Fodder in India, a treatise on grasses and crops, their characteristics and cultivation, etc

A. T. GILLING

ALBERT R. MANN
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New YorkK STATE COLLEGES
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Fodder in India, a treatise on grasses an

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FODDER IN INDIA

A TREATISE ON
GRASSES AND CROPS, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
AND CULTIVATION
Etc

BY

HARRY T. GILLING

(Government Grass and Dairy Farms)

CALCUTTA
THACKER, SPINK & CO

19t5

FON ADAIR
( DEDICATED
TO

MY SISTER EDITH.

eee

(
Semper fidelis.

aS soiin NN

“INTRODUCTION.

Tuis little work is neither the first nor the last word on
Agriculture or Fodder: it is by no means entirely original,
but it is a small summary of information collected from
notes, various works, and pamphlets on the subject, and the
practical experience and observation of the writer extending
over many years on the plains of India. It is intended to
assist beginners and students by providing a few facts,
scientific and practical, as a basis for further research;
but it is principally by constant observation, intelligent
enquiry, and practical experience that knowledge will be
gained: and it is to these that the student must turn for
details which will not be found herein, for several reasons,
one being that detail will rarely be found to work out the
same in any two places, at any rate if any distance apart:
another is that it does not seem wise to tempt the novice to
learn by heart after the manner of the parrot, rather than by
practice, observation, and enquiry from his local superiors,
cultivators, etc.

Should this small work find a reasonable appreciation,
I shall, time and opportunity permitting, endeavour to write
a more elaborate work on this subject going more fully into
statistics and details, examples, etc., with the possible colla-
boration of other scientific and practical agriculturists.

THE Farm,
‘ SHAHJEHANPUR, U. P. HARRY T. GILLING.
May ist, 1914.

FODDER IN INDIA.

CHAPTER lL.

Tue ‘Supply of Fodder in India” for milch and draught
animals (more especially as regards this
book, the supply for horses, mules and Pea ae
bullocks belonging to the Government),
is one of the most, if not the most, important considerations
of the day ; and by the use of the term ‘‘ Supply of Fodder”
must be included sufficient quantities for ‘bad’ as well as
normal years, z.¢., it must include ‘ Reserves of Fodder’ of
some kind or another to meet any emergency be it famine or
war, fire or water. There are many products from the land
which could be bought and stored cheaply in good years as a
provision for horned cattle and to some extent mules; but
these same products or by far the most of them are-not
fodder for horses and could not be used as such for any
length of time. Horses require grass either green or dry, and
it is with the provision of this grass which I principally
intend to deal herein..

Some fifteen years or more ago the Military Grass
Farms were opened in and about a few
cantonments, and since then they have
been gradually expanding and improv-
ing, until to-day there is no cantonment where mounted
troops are stationed without a Military Grass Farm in some
shape or form. Further, this Department has taken up all
arrangements for fodder supplies to Government animals on
the Line of March, Camps of Exercise, Artillery Practice
Camps, Staff Rides, Mobilization Reserves, etc., etc. Al-
though the arrangements, considering the difficulties of the

= I

Institution of Mili-
tary Grass Farms.

2 FODDER IN INDIA.

country, the frequent bad years, the enormous quantities -
required, and the comparative newness of the department,
are undoubtedly good, there still remains room for improve-
ment in both ‘‘quality and quantity,” to a great extent
perhaps the shortcomings in quality are due to the constant
enormous quantity required ; be that as it may, our business
is to remedy the evil.
Prior to the days of Military Grass Farms there were
Sees aes CO farms of sorts scattered here and
ments for Fodder there over India which it is unneces-
Sapply sary to discuss, but which in their day
answered their purpose more or less. The Indian Cavalry
Regiments also mutatis mutandis had their own farms and
fodder arrangements as to-day ; in days to come let us hope
that the Military Grass Farms Department will take over
these farms and the fodder supplies of these regiments also.
But the bulk of the fodder supply was made by purchase
through contractors, with all the attendant evils, the
unfortunate quadruped being by no means the least sufferer.
Fodder contractors have nowadays ceased to exist as such in
most places, and it should be the constant aim of all con-
cerned to finally complete their extinction. This being done
farm managers will, together with their
farm staff, supplement the produce from
farm lands by the utilization to the full of
encamping grounds, which should be permanently acquired,
any other rukh or forest lands available, and the resources
of their district, taking the full benefit of good years for accu-
mulating ‘reserves of fodder’: the results of which procedure
will be a sufficiency for all calls of an economical fodder of
good quality. Encamping grounds which are fairly central,
handy, and if possible nearthe railway, may very conveniently
be used as receiving depdts and for small reserves all the
year round. In this way a supply of fodder is immediately
available for troops or the line of march, etc., etc., and also
which is a great consideration the farm, the manager, and his
staff become well-known in the district to all concerned and

Object of Grass
Farms.

FODDER IN INDIA. 3

the depét becomes known as a market for the disposal of
fodder where a fair rate and immediate payment can be
obtained ; besides many of the encamping grounds can easily
be brought under grass cultivation.

CHAPTER II.

In establishing a farm a smaller area of good land is
preferable to a large area of poor land,
but in using the expression ‘poor,’ land "St#bishing a Grass
which is capable of considerable im-
provement is not implied, but rather usar, piror, and
mattiyar lands which are hardly reclaimable or insufficiently
so to make it worth while. Always be on the look-out and
prowl in your own district and try to snap up any bit of
land at all possible, if it is not to be bought get the longest
possible lease with hopes of a renewal ; but do your prowling
quietly, keep your mouth shut and your ears wide open ;
‘do your acquiring gradually and on strictly economic lines ;
don’t take up more land than you can satisfactorily work. In
few places, if any, are the grass farm
lands sufficiently extensive to produce vsti reise eta
all that is necessary for requirements, *od4e"
not to mention the necessary reserve, which necessitates the
procedure of leasing and purchase as recounted in the fore-
going chapter. Other things being equal, the nearer farm
lands are to cantonments and regimental lines the better, at'
the same time for manuring purposes, and certain forms of
cultivation you will have a freer hand the further away from
regimental lines. It is often indeed quite an advantage to
have your land outside cantonment boundaries and the scope
of sanitary authorities altogether. Land up to 10-12 miles
distant if worth anything should certainly be taken up for
cultivation of either grass or crops, and for rukh and forest
lands up to 50 miles is no too far, and further if on or near the
railway. Grazing lands are usually preferable to cultivated

4 FODDER IN INDIA.

land—cheaper, more immediately productive of a grass crop ;
on the other hand crop lands are expensive to buy and expen-
sive to put down to grass, and much slower in giving any
return. Of course one is not always able to pick and choose.

CHAPTER III.

THERE are several excellent publications about ‘Soils,’
and the student will be well advised to
peruse one or more of them carefully for a
better understanding and more minute detail than will be
found herein, although sufficient information is given for
forming a foundation and immediate need. Soil then is the
upper surface (crust) of the earth, formed from the disinte-
gration of rock with an intermingling of animal and vegetable

Soil.

matter in a greater or lesser state of decay. It comprises a
depth of only from 2” or 3” up to 1’ 0”, rarely more and usually
less. Sub-soil is found immediately below soil, and where
the “soil” is of considerable depth, say
Sub-soil. Ne mee ;
over 10", ‘sub-soil” hardly enters into
our calculations being beyond the depth usually cultivated in
India, and beyond the question of moisture, including
drainage, is but little used by the roots of grass or crops.
The general average constituents of soil are: sand, clay,
calcic carbonate, humus, gravel; and

Classification of Soils. . .
soils are usually classified as follows :—
Sandy Soil containing under to p.c. clay.
4 Loam 5 from 10-20 p.c. 4,
Loam 5 17 © 20530 Ps Ck 5
’ Clay Loam ys ” 30°50 P. C5,
as Soil ‘3 over 50 p. c. +
Humus 3 ae 5p-c. decayed vegetable

matter.

Gravel in varying small percentage will usually form
some part of any or each of the above kinds of soil. A sub-
soil may consist of one or more or all in varying percentages
of rock, clay, sand, gravel, calcic carbonate, or humus.

FODDER IN INDIA. 5

Taking into consideration the many kinds of soils with
their varying constituents, qualities, and
special aptitude for raising particular are eapetesinn 8 be
crops, also the vast variety between soils
of one district and another all bearing definite local names,
it would be not over-wise perhaps to lay down as a hard and
fast rule any particular soil as the best for grass cultivation,
specially when, as is so often the case, you have to take what
you can get, although it may be remembered that you can,
with time, convert one classification of soil to another, or in
other words make your own soil. However, in the opinion
of the writer, for grass cultivation the soil to be desired is
a clayey loam (dorassa), and for the following reasons :—
Clay has a most retentive power of moisture, and will retain
and furnish the roots with water in times of severe dry
weather, even drought ; a clayey loam will retain applica-
tions of plant food (manure) far much longer than a coarser
soil ; moisture and manure what more do you ask for grow-
ing grass. Not always being free to choose you must make
the most of what you have got, and the writer does not imply
for a moment that grass will only grow on a clayey loam, far
fromit. For a perfect soil many elements are necessary, and
for satisfactory results the following are
essential: nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
potash ; and because plant roots are un-
able to absorb their food except in solution there must be
sufficient moisture to dissolve these elements but not
excessive moisture, otherwise all the air will be driven out of
the soil with a consequent loss of oxygen which, it seem
unnecessary almost to write it, is necessary to all forms of
animal and plant life (possibly with a few rare exceptions).
If you are faced with a ‘Sandy Soil’ or ‘ Clay Soil’ on which
to cultivate grass don’t waste any time
trying anything else, but ‘‘ trench ”
with bazaar or city rubbish or, if there are
no objections on sanitary grounds, night-soil. It is not
considered that there is any advantage, for our purpose, in

Essentials of a Good
Soil.

Treatment of Sand
or Clay.

6 FODDER IN INDIA.

trenching a greater depth than 9” at most, and this is the depth
the writer advises for lasting and most satisfactory resiilts :
but here again local conditions as to the quantity and quality
of the manure available—a depth of 6” only will do very
well perhaps, and anything less than 4” is hardly worth while.
All grass lands are enormously benefited by occasional’

very light ploughing and harrowing

Necessioy forticuer: i inter months and_ before
ine Grass Lands. during the wint
the monsoon, especially when the lands

have been grazed after the harvest, but the lands must never
be left with furrows and clods. ‘he reason of this benefit
is that perfect ‘‘ capillary attraction ”’ is maintained, and an
open soil with the consequent constant supply of moisture
evenly distributed and freedom for the grass roots, the neces-
sity for both of which conditions is most essential to satisfac-
tory farming, though a fact unfortunately very often lost
sight of. The soil requirements for crops and cereals other
than grass will be referred to later in the chapters concerned.

CHAPTER IV.

A wet ‘‘cold” soil is an abomination, though it
Sache ios, will, under certain conditions, produce
cereal crops of a sort; for our purpose
and grass Cultivation it is quite useless. To remedy this
state of things we must ‘‘till”’ the soil, and as this may not
always be sufficient then we must “ drain.” The reverse
circumstances are a ‘‘dry” soil, and again the remedy is
tillage, accompanied by ‘‘ banding” in a greater or lesser
degree according to the ‘lie’ and level of the land.

Let us commence with drainage. On economical grounds
managers of grass farms in India
will generally have to be content with
what for which I have no better name we will call ‘natural
artificial” drainage—a paradox indeed, but the intention
is to distinguish between tile or pipe draining (pakka)

Drainage,

FODDER IN INDIA. 7

and simple draining by digging and levelling up. Strictly
speaking of course any system of drainage not provided
solely by nature is artificial.

It would be difficult to lay down any fixed rule for drain-
ing. Everything depends upon the general physical features
of the land to be drained and also upon the soil texture ; but
when you make a start ‘‘don’t spoil the ship for a hap’orth
of tar” ; don’t try to make water run up hill, it won’t, although
the writer has seen such a phenomenon or what appeared
to be such in England ; always commence your drain at the
‘end’ (z.e., where the surplus water is to run off, or the mouth
of the drain) and work your way back to the first wet plot;
don’t join up your laterals square (ze¢., at right angles).
Great depth is not always necessary. Commencing at 214!
increasing to 3’ at the outlet will usually meet the case; but
all the same dig for a good “fall” and the fall in your main
must be as great and preferably rather greater than in your
Jaterals; a ‘‘ fall” of 1—50 will answer well as a rule but as
aforesaid it can be no hard and fast rule.

It will be to advantage before starting to read through
some chapters on drainage in one of the agricultural works
which abound, if you don’t care to buy (it will be money well
spent) there should be no difficulty in borrowing one of these
books, or try the local club library.

Nothing perhaps is more universally neglected, or shall
we say overlooked, possibly in ignorance,
than ploughing and harrowing ‘‘ grass-
lands”: even afew turns with a home-
made brush harrow will often make a lot of difference to out-
turn and an ‘‘even”’ crop—experientia docet. On many grass
farms as soon as the harvest is over the lands are immediate-
ly let out under various arrangements (in my opinion all
bad and some worse than others) for grazing? (what’s in a
name), the argument being that it is
good for the land because it manures it
(as a rule even the manure is carried
away), and also that it means cash realizations. There is

Tillage of Grass
Lands.

Grazing not Bene-
ficial.

8 FODDER IN INDIA.

a passion for these realizations otherwise grazing would
‘‘never” be allowed except with great restrictions, under
strictly scientific and intelligent arrangements, and for a
limited period—and why ? The cattle come on in hundreds,
and I should not be far out in some cases if I said thousands. ”
Some are paid for many are not. They wander at their will
often accompanied by goats and destroy and pollute as much
as they eat. The soil is trampled down, and very often
puddled, after which baking into a hard iron-like surface,
any shoots or roots (which may be left) are thereby done to
death from frost, damp, inclement winter weather, and the
following scorching summer sun, simply because the capillary
arrangements are absolutely ruined, the banding is severely
damaged, fences and trees are destroyed, in addition the
chances of disease, and the moral damage to preservation,
protection, and conservation of farm lands atalltimes. But the
loss may be called a ‘‘ negative’ one and not prominently
noticeable to the ordinary observer. A few hundred rupees
are received and credited as a set off against the year’s
expenditure, and every one is satisfied (especially the cattle
owners and a few others)—although the loss, negative of
course (s¢c), may amount to more than one thousand rupees,
and is often incalculable. But enough, and to get back
to tillage. After the harvest and the raking up, what is
left on the ground is short broken grass and much seed. Of
the latter some will rot and form manure, the remainder will
germinate later on ; all the former will rot and form manure.
After the first decent shower of late rain, or winter rains
(and don’t wait for a deluge), get your country ploughs and
harrows on to the land, run them across both ways, this
procedure will enable the roots to secure moisture and keep
alive. It will cover up delicate young shoots, enable the land
to absorb the water quickly and prevent waste of rain by
evaporation, assist in decomposing the aftermath (referred
to above) leaves and other organic matter due to autumn
falls, and stimulate the ‘‘capillary” tendency, that most
important of all considerations in farming. If time, labour.

FODDER IN INDIA. 9

and bullocks can be spared this process should be repeated
after the winter rains before the surface has time to bake ; it is
hardly possibie to overdo this particular job if done intelli-
gently. Don’t plough during actual rainfall or zmmediately
after it; don’t plough deep, 3” isample and rather less will
do ; don’t leave clods and deep furrows (there should be none),
level off with a pahata or sohaga (roller) if necessary.

Tillage as an adjunct to drainage will hardly be com-
prised ie the foregoing. For improving nn an
or reclaiming wet or cold land the
ploughing must be as deep as. possible and as frequent,
and English or modified English ploughs should be used,
until a fine tilth is obtained. As previously stated draining
may also be necessary in the case of wet land, and in the
case of either wet, cold, or dry lands the addition of long
green manure in conjunction with the ploughing is very
desirable. Broadly speaking then for ‘‘ reclamation and
drainage” purposes very deep ploughing is required; for
‘‘ grass cultivation ” shallow ploughing and the harrow ; for
“crop cultivation’’ medium ploughing and the pahata or
sohaga; but in all cases avoid ploughing always at the
same depth or you will create ‘‘ plowpan,” 7. e., a hard caked
surface immediately below the depth you are ploughing
at which willinterfere seriously with capillary attraction, and
also prevent the roots striking downwards for food and
water. The alpha and omega of successful crop cultivation is
constant tillage before and after the rains
at varying depths to form a good seed-
bed, and enable the young roots after seed germination to
obtain a constant and ample supply of water with a
minimum of difficulty, as well as to escape from the scorch-
ing rays of the sun in the greater depth.

Banding or gatha-banding may be conveniently taken in
this chapter. It is almost equally as
important in India as drainage and ie
tillage, and is part of the system of
‘‘dry-farming.” It is a system providing for the retention

Dry Farming.

Io FODDER IN INDIA.

of water, and incidentally plant food, manure, etc., On
the higher and drier tracts of land. By this method the
land is laid out in plots or pattis or gathas, which for
convenience in every way are usually rectangular: of
various sizes according to the level and irregularity of
the land to be dealt with, by means of small banks
(bands) and ditches of from 6” to 2’ 6” in height or
depth, as a rule about 1’ 0” is a convenient size, but the
manager must use his judgment, the more irregular or
steeper the land the bigger the bands and the smaller the
areaenclosed. It will be found useful to gatha-band in fixed
areas, working in acres from % to 3 acres per plot on bad
land and 4 to 10 acres on good fairly level land. Bands
should meet the prevailing flow of water square on, not at an
angle, the ditch may be on either side or both, if only on one
side that which is facing the flow. Briefly it may be said
that the main object of banding or terracing land is to make .
each plot or area enclosed deal with its own rainfall.

CHAPTER V.

THERE are more opinions than one on the question of
‘‘manure and manuring,” but we must
all agree on the object of it which
is to provide plant life with food ; but, equally with human
beings and animals, various plants have their special re-
quirements, as the saying goes ‘‘one man’s meat is another
man’s poison” so what is food for grass is not ‘‘the” food for
rose trees and wice versa, bearing in mind of course that we
are always aiming at the best results. Ordinarily for grass
cultivation green or long manure is the article required, the
idea being to protect the surface soil and young shoots, and to
keep the soil ‘‘ coarse” and open equally as much as to feed
the grass which on good land requires, once it is established,
but little nutriment apart from what it obtains from rain and
atmosphere and the chemical constituents of the soil. Grass

Manuring.

FODDER IN INDIA. Il

once established is not “ hungry,” and excessive feeding will
make it coarse and abnormal which is not desirable (a similar
result will be obtained by feeding a baby to its fill with
“patent” foods—excellent as an advertisement but not desir-
able as an olive branch), true you will get more weight
(outturn) and ‘also more ‘‘ complaints ””—we are seeking
‘« quality.” On the other hand crops require short or rotted,
quick acting manure, in a condition to immediately yield up
its nutriment when the seed has germinated and the young
roots require strength: they are hungry and growing and
want lots of food of the best. There are occasions when
‘‘crop-lands” also require long green manure which will be
dealt with in a later chapter.

When putting down ‘‘ grass-seed” a light dressing of
short manure is, of course, desirable and advisable, but except
Gn quite poor land not absotutely necessary.

The cheapest, quickest, and in the writer’s opinion
the best system of manuring for grass
cultivation is ‘‘ top-dressing,” and where
it is available in plenty with ‘‘stable-litter,” this is usually
cheaper than any other kind of manure, and where the
situation of the land makes it a consideration it is the
least objectionable, two or three good showers settle it down
or remove any smell. Failing this, bazaar rubbish, city
rubbish, and sweepings of all sorts are excellent top-dressings,
but usually containa medley of pots, tin cans, bricks and stones,
etc., all of which have to be picked up again and buried, or they
may be used for filling up holes, etc. Spoiled hay, bedding, and
silage are also good dressings and willhelp. About 2%” deep
will be found a satisfactory depth for spreading, this depth
settles down nicely and evenly, a greater depthis rather too
heavy, more expensive and not necessary, while less usually
results in patches and is easily washed away—at the same time
cut your coat according to the cloth. About 150 country cart
loads will cover an acre. Thecost will vary according to local
conditions, especially distances, but for stable-litter Rs. 80
should always cover it. The others will come more expensive

Top Dressing.

2

12 FODDER IN INDIA.,

up to Rs. 150 per acre, but you will be amply repaid
even at this price. The other methods of manuring
muanemini: are various forms of “trenching” which

however, except in cases of reclam-
ation, or on sandy soils and clay which ‘‘ must” be
trenched, I think are quite second to top-dressing simply
because of the area involved and the extra time and money
required. Night-soil of course must be trenched and is the
best form of manuring, but itis almosta thing of the past,
at any rate so far as grass farms are concerned. The cinders
and ashes from incinerators are a very beneficial dressing
either for grass or crops. If you trench you must ‘‘ level”
and ‘‘sow” after it, when the monsoons begin, this is
expensive if properly done and if not properly done is worse
than useless, and lastly it is not immediately productive.
Certainly the trenching system when well done makes a
farm to be very proud of, and on a small one of 200-300 acres
the writer would certainly trench a foot deep; but most of
our farms are large and getting larger, and managers have
not the time to give to special work of this kind. We require
quick returns on the most economical lines and top-dressing
is the best way to get this. A few words more than on
top-dressing :—Don’t start until you have gatha-banded
even on the most level land, and repair your bands annually ;
don’t top-dress on high lying undulating land (hillocky) if
it is like that shallow trench about 3” deep and try to
level up a bit by degrees. If you are
troubled with white-ants sprinkle a few
baskets per acre of quick lime and they will soon leave you
alone. The small cost is well spent when you remember what
a white-ant (dimak) will do, and eat; don’t drag cart loads
of manure about your plots in the rains, you’ve lots of time
before and after and make much of it. Cow-dung (gobar)
and dairy-litter are not for grass cultivation, save them for

White-Ants.

crops if you grow any; if these commodities are very cheap
and you have to use them they should be trenched 4”’—6’,
they are not a bit of use as top-dressing most productive

FODDER IN INDIA, 13

of weeds also extravagant. Stock manuring or grazing are
to be strongly deprecated. If you are bound to do it, have
the animals very carefully tended, no goats, and a small plot
ata time; when they move on to the next plot light plough or
harrow the previous one; don’t let the dung be taken away,
count the animals as often as you can, not always at the same
time of day, and charge the highest rate you are allowed to
discourage the practice. When they have been over all your
plots once clear them off altogether, and repair bands, etc.
Artificial manures are not cheap, they are not so bene-
ficial to the land (especially grass lands)
as natural manures; excepting ‘‘ lime”
no manager of a grass farm should dream of using artificial
manures, apart from experiments or under specific orders,
unless natural manures are absolutely unobtainable.
The writer is not pre-historic or pessimistic, neither would
he attempt to farm in England or the Colonies and not use
artificials. Ifyou don’t go with the times you will be left.
But we are in India and we are most of us working
many hundred, up to a few thousand, acres, also everything
else apart at home or abroad when available ‘‘ natural
manure is the best.” Mind you scientifically applied if
suitable to the soil conditions; artificials will give you
a ‘big yield,” but it is quantity more than quality ; coarse,
unpalatable, biologically usound grass ; artificials as it were

Artificial Manures.

are ‘‘tonics” and should be used as such, made useful as
stimulants but certainly not as alternatives to nature. On
the other hand, as already written in the chapter on soils,
certain chemical elements are necessary for plant life, and if
any of these are deficient in your soil they may be replaced
satisfactorily by the agency of suitable artificial manure.
Artificial manures are much more beneficial to quick grow-
. ing crops (especially root crops) than to grass, but in any
case their benefit is not lasting and their use for our purposes
in India are not ordinarily economical. There are various
pamphlets and hand-books on artificials, read them
advisedly and intelligently and don’t be led away ; and

14 FODDER IN INDIA.

don’t buy ‘‘ mixtures ’’ which are 25 per cent. or more sand
or some other make weight—buy your requirements
separately and mix for yourself.

CHAPTER VI.

‘« CLEANLINESS is next to Godliness.” We all agree to
this, then don’t forget your farm, keep it
becca clean; if its importance could be
measured by words many chapters might be devoted to the
subject of ‘‘ Weeding.” Grass crops and cereal crops must
be clean and weeded systematically, a dirty farm means a
bad farmer, to neglect weeding on the score of economy
is both false and foolish, sooner or later it has to be done
or you will have more weeds than grass, the longer it is left
the more difficult the work and the greater the expense.
How many ‘‘issues of green grass” in the monsoon
season are utterly damned by weeds ? Can you possibly expect
to issue green grass containing 20—50 percent. of weed? No
wonder there are complaints and no wonder that horses refuse
to eat such a ration ; and hay containing a similar percentage
though not so noticeable and therefore perhaps ‘‘ shoved
through ” can only be called fourth class and the reverse of a
credit to the farm, the manager, and the department.

Silage containing weed is possible and usually good
and edible, but this is only a ‘“‘ get out ;”
it would be better if it were entirely
good clean grass or crops, besides ensilage is quite a second-
ary consideration as arule on most Military Grass Farms
except as a means of disposal of our “surplus” green grass
in the rainy season. Clean your plots for all you are worth,
and rest assured it will more than repay you in the long run,
give you peace of mind and an easy conscience if your heart
is in the work, Admitted it is hard, very hard, to leave your
farm after 3 or 4 years’ good, conscientious work and every-
thing in tip top order, to go and take over a neglected show,

Vide Chapter XII.

FODDER IN INDIA. 15

a jungle perhaps, which has been running itself for years,
unfortunately such things do happen. All the same this is
no excuse for you to do likewise, it’s easier to run the show
like that and you may say ‘‘ what’s the good,” but if your
heart is in your farm you can’t do it.

There are innumerable kinds of weeds, with as many
names which need not be mentioned. For our purpose all are
bad, some worse than others, as they grow toa great size
and spread at an alarming rate; root them all out all the
year round, the best time is perhaps when the ground is soft
after rain, summer, and winter, especially after the first mon-
soon showers when the grass crop is starting to grow in
earnest. Weeds are an abomination ; they choke, oust, and
kill off good grass and ruin your crop quality. One rupee
per day per acre occasionally spent will save you five or six
rupees or more if once the weeds get outofhand. The
ploughing of grass lands as written of in a previous chapter
will greatly help to keep down weeds, otherwise the weeding
must be done by hand pulling and with the khurpa. For
weeding crops hand pulling, the harrow, and the cultivator.
It may be borne in mind with advantage that weeds, which
are mostly gross feeders and quick growers do an immense
amount of damage in a bad monsoon year by drawing
moisture from the soil and giving it off through their leaves—
the quantity of moisture lost in this way is very
considerable.

CHAPTER VII.

ARBORICULTURE is worthy of interest and some little con-
sideration in agriculture, but does not
concern the grass farmer in India to any
great extent, and the trees are rarely the property of the
farm, so planting and rearing to any appreciable extent is
usually not worth while. But trees along your farm roads,
on boundary lines, around stables, bullock lines, and other

Arboriculture.

16 FODDER IN INDIA.

buildings are a blessing to man and beast always, while a
few scattered over your plots at about one to the acre will
help the grass and be more than welcome both in harvest
time and at others when there is work doing. If you have
any rights over the trees the wood loppings will provide
some fuel and a certain amount of timber for the work-
shops ; but remember we are out to grow grass and crops,
not timber, and arboriculture must be quite a side issue.
Different provinces and districts grow different trees. A very
few are common to all, The following area few of those
most usually found and those most useful to us as grass

farmers :—
Shisham. Khikar or Babul. Nim. Pipul.
Bamboo. Mango. Ber. Tut.

One or more of these will grow in any province or district.
Don’t plant trees too closely for avenues or roadsides, 30’
between is near enough unless in arid districts with a low
water level, 18 to 21’ will do very well where thick shade
is wanted for open bullock lines, etc., and one tree or at
““ most’ two per acre on the grass plots.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE names of the various grasses to be found in India.
are legion, and whether the mere fact
of knowing them all, including their

Latin equivalent, is of much value remains a matter of
opinion. The writer does not intend to tabulate them here
but merely to note on those most useful to our purpose and
more generally found, and refer the reader to One or more
of the treatises upon grasses mentioned ina later chapter.
A few grasses (e.g., Doob) grow more or less, according to
climate and rain showers, all the year round, but the great
majority appear only in the monsoon period, and with one or
two exceptions hardly last for the hay crop, even if they

Varieties of Grasses.

FODDER IN INDIA. 17

made good hay, but they augment the quantity for ‘green
issues ” and for ensilage :—

Dub or Hariala. Janewah. Jirga or Palwan.
Anjan or Dhamman. Musél. Parbdgh or Suriala.
Bharui or Barroo. Dab or Kusa. Siuri.

Kharmakra. Sewain or Sainvk4i. Sanwah or Sanwak.
Chupraila. Bhulani. Lapetwah.

Makraila. Etc. Etc.

Dub.—This is the usual name but it is variable and may be

heard of as khabbal, dabra, ram ghas, hariali, hardla,
dhobie ghas, etc. It grows anywhere, sometimes in
slightly different forms, and with cultivation yields an
excellent out-turn of excellent fodder green or dry. With
the exception of December and January it grows all the
year round with reasonable showers. Dub may be sown
anytime between March and September, but in dry
districts is liable to be burnt up in the early stages if not
watered until the rains commence. This by no means
always happens and should not prove a deterrent to early
sowing other things being equal ; it can be propagated
from seed during the rainy season or, if irrigation is
available, sown broadcast mixed with sand about 25lbs.
of seed per acre, after sowing brush harrow lightly.
Another method is by ‘‘dibbing” smallclumps of dub with
roots, z.e., making holes in the ground 2” to 3” deep and
g” to 1’ apart in parallel lines put in the clumps pressing
some good earth around the roots leaving the small tufts
of grass above ground: water freely for a few days if no
rainfall. A third way, and perhaps usually the best,
especially when sowing ona large area, is to plough about
3” deep, scrape up the soil into heaps all over the plot to
be sown, cheel some healthy strong growing dub from
wherever available and while fresh throw it down evenly
over the plot, cover lightly at once 1’-2” with the loose earth
from the heaps, and unless wet runa roller or pahata over
it. It is not much use trying to sow dub unless the soil
is rich naturally or has been manured for the purpose.

FI 2

‘

18 FODDER IN INDIA.

Janewah—Will grow on most lands that are at all fertile,
but is not fond of a sandy soil. Where not already grow-
ing it can easily be introduced by seed and will gradually
spread itself and quickly if the litter is taken from the
horse lines where the grass is fed (as of course it should
be); with cultivation (vzde chapter on manuring) janewah
will grow up to 3-3%’ high, is excellent fodder either
green (if cut early), dry or as silage. If not quite so
popular it certainly runs dub very close for first place,
and if well ‘ got’ and well stacked will keep and improve
with keeping as hay for a long time if perfectly
covered or thatched and with a sound bottom. Janewah
can be propagated during the early rains from well-
gathered properly matured seed. It yields an excellent
out-turn in fewer cuttings than dub.

Anjan,—There are two varieties, black and white, of almost
equal value, the black for choice. It is indigenous to
black cotton soils, is commonly found in the N.-W. P.
and the Punjab but under cultivation is not restricted
to these parts. It is an excellent grass for ‘‘ green-
issues” as it grows very quickly from the commence-
ment of the rains. It also makes excellent hay when
cut in time as it ripens very early and soon gets burnt
up especially on poorer soils and in years of scanty
rainfall and early cessation: on a rich soil it grows
most luxuriantly and yieids a heavy crop ; it fails on a
sandy soil. Anjan is easily propagated from seed sown
as soon as possible after the first good rainfall, sow
broadcast after a light ploughing.

Musél.—A sweet scented grass, found in scattered patches
in most grass-growing districts. If cut in time it makes
a very fair hay but cut at all late it is distinctly woody:
it is rather difficult to propagate and is probably not
worth while.

Parbah—The well-known and equally detested ‘‘ spear-
grass,” but notwithstanding when cultivated and cut
before the flower (spear) ‘‘opens” it makes beautiful

FODDER IN INDIA. 19

hay of good colour, fine and most appetizing—but once
the spear opens itisdamned. Unfortunately, this generally
happens as it really wants cutting before the remainder of
the crop is ready, and this does not get done asa rule,
‘‘hence these tears.” Parbah may be grown from seed
without trouble, andthe effect of manuring (especially top-
dressing) on it is most noticeable ; but perhaps for the
foregoing reasons it is wiser not to encourage it, as the
spears are ‘‘distinctly dangerous” to horses, and even
mules, the mouths of these animals particularly the under-
lip being much damaged, while if swallowed in any
quantity the spears are liable to cause colic. Remember
parbah or spear grass keeps a fresh green colour long after
it ought to have been cut, and this may tend to mislead.

Barroo.—A most excellent grass for ensilage and perhaps
preferable to any other, and it yields a very heavy out-
turn ; but apart from ensilage it should be avoided and
discouraged as its self-propagating propensities by roots
and through seeding are tremendous and it will very
quickly oust everything else. If you have got it, it is
very difficult to get rid of (and so far as the writer
knows there is only one way), if you haven't Bot it see
that you don’t, or you'll be very sorry. To get rid of
it dig it clean out and burn.

Dab.—Or Kusa makes very fair silage and good bedding
but not worth cultivating.

Siuri.—A fine stemmed grass somewhat like dub, excellent
for green issues, and on rich land will last for the hay crop,
but is certainly monsoon grass.

Kharmakra.—A fine stemmed grass, with three or four
thick nodules, appears in the monsoon and is excellent
for the green issue.

Sewain.—A monsoon grass, fine with three or four rows of
seed heads, a good green fodder.

Sanwak.—Very similar to sewain but with thicker and
heavier seed heads, very nutritious, will not make the
best hay even if it lasts until harvest time.

20 FODDER IN INDIA.

Chapraila.—A very early monsoon grass, quite good for
green issue, but growing rather coarse and with a broad
leaf is not always liked by recipients ; the seed heads
grow out from all round the stem after the style of a
fir tree.

Makraila, Lapetwah, Bhulani, Gen Bandri, etc., are
all good for green issue or ensilage. On rich land they all
grow quickly and in a good season are very full of moisture
and inclined to be coarse, and therefore not over welcome on
the ration stands, in which case it is as well if possible to
use them for silage. At any rate be tactful if you have to
issue them and if you have got it put in a fair share of dub
(always welcome). In seasons of only light or moderate
rainfall, or with grasses from the poorer land you will have
no trouble, as a rule, if you are clear of weeds, fair, and
reasonable. ‘

CHAPTER IX.

Witn varying local conditions, and equally varying
opinions which are not necessarily con-
stant foreven a month on the same
ration stand, it is impossible to make hard and _ fast
rules about ‘‘issues’”’ and methods of making issues, but
the following suggestions will act as a general guide.
Green grass during the monsoons must never be cut witha
khurpa (ze. cheeled) it must either be with the Daranthi
(saw edged sickle), the jhaban or hassia (smooth edged
sickles) rather like a scythe blade and acting in a similar
way with the coolies body or arm as the handle, or witha
mowing machine. If you attempt to cheel on wet land,
particularly manured land, your grass will be full of mud
and roots from the very start— and you are spoiling your
plots. Avoid dirt or any appearance of it at all costs ; don’t
let the grass get too long before cutting for green issues or
it will turn yellow at the bottom and at least look unpalat-
able ; keep clear of weeds; itis a great point to start in

Green Grass Issues.
-

FODDER IN INDIA. ' 21

time (as soon as the grass is long enough to get hold of at
all), the grass is growing all the time and growing fast. ‘If
not using the mowing machines cut by weight, or pattis if
it is more economical for the farm this way, and the cutting
is more easily regulated as regards the quantity required
daily. In small stations you can generally finish cutting
éarly enough to issue in theevening. If you can manage this
do so. In large stations it is almost always out of the
question, but load up your carts over night and have
them on the ration stands just after daylight which will
give you time to unload and have the grass well shaken
up and free from the smell and steam caused by
fermentation, before the time for drawing rations arrives
(usually 6 a.M.). A green grass issue is never ‘ over-
popular,” and this word is: hardly sufficiently expres-
sive where a full green ration is in question. There are
several reasons for this state of affairs and all more or
less reasonable at any rate from the recipients point of view,
and the farm manager while doing the best he can for his
farm must be reasonably sympathetic, tactful, and not over
selfish. Then matters will generally run smoothly. Don’t
try to be foo smart, don’t try to rush in anything at all for
igsue, rubbish, weeds, dirt, and some grass, such attempts
generally fail entirely sooner or later and most certainly do
more to “damn the green issue” and get folks backs up than.
anything else; by all means keep in view the interests of
your farm, your outturn (fearful word) books, etc. ; but
study the old horse a bit too—it’s his grub; most Officers
Commanding will meet you all the way or at least a good bit
of itif they see you are ‘‘playing the game,” not all for
yourself and making the farm at the expense of the regiment
and the horses. Any surplus left on a ration stand or a plot
should invariably be siloed and on no account be again
tendered for issue on the morrow. This can be easily
arranged. You may say it’s'no worse and easily ‘‘ mixed
in!” We know all about that, it may be clever. It’s not
“* cricket .”

22 FODDER IN INDIA,

The foregoing remarks apply equally to issues of
‘“* green monsoon crops” of which the followitig are those
with which we are mostly concerned :—

Juar—(Impi), Bajra—(millet), Makai—(Indian corn),
Makra, Moth, Mung. It should be borne in mind on mili-
tary grass farms that crops never fake the place of grass,
but as a supplement, or grown on any unsuitable grass lands
which, however, will grow crops, don’t let land lay idle if it
will grow “anything.”

Juar.—Sow at the commencement of the rains, for fodder
purposes from 60-—80 Ibs. of seed per acre. Discretion
must be used, and the quality of the land, moisture, etc.,
studied. If sown too thinly the stems will be too thick
and coarse for fodder. On the other hand, if sown too
thickly, air will be kept out and the lower parts will
dry up and not mature properly. Generally speaking,
the more moisture, the more seed per acre. Juar
likes a good loam, and will do well on a clayey soil ;
-it is usually followed by wheat. It makes excellent
silage.

Bajra.—This is a relative of anjan grass. it may be sown
later than juar and will be ready for harvesting sooner.
It requires considerably less moisture for growing than
other kharif crops, and grows quite well on a poor and
light soil—for fodder purposes sow 40—50 lbs. per acre,
as fodder it is useless for horses: it is usually followed
by barley. It will silo.

Maékit.—Not so good as juar as a green fodder, but
it is sometimes asked for and ‘is available before
juar is in season. It requires a heavy rich soil and
must be weeded; hardly a suitable crop for grass
farm production; usually followed by gram, if any-
thing.

Moth and Mung.—-These are pulses, usually sown
along with juar or bajra about to Ibs. per acre,
they will be ready first—-excellent fodder for bul-
locks.

FODDER IN INDIA. 23

CHAPTER X.

THE monsoon or’kharif crops in a dry state do not
concern us very much perhaps, but are
worthy of consideration for times of
stress and shortage. Juar generally known as ‘‘charri”
is a perfectly sound fodder in its dry state, an excellent
supplement to the grass ration, but should not if avoid-
able be made a substitute as on account of its coarse-
ness and hardness it is mot the equal of a good
dry grass ration even when 25—20 lbs. Not more than half
the Iration should be juar unless guzte unavoidable.
When cutting juar for storage as dry-fodder it should be
cut before the seed ripens, or as an alternative the seed-
heads should be cut off before cutting down the crop. In
this way the natural moisture is retained in the stem and
leaf to a great extent making the fodder more tender and
succulent. In both cases the crop should be cut while re-
taining some greenness. When the crop is allowed to ripen
while standing and then the seed heads removed the stalk
and leaves are known as tanda or karbi and, in this state, to
make the fodder edible it should be chaffed or chopped.
The foregoing remarks apply generally to bajra as well,
but it must be borne in mind that it is only a fodder for
horned cattle and should not be tendered for issue to
horses.

Other monsoon crops, perhaps not yet universally
known or grown, are amber cane and Australian millet.

Dry Monsoon Crops.

They are sown at the same time or rather later than juar,
and the former is superior to it. Horses and cattle are parti-
cularly partial to it as a green ration, but the seed is more
expensive. Both are sown and grown similarly to juar but
only 20—30 lbs. seed per acre; they require rather more
moisture than juar to do their best, and are liable to be a
failure if there is a partial failure of the monsoon, unless
irrigated. Australian Millet must be cut before it shows
any signs of ripening, otherwise it is very dangerous.

24 FODDER IN INDIA.

Lucerne is not a kharif crop, and will be dealt with later,
but it grows all the year round under suitable conditions ;
with very heavy rainfall and on heavy low-lying positions
it is liable to rot at the roots and die off unless the drainage
is very good.
Before leaving the monsoon crops it may be a help to
know that if the early rains fail, monsoon
Bowing: Hhavle or kharif crops may be sown on suitable
Crops. ;
land up to about August 15th, ze,
on land which is not naturally over-dry. Of course a dimin-
ished out-turn must be expected, but the writer has sown
as late as the end of August (29th and 3oth) and had a
four-anna crop. It is generally accepted that to be a success
a kharif crop must have at least one month’s reasonable
rainfall. Another point, juar, amber cane, and the millets
if sown early in ‘anticipation’ of the early rains will take
very little harm for several weeks without a shower if sown
on an absolutely dry seed bed; but if the soil is at
all moist so as to give the seed a start then it will all
perish about 10 days after being sown unless there is rain.
When seed is cheap and you have a large area to get sown
it is sometimes worth the gamble, and when the monsoon
fails after a shower or two you will have scored a big point.

CHAPTER XI.

THE winter or rabicrops are many and various. We will

confine ourselves to a suitable selection

SP for Military Grass Farm purposes ; and

once again remind the reader that the

primary object to the almost entire exclusion of all others

is, as regards Military Grass Farms, to grow good grass for

hay and green issues, crops of other kinds being treated as

quite a side issue. Our selections then are Oats, Barley,

Wheat, Rye Grass, Mustard, Shaftal, Lucerne, Barseem,
Gram, Kuria, Kasumba, Taramira, Carrots.

FODDER IN INDIA. 25

Oats—Known as Jai, Jawi, sometimes Gandal. There are
at least 7 varieties at this date, perhaps more. One variety
is more suitable than another just according to condi-
tions, surroundings and congenial soil—a variety that
may flourish in Peshawar will possibly fail entirely in
Lucknow or Dinapore. The main consideration is
“good seed” and it will pay you to test your sample,
avery simple matter; having bought your seed to
avoid any chance of oat-smut wash it in a 4 per cent.
solution of formalin before sowing ; this process applies
also to barley and: wheat. Never try to sow oats
without plenty of moisture in the soil, firstly on
account of germination, secondly to attain a good or even
fair crop, and don’t sow too much seed per acre in the
hope of getting a bumper crop ’cause you'll be disap-
pointed. Oats are shallow rooted and more liable to
the effects of dry weather than other cereals. A rich
moist soil is required and the land should be ploughed
in preparation several times during the summer and once
again in the autumn before sowing, followed immediately
by the pahata unless very wet; if the soil is found
dry at a depth of 4’ when you come to sow not more
than 60 Ibs. of seed per acre should be used, and except
under exceptional conditions of moisture never more
than §0 lbs. per acre. Oats should be sown any time
after the first week in October. With the above condi-
tions and a good, indifferent, or bad season the out-turn will
be 150—200 maunds per acre green, or 20—40 maunds of
oat-hay. Ifthe crop is to be issued green cut in good.
time before signs of ripening ; if for oat-hay cut as soon
as the milk is well into the ear and before it solidifies ;
cut clean and free from weeds and dirt or roots leave lying
on the ground in sheaves or pulas as cut for two or
three days, then set up in stooks or cocks for at least a
full ‘‘dry” week, before stacking : tie up the sheaves or
pulas round the middle before stooking ; any less drying
than the above even in a dry season will set up

26

FODDER IN INDIA.

fermentation in the stack and spoil your oat-hay, with
possibilities of a bonfire.

Barley—Known as Jau; there are several varieties but

differently to oats they will any one of them probably
grow in any place suitable to barley, but as we are
considering the crop as one for fodder more than
grain the ‘‘ beardless” varieties of barley are the best.
Test your seed and wash in formalin (see oats). Barley
will do quite well in a light soil not over-heavily
manured ; in making this statement the writer means
that where in these circumstances barley will yield a
reasonable crop, oats will fail and wheat do little better—
prepare the land as for oats but fewer ploughings will
do if handicapped for time. Barley may be sown from
the end of October until December, the writer has sown
on Christmas Eve and known of sowings in early
January! However, it can wait till the last oats and
wheat first in the order written and depending on
the ploughings as soon as you like, after October 7th ;
barley grows fast and ripens early and with fair
rain will do well sown late, but all the same we are
out for “straw” (ze., Bhoosa) and this wants time
and rain, particularly rain; sow about Ioo lbs. of seed
per acre, and if mixed with wheat seed for cutting for
green issues 2 of barley tc 1 of wheat. If cut in good
time (vzde oats) makes quite useful hay for hard times,
barley in any form is essentially a horse’s food :—
‘«Jau kachche, pakke, daddare, jo joban turiyan. ”

Wheat—Known as gehun or kanak. There are very many

varieties, and the remarks above anent barley may apply
here ‘with most of the varieties, some of them are more
fastidious. The treatment for smut does not always
succeed with wheat, but the cost of the process is not
great and worth trying. Test your seed sample before
buying. Plough the land for wheat as many as ten
times if possible before sowing, sow in early November
(after the oats) about Ioo lbs. seed per acre; wheat

FODDER IN INDIA. ea k’-17)

: prefers a heavy soil, and it will not follow a kharif, crop

- so well as barley or oats, a fallow is best suited. Wheat
does not make any sort of hay and must be issued green
(khasil or khawid).

Rye Grass (or Rye), try, if you like, experiment, but in the
writer’s opinion and experience, in India rye is best left
alone, ‘‘ the game is not warth the candle.” I have
heard that rye grass has done well at Bangalore.

Mustard—Known as arson, is useful as cattle fodder
mixed with bhoosa or other food. It grows anywhere and
is usually sown mixed with wheat or barley in the
proportion of 5—1I, or may be sown alone in single rows
or between. plots.

Vetches, Shaftal—A species of clover. It may be grown ina
small way as a “‘ fancy fodder,” it is very luscious, but
requires irrigation, unless under exceptional circum-
stances.

Barseem.—As Shaftal an excellent fodder, but one which
with possible exceptions can only be dealt with in quite
a small way, where canal irrigation is available ; perhaps
something extensive might be done even in India?
Barseem requires a rich clayey loam, plenty of moisture,
and some rainfall. (See official pamphlet on this by
Major Marriott.)

Lucerne.—As the two foregoing but more hardy and conse-
quently more commonly found in India. Under satisfac-
tory conditions (z.e., constantly moist soil) it will live
through the hot weather without irrigation as it is very
deep rooted, and then thrive again in the cold season ;
with regular irrigation, constant cutting, and weeding it
will flourish all the year round, and with a couple of top
dressings of manure during the period will last six or
seven years without re-sowing; to this extent it is
perennial. If grown from seed (and only the very best
should be used) and treated as above, lucerne will yield
up to 600 maunds per acre per annum of green fodder ; it
is more usually issued green in India but makes excellent

28 FODDER IN INDIA.

hay if carefully ‘‘ got” before it actually flowers ; if it is
intended to bale it it is better to chaff it first a sowing to its
nature it breaks up very much. There are several methods
and as many opinions as to the best way of sowing
lucerne. Though rather more expensive, the writer is in
favour of ‘‘ridges”’ For this method ro Ibs. of seed per
acre are required. Sow in October on well manured
land thoroughly ploughed and as deeply as possible, the
ridges should be 1%’ apart and 1%’ high, for choice —
they should run E. to W., but in any case must be at
right angles to the water irrigation channels: you must
have a fine tilth, Unless you intend to do the thing
really well and give it every chance, better leave the
cultivation of lucerne for some one else. It will not grow
itself and anything much less than the out-turn men-
tioned above won’t pay, and lucerne containing 20—50
per cent. weeds is an abomination.
Maina, Senji, Methra, and several other cold season
crops, and if not suitable to the grass farmer for cultivation
as fodder, it is well to remember they have their use as
legumes, and any one of them ora mixture of some may,
without disturbing grass lands in any way to their detriment,
with advantage be shallow sown thereon to its undeniable
benefit if done intelligently, simply because they constantly
enrich the soil, whereas grass crops are equally constantly
impoverishing it; this may truly be looked upon as an
example of the ‘‘ science” of grass farming.

Gram—Known as chenna or chhola, something of a
paradox gram while a hardy crop is yet exceedingly
delicate, it will grow with a minimum of cultivation on
any soil from sand to clay, though for choice it prefers a
stiff soil ; it requires little or no weeding ; but it is very
susceptible to damage from climatic idiosyncrasies.
Gram may be issued green to horses and cattle, not
recommended for horses however, or only in very small
quantities ; but fed to farm bullocks when the grain is in
the pod it will save their grain ration for the time, and

FODDER IN INDIA. 29

they will benefit from the change. Gram is sown about

the second week in September, 8c—1Ioo lbs. of seed per

acre according to the quality of the soil.

Kuria, Kasumba, Taramira, Toria, Ulsi, Til and others,
usually sown along with other crops, but according to
the purpose for which they are required, are ‘ oil-seeds”
have their various uses, and for our purpose are worth
consideration where time and conditions permit as tonics,
but we need not go into any detail of them here, as being
somewhat out of the sphere of grass-farming.
Carrots—Known as gajar, are sown about the end of

September, a ‘deep’ ploughed sandy loam which is not

over rich as carrot seed germinates slowly and if the

soil is too rich weeds will get such a start that they will
quite spoil, possibly entirely oust, the carrots; in India
about 20 Ibs. of seed are required per acre if anything
rather less; when the seedlings are well up as they will
not transplant must be thinned out; weed as much as
possible. A usual yield will be 60 maunds of carrots
per acre; the carrot tops are exceedingly valuable
as fodder, most palatable, so if you can use them for
issues along with the bottoms your out-turn will benefit
very appreciably (on paper). Carrots will not silo.

When feeding carrots to your own live-stock, horses or

bullocks, save on your grain ration by feeding day

about grain and carrots alternately.

The writer has heard of an out-turn of 250 maunds of
carrots per acre—presumably including ‘‘tops.” This must
have been an exceptional crop for India, though not at all
unusual in England ; and he would like to know something
more about it, also the cost of production.

Bhoosa.—A by-product of the various cereals and a most
valuable and very extensively used fodder for horned
cattle—mules and camels, and in a lesser degree for
horses in the absence or scarcity of grass or hay, but
horses must be inoculated to its use very gradually and
with only the best quality, and under ordinary circum-

30 FODDER IN INDIA.

stances they should never be given more thana 4 of
their fodder ration of bhoosa, otherwise an attack of colic
more or less severe will inevitably follow. The two main
classes of bhoosa are (2) white bhoosa made from wheat,
barley, rye and oat-straw, (77) missa bhoosa made from the
leaves and stalks of gram and the leaves of arhar, orrud,
mung, etc. This variety is principally fed to camels,
apart from village cattle. The great points to remember
in the making or purchase of bhoosa are that (2) it
must be clean, dry, and of good colour, (zz) it should not
be more than one year old, (zzz; it should be small (pieces
not more than t” in length, or less) and not coarse
or knotty. Other valuable fodders of the bhoosa class
are paddy straw and ragi straw to which the foregoing
principles apply mutatis mutandts.

CHAPTER XII.

Ensilage—A method of storing green fodder of almost

all descriptions including weeds (but

eee be not entirely), for feeding, principally,
to horned cattle, when green fodder is

out of season, in times of shortage, and to utilize surplus
and other green grass which might be wasted otherwise in
the monsoon season. Silo pits may be of any size to suit
circumstances, as far as possible the size should be so
arranged, that once a pit is opened it will be finished in a
week or ten days; every day that a pit is open the silage is
deteriorating and what is equally important to the farm
manager is losing weight. Whether the authorities allow
sufficient margin for loss in conversion between green weight
and silage is not for me to discuss, but if you are going
to keep within the margin you must be about and awake
both when filling and issuing pits. Asa guide to size a pit
30’ x 12x 6’ will on the average hold 1,500 maunds of green
grass and turn out 1,000 maunds of silage (a depth of 6’ will

FODDER IN INDIA. 31

be found more satisfactory than any other being neither too
deep for convenient filling and emptying, not too shallow to
accommodate any length or breadth). There has been much
written and more said about siloing, the best teacher is
experience, and the following points gathered from the writer’s
own are for the help of the student :—A silo pit cannot be

dug in any soil, e.g., black-cotton or sand, which naturally
would allow water to drain into the pits. When once
made, be quite sure your pit is water-tight top, bottom and
sides, probably a clay or clay loam is the best land for silo
pits. Pick out high lying spots, hillock tops, etc., and make
a shallow surface drain all round each pit with an outlet on
the lowest side: all grass or crops for silage should be cut
clean not cheeled, or your silage is ruined with dirt and roots.
Rain falling does not interfere with filling pits, but the pits
must be clean, empty and dry as possible when the filling
begins. Fill your pits as quickly as possible, and if you can
cover the same day it is as well, but do it properly, fill
evenly and tread down well all the time you are filling, and
pile up a full 8’ above the level of the top of the pit. You will
have to complete the covering again later on when the grass
has settled down, throw the earth on the sides and ends first,
then on the top. Monsoon grasses off — yoncoon and imma-
newly top-dressed land do not make _ ture grasses not best
good silage, unless allowed to dry a little st iad

outside first, and they never make the ‘‘ best” silage: still
it has to be cut and utilized and with a little care makes quite
edible fodder. Once pits are made they must be inspected
constantly, especially when there is rain, and repaired, cracks
and holes filled in, and no water standing near to drain in.
Silage is particularly liable to deterioration by rainfall when
pits are open for issuing, and the whole cover or top should
not be taken off at once*but in strips day by day. The
actual loss by conversion of green grass to silage is 40 per
cent., the loss after opening pits by dryage, opening, carting
and sometimes by rainfall is variable but can hardly be
less than 5 percent., often more; the authorities will not

32 FODDER IN INDIA.

allow you this margin (vide office records), and it is up to the
manager to make it less or answer questions, possibly pay!
The writer can only help the reader by telling him that it is
possible to have a surplus! Quod erat demonsrtandum.

Much more might be written about ensilage, the tem-
peratures for ‘‘ sweet,” ‘‘sour,” and ‘‘burnt” silage—chaffing
crops for silage, etc, etc., but perhaps enough has been said
above for ordinary grass farm purposes and to meet the
purpose of this book.

CHAPTER XIII.

Hay is not necessarily dry grassor rather vice versd,
but is made by carefully drying and
saving grass or crops, and then matur-
ing them in stacks for some time where in order to make
‘‘hay” they must undergo a certain amount of fermen-
tation without some fermentation you have only dry grass or
dry crops: theoretically the longer grass is in stack, the
better the hay that will turn out, all other things being
equal and subject to certain limitations. The points of good
hay are that it should be (1) free from dirt and roots, (2) a fine
green appetising colour, (3) well preserved, (4) sweet smelling
and slightly aromatic, (5) in the case of grass a mixture of
fine cultivated grasses. But what generally passes for hay
in India is ‘‘dry-grass ” of varying qualities from excellent
rarely often good down to bad. Owing to rapid consump-
tion, want of extensive weather proof storage accommodation,
climatic considerations to some extent only, frequent bad
seasons, etc., interfering with the accumulation of a large
reserve it is not often possible to make the best hay.
Nevertheless the aim of the grass farmer should certainly
be to get ‘hay ” if possible, and once a manager has estab-
lished his station reserve there seems no reason with the
proper conditions to hand and the necessary interest why
hay should not be forthcoming. The following observa-
tions may be of helpto the beginner. By all means do things

Fermentation.

FODDER IN INDIA. a

as economically as possible, but there is a growing tendency
to cut down rates nam-ke-wasée out of all reason, it is generally
done at the expense of the land, the expense of quality,
the expense of the horse, and the expense of the farm’s
good name by causing recurring complaints. All this is
obviously wrong, and there should be a limit to the cutting
down business. Lverything in India is dearer than it’ was
a few years ago, especially labour. I am not by any means
advocating high rates, but certainly the best article avail-
able of its kind at a ‘‘fair” price ; what you lose on the
swings you'll gain on the roundabouts, and don’t forget
20 Ibs. of good hay or even good dry grass, and 6 or
7 \bs. of grain fed with intelligence will keep a horse much
more ‘‘fit” than 10—14 lbs. grain and 20 Ibs. of rubbish.
Fodder is cheaper than grain anyway,
even at one rupee per 100 lbs. To
resume, owing to the large area to be cut, the difficulties
in obtaining labour ata minimum rate, the objection to the
extensive or exclusive use of mowing-machines owing to the

Cutting.

reduced ‘‘ out-turn,’’ sometimes, of course, the nature of the
land will not allow of machines being used: not often, the
consequence is, especially on the larger farms, that the grass
crop is rarely cut in time (z.e., when in flower, but before the
pollen can be shaken off, and while still green) ; if harvesting
could be begun and carried on to the greatest possible extent
on October 1st and finished by November 15th or earlier there
would be little to grumble atas regards quality in most years ;
there is always the tail-end of the monsoon to be remembered
when you are starting, and except, perhaps, in years when
there appears to be a failure of the later rains or returning
monsoon, it seems very risky to start any serious operations
before the 1st of October, but there may be occasions when
it is worth the gamble! Any considerable fall of rain im-
mediately before or during the harvesting means heavy dews
resulting in the discolouration of cut

grass, therefore each day’s cutting should

be cocked in “ monkey-cocks or wind-rows’

mr n

Cocking.

’ over-night and

2
0

34 FODDER IN INDIA.

if fine spread out again next day after 10 a.m.; truly
this means a little more work and incidentally a little
more cost; the second night after cutting put your grass
into proper ‘‘cocks” (10-15 mds. or more), it won’t be
quite dry and will ferment just a little, this is one of the
features of ‘“‘ hay,” the cocks should be made round and tidy
with ‘‘ pointed tops,” not squat and flat-topped ; leave the grass
here for a full week and then stact stacking, and speaking of
stacks made on the grass plots let me say here that I much
prefer a ‘‘round stack” of only moderate size (10,00 mds.),
and so you go on over the whole farm cutting ; making
cocks, large cocks, stacks every one on their own job, and if
you’ve nursed your land, your bullocks, your machinery, etc.,
and your native staff the whole harvest will be a most enjoy-
able picnic. Work early and work late but pay fair and play
fair, be everywhere every day and see you get your money’s
worth. This seems the best way and with modifications to
suit local conditions wants a lot of beating; there are others,
this is one and economical—start cutting and leave the
grass when cut ; after the second or third day, when there isa
decent quantity down send round your carts with 3 or 4 coolies
to load, and send the grass either straight down to the ration
stands or straight to the site for your stack or stacks—the
results on paper will very possibly be good! but you will’
have no ‘“‘hay”’; just now the procedure of issuing direct
from the ground is sometimes necessary in the future, when
you have attained that much to be desired ‘ Station
reserve” it will never be ‘“ necessary.”

Dry Crops—Should be cut in pulas, gathas or sheaves
and be left lying when cut (in fine weather of course) 3 or 4
days, being turned over daily ; the pulas or sheaves will then
be stocked carefully heads upwards with a view to their
getting a maximum ot air and wind right through, with a
minimum of wet in case of inopportune rain, the stooks
should be kept standing according to the condition of the
crop at cutting and the prevailing weather conditions from
14—30 days. After this stack in round stacks on good sound

FODDER IN INDIA. 35

platforms of some kind, and it is absolutely necessary to
thatch. Carrots should be stacked on a platform with a
2’ layer of sand below them, cover them all over with sand
(dry of course) and thatch or plaster over with mud and
gobar, etc.

CHAPTER XIV.

Carting.—Whether using farm or hired carts it is
economical to arrange hay-cocks around stack sites so as to
reduce distances to a minimum. Where hired carts are
used, especially in large numbers, the number employed
Should be constantly checked. During the haymaking, if
the grass is destined eventually for ground issues or for
stackyards, the larger the hay-cocks are the better, when it
has to stand for any considerable time; the grass comes
out more compact, is better to load, enables a bigger load
(z.e., greater weight per load), a certain amount of dryage
and wastage are avoided, also less damage will be done in
case of showers, and the quantity out per plot will be more
easily checked and controlled. Carting may be paid for
by maundage, daily labour, pulas, loads, or area; local
conditions and prices will be the best guide to the best
system together with the nature of the work in hand.

Stacking.—Excepting for the large stackyards as used
in connection with Rukh Farms and those attached to or in
the vicinity of regimental horse lines in which cases large
rectangular stacks of from 10,000—20,c00 maunds or more
should be built, the writer is a great advocate for small
stacks, round ones for choice, holding about 1,000 maunds.
They are easier to build, cheaper to build, easier to thatch
and more weather-proof when thatched, stand firmer and
steadier against sand and rainstorms, a convenient size for
issues, less loss is entailed in case of fire, a very great
consideration, for I think I may safely say without fear of con-
tradiction that once a hay stack big or little gets well on
fire in spite of many rules, regulations, orders, etc., for

36 FODDER IN INDIA.

precautions against fire and action to be taken, you can say
good-bye to the lot, at any rate as fodder, what is not burnt
will be ruined by water, so why have all your eggs in one
basket? Opinions differ.

A round stack to hold 1,000—1,200 maunds of hay
should be 30’ in diameter (don’t build too fast, be building
two or three stacks at once when you can, and go from one
to the other) at base, build up gradually to 18’—20’ the
eaves at which height the diameter should be 36’; from the
eaves build still more gradually and spread evenly treading
down (dubao) well sloping gradually up to a point which
should be 12’ high from the eaves. This stack intelligently
built, and with a 9’—12" thatch, will always look well and
will stand any weather, the quantity varying with the
coarseness of the grass, the time taken, and the evenness or
otherwise of the laying and trampling down. For those ~
who prefer the rectangular stack any proportion may be
taken, that generally used for 2,000—2,500 maunds of hay
is 60'x 20’ at the base, and sloping outwards on all sides
to 70°x 30’ at the eaves (the writer recommends a. rather
less slope than this), the height at this point will be
18’—20,’ from here the sides only sot ends should slope
inwards and upwards to the ridge at a height 15’ from the
eaves. Always select high lying level ground for a stack.
A platform is not ‘‘usually” necessary but the area may be
measured out and bounded by a trench 114’ wide and 6”
deep, the earth excavated being thrown into the centre and
sloped gently to the edges. Some cinders, ashes or sand
may be spread, when available for nothing, over the earth ;
and exit for rain water must be provided on the lower side
of the surrounding ditch. In making a stack never forget
the centre, keep it up, fill the centre as quickly as the
outsides, otherwise after completion as soon as it starts
‘‘settling ” your stack will become an eyesore, and what
is worse will let in water freely. For the first 8’ or so from
the bottom build your stack up, plumb on all sides or
even incline inwards a trifle, at the 8’ let the grass settle

FODDER IN INDIA. 37

a day or two if you can manage it and trample down parti-
cularly well. Continuing from this point don’t overlap too
suddenly to get your increased area at the eaves, the mere
process of stacking of itself has a tendency to make this out-
ward slope without much extraneous assistance; spread your
grass evenly and equitably all the time to get shape and
stability and the more trampling the better; pay your stacker
a good wage and make a friend of him. There is a useful
implement for saving labour in stacking invented by Mr.
J. L. Flowerdew, Grass Farms, Bangalore, which is
simple, inexpensive, and worth a trial. A few handfuls of
the commonest salt crushed coarsely and scattered amongst
the grass at intervals ‘‘does” improve the quality of the
hay.

[Wv. B.—As regards the shape of stacks, it is a question of “point of
‘view ”—but the Government Order says that stacks are to be built of

rectangular shape, chiefly probably for the sake of uniformity and easier

‘measurement. |
e

Contents of Stacks.—Seeing that within reasonable limits
the figures can always be checked if desired or required by
authorised persons, the system of recording the contents of
stacks ‘‘by measurement” seems the best, much the best;
_ but the measurements must of course be made accurately

and intelligently. As the Manager, the man at the wheel,
is the person who.should know what is in his own stacks so
hefshould measure them himself. Having got so far ‘‘ the
crux of the whole business” rests upon what figure is going
to be taken as the density of the stack, this is to a great
extent a matter of judgment. Time, experience, observation,
and care are the best teachers, but there is no real difficulty
to those anxious to learn. The following will help you in
making your decision :—(1) Time taken in building. stack.
(2) Method of stacking whether by labour with ladders or
ramps, or mechanical elevators. (3) Fine and dry or
damp dull weather. (4) Quality of grass as regards coarse-
ness and length. (5) Within the writer’s own experience
among various average stacks the density has been found

38 FODDER IN INDIA.

to vary from 3 Ibs. to 10 lbs. per cubic foot; this is a good
margin and will show the possibilities—also the need for
care and intelligent calculation. A big ‘‘surplus” on a
stack is equally as culpable or as bad management or what-
ever term you care to use as a big ‘“‘loss” ; the results are not
always the same! Now it seems to me that the Manager
being the responsible person for both stock and books, pro-
vided that he can produce the quantity of any stack as borne
out by his ledgers when required, or hand over to a suc-
cessor or other authorised person to their entire satisfaction at
any time nothing more is required. Surpluses and losses
have to be accounted for and adjusted monthly—accounts
are audited monthly—ledgers and other books as well as
stock are inspected regularly and constantly—if rates are
satisfactory or if not explicable, what more is wanted? Let
the Manager arrive at his figure as he will (in reason) once
he enters it in his book ‘‘ by the laws of the Audit Depart-
ment it altereth not” he must abide by it and it is obviously
to his benefit and credit to avoid a ‘‘ disproportionate ”
surplus or loss for which a satisfactory explanation is not
forthcoming.

Measurements for Circular Stacks :—

(The square of the average girth in feet multiplied by:
07958) x (the height from the ground to the eaves in
feet) + (the square of the girth at eaves in feet multiplied
by °07958) X (one quarter the height from the eaves to
peak).

Measurements for Rectangular Stacks :—

(The area of the base plus the area at eaves plus the
area halfway between base and eaves) x 4: (divide this
total by 6, and multiply the remainder by the height from
ground to eaves); + (the mean area between eaves
and ridge, multiplied by} the height from eaves to
ridge).

These measurements though not strictly exact in mathe-
matics are correct in practice, and allow sufficiently for
ordinary wastage in tops and bottoms. To find the contents

FODDER IN INDIA. 39

of a stack the sum of these measurements must be multiplied
by the density per cubic foot in Ibs., the total being
in lbs.

There are other methods of measurement but the fore-
going will be found as simple as any with accuracy, so I
will only deal with one more which is useful when speed —
is desirable :—

(Mean length of base and eaves x mean width of base
and eaves) x Height from ground to eaves; + (Mean
length of eaves and ridge x width at eaves) x Half-
height from eaves to ridge; the sum of these by the
Density.

Never measure your stack until it has stood at least
14 days, and a month for choice.

It is not always possible, or allowable, to delay stack
measurements even 14 days, but obviously the sooner the
stack is measured after building, the sooner and greater the
variation in both measurements and density ; consequently
the longer you can reasonably defer your first measurements
the more reliable they are (ze. the less the variation on
re-measurement). Government require stacks to be re-
measured every 3 months. On the other hand you have to
measure before you thatch, also there is the possibility of
losing the stack by fire before you have a record of its
contents.

Thatching.—There is not much to be said, and whether
to thatch stacks at all unless they are to stand over the
monsoon is an open question; the writer thinks it is best
done, but if you do it make ‘‘a good job” of it. The
stack must be measured before it is thatched, and if there is
no particular hurry another week or ten days settling down
is as well. Local custom is the best guide for a thatch,
get a professional thatcher and pay him fair_ for fair work,
the thatches must not be any less than 6” thick for ordinary
and 12” to stand over a monsoon; in many places side and
end thatches will be necessary. The Lahore system of
thatching is very economical and efficient.

40. FODDER IN INDIV.

CHAPTER XV.

Baling and Bales.—-There are more ways than one of
bundling or pressing grass, bhoosa, etc., from the primitive
of digging a rectangular hole in the ground of somewhat
less dimensions than the required size of the bale, filling
it with grass over lengths of rope and treading it down ;
from this progressing by various makes of hand-presses
good and bad, up to steam and hydraulic presses up to the
Lyon Press for grass or bhoosa which is about the latest,
and perhaps the best. The writer will always retain a great
regard for the old ‘* Dederick Perpetual Press” a good old
patient long suffering machine ; with less woodwork about
it itt would want a lot of beating ; the Howard Press is
generally satisfactory also. The Dederick isa minimum of
trouble, convenient to repair, always patchable and workable
with any old engine that will run at all. When run under
good conditions it will almost consistently turn out a bale
24x17" x14" weighing 80 Ibs. and 250—300 bales a day
or more asa new machine with a sympathetic engine, and
intelligent working staff. Usually, however, we find the out-
turn per day is more like 150—200 bales ; variations are
easily accounted for by working conditions of both engine
and press, experience and ability of the supervisor and engine
driver, experience and handiness of the working coolies,
quality of grass and if loose or in pulas, cleanliness of
boiler and all working parts. The secret of a ‘‘ good bale ”’ is
its density. The bales from a Dederick Press made properly
as above are 25 lbs. per cubic foot, which figure leaves
nothing to be desired. Now obviously by reducing your
density to say 18 lbs. per cubic foot you will be able to get
a faster out-turn, z.e., more bales per diem all things being

Relation of Out-turn ©dUal—you will also be nursing your
to number of hours machine by saving strain, you will be
cece auaa lara able to work with a less steam pressure,
and fewer revolutions per minute. To turn out 30 bales an

FODDER IN INDIA. 4!

hour is ‘‘ good” work, and the number of hours considered as
a working day (which must be variable) are also factors con-
trolling the output. Ordinarily speaking 20-25 bales an hour
of 18 Ibs. density and 6% c.ft. per bale (not the Dederick
which is smaller) is a decent show and no one can grumble.
Don’t try to get more out of your press
i Engines and Presses

and engine than they can honestly do, a are manufactured to
little less will pay you, or you will have Perform Senet
constant breakdowns ; havea full day off,
work once a fortnight and thoroughly clean boiler, etc., well
oil all working parts, do any little repairs, tighten up bolts,
nuts, screws, etc., everyone will benefit by the change.
When fixing up engine and press be sure the driving wheels
on engine and press are in perfectly true alignment or the
driving belt will be always off. Never
bale grass, hay, straw, bhoosa (except ee
cotton) which is wet or even damp;
in seasons when there is dew about when you start the day’s
work take the grass from underneath and spread out the
top lot in the sun, if you bale damp the bales when opened
will be at least mouldy in the middle if not quite spoiled.
‘This has perhaps d—d more baled hay than anything else.
Don’t bale bad stuff (unless specially ordered or for a special
purpose), it doesn’t pay you or anyone else in the long run.
Some folk think it rather smart, and a clever way of getting
rid of inferior old or bad stock—well it isn’t.

The average cost of working a baling plant “ inclusive ”
is Rs. 7-8 per diem, local conditions of
labour and cost of fuel will make a vari- ee ee
ation but a minimum of Rs. 7 and a
maximum of Rs. 9 per diem should always cover it, a day
being reckoned as an approximate 8 hours. The boiler
(variable) will consume 8-10 maunds of coal and rather more
than double that quantity of wood per diem. A bale should
cost in the making ‘‘inclusive” one and a half annas,
possibly a trifle less, not often, probably a little more, it
should never exceed two and.a quarter annas.

42 FODDER IN INDIA.

Some useful information on this subject will be found
in Notes on Pressing and Presses by Lieutenant A. E.
Crawford.

CHAPTER XVI.

Farm Animals—Feed and Keep.—The extent of the farm,
nature of the work, amount of carting, not forgetting dis-
tances, must be the determinators of the number and kind of
farm-animals required. For economy’s sake as few as possible
but for humanity’s sake sufficient to avoid a suspicion of
overwork, get good animals of their kind, no crocks no
weeds, they may becheap; but no manner of use and they eat
as much as better animals. Treat your animals well and they

will treat you well; if you have a wrong
Treat animals well. 7 : :

‘un get rid of it, don’t leave them entirely
to the tender mercies of syce, bullock-driver or other native
staff. Broadly speaking, the native’s respect and regard for
an animal is equal to the momentary value of that animal to
him personally, no more ; he treats it accordingly —so let, at
least, occasional persgnal attention to the care and comfort of
your animals be part of your work. For mowing machines
and reapers you must have the big Hissar type of bullock,
and when working two pairs must go with each machine and
be changed every half hour or so and they should have a
slight increase in their ration of concentrated food at this
time as the work is very exacting (suggest a seer of kali).
For hay rakes, when available mules are far away the best
animal, if not available get ekka ponies, and on a decent
ration they will do you well besides getting you your money
back or more after the harvest, if you want to sell; fit their
harness well and comfortably, avoid sore backs, chafed loins,
etc., water and food regularly and they’ll work for ever.
For ploughs and cart work I prefer the stift short well-set-up:
little bullock, not leggy, not too small, and lots of bone, and
the best of feet.

FODDER IN INDIA. 43

For all animals at all work well fitting harness and
saddlery and line gear are ‘‘ essential’;
eye fringes for the hot weather and sae Sa
cold too for choice: jhools for the cold
weather; shoeing all round for every animal once a
month ; cost of shoes for a horse Rs. 2
a set or Re. 1-8 for cold shoeing, for a
mule Re. 1-8, for bullocks As. 5 to As. 6 a set. Feeding
is a matter of opinion, but any little
variation from time to time is valuable
to all animals, market rates must of course be a con-
sideration ; the usual ration for a horse is 20 ibs. dry fodder
or its equivalent and ro lbs. concentrated food of which at

Regular shoeing.

Food.

least 2 lbs,should always be bran, salt 1 oz.; for mules and
ponies 6 or 7 lbs. is ample and again 2 lbs. should be bran,
with 15 lbs. of dry fodder or its equivalent; for bullocks
20 lbs. bhoosa or 25 Ibs. other dry fodder or its equivalent
green and 6 lbs. concentrated food variable according to
time of year, salt 1% oz. ; in case of extra hard work it will
be necessary to give bullocks 8 lbs. of concentrated food and
the extra two pounds should be a change from the regular
ration if possible.

CHAPTER XVII.

Some Atlments of Animals.—In cases of severe illness
or serious wounds, if at all handy and available, call in a
salutri or native veterinary surgeon. Cases of infectious
natures must at once be reported to the local authorities
(G. O. C.—S. V.O.—S. M. O.). At other times you will
be able to deal with minor troubles and Sickness yourself,
assisted by your bullock jemadarif he is any use, or a
villager of repute as a cow-doctor. Always bear in mind that
prevention is better than cure, good supervision, regular
methods, fair treatment will reduce your sick list to a
minimum.

44 FODDER IN INDIA.

Tumours and Abscesses.—Lance and remove pus, dress with
carbolic oil or wax ointment. (Wax-vaseline-sul phate of
copper.)

Ringworm.—Infectious, dress three times daily with a mixture
of turpentine and sulphate of copper.

Lice.—Wash frequently with dilute phenyl (25—1).

Fractured Horn.—Bandage securely but loosely and apply
nim oil freely and frequently.

Sprained Fetlock.—Bandage fairly tightly, put on kzudthz
poultice, after which apply cold water constantly for
some days.

Sprained Hip—Shoot in 99 cases out of 100.

Eye Troubles.—Foment, dress with .slution of sub-acetate
of lead, protect from light. If discernible of course
abstract any foreign matter such as a thorn, etc.

Colic.—Strong purgative, douche if necessary, and keep the
animal moving about until relieved.

Diarrhea.—Chalk 10z., catechu 10z., opium 4 drms., and
gum 10z.; give twice daily. A stimulant will be neces-
sary sometimes.

Dysentery.—As for diarrhoea, but “* give no water” for drink,
give skim milk and parched barley meal.

Indigestton.—Purgative, change of diet, extra salt, and look
for enlarged conical papillz ; a little stimulant occasion-
ally if falling away.

Poisoning.—Emetic, strong purgative (1%—2 seers ghi is
generally the best).

Enlarged Conical Papille.— Rub well with salt by hand twice
or three times a week, it is sometimes necessary to cut.
Hand-rubbing the mouths of horses and horned cattle
especially with powdered salt occasionally apart from any
actual necessity is an excellent tonic, and they like it.

Foot and Mouth Disease.—(Mocha) very infectious, segregate
and isolate, verify and notify the authorities. For treat-
ment see various veterinary works, puddle feet in lime,
earth, and tar, soft food, disinfect continually and very
thoroughly when rid of the disease, stimulants, wash

FODDER IN INDIA. 45

eyes and mouth and nostrils with dilute alum water:

burn or bury in quicklime any casualties.

Rinderpest.—(Bosonto) more virulent and deadly than foot
and mouth: notify at once: see veterinary handbook,
or call in veterinary officer. When in your district it is
well to have all your horned cattle inoculated at once,
you may lose one or two by this ; but ‘

Swollen Hump and Sores.—When due to heavy draught work
‘‘don’t” stop the animal’s work entirely or the swelling
may remain a permanent disfigurement, put on “ light
duty” and massage thoroughly every evening with
kharwa-ki-tel. For sores on hump and neck stop work
entirely, look to fitting of yokes if necessary, put on
sheepskin or numdah pads. If justifiable fine the bullock
driver and the jemadar if he has neglected to report,
and choke off your Indian Overseer. Dress the sores
with carbolic oil, look out for worms, if any soak some
tow in diluted phenyl and put in the cavity, protect from
sun and flies but don’t exclude air, diet ; when the sores
are dry rub over with sulphate copper, start work easily.
Once more remember “ prevention is better than cure”
and if you are caught act quickly and thoroughly.

There is a small Handbook on Treatment of Cattle-
Diseases, issued to most farms in India by the Quarter-
master-General in India Department, which will be found
very useful. I think it is a Government Press Publication.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Machinery, Implements, and thetr Care.-—The quan-
tity and nature of the machinery will vary with the size and
work of the farm.

Boilers.—One or more, when not in use, keep covered
and clean, bright, and working parts smeared with burnt oil.
Never empty a boiler while under pressure or while any fire

46 FODDER IN INDIA.

remains in the grate. Boilers must be cleaned constantly
when in work, remove all incrustations, accumulations of
dirt at least twice a month, after scraping swill out and
brush with water. To fire properly spread the fuel evenly
over the fire bars, you will get more ‘‘ effective’ heat with
a lesser consumption of fuel. Keepa regular water supply
at a constant level. Ashes and soot from tubes, smoke box,
and ash pans should be removed daily to ensure the greatest
efficiency. Keep your boiler in regular repair, and a new
coat of paint occasionally.

Engines—Of all kinds should be always kept thorough-
ly clean, tightened up, and constantly and systematically
oiled (there is no need for any waste of oil and no benefit
derived from over oiling). Keep working parts bright and
free from grit. For cylinders and bearings a good
‘mineral ” oil is the best. Every engine or machine turned
out is made to run at a ‘‘certain pace,’ never exceed that
pace.

Elevators, Grain Crushers, Chaffing Machines, Cake
Crushers.—Try and keep up with the times, you may not
always find it too easy, coolie labour nowadays is very ex-
pensive in most parts so mechanical substitutes are in the
end cheaper and certainly’ quicker. Make a good case
showing a definite saving and you will have a chance
of getting what you want ; but having obtained your desired
machine see that you prove your case, get your money’s
worth, and nurse your machine. The best each of its kind
will pay in the end, though there is no advantage in
getting a machine bigger than you have work for or bigger
than your ‘‘ power” capacity.

Mowing Machines, Reapers, Hay Rakes, and Ploughs.-—
Get the best of their kind to suit your work, lightness
being the great consideration. Horses are rarely available
for drawing these machines in India, and they are very
heavy for a pair of bullocks which is aggravated by the slow
pace of the bullocks. Some makes are more suitable than
others and you must have ‘‘strength with the lightness ”;

FODDER IN INDIA. 47

a lot of little modifications, minor alterations, etc., can
be made at home after you get your machines which
will help to ease the burden, but you must keep them in
perfect repair and well oiled. Bamlett’s Reaper-Thirsk,
Yorkshire, England, is an excellent machine for Indian
work.

For storing ‘‘all” your machinery, boilers, and imple-
ments, however small, have a covered godown. This with
fair care and attention will repay you as also a covered
engine shed and shafting: while orderly and systematic
storage, a place for everything and everything in its place,
will make your dead stock return and godown register
an unmixed blessing and also facilitate the day’s work.

CHAPTER XIX.

As on most Military Grass Farms buildings are already
existent, more or less, to enter into. any detail herein would
be superfluous. If you have the opportunity of doing any
building, do it with an eye to the future, possible extension
and development. Build for use not ornament, always
bearing in mind that the better your
establishment, animals, and machinery
are housed the better and more smoothly will your show run.
The farm offices should be quite conveniently near the
manager’s house but ‘‘zo¢” a part of it and the two places
as central as possible for easy communication with the farm
yard, post office, treasury, and railway station.

Buildings—Offices.

CHAPTER XxX.

Out-door Establishments.—In addition to the manager,
who should be everywhere and see everything at varying
hours, except on the smaller farms an Indian overseer is
also necessary as an immediate assistant to the manager,

48 FODDER IN INDIA.

he should spend the least possible amount of time in office
Beyond these a certain number of munshis, time-keepers,
weighmen or what you will, who are energetic, smart, used
to an outdoor life as honest as you can get, and able to
write alittle English and certainly English figures ; a Bullock
Jemadar (where there are not many bullocks the senior
driver will do) strong and useful with a knowledge of cattle
and their ordinary ailments he will to a certain extent be
responsible for the bullock drivers and their doings, the
bullocks and their condition, the farm carts and their
condition, the bullock line gear, lines and their repair and
cleanliness, preparation of feed ; bullock drivers, men with
some knowledge of and a liking for bullocks if obtainable,
not old men, if you have quarters for them their homes
should not be nearer to the farm lines than a full Io.
miles, if there are no quarters (most unsatisfactory) their
homes must be nearer of course. For bullock drivers a
sliding scale of pay is a good institution; engine driver
and fireman one man can do both jobs on a small farm,
-but don’t economise at the expense of your plant, etc. ;
carpenter, blacksmith; a store-keeper and cattle yard
munshi combined on good pay he will be directly
responsible to the manager (or his temporary deputy) for
all stores, their safe keeping and preservation, and all
issues of grain and fodder to farm animals, the bullock
drivers and cattle rosters, and the shoeing roll.

Grass cutters, hay makers, and all other temporary
labour will be obtained as required, at rates to be approved
by the manager and changeable only by him, though munshis
’ of plots and sections under the orders of the Indian overseer
from villages in the nearest vicinity to their plots, the
munshis will sof pay their labour. In conclusion, be
patient “ East is East and West is West,” etc., if your farm
establishment is well supervised and paid a fair living wage
for work done, one good worker for a full day at six annas is
worth more than two at three annas spending most of their time
at the well and with their pipe ; a man at six annas does not

FODDER IN INDIA. 49

usually want to lose his job, if he does another soon takes it ;
the man at three annas is perféctly indifferent and will just as
soon go as stay, to work; treated with justice and firmness with
a minimum of abuse and a ‘‘ regular” pay day all will go
well and. you will know where you are and what is being
done. Low wages, indifferent supervision, irregular pay-
ments, want of interest, neglect, injustice or abuse and you

will never know where you are or what is going on, neither
will the farm prosper. ‘

CHAPTER XXI.

_ ALTHOUGH managers must keep a constant eye on the
out-door work, near and far, it is never-
theless most essential that he should be
fully acquainted with ad/ his office work, and be thorough-
ly conversant with the system of accounts in vogue : therefore
he must spend several hours a day in office. The larger the
farm usually the greater the number of hours ; the ability to
arrange his hours of work so that ‘everything ” is attended
to and nothing neglected is the criterion of good manage-
ment. The great thing in the office is to keep up to date ; to
get into arrears is fatal, and lost ground most difficult to
recover. In India with its surfeit of gazetted and other
holidays, exclusive of the Sundays and
absences on private leave of clerks on ;
various pleas, it is no easy matter in a busy office to hold
your own; but by having an antedated list of Reports and
Returns in his own office a manager can usually get these
off up to time. The regular recurring weekly and monthly
returns and accounts should not be left over entirely until
the month is over; in several cases it is possible to start
them early in the month to which they refer and work them
up gradually—this will save a rush and scramble at the
end, and innumerable errors in consequence. Babus must
understand clearly that when Government allowed all these

4

General Remarks.

Clerks and Holidays.

50 FODDER IN INDIA.

holidays, it was certainly never intended to be at the expense
of the work; if the holidays are*to be granted the work must
be up to date, and it is for the head clerk and office staff to
arrange things amongst themselves to this end, by punctual-
ity, steady work in office hours, an occasional hour overtime
iciweamereanee: if necessary, and so on. But on “no
files, ete, not to be account” must records, files or any books
Saker Bway: be taken home from office under this
plea or any other. If your clerks are irregular, unpunctual,
unsteady, or slovenly, give the offender warning at once,
and only twice ; at the third offence the delinquents must go.
Be strong about this, there are lots more clerks, your work
won’t stop because one man has to go, however indispensable
he may appear —chase him. The head clerk must look
after the others, under the manager’s direction ; it is not
enough for the head clerk to be a ‘‘ good” man himself,

Head Clerk to run 0 his own particular share of the work
Otice ar Bes well and let the rest look after itself.
He must ‘‘run” his office, and run it well, and be respon-
sible to the manager for whatever is put in front of him.
Second and third clerks should not put up papers, etc., for
signature without the initial of the head clerk, and as a
rule, and as far as may be, all things for signature should be
brought up once daily only. This saves time, constant running
about and getting up and down, and tends to system of
working. If your head clerk cannot run his office well and
smoothly, and won’t learn to do so pretty quickly, change
him: there are millions of babus in India. Have your office
A well conductea Clean, tidy, with a methodical system,
oes ne CeoUnIS. punctual and regular hours for clerks,
a minimum of noise and talking, and keep out visitors and
others except on business with yourself; be just, clear and
concise, but don’t let the head clerk or his subordinates
forget that you are manager and boss and know every detail
of the work, and so are quite independent of their services
if need be; a well conducted office will save you lots of
worry.

FODDER IN INDIA. 51

CHAPTER XXII.

In conclusion the student is referred to the ‘« Rules with
specimen books and forms relative to
the new system of accounts for grass
farms” published in book form (Army Dept.) No. 9723—6
(Q. M. G.-9) dated 4th July 1913. On joining a class for
training this publication will no doubt be obtainable on loan
from the Director of Grass Farms, by its careful and intelli-
gent perusal with some little practice during the course of
training a very fair idea and foundation for the future use
of the system will be obtained. Some official modifications
and amendments will probably be issued from time to time.

Other useful works of reference and for more “ detailed ”
study of Scientific Grass Farming and
its attendant subjects are :—

Duthie’s Fodder Grasses of Northern India.
Coldstream’s Grasses of the Southern Punjab.
Morland’s Agriculture of the United Provinces.
Dictionary of Economic Products.
Church’s Food Grains of India.
McConnel’s Agricultural Note Book,

Etc., Etc.

System of Accounts.

Reference works.

There is a large field for knowledge in agriculture, and
there is always something to be learnt:
“give every man thine ear,” and when
you don’t know don’t be ashamed to ask.

In conclusion.

THE END.

CALCUTTA ,
PRINTED BY THACKER, SPINK AND CO,