears that nitrogen carried in nitrate of soda may often
distinctly increase the crop of the current season if the
application is made at the right time. This time seems to
be about when the buds are beginning to open in the spring,
or slightly later. When the applications are made much
later than this, or when the slower-acting carriers of nitro-
gen are used, such as dried blood or manure, no important
effects should be expected before the’following year. The
later applications, however, are often used in steadying the
yields from year to year and hence should not be
neglected.” It should be borne in mind that the above
conclusions are more applicable to the East.

There is a variance in opinion among experimenters as
to how soon an appreciable influence is derived from
application of nitrate of soda. Some feel that if applied
well in advance of the bloom, it will materially increase the
set of blossoms the same season. It is more commonly
thought that since the morphology of the bud is determined
in the preceding season, the application of nitrate can have

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 195

little or no effect on the set of blossoms of the current
season.

It has been found that many failures with potash and
phosphorus are due to a deficient nitrogen supply. It is
quite a common belief that if fertility is low all the ele-
ments of plant-food are needed, when very often the soil’
is deficient only in one or two elements. Potash and phos-
phorus, if not actually required, may tend to check or bal-
ance any ill effects of nitrogen. Therefore, it is generally
recommended by Stewart that for the average orchard,
an application of 500 pounds to the acre of 6-8-5 fertilizer
be employed. This means a fertilizer carrying 6 per cent
of nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphorus and 5 per cent potash.
If commercial fertilizer is not used and stable manure is
available, it is recommended that about 8 tons of the latter
be applied annually to an acre, especially when the trees
indicate the immediate need of fertilizing. Commercial
nitrogenous fertilizer, especially nitrate of soda, is quicker
in action than manure, and the same is claimed ‘for sul-
fate of ammonia. It is generally concluded that in case
of young trees stable manure is more satisfactory, as it
usually furnishes all deficient elements of plant-food
needed for growth.’ A good system for mature trees, under
middle western and eastern conditions, is to apply nitrate
of soda, 4 to 8 pounds, acid phosphate, 6 to 8 pounds, and
muriate of potash, 2 or 3 pounds toa tree. Of these fertil-
izers, nitrogen is the most important and likely to be most
needed.

Nitrate experiments by Lewis.

The Oregon experiments by Lewis have brought out
some additional conclusions with regard to the application

196 The Commercial Apple Industry

of nitrogen and at the same time have confirmed several
of the results obtained elsewhere. While Stewart recom-
-mends 4 to 8 pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree, Lewis
advises 3 to 4 pounds. This difference in opinion, how-
ever, may be accounted for by the variance in conditions.
The Lewis recommendations refer to northwestern condi-
tions where the trees are much smaller than those of the
East, while Stewart’s findings are more applicable to the
older and larger trees of the East. The recommendations
and results emphasized by Lewis as applying particularly
to the northwestern conditions are as follows:

1. An application of 5 pounds of nitrate of soda quickly
restored devitalized trees.

2. The benefits of nitrate application were quickly
apparent, as shown in the dark green foliage.

3. Nitrates stimulated the wood growth.

4, Nitrate of soda produced much more attractive blos-
soms and a much better set, even in the current season
when application was made a month in advance of the
bloom. (Some experimenters disagree. )

5. A much larger percentage of the bloom set fruit on
fertilized trees than in the case of trees which had not
received this treatment.

6. There is a greater tendency for the fertilized tree to
bloom more annually and evenly.

7. It was shown very conclusively that nitrate of soda is
the cause of greatly increased yields.

8. Nitrate has a direct effect on the marketable quality
of the fruit, causing the specimens or individual apples to
become much larger than those on unfertilized trees.
This is somewhat at variance with Stewart’s conclusions

‘

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 197

which were to the effect that the size of the fruit is little
ected by fertilizer.

9. The degree of color on red varieties receiving nitrate
was not as,high on the whole as those which received none,
but good commercial color was easily secured unless
amounts of nitrate used were excessive.

10. It was found that up to a certain amount, the
response to nitrate of soda was in direct proportion to the
quantity of fertilizer used. However, 3 to 5 pounds to a
tree under normal conditions was more satisfactory than
larger amounts. Some applications in excess of 5 pounds
to a tree, although increasing the total fruit produced,
lowered the color to a point seriously detracting from the

oe quality.
11. It was found that the influence of nitrate was more
‘marked in heavy crop years than in years of light produc-
tion.

12. The benefits from the use of nitrate extended over
a period including two seasons from the date of applica-

ou 13. The greatest benefit came from applying nitrate to
devitalized trees which had received continuous clean
tillage.
14. Best results were obtained when nitrate was applied
about a month before the tree bloomed.
It was found at the Oregon station that Yellow New-
town trees which received early fertilizing averaged 7.9
"boxes to a tree while late fertilized trees averaged much
less. In the case of the Esopus (Spitzenburg), the early
fertilized trees averaged 10.83 boxes to a tree while the
late fertilized trees averaged much less. The results of

198 The Commercial Apple Industry

this experiment indicate that application must be made
early if appreciable effects are to be obtained the current
season. By comparing such experimental data as is avail-
able at the present time and from data secured from indi-
vidual growers in various parts of the country, the authors
recommend early application of nitrate of soda, preferably
a month before blooming. This recommendation applies
to both eastern and western conditions.

AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER TO A TREE

The amount of fertilizer to be applied must necessarily
vary with the size, age and vigor of the tree. Although
nitrogen is likely to be the most needed’element, if orchard
soils show general depletion, an application of acid phos-
phate 6 to 10 pounds to a tree and muriate of potash 2 to
3 pounds to a tree, as well as nitrate, is usually advisable.
Under northwestern conditions, 5 pounds of nitrate of soda
to a bearing tree is probably sufficient to restore fertility.
Under eastern conditions where trees are older and fruit-
ing surface is greater, larger amounts are advisable, 6 to 8
pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree being usually recom-
mended. These amounts are for trees which show a dis-
tinct need of fertilization. Lesser amounts will suffice’
where need is not so evident. If trees are healthy, but
are still making only small annual growth, if foliage tends
to be pale green or yellow and also sparse in the late sum-
mer or fall, and if crops are only medium to light, it is
highly probable that fertilization will be profitable and
particularly the application of nitrate of soda. To deter-
mine the needs of the soil, some actual test should precede
any wide general treatment. ‘As a rule, young healthy

Rls

orchards do not require eres Older orchards will

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 199

usually respond to moderate applications of nitrate of
soda, even though they may have no clear indication of the
need. In such cases, the amounts to be applied saws
be reduced.

NEEDS OF IRRIGATED REGIONS

The importance of nitrogen as the limiting element of
plant-food is emphasized under western irrigated condi-
tions where the nitrogen-content of the soil is soon
exhausted unless replenished by the growing of legumes or
by application of manure or commercial fertilizer. The
system of clean culture with irrigation, practiced so exten-
sively at one time in the Northwest, caused more or less
rapid depletion of humus and nitrogen. The results of
this harmful practice became very evident in the famous
Hood River Valley of Oregon. In about 1915, the
orchards of this well-known region were producing rather
small annual crops; the foliage was beginning to take on
a yellow appearance, particularly in the non-irrigated
orchards where no leguminous shade-crops were grown.
It became apparent that some change in orchard manage-
ment was necessary to bring back the yields and vigor of
the trees to normal. It was in these circumstances that the
value of nitrate of soda was demonstrated. While the
importance of nitrates as commercial fertilizers is recog-
nized in the Pacific Northwest, and particularly in Ore-
gon, the value of acid phosphate and potash commonly
recommended in the East in conjunction with nitrates has
not been established in the irrigated regions. In other
words, eastern orchards more commonly require general
fertilization, while northwestern plantings are not likely

200 The Commercial Apple Industry

to require anything but nitrogen. This need is being sup-
plied in part by the quite general practice of growing
leguminous shade-crops.

NITRATE OF SODA

Nitrate of soda as a fertilizer will be more and more
/ widely used. At first the commercial apple-growers looked
“-—— askance at this means of maintaining soil fertility, there
~ being a theory that once given nitrate of soda treatment a
tree would require continual stimulation. This theory has
been disproved, however, and a single application of nitrate
of soda may prove beneficial] whether later applications are
made or not. Continued moderate application at intervals
‘of about two years may prove desirable, however.

Hood River, Oregon, has been mentioned as one region
in which this form of fertilization has proved profitable.
The value of nitrate of soda is also recognized in the
Ozarks, southern Indiana, western Michigan, in Virginia
and particularly in southern Ohio. Wherever the soil
is naturally~deficient in nitrogen or where the nitrogen
has been exhausted through the planting of other crops,

this deficiency can and should be quickly remedied.

METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS

It may not always pay to apply commercial fertilizers
indiscriminately to all trees in an orchard. In other
words, one may profitably single out trees which are in need
of treatment and omit others. In the average orchard,
there will be many trees which are growing vigorously and
fruiting well. At the same time, there are likely to be

These latter are in need theetrom. It is, therefore,
a good plan to gé through the orchard and tag such trees
in the summer so that they may be manured or fertilized
the following spring according to their individual needs,
The common method of applying commercial fertilizer
is simply to scatter it broadcast under the trees from two
weeks to a month before bloom, care being taken not to
get it too close to the trunk. Application should extend
well out beyond the spread of the branches in order to
conform more closely with the usual distribution of the
feeding roots. Heaviest application should be made over
the area covered by the outer two-thirds of the branches.
Fertilizer may be left on the surface to be carried down by
the rain or it may be harrowed or lightly plowed into the
soil. Barnyard manure may be applied at almost any
time, although applications late in the growing season are
likely to over-stimulate wood growth. Winter dressings
are most common.
With nitrate of soda good results have been secured by
dividing the amounts to be applied into two parts, making
the first application about a month in advance of the bloom
and the second about a month after the fruit has set.
Favorable responses have been obtained from second ap-
plications as late as July. The rate of the second appli-
cation may vary, according to the size of the crop which
the tree is carrying, heavier application being profitable in
full crop years. The double application of nitrate of
soda is credited with a tendency toward steadying and
maintaining annual yield. In most regions this fertilizer
is scattered broadcast in dry form, largely on the area cov-

202 The Commercial Apple Industry

ered by the outer two-thirds of the branches. In a few
regions where spring rains are infrequent, liquid applica-
tions have proved advisable.
PRUNING WITH REFERENCE TO FERTILIZING

In connection with fertilizer studies, it has been found
that efforts toward building up the soil and improving
fruitfulness should be accompanied by regular and moder-
ate pruning throughout the entire tree. Excessive head-
ing back or heavy thinning of branches should be avoided
unless the trees have entered such a decline as to necessi-
tate the encouraging of heavy wood growth.

FERTILIZER TESTS

It is concluded from the foregoing discussion that soil
fertility is of utmost importance and should be carefully
maintained. Careful orchard management and the use of
commercial fertilizer when necessary should forestall the
depletion of plant-food. It has been emphasized that the
critical factor in soil fertility of leading apple regions is
available nitrogen supply. In regions in which yields are
low and trees show pale foliage and lack of vigor, it is

highly probable that the application of nitrogen fertilizer .

will be profitable. It is simple to conduct a test with a
few trees and the results are quickly apparent. In many
instances the increased yields will cover the added cost of
the fertilizer many times over. It is anticipated that
nitrogen fertilizer will become more and more popular
among commercial apple-growers.

A good orchard test is suggested by Stewart, although

most commercial growers hesitate to go to the trouble of:

making it. The importance of testing fertilizers is appar-

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 203

ent when one realizes the marked difference in results ob-
tained in separate experimental orchards. It is wise to
try fertilizing on a small scale before assuming any large
financial risks, Y

“This test should be located in a typical section of the
orchard and include not less than six average trees of the
same variety and age in each plot. It’is also best to have
the trees in double rows whenever possible and the plots by
a single row left unfertilized. All trees should be labeled
and carefully measured at-a fixed point on the trunk, and
the applications and exact-records of both yield and growth
should be maintained for at least three years. Good in-
dications of an orchard’s needs may often be obtained in
much less time, but at least this period should be allowed.

(Rates are stated for each mature tree in bearing.)

1. Check (unfertilized).

2. Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs.

3. Nitrate, 5 lbs.; acid phosphate (16 per cent P, O;),
8 lbs.

4, Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs.; potash (50 per cent. K,O),
2 Ibs.

5. Check. é

6. Acid phosphate, 8 Ibs.; potash, 2 Ibs.

7. Nitrate, 5 lbs.; acid phosphate, 8 lbs.; potash 2 lbs.

8. Manure, 400 lbs.

9. Check.

“ Other carriers, such as ammonium sulphate or dried
blood, may be used for the nitrogen; and bone meal or
possibly ‘ floats’ may be used for the phosphorus. The
present materials are likely to be best.in the absence of
cultivation, however, and they are also quicker in their

action as a rule.”

\
\

204 The Commercial Apple Industry

GENERAL SUMMARY AND SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS:

(1). Cost production studies emphasize the importance
of high yields. Judicious fertilization is a direct method
of increasing yields.

(2). Nitrogen is the limiting element of plant-food in
most orchards. It can be supplied best in one of the
following ways:

(a) Barnyard manure, 8 to 10 tons to the acre an-
nually.

(b) Nitrate of soda, applied two to four weeks be-
fore bloom; 3 to 5 pounds to a mature tree
under western conditions; 4 to 8 pounds to a
tree under eastern and middle western condi-
tions. Amount varies with age, size and vigor
of tree.

(ec) Growing of such leguminous shade- and cover-
crops as alfalfa, clover or vetch.

(3). Nitrogen tends somewhat to increase the size of
the fruit, particularly on weak trees. It increases the
number of fruits more noticeably. It may reduce color
by checking maturity.

(4). Phosphorus and potash applied in conjunction
with nitrogen have given generally better results than
nitrogen alone. This has not been definitely established
under western and some eastern conditions.

(5). Potash may improve color to slight degree.

(6). The application of about 6 to 8 pounds of nitrate
of soda; 7 to 9 pounds of acid phosphate and from 2 to 3
pounds of potash to a mature tree may be considered
full treatment for soils generalfy depleted in fertility.
Local tests should be made before extensive application of

Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 205

commercial fertilizer is made, since conditions vary exceed-
ingly in different orchards. ‘

(7). Two to four weeks before bloom is the time rec-
ommended for applying nitrate of soda. Other fertilizers
may be applied at the same time. Method of application
is by broadcasting fertilizer principally on the area under
the outer two-thirds of bearing surface of tree.

(8). Over-application of commercial fertilizers is to
be avoided. Unfruitfulness is not always due to depleted
soil fertility. Tests in fertilization should be conducted to
determine needs.

(9). Barnyard manure is an excellent fertilizer for
apple orchards, particularly for young trees when rapid
wood growth is desired; also for old trees which need
stimulation to produce normal annual growth.

(10). Leguminous cover-crops are very important in
maintaining humus and nitrogen supply, and very often
obviate the necessity of applying commercial fertilizer.

(11). Some old orchards, particularly in western New
York, apparently do not respond to commercial fertilizers
but this does not mean that commercial fertilizers are not

valuable under most conditions.
1

CHAPTER X

DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE AND
THEIR CONTROL

In recent years much attention has been given to the
study of insects and diseases attacking the different fruits.
It is impracticable here to describe all of the pests which
are found on the apple and for fuller accounts the reader
is referred to the ‘“ Manual of Fruit Insects” by Slinger-
land and Crosby and “Manual of Fruit Diseases” by
Hesler and Whetzel.

IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF THE APPLE

The codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). (See Plate
XI.)

This insect, of European origin, is widely disseminated,
being present in practically all of the important apple
regions of the world. In the United States it is recognized
as the most serious insect enemy of the apple and is respon-
sible yearly for a great loss of fruit. The codlin-moth,
more commonly known as the “ apple worm,” feeds within
, the fruit, causing the so-called “wormy apple.” In the
"arly part of the season much of the wormy fruit falls
to the ground, but the fruit attacked later is not so likely
to drop. In regions in which this pest is abundant, many
of the apples as they near maturity are frequently

“stung.” This refers to the small shallow excavations
206

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 207

through the skin made by the worms before they succumb
to the poison.

The seriousness of this insect is somewhat variable from
season to season and in different fruit-growing districts.
In the eastern states the codlin-moth can be controlled by
one to three thorough spray ‘applications. In the Middle
West and in the arid fruit-growing regions of the West,
the insect is more difficult to control, often requiring six
to seven sprays. It thrives especially under the warm
dry climatic conditions of the West, whereas its develop-
ment in the East is retarded by the occurrence of rains and
periods of cool weather. The number of broods is in-
fluenced by weather conditions as indicated by the fact
that there are four broods in the Pecos Valley of New
Mexico while in Maine there is practically but one, the
second brood being very small.

The codlin-moth passes the winter in the worm or
larval stage, within a small silken cocoon which is nor-
mally spun beneath the loose bark of the trunk. By the
time the apples are in bloom, many of the worms have
changed to the pupal state, after which they further trans-
form and issue as moths. The eggs are deposited on the
leaves and sometimes on the fruit itself. The worms
hatch usually in six to ten days, depending on the weather,
and soon eat ‘their way into the fruit if it is not properly
protected by poison.

Before proper control measures can be applied, it is
essential to know the life history of the codlin-moth. It
is important to have information on the number of broods
and the time when each brood is hatching in maximum
numbers. It will, therefore, be readily appreciated that
no one spraying schedule will be applicable in all fruit-

]

208 The Commercial Apple Industry

growing districts, but instead a spraying scheme that will
meet local conditions should be adopted.

The following suggestion will be helpful in controlling
the codlin-moth: (1) Arsenate of.lead powder should be
used, 2 pounds of the paste to 50 gallons of water or
fungicide. (2) The importance of thorough spraying for
the calyx treatment can not be too strongly emphasized.
This application may be started when 85 to 90 per cent of
the blossoms have dropped and must.be completed before
the calyces have closed. (See Plate XI.) The calyx cups
should be literally drenched to insure filling each one with
the poison. The spray should be applied with nozzles
throwing a coatse spray under a pressure of 200 to 225
pounds. . The upper parts of the trees should be sprayed
from a tower. (3) In regions in which the codlin-moth is
serious, every effort should be made to reduce the first brood
as much as possible. If necessary, three cover sprays
should be made for this brood: (a) Just before the worms
begin to hatch (three to four weeks after the calyx spray) ;
(b) as the worms are hatching in large numbers (ten to
twelve days after a); (c) as the late hatching first-brood
worms are appearing (ten to twelve days after b).

If the first brood is not practically eradicated, no sub-
sequent spraying will eliminate wormy and “ stung” fruit.
In order to catch the first-brood worms that have escaped
being poisoned, it would be well either to band the trees
or to employ the codlin-moth trap. A large proportion
of the first-brood worms transform in a few weeks to moths,
the females of which are eapable of laying as many as 300
second-brood eggs. From this the fruit-grower will realize
the importance of killing as many first-brood worms as
possible. In spite of the above precautions, however,

Piate XII.— San José scale: (a) natural size; (b) enlarged;
(c) appearance of this pest in the apple.

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 209

some worms will escape both the poison and the mechanical
means of capture and it will, therefore, be necessary to
spray for the later broods.

The following spray schedules are suggested :

Schedule I (One spray). (1) Calyx spray.
Schedule II (Two sprays). (1) Calyx spray.

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1
Schedule III (Three sprays). (1) Calyx spray.

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1
, (8) 8 to 10 weeks after 1
Schedule IV (Five sprays). (1) Calyx spray.

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1

(8) 5 to 6 weeks after 1

(4) 8 to 10 weeks after 1

(5) 12 to 14 weeks after 1
Schedule V (Six sprays). (1) Calyx spray.

(2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1

(3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1

(4) 6 to 7 weeks after 1

(5) 8 to 10 weeks after 1

(6) 12 to 14 weeks after 1

Maine to Connecticut: Frequently schedule I will suf-
fice, but if not schedules II or IIT should be em-
ployed. ‘

New York to Virginia: In some fruit districts within
these states schedule I will give satisfactory commer-
cial control of the codlin-moth. Where it is more
abundant, schedules II or III will be necessary.

Ohio to Michigan: Usually schedule III will give satis-

factory control.

210 ‘The Commercial Apple Industry

Illinois to Arkansas: There is considerable variation
in the relative infestation of the codlin-moth in these
states. In some fruit districts schedule III will suf-
fice, while in others schedules IV or V should be
employed.

Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah: The severity of
the codlin-moth in these states varies to a considerable
degree and the best spray schedule for each fruit-
growing district will depend on the local conditions.
In many of thesc districts, schedule V should be em-
“ployed, supplemented by banding or the codlin-moth
trap.

Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California: In many.of the
fruit-growing valleys in these states the codlin-moth is
a pest of first rank, requiring for best control schedule
V together with banding and the use of the codlin-
moth trap. ,

San José scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus). (See Plate
XIT.)

The San José scale is one of the most common and inju-
rious apple pests. It is widely distributed throughout
practically every commercial apple region. The mature
scale is gray in color, circular, and about the size of a pin-
head. A nipple-like protuberance in the center distin-
guishes it from other scales of similar appearance. The
scale is merely an excretion for protection; the louse is
bright lemon in color and when crushed emits a percepti-
ble juice. .

Annual spraying with limesulfur (30°-33° Baume)
1 to 8 is recognized as proper treatment. It is desirable
to delay the application until early spring, at a'time when

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 211

there will be the greatest hold-over effect against young
seale. This occurs just as buds are swelling. For badly
crusted infestation of scale, crude petroleum oils are ef-
fective. As a rule, San José scale is now well controlled
by spraying. Control measures are directed particularly
to protect. the fruit from infestation. :

Oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi). (See Plate
XIII.)

The oyster-shell is another common scale insect which is
not as serious, however, as the San José. The shape is
distinctive and resembles very closely a long narrow oyster-
shell. It is about 14 inch long, brown in color, although
sometimes grayish. Ovyster-shell scale is not so widely dis-
tributed as San José scale nor is it usually a menace in
regions where the latter is serious. It seems to prefer a
higher altitude.

The dormant lime-sulfur spray is not as effective inthe
control of oyster-shell as of San José scale, yet in most
instances it seems to control both insects. Two or three
weeks after the blooming period, the old oyster-shell scales
begin to loosen and the young lice start to crawl about.
Application of distillate oils, kerosene emulsion, or lime-
sulfur (1 to 35) is usually effective at this time. Nico
tine sprays, 1 to 200, are also effective although somewhat

more expensive.

Apple aphids.

Four well-known species of plant-lice affect the apple.
Two of these, the oat aphis and the green aphis are green-
ish in color and feed chiefly on the foliage, causing it to
curl. The third species is commonly called the rosy apple

212 The Commercial Apple Industry

aphis (Aphis sorbi) because of its pinkish to purplish color.
This louse is a more serious pest than the others since it
not only attacks the foliage, but also causes severe damage
to the young apples. (See Plate XV.) These injured
fruits, known sometimes as “ aphis apples,” are frequently
much dwarfed and distorted in shape and have no com-
mercial value. The fourth species is the woolly aphis
(Schizoneura lanigera), easily recognized by its whitish,
cotton-like appearance, particularly when in colonies.
This species feeds chiefly on the twigs, axils of the leaves,
the trunk, especially where the outer bark has been in-
jured, and the roots. (See Plate XIV.)

The life history of plant-lice is somewhat complicated
and worthy of brief mention. The oat aphis and rosy
aphis migrate to other host plants in the summer, but
return in the fall to deposit their eggs on the apple twigs.
The green apple aphis breeds on the apple during the
entire season as does also woolly apple aphis, although the
latter has an alternate host plant in the elm.

The control of plant-lice is difficult, but by careful and
timely spraying satisfactory results can be obtained. The
oat, green and rosy aphids hatch in the spring about the
time the green tips of the foliage appear. The lice con-
gregate upon these tips and soon commence to feed.

It is in this short period that the fruit-grower has the
best chances of effecting control by thorough spraying with
a contact insecticide, as nicotine sulfate (40 per cent) at
the rate of 1 to 1066 (3% pint to 50 gallons of water to
which has been added 2 to 3 pounds of soap). If it is
desired to spray for the San José scale, it may be done at
this time, thus giving the tree the so-called “ delayed dor-
mant”’ treatment for the San José scale and apple aphids.

_ piboi

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and’ T'heir Control 213

The best spray combination for this treatment is standard
lime-sulfur solution 1 to 8 plus 40 per cent nicotine sulfate
1 to 1066 (3% pint to 50 gallons). The soap should not
be used when lime-sulfur is employed as they are not com-
patible.

The above-ground colonies of the woolly apple aphis
may best be treated in the summer by a drenching spray
of 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. The nicotine spray
does not penetrate the woolly covering of these lice as well
as the oil spray, otherwise the nicotine solution might be
used. As yet, no satisfactory method of combating the
woolly aphis on the roots has been found, but growing trees
on resistant stock, as the Northern Spy, is desirable in
regions in which this pest is troublesome. In spraying all
plant-lice it is important to remember that these are suck-
ing insects. ; ;

Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar).

The mature insect is a snout-
beetle which punctures the
young fruit in the early stages
and causes misshapen fruit.
Codlin-moth sprays serve to
check plum curculio although
control may not be entirely ef-
fective. Infestation is favored
when orchards are in sod or
grown up to weeds. Where

: : oy
this pest is prevalent, an a We Gee GRE

senical should be added to the the egg and feeding punc-
tures of the plum curculio

pink spray ap plication. (See as well as the distorted

Fig. 3.) shape of the fruit attacked.

214 The Commercial Apple Industry

Apple red bugs.

Red bugs (Heterocordylus malinus and Lygidea men-
daz) have come into prominence chiefly in New York state.
They do not seem to have spread to the Middle or Far
West, although they are more prevalent in Connecticut and
on up through New England into Nova Scotia. These
insects puncture the apples early in the season, causing
them to drop before maturity or to be misshapen and un-
dersized. Nicotine sulfate, 1 to 800, combined with the
pink spray for the scab has given best results. A repe-
tition of the nicotine application with the calyx spray
may be necessary.

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar (Malacosoma americana).

The ordinary spray program including lead arsenate
usually controls the tent-caterpillar and rarely is it a
serious pest. The nests may be destroyed with torches and
the egg-masses may be detached and removed while the
trees are leafless. (See Plate XV.)

Round-headed apple-tree borer (Saperda candida).

This insect may be particularly injurious to young apple
trees and even matured ones. The larve attack the trees
near the base and feed for the first season under the bark,
later tunneling deeper into the wood during the second and
third years. In infested orchards, trees should be wormed
annually with a knife and wire. Painting the trunks with
pure white lead and oil from a few inches below the ground
to a foot above may serve as a repellent and reduce egg,
deposition by the adult beetle. Egg deposition begins in

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 215

May and June and is continued until August or Sep-
tember. (See Plate XIII.)

Cutworms.

Cutworms are sometimes injurious, particularly in
young orchards planted near timber. The worms work
chiefly at night, feeding on the buds and tender foliage.
During the day they may be found in the soil at a depth
of about an inch. A poison bran mash deposited near the
trunk of the trees acts as a control measure.

Bud-moth (T'metocera ocellana).

In well-sprayed orchards, the bud-moth is not as a rule
injurious. The caterpillars of this insect pass the winter
in little cases near the buds and when growth starts in
the spring they feed within the small leaves, folding them
together with silken threads. Late broods attack the ap-
ples by burrowing into the flesh. Arsenate of lead, 2
pounds paste to 50, in the scab spray is usually effective
against this insect, although an earlier arsenical spray may
be necessary.

The fruit-tree leaf-roller (Archips argyrospila).

This insect is especially injurious in New York, Mis-
souri and Colorado, often stripping fruit-trees and ruining
many of the young fruits. The most efficient method of
control is to destroy the eggs early in the spring, using
miscible oil, 1 part to 19 parts of water; or a 10 per cent
kerosene emulsion may be used. Arsenical sprays are
necessary to kill the insects, 6 pounds arsenate of lead in
100 gallons of water, making the first application as soon

216 The Commercial Apple Industry

as the buds begin to burst, and the second when the blos-
som buds in the cluster begin to separate. (See Plates
XI, XIII.)

IMPORTANT APPLE DISEASES

Apple-scab (Venturia pom).

The scab is probably the most widely distributed and
most destructive apple disease. It thrives in cool moist
climates and is particularly injurious in western New
York, New England and Michigan. Occasionally it
causes heavy losses in cool rainy seasons in Illinois and
other middle western regions. The Hood River and
Rogue River valleys, Oregon, are the only western apple
regions which have suffered materially from scab. The
fact that severe scab attacks are intermittent and depend
largely on the season is likely to cause growers to become
careless and an unexpected scab year very often proves
disastrous. (See Plate XVI.)

The disease is evidenced by brown or grayish spots on
fruit and leaves. Badly attacked apples may be dwarfed
and very often crack open. The disease is spread by
means of spores and lives over the winter on fallen leaves.

Lime-sulfur 1 to 35, in combination with lead or nico-
tine if desired, is effective against scab. Applications
should be made (1) in the pink just before the blossoms
open; (2) in the calyx; and (3) two to three weeks later.
The first two sprays are the most important, since the fun-
gus becomes active with the starting of growth in the
spring. Late applications of lime-sulfur are sometimes
necessary in bad seasons. While a three-spray program
usually suffices, it does not always serve in seasons when

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 31%

spore development is particularly favorable. Only those
growers who make two and even three late sprays are able
to produce reasonably clean fruit under such conditions.

Apple-blotch (Phyllosticta solitaria).

This is essentially a middle western apple disease, being
particularly injurious in southern Illinois and Indiana,
in the Ozarks, southern Kansas and occasionally in the
Missouri River region about St. Joseph. Most susceptible
varieties in these states are Missouri Pippin, Northwest
Greening and Ben Davis.

The disease attacks the fruit, leaves and twigs, wintering
over in twig cankers. Injury to the fruit is most serious
and appears in the form of hard roughened brown spots,
irregular in shape and sometimes sunken. Three-cornered
eracks in the fruit are characteristic of the disease.

Bordeaux mixture (3-4-50) is considered most effective
against apple-blotch, and lime-sulfur (1-35) in a lesser
degree. The latter with the calyx spray and three Bor-
deaux sprays at intervals of about three weeks, begin-
ning two to three weeks after the petals fall, is recom-
mended as an effective program against severe apple-
blotch. The first Bordeaux spray is most important.

Sooty-blotch and fly-speck (Leptothyrium poms).

This disease does not penetrate the skin, but detracts
greatly from the appearance of the fruit. It appears in
two manifestations, the former in large sooty blotches and
the latter as minute black spots on the skin of the apple.
These diseases are usually controlled by the regular sum-
mer fungicides. (See Plate XVI.)

218 The Commercial Apple Industry

Cedar-rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginiane).

In some regions, particularly in the Virginias, the cedar-
rust has become a serious menace. It appears on the apple
in bright ‘yellow spots as large as 14 to %g inch in
diameter. In the yellow area are small black specks or
pustules. The foliage is similarly affected and late in
the season blisters or cushions are found on the under-
side of the leaves. The cutting down of all cedar trees
within a radius of at least a mile is the principal correc-
tive measure.

Bitter-rot (Glomerella rufomaculans).

Bitter-rot is very serious in certain commercial apple
regions in the South, particularly in the Piedmont district
of Virginia and in parts of the Ozarks. The fungus
works in the tissue of the apple, causing first small light
brown spots just beneath the skin of the apples. These
spots may increase rapidly in size, attaining a diameter of
an inch or more, and are usually sunken. Occasionally
the apple assumes a peppered appearance and with yellow
varieties as the Newtown, the margins of the spots may be-
come purple or reddish in color. (See Plate XVI.)

The disease is spread by spores, transmitted by rain
drops, insects or birds. It may appear any time between
the middle of June and the middle of September, being
favored by warm moist seasons. The Yellow Newtown or
Albemarle Pippin is very susceptible and Ben Davis,
Gano, Grimes and Jonathan more or less so.

Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) applied from June 15 to
July 1, July 15 to 20 and August 1 to 5 is generally con-
sidered the best control program. The disease winters

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 219

over on mummied fruit and in cankers in the bark.
These sources of infection should be removed when the
disease is bad.

Blister-canker (Nummularia discreta).

This canker, sometimes spoken of as the Illinois blister-
canker, is the most destructive apple disease in the Middle
West. It is particularly prevalent in the [llinois, Ozark
and Missouri River regions where it has caused heavy loss
in trees. The fungus gains entrance strictly through
wounds in the roots or branches. The initial cankers
produced, by the disease vary in size from 2 to 18 inches
in length and from 44 to 6 inches in width. Their ap-
pearance very often resembles that of cankers produced
by winter-injury, sun-scald, blight or collar-rot, except
that blister-canker affects not only the bark, but also the
wood. The bark becomes shrunken and assumes a darker
color and the cankers increase in size as long as the branch.
remains alive. The disease is spread by means of spores
and infected wood.

Unfortunately, the most important varieties of the Mid-
dle West are the most susceptible to this disease, namely
Ben Davis and Gano. The Delicious, though not widely
grown in these regions, is also susceptible. Oldenburg,
Wealthy, Winesap and Jonathan are more resistant.
Whole trees often appear to die in a single season although
as a matter of fact the infection has probably been present
for several seasons, but has been invisible from the outside.
The disease makes rapid progress in drought years.

Treatment must be preventive rather than curative.
Once infected, a tree can be saved only by the removal of
the infected wood. Fortunately, vigorous well-cared-for

220 The Commercial Apple Industry

trees are very much less susceptible to the disease than
slow-growing neglected individuals. As stated above, in-
fection always enters through wounds and for this reason
all pruning and other wounds should be disinfected and
covered. White lead and oil or liquid asphaltum are rec-
ommended as suitable coverings for wounds. A mixture
of two-thirds coal-tar and one-third creosote serves not only
as a covering, but also as a disinfectant. Cheap grades of
these materials are adequate.

Heavy pruning encourages rather than checks the
disease and for this reason should be avoided in regions
where blister-canker is serious. Preventive measures may
be summed up as follows: (1) Avoid heavy pruning;
(2) disinfect and paint all wounds; (3) remove all infec-
tions from diseased trees; (4) select resistant varieties;
(5) keep trees vigorous.

Collar-rot.

The seriousness of collar-rot has become apparent in
many commercial apple orchards and the cause of this
injury has been the subject of considerable study. Cer-
tain varieties such as Grimes, the trunk wood of which
does not harden fully for the winter and which for that
reason is more subject to injuries from alternate freezing
and thawing, seem more susceptible to collar-rot than
others. Collar-rot on Grimes is also sometimes attributed
to fire blight. The connection of certain fungi have been
associated with collar-rot injury, but at the present time
there is no authentic publication which describes the iso-
lation of any particular fungus responsible for the injury
for which specified treatment is recommended. Trees in

PLate NIJI.— Insect enemies of the apple. (1) The
fruit-tree leaf-roller egg mass from which the young cater-
pillars have hatched; (2) The rounded-headed apple-tree
borer in its tunnel at the base of a young apple tree; (3)
The oyster-shell seale: (left) scale turned over to show
eggs; (middle) mature scale; (right) young scale.

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 221

low wet ground or near irrigation ditches are sometimes
susceptible to collar-rot.

In working about trees, care should be taken not to
scrape the bark or cause wounds at or about the collar.
Such wounds may permit the entrance of either sapro-
phytic or parasitic fungi.

Observations have been made of the successful removal
of infected or rotted tissues after which bridge-grafting
or the planting and grafting in of young trees about the
base of the trees has resulted in the saving of many collar-
rotted trees. The practice, while recommended for iso-
lated cases, is hardly advisable on a large scale. The
process is' expensive and not always successful. .

Fire-blight (Bacillus amylovorus).

Fire-blight or pear-blight is a bacterial disease which
affects both apples and pears and, while less serious on
apples, it is responsible for heavy loss in apple regions.
The disease is caused by microscopic bacteria working just
underneath the bark in growing tissues of the trees.

The presence of blight is generally evidenced during the
growing season by a wilting of the leaves and branches
above infected parts. The disease winters in hold-over
cankers which at the beginning of spring growth exude
drops of infected gum. Insects are attracted to the sweet-
ened gum and very often carry the germs with them from
flower to flower during the period of pollination. Bees
are well-known carriers of the disease and aphids very
often spread infection through feeding punctures. The
first sign of blight in the spring is usually apparent when
the infected blossom-spurs begin to wither and die, result-

222 The Commercial Apple Industry

ing in what is known as twig-blight. Confusion very
often results from the use of such terms as twig-blight,
blossom-blight and trunk-blight. In reality they are syn-
onymous, being merely different names to designate the
part of the tree infected.

Fire-blight is more or less prevalent in all apple regions,
but has been particularly serious in the Pacific Northwest
on account of the presence there of susceptible varieties.
The Esopus (Spitzenburg) is more subject to blight than
any other leading commercial variety. Spitzenburg or-

chards in the Yakima Valley have suffered severely in bad,

blight years. On the other hand, the heavy Spitzenburg
plantings in the Hood River Valley, Oregon, have been
very little injured. It is difficult to say just how far
local climatic and soil conditions affect the spread of this
disease, but unquestionably they are important factors.

Preventive measures consist in checking wood growth.
Blight works on tender succulent wood. Aphids unques-
tionably are active in spreading this disease and their con-
trol is important.

After infection, the removal of the diseased portion is
the only treatment. In the care of infected branches, the
cut should be made about ten inches below the last visible
sign of the blight. Wounds should be disinfected with
cyanide of mercury, 1 to 500; tools should be disinfected
with corrosive sublimate, 1 to 1,000.

Apple - rosette.

The apple rosette is a physiological disease more or less
prevalent in certain regions, particularly in the North-
west. The disease is evidenced by a shortening of the
terminal growth. Buds are crowded together by a failure

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 223

of the branch to elongate. The result is a whorl of leaves
at the tip and an absence of leaves along the side of the
limb, which lends to the branch somewhat the appearance
of a feather-duster. The exact cause of apple rosette is
unknown. Abnormal soil condition or insufficient nour-
ishment may be responsible. In the Northwest the sow-
ing of alfalfa in affected orchards has seemed to exert a
beneficial effect. Good orchard practice, designed to pro-
mote normal growth of the trees, seems the principal cor-
rective measure.

Baldwin-spot.

This form of fruit-pitting is probably a physiological
disease due to abnormal plant growth. More and more
emphasis is being placed on good orchard management
as a correction to such physiological affections. The
maintenance of soil fertility and correct soil management
_ are of particular importance. In the Pacific Northwest,
regular irrigation with neither too much nor too little water
is essential in controlling such diseases.

An internal browning has been more or less prevalent
in the Newtowns grown at Watsonville, California. Ex-
periments in controlling this latter disease have been con-
ducted for a number of years, but the disease is still puz-
zling to horticulturists.

ANIMAL PESTS OF THE APPLE

Meadow mice. =

The field or meadow mouse has become a menace in
many orchard ‘regions, particularly in the South where the
sod-mulch provides harbor. The mice attack the trees by

‘
7

224 The Commercial Apple Industry

gnawing the bark from the trunk at or near the surface of
the ground. Most of this injury is accomplished in the
winter under cover of snow, although it may occur any
time during the year.

The runways of meadow mice are found entirely on
the surface of the ground under weeds, leaves, brush and
similar litter. Ordinarily, orchard sanitation, including
the removal of trash and litter from about trees and fence
rows, will suffice to control this pest, although ‘poisoning
may be necessary for bad infestation.

Pine mice.

The pine mouse is not dissimilar to the field mouse except
that it is smaller and reddish-brown instead of the charac-
teristic grayish-brown color of the field mouse. While the
field mouse is more widely distributed throughout the
country, the pine mouse is more injurious and more
greatly feared in regions where it is prevalent. The Vir-
ginias have suffered severe depredations in recent years.
In one Virginia county alone,’ it is estimated that the loss
from pine mice would amount to $300,000 annually. The
pine mouse works almost entirely below the surface of the
ground, feeding on the roots of the apple trees, girdling
the trunk at or below the surface of the ground and in
many instances tunneling along the roots and eating the
bark for a distance of several’ feet from the trunk of the
tree. While the field mouse usually works under cover.
of snow and is particularly bad in years when a heavy
coating of snow remains on the ground for a considerable
period during the winter, the pine mouse works beneath
the surface of the ground and in all seasons of the year.
Its activity in most cases is not apparent until the tree

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 225

attacked begins to wilt and is beyond recovery. For bad
infestation by pine mice, the orchardist must introduce
and continue careful and thorough poisoning.

Control of mice by poisoning.

It is a good practice for the orchardist to carry a can of
poison about with him and as. he discovers holes or run-
ways, to deposit a few of the grains of poisoned wheat in
the openings, covering the latter with trash or leaves in
order to make the trap more effective. Poisoning must
be done systematically. Badly infested orchards should
be first disced and cultivated in the spring. In poisoning
it is well to send two or three men down a single tree row.
By following a zigzag course and carefully looking for
runways or holes, effective and systematic poisoning may
be done. One man should easily cover from one to two
acres in this manner in a day. A careful orchardist in
an infested area should go over his orchard several times
a year.

Trees once girdled or partially so will soon die if
exposed to the sun or drying action of the wind. For this
reason the practice of poisoning should be accompanied
by a search for injured trees. If the wounds can be
covered by heaping fresh soil about the trunk, the tree
may be saved and later a permanent recovery may be
effected by bridge-grafting.

A good poison formula for control of these mice is as
follows:

1% ounce strychnine
134 pints water

4 pounds sugar

1, peck wheat

226 The Commercial Apple Industry -

Boil strychnine, sugar and water together for ten or -

fifteen minutes, then add the wheat and boil a few minutes
longer. Remove the mixture from the fire and stir vigor-
ously until the wheat has become thoroughly coated. If,
on cooling, the mixture does not sugar, it may be necessary
to boil a few minutes longer. It is highly important that
the mixture be stirred vigorously in order that the poison
may be distributed and the grains of wheat properly
coated. The wheat will not ferment and may be kept
indefinitely. It is claimed that chickens are not affected.

SPRAYING

Spraying as known to-day has come into general prac-
tice only within the last fifteen or twenty years. ‘The
development of the power sprayer has made practicable
the spraying of large commercial tracts and at the present
time no other single operation defines so clearly the dis-
tinction between commercial and non-commercial fruit-
growing. It is now generally accepted that spraying is
necessary to the production of strictly commercial apples.

It. is unquestionably true that insect pests and diseases
are becoming more numerous and growers in new regions
may not reasonably expect their orchards to be immune
from the attacks of insects and diseases which thrive else-
where under similar conditions. With the present means
of communication and with increased number of host
plants, isolation becomes less. and less a factor. Fortun-
ately, the increased energy of these attacks on apple trees
has been accompanied almost simultaneously with the
development of more effective spray control methods. No

other orchard operation in the growing of commercial |

apples requires such thorough study as does spraying, and

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 221

pays more on the investment, and yet no other practice is
more likely to be slighted. Growers are now coming to
look on spraying as a form of insurance and well thought
out spray programs are being adopted in every region.

While the last twenty years mark the period within
which spraying has come into general use in commercial
apple-growing, the history and development of spraying
plants dates back much further. There are authentic
records of trees having been “syringed” in Europe as
early as 1763. The history of spraying indicates that
this practice was probably not unknown much earlier than
this date. In 1872 paris green was first recommended as
an efficient spray material to be used against the canker-
worm in southern Illinois. Eight years i probably
‘the first experiment in the control of the codlin-moth with
the use of an arsenical poison was conducted in Michigan
by Cook who reported having successfully used London
purple in spraying crab-apple trees. In 1892 and 1893
arsenate of lead was introduced largely as an outgrowth
of the gipsy moth control work. While greater emphasis
was laid on insecticides in the early history of spraying,
the development of suitable spray materials for fungous
diseases was almost simultaneous.

It is exceedingly difficult to describe exact methods of
spraying. Thoroughness is all important. Leaking
valves, leaking spray hose and faulty equipment should be
avoided. Spray applications should be made promptly
and at critical times, as delays are costly. For this reason
the equipment should be thoroughly gone over well in
advance of the season.

It is impossible to fix a definite spray program which can
be followed absolutely. Continued rain or other inclem-

228 The Commercial Apple Industry

encies may intervene. The seasonal development of pests
and diseases varies greatly. The spray problem requires
individual study with careful regard for general principles
in control methods.

Cost of spraying.

The results of cost-production studies as applied to spray-
ing lack stability since labor rates vary greatly in different
regions and change from year to year even within a given
district. The cost of spray material suffers similar
changes. However, the amount of labor as expressed in
man and horse hours does not fluctuate greatly and affords
a reliable basis for comparison. The writers conducted
detailed cost studies in hundreds of orchards in various
regions of the United States and a number of important
points regarding the amount of labor involved and material
used were brought out. In the cost studies, a three-man
and two-horse crew operating a power spray outfit was
taken as a basis. Dusting and the spray-gun were not
used.

It was found that such a crew sprayed on the average
of three to five acres of bearing trees in a ten-hour day.
It was noticeable that the northwestern growers sprayed
out more material in a day than those in other districts,
the average of Yakima and Wenatchee being 1,750 gallons
a day. The same size crew operating in western New
York averaged only 1,100 gallons a day. This disparage
ment in favor of the efficiency of the western spray crew
may be explained partly by the fact that the presence of
water in irrigating ditches greatly facilitates the reload-
ing of spray tanks and in this way increases the efficiency
of the spray crew,

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 229

TaBLeE XI

SHowmne Rate anv Cost or Appiyina Spray MATERIALS IN Six
OF THE Leaping APPLE REGIoNS

, | 38

3 a 5 4

1 Gah ea &

Gi rd Gi s 3

E s = i Ee |
Acres a day ... 3.4 4.24 3.57 5.47 3.8 4.6

Gallons a day.. | 1766 1743 1253: 1205 1904 1150
Gallons an acre.| 515 411 379 223 501 250

Gallons a tree.. 6.3 5.3 6.3 3.1 6.8 7.0
Average number

sprays ...... 3.4 4.98 4.09 5.65 3.7 3.5
Cost of spraying| $37.00| $42.00] $40.00| $30.00] $36.00} $25.00
Cost of labor .. 20.00 26.00| 23.00 18.00 22.00 14,00

Cost of materials} 17.00 16.00| 17.00 12.00 14.00} 11.00

The accompanying table shows the amount of spray
materials used and the rate of application in different
regions. These and other data are taken to show the
approximate cost of spraying one acre of bearing orchards
for an entire season in each of six important apple regions.
In studying the amount used for a tree for each applica
tion, the size and variety of the tree should be considered.
For example, the grower in Hood River, Oregon, applies
on an average of only 3 gallons to a tree as compared with
an average application of over 6 gallons to a tree elsewhere.
The Hood River Newtown with its low head is not to be
compared in size with a forty-year-old New York Baldwin
tree and therefore does not require the amount of spray.
As a matter of fact, if the New York grower would spray
his Baldwin trees as thoroughly as the Wenatchee grower
sprays his Winesap, he would probably use at least twice

230 The Commercial Apple Industry

as much material instead of about the same amount of 7
gallons a tree.

The dormant lime-sulfur application is included in the'
averages of Table XI, but as a rule requires somewhat more
labor and of course involves more expensive spray material. —
Considering the best sprayed orchards, it becomes appar-
ent that the spraying operations represent an annual out-
lay of at least $40 a bearing acre if depreciation of spray
outfit is to be included.

Spray equipment.

There is considerable variation in the type of spraying
outfits. For the small grower, hand outfits such as bucket
or barrel sprayers may be sufficient, but for the commercial
grower the power spray is essential. At present the power
sprayers operated by gasoline engines are in almost exclu-
sive use, although traction and compressed air outfits have
been sinpleyed with some success.

Generally speaking, a good spray outfit is a most profit-
able investment. For the operator of a moderate sized
orchard, the common outfit is a three- or four-horse-power
gasoline sprayer with a two- or three-cylinder pump, cap-
able of delivering 6 to 9 gallons of spray material a minute
under a pressure of 200 to 250 pounds. The 200-gallon
tank is most popular. It pays to buy a good sprayer.
Heavy repair bills and lack of efficiency very often make
the cheap sprayer most expensive in the end.

For the large commercial grower, the high power gas-
oline outfit with four-cylinder pumps and four-cylinder
automobile type engines from 10 to 12 horse-power are
not uncommon. These large outfits are capable of deliv-
ering as high as 15 gallons of spray material a minute

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 231

under pressure of 200 to 300 pounds. The grower can
profitably study the different makes of power sprayers
before making a selection. Before buying he should insist
on seeing a thorough orchard demonstration of the model
in question.

No other one new device since the power sprayer was
invented has met with such general interest as the spray-
gun, for which the fruit industry is indebted to John Hull
of Gasport, New York. The idea has been developed by
a number of manufacturers. The gun consists of a short
metal rod attached to the end of a spray hose. The orig-
inal spray-gun was constructed so as to deliver a maximum
of 15 gallons of spray a minute. Under heavy pressure,
a great cloud of spray could be sént out, reaching a height
of 46 feet. Experiments have not actually determined
the relative value of the spray-gun as compared with the
old rod and nozzle, but growers have not waited for pub
lished reports. The spray-gun was introduced to offset
the effect of dusting and is now being used by hundreds of
growers. Some criticism is voiced against the gun for the
calyx spray in controlling codlin-worms. When used from
a tower, this criticism is mitigated to a greater or less
extent. Speed is the chief recommendation for the spray-
gun. ‘The operator usually stands on a tower and with a
single gun sprays two rows from a steadily moving apray
outfit. age *

For apple orchards in full bearing, the spray tower is a-
necessary accessory if thorough work is to be performed.
Planting schemes should provide sufficient space between
mature trees to permit the use of a tower in reaching the
topmost: branelies. Various tower designs are in use.
Strong iron rods supporting a small square platform with

232 The Commercial Apple Industry

railing are suitable material. Wooden towers are more
inexpensive. When trees are close together, a tower sup-
porting a single wooden bar or “ horse ” which the tower-
man may straddle is a more suitable form.

Nearly every grower has a favorite type of nozzle and
‘there are many different designs. In the main there are
two broad classifications, the Vermorel or eddy-chamber
nozzle and the Bordeaux type. With the former, the spray
is introduced into an eddy chamber and leaves the artifice
in a cone shape mist. With the Bordeaux nozzle, the
spray leaves the nozzle with a direct force, but is deflected
into a fan shape by striking an obtrusive bar or lip. The
Bordeaux nozzle provides a more direct driving spray and
is preferred by many growers for the calyx spray when it
is desirable to drive the poison down into the calyx cups.
For cover sprays, the eddy-chamber nozzle is more popular.
In the first place it does not wear out so quickly. It also
uses spray material more economically than the Bordeaux
nozzle and does not catch on the branches. While the
Bordeaux nozzle will deliver 214 gallons to 3 gallons a
minute under 200-pound pressure, the eddy-chamber deliv-
ers from 14% to 2 gallons. The Bordeaux nozzle causing
a driving, fan shaped spray is heartily indorsed by some
for the calyx application. For thorough work it may be
more effective, although for an all-round nozzle the
“Friend ” type or disc nozzle is desirable.

Hired sprayers.

In some regions, particularly in the northwestern irri-
gated sections, it is often customary to hire a spraying
outfit by the day or hour. Thus one grower may do his
own spraying and that of several neighbors. The small

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 233

grower pa to this practice when he feels that his acre-
age is insufficient to warrant the purchase of a power outfit.

In considering custom spraying, two decided disad-
vantages weigh heavily against this practice. In the first
place, the value of spraying and its relative cost may only
be measured by its efficiency. No matter how cheap the
cost, careless spraying is expensive. To be efficient, a
spray must be applied at the critical period. If one has
to wait for a custom sprayer, very often the value of the
spraying is partly lost. The second reason is that while
figuring only labor and material costs the hired sprayer
may be cheaper, it is considerably less efficient. On sixty-
nine fruit-farms studied in the Yakima Valley, thirty-
nine growers owned their own sprayers and thirty hired
their spraying done. In every instance the custom sprayer
applied on the average of one-third less material to a tree.
It is quite likely that in every instance this was false
economy. The hired outfit will not perform the careful
work which a grower himself will do.

‘It is not to be concluded from this discussion that the
small orchardist is invariably justified in owning a power
sprayer. It has been found that the average depreciation
and upkeep of a power spray outfit amounts to practically
25 per cent a year. Thus a $500 sprayer investment
means an annual outlay of $125 in addition to labor and
material. On a five-acre orchard, this cost alone would be
$25 an acre. It is doubtful whether the orchardist with
less than ten acres is justified in owning a power sprayer.

Regional spraying notes.
The northeastern states— The commercial apple
growers in Michigan, New York and New England fear

234. The Commercial Apple Industry

the apple-scab more than any other disease. In New
York the infestation of the apple red bug is serious in some
localities and in New England the gipsy andthe brown-
tail moths have caused considerable losses. The apple-
scab is quite prevalent throughout New England as is also
the apple-maggot. Scab is particularly feared by the
growers of McIntosh apples in this region.

The middle Atlantic states— The Piedmont grower of
Virginia suffers heaviest loss in seasons favorable to the
development of bitter-rot. The Yellow Newtown (Albe-
marle Pippin) is particularly susceptible to this disease
which may occur late in the season and very seriously
injure the crop when nearly mature. Serious epidemics
of apple-scab are uncommon, although this disease is more
or less prevalent throughout the Piedmont district. In the
Shenandoah-Cumberland region of Virginia, West Vir-
ginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, the pine mouse has
been a most destructive orchard pest in recent years.
Cedar-rust has also been very destructive and has pre-
cipitated a campaign for the eradication of cedar trees in
the vicinity of orchard plantings. Root-rot is proving to
be one of the most destructive of all orchard diseases in
these four states and as yet there is no recognized means
of control.

The Middle West.— Throughout the Middle West the
apple-blotch is the most serious disease affecting the fruit
and the blister-canker, sometimes known as the Illinois
blister-canker, is the most injurious to the trees, particu-
larly those of the Ben Davis variety. Apple-seab is pre-
valent in favorable years, while bitter-rot is often serious
in the Ozarks, southern Illinois and southern Indiana.

Western boxed-apple region. The most serious pest in

~ Prats XIV.—The Woolly Aphis. Upper, Ground colonies of
the woolly aphis. Lower, Apple roots distorted and injured by
the woolly aphis.

a yee a
. "

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 235

the western orchard section is unquestionably the codlin-
moth. The dry arid climate in nearly all the irrigated
sections seems particularly favorable to its development.
The long hot seasons increase the number of broods and
seem to stimulate the activities of this pest. Furthermore,
the close grading of the fruit emphasizes the loss from
worm injury. Eastern growers are justified in feeling
that they have worked out a satisfactory spray program
‘against codlin-moth and are inclined to believe that the
western grower is deficient in his spraying methods for con-
trolling this insect. Yet in many instances growers on
the western slope of Colorado and the Yakima Valley,
Washington, have found it difficult to avoid excessive cod-
lin-moth loss even after spraying much more thoroughly
and frequently than is necessary under eastern conditions.
Fire-blight epidemics have been more or less serious in
the West and have been particularly injurious in the
Yakima Valley, Washington and the Rogue River Valley,
Oregon. In the Rogue River and Hood River valleys,
Oregon, the apple-scab has been serious in years when the
climatic conditions were favorable to its development.
However, elsewhere in the West fungous troubles are in
the main inconspicuous.

California.— The Watsonville applegrower in the
Pajaro Valley must devote considerable attention to the
control of the tussock moth. The leaf-roller is also rather
prevalent and the powdery-mildew causes more or less
injury.

DUSTING

Dusting, as a substitute for the liquid spray method in
controlling insects and disease, has been brought to the
recent attention of fruit-growers by the extensive experl-

236 The Commercial Apple Industry

ments conducted in western New York in 1911-1913 by
Blodgett of Cornell. These experiments have been con-
tinued elsewhere in different parts of the United States
by various state and federal investigators. The practice
of dusting has been adopted with greater or less success by ,
many commercial growers in different regions. Its status
has not been definitely determined, but certain conclusions
may be drawn from results thus far obtained.

In the first place, dusting has certain inherent advant-
ages over the use of liquid spray: (1) More trees may be
covered in a given time and with less labor than with the
liquid spray; (2) dusting is more convenient in rough
hilly orchards; (3) considerable time is saved in loading
the machine with material; (4) the elimination of water
reduces very materially the weight of the spray material
to be hauled through the orchard; (5) the equipment cost
is much less than for liquid spraying machine. 2

In comparing the cost of common dust materials, such
as arsenate of lead and superfine sulfur, with that of
similar materials used in liquid sprays, it appears that the
dusting method is more expensive, particularly if much
dust is lost in the application in windy or unfavorable
weather. In considering labor cost, dusting may be
cheaper than spraying with liquids, and it is on this point
that advocates for dusting lay particular stress. The
spray-gun more recently developed has reduced this ad-
vantage of the dusting method over the liquid spray. But
certainly the grower may cover his trees at the critical
period in less time and with less labor cost by dusting than
with liquid spray applied with rods.

A two-man crew operating a dusting machine can cover
from three to four times as many trees as a three-man

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 237

crew operating a liquid spray outfit with the old rods. It
is estimated that fifteen-year old trees require on the
average of about 1 to 1144 pounds of dust for a single
application, while trees twenty to twenty-five years old
require approximately 2 pounds of dust. The time and
amount of material vary greatly with the conditions and
methods of application. These data will convey in a gen-
eral way the relative speed of the two systems.
The following formule are quite generally used:

Formula’ I. Combination dust for chewing insects and
fungous diseases:
Arsenate of lead, powder ...10 to 15 per cent.
Sulfur, superfine ......... 90 to 85 per cent.

Formula 2. For insect infestations and light fungous
attacks:

Arsenate of lead .........---46- 10 per cent.

Sulftt. .ccsevacsvsearueew eases 50 per cent.

Hydrated lime or gypsum ........ 40 per cent.
Formula 3.

Arsenate of lead, powder ..10 to 15 per cent.
Hydrated lime or gypsum . .90 to 85 per cent.

Tt is rather difficult to dogmatize on the efficiency of
dusting. Some growers, after a more or less thorough trial,
are convinced of its economy and efficiency. Other grow-
ers have discarded their dusting machines. In western
New York dusting has not become general. Improved
dusting mixtures and better methods of application may
result in greater popularity for this method, for it has
certain time-saving advantages. However, at the present

238 The Commercial Apple Industry

time it has not been altogether sucecssful in controlling
bad scab infection, excessive codlin-moth, or apple-blotch,
the three most serious apple diseases and pests. It seems
possible that dusting may prove better adapted to regions
where the codlin-moth is not particularly serious or scab
infection critical. For hilly orchards or orchards where
water supply is remote, or where liquid spraying is exceed-
ingly difficult, the use of eaeune may be recommended as
a substitute.

The power duster is usually operated by a two- or
three-horse-power gasoline engine. The dust mixture is
fed into a rapidly revolving fan by means of a hopper and
a strong current of air forces the dust out through a dis-
charge pipe. A single operator directs the cloud of dust
by shifting the discharge pipe.

INSECTICIDES.

In studying insect control, the first consideration should
be given to the methods by which insects secure their food.
Generally speaking, there are two classes of insects: (1)
biting and chewing insects such as codlin-moth and tent-
caterpillar; (2) sucking’ insects such as aphids and scale.
When insects feed on such exposed parts as the buds or
leaves, arsenicals or other stomach poisons are necessary.
In the case of chewing insects which feed beneath the
bark, such as borers, other-control methods must be em-
ployed. Sucking insects are best checked by the use of
contact sprays such as lime-sulfur, nicotine, and kerosene
emulsion. ‘

Following is a general classification of common insect-
icides:

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 239

(1) Insecticides for biting insects — arsenate of lead,
paris green, calcium arsenate and arsenite of zinc.

(2) Insecticides for sucking insects — lime-sulfur,
nicotine solution, miscible oils, so-called dry-lime-sulfur
compounds.

For biting insects.

Arsenate of lead is the most widely used poison for chew-
ing and biting insects. It is particularly effective against
the codlin-moth. Both powdered and paste forms are in
common use, the powder having come into recent popular-
ity on account of convenience in handling. Of the two
kinds of lead arsenate, one is known as ortho, triplumbic
or neutral lead arsenate and the other as standard or
diplumbic lead arsenate. The diplumbic or acid lead is
now being employed almost to the exclusion of the ortho
or triplumbic form, although the latter is sometimes recom-
mended for more tender foliage or in regions where foliage
is likely to be burned by arsenicals. Best brands of paste
lead contain from 15 to 17 per cent of arsenic oxide, while
powdered forms usually contain approximately double that
amount, the 50 per cent water-content having been
removed. Two pounds paste or 1 pound arsenate of lead to
50 gallons of water are standard strengths. Before the
lead is added to the spray-tank, it should be made into a
thin paste by the addition of water or preferably reduced
to a solution in 3 or 4 gallons of water. Particular atten-
tion should be given to mixing the powdered forms so that
the suspension will be complete. Strengths of less than 2
pounds of paste lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water have
not as a rule given satisfaction. ‘At present a number of
experiments are being conducted in the Northwest in

240 The Commercial Apple Industry

which arsenate of lead is being used 3 and even 4 pounds
paste to 50 gallons of water. Where the codlin-moth is
becoming a more serious menace, it is thought that by
increasing the dosage, quicker killing effects may be
secured and the loss from later stings may be reduced.

Paris green is an arsenical poison which has been largely
superseded by arsenate of lead, the latter having proved
more adhesive, more compatible with other spray materials
and less likely to cause burning. Paris green is not widely
used in any commercial apple region.

Calcium arsenate is being tried out in many parts of
the United States and, although more or less in an experi-
mental state of development, has given some promise, par-
ticularly when used on apples under eastern conditions
where codlin-moth infestation is not serious. The pow-
dered forms contain 42 to 45 per cent of arsenic-oxide and
the paste forms 17 to 20 per cent. When employed alone
in the Northwest, some burning resulted. The addition of
paste lime at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds of stone lime to 50
gallons of water is considered a wise precaution against
burning. Combination of lime-sulfur, summer strength,
with calcium arsenate has thus far proved satisfactory.
Calcium arsenate has not been widely employed in any
commercial apple region, although it is being tested by
many growers at present. Commercial forms lack the
smoothness and fineness which characterizes the well-

known brands of arsenate. It is not improbable that the

physical properties of commercial calcium arsenate can be
greatly improved. Experiments have thus far given some
promise. Complete results of thorough trial and demon-
stration will be awaited with interest. Although it has
not yet demonstrated the quick-killing properties of lead,

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control. 241

calcium arsenate is cheaper pound for pound than lead and
this may cause its ultimate introduction in the East where
codlin-moth infestation is not the menace which it is in
most irrigated regions. Calcium arsenate is still in the
experimental stage.

Arsenite of zine is a quick-acting poison which in pow-
dered form contains about 40 per cent arsenic-oxide. It
is used in tussock moth control in the Pajaro Valley or
Watsonville district, California, but on account of its tend-
ency to burn it has not been employed elsewhere.

For sucking insects, contact sprays.

Inquid lime-sulfur has become the standard dormant or
winter spray for apples. It is a combination insecticide
and fungicide chiefly valuable for its effectiveness against
San José scale and certain other insects as well as against
fungous diseases. It is to be preferred to any of the
present forms of so-called dry lime-sulfur. For full win-
ter strength, 1 to 8 is generally accepted as the proper rate
of dilution. This rate applies to the concentrated com-
mercial lime-sulfur testing 33° Baume. Weaker solu-
tions should be diluted accordingly. The table of dilu-
tion on the next page will serve as guide.

For summer sprays, particularly for apple-scab, a weak
solution of lime-sulfur is widely employed alone or in com-
bination with nicotine and arsenate of lead. The strength
at which summer applications of lime-sulfur cause burning
varies with the season and the climatic conditions. Lime
sulfur has been used 1 to 10 in summer without injurious
effects to the fruit or foliage. Again a dilution of 1 to 30
may cause foliage burning. It is generally accepted that
1 to 35 for the pink spray and later summer application

242 The Commercial Apple Industry

TaBLe XIT

Dmution TaBLE For Concentratep Lime-Sutrur So.utions

Number gallons concentrated lime-sulfur
to make 50 gallons spray solution.
Deere Sie Summer or | Winter or dormant strength.
0118; =
atone, | Sengoss” |) Bllter
36 1.330 1% 5% 4%
35 1.318 1% 5% 5 ’
34 1.306 1% 6 5
33 1.295 1% 6% 5%
32 1.283 1% 6% 5%
31 1.272 1% 65% 5%
30 1.261 1% 7 6 oh
' 99 1.250 1% ™ 6%
28 1.239 1% 7% 61%
27 1,229 2 8. 6%
26 1.218 2 8 7%
25 1.208 2 8 7%
24 1.198 — 2% 9 8
23 1.188 2% 9 8%
22 1.179 2% 10 8%
21 1.169 2% 11 9%
20 1.160 | 2% 11% 9%

is a safe and effective dilution. Excessively hot days
should be avoided in summer spraying with lime-sulfur.
In the Middle West, Bordeaux mixture is very often pre-
ferred to lime-sulfur for the late summer sprays on account
of its great effectiveness against blotch and _ bitter-rot.
Some feel also that Bordeaux is less likely to cause burning.

Home-made lime-sulfur solution.— It has been demon- -
strated that the preparation at home of a lime-sulfur solu-
tion is practicable and very ‘often economical. When a
grower has less than four or five acres of orehard, it is prob-
ably advisable for him to buy the commercial lime-sulfur,
since it is usually.superior to the home-made; furthermore,

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 248

considerable difficulties attend the manufacture of lime-
sulfur in small quantities. If the grower is operating a
large orchard, or if several smaller growers can codperate
as is done. in many instances, it is very often advisable for
them to manufacture their own solution. The materials
for making are: lime, use only fresh lump lime, free from
foreign substances and containing at least 90 per cent cal-
cium oxide and not over 5 per cent magnesium oxide;
sulfur, either flowers of sulfur or commercial sulfur finely
ground. Various appliances may be used for cooking lime-
sulfur concentrates. .A large iron kettle raised from the
. ground on loose stones, or kettles imbedded in masonry are
suggested. When considerable amount of spray material
is needed, a more elaborate plant will be practicable.
Cooking with steam is the most satisfactory method and
with a larger plant the installation of a boiler is advisable.
A twelve-horse boiler will furnish sufficient steam for a
cooker of 300 gallons capacity. Iron cooking vessels are
usually preferable to wooden on account of danger of leak
in the latter. The hydrometer is necessary for testing the
density of the final solution. Table XII should be fol-
lowed in making dilutions.

Preparation of home-made lime-sulfur solution.—

Formula ~
Fresh stone lime ..........--+--+- 50 pounds
Commercial ground sulfur ....... 100 pounds:
Water ...... so URE a a aha ofan le 50 gallons

Place the desired quantity of lime in the cooker or
slaking-box, ‘then add water (preferably hot, since hot
water slakes the lime more quickly). Care should be

244 The Commercial Apple Industry

taken to use enough water to prevent too violent slaking
or burning, although too much water is objectionable,
since this will drown the lime. Mix the sulfur to a thin
paste and add the lime, then the desired quantity of water.
After the full amount of water has been added, the cook-
ing-vat should be marked or a notched stick used to show
the original amount of water. Keep adding hot water
from time to time to replace that which has evaporated. —
The solution should not be allowed to boil down stronger ‘
than one-half gallon to each pound of sulfur, nor should
there ever be much of an excess of water. The solution
should be boiled for at least forty-five minutes but not
longer than one hour. It is important that boiling should
proceed vigorously and that the mixture should be stirred
constantly. After the lime-sulfur solution has been made,
it should be strained in order that the undissolved particles
‘may be removed. Straining should be through an iron
wire (never copper) 30 to 50 mesh to the inch. The solu-
tion should be allowed to cool before being tested with a
hydrometer. If the solution is left exposed, a film of
oil should be poured over the surface to exclude the air.
It is highly important that all home-made lime-sulfur be
tested with the hydrometer, otherwise the grower is merely
guessing as to the strength of the spray. The sediment
obtained in the manufacture of home-made lime-sulfur will
be useful in painting the trunks of the trees.

Nicotine solution is recognized as a standard contact
insecticide for summer spraying. It is particularly effect-
ive against aphids and may be used without injury to the
foliage. A solution of nicotine sulfate containing 40 per
cent nicotine such as Black Leaf 40 is the common com-
mercial form. Proper dilution is given at 1 to 800 and

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 245

1 to 1,000. Soap should be added at the rate of 2 or 3
pounds to 50 gallons to increase the spreading and adhesive
qualities of the spray. Nicotine may be used in combina-
tion with lead arsenate, lime-sulfur or both.

Miscible oils——‘“ Miscible” or “soluble” oils have
come into considerable use as dormant sprays, particularly
in the West where they have been found a satisfactory
treatment for badly encrusted San José scale. The misci-
ble oils have a tendency to spread after they have been
applied and for that reason are particularly effective
against scale insects. Home-made emulsions are used to
some extent in California where the crude oils can be pur-
chased cheaply. The question of injury resulting from
continued oil spraying is disputed. It is advisable to make
dormant oil spray in the late winter rather than in the fall.
If oil sprays can be applied in the spring just previous to
the swelling of the buds, preferably on sunny days, the
. danger of injuring the trees will be minimized. When

hard water is being used for spraying, it is desirable to add
1 to 2 pounds of soda to each spray tank.

So-called dry lime-sulfur— The active and killing
ingredients of lime-sulfur determine the value of these
sprays. The following table gives the relative cost of this
liquid versus dry lime-sulfur compounds measured in
terms of active sulfur. The comparison in this table is in
favor of the liquid lime-sulfur. In lime-sulfur (dry), thé
active sulfur costs $18.90 for 100 pounds; in soda-sulfur
$14.03 for 100 pounds, and liquid lime-sulfur only $8.03
for 100 pounds. The inference is clear that lime-sulfur
solution is a much more economical form than the so-
called dry lime-sulfur or soda-sulfur.

246 The Commercial Apple Industry
Taste XIII
Dry Sutrur Preparation vs. Lime-Sutrur SoLution

Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment
Station, University of California. (Berkeley), Nov. 1918.

a one eeuae equiva-
Material. autfur. sativa a wean
(Approx. ) sulfur. solution.
1 gallon weighs
Lime-sulfur solution (33 B.) 26% $8.03 10.78 Tbs.
Average retail price $11.26
per barrel.
Soda-sulfur ............... 57% $14.03 49
Average retail price $8.00
per cwt,
Lime-sulfur (dry) ......... 55% $18.90 5.0 “
Average retail price $10.40
per ewt. '

Spreaders for the different insecticides.

The use of spreaders in securing a more uniform coating
of spray is attracting considerable interest among experi-
menters and fruit-growers. Three so-called spreaders are
more or less well known:

(1) Glue — 1 to 2 ounces to 50 gallons.

(2) Flour cas 2 pounds flour reduced to paste, to
50 gallons of water.

(3) Soap—2 pounds liquid soap to 50 gallons of
water. Other soaps such as fish-oil, rosin or
common laundry soap may be used at the same
rate.

The use of soap with nicotine solutions is generally
accepted as highly beneficial. Soap should not be used
with lime-sulfur, however, but is compatible with arsenate

PLATE XV.— Upper, The tent caterpillar, nest and young cater-
pillars on wild cherry; frequently found in the apple. Lower,
Rosy apple aphis and its effect on the foliage and fruit of the

anvle.

Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 247

of lead and is highly recommended in combination with
Bordeaux. The other spreaders named, glue and flour
paste, are being used with arsenicals, but their status has
not yet been definitely determined. It is thought that
they may increase the spreading tendencies and effect a
more uniform coating of these arsenic stomach poisons.

ate

Lime-sulfur has been treated on the preceding pages, as
it is both an insecticide and fungicide.

Bordeaux mixture.— The standard formula for Bor-
deaux mixture is as follows:

Copper sulfate (bluestone) ........ 4 pounds |
Fresh stone lime .............0005- 4 pounds
W Alen Lose tees ona ueee eo ecta ues 50 gallons

Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime separately with
water. Bluestone may be conveniently dissolved by plac-
ing it in a burlap sack and suspending the sack in the upper
part of a barrel or other receptacle filled with water.
Stock solutions of this material may be made by dissolving
1 pound bluestone in 1 gallon of water and diluting to the
required strength when ready for use. It is not advisable
to make up in advance large amounts of this solution that
cannot be used within a period of a few days. Nothing
but wooden or earthen containers should be employed
since copper sulfate (bluestone) reacts when brought in
contact with metal ware of any kind. In slaking the lime,
cover with just enough water to start slaking, then add
water to prevent too rapid action and heating. Work the
lime into a paste and dilute at the rate of 1 pound of lime

248 The Commercial Apple Industry

to 1 gallon of water for stock solution. When ready for
use, 4 gallons of stock solution will represent 4 pounds of
stone lime, sufficient for 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture
spray. When the mixture of lime and bluestone is to be
made, it is a wise precaution to pour the two solutions
simultaneously into the third receptacle in order that they
will mix freely while going into the spray-tank or third
receptacle. A strainer should be used when filling the
spray-tank. Bordeaux mixture is the standard fungicide
for bitter-rot and for blotch in the Middle West, and is
used double strength in the fall for anthracnose.

Finely divided sulfur.— There are a number of finely
divided sulfur compounds on the market known as atomic
sulfur, “milled” sulfur and by similar trade names.
Greater adhesion and greater spreading qualities are
claimed for these compounds. They are used against the
powdery-mildew in some of the orchard regions of the
Pacific Coast.

CHAPTER XI
FRUIT SETTING AND POLLINATION

One of the most important phases of the orchard prob-
lem is pollination. Without this, fruit does not set and
crops are impossible. Broadly speaking, there are two
phases of the problem: (1) The primary effect of pollin-
ation, that is the fertilization of the pistils of the flower so
that the bloom is capable of setting fruit; and (2) the
secondary effect of cross-pollination about which much has
been written, but about which there is still little definite
information. In a study of the secondary effect of pollin-
ation such questions arise as what effect Baldwin pollen
will have on the McIntosh apple or how the cross-pollina-
tion among certain varieties will affect the form, size,
flavor or color of the fruit.

Many varieties are known to be self-sterile. This term
is applied to varieties which are unable to set fruit without
the aid of pollen from another variety. Here attention is
called to the fact that pollen from a different tree of the
same variety does not constitute cross-pollination, An
indication of self-sterility is the continued dropping of
young fruit from isolated trees or from trees in solid
blocks of the same variety. Self-sterility is not a constant
character with any variety. The same variety may be
self-sterile in one region and nearly self-fertile in another.

Emphasis is placed on the fact that local conditions greatly
249

250 The Commercial Apple Industry

influence self-sterility or self-fertility, Poorly nourished
trees are more likely to be self-sterile than well nourished
ones.

Imperfect pollination is more often due to other causes
than the absence of suitable varieties for cross-pollination.
Furthermore, it is not always necessary to have a heavy set
of bloom to secure a heavy yield of fruit. It is well known
that under normal conditions if 4 to 7 per cent of the blos-
soms set fruit in a good bloom year, a large crop of fruit is
insured. If 10 per cent of the blossoms set fruit when the
bloom is heavy, it is an indication of a very large crop.

ie ane

These facts do not minimize the importance of pollination,
however, and it is highly important that every care should
be taken to insure proper fertilization of the flowers.
While the benefits of cross-fertilization are recognized as
important in all plant-breeding work, the experimental
data on the secondary effect of pollination are so contra-
dictory as not to offer a field for definite discussion. The
results of experiments to determine the effect of cross-
pollination on color, form and flavor of the fruit have been
largely negative. For that reason, this discussion will be
largely confined to the primary effect of pollination.

CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE TO SET FRUIT

Failure of blossoms to set fruit properly is not by any
means due in all cases to imperfect pollination. Many
factors other than this affect the set of fruit and are more
often the cause of light crops. Among the factors causing
a light set of fruit are:

1. Fruit-spurs and trees may be weak on account of a
lack of proper nourishment. When trees are starved for
proper plant-food or when it is not made available by good

{

Fruit Setting and Pollination 251

soil management, the fruit-spurs become weak and fail to
set fruit-buds which have sufficient vitality to develop into
fruit. This often accounts for the crop failure of old trees
making little annual growth. In such cases, lack of proper
nourishment is more often the cause of unfruitfulness than
lack of cross-pollination.

2. Insects and diseases prevalent at blooming time may
cause a poor set of fruit. Some of. the bloom is often
destroyed outright by various diseases, particularly apple
scab, anthracnose, or blight. Many blossoms may be
ruined in their early development by the attacks of insects.

3. Extreme vegetative vigor of the tree on account of an
excess of certain elements of plant-food may detract from
fruitfulness. Often when a tree is growing too vigorously,
it runs largely to wood growth and sets very few blossoms
and even these are shed as soon as the blooming period is
past. Excessive amounts of nitrate or manure. when
applied to orchards already making good growth often
over-stimulate wood growth to the point at which the trees
are almost barren. Furthermore, in such cases the fruit-
buds go into the winter in an immature condition with less
chance of escaping winter-injury. Most experimenters
agree that wood growth can not keep up vigorously during
the entire season without sacrificing a healthy set of fruit-
buds.

4. Drought injury to trees may prevent the development
of fruit-buds. It has been noted that when excessively
long droughts occur, trees produce very little bloom the fol-
lowing season. The weakening influence of the drought
prevents the formation of fruit-buds with sufficient vitality
to form fruit. In such cases the tree requires all its
energy to repair vegetative growth, and even'though it may

252 The Commercial Apple Industry

bloom profusely the blossoms are so weak that they fail to
set fruit.

5. Winter-injury to fruit-buds may occur. The apple
ordinarily does not suffer greatly from winter-killing of
fruit-buds. In the case of most varieties, the fruit-buds
are no more sensitive to winter-killing than the tree itself.
However, the vitality of the buds may unquestionably be
affected by the character of the winter, particularly if the
relative humidity is low. Dry atmosphere and soil are
more often the cause of injury to fruit-buds than extreme
cold.

6. The buds or bloom may be injured by late spring
frosts. Often buds are injured by frost before bloom and
if not killed outright are so weakened as to be unable to
set fruit. Fortunately, when freezes occur before bloom,
there are usually some buds which are not so far advanced
as others and which for this reason escape injury. Severe
killing frosts are those which occur when. the trees are in
full bloom or just as the bloom is being shed. Frost at
this time may so impair the fruiting organs as to cause
dropping of the fruit after it has once set. rd

7. Some varieties have an inherent inability to set fruit,
although grown under favorable conditions and blooming
profusely. These varieties are more frequently home
orchard sorts and seldom trouble the commercial orchardist.

8. The last and one of the most important factors which
affect the proper set of fruit is pollination. Proper pol-
lination is usually dependent on one or some combination
of six different factors: (a) In the case of self-sterile or
partially self-sterile varieties, proper pollination can not
take place unless other suitable varieties are present for
pollinizers. (b) An absence of insects or other agents

Fruit Setting and Pollination 253

may prevent pollination. Bees are almost essential.
Other insects may be useful, but none is as active in carry-
ing pollen from flower to flower. The importance of delay-
ing the calyx application of lead arsenate until most of the
petals have fallen is now emphasized by most horticultur-
ists as a precaution against poisoning bees. Much has
been said about the importance of wind as a pollinizing
agent, useful in carrying the pollen from blossom to blos-
som and from tree to tree and much effort has been
expended in determining its effectiveness. Most author-
ities agree that fully 99 per cent of all fertilized blossoms
owe pollination to bees or other insects and Jess than 1 per
cent to the wind. As a direct agency, therefore, wind has
very little effect as far as carrying pollen is concerned. It
may, however, prevent bees from working on the windy
side of the tree and thereby cause a lighter set of fruit on
the exposed than on the sheltered side. (c) Rain or cold
weather is a factor affecting pollination. Cold, wet or
damp weather during the blooming period often checks
the activity of bees and sometimes prevents the germina-
tion and causes decomposition, or devitalization, of the
“pollen-grains. Unfavorable weather at blooming is a very
important factor in reducing the set of fruit, particularly
through the central western states, and often in the East.
(d) Very hot and dry weather may also prevent proper
pollination, particularly if accompanied by wind. Excess-
ive heat may injure the stamens so seriously that they can
not properly mature their pollen or it may cause dehiscence
of the anthers before the pollen matures. (e) Excessively
windy weather. Strong winds, particularly if accom-
panied by rain are very injurious to the blossoms. The
rain is likely to wash away the pollen-grains and strong

254 The Commercial Apple Industry

winds prevent the activity of bees. In very hot weather
high winds may so entirely dry up the fluid secreted by the
stigma as to make germination of the pollen-grains impos-
sible. (f£) Spraying in full bloom., Injury is caused and
pollination is sometimes prevented if trees are sprayed in
full bloom before pollination has taken place.

The above discussion outlines some of the influences
affecting the set of fruit. It now becomes important to
consider mixed varieties with relation to cross-pollination.
it is generally recognized that too much emphasis was
formerly placed on the advisability of mixing varieties in
order to aid in pollination. As a result, many orchards
were set with mixed varieties when two or three well
selected kinds would have provided for cross-pollination
and would have been a much more desirable arrangement
from a commercial standpoint. The orchardist too often
proceeded on the theory that if a few different varieties
were advisable as pollinizers, many were the more desir-
able. As a matter of fact, one variety which is a good
pollinizer may serve exactly as well as a score. The much
discussed secondary effects of pollination should not be
allowed too greatly to influence the planting of pollinizers.
The direct effects of crossing certain varieties have not been
established. Variations in the characteristics of different
apples are now more generally attributed to bud variation
than to cross-pollination. It is generally conceded that
flavor, quality or color of apples is not directly affected by
the cross-pollinating variety.

This should in no way be construed as an argument.
against cross-pollination, for in the case of the self-sterile
or partially self-sterile varieties it is absolutely essential.
Cross-pollination may effect the size of fruit and may

Fruit Setting and Pollination 255

increase the set. Darwin states: “‘ Nature abhors self-
fertilization.”

ESSENTIALS FOR A GOOD POLLINIZER

The following points should be considered in selecting
varieties for pollination: (1) Not more than one row in
six is necessary to insure certainty of proper pollination
under normal weather conditions and in the presence of
_pollinizing agents. However, attention is called to the
fact that varieties to be handled economically should occur
in plantings of at least two or three rows. (2) Varieties
should bloom at the same time. This is clearly necessary,
otherwise the pollen of one variety would be entirely gone
before the other bloomed, making cross-pollination impossi-
ble. (8) Varieties must have an affinity for each other;
that is to say, the pollen of one must be acceptable to the
pistils of the other. It is well in this connection to men-
tion the fact that pears will not serve to pollinate apples
or vice-versa. (4) Varieties must be good pollen-pro-
ducers. If varieties which produce little pollen are
_ planted with those producing abundant pollen, the former

but not the latter will be benefited. It is important here
to mention that Winesap is a very shy pollen-producer and
should not be planted for the purpose of pollinating other
varieties. (5) Varieties should come into bearing at
about the same age. Such kinds as the Northern Spy
would not immediately serve as pollinizers for the Wagener
or Twenty Ounce, since the former is an extremely late
bearer. (6) The varieties should be commercial. While
this is not at all necessary so far as cross-pollination is
concerned, it is highly important from a commercial stand-

point. It is clearly inadvisable to plant non-commercial

256 The Commercial Apple Industry

varieties as pollinizers when so many good commercial
sorts are readily available.

It is important in any discussion of pollination to name
some of the varieties which are known as uncertain or self-
sterile as well as some of those known as self-fertile.
Cross-pollination with some other variety is usually advis-
able, since in most cases it increases the set of fruit.

UNCERTAIN OR SELF-STERILE DEPENDABLE OR SELF-FERTILE
VARIETIES. VARIETIES.
“Arkansas Ben Davis
Tompkins King Baldwin
Grimes Oldenburg
Jonathan Rhode Island Greening
Gravenstein Yellow Transparent
Northern Spy Yellow Newtown
Ortley

Red Limbertwig
Rome Beauty
Esopus

“Twenty Ounce
Winesap

The following varieties are grouped according to their
desirability for securing best results in pollination. Each
column contains those which are well pollinated by any
one or more of the varieties in the same column. Certain
limitations should be placed on this table, since in certain
localities some compatible kinds bloom too early to pollin-
ate later-blooming varieties. However, the pollen of each
has an affinity for the pistil of the varieties in the same
column.

Fruit Setting and Pollination 257

I II
Arkansas Black Wealthy
Baldwin Rome Beauty
Ben Davis Yellow Transparent
Gano Yellow Bellflower
Grimes White Winter Pearmain
Jonathan Winesap
McIntosh Willow Twig
Yellow Newtown Wagener
Northern Spy Esopus
Ortley
Gravenstein
Oldenburg

Red Astrachan

Many other varieties might be named, but these lists
contain a sufficient number to satisfy the commercial
grower. If a region is particularly adapted to a combina-
tion of any two or three commercial sorts, they may be
interplanted with great success without detracting from
the very important practice of limiting the number to a
few commercial varieties. At the same time such com-
binations will insure abundant opportunity for proper
cross-pollination.

CHAPTER XII-
PRUNING AND THINNING

Prunine will always remain a field for independent and
individual study. No other orchard practice has aroused
in the minds of fruit-growers and horticulturists greater
variance in opinion. While investigators and observers
are in accord on many of the principles of pruning, their
application must always remain, to some extent, an indi-
vidual problem. An apple-grower would do well to study
pruning in the most productive orchards of his community
and observe the system that has been practiced on the best
and most productive trees.

It is the purpose to give a brief description of the
several pruning practices in use in the more important
fruit-producing sections and to state briefly the advantages
and disadvantages of such practices.

Before planting, the ends of all broken or injured roots
should be removed. This is done not with the idea of
shortening the roots, but with the view of leaving smooth
_ rather than broken and ragged root ends. Occasionally
a few roots may be removed so as to avoid crowding and
secure better distribution of the root system.

Since a large proportion of the root system is removed
when the tree is taken from the nursery, it is necessary to
remove a portion of the top to restore a proper balance

between the root system and top. Again, the removal of
258

Pruning and Thinning 259

a portion of the top determines
the height of head and encourages
the formation of a stocky and vig-
orous framework.

The height of heading will vary
with the type of training to be fol-
lowed and the locality. Lower
heading is practiced with the open
center type of tree than with the
leader or modified types, as is CH
pointed out elsewhere in this chap- Fic. 4—Showing

‘ter. In those sections in which framework of a young
: wpa Jonathan tree. The

sun-seald is prevalent, it is neces- trunk ia too short and

sary to head lower than where this _the branches too nearly

trouble is not a factor. The © zontal.

height of heading apples at planting time may thus vary

from 20 to 36 inches. (See Fig. 4.)

TYPES OF TRAINING APPLE TREES

All pruning practices are applied with the idea of
developing the type of tree suited to the local conditions
or conforming to the ideas of the individual. The prun-
ing given trees during the first few years may be referred
to as training. There are several methods of training
apple trees, those in common use in commercial regions
throughout the United States being: The “ natural form” ;
the “central leader” type; the “open center,” or “vase-
shaped ” tree; the “ double headed” type; and the “ mod-
ified leader,” or “ modified open center ”’ tree. .

260 The Commercial Apple Industry -
4,
Natural form.

This system of training has been followed largely in the
old orchards of New York, New England and some of
the middle western states, and by growers generally who
had no definite type in mind. Very little pruning is
required as compared with other methods of training.
The top ordinarily consists of a cluster of branches spring-
ing from one point and forming a round head. The pruner
merely | removes crowding and crossing branches and limits
the number of main branches. In the more humid
climates, later pruning is confined to the removal of cross-
ing and crowding branches and to the shortening of way-
ward branches for the purpose of maintaining tree bal-
ance. In the drier climates of the Middle West, all the
branches are usually headed back for the first few years
in order to encourage stockiness.

Advantages.
_ 1. Most simple type of training and work may be done by
unskilled. men.

Disadvantages.

1. Too many main branches are frequently left, resulting in
crowding and overlapping main branches.

2. Splitting at the crotches is not uncommon.

3. Frequently main branches are not stocky enough to sup-
port loads of fruit in natural positions, the result being over-
lapping branches and much poorly colored fruit.

4. Uneven distribution of fruiting wood is not uncommon
when trees become mature.

5. Trees in the orchard lack uniformity.

6. Trees of this type often require heroic treatment later on.

PLaTe XVI.— Diseases of the apple. 1, Bitter-rot on Pippin showing spots
and red specks. 2, Sooty-fungus and fly-speck. 3, Apples affected with the
scab fungus. 4, Leaf affected with apple-scab.

Pruning and Thinning 261

Central leader system.

By this method one central
leader is allowed to develop year
after year until its increasing
height is naturally checked as the
tree begins fruiting. Such lat-
eral branches are allowed to re-
main as will not crowd and will
give the best distribution and bal-
ance in later years. The lateral
branches are considerably smaller
than the central leader and strong
unions are formed. While this
system of pruning has never been
widely practiced by commercial Fic. 5—A well
fruit-growers, it has had some pruned young Jonathan

. r tree trained to the cen-
popularity, especially for dwarfs tral jeader form.
and certain varieties such as the
Jonathan and members of the Ben Davis group. (See

Fig. 5.)

Advantages.
1. Strong trees are produced. Crotches seldom split apart.
2. Great skill is not required to inaugurate and adhere to

this type of pruning. ;
3. Trees like the Rhode Island Greening and Jonathan with
tendencies to develop low drooping side branches lend them-

selves to the method.

Disadvantages.
1. It is difficult to keep trees opened up sufficiently to permit

light to penetrate to the inner parts.
2. Trees usually become too high thereby making orchard

operations more difficult and expensive.

262 The Commercial Apple Industry

Open center, or vase-shape (Fig. 6).

The open center type of train-
ing was the first definite system
generally advocated after commer-
cial apple-growing became estab-
lished in this country on a highly
specialized basis. It was for a
time quite generally adopted by
fruit-growers in all sections of the
United States as the ideal method
of training and is still advocated

eae ee by some professional horticultur- ,
sively pruned young De- ists and is practiced by many
ae Be aa a fruit-growers. The development

of certain weaknesses in the
strictly vase-shaped tree has led to a modification of this
type of pruning, however.

In starting an open center tree, one-year-old whips are
usually headed at 20 to 26 inches at planting time. The
following winter or spring three to five well distributed
branches are usually chosen to form the permanent frame-
work of the tree, the leader being removed the first year.
The three to five main branches growing outward and
upward give the vase-like shape to the tree. After the first
season’s growth, all the leaders are cut back heavily to
approximately the same height. Equal cutting is con-
tinued each year until the framework is completed, in order
that no one of the main scaffold branches may attain prom-
inence over the other. The center is kept sufficiently open
to permit the penetration of light throughout the tree.
The result is a spreading low-headed tree, sufficiently open
to permit good coloring of the fruit.

Pruning and Thinning 263

It is usually customary to remove some 50 to 60 per cent
of the first year’s growth on each of the selected scaffold
branches, provided the tree has made a vigorous growth.
However, as previously mentioned, all of the scaffold
branches should be cut back to approximately the same
height, measured from the ground. In the succeeding
year, two secondary branches are usually selected on each
primary branch, the others being removed. The next year
these secondary branches are usually shortened by the
removal of about 40 per cent of the season’s growth.
However, the secondary branches should not be left shorter
than a foot. ‘

Pruning during the succeeding two or three seasons is
along similar lines, except that the amount of heading back
is lessened each year, provided the tree does not make too
rank a growth.

Advantages of the vase-shaped tree.

1. The penetration of light and air is permitted to all parts
of the top, which results in a high percentage of functioning
fruiting wood and much highly colored fruit.

2. The method results in a low, spreading, well balanced tree.
’ 3. The type and form is easily established and maintained.

4. The ideal may be closely approached with every one-year-

old whip.

Disadvantages.

1. The trees are often structurally weak, due to the fact that
the scaffold branches frequently issue from practically the same
point, thus leaving weak crotches.

9. Artificial supports are frequently necessary to avoid split-
ting at the crotches when the trees reach bearing age.

3. When one main or scaffold branch splits off, the other

264 The Commercial Apple Industry

scaffold branches are weakened at the crotches and “further
breaking usually follows.

4. If one main branch splits off, the balance of the tree is
permanently injured.

5. The amount of bearing wood is limited.

The double-headed type.

In this type of leader tree, developed in New York and
West Virginia and in use there, two whorls of main
branches or scaffolds are used and the framework is formed
by six or eight branches arranged along two or three feet of
a strong central stem. If a one-year-old whip is planted,
the heading is done at about 24 to 36 inches, which leaves
the lowest scaffold branch about 20 to 30 inches from the
ground. After the first year’s growth and before growth
starts the following spring, three or at most four well dis-
tributed branches are selected and all others removed.
The remaining branches excepting the leader are headed
back to 14 to 16 inches in length. The leader or upright
branch is left with 16 to 18 inches of new growth.

After the second season’s growth has been made, two
secondary branches are selected on each primary branch

except the leader and the others are removed. These
secondary branches are then headed back to 18 or 20
inches in length. Long willowy branches are headed back
even more severely. The second year’s growth on the
leader is removed with the exception of the most upright
development and any short spurs. About 16 to 18 inches
of the new growth of the leader is left. This leaves the
leader extending 214 to 3 feet above the first scaffold.

After the third season’s growth, the lateral main

branches and their secondary growth are handled in a

Pruning and Thinning R65

manner similar to that following the second season’s
growth, except that the heading back is less severe. It is
after the third year that the second story of scaffold
branches is started from the central leader at a distance of
about 30 to 40 inches above the first set of branches.
Three or four laterals are selected for this upper story and
the others are removed. The second story scaffold branches

are then treated like the first ones were two years earlier. .

The upward growth of the leader is now suppressed and
the tree is continued with an open center. It is sometimes
advisable to add a third story.

Advantages. ,

1. The system results in a strong tree since the lateral
branches are smaller than the central leader and therefore do
not form weak crotches, ag are likely to occur when all of the
main branches are of equal size.

2. The weight of the tree is distributed among six to eight
main branches well placed on a central trunk rather than among
three or four branches as is the case in open center trees.

3. The trees have a greater bearing surface than do open
eenter trees, since the space in the center is more completely
occupied.

4, Sufficient light and air are permitted to all parts of the
tree since on the discontinuance of the central leader above the
second scaffold the top then assumes some of the characteristics
of a strictly open center tree.

5. A rather low spreading top is secured and at the same time
a somewhat larger tree than under the open center system.

Disadvantages.
1. In practice there is a tendency for growers to leave too
many scaffold branches and thereby create a crowded condition.
2. There is danger of either the upper or lower set of scaffold
branches becoming dominant unless the pruner uses skill and
good judgment in maintaining the proper tree balance.

266 The Commercial Apple Industry
The modified leader tree.

In Teaching from the two extremes embodied in the
strictly “vase-shaped ” tree and the central leader type,
many commercial apple-growers in the leading producing
regions have adopted the “ modified leader ” system, thus
appropriating the best features in both extreme types. As
the name implies, this system develops a tree of a modified
leader type.

Starting with a whip headed at 30 to 36 inches, four to
seven scaffold branches well distributed along a central
trunk after’the fashion of an as-
cending spiral are permitted to re-
main and form the framework of
the tree.| It is impossible to se
cure all of these branches from a
single season’s growth, from two to
three being selected the first year
and the remainder later. The per-
manent framework may not be se-
cured short of three or four years.

"Fie. 7.—Mature Jon. O2e point to be remembered is

-athan tree with com- that scaffold branches should be

aa type of frame spaced well apart. Branches that

are only two or three inches apart

will be entirely too close when the tree reaches maturity.

Some growers prefer scaffold branches one foot apart.
(See Fig. 7.)

The leader is permitted to develop during the first three
or four years while the framework branches are being
selected. The first year’s growth will usually consist of an
almost upright branch together with several laterals. It
may be possible to select two or even three well distributed

Pruning and Thinning 267

scaffold branches after the first year. All others except
the leader are removed and the remaining branches are cut
back. In order that the leader may dominate for a time,
it is left somewhat longer than the other branches. On
vigorous trees as much as 40 to 50 per cent of the leader
is removed and from 50 to 60 per cent of the laterals.
The whole question of heading back*is a subject of varied
opinion which will be discussed later.

Additional laterals will develop during the second year.
One or two desirable scaffold branches may then be added
to the framework. The leader and selected laterals are
treated in the manner described for the year previous,
although heading back is usually less severe.

The system is continued during the third and if neces-
sary even to a fourth or fifth year. When suitable scaffold
branches have been developed, the leader is removed and
there remains a tree with central trunk about six or seven
feet high along which are spaced three to six or even more
main laterals extending outward and upward in all direc-
tions at intervals possibly of 10 to 12 inches.

Advantages.

1. This system of training results in a strong tree since the
central leader is larger than the main or scaffold branches, thus
leaving strong unions, which are not likely to result in split-
ting.

4 The weight of the tree is distributed along a trunk and
among several main branches rather than among three or four
branches with no central axis as is the case in open center trees.

3. The system encourages a good distribution of main
branches about and along the central axis.

4. Should one main branch break or be lost because of disease,
there is still a sufficient number from which laterals may be grown
to fill the opening and thus preserve the tree balance.

268 The Commercial Apple Industry

5. Trees trained in this manner have a large capacity for
fruiting. ©

6. Light and air are admitted to all parts, insuring fruit-spur
activity and highly colored fruit.

7. The resulting tree is low headed and spreading and per-
mits economical orchard operations.

Disadvantages.

1. More judgmeftt is required in building this type of tree
than any of the others. Untrained labor cannot be trusted with
the shaping of the trees.

2. There is danger of some main branches, especially the
upper ones, outgrowing the lower ones, thereby suppressing the
latter to such an extent that they no longer serve as main or
scaffold branches.

3. When building the young tree, pruners are apt to leave
the leader too long or too short as compared with the laterals,
thus destroying proper balance.

GENERAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG TREES

The foregoing has been a general description of the dif-
ferent types of trees, but the reader has. gained little infor-
mation as to what actually is done each year during
the formative period of the tree. The amount of cutting
back and thinning out does not vary greatly with the type
of training. A more detailed discussion for the modified
leader tree will, therefore, serve for the other types as well.

After first season.

Tf there has been a vigorous growth of more than 30
inches, the scaffold branches are shortened to about 50 per
cent and the leader to 60 per cent. If growth does not
exceed 20 inches, the leader is shortened to about 14 inches
and the laterals to 10 or 12 inches. When possible, the

Pruning and Thinning 269

secondary laterals should be developed on the main scaffold
branches at a distance not closer than one foot or greater
than 20 inches from the trunk. When the scaffold limbs
make slow growth, it may be necessary to delay the develop-
ment of secondary branches by cutting back the scaffold
limbs to two or three buds.

After second season.

Heading back should be less severe after the second sea-
son’s growth. Some recommend leaving about 20 inches
new growth on the leader and about 15 inches on the scaf-
fold branches. Others think that very little heading back
should be done after this time regardless of the amount of
growth. There is a growing sentiment that trees should be
headed back very little after the second or third year. It
is of course necessary to check wayward and crossing
branches. Furthermore when growth is vigorous, heading
back may be necessary in order to encourage stockiness.
If long rangy growths are left, they will not be strong
enough to carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. Dur-
ing the first two or three years, certain of the main branches
may outgrow the others, in which case the stronger grow-
ing ones should be headed back more severely than the
weaker growing ones.

After third season.

The main laterals may be cut back lightly to about the
same length, slight predominance being given to the leader
if it is retained. When the modified leader type is
being followed, the third year may see the development
of a sufficient number of scaffold branches, If not, the

270 The Commercial Apple Industry

leader is maintained for one or more years, at which time
it is removed in order to open up the center of the tree.

Small side shoots and fruit-spurs developing in the
middle of the tree during this time should be left. Such
wood is productive of early fruit. Furthermore, an abund-
ance of foliage and small twigs are necessary to protect the
main limbs from the sun and also to aid growth. There
must be plenty of foliage and twig growth if young trees
are to produce wood.

: VEGETATIVE, TRANSITORY AND FRUITAGE STAGES

A tree may be said to pass through three distinct periods:
(1) formative period, (2) transition period, and (3) fruit-
ing period. The treatment, both in regard to pruning and
soil management, changes materially with each of these
periods. It is during the formative period that the tree
devotes its energies to the formation of wood growth. The
proper selection, distribution and training of scaffold
branches during this time determines the ability of the
tree to bear and carry heavy loads of fruit in later years.
The length of the formative period is usually from four to
six years, depending on the region and treatment provided.

Transition period.

Although less distinct, this period is critical. Between
the fifth and eighth year the tree is undergoing a change
from vegetative to heavy fruit production. The exact age
will vary with the region, variety and treatment. Some
varieties may not pass through this period until they
become ten or twelve years old. Other varieties and par-
ticularly when grown under irrigation begin to bear heav-
ily at six and seven years.

Pruning and Thinning yal

Pruning during the transition period should be light
and should consist almost entirely of thinning out, with
little or no heading back. The thinning out should be

‘ confined largely to the top and ends of the branches and to
shoot growths of the previous season. If the tree is becom-
ing too thick, two- and even three-year-old branches should
be removed.

Too often the small lateral limbs and fruiting wood
toward the center of the tree are removed, thus forcing all
the fruiting area toward the tip ends of the limbs. Again,
tops frequently become so dense that the inside spurs slough
off due to lack of sunlight and air.

The frurting period.

All pruning during this period is to develop and main-
tain a liberal supply of fruiting wood, well distributed
throughout the entire tree. This pruning will consist
largely of thinning out branches in order to maintain a
liberal supply of functioning fruit-spurs, and in order to
improve the quality of the fruit produced. Weak or way-
ward branches should be removed. The tree should be
kept open and shapely and in a vigorous growing condition.
Regular annual pruning is essential.

Fruit-buds. '

Fruit-buds may be regarded as the actual fruit manu-
facturing machinery of a tree. In case of the apple, the
fruit is borne mostly on spurs which develop from lateral
buds on the shoots of the preceding season. In certain
varieties of apples, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, New-
town and others, much of the first crop of fruit-buds is
borne terminally on shoots. Axillary buds are also borne

272 The Commercial Apple Industry

on one-year-old wood, but on the side of the shoots instead
of at the tips. Spurs are nothing more than very short
branches on which terminal fruiting buds are borne every
alternate year, under favorable conditions. These buds
are usually developed from branches two years and older.
If fruit-spars are properly cared for, they may live and
produce fruit-buds in alternate seasons for at least eight
or ten years.

All lateral buds of the shoots of any one season do not
develop into spurs the following year. Some of them grow
out into new or branch shoots, many others remain dormant.
Spurs are largely developed from the large, plump, vigor-
ous lateral buds.

Having developed a large number of spurs evenly dis-
tributed throughout the tree, it is absolutely essential to
conserve this fruiting wood. In a great many cases, the
fruiting machinery toward the center of a tree fails to
produce fruit. This is due principally to the lack of sun-
shine and air, two factors on which a spur is entirely
dependent for its ability to function. The pruning, then,
should be with the idea of leaving spurs distributed
throughout the entire tree and of getting plenty of\sunlight
and air to each individual spur. This can be accomplished
by thinning out as opposed to heading back. It permits
more light to percolate through the tree and gives the
leaves in the center a better chance to manufacture the food
materials necessary for the formation of large strong fruit-
buds.

Changing system of pruning.
After the form of a tree has once been established, it is
not considered advisable to change its type unless its form

Pruning and Thinning 273

may be modified without drastic pruning. An open center
tree, for example, should be continued as such. A modi-
fied leader should not be removed in
later years in order to develop an
open center tree. The type of train-
ing should be established during the
first three years and this same style
should be followed out year after
year.

Trees four to ten years old that
have been pruned with no definite
type in view often present some very
perplexing problems. The number
and proper distribution of scaffold
branches should be definitely chosen
and part of the most objectionable
branches removed the first year. In
cases where there are a dozen main Fic. 8.— Common
branches when half that number Ce a echt
would suffice, it may be advisable to Rome Beauty un-
select only six for the permanent ees a
framework. The removal of the ob- U
jectionable branches should be distributed over a period of
two or three years, however.

Young trees which have been neglected should be cut
back rather heavily to encourage the development of good
strong laterals near the base of the limb. When heading
back has been neglected and the result has been long rangy
branches with weak lateral development, it may be neces-
sary to cut back into two- or three-year-old wood. When
a good side branch is available, it is advisable to cut back
to the side branch instead of to a bud.

FAS)

y
7S

ie
‘i
r

avd The Commercial Apple Industry

Crossing and interfering branches should be removed.
If too many long parallel limbs have developed, part of |
them should be taken out in order to allow the remainder
freer development. Two limbs which emerge from a com-

mon point usually result in a weak crotch, a condition

which can be overcome by unequal cutting, i. e. cutting one
limb heavier than the other.

Bearing trees.

A tree that has been handled properly up to the bearing
age, that has its framework well established, and its fruit-
ing machinery well distributed, will require little subse
quent annual pruning. As previously described, the treat-

‘ment of a bearing tree, whatever the type, will consist
largely in thinning out the new growth near the tops or
outer parts of limbs to allow a good circulation of sunlight
and air. Wayward and crossing branches should be
checked or removed.

Gardner, of the Missouri Experimental Station, likens
the fruit-spur to a factory. He refers to the spurs as
little machines. The raw materials from which fruit is
produced come from the soil and air and are manufactured
into a finished product by the leaves through the aid of
sunlight. The latter is classed as the cheapest, most
abundant and yet most valuable form of motive power..
The performance of every spur is dependent on a certain
amount of sunlight, (See Plate XVII.)

Each individual spur relies on its own leaves for the
manufacture of the starches and sugars which it uses.
It cannot draw on other nearby spurs or on other parts
of the tree for maintenance. As the manufacture of food
materials is absolutely dependent on light, the production

‘soyOUBIQ 94} JO UOTINGIIYsIp poods ayy ajoN ‘azvad ¥w sTatreq OT oqe
SOSVIOAR PUB UOSBIS 9UO UT FMA} oUY Jo STolIVy OZ se YsYy se paonposd sey v0 sy, —TT AX WvI1g

Pruning and Thinning 275

of fruit-buds and fruit is likewise dependent on sufficient
quantities of light.

Thinning out the top and outer portions, then, is the
most effective means of letting light in to each individual
spur, thereby distributing the motive power necessary to
develop activity within each individual spur and increase
the amount of fruit produced. The removal of a few
large limbs near the ground only leaves large holes and
open spaces. The cutting of lower limbs and those near
the body of the tree does not permit sunlight to enter into
the parts where it is most needed nor does it permit the
distribution of sunlight and air in sufficient quantities to
modify the functioning of fruit-spurs. Removing large
limbs leaves vacant spaces and admits sunlight in shafts
rather than allowing it to penetrate evenly throughout all
parts.

It is better to remove many small branches, in thin-
ning the outer parts of trees. This leaves the outer fruit-
ing wood evenly distributed and still open enough to
permit the entrance of sunlight and air. The removal of
small branches requires time and makes it necessary for
the pruner either to use a ladder or climb well out near

‘the ends of the main branches, but this careful work will

prove profitable.

Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood.

Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the distribution
and establishment of functioning fruiting wood throughout
the entire tree. It is not uncommon to see trees which
have been stripped of all fruiting wood except near the
ends of the branches. For example, limbs 20 to 25 feet
long bear all their fruit from within 5 or 6 feet from the

276 The Commercial Apple Industry

tip, the balance of the limb being a “ boarder ” and living
at the expense of the productive area. It is highly de-
sirable to have several well developed laterals along the
scaffold branches in order that the fruiting area may be
brought nearer the ground.

TIME OF PRUNING

No concrete rules can be laid down as to the best time
for pruning, as no one time will best meet all conditions.
Pruning in most sections may usually be practiced in any
favorable weather in the dormant season. ;

In the Virginias and sections of the Pacific Coast, prun-
ing is done from November to early April, while in the
New England and middle western states, most of the
work is during the spring months. Generally speaking,
a slight preference should be given to pruning in late
winter and early spring, because the wounds heal over more

readily. Many growers are prejudiced against pruning»

when the wood is frozen. Some maintain that drying out
or dying back is likely to result from early winter prun-
ing, but the writers do not know of serious injury of this
nature in bearing trees.

If one has a large acreage to prune, he should start work
in the older trees in the early winter and reserve the
younger trees for the late winter and spring pruning.
Some growers hesitate to prune when growth is about to
start in the spring, feeling that injury may result from
bleeding. However, the writers know of no serious
injury resulting from pruning apple trees at this time. .

Summer pruning has received much attention in recent
years but the results of investigations have been somewhat
confusing. Summer pruning may be practiced to advan-

2G ets ies

Pruning and Thinning R77
tage in training the framework of a young tree. It may
also increase fruit production if timed correctly. How-
ever, So many varying factors affect the time element that
it is intpossible to give exact dates at which summer
pruning may be done to increase fruit production. The
average grower should refrain from inaugurating this
practice until a better understanding is had of its effects.
Water-sprouts and a few superfluous branches may be re-
moved to advantage during the summer months.

PRUNING TOOLS

The tool equipment will vary with the man and with
the type of work. In the eastern region practically all
of the labor is done with a small hand shears and a saw.
With these two tools, a pruner can do practically all that
will be required in bearing trees and most of the work in
young trees.

Cheap shears and those with coil springs are undesir-
able. The former are easily sprung and the latter easily
broken. The shears should be 7 to 9 inches in length,
the latter usually being preferred.

A saw on which the teeth are set to cut on the “ pull”
is less tiring to the pruner. Saws with teeth on both
edges are objectionable since they frequently injure the
bark. In some sections a swivel or hack saw is used.
This type is a modification of a butcher’s saw equipped
with swivels that permit very thin, narrow, fine-toothed
blades being set on the bias. It cuts rather slowly in the
case of large limbs, but is particularly good for small cuts
and for removing limbs in tight places. The cuts made

are clean and smooth.
Pole pruners, 6 to 10 feet in length, are useful in prun-

278 / The Commercial Apple Industry

ing the tops of trees six to ten years old, but work with this
tool is slow and cutting lacks precision.

Lopping or wooden handled shears are popular for work
on young trees and also for working the lower parts of
old trees. However, their use becomes somewhat awkward
in the upper parts of bearing trees. The double leverage
type of “loppers ” is desirable, 20 to 26 inches being the
preferred length.

WOUND DRESSINGS

Some difference of opinion exists among growers as to
the practicability of the use of dressings for protecting
wounds. Certain experiments have shown that undressed
wounds healed over more rapidly than dressed ones.
However, for nearly all wounds paint is most desirable,
white lead or white zinc thinned down with linseed oil
having given the best results. Tar or creosote is some
times preferred for large wounds since these substances
are considered better preservatives than paint. The
heartwood of a large wound will have to stand many years
before it is completely healed over.

Wounds in vigorous growing trees heal over more read-
ily than those on trees of low vitality. The painting
over of cuts less than one inch in diameter is not recom-
mended.

‘

THINNING

Although practiced very extensively in some parts of
the country and particularly in the West, many growers
are slow to adopt thinning, and yet it is essential to the.
production of high-class fruit. Once a grower has care
fully thinned his fruit for a few years, he needs no further

)
Pruning and Thinning 279

proof of the fact that this is one of the most important
and profitable of all orchard operations.

For many years the apple-growers in the Wenatchee and
Yakima valleys, Washington, have made thinning a gen-
eral practice. Cost production studies indicate that the
largest yields and greatest profits have been secured from
well and carefully thinned orchards. The same may be
said for orchards in all other parts of the country where
this practice has been given a thorough trial. In the;
Middle West and East, however, the grower who thins his
trees is the exception rather than the rule. The cost, to-
gether with a lack of knowledge and appreciation of the
great benefits to be obtained from thinning, are the princi-
pal reasons which deter most growers from following this
practice. Unquestionably it involves considerable ex-
pense, particularly with a full bearing orchard in a heavy
crop year. A heavy outlay of expense in any single year
might be somewhat disappointing. Thinning is an oper-
ation’ incident to the production of high-class fruit. -It
should not be sporadic, but should be practiced in every
heavy crop year. When fairly competent labor may be
secured at reasonable rates, it will be profitable. As the
competition in the growing of high-class apples becomes
greater, thinning will become more and more a general
practice in every commercial region in the country.

In listing the advantages of thinning it is found that it:
(1) increases size and quality of fruit; (2) reduces hand-
ling costs such as for picking and packing; (8) prevents
overbearing and promotes vigor of tree; (4) encourages
annual bearing; (5) increases average annual yield; (6)
reduces amount of cull and low-grade fruit since inferior,
diseased, or worm-eaten apples may be removed; (7)

280 The Commercial Apple Industry

secures uniformity of size and market quality of fruit;
(8) insures a high price for crop.

(1) The statement that thinning tends to increase the
size and quality of the remaining fruit will go unques-
tioned. Not only are the apples larger, but the color of
fruit on well thinned trees is noticeably better than on
overloaded ones. It is manifest that well developed speci-
mens of good size and color will be of a superior quality
and flavor.

(2) By reducing the number of apples to be picked and
handled at harvest time, the harvesting costs are materially
lowered. If apples are not removed at thinning time,
they must be picked at harvest at an even greater expense.
Many of the culls and inferior fruits can be removed in
thinning and this will not only tend to improve the quality
of the fruit, but will reduce the sorting cost at harvest
time.

(3) If trees are left overloaded, their vitality is im-
paired; branches are quite likely broken; and the pros-
pects for the next year’s crop are very much poorer than
if the tree had been properly thinned. It is difficult to
measure the exact value of thinning as affecting annual
yields and yet it is a notable fact that thinning unques-
tionably stimulates annual bearing. Many well thinned
orchards in the Northwest bear heavy crops annually while
most unthinned orchards tend to bear biennially.

(4) To claim that thinning reduces the tax on the
vitality of the tree and yet maintain that it actually in-
creases yield may seem contradictory. Unquestionably it
increases average annual yield and it is a fact that in-
creased size in fruit usually more than makes up for

Pruning and Thinning 281

reduced numbers. Furthermore, by more even distribu-
tion the tree may better hold its load.

(5) It is possible in thinning to remove wormy, stung,
diseased or otherwise inferior fruits and in this manner
greatly reduce the percentage of cull fruit and in some
ways check the spread of the injury.

(6) Uniformity is one of the most desirable qualities
in marketable apples. Thinning, of all orchard opera-
tions, is the one which directly influences uniformity in
size and marketable quality of fruit.

(7) When the grower is striving for an abundance of
highest quality fruit, thinning unquestionably pays. It
increases the percentage of high-grade fruit and thus in-
sures a higher net price. Cost of production a bushel will
be lowered even though cost an acre may be increased. If
a grower has expended heavily for spraying, pruning and
other operations, he can not afford to neglect thinning in
years when his trees tend to overbear.

Time and method of thinning.

Thinning should not be undertaken until after the June
or May drop, as in some of the more southern regions, has
occurred. When the apples are about the size of walnuts,
the natural thinning of the fruit has largely ceased and
artificial thinning may be begun profitably.

Often many growers have a market for early cull fruit
or sell it for by-product purposes. In such instances
thinning may be delayed until perhaps August, at which
time the cull or inferior fruit may easily be picked off.
Still other growers thin their apples by making several
pickings for commercial purposes, picking off the best

282 The Commercial Apple Industry

and most matured apples for market and allowing the
others to'remain. ‘Such practices can hardly be classed
under the head of thinning, although they may be profit-
able in some instances and may be practiced in addition to
early thinning.

The common practice in thinning is to start early after
the June drop and pull or clip off all apples according to
varying rules of spacing. Some growers leave the apples
at a minimum of 4 inches apart, others 6 inches and still
others 8 inches apart. This distance will depend largely
on the variety, its tendency to cluster, and whether or not
the apples of the variety are normally large or small when
mature. Generally speaking, spacing 6 inches is a safe
rule to follow.

Many varieties of apples have a tendency to produce
their fruit in clusters and often thinning the cluster to
one apple is practically all that is necessary. In any case,
if systematic thinning can not be practiced, the clusters
should at least be thinned as this prevents much insect
injury and promotes general uniformity of the fruit. The
amount of thinning will depend on the individual tree,
the variety and the amount of fruit on the tree. No def-
inite formula may be laid down. The usual method of
thinning apples is to pick the fruit off by hand, sometimes
putting it into a bag, but usually permitting it to drop on
the ground. Many growers, particularly in the North-
west, prefer thinning shears, of which several types are
on the market. The advantage to be gained in using thin-
ning shears is that the apples are clipped instead of pulled
off and for this reason fruit-spurs are not likely to be
broken or damaged.

Pruning and Thinning 283

Cost of thinning.

The cost of thinning will depend on several factors, such
as the variety, size of tree, kind of labor employed, method
used, size of the crop and the vigor of the tree. The
average man thins from three to twenty trees a day. In
the Northwest one hour to a tree is considered an average
amount. It must be remembered, however, that the
Northwest trees are much smaller and the fruit easier of
access than in the older orchards of the East and Central
West. In old orchards, heavy with fruit, from three to
five trees is a day’s work. It would not do to figure aver-
ages on this basis as often many trees do not need much
thinning. It requires about sixty hours an acre to thin
the better Wenatchee orchards. Very little thinning is
done in New York and Virginia, but if the trees in these
regions were thinned as systematically as in Wenatchee,
the amount of labor expended would be about the same to
the acre despite fewer trees. The average grower is safe
in assuming that it will pay him to spend on thinning an.
amount equal to twenty-five cents a barrel for every barrel
of fruit produced. The operation usually costs less than

this amount.

CHAPTER XIII
RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS

TuRovcuovr the country and particularly in the east-
‘ ern and central western states are many thousands of
apple trees which at present have little or no commercial
significance. Many of these are in the old farm orchards,
the average of which includes at most but a few acres of
poorly kept and very often neglected apple trees. There
are, however, a great many orchards originally set out for
commercial purposes and later neglected. It is to this
latter acreage that the discussion.on renovation will partic-
ularly apply.

Greatest possibilities for renovation are offered in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and the northeastern states, also in many
sections of the Middle West. In southern states the old
neglected orchards are for the most part of such small
size and are so inaccessible as to offer slight inducement
for successful renovation. The problem of renovation re-
quires exceptionally careful study if one is contemplating
this method of entering the business of growing apples
commercially. In recent years many far-sighted individ-
uals have been able to purchase neglected apple orchards
and by renovation make much quicker returns on the
money invested than would have been possible had a
young orchard been set out and the owner waited for the
latter to come into bearing. Such opportunities still ex-
284

Renovation of Old Orchards 285

ist. It is somewhat surprising in visiting well-known
commercial regions to see a large number of orchards which
receive little or no care, yet which under proper manage-
ment could be made to yield a profit. The above state-
ment is not to convey the idea that it is profitable to at-
tempt the reclamation of all old farm orchards by the
process of renovation. Very many trees are beyond the
period when they may be reclaimed profitably.

It requires considerable experience and nicety of judg-
ment to determine what orchards may or may not be suc-
cessfully renovated. In the first place, it is essential that
the orchard should be large enough to meet the expense of
proper equipment such as the spray-pump, and to warrant
some detailed attention from the owner. It is doubtful
whether an orchard of less than five acres, or one in which
many trees are missing, can ever be renovated successfully
and put on a profitable commercial basis. Smaller or-
chards, of course, might well be restored for home use.

Commercial orchards to be renovated should include
varieties for which there is a demand. Plantings should
be accessible to market and labor. However, one might
profitably restore an old orchard in a locality in which it
would scarcely be advisable to set new plantings. An
established orchard always enjoys an important advantage
from being already in bearing.

The following suggestions are offered with regard to the
process of renovating an old orchard and apply as much
to the home orchard as to commercial plantings:

General treatment.
All dead wood and cankers should be cut out and the
trunk of tree thoroughly scraped with a hoe or similar

286 The Commercial Apple Industry

tool, being careful not to injure the tender inner bark.
This scraping removes the hiding places for many orchard
pests. After scraping, some advise that the trunks should
be whitewashed. Unquestionably such treatment would be
beneficial, although it it not recommended as necessary.

In cutting large limbs, it is best to make two cuts, the
first about a foot above the last in order to prevent split-

ting or otherwise injuring the good wood below the final ;

cut.

It is well to disinfect large wounds with copper sulfate
or corrosive sublimate, after which a coat of asphaltum tree
paint or white lead is advisable to protect the tree against
decay and from the ravages of insects and diseases. When
small limbs and twigs are being headed, one should cut to
a lateral growth, otherwise the remaining stub dies and
decay follows.

The chances are that in old neglected orchards many
holes will be found in the trunks of the trees wheré limbs
have been broken or cut off in years gone by, where decay
has set in. Very often trees may be saved if the decayed
wood is thoroughly cleaned out. Occasionally such cavi-
ties are filled with cement, care being taken that all water
and wet wood is removed first. As a general rule, such
treatment is not practicable.

Pruning.

In shaping or pruning a tree after the dead wood has
been removed, a number of precautions should be borne in
mind.

A common mistake in renovation is to sacrifice much of

the fruiting area by removal of a large part of the top
with a view to bringing the head closer to the ground.

Renovation of Old Orchards 287

It takes several years to develop fruiting wood and it may
be advisable to thin out rather than remove the already ex-
isting fruiting wood.

Very often, however, because of excessively high trees,
severe cutting back and thinning out of the remaining tops
is necessary. Even in such instances it is unwise to re-
move too large a portion of the fruiting wood, even though
such wood may be found, as it very often is, at the tips of
the larger branches. The orchardist should encourage
lateral growth, but should avoid the sacrifice of too great a
part of the fruiting area. It is usually advisable to dis-
tribute the heavy pruning over a period of several years in
order to preserve the balance between the roots and the
top, and to prevent sun-scald on the larger limbs through
exposure to direct sunlight.

It is important that the outer parts and tops of all
trees should be well thinned by.working from the top
and tips of the branches downward. This provides for
penetration of sunlight and allows distribution of fruiting
wood throughout the entire tree. It is common to see a
grower start with the lower trunk limbs and prune severely
as far as he can reach conveniently, leaving the outer part
of the limbs to bear all the fruit. Ladders are almost in-
dispensable in thinning and heading back the tops.

Each limb should be treated somewhat as a separate tree.
Laterals should be thinned out and the remaining ones
spaced as on the trunk, special effort being made to bring
fruiting area nearer the ground. By thinning out the
brushy tops, water-sprouts may be encouraged farther
down on the main limbs. The following year the water-
sprouts should be thinned out to a distance of 18 to 24
inches apart and cut back severely so that they will throw

}

‘

288 , The Commercial Apple Industry

out laterals and evétttually lower the fruiting area. In
pruning waterSprouts, the leader should be cut slightly
less than its laterals, a safe proportion being to cut the
leader 35 per cent and the laterals about 50 per cent.

Although it is advisable to distribute the heavy prun-
ing over a period of three years, the orchardist should
bear in mind that the heavy cutting of one main branch
does not necessarily produce the vigor necessary for fruit-
ing on the remaining limbs. If one branch is pruned
heavily, the water-sprouts will come on that particular
limb and not on the others. Therefore, a general mod-
erate pruning throughout the top, with careful attention
given to thinning out the smaller fruiting wood, will serve
to encourage fruiting generally throughout the tree and to
afford an opportunity for converting water-sprouts into
new fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree. System-
atic pruning must be followed for a period of several years
if renovation is to be made effective.

Spraying.

After pruning the next step in renovation is thorough
spraying. Old trees are nearly always badly infested
with scale as well as with other insects and diseases. A
thorough application of lime-sulfur is a necessary clean-up
measure. After the dormant winter spray, the same regu-
lar spray program should be followed as is necessary in
commercial orchards of the region. It is particularly im-
portant in the case of old trees to have a tower on the
spray rig in order that the spray will reach the topmost
branches. The importance of spraying can not be em-
phasized too strongly as essential to the proper renova-
tion of the orchard. (See Chapter X.)

Renovation of Old Orchards 289

Soil management.

Thorough cultivation is usually the first step in reno-
vation, although in come instances deep plowing may re-
sult in cutting off many of the feeding roots, especially
when an orchard has been in sod for some time and the
roots feed close to the surface. If the roots are too
greatly disturbed, the trees may be seriously weakened.
Thorough discing when possible is always safe and satis-
factory. Plowing is to be preferred if it can be done
without destroying too many of the roots. Early culti-
vation is best and should be performed as soon in the
spring as possible. After thoroughly working the soil, it
is very often advisable to sow a leguminous cover-crop
in order to supply humus and nitrogen when these two
essentials have become depleted.

In many instances inter-crops have been continuously
grown in old orchards with the result that the soil is de
cidedly lacking in one or more elements of plant-food.
When available, liberal applications of barnyard manure,
from 10 to 18 tons to the acre, will aid in restoring soil
fertility. When the soil seems generally weak and de-
ficient, an application of confplete commercial fertilizer,
consisting of 6 pounds nitrate of soda, 8 pounds acid
phosphate and 3 pounds muriate of potash to a tree, may
be considered a very liberal treatment. Fertilizer ex-
periments emphasize the efficiency of nitrate of soda used
alone. A 5-pound application of nitrate of soda will be
generally profitable on weak trees. When commercial
fertilizer is applied in conjunction with manure, the above
amounts to a tree may be cut to about half.

In summarizing, the three important steps in orchard

290 The Commercial Apple Industry

renovation are: (1) careful pruning; (2) thorough spray-
ing; (3) thorough working of the soil with the possible
addition of commercial fertilizer.

CHAPTER XIV
HANDLING THE CROP

Tue handling of the crop includes the operations from
the time the fruit is ripe until it is put on the market.
Special care is necessary in picking and packing in order
that the apples may reach the market in good condition.

PICKING (PLATE XVIII)

The time of picking varies greatly with the variety and
with the season. Other influences, such as age of trees and
cultural practices, may also affect the time of this opera-
tion. It is generally thought that fruit comes to maturity
earlier on older trees than on young ones; also that apples
grown on sod land should be picked sooner than those in
cultivated orchards. As a rule, over-maturity is to be
feared more than.immaturity, although both conditions
may be disastrous. Maturity in most instances means
hard ripe and not eating ripe. ~ Since the time of picking
has so much to do with the keeping qualities of the fruit,
it is important that the ripening tendencies of each variety
be studied in every particular locality. The following
points should be taken into consideration in order to de-
termine the correct picking time for different varieties of
apples: 1. The ease with which the fruit separates from
the spur; 2. the red color; 3. size; 4. color of seeds; 5.

tendencies of certain varieties to drop.
291

292 The Commercial Apple Industry

1. One of the most valuable guides in determining the
time of picking is the ease with which the apple separates -
from the spur. Much damage can be done if the apples
are picked too soon, for in such circumstances the picker
will probably destroy or break off many fruit-spurs.
The grower must sacrifice size if the fruit separates readily
from the spur, otherwise he may suffer from heavy drop-
ping or over-maturity of the fruit.

2. In most cases, the amount of color is the grower’s
guide in determining time of picking. In this connection
it should be remembered that in bright seasons the apples
have a tendency to color early and for that reason there is
the danger of picking too soon. In damp cloudy weather,
coloring may be checked and under such conditions there
is danger of waiting too long before harvesting. Very
often two pickings are advisable for such highly colored
varieties as Winesaps. If the better colored specimens
are harvested in the first picking, the remaining poorly
colored apples will benefit by greater exposure to the sun-
light. It must be remembered that an added picking rep-
resents a considerable expense warranted only in the case
of high quality crops, when the added color and size mean
a considerable increased price for the product. Investi-
gations ' have revealed that in the case of red apples the
ground color which underlies the red color or blush is the
most reliable indication of maturity. In immature fruits
this color is green. Before the apples are ready to pick,
the ground color should have turned to a white or very
light yellow. The dark yellow ground color indicates
over-maturity. The very common mistake of leaving such

1 Bull. 587, U. 8. Dept. Agr.

Pate XVIII— Showing method of picking practiced in Vir-
ginia, particularly in the Piedmont section where a crew of pickers
will commonly pick from a single tree. An inefficient method.

Handling the Crop 293

varieties as Jonathan and Esopus too long on the trees
results in a much shortened life for the fruit in storage.

3, For green varieties and particularly early green
apples, size is an important factor. The grower should
not wait for the yellow ground color, otherwise he will lose
through over-maturity of his fruit. If two pickings are
made, it will be found that the apples left on the tree
will quickly benefit in size by the removal of a portion of
the crop. It must be considered that size will vary accord-
ing to crop, age of trees, and season, so that no definite
idea of the proper size at which to pick can be given.

4. It has been recommended that apples should not be
picked until the seeds have turned brown. While the
color of the seeds may be taken as an indication of matu-
rity, it should not be considered as always reliable. The
seeds should always be brown before the apples are picked,
but the brown color of the seeds does not necessarily indi-
cate maturity. In other words, immature fruit may have
brown seeds.

5. Such varieties as McIntosh, Wagener, and Tomp-
kins King tend to drop before maturity, and Stayman,
Wealthy and Grimes to drop badly with the wind. The
grower should watch these tendencies and should regard
heavy dropping as an indication of need for immediate
picking.

No other operation in the physical handling is more
essential to the life of the fruit than careful picking.
The pickers should be impressed with the importance of
preventing bruises, punctures or abrasions of the skin,
since such injuries permit the entrance of serious storage
decay. The fungi which cause most of the storage decay
can not injure sound fruit. Careless picking hands may

294 Lhe Commercial Apple Industry

pull off the fruit-spurs and seriously injure the tree in
climbing about or in carelessly manipulating the ladders,

Delays in picking and also delay before storage often in-
volve heavy loss. After the fruit has been picked, it
should be put in ‘storage as soon as possible. Two or
three days’ exposure to warm sun in the orchard after pick-
ing will cause the apples to ripen rapidly and the life of
the fruit will be materially shortened. Immediately
stored fruit is always brighter and firmer than that which
is left in the orchard for several days after picking.

Contract picking versus day labor.

In connection with the operation of picking, it is im-
portant to consider the contract system as compared with
day labor from the standpoint of efficiency and economy.
The principal objection to contract labor in picking is the
danger of careless handling of fruit when the picker tends
to sacrifice carefulness for speed. “Most growers have
avoided contract picking, although the practice is gaining
somewhat in popularity in some regions, particularly
where labor is scarce. Cost production studies have re-
vealed that the contract picker working by the piece will
pick on the average of at least 25 per cent more apples in a
day than will the day laborer. If competent labor can
be secured and carefully overseen, contract picking may
offer an opportunity for speed and considerable saving in
handling the crop.

Picking utensils.

Various types of picking utensils are in use and each
has its advantages and disadvantages. The canvas bag,
suspended by straps from the shoulder and opening at

Handling the Crop 295

the bottom so that the apples may be rolled out into a
box or barrel, has become the most popular picking utensil
in the Northwest. Some criticism is voiced against the
picking-bag on account of the danger of bruising the fruit.
When the picker is climbing about on ladders, apples in a
bag may be knocked against the ladder or subjected to
more shaking or rolling about than if placed im pails.
The chief advantage of the picking-bag is that it leaves
both of the picker’s hands free for picking.

A pail with a canvas bottom which may be opened in
emptying possesses some of the advantages of the bag and
may afford better protection for the fruit. The round
half-bushel basket is a very popular picking utensil
throughout the East and Middle West. Its value may be
enhanced by lining the sides with corrugated paper or
padding the bottom to prevent bruising the fruit. Wire
hooks on the handles of pails or baskets will aid in the
hanging of these utensils on the ladder or tree.

If the picker is obliged to walk a considerable distance
to a sorting-table, as is the case where fruit is packed in
the orchard, a pail or basket is sometimes preferred to the
picking-bag, for in such instances the receptacles are filled
and left at the bottom of the tree to be carried later to the
packing-table. A waiter should be employed to carry the
fruit from the base of the tree to the orchard sorting-table,
since this workman will carry two or more baskets whereas
the picker will make the return trip with only one. Where
the crop is handled through the packing-house, receptacles
for the picked fruit should be distributed throughout the
orchard in order that the picker will not lose time in
emptying his bag or pail of fruit. In all cases, the picker
should be warned against allowing the fruit to drop into the

296 The aad a Apple Industry

box or onto the table with
sufficient force to cause se-
vere bruising. A low or-
chard wagon with springs
is recommended for haul-
ing receptacles of loose
fruit. (See Fig. 9.)

The pointed ladder is
the most efficient type for
picking in among the
Fic. 9.— Slatted crate used very branches since it can be

generally in the eastern states for placed against a fork or
bringing apples from orchard to
packing-house.

tree. Step-ladders with a
single prop are useful in picking from the outside limbs
or from small trees.

PACKING (PLATE XIX)

Since there are two somewhat divergent systems for
grading and packing the barreled and boxed apples, the
two general methods will ‘be discussed separately.
Throughout the East and Middle West, much of the pack-

ing is done in the orchard although sheds are increasing -

in number and popularity in nearly every commercial ap-
ple region. Western growers early showed a preference
for the packing-house, since very exacting labor and good
equipment are required in maintaining the high standard
of the boxed pack.

Sorting and packing barreled apples
Until recently most of the barreled apple crop was

packed in the orchard with the aid of portable packing !

limb without injuring the,

1
1
q
|

Handling the Crop 297

equipment. The packing-shed is growing in popularity
throughout the East and Middle West, but many commer-
cial apple-growers still pack out their crop in the orchard,
and this operation, therefore, must be given separate treat-
ment. :

Orchard packing.

When sorting and packing is done in the orchard, the
equipment usually consists of either a portable slatted
table or a canvas or burlap-top table.

Of the above two types, the slatted table is most com-
monly used. Very often these tables are equipped with
wheels in order that they may be moved about easily in
the orchard. The top of the average slatted sorting-
table tapers from three to four feet at one end to one to
two feet in width at the other end. The table also slopes
so that when the fruit is poured on at the wide end, it rolls
down past the sorters to the narrow end, and there is
lowered into the barrel by means of an apron. The upper
end of the table top should be padded heavily to prevent
bruising of the fruit. Leaves and brush drop to the ground
as the apples roll down over the slatted top. Sorters
stand at the side of the table, and when only one grade
is being packed out, as is usually the case, they remove
only, the culls and rots. When two grades are being
packed, the additional grade is picked out as the fruit
passes over the table, and is placed in barrels alongside
the sorter. The packer stands at the lower end of the
table and feeds the apples into previously faced barrels, at
the same time assuming part of the responsibility for the

grade.
The slatted sorting-table is an example of cheap portable

298 ’ The Commercial Apple Industry

equipment, but in its age there is danger that inferior
fruit will crowd past the sorter. Although the slatted
table is widely employed throughout the East and Middle
West, it seems probable that its place will be taken more
and more by the mechanical sizer or burlap-top table.

Some barrel apple-growers, and particularly those in-
terested in a more careful pack, employ the canvas or
burlap-top table, which is usually about three feet high,
three feet wide and six or eight feet long. The apples are
emptied directly from the tree onto the top of the table.
Sorters then grade out the fruit, usually placing it in
baskets or receptacles according to its grade. Under this
‘system, two grades are ordinarily packed out, the culls
being thrown to one side in a pile or placed in separate ©
barrels. The packer stands behind the sorter and fills
previously faced barrels with the fruit according to its
grade.

The use of canvas or burlap-top table facilitates more
careful handling and sorting than the slatted-top table.
In the case of either, the picker usually carries his own
fruit directly to the table, although in some instances the
work of transferring fruit from the base of the tree to
the packing-table is done by additional workmen. As
previously pointed out, the latter system is more efficient.

Before discussing packing-house equipment, it should
be mentioned that portable sizing machines have been
used to some extent in orchard packing.

Packing-houses for barreled apples.

While orchard packing still predominates, the rapidly
increasing number of packing-houses throughout the bar-
rel apple states is a distinct sign of progress. Some ad-

Handling the Crop 299

vantages of a packing-house are: (1) Centralization of
packing operations, no time being lost in moving equip-
ment about the orchard; (2) packing may continue unin-
terrupted during inclement weather; (3) improved sizers
and other labor-saving devices may be installed econom-
ically; (4) packages for the fruit are kept cleaner than if
handled in the orchard.

The eastern applegrower has come to rely on cold
storage rather than common storage in holding his crop
for any length of time. For this reason, common storage
in connection. with packing plants is not recognized as
such an important feature as in the West. The grower
either sells his winter apples immediately or places them
in cold storage. Therefore, the packing-shed in the bar-
‘reled apple industry assumes more the nature of a shelter
for centralized packing operations.

Eastern and middle western apple packing-houses might
arbitrarily be classified in three groups: (1) Those pro-
viding a mere shelter for either the inclined slatted-top or
canvas-top sorting-tables; (2) those which not only pro-
vide shelter for the packing operation, but which have a
small sizing machine and possibly certain other labor-sav-
ing devices; (3) the large improved packing-shed with a
daily capacity of 300 to 1,200 barrels of apples.

In the third class are the larger and best equipped:
mechanical sizers, fitted. with conveyer belts, improved
bing and other equipment calculated to insure the greatest
speed and efficiency in handling the crop. With such
‘packing-houses, the fruit is usually delivered from the
orchard on to a receiving platform or possibly directly on
to a receiving belt which carries it past the sorters and
delivers it directly into the sizing mechanism. The

300 The Commercial Apple Industry

sorters stand beside the conveyer and grade out the fruit
as it passes them. More improved sizers permit the grad-
ing and sizing of two and even three grades simultaneously.
The sorting is accomplished by dividing the grading belt
lengthwise with strips which serve as partitions to separate
the different grades. <A separate set of bins is then re
quired for each grade.

The machines now most commonly used throughout
the East size but a single grade, the fruit being sorted ac-
cording to one of the following two practices: (a) Only
culls and rots are removed, the remainder being allowed
to go into a single grade, in which case the smaller sizes
are packed out as No. 2’s and the larger sizes, usually
from 21% inches up, are called No. 1; or (b) not only are
culls removed but also a second grade based on quality,
the latter being diverted into a single bin without sizing.
The first grade then proceeds along the conveyer belt to
the sizing mechanism, the apples being delivered in bins
according to their respective sizes.

The growing tendency in the largest barreled apple dis-
tricts where careful grading is practiced, is to size the
first grade to quarter inch sizes. This makes a more at-
tractive pack than one in which all sizes above a stated
minimum are packed into the same barrel. In addition
to the advantage of increased attractiveness of pack, the
more exact sizing makes possible the handling of the fruit.
through more bins, and in this way eliminates congestion
in any one bin. However, unless the volume ‘of fruit
handled is great enough to keep several packers busy when
the apples are distributed among three or four bins, it is
not advisable to attempt such exact sizing.

In any of the above practices, the fruit is taken out of

pprenceuiny gy

—-~Handling tha Crop 301

its re Poor A ced jA previously faced barrels.
An additeana nails and stamps the barrel
and places it in “a position ready to be loaded on the cars
or hauled to.the shipping station.

Some desirable features for the packing-shed under east-
ern and middle western conditions may be summed up as
follows: (1) It is highly desirable that the packing-
shed should be convenient to a railroad loading station.
In the case of community packing-sheds, it is always es-
sential that a site be selected where the fruit may. be
loaded immediately on.cars. In such cases, the roof!
should slope to the back to permit of later additions to
the building. (2) Storage space should be provided for
empty barrels. This may be done conveniently by pro-
viding a loft overhead with chutes for delivering the bar-
rels to the packing-table. (3) It is highly important that
attention be given to proper lighting. Light shafts over
the sorting-table may be necessary. It is impossible to
sort and grade fruit properly in darkened rooms. (4) It
is usually advisable that larger packing-sheds be equipped
with mechanical sizers. (5) Storage space should be pro-
vided for loose fruit so that the packing operation may
continue for a day or more without continued supply from
the orchard. There should be storage also for one or more
days’ run of packed apples so that it will be unnecessary to
ship odd lots of fruit. (6) An important point in pack-
ing-house arrangement is to provide a conveyer or some
means for preventing the culls from accumulating around
the packing-table. (7) A receiving platform should be
built at a convenient height for unloading fruit from
wagons. When mechanical sizers are uscd, it is advisable
to have the receiving platform at the same elevation as

302 The Commercial Apple Industry

the sizing machine. This obviates the necessity of lifting
the fruit in feeding the sizer. (8) In passing through
the different “packing-house operations, the fruit should
continue in the same general direction. (9) Ample floor
space should be provided. Congestion greatly slows up
packing operations. (10) A building more nearly square
is better than a long narrow structure. (11) Building on
a hillside may permit fruit to be unloaded and packed on
the second floor. Packed fruit may then be stored on the
first floor and hauled out from the lower side of the build-
ing, and all fruit can be lowered to the basement by chutes
or reverse elevators where it can accumulate without in-
terfering with operations about the packing-table.

Handling the western box apple crop

The packing-house, whether it be a rude shelter or an
elaborately equipped plant, is a recognized necessity in
handling the boxed apple crop. More exact grading and
sorting are required for boxed apples and this labor may
be performed best in the centralized packing-house to
which the fruit is drawn from the orchard. As stated
above, common storage space is very often combined with
the packing-shed, particularly in the case of the commu-
nity packing-house. In such instances, the packing-
house serves a double purpose. It provides space not only
for the necessary packing-house equipment, but also for
storing a large portion of either the loose or packed fruit.
It is generally estimated that the packing-house should
have storage for about one-third of its total output. In
regions where car shortage is likely to occur, this is a
good form of insurance.

There is a most decided drift to the community packing

Handling the Crop 303

system in most western districts and under this plan,
large expensive packing-houses are practicable. The in-
dividual grower, however, commonly uses a lean-to shed
or small frame apple house frequently constructed with
a concrete basement. Enough space is usually provided
in the packing-house for storing a considerable quantity
of. loose fruit which may be packed out in inclement
weather.

Orchard carriers.

In the boxed apple regions, the orchardist usually dis-
tributes loose boxes under the trees throughout the or-
chard so that the picker is not obliged to carry the fruit
away from the base of the tree. Lug boxes, made of
heavier lumber and slightly larger than the ordinary‘apple
box, have met with some favor as orchard carriers. As a
matter of economy, however, the western grower ordinarily
prefers to use the standard northwest box as an orchard
carrier, later using the same box as a package for the
graded fruit.

Low-wheeled orchard wagons are employed in haul-
ing the loose boxes to the packing-shed.

Sorting and packing the boxed apples. -

The operation of sorting is logically divided into sizing
and grading for color, quality and freedom from blemishes.
As has been stated, the barrel apple crop has thus far
largely been packed out according to grades based on
size, although in some regions distinction is made between
the first and second grade according to color and quality,
and freedom from blemishes.
| In the West, three standard grades are recognized and

304 The Commercial Apple Industry

are commonly spoken of as: (1) Extra Fancy, (2)
Fancy, and (3) C grade. Grading rules governing these
three grades vary slightly from year to year. In a gen-
eral way, however, only normal apples approaching physi-
cal perfection are specified as falling within the Extra
Fancy grade. Greater tolerance in the way of color re-
quirements and blemishes is permitted in the Fancy grade,
although the fruit must be perfectly sound and of a high
marketable quality. The “C” grade permits poorly
colored or slightly misshapen fruit which is still sound.
In the Pacific Northwest, all three grades are wrapped
with paper, the diagonal pack being used.

It is customary to hire sorters by the day while packing
is by the piece. In the inter-mountain regions including
the states of Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, all grades
are not wrapped. In these states, a jumble or face and fill
pack is common except in the case of Extra Fancy apples.

It is interesting to know that in the movement for
standardization of grades and packs, less attention is being
given to grading by size and more according to quality
and physical perfection. This is particularly applicable
to the Northwest where the size of apples is clearly indi-
cated by the number stamped on the outside of the box.

The mechanical sizer, although growing in popularity
and more widely used in the West than elsewhere, is not
universal among all box apple-growers. It is generally
felt that a mechanical sizer is only practicable when the
crop amounts to 10,000 boxes or more. Many western
growers still prefer to sort out their fruit from canvas or
burlap-top tables similar to those used in the East and
Middle West. Still others sort directly from the picking
boxes as they are drawn to the packing-house. When hand

Handling the Crop 305

sorting is practiced, the sorters usually grade out the fruit
into three grades without regard to size, the sizing being
done by the packers. A long table with the sorters on one
side and the packers on the other has been found efficient
by many western growers. Others not infrequently size
and grade by hand from canvas conveyer belts.

Packing-house arrangement and operation.

As might be expected, efficiency is exceedingly import-
ant in western packing-houses, where the system of grad-
ing and handling is very intricate. In the larger packing-
houses of the West, conveyer belts and gravity conveyers
are commonly used in receiving the fruit from the wagon
and for moving the boxes about the warehouse or into
the car.

Gravity or belt conveyers eliminate much irksome labor
in lifting boxes. In the modern packing-houses of the
West, the boxes of loose fruit are unloaded from the wagon
upon conveyers and are quickly carried to any part of
the house desired. In moving the boxes about within the
house, conveyers are used in bringing the loose fruit to
the sizer and afterwards in carrying the packed boxes to
the car or into storage. In the smaller houses, waiters
are usually employed in carrying the fruit about the pack-
ing-house in order that the sorters and packers may con-
tinue their work uninterrupted.

When mechanical sizers are used, much the same system
of operation is followed as has been outlined for the pack-
ing-house with mechanical sizers under eastern conditions,
but it must be remembered, however, that many more sizes
are packed out in the case of boxed apples than with the
barrel pack. For this reason, a more elaborate system of

306 The Commercial Apple Industry

bins and a more accurate sizing machine is necessary. In
most of the larger packing-sheds of the West, the main
floor is used for receiving the fruit and as the packing-
room.

The system of handling the loose fruit as it comes in
from the orchard is important. A receiving platform on
the north side of the house is convenient for storing the
fruit which is to be packed out immediately. Additional
storing space for the loose boxes should be provided on the
packing floor. All congestion tends to inefficiency. In-
creased needs should be anticipated.

An example of efficiency is seen in the large packing-
‘shed which is equipped with conveyer belts carrying the
loose boxes from the wagon directly to the sizing machine.
Sorters examine the apples and then pass them to the siz-
ing mechanism, and packers stationed at the bins imme-
diately pack the fruit. Carriers or conveyors bring empty
boxes to the packers and carry the packed boxes to the
nailer. The packed fruit is then nailed, stamped and
carried by conveyors either into storage or into the car for
shipment. The movement of fruit to the car is delayed
only by temporary storage as it is being fed into the sizer.
As emphasized before, it is important that the fruit con-
tinue in one direction when passing through the packing-
house. , Careful attention should be given to the disposi-
tion of culls which are likely to cause congestion if left to
accumulate on the packing floor. Removing the culls to
elevated bins by conveying belts or allowing them to pass
by means of canvas chutes into the basement are two means
of solving this problem. The increasing value of cull
fruit makes it advisable that this part of the crop be
handled with great care to prevent unnecessary bruising.

Pirate XIX.— Packing the fruit. 1. Well packed boxes of apples
showing different styles of packing used on large and small fruit.
2. Good example of ring tailing. 3. An excellent face made with

234-inch apples. 4. Trucks have largely supplanted this method
of hauling packed boxes in the Wenatchee Valley.

Handling the Crop 307

Mechanical sizer (Plate XX) ‘

The sizing machine has become such an important fac-
tor in the handling of both the commercial barreled and
boxed apple crop as to require separate treatment. It
seems apparent that this labor-saving device is destined to
play an increasingly important part in the handling of
commercial apples. The chief criticism offered against it
is the attending danger of careless handling, which is
being rapidly eliminated by greater mechanical perfec-
tion and judicious operation. One of the greatest ad-
vantages of the mechanical grader is sometimes over-
looked. It lies in the precision with which the fruit may
be handled. A machine properly fed insures a steady
flow of fruit through the packing-house. Shirking, wasted
or lost time becomes apparent at any delay.

There are two general types in mechanical sizers: Those
which size by weight and those which size by measure-
iment. The former type seems best adapted to the use of
the western growers, owing to the fact that boxed apples
must be closely sized. Machines of the second type are
‘more commonly used throughout the East where extreme
accuracy is not required. Sizing machines vary in size,
capacity, and price. The grower should insist on thor-
ough demonstration. Electricity is the most satisfactory
motive power in operating the larger machines, although
gasoline engines and even hand power are very often
employed with the smaller types.

The following points should be considered when pur-
chasing a sizing machine: (1) The capacity of the sizer
should be consistent with the amount of fruit to be handled.
(2) Simplicity of design should be sought as well as dur-

308 The Commercial Apple Industry

ability. Extreme accuracy is not required in sizing
barreled apples as is the case with boxed apples. (3) The
sizing should be accomplished without bruising the fruit.

Community packing-houses

The community packing-house idea is gaining in popu-
larity and prominence, being a development of the codper-
ative movement so important among fruit-growers. The
advantages of community packing-houses are numerous,
and yet this plan is feasible only under certain favorable
conditions. At the present time, most of the community
packing-houses are in the western apple regions. By
far the larger portion of the crop in such districts as Wen-
atchee is being packed out under the community plan.
This practice is gaining in western New York and in
many other regions, and promises to play an increasingly
important part in the efficient handling of the barrel apple
crop.

Some of the necessary conditions for the successful oper-
ation of community packing-houses are as follows: (1)
The plan is feasible only where more or less intensive
and centralized plantings occur. ‘While instances have
been cited when fruit has been successfully hauled twenty
miles to a communuity packing-house, it seems highly
important that sufficient fruit be obtained within a radius
of about four miles. Twelve miles, over good roads, is
given,as the maximum haul in the Pacific Northwest.
(2) One hundred ears is usually considered the minimum
which can be handled through a community packing-house
with the greatest economy. (3) Community packing-
houses should, scarcely without exception, be situated on a
railroad. (4) There must be a community spirit and

Handling the Crop 309

willingness to codperate among growers. (5) There
must be some uniformity in the character of the ‘ruit
handled in order that there may be a common interest
among growers.

The following are some of the advantages in the com-
munity packing-house plan: (1) There is a possibility of
a greater standardization of grades. Apples packed up
under a single management will be more uniform in grade
than if packed under the direction of a dozen or more indi-
viduals. (2) Competent help may be attracted by longer
periods of employment. (3) By combining capital it
becomes possible for the growers to build modern packing
plants and equip them with all the labor-saving devices
without incurring too great overhead expense. (4) It
becomes economical to provide storage space as an insur-
ance against loss. (5) A saving of 3 to 5 cents a box and
10 to 15 cents a barrel is ordinarily effected in handling
the crop, particularly if supplies are purchased in quan-
tities for the members. (6) Community trucks may be
employed economically in hauling fruit to the packing-
house. (7) The grower may give his entire attention to
the packing operation instead of devoting his efforts to
finding a packing crew.

Methods of operating community packing-houses.

In most instances the grower hauls his fruit in loose
boxes or barrels to the community shed where it retains
the grower’s identity during the packing operation. The
cost of packing is pro rated by the barrel or box among
the contributing members. Sufficient fruit must “be
handled to warrant the employment of a competent man-

ager. -

310 The Commercial Apple Industry

An interesting plan has been evolved and is being oper-
ated successfully in certain parts of the West. Under
this method the growér’s fruit loses its identity, first
being weighed and credit being given for a certain amount
of fruit by weight. A sample is taken representing 3 to 5
per cent of each load and unbiased inspectors grade out
the sample to determine what percentage will fall within
the different grades. In this way, the grower of high-
grade fruit is protected and credited for his superior
product. The two principal advantages of this plan are
that it saves about one-third of the storage space in the
packing-house since each grower’s fruit does not have to
be packed by itself, and the growers know immediately into
what grades their fruit will pack out. The chief disad-
vantages are that much depends on the sample and the
fruit may not pack out according to tests which causes
dissatisfaction among members. The tendency: is to
examine fruit too critically.

Packing-house construction.

Common storage plays such an important part in the
handling of ‘the boxed apple crop that it should receive
separate, although necessarily brief, consideration in this
discussion. Very often and particularly under the com-
munity plan, the packing-house serves also as a common
storage. It is a common practice in the Northwest to
pack the fruit on the main floor and store in the basement.
Occasionally only a portion of the building is insulated,
the: remainder being used solely for the packing opera-
tions. In some instances, the packing-house is entirely
separate but adjoining a common storage.

In any event, it should be remembered that a room can-

\
Handling the Crop 311

not serve as a common storage and at the same time be
used for packing operations. Particularly is this true in
the early fall when the day temperatures are high. At
this time of the year, all doors and openings should be kept
tightly closed during the day. It is even suggested that
the doors be opened to admit fruit only in the early morn-
ing. It is still better to open no doors but admit the boxes
through a small opening ‘fitted with canvas flap, as can
be done if conveyers are used.

The hollow tile construction once so popular in the
Northwest is not entirely successful without other insul-
ators. In laying such tile, it is impossible to make all
joints perfect and for this reason the dead air space is
lost. Cork is the most effective insulator but it is very
expensive. Eight inches of mill shavings used either in
frame or hollow tile construction is the most economical
and at the same time efficient insulator for the West. The
hollow tile has the advantage of being fire-proof.

Common storage has not been successful with fall var-
' jeties such as the Jonathan, since their ripening period
occurs before nature’s cooling temperatures are obtained.
Such varieties should be shipped immediately or placed
in cold storage. The Delicious deteriorates and the Spitz-
enburg tends to shrivel in common storage. On the other
hand, the Stayman, if stored unpacked, sometimes keeps
better in common than in cold storage on account of its
tendency to scald in the latter. A well constructed com-
mon storage, if properly operated, can be safely used in
the Pacific Northwest for holding most late varieties until
February and some into March.

The following. are some of the points to be kept in
mind when holding or operating a common storage: (1)

312 The Commercial Apple Industry

The intake area should represent 1 per cent of the floor
space and the intake should occur below the false floor.
(2) Boxes may be piled six high if two or three feet air
space is left between the topmost box and the ceiling. (3)
Mill shavings tend to become wet and to rot out when used
in basement constructions. (4) Basement storage has
the advantage of being cheaper usually and more econom-
ical of ground since the packing-room is overhead. At
the same time, as stated above, mill shavings tend to rot
out and there is the extra labor in lifting fruit when it is
to be taken out of storage. (5) Eight inches of mill
shavings with one inch air space on either side is generally
recommended for the Pacific Northwest. (6) Since the
success of common storage depends largely on ventilation,
attention must be given to the installation of false floors
and proper air intakes and outlets.

Bulk shipments

In discussing the handling of the apple crop, no refer-
ence has been made to bulk shipment. In the Middle
West, particularly in the Ozark and in the Missouri
regions, bulk shipments sometimes represent over one-half
of the crop. Ben Davis and Grimes lend themselves to
this method of handling. Bulk shipments are important
from Colorado and New Mexico.

In bulk handling, the apples are loaded loose into cars
previously bedded with straw. It should be remembered
that these apples are strictly commercial and enter into
competition with barreled stock. As might be expected,
there ‘is little uniformity in the quality of the fruit mar-
keted in this way. There is an urgent need for standard-
ization along such lines. /

CHAPTER XV
MARKETING AND STORAGE

Born distribution and marketing are of prime import-
ance in the commercial apple industry. It is not sufficient
that the apple-grower shall spray, prune and cultivate his
trees so that they will produce high-class fruit, but he
must familiarize himself with the best systems of market-
ing in order that his crop may be disposed of in the most
satisfactory manner.

Much has been said of the codperative marketing system
for fruits. Little has been done in developing this system,
however, in the apple regions outside of the Pacific North-
west. The eastern and middle western growers handle
their production largely by consignment, through brokers,
or sell directly to cash buyers. The apple-grower employs
three common methods in disposing of his crop: (1) sell-
ing on consignment; (2) selling packed or graded. fruit
to cash buyers, or selling the entire crop in the orchard
to “lump” buyers; (3) selling under a codperative system.

SELLING ON CONSIGNMENT \

Many growers have practiced consignment with entire
satisfaction, although this method of marketing has been
the subject of some criticism. The personal element is
the determining factor. There are commission firms of

the highest integrity whose services and expert knowledge
313

314 The Commercial Apple Industry

of marketing can be made invaluable to the producer. A
grower should carefully investigate the standing of the
firm with which he proposes to deal.

Cash sales are desirable but in years of heavy produc-
tion and for the grower with miscellaneous and odd lot
shipments, consignment is sometimes the only alternative.
Not infrequently growers have established relations with
certain commission merchants and employ these same firms
year after year.

SELLING: TO CASH BUYERS:

At present the cash buyer is the dominant figure in the
marketing of the commercial apple crop. The legitimate
cash buyer performs a necessary service in the distribution
of the commercial crop. He buys for an established trade
and requires only a limited margin to insure a fair profit.
In most instances he is an experienced salesman, always
seeking to develop and open new markets. The cash buyer
is a figure of growing importance in the apple industry.

Much has been said with reference to the popular
demand “direct to the consumer.” The fact remains,
however, that the middleman performs an important
service in the distribution of any crop. It must be re-
membered, furthermore, that even the present codperative.
selling organizations sell largely through brokers or to cash
buyers on the market but operate in such circumstances
as to secure more consideration than individuals can com-
mand. Buyers must have profits commensurate with the
risk and sufficient to cover their overhead, and if they lose
in one operation they quite naturally must receive suf-
ficient profit to make up for such losses.

The best and most satisfactory system for dealing with

Marketing and Storage 315

the cash buyer is to sell a certain grade of a variety at a
cash_price, f.0,-b- the ‘ear. The importance of contracts
should be emphasized even in cash sales. Verbal contracts
permit much misconstruction and misunderstanding. It
is always important that definite specifications should be
drawn up as to the grade and variety of the fruit, time
of delivery and method of inspection. Much can be pained
by a thorough understanding between the buyer and the
seller. Contracts are particularly indispensable when
business operations are conducted at long range.

The lump-sum cash buyer.

Under this head is described the system of selling the
entire crop on the trees to a buyer who packs and grades
out the fruit, assuming entire risk in handling the crop.
In general such a system of marketing is very unsatisfac-

‘tory. It is obvious that the buyer’s risk is necessarily
great and that he therefore must necessarily have a large
margin of profit. There is probably no other region in
which this system of marketing fruit is so widely prag-
ticed as in the Watsonville district or the Pajaro Valley
California. Lump-sum buying strikes a blow at the com-
munity spirit by checking the development of a high
standard for the output of a region.

Tree-run cash buyer. |

Throughout certain regions and particularly in western
New York, the tree-run buyer plays an important part in
the marketing of the apple crop. Under this system the
cash buyer offers a certain price a barrel for the grower’s
entire crop, culls and cider stock sometimes excluded.
Fhe buyer then grades and packs out the fruit. Growers

316 The Commercial Apple Industry

of rather low-grade fruit are attracted to this system of
selling. However, the tree-run system of handling fruit
does not encourage the highest cultural methods and tends
to lower the grade of fruit produced. It should be dis-
couraged.

COGPERATIVE METHODS OF SELLING

Codperative handling and marketing has been most
widely attempted in the western states, both in the distri-
bution of citrus and deciduous fruits. Confronted with
the problems of rapidly increasing production, extreme
distance from market and high land values, the western
fruit-grower has realized the precariousness of highly
specialized farming and has felt the need of organization
and codperation more keenly than the eastern growers,
Heavy investment has made it impossible for him to turn
to other types of farming, and it has been in periods of
desperation when prices failed to meet the cost of pro-
duction that most comprehensive codperative movements
have been inaugurated. It should not be understood that
failure has constantly followed in the foot-steps of the
western fruit-grower, for years of good prices and large
yields have brought excellent returns.. The western
grower in many instances has devoted his entire capital to
the production of fruit. Naturally he resorts to every
means within his power to stabilize and organize the indus-
try on a profitable basis. When a period of low prices
prevails in the East or Middle West, the growers of these
regions having more diversified farms give less attention
to the growing and marketing of their apple crop and
more attention to their other enterprizes.

One of the largest codperative fruit marketing organiza-

Marketing and Storage 317

tions in the United States, known as the California Fruit
Growers’ Exchange, was organized in 1905 for the purpose
of solving the complex marketing and distributing prob-
lems confronting the citrus-growers of southern California.
A similar organization exists among the Florida citrus-
growers and at present among the Georgia peach-growers.
Each of these organizations controls more than half of the
fruit production of its respective region.

It must not be understood that the apple industry is
exactly analogous with either the citrus or peach industry.
The citrus region of southern California is extremely
compact; the same is true of the Florida citrus district.
These two sections embrace comparatively few counties,
yet represent in production nearly the entire citrus crop
of the United States. The Georgia peaches are among the
first to reach the market and competition is limited largely
by the production from Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas.
The apple crop which comes on the market at about the
same time from many regions represents a different
problem.

Codperative handling of apples has played a very
important part in the industry of the western irrigated
sections, notably in the Grand Valley of Colorado, in the
Yakima, Wenatchee and Spokane valleys of Washington;
in the Hood River Valley of Oregon and in certain dis-
tricts of Idaho. It has been difficult to follow the growth
and development of each of the many cooperative organiza-
tions in the Northwest. Some have persisted and enlarged
their scope, while others have been abandoned. Many
more have failed than have succeeded. Very few of the
codperative marketing organizations which were operative
a few years ago are in existence to-day. There is always

318 " The Commercial Apple Industry

the inherent individualism of farmers as a class to be con-
sidered and also their strong inclination toward inde-
pendent operation of their own business affairs.

There can be little argument advanced against codpera-
tion among fruit-growers, the question being as to just
how far this codperation will extend and what form it
will assume. The following are some of the necessary
elements for successful codperative marketing:

(1) There must be a community spirit in the region
which will prompt growers ta act codperatively.

(2) There must be more or less compactness and con-
centration of planting. Growers operating scattering
orchards at a considerable distance from one another can
seldom be brought together under a codperative plan.
There must be a sufficient quantity of fruit produced
within a more or less limited region in order that the crop
may be handled economically under codperation. Many
cooperative organizations have failed on account of excess-
ive overhead expense.

(8) A desirable membership must be secured. One
danger with newly organized associations is that in their
eagerness for new members they are likely to acquire a
quantity of undesirable fruit which must be handled by the
association. Rather than lose members and_ political
prestige, the management very often fails to enforce grad-
ing rules and thereby permits the low-grade fruit to deter-
mine the selling price.

In trying to bring too many growers under one associa-
tion, the organizers lose sight of the fact that only a small
percentage of the apple crop of the United States is pro-
duced in any one state or region. The advantage of
controlling a large percentage of the tonnage in any one

Marketing and Storage 319

district is not to be questioned, but too great importance
should not be attached to large memberships, particularly
if they are indiscriminately selected. From a practical
standpoint, the best organizations are those which have
grown gradually in membership and which have been
careful to exclude the grower of poor fruit. By having
only the cream of the output of any particular region, the
best returns are obtained for the growers.

(4) Distance from market is another important factor
which must be considered for successful codperation. An
apple-grower situated close to market who has exception-
ally high quality fruit, for which he has built up a special
market, will be less inclined to abandon his special trade
for membership in an association. On the other hand,
growers in more remote regions have favored codperation
since it setg up machinery to relieve them of the entire
problem of marketing their own fruit for which they have
neither the experience nor training. In addition, it en-
ables them to have personal representatives in distant
markets.

Form of organization for codperative associations.

There are two general forms for organizing codperative
associations: (1) stock corporation; (2) non-stock system.

Of these the non-stock system is the better. Rather
than sell stock and maintain a private corporation which
may drift into the hands of a few of the largest stock-
holders, it is better that each contributing member should
cast a single vote in a purely non-profit or codperative
society. The voting power under this system might be
made to vary according to the amount of fruit shipped, but
as a rule the one vote a member system is most satisfactory

320 The Commercial Apple Industry

and equitable. In emphasizing the advantage of the non-
stock system, it should be stated that such organizations
enjoy special benefits under legislation fostering codpera-
tive effort among farmers. The activities of private stock
corporations may be curtailed by legislation designed to
prevent operations in restraint of trade.

Good business management is one of the prime prere-
quisites for the gatablishnnent of a successful codperative
organization. It is obvious that a sufficiently large ton-
nage of fruit must be handled to warrant the employment
of an experienced and competent manager. The board of
directors should exercise supervisory powers and should be
thoroughly in touch with the business operation of the or-
ganization. ‘Too often association managers have been se-
lected on account of their political activity rather than for
their training and expérience in marketing fruit. It is
highly important that this manager should have ability as
a salesman ; otherwise the advantages of codperative selling
may be lost.

Good business practices should be employed. A proper
accounting and auditing system should be installed and
those handling the funds should be bonded. It should be
possible for the directorate and management to know the
exact condition of the business at all times.

If a codperative organization is to enjoy stability, its
members must be bound under a specified contract to sell
their fruit through the association. One-year contracts
are usually satisfactory, although they may be made for
a longer term. On joining the association, each member
should be required to sign a contract whereby he agrees to
sell his fruit through the association. This contract must

Marketing and Storage 321

be legally binding. It is obvious that no well-organized
selling system can be developed unless the management

knows approximately the amount of tonnage which it will
be called on to handle.

Pooling.

The practice of pooling the fruit of different members
of an association and selling it under one brand has devel-
oped widely in the West. Uniformity in the quality of
the fruit in each pool is an absolute necessity to the sut-
cessful operation of such a system; otherwise the poor
fruit will bring down the price of the good and result in
dissatisfaction among members. In other words, the most
successful pools can only be brought about when the fruit
of the contributing members has been grown with similar
cultural methods and under similar climatic and soil
conditions.

The only criticism which may be brought against pool-
ing is that it may penalize the grower of exceptionally
fine fruit. This may be avoided, however, if careful grad-
ing rules are adopted and unbiased inspection is enforced.
‘Under a successfully operated pool, the grade of all fruit
may be raised rather than lowered, thus insuring the high-
est market price. Another distinct advantage under the
pooling system is in the protection which it affords an
individual grower against the sudden rise or fall in prices.
One shipment of fruit may be damaged in shipment, or
may be sold at a figure lower than later market prices.
This loss distributed over a large membership would not
be felt, but with an individual it might be disastrous. All
fruit cannot be placed on the market at the same time

322 The Commercial Apple Industry

and in effecting successful distribution the association may
employ the pooling system very satisfactorily in securing
an average high price for its fruit.

The central packing-house which is playing so import-
ant a part in the codperative handling and pooling of fruit
has been given separate treatment in Chapter XIV.

Purchase of supplies. .

A most direct benefit to be derived from codperative
organizations, and one which appeals very strongly to
growers, is the purchase of necessary supplies in large
quantities at low prices. This factor very often proves.
the tie that holds the membership together in the face of
adversity, since it offers a concrete example of the advant-
age of dealing in quantities. Spray materials, boxes or
barrels, and all supplies necessary in the production and
marketing of apples, can very often be purchased in quan-
tity by the association at a great saving to its members.
In many instances these materials are advanced to the
grower in the form of credit, his crop having previously
been signed up with the association as security for such
advances. A double saving may result from the ability
of the association to buy materials on a cash basis and
extend credit to its members, by using their combined
security as a basis for lower interest rates on borrowed
capital than the individual might be obliged to pay.

DISTRIBUTION

Better distribution is the keynote in all successful mar-
keting efforts. The methods by which the grower gets
his fruit into commercial channels have already been dis-
cussed. In studying the machinery of distribution, there

Marketing and Storage 323

are four fairly well defined factors: (1) The commission-
man; (2) the broker; (3) the carlot operator; (4) the
carlot. distributor.

Commission-man.

The commission-man is usually allowed 5 to 10 per
cent of the gross sales for his services. His incentive for
making satisfactory returns is his desire for retaining the
business of his patron. As emphasized elsewhere, the suc-
cess of this system of marketing depends entirely on the
personal element. It is obvious that the commission mer-
chant must know in advance of the quantity of goods he
will be called on to handle. Therefore, if this method is
employed, arrangements should be made as far in advance
as possible.

The broker.

The legitimate apple broker is one of the important
factors in the distribution of the commercial crop. His
function is to negotiate sales between dealers or between
growers and dealers. The commission-man handles the
consignment, keeps all accounts and deducts his commis-
sion. The broker does not handle the funds, but receives
a stipulated commission, say $10 to $15 a car for his
services. ,

Theoretically, the broker represents both the seller and
buyer. He is supposed to advise the seller as to general
marketing conditions, or in other words take the place of
a personal representative in the market. He is supposed
also to help in making equitable settlement in case of dis-
putes between contracting parties. The personal equation
enters very largely into this situation. The grower would

\
324 The Commercial Apple Industry

do well to inform himself as to the integrity of the firm
with which he proposes to deal, and by establishing rela-
tions with reliable firms be able to insure best results.

The usual method of procedure in dealing with the
broker is as follows: The seller having a carload of a
certain grade of a variety will advise his broker of the
fact and of the price which he desires. The broker will
undertake to place the car and if successful will communi-
cate with the seller, instructing him to forward the fruit.
This method of handling really amounts to an f. o. b. sale,
permission being given by the grower for inspection at
destination. In case of a misunderstanding over grades,
the broker is in a position to effect equitable settlemeni.
The grower bills his fruit to the broker or to the buyer,
attaching a sight draft to the bill of lading which is sent
to a bank designated by the buyer. After inspection on
arrival, the buyer lifts the draft through his banker,
thereby effecting a direct settlement with the seller.

Carlot operator.

The carlot operator plays an important part in the
distribution of the commercial apple crop. He is usually
represented in important regions of production by cash
buyers, who contract fruit on his account. The carlot
operator may sell again in carload lots, may place the
fruit in storage on his own account or may distribute it to
the jobber or retailer. .The amount of business handled by
carlot operators may vary from a very few cars to several
hundred or even thoysands, depending somewhat on the
field for distribution. The carlot operator fora city with
a more or less limited field may be able to distribute suc-
cessfully only a few cars. A large operator with head-

Marketing and Storage 325
4

quarters in New York City may distribute his purchases
all over the world. The carlot operator usually has a
certain trade built up in a given region and buys to supply
this trade. His business resembles that of a wholesale
groceryman who carefully gauges the demands of his cus-
tomers and buys to fill their needs.

Carlot distributors.

In recent years, various forms of distributing agencies
have been established for the purpose of accomplishing in
a measure for the whole country what a broker or commis-
sion merchant does for his immediate city or vicinity. By
handling a large volume of business, such agencies are en-
abled to build up a competent sales organization at a fairly
low overhead. Codperative marketing associations or in-
dividual growers frequently employ such selling agencies
usually on a flat fee, a package or occasionally on a per-
centage basis. For an additional charge the sales agency
sometimes does the necessary warehousing.

This type of sales service has many advantages. While
growers or growers’ organizations are usually obliged to
sign up their crop in advance of the season, they are given
the privilege of confirming or rejecting orders as secured
by the selling agency. Not infrequently carlot distribu-
tors help finance the crop by making advances to individual
growers during the growing season.

"FIELD OF DISTRIBUTION
Foreign markets.

The extension and development of foreign markets is a
popular subject for consideration. The extent to which
this trade may be developed is of course largely a matter

326 The Commercial Apple Industry

of conjecture. If the high quality apple approaches a
' luxury for many persons of this country, it indeed repre-
sents a luxury for most foreign consumers. When trans-
portation, duty, insurance, interior freight and duty are
added to the original cost, the American apple can appeal
only to the well-to-do. Despite this, exportations to for-
eign markets in some years have approximated 10 per
cent of the total commercial apple crop of this country.
While the amount of export trade varies considerably with
the size of the crop and with general marketing conditions,
a study of the figures indicates a very considerable normal
inerease in exportation of fresh apples in the past ten
years.

The United Kingdom has always been the principal
export market, absorbing normally over 80 per cent of all
export trade. Australia and even oriental markets have
been studied more recently with the view to effecting
wider distribution of the apple crop. These latter markets
are as yet of little importance in comparison with the
heavy European demand.

Business relations at long range are sometimes unsatis-
factory. But if this difficulty may be. overcome, export
fields are promising. If this country, with its abundance
of fresh food stuffs, can absorb over twenty million barrels
of commercial apples annually, it seems reasonable that
foreign trade, particularly with thickly populated Euro-
pean countries, will afford an excellent outlet for at least
10 per cent or more of the total production. Such an
outlet will always relieve the strain on local markets and
will act as a safety valve for the excess supplies which
might otherwise glut domestic trade.

- Barreled and boxed apples were in general about equally

Pirate XX.— Sizing and grading machines. Upper, Sizing ma-
chine with diverging spiral rollers. Middle, This machine sizes
the fruit through cups which enlarge as the belt moves along.
Lower, Grading machine equipped with sizing belts made of linked

rings. A common type used in many sections.

Marketing and Storage 327

represented in the export trade of the United States for
1919. Of the barreled apples, the Baldwin and Northern
Spy from New York and New England, York Imperial and
Ben Davis from the Shenandoah-Cumberland region and
Yellow Newtown or Albemarle Pippin from the Piedmont
of Virginia, have been the leading export varieties. Of
the western boxed apples, Yellow Newtown, Winesap,
Jonathan, Esopus and White Pearmain have been the most
prominent varieties for export.

Improved distribution within the United States.

The greatest opportunity in the field of distribution is
in ‘the extension and development of domestic trade.
Attention has been called to the fact that the home orchards
generally throughout the United States have been dying
out and that the commercial industry is being centralized
in a few favored regions. The line of distinction between
commercial and non-commercial production is being more
closely drawn. The consumers are demanding a higher
class product and on being furnished with this are increas-
ing their demand.

Not many years ago before the installation of general
cold storage facilities, the trade in small towns and even
the larger cities was supplied from the cellar of the gen-
eral farmer who grew a few more apples in his home
orchard than he had need for. These orchards in most
instances have been going backward; the trees are
unsprayed, the fruit is inferior in quality and unattractive.
Consumers are coming to demand a better product. It is
in supplying the demand in these smaller towns and
cities that the commercial apple-grower will find the great-
est opportunity for better distribution.

328 The Commercial Apple Industry

The secret of success in the distribution of the California
orange crop has been its sale in every cross-road village in
the country. The production and sale of oranges in recent
years has increased much more rapidly than has popula-
tion. By organized effort, wider distribution into the
smaller markets, the orange-growers have been marketing
a constantly increasing production. The same may be
accomplished by the apple-growers and shippers if they
will employ similar methods of advertisement and dis-
tribution. ;

Whether the growers market their apples codperatively,
through private brokers or by private sales service, there
must be campaigns of education and advertisement in
order to effect distribution. The futility of trying to work
out broad comprehensive plans for distribution when each
grower or shipper acts independently is evident. Such
plans lend themselves best to codperative effort. The bur-
den of expense incident to the working out of better plans
of distribution must be widely distributed in order that
it will not fall too heavily on any one individual.

The question of advertisement presents an interesting
field. Notable examples of the establishment of brands
of commercial grades are seen in the efforts of different
associations in the Pacific Northwest. By assessing each
box sold under a given brand with a small charge for
advertisement, large sums are secured to carry out adver-
tising campaigns. By limiting the varieties sold under a
given brand to those of high dessert quality, by including
only the highly desirable sizes and zealously enforcing
grading rules, shippers can develop a brand of superb
marketable quality. Whether such a system can be recom-
mended for general adoption remains to be seen. Such

Marketing and Storage 329

advertisement has gone far in effecting better distribution
for the northwestern boxed apples.

Physical handling.

The same attention should be given to better physical
handling of apples as to better cultural methods. A
grower can not afford to devote his best energies in pro-
ducing high quality apples only to subject them to the
abuse of improper physical handling. The importance of
eareful orchard practices with reference to picking and
packing and immediate storage have been emphasized.
In addition the apples must be transported in cars, must
be handled in and out of storage and in all of these opera-
tions much can be done to improve present methods. The
development of new types of refrigerator cars, improved
methods of car loading and ventilation are of vital import-
ance to the apple-growers and shippers.

GRADES AND STANDARDS

The movement for uniform grades and standards should
be considered by every apple-grower. Probably no other
phase of the marketing problem is receiving greater atten-
tion at this time than that of standard grade and pack.
Certainly no other movement can do more in stabilizing the
apple industry.

It is generally agreed that the standardization of grade
and pack is a governmental function. There is, however,
a variance of opinion as to methods of enforcement. State
and federal legislation has been formulated with the view
towards promulgating certain definite rules which shall
specify the character of fruit to be sold under established

330 The Commercial Apple Industry

standard grades. These rules are intended to act as a
standard of measure, whereby the buyer may judge the
character and the contents of the closed package of apples.
In other words, the label on the package of apples is to
be made to tell the truth. The difficulties of promulgating
a set of rules which will please every one or even a major-
ity is at the outset a difficult problem. Furthermore, once
promulgated it is exceedingly difficult to secure the enforce-
ment of such a set of rules.

Standard package.

Obviously the first step in standardization is the estab-
lishment of uniform packages. This has already been
effected to a great extent by the adoption of the dual stand-
ard, i.e. the standard barrel and the standard box. Per-
sons are accustomed to think of commercial apples in
terms of barrels and boxes. In a geographic way, line of
distinction between barrel apple-producing areas and box
apple-producing areas has been closely drawn. For Col-
orado and states west, the box is the almost exclusive ‘pack-
age, while for the eastern and middle western apple crop
the barrel is almost exclusively used.

From time to time different packages have been intro-
duced, but their popularity has been more or less tempor-
ary. Various crates have been recommended for western
low-grade apples and in certain seasons a considerable
portion of the New York crop has moved out in bushel
baskets. The five-eighths-bushel hamper is very popular
in the early apple regions of New Jersey and Delaware.
In many ways the smaller package enjoys a distinct advant-
age, and while the barrel will probably remain the stand-
ard package for eastern and middle western apples, it is

Marketing and Storage 331

not improbable that the growers will find it advisable to
market.a part of their crop in smaller packages in order
to attract the smaller purchaser.

The bulk handling of apples should receive separate
consideration. In normal years, at least half of the pro-
duction of the Ozark and the Missouri River region is sold
in bulk. Recently bulk handling has featured in the move-
ment of the apple crop from Colorado and New Mexico.

‘Middle western growers maintain that the bulk handling

of a certain grade of apples is an efficient system since
it enables them to sell a portion of their crop to a class
of trade which would otherwise be unable to buy commer-
cial apples. The middle western grower further main-
tains that after carefully bedding a car with straw, he is
able to load apples in bulk without severe bruising. It
must be remembered that this bulk movement from the
West is essentially competitive with the barreled crop. |

Many state laws have been enacted looking towards the
establishment of uniform grades and standards for com-
mercial apples. For the most part, these laws are inac-
tive on account of lack of funds for their enforcement.
Washington has devoted as much effort along these lines
as probably any other state, unless it is New York. The
Washington grading laws provide for an annual meeting of
apple-growers, at which time uniform grade specifications
are adopted for the ensuing year. In other words, no
hard and fast rules are laid down for a period of years and
the specifications are subject to change each year at the
majority will of the growers. Obviously, a law which
would be applicable for all states, and furthermore which
could be enforced, would have to be rather general. Such
a law, however, would tend to keep poorly graded fruit

4), 4

332 The. Commercial Apple Industry

out of commercial channels and would, therefore, work to
the benefit of the strictly commercial growers in the highly
intensive regions. It is not criminal to grow low-grade
fruit, but such fruit should not be misbranded or should
not sel] under false colors to the detriment of the producer
of high-grade apples.

The question of “facing” the barrel pack is one over
which much discussion has arisen. ‘“ Facing” refers to
the practice of placing select apples on the top layer in
order to give a good appearance to the pack. This does
not enter into the problem of box standards, since inspec-
tion may be made at the top, bottom, or side of the box.
While it may be legitimate to arrange the top layer so as
to give a neat appearance to the barrel pack, a real stand-
ard grading law would surely require the contents of the
barrel to be uniform. :

The project of establishing uniform grades and stand-
ards enlists much active support and at the same time is
the subject of much controversy. Generally speaking,
every concerted move towards a standardization of grade
and pack will work to the benefit of the strictly commer-
cial apple-grower and will serve to make a closer distine-
tion between the commercial and non-commercial crop.
For that reason every conscientious effort in working out
uniform grades and standards seems meritorious.

Inspection at point of origin.

Many prominent apple-growers are insistent on govern-
ment inspection at point of origin. A common reason
for low returns to the grower has been the poor condition
of the fruit at the time of its arrival at market. Further-
more, there are always changes in transport to be reckoned

XN
.

Marketing and Storage 333

with. Federal and state governments may be potent fac-
tors in controlling evils which exist under the present sys-
tem of fruit inspection.

Some apple-growers think inspection at point of origin
should entirely supplant that at the place of arrival. In
other words, it is maintained that all sales should be made
f. o. b. and that the purchaser should assume the risk
after the apples have been shipped. While inspection at
point of origin is unquestionably a highly desirable step
and will go far toward better understanding between
grower and dealer, it seems hardly probable that the buyer
will assume all risk incident to the transportation and
delivery of the fruit without a rather large margin com-
mensurate with the risk.

The report of an unbiased government inspector would
be of great value to any one interested in the purchase or
sale of apples. Such inspection at point of origin and
particularly at place of destination would establish the
damage, if any in transit, and would do much in effecting
satisfactory business dealings. If the shipper could be
reliably informed as to the exact condition in which his
fruit arrives at destination, it would materially aid in
studies affecting proper handling methods.

STORAGE

The storing of apples is intimately associated with prob-
lems of marketing and yet it is a subject of such complex-
ity as not to permit of complete treatment without thor-
ough scientific discussion involving the practice of storage-
house construction and methods of management. Only
brief consideration can be given to storage in this work,

however.

334 The Commercial Apple Industry

The effects of improved storage have been far reaching.
It is obvious that a practice which will prolong the market-
ing period of any seasonal commodity will have a great
influence in its distribution. The possibility of storing
fruit has also had an important influence on our leading
commercial apple varieties. Formerly only a few of the
very late keeping sorts were available for distribution dur-
ing the late winter and early spring months.

Under the present system of handling through ‘storage,
it is possible to prolong the life of more delicate and
higher quality varieties and in this way greatly stimulate
the demand for apples late in the season. The greater
part ot the commercial apple crop will always be placed
in storage for periods of varying length and a general
knowledge of the principles involved is of much import-
ance. The difference between common and cold storage
is generally understood. The former method depends on
natural atmospheric temperatures and the latter on arti-
ficial cooling.

Life processes of the apple do not cease at the time of
picking and it is important to retard these processes by
getting the fruit into storage with as little delay as possible.
A day or two of exposure to the warm sun may shorten ~
the life of the fruit very materially. Emphasis has
already been placed on the desirability of transferring the
fruit from the orchard to the pucking-howse ¢ as quickly
after picking as possible.

Local vs. distance storage.

Cold-storage plants were formerly situated near the
larger markets. In recent years, however, there has been
a growing tendency towards the establishment of cold-

Marketing and Storage 335

storage plants in the regions of production. Storage at
the point of origin has one distinct advantage. By keep-
ing the fruit here the shipper or grower is not committed
to any particular market, but may hold his fruit or ship
to such market as he may see fit. By holding a portion of
the crop in regions of production, the strain on transporta-
tion facilities at harvest time is very materially reduced.
Storage for at least half the crop, particularly in areas of
large production, seems to be recognized as a necessary
provision. If the grower or shipper has a well established
market, it is advisable for him to store his fruit in or
near that market rather than hold it at point of origin.
In this way his product is available for quick delivery
under favorable marketing conditions in quantities to meet
‘the demand and is not exposed to the dangers incident to
traffic.

As stated above, cold-storage plants are for the most
part situated in the eastern states. Large plants are
located through western New York and provide excellent
facilities for handling the barreled crop of this region.
Here it is possible for the grower to haul his fruit imme-
diately to the cold storage. At the same time he enjoys the
advantage of being in close touch with the eastern market-

ing conditions.

Common storage.

Common storage has as yet played only a small part in
the handling of the eastern apple crop. In the Pacific
Northwest, however, this form predominates and is an
important factor in the handling of the crop from that

region.
No attempt will be made to discuss in detail the relative

336 The Commercial Apple Industry

merits of different types of common storage construction.
The success in managing in the early fall depends on atten-
tion given to the opening of vents and doors during the
night and closing of them during the day. If the storage-
rooms are not kept separate from the packing-rooms, the
purpose of the cooling system is largely defeated.

Small storage plants on individual farms or in connec-
tion with community organizations are becoming more and
more common. By having separate rooms for packing or
using the basement only for storage, a combination pack-
ing- and storage-house may be constructed economically.
The grower may then feel greater sense of security in
knowing that he will have several weeks or even months in
which to dispose of his fruit. Common storage can never
supplant cold-storage and its efficiency will vary some-
what with the season. As an economical and somewhat
more temporary method of prolonging the marketing pe-
riod of commercial apples, it is serving an important need.

Handling and cultural methods as relating to storage.

There is a growing belief that general health and vigor
of the trees has a greater influence on the keeping qualities
of fruit than has been generally recognized. However,
the development of scalds and spots and the deterioration
in storage is most frequently traced back to over-maturity
or under-maturity or rough handling of the fruit. One
advantage in home storage is that the evidences of these
troubles may be brought home more forcibly to the grower.

GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN MARKETING,

_ While the greatest effort in improving marketing condi-
tions has been exerted by the growers and shippers them-

Marketing and Storage 337

selves, very important steps have been taken in this direc-
tion by various agencies in the United States Department
of Agriculture, notably the Bureau of Crop Estimates and
the Bureau of Markets. Certain phases of the market
ing problem, such as inspection, the issuance of crop fore-
casts and market reports, lend themselves best to govern-
mental agencies. It is impracticable for the individual or
even groups of individuals successfully to study all phases
of marketing work.

Crop estimates.

The need for reliable crop forecasts is imperative if the
grower is to determine the price which he might reasonably
expect for his fruit. The perishability of the apple as
compared with more stable crops accentuates this need. It
is obvious that the government is best fitted to carry on
such investigations and can, by the issuance of reliable
forecasts, render an important service to the commercial
apple-grower.

Market and storage reports.

The second very important service which properly can
be rendered by a governmental agency is the issuance of
reports showing the distribution of the crop. By compre-
hensive investigation it is possible for the government to
issue reports showing the point of origin and destination
of each carload of commercial apples. Shippers and
growers alike will be enabled to use this information in
seeking out untouched markets. Since the keynote in
better marketing is the extension of distribution to small
towns and cities, it may be seen that the result of such

338 The Commercial Apple Industry

investigation will be an invaluable guide to better distribu-
tion.

The value of unbiased market reports which will afford
the growers and shippers alike the benefit of telegraphic
news service as relating to the price and marketing condi-
tions of apples in the different centers is already recog-
nized.

COOPERATION VS. INDIVIDUAL EFFORT

The government has at all times encouraged and fos-
tered codperative spirit among growers. Despite this co-
operative effort, it must be recognized that by the issuance
and dissemination of reliable crop forecasts and reports,
and by its market news and inspection service, the govern-
ment is making the individual more independent and more
able to conduct his business than formerly. Just what
the effect of these divergent tendencies will be remains to
be seen. Jor the exceptional grower, the man with un-
usual business acumen, it may mean that he will be en-
abled to conduct his individual business independently to
his greatest satisfaction. On the whole, however, the bene-
fits of codperation are not to be denied and will doubtless
continue to play an increasingly important part in mar-
keting.

CHAPTER XVI
YIELDS

Goop yields are absolutely essential to insure profit
from any orchard enterprise. The most detailed care may
be given to an orchard, but if it is made up of poor yield-
ing varieties or if the soil or climate is not suitable for
production, good care is only time and money wasted.

In the first place, it is important to secure good yielding
varieties. ‘Most standard varieties of the present day
yield fairly’ well, but many new and untried yet widely
advertised sorts are very poor annual bearers. Ben Davis,
Baldwin, Winesap, Stayman, Jonathan, York, Rhode
Island Greening, and Rome Beauty are old and standard
varieties, the high yielding qualities of which are well
known. Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower are
heavy bearing in certain sections, particularly in the
Watsonville district of California. In Virginia the light
bearing Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and the
Arkansas (Black Twig) are not being planted as extens-
ively as the more prolific York Imperial and Stayman.
Among earlier varieties, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy,
Gravenstein and Maiden Blush are classed as reliable
bearers. Yellow Transparent does well in some sections,
but yields light crops in other regions. Northern Spy
requires a score of years to come into profitable bearing,
while the famous. Delicious, despite its many excellent

qualities, in some sections is only a moderate cropper.
339

* 340 The Commercial Apple Industry

When trees of good yielding varieties are brought to
bearing age, careful record should be kept of annual yields,
particularly acre yields. One hundred barrels of commer-
cial fruit to the acre is a good average although trees well
eared for can often be made to average 200 barrels under
normal growing conditions. If an orchard is only
averaging from 50 to 100 barrels to the acre (many do not
average 50 barrels to the acre), care should be taken to
find out the limiting factor. Light yields may be due to
a lack of nitrogen or other element in the soil, to lack
of pollination, or to poor orchard management. Improper
pruning, thinning, spraying or soil management are as
often the cause of low yields as the variety of the trees,
the season or natural fertility of the soil. Many theories
are advanced relative to the development of fruit-buds
and fruiting wood, but it is difficult to generalize on this
subject.

Good orchard management is for the purpose of secur-
ing heavy yields and no study as to the cause of high or
low yields would be complete without a consideration of
practically every orchard operation. In analyzing the
cause of low yields, one should consider first soil fertility.
The growing of leguminous cover-crops or the application
of such fertilizers as nitrate of soda may be necessary to
maintain healthy normal growth of the trees. Thinning
will tend to stimulate annual bearing as well as greatly to
increase the amount of market quality fruit of any year.

Pruning should be considered in relation to its effect
on yields. Many advocate summer pruning for fruit.
Under certain conditions it probably stimulates fruit pro-
duction, but it has not met with wide favor generally.
Moderate annual pruning in the dormant season is the

Yields 341

best practice. Thinning and fertilization are much
neglected and this accounts for many of the low yielding
orchards. Results are not secured by performing one
orchard operation thoroughly and neglecting another.
Proper pruning, spraying, thinning and an abundance of
available plant-food should insure large commercial crops
under normal conditions.

In studying yield, one should consider not only the per-
formances of individual trees or orchards in a given region,
but more particularly the average yield on well managed
orchards typical of the region. Soil fertility and good
orchard management do not entirely determine yields.
Unfavorable weather at blooming time occurs more fre-
quently in some regions than in others and very often
greatly reduces annual yields. There are certain areas,
particularly in the more mountainous parts of the country,
where on the average one crop out of every four or five
is wiped out or severely damaged by hail. It is easy to
understand how the profits of good crop years may be
almost wiped out by total failures in other years.

In the Wenatchee district of the Northwest, a total fruit
crop failure is unknown, while in regions like the Ozarks,
the Ohio Valley and the Missouri River region, Michigan
and in fact most eastern sections, very light crops and
even failures are not infrequent. Most of these failures
are due to frost damage, or to unfavorable weather at
blooming time which prevents pollination. / The frequency
of light crops and failures is exceedingly important.

For a period of ten years, the Northwest has had an
average of nearly 80 per cent of a full apple crop, while
for the same period Missouri, Illinois and the middle
western states have had scarcely 50 per cent of an apple

342 The Commercial Apple Industry

crop. Michigan, New York and New England have
shown an average crop condition of about 5 to 10 per
cent higher than the Central West, while the crop condi-
tion in the Virginias has averaged 10 per cent higher
than that of New York. New Jersey and Delaware usu-
ally end the season with a condition of about 60 per cent,
or 25 per cent less than the Northwest. Thus it is seen
that the chances for a good crop are the greatest in the Far
West and are next in the middle Atlantic states, third in
New York and the northern states, and poorest in the
Central West. The low average crop condition in the
Central West is largely due to the damp and unfavorable
weather which often occurs during blooming time to pre-
vent pollination and a good set of fruit.

The following table refers to western New York condi-
tions and shows the average yield on about fifty commer-
cial orchards in each county over a series of five to eight
years. Considerable care was taken in obtaining these
figures in order that they might accurately represent the
average performance of full bearing commercial orchards
in western New York. The table does not include yields
from unsprayed or neglected plantings, but represents the
production of those orchards which are being cared for.
It will be noted that Wayne County shows a larger per-
centage of cull fruit than any other. This is largely due
to the fact that Wayne County is the center of the dried
apple industry and much of its fruit which would ordi-
narily be barreled in other counties is used for drying
purposes. The portion of the crop used for by-products
varies considerably from year to year.

Yields 343

‘

TaBLE XIV

TaBLE SHowina Averace AnnuaL YIELD ON THE Bearine Com-
MERCIAL ORCHARDS OF WESTERN New York

Barreled Yield. Cull Yield (Barrels).

Counties. Per cent. of P f

Per Acre. total yield. Per Acre. total yield.
Bbl. % Bol. :
Wayne .......... 73 67 37 %
Ontario ......... 93 79 24 21
Monroe ......... 85 78 24 22
Orleans ......... 87 77 27 23
Niagara ......... 81 79 22 21
All counties ..... 84 76 27 24

The average yield of apples of commercial grade in
western New York is 84 barrels to the acre, while in the
Wenatchee Valley of Washington it is between 500 and
600 boxes of packed fruit (165 to 200. barrels). The
average yield for the Yakima Valley is between 400 and
500 boxes while that for the Hood River Valley is between
250 and 400 boxes to the acre. The average yield in Idaho
is between 300 and 400 boxes to the acre. In good crop
years, the southern Idaho orchards yield nearly as well
as those in the high producing valleys in Washington.
However, Idaho’s average is reduced on account of occa-
sional crop failures in years of frost-injury. Killing
frosts are not uncommon in New Mexico and Utah.

In comparing these yields with those of eastern orchards,
it should be remembered that the figures refer only to
marketable fruit and do not include eulls, the percentage
of which is much lower in the Northwest than in most
eastern regions where orchards are not given such intensive
care. The average yield of 84 barrels to the acre for
western New York is more than that throughout the East.

344 The Commercial Apple Industry

)
Taking one year with another most of the middle western
orchards will not average over 50 barrels to the acre.
Michigan orchards bear about as well as those in western
New York, while the Hudson Valley and New England
trees average somewhat less in annual production. Yields
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah region
compare favorably with those of western New York, while
yields in the Piedmont of Virginia will average lighter,
due to the greater prevalence of unfavorable weather con-
ditions at blooming time and also to the fact that most
of the orchards are mountainous and cultivation is seldom
practiced.

One point to be remembered in comparing northwestern
yields with those of eastern orchards is that practically all
yield records of the Northwest were taken on trees from
eight to fifteen years old, while in the East yield records
were from trees from twenty to forty years old. On the
other hand, there are about twice as many trees to the
acre in the Northwest as in western New York and in most
all other eastern regions with the exception of Delaware,
the Ohio Valley, the Piedmont district of Virginia and
Carolina and a few other limited regions where the trees
are either of early varieties or have not as yet attained
great size. Yields given for the Northwest, although for
comparatively young trees, are very nearly a maximum for ©
that region. As trees become older, some will necessarily
be pulled out on account of close planting. Furthermore,
under northwestern conditions trees attain full bearing at
about ten or twelve years.

The possibilities of any section may be determined by

. searching out the most successful growers and securing a

Yields 345

reliable record of yields in both good and bad years. Cer-
tain growers in western New York have harvested 200 to
300 barrels to the acre from their orchards for a series of
several years. Such high yielding orchards may be found
about Geneva, Brockport and other towns, but their num-
ber is very few. In the Wenatchee Valley a few growers
obtained as high an average as 1,000 boxes to the acre.
Such yields usually occurred on Rome Beauty or Ben
Davis orchards, however. The famous Watsonville dis-
trict of California is another section where annual yields
of 1,000 boxes to the acre are not uncommon on the heavy
redwood soils of the Pajaro Valley. Orchards which
yield fruit in this amount in certain years are found
throughout the Middle West, but it is very seldom that
average yields approach this figure even in the most care-
fully cared for orchards.

In studying the yielding possibilities of any orchard,
the following points should be considered:

The size of the tree.— Relative size and vigor of the
tree for a given age indicates the time required for trees
to attain maturity in any given region.

Soil conditions.— The nature of the soil should be
noticed, whether or not it is heavy or light, weak or strong,
and how well it is adapted to tree growth and fruit pro-
duction.

The frequency of frost-injury.— Regions are often) so
situated as to render them very susceptible to frost. Cer-
tain areas in nearly all sections are particularly suscept-
ible to frost damage.

Unfavorable conditions at blooming time.— Not only
frost but other unfavorable weather conditions often occur.

346 The Commercial Apple Industry

Cold wet weather which prevents pollination is largely re-
sponsible for low yield in certain sections. The history
of the region should be carefully noted in this regard.

Total crop failures. The number of crop failures in
the last ten years in any locality should be carefully noted,
for it is reasonable to assume that a like number will
occur in the next ten years. This consideration is highly
important and will also serve to avoid the danger of draw-
ing too favorable conclusions from exceptional perform-
ances of orchards in any particular year.

Relative freedom from diseases and insect pests.— The
probability of scab or bitter-rot infection should be noted
or the presence of any destructive disease or insect which
may greatly cut down the crop even after the fruit has set
well. Bitter-rot sometimes injures crops in the Virginia
Piedmont district. Severe infestations of codlin-moth late
in the season often cut the crop in the dry or irrigated
western districts. Cedar-rust frequently does heavy dam-
age to the York Imperial crop of the Shenandoah Valley.
Apple-blotch often greatly injures the apple crop of the
Middle West, while the prevalence of apple-scab renders
the market quality of the apple crop of New York and
Michigan uncertain. Every region has certain troubles,
but it is well to be on the lookout for them and to note
the success with which they are being controlled.

The likelihood of hail damage.— Such regions as the
Piedmont of Virginia and to a lesser degree the Shenan-
doah-Cumberland district of Virginia, West Virginia,
Maryland and Pennsylvania are often ‘visited by hail.
The same is true of the higher altitudes of Colorado and
other regions where fruit is grown at considerable alti-
tudes. Hail damage seems to be more prevalent through-

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Yields 347

out the apple regions'of the South than in the northern
states.

Bearing tendencies of varieties common to the region.—
Varieties differ so markedly in bearing tendencies that
one should consider this factor before passing judgment
on any particular region. Often high quality varieties,
even though bearing lighter crops, are fully as profitable
as the heavier bearing varieties which are inferior in
market quality.

Average annual yield.— It is very important to rely on
an average yield and disregard acre or tree performances
in any particular year. Only averages of several com-
mercial orchards over a series of at least five years will
indicate the relative productivity of different regions. It
is best to select the naturally productive sections for it is
no more difficult to rise above the average in a high-yield-
ing region than it is in a naturally low-yielding one.

The importance of large yields is further brought out
under cost of production. Not only is the gross income
increased with larger yields but the cost of production a
barrel or box is greatly lowered. The average grower will
find his net profits greater if he will practice more intensive
methods of culture not counting the initial cost so much
as the net results.

CHAPTER XVII
BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY

Tue by-product industry has been of great importance
for many years and has assumed added significance since
the advent of national prohibition. The apple leads all
other fruits in popularity for by-products, the amount used
in 1919 exceeding 700,000 tons of green fruit. A large
proportion of this was made into vinegar and sweet cider
and about 150,000 tons of green fruit were dried, making
25,000 tons of dried fruit. Frequently nearly one-half
of the dried fruit is exported as compared to less than
one-tenth of the fresh fruit.

The by-product industry, on a commercial scale, has
recently assumed large proportions in the Northwest and
the Virginias. In former years it reached and still re-
tains its greatest importance in western New York and
California. In northwest Arkansas also, the manufac-
ture of apple by-products is an important industry. Dried
apples within recent years have been in great demand.
The prices have risen several times those of a decade ago.
California to-day takes the lead in intensive apple drying.
About 10,000 tons were dried in the two counties of Santa
Cruz and Sonoma in 1919. This means that the green
apples used for this amounted to 60,000 or 70,000 tons or
nearly a million barrels.

In the East, Wayne County in western New York has
348 :

By-Products of the Apple Industry . 349

always been the center of the dried apple industry.
Many parts of the country are now taking up the dried
apple business and a large proportion of the total apple
production is being dried. In California, the Northwest,
New York, the Virginias and in Arkansas, the industry
is on a large commercial scale. The mountainous parts
of the southern states, particularly North Carolina, pro-
duce several hundred thousand pounds of dried apples
annually. In these states, they are sun-dried on the
small mountain farms, the apples being grown almost
wholly in old uncared for orchards. The Buckingham
apple has long been a favorite in Carolina for drying pur-
poses. Several varieties are used for drying in California
but the Yellow Bellflower leads all others. New York
dries the Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening.

Nearly all driers of the West are commercial, while in
the East the small home driers have long been adhered
to. Western New York has several large commercial
driers but the great bulk of the Wayne County dried apple
production comes from the home driers of which this
county contains hundreds.

The by-products industry promises to put apple-growing
on a more staple and less speculative basis. Formerly,
the grower depended almost wholly on the price a barrel or
box of commercial fruit. At present if this price does
not warrant putting the apples up in packages or contain-
ers, they may be disposed of at by-product plants at a
profit. Prohibition has been the important factor de-
termining the 1919 increase in by-product uses and prices.
At the present time, about 20 per cent of the apple crop
of the United States goes to the by-product ‘plant or is
made into cider. In California, almost 50 per cent of the

350 The Commercial Apple Industry

total crop is dried, while in Wayne County, New York,
about 80 per cent is dried. Wenatchee and some of the
northwest districts, on account of their ability to produce
exceptionally high-grade fruit, send less than 10 per cent,
to by-product factories. Arkansas, Colorado, many parts
of the Middle West, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
New York and New England, will, no doubt, increase the
percentage of fruit sold for by-products. ‘This will tend
to eliminate low-grade fruit from the market. The out-
look for the future is bright and the by-product industry
has not yet begun to attain full possibilities, It is only
within the last three or four years that it has been im-
portant or a factor in the apple industry of the Northwest.
It rose from a production of almost nothing five years ago
to 70,000 tons in 1919 in the state of Washington. Much
more detail might be entered into relative to this industry.

EVAPORATORS

In this connection, a full description of all the different
types of evaporators cannot be undertaken and but little
more than mention can be made of the different designs
in use or in course of construction. In general, evapora-
tors may be placed in three classes: natural draft evap-
orators; forced draft evaporators; and distillation types,
including vacuum evaporators.

Natural draft evaporators.

Most of the fruit evaporators in use in New York and
other eastern states, in Oregon, Washington, and even in
California for the evaporation of apples, are of the natural
draft type. The driers of this group require no fan or
motor for operation; any type of fuel may be used; they

By-Products of the Apple Industry 351

are simple in construction and operation and not expensive
to build or operate. They have survived the test of time
extremely well, although it would seem that for Californian
conditions at least, they may be replaced by the more
modern air blast types. Some of the natural draft evap-
orators are:

The kiln evaporator is commonly used in California and
the East. It is usually constructed in two stories. The
upper story houses the drying floor which is usually 20
feet by 20 feet and is made of narrow wooden strips with
14, or %% inch spaces left between them to permit passage
of hot air. Over the drying floor is a steep four-sided roof
which has at its apex a large ventilator for the escape of
the spent air. The prepared fruit is placed on the floor
and turned by a fork or scoop shovel during drying, a
practice which does not add to the appearance or cleanli-
ness of the product. The lower floor contains the heating
system. This consists of a wood, coal or oil-burning
furnace connected to a number of turns of large heating
pipes; usually the whole lower story is almost filled with
these pipes, giving a very large radiating surface with
consequent efficient utilization of heat. The heated air
rises from the pipes through the floor grating and thus over
the fruit.

The stack or tower evaporator is the most commonly
used at Watsonville, California, where it is successful.
The trays of fruit are placed on run-ways in cabinets or
“ stacks” above a fire-pit; the trays being stacked one
above the other. The heated air rises directly through the
trays, in this way differing from the tunnel drier. The
bottom of each stack or chamber is open, while the top
consists of an inverted hopper connecting to the ventilator.

352 The Commercial Apple Industry»

There are many better types of evaporators and’ its use is
not strongly recommended.

Cabinet evaporator is heated by steam coils but other-
wise is very similar to the stack evaporator in construction
and operation. It has been used recently in New York
and Canada for vegetable and apple drying.

Ceramic oven.—The ordinary bake-oven principle has
been successfully applied in California. This type of
drier should permit of fuel economy as it is constructed
throughout of brick and fire brick. There is practically
no fire risk and radiation losses should be small.

Electrically heated driers.—Small evaporators for home
use have been designed in which an electric current passing
through resistance wires furnishes the necessary heat.
The drier is of the stack type. Except where electricity
is extremely cheap, it is doubtful whether such machines
would prove profitable, although a machine of recent de-
sign appears to have great possibilities.

Forced draft evaporators.

Most of the new driers on the market belong to this class.
The number of different forms is very great and is con-
stantly being added to. Their one common characteristic
is the forced air circulation. Outside of this one feature,
they are of almost every conceivable design.

Horizontal tunnel.—tIn general, this type consists of a
long chamber or tunnel resting on the ground with an air
heating system and fan so arranged that the heated air
may be blown or drawn over the trays. Usually the trays
are carried on trucks which enter the cooler end of the
tunnel and which leave the tunnel from the hotter end.
Great variation exists in the methods of heating the air.

By-Products of the Apple Industry 353

The older types used steam pipes, a system which permits
exact regulation of the temperature and permits also of
“boosting ” the temperature of the air as it passes through
the tunnel. Those who have used both steam and direct
heat, however, prefer the latter because it is claimed to be
more economical of fuel. Some heating systems are very
similar to those used in the kiln, stack and tunnel types,
consisting of a sheet metal furnace attached to radiating
pipes, the air being heated by being drawn over the heated
metal surfaces. In another form of heater, the air is
forced through large pipes held in a fire-box much after
the fashion of boiler flues. The most interesting develop-
ment, however, is the use of the gases of combustion
directly in drying, thus doing away with all stack loss of
heat. Many machines, of different designs, have recently
come to the attention of the public. At present, stove dis-
tillate, a more expensive fuel than crude oil, must be used
in this style of heating device to avoid bad odors, soot, and
the like. Whether the saving in fuel, therefore, counter-
balances the difference in price of distillate and of crude
oil is an open question. If it does not more than equal
this difference, the saving in fuel cost is more apparent
than real.

Stack type of air blast drier—Some commercially built
evaporators consist of several stacks or tiers of trays placed
one above the other and hot air is forced upward through
and over the trays. Whether it is a more logical type than
the horizontal blast remains to be seen.

Continuous evaporators have been developed success-
fully for vegetable drying, soap chip drying, kelp drying,
and the like, but have not worked out well for fruits, be-
cause of the bruising of the fruit and its sticking to the

354 The Commercial Apple Industry

belts or conveyers. Essentially, the drier consists of sev-
eral superimposed metal cloth conveyers or canvas belts
in a long tunnel. The material to be dried enters the
tunnel on the upper belt, traverses the length of the tunnel,
drops to the second belt, and so on until it may travel back
and forth five to seven times at such a speed that it emerges
from the lower belt dry. If such a machine could be built
successfully for fruits, it would, doubtless greatly reduce
labor costs. It has possibilities and will bear further
study and development.

Distillation types of evaporators.

In these evaporators the water is distilled from the fruit
and the vapors are condensed.

Atmospheric pressure machines.—In this type the drier
is not placed under a vacuum but is, however, rather
tightly closed to the outside air. In one form the fruit
travels on belts over steam coils. The heat from the coils
drives the moisture from the fruit. The vapor passes
over water-cooled pipes and is condensed, giving an area of
reduced pressure toward which the vapors continually
flow. In another type the air and gases of combustion
from a furnace heat the fruit and carry the moisture to
condensers. This evaporator is really a combination of
the distillation and air blast forms.

Vacuum driers.—Insofar as quality of dried product is
concerned, the vacuum drier is in a class by itself. No
other drier compares with it in its ability to produce dried
fruits of fresh flavor, color and aroma. There are two
reasons for this, one being the practical absence of air in
the vacuum drier, a fact which accounts for lack of oxida-
tion, and a second reason for its superiority is the low

By-Products of the Apple Industry 355

temperature of drying. Temperatures of 100 to 120 de-
grees Fahrenheit may be used successfully and rapid evap-
oration obtained. In its commercial form, the drier usu-
ally consists of a strong boiler plate chamber with shelves
for trays and fitted with steam pipes. To this chamber is
connected a vacuum pump and vapor condenser. The
air is removed by the pump, the water is driven from the
fruit by the steam pipes and is condensed in the spray or
other form of condenser. A continuous vacuum drier has
recently been built and is a most remarkable machine.
Vacuum driers possess great possibilities, probably more
than any other evaporator in use, but have not been gen-
erally adopted because of their high cost. When such a
machine can be produced at a moderate price, it will revo-
lutionize present ideas of evaporation.. .

CANNING, JELLY MANUFACTURING

The canning apple industry has only recently attained
considerable importance. This phase of the by-product
business is growing very rapidly in the Shenandoah dis-
trict of Virginia and West Virginia and in Adams County,
Pennsylvania. Considerable apples are also canned in
New England, the Middle West and in New York. The
Northwest has also taken up the canning industry, but in
California, apple by-products are still limited largely to
dried fruit. In various parts of the country, advantage
has been taken of existing breweries or distilleries in con-
verting them into canning or cider plants. Most of the
work in the big canning plants is done by machinery, al-
though it is usually necessary to have the fruit gone over
last by hand help in order to detect bits of core or pieces of
skin left near the calyx or stem. The process of canning

356 The Commercial Apple Industry

XN
is much the same as in the case of other fruits and it is
impossible to enter into detail here.

Apple jelly is now being manufactured on a consider-
able commercial scale. It is often made by adding sugar
to cider, 100 pounds of cider with 20 pounds of sugar mak-
ing about 40 pounds of jelly. The refuse from cider and
vinegar mills or apple pomace is often employed for mak-
ing jelly, the pectin found in this apple pomace being the
ingredient used. All kinds of fancy and concentrated by-
products are made from apples and the scope and uses of
these various apple by-products promises to enlarge greatly.

CIDER AND VINEGAR

Cider and vinegar manufacture still absorb most of the
apples used for by-products. Enormous quantities are
annually made into cider both in the large commercial
cider mills and in the smaller mills in the non-commercial
regions. Large vinegar plants with storage capacity for
millions of gallons have been established in Virginia,
West Virginia, New York, New England, the Central
West and the Northwest. Considerable difficulty has been
encountered with the prohibition law in the manufacture
and sale of cider, but it seems fairly certain that rulings
will be obtained which will always permit the manufac-
ture of sweet cider. In some of the large cider and vine-
gar plants where double presses. are used, an average of
over 9 gallons of cider to 100 pounds of apples is obtained.

CHAPTER XVIII
COST OF PRODUCTION

THosE regions which are able to produce and market
apples at the lowest relative cost will survive the keenest
competition. Every grower instinctively endeavors to put
his fruit on the market as economically as possible, yet
only a very few keep accounts of sufficient accuracy to
arrive at even an approximation of their actual cost of
production. If the individual grower is unable to give
accurate cost production figures, it becomes apparent that
the relative cost of producing apples in different regions
can only be obtained by detailed and thorough study of
the items and operations.

It was the privilege of the authors to study the cost of
producing apples in eight of the leading apple states of
this country.‘ In the course of this study, extending
through several seasons, hundreds of detailed orchard sur-
vey records were taken, covering every item and operation
which would influence cost of production. It required
only a brief study to determine the lack of attention which
this important subject was receiving at the hands of the
average grower. Many growers would starve under their
present lax methods of management if they were wholly
dependent on apples, or were it a case of clean-cut com-
petition with the survival of the fittest.

The manufacturer can not long survive if he does not

give close attention to production costs. He must not only
357

358 The Commercial Apple Industry

know the total cost of production, but also the various
items of which it is comprised. Only by knowing these
can he be prepared intelligently to lower his cost items.
The same principle applies to the apple-grower.

An important point in such a study is to determine
which operations are profitable and which are not. A
grower should not attempt to lower his costs blindly. He
must be thoroughly acquainted with the various items of
expense in order that in attempting to lower cost he will
not cut corners in the wrong direction and thereby lower
production. To neglect fertilizing, thinning, spraying or
such important operations would, be a case of lowering
cost in the wrong direction. It would usually pay to
spend more on some of these operations in order to increase
production, and thereby lower cost of production a unit.
It is merely a case of spending wisely. Those who argue
against the necessity of knowing the various costs of pro-
duction do so through selfish motives or een ignor-
ance.

The survival of any fruit district depends on its ability
_ to produce fruit in competition with other sections. Cer-
tain regions by virtue of their extremely favorable location
with respect to soil, climate and economic conditions, are
firmly established and will always remain prominent in
the commercial apple industry. Other regions lacking
some of the necessary qualifications can never succeed.
In a third class are the marginal districts which lack some
of the more desirable qualifications, and yet which in cer-
tain years compare very favorably with the best regions.
For example, a locality subject to frost might in some
years produce a very profitable crop and yet over a period

Cost of Production 359

of years the crop failures would greatly reduce the average
returns,

In considering the marginal regions it is necessary to
recognize that in a period of low prices they will be the
first to suffer in the process of elimination.

Only systematic and careful analysis of the factors en-
tering into and influencing the cost of production will
indicate which region will survive and which will fail.
Growers have made profitable returns on orchard land at
$1,000 to $2,000 an acre in some regions, while others have
failed on $100 land in other places.

Cost production varies not only among regions, but
among individual growers of the same district. It has
been found that it costs some growers 50 per cent more a
barrel or box to harvest their crop than it does their more
alert neighbors. Some operations, such as spraying, thin-
ning and proper soil management, are exceedingly profit-
able within certain limits. Without reliable information,
the grower can not tell what operations are paying him
best on the investment. Often the most expensive opera-
tions are the most profitable.

Cost production figures reveal the regions which are
best adapted to the commercial production of apples, em-
phasize the value and relative importance of different cul-
tural methods, show the size of orchard which the grower
can operate most economically, indicate the most profitable
varieties, and in short reveal all of the best principles in
orchard selection and management.

The factors which enter into the cost of production are
divided into labor costs and costs other than labor.

The labor costs include both man and horse labor and are

360 The Commercial Apple Industry

further subdivided into maintenance, or growing labor
costs, and handling labor cost. The growing cost includes
all the labor required up until the time the apples are
ready to pick, while the handling cost includes the labor
of picking, packing, and the like, until the apples are put
in storage or on board car.

Costs other than labor take in material and fixed costs.
Material costs include manure, spray material, fertilizer,
cover-crop seed, barrels, boxes, and the like. The fixed
costs comprise all overhead charges, such as interest. on
investment, taxes, the orchard’s share of insurance, inter-
est, depreciation on equipment, and apple buildings.

Of these main groups of costs, the labor is most likely
to be the limiting factor in successful production. Fixed
costs are particularly important in the Northwest on’
account of high land values.

The various cost items comprising labor, material, and
fixed costs are enumerated in Table XV.

Taste XV.— Cost Items in APPLE PropuctTIoN

LaBor Costs Costs OTHER THAN Lazpor

Maintenance Handling Material Fizved
Manuring Picking Fertilizer Taxes
Pruning Hauling barrels Manure Insurance
Disposal of brush and shooks Spray material Equipment charge
Plowing Hauling to pack- | Box or barrel Apple house depre-
Cultivating ing-house Labels, paper, etc. ciation
Sowing mulch crop | Packing Interest
Handling mulch Sorting Water rent

crop Foreman
Propping Nailing or head-
Thinning ing
Spraying Other packing-
Miscellaneous house labor

Haul to station

It is not enough merely to learn the cost items, but one
should go further and study the influences which determine

Cost of Production 361

them. Such factors as availability and kind of labor,
location as to soil, climate, transportation, size of orchard,
size and type of farm, varieties and most of all yields,
directly influence costs. These are to be particularly con-
sidered before they become established in any given re-
gion, for once fixed the growers may find it impossible to
overcome them should they be unfavorable.

IMPORTANCE OF YIELDS :

Yield is the all-important item in determining the cost
production a unit. The subject of yields has been given
separate treatment elsewhere (see Chapter XVI) but is
of such great importance as to require particular empha-
sis. A yield of 200 barrels an acre means much more
profit a barrel than a yield of 100 barrels an acre. Thus
there is a large gain, not only in profit to the acre, but
in profit a barrel or box as well. This factor is over-
looked by most growers. Otherwise more effort would be
expended in increasing the yield of commercial fruit in
many orchards. It is vastly more profitable to have a
yield of 200 barrels to the acre on a ten-acre orchard than
100 barrels to an acre on a twenty-acre orchard. No
grower, and especially the beginner, should attempt to
handle more acreage than he can take sufficient care of to
insure a good yield.

The importance of a high yield is shown in the accom-
panying table which applies to Hood River, Oregon.

It is seen from Table XVI that the acre cost varies
directly with the yield while the box cost varies inversely.
For instance, in the case of orchards with a yield of 440
boxes to the acre, there is an acre cost of $412.98 or $.938
a box, while with orchards with a yield of 115 boxes, the

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Cost of Production 363

acre cost is only $223.58, but there is an exceedingly high
cost of $1.94 a box. In other words, the lowest yielding
orchards have an acre cost of $189.40, less than the highest
yielding ones, but a box cost of $1.006 more. A saving
of $1.00 a box is not only secured by the highest yield,
but the profits are swelled since this saving of $1.00 a box
applies to 440 boxes an acre instead of 115. By compar-
ing the yield in boxes in the first column with the total
cost a box in the last, the importance of yields is most
forcibly brought out.

Attention has been drawn to the fact that with yields
averaging 440 boxes an acre, apples are produced in Hood
River at a cost of $1.006 a box less than when the yields
were only 115 boxes an acre. The handling and material
costs for boxes, and the like, increased almost directly with
the yield, so there is little saving on a box in these items.
However, in the maintenance costs such as pruning, spray-
ing, thinning, and in the fixed costs such as interest on
investment, the greatest saving a box is effected for fixed
costs an acre, remain practically the same for all yields.

In figuring cost of production, so much must be allowed
for interest on investment. If an orchardist has an in-
vestment of $1,000 an acre, interest on that amount at 7
per cent would be $70.00 an acre a year. This cost dis-
tributed over 440 boxes would be about 16 cents a box;
distributed over 115 boxes an acre this cost would amount
to about 61 cents a box. As seen from the above, the fixed
costs are the group in which the greatest saving is effected
by increased yields. Fixed costs such as interest on in-
vestment are too often ignored or overlookéd by growers
who do not realize that these items very often determine
the success or failure of an orchard enterprise. The fixed

364 The Commercial Apple Industry

or overhead cost an acre once established can only be met
successfully by increased yields.

Returning to maintenance, it is found that these costs
are generally somewhat higher an acre in the high yield-
ing than in the low yielding orchards due to more thorough
work, although it is obvious that a dormant spray on a
low yielding orchard is about as expensive as that on a
productive planting. The maintenance costs on the high-
est yielding orchards in Hood River were only $18.00 more
an acre than on the lowest ones, and yet the saving a box in
the case of the former on account of increased yields rep-
resented 300 per cent when figured on the box basis.
The foregoing principles, although demonstrated by ex-
amples from Hood River, Oregon, are applicable to all
regions of the United States, whether producing boxed or
barreled apples. They demonstrate how and why yields
are the all important factor in successfully lowering cost of
production.

!
INFLUENCE OF SIZE OF ORCHARD

The size of the orchard is another important factor in
determining cost. Given the same acre yield, the larger
the acreage the less the cost of production a unit. Inves-
tigations have shown, however, that beyond a certain
acreage the yield decreases more rapidly than does the
acre cost of production, thereby making the cost a box
or barrel higher than in the small orchards. In other
words, the decrease in the maintenance, fixed and material
cost an acre is often more than offset by the decrease in
yield.

In Table XVII, which refers to Hood River, a slight in-
crease is seen in cost a box as the size of the orchard in-

Cost of Production 365

TaBLe XVII.— Errect or Size or ORcHARD ON Cost a Box

Acreage Yield. ae
An Acre. A Box.
5 and under Shatidviaea versa tea 8 decd scan aeet orate 406 $458 $1.13
5 to 10 bb SS 331 381 115
10: to) 20 INC) 3.2 check caiman eae ves eeaue 306 369 1,21
20) Nd! \OV ER, ods oe Say bans eee ees a 284 340 1.20

creases, which is due to the yield decreasing as the size of
the orchard increases. It is obvious, however, that with
the same yield to the acre in the larger orchards, the cost
a box would be very much less.

In this connection it should be stated that in certain sec-
tions the economic unit of orchards which can safely be
managed is much larger, but in every district there is an
economic unit beyond which nine growers out of ten do
not make as great a success as the small grower. From
investigations in western New York, the economic unit
would seem to be from fifteen to twenty acres when the
orchard is connected with diversified farming. There are
many successful and very progressive growers operating
large acreages, but these are specialists as a rule. Theo-
retically, the larger the orchard the larger the profit, but
this does not always work out in practice. Many growers
have failed in the apple business because they have figured
that a large acreage fairly well cared for would produce
more apples and yield more profit than a smaller acreage
more intensively looked after and yielding larger annual
crops. The most profitable sized orchard, from the stand-
point of cost of production, will vary widely in different
regions. It is probably the smallest in the irrigated sec-
tions of the Northwest and the largest in such regions as

366 The Commercial Apple Industry

Virginia. The size should be determined very largely by
a study of the most successful orchards in any particular
community. When tractors are used, the orchards should
be larger.

Attention must be given to the prevailing system of or-
chard operation, to the average annual yields of the region,
and to the availability of labor. It‘ is obvious under irri-
gated conditions when trees make rapid growth, when the
yields are heavy and when such operations as irrigation,
thinning and the like are intensively practiced, that
smaller acreages are: advisable. Probably twenty to
twenty-five acres is the best size under such conditions.

Western New York growers have found that a bearing
orchard of twelve to twenty-five acres fits in well with their
system of diversified farming. Virginia apple-growers,
less given to diversification, find thirty to forty acres an
economic unit, and many succeed with much larger units.
It is only the exceptional grower with large working capital
and keen business ability who can handle successfully a

_very large acreage.

EFFECT OF SIZE AND TYPE OF FARM

The size of the orchard in relation to its effect on cost
of production has been discussed, but very often the or-
chard is only one part of a more or less general farm.
The size and type of the general farm may reduce profits
from the apple orchard by taking away labor at critical
seasons, or may increase profits by supplying labor at a low
cost. A general farm may insure diversification and a
continuous employment and profitable distribution of
labor throughout the season. This is largely a problem in
farm management. —

Cost of Production 367

An interesting chart has been prepared showing the
average distribution of man and horse labor on an acre of
bearing orchard throughout the season under intensive

treatment (Fig. 10). @

[MONTHS HORSE HOURS MAN HOURS

g0: 20 io 20 30 40 50 60 10 60 90 100 NO
tT v . T T T

JAN.
FEB.
MAR.
APR.
MAY
JUN.
JUL.
AUG
SEP.
ocT.
NOV.
DEC.

Fie. 10.— Showing seasonal distribution of man and horse labor
on the average bearing orchard in irrigated regions. :

In specialized apple-growing, there are always long
periods of enforced idleness for both man and horse labor,
but particularly the latter. If plenty of day help is avail-
able at reasonable rates, this labor distribution is not so
necessary, but when help is hired by the month, i: is of
vital importance. If one were certain of high fruit prices
at all times, the small, intensified, specialized farm would
be justifiable and even advisable, for in such cases a high
quality of fruit is usually produced. However, there has
to be a provision for the periods of low prices and this can
best be met by diversification. That most fruit-farms in

368 The Commercial Apple Industry

the Northwest are small and: intensive has been due to the
system of land development. Cost of production in this
region is only kept within bounds by high average annual
yields. The farms of the East are more diversified and
with the same yield as in the Northwest orchards the cost
of production is very much less, due not only to a less fixed
cost an acre, but to a lower maintenance cost and a more
seasonable distribution of labor. It should be added, how-
ever, that very rarely do the yields in eastern orchards
equal those to the acre from the intensified irrigated or-
chards of the West.

The size, type and diversification of the farm will de-
pend largely on the initial cost of the land, the adaptability
of other profitable crops, and acreage which has proved to
be the best economic unit in any particular community.
Conditions vary so widely in different districts that no
specific recommendations can be made. However, the ex-
perience of a-community may always be depended on.
In every established community there are certain growers
or farmers whose success and methods stand out above
those of their neighbors.. It is well to study the secret of
their success in farm management. Care should be taken
not to be misled by the very unusual or exceptional farm
which employs radically different methods. A particular
farm may be successful, either through the extraordinary
ability of its owner or through peculiar local conditions of
labor and transportation, or on account ‘of a special mar-
ket. This success may not always be duplicated.

Under eastern conditions, it is usually better to depend
on a fair-sized farm, and endeavor to bring it above the
average, than to count on a very small acreage cultivated
intensively or on a very large acreage which requires

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Cost of Production 369

skilled farm managerial ability when its size exceeds that
of the economic unit. The prospective buyer or settler
should always take into consideration the community prac-
tice and the existing economic conditions before investing
large sums and plunging into a method of farm manage-
ment and organization wholly foreign to that region.
Such undertakings sometimes succeed, but in most cases
they have failed on account of the growers’ inability to
gauge conditions from a practical instead of a theoretical
standpoint. Diversification is generally recommended in
lowering cost of production, but it should not be prac-
ticed to the neglect of the orchard. Under neglect the or-
chard usually ceases to be commercial and is separated
from the realm of commercial fruit-growing.

EFFECT OF CLIMATE AND SOIL ON COST OF PRODUCTION

The cost of production is affected by climate and soil
insofar as these factors determine the yield and quality of
fruit and govern cultural methods. In humid climates
the cost of spraying is usually greater, on account of
fungous troubles. In arid climates, however, there is the
added cost of irrigation. Some soils are easily cultivated
and adapted to tree growth. Others are poor in plant-
food and difficult of cultivation. Soil has such a very
direct bearing on yield that it is well to study the yield on
different soils. Only average yields should be considered.
For example, when the average yield an acre of fifty com-
mercial orchards in one district is fifty barrels below that
of a similar number of commercial orchards in another
district, it is usually safe to assume that this difference is
due to soil. Often this may be overcome by scientific and
intelligent treatment, although no other test is quite so

370 The Commercial Apple Industry

indicative of the adaptibility of apples to any certain re-
gion as the average yield. It is not more difficult to rise
above the average in a naturally high yielding community
than in a low yielding one, and the grower ordinarily
would better strive to improve a good soil than to build
up a poor one. The question of soil influences cost of pro-
duction so greatly as to warrant the most eareful consider-
ation.

Climate determines in a broad way where apples may
be grown. Apples are confined to the temperate zone.
In the United States, the irrigated valleys of the North-
west, the northern states, and the higher portion of the
southern states are best adapted, and yet throughout these
regions frost does enormous damage to the apple crop every
year. There are certain favored sections which frost sel-
dom damages, such as the Wenatchee Valley of Washing-
ton and certain limited sections in the East. Freedom
from frost damage means greater annual yields and con-
sequently more profit and less cost of production.

INFLUENCE OF VARIETIES

Varieties influence cost of production, inasmuch as some
are more easily grown than others, and there is a wide dif-
ference in yield in orchards of the same age and under
like conditions of management. Such varieties as Esopus,
Arkansas Black, Winter Banana and Newtown are more
costly to grow and produce than Ben Davis, Winesap,
Baldwin, Greening and York. Ben Davis, although one
of the lowest priced apples in the market, is one of the
heaviest yielders and is no doubt generally produced at a
lower cost than any other commercial apple. The follow-
ing table shows the relative cost of production a unit of bar-

Cost of Production 371
rel or box of various commercial varieties. It is based on
cost production studies conducted in the leading apple
states;

TaBLe XVIII.— Cost or Propuction a Untr or Barre or Box

High Cost. Medium Cost.’ Low Oost.
1. Tompkins King 1. Hubbardston 1. Ben Davis
2. McIntosh 2. Fameuse 2. York Imperial
3. Yellow Newtown 3. Winesap 3. Rome Beauty
4. Arkansas 4, Stayman 4. Tolman Sweet
5. Winter Banana 5. Black Twig 5. Limbertwig
6. Esopus (Spitzen- 6. Baldwin - 6. Yates

burg) 7. R. I. Greening 7. Yellow Bellflower
7. Northern Spy 8. Gravenstein 8. Duchess
8. Grimes 9. Jonathan 9. Wealthy
9. White Pearmain 10. Delicious 10. Fallawater
10. Gillifiower 11. Maiden Blush 11. Smith’s Cider
11. Lady Apple 12. Missouri Pippin 12. Willow Twig
12. Bonum

Most of the varieties included under high cost of pro-
duction are of high quality. Most of them are produced
only in limited quantities, due either to the inherent deli-
cacy of the trees or their light yielding tendencies. All
command a high price in the market.

All those given under medium cost are widely grown
and are generally good yielders. The column under low
cost includes many highly important commercial varieties,
but most of these are of low dessert quality. It seems
to be a rule that, in general, the low dessert quality apples
are the highest producers and consequently the lowest in
cost of production, while the high quality apples are high-
est in cost of production and lowest in yield. It will be
noted that there are exceptions to this in all the columns
and in the case of some varieties that are not recorded.
Many of the high cost varieties are late bearers.

372 The Commercial Apple Industry

ACCESSIBILITY TO MARKET

Distance and accessibility to shipping point are factors
which have an important bearing on the cost of produc-
tion. For example, in many sections of Virginia and Car-
olina, apples are produced fairly cheap on the trees, but a
long haul, often of ten to twenty miles over rough roads,
adds very materially to the cost of delivery, f. 0. b. ship-
ping point. Not infrequently a charge of forty or more
cents a barrel must be made to cover the cost of hauling
apples to the railroad station. Usually such orchards are.
situated on low-priced land and have a low overhead
charge or fixed cost. For comparison, in Hood River,
Oregon, the fixed cost is practically $.31 a box, or $.93 a
barrel, while in the mountains of Virginia and Carolina
the fixed cost is often not more than one-tenth of this
amount.

While cost of production usually includes only the cost
f. o. b. at loading station, to this figure should also be added
the cost of delivering the fruit to the consuming markets
in order properly to compare one region with another.

COST OF MATERIALS

The cost of materials is one of the direct factors to be
considered in cost production. The material cost, how-
ever, does not vary greatly in different regions and there-
fore is scarcely a limiting factor. It is important to rec-
ognize, however, that the price of spray material, fertili-
zer, barrels and boxes may be lowered materially by
codperation and judicious purchasing. Examples in low-
ering the costs by these methods may be found in the apple
districts of the Northwest.

}

Cost of Production 373

LABOR AND COST PRODUCTION

Farm and orchard labor varies greatly in the different
sections of the country with respect to its efficiency, intelli-
gence, and the rate of wage paid. While daily wage rates
may be high, they may be more economical in the end, due
to greater efficiency. The following table shows the
amount of apples which the average laborer picks in a full
working day in several of the leading fruit regions. This
refers to day labor unless otherwise stated. In the fall of
1919, however, picking by the box system came into use
in the Northwest and many under this system averaged
150 boxes a day. Picking by the box, however, is not
always satisfactory as it promotes carelessness and conse-
quent damage to the quality of the fruit.

TasBLe XIX.— Amount or APPLES PICKED IN ONE Day

Yakima, Washington .................... 60 loose boxes, 20 barrels.
Wenatchee, Washington ................. 75 ee Bee 8
Hood River, Oregon ...............000000- 60 “ « 20 *
Watsonville, California ................-- 54“ ns | Ge
Western Colorado .............0-- ee ee eee 57 “« 19 *
Western New York (day labor)..................eeeeee 20 «
Western New York (contract labor by barrel).......... 25“
Piedmont District of Virginia .....................005 10 “
Southern Ohio .oiiacsons caus vines ees eae es eweee ee ee Wr

The orchards in the Piedmont district of Virginia are
usually on hillsides and for that reason picking is more
difficult. Furthermore, the question of yields is involved.
However, it may be seen from the above that it is not im-
possible for cheap labor to be the most expensive. There
is as much complaint over labor costs in the South as in
any other part of the country. In regions of general
farming, labor is usually cheaper than in specialized sec-
tions since it can be employed profitably for a longer

374 The Commercial Apple Industry

season. General farming permits the employment of
month labor at a lower wage than must be paid for day
labor. On the other hand, labor in general farming com-

munities is not likely to be as skilled as where apple-grow- |)”

ing is the most important industry. The efficiency of
labor is an important factor in the cost of production.

ORCHARD MAINTENANCE

Labor is the most important item in orchard mainte
nance, which involves such operations as pruning, culti-
vating, thinning and spraying. It will be seen from the
following table that maintenance labor costs vary widely
in different regions according to the intensity of the cul-
tural practices.

‘

TaBLE XX \

MAINTENANCE Lapor Cost mn SEVEN Important APPLE REGIONS

Hours per Acre. z| Packed

Region. | wes ee on

Man. | Horse. | labor. acre, bushel.

Western New York......... 17 63 |$49.70| 252 bu.] $.197
Yakima Valley.............. 214 91 | 134.30] 432 bx.) .311
Wenatchee Valley........... 230 96 | 143.80} 593 “ 242
Hood River................. 142 82 88.51] 320 “ 277
Southern Idaho............. 177 72 |110.10| 337 “ 327
Western Colorado........... 161 76 |103.80-) 284 “ 364
California (Watsonville Dist.) 89 54 | 60.70| 226 “ .269

1 Man labor rates in these regions varied from 40 to 50 cents an
hour while horse labor was figured at about 30 cents an hour.

The above table is a summary of the maintenance labor
costs on approximately 700 commercial apple orchards in
various parts of the United States. Detailed orchard

ipa

Cost of Production 375

records and yields covering a period of five years are the
basis for these figures which reveal some very surprising
facts. Particular attention is called to the variation in
amount of man and horse hours expended in maintaining
orchards in different regions. The amount of labor does
not change materially and is, therefore, a better guide than
labor costs which do vary with labor rates. Maintenance
labor is that expended in the following operations: Man-
uring, pruning, disposal of brush, plowing, cultivating,
sowing mulch crop, handling mulch crop, propping, thin-
ning, spraying, irrigation and miscellaneous.

Western New York growers expend annually only 77
man hours and 63 horse hours an acre in these operations.
Apple-growers in Wenatchee do not use many more horse
hours to the acre, but expend three times the amount of
man labor an acre than is given for western New York
orchards. That such intensive methods are profitable is
shown by the increased yields and high marketable quality
of fruit produced. After spending $94 an acre more in
maintenance, the Wenatchee grower, by increased yields,
is able to keep his maintenance costs at a figure only 414
cents a bushel greater than the New York grower.

It is interesting to note that the amount of horse labor
to the acre does not vary greatly in the different regions,
while the man labor varies 300 per cent, being greater
in the Northwest where such intensive practices as thin-
ning and irrigation require man labor, but little or no

horse labor.

Cost of pruning and brush disposal.
The following table will serve to show pruning practices -
and costs in several important regions:

376, The Commercial Apple Industry

Taste XXT

PRUNING AND BrusH Disposan — Revative Time AND Costs In
DIFFERENT REGIONS

Man Horse Cost oon Trees

Region. brs. per | hrs. per of per

acre acre labor bused day
Western New York........... 31 6 | $14.20 06 14
Yakima ...... eee eae 64 11 | 35.30] (08) | 14
Wenatchee ...............00- 52 14 | 30.20] .05 19
Hood River.................- 30 7 | 15.60] .05 30
Southern Idaho.............. 58 9 31.70; .09 13
Colorado ...............005- 62 1l 34.30 12 14
California (Watsonville Dist.) 31 7 | 17.60] .08 23

In all apple regions, pruning usually represents at
least one-fourth of all labor expended up until the time
of picking. Although the northwestern growers spend
more labor to the acre in pruning, it must be remembered
that there are nearly twice as many trees to the acre as in
such regions as western New York. Cost production
studies reveal that the importance of pruning is generally
recognized. The amount of pruning necessary varies
widely with the variety. In the Hood River Valley, the
Yellow Newtown and Esopus Spitzenburg which predom-
inate in this region do not require nearly as much pruning
labor as the more vigorous or rampant growing varieties.

Pruning cost a bushel of marketable fruit produced
averages from 5 to 8 cents, of which about 2 cents is rep-
resented by the cost of handling brush.

Sotl management.

Different systems of soil management make the cost of
this operation exceedingly variable. One would imagine
with the general intensive cultural methods of the North-
west that soil management would represent a considerable
cost item in this region. As a matter of fact, the value

Cost of Production 377

of the shade crop usually grown in the orchard more than
pays for the cost of soil management plus irrigation in
the Northwest. Under the old systems of clean cultiva-
tion, the northwest grower expended from $15 to $20 an
acre in soil management. By growing alfalfa as a shade
crop and taking off one or two cuttings, he makes about
enough to pay soil management costs. Some of the best
authorities maintain that in taking off two or more cut-
tings of alfalfa, the grower is depleting soil fertility. It
is to be questioned whether it is advisable to remove more
than one cutting.

For eastern and middle western orchards, with the ex-
ception of those in sod mulch, soil management involves
about the same amount of labor to the acre as does pruning,
since about 25 per cent of all the labor spent in growing
apples up until harvest is in cultivation or other labor on
the soil. Western New York growers expend about 13
man hours and 28 horse hours to the acre in soil manage-
ment.

The greatest saving in sod mulch orchards in the East
is in the absence of any expense for soil treatment. How-
ever, this saving is usually more than lost in decreased
yields.

It is of interest to note the number of acres one man
and team will cover a day with the ordinary cultivation
tools.

TaBLE XXII.— Acres a Day ror OnE Man anp Two Horses

Irrigated Eastern

Regions. Regions.
POW a saxtelu aie a naial nba be edo eis eR 1.5 2
Dis: cdcccedudcsaae eens eee CAS eee Bae 5.5 7
Spring-tooth .......-0+-+seeeeeeee reese 6.5 10
Spike-tooth .....-..-+0eseeeeeeeeee eens 10. 12

378 The Commercial Apple Industry

The northwestern grower covers a less number of acres
a day with each cultivating tool than does the eastern
grower. This is partly explained by the fact that there
are practically twice as many trees to the acre in the irri-
gated sections, thus necessitating more care than in the
East. ‘Fhe orchards in the irrigated sections are often
inter-planted with shade crops as alfalfa, and in such cases
operations like plowing and discing necessarily require
considerable time and labor.

Thinning.

The practice of diuing varies so greatly that a study
of the extent and cost of this operation in several different
regions will be of particular interest.

Taste XXIII.— Tuwnine Practices anp Costs

Yield Man Cost Cost
Region. \ ‘per hrs. per| per per

acre, acre, acre. bushel.
Western New York............. 252 bus. 4 $1.60 $.0063
Yakima. s:ccse2 aneses vies vases 432 bxs. 49 | 24.50 .0567
Wenatchee ............22-0000- 593 “ 53 | 26.50 .0447
Hood River................---- 320 “ 25 11.25 0352
Southern Idaho..............-.. 337 “ 47, | 23.50 0697
Western Colorado.............-. 284 “ 18 9.00 0317
California (Watsonville Dist.).. 226 “ 14, 7.00 .0310

A sharp contrast is brought out when the average amount
of thinning in such regions as western New York is com-
pared with the heavy thinning in the Northwest in such
districts as Wenatchee Valley. The average New York
grower expends only 4 hours an acre in thinning his apple
crop. The average Wenatchee grower devotes 53 hours
labor to the acre in thinning, but when the cost of this

Cost of Production 379

| labor is distributed over the average yield, it amounts to
less than 5 cents a box. When one considers the higher
annual yields and the greatly improved quality directly
due to thinning, it may readily be seen that to omit thin-
ning 1s to cut costs in the wrong direction.

From the standpoint of economy, the writers are con-
vinced that not only will thinning improve quality, but
that it will actually lower cost of production by increasing
annual yields.

Spraying.
The cost of spraying is discussed in Chapter X.

HARVESTING COSTS

Harvesting costs include all the labor and material costs
incident to picking, packing and delivering fruit to the
station. These represent from 40 to 50 per cent of the
cost of producing apples. It might be stated here that
fixed costs, such as interest on investment, represent about
20 to 25 per cent, while maintenance costs for such opera-
tions as thinning and spraying, represent from 25 to 30
per cent of the total cost of production.

In Table XXIV is shown the amount of labor neces-
sary for harvesting crops in several different regions and
also the cost a bushel for labor and material incident to
harvesting. It is seen that all harvesting costs make up
from 45 to 50 per cent of the total cost of production.

It is interesting to note that labor cost for harvesting
boxed apples is but little greater than for barreled apples,
while five years ago it was nearly 100 per cent greater.
Labor rates have increased more proportionately in the
barrel apple regions than in the box sections. It now costs
most barrel sections nearly 25 cents a barrel for picking.

380 The Commercial Apple Industry

TaBLE XXIV.— Torat Harvestinc Cost
(Cost refers to marketable fruit only.)

Other harvesting and packing labor, aside from the pick-
ing, averages about 1.8 barrels to a man an hour. This is
the case in New York, the Middle West, and commercial
sections of Virginia. The western grower figures that he
is repaid for any extra cost in handling and packing his
crop by increased returns for his fruit. The secret of his
success on the market has been due to this intensive effort.

Table XXV shows fixed costs, including charges for
interest on investment, for several important apple regions.

The fixed costs, as before stated, comprise those annual

TaBLE XXV.— Tortau Fixep Costs

Yield _ Interest charge | Total Fixed Cost|% Total

Region. per Cost of

Acre. per acre. |per bu.| per acre. {per bu. roe

Western New York. | 252 bus.| $26. $0.10} $34. $0.13 15

Yakima) oie. ssa. 432 86. 20) 114, 26 22
Wenatchee ........ 593 “ 154. .26| 187. 82 27
Hood River........ 320 “ 79. 25 99. 31 26
Southern Idaho....|337 “ 49, 15 63. 19 16
Western Colorado... | 284 “ 52, 18}; 72. 25 20
California —

(WatsonvilleDist.) | 226 “ 41. 18 49. 22 21

Cost of Production 381

charges, the acre cost being little affected by the size of the
crop. Fixed costs include taxes, depreciation, insurance,
and interest on investment. Of these, interest on invest-
ment is by far the most important. This item alone
reaches $154 annually in the Wenatchee Valley, a cost
which is a good price for land in many sections. Western
New York had an interest cost an acre of only one-sixth
this amount. The high yields of the Wenatchee Valley,
however, tend to overcome this high interest charge. Fig-
ured on the bushel basis, the interest charge at Wenatchee
was 26 cents a bushel as compared with 10 cents a bushel
in New York state. This fixed cost has not increased in
most apple sections since 1914, while labor rates have ad-
vanced about 100 per cent and cost of material rose sharply
in 1920.

Hood River, Oregon, has an annual acre interest charge
of $75 less than that for the Wenatchee Valley. Return-
ing to the interest cost a box, it is seen that Hood River is
charged with 25 cents a box as compared with only 26
cents for Wenatchee. This serves to show very emphati-
cally that high costs a box or barrel are to be considered
irrespective of fixed costs an acre, for yields directly de-
termine fixed cost a box or barrel.

On the other hand, it is important to remember that any
saving in fixed cost is direct. This may be effected in the
judicious purchase of land. It is always poor economy
to grow apples on poor land, but at the same time orchards
are over-capitalized in many regions and the grower of
limited means will sometimes find his fixed cost so high
in a series of poor years that he will not be able to sur-
vive the hard times. It should be repeated that once these
fixed costs to an acre are established, they can not be low-

382 The Commercial Apple Industry

ered and can only be met successfully by increasing and
maintaining yields. .

Much more detail might be entered into in a discussion
of the cost of production in the various regions. It is con-
stantly changing with the price of labor and materials. It
is important to cut out all unnecessary expense in connec-
tion with the orchard and pay strict attention to yield of
high quality fruit. However, expenses to the acre should
not be spared if it decreases expense a box or barrel. Al-
most universally, the grower who spends most on his or-
chard when invested in a systematic way, such as proper
pruning, fertilizing, thinning and spraying, produces
apples at a less cost a box or barrel than the grower who
tries to save dimes by lack of sufficient attention to the
orchard and loses dollars by lack of a good yield.

When selecting an orchard or site, it is extremely im-
portant that probable cost of production be studied and
taken into account. The limiting factor which determines
the success or failure of a region may be climate, soil,
transportation, topography, labor, cost of materials or one
of many other things. Above all, it is most important
to remember that large annual yields of high quality fruit
will overcome most unfavorable factors. In fact, high
yields are in themselves proof that most factors are either
favorable or, if unfavorable, may be overcome. Yields.
should be based on an average of at least five years. Mis-
leading statements as regarding yields are often wilfully
made in various commercial publications for advertising
purposes. Acreage averages should be used and not tree
averages. One is likely to draw erroneous conclusions
from the performance of individual trees.

If cost production figures are based on the average an-

Cost of Production 383

nual yields for bearing commercial orchards in a com-
munity, the results will indicate the relative success of the
average grower. By intelligent handling, the progressive
grower usually finds no difficulty in rising above the com-
munity average. If the average man is making a good
profit, the exceptional grower should made a still better
one.

Table XXVI is a summary of all costs and is based on
1919 conditions. The cost a box varies from $1.05 in
California to $1.25 in Colorado. The northwest irri-
gated regions vary in cost of production from $1.15 to
$1.20 a box. Average western New York costs amount
to $2.62 a barrel f. 0. b. All these costs are based on yields
of marketable fruit. Cull apples are not credited. How-
ever, as these orchards represent those producing fruit
for the commercial box or barrel market, the percentage
of cull fruit is small. In fact, the average annual credit
from the cull fruit has been found in most instances prac-
tically to balance the annual orchard depreciation. These
two more or less variable and uncertain factors, may, in
general then, be said about to balance.

Orchard heating is another cost which sometimes occurs
in certain regions but this cannot be given consideration
as it is now seldom practiced in applé orchards. and is
very generally discredited. The high cost has been found
to make it prohibitive and unprofitable in most cases and
particularly in western Colorado where at one time it was

widely practiced.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Cost of production in any region depends primarily
on the yield of marketable fruit. It varies inversely with

384

The Commercial Apple Industry

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Cost of Production 385

yields; the higher the yield, the lower the cost of produc-
tion a unit.

2. Maintenance practices such as spraying, pruning
and cultivating, greatly influence yield. As a general
tule, increase in maintenance costs to the acre means a
decrease in cost a box or barrel. It is poor economy to
neglect orchard practices which are necessary to high yields
of good quality fruit.

3. The average commercial grower in the United
States could effect a considerable saving in his cost of pro-
duction if he spent more time in thinning his fruit. At
the present time only growers in the Pacific Northwest
thin extensively. Even there this operation could be prac-
ticed more systematically with profit.

4. Growers with mature orchards or those reaching ma-
turity can in many cases greatly increase annual yields
and thereby lower cost of production, if they will give more
attention to soil management and fertilization. No phase
of fruit-growing is of more importance than the mainte-
nance of soil fertility.

5. The relative acre value of apple orchards should be
determined largely by average annual yields. Low yields
with excessive fixed costs limit successful production in
many widely advertized regions.

6. The cost of production is exceedingly variable de-
pending so largely on yield, labor rates and overhead costs,
all of which are so variable that no definite figure which
will hold can be given. However, it has been found that
under 1919 conditions box apples could not be put in the
car for less than $1.20 a box, while barreled apples ordi-
narily averaged about $2.50 a barrel, f. 0. b., in cost of pro-
duction. The cost of boxes was figured at 22 cents, of

386 The Commercial Apple Industry

barrels 60 cents. Labor was figured at 40 to 50 cents

the hour and materials were charged at the 1919 rate.
Changes should be made accordingly. Increased price of
packages brought the 1920 cost of production of boxed ap-
ples to about $1.30 and of barreled apples to about $3.50.

CHAPTER XIX
VARIETIES OF APPLES

THE proper selection of varieties should be given careful
consideration by the commercial apple-grower since this
may determine the success or failure of his enterprise.
Hundreds of varieties of apples are grown in the United
States and many hundreds of others are described in
pomological lists. It is interesting to note, however, how
relatively few varieties make up the commercial apple
production of the United States. Twelve varieties repre-
sent nearly 80 per cent of the commercial apple crop of
the United States. Such a limited list would probably
include Ben Davis, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
Winesap, Jonathan, Northern Spy, Yellow Newtown,
York Imperial, Delicious, Stayman, Grimes and Wealthy.
These varieties are not of recent origin, but are almost
without exception old and well established sorts known to
the commercial grower for generations.

Baldwin has been known since the middle of the eigh-
teenth century, while Ben Davis was propagated over one
hundred years ago. Jonathan was first exhibited in 1829,
while Northern Spy has been famous for its high dessert
and market qualities for over one hundred years. Rhode
Island Greening was highly recommended as long ago as
1800 and the same is true of Tompkins King. Yellow

Newtown has been prized for its good qualities for almost
387

388 The Commercial Apple Industry

two centuries, while the good qualities of the Winesap
apple were known as long ago as 1817. Oldenburg
(Duchess), the planting of which has become very exten-
sive in recent years, is a very old European variety which
was introduced in this country as long ago as 1835.

Yellow Bellflower, one of the leading varieties of Cal-
ifornia and well known throughout the country, has been
noted for its dessert quality for one hundred years. Stay-
man, which is ordinarily classed as new, bore fruit as early
as 1875. Grimes was a commercial sort.in 1800. Esopus
Spitzenburg was grown in the Hudson Valley over a cen-
tury ago. The Delicious is about the only variety of
recent origin which has grown to great popularity and
forced itself on practically all the commercial markets.

This brief discussion serves to emphasize how hard it is «
for any variety to become well known in commercial chan-
nels without many years of thorough trial and an acquaint-
anceship with the public. It further serves to emphasize
how really few kinds survive. It is said that approxi-
mately 7,000 varieties of apples have been described in
pomological publications since 1804. Of these, very few
are of commercial importance to-day. This does not pre-
clude the possibility of developing new and better. kinds,
but the commercial grower has found it profitable to limit
the number of his varieties and allow others to experiment
with new or doubtful ones.

In every region, from four to six well-known varieties
have proved most profitable, and it is the safest plan to
select three or four from this list and plant new varieties
only in limited quantities. In the early history of com-
mercial apple-growing, it was necessary to experiment with

untried varieties since no one knew exactly what ones
(

Varieties of Apples 389

were best adapted to the different regions. Most of this
pioneer work has been done, however, and it is no longer
necessary to take chances with strange varieties.

In a discussion of varieties, the question of relative
flavor of the same sort grown in different regions arises.
An interesting investigation has been conducted by the
Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agri-
culture, which reveals that there is essentially no difference
in chemical constituency between normal specimens of
apples of the same variety grown in different regions.
The percentage of water content and solid matter is prac-
tically the same. This investigation, of course, did not
pertain to the physiological or cell-structure of the apples,
and it may be true that some difference exists in this
respect. °

A western apple forced by unwise irrigation, or picked
green, will not compare with the choicest specimens of
eastern apples. One region may grow one or two varieties
to great perfection in quality and flavor, while another
will grow superior apples of some other kind. New York
has its Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening; Virginia its
York Imperial, Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and
Winesap; the central states their Ben Davis, Jonathan
and Wealthy; the West its Delicious, Jonathan, Winesap,
and so on.

Seed selection and hybridization have been responsible
for the improvement of many cultivated plants and for the
discovery of many new varieties, but not so for the culti-
vated fruits. Practically all varieties of fruit are the
result of chance discovery of seedlings. The apple does
not come true to seed, but is propogated by grafting a cion
or bud from a known variety on a seedling root. Plant-

390 The Commercial Apple Industry

breeding i is a much divonssed subject and the layman may
conceive that new varieties of apples are being developed
by this method. As a matter of fact, the experiments thus
far conducted in crossing different varieties of apples have
been very inconclusive and unsatisfactory.

New varieties are being constantly discovered and very
often widely advertised. Some are worthy and some are
not. The most noted new variety is the Golden Delicious
which is being planted very extensively and in the next
decade will appear in most of the commercial markets.
Wherever tried, it has proved productive and highly profit-
able. The grower may experiment but should not plant
new varieties extensively before they have been firmly
established, or have proved profitable. High quality var-
ieties are very often the most profitable, but occasionally
they prove undesirable on account of their tendency toward
shy bearing. The Ben Davis apple, on account of its
high annual yield, has proved more profitable over a period
of years than some of the better quality varieties. The
public, however, is becoming more fastidious in its selec-
tion, and in the competition between high and low quality
apples some of the latter are being crowded out.

Seldom do two varieties ripen at exactly the same time,
and with a maximum of four or five leading kinds there is
usually a sufficiently long harvest period to permit of the
most economical harvesting practice. Buyers and even
codperative organizations insist on a limited number of
varieties, and prefer them in carlots. The grower with a
miscellaneous list of varieties is the last to sell his crop,
: whereas the one with two or three kinds of uniform size
and color has a decided advantage in the market. The
farmer planting a home orchard selects a few trees of each

is grown as a

Alfalfa

the Northwest.
tings are taken off.

d two or three cut

shade crop an

Piate XXIII.—Seven-year old Spitzenburg orchard

Varieties of Apples 391

of several varieties, in order that he may have a continuous
home supply during the late summer, fall and winter
months. The average commercial grower does well to
select three or at most four varieties. This choice should
not be difficult. Certain regions are adapted to well-
known varieties. The consuming public is familiar with
the name and quality of these and has come to demand
them. Were one to plant an orchard in western New
York, the varieties should be largely Baldwin and Green-
ing, with possibly some Twenty Ounce, Duchess or
Wealthy. Delicious, King David and others may prove
‘profitable, but Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening have
stood the test of trial. Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
Ben Davis, Northern Spy and McIntosh are successfully
grown in the Hudson Valley, although proximity to New
York City might warrant planting one or two varieties of
summer apples, such as Oldenburg, Gravenstein or Will-
iams. In the Champlain district of northern New York
and Vermont, the Fameuse, McIntosh and Northern Spy
are suited to these northern latitudes. Across in New
England the Baldwin, Northern Spy and Rhode Island
Greening predominate, with McIntosh, Fameuse, Wealthy
and others following in importance.

In Virginia, the commercial crop virtually consists of
six varieties, Albemarle Pippin (Yellow Newtown), Ben
Davis, York Imperial, Winésap, Stayman and Delicious.
In the Ohio Valley, Rome Beauty and Ben Davis lead;
in Michigan, the leading varieties are Northern Spy and
Baldwin. In the Ozark region Ben Davis, Gano and
Jonathan predominate. Western states have a somewhat
larger list of leading kinds. Each district has a host of
other varieties, but geographic distribution of the really

392 The Commercial Apple Industry

important sorts is comparatively simple and it should not
be hard to determine for any one locality the varieties
which really have proved successful. It is by no means
intended that prospective growers should select only from
the few kinds named below, but rather than risk untried
varieties it might be wise to select from such old ones
and those best adapted to the particular locality.

The following are some of the standard varieties grown
successfully, and recommended for planting in the various
regions:

Western New York —

Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis or Gano,
Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Twenty Ounce.

Hudson Valley —

McIntosh, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Wealthy, Old-
enburg, Northern Spy.

Vermont and Champlain District —

McIntosh, Northern Spy, Fameuse, Wealthy, Gravenstein.

New England —

Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, MeIntosh, Wealthy,
Gravenstein, Williams Early Red.

New Jersey —

Stayman, Oldenburg, Winesap, Williams Early Red,
Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Starr.

Delaware —

Stayman, Gano, Yellow Transparent, Williams Early Red,)
Wealthy.

Piedmont of Virginia —

Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin), Winesap, Stayman,
Grimes (top worked).

Southern Pennslvania — :
Stayman, York Imperial, Grimes, Oldenburg (Duchess),
Yellow Transparent.

Shenandoah Valley of Virginia —

Stayman, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Grimes,

Varieties of Apples 393

Winesap (in southern end of valley), Yellow Transparent,
Oldenburg (Duchess).

Mountain Region of North Carolina —

Stayman, Winesap, Ben Davis or Gano, Delicious, Arkansas
(Black Twig), Bonum.

Mountain Region of Georgia —

Yates, Terry’s Winter, Stayman, Arkansas, Yellow Trans-
parent, Delicious.,

Southern Ohio —

Rome Beauty, Ben Davis, Grimes, Stayman, Oldenburg
(Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy.

Northern Ohio —

Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, McIntosh,
Oldenburg (Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy.

Tlinois — ce
Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess), Red June, Yellow Trans-
parent for extreme southern part of state. Jonathan,
Stayman, Delicious, Gano and Grimes (double worked) for
south central and western Illinois.

Ozarks — ;
Jonathan, Stayman, Winesap, Gano, Black Ben, Grimes
(double worked), Yellow Transparent.

Missouri River Region —

Ben Davis, Gano or Black Ben, Jonathan, Winesap,
Wealthy.

Michigan —
Northern Spy, Ben Davis, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening,
McIntosh, Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess).

Western Colorado —
Jonathan, Winesap, Gano.

Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys —

Jonathan, Winesap, Delicious (Red and Golden), Stayman,
Rome Beauty, Yellow Newtown, Grimes, Winter Banana.
Hood River Valley, Oregon —
; Yellow Newtown, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Ortley.
Pajaro Valley, California —
Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower.

The varieties which will be discussed individually in

394 The Commercial Apple Industry

this chapter may assist in outlining in more detail the
geographic distribution of the commercial sorts. It is
interesting to note how many of these most desirable vari-
eties are not new discoveries, but are over a hundred
years old.

SUMMER VARIETIES

The question of summer varieties requires separate
treatment. In their selection, the proximity to markets
is an important factor. The great perishability of early
apples limits their production to such regions as have access
to ready markets.

It is sometimes suggested that the commercial grower
may well have a number of varieties ripening at different |
times in order to supply the demands of local or nearby
markets throughout a long season. In some instances
this may be advisable, particularly in the case of small
growers in the vicinity of large cities, who do most of their
own work and where the orchardist or a member of his
family markets the fruit locally. The extra expense of
harvesting apples in small quantities is a strong argument
against too wide diversification.

The growing of summer varieties has proved very profit-
able to many growers who are so situated that their fruit
reaches the market in advance of that from other regions
and to growers who cater to local and special markets. A
light soil which warms up early is essential.

It is difficult to draw a sharp line between summer, fall
and winter varieties. A variety may be known as a fall
sort in one section and as a winter in another. It is prob-
ably safer to make an arbitrary distinction based on har-
vesting dates rather than on varieties. Summer kinds in-

Varieties of Apples 395

elude those normally consumed before September 15th; fall
varieties, those normally disposed of by November 15th;
and winter sorts those consumed after November 15th.
Were there only the two classes, summer and winter, it
might be well to include among summer varieties those
which are consumed normally before October 15th.

Winter varieties are usually considered as those com-
monly held in storage. The dates of ripening of the same
variety in different regions sometimes works to the advant-
age of the earlier sections. One instance of the kind is
found in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico, where Jon-
athans mature earlier than in the other western apple
districts. For this reason, New Mexico Jonathans have
a distinct advantage in.the Texas markets. Variation in
ripening dates is further exemplified in such northern
states as Wisconsin and Minnesota, where varieties con-
sidered in some sections as strictly summer apples do not
ripen until fall, The Oldenburg (Duchess) is an exam-
ple of this kind. The Baldwin apple, generally known,
and particularly in New York and New England, as a
strictly winter variety, is considered a fall apple in some
parts of Maryland and Virginia.

LATE VARIETIES

The following varieties, divided into early and late, are
arranged in their order of importance in total commercial
production. They are discussed from a commercial stand-
point, with reference to their adaptation and distribution
throughout the different apple regions of the United

States. No consideration was given to home orchard pro-
- Gzotion in establishing order of importance.

396 The Commercial Apple Industry

Baldwin (Plate XXTI).

Approximately 50 per cent of the commercial apple
production in New York and New England consists of
Baldwins. This variety is said to have originated as a
chance seedling in Massachusetts in about 1740. While
its culture is largely confined to these states, to Michigan
and the northern parts of Ohio and Pennsylvania, it is
the leading commercial apple in the United States. The
question of selecting Baldwin for commercial planting
outside of this region should be considered very carefully,
but within these confines it is almost invariably a wise
choice.

In more southern latitudes, the fruit ripens early and
tends to drop prematurely, while in northern New York
and upper New England the wood sometimes winter-kills.
The tree is strong, large and vigorous, the many old Bald-
win orchards in western New York testifying to its long-
evity. While somewhat late in coming to full bearing, and
once matured inclined to biennial bearing, in total pro-
duction the Baldwin tree is one of the heavy bearers, and
in commercial importance it stands preéminent. The
ideal Baldwin soil is a fine sandy loam underlaid by plas-
tic light clay or heavy silt loam. The fruit is of good
quality, stands shipment and keeps comparatively well,
although it sometimes develops Baldwin spot both before
and after picking. The Baldwin crop is shipped almost
exclusively in barrels and much of it is used for culinary
purposes. The selling price, while not the highest, is
usually firm. The variety figures prominently in the ex-
port trade.

Varieties of Apples 397

Ben Davis.

The Ben Davis comes next to the Baldwin in commercial
importance on account of its wide distribution.. It is
thought to have originated in the southern states about
1800 and has been a leading commercial variety for many
years, particularly in Missouri and Arkansas where, with
the Gano, it represents from 60 to 80 per cent of the
commercial production. The Ben Davis apple has played
an important part in nearly every commercial apple-grow-
ing region in this country, and thrives in nearly all but the
most northern states. The tree is strong and vigorous,
with upright form, and seldom breaks under heavy loads.
It comes into bearing early and yields large annual crops.
Unquestionably Ben Davis production is rapidly on the
decline. Very few trees of this variety are being planted
anywhere in the country. Its susceptibility to the Illinois
blister-canker has béen the cause of htavy loss in trees all
through the Ozarks, Missouri River region and Illinois.
This susceptibility seems the one weakness in the tree.

The fruit ranks lowest in dessert quality of all leading
varieties, yet for cooking, shipping, and keeping qualities,
it stands among the best. Ben Davis is important in the
Northwest where it is boxed. In the Ozarks and Middle
West it is shipped both in bulk and in barrels, and in
eastern states, principally Virginia, it is largely barreled.

It is adapted to a very wide range of soils, perhaps more
so than any other standard variety. Despite low prices,
Ben Davis has unquestionably been a profitable apple on
account of its large annual yields. From a strictly mone-
tary standpoint, and over a long period of years, commer-
cial growers rank Ben Davis among their best paying

sorts.

398 The Commercial Apple Industry

Winesap.

This old and well known apple is one of the most import-
ant commercial varieties. It is growing in popularity and
its production has been greatly increased in recent years.
It is particularly adapted to the Piedmont section of Vir-
ginia and to the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in Wash-
ington, where it is the leading variety. In the Missouri
River region, at the intersection of Nebraska, Missouri,
Towa and Kansas, and also in southern Illinois, the Wine-
sap production is increasing.

Excellent qualities of both tree and fruit make the Wine-
sap a good commercial variety for the regions named. It
is not grown commercially in New York or New England.
The tree is vigorous, not particularly susceptible to any
disease or insect pests, and does best on light f¥ch soils. It
comes into beaPmg éarly and is an annual cropper. The
fruit tends to grow™small in some sections and the tree
does not thrive on heavy clay or low wet soil. Winesap.
apples are a stable product. They hang on the trees well,
are excellent keepers, and sell well from storage. Arkan-
sas, Arkansas’ Black, and Stayman Winesdp are seedlings
of the old Winesap.

Rhode Island Greening.

Rhode Island Greening, originating in Rhode Island
about two centuries ago, is second in importance to Baldwin
in New York state and its distribution throughout the
northeastern part of. the United States coincides largely
with that of the latter variety. The Greening fits in well
with the Baldwin in a farm management scheme, since it
ripens somewhat earlier and very often produces a crop
during the light year for Baldwins.

Varieties of Apples 399

The tree is large, vigorous and productive, but given to
biennial bearing. It prefers a fertile surface soil of grav-
elly or sandy loam, underlaid by a well drained clay loam.
The apple-scab fungus is one of its worst enemies. Com-
mercial plantings are almost exclusively in New York,
New England, Ohio, Michigan, and the more northern
parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. | The apples are
rather large and grade out well. The storage limit is
usually February or March.

Jonathan.

Jonathan is a seedling of the Esopus Spitzenburg, and
originated at Woodstock in Ulster County, New York. It
was first described in 1826 and named after Jonathan
Hasbrouck, who first called attention to the variety. The
stronghold of the Jonathan as a commercial apple is in the
middle western and western states. There are few com-
mercial. plantings of this variety east of the Mississippi.
Jonathan is the leading sort in both Colorado and Idaho,
and is important in Washington, Utah and New Mexico,
being grown under irrigation in large commercial quanti-
ties in all five states. The high quality and brilliant red
coloring adapts it particularly to the boxed apple industry.
Irrigation overcomes its tendency towards small size. The
Jonathan has rather extensive distribution through the
Middle West, particularly in the loess soil region, along
the Missouri River at the intersection of Iowa, Missouri,
Nebraska and Kansas. Here it is a barreled apple.

In quality the fruit ranks high. The tree, although
inclined to a somewhat drooping willowy habit of growth,
is vigorous and yields well as it is adapted to rich soil.
Under irrigation it is sometimes subject to fire-blight,

400 The Commercial Apple Industry

although not to such an extent as the Esopus Spitzenburg.
The fruit brings high prices but is inclined to develop the
Jonathan spot in storage. It is usually consumed before
February and is the first of the leading varieties to be
moved from the western irrigated regions. Normal har-
vest period is September 10th to 20th.

York Imperial.

York Imperial originated shortly after 1800 near York,
Pennsylvania. It was propagated before 1830 by Jon-
athan Jessop under the name of Johnson’s Fine Winter
which it still retains in many remote parts of the South.
The commercial production of York Imperial is largely
confined to the valley of the Shenandoah, in Virginia, and
to the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania, centering in
Frederick County, Virginia; Berkeley County, West Vir-
ginia; Washington County, Maryland; Franklin and~
Adams counties, Pennsylvania. Outside of these and
adjoining counties, the distribution of York Imperial is
scattering and relatively unimportant, being chiefly in the
Middle West. In the district defined, however, this var-
iety is preéminent and contributes large quantities of
commercial apples. :

Although tending to bear biennially, it yields heavy
crops and is the most reliable variety in the Shenandoah-
Cumberland region where it has long been one of the

leading export apples. It has a preference for heavy ae

clay and limestone soils. The fruit is oblique, or .lop-

sided, and is inclined to scald in storage. The fruit is |

also very susceptible to cedar-rust. The normal season
ends in February. oe

Variefies of Apples 401

Lomotost

The Rome Beauty, a native of the Ohio River Valley,
was first planted on the farm of Alanson Gillette at Proc-
torville, Ohio, in 1817, and was known as Gillett’s Seed-
ling until 1832. It has sprung to great prominence in
southern Ohio and in the irrigated districts of the Pacific
Northwest. The tree is vigorous, bears early, is suscept-
ible to few diseases and insect pests, seldom breaks with
a heavy load, and yields heavily in the Northwest.

The Rome Beauty, although not of the highest quality,
ranks as a good commercial variety in its proper regions.
It is especially desired for baking. The fruit stands up
exceptionally well in storage, keeping as late as May. It
is occasionally criticized for lack of color at maturity, but
seldom lacks good size. Extensive plantings are not found
outside of the Pacific Northwest and the Ohio Valley, but
in these regions it has proved very profitable.

Northern Spy.

The Northern Spy originated at East Bloomfield, New
York, in a seedling orchard planted by Herman Chapin
about 1800 and was recognized by the American Pomolog-
ical Society in 1852. It has a rather wide distribution
throughout the northeastern part of the United States, but
is declining in importance as a commercial variety. Mich-
igan has as large a percentage of Northern Spys as any
state, unless it should be Vermont, although production in
the former state is many times that of the latter. The
“Spy” is generally grown throughout New York, and
is a farm orchard variety in many districts. It is adapted

to the northermost counties of the latter state and is widely

402 The Commercial Apple Industry

grown in Canada. New York leads in commercial pro-
duction of “ Spys” in this country, followed by Michigan.

The tree is considered hardy and vigorous, although
somewhat susceptible to the apple-scab. Its root system is
very often used as a stock for other less vigorous varieties.
One of its principal disadvantages is the lateness at which
it comes into bearing. When properly matured, the North-
ern Spy is a high quality apple and a good keeper, but as a
commercial variety it should be grown on heavy soils, as it
is deficient in quality when grown in sandy soils. It is
not adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, pre-
ferring cooler regions. It matures too early south of Penn-
sylvania to be profitable commercially.

Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin). (Plate XXII).

This variety is one of the oldest in America and one with
very interesting historical association. The origin is
credited to Long Island, in the early part of the eighteenth
century. Although first grown in New York, New Jersey
and Pennsylvania, its wider cultivation occurred in the
Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly in Albemarle
County, to which locality it is especially adapted and where
it afterwards became known as the Albemarle Pippin.
The Newtown is reported to have been exported to Eng-
land as early as 1759 and since that time has commanded
the highest prices on the English market. It is generally
known 38 an export apple for which it-is particularly
adapted on account of its late keeping qualities.

The principal commercial Yégions for the Newtown are:
the Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly Albemarle
and Nelson counties; the Hood River and Rogue River
valleys in Oregon; the Pajaro or Watsonville section in

Varieties of Apples 403

California; and the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, in the
state of Washington. The Pajaro Valley, in Santa Cruz
and Monterey counties, California, leads in total produc-
tion of Yellow Newtown apples, having produced 1,700,-
000 packed boxes in 1919. These were practically all
grown within a radius of ten miles of the town of Watson;
ville. Oregon is second. Both states, and possibly Wash-
ington, take precedence over Virginia from the standpoint
of quantity produced. It may be seen that the Yellow
Newtown apple is somewhat exacting in its soil and clim-
atic requirements, since the bulk of its commercial produc-
tion in the United States comes from the six or eight coun-
ties described above. qI[t is a good commercial variety,
keeps well, and commands the highest export prices., Its
tendency is towards shy bearing, however, and it is partic-
ularly susceptible to apple-scab and bitter-rot and to
anthracnose in the Hood River Valley. The selling price
of the fruit has made it profitable in the regions described,
despite somewhat low yields. Virginia and Hood River
“ Newtowns ” are of particularly high quality.

The tree is a rather slow grower and does not come into
full bearing as early as Some varieties. The fruit 1s solid
green at harvestirf{developing a yellow color late in the
season. As stated above, the Newtown is exacting and its
selection for extensive planting should only follow careful
investigation of the adaptability to a particular region.

Esopus Spitzenburg (Plate XXIII).

The Esopus, known more commonly in commercial dis-
tricts as Spitzenburg, originated at Esopus, Ulster County,
New York, over one hundred years ago. It is an import-
ant western boxed apple extensively grown in the Wen-

404 The Commercial Apple Industry

atchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, and in Hood
River and Rogue River valleys, Oregon. -Aside from dis-
tribution in western irrigated sections, it is grown in quan-
tity in the Hudson and Mohawk valleys of New York, and
in a more limited way in western New York.

The Spitzenburg rivals the Newtown in the Hood River
Valley and ranks among the leading varieties in Wenatchee
and Yakima. Fire blight has exacted heavy tolls from the
Spitzenburg plantings, in both the Yakima Valley and the
Rogue Valley, Oregon, and for this reason the variety has
grown into disfavor. The fruit is excellent from the stand-
point of dessert, cooking and keeping qualities. The tree
is inclined to shy bearing, however, and must be protected
carefully from disease and insect infestation. It is more
susceptible to fire-blight than any other commercity vari-
ety. Except in the Hood River Valley and possibly one
or two other districts, it is not generally looked on by com-
mercial growers as very profitable. One of the most notice-
able characteristics of the Esopus is its peculiar habit of .
tree growth, in the form of long pole-like branches which
are difficult to control in pruning.

Grimes Golden.

Originating in West Virginia, and mentioned as a com-
mercial variety as early as 1800, the Grimes Golden has
rather wide distribution throughout the state of its origin,
Virginia, Maryland, Ohio Valley, middle west and western
states. Important commercial quantities are produced in
Washington, West Virginia, Maryland, the Ozarks, south-
ern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri River region.
The fruit is unsurpassed in quality, regular in its cylin-
drical form, and uniformly a rich golden yellow. The

Varieties of Apples 405

skin is subject to scald in storage, but the flesh keeps well.
The tree is not sufficiently hardy to withstand rigorous win-
ters and is also subject to collar-rot, the latter tendency
being one of its chief weaknesses. When planting, it
should always be double worked so as to overcome this tend-
ency. The Grimes is an important commercial variety in
Missouri, a somewhat refreshing comparison with the pre-
ponderance of Ben Davis in this region. In some sections
the fruit tends to be small, but invariably it is high in
quality, a strong recommendation for its use in home
planting and also in certain commercial areas,

Stayman.

Among the newer varieties, the Stayman Winesap
stands out as one of the most worthy and one which is
growing in popularity in many parts of the country. The
origin is credited to a seedling from old Winesap produced
at Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1866, which bore fruit first in
1875. In many ways, it resembles the old Winesap,
although the coloring of the fruit is less brilliant. It is
grown extensively in the Northwest, where it has proved
a good yielding and profitable variety, its selling price
improving as it has become better known. Old Winesap
is looked on with greater favor, however, by most commer-
cial growers in the Northwest.

The Stayman is one of the softest of the winter varieties,
yet a good keeper. It tends to drop somewhat at maturity.
Extensive plantings have recently been made in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and the Virginias. It is also adapted to
the apple sections of the Carolinas and Georgia, having a
somewhat wider range than old Winesap in this respect.
Stayman production will unquestionably increase many

406 The Simmacolal Apple Industry

times since it is proving a popular variety in the éastern
regions described. The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing
early, and is the old Winesap in many ways. The fruit
lacks some of the keeping qualities of the parent variety.

Delicious,

The Wenatchee and Yakima valleys in Washington are
at present producing most of the Delicious apples which
appear on the market, although extensive young plantings
occur in the East, particularly in Virginia. The variety
is of recent origin, being credited to Iowa, but having been
planted more extensively in the Northwest than any other
region. While as yet untried in many sections, it has
proved profitable in certain irrigated districts of the West.

The tree is vigorous, grows to good size, and is free from
any inherent weakness. The fruit is large, oblong conical,
with five knob-like protrusions at the calyx end. This
peculiarity gives it a distinctive appearance. The color is
yellowish-red, usually striped, but sometimes more or less .
deep solid red. Its normal season for use ends in March,
when the flesh tends to become somewhat dry and mealy.
Otherwise it is a very good keeper. The Delicious apple
has become very popular as a high class dessert apple on
account of its very distinctive and pleasing flavor. It is
the favorite fruit-stand apple in eastern cities and tops the
boxed apple market in price. Its popularity with the con-
suming public is demonstrated by the high price which it
commands.

Obviously the determining factor in the selection of this
variety for commercial planting is yield. Some beautiful.
specimens have been produced on young trees in southern
and eastern states, but whether it will prove a profitable

Varieties of Apples 407

variety when generally planted outside of demonstrated
irrigated regions remains to be seen. Performance records
of full bearing commercial orchards will be the only safe
guide. High quality apples are very often fastidious in
their requirements for commercial success, but this variety
is certainly worthy of a thorough trial.

Gano and Black Ben.

Gano was first brought to notice in Missouri about 1880.
In nearly every respect the Gano is so closely identified
with the Ben Davis in its distribution and general charac-
teristics that brief treatment is sufficient. The fruit is
somewhat smaller and more highly colored than the Ben
Davis. The Black Ben, given as a separate variety, is con-
sidered by many as essentially the same as Gano, although
it may differ slightly in some respects. Gano and Black
Ben are now given preference in planting over Ben Davis
in most regions.

Yellow Bellflower.

Yellow Bellflower, if not declining, has at least experi-
enced very little increased production in recent years. It
is a leading variety in the Pajaro Valley, or Watsonville
district of California, where it ranks next to the Yellow
Newtown in importance. It’ is here that a very consider-
able proportion of the total commercial crop of this variety
in the United States is grown, 800,000 boxes being packed
out in 1919, and an equal amount dried.

The Yellow Bellflower is an old variety. In 1817 Coxe
reported that the original tree which was very old at that
time, was still standing at Crosswicks, Burlington County,
New Jersey. Scattered plantings are still found in the

408 The Commercial Apple Industry

states of Maine, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio and
Michigan, but these are confined to old orchards. The
tree grows to large size, particularly in the Pajaro Valley.
Fruit is usually large but varies greatly in size, a detract-
ing feature from a commercial standpoint. Its tender skin
necessitates care in spraying and in handling.

Russets.

Russet is the name ordinarily given to a great number of
different varieties of russet apples. The Roxbury and the
Golden Russet are most commonly found on the market
and most widely grown. They have long been in general
cultivation. Others of very limited production are Eng-
lish Russet, Perry Russet, French Russet (Pomme Grise),
Hunt Russet, Long Island Russet and American Golden
Russet. Of these, English Russet and Perry Russet are
much the most important, although Pomme Grise is very
well known in Quebec, Canada.

The Roxbury is supposed to have originated at Roxbury,
Massachusetts, about 1620. It is the most popular russet
apple and is especially adapted to northern localities, New
York and New England. It has proved a reliable cropper
in western New York, where it ranks next to Northern
Spy and above Tompkins King in commercial importance.
It does not seem well adapted to the South. The fruit is
usually above medium to large and variable in form, the
sides often being unequal or the form elliptical. It keeps
until May or June in common storage and often may be
held two years in cold storage. It is of good quality, but
since the cold storage has come into general use, other
more generally favored varieties have detracted from its
popularity and young plantings are practically unknown.

Varieties of Apples 409

The Golden Russet ranks next in importance in the
United States. It is of English origin and has long been
generally disseminated. It is found extensively ‘in the
older orchards in western New York and parts of New
England. Many trees of this variety occur in Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio and scattered through the home orchards of
the Middle West. The Golden Russet is an excellent stor-
age variety and is often exported. It is also in demand for
shipment to southern markets. The tree is smaller than
that of the Roxbury Russet and generally less productive.
The fruit also is smaller but uniform in size and less var-
iable in shape. The flesh is more sub-acid, finer grained
and of richer flavor than the Roxbury.

The English Russet is of unknown origin. It is one
of the leading, if not the leading, variety in Westchester
and Putnam counties, New York, and is generally dis-
seminated throughout the Hudson Valley and southern
New England. Many carloads of this variety are grown
in Westchester County every year, although the orchards
are not very well taken care of. The tree may be distin-
guished from the Golden Russet by its straight growing
habit with erect shoots. According to Beach, the Golden
Russet trees are more vigorous, spreading, irregular and
bushy than the English Russet. The skin of the Golden
Russet does not take a polish while the English Russet
does. There are also differences in form of fruit. The
flesh of the English Russet is inferior in flavor and of
lower quality than the Golden Russet. It is not being
planted and although a good keeper will soon be eliminated
commercially.

Perry Russet is quite different from’ those described
above. Its origin is unknown although thought to be

410 The Commercial Apple Industry

Rhode Island, as it was originally called Rhode Island
Russet. It first came to commercial attention at Perry,
Wyoming County, New York, and in Onondaga County,
New York, where trees over one hundred years old still
stand.

Tompkins King.

The Tompkins King, commonly called King, first came
to attention at Jacksonville, Tompkins County, New York.
However, it appears to have originated near Washington,
Warren County, New Jersey, being brought to New York
by Jacob Wycott in 1804, who gave it the name King.
This variety is one of the most popular of the New York
varieties and has long been known and highly prized in
the commercial markets of the country.

The fruit is large to very large and is fairly uniform in

shape and size. It has a beautiful red color and is excel-
lent in quality for either dessert or culinary purposes. It
is well adapted for marketing, both for fancy and general
trade and usually sells at an advance over more standard

is best in late fall or early winter and is seldom kept in
cold storage until after February. It does not retain
flavor after midwinter. Tompkins King is generally cul-
tivated throughout western New York and has proved
profitable, particularly when planted on fertile well drained
soils or when top-worked on thrifty hardy stock. There
is often considerable loss in windfalls, on account of the
large size of the fruit.

The variety is less susceptible to apple-scab than either
Baldwin or Rhode Island Greening. The principal dis-
advantages of the Tompkins King as a commercial sort are

- 3¥
Varieties of Apples 411

that it is rather unproductive, lacks hardiness, is short lived
and rather hard to grow. In many parts of the country
the tree is very subject to sun-scald, winter-injury and
collar-rot, and the fruit is subject to water-core. Certainly
this is a variety of the highest quality, and local conditions
must determine whether it can prove profitable in the face
of inherent weaknesses in the tree. .

Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig).

Arkansas, a seedling of the Winesap, originated in Ark-
ansas and began to be propagated by nurserymen about
1868, since when it has become widely disseminated. Of
late years this variety has been planted very extensively in
Virginia, North Carolina and some parts of the Middle
West. It is also found commercially in the Northwest.
It keeps well in cold storage and is in season from Decem-
ber until May. “Black Twig” is a large red apple, °
rather uniform in size and only medium in quality. It
brings a good price in the market, but is not recommended
for extensive commercial planting as it is rather slow com-
ing into bearing and is not a very good annual bearer. On
strong soils it has a tendency to excessive wood growth
and to encourage fruitfulness shallow soils are preferable.
Tt has been much advertised and propagated, but is hardly
living up to expectations and is inferior to many other

standard kinds.

Wagener.

The Wagener has attained commercial importance in
comparatively recent times. It was first brought to public
attention in 1847 as being.a new variety of considerable
merit... The seedling trees from which the original Wag-

412 The Commercial Apple Industry

ener tree sprang were bought by Abraham Wagener in 1796
and planted on his place, now included in the village of
Penn Yan, New York. Wagener has never attained any
commercial importance east of Michigan, although within
recent years it has been planted very extensively in the
western part of that state. The other extensive plantings
are largely confined to the northwest apple regions. In
the Spokane district of Washington, Wagener is a leading
variety, although in other western irrigated regions it is
losing favor. The fruit is in season from October to Feb-
ruary and keeps fairly well in common storage, although
likely to scald in cold storage, particularly if the fruit has
not been well thinned.

The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing early and is a
fairly reliable cropper. On the other hand, it is short
lived, rather dwarfish in form, and a slow grower as it
attains full size. The fruit should be thinned, otherwise
it does not attain good market qualities. The Wagener is
recommended as a valuable filler to plant between rows
of longer lived trees, but not for general permanent
planting.

Arkansas Black.

The Arkansas Black, one of the most beautiful apples,
has come into considerable prominence commercially
within the last few years. It originated in Benton County,
Arkansas, and first bore fruit about 1870. ‘It attains its
greatest commercial importance in the Northwest where it
is boxed, particularly in the Wenatchee Valley of Washing-
ton, and to a lesser degree in the other irrigated regions.
It is also grown in the Ozarks, but not to any great extent.
Several young plantings occur in the East, particularly in

Varieties of Apples 413

the Piedmont district of Virginia, and it is being recom-
mended by experiment stations for planting in North
Carolina and Virginia.

The tree is vigorous, with long slender branches, and is
very regular in shape. It is hardy and grows to great size.
The fruit in regions where this variety is adapted attains
a large size, keeps well and commands a high price, going:
on the market very late in the spring. The color of the
fruit is red, deepening on the exposed side to a purplish red
or black. It is one of the most beautiful of all apples and,
although the trees require considerable time to come into
bearing, they bear fairly heavy crops when fully matured.

Willow Twig.

The Willow Twig draws its commercial importance from
old plantings in a few limited areas. Before the advent
of cold storage, it was known as a desirable variety for com-
mercial use on account of its very long keeping qualities.
Otherwise, it never has gained commercial favor. Its
origin is uncertain, but it is thought to have been in cul-
tivation for over a century. Extensive plantings are in
Calhoun County, Illinois, also in the northern Panhandle
region of West Virginia, particularly in Hancock County.
The fruit is in season from January to May, but like many
other long keeping varieties it is not of very good quality.
The tree is a strong grower, and bears early and regularly.
The fruit is not attractive although it is uniform in size
and shape. The prevailing color is red with contrasting
green showing through the stripes. The Willow Twig is
not generally recommended for commercial planting, but
limited plantings have proved profitable, largely on account

of the late keeping qualities.
\

414 The Commercial Apple Industry

White Pearmain (White Winter Pearmain).

The White Winter Pearmain is well known to the boxed
apple and fruit-stand trade. It retains considerable com-
mercial importance in western Colorado, California and
the northwestern irrigated regions. The origin of this
variety is obscure and for a long time it was confused with
several kinds of Pippins. In 1858, however, it entered
the American Pomological Society catalogue as White
Winter Pearmain. It is a favorite dessert apple and is in
season from December to March.

The tree is vigorous and rather long lived. The fruit is
uniform in size and-shape and inclined to be roundish or
conic in form, somewhat ribbed, but symmetrical. The
skin is pale yellow with a shade of brownish red. The
flesh is firm, fine grained and of superior aromatic flavor.
Tt is not recommended for commercial planting outside of
the irrigated districts in the West.

Red Limbertwig.

The widest distribution of the Red Limbertwig is in the
southeastern states, particularly the Carolinas and Georgia.
In North Carolina it is of much commercial importance
and is the leading variety. Beach gives the Red and the
Green Limbertwig as separate varieties, and it is probably
the former that is so widely cultivated in the mountains
of western North Carolina, although different strains,
spoken of sometimes as the Royal, Sparger, Brushy Mount-
ain or Improved Limbertwig, are credited to this region.
Here it is a rather deep red apple; a good keeper, and well '
adapted as a commercial variety. The tree is vigorous and
bears well, but has little distribution in other regions. ©

Varieties of Apples 415

Yates.

The Yates is quite widely distributed over the Piedmont
section of the South, but nowhere in the United States is
it grown in any commercial quantities outside of Georgia ;
‘here it is undoubtedly the leading commercial variety and
in many ways one of the most satisfactory. It is well
known in New Zealand and Tasmania. It seems partic-
ularly adapted to Georgia conditions, and is a very heavy
producer, bearing fairly regularly heavy annual crops.
The tree is thrifty and healthy, and comes into bearing
quite early. The fruit has long keeping qualities, is very
hard and firm, and can be handled in a careless manner
and still retain a good appearance. It is small in size and
not of the highest quality. The Yates is very well known
in southern markets, but practically unknown in the North.
It is a profitable commercial variety for Georgia, but is
not recommended for planting in most regions on account
of its small size and lack of acquaintance with the consum-
ing public.

Stark.

Stark is found particularly in the commercial orchards
of Maine, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and dis-
tributed somewhat throughout the Central West. It was
first brought to notice in Ohio and is said to have orig-
inated in that state. This variety has received favorable
notice in a great many regions and was offered by most
of the nurserymen about 1890, It is not increasing in
popularity, however, on account of poor quality.

The tree is thrifty, hardy, a reliable cropper and very
productive. The fruit is smooth, uniform and keeps well.

416 The Commercial Apple Industry

The skin is often pale in color and not attractive, some
times having but very little red coloring, yet at times under
favorable conditions being nearly covered with red. The
fruit stands handling well because it is very firm and has a
thick tough skin. It keeps till June in ordinary storage
and for that reason is regarded as a good apple for export
trade. The variety has a wide range of adaptibility in
regard to soil and climate and is recommended for planting
in cases where orchards are long distances from market
and the climate is rather severe. Many other varieties of
its season are much superior in quality and this will pre
vent the Stark from attaining any great popularity.

Hubbardston.

The Hubbardston, which originated at Hubbardston,
Massachusetts, has long been known to the commercial
grower. / Kenrick, as long ago as 1832, recommended that
it was one of the most desirable varieties for Massachusetts.
The commercial importance of the Hubbardston, although
considerable, has never been great in any one region. It
is a fairly good variety for commercial planting in the
more northern sections of the country, but varies remark-
ably in market quality, size and color, smoothness of skin
and flavor. For this reason, it is known locally in many
places by other names. Normally it ripens between the
autumn and the late winter varieties, comes into bearing
early, is a heavy cropper and fairly annual bearer. It is
somewhat susceptible to winter-injury and apple-canker
and seems to be more satisfactory when grafted on to more
hardy varieties such as Northern Spy. The quality of the
fruit is excellent for dessert, but is excelled by many other
varieties for culinary purposes. It is an uncertain keeper,

Varieties of Apples 417

varying greatly in this respect according to the. regions
where grown. The fruit from western New York keeps
better apparently than that from the Hudson Valley. The
crop should usually be thinned since there is a tendency for
a considerable portion of the fruit to be undersized and
poorly colored. The Hubbardston soon loses its flavor in
common storage. Few authorities now recommend it for
commercial planting, although where well adapted it would
seem valuable for planting as a filler.

Tolman Sweet.

The Tolman Sweet is probably the best known sweet
apple grown for commercial purposes, and one which
deserves even more attention than is at present given to it.
It has long been grown throughout New England, New
York, Michigan and more northern states, although its
origin is unknown. The Tolman Sweet is best known
commercially in the New England states.

The tree is vigorous, upright, open, with long branches
and a form adapted to bearing an abundance of fruit. It
is exceptionally productive, long lived, and very hardy, in
fact one of the hardiest of all varieties. It comes into
bearing at an early age and the fruit hangs well on the
tree, is very uniform in grade and suffers little in loss
from culls or drops. The fruit, although medium or below
medium in size, is attractive for a yellow apple and is
highly esteemed for certain culinary purposes, especially
pickling, boiling, and baking. It is recommended as a
good commercial variety, although as yet the market for it
is rather undeveloped. Like the Russet it is highly
prized for cider and its other good qualities are worthy of

attention.

418 ' The Commercial Apple Industry

Winter Banana.

Winter. Banana originated near Adamsboro, Indiana,
about 1876, and was first introduced by a nursery in Mon-
roe, Michigan, in 1890. This variety has been widely dis-
seminated especially in the Northwest, where it has
attained much commercial importance. There are consid-
erable young plantings of it throughout the East.

The fruit is large, clear pale yellow in color except for
a pinkish-red blush. The Winter Banana’ is a dessert
apple depending on the fancy trade demand for its pop-
ularity. It is classed as a winter apple, but matures rather
early and should be eaten before January first as it loses
much of its flavor after that date. The tree is productive
and well thought of in the Virginias and southern Penn-
sylvania districts, although on account of the delicacy of
the fruit it is not recommended for very extensive com-
mercial planting. It is a good apple for the home orchard
and limited commercial planting.

Missouri Pippin (Plate XXIV).

The Missouri Pippin originated at Kingsville, Missouri,
from seed planted about 1840. After 1860 it began to be
widely disseminated through Missouri, Kansas, and the
middle western states and is to-day one of the well known
market apples in the Middle West. It has been planted
extensively in northwest irrigated districts, particularly
among the earlier plantings, but ‘has lost favor in the West
‘in recent years. It is not being planted in commercial
orchards of any region at the present time.

The principal advantage of the Missouri Pippin is that
it comes into bearing very early and yields heavily. The

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Varieties of Apples 419

fruit has a good color, but is second rate in quality and re-
quires considerable thinning to bring it up to good market
quality. It is in season from October to April. This va-
riety is not grown throughout the East and is not now rec-
ommended for commercial planting in any part of the
country.

Northwestern Greening.

The Northwestern Greening originated in Waupaca
County, Wisconsin, and was first introduced by E. W.
Daniels in 1872. It is widely disseminated through the
north central states and is one of the leading varieties in
many sections. It is also planted to a considerable extent
in some of the larger orchards of the Shenandoah-Cumber-
land district and some of the irrigated sections of the
Northwest where it finds little favor, however.. It is
not grown commercially in New York or the New Eng-
land states.

The Northwestern Greening is a large green apple,
highly attractive in color, but lacking uniformity. It is
especially adapted to planting in cool regions since the tree
is very hardy. The fruit has rather poor culinary quality,
but rather high market qualities. In the Shenandoah-
Cumberland region, this variety yields well, goes on the
market early and brings high prices. The tree is hardy,
vigorous and productive. It is recommended for planting
in a limited way commercially in the north central states

and parts of the East.

Rambo.
The Rambo is an old variety, the origin of which is
unknown. As long ago as 1817, however, it was much

420 The Commercial Apple Industry

cultivated in Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
The Rambo is grown in considerable commercial quantities
throughout parts of Ohio and the Central West. It is
found also among the old orchards of the East. It is
surpassed by several varieties both for culinary and dessert
purposes. It is attractive when well colored, being a bright
red with yellow ground color, but very often this red color
is largely lacking. Under ordinary conditions, much of
the fruit is not of very good market quality. The tree is
more or less subject to winter-injury and breaks easily
under a heavy load of fruit. The Rambo is decreasing in
commercial importance in competition with better sorts.

Ortley.

The Ortley has recently attained prominence in the
boxed apple regions. It is one of the important varieties
of the Hood River Valley, that section producing about
100 cars in 1919. It is grown considerably in other west-
ern irrigated sections. It is highly prized as a dessert
apple and is well known to the fruit-sfand trade. Ortley
is one of the leading varieties in Tasmania and Australia.
It long ago lost popularity among growers of the East, but
now seems to be gaining in favor in the West. It is an old
New Jersey variety, described by Coxe under the name of
Woolman’s Long Pippin and was first named Ortley in
1825 when specimens of this variety were sent to London.
In the East it is not found outside of the home orchards,
and is rarely planted commercially except in irrigated
regions. It is a large pale yellow apple of the Yellow
Bellflower type and seems to attain better flavor in more
southern and western climates, Ortley is not a very heavy

Varieties of Apples 421 ~

cropper and the fruit is rather easily bruised and tender.
It is especially valuable for dessert use.

Red Canada.

This is a red winter apple, belonging to the same group
as Baldwin and Esopus. It is thought to have originated
in New England and was described by pomologists about
one hundred years ago. The principal commercial plant-
ings of this variety occur in Michigan where it is known
as Steel’s Red. It is well adapted to general and special
markets and brings high prices. It should be grown on
fertile or sandy soils, where it develops high flavor, color,
and market quality. It is not adapted to the South. In
ordinary storage, it will keep until January or April. The
principal disadvantages of this variety are that it is a
rather shy bearer, lacks hardiness and is but a moderate
grower. It is not recommended for commercial planting
and will not prove as profitable as more standard and
heavier cropping varieties.

Monmouth.

Monmouth reaches considerable commercial importance
only in the irrigated districts of Washington, particularly
the Yakima Valley where it is known in the markets by
the name of Red Cheek Pippin. It is a native of Mon-
mouth County, New Jersey, and has long been in general
cultivation throughout the East and Central West. It is
grown principally only in the home orchards, there being
few commercial plantings outside of the Northwest.

In season it ripens in common storage by November,
while in cold storage its season may extend to January.
The tree is hardy, long lived, comes into bearing moder-

422 The Commercial Apple Industry

ately young and is a fairly reliable cropper. The fruit is
of good market quality, but if not well thinned there is
likely to be considerable loss in low grade fruit. The fruit
is medium to large. Its skin is yellow, faintly shaded with
_ red and in the case of highly colored specimens the fruit
has a pinkish-red blush. The variety is not important
commercially.

Collins.

The Collins originated about 1865 near Fayetteville,
Arkansas, and has only recently been introduced to com-
mercial growers. It is grown considerably as a commercial
variety in northwestern Arkansas, but is not generally
recognized in any other district. The tree is a good
grower, hardy, and has a reputation of being prdductive.
The fruit is large, of excellent keeping quality and is in
season from January to June. The flesh is white, rather
coarse, only moderately juicy, and rather lacking in flavor.
Highly colored specimens are bright, dark red, with a
contrasting clear yellow ground color. The Collins has
some attractive market qualities, but is not generally
recommended for commercial planting. There seems no
doubt that Ben Davis is a more worthy and reliable crop-
per and is of equal market quality. Collins does not bid
fair to displace any other commercial variety.

Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet).

Pumpkin Sweet, more commonly known as Pound
‘Sweet, is one of the best known, easiest grown and most
attractive of the sweet varieties. It originated in Con-
necticut and has been known in New York for about three-

Varieties of Apples 423

quarters of a century. It is not grown commercially
except in western New York and more northern localities,
The fruit is large to very large. Well colored specimens
become very yellow and sometimes are faintly bronzed on
the exposed cheeks, but are never marked with red.

Pumpkin Sweet is esteemed as one of the best sweet
apples for baking, canning, and stewing with quinces, and
is prized by some for dessert on account of its peculiar
flavor. It usually sells well in special markets and there
is a limited general demand for it. The fruit is in season
from October to January, but does not keep well in com-
mon storage. The tree is a strong grower, long lived,
hardy and productive. It thrives particularly well in
gravelly or sandy loam, with well drained subsoil. There
is often considerable loss from water-core and from wind-
falls, although other than this the loss from culls or under-
sized apples is usually small. The variety is recommended
only where the market demands a sweet apple.

Wolf River.

Wolf River is a variety of the Aport group, resembling
the Alexander in form and color, although averaging larger
in size. It has largely superseded the Alexander in the
north central states, although both apples are popular in
these regions on account of their extreme hardiness. The
variety originated near Wolf River, Fremont County, Wis-
consin, and was entered in the American Pomological
Society lists in 1881. The tree is very hardy, a good
grower, but a light cropper. The fruit is very large and
often somewhat irregular in form. Flesh is coarse, tender,
juicy, but low in quality. ‘Wolf River apples sometimes
sell well on local markets because of their attractive appear-

424 The Commercial Apple Industry

ance. The tree is not generally recommended for planting
either in home or commercial orchards on account of poor
quality, light yields and unprofitableness. However, many
northern Michigan and Wisconsin growers have found this
variety very profitable.

Sutton.

The Sutton, originating in the town of Sutton, Massa-
chusetts, was first brought to notice by the Worcester
County Horticultural Society in 1848 and was included in
the American Pomological catalogue in 1877. It has not
attained commercial importance until late years. At the
present time, it is being planted quite extensively in the
Hudson Valley and some parts of New England, and its
dissemination seems to be on the increase. It has been
grown in Michigan under the name of Morris Red.

The Sutton tree closely resembles the Hubbardston, of
which it is supposed to be a seedling, but is much more
- vigorous and healthy. The fruit is of uniform size, sym-
metrical, has a beautiful red color and is excellent for
dessert. The variety is especially adapted to the Hudson
Valley where fancy trade apples are grown. The tree is a
strong grower and productive but has a tendency to bear
biennially. Sutton is not generally recommended for
planting on any extended commercial scale and should be
grown only in those regions near city markets where the
fancy trade varieties are in greatest demand.

Ingram.

Ingram was originated by Martin Ingram, near Spring-
field, Missouri, about 1850. It has attained considerable
commercial importance throughout the Ozarks. Large

Varieties of Apples 425

plantings have been made in the more southern sections of
Missouri. The tree is fairly vigorous, but is likely to
bear small fruit unless thinned. The fruit is of medium
quality and its chief asset is its good keeping quality. In
spite of much advertising, it has not proved very popular
and is not now recommended for commercial planting. It
does not warrant an important place in commercial
orchards, even in Missouri.

Black Gilliflower.

This variety is generally known to the trade and appears
in market quotation as Gilliflower or Gills. It originated
in New England prior to 1800 and has long been a market
sort in a very limited way. There are very few orchard
blocks of Gilliflower in the country, but it is widely dissem-
inated in both home and commercial orchards, particularly
in New York and New England. The tree is hardy, vig-
orous and long lived.

The fruit is of medium size and very uniform in size,
shape and color. It is a dessert apple which is very dis-
tinct in color, form and flavor. The color is green, usually
completely covered with red, which becomes very dark or
almost black. The flesh has a peculiar flavor and aroma,
but soon becomes dry and mealy. The fruit is often
borne on the ends of the twigs which makes harvesting
difficult. It usually brings a high price and particularly
in southern markets, on account of its peculiar aroma,
flavor, and attractive color. The Gilliflower is preferred
by some to all other varieties as a dessert apple, but its
popularity is very limited. It is not recommended for
commercial planting, except in a very limited way. It
is a good variety for the home orchard.

426 The Commercial Apple Industry

Lady.

The Lady apple is known to have been in cultivation for
well over three hundred years and is thought to have orig-
inated in France. It is often seen on fruit-stands more
for decoration than for eating purposes. It is a strikingly
beautiful little apple, especially adapted for decorative pur-
poses. It grows in profusion in many parts of the coun-
try, particularly in the Piedmont district of Virginia
where it is produced commercially in limited quantities.
Limited plantings are also found in New York state and
the Northwest. The Lady apple often. tops the market in
price, having sold on the New York markets for as high
as $25.00 a barrel when standard sorts were bringing
about one-fifth as much.

The variety seems to do best in Virginia where it grows
to perfection. In size it is not. much larger than a crab-
apple and it is very expensive to grow and harvest. On
the whole, it is not to be considered more profitable than
the more standard’ varieties. Furthermore, it is not
recommended for general planting since a few acres would
practically flood the market for this type of fruit. Prop-
erly handled it may be held in cold storage far into the
summer, but there are few demands for it after the holiday
season. ‘The tree is maderately vigorous. The fruit is
exceedingly small, somewhat lacking in uniformity; flesh
is white, tender, juicy, and of high dessert quality.

EARLY AND FALL VARIETIES

Oldenburg (commercial name, Duchess).

Oldenburg is probably the leading early variety grown
in the United States. It is one of the most valuable o

Varieties of Apples 42”

Russian apples and was introduced into this country from
England by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about
1835. The extreme hardiness of this variety proved its
worth and was responsible for the introduction of other
Russian sorts. It is superior in hardiness to the Baldwin,
Rhode Island Greening and Northern Spy.

The tree is easily grown, requires little pruning and is
an early and heavy bearer. The variety is widely known
throughout the North and East, and, particularly in the
region bordering the Great Lakes. It is in Wisconsin,
Michigan and New York that it assumes greatest com-
mercial importance. Oldenburg is produced in earload
lots in these states and particularly along the Ontario Lake
shore in western New York where there are many plant-
ings of commercial importance.

The fruit is medium to large and is uniform in shape
and size, with firm, crisp, juicy flesh. It hangs on the
tree well. When properly grown and handled, it stands
shipment well. The fruit brings good prices and is unsur-
passed for its culinary qualities. It is one of the most
valuable early apples for commercial purposes.

Wealthy.

Wealthy originated as a seedling at Excelsior, Minne-
sota, from seed of the Cherry Crab obtained from Maine
about 1860. It is one of the most important of the hardier
varieties adapted to the cold climates of the northernmost
states. It has wide distribution, particularly in northern
Illinois, northern Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, being
one of the leading, if not the leading, variety of these
regions. In New York and Maine, it is grown in consid-
erable commercial quantities but in these states it is of

428 The Commercial Apple Industry

less relative importance as compared with other varieties.
Wealthy is an early sort highly prized in New Jersey and
Delaware.

The fruit is bright red, of large size and of good market
quality, selling well in most markets. It is normally con-
sumed before November and is essentially a fall apple,
although it may be kept into the early winter in cold stor-
age. Criticism is sometimes made of the Wealthy on the
ground of uneven ripening and tendency to considerable
variation in Size and lack of color, but with good care it
has proved profitable in the regions described above. It
is especially adapted for planting as a filler.

Yellow Transparent. ’

Yellow Transparent was imported from Russia by the
United States Department of Agriculture in 1870. It
has since been disseminated from coast to coast and is now
the leading very early commercial variety. It is grown
extensively, particularly in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
West Virginia, the Ohio Valley and especially in the early
apple districts of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and various
other states.

Since it is about the first apple on the market, it is
sought for dessert and is highly prized for culinary pur-
poses. It grows to good size, is productive and takes on a
good clear yellow color before ‘becoming over-ripe. The
crop ripens over a period of three or four weeks and more
than one picking is usually necessary. Yellow Transpar-
ent brings a good price on the market and thus far has
proved very profitable commercially.

Varieties of Apples 429

Twenty Ounce.

The Twenty Ounce has proved one of the most popular
of fall varieties for commercial planting. Its origin is
unknown, but_it was first brought to attention when fruit
grown in Cayuga County, New York, was exhibited before
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about seventy
years ago. It is one of the most important fall varieties
grown in New York, being particularly important in Mon-
roe and other western counties in the Lake Shore region.

The fruit is large and attractive, being green and later
yellowish with broad stripes and splashes of red. In New
York it is in season from September to early winter, while
in New Jersey and Delaware it comes on the market. in
August. The Twenty Ounce keeps very well for a fall
variety and stands shippin . It is usually handled |
without going into cold storage, although it may be kept
until midwinter in storage. The fruit is fairly uniform
in size, is of good marketable quality and is well known in
eastern commercial markets where it brings good prices.
The tree is yigorous, with erect main branches, but more
or less willowy and drooping laterals. The trunk and
larger limbs are especially subject to sun-scald and canker,
Closer planting may be practiced than with Baldwin,
Rhoile Island Greening, Northern Spy, York, or other var-
ieties, which attain considerable size. Twenty Ounce is
recommended for commercial planting in Delaware, New
Jersey, and many parts of New England and New York.

Gravenstein.

Gravenstein was introduced into this country from cen-
tral Europe early in the nineteenth century. It is of

430 The Commercial Apple, Industry

much commercial importance for a variety of its season,
which in the Northeast is from September to November.
The largest commercial plantings of this variety are in
Sonoma County, California, which ships annually about
500 cars of boxed Gravensteins. Gravensteins are grown
in a limited way through the other far west and northwest
districts. Commercial plantings also occur in New Jer-
sey, Delaware, the Hudson Valley, New England and are
particularly important in Nova Scotia. The fruit is
found on the New York market during the autumn in
large quantities.

Gravenstein is of very attractive appearance and of
excellent quality. It is practically unexcelled for culin-
ary purposes and is highly prized as a dessert apple, being
usually in strong demand and commanding good prices.
There is likely to be considerable loss from dropping since
the fruit does not color evenly and requires two or three
pickings. The tree comes into bearing moderately early
and is a fairly reliable cropper. It is large, vigorous, and
hardy, and adapted to many climates. The Gravenstein’s
place as a commercial variety is assured.

McIntosh.

The McIntosh belongs to the Fameuse group and is
adapted to a wide range of localities, although the districts
where it grows commercially are limited. It originated as
a chance seedling on the McIntosh farm in Dundas County,
‘Ontario. Allan McIntosh began its propagation about
1870. Its dissemination and cultivation is on the increase.
In season it varies from an early fall apple in the South
to late fall or early winter apple in Canada. In New York

Varieties of Apples 431

it begins to ripen about October first. The fruit is very
attractive in appearance and the flesh is tender, perfumed
and delicious. It may be kept in cold storage until the
first of the year. The fruit is susceptible to scab and has
a tendency to ripen unevenly and to drop. The trees are
generally hardy, come into bearing young and have a tend-
ency to biennial bearing. The variety is grown commer-
cially in northern New York, Vermont, particularly on
Grand Isle, in Lake Champlain. Considerable commercial
plantings are in the Hudson Valley, southern New Hamp-
shire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, where it does par-
ticularly well. It is the leading commercial variety of
the Bitter Root Valley of Montana and is grown in the
commercial orchards of Idaho, Washington and British
Columbia. It usually commands a very good price in the
market and .is highly prized, especially for dessert pur-
poses. Nearly all McIntosh apples enter commercial
channels.

Maiden Blush (Lady Blush, Red Cheek).

Maiden Blush is one of the most widely grown of all fall
apples and is found to some extent in practically all the
central, eastern and southern apple-growing states. It is
grown in considerable commercial quantities in northwest
Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, and to a
lesser extent commercially in New York and the Atlantic
seaboard states. It was well known in the Philadelphia
market over one hundred years ago.

The tree is medium in size and moderately vigorous,
comes into bearing young and is a reliable cropper.
Maiden Blush is a standard market variety and usually

432 The Commercial Apple Industry:

sells above those of its class. It is good in quality and is
valued for many uses. It makes very white evaporated
stock.

In season it varies from a summer apple in the Ozarks
to a fall apple in the North, keeping until December 15th
in New York. The fruit is a beautiful pale yellow color
with crimson cheek, which adds to its popularity. Its
disadvantages are that it is not a particularly good ship- »
per and keeper, ‘and ripens somewhat unevenly, with a
tendency to drop. Its place in the commercial orchard
is assured, although its ‘production is not likely. to in-
crease.

Fameuse (Snow). és

The Fameuse is thought by some to be of French origin.
It was grown in Quebec at a very early date, possibly as
long ago as 1600. It has long been recognized as an
important commercial variety and is one of the most valu-
able dessert apples of its season. It is well distributed
throughout the northern states, particularly Michigan,
New York, and New England, and is especially adapted to
cold climates. Fameuse is grown commercially princi-
pally in the Champlain district of New York and Ver-
mont, the St. Lawrence Valley, and in the commercial dis-
tricts of Wisconsin, Michigan and eastern Canada. It is
found in home orchards in many northern localities. It
is well known in the market and during its season, which
is from October to January, it is in good demand and
usually commands high prices.

The fruit is particularly susceptible to apple-scab fun-
gus. It is small to medium in size. The flesh is white,
very tender, aromatic, juicy, and when ripe is mildly sub-

Varieties of Apples 433

acid. The skin is bright red, deepening to an almost
purplish black. The tree is hardy and vigorous. The
Fameuse is not being extensively planted in the United
States, its place being largely taken by the McIntosh.

Williams (Williams Early Red, Williams Favorite).

Williams originated in Roxbury, Massachusetts, nearly
175 years ago. It was brought to the notice of the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural Society and named Williams in
1830, and was entered in the American Pomological
Society catalogue in 1854.

It is one of the most valuable varieties for the commer-
cial market and is being planted to a considerable extent
throughout New England, the Hudson Valley, New Jer-
sey, Delaware and Maryland. It is also recommended for
planting throughout the South. In season it varies from
September 1st in New England to July 1st' in Carolina.
Williams is a large bright red apple of very attractive
appearance and with a pleasant, mild sub-acid flavor,
unless over-ripe, when it becomes dry. It comes into
bearing early and yields fair to good annual crops which
bring high prices in the home commercial market. The
apple is highly prized for export. It is recommended as
a good variety to plant where an early commercial sort is

desired.

Benom.

Benoni is an early apple of commercial importance in
the Middle West. It originated at Dedham, Massachus-
etts, and was introduced about 1832. It is a fine dessert
apple of excellent quality, inclined to be conical in shape.
The flesh is yellow, fine grained, crisp, juicy, and pleas-

434 The Commercial Apple Industry

antly sub-acid. It begins to ripen early in August, and
extends into September. The tree is large and vigorous
and comes into heavy bearing moderately young and yields
good biennial crops. Its commercial production in carload
quantities is mostly confined to the early apple section, of
' southern Illinois, particularly Johnson and Union counties
where it ripens the first of July. Its production is not in-
creasing and it finds little favor in the East.

Bonum (Magnum Bonum).

Bonum is well known in the Piedmont district of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina. It is highly prized in these
states as a commercial variety and invariably commands
good prices. It originated in Davidson County, North
Carolina, early in the last century, but has never been dis-
seminated to any extent outside of the Piedmont region.
It is important commercially in several North Carolina
counties and particularly in Rappahannoek and Patrick
counties, Virginia, where it is planted in solid blocks and
produced in carload lots.

The tree is moderately vigorous and comes into bearing
early. The fruit is of medium size, superior quality, with
yellow skin, mostly covered with crimson and dark red.
The flesh is white, often stained next to the skin. It is
tender, juicy, and has a peculiar aroma. It is highly
prized as a dessert in the southern markets.

Its season extends from September to about December
1st. This is a profitable variety only in certain regions
and does not yield as heavily as the more standard sorts.
It also has a tendency to drop and has a short picking sea-
son. Its place in the commercial orchard is assured,
although it will never be grown in considerable quantities

Varieties of Apples 435

on account of its season. It is very valuable for home
orchards of the South.

Red Astrachan.

Red Astrachan, one of the best known and most widely
disseminated varieties, originated in Sweden and was
known in England as early as 1816. It was introduced
in this country in 1835 by the Massachusetts Horticul-
tural Society. The variety is well known commercially
in Monmouth County, New Jersey, in Delaware and to a
limited extent throughout the northern tier of states as far
west as the Missouri River. It is a beautiful early sum-
mer apple, of medium size, yellow, largely covered with
light and dark red stripes, very often a bluish bloom. It
is highly prized for culinary and dessert purposes.

The tree is medium in size, a strong grower, moderately
long lived, an early bearer, and a reliable cropper. It is
necessary to make several pickings as the fruit ripens very
unevenly, and there is likely to be considerable loss from
dropping. The Red Astrachan is not very uniform in size
and is a poor shipper. It is well suited for local trade
demand, but not at all for distant shipping. Red Astra-
chan is so common throughout the home orchards that local
markets are generally well supplied. Commercial plant-
ings are not generally recommended.

Early Ripe. :

This is a well known early commercial variety particu-
larly adapted to New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania,
where it has attained considerable commercial importance.
It is one of the leading commercial apples of New Jersey.
The tree is large, vigorous, and a fairly good cropper,

436 The Commercial Apple Industry :

although it has a tendency to biennial bearimg. Fruit is
medium, fairly uniform in size, rather inclined to be con-
ical, irregular and broadly ribbed, with short thick stems.
Its season is July and August. Early Ripe trees come into
bearing young and are well adapted as fillers or for perm-
anent planting in certain regions. Some large orchards of
this variety are in southern New Jersey and in the inten-
sive apple sections of Delaware. It is recommended for
planting in these districts.

Alexander.

This apple is ofthe Aport group introduced from Russia
to England in 1817, later to this country where it is only
grown in limited commercial quantities. The tree is usu-
ally exceptionally hardy, vigorous and moderately produc-
tive. It is subject to blight in some localities. Its season
in the North begins in September and extends through Oc-
tober. It is often in strong demand in the market and
has proved a highly profitable variety for those who have
grown it in a commercial way. One of the best commer-
cial orchards of this variety is at Hilton, New York. It
is particularly adapted to northern climates and is widely
grown in Canada. a8

The fruit is large and uniform in size, attractive, red
striped, medium in quality and suitable more for culinary
purposes than for dessert. It brings high prices but since
the demand is limited it is‘not recommended for commer-
cial planting excent in a small way, or as a filler.

Starr.

The Starr is an early variety of commercial importance
only in sections of New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland.

Varieties of Apples 437

Rather extensive plantings are in the district about Bur-
lington County, New Jersey. The original tree was found
on the grounds of Judge J. M. White at Woodbury, New
Jersey, and was first propagated by William Perry in 1865
under the name of Starr.

The tree is moderately vigorous, comes into bearing
young and has a reputation of being a good annual bearer.
The fruit is large, very attractive for a green or yellowish
apple, very good in quality and especially for dessert use.
It is highly prized for the early market and is one of the
leading commercial varieties of southern New Jersey. Its
season is July to September. At the present time, most
of the fruit of the Starr is shipped in hampers or in five-
eighths-bushel baskets. The Starr is recommended for
commercial planting in New Jersey, but not in New York
or more northern districts.

Red June (Carolina Red June, Carolina. June, Carolina
Red).

Red June is a southern apple, supposed to have origin-
ated in North Carolina. It has long been known commer-
cially and is grown in many sections, particularly in south-
ern Illinois and in various early apple districts of the
southern states, as well as to a limited degree in New
Jersey and Delaware. Red June tops the early market in

price in many sections and is particularly important in
southern Illinois production. The fruit has a very at-
tractive deep’ red color, is inclined to be oblong, with un-
equal sides, but is fairly uniform in size and shape.

The tree bears well, is remarkably vigorous and has an
habit of growth, with short, straight, slender

The fruit ripens very unevenly so that several

upright
twigs.

438 The Commercial Apple Industry

pickings are necessary. This variety is well suited for
early fancy trade demand, and although it requires consid-
erable care will prove profitable when grown in proximity
to early markets,

Chenango (Chenango Strawberry).

The Chenango, commonly called Chenango Strawberry
or Strawberry, was first brought to attention in Chenango
County, New York. This variety has long been a favorite
in home orchards and special markets. In dessert-and cul-
inary qualities it is unsurpassed. It has a very character-
istic aroma and flavor which it still retains when cooked.

Under favorable conditions the tree is a heavy bearer,
usually biennial. The fruit begins to ripen in southern
Illinois, where it is grown in considerable commercial
quantities for shipment, about the last of July and the rip-
ening period continues for several weeks. It should thus
have several pickings. In New York and New England,
where it is a favorite home orchard variety, it does not be-
gin to ripen before September.

The tree is hardy, long lived and an early bearer. The
fruit varies in size from small to very large. It is yellow-
ish white, striped with red, and usually elongated, oblong
conic in form, although it is particularly subject to varia-
tion in quality and form, trees in the same orchard often
producing widely different types. It is one of the most at-
tractive apples, is unsurpassed as a home orchard variety
and has proved very profitable when grown in limited quan-
tities for special local markets. It is usually marketed in
hampers or baskets. The fruit ripens too unevenly and is
too variable in size for a standard variety. It is also a
very poor shipper.

Varieties of Apples 439

Fall Pippin.

The origin of the Fall Pippin is unknown, but it is cer-
tain that the variety has been cultivated for many genera-
tions since there are trees in New York orchards which are
now over one hundred years old. Although a good variety
for the home orchard, the Fall Pippin is not widely grown
or recommended outside of the Hudson Valley and certain
limited areas.

The fruit is very large, tends to ripen unevenly, but
when fully ripened has an attractive yellow color and a
peculiar flavor. The flesh is tender, rich, and of fine
quality, being excellent both for dessert and culinary pur-
poses. The apple is desired by the export and by fancy
trade, particularly in the vicinity of New York. Its sea-
son is from September to January. The tree is large,
vigorous, hardy, and very long lived, but the fruit and foli-
age are especially subject to attacks of apple-scab fungus
and thorough preventive measures are necessary in order
to grow the Fall Pippin successfully. While not recom-
mended for general planting, this variety would doubtless °
prove profitable in the more northern regions where there
is a local or fancy trade demand.

All the foregoing varieties are grown commercially to
a greater or less extent. There are other sorts such as
Early Harvest, Smith’s Cider, Smokehouse, Fallawater,
Swarr, Sweet Bough, Westfield, and a great many others
which are well known to the home orchardist, and widely
listed in nursery catalogues, but which are not important
commercially in any part of the country, and for this.
reason are not described in this discussion. It might be
well to mention that such varieties as Lowry, Virginia

440 The Commercial Apple Industry

Beauty, King David, Opalescent and certain others are be-
ing planted with considerable success in certain localities.
Lowry and Virginia Beauty are in favor in parts of Vir-
ginia and North Carolina, while Opalescent is found in
Ohio. King David is quite widely disseminated and is
being planted considerably. English Codling, Cham-
plain, Pennock or Pelican are found in a commercial
way in Monmouth County, New Jersey. Golden Deli-
cious has not yet attained commercial prominence but in a
decade will no doubt be one of the best prized apples.

The varieties which have been given detailed description
will represent practically the entire commercial crop of the
United States. The first twelve described represent nearly
80 per cent of the entire commercial production of this
country. This serves to emphasize the importance of rec-
ognizing and planting only such varieties as are of some
commercial importance or promise. Hundreds of other
kinds might be named which appear in nursery catalogues,
but the greater portion of these are valueless either as
home orchard varieties or for commercial planting.

There are many new and much advertised varieties
which are not discussed for as yet they are of little or no
commercial importance and several years’ trial will be nec-
essary to detertnine their true value. However, there is
.. plenty of opportunity for new varieties if they are really
superior to the standard sorts of to-day and experiment
stations are doing valuable work in developing apples of ©
superior quality. Before planting any new variety on a
large commercial scale, it should be very highly recom-
mended by at least two or three experiment stations which
have given it a thorough trial. Golden Delicious is one

Varieties of Apples 441

of these very new varieties which certainly is worthy of
a thorough trial commercially.

STATUS OF COMMERCIAL VARIETIES

It is of importance to discuss the relative status of the
various commercial varieties and the reasons for their in-
as

crease or decline.

Commercial varieties the production of which is on the
increase, and the outstanding reasons for this:

Variety. Reasons for increase in com-
mercial orchards.

1. Jonathan .................Early bearer, high in color, fine
in flavor, good shipper.

2. Stayman ..... scm nwea Gee -Good size, fine keeping quality,
very productive, agreeable
flavor.

3. Delicious ..............++--Quality par-excellence, attract-
ive appearance, fancy trade

demand.

4, Winesap .........e see eeeee Productive, hardy, excellent
quality, regular bearer.

B.. ROMG: oso ce ews eadesew sees Good size, uniform, attractive

appearance, productive, excel-
lent cooking and baking qual-
ities.

6. Williams Early Red ...... .Fancy trade demand both local
and export, attractive appear-
ance, good quality, good ship-

per.

". York Imperial ............. Very productive, excellent cul-
; inary and shipping qualities.

8. Oldenburg (Duchess) ...... Fine culinary qualities, hardy

tree, fruit uniform in size and
shape, early bearer, produc-
tive.

442 The Commercial Apple Industry

Reasons for increase in com-

Variety mercial orchards.

9. Grimes ....... ccc ccc cee eee Excellent quality — both dessert
and culinary, fancy trade de-
mand.

10. McIntosh ............0005 Attractive appearance, excellent

dessert qualities, fancy trade
demand, very hardy.

11. Wealthy ...............6. Uniform in size and_ shape,
hardy, productive, early and
reliable cropper, excellent
market quality.

12. Yellow Transparent ....... Very early, productive, excellent
culinary qualities, attractive
appearance.

18. Arkansas (Black Twig) ...Large size, attractive, excellent
for baking, fairly productive.

14, Arkansas Black .......... Large and most attractive ap-
pearance. Extremely good
keeper. and shipper.

15. Winter Banana .......... Early bearer, fine appearance,
high quality, fancy trade de-
mand.

16.-Golden Delicious ......... A new. variety being recently

planted, productive, high qual-.
ity combining many qualities
of Grimes and Delicious.

The above varieties owe their popularity to widely dif-
ferent reasons. Delicious, McIntosh, Grimes and Winter
Banana are in demand by the fancy trade on account of
their excellent dessert quality. With the exception of
Grimes, they are as yet used little for culinary purposes.
Arkansas Black, although of rather inferior quality, is
utilized by the fancy trade late in the season. The other
varieties are more in demand by the general trade. The
disadvantage which some of the apples have in quality

Varieties of Apples 443

of the fruit is overcome by hardiness of tree, and by ship-
ping and keeping qualities. Certain varieties are decreas-
ing in some sections and increasing in others. Arkansas
(Black Twig) is out of favor with so many growers that its
continued popularity is questionable. York is increasing
in popularity only in the Shenandoah and Cumberland
Valley districts of the Virginias, Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania. Stayman is almost universally on the increase,

The production of the following varieties is practically
stationary, the new plantings about taking the place of
those which are going out: Baldwin, Rhode Island Green-
ing, Yellow Newtown, Gravenstein, White Winter Pear-
main, Northwest Greening, Twenty Ounce, Gano, Wag-
ener, Maiden Blush, Alexander, Benoni, Bonum.

Of these, the Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Yel-
low Newtown are very important commercial varieties and
will remain so. The reason why they are not on the in-
crease is due to the fact that the new plantings, although
very large, are not sufficient to overcome the decline in
production of the thousands of old orchards throughout the
East. Yellow Newtown is increasing in the Northwest.
Other varieties are decreasing in some sections and increas-
ing in others. Gravenstein is growing in a strictly com-
mercial way in New Jersey, California and parts of New
England. Wagener, although in much favor in the
Spokane district of Washington, parts of Michigan and
other limited sections, is losing popularity in western
Colorado, Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, and is now
planted only to a very limited extent in the East.

Gano is planted much less than formerly and is classed
by most persons with the Ben Davis, although Black Ben
is being grown quite extensively. Due to many young

444 The Commercial Apple Industry

plantings, Gano and Black Ben are increasing in produc-
tion in the Northwest and boxed apple states.

The White Pearmain and Northwest Greening are im-
portant varieties in particular localities. They tend to
hold their own.

Maiden Blush is widely disseminated and brings good
prices in the commercial market. It is not on the increase,
due to the limited demand for its class of fruit and the
great number of old trees of this variety which are going
out.

Alexander and Benoni are grown only in a limited way
commercially, and are striving to hold their own against
the Duchess and Yellow Transparent.

Twenty Ounce is in favor in certain sections of New
York, New Jersey and Delaware, but its susceptibility to
canker has checked planting.

Bonum, important in certain southern markets, and of
superior quality, is at present largely dependent on Rap-
pahannock and Patrick counties, Virginia, and western
North Carolina for its continued commercial importance.

The following varieties are declining in commercial im-
portance and in another generation many of them will have
disappeared from the commercial orchards. Many of
these varieties are among the most important in the
country, but they evidently are not as generally profitable
as others which, for various reasons, excel them in a com-
bination of qualities.

Variety. Reasons for decline im com-
‘ mercial orchards. '
1. Ben Davis ........-.ceee- Low quality, susceptible to

blister-canker.

Vartweties

Variety.
. Northern Spy ............

. Esopus -(Spitzenburg) ....

. Tompkins King

. Roxbury and Golden ...
Russet

. Hubbardston ...........--

. Missouri Pippin .

. Tolman Sweet

9. Fameuse .....0..eeceeeeee

10. Yellow Bellflower

11. Stark
12. Smokehouse

aeeeee

13. Smith Cider

of Apples 445

Reasons for decline in com-

mercial orchards.

Slow to come into bearing; high
cost of production.

Very suspectible to disease, es-
pecially fire-blight, light
bearer.

Tree short-lived, fruit inclined
to water-core, high cost of
production. :

Former popularity due to long
keeping quality in common
storage; place now taken by
apples of superior market
quality; difficult to harvest.

Loses flavor in storage, tends to
bear much undersized and
poor colored fruit.

Short lived tree, fruit of third
rate quality and small in size.

Decline due to fact it is a sweet
apple; deserves more atten-
tion.

Susceptibility to apple-scab,
place in market being taken
by McIntosh.

Requires great care in handling,
not regarded as a satisfactory
cropper on most soils in the
East.

» Does not color well, poor quality.
. Difficult to develop fruit of good

color and quality. Other var-
ieties much better suited to
culinary uses.

Does not rank high in market
quality, and does not develop
in size in many regions.

446 The Commercial Apple Industry

14,

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21,

22,

23.

24,

25.

26.

Reasons for ‘decline in com-

Variety. mercial orchards.
Willow Twig .............Poor quality. Has declined
since advent of cold storage.
Red Limbertwig .......... Only fair quality, market price

below the average, place taken
by superior cold storage varie-
ties.

Westfield (Seek-no-further) Fruit variable in color, usually
lower in price than other
commercial varieties, lacks
culinary qualities.

Black Gilliflower ......... Does not hold flavor, difficult to
harvest, limitéd demand.

Ralls (Genet or Geniton)..Requires much thinning, rather
small in size, poor appearance.

Fall Pippin ..........-... Very susceptible to apple-scab,
r) ripens unevenly, lacks storage

qualities
Rambo .............5+.+...Leading commercial varieties

are superior in quality and
uses, does not keep well in
storage.

Huntsman .............--Susceptibility to bitter-rot; sun-
scald and scab; tree slow to
come into full bearing.

Ingram .... eee eee ees ..-Second rate in quality, medium
size.
Wolf River .............-Fruit too large, lacks storage

qualities, moderate cropper,
poor dessert quality. ~

Collings si sais sieve sais sss Lacking in dessert quality, flesh
coarse and lacking in flavor.

Lawver (Delaware Red)...Lacking in dessert quality, not
a very reliable cropper, place
taken by cold storage varieties
of superior quality.

Blue Pearmain .......... -Not a reliable cropper, rather

Varieties of Apples 447

Reasons for decline in com-
mercial orchards.

low in quality, poor storage
\ variety.

27. Buckifigham een ....-Poor shipper, moderate quality
and irregular bearer.

28. Fallawater ...............Coarse flesh, superseded by other
late keeping varieties of better
quality.

OO. SWaar: o4 6 ocke sew dwieeeieeiece Tree lacks longevity, moderate
cropper, lacking in attractive
appearance.

30. Red Canada (Steele’s Red) Delicate tree, light and uncer-
tain cropper.

Variety.

Of the above varieties, Ben Davis, Northern Spy,
Esopus and Yellow Bellflower are of great importance in
the commercial market. Ben Davis, formerly planted to
the exclusion of most other apples in Missouri and many
parts of the Middle West and South, is showing a rapid .
decline. Not only are comparatively few Ben Davis now
being planted, but thousands of the old orchards are dying
out through the ravages of the blister-canker and general
neglect. Virginia is taking the best care of its Ben Davis
orchards.

While it is true that the Ben Davis is of low quality, its
cost of production is very low as compared to most apples.
Due to its heavy bearing qualities, it has proved very
profitable in many regions. Growers to-day would make
no great mistake in planting’ Ben Davis in those regions
outside of the irrigated sections where it is well adapted.
It is very suitable for culinary purposes and its low dessert
quality should not overbalance its recognized keeping qual-

ities and productivity. ;

448 The Commercial Apple Industry

Northern Spy, although one of the highest priced and
highest quality apples grown, is being superseded by
varieties which are earlier and heavier bearers, and whose
cost of production is much less. It will retain its place in
many localities, however, and will no doubt always be
grown in commercial quantities, particularly in northern
New York, Michigan, Vermont and Canada. It has no
place in the Northwest, Central West or South.

The Esopus Spitzenburg is declining rapidly in the
East, and few commercial orchards now exist outside of
Oregon, Washington and California. It is grown in large
quantities, especially in Hood River and Wenatchee val-
leys. On account of the susceptibility of the trees to
disease, however, it is being planted to a much less degree
than formerly, even in its most favored regions. The
very high dessert and market quality of the fruit, which
is practically unsurpassed in this respect, has ont this
apple in the commercial orchards.

Tompkins King, excellent both for dessert and culinary
uses, is hardly suitable for commercial orchards, for th
same reasons as the Esopus. It brings high prices but re-
quires great care in growing and is particularly subject to
damage by windstorms. Its planting is now being largely
limited:to home orchards.

Roxbury Russet, Golden Russet, Willow Twig, Smoke-
house, Missouri Pippin, Fallawater, and Lawver owed
much of their former popularity to their ability to keep
well in cellars or common storage. With the advent of
the cold storage, these varieties lost much of their im-
portance and are now seldom planted in commercial
orchards.

Yellow Bellflower, although important in the aggregate

Varieties of Apples 449

number of trees in the United States, is grown in a com-
mercial way only in the Pajaro Valley of California. It
bids fair to retain or increase its importance there, but
the trees in the East are nearly all in old orchards, and
are rapidly going out.

Smith Cider has always been largely limited to home
orchards, particularly in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and
mid-eastern states. Although this is an old and once
valuable variety, it is now seldom planted.

Red Limbertwig, the leading commercial apple of
North Carolina, is being superseded by Arkansas (Black
Twig), Stayman and other recognized commercial varieties
which surpass it in quality and market demand.

Fall Pippin and Fameuse are autumn or early winter
apples which are losing their place in the commercial or-
chards, due principally to the development of other varie-
ties of equal or better quality. They will always be grown
to some extent commercially, particularly the Fameuse.

AGE VARIETIES BEGIN TO BEAR ~

The age at which trees attain bearing varies greatly
with the variety and also somewhat with the region. In
the Northwest, and particularly in the Wenatchee and
Yakima valleys, some varieties are in profitable bearing at
six years and are bearing full crops at ten years of age.
In the East, however, the time required for trees to attain
full bearing is from three to eight years longer. Trees in
Virginia come into bearing earlier than those in Michigan
or in New York, while bearing age for the Central West
might be given as midway between that for New York
and Virginia. New England is a region in which trees
attain full bearing at rather advanced ages.

450 The Commercial Apple Industry

The following classification arranges most of the im-
portant commercial varieties into three groups according
to the time at which they reach bearing. In the first col-
umn are those which are known as early bearers in practi-
cally every region in which they are grown. In the last
column are those which are generally classed as late bear-
ers, while in the middle column are varieties which grade
between early and late bearers. Some variation will be
found, of course, in different regions.

Early. Medium. Late.
Wealthy. Winesap ’ Delicious
Wagener Ben Davis Arkansas Black

- Duchess Gano Tompkins King
Jonathan Maiden Blush Arkansas
Missouri Pippin Alexander Yellow Newtown,
Twenty Ounce R. I. Greening Yellow Bellflower
Yellow Transparent © Williams Early Red Esopus
McIntosh Grimes Northern Spy
Rome Stayman Stark

Baldwin

York Imperial

Of the varieties listed, Northern Spy is probably slower
to come into bearing than any other, while Oldenburg
(Duchess), Yellow Transparent and Wealthy, are among
extremely early bearers. The latter three varieties begin
to bear at about five years of age, even in New York state,
while the Northern Spy can not be expected to have a
good commercial crop before it is at least fifteen years of
age, and is not in full bearing until it is twenty-five. The
following examples will show the wide variation in full
bearing age for different regions: in the Wenatchee Valley
an orchard is considered in full bearing at ten to twelve
years; in New York not generally before twenty to twenty-
five years; in Virginia it requires about fifteen years, with

Varieties of Apples 451

the exception of the Yellow Newtown plantings, which re-
quire a somewhat longer time.

Most of the late bearing varieties are of high quality
and all are in demand on the general market. However,
it is on account of their very late bearing tendencies that
many of them are not planted to a greater extent. It
should be remembered that late bearing does not mean un-
productive. Varieties which are late in coming into
bearing are often more productive than the early bearing
sorts.

RELATIVE PRODUCTIVITY OF VARIETIES IN FULL BEARING

It is difficult to arrange varieties in columns according
to productivity, because many are very productive on
some soils and unproductive on others, and also productive
in certain regions, while not at all adapted to others. In
general, however, twenty of the well known commercial
varieties might be arranged as follows somewhat in order
of productivity:

Heavy to Medium Bearing | Medium to Light Bearing
Varieties. Varieties.

1. Ben Davis 1. Yellow Newtown
2. Stayman i Winter Banana
8. Baldwin . McIntosh

4. Stark 4, Arkansas

5. York Imperial 5. Arkansas Black
6. Winesap 6. Grimes

7. Rhode Island Greening 7. Delicious

8. Rome Beauty 8. Wagener

9. Wealthy 9. Esopus

10.. Northern Spy 10. Red June

Ben Davis, although undoubtedly the heaviest bearing

452 The Commercial Apple Industry

of all commercial varieties, is at the same time usually the
lowest in price on the commercial market, while Red
June, probably producing about the lighest crop of any
commercial apple, usually tops the market in its season.
Quality is to be considered as well as the bearing tenden-
cies when selecting varieties.

RELATIVE HARDINESS OF COMMERCIAL VARIETIES

Hardiness and health of tree plays an important part in
selecting varieties and should be considered especially in
severe climates. The following are well known as hardy
sorts:

Northern Spy Wealthy

Ben Davis Baldwin

Fameuse Yellow Bellflower
Yellow Newtown Gravenstein

Tolman Sweet Williams Early Red
McIntosh Alexander

Winter Banana Delicious

The following varieties lack hardiness:

Tompkins King Grimes
Twenty Ounce Sutton
Esopus Canada Red
Hubbardston

One might mention a great many other varieties which
would fall midway between these two groups, or might add
several to each group, but the more important in each
extreme are named above. Of the hardy varieties, McIn-
tosh deserves particular mention. It withstood the severe
winter in 1917 in the Champlain district of New York and

Varieties of Apples 453

Quebec, when trees of such well known and hardy varieties
as Northern Spy, Fameuse and Ben Davis were killed in
the same orchards.

VARIETIES IN GREATEST DEMAND

In the selection of varieties, it is important to consider
those which are in great demand in the commercial mar-
ket, and which ordinarily bring the best market prices.
This sort of selection will often eliminate many hardy or
productive varieties which are not generally in great de
mand by the consuming public. The following are well
known and sought after in the general markets:

Late Varieties. Early or Fall Varieties.
Baldwin Yellow Transparent
Tompkins King Red June
Esopus Oldenburg (Duchess)
Rhode Island Greening Gravenstein,
Stayman Williams Early Red
Delicious Bonum
Winesap Wealthy
Jonathan Twenty Ounce
York Imperial McIntosh
Northern Spy
Grimes
Yellow Newtown
Rome Beauty
Ortley

Winter Banana

Of the above named late varieties, Esopus, Tompkins
King, Grimes, Northern Spy, Delicious, McIntosh and
Ortley usually outsell all others, while Winesap and Jona-
than excel the Stayman, Baldwin, York and most other
varieties in barreled apple sections. In the early market

454 The Commercial Apple Industry

Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg (Duchess) and Wealthy
are probably the three best known varieties, although they
do not usually sell for such high prices as some of the spe-
cial sorts like Red June. ‘

EXPORT VARIETIES

’

Varieties might be divided further into three classes as
follows: (1) those for special or local markets, (2) those
for general market, and (3). those for export market.
Extensive planting of varieties which are only adapted
for special markets is not recommended. It-is better to
plant general market varieties which are adapted to special
markets as well. In considering the export market, it is
necessary to eliminate some general market varieties. The
following ten or twelve varieties have proved most satis-
factory for the export trade:

Barreled : Boxed
Baldwin Yellow Newtown
Yellow Newtown Winesap
York Imperial Jonathan
Ben Davis . Esopus
Northern Spy White Pearmain

é Ortley

Yellow Newtown, York Imperial and Baldwin have up
to the present time been the favorite export varieties.

VARIETIES FOR THE HOME ORCHARDS.

In selecting varieties for the home orchard, an entirely
different system should be used than for commercial plant-
ing. Flavor and keeping quality are the two predomin-
ant qualities to be considered. Annual yield, shipping

Varieties of Apples 455

qualities, appearance and market demand should not ma-
terially affect the selection of varieties for a strictly home
orchard. Very often apples which conform to commer-
cial standards are inferior in quality to certain sorts which
may be grown at home. Suitable varieties for the home
orchard are very often too tender to ship or are too irregu-
lar in their bearing habits to prove profitable in a com-
mercial way.

Varieties most valuable for home use are seldom listed
by many nurserymen, while commercial varieties not at all
adaptable for the home orchard are often given as suitable.
Nursery catalogue descriptions of varieties are not only
meagre, but are too general in many ways and at times
are misleading. Such descriptions as “fine quality,”
“very productive” and “ excellent for the orchard ” have
been applied to practically every apple offered by nursery-
men. This criticism, of course, does not apply to all
catalogues, but one has only to read over the list of varieties
offered by several nurseries selected at random to see how
widely descriptions differ and to note the number of odd
and practically untried varieties listed. A great number
of new and odd varieties offered by nurserymen are much
inferior in quality to standard sorts.

To name the varieties suitable for home orchard pur-
poses would entail a very large list, if seasonable demands
and also varying soil and climatic conditions were con-
sidered. Among the commercial varieties suited to home
orchard use generally throughout the North and central
states are Northern Spy, McIntosh, Fameuse, Baldwin,
Grimes, Gravenstein, Tompkins King, Esopus (Spitzen-
burg), Delicious, Stayman, Yellow Newtown, Oldenburg
(Duchess), Winter Banana and Rhode Island Greening.

456 The Commercial Apple Industry

In the more southern regions, Grimes, Delicious, Wine-
sap, Stayman and Yellow Transparent are valuable, while
Bonum, Virginia Beauty and Yellow Newtown are of par-
ticularly high quality when grown in the mountain dis-
tricts of the South. Many others are suitable, but the
above are excellent commercial sorts as well as for the
home orchard. Varieties not particularly suited for the
home orchard are Ben Davis, Gano, Rome Beauty, Bis-
mark, Wolf River, Blue Pearmain, Pewaukee, Mammoth
Black Twig, Arkansas Black, Willow Twig, Missouri Pip-
pin, Smith Cider, Smokehouse-and many others. Some
sweet apples find little place in commercial orchards, but
have superior flavor and are unexcelled for dessert and
boiling purposes. The Victoria Sweet, a very tender,
juicy and rare flavored apple in season from October to
January in the North is one of these, Jersey Sweet, a
month earlier, being another. Sweet Bough is the best
summer sweet. apple, excelling all others in dessert
quality.

Pound Sweet is a late fall and winter variety. which is
valuable, even commercially, and the same is true of Tol-
man Sweet. The last named is one of the best apples
grown for household use.

Old varieties like Black Gilliflower, Roxbury and
Golden Russet, Westfield Seek-no-further, Yellow Bell-
flower and Jeffries are valuable in the home orchard.
Chenango is one of the very finest apples for the home
orchard, unexcelled in fine dessert quality. Its season is
July in southern Illinois, August in Ohio and September
in New York.

It is always well when setting out a home orchard to get
in touch with the horticultural extension department of

COOK

Varieties of Apples 457

the state and obtain the advice as to varieties for any
particular locality. Also if a variety can not be secured
from any particular nursery, the information as to where
it can be obtained may be received on inquiry of the office

of Pomological Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry,
Washington, D. C.

INDEX

Advertising (effect of), 12

Age, bearing, ‘120-122

Albemarle Pippin, 402

Alexander, 436

Alfalfa, in orchards, 161

Alkali, danger of, 178-179

American Golden Russet, 408

ous Valley of Nova Scotia,
8

Aphids, life history and control,
210

Aphis sorbi, 212
Archips argyrospila, 215
Apple-blotch, 217
rosette, 222
scab, 216
tree tent caterpillar, 214
worm, 206
Arkansas
advantages and disadvantages,
108
Black, 412
Black Twig, 411
regional description, 54-56
Valley region, 59
Arsenate of lead, 239
Arsenite of zine, 241
Aspidiotus perniciosus, 210
Astrachan, 435
Australia, 95-99

Bacillus amylovorus, 221
Baldwin, 396
spot, 223

Barry, Patrick, influence on in-
dustry, 22

Basement storage, 312

Bearing trees, pruning of, 274-
275 ;

Bees, importance of, 253
as Davis, 397
enoni, 433
Bitter Root Valley, regional de-
scription, 64 :
Bitter-rot, 218
Black Ben, 407
Gilliflower, 425
Twig, 411
Blister canker, 219
Blodgett, 236
Blossom-blight, 222
Boise Valley, 75
Bonum, 43
Boom development, 17-18
Bordeaux mixture, 247
spray nozzles, 232
Box apple districts production
of, 79
British Columbia, 92—94
Broker, 323.
Brush disposal, cost of, 375
Bud-moth, 215
Bulk shipments, 312
By-products, 348-356
increase in use of, 14

Cabinét evaporators, 352
Calcium arsenate, 240
California, 76-79
advantages of, 113-115
early apples, 83-84
early development of apple 23
Fruit Growers’ Exchange, 317
Canada, 85-95
Canning, 355
Capital, necessary, 126-128
Carlot distribution, 325
operator, 324

459

460

Carolina June, 437

Carpocapsa pomonella, 206

Cash ‘buyers, 314

Cedar rust, 218

Census figures, somewhat mis-
leading, 2 i

Centralization of apple industry,
6

Central leader, pruning, 261
Ceramic oven, 353
Champlain, 440
district, advantages and dis-
advantages, 102-103
district, regional description,
35

Chapman, Jonathan, influence on
industry, 22
Chenango, 438
Choosing an orchard, 100-131
Cider, 356
Citrus fruit, competition with,
18
Clarke, W. T., influence of, 25
Classification, scientific, 26-27
Clean cultivation, 156-159
Climatic influences, 123-125
Codlin-moth, life history and con-
trol, 206-210
Codling, 440
Collar-rot, 220
Collins, 422
Color, effect of fertilization, 193
Color, indicating maturity, 292
Colorado, distribution and plant-
ings, 60-61
first plantings, 26
western slope, advantages and
disadvantages, 109
Commercial apple crop, definition
of, 4
size of, 5-6
Commission-man, 323
Common storage, 335-336
Community packing-house, 308
Conatrachelus nenuphar, 213
Consignment, 313
Conveyor belts, 305-306

I ndex

Cobperative organization; form
of, 319-320
selling, 316~319
Cost of production, 357-386
in different regions, 384
Costs, other than labor, 360
Cover-crops, 159-162 ‘
advantages and disadvantages,
161
Crop estimates, 337
Cross pollination, 249-257
Culls, disposition of, 306
Cultivation, methods, 162-163
orchard, 155-171
Cultural methods, effect on con-
sumption, 13
Curculio, 213
Cutworms, 215
Cycles, in apple industry 8,

Danger from speculative develop-
ment, 18
Delaware, advantages and dis-
advantages, 104
early apples, 82
regional description, 37
Delicious, 406
Diseases. of the apple, 216-225
in selection of site, 122-123
Distillation types of evaporators,
354
Distribution, 322-327
effect on consumption, 12
Districts, apple, 28-84
Diversified farms, 133-140
Double-headed_ pruning, 264
Downing, A. J., influence of, 21
Duchess, 426
Dusting, discussion of, 235-238

Early apple regions, 80-84
Harvest, 439
Ripe, 435

Electrically heated driers, 352

English Codling, 440
Russet, 409

Esopus Spitzenburg, 403

Index

Establishing the apple orchard,
144-153

Evaporators, 350

Exports, 11

Export varieties, 454

Facing barrels, 332

Fallawater, 439

Fall Pippin, 439

Fameuse, 432

Farm, size of, 125-126
management phases, 133-143
orchards, decline of, 4

Favorable factors in apple out-

look, 9-14
Fertile varieties, 257
Fertilizer, amount to the tree,

198-204
how to apply, 200-201
Fertilizing, present practices,
187-188

the orchard, 186
Fillers, use of, 153
Fire-blight, 221
Fixed costs, 380
Flavor, 389
Flooding, 185
Fly-speck, 217
Forced draft evaporators, 352
Foreign market, development of,
ll

Foreign production, 85-99
French Russet, 408
Friend type nozzle, 232
Frosts, in West, 177-178
Fruit buds, 271

setting, 249-257

tree Leaf-roller, 215
Fruiting wood, distribution of,

275
Fungicides, 247-248
Furrowing for irrigation, 185
Future outlook for apple indus-
try, 7
production, 14

Gano, 407

461

Sear important regions, 45-

Gillett’s Seedling, 401
Gilliflower, 425
Gypsy moth, damage of, 33
Glomerella rufomaculans, 218
Golden Delicious, 440
Russet, 408
Government marketing agencies,
336-337
Grades and standards, 329
Grading laws, 331-332
machines, 30
Grand Valley, plantings, 60-61
Gravenstein, 429
Green aphis, 211-212
Grimes Golden, 404
Gymnosporanqium juniperi vir-
giniane, 218

Hail damage, to be avoided, 346
Hampers, where used, 330
Handling the crop, 291-312
Hardiness of varieties, 452
Harvesting costs, 379
Heaton, J. C. B., influence of, 51
Heeling, in, 146
Heterocordylus malinus, 214
Hexagonal planting system, 147
History of commercial industry,
20

Hollow tile, construction of, 311
Home orchard varieties, 454
Hood River Valley, advantages
and disadvantages, 112-113
region, 70-72
Hubbardston, 416
Hudson Valley, advantages and
disadvantages, 101-102
regional description, 32-33
Hull, John, 231
Hunt Russet, 408
Hybridization, 389

Idaho, 74-75
advantages and disadvantages,
110-111

462

Illinois, advantages and disad-
vantages, 107
regional description, 50-53
Implements used in cultivation,
165
Increased demand, 10
Inflation, apple land values, 8
Ingram, 424
Insect pests of the apple, 206-216
Insects, in selection of site, 122—
123
Insecticides, 238
Inspection at point of origin,
332-333
Insulation, 306-312
Intensive farms, 133-140
Inter-crops, use of, 153-154
Internal browning, 223
Investment costs, 363
Iowa, heavy plantings, 56-59
Irrigated districts, amount of
water, 181-182
characteristics of 173-177
choosing of, 177-181
Irrigation, 172-185
methods of, 183-185
number of applications, 182-
183

time of, 182

Jelly manufacturing, 355

Johnson’s Fine Winter, 400
Jonathan,, 399
Jumble pdck, 304

Kansas, heavy plantings, 56-59
Kentucky, 48

Kiln evaporators, 351

King David, 440

Kraus, work of, 189-191
Kraybill, work of, 189-191

Labor conditions, 128-129
cost of, 359-360
efficiency of, 373
Seasonal distribution, 367

Lady, 426

Index :

Leguminous cover-crop, 160
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 211
Leptothyrium pomi, 217
Lewis, C. I., quoted, 195-198

‘Lewiston district, 75

Lime, value of, 192

sulfur, 241

dry, 245-246 .

home-made 242-244
Locality, choosing of, 100-131
Loess apple belt, 56-57
Longevity of orchards, 121-122
Long Island Russet, 408
Loppers, 278
Low prices, danger of, 134
Lowry, 439
Lump-sum buyers, 315
Lygidea mendax, 214

Magnum Bonum, 434

Maiden Blush, 431

Maine, apple industry in, 33

Malacosoma americana, 214

Malus communis, 27

. sylwestris, 27

Mammoth Black Twig, 411

Market, proximity to, 118-119

Massachusetts, apple industry in,
33

Materials, cost of, 372
McIntosh, 430
Mechanical sizers, 307
Mice, meadow, 223

pine, 224
Michigan, regional description,

49-50
Michigan, western, advantages

and disadvantages, 106-107
Middle West, early development
of apple, 23
Mill shavings, insulation, 312
Milton-Freewater district, 73
Minnesota, 80
Miscible oils, 245 ,
Mississippi Valley region of Illi-
nois, 52

Index

Missouri, 54-59
advantages and disadvantages,
107-109
River region, 56-59
advantages and disadvantages,
108-109
Pippin, 418
Modified leader pruning, 266
Monmouth, 421
Montana, regional description, 64
Morris Red, 424 :

Natural draft evaporators, 350
Natural form pruning, 260
Nebraska, heavy plantings, 56-59
Neglected orchards, treatment of,
284-290
New England, advantages, and
disadvantages, 103
Baldwin belt, regional descrip-
tion, 33-34
early apples, 81
early plantings, 20
New Hampshire, apple industry
33

New Jersey, advantages and dis-
advantages, 104
district, regional description,

early apples, 81-82
New Mexico, advantages and dis-
advantages, 115
distribution of plantings, 62—
63
New York, early apples, 81
early development of, 21
New Zealand, 95-99 :
Nicotine solution, 244
Nitrate of soda, time to apply,
205
value of, 192-200
North Carolina, important re-
gions, 43-45
Northern Spy, 401 |
Northwestern Greening, 419
Nova Scotia, 86-88
Nozzles, types of, 232

463

Nummularia disereta, 219
Nursery stock, 145-146

Ohio, important regions, 46-48
southern advantages and dis-
advantages, 106
Okanogan Valley of B. C., 93
regional description, 67-69
Oldenburg, 426
Ontario, 90-92
Opalescent, 440
Open center pruning, 262
Orchard carriers, 303
cultivation, 155-171
Oregon, 70-73
advantages and disadvantages,
112-113
Organization, farm, 133-140
Ortley, 420
Outlook, favorable factors, 9
unfavorable factors, 15
Over-production, 8
possibility of, 14-16
Oyster-shell scale, 211
Ozark region, 54
advantages and disadvantages,
107-108

Package, standard, 330
Packing, 296
boxed apples, 303
Packing-house arrangement, 305
construction, 310-312
for barreled apples, 298
Pajaro Valley, 76-77
early development of apple, 23
Paris Green, 240
Payette Valley, 74
Pear-blight, 221
Pecos Valley, plantings in, 62-63
Pelican, 440
Pennock, 440
Pennsylvania, important regions,
38-42
Perry Russet, 409
Phosphorus, value of, 192~204
Phyllosticta solitaria, 217

464

Physical handling, 329
Picking, 291
utensils, 294
Piedmont, in Virginia, 40-41
region, advantages and disad-
vantages, 105-106
Planting, distances, 149-151
system of, 147-150
Planting-board, use of, 151
Plant-lice, 211
Plowing, 163
Plum curculio, 213
Pole pruners, 277-278
Pollination, 249-257
Pollinizers, 255
Pomme Grise, 408
Pooling, 321
Potash, value of, 192-204
Pound Sweet, 422
Prices, relation to production, 7
Prices western apple land, 9
Productivity of varieties, 451
Pruning, 258-278
cost of, 375-376
, time of, 276
Pumpkin Sweet, 422
Pyrus baccata, 27
Ioensis, 27
Malus, 26.

Quebec, apple industry in, 89
Quincunx planting system, 148

Rambo, 419
Raw versus planted land, 116
‘Recommended varieties, 391
Red Astrachan, 435

Bug, 214

Canada, 421

Cheek, 431

Cheek Pippin, 421

June, 437

Limbertwig, 414
Regional development, 130
Regions, apple, 28-84
Renovation of old orchards, 284-

290

Index

Rhode Island Greening, 398
Rogue River Valley, 72-73
advantages and disadvantages,

113

Rome Beauty, 401

Rosette, apple, 222

Rosy apple aphis, 211

Round-headed Apple-tree borer,
214

Roxbury Russet, 408

Rusgsets, 408

San José scale, life history and
control, 210
Saperda candida, 214
Saws, 277
Schizoneura lanigera, 212
Sebastopol apple district, 78
Sections, apple, 28-84
Seed, quantity to use, 162
Seed selection, 389
Seeds, indicating maturity, 293
Setting of fruit, 250-254
trees, 151-152
Shears, 277
Shenandoah-Cumberland district,
38-40
advantages and disadvantages,
104-105
Shipping station, distance from,
19-120
Site, choosing of, 116-131
Size of farm, influence of, 366
of orchard, influence of, 364
Slatted table, 297
Smith’s Cider, 439
Smokehouse, 439
Snow, 432
Social conditions, 129 ~
Sod-mulch, advantages and dis-
advantages, 157~158
Soil, 130-132
Management, chart of, 164
management, cost of, 376
Sooty blotch, 217
Sorting barreled apples, 296
boxed apples, 303

Indez

Southeastern Illinois region, 53
Southern Illinois, early apple re-
gion, 51-52
early apples, 83
Southern Ohio, 46-47
Specialized farms, 133-140
Spitzenburg, 403
Spokane district, 70
advantages and disadvantages,
112
Spray-gun, 231
Spraying, 226-248
cost of, 228
notes, regional, 233-235
Spreaders, in spray, 246
Square, planting system, 147
Stable manure, value of, 188-205
Stack evaporators, 351
Stark, 415
Starr, 436
State, H. R., influence of, 45
Stayman, 405
Sterile varieties, 256
Stewart, J. P., quoted, 191-194
Storage, 333-335
Strawberry, 438
Summer pruning, 276-277
Supplies, purchase of, 322
Sutton, 424
Swaar, 439
Sweet Bough, 439
Syndicate farming, danger of, 18
projects, 117-118

Tasmania, 95-99

production of, 18
Tenantry, systems of, 140-143
Thinning, 278-283

cost of, 378
Tillage, 162-163
Time to buy, 117

to plant, 151 ;
Tmetocera ocellana, 215
Tolman Sweet, 417
Tompkins King, 410
Tools, used in cultivation, 164
Tools, pruning, 277

465

Total apple crop, 5
Tractor, advantages and disad-
vantages, 165-171 ,
Transparent, 428
Transportation,
sumption, 12
Tree-run buyers, 315
Trees, heading 152-153
number to the acre, 149
setting, 151-152
Truck, use of, 171
Trunk-blight, 222
Twenty Ounce, 429
Twig-blight, 222
Twin Falls district, 75

effect on con-

Unfavorable factors in outlook,
15
Unfavored regions, 17
Utah, advantages and disadvan-
tages, 109-110
distribution of plantings, 63

Vacuum driers, 354
Value of apple crop, 3
Varieties, 387-457
cost of production, 371
influence on cost production,
367-371
in selection of site, 118 _
Venturia pomi, 216
Vermont, apple industry, 35
Vermorel spray nozzles, 232
Vinegar, 356
Virginia, ‘advantages and disad-
vantages, 104-106
Beauty, 440
history of early planting, 22
Virginia, important Regions, 38—
42

Wagener, 411
Walla Walla district, 70
Washington, advantages and dis-
advantages, 111-112
regional description, 64-70

466

Water rent, 179
right, 180
. _ Sprouts, treatment of, 287-288
Watsonville district, 76~77
Wealthy, 427
Wenatchee Valley, advantages
and disadvantages, 111-112
first plantings, 25
regional description, 67-69
Western New York, advantages
and disadvantages, 100-101
regional description, -29-32
Westfield, 439 :
West Virginia, important region,
38, 39, 42
White Pearmain, 414
Willamette Valley, 73
Williams, 433
Early Red, 433
Favorite, 433
Willow Twig, 413

Index

Winesap, 398

Winter Banana, 418
Wisconsin, 79-80

Wolf River, 423

Woolman’s Long Pippin, 420
Woolly apple aphis, 212-213
Wounds, dressing, 278

Yakima Valley, advantages and
disadvantages, 111

first plantings, 24
regional description, 65-67

Yates, 415

Yellow Bellflower, 407
Newtown, 402
Transparent, 428

Yields, 339-347
in selection of site, 118
table of, 343

“York Imperial, 400

Yucaipa apple section, 78-79

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