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ALBERT R. MANN 
LIBRARY 


New YorK STATE COLLEGES 
OF 
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS 


AT 


CORNELL UNIVERSITY 


EVERETT FRANKLIN PHILLIPS 


BEEKEEPING LIBRARY 


Cornell University Library 


SF 523.C771 
TWAIN 
3 1924 003 544 107 


4 mann 


Cornell University 


Library 


The original of this book is in 
the Cornell University Library. 


There are no known copyright restrictions in 
the United States on the use of the text. 


http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003544107 


THE 


Bee-Keeper’s Guide: 


——— (a 
MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 
—BY- 
A. J. COOK, 


Professor of Zoology Pomona College, Claremont, California, 


AUTHOR OF 


“Injurious Insects of Michigan," " Maple Sugar and the 
Sugar Bush," and "Silo and Silage." 


SEVENTEENTH EDITION. 


Revised, Enlarged, Re- Written and Beautifully Illustrated. 


NINETEENTH THOUSAND. 


CHICAGO, ILL. 
GEORGE W. YORK & COMPANY, 
PUBLISHERS. 
1902 
ea 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by 
ALBERT J. COOK, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 


TO THE 


REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH, 
THE 
INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE-FRAME HIVE, 


THE HUBER OF AMERICA, 
AND ONE OF THE GREATEST MASTERS OF PURE AND APPLIED 
SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO APICULTURE, 
IN THE WORLD, 


THIS MANUAL IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED 
BY 
THE AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


In 1876, in response to a desire frequently expressed by my aplarian 
friends, principally my students, I published an edition of 3000 copies of 
the little, unpretending ‘‘ Manual of the Apiary.’? This was little more 
than the course of lectures which I gave annually at the Michigan Agri- 
cultural College. In less than two years this was exhausted, and the 
second edition, enlarged, revised, and much more fully illustrated, was 
issued. So great was the sale that in less than a year this was followed 
by the third and fourth editions, and, in less than two years, the fifth 
edition (seventh thousand) was issued. 

In each of the two following years, another edition was demanded. 
In each of these editions the book has been enlarged, changes made, and 
illustrations added, that the book might keep pace with our rapidly 
advancing art. 

So great has been the demand for this work, not only at home and in 
Europe, but even in more distant lands, and so great has been the prog- 
ress of apiculture—so changed the views and methods of our best bee- 
keepers—that the author feels warranted in thoroughly revising and 
entirely recasting this eighth edition (tenth thousand). Not only is the 
work re-written, but much new matter, and many new and costly illus- 
trations, are added. 

The above I quote directly from the preface of the eighth edition, 
published in 1883. Since then four editions have appeared, each reyised 
as the progress of the art required. 

In electrotyping the eighth edition, through an accident very poor 
work was done, so that the impressions of the last three editions have 
been far from satisfactory. This has led me wholly to revise the present, 
or thirteenth edition. In doing this Ihave thought it wise toadd largely, 
especially to the scientific portion, as the intelligence of our bee-keepers 
demands the fullest information. I have thus added one hundred and 
fifty pages and more than thirty illustrations. All this has involved so 


PREFACKH. 


much expense that Iam forced, though very reluctantly, to increase the 
price of the work. 

As our bee-keepers know, I have permitted wide use of the illustra- 
tions prepared expressly for this work, believing heartily in the motto, 
‘“* greatest good to the greatest number;’’? soI have drawn widely from 
others. Iam greatly indebted to all these, and have given credit with 
the illustration. 

Since the above was penned three editions have appeared, the last, 
sixteenth, in 1899. Each has been revised. Both the science and prac- 
tice have so advanced that I now recast entirely this, the seventeenth 
edition. 

I wish again to express my thanks and gratitude to our wide-awake 
American apiarists, without whose aid it would have been impossibje to 
have written this work. Iam under special obligation to Messrs. Cowan, 
York and Root, and to my students who have aided me, both in the 
apiary and laboratory. 

As I stated in the preface tothe eighth edition, it is mysdesi:e and 
determination that this work shall continue to be the exponent of the 
most improved apiculture; and no pains will be spared, that each suc- 
ceeding edition may embody the latest improvements and discoveries 
wrought out by the practical man and the scientist, as gleaned from the 
excellent home and forsign apiarian and scientific periodicals. 

The above was prefaced to the Eighteenth one thousand published 
in 1900. This Nineteenth one thousand has been wholly revised, about 80 
pages and 75 engravings added. We believe it is now at the frontin 
bee-keeping science and practice. A. J. COOK. 


Pomona College, Claremont, California, 1902. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction.—p. 13. 


Who May Keep Bees. 


Specialists, Amateurs, Who Should 
Not Keep Bees, Inducements to 
Bee-Keeping, Recreation, Profits, 
Excellence as an Amateur Pursuit, 
Adaptation to Women, Improves 
the Mind, the Observation and 
Heart, Yields Delicious Food, 
Brings the Second Blade of Grass, 
Adds to the Nation’s Wealth, 
What Successful Bee-Keeping Re- 
quires, Mental Effort, Experience 
Necessary, Learn from Others, Aid 
from Conventions, Aid from Bee- 
Journals, American Bee Journal, 
Gleanings in Bee-Culture, Bee- 
Keepers’ Review, Canadian Bee 
Journal, American Bee-Keeper, 
Progressive Bee-Keeper, Lone Star 
Apiarist, Books for the Apiarist, 
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee, A B 
C of Bee-Culture, Bees and Honey, 
Scientific Queen-Rearing, Advanced 
Bee-Culture, Bee-Keeping for Be- 
ginners, Foreign _ Publications, 
British Bee Journal, Foreign Books, 
Promptitude, Enthusiasm. 


Part I. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY- 
BEE. 


CHAPTER I.—p. 31. 
The Bee's Place in the Animal King- 
dom. 


Branch of the Honey-Bee, The 
Class of the Honey-Bee, Order of 
the Honey-Bee, Family of the 


Honey-Bee, The Genus of the 
Honey-Bee, Species of Our Honey- 
Bees, Races of the Honey-Bee, Ger- 
man or Black Bee, Ligurian or Ital- 
ian, The Syrian and Cyprian Races, 
Other Races, Bibliography, Val- 
uable Books for the Student of 
Entomology. 


CHAPTER II.—p. 64. 
Anatomy and Physiology. 


Anatomy of Insects, Organs of 
the Head, Appendages of the 
Thorax, Internal Anatomy of In- 
sects, Secretory Organs of Insects, 
Sex-Organs of Insects, Transforma- 
tion of Insects, The Egg,The Larva 
of Insects, The Pupa of Insects, 
The Imago Stage, Incomplete Trans- 
formation, Anatomy and Physiology 
of the Honey-Bee, Three Kinds of 
Bees in each Family, The Queen- 
Bee, Structure and Natural His- 
tory, The Drones, The Neuters or 
Workers, Glandular Organs. 


CHAPTER III.—p. 165. 


Swarming, or Natural Methods of 
Increase. 


CHAPTER IV.—p. 171. 


Products of Bees, their Origin and 
Funetion. 


Honey, Wax, Pollen,or Bee-Bread, 
Propolis, Bibliography. 


x CONTENTS. 


Part II. 


THE APIARY, ITS CARE AND MAN- 
AGEMENT. 


INTRODUCTION.—p. 201. 
Starting an Apiary. 


Preparation, Read a Good Man- 
ual, Visit Some Apiarist, Take a 
College Course, Decide on a Plan, 
How to Procure First Colonies, 
Kind of Bees to Purchase, In What 
Kind of Hives, When to Purchase, 
How Much to Pay, Where to Locate 


CHAPTER V-—p. 207, 
Hives und Sections. 


Box-Hives, Movable-Comb Hives, 
Early Frame Hives, The Langstroth 
Hive, Character of the Hive, What 
Style to Adopt, The Heddon Sur- 
plus-Case, The Cover, Division- 
Board, Cloth Covers, The New 
Heddon Hive, The Frames, A Block 
for Making Frames, Cover for 
Frames, the Huber Hive, Observa- 
tory Hive, Apparatus for Procuring 
Comb Honey, Surplus Comb Honey 
in Sections, How to Place Sections 
in Position, Sections in Frames, 
Crates or Racks, Fences, Separa- 
tors, Foot-Power Saw. 


CHAPTER VI.—p. 253. 


Positionaud Arranyement of Apiary 


Position, Arrangement of Grounds, 
Preparation for Each Colony. 


CHAPTER VII.—p. 258. 
To Transfer Bees, 


The Old Method, Hunting Bee- 
Trees. 


CHAPTER VIII.—p. 264. 


Feeding and Feeders. 


What to Feed, How to Feed, 
Smith Feeder. 


CHAPTER IX.—p. 273. 
Queen- Rearing. 


How to Rear Queens, Nuclei, 
Queen Lamp-Nursery, Shall We 
Clip the Queen’s Wing? Laying 
Workers, Queen Register, or Api- 
ary Register. 


CHAPTER X.—p. 293. 
Increase of Colonies. 


Swarming, Hiving Swarms, To 
Prevent Second Swarms, To Pre- 
vent Swarming, Artificial Increase, 
How to Divide, Capturing Abscond- 
ing Swarms. 


CHAPTER XI.—p. 306. 
fialians and Italianizing. 


The New Races of Bees, What 
Bees Shall We Keep ? How to Ital- 
ianize, How to Introduce a Queen, 
Valentine’s Comb Stand, To Get 
Our Italian -Queens, To Ship 
Queens, The ‘‘ Good’ Candy, Prep- 
arations to Ship, To Move Colonies. 


CHAPTER XII.—p. 321. 
Extracting, and the Ertractor. 


Honey-Extractor, Desirable Points 
in an Extractor, Use of Extractor, 
When _to Use the Extractor, To 
Keep Extracted Honey. 


CHAPTER XIII.—p. 335. 
Working for Comb Honey. 


Points to Consider, To Secure 
Strong Colonies, To Avoid the 
Swarming Fever, Adjustment of 
Sections, Getting Bees into Sec- 
tions, Removal of Sections. 


CONTENTS. xi 


CHAPTER XIV.—p. 348. 


Handling Bees. 


The Best Bee-Veil, To Quiet Bees, 
Bellows Smoker, The Quinby 
Smoker, To Smoke Bees, Chloro- 
form, To Cure Stings, The Sweat 
Theory, The Bee-Tent. 


CHAPTER XV.—p. 353. 


Comb Foundation. 


History, American Foundation, 
The Press for Foundation, How 
Foundation is Made, To Secure the 
Wax-Sheets, Use of Foundation, 
Wired Frames, Save the Wax, 
Methods, Wax-Press. 


CHAPTER XVI.—>p. 373. 


Marketing Honey. 


How to Invigorate the Market, 
Preparation for Market, Extracted 
Honey, How to Tempt the Con- 
sumer, Comb Honey, Rules to be 
Observed, Marketing Bees, Selling 
Queens, Selling Bees by the Pound, 
Vinegar from Honey, Fairs and the 
Market, What Should We Have ? 
Effects of Such Exhibits. 


CHAPTER XVII.—p. 389. 


Honey-Pilants. 


Real Honey-Dew, Sweet Sap and 
Juices, What are the Valuable 
Honey-Plants ? Description With 
Practical Remarks, March Plants, 
April Plants, May Plants, June 
Plants, July Plants, August and 
September Plants, Books on Botany, 
Practical Conclusions. 


CHAPTER XVITI.—p. 454. 


Wintering Bees.’ 


The Causes of Disastrous Win- 
tering, The Requisite to Safe Win- 
tering—Good Food, Secure Late 
Breeding, To Secure and Maintain 
the Proper Temperature, Box for 
Packing, Chaff Hives, Rules for 
their Use, Wintering in Bee-House, 
Wintering in Cellar, Burying Bees 
or Clamps, Spring Dwindling. 


CHAPTER XIX.—p. 468. 
The Housc-Apiary and Bee-House, 
Bee-Houses. 


CHAPTER XX.—p. 473. 
Evils that Confront the Apiarist. 


Robbing, Disease, Foul Brood, 
Remedies, To Cure Bee-Paralysis, 
To Cure New Bve-Diseases, Ene- 
mies of Bees, The Bee-Moth, His- 
tory, Remedies, The Wee Bee-Moth, 
Remedies, Two Destructive Beetles, 
Robber-Flies, The Stinging Bug, 
The Bee-Stabber, Bee-Hawk, Tach- 
ina-Fly, Bee-Louse, Ants, Florida 
Ant, The Cow-Killer, The Praying 
Mantis, Blister-Beetles, Wasps, A 
Bee-Mite, Remedies, California Bee- 
Killer, Spiders, The King-Bird, The 
Toads, Mice, Shrews, Skunks. 


CHAPTER XXI.—p. 512. 
Calendar and Axioms. 


Work for Different Months, Jan- 
uary, February, March, April, May, 
June, July, August, September, 
October, November, December, 
Axioms, Glossary. 


INTRODUCTION. 


WHO MAY KEEP BEES. 
SPECIALISTS. 


Any person who is cautious, observing and prompt, will 
succeed in bee-keeping. He must expect to work with full 
energy through the busy season, and persist though discour- 
agement and misfortune both confront him. I need not men- 
tion capital or location, for men of true metal—men whose 
energy of body and mind bespeak success in advance—will 
solve these questions long before their experience and knowl- 
edge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries. 


AMATEURS. 


Bee-keeping is specially to be recommended as an avoca- 
tion. Bees are of great value in fertilizing fruits, grains and 
vegetables; they also save millions of pounds of most whole- 
some food which would otherwise go to waste ; and experience 
amply proves that they may be kept in city, village and coun- 
try at a good profit, and so any person, possessed of the proper 
ability, tact and energy, may adopt bee-keeping, and thus do 
good, gain pleasure, and often receive profit, as experience has 
shown, more than is derived from the regular occupation. The 
late Mr. C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, long kept bees very profit- 
ably on his store, in the very heart of thecity. Hundreds of 
our most successful bee-keepers live in small towns and vil- 
lages, and add bee-culture to their work in shop, office, or study, 
and receive health, pleasure, and money asa reward. Ladies all 
over our country are finding in this pursuit pleasure, and oppor- 
tunity to exercise in the pure air, which means health, and 
money. Farmers are adding bee-keeping to their farms, to 
find not infrequently that the bees are their most profitable 
property. Orchardists, especially, need and must have bees to 
pollinate the fruit-blossoms, and insure a crop. The time 
required willof course depend upon the number of colonies 
kept ; but with wise management, this time may be given at 


14 THH BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE ; 


any time of the day or week, and thus not interfere with the 
regular business. Thus residents of country, village or city, 
male or female, who enjoy the society and study of natural 
objects, and wish to add to their income and pleasure, will find 
here an ever waiting opportunity. 


WHO SHOULD NOT KEEP BEES. 


There are occasionally persons to whom the venom of the 
bee isa serious poison. If such persons are stung anywhere 
their eyes swell so they can not see, the skin blotches, and 
serious irritation is felt over the entire body. Such persons 
are often overcome with fever for several days, and, though 
very rarely, the sting sometimes proves fatal. It goes without 
saying that such persons should not keep bees. 

It is a well known fact that the sting of the honey-bee 
becomes less and less poisonous the more one is stung. The 
system becomes inoculated against the poison. My own ex- 
perience proves this most conclusively. Every bee-keeper will 
receive occasional stings, but these become more and more 
rare, and soon occasion neither fear nor anxiety. 


INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING. 
RECREATION. 


I name this first, as it was the pleasure in store that led me 
to the art of keeping bees, though I was terribly afraid of bees 
at the beginning. Thereis a rare fascination in the study of 
nature. Insect life is ever presenting the most pleasurable 
surprises to those who study it. Bees, from their wonderful 
instincts, curious structure and habits, and the interesting 
relations which they sustain to vegetable life, are most fasci- 
nating objects of study. The observant and appreciative bee- 
keeper is ever the witness of exhibitions that incite wonder 
and admiration. This is why bee-keepers are always enthusi- 
asts. I know of no class of laborers who dwell more fondly on 
their work and business than do bee-keepers. A thorough 
study of the marvelous economy of the honey-bee must, from 
its very nature, bring delight and admiration. A farmer once 
said to me, ‘‘ Were it not for the generous profits of the busi- 
ness, I would still keep bees for the real pleasure I receive in 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 15 


the business.” I once asked a hard worked teacher why he 
kept bees. I felt like saying amen to hisanswer: ‘‘ For the 
restful pleasure which the work gives.’’ I have often gone to 
the bees tired and nervous, and after an hour’s labor, felt re- 
freshed, as by sound sleep. I have been deeply gratified many 
times by the letters thanking me for having turned the writers’ 
attention towards bee-keeping. I often think that if a person 
does embark in bee-keeping, commencing in a small way—and 
no person should begin in any other way—the knowledge gained 
and consequent pleasure received will prove ample remunera- 
tion, even should no practical results follow. The man is 
broadened by the study, and better fitted to enjoy life. 

Some years since my old friend and college classmate, O. 
Clute, visited me. Of course, I must show him the bees. He 
was delighted, took this ‘‘ Manual’’ home with him, purchased 
some bees at once, and became enraptured with the work, and 
the result of all this was another first-class bee-keeper and 
that most fascinating work of fiction, ‘‘ Blessed Bees.’’ 


PROFITS. 

The profits in bee-keeping offer strong inducements towards 
its adoption as a pursuit. I believe few manual-labor occupa- 
tions offer so large returns, if we consider the capital invested. 
True, bee-keeping requires hard work, but this is only fora 
portion of the year, and in winter there is almost no work, 
especially if the bee-keeper buys all his hives, sections, etc., 
which is usually wiser than to make them. The cautious, 
prompt and skillful bee-keeper will often be able to secure an 
annual average of seventy-five pounds per colony, besides 
doubling the number of his colonies. This will give $10.00 per 
colony atleast, which is almost as much as the colony, with 
required apparatus, is worth. Of course, poor years will con- 
front the bee-keeper. Winter losses will be experienced by the 
beginner. Some will fail entirely. The fickle, careless, indo- 
lent man will as surely fail in bee-keeping as in any other 
calling. Yetif onestudies the science and art, and commences 
bee-keeping in a small way, as all should, he will be no great 
loser, even if he find that he is not suited to the business. He 
knows more and isa broader man for this study and experi- 
ence. My brother, whoisa good farmer, with a fertile and 


16 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


well-stocked farm, commenced bee-keeping more to interest 
his boys than aught else. He has met very little loss in win- 
tering—for years together none at all. For three successive 
years his sixty colonies of bees gave him more profits than all 
the balance of his farm. As he said at one of the Michigan 
State Conventions: ‘‘I find my bees the pleasantest and most 
profitable part of my farm.’’ He added the surprising remark, 
‘Nothing on my farm bears neglect better than my bees.”” I 
might add that neglect is rarely seen on his farm. 

Adam Grimm, James Heddon, G. M. Doolittle, EK. J. Oat- 
man, and many others, have made much money in this pursuit. 
Mr. Hetherington keeps thousands of colonies of bees, and has 
received over $10,000 cash receipts in a single year. Mr. Clute, 
an able clergyman, has often received more money from his 
bees than from his salary as a preacher. All over our country 
men are gaining a livelihood in this industry, and often earn- 
ing as much more in other pursuits. The opportunity to make 
money, even with hardships and privations, is attractive and 
seldom disregarded. What shall we say then of this oppor- 
tunity, if the labor which it involves, brings in itself healthful 
recreation and constant delight? Dr. C.C. Miller gaveupa 
$2500 salary to engage in bee-keeping. Though a specialist, 
and though his profits some years, owing to the drouth, are 
nothing, yet he is contented with the business, and has no idea 
of changing for any other. 


EXCHLLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT. 


After twenty years of experience, Iam persuaded that no 
business offers more as an avocation. Indeed, I think bee- 
keeping may ofttimes best serve asa second business. We 
have already seen that bees are a blessing, and I would have 
every person, whatever his leading business, keep a few colo- 
nies of bees, unless by taste, nature or temperament, he be 
unfitted for the work. Bee-keeping offers additional funds to 
the poorly paid; outdoor air to clerk and office-hand ; healthful 
exercise to the person of sedentary habits, opportunity for the 
poor to reap what would otherwise go to waste, and superior 
recreation to the student, teacher and professional man, espe- 
cially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, rou- 
tine order that seems to rob life of all zest, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 17 


The labor required in bee-keeping, especially if but few 
colonies are kept, can, with thought and management, be so 
arranged as not to infringe upon the time demanded by the 
regular occupation. Even the farmer, by wise foresight, can 
arrange so that his bees will not interfere greatly with his 
regular farm work. I have never received more hearty thanks 
than from persons whom I had influenced to add the care of 
bees to their other duties. 


ADAPTATION TO WOMEN. 


Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society 
has not been over-ready to favor—our women. Widowed 
mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, all may find 
a blessing in the easy, pleasant and profitable labors of the 
apiary. Ofcourse, women who lack vigor and health can care 
for but very few colonies, and must have sufficient strength to 
bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when loaded 
with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper 
thought and management, full colonies need never be lifted, 
nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet, right here let me 
add, and emphasize the truth, chat only those who will let ener- 
getic thought and skillful plan, and above all promptitude and 
persistence, make up for physical weakness, should enlist as 
apiarists. Usually a stronger body and improved health, the 
result of pure air, sunshine and exercise, will make each suc- 
cessive day’s labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding 
growth in the sizeof the apiary for each successive season. 
One of the most noted apiarists, not only in America, but in 
the world, sought in bee-keeping her health, and found not 
only health, but reputation and influence. Some of the most 
successful apiarists in our country are women. Of these, 
many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning health, 
grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which 
to vanqtish the grim monster. 

That able apiarist, and terse writer on apiculture, Mrs. L. 
Harrison, states that the physicians told her that she could not 
live; but apiculture did for her what the physicians could not 
do—restored her to health, and gave her such vigor that she 
has been able to work a large apiary for years. 

Said ‘‘Cyula Linswik ’’—whose excellent and beautifully 


18 THEH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee- 
journals, and who has had many years of successful experi- 
ence as an apiarist—in a paper read before the Michigan con- 
vention in March, 1887: ‘‘I would gladly purchase exemption 
from indoor work, on washing-day, by two days’ labor among 
the bees, and I find two hours’ labor at the ironing-table more 
fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can 
exact.’’ I repeat, that apiculture offers to many women not 
only pleasure but profit 


Mrs. lL). B. Baker, of Lansing, Mich., who had kept bees 
very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper be- 
fore the same convention, in which she said: ‘‘ But I can say, 
having tried both (keeping boarding-house and apiculture), I 
give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, healthful, 
independent and enjoyable. * * * I find the labors of the 
apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove indoors, 
and more pleasant and conducive to health. * * * Ibe- 
lieve that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find 
renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recreations 
of the apiary. ‘ * * By beginning in the early spring, 
when the weather was cool and the work light, I became grad- 
ually accustomed to outdoor labor, and by midsummer found 
myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as my hus- 
band, who has been accustomed to it all hislife. Previously, 
to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a headache. 
*  % * My own experience in the apiary has been a source 
of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my anticipations.”’ 
Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but two colonies of 
bees, her net profits the first season were over $100; the second 
year but a few cents less than $300 ; and the third year about 
$250. ‘‘The proof of the pudding is in the eating ;” and such 
words as those above show that apiculture offers special in- 
ducements to our sisters to become either amateur or profes- 
sional apiarists. Atthe present time almost every State has 
women bee-keepers, whose success has won attention. True 
it is, that in neatness and delicacy of manipulation, the women 
far surpass the men. The nicest honey producedin Michigan, 
year after year, comes from the apiary of two ladies who I 
believe are peers of any bee-keepers in our country. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 19 


IMPROVES THE MIND, THE OBSERVATION, AND THE HEART. 


Successful apiculture demands close and accurate obser- 
vation, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too, 
in the wondrous realm of nature. In all this, the apiarist re- 
ceives manifold and substantial advantages. In the cultiva- 
tion of the habit of observation a person becomes constantly 
more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure—results which 
also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. Itis 
hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist who is so 
frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the 
hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his 
hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for 
ennui. The whole tendency of such thought and study, where 
nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the desires, 
and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with their sus- 
ceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study, and we 
shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of the 
street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the 
saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast that 
even the old philosophers would have coveted; furnishes the 
rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by 
keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations 
of the 4l/ Father, must draw them toward Him ‘‘ who went 
about doing good,” and ‘‘ in whom there was no guile.” 


YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD. 


A last inducement of apiculture, certainly not unworthy of 
mention, is the offering it brings to our tables. Health, yea 
our very lives, demands that we eat sweets. It is a truth that 
our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups, are so adul- 
terated as to be often poisonous. The apiary in lieu of these, 
gives us one of the most delicious and wholesome of sweets, 
which has received merited praise, as food fit forthe gods, 
from the most ancient time to the present day. Ever to have 
within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the equally 
grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is certainly a bless- 
ing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and 
friends with a food element, with no cloud of fear from vile, 
poisonous adulterations. We now know that if we eat cane, 


20 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


sugar—the common sugar of our tables—it is converted by the 
digestive fluids into a glucose-like sugar, which is probably 
nearly or quite identical with honey-sugar. ‘The bees do the 
same with the nectar, which is dilute cane-sugar, of flowers. 
Thus we may reason that honey is our most wholesome sugar, 
for here the bees have in part digested our food for us. 


BRINGS THE SECOND BLADE OF GRASS. 


We now know that bees do most valuable work in pollina- 
ting the fruit-blossoms. No orchard will give full fruitage 
without the visits of nectar-loving insects. Of these valued 
friends, no other is at all comparable to the honey-bee, in the 
value of its service. I know of California orchards whose 
productiveness has been immensely increased by the introduc- 
tion of an apiary. Every orchard should have an apiary in its 
near vicinity. 

ADDS TO THE NATION’S WEALTH. 


An excellent authority placed the number of colonies of 
bees in the United States, in 1881, at 3,000,000, and the honey- 
production for that year at more than 20,000,000 pounds. The 
production for that year was not up to the average, and yet 
the cash value of the year’s honey crop exceeded $30,000,000. 
We may safely add as much more as the value of the increase 
of colonies, and we havea grand total of $60,000,000—nearly 
enough to pay the interest on the national debt, were the bonds 
all refunded. Mr. Root, in his excellent ‘‘A BCof Bee-Cul- 
ture,’”’ estimates, from sections sold, that 125 million pounds 
of honey are produced annually and sold for $10,000,000. And 
yetall this is but gathered nectar, which would go to waste 
were it not for the apiarist and his bees. We thus save tothe 
country that which would otherwise bea total loss. Apicul- 
ture, then, in adding so immensely to the productive capital of 
the country, is worthy, as an art, to receive the encouragement 
and fostering care of the State. And the thought that he is 
performing substantial service to the State, may well add to 
the pleasureof the apiarist, as he performs his daily round of 
labor. When we add to this the vastly greater indirect benefit 
which comes through the agency of bees in fertilizing flowers 
—a benefit which can hardiy be computed—we then understand 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 21 
{he immense value which comes from bees. Truly, the bee- 
keeper may feel proud of the grand part which his bees per- 
form in the economy of that part of nature which most con- 
cerns man and most generously ministers to man’s wants. 


WHAT SUCCESSFUL ,BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES. 
MENTAL EFFORT. 


No one should commence this business who is not willing 
to read, think, and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un- 
thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or 
later failure will set her seal upon their efforts. Those of our 
apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the closest, 
and thought the deepest, have even passed the late terrible 
winter with but slight loss. Those who fail, often fail because 
of just this lack of mental preparation. 

Of course the novice will ask, ‘‘How and what shall I 


study ?” ; 
EXPHRIENCK NECESSARY. 


Nothing will take the place of realexperience. Commence 
with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the 
bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note 
every change, whether of the bees, their development, or work, 
and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause. 


LEARN FROM OTHERS. 


Great good will also come from visiting and even working 
for a time with other bee-keepers. Note their methods, hives, 
sections, etc. Strive by conversation to gain new and valuable 
ideas, and gratefully adopt whatever is found, by comparison, 
to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice. 


AID FROM CONVENTIONS. 


Attend conventions whenever distance and means render 
this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social 
intercourse avith those whose occupation and study make them 
sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conserva- 
tory of scientific truths, valuable hints,and improved instru- 
ments and methods. And the apt attention—rendered possi- 


22 THH BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


ble by your own experience—which you wil! give to essays, 
discussions, and private conversations, will so enrich your 
mind that you will return to your home encouraged and able 
to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have 
attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Bee-Keepers’ 
Association, many of those of California, and several of the 
meetings of the National Bee-Keepers’ Association, and never 
yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and expense by the 
many, often very valuable, suggestions which I received. 


AID FROM BEE-PERIODICALS. 


Every apiarist should take and read at least one of the 
many excellent bee-periodicals that are issued in our country. 
It has been suggested that Francis Huber’s blindness was an 
advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs 
of eyes, his wife’s and servant’s, instead of one. So, too, of 
the apiarist who reads the bee-publications. He has the aid of 
the eyes, and the brains, of hundreds of intelligent and observ- 
ing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders his money on worse 
than useless patents and fixtures? He who ‘‘can not afford”’ 
to take a bee-paper. 

It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any 
one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. 
Each has its peculiar excellencies, and all who can may well 
call to his aid two or more of them. 


AMERICAN BRE JouRNAL.—This is the oldest American 
bee-paper, and the only weekly journal devoted exclusively to 
bee-keeping in the United States. It was founded in 1861, by 
the late Samuel Wagner, whose breadth of culture, strength of 
judgment, and practical and historical knowledge of bee- 
keeping, were remarkable. Even to-day those early volumes of 
this paper are very valuable parts of any bee-keeper’s library. 
Under the able management of Mr. Thomas G. Newman, the 
late editor, the paper made great and continuous advancement. 
The contributors to the “‘American Bee Journal” are the suc- 
cessful bee-keepers of America, and so it has a wide influ- 
ence. It is now edited by George W. York, whose skill, enter- 
prise, and ability, are no whit behind those who founded and 
raised this journal to its present proud place. The publishers 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 23 


are George W. York & Co.,118 Michigan St., Chicago, Ill. 
Subscription price, $1.00 a year. 


GLEANINGS IN BEE-CULTURE.—This semi-monthly journal, 
which has just completed its 28th volume, has shown great 
vigor and energy from its very birth. Its editor is an active 
apiarist, who is constantly experimenting ; a terse, able writer, 
and brimful of good-nature and enthusiasm. Iam free to say 
that in practical apiculture Iam more indebted to Mr. A. I. 
Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Lang- 
stroth. I also think that, with few exceptions, he has done 
more for the recent advancement of practical apiculture than 
any other person in our country or the world. This sprightly 
and beautifully illustrated journal is edited by E. R. Root, Me- 
dina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year. 


CaNADIAN BEE JouRNAL.— This excellent periodical, 
though published across the line, is worthy of high praise and 
patronage. Mr. D. A. Jones was its founder, and his ability, 
enterprise, and long and successful experience gave this paper 
great prestige. Perhaps no bee-keeper in the world has sacri- 
ficed more in the way of time and money, and received less for 
it, than has Mr. Jones, This is a monthly journal, and is pub- 
lished by the Goold, Shapley & Muir Co., Ltd., Brantford, Ont., 
at $1.00 a year. W.J. Craig is its editor. 


BrE-KEEPERS’ REVIEW.—Although the Bee-Keepers’ Re- 
view has less of years, it is already away up to the front, and 
an indispensable adjunct to every live apiarist. Its success 
has been quite phenomenal. The ability, energy, and success- 
ful experience of the editor, both as a writer and as a bee- 
keeper, fit him most admirably for his work. Not only has he 
won success in all departments of bee-keeping, but he has long 
been esteemed as one of the most able of our American apicul- 
tural writers. Published by W. Z. Hutchinson, Flint, Mich., 
at $1.00 a year. 


AMERICAN BEE-KEEPER.—The ability, enterprise and long 
and successful experience of Harry E. Hill, editor of this paper, 
are all well-known. It is a 20-page monthly magazine, neatly 
edited and wellillustrated. It is published by W. T. Falconer 
Mfg. Co., Jamestown, N. Y., at 50 cents a year. 


24 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


PROGRESSIVE BEE-KEEPER.—This is one ‘of the later bee- 
papers, but it shows wonderful progress and great promise of 
usefulness. Its present editor, R. B. Leahy, is noted for his 
ability, enterprise and pushing business ways. It is published 
mouthly by Leahy Mfg. Co., Higginsville, Mo. Price, 50 cents 
a year. 

Long Star APpiaRist.—This latest journal is edited by 
Louis Scholl, and is published monthly by The Lone Star Api- 
arist Pub. Co., of Floresville, Tex. It shows vigor and gives 
promise of long life and great usefulness. Its locality is very 
fortunate. Price, $1.00 a year. 


BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST. 


Having read many of the books treating of apiculture, 
American and foreign, Ican freely recommend such a course 
to others. Each book has peculiar excellencies, and may be 
read with interest and profit. 


LANGSTROTH ON THE HoNEY-BEE.—This treatise will ever 
remain a classic in bee-literature. I can not over-estimate the 
benefits which I have received froma study of its pages. The 
style of this work is so admirable, the subject-matter so replete 
with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, thatitisa 
desirable addition to any library, and no thoughtful, studious 
apiarist can wellbe without it. It is especially happy in detail- 
ing the work of experimentation, and in showing with what 
caution the true scientist establishes principles or deduces con- 
clusions. The work is wonderfully free from errors, and had 
the science and practice of apiculture remained stationary, 
there would have been little need of another work. We are 
happy to state, however, that this work is now revised by no 
less able authorities than Chas. Dadant & Son, which places it 
high among our bee-books of to-day. Price, $1.25. 


A BC or BERE-CULTURH.—This work is by the editor of 
“Gleanings in Bee-Culture.’”’ It is arranged in the convenient 
form of our cyclopedias, is printed in fine style, on beautiful 
paper, and is very fully illustrated. I need hardly say that the 
style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter is fresh, 
and embodies the most recent discoveries and inventions per- 
taining to bee-keeping. Price, $1.20. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 25 


BEES AND Honky.—This work is by Thomas G. Newman, 
late editor of the ‘‘American Bee Journal.’’ It is small, but 
contains an epitome of the science and art of bee-culture. 
Price, 75 cents. 


SCIENTIFIC QUEEN-REARING.—This work is by that well- 
known and thoroughly practical bee-keeper, G. M. Doolittle. 
It is invaluable, treating, as it does, of a method by which the 
very best queen-bees are reared in accord with nature’s way. 
Price, $1.00. 


ADVANCED BEE-CULTURE.—This is a full and plain expla- 
nation of the successful methods practiced by the author, W. 
Z. Hutchinson. Price, 50 cents, 


BEE-KEEPING FOR BEGINNERS.—By Dr. J. P. H. Brown, of 
Georgia, is a practical and condensed treatise on the honey- 
bee. 110 pages, bound in paper. Price, 50 cents. 


FOREIGN PUBLICATIONS. 


The British BEE JOURNAL, as the exponent of British 
methods and practices, is interesting and valuable to Ameri- 
can bee-keepers. It shows that in many things, as in the 
method of organizing and conducting conventions, so as to 
make them highly conducive to apicultural progress, we have 
much to learn from our brothers in Britain. The editor is one 
of the best informed bee-keepers of the world. The best way 
for Americans to secure this journal is through the editors of 
our American bee-papers. 


FOREIGN BOOKS. 


The best of these, indeed one of the best ever published, 
is THE HonEY-BEE, by Thomas W. Cowan, of London, Eng- 
land. It is the recognized authority in Europe, as it may well 
be. Itis not only beautiful, but full, accurate, and scientific 
Asa history of scientific discovery in relation to bees, it is of 
special interest. It deserves a place in every bee-keeper’s 
library. Price, $1.00. 

A more pretentious book is BEES AND BEE-KEEPING, by 
Frank Cheshire. In workmanship and illustration it is most 
admirable. It is a compilation from Schiemenz, Girard, Wollf, 


26 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


and others. Many of the pages and many of the finest illus- 
trations are taken bodily, and, we are pained to say, with no 
credit. As we should expect, the work is not as reliable as the 
smaller work of Mr. Cowan. Price, $5.50. 

As practical guides, J do not think the foreign works supe- 
rior to our own. Indeed, I think the beginner would profit 
most by studying our American books. The advanced bee- 
keeper will gain much in discipline and knowledge by a care- 
ful reading of the foreign works on bee-keeping. Foreign sci- 
entists, especially the Germans, are at the head, but no nation 
is quicker to discern the practical bearing and utilize the facts 
and discoveries in science than are Americans. The Germans 
had hardly shown how centrifugal force could be used to sepa- 
rate honey from the comb before the Americans had given us 
our beautiful extractors. The sameis true of comb-foundation 
machines. The Germans pointed out the true nature of ‘‘ foul 
brood,’’ and discovered the germicides for its cure, yet I believe 
ten times as many Americans as foreigners profit by this 
knowledge. 

PROMPTITUDE. 

Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping is 
prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock 
on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often 
they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt that more 
colonies die from starvation than from all the bee-maladies 
known to the bee-keeper. And why is this? Neglect is the 
apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by absconding 
colonies is almost incalculable, and what must we blame? 
Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of 
queen and workers, just because room is denied them, is very 
great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly, Neglect. If we 
would be successful, Promptitude must be our motto. Each 
colony of bees requires but very little care and attention. Our 
every interest requires that this be not denied, nor even 
granted grudgingly. The very fact that this attention is 
slight, renders it more liable to be neglected; but this neglect 
always involves loss—often disaster. True, with thought and 
management the time for this care can be arranged at pleasure 
and the amount greatly lessened, but the care must never be 
neglected. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 27 


ENTHUSIASM. 


Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties, is a very desir- 
able, if not an absolute, requisite to successful apiculture. To 
be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with only slight oppor- 
tunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. The 
beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may meet 
with discouragements—unquestionably will. Swarms will be 
lost, colonies will fail to winter, and the young apiarist will 
become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with 
great disfavor, and, if opportunity permits, will meet reproof 
more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these 
difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be fore- 
seen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers 
will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely asa 
pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs 
with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to 
his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence, in the face of 
all these discouragements which are so sure to confront inex- 
perience, will surely triumph. In ‘sooth, he who appreciates 
the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love his com- 
panions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their care 
andmanagement. Nor will this love abate until it has been 
kindled into enthusiasm. 

True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled 
by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, system 
and promptitude, stand in lieu of, and make amends for, ab- 
sence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and cer- 
tainly they work at great disadvantage. 


PART FIRST. 


NATURAL HISTORY 


OF THE 


HONEY- BEE. 


Natural History of the Honey-Bee, 
CHAPTER L 


THE BEE’S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL 
KINGDOM. 


It is estimated by eminent naturalists that there are more 
than 1,000,000 species of living animals. It will be both inter- 
esting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we 
may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this 
mighty concourse of life. 


BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a cotemporary of 
Napoleon I, grouped all animals which exhibit a ring struc- 
ture into one branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this 
term indicates the jointed or articulated structure which so 
obviously characterizes most of the members of this group. 

The terms ‘‘ joint’ and ‘‘articulation,’’ as used here, have 
a technical meaning. They refer not to the hinge or place of 
union of two parts, but to the parts themselves. Thus, the 
parts of an insect’s legs are styled ‘‘ joints "’ or ‘‘ articulations.” 
Allapiarists who have examined carefully the structure of a 
bee, will at once pronounce it an Articulate. Not only is its 
body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close 
inspection we find the legs, the antenne, and even the mouth- 
parts, likewise jointed. 

The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, 
as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which 
gives us food, is distantly related to the dreaded tape-worm, 
with its hundreds of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the 
same food after we have eatenit; and to the terrible pork- 
worm, or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we 
have developed in caring for our pets of the apiary. 

In classifying animals, the zoologist has regard not only 
to the morphology—the gross anatomy—but also to the em- 


32 THEH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


bryology, or style of development before birth or hatching. 
On both embryological and morphological grounds, Huxley 
and other recent authors are more than warranted in separa- 
ting the Vermes; or worms, from the Articulates of Cuvier asa 
separate phylum. The remaining classes are now included in 
the branch Arthropoda. This term, which means jointed feet, 
is most appropriate, as all of the insects and their allies have 
jointed feet, while the worms are without such members. 

The body-rings of these animals forma skeleton, firm, as 
in the bee and lobster, or more or less soft, as in most larve. 
The hardness of the crust is due to the deposit within it of a 
hard substance called chitine, and the firmness of the in- 
sect’s body varies simply with the amount of this chitine. 
This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates, or back-bone ani- 
mals, to which man belongs, is outside, and thus serves to pro- 
tect the inner, softer parts, as wellas to give them attach- 
ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal. 

This ring structure, so beautifully marked in our golden- 
banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, 
animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually 
bony skeleton ; from the Jess active Molluscan branch, with 
their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the 
clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish—the devil-fish 
of Victor Hugo—with its long, clammy arms, strange ink-bag, 
and often prodigious size; from the branch Echinodermata, 
with its graceful star-fish and sea-stars, and elegant sea-lilies ; 
from the Coelenterata with its delicate but gaudy jelly-fish, and 
coral animals, the tiny architects of islands and even conti- 

-nents; from the lowly Porifera or sponges which seem so little 
like an animal; and from the lowest, simplest, Protozoan 
branch, which includes animals often so minute that we often 
owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, and so 
simple that they have been regarded as the bond which unites 
plants with animals. 


CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE. 


The honey-bee belongs to the class Hexapoda, or true in- 
sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago, 
or last stage, six legs. Nor isthe second term less applicable, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 33 


as the word ‘‘insect’’ comes from the Latin, and means to 
cut in, and in no other Arthropod does the ring-structure ap- 
pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More 
than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike all 
other Arthropods, three well-marked divisions of the body, 


Fic. 1. 


Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified—After Duncan. 


a Head, 6 Thorax, « Abdomen, @ Antenne, e Compound Eyes, f Air-sacs, 
ggg’ Legs, f’ Trachez. 


(Fig. 1), namely: the head (Fig.1, a), which contains the an- 
tenne (Fig. 1, d), the horn-like appendages common to all 
insects; eyes (Fig. 1, e), and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig. 
1,b), which bears the legs (Fig. 1, g), and wings, whea they 
are present; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 1, c), which, though 


34 THE BEE-KEHEPER’S GUIDE; 


usually without appendages, contains the ovipositor, and, 
when present, the sting. Insects undergo a more striking 
metamorphosis than do most other animals. When first 
hatched they are worm-like, and called ‘“‘larve” (Fig. 39, /), 
which means masked; afterward they are frequently quies- 
cent, and would hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They 
are then known as pupe (Fig. 39, g). At last therecomes forth 
the mature insect or imago (Fig. 1), with compound eyes, 
antennez and wings. In some insects the transformations are 
said to be incomplete, that is, thelarva, pupa, and imago differ 
little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. The 
larve and pupz of such insects are knownasnymphs. We see 
in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of 
insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there 
is a marked resemblance from the newly-hatched larva to the 
adult. 

The other classes of the phylum Arthropoda, are the Crus- 
tacea, Myriapoda, andArachnoidea. The Crustaceans include 
the jolly cray-fish and the lobster, so indifferent as to whether 
they move forward, backward or sidewise ; the shorter crab, the 
sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under 
old boards; and the barnacles, which fasten to the bottom of 
ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life, without, as 
well as within. 

‘The myropods are the so-called ‘‘Thousand-Legged Worms.”’ 
These are wormlike in form. The body is hardly differentiated 
at all, The name comes from the numerous legs, which 
though never a thousand may reach one-fourth that number. 
Myriapods have only simple eyes, and all have antennae. Of 
the Myriapoda the Millipeds have numerous segments, often 
as many as sixty, have four legs to each joint, are cylindrical, 
and are often pests in the garden, as they are vegetable eaters. 
The Centipeds have fewer joints, may be no more than thirty, 
only one pair of legs to each segment, and feed on insects, etc. 
Their bite is venomous, and the bite of the larger ones may 
prove harmful even to man himself. 

The Class Arachnida includes the spider group. These 
animals all have, when mature, eight legs. They never have 
but two parts to the body, the head-thorax and abdomen, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 35 


Their eyes are simple, and they are without antenne. The 
wee mites belong here. They have hardly any divisions to the 
body. The mouth-parts form a mere portico. When first 
hatched they have only six legs. The so-called red spider (red 
mite), so destructive in the orchard, belongs here, as do also the 
sugar, cheese, flour, and chicken mites. The ticks are but 
colossal mites. Of these, the Texas Cattle Tick (Boophilus 
bovis) causes the Texas fever in cattle. The cause of the 
fever is a protozoan animal, Pyrosoma bigeminum. This is 
in the blood of Texas cattle, but is harmless. Carried by the 
tick to other cattle, it brings disease and death. The scorpions 
are also Arachnids. One of these stings as does the bee, and 
the sting is often quite venomous. The whip scorpion of 
Florida is named from its caudal appendages. It is entirely 
harmless. The Datames, which I call the ‘‘ California bee- 
killer”? (Fig. 292), and which is described among the bee- 
enemies, belongs here. Grandfather Graybeard also belongs 
in the scorpion order. Itis only useful in pointing the way to 
lost cows, etc. Its legs point every way. The spiders are the 
highest Arachnids. They differ from mites in possessing 
two well-marked divisions of the body, and in always having 
eight legs, and from the scorpions in never having the abdo- 
men jointed. Thespiders have a poisonous bite, but rarely 
inflict injury to man, Their silk and spinning habits are 
exceedingly interesting. Spiders are almost as marvelous in 
their life fstory as are the bees. Like the Datames, to be 
spoken of asa bee-enemy, spiders often kill our pets of the 
hive. 
ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE. 

The honey-bee belongs to the order Hymenoptera (from two 
Greek words meaning membrane and wing), which also in- 
cludes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies, gall-flies, and saw- 
flies. This group contains insects which possess a tongue by 
which they may suck (Figs. 16 and 54), and strong jaws (Fig. 
65) for biting. Thus, the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of 
flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, 
besides, four wings, and undergo complete transformations. 

There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects 
of one order will show a marked likeness to those of another, 


36 THE BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully 
striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace 
have shown this to be a developed peculiarity, not always pos- 
sessed by the ancestors of the animal, and that it comes 
through the laws of variation and natural selection to serve 
the purpose of protection. Right here we havea fine illustra- 
tion of this mimicry. Just the other day I received, through 
Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and the person sending it 
to him supposed to be a bee, and he desired to know whether 
it was a malformed honey-bee, or some other species. This 
insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had 
only two wings, had no jaws, and its antenne were close to- 
gether in front, and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, 
but belonged to the order Diptera, or two-winged flies. I have 
received several similar insects, with like inquiries. Among 
Diptera there are several families, as the stride, or bot-flies, 
some of the Asilide, or robber-flies (Fig. 268), which are often 
fierce enemies of our bees, the Syrphidze—a very useful.fam- 
ily, as the larve or maggots often live on plant-lice—whose 
members are often seen sipping sweets from flowers, or trying 
to rob the honey from other bees—the one referred to above 
belonged to this family—and the Bombyliidz, which in color, 
form, and hairy covering, are strikingly like wild and domes- 
ticated bees. The maggots of some of these feed on the larve 
of various of our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must 
steal into the nests of the latter to lay her eggs. Soin these 
cases there is seeming evidence that the mimicry may serve to 
protect these fly-tramps as they stealin to pilfer the coveted 
sweets, or lay the fatal eggs. Possibly, too, they may havea 
protective scent, as they have been seen to entera hivein 
safety, though a bumble-bee essaying todo the same found 
the way barricaded with myriad simitars, each with a poisoned 
tip. 

Some authors have placed Coleoptera, or beetles, as the 
highest of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera, or butter-flies 
and moths, a first place, while others, and with the best of 
reasons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The 
larger brain, wondrous habits, and marvelous differentiation 
of mouth-organs, legs, etc., more than warrant placing them 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 37 


at the head. The moth is admired for the glory of its coloring 
andelegance of its form, and the beetle for the luster and 
brilliancy of its elytra, or wing-covers; but these insects only 
revel in Nature’s wealth, and live and die without labor or pur- 
pose. Hymenoptera, usually less gaudy, often quite plain and 
unattractive in color, are yet the most highly endowed among 
insects. They live with a purpose in view, and are the best 
models of industry to be found among animals, Our bees 
practice a division of labor; the ants are still better political 
economists, as they have a specially endowed class in the com- 
munity which are the soldiers, and thus are the defenders of 
each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take 
their inhabitants captive, and reduce them to abject slavery— 
requiring them to perform a large portion, and sometimes the 
whole, of the labor of the community. Ants tunnel under 
streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating species have been 
observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as some ascend 
trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain below and 
carry these branches through their tunnels to their under- 
ground homes. Indeed, the Agricultural ant, of Texas, 
actually clears land and grows a special kind of plant on which 
it feeds. (See McCook’s Ants.) 

The parasitic Hymenoptera are so-called because they lay 
their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have fresh 
meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as the 
insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, which 
is working to disembowel it, is full-grown; thus this steak is 
ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show won- 
drous intelligence, or sense-development, in discovering their 
prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies—a family of these para- 
sites—boring through the bark and a thin layer of solid beech 
or maple wood, and upon examination I found the prospective 
victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, which 
was to intrude the fatalegg. I have also watched ichneumon- 
flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so surrounded 
with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce several 
thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced victim. 
Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars in a box, I reared, 
of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. Is it instinct 


38 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number of their 
eggs to the size of the larva which is to receive them, so that 
there may be no danger of famine and starvation? For true 
itis that while small caterpillars will receive but few eggs, 
large ones may receive several. Even the honey-bee some- 
times falls victim to such parasites, as I shall show in speak- 
ing of enemies of bees. How strange the habits of the saw- 
fly, with its wondrous instruments, more perfect than any 
saws of human workmanship, and the gall-flies, whose poison- 
ous stings, as they fasten their eggs to the oak, rose, or other 
leaves, cause the abnormal growth of food for the still un- 
hatched young. In the South it is reported that bees often 
obtain no small amount of nectar from species of oak-galls. 

The providing and caring for their young, which are at 
first helpless, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception, 
to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considereda 
mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not 
call it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such 
wonderful habits, all these, no less than the compact structure, 
small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more than 
warrant that grand trio of American naturalists—Agassiz, 
Dana, and Packard—in placing Hymenoptera first in rank 
among insects. As we shall detail the structure and habits of 
the Aighest of the high—-the bees—in the following pages, I am 
sure no one will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of 
the animal kingdom. 


FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE. 


The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidz, of Leach, 
which includes not only the hive-bee, but all insects which 
feed their helpless larve on pollen, pollen or honey, or food 
digested by the adult bees. 

Many authors separate the lower bees, principally because 
of their shorter tongues, from the others, under the family 
name, Andrenide. In this case all the bees are grouped as 
Mellifera or Anthophila Latr. I shall group all beesin the 
one family Apide, and regard the Andrene and their near 
relatives as asub-family. The insects of this family all have 
branched or plumose hairs on some portion of the body, broad 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 39 


heads, elbowed antennz (Fig. 1, d), which are thirteen jointed 
in the males, and only twelve jointed in the females. The 
jaws or mandibles (Fig. 65) are strong and usually toothed. 
The tongue or ligula is very long andslim in the higher 
genera, but short and flattened in the lower ones. The second 
jawsor maxille (Fig. 54, 2+) are long and prominent, and 
ensheath the tongue, with which they are folded back when 
not in use, once or more under the head. All the insects of 
this family have, on the four anterior legs, a stiff spine on the 
end of the tibia (Fig. 69), the fourth joint of the leg from the 
body—calledthe tibial spur, and all except the genus Apis, 
which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior legs are 
without tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior 
legs. Nearly all bees (the parasitic genera are exceptions) 
have the first joint of the tarsus of the posterior legs much 
broadened (Fig. 71), and this, together with the broad tibia, is 
hollowed out (Fig. 70), forming quite a basin or basket—the 
corbicula—on the outer side, in the species of Apis and Bom- 
bus, which basket is deepened by long, stiff hairs. These re- 
ceptacles, or pollen-baskets, are found only in such bees as 
gather much pollen. <A few of the Apide—thieves by nature— 
cuckoo-like, steal unbidden into the nests of others, and here 
lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by 
another, such bees gather no pollen, and so, like drone-bees, 
need noorgans for collecting it. These parasites illustrate 
mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster- 
mothers of their own young that unscientific eyes would often 
fail to distinguish them. Probably the bees thus imposed 
upon are no sharper, or they would refuse ingress to these 
merciless vagrants. 

The larve (Fig. 39,7) of all insects of this family are 
maggot-like, wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as 
already stated, have their food prepared for them. They are 
helpless, and thus all during their babyhood (the larva state)— 
the time when all insects are most ravenous, and the only time 
when many insects take food; the time when all growth in size, 
except such enlargement as is required by egg-development, 
occurs—these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or 
elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak - 


40 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in 
at this opening. There is much reason to believe that the 
honey-bees especially, like many maggots—such as the Hes- 
sian-fly larve—absorb much of their food through the body 
walls. From the mouth leads the alimentary canal, which has 
no aual opening. So there are no excreta other than gasand 
vapor, except the small amount which remains in the stomach 
and intestine, which are shed with the skin at the time of the 
last molt. What commendation for their food, nearly all 
capable of nourishment, and thus assimilated ! 

To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Mel- 
ipona, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not 
only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax-reservoirs. 
They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are 
exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus been 
thought that there was more than one queen. They are also 
very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a prospective com- 
mercial importance in these days of comb foundation. In this 
genus the basal joint of the tarsus is triangular, and there are 
two submarginal cells, not three, to the front wings. They 
are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings that 
do not reach the tip of their abdomens. Mr. T. F. Bingham, 
inventor of the bee-smoker, bought a colony of the stingless~ 
bees from Mexico to Michigan. The climate seemed unfavor- 
able to them, as soon the bees all died. I now have some of 
the bees, and their great black honey and pollen cells in our 
museum. The corbicule, or pollen-baskets, are specially well 
marked, and the posterior tibial spur is wanting in these small 
bees. 

Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have 
the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed, 
These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New World, 
but are met with in Africa, India, and Australasia. These 
build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches 
much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned. 

Of course insects of the genus Bombus—our common bum- 
ble-bees—belong to this family. Here the tongue is very long, 
the bee large, and the sting curved, with the barbs very short 
and few. Only the queen survives the winter. In spring she 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41 


forms her nest under some sod or board, often ina deserted 
mouse-nest, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after stor- 
ing a mass of bee-bread she deposits several eggs in the mass. 
The larve are soon hatched out and develop in large, coarse 
celis, not unlike the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the 
bees issue from these cells the latter are strengthened with 
wax. Later in the season, these coarse wax-cells, which con- 
tain much pollen, become very numerous, serving both for 
brood and honey. At first, in spring, the queen has all to do, 
hence the magnificent bumble-bees, the queens, seen about the 
lilacs in early spring. Soon the smaller workers become 
abundant, and relieve the queen, which then seldom leaves the 
nest. Later, the drones and the smaller, because yet unim- 
pregnated and non-laying, queens appear. Thus, the bees 
correspond with those of the hive. The young queens mate in 
late summer, and are probably the only ones that survive the 
winter. Mating is performed on the wing. I once saw a 
queen Bombus fall to the earth, dragging a male from which 
she would have torn loose had I not captured both. The bum- 
ble-bee drones are often seen collected about shady places at 
the mating season in August. 

Bees of the genus Xylocopa much resemble bumble-bees, 
though they are usually black, less hairy, and are our largest 
bees. They have not the corbicule. These are among our 
finest examples of boring insects. With their strong biden- 
tate jaws they cut long tunnels, often two or more feet long, 
in sound wood. These burrows are partitioned by chips into 
cells, andin each cell is left an egg and bee-bread for the 
larva, soon to hatch. These bees do no slight damage by 
boring into cornices, window-casings, etc., of houses and out- 
buildings. At my suggestion, many people thus annoyed 
have plugged these tunnels with a mixture of lard and kero- 
sene, and have speedily driven the offending beesaway. These 
are the bees which I have discovered piercing the base of long 
tubular flowers, like the wild bergamot. I have seen honey- 
bees visiting these slitted flowers, the nectar of which was 
thus made accessible to them. .I have never seen honey-bees 
biting flowers. I think they never do it. Xylocopa Califor- 
nica is very common here at Claremont. The females are 


42 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


black, and the males light yellow. My students told me the 
females would not sting. I said that was strange, and picked 
oneup. I threw it down very quickly, and have not repeated 
the experiment. 

The mason-bees—well named—construct cells of earth, 
which, by aid of their spittle, they cement so that these cells 
are very hard. There are several genera of these bees, the 
elegant Osmia, the brilliant Augochlora, the more sober but 
very numerous Andrena—the little black bees that often steal 
into the hives for honey, etc. Some burrow in sand, some 
build in hollowed-out weeds, some build mud cells in crevices, 
even small key-holes not being exempt, as I have too good 
reason to know. The Yale locks in our museum have thus 
suffered. Here the lard and kerosene mixture again comes in 
play. 

The tailor, or leaf-cutting, bees, of the genus Megachile, 
make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. 
These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and 
oblong, are cut—the insect making scissors of its jaws—from 
various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have found these 
cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower-leaves of the 
rose. Thecells are made by gluing these leaf-sections in con- 
centric layers, letting them overlap. The oblong sections form 
the walls of the cylinder, while the circular pieces are crowded 
into the tubes as we press circular wads into our shot-guns, 
and are used at the ends, or for partitions where several cells 
are placed together. When complete, the single cells arein 
form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When several 
are placed together, which is usually the case, they are 
arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a small 
stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long. 
These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the 
earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in 
the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had 
chanced to leave stationary for some days. These leaf-cutters 
often have yellow hairs underneath their bodies, which aid 
them in carrying pollen. I have noticed them each summer, 
for some years, swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called 
woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I have 


OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 43 


rarely seen the hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often 
cut the foliage of the same vines quite badly. The males of 
these bees have curiously modified, and broadly fringed ante- 
rior legs. I have found these-tailor-bees as common in Califor- 
nia as in Michigan. 

I have often reared beautiful bees of the genera Osmia 
and Augochlora, which, as already stated, are also called 
mason-bees. Their glistening colorsof blue and green possess 
aluster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals them- 
selves. These rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells 
lining hollow weeds and shrubs, and in burrows which they 
dig in the hardearth. In early summer, during warm days, 
these glistening gems of life are frequently seen in walks and 
drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or digging holes, 
and will hardly escape identification by the observing apiarist, 
as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They 
are smaller, yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general 
form, are very like those of the equally quick and active, yet 
more soberly attired, workers of the apiary. The beautiful— 
often beautifully striped—species of Ceratina look much like 
those of Osmia, but they nest in hollows in stems of various 
plants, which, in some cases, they themselves form. In south- 
western Michigan they do no little harm by boring the black- 
berry canes. They have simple hind legs. 

Other bées—the numerous species of the genus Nomada, 
and of Apathus—are the biack sheep in the family Apide. 
These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo and 
our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, and, 
though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appropriating 
food and lodgings for theirown yetunborn. Thus these insect 
vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster-mothers in 
their violated homes, and these same foster-mothers show by 
their tender care of these merciless intruders, that they are 
miserably fooled, for they carefully guard and feed infant bees, 
which, with age, will in turn practice this same nefarious 
trickery.. The Apathus species are parasites on the Bombus; 
the Nomada species, which are small bees, often beautifully 
ringed, on the small black Andrene. 

‘The species of Andrena, Halictus, the red Sphecodes, and 


44 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


others of the Andrenide of some authors, have short, flat 
tongues, with equi-jointed labial palpi. These bees have been 
little studied, and there are very numerous undescribed species. 

I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonder- 
ful bee-family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and 
Davis, of Michigan, Iwas struck with the fine collection of 
wild-bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had 
incorporated many that were not becs, Of course, many api- 
arists will wish to make such collections, and also to study our 
wild bees. I hope the above will prove both a stimulus and 
aid. I hope, too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, 
to the valuable and intensely interesting study of these won- 
ders of nature. Iam glad to open to the readera page from 
the book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above. 
Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the 
strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied habits, 
of this brightest of insect families, at the head of which stand 
our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary. 


I shall be very glad to receive specimens of wild bees from 
every State in our country. To send bees or other insects, 
kill with gasoline or chloroform, wrap with cotton or tissue 
paper, so as to prevent injury, and mailin a strong box. 


THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE. 


The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs 
on the posterior legs, and at the same time have three cubital 
or sub-costal cells (6, 7, 8, Fig. 2)—the second row from the 
costal or anterior edge—on the front or primary wings. The 
marginal cell (Fig. 2, 5) is very long. On the inner side of the 
posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen-baskets, in the 
neuters or workers, are rows of hairs (Fig. 71), which are used 
in collecting pollen. Inthe males, which do no work except 
to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes meet above, 
crowding the simple eyes below (Fig. 3), while in the workers 
(Fig. 4) and queens these simple eyes (called ocelli) are above, 
and the compound eyes wide apart. The compound eyes are 
in all cases hairy (Figs. 3,4). The drones and queens have 
weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 65, a4), short 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 45 


tongues, and no pollen-baskets, though they have the broad 
tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 48, z, s). 


There is some doubt as to the number of species of this 
Fic. 2. 


Anterior and Posterior Wings of Bee.—Original. 


h Hooklets much magnified. 1 Costal cell. 

a Costal vein. 2 Median cell. 

b Sub-costal vein. 3 Sub-median cell. 
¢ Median vein. 4 Anal cell. 

d Anal vein. 5 Marginal cell. 


q Posterior margin. 6, 7, 8, Sub-marginal cells. 
e Fold where hooklets catch, 10, 11 and 12, Discoidal cells, 
h Hooklets, 


46 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


genus. It is certain that the Italian bee, the Egyptian bee, 
the Cyprian bee, and the bees of Syria, of which Mr. Benton 
states that there are at least two distinct races, are only races 
of the Apis mellifera, which also includes the Tunisian or 
Punic bees, the Carniolan, and the German orblack bee. _ 
Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist of England, considers 
Apis dorsata of India and the Kast Indies, Apis zonata of the 
Philippine Islands, Apis indica of India and China, and Apis 


Fic. 3. 


Head of Drone, magnified.— Original. 


Antenne, Compound Eyes, Simple Eyes. 


florea of India, Ceylon, China, and Borneo, as distinct species. 
He thinks, also, that Apis adonsoni and Apis nigrocincta are 
distinct, but states that they may be varieties of Apis indica. 
Others think them races of dorsata. Some regard Apis uni- 
color as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety of Apis 
mellifera. As Apis mellifera has not been found in India, and 
is a native of Europe, Western Asia, and Africa, it seems 
quite possible, though not probable, that several of the above 
may turn out to be only varieties of Apis mellifera. If there 
are only color and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one 
may add habits, then we may suspect, with good reason, the 
validity of the above arrangement. If there be structural 
difference, as Mr. Wallace says there is, in the male dorsata, 
then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly 
has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not suffi¢fent 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 47 


to separate them as species. Apis zonata of the East Indies, 
and Apis unicolor, are said to be very black. 

I append the following chart, which I think represents 
pretty accurately the species, races and varieties of the genus 
Apis. (See page 48.) 

Where a race is followed by an iniweropatiod point, there 
is a question if it should not be considered a variety of the last 
preceding race not thus marked. Some of the races, like the 
Italian, Cyprian, Greek, etc., Vogel considers had their origin 
in a cross between the yellow and black races. Vogel’s con- 
clusion was reached from a long series of experiments, cross- 
ing Italian and German bees, and then breeding from such 
crosses. It seems likely that through the law of variation 


” Head of Worker, magnified.—Original. 
Antenne, Compound Eyes, Simple Eyes. 


each race might have originated independently, or possibly 
all, as varieties of the Egyptian bee. 

In the autumn of 1879, Mr. D. A. Jones, of Beeton, Ontario, 
Canada, inaugurated the grandest enterprise ever undertaken 
in the interest of apiculture. This was nothing less than to 
visit Cyprus, Syria, and the more distant India and the Hast 
Indies, for the purpose of securing and introducing into Amer- 
ica such species and races of bees as gave promise of superior 
excellence. Mr. Jones procured the services of Mr, Frank 


48 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


SPECIES. Races. VARIETIES. 
Apis Indica, Fab. A. dorsata nigripennis, 
Apis florea, Fab. Latr. 
Apis dorsata, Fab. A. dorsata bicolor, 
Klug. 
A. dorsata zonata, Carniolan or Krainer, 
L Smith. f Heath. 
A. mellifera nigra. eae 
German Bee. Herzegovinian. 
Smyrnian. 
, F Tunisian. 
A. mellifera fasciata 
Egyptian Bee. Common black. 
Syrian (?) ; 
South Palestine (7) 
Apis melifera, 4 Cyprian (?) 
Italian (?) 
Greek (?) 
Bonnat (?) 


Caucasian (?) 

A. mellifera unicolor 
Latr. Madagascar. 

A. mellifera adonsoni, 

( African Bee. 


Benton, a graduate of the Michigan Agricultural College, a 
fine linguist and skilled apiarist, to aid in his undertaking. 
After visiting the principal apiaries of Kurope, these gentle- 
men located at Larnica, in the island of Cyprus, where they 
established a large apiary composed of Cyprian and Syrian 
bees. The Cyprian bees were purchased on the island, while 
the Syrians were procured personally by Mr. Jones in Syria. 
The following June Mr. Jones returned to America with sev- 
eral hundred queens of these two races. Mr. Benton remained 
at Larnica to rear and ship more queens to Europe and Amer- 
ica. The following winter Mr. Benton visited Ceylon, Farther 
India, and Java, as Mr. Jones was determined to ascertain if 
there were better bees than those we already had, and if soto 
secure them. Apis dorsata (Figs. 5, 6) was the special object of 
the quest, and as this bee was known as the ‘ great bee of 
Java,’’ Mr. Benton visited that island, in hopes to procure 
these bees. But tothe sore disappointment not only of those 
who had the enterprise in charge, but of all progressive api- 
arists, the bees in question were not to be found on that island. 
Mr, Benton learned ata great cost that this bee is rare in 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 49 


Java, but common in the jungles of Ceylon, Hindoostan, 
Farther India, Sumatra, Borneo, and Timor. In Ceylon, Mr. 


Fic. 5. 


(From Department of Agriculture.) 
Benton saw many colonies, most of which were in inaccessible 
places, though he secured, after great labor and hardship, four 


colonies. 
Fic. 6. 


A. dorsata Drone, X2. 
(From Department of Agriculture.) 


These bees usually suspend their great combs, which are 
often six feet long and four feet wide, to overhanging rocks, or 


50 HE BEE-KEEPEHR’S GUIDE; 


to horizontal branches of trees. Inone case, Mr. Berton found 
them in the crevice of a rock, nearly surrounded by the’ same. 
This indicates that they may be kept in hives. The combs 
hang side by side, so do those of our common bees, but are one- 
half inchapart. Mr. Benton found the tops of the combs, 
which contain the honey, from three to six inches thick, while 
those where brood is.reared, are one and one-half inches thick. 
Drones and workers are all reared in the same cells, which are 
about the size of the drone brood-cells of our honey-comb, The 
worker-bees, some specimens of which I have received from 


Fic. 7. 


Worker-Cells.—A. indica. 
(From Department of Agriculture.) 


‘Mr. Jones, in size and general appearance much resemble our 
Italian queens. They ‘have blue-black wings, black bodies, 
which are ringed very much asare our Italians, only the yellow 
largely predominates. Mr. Benton writes me that in form and 
style of flight they much resemble wasps. They are the same 
size as the drones,.varying from three-fourths to seven-eighths 
of an inch in length. They are easily handled by aid of 
smoke, and are very clumsy in their attempts to sting. Their 
sting isno larger than that of our common bees, while the 
pain from their sting, Mr. Benton says,is not so great. The 
drones are dark brown, marked with yellow. Strangely 
enough, they only fly, unless disturbed, after sundown. ‘This 
is unfortunate, as with the same habits we might hope to mate 
them with our common bees, and thus procure a valuable 
cross. This may be a developed peculiarity, to protect them 
from birds, and so might very likely disappear with domesti- 
cation. The queens are leather-colored, and smaller, as com- 
pared with the workers, than are our common queens. The 
queens are more restless than are the workers while being 


OR; MANUAL OF THH APIARY. ‘51 


‘handled. While procuring these bees, Mr. Benton wa8 pros- 
trated with a fever, and so the bees, during their long voyage 
to Syria, were neglected. Strange to say, one colony survived 
‘the long confinement, but perished soon after reaching Syria. 
Wecan not call this journey a failure, as we now have the 
information that will render a second attempt surely success- 
ful. What has been learned will make the enterprising bee- 
keeper more desirous than ever to secure these bees. Their 
‘large size, and immense capabilities in the way of wax-secre- 
tion, as well as honey-storing, give us reason to hope for sub- 
‘stantial benefits from their importation. 

Mr. Benton also found A. indica and A. florea on the 
Island of Ceylon. I have received some of the bees and comb 
‘of the former species. The comb is very delicate, the cells 
(Fig. 7) being only one-sixth of an inch in diameter. The 
workers are less than one-half of an inch long, brown in color, 
and their entire abdomens are beautifully ringed with brown 
and yellow. The drones are black, and very small. The one 
I have measures an eighth of an inch less in length than does 
the worker. The queens are leather-colored, and very large as 
‘compared with the workers. They are as large as are our 


Fic. 8. 


Worker-Cells.—A. Florea. 
(From Department of Agriculture.) 


common queens. ‘These bees are very quick, and are domesti- 
cated on the Island of Ceylon. The workers of A. florea are 
‘also banded, and are more beautiful even than those of A. 
indica. They are very small. The combs are not larger than 
one’s hand, and so diminutive are the cells (Fig. 8) that 100 


52 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


bees are produced to the square inch. The color is blue-black, 
with the basal third of the abdomen orange. 

The sting of these two species is very small. From the 
small amount of stores which they gather, the tendency which 
they have to swarm out, and their inability to stand the cold, 
these two species promise little of value except from a scientific 
point of view. One colony of A. florea was brought by Mr. 
Benton to Cyprus, but it swarmed out and was lost. 

It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been 
native to the American continent. The ‘‘large brown bee”’ 
which some of our bee-keepers think native to America, is un- 
doubtedly but a variety of the common black, or German, bee. 
Without doubt there were no bees of this genus here till intro- 
duced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as we 
find that all the continents and islands of the Eastern Hemis- 
phere abound with representatives. It is one more illustration 
of the strange, inextricable puzzles connected with the geo- 
graphical distribution of animals. 


SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES. 


The bees at present domesticated are all of one species— 
Apis mellifera. The character of this species will appear in 
the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and 
physiology. As before stated, this species is native exclusively 
to the Eastern Hemisphere, though it has been introduced 
wherever civilized man has taken up his abode. 


RACES OF THE HONEY-BEE. 
German or Black Bees. 


The German or black bee is the race best known, as through 
all the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name 
‘“German’”’ refers to locality, while the name “ black’’ isa 
misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The queen, and, ina 
less degree, the drones, are darker, while the legs and under. 
surface of the former are brown, or copper-colored, and of the 
latter light gray. The tongue of the black worker I have 
found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by 
myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 53 


worker, and generally less hairy. The bees are more irritable, 
and so more likely to sting than the Italians. They are also 
wont to keep flyiug before one’s face in threatening mien for 
hours, until killed. The wise apiarist will dispatch such quar- 
relsome workers at once. The black bees have been known no 
longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were known 
both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C., and to Virgil, the 
great Roman poet, who sang of the variegated golden bee, the 
first century B. C.; and we can only account for the wider dis- 
tribution of the German bee by considering the more vigorous, 
pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only over-ran 
and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all 
christendom., 


Ligurian or Italian Bee. 


The Italian bee is characterized as a race, not only by dif- 
ference of color, habits, and activity, but also by possessing 
a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as dis- 
tinct from the German race by Spinola, in 1805, who gave the 
name “‘ Ligurian ’’ bee, which name prevails in Europe. The 
name comes from a province of Northern Italy, north of the 
Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut off from 
Northern Europe by the Alps, and thus these bees were kept 
apart from the German bees, and in warmer, more genial Italy, 
was developed a distinct race—our beautiful Italians. It seems 
to me quite reasonable to suppose from the appearance of the 
bees, and also from the migrations of the human race, that the 
Italian bee is an off-shoot from the Cyprian, and quite likely 
both of these of the Syrian race. 

In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, 
which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed 
asa military captain in Italy. He published his experience in 
1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became interested, and 
through him the Italian became generally introduced into 
Germany. In 1859—six years after Dzierzon’s first importa- 
tion—the Italian bee was introduced into England by Neigh- 
bour. The same year, Messrs, Wagner and Colvin imported 
the Italians from Dzierzon’s apiary into America; andin 1860, 


84 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} | 


Mr. S. B. Parsons brought the first colonies that were im- 
ported direct from Italy. 

- The Italian worker-bee is quickly distinguished by the 
bright yellow rings at the base of the abdomen. Perhaps 
golden would be a better term, as these bands are often bright 
orange. If the colony be pure, every bee will show three of 
these golden girdles (Fig. 9, A, B. C). ‘The first two segments 


Fic. 9. 


Abdomen of Italian Worker. 
(From A. I. Root Co.) 


or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, and 
also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this 
orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will 
be much as in the German race. Underneath the abdomen, 
except fora greater or less distance at the tip, will also be 
yellow, while the same color appears more or less strongly 
marked on the legs. The workers have longer ligule or 
tongues (Fig. 54) than, the German race, permitting them to 
gather nectar from long flower-tubes, which is inaccessible to 
our common bees, and their tongues are also a little more 
hairy than are those of the black bees. They are also more 
active, and less inclimed- to sting. The queen has the entire 
base of her abdomen,and sometimes nearly the whole of it, 
orange-yellow. The-variation as: to amount of color is quite 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 55 


striking. Sometimes very dark queens are imported right 
from the Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the 
badge of purity—the three golden bands. 2 

The drones are quite variable. Sometimes the rings ae 
patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, quite 
indistinct. But the under side of the body is always, so far as 
I have observed, mainly yellow. 

A variety of our Italian bees, which is very beautiful and 
gentle, has the rows of white hairs (Fig. 9, J, K, L, M) un- 
usually distinct, and is being sold in the United States under 
the name of Albinos.. They are not a distinct race. In fact, 
Thave often noticed among Italians the so-called Albinos sey- 
eral times, and have not found them superior, or even equal, I 
think, to the average Italian. 


THE SYRIAN AND CYPRIAN RACKS. 


Through the enterprise of .Messrs. D. A. Jones and Frank 
Benton, we now have these races in our country, and have 
proved the truth of the assertion. of noted European apiarists, 
that the Cyprian i is a distinct race of bees. 

Mr. Benton, than whom no one is better fitted to express’ a 
correct opinion, thinks that the Cyprian bees are the offspring 
of the Syrian. This opinion is strengthened by the close re- 
semblance of the two races, and by the fact that migrations 
of all kinds have gone westward. A similar argument would 
make it presumable that the Cyprians gave rise to the Italians. 

The Cyprian bees resemble the Italians very closely. They 
may be distinguished by the bright leather-colored lunule 
which tips their thorax posteriorly, and by- the fact that the 
under side of their bodies is yellow to the tip.*, They are more 
active than are the Italians, and the queers are more prolific. 

‘The good qualities of the Italians seem all to be exagger- 
ated in the Cyprians, except the trait of amiability. The 
Cyprian bees are second only to the Egyptian in irritability. 
That they will Resenie less cross with handling i is to be ex- 
pected. 

_ The Syrian bees are from Asiatic Turkey, north of Mount 
Carmel, andarea very well.marked race. The Syrian queens 
are remarkably uniform. Their. abdomens above ate, like the 


56 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


little A. indica, beautifully banded with yellow and black. 
They are very quick and remarkably prolific. They do not 
cease laying even when the honey-flow ceases. They are often 


Fic. 10. 


Carniolan Queen.—X2. 
(From Department of Agriculture.) 


kept prisoners in the cells longer than are queens of other 
races, and so may fly out at once upon emerging. They 


Fic. 11. 


Carniolan Worker, —X2. 
(From Department of Agriculture.) 


emerge from the cells at about the same time, so that often all 
the queens may emerge from the cells within a few hours, or 
even one hour. The workers closely resemble those of the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 57 


Italian race, only that they were more yellow beneath, and 
. when first from the cells, or newly hatched, they are very 

dark, owing to the fact that the body-rings seemed pushed 
together. They are admirable in the way they defend their 
hives against robbers, the ease with which they are shaken 
from the combs, their great activity, their great tendency to 
remain in the hive on very windy days, the wonderful fecundity 
of the queen, her persistence in laying during a dearth of nec- 
tar-secretion, and their great euperiority for queen-rearing. 


Fic. 12, 


iy 
Carniolan Drone.—X2. 
(From Department of Agriculture.) 


often starting fifty or more good queen-cells. Neither the 
Cyprian nor Syrian has found favor in America, and have 
largely been given up. 

OTHER RACKS. 


The Egyptian bees are very yellow, intensely cross, and 
frequently have laying workers. These are probably the bees 
which are famous in history,as having been moved up and 
down the Nile, in rude boats or rafts, as the varying periods of 
nectar-secreting bloom seemed to demand. 

The heath bees of Northern Germany are much like the 
common German bees, of which they are a strain, except that 
they are far more inclined to swarm. 

The Carniolan bees (Figs. 10, 11, 12) of Southwestern 


58 THE BEE-KREPER’S GUIDE} 


Austria, also called Krainer bees, from the mountainous re- 
gion of Krain, Austria, are praised as a very hardy variety: 
They are black with white rings—a sort of albino—German 
bee. They are like the heath variety, but are specially noted 
for their very gentle dispositions. Some European bee-keepers 
claim that this strain or variety is: much superior to the com- 
mon German bees. Mr. Benton, I think, holds strongly to 
this opinion. After a brief trial Iam: pleased with these bees. 


The Hungarian bees are longer than the typical German 
race, and are covered with gray hairs. During the poor season 
of 1875 in Europe, these bees, like the Carniolans, were found 
superior even to the Italians. 


The beautiful Dalmatian bees are Sie, wasp-like, and very 
black. The rings of their abdomens are banded with lightish 
yellow. Their honey is even more white and beautiful than 
that of the German race. Some of the best European bee- 
keepers claim that they are superior to the Italian bees. 


Akin to the Dalmatian bees are the Herzegovinian variety, 
which comes from the mountainous region of Bosnia, border- 
ing on the Adriatic Sea. A better marked variety—the Smyr- 
nian bees—from Western Asia, and also much praised by some 
of the noted Austrian bee-keepers, as are also the Caucasian, 
from the Caucasus Mountains, which are said to be very 
active and amiable. 


The Tunisian bees, from Tunis in the north of Africa, are 
said to be even darker than the black or German bee.’ They 
are described as quite irritable. These were the ‘‘ Punic bees” 
sold in the United States some years since. They did not keep 
in favor. It is stated that there is a race of bees which are 
domesticated in the south of Africa. From the descriptions I 
should think them quite like our Albinos in appearance. They 
are said to be excellent honey-producers, and to work even by 
moonlight. It is quite likely that some of these varieties 
might be found to endure our severe winters better than the 
pure German type, or the Italians. Now that we are to have 
an experimental station in each State, we may expect that all 
these races will be imported, that we may prove them and 
know which is the best. : 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 59 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one,. 
to give in this connection a complete history of entomology so. 
far as it relates to Apis mellifera. But this would take much: 
space, and as there is quite a full history in books, that I shall 
recommend to those who are eager to know more. of this in- 
teresting department of natural history, I will not go into 
details. 

Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. 
C. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth 
Georgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub- 
ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The 
poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance— 
would that as much might be said for the subject matter, 
which, though full of interest, is full of errors. A little later, 
Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his observa- 
tions, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much 
that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. As Mr. 
Langstroth once said to me, Columella wrote as one who had 
handled the things of which he wrote; and not like Virgil, as 
one who was dealing with second-hand wares. Pliny, the 
elder, who wrotein the second century, A. D., helped to con- 
tinue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had given, 
and not content with this, he added opinions of his own, which 
were not only without foundation, but were often the perfec- 
tion of absurdity. 

After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no prog- 
ress in natural history ; even for two centuries after the revival 
of learning, we find nothing of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch 
entomologist, in the middle of the seventeenth century, wrote 
a general history. of insects; also, ‘‘ The Natural History of 
Bees.’? Heandhis English contemporary, Ray, showed their 
ability as naturalists by founding their systems on insect 
transformations. They also revived the study and practice of 
anatomy, which had slept since its first introduction by Aris- 
totle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. I 
never open the grand work of Swammerdam, with its admir- 
able illustrations, without feelings of the most profound re- 


60 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


spect and admiration. Though a very pioneer in anatomy, 
and one of the founders of Natural Science, and possessed of 
lenses of very inferior quality, yet he wrote with an accuracy, 
and illustrated even minute tissues with a correctness and 
elegance that might well put to the blush many a modern 
writer. His description of the bee’s tongue is more accurate 
than that even of the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britanica. 

Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was 
much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, 
so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of the blood, 
announced his celebrated dictum, ‘‘Omnia ex ovo’’—all life 
from eggs—which was completely established by the noted 
Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle of the 
eighteenth century, the great Linnzus—‘‘ the brilliant Star of 
the North ’’—published his ‘‘Systema Nature,’’ and threw a 
flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His 
division of insects was founded upon presence, or absence, and 
characteristics, of wings. This, like Swammerdam’s basis, was 
too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably correct. 
Linnzus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and especially 
for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and 
animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as Apis 
mellifera, which he was first to describe. He was also the 
first to introduce classes and orders, as we now understand 
them. When we consider the amount and character of the 
work of the great Swede, we can but place him among the first, 
if notas the first, of naturalists. Contemporary with Lin- 
nexus (also written Linne) was Geoffroy, who did valuable 
work in defining new genera. In the last half of the century 
appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGeer, 
who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings 
and jaws, and thus discovered another of Nature’s keys to aid 
him in unlocking her mysteries. Kirby well says, ‘‘He united 
in himself the highest merit of an anatomist, a physiologist 
and as the observant historian of the habits and economy 
of insects, he is above all praise. What a spring of self-im- 
provement, enjoyment and public usefulness, is such an ability 
to observe as was possessed by the great DeGeer. ; 

Contemporary with Linneus and DeGeer was Reaumur, of 


’ OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 61 


France, whose experiments and researches are of special in- 
terest to the apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done 
more to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be 
commended are his method of experimenting, his patience in 
investigation, the elegance and felicity of his word-pictures, 
and, above all, Ais devotion to truth. We shall have occasion 
to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the 
great field of insect life frequently in the following pages. 
Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Reaumur, also 
did valuable work, in which the lover of bees hasa special 
interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and 
elucidation of parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of repro- 
duction—as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, though 
he did not discover that our bees, in the production of drones, 
illustrate the same doctrine. Though theauthor of no system, 
he gave much aid to Reaumur in his systematic labor. 

At this same period systematic entomology received great 
aid from Lyonnet’s valuable work. This author dissected and 
explained the development of acaterpillar. His descriptions 
and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his ability 
as long as entomology is studied. 

We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a 
student of Linneus—who published his works from 1775 to 
1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at 
the same time that we of America were revolutionizing gov- 
ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classifi- 
cation, and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had marked 
out; though it was scarcely beaten by the latter, while Fabri- 
cius left it wide and deep. His classes and orders are no im- 
provement on—in fact, are not nearly as correct as—his old 
master’s. In his description of genera—where he pretended to 
follow nature—he has rendered valuable service. In leading 
scientists to study parts, before little regarded, and thus to 
better establish affinities, he did a most valuable work. His 
work is a standard, and should be thoroughly studied by all 
entomologists. 

Just at the close of the last century appeared the ‘‘ great- 
est Roman of them all,” the great Latreille, of France, whose 
name we have so frequently used in the classification of the 


62 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


hhoney-bee. His is called the Elective System, as he used 
wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the organs, 
the entire structure. He gave usour Family Apide, our Genus 
Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several of the 
Species of this genus. In our study of this great man’s work, 
we constantly marvel at his extensive researches and remark- 
able talents. Lamarck, of this time, did very admirable work. 
So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon’s time, and the learned Dr. 
Leach, of England. Since then we have had hosts of workers 
in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise; 
yet the work has been to rub upand garnish rather than to 
create. Of late, Mr. F. T. Cresson, of Philadelphia, has given 
a synopsis of the Hymenoptera of North America, together 
with a list of the described species. Thisis one of the many 
valuable publications of the American Entomological Society. 

I will close this brief history with a notice of authors who 
are very serviceable to such as may desire to glean farther of 
the pleasures of systematic entomology; only remarking that 
at theend of the next chapter I shall refer to those who have 
been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy and 
physiology of insects, especially of bees. 


VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. 


For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on 
Insects—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra- 
tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the 
families, and even genera, of all the orders. ‘This work and 
the following are out of print, but can be got with little trouble 
at second-hand book-stores. Kirby and Spence—‘‘ Introduc- 
tion to Entomology ’’—is a very complete work. It treats of 
the classification, structure, habits, general economy of insects, 
and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work, 
and a great acquisition to any library. Dr. Packard’s ‘‘ Guide 
to the Study of Insects ”’ is a valuable work, and being Ameri- 
can is specially to be recommended. His later ‘‘ Text-Book of 
Entomology’”’ is invaluable to the student. ‘‘Injurious In- 
sects’ is the title of two valuable books, one by Dr. T. Harris; 
and the other by Mary Treat. The Reports of Dr, T. Harris, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. “63 


Dr. A. Fitch, and Dr. C. V. Riley, the Illinois Entomological 
Reports, and the Entomological Reports of the Departments of 
the Interior, and of Agriculture, will also be found of great 
value and interest. Cresson’s Synopsis, already referred to, 
will be indispensable to every student of bees or other Hyme- 
nopterous insects. Smith’s Entomology and Comstock’s En- 
tomology are.indispensable to every person at all interested in 
Entomology. The Reports of the several Experiment Stations, 
especially New Jersey and Cornell, are of great value. (See 
‘Bibliography ” at the close of the first part of this volume.) - 


64 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


CHAPTER II. 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of 
insects; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physi- 
ology, of the honey-bee. 

ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 


In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked por- 
tions (Fig. 1); the head (Figs. 3 and 4), which is strengthened 
by cross-pieces or braces (Fig. 13, 14), containing the mouth 


Longitudinal Section Bees’ Head ( from Cowan.) 


a Mentum. e Ligula. k Clypeus. p Brain. 
b Sub-mentum jf, g Labialpalpus. m Funnel. r Occiput. 
e Rods. h Head-brace. nu Paraglossa. s Duct from glands. 
d@ Lora. i Pharynx. o Ocellus. 
t Duct from lower head-glands. t, t Labrum. 


organs, the eyes, both the compound and, when present, the 
simple, and the antenne; the thorax, which is composed of 
three rings, and gives support to the one or two pairs of wings, 
when present, and to the three pairs of legs; aad the abdo- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 65 


men, which is composed of a variable number of rings, and 
gives support to the external sex-organs, and, when present, to 
thesting. Within the thorax (Fig. 25) there are little more than 
muscles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables 


Fic, 15. 


Fic. 14. 


WANN) 


¥ 


Cross Section of Head Showing 
Braces (After Macloskie. ) 


c,¢ Chitinous rods, which sup- 
port the cardines. 
h,h Strengthening rods. 


Head of Bee much magnified.—Original. 


o Epicranium. ce Clypeus. 
e,e Compound eyes. 7? Labrum. : 
a,a Antenne. m Jaws or mandibles. 


mz 2d Jaws or maxille. ¢ Ligula. 
kk Labial palpi. 


them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space. 
Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, by 
far the greater and more important portions of the alimentary 
canal, and other important organs, 


66 OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 


ORGANS OF THE HEAD. 


Of these the mouth organs (Fig. 15) are most prominent. 
These consist of an upper lip—labrum, and under lip—labium, 
and two pairs of jaws which move sidewise; the stronger, 
horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more membranous, but 
usually longer, named maxille. The labrum (Fig. 15,/) is well 
described in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, by a 
movable joint to a similarly shaped piece above it, called the 
clypeus (Fig. 15, c), and this latter to the broad epicranium 
(Fig. 15, 0), which carries the antenne, the compound, and, 
when present, the simple eyes (Fig. 3). 

The labium (Fig. 16) is not described by the name under 
lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the 
tongue. The base is usually broad, and iscalled the mentum, 
and from this extends the ligula (Fig. 15, ¢), which in bees isa 
sucking organ or tongue. 

On either side, nearthe junction of the ligula and mentum, 
arises a jointed organ, rarely absent, called the labial palpus 
(Fig. 15, &,#), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the 
angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para- 
glosse (Fig. 16, 2, ”,) one on either side. These are often 
wanting, though never in bees. 

The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 15, m, m) arise one on either 
side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. 
These work sidewise instead of up and down, as in the higher 
animals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes 
armed with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig. 65, 
a, 6) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees. 

Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little farther 
back, are the second jaws, or maxille (Fig. 15, 2), less dense 
and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. Each 
maxilla arises by a small joint (Fig. 16, c), the cardo; next 
this is a larger joint (Fig. 16, £), the stipes ; from this extends 
onthe inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 16, 4, 4,) or blade, usually 
fringed with hairs on its inner edge, towards the mouth; while 
on the outside of the stripes is inserted the—from one to sev- 
eral jointed—maxillary palpus. In the honey-bee the maxil- 
lary palpi (Fig. 16,72) are very small, and consist of two joints, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 67 


and in someinsects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in 
some of the beetles, there is a third piece running from the 
stipes between the palpus and lacinia, called the galea. The 


Fic. 16. 


Tongue of Bee.—From Cowan. 


a Mentum. J, g Labial palpi. m Funnel of tongue. 
6 Sub-mentum. h, h L-Lacinia. n, 2, Paraglossa. 
ec, ¢ Cardines. i,t, Maxillary palpi. vo Opening of tongue. 
d,d Lora, k, k Stipes. 
e Ligula hairs. 1 Ligula, 


maxillz also move sidewise, and probably aid in holding and 
turning the food while it is crushed by the harder jaws, though 
in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food. 


68 THE BEE-KEEPERS’ GUIDE: 


These mouth-parts are very variable in form in different 
insects. In butterflies and moths, two-winged flies and bugs, 
they are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups 
forms a hard, strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the 
mosquito and bedbug. In all the other insects we find them 
much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly 
in form, to agree with the habits and character of their posses- 
sors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these varying 
forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the insect, and 
no wonder that by their use they were so successful in forming 
a natural classification. 

If, as seems certain, the ‘‘ Doctrine of Natural Selection ”’ 
is well founded, then a change in habit is the precursor of a 


Fic. 17. 
ie ] | 
H i} I" 
i i 
Wy 
== 
= ——— 
4A 


BM i 
TA 
f 


a 


Microscope Mounted for Dissecting.—Original. 


change in structure. But what organs are so intimately 
related to the habits of animals, as the mouth and other organs 
that have to do with food-taking and food-getting ? 

Every bee-keeper will receive great benefit by dissecting 
these parts and studying their form and relations for himself. 
By getting his children interested in the same, he will have 
conferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings. 

To dissect these parts, first remove the head and carefully 
pin it toa cork, passing the pin through, well back between 
the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle-points, made 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 69 


by inserting a needle for half its length into a wooden pen- 
holder, leaving the point projecting for three-fourths of an 
inch. With one of these in each hand commence operations. 
The head may be either side up. Much may be learned in 
dissecting large insects, like our largest locusts, even with no 


Fic. 18. 


Antenna of Bee much magnified.—Original, 


s Scape. t Trachee. 
J Flagellum. n Nerves. 


glass; but in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good 
lens will be of great value. The best lens now in the market 
is the Coddington lens, mounted in German silver. These are 
imported from England. They can be procured of any optician, 
and cost only $1.50. ‘These lenses can be mounted in a con- 
venient stand (Fig. 17), which may be made in twenty minutes. 
Ithink one of these more valuable than a large compound 
microscope, which costs many times as much. Were I obliged 
to part with either, the latter would go. 

Irequire my students to do a great deal of dissecting, 
which they enjoy very much, and find very valuable. I would 
much rather that my boy would become interested in such 
study than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or even 
ahuge gold watch with a tremendous charm. Let such pleas- 
ing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they will 


70 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with anxiety 
and fear. 

The antenne (Fig. 15, a, a) are the horn-like jointed 
organs situated between, or below and in front of, the large 
compound eyes of all insects. They are sometimes short, as 
in the house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in crickets and 
green grasshoppers. They may be straight, curved, or 
elbowed. In form they are very varied, as thread-like, taper- 
ing, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, etc. The antenne 
of many Hymenopterous insects are elbowed (Fig.18). The 
long first joint inthis case is the scape, the remaining joints 
(Fig. 18, F) the flagellum. A large nerve (Fig. 18, 2) anda 


Fic. 19. 


Microscopie Structure of Anten- 
ne, after Schiemenz. 


Antennal Hairs.—Original. 


n Nerves. hk Tooth hairs. b Hairs of scape. 
e Cells, e,p Pits or pori. 06,¢ Hairs of scape and flagellum. 


trachea (Fig. 18, ¢) enter the antenna. The function of the 
antennz is now pretty well, if not wholly, understood. That 
they often serve as most delicate touch-organs no observing 
apiarist can doubt. Tactile nerve-ending hairs are often found 
in great numbers. With the higher insects, like most Hyme- 
nopterons, this tactile sense of the antennz is doubtless very 
important. 

It is now fully demonstrated that the sense of smell is 
located in the antennz. Sulzer, in the eighteenth century, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. val 


suggested that an unknown sense might exist in the antenne. 
Reaumur, Lyonet, Bonnet, etc., thought this might be the 
sense of smell. Dumeril, Lehrmann, who said that a nerve 
vessel and muscle entered the antenne, and Cuvier, etc., 
thought the sense of smell was located in the spiracles or 
breathing-mouths. Huber thought the organ of smell was 
located in the mouth. Latreille and Newport, of the last cen- 
tury, believed the antennz contained the organs of hearing. 
Strauss-Durckheim located them in the spiracles, while Wolff 
wrote a beautiful monograph to prove that the sense of smell 
was situated in the hypo-pharynx beneath the labrum. Erich- 
_ son, in 1848, discovered pits in the antennz—pori—covered 
with a membrane (Fig. 19,4), which he thought organs of 
smell. The next year Burmeister found hairs in these pits in 
beetles, which varied according as the beetle ate plant-food or 
carrion. 

Leydig, in 1855, showed that Erichson was correct, that 
there were pits also on the antenne and pegs (Fig. 19, 4), or 
tooth-like hairs, perforated at the end—olfactory teeth. It 
remained for Hauser (1880) to complete the demonstration. 
He experimented with insects by the use of carbolic acid, tur- 
pentine, etc. He found that this greatly disturbed the insects 
when their antennz were intact, and that even after he had 
withdrawn the offensive substance the insect would continue 
to rub its antenne as if to remove the disturbing odor—a sort 
of holding its nose. He then cut off the antenne to find that 
the insect was now insensible to the irritant. He next put 
food before the insects, which was quickly found and appro- 
priated; but after the antennz were cut off the food was found 
with difficulty, if atall, Experiment showed that in mating 
the same was true. Insects often find their mates when to us 
it would seem impossible. Thus, I have known hundreds of 
male moths to enter a room by a small opening in a window, 
attracted by a female within the room. I have also known 
them to swarm outside a closed window lured by a female 
within. Maleinsects have even been known to reach their 
mates by entering a room through astovepipe. Yet Hauser 
found that this ability was gone with the loss of the antennz. 
Kraepelin and others have since proved the correctness of 


72 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Hauser’s conclusions. So that we now know that the antenne, 
in most insects at least, contain the organs of smell. Histo- 
logically this apparatus is found to consist of nerves (Fig. 18, 
n) which run from the brain to the antenna, and at the outer, 
sensitive end, contain a cell (Fig. 19) with one or more nuclei. 
These nerves may end in perforated, tooth-like hairs on the 
antennae (Fig. 19, 4, 6,c, d)in pegs which have no chitinous 
sheath, which push out from the bottom of pits—pori—which 
exist often in great numbersin the antennez (Fig. 19, z, e, /) 
While Erichson first discovered the pits (Fig. 19, f, /) in the 
antenne, Burmeister discovered the sensitive, nerve-ending 
hairs (Fig. 19, a, /, m,d,h) at their bottom, and Leydig the 
perforated pegs, or tooth-like hairs. We may state, then, that 
the antennal organ of smell consists of a free or sunken hair- 
like body which opens by a pore or canal to a many nucleated 
ganglionic mass. Wethus understand how the bee finds the 
nectar, the fly the meat, and the drone and other male insects 
their mates. Similar structures in and about the mouth are 
proved by Kraepelin and Lubbock to be organs of taste. Mr. 
Cheshire speaks of small pits in the antennz which he regards 
as organs of hearing. He gives, however, no proof of this, 
and the pits that hedescribes are not at all ear-like in their 
structure. Dr. Packard says that there is no proof that any 
insects except crickets and locusts have real organs of hearing. 
He here refers to the ear-like organs situated on the sides of 
the body of theseinsects. Similar organs on the legs of the 
katydid are also probably auditory. Dr. C.S. Minot, in review- - 
ing Graber’s work, says that it has not been demonstrated that 
even these tympanal organs are auditory, and adds that all 
attempts to demonstrate the existence of: an auditory organ in 
insects has failed. There is little doubt but that this is a cor- 
rect statement. That insects are conscious of vibrations which 
with us cause sound, I think no observing person can doubt. 
It is proved by the love-note of the katydid, the cicada and the 
cricket. Ejvery apiarist has noticed the effect of various 
sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive; 
and how contagious is the sharp note of anger, the low hum of 
fear, and the pleasant tone of a new swarm as it commences 
to enter its new home. Now, whether insects take note of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 73 


these vibrations, as we recognize pitch, or whether they just 
distinguish the tremor, I think no one knows. There is some 
reason to believe that their delicate touch-organs may enable 
them to discriminate between vibrations, even more accurately 
than can we by the use of ourears. A slight jar will quickly 
awaken a colony of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass un- 
noticed. If insects can appreciate with great delicacy the 
different vibratory conditions of the air by an excessive devel- 
opment of the sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennz 
may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could 


Fic. 20. 


Facets of Compound 


Byes, 
after Dujardin. Section of Compound Eye, after Gagendower. 
F Facets. e Cornea, C Cells. 
HT Hairs. f Rods. O Nerve. 


only detect atmospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnzus 
and Bonnet. Mayer has proved that the hairs on the antennz 
of mosquitoes vibrate to different sounds. From our present 
knowledge, this view seems the most reasonable one, for noth- 
ing answering in the least to ears, structurally, has yet been 
discovered. 

The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are 
always present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple 
eyes, which may or may not be present. When present there 
are usually three of these ocelli (Fig. 3), which, if joined by 
lines, will describe a triangle, in the vertices of whose angles 


74 THE BERE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely 
but one. 

The simple eyes (Fig. 3, ///) are circular, and possess a 
cornea, lens or cone, and retina, which receives the nerve of 
sight. 

From the experiments of Reaumur and Swammerdam, 
which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con- 


; Sie inh i ila 


i“ Sco ny, We 


Longitudinal Section Eye.—From Cowan. 


c Facet. ec Lenses. m Basilar membrane. 
A Hair. P\p2p3 Rods. o Optic nerve. 


cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct, 
though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have 
thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis- 
tances. lWubbock, Forel, and others, are doubtless correct in 
the view that the ocelli are for near vision, and for use in dark 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 75." 


places. Larva, like spiders and most myriapods, have only 
simple eyes. 

‘The compound eyes (Fig. 3) are simply a cluster of simple 
eyes, so crowded that they are hexagonal (Fig. 20). Thecornea 
or facet (Fig. 20) is transparent, modified, chitinous skin. Just 


Fic. 23. 


Longitudinal Section of part . 
of Eye, after Cowan. 5 Rods much magnified, 
after Dujardin. 


e Facet. cc Cones. 
n Nuclei. r Retinule. 


within each facet is the crystalline lens (Fig. 22, cc) or crystal- 
line cone back of which extend the rods (Fig. 21, R, Fig. 23, cc) 
which consist of chitinous threads. Each rod is surrounded 
by rounded columns, eight in bees (Fig. 24)—retinula—which 


76 HE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


are enclosed by pigment membranes. This serves in the black 
lining of our own eyes and of optical instruments, to limit or 
absorb the rays of light. At the base of the rods is spread the 
nervous termination of the great optic nerves (Fig. 21), which 
extend from very near the brain, and which, before reaching 
the eye, passes through the three ganglionic enlargements 
(Fig. 22). Unlike the same in vertebrate eyes, the rods point 
forward. 

It is thought that the optic nerve is very short, and that 
the retina of other higher animals is represented by the three 
enlargements (Fig. 22), which, as in higher animals, are fibrous 
cellular and ganglionic, and by the central rods of the reti- 
nulew. The sensitive portion is doubtless the end of these rods. 
Insects, like bees, have a well-developed crystalline cone (Fig. 
23), and such eyes are called eucone; others have this less de- 
veloped, and their eyes are called pseudocone. 

The old theory of Leeuwenhock, Gottsche, and Platean, 
that each of the parts of a compound eye, each ommatidium, 
forms a distinct image, and these together make a compound 
whole, as, do our two eyes, the images overlapping, is now 
abandoned for the mosaic theory of Muller. Lubbock argues 
strongly for this view, and nearly all now accept it as true. 
Each of the ommatidia give a direct, not reverse, image, as do 
the ocelli, andeach an image of only a point. Thus, the image 
is a true mosaic, as Muller called it. The crystalline cone 
covered with black pigment permits only a point to be imag- 
ined, and so each of the separate eyes or ommatidia images a 
separate point of the object seen, and all the entire object. 
Lubbock argues that the compound eyes do not determine form, 
but only motion, and that is what would be useful to protect the 
insect. Delicate trachez pass into the eyes between the rods. 

The color of eyes varies very much, owing to the pigment. 
In some of the bees, wasps and Diptera, or two-winged flies, 
the coloration is exceedingly beautiful. Girschner thinks that 
insects with highly colored eyes do not see as well as others. 
Often the irridescence or play of colors, as the angle of vision 
changes, is wonderfully rich. 

The form, size, and position of eyes vary much, as seen by 
noticing the eyes (Fig. 3, 4) of drones and workers. Some. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 77 


times, as in bees (Fig. 3, 4), the eyes are hairy, the hairs aris- 
ing from between the facets. These hairs are protective, and 
very likely tactile. Usually the eyes are naked. The number 
of simple eyes which form the compound eye is often pro- 
digious. There may be 25,000 in a single compound eye. 
There are 4,000 or 5,000 in the worker-bee. 

The compound eyes are motionless, but from their size and 
sub-spherical shape they give quite a range of vision. It is 
not likely that they are capable of adjustment to accord with 
different distances, and it has been supposed, from the direct, 
darting flight of bees to their hives, and the awkward work 
they make in finding a hive when moved onlya short distance, 
that their eyes are best suited to long vision. 

Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experi- 
ments with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish 
colors. Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several 
others of various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed 
the position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went 
to the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical 
apiarists have long been aware of this fact,and have con- 
formed their practice to this knowledge, in giving a variety of 
colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that 
bees have arare faculty of marking positions, but for slight 
distances their sense of color will correct mistakes which would 
occur if position alone were their guide. Platean argues that 
insects are little guided by color, as they find flowers with no 
color, or the color obscured. This does not prove that color 
is not an aid, but that another sense—evidently of smell— 
supplements the sense of sight. 

Lubbock’s experiments prove that ants and wasps also 
distinguish colors. This is doubtless true of all insects that 
love sweets and are attracted by flowers. I have noticed a 
curious blunder made by bees in case of two houses which are 
just alike, but five rods apart. Honey placed on one porch is 
scarce found by bees before the corresponding porch of the 
other house will be swarming with bees also, though no honey 
is nearit. The bees are simply fooled. This experiment has 
been tried several times, so there can be no mistake. It shows 
that sight, not mere position, nor yet odor, is guide, even at 


73 THE BEEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


long distances. This disproves the general view that insects 
can see but at very short range. 7 

Within the head is the large brain (Fig. 27, 6), which will be 
described as we come to speak of the nervous system. There 
are also chitinous bars (Fig. 14) and braces within, which serve 
greatly to strengthen this portion of the insect. 


APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX. 


The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages 
of the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera 
have but two, and some insects—as the worker-ants—have 
none. Thefront or primary wings (Fig. 2) are usually larger 
than the secondary or hind wings, and thus the mesothoracic 


Fic. 25, 


Muscles of Thorax, after Wolff. 


I Muscles to raise front wing. D Muscles to lower front wing. 
A Muscles of hind wing. 


or middle ring of the thorax, to which they are attached, is 
usually larger than the metathorax or third ring. The wings 
consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 2), covered by a 
thin, tough membrane, The main ribs or veins are variable 
in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more 
or less cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more 
orless cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and 
quite important in classifying. Especially useful in group- 
ing bees into their families and genera are the cells in the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 79 


second row, from the front or costal edge of the primary wings, 
called the sub-costal cells. Thus, in the genus Apis there are 
three such cells (Fig. 2—6, 7, 8), while in the Melipona there 
are only two. The ribs or veins consist of a tube within a 
tube, the inner one forming an air-tube, the outer one carrying 
blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we often 
find hooks (Fig. 2, 2) to attach them to the front wings. 

The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly 
located in the thorax (Fig. 25), the strength of which is very 
great. The rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight 
‘is rapid, is aimost beyond computation. Marey found by his 


Fic. 26. 


tedevld 


Hairs of Bees.—Original. 


ingenious and graphic method that they number in the bee 190 
inasecond. This may be farfrom the maximum. Think of 
a tiny fly out-stripping the fleetest horse in the chase, and 
then marvel at this wondrous mechanism. 

The legs (Fig. 1, 2, g, g) are six in number in all mature 
insects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. 
These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit 
of the insect. Each leg consists of the following joints or 
parts: The coxa (Fig. 67,c), which moves like a ball-and- 
socket jointin the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body- 
rings. Next to this follow in order the broad trochanter (Fig. 
67, 7,) which is double in several families of Hymenoptera like 
the very valuable ichneumon and chalcid flies, the large, broad 
femur (Fig. 66, 7), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 67, 7), frequently 
bearing strong spines at or near its end, called tibial spurs, 
and followed by the from one to five jointed tarsi (Fig. 67, 1, 
2,3, 4,5). All these parts move freely upon each other, and- 
will vary in form to agree with their use. At the end of the 


80 THE BEE-KEHEPER’S GUIDE; 


last tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Fig. 68), between which 
are the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described, 
but rather glands, which secrete a sticky substance which en- 
ables insects to stick to a smooth wall, even though it be 
above them. The legs, and in fact the whole crust, are more or 
less dense and hard, owing to the deposit within the structure 
of chitine. 

The hairs of insects (Fig. 26) are very various in form, 
development and function. Some are short, others long ; some 
simple, others beautifully feathered; some are tactile, like 
those of the eyes of the bees, some are protective and for 
warmth, and some are used as brushes, combs, and for collect- 
ing, transferring and carrying pollen. 


INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. 


The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I 
have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the 
thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their 
use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher 
animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when 
highly magnified, show the striz or cross-lines, the same as do 
the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beautiful as 
microscopic objects. The fibers of each separate muscle are not 
bound together by a membrane, asin higher animals. In in- 
sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should 
expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In insects 
of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig. 25) is almost en- 
tirely composed of muscles; the cesophagus, which carries the 
food to the stomach, being very small. At the base of the 
jaws (Fig. 65) the muscles arelarge and firm. The number of 
muscles is astounding. Lyonet counted over 3,000 in a single 
caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are foundin the 
human body. The strength, too, of insects is prodigious. 
There must be quality in muscles, for muscles as large as those 
of the elephant, and as strong as those of the flea, would hardly 
need the fulcrum which the old philosopher demanded in order 
to move the world. Fleas have been madeto draw miniature 
cannon, chains and wagons many hundred times heavier than 
themselves. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 81 


The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar, so far as 
known, except in position. Each nerve consists of a bundle of 
fibers, some of which are sensitive, and some motor. Asin 


Diagram showing Internal Organs of Bee, (modified), from Cowan. 


H Head. ig Supra esophageal ganglia. 2s Honey-stomach. 
T Thorax. gg Ganglia on nerve cord. s Stomach. 

A Abdomen. as Air sacs. m Stomach-mouth. 
b Brain. tt Trachee. i Tleum. : 

f Rectum. mt Malpighian tubules. rg Rectal glands. 


our bodies, some are knotted, or have ganglia, and some are not. 
The main nervous cord is double, and has several enlarge- 
ments (Fig. 27, 28) or ganglia. It runs along the under or ven- 


82 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


tral side of the body, separates near the head, and after pass- 
ing-around the cesophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the 
ganglia, which serves as a brain (Fig. 27, 28). The uncovered 


Fic. 28. 


Nervous System of Drone, after Duncan. 


brain shows marked convolutions (Fig. 30). Dujardin states 
that the brain of the worker-bee is 1-174 of the body ; in the 
drone it is relatively much smaller; the ant, 1-286 ; the ich- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 83 


neumon, 1-400; water beetle, 1-4200. In man it is 1-40. So 
we see that the bee is at the summit of insect intelligence, as 
man is of the vertebrate. The convolutions (Fig. 30) add to 
the argument. 

From the brain many fibers extend on each side to the 
compound eyes. The minute nerves extend everywhere, and 
in squeezing out the viscera of an insect, are easily visible. 

In the larva the nerve cord is much as in the adult insect, 
except the ganglia are more numerous. Girard says, that at 
first in the larva of the bee there are seventeen ganglia. The 
supra-cesophageal of the brain, three sub-cesophageal, three 
thoracic—one for each ring—and ten abdominal. Soon the 
three sub-cesophageal merge into one, as do also the last three 
abdominal, when there are in all thirteen (Fig. 31). In the 


Fic. 29. 


Brain of Insect, after Dujardin. 
aa Antenne. ooo Ocelli. 


pupa, the last two of the thorax, and the first two abdominal, 
unite into the twin-like post-thoracic (Fig. 31), which supplies 
the meso, and meta-thoracic legs, and both pairs of wings with 
nerves. The fourth and fifth ganglia also unite, so that the 
adult worker-bee has nine ganglia in all. The brain or supra- 
cesophageal (Fig. 27), supplies nerves to the compound eyes, 
ocelli, antennz and labrum; the sub-cesophageal gives off 
nerves to the mandibles, maxille, and labium ; the first gan- 
glion of the thorax sends nerves to the anterior legs. There 
are only four abdominal ganglia in the drone. The brain 
(Fig. 29, 30), like our own, is enclosed in membranes, is com- 
posed of white and gray matter, and is undoubtedly the seat of 
intelligence. Hence, as we should suppose, the brain of the 


84 THE BEE-KEEKPER’S GUIDE, 


worker is much larger than that of either the drone or queen. 
The ganglia along the cord are the seat of reflex acts the same 
asis the gray matter of our own spinal cord. Indeed, the 
beheaded bee uses its members much more naturally than do 
the higher animals after they have lost their heads. This may 
arise from their more simple organism, or from a higher devel- 
opment of the ganglia in question. 

The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. 
The heart (Fig. 32, AH) isa long tube situated along the back, 
to which it is held by large muscles (Fig. 32, m), and receives 


Fie. 31. 


Brain of Bee, from Cowan. 


is 


Nervous System of Worker Larva, 
after Duncan. 


the blood at valvular openings (Fig. 32 0, 33 a,) along its sides 
which only permit the fluid to pass in, when, by contraction, it 
is forced toward the head and emptied into the general cavity. 
Valves prevent the blood from flowing back (Fig. 33, 6.) Thus 
the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion. 

There are no vessels to carry the blood to the various 
organs, nor is this necessary, for the nutritive fluid every- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 85 


where bathes the digestive canal, and thus easily receives 
nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis; everywhere surrounds 
the trachez or air-tubes—the insect’s lungs—and thus receives 
that most needful of all food, oxygen, and gives the baneful 
carbonic acid; everywhere touches the various organs, and 
gives and takes as the vital operations of the animal require. 

The heart, like animal vessels, generally, consists of an 
outer serous membrane, an inner, epithelial coat, and a middle 
muscular layer. Owing to the opaque crust, the pulsations of 
the heart can not generally be seen ; but in some transparent 
larve, like many maggots, some parasites—those of our com- 
mon cabbage butterfly show this admirably—and especially in 
aquatic larve, the pulsations are plainly visible, and are most 
interesting objects of study. 

The heart, as shown by Lyonet, is held to the dorsal wall 
by muscles (Fig. 32, m). Beneath the heart are muscles which, 


Fic. 32. Fic. 33. 
b 


Portion of Heart of an Insect, after Packard. , r' 
H Heart. m Muscles. o Openings. 


Diagram of Heart, trom Cowan. 


to quote from Girard, form a sort of horizontal diaphragm (Fig. 
34, d), which as Graber shows contract, and thus aid circulation. 

The blood is light colored, and entirely destitute of red 
discs or corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of 
higher animals, and which give our bloodits red color. The 
function of these red discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is 
carried everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air- 
tubes of insects, we see the red discsare not needed. Except 
for these semi-fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished 
as are other organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely 


86 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


fluid, in all normal conditions, and contains not the organs 
themselves, or any part of them, but only the elements, which 
are absorbed by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, 
to be scientific, are assimilated. The blood of insects is nearly 
destitute of discs, having only white corpuscles. The white 
corpuscles are called leucocytes. They are now known to act 
as so many animals, and are powerful for good in destroying 
microbes. We thus call them phagocytes. These phagocytes, 
in insect trausformations, remove, we may say eat up, the no 
longer useful organs. It is this way that a tadpole’s tail is 


Fic. 34. 


Cross Section of Bee, after Cheshire. 


h Heart. Tr. Trachee. 
St. Stomach. ga Ganglion. 
d Diaphragm. 


removed. This process is known as phagocytosis. The leu- 
cocytes are also found in the digested food, and like the same 
in higher animals, are amoeboid. Schonfeld has shown that 
the blood, chyle, the digested food, and larval food, are much 
the same. 

The respiratory or breathing system of insects consists of 
a very complicated system of air-tubes (Fig. 1, 27). These 
tubes (Fig. 35), which are constantly branching, and almost 
infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They 
are composed of a spiral thread, and thus resemble a hollow 
cylinder formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a 
rod, so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 87 


the wire unmoved. This spiral elastic thread, like the rings 
of cartilage in our own trachea, serves to make the tubes rigid ; 
and like our trachea—wind pipe—so these trachew or air-tubes 
in insects are lined within and covered without bya thin 
membrane. Nothing is more surprising and interesting than 
this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee 
under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself 
taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee, 
as my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful 
breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand in large 
lung-like sacs (Fig. 1, /), one on each side of the body. Doubt- 
less some of my readers have associated the quick movements 
and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their 
well developed lungs, so in such animals as the bees, we see 
the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes—their 


Fic. 35. 


\ 


4 rr 


« 


CS 


A Trachea, magnified. —Original. 


lungs—and the quick, busy life which has been proverbial of 
them since the earliest time. Along the sides of the body are 
the spiracles or breathing-mouths, which vary in number. 
The full-grown larva has twenty, while the imago has seven 
pairs ; two on the thorax—one on the prothorax, and one on the 
metathorax—and five on theabdomen. The drone has one more 
on each side of the abdomen. We see, then, that to strangle an 
insect we would not close the mouth, but these spiracles along 
the sides of the body. We now understand why the bee so 
soon dies when the body is daubed with honey. These spiracles 
are armed with a complex valvular arrangement which ex- 
cludes dust or other noxious particles. From these extends 
the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 1, /,/, 27 4,7), which carries 


88 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. As 
shown long ago by Leydig and Weismann, these air-tubes are 
but an invagination of the derm of the insect. What is more 
curious, these tracheze are molted or shed with the skin of the 
larve. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main 
trachez, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into 
large air-sacs (Fig. 1,/). Insects often show a respiratory 
motion, which in beesis often very marked. Newport has 
shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration, which varies 
from twenty to sixty per minute, gauges the heat in the hive, 
and thus we see why bees in times of severe cold, which they 
essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, consume much 
food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and are liable to 
disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there 
would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he 
suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. 

In the larval state, many insects breathe by fringe-like 
gills. The larval mosquito has gills in the form of hairy tufts, 
while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, 
or last part of the intestine. The insect, by a muscular effort, 
draws the water slowly in at the anus, where it bathes these 
singularly placed branchiz, and then makes it serve a further 
turn by forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting 
ahead. Thus, this curious apparatus not only furnishes 
oxygen, but also aids in locomotion. In the pupz of insects 
there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are 
taking place—the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive, 
larva, is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost 
etherealimago. So oxygen, the most essential—the sine gua 
non—of all animal food is still needed. The bees are too wise 
to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather add the 
porous capping, made of wax from old comb and pollen. The 
pupz, no less than the larve of some two-winged flies which 
live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the 
vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pupe 
of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time 
when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, has 
a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum. 

The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 89 


as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and 
complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. Asin 
mammals and birds, the length, with some striking exceptions, 
varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating insects have 
a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed on vegetable 
food it is much longer. 

The mouth I have already described. Following this (Fig. 
27) is the throat or pharynx, then the oesophagus or gullet (Fig. 
36, 0), which may expand, as in the bee, to form the honey- 
stomach (Fig. 36, 4s), may have an attached crop like the 


Fic. 36, 


Cross Section of Ileum, after 
Schiemenz. 


Alimentary Canal of Honey-Bee, modified, from Wolff. 


o Csophagus. sm Stomach-mouth. 
hs Honey-stomach. s True stomach. 

¢ Urinary tubes. i Small intestine or ileum. 
rg Rectal glands. r Large intestine or rectum, 


chicken, or may run as a uniform tube, as in the human body, 
to the true stomach (Fig. 36,5). Following this is the intes- 
tine—separated by some authors into an ileum (Fig. 36, z), and 
a rectum which ends in the vent or anus, 

The entire alimentary canal, except the stomach, is devel- 
oped from the ectoderm, or skin derm, and all is shed in 
molting. The stomach, often called the mid-stomach, to dis- 
tinguish it from the fore and hind, is derived from the endo- 
derm, and is not molted. Connected with the mouth are 
salivary glands (Fig. 58, 59), which are structurally much like 


90 THE BRE-KHEPER'S GUIDE ; 


those in higher animals. There is an inner and an outer 
chitinous layer, and the intervening cellular or epithelial, 
where secretion takes place. 

In those larve that form cocoons these are the source of 
silk. In the glands this is a viscid fluid, but asit leaves the 
duct it changes instantly into the gossamer thread. Bees and 
wasps use this saliva in forming their structures. With it and 
mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood, others form 
their paper cells; with it and wax, the bee fashions the rib- 
bons that are to form the beautiful comb. As will be seen 
later, these glands are very complex in bees, and the function 
of the secretion very varied in both composition and function. 

Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucus glands 
which secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft and pro- 
motes the passage of food. These lining cells also absorb, and 
may secrete a digestive fluid. 

The true stomach (Fig. 36, s; 27 S), is very muscular; 
and often a gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is 
lined with teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular, 
for secreting the gastric juice which is to liquefy the food, that 
it may be absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into 
the blood. 

Appended to the anterior end of the stomach are the from 
two to eight coeca, or, as in some beetles, very numerous villi 
or tubules. These are believed by Plateau and others tobe 
pancreatic in function. Theseare not found in bees. Attached 
tothe lower portion of the stomach are the urinary or Mal- 
pighian tubules (Fig. 27, 1, ¢), so named from their discoverer, 
Malpighi. There may be two to eight long tubes, or many 
short ones as in the bees, where we find 150, The finding in 
these of urea, uric acidand the urates settles the matter of their 
function. Cuvier and others thought these bile-tubules. 
Siebold thinks that some of the mucous glands secrete bile, 
and others act as a pancreas. 

The intestine, when short, as in larve and most carnivora, 
is straight, and but little, if any, longer than the abdomen, 
while in most plant-eaters it is long, and thus zigzag in its 
course. It is a very interesting fact that the alimentary canal 
in the larva may be partly shed at the time of molting, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 91 


Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are 
beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the taste. These 
fecal masses under trees or bushes often reveal the presence of 
caterpillars. I find my children use them to excellent purpose 
in finding rare specimens. In some caterpillars they are 
barrel-shaped, artistically fiuted, of brilliant hue, and, if fos- 
silized, would be greatly admired, as have been the coprolites— 
fossil feces of higher animals—if set as gems in jewelry. As 
it is, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other 
insects, as the Aphides, or plant-lice, the excrement, as well 
as the fluid that escapes from the general surface of the body, 
the anus, or in some species from special tubes called the 
nectaries, is very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar will 
often be appropriated by bees and conveyed to the hives. In 
those insects that suck their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, 
two-winged flies and bugs, the feces are liquid, while in case 
of solid food the excrement is nearly solid. It is doubtless this 
liquid excreta falling from bees that has been referred to often 
as a fine mist. 
SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS. 


I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby 
describes as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though 
Newport thinks them one and the same. In many insects 
these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucus glands, 
the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other secre- 
tions which serve for purposes of defense. In the queen and 
workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded 
with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at 
the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacs (Fig. 38, pg), and 
extruded through the sting as occasion requires. I know of no 
insects that poison while they bite, except mosquitoes, gnats, 
and some bugs. Mosquitoes and some flies, in biting, convey, 
as do ticks, germs of malaria or noxious protozoans, and so 
induce disease. 

A few exceedingly beautiful caterpillars are covered with 
branching spines, which sting about like a nettle. We have 
three such species. They are green, and of rare attraction, so 
that to capture them is worth the slight inconvenience arising 


92 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE, 


from their irritating punctures. Some insects, like many 
bugs, flies, beetles, and even butterflies, secrete a disgusting 
fluid, or gas, which affords protection, as by its stench it 
renders these filthy bugs so offensive that even a hungry bird 
or half-famished insect passes them by on the other side. 
Some insects secrete a gas which is stored in a sac at the pos- 
terior end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case 
danger threatens; thus by noise and smoke it startles its 
enemy, which beats a retreat. I have heard the little bom- 
bardier beetle at such times, even at considerable distances. 
The frightful reports about the terrible horn of the tomato- 
worm larva are mere nonsense; a more harmless animal does 
not exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two, 
used to bring them to mein the summer, and regard them as 
admiringly as would their father upon receiving them from 
the delighted children. 

If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that 
need be feared; nor need we except them, for with fair usage 
even they are seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon. The 
so-called ‘‘ kissing bugs,’’ which usually bite on the legs, and 
not on the lips, are too rare to be feared. There are two or 
three species of these biting bugs. 


SEX-ORGANS OF INSECTS. 


The male organs consist of the testes (Fig. 37, a), which are 
double. These are made up of tubules or vesicles, of which 
there may be from one, as in the drone-bee, to several, as in 
some beetles, on each side the abdominal cavity. In these 
vesicles grow the sperm cells, or spermatozoa (Fig. 50), which, 
when liberated, pass through a long convoluted tube, the vas 
deferens (Fig. 37, 5, 6), into the seminal sac (Fig. 37, ¢, ¢), 
where, in connection with mucus, they are stored. In most 
insects there are grandular sacs (Fig. 37, d) joined to these 
seminal receptacles, which, in the male bee, are very large. 
The sperm cells mingled with these viscid secretions, as they 
appear in the seminal receptacle ready for use, form the 
seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is 
the ejaculatory duct (Fig. 37, e,f, ¢), which, in copulation, 
carries the male fluid to the penis (Fig. 37, 4), through which it 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 93 


passes to the oviduct of the female. Beside this latter organ 
are the sheath, the claspers, when present, and, in the male 
bee, those large yellow glandular sacs (Fig. 37, 2), which are 
often seen to dart forth as the drone is held in the warm hand. 


Fic. 37. 


Male Organs of Drone, much magnified. 


a Testes. e Common duct. 
bb Vasa deferentia. Jg Ejaculatory duct. 
cc’ Seminal sacs. h Penis. 

d Glandular sacs. 7 Yellow saccules. 


The female organs (Fig. 38) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 
38, 0, 0), which are situated one on either side of the abdominal 
cavity. From these extended the two oviducts (Fig. 38, D), 
which unite into the common oviduct (Fig. 38, D), through 
which the eggs pass in deposition. In the higher Hymenop- 
tera there is beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sac 


94 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


(Fig. 38, », 5) called the spermatheca, which receives the male 
fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must 
ever after do the work of impregnation. 

This sac was discovered, and its use suggested, by Mal- 


Female Organs, magnified, from Leuckart. 


O Ovaries. Pg Poison glands. 
DD Oviducts. Sg Sting glands. 
Sb Spermatheca. & Sting. 


Pb Poison sac. 


pighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully demon- 
strated until 1792, when the great anatomist, John Hunter, 
showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries are 
multitubular organs. In some insects, as laying workers, 


OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 95 


there are but very few tubes—twoor three; while in the queen- 
bee there are more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova 
or eggs grow, as do the sperm-cells in the vesicles of the testes. 
The number of eggsis variable. Some insects, as the mud- 
wasps, produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes 
millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is 
wonderful in its variation. Sometimes it consists of concen- 
tric rings, like a spy-glass, which may be pushed out or drawn 
in; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of 
wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs; or againof a tube 
which may alsoserveas a sting. The females of all Hymenop- 
tera possess a very complex sting, saw, or ovipositor, which 
can be said of no other order. 

Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at 
least that the female meets the male but once. Many species 
like the squash-bug mate several times. In some cases, as we 
shall see in the sequel, the male is killed by the copulatory 
act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species. 

To study viscera, which of course requires very careful 
dissection, we need more apparatus than has been yet 
described. Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dis- 
secting-knife, a delicate pair of forceps, and some small, 
sharp-pointed dissecting scissors—those of the renowned 
Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required a lens 
to sharpen them—which may also serve toclip the wings of 
queens, are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in 
alcohol will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out, and 
the muscles hardened. Formalin is much cheaper, and on 
many accounts better than alcohol. It does not evaporate as 
readily, and the specimens preserved in it do not smell offen- 
sive. Placing specimens in hot water willdo nearly as well, 
in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This 
may be applied with a camel’s-hair brush. By dissecting 
under water the loose portions will float off, and render effect- 
ive work more easy. Swammerdam, who had that most 
valuable requisite to a naturalist—unlimited patience—not 
only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine 
asa hair, he injected the various vessels, as the alimentary 
canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in 


96 TH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


upon these wondrous beauties and marvels of God’s own 
handiwork—Nature’s grand exposition? Father, why would 
not a set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to 
your son? You might thus sow the seed which would germi- 
nate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth-stone. 
Messrs. Editors, why do not you keep boxes of these instru- 
ments for sale, and thus aid to light the torch of genius, and 
hasten apiarian research? 


TRANSFORMATION OF INSECTS. 


What in allthe realm of nature is so worthy to awaken 
delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which 
insects undergo? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive cater- 
pillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or mining 
in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of Nature’s great 
magician,* first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with 
green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the 

finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous 
' butterfly ; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out- 
rivals even the birds among the life-jewels of Nature, and is 
made fit to revelin all her decorative wealth. The little fly, 
too, with wings dyed in rainbow hues, flitting like a fairy 
from leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot, 
reveling in the veriest filth of decaying Nature. The grub 
to-day drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on 
which it fattens; to-morrow it will glitter as the brillant set- 
ting in the bracelet and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless 
belle. 

There are four separate stages in the development of 
insects: The egg, the larva, the pupa, and the imago. 


THE EGG. 


This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its 
yolk, the real egg, and its surrounding white or albumen, like 
the eggs of all mammals, and farther, the delicate shell, which 
is familiar in the eggs of birds and reptiles. Eggs of insects 
are often beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently 
ribbed and fluted (Fig. 41), as by a master hand. ‘The form of 
eggs is very various—spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 97 


straight, and curved (Fig. 39, a, 6). Through the egg is an 
opening (Fig. 41, 4, B, m), the micropyle, through which 
passes the sperm-cells, Allsinsects seem to be guarded by a 
wonderful knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the pla- 
cing of eggs on or near the peculiar food of the larva, even 
though in many cases such food is no part of the aliment of 
theimago. The Ny has the refined habits of the epicure, from 
whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the horse- 
droppings of stable and pasture. 

Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and 
their consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar 
changes can be easily and most profitably studied by breaking 
and examining a hen’s egg each successive day of incubation. 
As with the eggs of our own species, and of all higher ani- 
mals, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part—the 
white is only food, so to speak—soon segments or divides into 
a great many cells—in the morula stage—which soon unite into 
three membranes, the blastoderms—blastula stage—which are 
the initial animal; these blastoderms soon form a single arch 
or sac, and not a double arch, one above the other, as in our 
own vertebrate branch. This sac, looking like a miniature 
bag of grain, grows by absorption, becomes articulated, and 
by budding out is soon provided with the various members. 
At first the sixteen or seventeen segments are much alike, and 
all bear appendages. From the three segments of the head 
come the antenne and mouth organs, from the three thoracic 
rings the three pairs of legs, while the remaining abdominal 
joints generally soon lose all show of appendages, which are 
never present in the imago. The trachez, and fore and hind 
intestines, all but the stomach, are but invaginations of the 
ectoderm or skin membrane, and so are shed when the skin is 
moulted. As in higher animals, these changes are consequent 
upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the incorporation 
within the eggs of the sperm-cells from the male, which enter 
the egg at an opening called the micropyle. The time it takes 
the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged by heat, and 
will, therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though 
in different species it varies from days to months. The num- 
ber of eggs which an insect may produce is subject to wide 


98 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


variation. There may be a score of them; there may be 
thousands. 
THE LARVA OF INSECTS. 


From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, 
caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm- 
shaped (Fig. 39), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and 
the body plainly marked into ring divisions. In some insects 
there are fourteen of these rings or segments, or ten besides the 
head and three rings of the thorax. In bees, and nearly all 
other insects (Fig. 39, /), there is one less abdominal ring. 
Often, as in case of some grubs, larval bees, and maggots, 
there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to 
each of the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these, 
caterpillars have usually ten prop-legs farther back on the 
body, though a few—the loopers or measuring caterpillars— 
have only four or six, while the larve of the saw-flies have 
from twelve to sixteen of the false or prop-legs. The alimen- 
tary canal of larval insects is usually short, direct, and quite 
simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all developed. 
The larve of insects are voracious eaters—indeed, their only 
work seems to be to eat and grow fat. This rapid growth is 
well shown in the larva of the bee, which increases during its 
brief period from egg to full-grown larva—less than five days— 
from 1200 to 1500 times its weight. As the entire growth 
occurs at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more 
excusable. I have often been astonished at the amount of food 
that the insects in my breeding cases would consume. The 
skin or crust of insectsis unyielding, hence growth requires 
that it shall be cast. This shedding of the skin is called 
moulting. It isa strange fact, already mentioned, that the 
treachee and a part of the alimentary canal are cast off with 
the skin. Most insects moult from four to six times. That 
bees moult was even known to Swammerdam. Vogel speaks 
of the thickening of the cells because of these cast-skins. Dr. 
Packard observed many years since, thatin the thin-skinned 
larvz, such as those of bees, wasps, and gall-flies, the moults 
are not apparent; as these larve increase in size, they out- 
grow the old skin which comes off in shreds. The length of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 99 


time which insects remain as larve is very variable. The 
maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days; the 
larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week; the apple- 
tree borer gnaws away for three years ; while the seventeen- 
year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years, 
groping in darkness and feeding on roots, only to come forth 
fora few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, 
here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The 
name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by Lin- 
neus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and can not 
be even divined by the unlearned. 


THE PUPA OF INSECTS. 


In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting 
after its meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive days— 
the joyous honeymoon—soontocome. At this time the insect 
may look like a seed, as in the coarctate pupa of diptera, so 
familiar in the ‘‘flaxseed’’ state of the Hessian-fly, or in the 
pupa of the cheese-maggot, or the meat-fly. The form of the 
adult insect is very obscurely shown in butterfly pupe, called, 
because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupe of 
moths. Other pupez,as in the case of bees (Fig. 39, g) and 
beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its antennae, 
legs, and wings closely bound to the body bya thin membrane, 
hence the name pupa which Linne gave—referring to this con- 
dition—as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes, 
the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed hold- 
ing together. The pupa, andso of course the imago, has less 
segments than has the larva. In the bee, the first ring of the 
abdomen becomes the petiole, and the last three are merged 
into one, and thus the number of segmentsin the adult are 
only six. The dronehas one more. Thespiraclesand ganglia 
are also reduced in number. Aristotle called pupz ‘‘nymphs’”’ 
—a name stillin use. The word nymph is now used to desig- 
nate the immature stages, both larval and pupal, of insects 
with incomplete transformations like locusts. Inside the pupa 
skin great changes are in progress, for either by modifying 
the larval organs or developing parts entirely new by use of 
the accumulated material stored by the larva during its pro- 


100 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


longed banquet, the wonderful transformation from the slug- 
gish, worm-like larva, to the active, bird-like imago is accom- 
plished. Sometimes the pupa is surrounded by a silken 
cocoon, either thick, as the cocoon of some moths, or thin and 
incomplete as the cocoon of bees. The cocoon is spun by mov- 
ing the head back and forth. The liquid thread quickly dries, 
andis drawn forth as the head moves. These cocoons are 


Fic. 39. 


a 
Es 


Development of the Bee, after Duncan. 


ab Eggs. q Pupa. 
cadef Larve. k Caps. 
i Queen-cell. 


spun by the larve as their last toil before assuming the restful 
pupa state. The length of time in the pupa stage varies from 
afew daystoas many months. Sometimes insects which are 
two-brooded remain as pupe but a few days in summer, while 
in winter they are moths passing the quiescent period. Our 
cabbage-butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the 
Hessian-fly and coddling-moth, remain through the long, cold 
months as larve. How wonderfulis this! The first brood of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 101 


larve change to pupez at once, the last brood, though the 
weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the 
warm days of coming spring. 


THE IMAGO STAGH. 


This term refers to the last or winged form (Fig. 40), and 
was given by Linnzus because the image of the insect is now 


Fic. 41, 


Queen-Bee, magnified.—Original. 


Bee-Egg.—Original. 


A Egg. B Large end. 
m Micropyle. 


realand not masked as when in the larva state. Now the 
insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes, 
often complex mouth-parts—a few insects, like the bot-flies, 
have no mouth organs—and the fully developed sex-organs. 
In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to 
reproduce itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in 
merry marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees 
this life to be quickly followed by the female, she only wait- 
ing to place her eggs where the prospective infants may find 
suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but 
feed and care for their young, as do ants, wasps and bees. 
Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive 


102 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


females perform all, or most, of the labor in caring for the 
young. The life of the imago also varies much as to duration. 
Some imagos live but for a day, others make merry for several 
days, while a few species live for months. Very few imagos 
survive the whole year. The queen-bee may live for five years, 
and Lubbock has queen-ants which are fifteen or more years 


old. 
INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATION. 


Some insects like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers, and locusts, 
are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. 
The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence 
or incomplete development of the wings in the larve and pupe. 
The larva and pupa are known as nymphs. The habits and 
structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here, 
as before, the full development of the sex-crgans occurs only 
in the imago. 


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 
HONEY-BEE. 


With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of 
the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy 
tolearn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest 
insects of the order. 


THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY. 


As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the 
economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which 
is true of some other bees, and of ants, is the presence in each 
family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color, 
structure, size, habits and function. Thus, we have the queen 
(Lubbock has shown that there are several queens in an ant 
colony), a number of drones, and a far greater number of 
workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn, and Kirby, also speak of a 
fourth kind, blacker than the usual workers. These are 
accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Baron von Ber- 
lepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by age, loss of 
hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. Ameri- 
can apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after 
our severe winters they prevailin thecolony, and, as remarked 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 103 


by the noted Baron, ‘‘They quickly disappear.’’ Munn also 
tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarm- 
ing seasons. Iam ata great loss to know what he refers to, 
unless it be the pollen-masses of the asclepias, or milk-weed, 
which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe 
burden. 

THE QUEEN-BEE. 


The queen (Fig. 40), although referred to as the mother- 
bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as 
late as the last century, though in the ‘‘ Ancient Bee-Master’s 
Farewell,’? by John Keyes, published in London in 1796, I find 
an admirable description of the queen-bee, with her function 
correctly stated. Reaumur, as quoted in ‘‘ Wildman on Bees,”’ 
published in London in 1770, says, ‘‘ This third sort hasa grave 
and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all 
others.”’ 

Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, 
though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intelli- 
gent servant, Francis Burnens, developed so many interesting 
truths, demonstrated the fact of the queen’s maternity. This 
author’s work, second edition, published in Edinburgh in 1808, 
gives a full history of his wonderful observations and experi- 
ments, and must ever rank with the work of Langstroth asa 
classic, worthy of study by all. 

The queen, then, is the mother-bee; in other words, a 
fully developed female. Her ovaries (Fig. 38, 0,0) are very 
large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes, already 
described as composing them, are very numerous, there being 
more than one hundred, while the spermatheca (Fig. 38, s 4) is 
plainly visible. This isa membranous sac, hardly 1-20 of an 
inch in diameter. It is fairly covered with interlacing nerves, 
which give to it its light, glistening appearance. ‘The sper- 
matheca has a short duct, joined to whichis the duct of the 
double appendicular glands which closely embrace the sper- 
matheca. ‘These are described by Siebold and Leuckart, who 
suppose that they furnish mucus to render the sperm-cells 
more mobile, so that they will move more freely. Leuckart 
also describes muscles, which connect with the duct of the 


104 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


spermatheca (Fig. 38), which he thinks act as sphincters or 
dilators of this duct, to restrain or permit the passage of the 
spermatozoa. When the duct is opened the ever-active sperm- 
cells rush out, aided in their course by the secretion from the 
appended glands. 

The spermatheca, according to Leuckart, may contain 
25,000,000 spermatozoa. We see, then, why it does not run 


Fic. 43. 


Fic. 42. 


Labiwm of Queen.—Original. 


a Ligula. 
dd Paraglosse 
b Labial palpi. 


Part of Leg of Queen, magnified, after Duncan. 


t Tibia. p Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. 
ts Tarsal joints. 


empty, even though Siebold thought that each of the one and 
one-half million of eggs that a queen may lay, receives two or 
three sperm-cells. I think itis now proved that but one sperm- 
cellenters each egg. The eggs, which, as Girard states, do 
not form as early in the ovaries as do the sperm-cells in the 
organs of the drone, which are matured while the drone is yet 


1 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 105 


a pupa, area little more than 1-16 of an inch long, slightly 
curved, and rather smaller at the end of attachment to the 
comb. The outer membrane (Fig. 41) appears cellular when 
magnified, and shows the micropyle at the larger end (Fig. 41, 
B,m). The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs is 
the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as 
these are the characteristic marks of females among all ani- 
mals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention: She 
is longer than either drones or workers, being more than 


Fic. 44. 


Diagram of Abdomen of Queen, from Cowan. 


F Ovaries. f Rectum. § t Sting. 
M Honey stomach. WV Csophagus. A Anus. 
D Stomach. S s Sheath. V Oviduct. 


seven-eighths of an inch in length, and with her long, tapering 
abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen’s 
mouth organs are developed to a less degree than are those of 
the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 65, 0) or mandibles are weaker, 
with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig. 42, a, 
and 49), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 42, 6,and 49) and maxille, 
are considerably shorter. Of the four pairs of glands (Fig. 59) 
so elegantly figured, and so well described by Schiemenz, the 
queen has the first pair very rudimentary, and the others well 
developed. The fourth pair, or Wolff’s glands, are much larger 
than in the worker-bees. Her eyes, though like, yet hardly 
as large as the same in the worker-bee (Fig. 4), are smaller 


106 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


than those of the drones, and do not meet above. So the three 
ocelli are situated above and between the compound eyes. The 
queen's wings (Fig. 40) are relatively shorter than those of 
either the workers or drones, for instead of attaining to the 
end of the body, they reach but little beyond the third joint of 
the abdomen. The queen, though she has the characteristic 
posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 43, 4) in respect to 
breadth, has not the cavity and surrounding hairs which form 
the pollen-baskets of the workers. The legsof the queen (Fig. 
43) are large and strong, but, like her body, they have not the 
pollen-gathering hairs which are so well marked in the worker. 
The queen possesses a sting which islonger than that of the 
worker, and resembles that of the bumble-bee in being curved 
(Fig. 44, Ss), and that of the bumble-bees and wasps in having 
few and short barbs—the little projections which point back 
like the barb of a fish-hook, and which, in case of the workers, 
prevent the withdrawing of the instrument, when once fairly 
inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs on 
each shaft of the worker’s sting (Fig. 74), there are only three 
on those of the queen, and these are very short. As in case of 
the barbs of the worker’s sting, so here, they are successively 
shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Even 
Aristotle discovered that a queen will rarely use her sting. I 
have often tried to get a queen to sting me, but without suc- 
cess. Neighbour gives three cases where queens used their 
stings, in one of which she was disabled from farther egg- 
laying. She stings with slight effect. The use of the queen’s 
sting is todispatch a rival queen. The brain of the queen is 
relatively small. We should expect this, as the queen’s func- 
tions are vegetative. Sothe worker, possessed of more intri- 
cate functions, is much more highly organized. Figure 44 
gives the relation of the viscera of the queen. 

Schiemenz and Schonfeld are unquestionably correct in 
the belief that the queen, and the drones as well, are fed by 
the workers, the same food that the larve are fed. Thus, the 
digestion is performed for both queen and drones. 

I have known queens to lay over 3,000 eggsa day. These 
I find weigh .3900 grams, while the queen only weighs .2299 
grams. Thus, the queen may lay daily nearly double her own 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 107 


weight of eggs. This, of course, could only be possible as she 
was fed highly nutritious food, which was wholly digested for 
her. The larval bee fed the same food doubles in weightin a 
single day—a further proof of the excellence of this diet. 
Schonfeld finds that the queen, like the drones, will soon die 
if she be shut away from the workers by a double wire-cage, 
even though in the hive and surrounded with honey. The fact 
that pollen-husks—cuticula—are never found in the queen’s 
stomach, gives added proof of the above fact. The contents 
are grayish. I never saw a queen void her feces. Vogel 
reports having seen it, and Mr. Cowan reports to me that he 
has seen a queen pass a yellowish gray liquid. We also find 
the queen’s alimentary canal comparatively small, though the 
renal tubules are large and numerous. The queen, like the 
worker-bees, is developed from an impregnated egg, which, of 
course, could only come from a queen that had previously 
mated. These eggs are not placed ina horizontal cell, but in 
one specially prepared for their reception (Fig. 39,7). The 
queen-cells (Fig. 45) are usually built on the edge of the comb, 
or around an opening in it, which is necessitated from their 
size and form, as usually the combs are too close together to 
permit their location elsewhere. These cells extend either 
vertically or diagonally downward, are very rough (Fig. 45, c), 
and are composed of wax cut from the old combs, mixed with 
pollen (Mr. Cheshire says all kinds of refuse is used in con- 
structing queen-cells), and in size and form much resemble a 
peanut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the 
queen or workers. Huber, who, though blind, had wondrous 
eyes, witnessed this act of the queen. I have frequently seen 
eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact position 
in which the queen always places her eggs in the other cells. 
John Keyes, in the old work already referred to, whose descrip- 
tions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate, 
and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness, 
asserts that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg 
as she is the others. From the character of his work, and its 
early publication, Ican but think that he had witnessed this 
rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own time and coun- 
try—E. Gallup among the rest—claim to have witnessed the 


108 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


same. Theeggs are so well glued, and are so delicate, that, 
with Neighbour, I should doubt the possibility of a removal 
except that some persons assert that they have positive proof 
that it is sometimes done. Possibly the young larve may at 
times be removed from one cell to another. The opponents to 
the view that the queen lays eggs in the queen-cells, base their 
belief on a supposed discord between the queen and neuters. 

The conditions which lead tothe building of queen-cells, 
and the peopling of the same are: Loss of queen; whena 
worker-larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by 
a cell; inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her sper- 
matheca having become emptied ; any disability of the queen ; 
great number of worker-bees in the hive; restricted quarters, 
the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the workers 
little or no room to store honey ; or lack of ventilation, so that 
the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are 
most likely to occur at times of great nectar-secretion. 

A queen may be developed from an egg, or, as first shown 
by Schirach, from a worker-larva less than three days old. 
(Mr. Doolittle has known queens to be reared from worker- 
larve taken at four-and-a-half days from hatching.) In such 
cases the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected 
larva are removed, and the larva surrounded bya royal cell. 
The development of the queen-larva is much like that of the 
worker, soon to be detailed, except thatit is more rapid, and 
the queen-larva is fed richer and more plenteous food, called 
royal jelly. Thisis an excellent name for this substance, as 
Dr. A. de Planta has shown (B. B. J., 1887, p. 185) that this 
royal jelly is different from the food both of the worker and 
drone larva. It is doubtless digested pollen, as first suggested 
by Dufour, and so ably proved by Schonfeld. I have fed bees 
honey with finely pulverized charcoalin it, and found the same 
in the royal jelly. This could not be true if the latter were a 
secretion, as the carbon is not osmotic. Dr. Planta’s re- 
searches show that the royal jelly is richer in fatty elements 
and proteids than the larval food either of the drones or 
workers; but not asrichin sugar. It contains more albumi- 
nous material,and much more fatty matter than the food of 
the drone-larve. Quite likely evaporation may change the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 109 


nature of this royal jelly. There is never undigested food fed 
to queen or worker larvez, but the drone-larva is thus fed, as 
the microscope shows the pollen. This peculiar food, as also 
its use and abundance in the cell, was first described by 
Schirach, aSaxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in 
1771. It is thick, like rich cream; slightly yellow, and so 
abundant that the queen-larva not only floats in it during all 
its period of growth, but quitea large amount remains after 
her queenship vacates the cell. We sometimes find this royal 
jelly in incomplete queen-cells, without larve. 

What a mysterious circumstance is this: These royal 
scions simply receive a more abundant and nutritious diet, 
and occupy a more ample habitation—for I have more than 
once confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction 
of the cell is immaterial—and yet what a marvelous transfor- 
mation. Not only arethe ovaries developed and filled with 
eggs, but the mouth organs, the wings, the legs, the sting, 
aye, even the size, form, and habits, are all wondrously 
changed. The food stimulates extra ‘development of the 
ovaries, and, through the law of compensation, other parts are 
less developed. That the development of parts should be 
accelerated, and the size increased, is not so surprising—as in 
breeding other insects I have frequently found that kind and 
amount of food would hasten or retard growth, and might even 
cause a dwarfed imago—but that food should so essentially 
modify the structure, is certainly a rare and unique circum- 
stance, hardly to be found except here and in related 
animals. Bevan has suggested that laying workers, while 
larve, have received some of this royal jelly from their posi- 
tion near a developing queen. As the workers vary the food 
for the several larve, as Dr. Planta has shown, may they not 
sometimes make a mistake and feed royal jelly to workers ? 
Surely, in caring for so many young, this would be very par- 
donable. Langstroth supposes that they receive some royal 
jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I have previously 
thought this reasonable and probably true. But these pests 
of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always, 
so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies 
long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given 


110 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


by Quinby, where these occurredin a nucleus where no queen 
had been developed. May it not be true thata desire for 
eggs or unrest stimulates in some worker, which was perhaps 
over-fed as a larva, the growth of ‘the ovaries, growth of eggs 
in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit? The 
common high-holder, Colaptes auratus—a bird belonging to the 
wood-pecker order, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but 
let cruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones, 
and, wondrous to relate, she continues to lay more than a 
score. One thus treated, on the College campus, actually laid 
more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires may 
influence and move organs that are generally independent of 
the will. It may be that in queenless colonies the workers 
commence to feed some worker or workers, the rich nitrogen- 
ous food, and thus their ovaries are stimulated to activity. 

The larval queen is longer, and more rapid of development 
than the other larva. When developed from the egg—as in 
case of normal swarming—the larva feeds for five days, when 
the cell is capped by the workers. At any time during this 
period the larva can be removed, as first shown by Mr. J. L. 
Davis, of Michigan, in 1874, anda newly hatched larva placed 
in it instead. This is easily done by use of a quill tooth- 
pick. The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies 
about one day. The fibrous part of the cocoon, which is also 
true of both drone and worker larve, is confined to the outer 
end, as is easily seen by microscopic examination. Yet a thin 
varnish continues this over the whole interior of the cell. This 
latter becomes very thick in worker-cells, as many bees are 
reared in each cell, while in the queen-cell it is thin, as but 
one bee is reared in each cell. A similar varnish coats the 
cocoons of all silk-moths. This may be the contents of the 
alimentary canal simply, which, of course, is moulted with the 
last larval skin, very likely a special secretion is added., These 
cocoons are shown nicely when we melt old combin the solar 
wax-extractor, The queen now spends nearly three days in 
absolute repose. Such rest is common to all cocoon-spinning 
larve. The spinning, which is done by a rapid motion to-and- 
fro of the head, always carrying the delicate thread, much like 
the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to bring exhaustion 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 111 


and need of repose. She now assumes the pupa state (Fig. 
39,72). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a 
“queen. A short time before the queen emerges the workers 
thin off the wax from the end of the cell (Fig. 45, D). The 
reason for this is obscure, as the queen could easily come forth | 
without it. The queen cuts her way out by use of her jaws, 
and leaves the cap hanging as a lid to the cell (Fig. 45, C). 


Fic. 45, 


vant te ES 


Queen-Cells, from A. I. Root Co. 


A Queen-cell from modified worker-cell just started. 

B Imcomplete cell. 

C Cell, after queen has emerged, showing cap hanging. 
D Thinned cell. £ Cell cut into from side. 


While a queen usually comes forth in sixteen days, there may 
beadelay. Cold will delay hatching of the egg, and retard 
development. Sometimes queens are kept fora time in the 
cell, after they are really ready to come forth. Thus, there 
may be rarely a delay of even two days. Huber states that 
when' a queen emerges the bees are thrown into a joyous 
excitement, so that he noticed a rise in temperature in the hive 
from 92 degrees F. to 104 degrees F. I have never tested this 
matter accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked 


112 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE, 


demonstration on the natal day of her ladyship the queen, or 
extra respect paid her asa virgin. When queens are started 
from worker-larve they will issue as imagoes in ten or twelve 
days from the date of their new prospects. Mr. Doolittle 
writes me that he hasknown them to issue in eight and one- 
half days. My own observations sustain the assertion of Mr. 
P. Ll. Viallon, that the minimum time is nine and one-half 
days. 

As the queen’s development is probably due to superior 
quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to 
reason that queens started from eggs, or larve just hatched, 
are preferable ; the more so as, under normal circumstances, 
I believe they are almost always thus started. The best 
experience sustains this position. As the proper food and 
temperature can best be securedin a full colony—and here 
again the natural economy of the hive adds to our argument— 
we should infer that the best queens would be reared in strong 
colonies, or at least kept in such colonies till the cells were 
capped. Experience alsoconfirms this view. As the quantity 
and quality of food and the general activity of the bees are 
directly connected with the full nourishment of the queen- 
larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of 
active gathering—the time when queen-rearing is naturally 
started by the bees—we should also conclude that queens 
reared at stich seasons are superior. My experience—-and I 
have carefully observed in this connection—most emphatically 
sustains this view. 

Five or six days after issuing from the cell—Neighbour 
says the third day—if the day is pleasant the queen goes forth 
on her ‘‘ marriage flight ;’’ otherwise she will improve the first 
pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Mr. Doolittle says 
that mid-summer queens fly out in from four tonine days, 
while early spring and fall queens may not mate for from two 
to four weeks. Rev. Mr. Mahin has noticed, as have many of 
us, that the young queens fly out several times simply to exer- 
cise, and then he thinks they often go from two to five miles to 
mate; while Mr. Alley thinks the mating is performed within 
one-half mile of the hive. I have known queens to be out on 
their mating tour for thirty-five minutes, in which case it 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 113 


would seem certain that they must have gone more than one- 
half mile. It has been reported by reliable persons that the 
queens are out from ten minutes to two hours. Sometimes 
queens will meet drones, as shown by the white thread tipping 
the body, and yet not be impregnated. The spermatozoa did 
not reach the spermatheca. In such cases, a second, and per- 
haps a third, mating is required, Huber was the first to prove 
that impregnation always takes place on the wing. Bonnet 
also proved that the same is true of ants, though in this case 
millions of queens and drones often swarm out atonce. I 
have myself witnessed several of these wholesale matrimonial 
excursions among ants. I have also taken bumble-bees that 
were copulating while on the wing. I havealso seen both 
ants and bumble-bees fall while united, probably borne down 
by the expiring males. That butterflies, moths, dragon-flies, 
etc., mate on the wing is a matter of common observation. It 
has generally been thought impossible for queens in confine- 
ment to be impregnated. Prof. Leuckart believes that suc- 
cessful mating demands that the large air-sacs (Fig. 1, /) of 
the drones shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible 
during flight. The demeanor of the drones suggests that the 
excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary 
to induce the sexual impulse. 

Many others, with myself, have followed Huber in clip- 
ping the virgin queen’s wing, only to produce a sterile, or 
drone-laying queen. One queen, however, whose wing was 
clipped just as she came from the cell, and the entrance to 
whose hive was guarded by perforated zinc so the queen could 
not get out, was impregnated, and proved an excellent queen. 
I should doubt this if I couldsee any other way to explain it. 
Yet, from a great number of experiments,I feel sure that 
mating in confinement can never be made practical, even if 
desirable. Andif Leuckart is correct in the above sugges- 
tion, which is very probable, it is not desirable. Some bee- 
keepers claim to have mated queens by hand. I have tried 
this thoroughly, as also mating in boxes, green-houses, etc., 
and from entire lack of successI believe such mating is im- 
possible, at least with most bee-keepers. J.S. Davitte, of 
Georgia, claims to have mated many queens in a large circu- 


114 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


lar tent. The drones are permitted to fly only in the tent, and 
so are at home. 

If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will 
go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber states that 
after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that 
if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she will 
belargely a drone-laying queen. That suchabsolute dates can 
be fixed in either of the above cases is very questionable. Yet 
all experienced breeders know that queens kept through the 
winter as virgins are sure to remain so. It is quite likely that 
the long inactivity of the reproductive apparatus, especially of 
the oviduct and spermatheca, wholly or in part paralyzes it, so 
that queens that are late in mating can not impregnate the 
eggs as they desire. This would accord with what we know of 
other muscular organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that 
commenced laying as a virgin could never lay impregnated 
eggs, even though she afterwards mated. Langstroth thought 
that he had observed to the contrary. 

If the queen be observed after a successful ‘‘ wedding 
tour,’’ she will be seen as first pointed out by Huber, to bear 
the marks of success in the pendant drone appendages, which 
are still held in the vulva of the queen. 

It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has meta 
drone, ever leaves the hive again except when she leaves with 
aswarm. It has been stated that an old queen may be im- 
pregnated. I feel very certain that this is an error. 

If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drone, or if for 
any reason she fail to mate, her eggs will ouly produce male 
bees. This strange anomaly—development of the eggs with- 
out impregnation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in 
1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, asa student of practical and scien- 
tific apiculture, ranks very high, is a Roman Catholic priest of 
Carlsmarkt,Germany. This doctrine—called parthenogenesis, 
which means produced from a virgin—is still doubted by some 
quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable: 

1st. Unmated queens willlay eggs that will develop, but 
drones always result. 

2d. Old queens often become drone-layers, but examina- 
tion shows that the spermatheca is void ofseminal fluid. Such 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 115 


an examination was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great 
German anatomist, in 1843, and later by Leuckart and Leidy. 
I have myself made several such examinations. The sperma- 
theca can easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crush- 
ing it on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover, 
the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and in 
the impregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power. 
In the latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more 
distended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa or 
sperm-cells (Fig. 50) become visible. 

3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be 
void of the sperm-cells, which are always foundin all other 
fresh-laid eggs. This most convincing and interesting obser- 
vation was first made by Von Siebold, at the suggestion of 
Berlepsch. It is quite difficult to show this. Leuckart tried 
before Von Siebold, at Berlepsch’s apiary, but failed. I have 
also tried to discover these sperm-cells in worker-eggs, but as 
yet have been unsuccessful. Siebold has noted the same facts 
ineggs of wasps. 

4th. Dr. Donhoff, of Germany, reports that, in 1855, he 
took an egg from a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation 
producéd a worker-bee. 

Late investigation by Mr. Weismann, of Germany, leaves 
no doubt of this fact of parthenogenesis in the production of 
drone-bees. 

Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been 
found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of 
some of the lower moths in the production of both males and 
females. Adler has shown that this agamic reproduction pre- 
vails among the Chalcidide, a family of parasitic Hymenop- 
tera, and it has long been known to characterize the cynips or 
gall-flies ; while the great Bonnet first discovered what may be 
noticed on any summer day all about us, even on the house- 
plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis is best illus- 
trated by the aphides, or plant lice. In the fall males and 
females appear which mate, when the females lay eggs which 
in the spring produce only females; these again produce only 
females, and thus on for several generations, sometimes fifteen 
or twenty, till with the cold of autumn come again the males 


116 THE BEE-KEEKPER’S GUIDE; 


and females. Any person can easily demonstrate this fact for 
himself. The summer plant-lice are hatched within the 
mother-louse, or are ovoviviparous. It is easy to capturea 
young louse just as it is born, and isolate it on a plant, when 
soon we shall find it giving birth to young lice, though it has 
never even seen any louse, male or female, since birth. Bon- 
net observed seven successive generations of productive vir- 
gins. Duval noted nine generations in seven months, while 
Kyber observed production exclusively by parthenogenesis in 
a heated room for four years. So we see that this strange and 
almost incredible method of increase is not rare in the great 
insect world. 

In two or three days after she is impregnated, the queen, 
under normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually 
worker-eggs. It is rare not to find eggs by the tenth day 
from the birth of the queen. The queens rarely go three 
weeks before laying. Such tardiness does not recommend 
them. It is reported that giving unhatched brood will start 
the queen to laying. If this be true, it is doubtless explained 
by her receiving different food from the workers. If the con- 
dition of the hive impels to no further swarming that season, 
no drones will be required, and so only worker-eggs will be 
laid. In many localities, and in certain favorable years in all 
localities, however, further swarming will occur. 

It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays 
quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe 
this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This 
does not seem strange. The act of freeing the sperm-cells 
from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that 
these muscles should not always act promptly at first, is not 
strange, norisit unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that 
the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells the 
pressure on the abdomen forced the finid from the sperma- 
theca. Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I greatly question 
this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to be 
laid in worker-cells ere they were hardly commenced, when 
there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too, if the 
queen does lay the eggs—as I believe—these would be unim- 
pregnated, as thecellis very large. I know the queen some- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 117 


times passes from drone to worker cells very abruptly while 
laying, as Ihave witnessed such a procedure—the same that 
so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary 
hours of watching—but that she can thus control at the in- 
stant this process of adding or withholding the sperm-cells 
certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca, hardly 
bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells for months, 
yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly dart against 
the horse’s legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg, can 
doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can 
extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may 
force single eggs at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca, 
andat the same time add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I 
think, without question true. What gives added force to this 
view is the fact that other bees, wasps and ants exercise the 
same volition, and can have no aid from cell-pressure, as all 
the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same size. As already 
remarked, the males and workers of Apis dorsata are developed 
in the same sized cells, while the malesof A. indica are smaller 
than the workers. The Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to bea 
friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. Hehasshown 
that old drone-cells are as small as new worker-cells, and each 
harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too, make no mis- 
takes. With no drone-cells, the queen will sometimes lay 
drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then be reared, 
and she will, if she must, though with great reluctance, lay 
worker-eggs in drone-cells. 

Before laying an egg the queen takes a look into the cell, 
probably to see if allis right. If the cell contains any honey, 
pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though, when 
crowded, a queen will sometimes, especially if young, insert 
two or three eggs ina cell, and sometimes, when in such cases 
she drops them, the bees show their dislike of waste, and 
appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast of them. 
If the queen find the cell to her liking, she turns about, inserts 
her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is glued in posi- 
tion (Fig. 39, 46) to the bottom of the cell. 

The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees 
of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not un- 


118 THE BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


common for her to attain the age of three years in the full 
possession of her powers, while queens have been known to do 
good work for five years. Lubbock has queen ants in his 
nests that are fifteen or more years old, and still they are 
vigorous layers. Queens, often at the expiration of one, two, 
three or four years, depending on their vigor and excellence, 
either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent to lay im- 
pregnated eggs—the spermatheca having become emptied of 
its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede 
the queen, that is, they rear a new queen before all the worker- 
eggs are gone, and then destroy the old one. 

It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine looking 
queen, with the full-formed ovaries and large spermatheca 
well filled with male fiuid, will deposit freely, but none of the 
eggs will hatch. Readers of bee-papers know that I have 
frequently received such for dissection. I received one Aug. 
12, 1900, from Mr. E. R. Root. The first one I ever got was a 
remarkably fine looking Italian, received from the late Dr. 
Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have examined 
seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high-power 
objective. Wecan only say that the egg is at fault,as fre- 
quently transpires with higher animals, even to the highest. 
These females are barren; through some fault with the 
ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect just 
what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem, if 
it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to determine the 
ultimate cause, but without success. Cases have also been 
observed where mated and impregnated queens fail to lay 
impregnated eggs. Here the delicate organism of the sperma- 
theca and its duct is at fault. Queens that have been chilled, 
as shown by Siebold, Leuckart, and our own Langstroth, are 
often made drone-layers—that is, they lay only unimpregnated 
eggs. Ihave also had one queen that produced many her- 
maphroditic bees. These hermaphrodites are not really her- 
maphrodites; as, so faras I have examined, they have only 
ovaries or testes, but externally they have drone-organs in 
part, as, for instance, the appendages of the head and thorax; 
and worker-organs in part, as the abdomen, will be like that of 
a drone. Indeed, I now have a very strange hermaphrodite, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 119 


where one side is worker, the other drone. It is very probable 
that these peculiarities arise from a diseased condition of the 
queen, or else from diseased spermatozoa. I have known one 
queen, many of whose bees were thus abnormal. If a queen 
is not impregnated for three or four weeks, she often com- 
mences to lay without impregnation, and then is a ‘‘ drone- 
layer,’”’ and, of course, worthless. She may lay as regularly 
as if impregnated, though this is not usual. She is, of course, 
betrayed by the higher cappings, and exclusive drone-brood. 

The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus 
keep the colony populous, and this she does with an energy 
that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will 
lay two or three thousand eggsa day. I have seen a queen in 
my observing hive lay for some time at the rate of four eggs 
per minute, and have proved by actual computation of brood- 
cells that a queen may lay over three thousand eggsin a day. 
Both Langstroth and Berlepsch saw queens lay at the rate of 
sixeggsa minute. The latter had a queen that laid three 
thousand and twenty-one eggs in twenty-four hours, by actual 
count, and in twenty days she laid fifty-seven thousand. This 
queen continued prolific for five years, and must have laid, 
says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. 
Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these 
authors have not exaggerated. As already stated,a queen 
may lay nearly double her weight of eggs daily. Yet, with 
even these figures as an advertisement, the queen-bee can not 
boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen white-ant—an 
insect closely related to the bees in habits, though not in struc- 
ture, as the white-ants are lace-wings, and belong to the order 
Neuroptera (Isoptera), which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies, 
etc.—is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor, 
helpless thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man’s thumb, 
and composed almost wholly of eggs, while the rest of her 
body is no larger than the same in our common ants, has no 
other amusement; she can not walk; she can not even feed 
herself, or care for her eggs. What wonder then that she 
should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying ? She has 
nothing else to do, or to feel proud of. 

Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different 


120 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


kinds of life. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly 
demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping 
their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity; while 
others are so inferior that the colonies make a poor, sickly 
effort tosurvive at all, and usually succumb early, before the 
adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to confront all 
life on the globe. Thislack of fecundity may be due to dis- 
ease, improper development, or to special race or strain. This 
fact promises rich fruit to the careful, persistent breeder. The 
activity of the queen is governed largely by the activity of 
the workers. The queen will either lay sparingly, or stop 
altogether, in the interims of storing honey, while, on the 
other hand, she is stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity 
when all is life and activity in the hive. As the worker-bees 
feed the laying queen, it is more than probable that with no 
nectar to gather, the food is withheld, and so the queenis 
unable to produce the eggs which demanda great amount of 
nutritious food all ready to be absorbed. Thus, the whole mat- 
ter is doubtless controlled by the workers. This refusal to lay 
when nectar is wanting does not hold true, apparently, with 
the Cyprian and Syrian bees. 

The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and 
admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined 
by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of 
léving caresses, and whose willis law in this bee-hive king- 
dom, controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading 
the colony whithersoever it may go, is unquestionably mere 
fiction. Inthe hive, as in the world, individuals are valued 
for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important 
individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or loss 
is noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is 
threatened ; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is dis- 
patched with the same absence of emotion that characterizes 
the destruction of the drones when they have become super- 
numeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion and sentimentality 
are ever moving forces among the lower animals. There are 
probably certain natural principles that govern in the economy 
of the hive, and anything that conspires against, or tends to 
intercept, the action of these principles, becomes an enemy to 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 121 


the bees. Allare interested, and doubtless more united than 
is generally believed, ina desire to promote the free action of 
these principles. No doubt the principle of antagonism among 
the various bees has been overrated. Even the drones, when 
they are being killed off in the autumn, make a sickly show of 
defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the colony demands 
that such worthless vagrants should be exterminated. How 
relentlessly the bees drag out even the worker-bees that have 
become loaded with the pollén-masses of milkweed, or other- 
wise disabled. Such bees are of no more use, and useless 
members are not tolerated in the bee-community. It is most 
probable that what tends most for the prosperity of the colony 
is well understood by all, and without doubt there is harmo- 
nious action among all the denizens of the hive to foster that 
which will advance the general welfare, or to make war on 
whatever may tend to interfere with it. If the course of any 
of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest 
assured that circumstances have changed, and that could we 
perceive the bearing of all the surrounding conditions, all 
would appear consistent and harmonious. The holding of 
young queens in the cells, and guarding them, seems an 
exception. 
THE DRONES. 


These are the male bees, and are generally found in the 
hive only from May to November, though they may remain all 
winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer. 
Their presence or absence depends upon the present and pros- 
pective condition of the colony. If they are needed, or likely 
to be needed, then they are present. There are in nature sev- 
eral hundred, and often thousands, in each colony. The num- 
ber may and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. The 
drones (Figs. 46, 47) are shorter than the queen, being less than 
three-fourths of an inch in length, and are more robust and bulky 
than either the queen or workers. The drones weigh about 
1-2000 of a pound, while the workers only weigh 1-5000. They 
are easily recognized, when flying, by their loud, startling 
hum. Asin other societies, the least useful make the most 
noise. This loud hum would seem to be caused by the less 


122 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Landois showed 
many years since, that the hum of bees and other insects, was 
due first to vibrations of wings, secondly to vibrations of the 
abdominal rings, and, thirdly, to what he styled true voice in 
the thoracic spiracles, where there are cavities which he 
thought were voice cavities. He thought the humming tone of 
bees and other insects came from the spiracles. The drone’s 
flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. 
Their ligula (Fig. 49), labial palpi and maxille—like the same 


Fic. 46. Fie. 48. 


if 
a 
AN 


Part of Leg of Drone, magnified, after Duncan. 


Drone-Bees, magnified, from 
Newman. 


in the queen-bee—are short, while their jaws (Fig. 65, a) pos- 
sess the rudimentary tooth, and are much the same in form as 
those of the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as 
those of the workers. Their eyes (Figs. 3, 47) are very promi- 
nent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown for- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 123 


ward. The ommatidia, or simple eyes which form the com- 
pound eyes of the drone (Figs. 3, 47), are, as shown by Laco- 
daire, more than twice as numerous as those of either queen or 
worker. The drones also have longer and broader antenna, 
with far more of the olfactory cavities, though not so many 
tactile hairs as are found in the antenne of the workers. 
Entomologists now believe that the better sight and smell, as 
also the large wings, are very useful tothedrone. They make 
success more probable, as the drone flies forth with hundreds of 
other drones in questof a mate. We can alsosee how, through 
the law of natural selection, all these peculiarities are con- 


Fic. 49. 


Heads of Worker, Queen and Drone, showing comparative length of Tongues, 
from Cowan, 


A Worker. B Queen. C Drone. 


stantly strengthened. Their posterior legs are convex on the 
outside (Fig. 48), so, like the queens, they have no pollen- 
baskets. As we should expect, the branching hairs, both on 
the body and legs, are almost absentin drones ; what there are 
are coarse, and probably aid in mating. The drones are with- 
out the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special 
sex-organs (Fig. 37) are very interesting. These have been 
fully described and illustrated by Leuckart. The testes are 
situated in the abdomen, in an analogous position to that of 
the ovaries in the queen. Like these organs in higher ani- 
mals, there are in each testis hundreds of tubes in which are 
developed the sperm-cellsin bundles. As Leuckart shows, the 


124 THE BER-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


testes are larger in the pupa than in the imago, for even then 
the spermatozoa have begun to descend to the versicule semi- 
nales (Fig. 37, c, c). Thus, in old drones, the testes have 
shrunken. The spermatozoa are very long, with a marked 
head (Fig. 50), which, as Mr. Cowan remarked to me, look 
like cat-tail flags, as there is a short, small projection beyond 
the head. These sperm-cells are so very small, and so long 
and slender, that it is difficult to isolate or trace them; hence, 
in microscopic preparations they look like one hopeless tangle 
(Fig. 50). Itis incomprehensible how they can be separated 


Fic. 50. 


Spermatozoa.—Original. 


and passed, one, two, or more at a time, by the queen as the 
eggs are to be impregnated. Appended to the versicule semi- 
nales (Fig. 37, c,c) just where they pass to the ejaculatory duct 
are two large glandular sacs (Fig. 37, d), which add mucus to 
the seminal fluid. The ejaculatory duct (Fig. 37, ¢) is rather 
long and very muscular. This passes to a pouch (Fig. 37, /), 
where the sperm-cells are massed, preparatory to coition. 
Leuckart called this mass of spermatozoa the spermatophore. 
This is what is passed to the spermatheca of the queen during 
coition. Below this is the organ proper. It has, as may be 
seen by pressing a drone, three pairs of appendages, somewhat 
horn-like, and certain roughness or pleats (Fig. 37, 2, 7), which 
serve to make connection more close during coition. These 
little barb-like teeth, rough projections and horns, as they are 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 125 


grasped and firmly pressed by the vulva or enlargement just 
at the end of the oviduct of the queen, are held asin a vice; 
and so we see why they are torn from the drone during coition. 
As Leuckart has so admirably described, the external organs 
of the droneare drawn up intothe so-called bean or sac (Fig. 
37, /), as the finger of a glove, to use the words of Girard, often 
turns in as we draw the glove off the hand. As we pressa 
drone, or hold it in our warm hand as it has just returned from 
a long flight, when its air sacsare distended; or when it meets 
the queen, the sexual act is accomplished wholly or in part, 
and the external organ is everted or turned out as we turn the 
glove-finger out. In case of coitus, this eversion is very com- 
plete, so that the bean or sac (Fig. 37,/) turns out, and the 
spermatophore is passed into the oviduct of the queen, and by 
her muscular oviduct pushed into the spermatheca. This 
seems a wonderful operation, almost beyond the possible. Yet 
the passage of the egg from the ovaries in higher animals is 
almost as surprising. Leuckart is undoubtedly correct in sug- 
gesting that for full and complete impregnation the drone 
needs tense muscles, full air sacs, and thus the vehement 
exercise on the wing is very important in the sexual act. If 
this be true, then impregnation of the queen in confinement is 
as undesirable as it seems to beexceptional. While it may not 
be absolutely necessary to have these conditions for impreg- 
nation, asI think I have positive proof, it doubtless is better, 
and usually necessary, that they exist. At this time the 
queen’s ovaries are small, and thus her smaller size before 
impregnation. Hence, there is lack of high tension within 
the abdomen of the queen, which also tends to aid in the sex- 
ual act. 

The drone has not the wax-glands ‘beneath the abdomen. 
On the ventral plates are scattering compound hairs, which 
doubtless have importance in the sexual act. The drone, like 
the queen, is without the lower head or pollen-digesting glands, 
and so is largely fed by the workers. Schonfeld has proved 
this by caging drones in full colonies. If cagedin a single- 
walled cage, so as to be accessible to the workers, they live; 
if in a double-walled cage they all, soon die, though all have 
abundant honey. While honey is necessary it is not enough, 


126 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


It was discovered by Dzierzon in 1845, that the drones 
hatch from unimpregnatedeggs. This strange phenomenon, 
seemingly so incredible, is, as has been shown in speaking of 
the queen, easily proved and beyond question. These eggs 
may come from an unimpregnated queen, a laying worker— 
which will soon be described—or an impregnated queen which 
may voluntarily prevent impregnation. It isasserted by some 
that the workers can change a worker-egg to a drone-egg at 
will. When the workers are able to abstract the sperm-cells, 
which are so small that we can see them only by using a high- 
power microscope, then we may expect to see wheat turn to 
chess. Such eggs will usually be placed in the larger horizon- 
tal cells (Fig. 78, a), in manner already described. 

The drone-cells are one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and 
project beyond the worker-cells, so they are alittle more than 
one-half an inch long. Very rarely drones are produced in 
worker-cells. Such drones are diminutive, and undesirable in 
the apiary. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six anda 
half days as a larva before the cell is capped. As the micro- 
scope shows, undigested pollen is given to the drone-larve 
after the fourth day, which is not true of either the queen or 
worker. Thecapping of the drone-cells is very convex, and 
projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that 
the drone-brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from 
the darker color—the wax being thicker and less pure—the 
capping of both drone and worker brood-cells enables us easily 
to distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days 
from the laying of the eggs, the drones come forth from the 
cells. Of course, variation of temperature and other condi- 
tions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or ad- 
vance the development of any brood, in the different stages. 
The drones—in fact all bees—when they first emerge from the 
cells, are gray, and are easily distinguished from the mature 
bee. 

Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to 
state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live 
till accident, the worker-bees, or the performance of their 
natural function, cause their death. The worker-bees may 
kill off the drones at any time, which they do by constantly 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 127 


biting and worrying them; though principally, I think, by 
withholding their albuminous food. They may also destroy 
the drone-brood. Itis not very rare to see workers carrying 
out immature drones even in midsummer. At the same time 
they may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted 
by a sudden check in the yield of honey, and in case of drones 
is common only at the close of the season. The bees seem 
very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times pre- 
sage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the increase 
of colonies. On the other hand, nectar secretion by the 
flowers, rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters—whatever 
the age of the queen—are sure to bring many of the male bees, 
while any circumstances that indicate a need of drones in the 
near future, like loss or impotency of the queen, will prevent 
their destruction even in late autumn. 

The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the 
queen, though when present they add to the heat of the hive. 
Yet for this they were far better replaced by worker-bees. 
That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact that, 
upon dissection, we usually find their capacious honey-stomachs 
filled with honey. 

Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before 
stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the 
heat of a warm, sunshiny day. After mating, as before sug- 
gested, the drone-organs adhere to the queen, and may be seen 
hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to 
the drone. By holding a drone just returned from a long 
flight in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organsis quickly 
produced, and is always followed by immediate death. As the 
queen meets only a single drone, and that only once, it might 
be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds 
of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice 
as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance of the 
queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers of the 
outer world, it is safest and best that her stay abroad be not 
protracted, that the experience be not repeated, and, especially, 
that her meeting a drone be mot delayed. Hence, the super- 
abundance of drones—especially under natural conditions, 
isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the 


128 THE BEEH-KREPER’S GUIDE; 


alert for insect game—is most wise and provident. Nature is 
never ‘‘penny wise and pound foolish.”? In our apiaries the 
need is wanting, and the condition, as it exists in nature, is 
not enforced. Again, close impregnation or in-breeding, 
which is not conducive to animal vigor, is thus prevented, 
where otherwise it would be necessary and always the practice. 

The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production 
of drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen, how- 
ever mated, must ever come a pure drone. My own experience 
and observation, which have been very extended,and under 
circumstances most favorable for a correct judgment, have 
fully and completely confirmed this theory. Yet, if telegony 
or the impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls renders 
the females of mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and 
taught by many who would seem, most competent to judge— 
though I must say I am very skeptical in the matter—then we 
must look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal, 
and especially if a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we 
may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it 
exist, must come simply from the presence in the female 
generative organs of the sperm-cells, or spermatozoa, and in 
mammals, too, there is little more than this, for though they 
are viviporous, so that the union and contact of the offspring 
and mother seem very intimate during the fetal development, 
yet there is no intermingling of blood, fora membrane ever 
separates that of the mother from that of the fetus, and only 
the nutritious and waste elements pass from one to the other. 
To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, is 
like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling 
the breath of her progeny after birth. If such taint be pro- 
duced, it probably comes through the power of a cell to change 
those cells contiguous to it. That cells have such power is 
proved every day in case of wounds, and the spread of any 
disease. Icanonly say that I believe this whole matter is 
still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful, scientific 
and prolonged observation. I have tried very extensive experi- 
ments with both chickens and bees, and all the evidence was 
against telegony. My brown Leghorn hens ran with light 
Brahma roosters all winter, then were removed for three 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 129 


weeks, after which they were purely mated, and every one of 
thetwo hundred chickens were without any Brahma marks. 
Even the legs were absolutely clean. Likewise, thousands of 
drones, reared from pure Syrian queens, but mated to Italian 
drones, showed not the slightest Italian taint. I believe teleg- 
ony is a very doubtful hypothesis. 


THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES. 


These, called ‘the bees’’ by Aristotle, and even by Wild- 
man and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individuals of 


Fie. 51, 


wid 


MO" 
V7 


Worker-Bee much magnified, from Newman. 


the hive—there being from 15,000 to 40,000 in every good col- 
ony. Itis possible for a colony to be even much more popu- 
lous than this. (Lubbock says that there are often 50,000 
worker-ants ina nest.) These are also the smallest bees of 
the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of 
an inch in length (Fig. 51.) As already stated, it takes about 


130 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


5,000 worker-bees to weigh a pound. Prof. W. R. Lazenby 
found the weight of a worker to be .0799 grams, a load of 
honey weighed .043 grams. This is maximum. The average 
is .022 grams; a load of pollen weighs .006 grams. Prof. 
Lazenby is probably correct in the assertion that usually only 
honey or pollen is carried by the bees; but I have repeatedly 
known of bees carrying both honey and pollen at the same 
time. 

The workers—as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle. 
Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, 
sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive 


Fic. 52. Fie. 53. 


B 


Ovaries of Worker-Bee, from Ovaries of Laying- Worker, from 
Leuckart. Leuckart. 


ovaries (Fig. 52) are undeveloped females. Rarely, and prob- 
ably very rarely except when a colony is long or often queen- 
less, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far 
developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always 
be drone-eggs. Such workers—known as ‘ fertile ’’—were 
first noticed by Riem, while Huber saw one in the act of egg- 
aying. Paull. Viallon and others have seen the same thing 
often. Several laying workers, sent me by Mr. Viallon, were 
examined, and the eggs and ovaries (Fig. 53) were plainly 
visible. Leuckart found, as seen in the figure, the rudiment 
of the spermatheca in both the common and the laying worker. 
Except in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the 
other workers. Huber supposed that these were reared in cells 
contiguous to royal cells, and thus received royal food by 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 131 


accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, that these occur 
in colonies where queen-larvze were never reared, is fatal to 
the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought that 
these bees, while larve, were fed, though too sparingly, with 
the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the 
accelerated development. As already stated, the queen-larva 
is fed different and more abundant food than is the worker, 
and hence her accelerated and varied development. Is it not 
possible that these laying workers receive an excessof food 
as larve? Again, we have seen that laying workers occurin 
hopelessly queenless colonies; and that queens are fed by the 
workers. May it not be that colonies hopelessly queenless 
take to feeding some special workers the chyle, and thus arise 
the laying workers? These are interesting inquiries that 
await solution. The generative organs are very sensitive, 
and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, and we may yet 
have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move 
them to growth and activity. Though these laying workers 
area poor substitute for a queen, as they are incapable of 
producing any bees but drones, and are surely the harbingers 
of death and extinction to the colony, yet they seem to satisfy 
the workers, for often the latter will not brook the presence of 
a queen when a laying worker is in the hive, frequently will 
not suffer the existencein the hive of a queen-cell, even though 
capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have very 
slight reason to be so. These laying workers lay indifferently 
in large or small cells—often place several eggsin a single 
cell, and show their incapacity in various ways. Laying 
workers seem to appear more quickly and in greater abundance 
in colonies of Cyprian and Syrian bees, after they become 
hopelessly queenless, than in Italian colonies. 

The maxilla and labium of the worker-bee (Fig. 56) are 
much elongated (Fig. 54). The maxille (Fig. 54, 4, mx, mx) 
are deeply grooved, and are hinged to the head by strong 
chitinous rods (Fig. 54, A, c, c, St, St), to which are attached 
the muscles which move these parts. The gutter-like extremi- 
ties (Fig. 54, 4, /, 2) are stiffened with chitine, and, when 
approximated, form a tube which is continued by a membrane 
to the mouth-opening of the pharynx, just between the bases 


132 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Fic. 54. 


Tongue of Worker-Bee, much magnified.—Original, 


mz mz Maxille. mp, mp Max. palpi. kk Labial palpi. 
bb Lora. o Sub-mentum. t Tongue. 
ce Cardines. a Mentum. J Funnel. 
St, St Stipes. Pp, p, Paraglosse. & Tubular rod. 
i, ¢ Lacinize. B Ligula, with sac —_s s Colorless membrane. 
s Colorless membrane, distended. f Funnel. 
S& Sheath. A Maxille and labium. C Cross-section of 
£# Tubular rod. ligula. 


(The above figure is drawn to the same scale as Fig. 27.) 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 133 


of the jaws. This tube forms the largest channel through 
which nectar passes to the pharynx. The labium varies in 
length from .23 to .27 of an inch. By the sub-men- 
tum (Fig. 54, 4, 0) and two chitinous rods, the lora (Fig. 
54, A, 6, 6), itis hinged to the maxilla. The base or mentum 
is chitinous beneath and membranous above. From the men- 
tum extends the tongue or ligula (Fig. 54, A, ¢), the paraglosse 
(Fig. 54, A, ~, p), sac-like organs which connect with the 
cavity of the mentum, and so are distended with blood when 
the mentum is pressed. They also stand out like leaves or 
plates, and aid in directing the nectar which is drawn through 
the ligula into the mouth (Fig. 16). The labial palpi (Fig. 54, 
A, k, k) are four jointed, and in arrangement, form and func- 
tion resemble the maxilla. The tongue or ligula consists of 
an anuulated sheath (Fig. 54, C, S) which is slitted along its 
under side to near the end. This is very hairy. Within this 
is a tubular rod (Fig. 54, Band C, R) which is also slitted 
along its under side to near the end, and opens above at its 
base between the paraglosse (Fig. 54, C). Each margin of 
this slitted rod is united by a thin pubescent membrane to the 
corresponding margin of the surrounding sheath (Fig. 54, C, s). 
(So far as I know I was the first to discover this membrane.) 
Hence any pressure within the annular sheath may throw the 
central rod out (Fig. 54, B, &). Thisresults when we press on 
the mentum; as the blood pushes into the sheath and straight- 
ens the folded membrane (Fig. 54, C, 5s), The bee then can 
take nectar in three ways, first rapidly when sipping from 
flowers containing much nectar (Figs. 54, 4, 57, 0, 0) by the 
large channels formed by approximating its maxille and 
labial palpi (Fig. 54, 4, Fig. 57, 0,0); secondly, slowly from 
deep tubular flowers, when it sips through the central rod; 
and, thirdly, it may lap from a smeared surface because of the 
slitted ligula. By use of colored liquids I have demonstrated 
that the bee does actually sip in all these ways. At the end of 
the ligula there is a funnel (Fig. 54, 4, f, 56, 5). 

Strange to say the structure and physiology of the tongue 
of the honey-bee were more correctly explained by old Swam- 
merdam, than by most modern writers. Both he and Reaumur 
were quite accurate in their descriptions. Wolff, in his ele- 


’ 


134 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


gant monograph from which I have taken several figures, 
described with beautiful illustrations the mouth organs of the 
honey-bee, but was in doubt as to their physiology. Dr. 
Hyatt, of New York, did much to explain the anatomy of the 
bee’s tongue; but so faras I knowI was the first to explain 
accurately the anatomy and physiology of this organ. Within 
the mentum (Fig. 55, C, m) are strong muscles for retracting 


Fie. 55. 


Tongue bent under Head. 


Tongue extended for 
sucking. 
m Maxille. f Retractor muscles. The 
LD LVigula. opening opposite L. at upper 
sm Sub-mentum, base of tongue between par- 


D Duet from upper aglosse. All from Wolff. 
head and tho- 
racic glands. Base of Labium. 


the organ. The force of suction is doubtless analogous to the 
act of drinking on our own part. The rhythmical motion of 
the ligula in sipping honey is thus explained. By the muscles 
of the mouth the cavity is enlarged, producing suction, when 
by pressure swallowing is accomplished. 

When not in use, the tongue with the attendant mouth 
organs, are bent back under the head (Fig. 55, &). 


GLANDULAR ORGANS. 


These important organs, which have been so fully 
described by Siebold, Wolff, and especially by Schiemenz, are 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 


135 


FRR 
PERUSE BE 


ra 


N 


Se, 
te TTY 


6 


Head and Tongue of Bee, magnified twelve times. 


(From Department of Agriculture.) 


a Antenna. maz p Maxillary palpus. Up Labial palpus. 
m Mandibles. pg Paraglossa. t Ligula. 
g Epipharynx. mz Maxilla. 


b Funnel of tongue. 


136 THE BEHE-KHEPER’S GUIDH} 


so intimately connected with the mouth organs, are so evi- 
dently useful in digestion, and are so well developed in the 
worker-bees, that they deserve full consideration. All the 
glands have a chitinous inner intivna and outer propria, and a 
middle epithelial membrane. 

The spinning gland of the larval bee is a simple tubular 
gland, and is well illustrated by Schiemenz (Fig. 58). On 
each side within the head of the worker-bee (Fig. 59, u # g) are 
large glands, discovered by Meckel in 1846, and fully described 
by Siebold in 1870, which are very rudimentary in the queen 
and entirely absent in the drone. They are often called the 
lower head-glands. These are in form of the meibomian 


Fic. 57. 


Cross section of Tongue in use, after Cowan. 


it Labial palpi. o o Tube for sucking the nectar. 
mm Maxille. p Overlapping maxille. 


glands in our own eyelids; that is,a long duct bears many 
follicles rich with secreting cells, the whole looking like a 
compound leaf with small leaflets. Dr. Packard says each 
follicle is unicellular. While all the others are acinose. The 
ducts empty on the floor of the mouth. These glands are very 
marked in nurse-bees, but smaller in aged bees. Schiemenz 
believes that these glands secrete the food for the larval bees 
and also for the laying queen. Their large size, their full 
development only in the nurse-bees, and their entire absence 
in queen and drones, surely seem to give great force to this 
view. As already stated, the queen-larva is fed very liberally, 
and almost exclusively, of this so-called bee-milk. Berlepsch 
says that the little pollen sometimes (?) found in the digestive 
tube of the queen-larva is accidental. The worker-larva re- 
ceives less of this secretion, and to that fedto the drone is 


OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 137 


added, just at the last, some partially digested pollen which is 
shed when the alimentary canal is moulted with the last larval 
skin. The fact that undigested pollen is found in the larval 
food shows that this food is from the stomach, and is nota 
secretion. It has been suggested that the difference which Dr. 
Planta and others find in the composition of the larval food of 
worker, queen and drone larve is wholly due to this partially 
digested pollen which is withheld from the inchoate queen and 
workers. 

There are also large compound racemose or acinose glands 
(Fig. 59, 2% g)in the head, and also a similar pair (Fig. 58, / g) 


Fic. 58, 


Spinning Gland of Larva, and cross section of same, after Schiemenz. 


C Gland, S Sinus. 
I Duct. D Common duct, 


in the thorax, which are by some thought to be the modified 
spinning glands of the larva. These four glands unite intoa 
common duct, which passes through the mentum and opens 
just at the base of tongue on top in the groove between the 
paraglosse (Fig. 55, C, 2, and 56). The thoracic glands were 
discovered by Ramdohr in 1811, while Meckel also discovered 
the second pair of cephalic glands, these are the upper head- 
glands; Schiemenz is probably correct in thinking that these 
glands, which are present in all bees, are for digesting the 


138 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


nectar. ‘The cane-sugar of nectar is certainly digested or 
changed into the more osmotic and assimilable glucose-like 
sugar of honey. Very likely these compound racemose glands 
supply the digestive ferment which accomplishes this part of 


Fic. 59. 


Gland System of Bee, after Girard. 


digestion. We similarly digest all the cane-sugar that we eat. 
As honey is not always fully digested, the drones and queens, 
as well as the workers, possess these glands. 

Wolff’s glands are large follicular glands (Fig. 60), situated 
at the base of the mandibles. From their position we might 
suppose that their secretion was useful in forming wax into 
comb, but their large size in the queens, and the fact that the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 139 


secretion from them is acid, would rather argue that they, like 
the racemose glands, were also digestive in their function. I 
would suggest that we call the thoracic glands, the glands of 
Ramdohr; the racemose glands of the head, the glands of 
Meckel, and the other glands of the head-glands of Siebold, in 
compliment to the excellent work which has been done in their 
study and elucidation ; while the glands at the base of the 
mandibles may well be called, from their discoverer, Wolff’s 
glands. In studying the digestive organism we are greatly 


Fic. 60. 


Jaw of Worker showing Wolff's gland, after Wolff. 
M Muscles. J Jaws. G Gland. 


indebted to Schiemenz and Schonfeld, who have not only ex- 
plained by use of beautiful illustrations the detailed anatomy 
of the alimentary canal, but have been equally happy in 
describing the wonderful physiology of digestion in bees. 
Schonfeld, from a very elaborate series of experiments, con- 
cludes that the theory of Schiemenz and v. Siebold is not cor- 
rect. Hethinks the lower head-glands secrete saliva which 
moistens the pollen, and aids in digesting it. The fact that it 
is acid adds force to the theory. They empty on the floor of 
the mouth just where they should pour out the saliva. As the 
queen and drones never eat pollen, but are fed by the workers, 
they do not need these glands. Schonfeld thinks the larval 
food is digested pollen, and he claims to have found this in the 
true stomach of nurse-bees. Partially digested pollen he 
terms chyme, which, just before the drone-larve are to be 


, 


‘Ss GUIDE; 


KEEPER 


THE BEE 


140 


Digestive Apparatus 
of Bee, X 10. 


(From Department of 
Agriculture.) 


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OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 141 


sealed up, is fed tothem. Thechyle and larval food he finds 
to contain blood corpuscles, and he thinks them identical with 
the same in the blood of the bee. Schonfeld fed indigestible 
material like iron particles to starving bees that had brood. 
The chyle, the larval food, but not the blood of the nurse-bees 
contained this iron. This food of the larve then must be chyle 
and nota secretion. I confirmed this by feeding bees sugar 
syrup in which I mixed finely pulverized charcoal. The char- 
coal appeared in the royal jelly in the queen-cells. As the 
charcoal is utterly non-osmotic, it could not pass to the blood, 
and so could not appear in any secretion, but could and would 
be in any regurgitated food. This secretion then appears to 
answer to the gastric juice in our own digestion. Again, the 
fact that it is acid, makes this conclusion more than war- 
ranted. This experiment certainly settles the matter. 

Again, these same lower head-glands are found in some 
insects that do not feed their larve at all, as species of Eris- 
talis—wasp-colored two-winged flies—and of Nepa, a genus of 
water-bugs. 

Dr. Planta and others have shown that the chyle fed to 
queen-larve is not the same as that fed to drone-larve, nor yet 
like that fed to worker-larve. If this is chyle the difference 
could be explained, as it would arise from variation of food. 
If a secretion, it could not be easily explained. This view is 
adopted by Mr. Cowan, the ablest and most learned British 
authority on bees. Bordas has found two other pairs of 
glands in both worker and drone bees, which he terms, from 
their position, the internal mandibular and sublingual. It 
would be interesting but difficult to determine what secretion, 
if not all the secretions, aided in kneading the wax. 

As in our own development, so in the embryo bee, the mid- 
intestine arises from the endoderm or inner layer of the initial 
animal. As the ectoderm or outer layer is around this, not 
only the mouth and vent, but the fore and hind intestine—all 
but the true stomach—arise by absorption at these points, or 
from invagination (a turning in) of the outerlayer. Infants 
are not infrequently born with an imperforate anus. In such 
cases there isan arrest, the absorption does not take place, 
and the surgeon’s knife comes to Nature’s relief. Strangely 


142 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


enough in the bee—this is also true of ants and some wasps— 
this condition persists all through the larval period. Thus 
bee-larve have no anus or vent, and so void no excreta. But 
as known both to Swammerdam and Newport, when the last 
larval skin is moulted the whole canal, with its contents, is 


Fic. 62. 
Sn HS. 


Section showing s'ructure of Honey-stomach, Stomach-mouth and Stomach, 
after Schiemenz. 


HS Honey-stomach, E Epithelial cells. 
S Stomach. V Stomach valve. 
m Muscles. A Hairs to hold pollen. 


S m Stomach-mouth. 


moulted with the skin. As already stated, the spinning 
glands in the larva become the thoracic, or glands of Ramdohr, 
in the adult bee. 

The cesophagus or gullet, the fine thread which is pulled 
out as we behead a bee, passes from the mouth through the 
muscular thorax (Figs. 25 and 27) to the honey-stomach, which 
is situated in theabdomen. Often, as every bee-keeper knows, 
this honey-stomach (Fig. 36, 4s, 61 4s) comes along with the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 143 


cesophagusas we pull the bee’s head from the body. The 
cesophagus (Fig. 61, @) is about .20f an inch long and .02 of 
an inch indiameter. In form and function the cesophagus is 
not different from the same organ in other animals. It is 
simply a passageway for the food (Fig. 27, 61 oe). 

The honey-stomach (Fig. 62, 4, s) or honey-sac is a sort of 
a crop or proventriculus. This sac is oval about .1 of an inch 
in diameter. While this organ is lined with a cellular layer 
(Fig. 62, WS, £), the cells are not large and numerous asin 


Fic. 63. 


Four pieces forming Stomach-Mouth, after Schiemenz. 


¢ Cells. T m Transverse muscles. Hs Longitudinal muscles. 


the true stomach (Fig. 62, S, £). The muscular layers of this 
sac are quite pronounced (Fig. 62, m), as we should expect, as 
the honey has to be regurgitated from it to the honey-cells. 
This is truly a digestive chamber, as the nectar—cane-sugar— 
is here changed to honey—glucose-like sugar—but this is prob- 
ably through the ferment received from the glands of Meckel 
and Ramdohr, and not from any secretion from the organ 
itself. The pollen is also very slightly digested here, as Schon- 
feld has shown, through the action of the saliva from the 
glands of Siebold, or lower head-glands. At the posterior end 
of this honey-stomach is the stomach-mouth (Fig. 36, 62, s, m, 
and 61, ~) of Burmeister, which is admirably described by 
Schiemenz. It is really a stomach-mouth. Spherical in form, 
.02 of an inch in diameter, and, as Schonfeld well says, re- 
minds one of a flower-bud. It (Fig. 61%) can be seen by the 


144 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE: 


unaided eye, and as Schonfeld suggests, is easily studied with 
a low-power microscope. There are four jaw-like plates which 
guard this stomach-mouth (Fig. 63),and as Schimenz shows, 
open to let food pass to the true stomach. This same author 
tells us how by pressing with a needle, while viewing the 
stomach-mouth under a microscope, we can see the jaws open 
and shut. These plates have fine hairs, pointing down (Fig. 
62, 4), which would, if a portion of the honey-containing pollen 
were taken by this very muscular stomach-mouth, retain the 
pollen-grains, while the honey could be passed back into the 
honey-stomach. Hence, Schiemenz very naturally concludes 
that this is a sort of strainer, constantly separating the pollen 
and honey as the bee is sipping nectar from flower to flower. 


Fic, 64. 


a a 


e d e 
Stomach-mouth in Honey-Stomach, after Cowan. 


A Normal. a sophagus. d Vales. 
B Raised in regurgitation. b Honey-stomach. e True stomach. 


As will be seen, this stomach-mouth has not only great longi- 
tudinal muscles (Fig. 62, #), but also circular muscles as well 
(Fig. 62, #). If Schiemenz is correct, then this stomach-mouth 
is to separate the honey and pollen. Even with this interest- 
ing apparatus, much of our honey has not a few pollen-grains, 
as every observing bee-keeper knows. The fact that nectar 
has much more pollen in it than does honey, makes Schie- 
menz’s view all the more probable. 

There is also a long prolongation (Fig. 62, v) from the 
stomach-mouth into the true stomach. This is .04 of an inch 
long, and is rich in cells, which are held by a very delicate 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 145 


membrane which extends on still further. Schiemenz believes 
that this is a valve, and certainly unless drawn by the strong 
muscles in the walls out of the stomach as Schonfeld believes, 
it would act as a most efficient valve. If this does act as a 
perfect valve, then of course the nurse-bees can never feed the 
larve or queen any digested food from the true stomach. This 
is Schiemenz’s view. Pastor Schonfeld, however, still holds, 
and seems to have proved, that while this may serve as a 
valve it is under the control of the bee, and may be so drawn 
up by the very muscular honey-stomach as to permit regurgi- 
tation (Fig. 64). In this regurgitation of chyle, the stomach- 
mouth closely approximates the stomach end -of the cesopha- 
gus (Fig. 64, 8); and so the chyle does not pass into the 
honey-stomach. This prolongation then isa valve under the 
control of the bee, and is another wonderful structure in this 
highly organized insect. 

The true stomach (Fig. 61, c, s) is curved upon itself, and 
is .4of aninch long and .1 of an inch in diameter. It is 
rugose, and the circular wrinkles or constrictions are quite 
regular. It is richly covered within by secreting cells (Fig. 
62, s,c). The mucous membrane is folded, and hence there 
are very numerous gastric cells. Undoubtedly the function of 
the gastric juice is the same as in our own stomachs, it aids 
to liquify or render osmotic—capable of being absorbed—the 
albuminous food, in this case the pollen. This view is con- 
firmed by the fact that we almost always find pollen in all 
stages of digestion in the true stomach of the bee. We may 
not wonder at the varied source of this digestive secretion ; 
these gastric cells, the lower head-glands, and possibly Wolff’s 
glands. Where among animals is such thorough digestive 
work accomplished ? Emptying into the pyloric or posterior 
end of the stomach (Fig. 61, 6¢) are numerous tubules, the 
Malpighian tubules. These are the urinary organs, and re- 
move waste elements from the blood. They are really the 
bee’s kidneys. Like our own kidneys, they are nothing more 
than tubules lined with excreting cells. The small intestine 
is often called ileum (Fig. 61, 72). ‘This portion of the diges- 
tive tube is lined with very minute, sharp chitinous teeth, 
which Schiemenz believes are used to further masticate the 


146 THE BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE; 


pollen-grains, that have not yielded to the digestive action of 
‘the stomach. This opinion is sustained by the strongly mus- 
cular nature of the tube (Fig. 36, 4). The diameter of the 
ileum is hardly .02 of an inch. The rectum, or last portion of 
the intestine (Fig. 61, 7z), is much larger than the ileum, and 
‘carries'on its mucous or inner surface six glands (Fig. 36, 7, g), 
which Schiemenz calls rectal glands. It is quite likely that 
these may be excretory in function. Their position would 
make this view seem probable at theleast. Minot claims that 
these are not glands nor absorbant organs. Fernald thinks 
them valvular, and believes they restrain the injesta. 

Before leaving the subject it seems well to remark that it 
now seems certain that the old view of Dufour, so ably advo- 
cated by Pastor Schonfeld is, despite the arguments and 
researches of Schiemenz, the correct one. Our experiments 
with charcoal prove this absolutely. The queen, drone and 
larve do not get their food asa secretion—a sort of milk—but 
‘it is rather the digested pollen modified, as the bees desire by 
varying their own food. In addition to this albuminous food 


Fic. 65. 


a Jaw of Drone. b Jaw of Queen. ¢ Jaw of Worker. 
(Original.) 

the queen and drones also take much honey. Thus they need 
the glands which furnish the ferment that changes cane to 
reducible sugar, and they have them. If all honey were fully 
digested, then the drones and queen would not need any glands 
atall. The fact that the pollen that the larve do get is par- 
tially digested is further proof that this is chyme, or partially 
digested pollen. 

The jaws (Fig. 65, c) are very strong, without the rudimen- 
tary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 147 


1. the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these 
organs are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform 

. their various functions. As we should expect, the muscles of 
the jaw are very large and powerful (Fig. 60). Wolff’s glands 
empty at the base of these, and are doubtless excited by their 
action—a proof that their secretion is gastric in mature, The 
worker’s eyes (Fig. 4) are like those of the queen, while their 
wings, like those of the drones (Fig. 46), attain the end of. the 
‘body. These organs (Fig. 2), as in all insects with rapid 
flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or less rapid 
vibrations, give the variety of tone which characterizes their 
hum. Thus we havethe rapid movements and high pitch of 
anger, and the slow motion and mellow note of content and joy. 
Landois proved many years since, that aside from the 
noise made by the wings, bees have a true voice. Thus he 
showed that a bumble-bee without wings, or with wings glued 
fast, would still hum. ‘This voice is produced in the spiracles. 

. Who has not noticed that a bumble-bee imprisoned closely in 
a flower still hums? Ihave also heard a carpenter-bee ina 
.tunnel hardly larger than its body, hum loudly. Landois 
found this, hum ceased when the spiracles were closed with 
wax. Hedescribes quite an intricate voice-box, with a com- 
plex folded membrane, the tension of which is controlled 
through the action of a muscle and tendon. Thus we see that 
bees have a vocal organization not very unlike our own in the 
method of its action. The piping of the queen is probably this 
true voice. Landois also states that bees and other insects 
also make noise by the movement of ‘the abdominal segments, 
the one on the other. From the enornious muscles in the 
thorax (Fig. 25) we should expect rapid flight in bees. Marked 
bees have been known to fly one-half mile, unload and return 
in six minutes, and double that distance in eleven minutes. 
In thirty minutes they went two and one-half miles, unloaded 
and returned. Thus they fly slower when foraging at a dis- 
tance. These experiments were tried by my students, and the 

‘ (time was in the afternoon. I think they are reliable. Pos- 
-sibly, early in the day the rapidity would be greater. Some- 
‘times swarms go so slowly that one can keep up with them. 
-At other times they fly so rapidly that one needs a-good horse 


148 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


to follow them closely. Here the rate doubtless depends upon 
the queen. 

The legs of worker-bees are very strangely modified. As 
they are exceedingly useful in the bee economy, this is not 
strange. We findin the progressive development of all ani- 
mals, that such organs as are most used are most modified, and 
thus we see why the legs and mouth organs of the worker-bees 
are so wonderfully developed. 

The abundant compound hairs on the first joints of all the 
legs are very marked in the worker-bees. ‘These are the pol- 
len-gathering hairs, and from their branching, fluffy nature 
are well suited to gather the pollen-grains. 

On the anterior legs the antenna cleaner (Fig. 66) is well 
marked, as it is in all Hymenoptera except the lowest families 
where itis nearly or quite absent. In the honey-bee, this is 
found in the queen and drone as wellas in the worker. It is 
situated at the base of the first tarsus, and consists of a nearly 
semi-cylindrical concavity (Fig. 66, c), armed on the outer side 
with from seventy-eight to ninety projecting hairs. These 
teeth-like hairs projecting as fringe form a very delicate 
brush. Extending from the tibia is a blade-like organ—really 


Antenna-Cleaner of Worker-Bee.—Original. 


C Cavity. S Spur, 


the modified tibial spur (Fig. 66, S)—which when the leg is 
bent at this joint, comes squarely over the notch in the tarsus. 
Near the base on the inside a projecting knobis seen which 
perhaps acts asa strengthener. The part of this blade or spur 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 149 


that opposes the notch when in use consists of a delicate mem- 
brane. In other Hymenoptera this spur is greatly varied. 
Often, as in the ants and mud-wasps, it is also delicately 
fringed. Sometimes it has a long projecting point, and is 
thickly set with spinous hairs. 

‘That this organ is an antenna-cleaner is quickly seen by 
watching a bee—preferably a bumble-bee—come from a tubu- 


Fic, 67. 


Anterior Leg of Worker-Bee.—Original. 


C Coxa. T Trochanter. 
# Femur. Ti Tibia. 
123465 Tarsal joints in order. Cl Claws. 


lar flower, like that of the malva, or by placing a honey-bee, 
bumble-bee or wasp on the inside of a window-pane and dust- 
ing its antenne with flour or pulverized chalk. The insect 
at once draws its antenne, one and then the other, through 
these admirable dusters, till the organs are entirely free from 
the dust. The bee in turn cleans its antenna-cleaners by 
scraping them between the inner brush-like faces of the basal 
tarsi of its middle legs, which is done each time after they are 
used to clean an antenna. The paper-making wasps, andI 


150 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; ' 


presume all wasps clean these organs by passing them between’ 
their jaws, much as a child cleans his fingers after eating 
candy, except here lips take the place of jaws. We can hardly 
conceive of a better arrangement for this purpose, a delicate 
brush and a soft membrane; even better than the housewife 
arnmied with soft brush anda silk kerchief, for this antenna 
cleaner just fits the organs to be dusted. We have seen the’ 
important function of the antennz, as most delicate touch- 


Fic. 69. 


°° 


Tiv of Foot of Bee.—Original. 


A Pulvilli in use. 
B Claws in use. 
c.c. Claws. Ah. Hairs. 
p.p. Pulvilli. 
t.t. Last joint of Tarsus. 


# 


End of Middle Leg of Worker-Bee.—Original. 


organs, and as organs of smell, two senses of marvelous devel- 
opment inthe bee. It is as imperative that the bee keeps its 
antennez dust-free as that the microscopist keeps his glasses 
immaculate. A delicate brush (Figs. 66 and 67) on the end of : 
the tibia opposite the spur and also the brush of rather spinous © 
hairs on the tarsus (Fig. 66) are of use to brush the hairs, eyes 
and face, as may be seen by careful observation. | 

The claws and pulvilli—the delicate gland between the 
claws—are well marked on all the feet of bees. The claws 
(Fig. 67, cl) are toothed, and are very useful in walking up’ 
wooden or other rough surfaces (Fig. 68, 2), as they are used * 
just asa squirrel uses its claws in climbing a tree. These 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 151- 


claws are also used in holding the bees to some object, or 
together while clustering. What a grip they must have. It is 
as if we were to graspa limb or branch and then hold hundreds, 
yes thousands, of other persons as heavy as ourselves who had 
in turn grasped hold of us. When walking up a vertical wall 
of glass or other smooth metal, the claws are of no use, and so 
are turned back (Fig. 68, 4), and the pulvilli—glandular 
organs—are spread out and serve to hold the bee. These 
secrete a viscid or adhesive substance which so sticks that the 
bee can even walk up a window-pane. This is why bees soon 
cloud or befoul glass: over which they constantly walk. We 
thus understand why a bee finds it laborious and difficult to 
walk up a moist or dust-covered glass or metal surface. 

The middle legs of the worker-bee are only peculiar in the 
prominent tibial spur (Fig. 69), and the brushes or pollen- 
combs on the inside of the first tarsus. It has been said that 
the spur is useful in prying off the pollen-masses from the 
posterior legs, as the bee enters the hive to deposit the pollen 
in the cells. This is doubtless an error. Thequeen and drone 
have this spur even longer than does the worker; the pollen 
comes off easily, and needs no crow-bar to loosen it. It is com- 
mon among insects, and there are often two. The coarse, 
projecting hairs on all the feet are doubtless the agents that 
push off the loads of pollen. 

We have already seen how the brushes or combs on the 
inner face of the first tarsus of the middle legs serve to remove 
the dust from the antenna cleaner. ‘Thesealso serve ascombs, 
like similar but more perfect organs on the posterior legs, to 
remove the pollen from the pollen-hairs, and pack itin the 
pollen-baskets on the hind legs. Mr. Root speaks of the 
tongue as the organ for collecting pollen. Are not these hairs 
really the important agents in this important work ? 

But the posterior legs are the most interesting, as it is 
rare to find organs more varied in their uses, and so as we 
should. expect, these are strangely modified. The branching 
or pollen-gathering hairs (Fig. 71) are very abundant on the 
coxa trochanter and femur, and not absent,’though much fewer 
(Fig. 70) on the broad triangular tibia. The basal tarsus (Fig. 
70) is quadurate, and it and the tibia on “the outside (Fig. 70) 


152 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Fic. 70. 


Hi \ \ Outside of Tibia and Tarsi 
Hf} of Posterior Leg of Worker-Bee, 
KX Mt showing Corbicula,— 
J Original, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 153 


Fic. 71. 


Inside Posterior Leg of Worker-Bee.— 
Original. 


154 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; | 


are smooth and concave, especially on the posterior portion, 
which shallow cavity forms the corbicula or ‘“ pollen-basket.” 
This is deepened by stiff marginal hairs, which stand up like 
stakes in a sled. These spinous hairs not only hold the pollen- 
mass, as do stakes, but often pierce it, and so bind the soft 
pollen to the leg. Opposite the pollen cavity of the first tarsus, 
or on the inside (Fig. 71), are about eleven rows of stiff hairs. 
They are of golden color, and very beautiful. These may be 
called the pollen-combs, for it is they that gather, for the most 
part, the pollen from the pollen-gathering hairs of legs and 
body, and convey it to and packitin the pollen-baskets. As 
we have seen (Fig. 69), there are less perfect combs—similar in 
character, position and function—on the middle legs. The 
contiguous ends of the tibia and first tarsus or planta are most 
curiously modified to form the wax-jaws. The back part of 
this joint (Figs. 70, 71) reminds one of a steel trap with teeth, 
or of the jaws of an animal, the teeth in this case consisting 
of spinous hairs. The teeth onthe tibia, the pecten or comb, 
are strong and prominent. These shut against the upper ear- 
like auricle of the planta, and thus the function of these wax- 
jaws is doubtless to grasp and remove the wax-scales from the 
wax-pockets, and carry them to the jaws of the bees. These 
wax-jaws are not found in queens or drones, nor in other than 
wax-producing bees. They are well developed in Trigona and 
Melipona, and less, though plainly marked, in bombus. 
Girard gives this explanation in his admirable work Les 
Abeilles ; and as he is no plagiarist, as he gives fullest credit 
to others, he may be the discoverer of these wax-jaws. If he 
is not, I know not whois. The genus Apis is peculiar among 
our bees, and really exceptional among insects in having no 
posterior tibial spurs. They would, of course, be in the way of 
action of the wax-jaws. As before stated, there are six seg- 
ments to the abdomen, in the queen and worker-bee (Fig.9), and 
seven in the male. Each of these abdominal rings consists of 
a dorsal piece or plate—tergite or notum and pleurites united— 
which bears the spiracle, and which overlaps the ventral plate 
or sternite. These plates are strengthened with chitine. 
These rings are connected with a membrane, so that they can 


OR; MANUAL. OF THE APIARY. 155. 


push in and out, something as the sections of a spy-glass are 
worked.. 


The ventral or sternal didominal plates of the aacous: : 
third, fourth and fifth segments of the worker (Fig. 72) are , 


‘A Fic. 72. 


Underside of Abdomen of Worker-Bee.—Original. 


w Wax-Scales. w.w, Wax Scales. 


modified to form the ‘‘ wax-pockets ;’’ though wax- -plate would 
be a more appropriate name. These wax-plates (Fig. 73) are 
smooth, and form the anterior portion of each of these ventral 
plates. Each i is margined with arim of chitine, which gives . 
it strength, and makes ‘‘pocket’’a more appropriate name, | 


‘Fic. 73. 


wp Wezx-Platés, ae ch ioc ain Hairs. 
senectali a as the eecetny pee site: over ieee wax- 
plates. The posterior, portion—less, than half the. sternite , 


(Fig. 73)—bears.compound hairs, and shuts over the succeed- - 


156 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


ing wax-pocket. These wax-pockets are absent, of course, in 
queen and drones. 

Inside the wax-plates are the glands that secrete the wax. 
When the wax leaves these glands it is liquid, and passes by 
osmosis through the wax-plate and is molded on its outer face. 

The worker-bees possess at the end of the abdomen an 
organ of defense, which they are quick to use if occasion 
demands, Female wasps, the females of the family Mutillide, 
and worker and queen ants, also possess a sting. In all other 
Hymenoptera, like Chalcid and Ichneumon flies, gall-flies, saw- 
flies, horn-tails, etc., while there is no sting, the females 
have a long, exserted ovipositor, which, in these families, 
replaces the sting, and is useful, not as an organ of defense, 
but as an auger or saw, to prepare for egg-laying, or else, asin 
case of the gall-flies, to wound and poison the vegetable tissue, 
and thus by irritation to cause the galls. 

This organ in the worker-bee is straight, and not curved as 
is the sting of the queen. The poison whichis emitted in 
stinging, and which causes the severe pain, is bothan acid and 
an alkaline liquid, which Carlet shows are both necessary for 
maximum results. These are secreted by a double tubular 
gland (Fig. 38, Pg.) and stored in a sac (Fig. 74, c, and 38, Pd.) 
which is about the size of a flax-seed. This sac is connected 
by a tube (Fig. 74, 47) with the reservoir of the sting. The 
sting is a triple organ consisting of three sharp hollow spears, 
which are very smoothand of exquisite polish. If we magnify 
the most beautifully wrought steel instrument, it looks rough 
and unfinished; while the parts of the sting, however highly 
magnified, are smooth and perfect. The true relation of the 
three parts of the sting was accurately described by Mr. J. R. 
Bledsoe, in the American Bee Journal, Vol. VI, page 29. The 
action in stinging, and the method of extruding the poison, 
are well described in a beautifully illustrated article by Mr. J. 
D. Hyatt, in Vol. I, No. 1, of American Quarterly Microscopical 
Journal. The larger of the three awls (Fig. 74, 4) usually, 
though incorrectly, styled a sheath, has a large cylindrical 
reservoir at its base (Fig. 74, S), whichis entirely shut off from 
the hollow (Fig. 74, H) in the more slender part of the awl, 
which latter serves no purpose whatever, except to give 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 157 


strength and lightness. Three pairs of minute barbs (Fig. 74) 
project like the barbson a fish-hook, from the end of this awl. 

The reservoir connects at its base with the poison-sac and 
below, by a slit, with the opening (Fig. 74, VV) made by the 


Fic. 74. 
a \ 


Sting with Lancets drawn one side, cross-section of Sting, and a Lancet, 
much magnified.—Original. 


C Poison sac. M Tube from sac to S Reservoir. 
A Awl. reservoir. #,E Valves. 
U, U Barbs. B,B Lancets. H Hollow in awl. 
ZL, Z Hollows in lancets. 0,0 Openings from hollow 7,7 Ridges in awl. 
T’ Groove in lancet. in lancets. 


approximation of the three awls. The other two awls (Fig. 74, 
B, B), which we call lancets, are also hollow (Fig. 74, J, /). 
They are barbed (Fig. 74, U, VU) much like a fish-hook, except 


158 THE BEER-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


‘that there are eight or ten barbs instead of one. Five of the 
barbs are large and strong. ‘These barbs catch hold and cause 
_ the extraction of the sting when the organ is used. Near the 
base of each lancet is a beautiful valvular organ (Fig. 74, Z, £). 
Mr. Hyatt thought these acted like a hydraulicram, and by 
suddenly stopping the current forced the poison through the 
hollow lancets.' It seemis more probable that the view of Mr. 
T. G. Bryant (Hardwick’s Science Gossip, 1875) is the more 
correct one. He suggests that these are really suction-valves— 
pistons, so to speak—which, as the piston-rods—the lancets— 
push out, suck the poison from the sacs. Carlet shows that the 
poison-sac is not muscular, so the pumping is necessary. The 
hollow inside each lancet (Fig. 74, 7, Z), unlike that of the awl, 
is useful. It opens anteriorly in front of the first six barbs 
(Fig. 74, 0, 0), as shown by Mr. Hyatt, and posteriorly just 
back of the valves. into the central tube (Fig. 74, VV), and 
through it into the reservoir (Fig. 74, S). The poison then can 
pass either through the hollow lancets (Fig. 74, Z, 7) or through 

the central tubes (Fig. 74, VV), between the three spears. 

The lancets are held to the central piece by projections 
(Fig. 74, 7, 7) from the latter, which fit into corresponding 
grooves (Fig. 74, 7) of the lancets. In the figure the lancets 
are moved one side to show the barbs and valves; normally 
they are held close together, and thus form the tube (Fig. 
74, NV, Fig. 44, St.) 

At the base of the central awl two flexible arms (Fig. 75, 6,5) 
run out and up, where they articulate with strong levers (Fig. 75, 
D,D). The two lancets are singularly curved and closely 
joined to the flexible arms by the same kind of dovetailed 
groove and projection already described. These lancets con- 
nect at their ends (Fig. 75, c, c) with heavy triangular levers 
(Fig. 75, B, B), and these in turn with both Cand Dat/j ands. 
Allof these levers, which also serve as fulcra (Fig. 75, B, C 
and J), are very broad, and so give great space for muscular 
attachment (Fig. 75, m). These muscles, by action, serve to 
compress the poison-sac, also cause the lever (Fig. 75, 2) to 
rotate about S as a center, and thus the whole sting is thrown 
out something as a knee-joint works, and later the lancets are 
pushed alternately further into the wound, till stopped by the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. “159 


‘valves striking against the farther end of the reservoir, in the 
central awl (Fig. 74, S). As Hyatt correctly states in his 
excellent article, the so-called sheath first cuts or pierces, then 
the lancets deepen the wound. Beside the sting are two feeler- 
like organs (Fig. 75, A, Z), which doubtless determine where 
‘best to insert the sting, though usually there would seem little 
time for consideration. Ieuckart discovered a second smaller 
gland (Fig. 38, Sg,) mentioned also by Girard and Vogel, 
which also has a sac or reservoir where its secretion is stored. 
This secretion, as first suggested by Leuckart, is supposed to 
“act asa lubricant to keep the sting in good condition. The 
fact that muscles connect the various parts (Fig. 75) explains 


Fic. 75. 


Sting of Worker-Bee, modified from Hyatt and Bryant. 


how a sting may act, even after the bee is apparently lifeless, 
or, what is even more wonderful, after it has been extracted 
from the bee. Dr. Miller thinks a sting extracted months 
before may still act. The barbs hold one lancet as a fulcrum 
for the other, and so long as the muscles are excitable, so long 
‘isa thrust possible. Thus I have known a bee, dead for hours, 
to sting. A wasp, dead more than a day, with the abdomen 
‘ cut off, made a painful thrust, and stings extracted for several 


« 


160 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


minutes could still bring tears by their entering the flesh. In 
stinging, the awl first pierces, then the lancets follow. As the 
lancets push in, the valves force the poison already crowded 
into the reservoir forward, close the central tube, when the 
poison is driven through the lancets themselves, and comes 
out by the openings near the barbs (Fig. 74, 0, 0). The drop 
of poison which we see on the sting when the bee is slightly 
irritated, as by jarring the hive on acold day, is pushed 
through the central opening by muscular contraction attend- 
ant upon theelevation of the abdomen and extrusion of the 
sting. The young microscopists will find it difficult to see the 
barbs, especially of the central awl, as it is not easy to turn 
the parts so that they will show. Patience and persistence, 
however, will bring success. Owing to the barbs the sting is 
often sacrificed by use. As the sting is pulled out, the body is 
so lacerated that the bee dies. Sometimes it will live several 
hours, and even days, but the loss of the sting is surely fatal, 
as my students have often shown by careful experiment. It is 
hardly necessary to say that there is no truth in the statement 
that the sting is used to polish the comb; nor do I think there is 
any shadow of foundation for the statement that poison from 
the sting is dropped into the honey-cells to preserve the honey. 
The formic acid of honey doubtless comes from the honey- 
stomach. Each is an animal secretion. 

The workers hatch from impregnated eggs, which can 
only come from a queen that has met a drone, and are always 
laid in the small, horizontal cells (Fig. 78, c). It is true that 
workers are very rarely reared in drone-cells when the rim is 
constricted. Mr. Root found that larger cells of foundation 
were likewise narrowed. These eggs are in no wise different, 
so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the drone or 
queen cells. All are cylindrical and slightly curved (Fig. 39, 
a, 6), and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, and 
a little to one side of the center. The eggs will not hatch 
unless a little food is added. Is thisabsorbed, or does it soften 
the shell so as to make exit possible? Girard says that the 
egg on the first day stands oblique to the bottom of the cell, is 
more inclined the second day, and is horizontal the third day. 
As in other animals, the eggs from different queens vary per- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 161 


ceptibly in size. As already shown, these are voluntarily fer- 
tilized by the queen as she extrudes them, preparatory to 
fastening them in the cells. These eggs, though small—one- 
sixteenth of an inch long—may be easily seen by holding the 
comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With experi- 
ence they are detected almost at once, but I have often found 
it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very 
plainly visible to my experienced eye. 

The egg hatches in threedays. The larva (Fig. 39, d, e, /), 
incorrectly called grub, maggot—and even caterpillar, by Hun- 
ter—is white, footless, and lies coiled upin the cell till near 
maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, the chyle already described, 
though this seems to be given grudgingly, as the larva never 
seems to have more than it wishes toeat, so itis fed quite 
frequently by the mature workers. It would seem that the 
workers fear an excessive development, which, as we have 
seen, is most mischievous and ruinous, and work to prevent the 
same by a mean and meager diet. Not only do the worker- 
larve receive the chyle grudgingly, but just at the last, before 
the cellis sealed, a different diet is given. There are more 
albuminoids and fats, and less carbohydrates, asshown by Dr. 
de Planta. Itis probable that honey is also given them, and 
so Dufour was wholly right in urging that digested food was 
fed to the larve, for honey is digested nectar. This added 
honey is what probably changes the food. He was also correct 
in supposing the food of the larva to beasortof chyle. M. 
Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an element of 
this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do not 
leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained 
in the honey, etc.,can not be added. The time when bees 
seem to need water, and so repair to the rill and the pond, is 
during the heat of spring and summer, when they are the most 
busy. May this not be quaffed for the most part to slake their 
own thirst? If water is carried to the hivesit is doubtless 
given to the nurse-bees. They may need water when the 
weather is hot and brood-rearing at its very height. There is 
no reason to doubt that bees, like all other active animals, need 
water as they do salt, to aid the physiological processes. They 
cool by evaporation, and need water to promote the process, 


162 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


When they smother, is not the moisture about them in part 
the water of respiration rather than exclusive honey ? 

At first the larve lie at the bottom of the cells, in the 
cream-like ‘“‘ bee-milk.’? Tater they curl up, and, when fully 
grown, are straight (Fig. 39, /). They now turn head 
down and cast their skin and digestive canal, then turn with 
their heads towards the mouth of the cell (Fig. 39, /). Before 
this, however, the cell has been capped. 

In eight days (Root says nine or ten) from the laying of 
the egg, the worker-cell, like the queen-cell, is capped over by 
the worker-bees. This cap is composed of pollen and old wax, 
so itis darker, more porous, and more easily broken than the 
caps of the honey-cells; it is also more convex (Fig. 39, &). 
The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the food 
placed before it, spins its silken cocoon, so excessively thin 
that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the 
size of the cell. The silken part of the cocoon extends 
down from the cap but a short distance, but like moths and 
many other insects, the larval bee, just before it pupates, 
spreads a thin glue or varnish over the entire inner part of 
the cell. These cocoons, partly of silk and partly of glue, are 
well seen when we reduce combs to wax with the solar wax- 
extractor. These always remain inthe cells after the bees 
escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. 
Yet they aresothin that cells used even fora dozen years, 
seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. Indeed, I 
have good combs which have been in constant use nineteen 
years. As before stated, the larva sheds its skin, and at the 
last moults the alimentary canal or digestive tube with its con- 
tents as well. These, as stated by Vogel, are pushed to the 
bottom of the cell. In three days the insect assumes the pupa 
state (Fig. 39, g). In allinsects the spinning of the cocoon 
seems an exhaustive process, for so faras I have observed, 
and that is quite at length, this act is succeeded by a variable 
period of repose. By cutting open cells it is easy to determine 
just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing to the 
pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with allits 
appendages bound close about it, though the color is still 
whitish, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 163 


In twenty-one days, it may be twenty with the best condi- 
tions, the bees emerge from thecells, Every bee-keeper should 
hold in memory these dates: Three days for the egg, six for 
the larva, and twelve days after the larva is sealed over. Of 
course, there may be slight variations, as the temperature of 
the colony is not always just the same. 

The old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the 
advent of these was an occasion of joy and excitement among 
the bees. All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the 
bees are, as they push over and crowd by these new-comiers in 
the most heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. 
Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and 
honey the same day that they came forth from the cells. This 
idea is quickly disproved if we Italianize black bees. We 
know that for some days—usually about two weeks if the col- 
ony is in a normal condition, though if all the bees are very 
young it may be only one week—these young bees do not leave 
the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when bees even too 
young to fly will attempt to go with the crowd. However, the 
young bees do fly out for a sort of ‘‘ play spell”’ before they 
commence regularly to work in the field. They doubtless wish 
to try their wings. These young bees, like young drones and 
queens, are much lighter colored when they first leave the cell. 

The worker-bees never attaina greatage. Those reared 
in autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queen- 
less colonies, where little labor is performed, even longer; 
while those reared in spring will wear out in three months, 
and when most busy will often die in from thirty to forty-five 
days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there 
is a limit to the number which may existin a colony. Asa 
good queen willlay, when in her best estate, three thousand 
eggs daily, and as the workers live from one to three months, 
it might seem that forty thousand was too smalla figure for 
the number of workers. Without doubt a greater number is 
possible. That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember 
the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever attend 
the individuals of these populous communities. 

The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual 
labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which, as already 


164 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


stated, forms in small scales (Fig. 72, w) under the over-lap- 
ping rings under the abdomen. I have found these wax- 
scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Muller, the 
admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South 
America, the bees of the genus Melipona secrete the wax on 
the back. 

The young bees commence work ina day from the cells. 
They build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larve, queen 
and drones, and cap the cells. The older bees—for, as readily 
seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not usually go forth 
for the first two weeks—gather the honey, collect the pollen, 
or bee-bread as itis generally called, bring in the propolis or 
bee-glue, which is used to close openings and as a cement, 
supply the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all im- 
proper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is 
past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy 
inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances 
demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the con- 
ditions impel them to swarm. 

When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as 
housekeepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. 
The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean, 
at less than six days of age, even though there are no old bees 
to do this necessary part of bee-duties. An indirect function 
of all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the 
bees requires that the temperature inside the hive be main- 
tained at a rate considerably above freezing. In the chemical 
processes attendant upon nutrition, much heat is generated, 
which, as first shown by Newport, may be considerably aug- 
mented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced respiration. The 
bees, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have the power to 
ventilate their hives and reduce the temperature when the 
weather is hot. Thus they are able to moderate the heat of 
summer, and temper the cold of winter. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 165 


CHAPTER IIL 


SWARMING, OR THE NATURAL METHODS OF 
INCREASE. 


The natural method by which an increase of colonies 
among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has 
been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long 
period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as sound, 
yet even now it is a fertile field for investigation, and will 
repay any who may come with the true spirit of inquiry, for 
there is much concerning it which is involved in mystery. 
Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarm- 
ing spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other sea- 
sons? ‘These and other questions we are to apt to refer to 
erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no question but 
that they follow naturally upon certain conditions, perhaps 
intricate and obscure, which it is the province of the investi- 
gator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold the principles 
which govern these, as all other actions of the bees ? 

In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become 
very populous, the queen, as if conscious that a home could be 
overcrowded, and foreseeing such danger, commences to deposit 
drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps 
moved by like consideration, begin to construct, if they are not 
already in existence. , Drone-comb is almost sure of construc- 
tion at such times. In truth, if possible the workers will 
always build drone-comb. No sooner is the drone-brood well 
under way, than the large, awkward queen-cells are com- 
menced, often tothe number of ten or fifteen, though there 
may be not more than three or four. The Cyprian and Syrian 
bees often start from fifty to one hundred queen-cells. In 
these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and 
soon, often before the cells are even capped, and very rarely 


166 THER BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


before a cell is built—Mr. Doolittle says the first swarms of 
the season never leave until there are capped cells—if the bees 
are crowded, the hives unshaded, and the ventilation insuffi- 
cient, some bright day, usually about eleven o’clock, after an 
unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a large part 
of the worker-bees—being off duty for the day, and having 
previously loaded their honey-sacs—rush forth from the hive 
asif alarmed by the cry of fire. Crowded, unshaded and illy 
ventilated hives hasten swarming. Swarming rarely takes 
place except on bright, pleasant days, and is most common 
from eleven to two o’clock. The bees seem off duty for the 
day. They load their honey-stomachs, and amid a great com- 
motion inside the hive and out, they push forth with the 
queen, though she is never leader, and is frequently late in her 
exit. Dr. Miller once had a swarm from a colony from which 
he had taken a queen an hour before. Of course, the swarm 
returned to the hive. 

It is often asserted that bees do no gathering on the day 
they swarm, previous to leaving the hive. Thisis not true. 
Mr. Doolittle thinks they are just as active as on other days. 
The queen, however, is off duty for some time before the swarm 
leaves. She even lays scantily for two or three days prior to 
this event. This makes the queen lighter, and prepares her 
for her long, wearying flight. In her new home she does no 
laying for several hours. The assertion that bees always 
cluster on the outside preliminary to swarming, is not true. 
The crowded hive makes this common, though in a well-man- 
aged apiary it is very infrequent. The bees, once started on 
their quest for a new home, after many gyrations about the 
old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush (Fig. 76), limb, or 
fence, though in one case I knew the first swarm of bees to 
leave at once for parts unknown, without even waiting to 
cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to 
three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and 
leave for their new home, which they have probably already 
sought out, and fixed up. 

Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the 
hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one while 
the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right-line to 


Fic. 76. 


Hiving a Swarm.—From Department of Agriculture. 


168 THH BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would 
argue that a home is pre-empted, at least, before the cluster is 
dissolved. The fact that the cluster remains sometimes for 
hours—even over night—and at other times for a brief period, 
hardly more than fifteen minutes, would lead us to infer that 
the bees cluster while waiting for anew home to be found. 
Yet, why do bees sometimes alight after flying a long distance, 
as did a first swarm one season upon our College grounds? 
Was their journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest, 
or were they flying at random, not knowing whither they were 
going? This matter is no longer a matter of question. I now 
know of several cases where bees have been seen to clean out 
their new home the day previous to swarming. In each case 
the swarm came and took possession of the new home the day 
after the house-cleaning. ‘Thereason of clustering is no doubt 
to give the queen arest before her long flight. Her muscles 
of flight are all ‘‘soft,” as the horsemen wouldsay. She 
must find this a severe ordeal, even after the rest. 

If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, 
and rarely when she is among them, possibly because she finds 
she is unfit for the journey, they will, after having clustered, 
return to their old home. They may unite with another swarm, 
and enter another hive. Many writers speak of clustering as 
rare unless the queen is with the swarm. A large experience 
convinces me that the reverse is quite the case. 

The youngest bees will remain in the old hive, to which 
those bees which are abroad in quest of stores will return. 
Most of these, however, may be in time to joimthe emigrants. 

The presence of young bees on the ground immediately 
after a swarm has issued—those with flight too feeble to join 
the rovers—will often mark the previous home of the swarm. 
Mr. Doolittle confines a teacupful, or less, of the bees when he 
hives the swarm, and after the colonyis hived he throws the 
confined bees up in the air, when he says they will at once go 
to the hive from which the swarm issued. 

Soon, in seven days, often later if Italians—Mr. E. E. 
Hasty says in from six to seventeen days—the first queen will 
come forth from her cell, and in two or three days she will, or 
may, lead a new swarm forth; but before she does this, the 
peculiar note, known as the piping of the queen, may be heard. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 169 


This piping sounds like “ peep,” ‘‘peep,’’ is shrill and clear, 
and can be plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor 
would it be mistaken. This sound is Landois’ true voice, as it 
is made even in the cell, and also by a queen whose wings are 
cut off. Cheshire thinks this sound is made by friction of the 
segments, one upon the other, as the queen moves them. The 
newly hatched queen pipes in seven or eight hours after com- 
ing from the cell. She always pipes if a swarm isto issue, 
and if she pipes a second swarm will go unless weather or man 
interferes. The second swarm usually goes in from thirty-five 
to forty-five hours after the piping is heard. This piping of 
the liberated queen is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made 
by a queen still within the cell. The queen outside makes a 
longer note followed by several shorter ones; the enclosed 
queens repeat tones of equallength. This piping is best heard 
by placing the ear to the hive in the evening or early morning. 
If heard, we may surely'expect a swarm the next day but one 
following, unless the weather be too unpleasant. 

Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen 
was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was 
either enmity or fear. Never will an after-swarm leave, unless 
preceded by this peculiar note. Queens occasionally pipe at 
other times, even in acage. This is probably a note of alarm, 
as the attendant bees are always aroused by it. 

At successive periods of one or two days, though the third 
swarm usually goes two days after the second, one, two, or 
even three more swarms may issue from the old home. Mr. 
Langstroth knew five after-swarms to issue, and others have 
reported eight andten. Thecells are usually guarded by the 
workers in all such cases against the destruction of the queen. 
These last swarms, all after the first, will each be heralded by 
the piping of the queen. They will be less particular as to the 
time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave 
before sunrise, and even after sunset. The well-known api- 
arist, Mr. A. F. Moon, once knew a second swarm to issue by 
moonlight. They will, asa rule, cluster further from the hive. 
The after-swarms are accompanied by the queen, and in case 
swarming is delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens. 
I have counted five queens in a second swarm. Berlepsch and 


170 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Langstroth each saw eight queens issue with a swarm, while 
others report even more. Mr. Doolittle says the guards leave 
the cells when the queen goes out, and then other queens, 
which have been fed for days in the cells, rush out and go with 
the swarm. Hesays he had known twenty to go with third 
swarms. I have seen several young queens liberated in a 
colony. How does Mr. Doolittle explain that ? Mr. Root 
thinks that a plurality of queens only attends the last after- 
swarm, when the bees decide to swarm no more. These virgin 
queens fly very rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active 
and definite in its course than will first swarms, and are quite 
likely to cluster high up if tall trees are near by. When the 
swarming is delayed it is likely that the queens are often fed 
by the workers while yet imprisoned in the cells, The view is 
generally held that these queens are kept in the cells that the 
queen which has already come from the cell may not kill them. 

The cutting short of swarming preparations before the sec- 
ond, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no meansa 
rare occurrence. Thisis effected by the bees destroying the 
queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the 
drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the 
honey-yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as 
they are torn open from the side (Fig. 45, 2) and not cut back 
from the end. It is commonly observed that while a moderate 
yield of honey is very provocative of swarming, a heavy flow 
seems frequently to absorb the entire attention of the bees, 
and so destroy the swarming impulse entirely. 

Swarming-out at other times, especially in late winter and 
spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is doubtless 
due to famine, mice, ants, or some other disturbing circum- 
stance which makes the hive intolerable to the bees. In such 
cases the swarm is quite likely to join with some other colony 
of the apiary. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 171 


CHAPTER IV. 


PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND 
FUNCTION. 


Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the 
useful products which they give us, and, next to the silk-moths, 
in the importance of these products. They seem the more 
remarkable and important in that so few insects yield articles 
of commercial value. True, the cochineal insect, a species of 
bark-louse, gives us an important coloring material; the lac 
insect, of the same family, gives us the important element of 
our best glue—shellac; another scale insect forms the Chi- 
nese wax of commerce; the blister-beetles afford an article 
prized by the physician, while we are indebted to one of the 
gall-flies for a valuable element of ink; but the honey-bee 
affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another 
article of no méan commercial rank, namely, wax. We will 
proceed to examine the various products which come from bees. 


HONEY. 


Of course, the first product of bees, not only to attract 
attention, but also in importance, is honey. And what is 
honey? It is digested nectar, a sweet, neutral substance 
gathered from the flowers. This nectar contains much water, 
though the amount is very variable, a mixture of several kinds 
of sugar and a small amount of nitrogenous matter in the 
form of pollen. Nectar is peculiar in the large amount of 
sucrose or cane-sugar which itcontains. Often there is nearly 
or quite as much of this as of allthe other sugars. We can 
not, therefore, give the composition of honey. It willbe as 
various as the flowers from which it is gathered. Again, the 
thoroughness of the digestion will affect the composition of 
honey. This digestion is doubtless accomplished through the 
aid of the saliva—that from the racemose glands of the head 
and thorax (Fig. 59, /hg, lg, and Fig. 60). 


172 THE BEE-KEBPER’S GUIDE} 


The composition of honey is of course very varied. Thus 
analyses give water all the way from 15 to 30 percent. The 
first would be fully ripe, the last hardly the product we should 
like to market. 

The reducing sugars—so called because they can reduce the 
sulphate of copper when made strongly alkaline by the addition 
of caustic potash or soda—include all vegetable sugars but 
sucrose of cane-sugar; and consist mainly of dextrose, which 
turns the ray of polarization to the right, and levulose, which 
turns the ray to the left. Dextrose and levulose are both pro- 
ducts of various fruits, as wellas honey. Dextrose and levu- 
lose are also called invert sugars ; because, when cane-sugar is 
heated with a mineral acid, like hydrochloric acid, it changes 
from cane-sugar, which revolves the polarized ray to the right, 
to dextrose and levulose; but the latter is most effective, so 
now the ray turns to the left, hence the terms inversion, or 
invert sugar. Glucose isa term which refers to both dextrose 
and levulose, and is synonymous with grape-sugar. 

The amount of reducing sugars varies largely, as shown 
by numerous analyses, usually from 65 to 75 percent ; though 
a few analyses of what it would seem must have been pure 
honeys, have shown less than 60 percent. Butin such cases 
there was an excess of cane-sugar. It seems not improbable 
that in such cases honey was gathered very rapidly, and the 
bees not having far to fly did not fully digest the cane-sugar 
of the nectar. Dr. J. Campbell Brown, in a paper before the 
British Association, gave as an average of several analyses 
73 percent of invert or reducing sugars ; 36 and 45-100 percent 
was levulose, and 36 and 57-100 percent was dextrose. Almost 
always pure honey gives a left rotation of from two to twelve 
degrees. This wide variation is suggestive. Does it not show 
that very likely the honey from certain flowers, though pure 
honey, may give a right-handed rotation with a large angle 
because of a large amount of dextrose and little levulose? It 
occurs to me that these two uncertain factors, incomplete 
digestion and the possible variation in nectar, make determi- 
nation by the analyst either by use of the polariscope or chemi- 
cal reagents a matter of doubt. I speak with more confidence, 
as our National Chemist pronounced several specimens of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 173 


what I feel sure were pure honey, to be probably adulterated. 
I think that now he has perfected his methods so that such 
mistakes would rarely occur. 

While nearly or quite half of the nectar of flowers is cane- 
sugar, there is very little of such sugar in honey. While from 
one to three percent is most common it not infrequently runs 
to five or six percent, and occasionally to twelve or sixteen per- 
cent. Quite likely in this last case, imperfect digestion was 
the cause. The nectar was not long enough in the stomach to 
be changed ; or else for some reason there was too little of the 
digestive ferment present. Of course, twelve to fifteen percent 
of sucrose would almost surely rotate the plane to the right. 
There is a very interesting field for study here. What flowers 
yield nectar so rich in cane-sugar that even the honey is rich 
in the same element? Honey often contains, we are told, as 
much as four percent of dextrine. This, of course, tends to 
make it rotate the ray to the right, and further complicates 
the matter. Again, it is easy to see that in case flowers 
secrete nectar in large quantities the bees would load quickly, 
and so proportionately less saliva would be mixed with it, and 
digestion would be less thorough. 

We see now why drones and queens need salivary glands 
to yield the ferment to digest honey. Often the worker-bees 
do not thoroughly digest it. We see, too, why honey is such 
an excellent food. We have todigest all our cane-sugar. The 
honey we eat has been largely digested for us. 

Albuminoids—evidently from the pollen—vary from five 
to seventy-five hundredths of one percent. These vary largely 
according to the flowers. It is quite likely that in case of 
bloom like basswood where the honey comes very rapidly— 
fifteen pounds per day sometimes for each colony—the stomach- 
mouth can not remove all the pollen. Here is an opportunity 
for close observation. If we know we have honey that was 
gathered very rapidly, we should have a test made for albumi- 
nots material to see if its quantity increases with the rapidity 
with which the honey is gathered. While there may be quite 
an amount of this pollen in honey, usually there will be but 
little. 

Besides the above substances, there is a little mineral mat- 


174 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


ter—fifteen hundredths of one percent—which I suppose to be 
mainly malate of lime; a little of the essential oils which pos- 
sibly give the characteristic flavor of the different kinds of 
honey, and more or less coloring matter, more in buckwheat 
honey, less in basswood. There is also a little acid—formic 
acid—which probabiy aids to digest the nectar, and possibly 
with the saliva, may, like the acid gastric juice of our own 
stomachs, resist putrefaction, or any kind of fermentation. It 
has been urged that this is added to the honey by the bees 
dropping poison from the sting. I muchdoubt thistheory. It 
is more reasonable, however, than the absurd view that the 
bee uses its sting to polish its cells. If the poison-glands can 
secrete formic acid, why can not the glands of the stomach ? 
Analogy, no less than common sense, favors this view. The 
acid of honey is often recognizable to the taste, as every lover 
of honey knows. The acid isalso shown by use of blue litmus. 
The specific gravity varies greatly of course, as we should 
expect from the great variation in the amount of water. I 
have found very thick honey to have a specific gravity of 1.40 
to150. The fact that honey is digested nectar or sucrose, 
shows that in eating honey our food is partially digested for 
us, the cane-sugar is changed to a sugar that can be readily 
absorbed and assimilated. 

I have fed bees pure cane-sugar, and, when stored, the 
late Prof. R. F. Kedzie found that nearly all of this sugar was 
transformed in much the same way that the nectar is changed 
which is taken from the flowers. 

It is probable that the large compound racemose glands 
in the head and thorax of the bees (Fig. 59, dhg, lg, and Fig. 
61) secrete an abundant ferment which hastens these transfor- 
mations which the sugars undergo while in the honey-stomach 
of the bee. I once fed several pounds of cane-sugar syrup at 
night to the bees. I extracted some of this the next morning, 
and more after it was capped. Bothsamples were analyzed by 
three able chemists—Profs. Kedzie, Scovell, and Wiley—and 
the sample from the capped honey was found to be much bet- 
ter digested. This shows that the digestion continues in the 
comb. Much of the water escapes after the honey is stored. 

The method of collecting honey has already been described, 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 175 


The principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the 
operation. ‘ 

When the stomach is full the bee repairs to the hive and 
regurgitates its precious load, either giving it to the bees or 
storing itin the cells. This honey remains for some time 
uncapped that it may ripen, in which process the water is 
partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. If the 
honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will 
generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70 
degrees. Like many other substances, most honey, if heated 
and sealed while hot, will not crystallize till it is unsealed. In 
case of granulation the sucrose and glucose crystallize in the 
mellose. Some honey, as that from the South, and some from 
California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds 
of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others, 
Ihave frequently observed that thick, ripe honey granulates 
more slowly than thin honey. The only sure (?) test of the 
purity of honey, if there be any, is that of the polariscope. 
This, even if decisive, is not practical except in the hands of 
the scientist. The most practical test is that of granulation, 
though this is not wholly reliable. Granulated honey is almost 
certainly pure. Occasionally genuine honey, and of superior 
excellence, refuses, even in a zero atmosphere, to crystallize. 

When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no 
sweets, the bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently 
essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider- 
mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark 
lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually 
delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the queen 
never lays her maximum number of eggs except when storing 
is going on. In fact, in the interims of honey-gathering, egg- 
laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen seems 
discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable means 
of support. Oritis quite possible that the workers control 
affairs by withholding the chyle, and thus the queen stops per- 
force. Syrian bees are much more likely to continue brood- 
rearing when no honey is being collected than are either Ger- 
man or Italian bees. 

Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey the stor- 


176 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


ing is very rapid, and the hive becomes so filled that the queen 
is unable to lay her full quota of eggs; in fact, I have seen the 
brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly 
depletes the colony. This might be called ruinous prosperity. 
The natural use of the honey is to furnish, in part, the 
drones and imago worker-bees with food, and also to supply, 
in part at least, the queen, especially when she is not laying. 


WAX. 


The product of the bees second in importance is wax. The 
older scientists thought this was a product formed from pollen. 
Girard says it was discovered by a peasant of Lusace. Lang- 
stroth states that Herman C. Hornbostel discovered the true 
source of wax in 1745. Thorley in 1774, and Wildman in 1778, 
understood the true source of wax. This is a solid, unctuous 
substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a fat- 
like material, though not, as some authors assert, the fat of 
bees. This is lighter than water, as its specific gravity is .965. 
The melting point is never less than 144 degrees F. Thus, it 
is easy to detect adulteration, as mineral wax, both paraffine 
and ceresin, have a less specific gravity. Paraffine also hasa 
much lower melting point. It is impossible to adulterate wax 
with these mineral products for use as foundation. They so 
destroy the ductility and tenacity that the combs are almost 
sure to break down. Ceresin might be used, but it is distaste- 
ful to the bees, and foundation made from wax in which 
ceresin is mixed would have no value. Only pure beeswax is 
used in manufacturing foundation in the United States. I 
have this on the authority of Mr. A. I. Root, whose dictum in 
such matters is conclusive. 

As already observed, wax is a secretion from the glands 
just within the wax-plates, and is formed in scales, the shape 
of an irregular pentagon (Fig. 72, w) underneath the abdomen. 
These scales are light-colored, very thin and fragile, and are 
secreted by the wax-gland as a liquid, which passes through 
the wax-plate by osmosis, and solidifies as thin wax-scales on 
the outside of the plates opposite the glands. Neighbour 
speaks of wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This 
is not the case, but, like the synovial fluid about our own 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 177 


joints, itis formed by the secreting membrane, and does not 
pass through holes, as water througha sieve. There are, as 
already stated, four of these wax-pockets on each side (Fig. 72), 
and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee ata time.. 
This wax can be secreted by the bees when fed on pure sugar, 
as shown by Huber, whose experiment I have verified. I 
removed all honey and comb froma strong colony, left the 
bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be 
in their stomachs, and then fed pure sugar, which was better 
than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that 
not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected 
right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The 
bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for sev- 
eral days, so long as I kept them confined. This is as we 
should suppose; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in pro- 
portion to form water, while the third element, carbon, is in 
the same, or about the same, proportion as the oxygen. Now, 
the fats usually contain little oxygen and a good deal of car- 
bon and hydrogen. Thus the sugar, by losing some of its 
oxygen, would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was 
found true in the days of slavery in the South that the negroes 
of Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become 
very fat. They ate much sugar; they gained much fat. Now, 
wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of 
bees, as often asserted—in fact, it contains much less hydro- 
gen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess: 
Oxygen .. 


Carbon... 
Hydrogen 


—but itis a special secretion for a special purpose, and from 
its composition we should conclude that it might be secreted 
from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the 
conclusion. Dr. Planta has found that there is a trace of 
nitrogen in wax-scales, a little less than .6 of one percent, 
while he finds in newly made comb, nearly .9 of one percent. 
It has been found that bees require about twenty pounds of 
honey to secrete one of wax. The experiments of Mr. P. L. 
Viallon show this estimate of Huber to betoo great. Berlepsch 
says sixteen to nineteen pounds when fed on sugar without 


178 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


pollen, and ten pounds when fed both. My own experiments 
would sustain Huber’s statement. In these experiments the 
bees are confined, and so the conclusions are to be received 
with caution. We can not know how much the results are 
changed by the abnormal condition in which the bees are 
placed. 

For a time nitrogenous food is not necessary to the secre- 
tion of wax. Probably the small amount of nitrogen in the 
scales and in the saliva may be furnished by the blood. This, 
of course, could not continue long; indeed, the general nutri- 
tion would be interfered with, and ill health can never do 
maximum work. 

It is asserted that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in 
compact clusters or festoons in absolute repose. Such quiet 
would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The 
food could not go to form wax, and at the same time supply 
the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular activity. 
The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much milk. ButI 
find, upon examination, that the bees, even the oldest ones, 
while gathering in the honey season, yield up the wax-scales 
the same as those within the hive. During the active storing 
of the past season, especially when comb-building was in 
rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the 
flowers contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax- 
pockets. By the activity of the bees, these are not infre- 
quently loosened from their position and fall to the bottom of 
the hive, sometimes in astonishing quantities. This explains 
why wax is often mentioned as an elementof honey. Its pres- 
ence, however, in honey is wholly accidental. I1 is probable 
that wax-secretion is not forced upon the bees, but only takes 
place as required. So the bees, tnless wax-is demanded, may 
perform other duties. When we fill the sections and brood- 
chamber wholly with foundation, it is often difficult to find 
any bees bearing wax-scales. In such cases I have often 
looked long, but in vain, to find such scales zz sttu to show to 
my students. A uewly-hived colony, with no combs or foun- 
dation, will show these wax-scales on nearly every bee. 
Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee’s will, or whether 
it is excited by the surrounding conditions without any 


* 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 179 


thought, are questions yet to be settled. No comb necessitates 
quiet. With us and all other higher animals, quiet and heavy 
food-taking favors fat deposits. May not the same in bees 
conduce to wax-production ? 

‘These wax-scales are loosened by the wax-jaws of the pos- 
terior legs, carried to their anterior claws, which in turn bear 
them to the mouth, where they are mixed with saliva probably 
from Wolff’s glands (Fig. 60), or mixed saliva. 

After the proper kneading by the jaws, these wax-scales are 
fashioned into that wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb. 
In this transformation to comb, the wax may become colored. 
This isdue toaslight admixture of pollen or old wax. Itis 
almost sure to be colored if the new comb is formed adjacent 
to old, dark-colored comb. In such cases chippings from the 
old soiled comb are used. 

Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the base of a new cell 
being, according to Prof. C. P. Gillette, in worker-comb, be- 
tween .0032 and .0064 of an inch, and the drone between .0048 
and .008. The walls are even thinner, varying, he says, from 
.0018 to .0028 of an inch. The cells are so formed as to com- 
bine the greatest strength and maximum capacity with the 
least expense of material. It need hardly be said that queen- 
cells are much thicker, and contain, as before stated, much 
that is not wax. In the arch-like pits in queen-cells, we 
farther ste how strength is conserved and material economized. 

Honey-comb has been an object of admiration since the 
earliest time. Some claim that the form is a matter of neces- 
sity—the result of pressure or reciprocal resistance and not of 
bee-skill. The fact that the hexagonal form is sometimes 
assumed just as the cell is started, when pressure or resistance 
could not aid, has led me to doubt this view; especially as 
wasps form their paper nests of soft pulp, and the hexagonal 
cells extend to the edge; where no pressure or resistance could 
affect the form of the cells. Yet I am notcertain that the 
mutual resistance of the cells, as they are fashioned from the 
soft wax, may not determine the form. Mullenhoff seems to 
have proved that mutual resistance of the cells causes the 
hexagonal form. ‘The bees certainly carve out the triangular 
pyramid at the base. They would need to be no better geome- 


180 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


tricians to form the hexagonal cells. The assertion that the 
cells of honey-comb are absolutely uniform and perfect is 
untrue, as a little inspection will convince any one. The late 
Prof. J. Wyman demonstrated that an exact hexagonal cell 
does not exist. He alsoshowed that the size varies, so that in 
a distance of ten worker-cells there may bea variation of one 
cell in diameter, and this in natural, not distorted, cells. Any 
one who doubts can easily prove, by a little careful examina- 
tion, that Prof. Wyman was correct. This variation of one- 
fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but variation of one- 


Fic 77. 


2 


Irregular Cells, (modified) from Cowan, 


tenth of an inchis common. The sides,as also the angles, 
are notconstant. The rhombic faces forming the bases of the 
cells alsovary. The idea which has come down from the past 
that mathematics and measurement exactly agreed upon the 
angles of the rhombs, that the two opposite obtuse angles were 
each 109° 28’ 16’’ and the acute 70° 31’ and 44” is without foun- 
dation in fact. Mr. Cowan figures (Fig. 77) triangular, quad- 
rangular, and even cells with seven sides. Of course, such 
deformity is very rare, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 181 


The bees change from worker (Fig. 78, c) to drone cells 
(Fig. 78, a), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not by 
any system (Fig. 78, 6), but simply by enlarging or contract- 
ing. It usually takes about four rows to complete the transfor- 


Fic. 78. 


Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases 
and cross-sections of cells, 
—Tilustrated. 


Foney-Comb.— Original, after Duncan. 


a Drone-cells. ce Worker-cells. 
b Deformed cells. dd Queen-cells. 


mation, though the number of deformed cells varies from two, 
very rarely one, to eight. The perfect drone-cells may be, 
often are, contiguous to perfect worker-cells, the irregular cells 
being used to fill out the necessary irregularities. An English 


182 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


writer criticises Langstroth’s representation of these irregular 
cells, and adds that the angles can never be less than 100 
degrees. This is far from the truth, as I have found many 
cells where an angle was considerably less than this. Mr. 
Cowan, in his excellent ‘‘ Honey-Bee,”’ describes and figures 
cells where the angle is even acute. 

The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of 
interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 78, ¢), whose 
three faces are rhombs (Mr. Cowan has found and photo- 
graphed cells with four faces), and whose apex forms the very 
center of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non- 
adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or 
faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a 
point where the contiguous faces of the threecells on the 
opposite side meet, and form the angles of the bases of three 
cells on the opposite side of the comb. ‘Thus the base of each 
cell forms one-third of the base of three opposite cells. One 
side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of 
the comb. Each cell, then, is in the form of a hexagonal 
prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid. 

The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry 
forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly 
adding to the number, by additions to the edge. ‘The bees, in 
constructing comb, make the base or so-called mid-rib, the 
“fish-bone ’’ in honey where foundation is used, thick at first, 
and thin this as they add to the cells in lengthening them. 
Prof. C. P. Gillette demonstrated this by coloring foundation 
black. Thecolor reached nearly tothe end of the cell, and 
extended an inch below the foundation. Thus we understand 
why bees take so kindly to foundation. To work this out is 
not contrary to their instincts, and gives them a lift. Huber 
first observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees 
abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the 
frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons 
which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the 
comb already commenced. 

The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 78, c) averages little 
more than one-fifth of an inch—Reaumur says two and three- 
fifths lines, or twelfths of an inch—while the drone-cells (Fig. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 183 


78, a) area little more than one-fourth of an inch, or, according 
to Reaumur, three and one-third lines. But this distinguished 
author was quite wrong when he said: ‘‘ These are the in- 
variable dimensions of allcells that ever were or ever will be 
made.’’ A recent English author, after stating the diameter 
of cells, adds: ‘The statement many times made that 
twenty-five and sixteen of these, respectively, cover a square 
inch, is erroneous, as they are not square.’’ He says there are 
28 13-15 and 18 178-375, I find the worker-cells per square 
inch vary from 25 to 29, and the drone-cells from 16 to 19 per 
squareinch. The drone-cells, I think, vary more in size than 
do the worker-cells. The depth of the worker-cells is a little 
less than half an inch; the drone-cells are slightly extended, 
so as to be a little more than half an inch deep. Thus worker- 
comb is seven-eighths and drone-comb one and one-fourth 
inches thick. This depth, even of brood-cells, varies, so we 
can not give exact figures. Thecells are often drawn out so 
as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles. 
Such cells are often very irregular at the end, and sometimes 
two are joined. The number of cells in a pound of comb will 
vary much, of course, as the thickness of the comb is not uni- 
form. ‘This number will vary from thirty to fifty thousand. 
In capping the honey the bees commence at the outside of 
each cell and finish at the center. The capping of the brood- 
cells is white and convex. The capping of honey-cells is 
made thicker by black bees than by the other races, and so 
their comb honey is more beautiful. Another reason for the 
whiter color comes from a small air-chamber just beneath the 
capping. The inner surface of the capping is, therefore, 
usually free from honey. This chamberis usually a little 
larger in the honey-comb of black bees. The cappings are 
strengthened by tiny braces of wax, which, as we should 
expect, are most pronounced in drone-comb. 

The strength of comb is something marvelous. I have 
known a frame of comb honey eleven inches square to weigh 
eleven pounds, and yet to be unsupported at the bottom, and 
for not more than one-third of the distance from the top on the 
sides, and yet it held securely. The dangerin cold weather, 
from breaking, is greater,as then the comb is very brittle. 


184 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Prof. Gillette has found that comb one inch thick will weigh 
only from one-twentieth to one twenty-fifth the weight of the 
honey which it may hold. 

The character of the cells, as to size, that is, whether they 
are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative 
abundance of bees and honey. If the bees are abundant and 
honey needed, or if there is no queen to lay eggs, drone-comb 
(Fig. 78, a) is invariably built, while if there are few bees, and 
of course little honey needed, then worker-comb (Fig. 78, c) is 


Fic. 79. 


—s 


Honey-Comb Coral,—Original. 


almost invariably formed. It is also a curious fact that if the 
queen keeps along with the comb-builders in the brood-cham- 
ber, then no drone-comb is built; but let her fail to keep cells 
occupied, and drone-comb is at once formed. It would seem 
that the workers reasoned thus: We are going to have comb 
for storing, for such we better fashion the large celled or 
drone-comb. 

All comb, when first formed, is clear and translucent. The 
fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been 
long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innu- 
merable thin glue-like cocoons which line the cells. This may 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 185 


be separated by dissolving the wax; which may be done by 
putting it in boiling alcohol, or, better still, by use of the solar 
wax-extractor. Such comb need not be discarded, for if com- 
posed of worker-cells it is still very valuable for breeding pur- 
poses, and should not be destroyed till the cells are too small 
for long service, which will not occur till after many years of 
use. The function, then, of the wax, is to make comb and 


Fic. 80. 


Honey-Comb Coral,—Original. 


caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form 
queen-cells (Fig. 78, d) and caps for the brood-cells. 

A very common fossil found in many parts of the Eastern 
and Northern United States is, from its appearance, often 
called petrified honey-comb. We have many such specimens 
in our museum. In some cases the cells are hardly larger 
than a pin-head; in others a quarter of an inch in diameter. 
These (Figs. 79, 80) are not fossil honey-comb as many are led 
to believe, though the resemblance is so striking that no won- 


186 HE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


der the public generally are deceived. These specimens are 
fossil coral, which the paleontologist places in the genus 
Favosites; favosus being a common species in the Northern 
United States. They are very abundant in the lime rock in 
northern Michigan, and are very properly denominated honey- 
comb coral. The animals of which these were once the skele- 
tons, so to speak, are not insects at all, though often called so 
by men of considerable information. 

The species of the genus Favosites first appeared in the 
Upper Silurian rocks, culminated in the Devonian, and dis- 
appeared in the early Carboniferous. No insects appeared till 
the Devonian age, and no Hymenoptera—bees, wasps, etc.— 
till after the Carboniferous. So the old-time Favositid reared 
its limestone columns and helped to build islands and conti- 
nents untold ages—millions upon millions of years—before any 
flower bloomed, or any bee sipped the precious nectar. In 
some specimens of this honey-comb coral (Fig. 80) there are to 
be seen banks of cells, much resembiing the paper-nests of 
some of our wasps. This might be called wasp-comb coral, 
except that both styles were wrought by the self-same animals. 


POLLEN OR BEE-BREAD. 


An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees 
tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fan- 
ciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen-balls on 
the bees’ legs. 

Even such scientists as Reaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, 
and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in 
these pollen-balls the sourceof wax. But Huber, John Hunter, 
Duchet, Wildman, and others already referred to, noticed the 
presence and function of the wax-scales already described, and 
were aware that the pollen served a different purpose. 

This substance, like nectar, is not secreted nor manufac- 
tured by the bees, only collected. The pollen-grains form the 
male element in plants. They are in plants what the sperma- 
tozoa or sperm-cells are in animals; and as the sperm-cells are 
much more numerous than theeggs or germ-cells, so pollen- 
grains are far more numerous in plants than are the ovules or 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 187 


seeds. In Chinese wistaria, Wistaria sinensis, there are, says 
Goodale, about 7,000 pollen-grains to each ovule. The color of 
pollen is usually yellow; but we often find it orange, reddish, 
nearly white, andin several Giliasin California it is bright 
blue. Pollen-grains are really single cells, and have two 
coats ; the outer is the extine, which may be smooth, variously 
sculptured, or even thickly set with spines (Fig. 81). These 
spines, as also the color, often enable us to tell the species of 
plant from which the pollen came. Usually the extine is per- 


Fic. 81. 


Pollen-Grains, from A. I. Root Co, 


forated, though the inner wall—intine—is not. These perfora- 
tions are also definite in number within the species. These 
holes give opportunity for the pollen-tubes (Fig. 252, 7) to push 
out after the pollen-grain reaches the stigma of the flower. 
Where there are no perforations of the extine, the wall breaks. 
In some cases like orchids, pollen-grains are held together by 
an adhesive substance. In our milkweeds we notice a similar 
grouping of pollen-grains (Fig. 227) which often are very dis- 
turbing to bees and other insects. 

The composition of pollen, says Goodale, is protoplasmic 


188 THE BER-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


matter, granular food materials, such as starch and oil and 
dissolved food matters, sugar and dextrine. 

Dr. A. de Planta gives the following analysis of pollen of 
the hazel (B. B. Journal, Vol. XIV, p. 269). He finds proto- 
plasm, oils and starch—the important food elements. 


Before drying he found : 


After drying thoroughly he found: 


Nitrogenous Matter 
Non-nitrogenous............... 
BESTA ‘stra hd eleris catevonis neal ea Glovalen wh ialncbusttnd ayaa ee NS face 


He found no reducing sugar, but did find 14.70 percent of 
cane-sugar. . 

As will be seen, pollen, like our grains, is rich in the 
albuminoids. Like our grains, or even different specimens of 
the same grain, the composition of pollen will doubtless vary 
to quite an extent. As we note that pollen contains besides an 
ash, albuminoids, sugar, starch, and oils, we understand its 
excellence as a food; it contains within itself all the impor- 
tant food elements. The bees usually obtain it from the 
stamens of flowers; but if they gain access to flour when there 
is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case 
the former term used above becomes a misnomer, though 
usually the bee-bread consists wholly of pollen. I have also 
known bees to gather extensively for bee-bread from the com- 
mon raspberry rust. Very likely the spores of others of these 
fungi or low vegetables help to supply this nutritious sub- 
stance. Occasionally there is a drouth of bee-bread alike in 
hive and flowers, then bees will seek this kind of food in meal 
or flour box or bin. Hence, the wisdom of feeding rye-flour 
which the bees will readily take if it is needed. Flour may be 
added to candy and fed to bees. 

As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen- 
baskets (Fig. 70) of the posterior legs, to which it is conveyed 
by the other legs, as already described, page 154, and com- 
pressed into little oval masses. The motions in this convey- 
ance are exceedingly rapid, and are largely performed while 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 189 


the bee ison the wing. The bees not infrequently come to 
the hives not only with replete pollen-baskets, but with their 
whole under-surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also 
show that the same bee may have her sucking stomach dis- 
tended with honey, though this is rare. Thus the bees make 
the most of their opportunities. Itisa curious fact, noticed 
even by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, almost 
always gather only a single kind of pollen, or gather only 
from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may, 
have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on any 
single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is possible 
that the material is more easily collected and compacted when 
homogeneous. It seems more probable that they prefer the 
pollen of certain plants, and work on such species so long as 
they yield the desired food, though it may be a.matter of sim- 
ple convenience. From this fact we see why bees cause no 
intercrossing of species of plants; they only intermix the 
pollen of different plants of the same species. 

The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker 
cells, and is unloaded bya scraping motion of the posterior 
legs, the pollen-baskets being first lowered into the cells. The 
bee thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses to be packed by 
other bees, which is packed by pushing with the head. The 
cells, which may or may not have the samecolor of pollen 
throughout, are never filled quite to the top, and not infre- 
quently the same cell may contain both pollen and honey. 
Such a condition is easily ascertained by holding the comb 
between the eye andthe sun. Ifthereis no pollen it will be 
wholly translucent ; otherwise there will be opaque patches. 
A little experience will make this determination easy, even if 
the comb is old. Combs in small sections, especially if sep- 
arators are used, are not likely to receive pollen or be used for 
breeding. It is often stated that’ queenless colonies gather no 
pollen, but itis not true, though they gather less than they 
otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when 
honey is added, contains all the essential elements of animal 
food. It certainly contains the very important principle 
which is not found in pure nectar or honey—nitrogenous 
material. I do not think the bee-moth larva will destroy 


190 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


combs that are entirely destitute of pollen, surely not unless 
they have been long used as brood-combs. The intruder must 
have proteid food. 

The function of bee-bread is to furnish albuminous food 
to all the bees, adults no less than larve. As already stated, 
brood-rearing is impossible without it. And though it is cer- 
fainly not essential to the nourishment of the adult bees when 
in repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of 
activelabor. This point is clearly proved from the fact that 
pollen-husks are almost always found in the intestines of bees. 
We may say it feeds the tissues of the imago bees, andis 
necessary that the workers may form the food for the queen, 
drones and larve. Schonfeld thinks the bees must have it in 
winter, and in case no bee-bread is in the combs, he thinks the 
bees scrape it from the cells and old combs. I believe bees 
often winter better when there is no pollen in the hive. 


PROPOLIS OR BEHE-GLUE. 


This substance, also called bee-glue, is collected as the 
bees collect pollen, and is not made or secreted. It is the pro- 
duct of various resinous buds,and may be seen to glisten on 
the opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it 
frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects. 
From such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees, 
from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused 
hives that have previously seen service, do the bees secure 
their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to 
collect the gluefrom the varnish, led to the custom of rap- 
ping on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in the 
family, that they might join as mourners. This custom still 
prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South. Propolis 
has great adhesive force, and though soft and pliable when 
warm becomes very hard and unyielding when cold. 

The use of bee-glue is to cement the combs to their sup- 
ports, to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up all 
crevices except the place of exit, which the bees often contract 
by aidof propolis, and even to cover any foreign substance 
that can not be removed. Intruding snails have thus been 
imprisoned inside the hive. Reaumur found a snail thus in- 
cased ; Maraldi a slug similarly entombed; while I have myself 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 191 


observed a Bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of 
wings, hair, etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also en- 
cased in this unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by 
the bees. Alcohol, benzine, gasoline, ether, and chloroform are 
all ready solvents of bee-glue, and will quickly remove it from 
the hands, clothing, etc. Boiling in water with concentrated 
lye will remove propolis completely. Even steam and hot 
water used as a spray have been found to do the same. 


PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
For very full lists of books, etc., see Packard’s Text-Book 
of Entomology. 


Alley, Henry—Thirty Years Among the Bees, 1880, and Queen- 
Rearing, 1883. 

Adair, D. L.—Anunals of Bee-Keeping, 1872. 

Amans, Dr.—Essai sur le vol des Insectes, 1883, 

Ballantine, Rey Wm.—Bee-Culture, 1884. 

‘‘ Bee-Master,’’—The Times Bee-Keeping, 1864. 

Benton, Frank—The Honey-Bee, 1899. 

Berger, E.—Untersuchungen uber den Bau des Gehirnes und 
der Retina der Arthropoden, 1873. 

Berlepsch, A. Baron von—Die Biene und ihre Zucht, 1873. 

Bevan, Dr. E.—The Honey-Bee, 1838. 

Blanchard, E.—Recherches anatomique sur le systeme nerveux 
les Insectes, 1846. 

De la circulation dans les Insectes, 1848. 

Du grand sympathique chez les Animaux articules, 1858. 

Bonnet, C.—Ciuvres d’histoire naturelle, 1779-1783. 

Bonnier, G.—Les Nectaires, 1879. 

Bordas, I,.—Glandes salivaries des Apides, Apis mellifica, 
(Comptes rendus Acad. Sci. Paris,) 1894. Appareil glandu- 
laire des Hymenopteres (Ann. Soc Nat. Zool. Paris,) 1894. 

Brandt, E.—Comparative Anatomy of the Nerve System of 
Insects (in Russian,) 1878. 

Briant, T. J.—Notes on the Antenne of the Honey-Bee (Jour. 
Linn. Soc.,) 1883. 

On the Anatomy and Functions of the Tongue of the 

Honey-Bee (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1884. 

Antenne of Honey-Bee (Jour. Linn. Soc.,) 1885, 

British Bee Journal—1873 to 1889. Present Editor, T. W. 
Cowan, F.L.S., etc. ' 

Brougham, Lord H.—Observations, Demonstrations, and Ex- 
periments upon the Structure of the Cells of Bees (Natural 
Theology,) 1856. 

Buchner, L.—Mind in Animals, 1880. 

Burmeister, H.—Handbuch der Entomologie, 1832, 


’ 


192 THER BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Butschli, O.—Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Biene, 1870. 

Cameron, P.—On Parthenogenesis in the Hymenoptera (Trans. 
Nat. Hist. Soc. of Glasgow,) 1888. 

Chambers, V. T.—On the Tongue of some Hymenoptera (Jor. 
Nat. Hist. Soc. Cincin.,) 1874. 

Cheshire—Bees and Bee-Keeping, two volumes, 1886. 

Claparede, E.—Morphologie des zusammengesetzten Anges 
bei den Arthropoden (Zeit. fur Wiss. Zool.,) 1860. 

Clute, Dr. O.—Blessed Bees, 1878. 

Collin, Abbe—Guide du proprietaire d’Abeilles, 1878. 

Comstock, H. J.—Manual for the Study of Insects, 1895. Re- 
cent and authoritative. 

Cowan, T. W.—The Honey-Bee, 1890. Very accurate and full. 

Bee-Keeper’s Guide Book, 1881. 

Dadant, Chas. and Son—Langstroth on the Honey-Bee, 1899. 

Dahl, F.—Archiy. f. Naturg., 1884, pp. 146-193. 

Darwin, C.—Origin of Species, 1859, 1872, 1878. 

Debeauvoys, M.—L’Apiculteur, 1853. 

Dewitz, H._Vergleichende Untersuchungen uber Bau und Ent- 
wickelung des Stachels der Honigbiene, 1874. 

Doolittle, G. M.—Scientific Queen-Rearing, 1889. 

Donhoff, Dr.—Bienenzeitung, 1851-1854. 

Dufour, Leon—Memo. pres. par divers savants a 1’Acad. des 
Sci. de l’Inst. de France. Tome VII. 

Dujardin, F.—Memoire sur le systeme nerveux des Insectes, 
1851. 

Observations sur les Abeilles, 1852. 

Dumas et Milne Edwards—Sur la production de la cire des 
Abeilles, 1843-1844, 

Duthiers, L.—Recherches sur l’armure genitale des Insectes 
(Ann des Scien. Nat.,) 1848-1852. 

Dzierzon, Dr.—Bienenzeitung, 1845-1854, 

‘Theorie und Praxis des neuen Bienenfreundes, 1849-1852. 

Rational Bee-Keeping. English translation by Dieck 
and Stutterd, 1882. 

Erichson—De fabrica et usu antennarum in Insectis, 1847. 

Exner, S.—Ueber das Sehen von Bewegungen und die Theorie 
des zusammengesetzten Auges, 1875. 

Die Frage der Functionsweise der Facettenaugen (Biol. 
Centralblatt,) 1880, 1882. 

Figuier, L.—The Insect World, translated by P. Martin Dun- 
can, 1872. 

Fischer, G.—Bienenzeitung, 1871. 

Geddes, Prof. Patrick and J. A. Thomson—The Evolution of 
Sex, 1889. 

Girard, M.—Sur la chaleur libre degagee par les animaux in- 
vertebres et specialement les Insectes, 1869, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 193 


Traite elementaire d’Entomologie, 1873. 

Les Abeilles, organes et fonctions, 1878. 

Girdwoyn, M.—Anatomie et physiologie de 1’Abeille, 1876. 

Gottsche, C. M.—Beitrag zur Anat. und Physiol. des Auges der 
Fliegen, etc. (Mull. Arch. fur Anat.,) 1852. 

Graber, Dr. V.—Ueber die Blutkorperchen der Insekten, 1871. 

Ueber den propulsatorischen Apparat der Insektén, 1872. 

Verlaufiger Bericht uber den propulsatorischen Appa- 

rat der Insekten, 1872. 

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8. 

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sekten (Arch. fur. Mic. Anat.,) 1882. 

Grassi, Dr. B.—Intorno allo sviluppo delle Api nell’ uovo, 1883, 
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Grenacher, H.—Untersuchungen uber das Sehorgan der Arth- 
ropoden, 1879. 

Abhandlungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie des Auges, 
1886. 

Grimshaw, R. A. H.—Heredity in Bees (British Bee Journal,) 
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Gundelach, F. W.—Die Naturgeschichte der Honigbiene, 1842. 

Hauser, G.—Physiologische und histologische Untersuchungen 
uber das Geruchsorgan der Insekten, 1880. 

Haviland, J. D.—The Social Instincts of Bees, their Origin 
and Natural Selection, 1882. 

Heddon, James—Success in Bee-Culture, 1886. 

Helmholz—Sensations of Tone. 

Hicks, Dr. J. Braxton—On a new structure in the Antenne of 
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On certain Sensory Organs in Insects, hitherto unde- 

scribed, 1860. 

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Hopkins, Isaac—Australasian Bee-Manual, 1886. 

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other editions.) 

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Manual of Bee-Keeping, 18— 

Hutchinson, W. Z.—Advanced Bee-Culture, 1883. 

Comb Honey, 1897. 

Hyatt, J. D.—The Structure of the Tongue of the Honey-Bee 
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Janscha, I. A.—Hinterlassene vollstandige Lehre von der Bien- 
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194 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


John, Dr. Martin—Ein neu Bienen-Buchel, 1691. 

Jurine, Mademoiselle—Huber’s Nouvelles observations sur les 
Abeilles, 1792-1814. 

King, H.—Bee-Keepers’ Text-Book, 1883. 

Kirby, W.—Monographia Apum Angliae, 1802. 

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Ueber die Mundwerkzeuge der saugenden Insekten 

(zb7d,) 1882. 

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Krancher, Dr. O.—Der Bau der Stigmen bei der Insekten, 1881. 

Die dreierlei Bienenwesen, 1884. 

Lacordaire—Introduction a 1l’Entomologie, 1861. 

Landois, Dr. H.—Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des 
Schmetterlingsflugels in der Raupe und Puppe, 1871. 

Die ton und Stimmapparate der Insekten, 1867. 

Langstroth, L. L.—The Honey-Bee, 1859-1873. 

Latreille, P. A.—Eclaircissemens reiatifs a l’opinion de M. 
Huber fils, sur l’origine et l’issue exterieure de la Cire 
(Acad. Roy. des Sciences,) 1821. Cours d’entomologie, 1831. 

Leeuwenhoek, A.—Select works, translated by H. Hoole. 

Lefebvre, A.—Note sur le sentiment olfactif des Insectes (Ann. 
Soc. entom. de France,) 1838. 

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Parthenogenesis bei der Insekten, 1858. 

Leuckart, R.—Ueber Metamorphose, ungeschlechtliche Ver- 
mehrung, Generationswechsel, 1851. 

Leydig, F.—Das Auge der Gliederthiere, 1864. 

Zur Anatomie der Insekten (Mull. Archiv. f. Anat.,) 1859. 

Lhuilier, S. A. J.—Memoire sur le minimum de cire des alveoles 
des Abeilles, et en particulier sur un minimum minimorum 
relatif a cette matiere, 1781. 

Lowe, J.—Trans. Ent. Soc. Vol. V. pp. 547-560, 1867. 

Lowne, B. T.—On the Simple and Compound Eyes of Insects 
(Phil. Trans.,) 1879. 

On the Compound Vision and the Morphol. of the Eye in 
Insects (Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.,) 1884. 

Lubbock, Sir J.—Ants, Bees and Wasps, 1882. 

The Senses, Instincts and Intelligence of Animals, 1889. 

Lucas, I. G.—Entwurf eines wissenschaftlichen Systems fur- 
Bienenzucht, 1808. 

Lucas, M. H.—Cas de cyclopie observe chez un insecte Hymen- 
optere (Apis mellifica,) 1868, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 195 


Lyonet, Pieter—Traite anatomique de la chenille qui ronge Le 
bois de saule, etc., 1762. 

Macloskie, G.—The Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium 
of the Bee (Amer. Natural, pp. 567-573,) 1884. 

Maraldi, G. F.—Observations sur les Abeilles (Mem. Acad. des 
Sciences,) 1712. 

Marey, E. J.—Animal Mechanism: A Treatise on Terrestrial 
and Aerial Locomotion, 1883. 

Mayer, Dr. Paolo—Sopra certi Organi di Senso nelle Antenne 
dei Ditteri, 1878-79. 

Meckel, H.—Muller’s Archiv. fur Anatomie, 1846. 

Miller, Dr. C. C.—A Year Among the Bees, 1888. 

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Monfet,T.—Insectorum sine minimorum animalium Theatrum, 
1634. 
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Archiv f. gesammt. Physiol., XXXII, pp. 589-618,) 1883. 
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Muller, J.—Zur vergleichenden Physiologie des Gesichtsinnes, 
1826. 

Fortgesetzte anatomische Untersuchungen uber den 
Bau der Augen bei den Insekten und Crustaceen, 1829, 

Munn, N. A.—Bevan on the Honey-Bee, 1870. 

Neighbour, Alfred—The Apiary, 1878. 

Newman, Thomas G.—Bees and Honey, 1892. 

Newport, G.—On the Respiration of Insects, 1836. 

Insects (Todd’s Cyclopedia, Anat. and Phys.,) 1839. 

Article ‘Insecta,’ in Todd’s Cyclopedia of Anat. and 

Physiol., Vol. II, p. 980, 1839. 

On the Uses of the Antenne of Insects (Trans. Ent. 

Soc.,) 1837-40. 

On the Structure and Development of Blood (An. of Nat. 

Hist., XV., pp. 281-284,) 1845. 

On the Temperature of Insects, and its Connection with 

the Functions of Respiration and Circulation, 1837. 

Extracts from Essay in Martin Duncan’s Transforma- 
tion of Insects. 

Packard, Dr. A. S.—A Text-Book of Entomology, 1898. Very 
full and excellent. 

Guide to the Study of Insects, 1869. 

Pancritius, Paul._Beitrage zur Kentniss der Flugelentwick- 
lung bei den Insekten, 1884. 

Parker & Hoswell—Text-Book of Zoology, 1897. 

Perez, J.—Bulletin de la Soc.d’ Apicul. de la Gironde, 1878-1880 

Les Abeilles, 1889. 

Pore, Ed—Memoire sur le siege de 1’odorat dans les Articules, 
1850, 


196 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


Pettigrew, J. Bell—On the Mechanical Appliances by which 
Flight is attained in the Animal Kingdom (Trans. Linn. 
Soc.,) 1870. 

Plateau, F.—Palpes des Insectes broyeurs (Bul. de la Soc. Zool. 
de France,) 1885. 

Recherches exp. sur la vision chez les Arthropodes 
(Comptes Rendus de la Soc. Ent. de Belg.,) 1887, (Bull. de 
Acad. Roy. de Belgique,) 1888, 

Planta, Dr. A. von—Die Brutdeckel der Bienen (Schweitz. 
Bienenzeitung and Bul. d’Apic. de la Suisse Romande,) 
1884. 

Coloration de la ciredes Abeilles (Revue Internationale,) 

1885. 

Ueber die zugammensetzung einiger Nektar Arten (Brit. 

Bee Jour., Nectar and Honey,) 1886. 

Ueber den Futtersaft der Bienen, 1888. 

Nochmals uber den Futtersaft der Bienen (Schweitz. 
Bienenzeitung,) 1889. 

Pollmann, Dr. A.—Die Biene und ihre Zucht, 1875. 

Porter, C. J.—American Naturalist, XVII., p. 1238, 1883. 

Quinby, M.—Mysteries of Bee-Keeping, 1885. 

Ramdohr, T. C.—Kleine Abhandlungen aus der Anatom. und 
Physiol. der Insecten, 1811, 1813. 

Ranvier—Lecons sur l’histologie du systeme nerveux, 1878. 
Ratzeburg, Dr. J. T. C.—Untersuchung des Geschlechtszus- 
tandes bei den sogenannten Neutris der Bienen, 1833. 
Reaumur, R. A. F.—Memoires pour servir a l’histoire des In- 

sectes, 1734-1742. English Translation, 1744. 

Reid, Dr.—The Honey-Bee, by E. Bevan, p. 388, 1838. 

Rehberg, A.—Ueber die Entwicklung des Insectenflugels, 1886. 

Rendu, V.—L/’ intelligence des Betes, 1864. 

Rombouts, Dr. J. E.—Locomotion of Insects on smooth Sur- 
faces (Amer. Mon. Mic. Jour.,) 1884. 

Root, A. I.—A B C of Bee-Culture, 1890, 

Root, L. C.—Quinby’s Mysteries of Bee-Keeping, 1884. 

Schiemenz, P.—Uber das Herkommen des Futtersaftes und die 
Speicheldrusen der Biene, nebst einem Anhange uber das 
Riechorgan, 1883. 

Schindler, E.—Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Malpighi’schen 
Gefasse der Insekten, 1878. 

Schirach, A. G.—Physikalische Untersuchung der bisher un- 
bekannten aber nachher entdeckten Erzeugung d. Bienen- 
mutter, 1767. 

Schonfeld, Pastor—Bienenzeitung, 1854-1883. 

Illustrierte Bienenzeitung, 1885-1890. 

The Mouth of the Stomach in the Bee (British Bee 
Journ.,) 1883. 

Schultze, M.—Untersuch. uber die zusammengesetzten Augen 
der Krebsen und Insekten, 1868. 


- 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 197 


Sedgwick-Minot—Recherches histologique sur les trachees de 
VHydrophilus piceus (Arch. de Physiol. Paris,) 1876. 

Shuckard, W. E.—British Bees, 1866. 

Siebold, Dr. C. T. E. von—On a True Parthenogenesis in 
Moths and Bees, 1857. 

Bienenzeitung, 1872. 

Ueber die Stimm und Gehororgane der Krebse und In- 
sekten (Arch. fur Mic. Anat.,) 1860. 

Simmermacher, G.—Untersuchungen uber Haftapparate an 
‘Tarsalgliedern von Insekten, 1884. 

Smith, Dr. J. B.—Economic Entomology, 1896. 

Straus-Durckheim, H.—L,’Anatomie comparee des animaux 
articules, 1828. 

Swammerdam, J.—Biblia Naturae, (in Dutch, German and 
English,) 1737-1752. 

Tegetmeier, W. B.—On the Formation of Cells (Rep. Brit. As- 
soc., pp. 132, 133,) 1858. 

On the Cells of the Honey-Bee (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 
p. 34,) 1859. 

Thorley, J.—Melissologia ; or the Female Monarchy, 1744-1765, 

an cei of the Silkworm. (In Russian) 
1879. 

Tinker, G. L.—Bee-Keeping for Profit, 1880. 

Treviranus, G. R.—Vermischte Schriften, 1817, and Zeitsch. 
fur Physiol., 1829. 

Treviranus, L. Ch.—Medizinische Zoologie, 1833. 

Viallanes, H.—Recherches sur les terminaisons nerveuses mot- 
rices dans les muscles stries des Insectes, 1881. 

Vogel, F. W.—Die Honigbiene und die Vermehrung der Bien- 
envolker, 1880. 

Waterhouse, G. R.—On the Formation of the Cells of Bees and 
Wasps, 1864. 

Weismann, A.—Zeitschrift f. Wissenschaft. Zool., 1863. 

Westwood’s Introduction to the Study of Insects, 1840. 

Wolff, Dr. O. J. B.— Das Riechorgan der Biene (Nova acta der 
K.L. Arch. Deutsch. Akad. d. Naturf.,) 1875. 

Wyman, Dr. J.—Notes on the Cells of the Bee, 1866. 

Zoubareff, A.—Concerning an Organ of the Bee not yet de- 
scribed, (Brit. Bee Jour.,) 1883. 


PART SECOND. 


THE APIARY: 


ITS CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 


MOTTO :—" Keep all colonies strong,” 


INTRODUCTION TO 
PART II. 


STARTING AN APIARY. 


In apiculture, as in all other pursuits, it is all-important to 
makea good beginning. This demands preparation on the 
part of the apiarist, the procuring of bees, and location of the 
apiary. 

PREPARATION. 

Before starting in the business, the prospective bee-keeper 

should inform himself in the art. 


READ A GOOD MANUAL. 


To do this, he should procure some good manual, and 
thoroughly study, especially that portion which treats of the 
practical part of the business. If accustomed to read, think 
and study, he should carefully read the whole work, but other- 
wise he will avoid confusion by only studying the methods of 
practice, leaving the principles and science to strengthen, and 
be strengthened by, his experience. Unless a student, he would 
better not take a journal tillhe begins the actual work, as so 
much unclassified information, without any experience to 
correct, arrange and select, will but mystify. For the same 
reason he may well be content with reading a single work till 
experience, anda thorough study of this one, make him more 
able to discriminate ; and the same reasoning will preclude his 
taking more than one bee-journal until he has had at leasta 
year’s actual experience. ; 


VISIT SOME APIARIST. 


In this work of self-preparation, he will find great aid in 
visiting the nearest successful andintelligentapiarist. If suc- 
cessful, such a one will have a reputation; if intelligent, he 
will take the journals, and will show by his conversation that 


202 THE BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


he knows the methods and views of his brother apiarists, and, 
above all, he will not think he knows it all, and that his is the 
only way to success. If possible he should spend some weeks 
during the active season with such a bee-keeper, and should 
learn all he could of sucha one, but always let judgment and 
common sense sit as umpire, that no plans or decisions may be 
made that judgment does not fully sustain. 


TAKE A COLLEGE COURSE. 


It will be most wise to take a course in some college, if 
age makes this practicable, where apiculture is thoroughly 
discussed. Here one will not only get the best training in his 
chosen business, as he will study, see and handle, and thus 
will have the very best aids to decide as to methods, system 
and apparatus, but will also receive that general culture 
which will greatly enhance life’s pleasures and usefulness, 
and which ever proves the best capitalin any vocation. At 
the Michigan Agricultural College there is a fully equipped 
apiary, and the opportunities for special study in bee-keeping 
and entomology are peculiarly good. Michigan is not ex- 
ceptional. 

DECIDE ON A PLAN. 


After such a course as suggested above, it will be easy to 
decide as to location, hives, style of honey to produce, and 
general system of management. But here, asin all the arts, 
all our work should be preceded by a well-digested plan of 
operations. As with the farmer and the gardener, only he 
who works to a plan can hope for the best success. Of course, 
such plans will vary as we grow in wisdom and experience. A 
good maxim to govern all plans is, ‘‘Go slow.’’ A good rule 
which will insure the above, ‘‘Pay as you go.’’ Make the api- 
ary pay for allimprovements in advance. Demand that each 
year’s credits exceed its debits; and that you may surely 
acconiplish this keep an accurate account of all your receipts 
and expenses. This willbe a great aid in arranging the plans 
for each successive year’s operations. 

Above all, avoid hobbies, and be slow to adopt sweeping 
changes. ‘Prove all things, hold fast that which is good.” 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 203 


HOW 10 PROCURE FIRST COLONIES. 


To procure colonies from which to form an apiary, as is in 
almost all kindred cases, itis always best to get them near at 
hand. We thus avoid the shock of transportation, can see the 
bees before we purchase, and in case there is any seeming 
mistake can easily gain a personal explanation and securea 
speedy adjustment of any real wrong. 


KIND OF BEES TO PURCHASE. 


Atthe same price always take Italians or Carniolans, as 
they are certainly best for the beginner. If common black 
bees can be secured for three, or even for two dollars less per 
colony, by all means take them, as they can be Italianized at 
a profit for the difference in cost, and, in the operation, the 
young apiarist will gain valuable experience. 

Our motto will demand that we purchase only strong colo- 
nies. If, as recommended, the purchaser sees the colonies 
before the bargain is closed, it will be easy to know that the 
colonies are strong. If the bees, as they come rushing out, 
remind you of Vesuvius at her best, or bring to mind the gush 
and rush at the nozzle of the fireman’s hose, then buy. In the 
hives of such colonies all combs will be covered by the middle 
of May with bees, and in the honey season brood will be abun- 
dant. Itisalways wisest to begin ina smallway. He will 
generally succeed best who commences with not more than 
four or five colonies. 


IN WHAT KIND OF HIVES. 


As plans are already made, of course it is settled as to the 
style of hive to be used. If bees can be procured in such hives 
they will be worth just as much more than though in any 
other hive, as it costs to make the hive and transfer the bees. 
This will certainly be as muchas two or three dollars. No 
apiarist will tolerate, unless for experiment, two styles of hives 
in his apiary. ‘Therefore, unless you find bees in such hives 
as you are to use, it will be best to buy them in box-hives if 
possible and transfer (see Chapter VII) to your own hives, as 
bees in box-hives can always be bought at reduced rates. In 
case the person from whom you purchase will take the hives 


204 HE BEE-KEEPHR’S GUIDE} 


back at a fair rate, after you have transferred the bees to your 
own hives, then purchase in any style of movable-comb hive, 
as it is easier to transfer from a movable-comb hive than from 
a box-hive. Some bee-keepers, who were willing to wait, have 
purchased a queen and bees by the pound, and thus secured 
colonies at very slight expense. A single pound of bees with 
a queen will develop into a good colony in a single year. 


WHEN TO PURCHASE. 


It is safe to purchase any time in the summer. In April or 
May (of course you purchase only strong colonies) if in the 
latitude of New York or Chicago—it will be earlier further 
south—you can afford to pay more, as you will secure the 
increase both of honey and bees. If you desire to purchase in 
autumn, that you may gain bythe experience of wintering, 
either demand that the one of whom you purchase insure the 
safe wintering of the bees, or else that he reduce the selling 
price, at least one-third, from his rates the next April. Other- 
wise the novice would better wait and purchase in the spring. 
If you are to transfer at once, it is desirable that you buyin 
spring, as it is vexatious, especially for the novice, to transfer 
when the hives are crowded with brood and honey. 


HOW MUCH TO PAY. 


Of course the market, which will ever be governed by sup- 
ply and demand, must guide you. But to aid you,I will 
append what at present would be a reasonable schedule of 
spring prices almost anywhere in the United States: 

For box-hives, crowded with black bees—lItalians would 
rarely be found in such hives—three dollars per colony isa 
fair price. For black bees in hives such as you desire to use, 
five dollars would be reasonable. For pure Italiansin such 
hives, seven dollars is not too much. : 

If the person of whom you purchase will take the movable- 
comb hives after you transfer the bees, you can afford to pay 
three dollars for black bees, and five dollars for pure Italians. 
If you purchase in the fall, require 33% percent discount on 
these rates. The above is, of course, only suggestive. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 205 


WHERE TO LOCATE. 


If apiculture is an avocation, then your location will be 
fixed by your principal business or profession. And hereI 
may state that, if we may judge from reports which come from 
nearly every section of the United States, from Maine to 
Texas, and from Florida to Oregon, you can hardly go amiss 
anywhere in our goodly land. 

If you are to engage as a specialist, then you can select 
first with reference to society and climate, after which it will 
be well to secure a succession of natural honey-plants (Chap- 
ter XVII), by virtue of your locality. This suggestion is im- 
portant, even in California, though it has far less weight than 
in other sections. If our location is along a river we shall find 
our honey harvest much prolonged, as the bloom on the upland 
will be early, while along the river flats it will be later. Who 
knows how much the many successful bee-keepers along the 
Mohawk Valley owe to their excellent location? The same 
holds true of the mouth of the canyons in California. The 
flowers of both mountain and valley will then contribute of 
their sweets. Wealso gain in the prolonged honey-flow, as 
the mountain bloom is much the later. It will also be well to 
look for reasonable prospects of a good home market, as good 
home markets are, and must ever be, the most desirable. It 
will be important, also, that your neighborhood is not over- 
stocked with bees. Itis a well-established fact, that apiarists 
with few colonies receive relatively larger profits, especially 
in rather poor seasons, than those with large apiaries. While 
this may be owing in part to better care, much doubtless 
depends upon the fact that there is not an undue proportion of 
bees to the number of honey-plants, and consequent secretion 
of nectar. ‘To have the undisputed monopoly of an area reach- 
ing at least two and one-half miles in every direction from 
your apiary, is unquestionably a great advantage. 

If you desire to begin two kinds of business, so that your 
dangers from possible misfortune may be lessened, then a 
small farm—especially a fruit-farm—in some locality where 
fruit-raising is successfully practiced, will be very desirable. 
You thus add others of the luxuries of life to the products of 


206 THE BEE-KEEPIR’S GUIDE; 


your business, and at the same time may create additional 
pasturage for your bees by simply attending to your other 
business. In this case, your location becomes a more complex 
matter, and will demand still greater thought and attention. 
Some of*America’s most successful apiarists are also noted as 
successful pomologists. A dairy farm, especially where win- 
ter dairying is carried on, would combine well with bee-keep- 
ing. The alsike clover would please alike the cattle and the 
bees. This is equally true in sections of California and 
Arizona, etc., only alfalfa takes the place of alsike clover. 

Bees are often taken ‘‘on shares.’’ It is usual for one 
party to furnish the bees, the other to perform all the labor. 
The expenses are shared equally, as are the proceeds, both of 
bees and honey. Where one has more colonies of bees than 
will do well in one place—more than 100 East, more than 250 
in California—then ‘‘out-apiaries’’ are often desirable. Such 
men as Dr, Miller, Messrs. Manum, France, Dadant, Elwood, 
Mendleson, and Hetherington, find these very profitable. Of 
course, this is like running a railroad, and success will only 
mate with brains, gumption and pluck. The out-apiaries 
should be as convenient as bee-forage, roads and location will 
permit. If possible, it is wise to locateon some farm, and 
arrange so the farmer will have an interest that will insure 
some oversight when the apiarist is away. A fruit-grower 
may be wise enough to covet the presence of the bees, and so 
give service to secure it. 

Of course, convenient hives for moving, and a wagon 
arranged with suitable rack, are very desirable. Great pains 
must be taken that the bees are all secure. Horses stung may 
mean great loss and harm. Mr. Manum makes assurance 
doubly sure by covering his horses entirely with cotton blan- 
kets. One enterprising and energetic enough to found out- 
apiaries will have the gumption to success, and fully meet 
every emergency. 

For position and arrangement of apiary see Chapter VI. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 207 


CHAPTER V. 
HIVES AND SECTIONS. 


An early choice among the innumerable hives is of course 
demanded ; and here let me state with emphasis, that none of 
the standard hives are now covered by patents, so let no one buy 
rights. Itis in nearly all sections of our country, happily, 
unnecessary to decry patent hives. Our excellent bee-periodi- 
cals have driven from among us, forthe most part, that excres- 
cence—the patent-hive man. His wares were usually worth- 
less, and his life too often a lie, as his representations were 
not infrequently false to the letter. As our bee-men so gen- 
erally read the bee-papers, the patent-hive vendor will grow 
less and less, and willsoon exist only in the past. It will be 
a blessed riddance. 

Success by the skillful apiarist with almost any hive, is 
possible. Yet, without question, some hives are far superior 
to others, and for certain uses, and with certain persons, some 
hives are far preferable to others, though all may be meritori- 
ous. Asachange in hives, after one is once engaged in api- 
culture, involves much time, labor and expense, this becomes 
an important question, and one worthy of earnest considera- 
tion by the prospective apiarist. I shall give it a first place, 
and a thorough consideration, in this discussion of practical 


apiculture. 
BOX-HIVES. 


I feel free to say that no person who reads, thinks and 
studies—and success in apiculture can be promised to no other 
—will ever be content to use the old box-hives. In fact, 
thought and intelligence, which imply an eagerness to investi- 
gate, are essential elements in the apiarist’s character, and to 
such a one a box-hive would be valued just in proportion to the 
amount of kindling-wood it contained. I shall entirely ignore 
box-hives in the following discussions, for I believe no sensi- 
ble, intelligent apiarists, such as read books, will tolerate 
them, and that, supposing they should, it would be an expen- 


208 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


sive mistake which I have no right to encourage, in fact, am 
bound to discourage, not only for the benefit of individuals, 
but also for the art itself. 

To be sure of success, the apiarist must be able to inspect 
the whole interior of the hive at his pleasure, must be able to 


Fic. 82. 


The Munn Hive, after Munn. 


exchange combs from one hive to another, and to regulate the 
movements of the bees—by destroying queen-cells, by giving 
or withholding drone-comb, by extracting the honey, by intro- 
ducing queens, and by many other manipulations to be ex- 
plained, which are only practicable with a movable-comb hive. 


MOVABLE-COMB HIVES. 


There are, at present, two types of the movable-comb hive 
in use among us, each of which is unquestionably valuable, as 
each has advocates among our most intelligent, successful, and 
extensive apiarists. Each, too, has been superseded by the 
other, to the satisfaction of the person making the change. 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 209 


The kind most used consists of a box,in which hang the 
frames which hold the combs. The adjacent frames are so far 
separated that the combs, which just fill them, shall be the 
proper distance apart. In the other kind, the ends of the 
frames are wider than the comb,and when in position are 
close together, and of themselves form two sides of a box. 
When in use these frames are surrounded bya second box, 
without a bottom, which, with them, rests on a bottom-board. 
Each of these kinds is represented by various forms, sizes, 


Fic. 83. 


Munn’s Improved Hive, after Munn. 


etc., where the details are varied to suit the apiarist’s notion. 
Yet, I believe that all hives in present use, worthy of recom- 
mendation, fall within one or the other of the above-named 


types. 
EARLY FRAME HIVES. 


In 1843, Mr. Augustus Munn, of England, invented a mov- 
able-comb hive (Fig. 82), which I need hardly say was not the 
Langstroth hive, nora practical one. In 1851 this hive (Fig. 83) 


210 THH BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


was improved (?). Well does Neighbour say in his valu- 
able hand-book, ‘‘ This invention was of no avail to apiarists.”’ 

M. DeBeauvoys, of France, in 1847, and Schmidt, of Ger- 
many, in 1851, invented movable-comb hives. The frames 
were tight-fitting, and, of course, not practical. Dzierzon 
adopted the bar hive in 1838. In this hive each comb had to 
be cut loose as it was removed. It isstrange that Mr. Cheshire 
speaks of Dzierzon’s hive in connection with the Langstroth. 
It was a different type of hive entirely. 


THE LANGSTROTH HIVE. 


In 1851 our own Langstroth, without any knowledge of 
what foreign apiarian inventors had done, save what he could 
findin Huber, and edition 1838 of Bevan, invented the hive 
(Fig. 84) now in common use among the advanced apiarists of 


im 


Two-story Langstroth panei A. I. Root Co, 


America. It is this hive, the greatest apiarian inventies evel, 
made, that has placed American apiculture in advance or that 
of all other countries. What practical bee-keeper of America 
could agree with H. Hamet, edition 1861, p. 166, who, in speak- 
ing of the DeBeauvoys’ hive, says that the improved hives 
were without value except to the amateur, and inferior for 
practical purposes? Our apiarists not native to our shores, 
like the late Adam Grimm, Mr. C. F. Muth and Mr. Charles 
Dadant, always conceded that Mr. Langstroth was the inven- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 211 


tor of this hive, and always proclaimed its usefulness. Well 
did the late Mr. S. Wagner, the honest, fearless, scholarly, 
truth-loving editor of the early volumes of the American Bee 
Journal, himself of German origin, say: ‘‘ When Mr. Lang- 
stroth took up this subject, he well knew what Huber had done, 
and saw wherein he had failed—failing, possibly, only because 
he aimed at nothing more than constructing an observatory 
hive suitable for his purposes. Mr. Langstroth’s object was 
other and higher. He aimed at making frames movable, inter- 
changeable, and practically serviceable in bee-culture.”’ And 
how true what follows: ‘‘ Nobody before Mr. Langstroth ever 
succeeded in devising a mode of making and using a movable 
frame that was of any practical value in bee-culture.’’ No 
man in the world, besides Mr. Langstroth, was so conversant 
with this whole subject as was Mr. Wagner. His extensive 
library and thorough knowledge made him a competent judge. 

Mr. Langstroth, though he knew of no previous invention 
of frames contained in a case, when he made his invention, in 
1851, does not profess to have been the first to have invented 
them. Every page of his book shows his transparent honesty, 
and his desire to give all due credit to other writers and inven- 
tors. He does claim,.and very justly, to have invented the 
first practical frame hive, the one described in his patent, 
applied for in January, 1851, and in all three editions of his 
book. 

For this great invention, as well as his able researches in 
apiculture, as given in his invaluable book, ‘‘’The Honey-Bee,”’ 
he has conferred a benefit upon our art which can not be over- 
estimated, and for which we, asapiarists, can not be too grate- 
ful. It was his book—one of my old teachers, for which I have 
no word of chiding—that led me to some of the most delightful 
investigations of my life. It was his invention—the Lang- 
stroth hive—that enabled me to make those investigations. 
For one, I shall always revere the name of Langstroth, as a 
great leader in scientific apiculture, both in America and 
throughout the world. His name must ever stand beside those 
of Dzierzon and the elder Huber. Surely this hive, which left 
the hands of the great master in so perfect a form that even 
the details remain practically unchanged by many, I think 


212 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


most, of our first bee-keepers, should ever bear his name. 
Thus, though many use square frames like the Gallup, or deep 
frames, yet all are Langstroth hives. 


CHARACTER OF THE HIVE. 


The main feature of the hive should be simplicity, thereby 
excluding drawers and traps of all kinds. The hive should be 
made of good pine or whitewood lumber, thoroughly seasoned, 


a 
A” Bb 
Principle of Warping.—From A. I. Root Co. 


planed on both sides, and painted white on the outside. In 
making the hive nail the heart side of the board out, so as to 
prevent warping. To understand why see Fig. 85. Figure 84 


Fic. 86. 


One-story Langstroth Hivee—From A. I. Root Co, 


represents a two-story Langstroth hive. As will be seen, this 
has a portico, and a bottom-board firmly nailed to the hive. 
Although Mr. Langstroth desired both these features, and 
many now are like-minded, many others omit both features. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 213 


This hive holds eight frames, which are as many as such bee- 
keepers as Messrs. Heddon, Taylor and Hutchinson desire. 
Figure 86 represents the Simplicity one-story Langstroth 
hive as made by A.I. Root. This contains 10 frames, which, 
unfortunately, were slightly modified so that they are 17% 
instead of 173 inches long. Thus, this is not the Langstroth 


Fic. 87. 


i oo : 


if 
| i: i 


| 


i 


Two-story Langstroth Hive (Gallup Frame.) —Original. 


a Cover hinged to hive. b Upper story. 
ce Brood-chamber. d Bottom-board. 
. ¢ Alighting-board. i Wide section-frames. 
Brood-frames, h, h Frames outside hive. 


214 THE BEH-KEEPHR’S GUIDE; 


frame, but the Simplicity-Langstroth. This style, one-story, 
is designed for securing comb honey, while the two-story (Fig. 
84) is intended for use in obtaining extracted honey. Figure 
87 represents a two-story Simplicity-Langstroth hive with 
Gallup frame; which is 114% inches square. This hive is pre- 
ferred by G. M. Doolittle. I have used it more than any other, 
andit has much to recommend it. The Simplicity feature 
invented by A. I. Root, I think, consists of a bevel union of 
hive with cover and bottom-board (Fig. 87). I think Mr. Root 
prefers this style no longer. Any Langstroth hive, with what- 


Fic. 88. 


ZZ My 
SS \ 
finn : 
; f 
Wil AAT 
il (Nie ll 
FELON 


t 


Jones’ Chaff-Hive, Frame, Frame for Sections, Division-Board and Perfor- 
ated-Zine Division-Board.—From D, A. Jones. 


ever frame, with these bevel connections is a Simplicity hive. 
This hive can be used to secure either comb or extracted 
honey. The bottom-board, d, and the alighting-board, e, may 
be separate from each other and from the hive; the opening 
may be made by cutting a V-shaped space in the bottom-board, 
while the cover, a, mayor may not be hinged to the upper 
story. Mr. Root, inthe original Simplicity, used the cover as 
a bottom-board, and formed an entrance by pushing the hive a 
little to one side. Many prefer to have the cover with a gable 
(Fig. 88), so madeas to join the hive with a rabbet (Fig. 86 and 
88), or to shut over the hive and rest on shoulders formed by 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 215 


nailing cleats about the hive near the top. These are heavy 
and costly. Imuch prefer a flat cover, and, if necessary to 
keep out water, we can follow Mr. Doolittle’s plan and sheet 
with tin or zinc, though I think this unnecessary. 

Figure 88 represents the Jones chaff hive. This takesa 
deep frame, and has double walls for chaff packing. ‘These 
chaff hives are expensive, hard to handle and awkward to man- 
age. After years of experience I discarded the chaff hives as 
no better in summer than the single-walled hives, and not so 
safe in winter as a good cellar. I have disposed of all of mine 
except three, which I keep for examples. Many, however, 
prefer such hives, and in some sections, and with some bee- 
keepers, they may be desirable. 


WHAT STYLE TO ADOPT. 


For many yearsI have used the Heddon-Langstroth, and 
like it so much that I recommend it above all others that I have 
tried. It is not only the simplest hive I have ever seen, but 
possesses many substantial advantages that are not possessed 
by any other hive so farasI know. It can be used with any 
size frame desired. I have it in use both with Langstroth and 
Gallup frames. I am free to express my preference for the 
Langstroth hive, with Langstroth frames. Its excellence 
warrants me in doing so, and the fact that it is by far the most 
used of any hive in the country, gives great advantage when 
one wishes to buy or sell bees. No beginner can make a mis- 
take in adopting this hive. I will describe the hive for Lang- 
stroth frame, but would advise any one to geta good hive asa 
pattern, if he is to adopt them, as much depends upon perfect 
exactness. 

The bottom-board and alighting-board (Fig. 87) may be 
separate if preferred, or not nailed tothe hive. Mr. Heddon 
nails the bottom-board fast, and lets it project at one end, as 
seen in the figure (Fig. 89), A hive-stand is made by taking 
two boards (Fig. 89, /) six inches wide, and nearly as long as 
the bottom-board. Connect these at one end by a board 4% 
inches wide, and as long as the hive is wide, nailed firmly at the 
bottom, and into the ends, and at the other end by a like board 
nailed the same way. We see (Fig. 94) this end-piece at the 


216 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


front of the hive nailed at the bottom so it rests on the ground. 
At the opposite end a like piece is nailed in the same way, so 
that all is even on the bottom. Figure 89 explains this better. 
The bottom of the hive (Fig. 89, 4) is 13x19% inches, outside 
measure, the sides made of six-eighths inch, bottom and cover of 
five-eighths, and ends of seven-eighths inch lumber. The 
height of this piain box is just 10 inches ; that is, it is made of 


Fic. 89. 


Heddon-Langstroth Hive.—From James Heddon. 


F Bottom-board. A Brood-chamber, 
C Honey-board. D Case with sections. 
E Cover. 


boards 10 inches wide. The side boards are 19% inches long, 
so that they nail to the ends of the end-boards. If the corners 
are rabbeted, or, better, dovetailed (Fig. 90), they will be 
stronger, and less apt to separate with age anduse. When 
used with the Gallup frame the ends of the hive project, and 
are nailed into the ends of the side-boards. The end-boards 
are rabbeted on top. This rabbet is cut three-eighths of an 
inch deeper than the thickness of the top-bar of the frame. 
With the Gallup frame (Fig. 96) we rabbet the side-boards. If 
the top-bar is three-eighths of an inch thick this rabbet should 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 217 


be six-eighths precisely. This is very tmportant,as we must 
have a three-eighths space exactly between the top-bar and the 
top of the hive. If we make the hive ten and one-eighth (10%) 
inches high we give a space of ‘half-inch between the bottom 
of the frame and bottom of hive. I like this wide space, and 
there is no objection toit. Near the top of the hive we will 
nail narrow cleats entirely around it; these strengthen the 
hive, and are convenient supports by which to lift the hive. 
Hand grooves (Fig. 90) can also be cut in end and side-boards 
for convenience in handling, if desired. Mr. Root favors these 
hand-holes always. They are easily cut, and are surely a 
convenience. 

The entrance is cut in the end of the hive (Fig. 89), and 
the size is easily regulated by use of the Langstroth triangular 


Fic. 90. 


Vib 


aa 


= 7 
Dovetailed Hive.—From A, I. Root Co. 


blocks (Fig. 89, B, &). Thus we may gauge the size to our 
liking. I would have the entrance the whole width of the 
hive, and seven-eighths of an inch high. This may aid to 
prevent the bees hanging out of the hive, and likewise may 
restrain the swarming impulse. The opening in the bottom- 
board (Fig. 87) is preferred by many. This is enlarged or 
restricted by simply pushing the hive forward or back, and, of 


218 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


course, can only be used with loose bottom-boards. ‘The fact 
that most bee-keepers nail the bottom-board firmly and cut the 
opening from the hive, argues that this on the whole is the 
better style. For shipping and moving bees, which, with 
‘‘out-apiaries ’’ and change of location to secure better pastur- 
age, promises to be more and more the practice, the nailed 


Fic. 91. 


Queen-Excluding Honey-Board.—From D, A. Jones. 


bottom-boards are very desirable; for quick cleaning of the 
hives when spring opens, the movable bottoms are preferable. 

There should never be but this one opening. Auger-holes 
above, and openings opposite the entrance, are worse than 
useless. 

Except in very damp locations the hive should not rest 
more than five or six inches from the ground. Tired and 
heavily laden bees, especially on windy days, may fail to gain 
the hive, if it is high up, as they return from the field. 

For extracted honey, we use a second story precisely like 
the body of the hive, except it is a half-inch lessin depth; 
that is, the sides are 914 instead of 10 inches wide. Mr. Dadant 
prefers half-story hives for the extracting frames, but he uses 
the large Quinby frame (Fig. 95). If we wish we can follow Da- 
dant, and use two or more of these upper stories, and tier up, in 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 219 


which case we would not need to extract until the close of the 
harvest, when the honey would be ripened in the hive. 

Upon the body of the hive rests the slatted honey-board 
(Fig. 91). It is seen in place (Figs. 89 and 93). This is also 13 
by 19% inches. The outer rim of this valuable invention and 
the slats arein one plane on the under surface, and the slats 
are three-eighths of an inch apart, leaving passages that width 
for the bees to pass through. On the upper surface the 
rim projects three-eighths of an inch above the slats, so that if 
a board be laid on the honey-board its lower surface will be 
three-eighths of an inch above the slats. When the honey- 
board is placed on the hive, the spaces between the slats must 
rest exactly over the center of the top-bars of the brood-frames 
below. In using hives with the Gallup or American frames 
the slats of course will run crosswise of the honey-board, and 
as before must break joints with the top-bars of the frames. 


Plain Division-Board. Perforated-Zine Division-Board, 
—From D. A. Jones. 


The use of this prevents the bees from building brace-combs 
above the brood-frames, and keeps the sections very neat. No 
one after using this will do without it, I am sure. By tacking 
a piece of perforated-zinc (Fig. 92) on the under side of this 
honey-board it also becomes a queen-excluder. The grooves 
in the zinc must be very exact. They are .165 of an inch wide. 
It is cheaper, and so better, simply to place a narrow strip of 
the perforated-zinc between the slats of the honey-board (Fig. 


220 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


91). By grooving the edges of the slats it is easy 1o insert the 
zinc strips when making the honey-board. The honey-board 
may be wholly of zinc with a wooden rim. The objection to 
this is the fact that the zinc is likely to sag and bend. Mr, 
Heddon suggests that a V-shaped piece of tin be soldered across 
the middle to strengthen the zinc and prevent sagging. The 
tin should be so placed as not to touch the frames below, but 
come between them. Mr. Heddon also suggests that the 
wooden rim be replaced by a narrow margin of the zinc itself, 
bent at right angles to the plane of the metal. 


THE HEDDON SURPLUS-CASH. 


As this admirable case is also a part of this hive, I will 
describe it right here, though it properly belongs to the sub- 
ject of case for surplus honey. This case is just as long and 
broad as the hive, and three-eighths of an inch deeper than the 
height of the section to be used. (See Fig. 89, D.) Thus, on 
the hive described it will be 13 by 19% inches, and if we use 
common 1-pound sections, which are 44% inches square, it will 
be 456 inches deep. Partitions are fastened in by use of 
screws or nails just far enough apart to receive the sections; 
thus, in the 1-pound sections, 44% inches apart. ‘These parti- 
tions are as wide as the crate or case is deep. Narrow strips 
of tin are nailed to the bottom of these partitions and to the 
bottom of the ends of the case, projecting enough to sustain 
the sections when they are placedin the case. It will be seen 
that when in place the sections reach to within three-eighths of 
an inch of the top of the case. This must be just three-eighths 
of an inch. It keeps the sections all clean, but will not if not 


just this bee-space. 
THE COVER. 


The cover of the hive (Fig. 89, £) isa plain board, a little 
wider and longer than the hive. The ends of this are fitted 
into a grooved cross-piece about twice as thick as the board, 
and firmly nailed. These cross-pieces prevent the top from 
warping and splitting. If preferred, the cover need be no 
longer or wider than the hive. In this case cross-pieces should 
be firmly nailed on the upper side to prevent warping or split- 
ting. It will be seen that we have here no telescoping, and no 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. ‘221 


beveling—simply one board rests upon another. At firstI 
was much prejudiced against this simple arrangement. After 
giving it a thorough trial I wish nothing else. The only criti- 
cism I have for this hive after several years’ experience is, 
that if the board cover is used in spring, the protection is in- 
sufficient. We break the propolis or glue in examining the 
bees, and then as the bees can not glue all close at this early 
season, the brood is apt to chill, and the bees to suffer, espe- 
cially if the sides of the hives have shrunken, or the cover 
warped. By use of a quilt or warm woolen cloth just the size 
of the hive placed above, and a crate filled with dry sawdust 
above this, allis made snug and comfortable, and even this 
objection disappears. To adopt this style of hive is not ex- 
pensive. Wecan use the same frames as before, and can make 
all new hives of this simple, plain pattern, and in time-we will 
have only these hives. 

To shade the hive nothing is so goodas a shade-board 
made considerably wider than the hive, and nailed to two 
cleats five inches wide. Thus, when resting on the hive this 
shade-board will be five inches above the top of the hive. This 
has never blown off of my hives. Should it do so a brick 
could easily be fastened to the under side, out of sight, and 
thus make it entirely safe against winds. 

Thus I have described the Heddon-Langstroth hive 
minutely, as with W. Z. Hutchinson, R. Ll. Taylor, and many 
others of our most able and intelligent apiarists, I find it, upon 
trial, as excellent as it is simple. Surely, when we can har- 
ness excellence and simplicity together we have a most desir- 
able team. The simple union of parts by mere plain contact 
of the edges, or the cover simply lying on the hive, while it is 
just as acceptable to the bees, makes the hive far more simple 
of construction, and easy of manipulation. The honey-board 
and bee-spaces keep all so neat, that as one bee-keeper well 
says, their extra expense is very soon savedin the saving of 
time which their use insures. Any who may think of trying 
this hive better do as I did, try two or three at first, and see if 
in their judgment the ‘“‘ game is worth the candle.” 

All hives should be well painted with white paint. This 
color makes the heat less trying to the combs and bees. While 


222 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


it may not be profitable to paint, yet when neatness and dura- 
bility are both considered, surely painting pays well. For 
paint I would use white lead, zinc and oil—about one-third as 
much zinc as lead. Mr. Doolittle, whose opinion justly ranks 
very high among American bee-keepers, thinks that white 
paint makes shade unnecessary. 


DIVISION-BOARD. 


A close-fitting division-board (Fig. 92) is very important, 
and no Langstroth hive is complete without it. Mr. Heddon, 
in his excellent book, follows the English, and calls this a 
dummy. Itis especially useful in autumn, winter and spring 
in contracting the hive, and thus economizing heat, and at 
the harvest seasons in contracting the brood-chamber, so as to 
secure the honey in the sections where it is desired. It is 
made the same formas the frames, but is a little larger so 
that it is close-fitting in the hive. It iseasily made by nailing 
a top-bar of the usual frame on top of a board that will just fit 
in the hive, and reach to the top of the rabbet. If desired the 
board may be beveled at the edges. When the division-board 
is inserted in the hive it separates the brood-chamber into two 
parts by a close partition. Many bee-keepers make them like 
a close-fitting frame and cover with cloth, which is stuffed 
with chaff. Others groove the edges and insert a strip of cloth 
orrubber. Thechaff board is for greater warmth, the rubber 
to make the board fit closely, and yet give enough to make it 
easy to withdraw the division-board when it swells from 
dampness. Mr. Jones prefers that the division-board should 
not reach quite to the bottom of the hive (Fig. 88). This en- 
ables the bees to pass under, and as heat rises thereis very 
little objection to this bee-space under the division-board. 

We use the division-board to contract the chamber in winter, 
to vary it so as to keep all combs covered with bees in spring, to 
contract the brood-chamber when we wish to securea full 
force of bees in the sections, to convert our hives into nucleus 
hives for queen-rearing, andin case we secure comb honey in 
two-story hives, which, however, we do not practice now, to 
contract the upper chamber when the season first opens, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 223 


CLOTH COVERS. 


After the season is over, and the weather becomes cold, 
about the 20th of September, it is well to remove the honey- 
board, and to cover above the bees with a piece of heavy factory 
cloth, which thus forms the immediate cover for the beesin 
winter. The section-case full of dry, fine sawdust has now 
this cloth for its bottom, while the cover of the hive rests on 
the section-case. 

It will be noted that I have made no mention in the above 
of metal rabbets, or, more correctly, metal supports. I have 
tried these for some years, and have usually recommended 
them, but for the past several yearsI have omitted them, and 
think I shall have no further use for them in my hives. If we 
wish them we have only to cut the rabbet a little deeper and 
tack inside the hive, just below the rabbet, a narrow strip of 
heavy tin, which shall project a little above the wooden rabbet, 
just enough to raise the top of the frame to within three- 
eighths of an inch of the top of the hive. Theadvantages of 
these are that they make a very narrow rest or support for the 
frames, and so the latter are more easily loosened, and in care- 
less hands are less apt to kill bees when put into the hives. It 
is always easy, however, by meansof a chisel to loosen frames, 
and if we are often manipulating our bees, as when extracting 
in summer, the frames are easily loosened without the metal 
supports. Some apiarists make hives without rabbets, making 
the frames to rest on the topof the hive. I have tried such 
hives thoroughly, and wish no more of them. Of course, with 
such hives the valuable honey-board and bee-spaces are im- 
possible. 

THE NEW HEDDON HIVE. 


Mr. Heddon has patented and offered to the public a new 
hive which combines in principle the Langstroth and the 
Huber. Ihave tried this hive only for a short time, and so, 
guided by the rule I have always adopted, I do not recommend 
it. Yetthe experienced bee-keeper can often judge correctly 
of what he has never tried, andI will add that I fully believe 
this hive and the method Mr. Heddon gives of manipulation in , 
his valuable book, are well worth our attention. Mr. Heddon 


224 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


isso able that he rarely recommends what is not valuable. 
Several others have tried this hive, and speak in the highest 
terms of its value. Among these are no less authorities than 
R. L. Taylor and W. Z. Hutchinson. At the beginning of this 
chapter I caution all against patent hives. This is necessary, 
as so many frauds have been committed under this guise; but 
if Mr. Heddon has given us something as valuable as it is 
unique and original, he well deserves a patent, which should 
be thoroughly respected, as should all worthy inventive effort. 
From my brief experience I fear the hive is too complicated 
for the average bee-keeper. With a much longer experience 
(1900) Ican not recommend it. It works admirably if every- 
thing is perfectly exact; otherwise it isa vexation. Absolute 
exactness is rare in our day and world. 

I shall describe the hive only in brief, advising all who 
wish to investigate this newcomer, to procure Mr. Heddon’s 
work, ‘‘ Success in Bee-Culture,’’ as this will bean excellent 
investment aside from the matter of the hive. 

This hive (Fig. 93) has close-fitting frames fastened ina 
case by use of wooden thumb-screws. The end-bars of the 
frames are wide like those of the Huber hives, and rest on tin 
supports. The top and bottom bars of the hives are only as 
wide as the natural comb, seven-eighths of an inch. The 
frames are only five and three-eighths (53%) inches deep, and 
this with the wide spaces between them makes it possible to do 
much without removing the frames. There is a three-eighths 
inch space above the frames, and a honey-board as in the 
Heddon-Langstroth hive. 

Thus, one or two shallow hives can be used, and to con- 
tract the brood-chamber at any time we have only to remove 
one of them. Figure 93 shows the hive, which, with two 
brood-chambers, gives about the capacity of a 10-frame Lang- 
stroth hive. As all frames are securely held by the screws, 
any brood-chamber can be reversed, or any two can change 
places at the pleasure of the bee-keeper. I have found the 
screws to swell and work with extreme difficulty. I think Mr. 
Taylor excludes the screws, and wedgesthe frames instead. 
As the combs will all be firmly attached on all sides to the 
frames, there is no space for hiding, and the queen can gen- 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 225 


erally be found without removing the frames. I haveseen Mr. 
Taylor find several queens with these hives in a few minutes 
time. 

Fic. 93. 


The New Heddon Hive.—From James Heddon. 


A Stand. D EF Section-cases, Hf Thumb-serew. 
BC Two sections. M Slatted honey-board. F Cover, 


226 THE BEE-KEKEPER’S GUIDE; 


The bottom-board (Fig, 94) has a raised rim. Thus the 
frames are one-half inch from the bottom. Of course, the 
bottom-board is loose. Mr. Heddon recommends single-story 
wide-frames with separators for the sections. These are also 
secured by the screws, and so any frame or the whole case can 
be reversed at will. 

Of course, the old Heddon case without separators could be 
used, but could not be reversed. The points of excellence 
claimed for this hive,and I know from my experience that 
they are real, are easy contraction of brood-chamber, quick 
inversion of the brood-chamber or section-case, ease and quick- 


Fic. 94. 


Se 
Ta TTA 


Heddon Bottom-Board.—From James Heddon. 


ness of manipulation, and the interchangeableness of the 
brood-chambers forming the hive, and the power we have by 
quick and easy contraction of the brood-chamber to get all 
light-colored honey in the sections if we so desire. 

Mr. J. M. Shuck has also patented a hive for which he 
claims the same advantages gained in the new Heddon hive. I 
have not worked with it enough to recommend it. I fear the 
hives are too complex for the general bee-keeper. The fact, 
too, that perfection of work and measurements despite our best 
care are very rare, urges against this hive, as it must be very 
accurate or itis a sore vexation. I adviseall to go slowin 
adopting them, as we know the old, tried ones are excellent. I 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 227 


fear that in the hands of the general bee-keepers these new 
hives will not prove satisfactory. 


THE FRAMES. 


The form and size of frames, though not quite as various 
as the persons whouse them, are still very different (Fig. 95). 
Some prefer large frames. I first tried the Quinby frame, and. 
afterward the Langstroth (Fig. 95). The advantage claimed 


Fic. 95. 
12 
18% 2 
lex AMERICAN, 
QUINBY. x 1 
11% 
17% 
© GALLUP. 
LANGSTROTH. a x 
Oe 19% 
ADAIR, xX 


CLOSED END Quinsy. is 


Brood: Frames.—From A. I. Root Co. 


for large frames is that there are less to handle, and time is 
saved; yet may not smaller frames be handled so much more 
dextrously, especially if they are to be handled through all the 
long day, as to compensate, in .partat least, for the number ? 
The advantage of the shallow frame is, as claimed, that the 
bees will gointo boxes more readily; yet they are not consid- 
ered by some bee-keepers as safe for out-door wintering. This 
is the style recommended and used by Mr. Langstroth, which 
fact may account for its popularity in the United States. 


228 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Another frame in common use, is one about one foot square. I 
have long used one 11% inches square, and still think that this 
frame has much to commend it. It is light, easily handled, 
convenient for nucleus hives, and perhaps the best form for 
forming a compact winter cluster; and yet upon mature re- 
flection I have decided to use in future, as already stated, the 
Langstroth frame, and advise all others to do so. 

It is very desirable to have beesin hives such as others 
will wish in case we sell bees, as every bee-keeper is almost 


Fic. 96. 
ZZ aay 
4 b 
a 
Gallup Frame.—Original. 
a Top-bar. ec Comb-guide. 
b, b Side-bars or uprights. a Bottom-bar. 


sure to do more or less each year. The Langstroth hive is used 
much more generally than any other, and thatit is excellent 
is shown in the fact that most of our successful bee-keepers, 
from Canada to the Gulf, use it,andI am free tosay that, 
taking the whole country through, it is doubtfulif a better 
style or form exists than the regular Langstroth. The chief 
objection urged against its use, that it is not the best form 
to secure safe wintering, lacks force in view of the fact that 
many who have been most successful use this frame. Indeed, 
with thorough protection this frame is as good as any, and 
most bee-keepers are learning that in our Northern States pro- 
tection is absolutely essential to success. 

That we shall ever have a uniform frame used by all api- 
arists, though exceedingly desirable, is too much to be hoped. 
Ido not think there is sufficient advantage in any form to war- 
rant us in holding to it, if by yielding we could secure this 
uniformity. Nor doI think the form and size so material as 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 229 


to make it generally desirable for the apiarist tochange all his 
hives, to secure a different style of frame. 

To make a Langstroth frame I would use a top-bar (Fig. 
96)—the figure illustrates a Gallup frame which is square, and 
will serve to make this explanation clearer, eighteen and seven- 
eighths (18%) inches long, seven-eighths (7%) of an inch wide, 
and one-fourth (4%) of an inch thick. The end-bars (Fig. 96, 
6, 6) should be eight and five-eighths (854) inches long, and as 
wide and thick as the top-bar. The top-bar is fastened to the 
end-bars, as shown in the figure, by nailing through it into 


Fic. 97, 


Reversible Frame, Upper one hung in the Hive, Lower one partly reversed. 
—From James Heddon, 


the ends of the end-bars, soas to leave the top-bar projecting 
three-fourths (34).of an inch. The bottom-bar is seventeen and 
three-eighths (1734) inches long, and as wide and thick as the 
other parts—though it may be only one-half as thick if pre- 
ferred. It is also nailed to the ends of the end-bars, so that it 
is as long asthe frame. The parts when made at the factory 
are often dovetailed so as to be more securely united. 

For some years I have used the reversible frame (Fig. 97), 
which has valuable features which would warrant its use were 


230 THE BRHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


it not forits complexity. With this frame there is no danger 
of the top-bar sagging, which is sure to enlarge the bee-space 
above and create mischief, and by inverting we secure the firm 
attachment of the comb to the frame along all its edges, 
and it helps to force our bees into the sections, simply 
by inverting the combs. This may not always succeed with 
the unskillful—some bee-keepers report failure—and it re- 
quires some time and attention. Figure 97 shows the charac- 
ter of the reversible frame as made by Mr. Heddon, and which 
I have found to work the best of any that I have used. As 
will be seen, the reversible part is a rectangle, pivoted in the 
center to the bottom of the short end-bars. These short end- 
bars at the top come within one-fourth (}4) inch of the side of 
the hive, and thin a little as they run down, so that the lower 
end is three-eighths (3s) of an inch from the side of the hive. 
The bottom of the frame, indeed all below the short end-bar, 
is three-fourths (3{) of an inch from the side of the hive. This 
makes it easy to put in the frames without crushing the bees. 
It might be supposed that the bees would build combs between 
the lower end of the frame and the hive, but I have never seen 
acase of the kind, andI have used such frames now quite 
extensively for several years. These frames reverse very 
easily, and I do not know a single person who has thoroughly 
tried them, who does not value them highly. Here again let 
me suggest that in making changes, a few be tried first, and 
not all till we know we wish them. 

As the use of comb foundation secures straight combs, 
with no drone-cells, it isvery desirable. When this is fastened 
by merely pressing or sticking it to the top-bar, it is apt to 
sag and warp, hence it is becoming quite the custom to wire 
the frames (Fig.97). This insures perfect safety if we wish to 
ship our bees, and secures against sagging or bulging of the 
foundation. If the foundation is put on with the Given press 
as the foundation is made, No. 36 wire is used; if pressed on 
by hand No. 30 wire is better. 

The timber for frame should be thoroughly seasoned, and 
of the best pine or white wood. Care should be taken that the 
frame be made so as to hang vertically, when suspended on 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 231 


the rabbets of the hive. To secure this very important point— 
true frames that will always hang true—they should always 
be made around a guide. ‘ 


A BLOCK FOR MAKING FRAMES. 


This may be made as follows: Take a rectangular board 
(Fig. 98) eleven and one-eighth by thirteen and a quarter 
inches. On both ends of one face of this, nail hard-wood 
pieces (Fig. 98, e, ¢) one inch square and ten and three-fourths 
inches long, so that one end (Fig. 98, g, g) shall lack three- 
eighths inch of reaching the edge of the board. On the other 
face of the board, nail a strip (Fig. 98, c) four inches wide and 
eleven and three-eighths inches long, at right angles to it, and 
in such position that the ends shall just reach to the edges of 


Fic. 98. 


SSS 
SSS 


Block for making Gallup Frames,—Original. 


the board. Midway between the one-inch-square pieces, screw 
on another hard-wood strip (Fig. 98, d) one inch square and 
four inches long, parallel with and three-fourths of an inch 
from the edge. To the bottom of this, screw a semi-oval piece 
of hoop-steel (Fig. 98, 6, 6), which shall bend around and press 
against the square strips. The ends of this should not reach 
quite to the bottom of the board. Near the ends of this spring 
fasten, by rivets, a leather strap an inch wide (Fig. 98, a), 


232 THE BEE-KEREPER’S GUIDE}; 


which shall be straight when thusriveted. These dimensions 
are for frames eleven and one-fourth inches square, outside 
measure, and must be varied for other sizes. Instead of the 
iron and strap, some use two pieces of wood with a central 
pivot. The upper ends of these levers are united by a strong 
elastic cord, so that the lower ends are constantly pressed 
against the side-pieces of the block. Recently we have used 
in such blocks, both for frame and section-making, a single 
hard-wood strip, a little shorter than the distance between the 
strips¢ande. Thisis pivoted at the center to the center of 
the block. This isa very simple way to hold the side-pieces 
firmly against the strips ¢, ¢. We have only to turn this lever. 

To use this block, we crowd the end-bars of our frames 
between the steel springs (Fig. 98, 6, 6) and the square strips 
(Fig. 98, e, e); then lay on our top-barand nail, after which we 
invert the block and nail the bottom-bar, as we did the top-bar. 
Now press down on the strap (Fig. 98, a), which will loosen 
the frame, when it may be removed all complete and true. 
Such a gauge not only insures perfect frames, but demands 
that every piece shall be cut with great accuracy, and some 
such arrangement should always be used in making the 
frames. 

The above description and Fig. 98 are for Gallup frames. 
For Langstroth frames the hard-wood strips would be eight 
and five-eighths (854) inches long, and the distance between 
them would be sixteen and seven-eighths (167) inches, that is, 
if the frames are made of pieces one-fourth of an inch thick. 
To make reversible frames we use two such guides. Wire nails 
are very excellent for making frames, and just the thing for 
the pivots in reversible frames. 

When the frames are in the hive there should be at least a 
one-fourth or three-eighths inch space between the end of the 
frame and side of the hive. As before stated, the space below 
the frame may be one-half inch. A much wider space on the 
sides than that given above is likely to be filled with comb, 
and so prove vexatious. The wide space below gives no such 
trouble,and in winter it is desirable, as also in case the hive 
shrinks. It is very undesirable to have the frames reach to 
the bottom of the hive. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 233 


‘The distance between the frames may be one-half of an 
inch, or best one and three-eighths inches from center to cen- 
ter of the frames. This is better than one and one-half, as 
the brood is kept warmer, and worker-brood is more likely to 
be reared. A slight variation either way does noharm. Some 
men, of very precise habits, prefer nails or wire staples in the 
side and bottom of the frames. Mr. Cheshire calls these his 
suggestions, though Mr. Langstroth used them over twenty 
years ago, which, if I am correctly informed, was before Mr. 
Cheshire kept bees at all. These are to insure equal spacing 
of the frames. Mr. Jones prolongs the sides and bottom of 
the frame (Fig. 88) for the same purpose. These projections 
extend just a quarter of aninch, so as to maintain this un- 
varying distance. Some bee-keepers use frames with wide, 
close-fitting end-bars, or with top-bars wide and close-fitting 


Fic. 99, 


—=|y 


Hoffman Frames.—From A. I. Root Co. 


attheends. Mr. Root now favors the Hoffman frame (Fig. 
99), as he calls it, which has the top-bar and upper ends of the 
end-bars wide and close-fitting. He claims more rapid hand- 
ling, as the frames, he says, can be handled in groups. I 
have tried all these styles, and do not like them. It is easy for 
any bee-keeper to try them. ‘‘ Prove all things; hold fast 
that which is good,”’ or that which pleases you. 


COVER FOR FRAMES. 


As before stated, a board covers the hive all through the 
honey season. ‘This rests upon the upper story of the hive, or 
upon the upper section-case. From September to June, in the 


234 THE BEH-KEHPER’S GUIDE; 


cold Northern climate, a piece of thick factory cloth should 
rest on the frames as before stated. This is just the size of 
the hive, and when properly adjusted no bee can pass above it. 
By cutting on three sides of an inch square, we form a flapin 
this cloth which may be turned back to permit the bees to enter 
the feeder, when feeding isdesired. In fall, winterand spring, 
a section-case left on the hive and filled with fine sawdust or 
chaff is a most desirable substitute for a heavy, awkward chaff 
hive. Dr. Miller covers the year through with a cloth cover. 


THE HUBER HIVE. 


The other type of hives originated when Huber hinged 
several of his leaf or unicomb hives together so that the frames 
would open like the leaves of a book. In August, 1779, Huber 
wrote to Bonnet as follows: ‘I took several small fir-boxes, a 
foot square and fifteen lines wide, and joined them togther 
by hinges, so that they could be opened and shut like the 
leaves of a book. When using a hive of this description, we 
took care to fix a comb in each frame, and then introduced all 
the bees.’’? (Edinburgh edition of Huber, p. 4.) Although 
Morlot and others attempted to improve the hive, it never 
gained favor with practical apiarists. 

In 1866, Mr. T. F. Bingham, then of New York, improved 
upon the Huber hive, securing a patent on his triangular-frame 
hive. This, sofaras Ican judge, was the Huber hive made 
practical. Mr. Bingham now uses a modification of this hive 
(Fig. 101). 

In 1868, Mr. M. S. Snow, then of New York, now of Minne- 
sota, procured a patent on his hive, which was essentially the 
same asthe hives now known as the Quinby and Bingham 
hives. 

Soon after, the late Mr. Quinby brought forth his hive, 
which is essentially the same as the above, only differing in 
details. No patent was obtained by Mr. Quinby, whose great 
heart and boundless generosity endeared him to all acquaint- 
ances. ‘Those who knew him best never tire of praising the 
unselfish acts and life of this noble man. If we except Mr. 
Langstroth, no other man, especially in the early days, did so 
much to promote the interest and growth of improved apicul- 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 235 


ture in the United States. His hive, his book, his views of win- 
tering, and foul brood, his introduction of the bellows-smoker— 
a gift to apiarists—all speak his praise asa man andan api- 
arist. 

The facts that the Bingham hive, as now made, is a great 
favorite with those that have used it, that Mr. Quinby pre- 
ferred this style or type of hive, that the Quinby form is used 
by the Hetherington brothers—Capt. J. E., the prince of Ameri- 
can apiarists, with his thousands of colonies, and O. J., whose 
neatness, precision, and mechanical skill are enough to 
awaken envy—are surely sufficient to excite curiosity and be- 
speak a description. 

The Quinby hive (Fig. 100) as used by the Hetherington 
brothers, consists of a series of rectangular frames (Fig. 100) 


Fic. 100. 


Frame, Bottom-Board and Frame-Support, of Quinby Hive.—Original. 


twelve by seventeen inches, outside measure. The end-bars 
of these frames are one and one-half inches wide, and half an 
inchthick. The top and bottom one inch wide and half an 
inch thick. The outer halves of the end-bar project one-fourth 
of an inch beyond the top and bottom bars. This projection 
is lined on the inside with sheet-iron, which is inserted in a 
groove which runs one inch into each end of the end-pieces, 
and is tacked by the same nails that fasten the end-bars to the 
top and bottom bars. This iron at the end of the bar bends in 
at right-angles (Fig. 100, 2), and extends one-fourth of an inch 
parallel with the top and bottom bars. Thus, when these 


236 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


frames stand side by side, the ends are close, while half-inch 
openings extend between the top and bottom bars of adjacent 
frames. The bottom-bars, too, are one-fourth of an inch from 
the bottom-board. Tacked to the bottom-board, in line with 
the position of the back end-bars of the frames, is an inch 
strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 100, 6, 4) sixteen inches in length. 
One-third of this strip, from the front edge back, is bent over 
so it lies not quite in contact with the second third, while the 
posterior third receives the tacks which hold it to the bottom- 
board. Now, when in use, this iron flange receives the hooks 
on the corners of the frames, so that the frames are held 
firmly, and can be moved only back and sidewise. In looking 
at the bees we can separate the combs at once, at any place. 
The chamber can be enlarged or diminished simply by adding 
or withdrawing frames. As the hooks are on all four corners 
of the frames, the frames can be either end back, or either side 
up. This arrangement, which permits the inversion of the 
frames, is greatly praised by those who have triedit. It was 
claimed by the Hetheringtons years ago that by turning these 
frames bottom up the comb would be fastened above and 
below, and the bees, in their haste to carry the honey from the 
bottom of the frames, would rush at once into the sections. 
Boards with iron hooks close the side of the brood cavity, 
while a cloth covers the frames. 

The entrance (Fig. 100, ¢)is cnt in the bottom-board, as 
already explained, except that the lateral edges are kept 
parallel. A strip of sheet-iron (Fig. 100, d)is tacked across 
this, on which rest the ends of the front end-bars of the frames 
which stand above, and underneath which pass the bees as 
they come to and go from the hive. A box, without bottom 
and with movable top, covers all, leaving a space from four 
to six inches above and on all sides between it and the frames. 
This gives chance to pack with chaff in winter, and for side 
and top storing in sections in summer. 

The Bingham hive (Fig. 101) is not only remarkably sim- 
ple, but is as remarkable for its shallow depth, the frames 
being only five inches high. These have no bottom-bar. The 
end-bars are one and a half inches wide, and the top-bar 
square. The nails that hold the end-bars pass into the end of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 237 


the top-bar, which is usually placed diagonally, so that an 
edge, not a face, is below; though some are made with a face 
below (Fig. 101, /), to be used when comb is transferred. The 
frames are held together by two wires, one at each end. Each 
wire (Fig. 101, a) is a little longer than twice the width of the 
hive when the maximum number of frames are used. The 
ends of each wire are united and placed about nails (Fig. 101, 
6,6) in the ends of the boards (Fig. 101 ¢,c) which form the sides 
of the brood-chamber. A small stick (Fig. 101, a) spreads 


Fic. 101. 


Frames and Bottom-Board of the Bingham Hive.—From A. I. Root Co. 


these wires, and brings the frames close together. A box 
without bottom and with movable cover, is placed about the 
frames. This is large and high enough to permit of chaff 
packing in winter and spring. The bottom-board may be 
made like the one already described. Mr. Bingham does not 
bevel the bottom-board, but places lath under three sides of 
the brood-chamber, the lath being nailed to the bottom-board. 
He uses the Langstroth blocks to contract the entrance (Fig. 
101, g). 

The advantages of this hive are simplicity, great space 
above for surplus frames or boxes, capability of being placed 
one hive above another to any height desired, while the frames 
may be reversed, end for end, or bottom for top, or the whole 
brood-chamber turned upside down. Thus, by doubling, we 
may have a depth of ten inches for winter. It will be seen at 
once that this hive possesses all the advantages claimed for 
the new Heddon and Shuck hives, except the frames are not 
held so securely. Yetitis far more simple, which is greatly 
in its favor. 


238 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE ; 


The objections which I have found in the use of such hives 
are the fact that so few usethem, and danger of killing bees 
in rapid handling. They can be manipulated with rapidity if 
we care not how many bees we crush. It hurts meto killa 
bee, and soI find the Langstroth style more quickly manipu- 
lated. Mr. Snow, too, who was the first to make the above 
style of hive, has discarded it in favor of the Langstroth. His 
objection to the above, is the fact that the various combs are 
not sure to be so built as tobe interchangeable. Yet that such 
apiarists as those above named prefer these Huber hives, after 
long use of the other style, is certainly not without significance. 


OBSERVATORY HIVE. 


To study bees while they are at work, requires a hive so 
constructed that we can look in upon all the bees of the hive 


Fic. 102. 


| 


| 4 i 


Observatory Hive.—Original. 


at pleasure. For this purpose I have used a small Langstroth 
hive (Fig. 102) containing one frame. Glass is used each side 
of the frame, and this is shaded by doors hung on hinges. We 
are able to look at the bees or make all dark inside at pleasure. 
To prevent the hive from becoming too crowded, we must every 
twenty-three or twenty-four days shake the bees from the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 239 


frame, and replace the latter with another frame, which shall 
contain no brood. From sucha hive, in my study window, I 
have received much pleasure and information. 


APPARATUS FOR PROCURING COMB HONEY. 


Although I feel sure that extracted honey will grow more 
and more in favor, yet it will never supersede the beautiful 
comb, which, from its exquisite flavor and attractive appear- 
ance, has always been, and always will be, admired and 
desired. So, nohive is complete without its arrangement of 
section frames and cases, all constructed with the view of 
securing this delectable comb honey in the form that will be 
most tempting to the eye and palate. 


SURPLUS COMB HONEY IN SECTIONS. 


Honey in several-pound boxes is no longer marketable, 
and is now almost wholly replaced by comb honey in sections. 
In fact, there is no apparatus for securing comb honey that 
promises so well as these sections. That they are just the 
thing to enable us to tickle the market is shown by their rapid 
growth in popular favor. Some years ago I predicted, at one 
of our State conventions, that they would soon replace boxes, 
and was laughed at. Nearly all who then laughed, now use 
these sections. They are cheap, and with their use we can get 
more honey, and in a form that will make it irresistible. 

The wood should be white, the size small—two-pound sec- 
tions are as large as the market wlll tolerate. One-pound 
sections are more salable, andin some markets even one-half 
pound sections are best of all. Of late, Mr. W. Harmer, of 
Manistee, Mich., is making and using successfully a two- 
ounce section. Thisis very neatand cheap. It is madeofa 
shaving, andis glued. Such sections would be the thing to 
sell at fairs. The size of the sections has nothing to do with 
the amount of honey secured, and so the market and extra cost 
should guide the apiarist in this matter. 

As early as 1877 I used veneer sections, which were essen- 
tially the same as the one-piece sections now so popular. 
After this I used nailed sections. At present only the very 
neatest sections can catch the market, and so we must buy our 


240 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


sections of those who can make them by machinery neater and 
cheaper than we possibly can by hand. 

Dr. C. C. Miller, James Heddon, and many others, prefer 
sections made as are children’s toy blocks—the sides fastened 
by a sort of mortise and tenon arrangement (Fig.103). These 
are preferred, as they do not have the shoulder of the one- 


Fic. 103. 


Dovetailed Section.—From A. I. Root Co. 


piece section. They are objected to from the longer time re- 
quired to put the pieces together, and their lack of rigidity 
when together, so that they are likely to get out of shape. 

The Wheeler section—invented and patented by Mr. Geo. 
T. Wheeler, of Mexico, N. Y., in 1870—is remarkable for being 


Fic. 104. 
One-Pound Section.—From A. I. Root Co. 
Fic. 105. 


a 


Prize Section.— From A. I, Root Co. 


the first to be used with tinseparators. Instead of making the 
bottoms narrower for a passage, Mr. Wheeler made an open- 
ing in the bottom. 

Another style of section, termed the one-piece section (Fig. 
104), is, as its name implies, made of a single piece of wood, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 241 


with three cross cuts so that it can be easily bent into a square. 
The fourth angle unites by notches and projections, as before 
described. These one-piece sections are now, I think, the 
favorites among bee-keepers. I prefer these to the dovetailed. 
They are quickly and safely bent, if dampened slightly before 
bending, and are firm when in shape for use. Dr. Miller wets 
these quickly by pouring hot water at the to be corners while 
they are yet in the package. They must be even in the pack. 
If, as argued by Messrs. Dadant, Foster and Tinker, the sec- 
tions open on all sides are superior, then we must perforce use 
these one-piece sections, rather than the dovetailed. 

This last desirable feature is best secured in the plain 
section (Fig. 106), so-called in distinction from the bee-space 


Fic. 106. 


Plain Sections in Super, Showing Frame-Holders and Fence. 
—from A, I, Root Co. 


or bee-way sections just described. These are like the ends of 
the one-piece section all around (Fig. 106); that is, the bottom 
and top are not cut out to form bee-spaces. These plain sec- 
tions give free communication, and thus are more readily 
filled, and as the honey projects to the very edge they look 
neater (Fig. 108). Of course, there is less wood than in the 
bee-space sections, and all edges are even. They are more 
easily and quickly scraped to remove propolis, etc. They are 


242 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


rapidly growing in favor. These are used with ‘‘fences,’’ to 
be described, and in the ordinary supers (Fig. 106). 

Heretofore there have been two prevailing sizes of sec- 
tions in use in the United States—the prize section (Fig. 105), 
which is five and one-fourth by six and one-fourth inches, and 
the one-pound section (Fig. 104), which is four and one-fourth 
inches square. The latter is coming rapidly to the front, as 


Fic. 107. 


Plain Sections in Super, Showing Fence.—From A. I. Root Co. 


honey in it sells more readily than if in a larger section. Even 
half-pound sections have taken the lead in the Boston and 
Chicago markets. It is barely possible that these small sections 
will rule generally in the markets of the future. They would 
often sell more readily, and are far better to ship, as the combs 
will seldom if ever break from the sections. If, in arranging 
our sections, we desire to have them oblong, we would better 
make them so that they will be longestup and down. Mr. D. 
A. Jones finds that if so made they are filled and capped much 
sooner (Fig. 108). Captain J. E. Hetherington prefers the 
oblong section, being one which is three and seven-eighths by 
five inches. Mr. Danzenbaker uses one. which is four by five 
inches. He thinks honey in such sections (Fig. 108) sells fora 
higher price. In the depth of the section, which fixes the 
thickness of the comb, a change from the common style seems 
to be desirable. Heretofore they have been generally made 
two inches deep. With such sections we must use separators 
to secure perfect combs. Dr. Miller uses separators, and pre- 
fers a depth of one and five-sevenths, or two inches. By 
reducing the depth to from one and three-eighths to one and 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. , 243 


three-fourths inches, the expense of separators is found by 
some to be unnecessary. In feeding back to have sections 
completed, or where each section is removed as soon as capped, 
separators are indispensable. While I have never succeeded 
satisfactorily without separators—as the sections of comb 
would not be regular enough to ship well—yet I prefer the 
depth of my sections to be one and five-sevenths inches, or 
seven to the foot. These hold about three-fourths of a pound. 
I now believe that the best section for to-day is one four and 
one-quarter inches square and one and five-sevenths inches in 


Fic. 108. 


5X3% 


Oblong and Square Sections.—From A, I. Root Co. 


depth. We secure nicer comb for the table, with the thinner 
combs, and more bees are able to work on a super or frame of 
sections, so that the foundation is more speedily drawn out. 
While a little more honey might be secured in two-pound sec- 
tions, the market would, I think, make their use undesirable. 
Of course, any decided change in the form and size of our sec- 
tions involves no small expense, as it requires that the supers 


244 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


or frames for holding the sections should also be changed. 
Often, however, by alittle planning we can vary the form so 
as to reduce the size, without necessitating this expense. 


HOW TO PLACH SECTIONS IN POSITION. 


There are two methods, each of which is excellent, and 
has, as it well may, earnest advocates—one by use of frames, 
the other by supers. 

SECTIONS IN FRAMES. 


Frames for holding sections (Fig. 109) are made the same 
size asthe frames in the brood-chamber. The depth of the 


Fic. 109. 


Gallup Section-F rame.—Original. 


frame, however, is the same as the depth of the sections. The 
bottom-bar is three-eighths of an inch narrower than the 
remainder of the frame, so that when two frames are side by 
side, there is three-eighths of an inch space between the bot- 
tom-bars, though the top and side pieces are close together. 
In case sections are used that are open on all sides, then the 
ends of the section-frames must also be narrow. I should fear 
such an arrangement would be objectionable from the amount 
of propolis that would be used by the bees to make all secure, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 245 


The sections are of such a size (Fig. 110) that four, six or 
nine, etc., will just fill one of the large frames. Nailed to one 
side of each large frame are two tin, or thin wooden, strips 
(Fig. 110, ¢, ¢) in case separators are to be used, as long as the 
frame, and as wide into one inch as are the sections. ‘These 
are tacked half aninch from the top and the bottom of the 


Fic. 110 


SS 


. Gallup Frame with Sections,—Original. 


large frames, and so are opposite the sections, thus permitting 
the bees to pass readily from one tier of sections to another, 
as do the narrower top and bottom bars of the sections, from 
those below to those above. Captain Hetherington tells me 
that Mr. Quinby used these many years ago. It is more 
trouble to make these frames if we have the tins set in so as 
just to come flush with the edge of the end-bars of the frames, 
but then the frames would hang close together, and would not 
be so stuck together with propolis. These may be hung in the 
second story of a two-story hive, and just enough to fill the 
same—my hives will take nine—or they can be put below, 
beside the brood-combs. Mr. Doolittle, in case he hangs these 
below, inserts a perforated division-board, so that the queen 
will not enter the sections and lay eggs. 


246 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


The perforated-zinc division-board (Fig. 92) would serve 
admirably for this purpose. A honey-board (Fig. 91) of the 
same material keeps sections, either in supers or frames, that 
are above the hive, neat, and also keeps the queen from enter- 
ing them. ‘The workers enter just as freely. 

In long hives, the ‘* New Idea’’—which, though I would 
not use, nor advise any one else to use, I have found quite sat- 
isfactory, after several years’ trial, especially for extracted 
honey—I have used these frames of sections, and with good 
success. ‘The Italians enter them at once, and fill them even 
more quickly than other bees fill the sections in the upper 
story. In fact, one great advantage of these sections in the 
frames is the obvious and ample passageways, inviting the 


Fic. 111. 


Langstroth Frame with One-Pound Sections.—From A. I. Root Co. 


bees to enter them. But in our desire to make ample and invit- 
ing openings, caution is required that we do not overdo the 
matter, and invite the queen to injurious intrusion. So we 
have Charybdis and Scylla, and must, by study, learn so to 
steer between as to avoid both dangers. 

Mr. Jones finds that by using the division-board made of 
perforated-zinc (Fig 92), the queen is kept from the sections, 
and they can be safely placed in one end of the body of the 
hive. 

Figure 111 shows a Langstroth frame full of one-pound 
sections. As already stated, Mr. Heddon recommends the use 
of one-story wide-frames, with separators, and so made as to 
admit of inversion (Fig. 93). At first I used these deep frames 
exclusively. The great objection to them is the daubing with 
propolis, and difficulty of removing the sections from the wide 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 247 
frames. This has led me to replace the wide frames by the 
more convenient and desirable section-case or crate. 

CRATES OR RACKS. 


These (Fig. 112) are to be used in lieu of large frames, to 
hold sections, and are very convenient, as we can use one tier 


Fic. 112. 


— 
ATI AA ET G 


i ei 


Crate for Sections.—Original. 


at first, and as the harvest advances tier up, or ‘“‘ storify,” as 
our British friends would say, until we may use three, or even 


Fic. 113. 


L Super.—From A. I. Root Co. 


four, tiers of sections ona single hive. I think this far the 
best arrangement for securing comb honey. 

Southard and Ranney, of Kalamazoo, have long used a 
very neat rack, as seen in Fig. 112. 


248 THER BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


It will be seen that the Heddon case (Fig. 93), already 
described (page 225) as a part of the Heddon-Langstroth hive, 
is only a modification of the Southard crate. This crate does 
not permit the use of separators. 

The case or super preferred and used by Dr. C. C. Miller 
(Fig. 113) is one with 4 shaped tin supports, on which rest the 
sections. This is just like the Heddon case, except the parti- 
tions are omitted. Projecting tin strips are tacked on the bot- 
tom of the sides as wellas ends. These strips on the ends 
help hold the end rows of sections, while those on the sides 
hold the 4 shaped tins, which in turn support the sections. As 
the vertical part of the 4 supports the separator, it should not 
be more than one-half inch high. As most of us use—must 
use—separators, this is probably one of the best section-honey 


Fic. 114. 


Hilton T Super.—From A. I. Root Co. 


cases for us, and so one of the best arrangements for securing 
comb honey. Mr. Hilton (Fig. 114), of Michigan, does not like 
the movable 1 supports, and so he omits the projecting tin 
pieces, and tacks the 1 tins at the ends to the bottom of the 
side of the case. 

Mr. Heddon has a case (Fig. 93) which permits inversion, 
through the use of wide frames and thumb-screws. Still 
another method to support sections (Fig. 115) has many advo- 
cates. The caseis like the one used with the | tins, but has 
projecting tin supports tacked to the ends only. On these rest 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 249 


plain frames with no top-bar (Fig. 115), which in turn support 
the sections. If bee-space sections are used, then the bottom- 
bar of these frame-supports must have bee-ways or spaces cut 


Fic. 115. 


Dovetailed Super with Frames and Section-holders.—From A. I. Root Co. 


D Wooden Separator. 
£ Sections with Foundation Starters. 


in them. These are also used to hold the plain sections (Fig. 
106), in which case, as the fence (Fig. 116) always used with 
these sections furnishes a bee-way, the frames, like the sec- 
tions, are entirely plain. Of course, separators can be used 
with these supports, in case we use the bee-space sections. 


Fic. 116. 


Fence for Plain Sections.—From A, I. Root Co. 


FENCES. 
The fenceis simply a slatted separator made by nailing 
three boards (Fig. 116) three-sixteenths of an inch apart to end 
posts, which project three-eighths of an inch below the lowest 


250 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


board; cross-pieces of the same thickness as the corner posts, 
three-sixteenths of an inch, are like the corner posts nailed on 
each side connecting the boards of the fence. They do not 
reach below the lowest board. Thus, these fences permit very 
free communication (Figs. 106, 107). The whole distance at 
the bottom of the sections has a wide bee-way which also 
reaches part way up the ends. Of course, the cross-pieces are 
exactly opposite the ends of the sections which they separate. 
As these separators have spaces, they give ample connection 
between sections, and favor rapid comb-building and honey- 
storing. Fences are also placed outside the last row of sec- 
tions. ‘They secure added warmth by the double wall of bees, 
and so better filled sections. No wonder that these plain sec- 
tions and fences are rapidly coming into use. Their use, of 
course, necessitates the use of cases with frames having no 
top-bars to hold the sections and fences (Fig. 106). 

If we discard separators the old Heddon case is excellent; 
if we must use separators then the case with | shaped tin 
supports is perhaps the best inthe market. Theplain sections 
are so admirable that they will be largely used; then the frame 
supports must be used. In any casea follower (Fig. 115, D) 
should be used to crowd the sections with separators close 
together. This may be pushed by use of a thumb-screw (Fig. 
114), wedge, or steel spring. 

Mr. Adam Grimm once wrote that boxes above the hive 
should not be closely covered. As already stated, Mr. Heddon 
puts no close cover over his sections. Mr. Hasty is pleased 
with simply a cloth, cheap muslin, above his sections, anda 
board cover to protect from rains. Such ventilation of the 
sections is scientific as well as practical. 

All apiarists who desire to work for comb honey that will 
sell, will certainly use the sections, and adjust them by use of 
either frames or cases. Each method hasits friends, though 
I think cases or supers are justly taking the lead. 


SEPARATORS. 


These may be of woodor tin. While the tin were first 
used, and do work well, the wood seem to be growing in favor, 
and seem likely wholly to replace the tin. The wood are poorer 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 251 


conductors of heat, and also give a foothold for the bees, both 
of which are desirable qualities. , 


FOOT-POWER SAW. 


Every apiarist, who keeps only a few bees, will find, if he 
makes his own hives. a foot-power saw very valuable. I have 
used, with great satisfaction, the admirably combined foot- 
power saw of W. F. & John BarnesCo. It permits rapid work, 


Fic. 117. 


ml 


ena | ee 


fi 


Horse-Power.—From A. I. Root Co. 


insures uniformity, and enables the apiarist to give a finish to 
his work that would rival that of the cabinet-maker. 

Those who procure such a machine should learn to file and 
set the saw, and should mever run the machine when not in 
perfect order. 

When just beginning the business it will generally be 
wise to secure a fully equipped hive of some bee-keeper or 
dealer in supplies. Ifthereis a hive factory near at hand, it 
may pay to buy all hives ready made ; otherwise high freights 
may make this unprofitable, If a person wishes to manufacture 


252 THE BEE-KEEPEHR’S GUIDE; 


hives by the score, either for himself or others, even the foot- 
power saw will soon become too slow and wearying. In this 
case some use wind-power, which is too uncertain to give full 
satisfaction ; others use horse-power, and still others procure 
a small steam-engine. 

Mr.M. H. Hunt, a very thoughtful apiarist, uses a very con- 
venient horse-power (Fig. 117). The large wheel is fifteen feet 
in diameter, the horse is inside the rim, and the band consists 


Fic. 118. 


Saw-Table.—From A. I, Root Co. 


of a chain, that it may not slip. To get the horse in position, 
the wheel is simply lowered. 

I have used a tread-power which pleases me much. Itis 
safe, can be used under shelter, andif one has colts or young 
horses it serves well to quiet them. As gasoline engines are 
now so cheap, and convenient; and as crude oil for steam en- 
gines is so cheap, such engines will generally be preferred 
when one’s business is at all extensive. In case we use other 
than foot or hand power, our saw-table must be firm and heavy. 
The one illustrated here (Fig. 118) is recommended by Mr. A. 
I. Root. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 253 


CHAPTER VIL 
POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF APIARY. 


As it is desirable to have our apiary grounds so fixed as to 
give the best results, and as this costs some money and more 
labor, it should be done once for all. As plan and execution 
in this direction must needs precede even the purchase of bees, 
this subject deserves an early consideration. Hence, we will 
proceed to consider position, arrangement of grounds, and 
preparation for each individual colony. 


POSITION. 


Of course, it is of the first importance that the apiary be 
near at hand. In city or village this is imperative. In the 
country, or at suburban homes, we have more choice, but close 
proximity to the house is of much importance. In a city it 
may be necessary to follow Mr. Muth’s example, and locate on 
the house-tops, where, despite the inconvenience, we may 
achieve success. The lay of the ground is not important, 
though, if a hill, it should not be very steep. It may slope in 
any direction, but better any way than toward the north. Of 
course, each hive should stand perfectly level. 


ARRANGEMENT OF GROUNDS. 


Unless sandy, these should be well drained. If a grove 
offers inviting shade, accept it, but trim high to avoid damp. 
Such a grove could soon be formed of basswood and tulip 
trees, which, as we shall see, are very desirable, as their bloom 
offers plenteous and most delicious honey. Even Virgil urged 
shade of palm and olive, also that we screen the bees from 
winds. Wind-screens are very desirable, especially on the 
windward side. Such ascreen may be formed of a tall board 
fence, which, if it surrounds the grounds, will also serve to 
protect against thieves. Yet these are gloomy and forbidding, 


254 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


and will be eschewed by the apiarist who has an eye to 
esthetics. Evergreen screens, either of Norway spruce, 
Austrian or other pine, or arbor vite, each or all are not only 
very effective, but are quickly grown, inexpensive, and add 
greatly to the beauty of the grounds. In California eucalyp- 
tus is very desirable shade. The species grow vigorously, 
stand drouth, and if wisely selected afford much honey. Such 
a fence or hedge is also very desirable if the bees are neara 
street or highway. It not only shuts the bees away, as it 
were, but it so directs their flight upward that they will not 
trouble passers-by. If the apiary is large, a small, neat, inex- 
pensive house in the center of the apiary grounds is indispen- 
sable. This will serve in winter as a shop for making hives, 
frames, etc., and asa store-house for honey, while in summer 
it will be used for extracting, transferring, storing, bottling, 
etc. In building this, it will be wellto construct a frost-proof, 
thoroughly drained, dark and well-ventilated cellar. (See 
Chapters XVIII and XIX.) 


PREPARATION FOR EACH COLONY. 


Virgil was right in recommending shade for each colony. 
Bees are forced to cluster outside the hive, if the bees are sub- 
jected to the full force of the sun’srays. By the intense heat 
the temperature inside becomes like that of an oven, and the 
wonder is that they do not desert entirely. I have known 
hives, thus unprotected, to be covered with bees, idling outside, 
when, by simply shading the hives, all would go merrily to 
work. The combs, too, and foundation especially, are liable, 
in unshaded hives, to melt and fall down, which is very dam- 
aging to the bees, and very vexatious to the apiarist. The 
remedy for all this is always to have the hives so situated that 
they will be entirely shaded all through the heat of the day. 
This might be done, as in the olden time, by constructing a 
shed or house, but these are expensive and very inconvenient, 
and, therefore, to be discarded. 

If the aiarist has a convenient grove this may be trimmed 
high, so as not to be damp, and will fulfill every requirement. 
So arrange the hives that while they are shaded through all 
the heat of the day, they will receive the sun’s rays early and 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 255 


late, and thus the bees will work more hours. I always face 
my hives to the east. Sucha grove is also very agreeable to 
the apiarist who often must work all the day in the hottest 


Fic. 119, 


Nucleus and Simplicity Hive Shaded by ‘Grape-vine.—From A. I, Root Co. 


sunshine. If no grove is at command, the hives may be placed 
on the north of a Concord grape-vine (Fig. 119), or other vig- 
orous variety, as the apiarist may prefer, This should be 


256 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


trained to a trellis, which may be made by setting two posts, 
either of cedar or oak. Let these extend four or five feet above 
the ground, and be three or four feet apart. ‘Two or three 
supporting arms of narrow boards can be nailed at right 
angles to a single post on which to train the vines, or we may 
connect them at intervals of eighteen inches with three gal- 
vanized wires, the last one being at thetop of the posts. Thus 
we can have shade and grapes, and can see for ourselves that 
bees do not injure grapes. These should be at least six feet 
apart. A. I. Root’s idea of having the vine of each succeeding 
row divide the spaces of the previous row, in quincunx order 
(Fig. 120), is very good ; though I should prefer the rows in this 
case to be four instead of three feet apart. I have tried grape- 
vines and evergreens to shade hives, and do not like them. 
They are too much in the way. UnlessiI can have a grove 
trimmed high up I much prefer a simple shade-board as already 
suggested. This is simply a wide board nailed to the edge of 
two cross-boards, which are about fourinches wide. I make 
these eighteen inches wide by two feet long. I have some 
even larger. If one cross-board is a little narrower it givesa 
slant that insures a rapid removalof the waterin arain. I 
have never known these shade-boards to blow off. Should 
they do so a second board parallel to the shade-board could be 
nailed to the cross-boards. A brick placed on this would make 
all secure. This shade-board is inexpensive, always out of 
the way, and ready for service. 

Many apiarists economize by using fruit-trees for shade, 
which, from their spreading tops, serve well, though often 
from their low branches they are not pleasant to work under. 
Mr. Doolittle thinks if hives are painted white shade is unneces- 
sary. Mr. A. I. Root’s idea of having sawdust under and 
about the hives has much to recommend it. The objection to - 
sawdust is the danger from fire. I have used sawdust, cement, 
asphalt, etc. I thinkon the whole a fine grass lawn kept 
closely and smoothly mown is as convenient as any plan, and 
it certainly has taste and beauty to recommend it. If closely 
mown, one will rarely lose a queen. While ashes or sawdust 
make a queen walking upon them more conspicuous, I much 
prefer the beautiful grass plat. 


OR, MANUATL, OF THE APIARY. 257 


Fie. 120. Grape-Vine Apiary.—From A, I. Root Co, 


258 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


CHAPTER VIL 
TO TRANSFER BEES. 


As the prospective bee-keeper may have purchased his 
bees in box-hives, barrels, or hollow logs, and so, of course, 
will desire to transfer them immediately into movable-frame 
hives, or, asalready suggested, may wish to transfer from one 
movable-frame to another, I will now proceed to describe the 
process. 

Among the many valuable methods which Mr. Heddon has 
given to the bee-keeping public, not the least valuable is that of 
transferring. This method should be used only at or just before 
the swarming season—the best time to transfer. After blow- 
ing a little smoke into the hive, sufficient to alarm the bees, 
we set it a little aside, and put in its place the new hive full of 
wired foundation. We now turn the old hive, whatever it may 
be, bottom side up, and place a box over it. If the bees are 
sufficiently smoked, it will make no difference even if the box 
is not close-fitting to the old hive. Yet the beginner will feel 
safer to have it so; and in this case no stinging can take 
place. We then with a'stick or hammer rap on the hive for 
from ten to twenty minutes. The bees will fill with honey 
and go with the queen into the upper box and cluster. If 
towards the last we carefully set the box off once or twice, and 
vigorously shake the hive, and then replace the box, we will 
hasten the emigration of the bees, and make it more complete. 
I got this last suggestion from Mr, Baldridge. A few young 
bees will still remain in the old hive, but these will do no harm. 

We next take the box, which contains the queen and nearly 
all the bees, and shake the bees all out in front of the hive 
already placed on the old stand. The bees willat once take 
possession, draw out, or better, build out, the foundation ina 
surprisingly short time, and will give us a set of combs which 
will surpass in beauty those procured in any other way. 
Should the bees be unable to gather any honey for some days, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 259 


which at this season is not likely to occur, of course we must 
feed them. 

We set the old hive aside for twenty-one days, when the 
young bees will allcome from the cells. Should the weather 
be cold, it might be wellto put thisin a warm room, so the 
brood will not chill. At the time of swarming this will rarely 
be necessary. We now drum out these bees as before, kill the 
queen, which has been reared, and unite the bees with the 
others, or form a separate colony as before, as the number of 
bees determines. We can now split out the corners of the 
old hive, split the gum, or separate the staves of the barrel, 
so as not to break the comb. This should be carefully cut 
loose, and the honey extracted by use of the wire comb-holder 
(Fig. 150), and the comb melted into wax for foundation. ‘The 
only loss in this method is the time which the bees require to 
build out the foundation, and this is far more than made up in 
the superior combs which are secured. I think the time 
expended in melting up the combs, etc., is more than made up 
by the time saved in transferring. 


THE OLD METHOD. 


If one has no foundation, or desires to give the bees the 
comb and honey at once, even at the cost of less shapely 
combs, he then should drum the bees out as before, on a warm 
day when they are busy at work, and put the box containing 
the bees on the old stand, leaving the edge raised so that the 
bees which are out may enter, and so all the bees can get air. 
This method is difficult, except in early spring, and is best 
done about noon, when the bees are busy on the fruit-bloom. 
It is not safe to transfer on a hot day, when the bees are idle, 
as the risks from robbing are too great. If other bees do not 
trouble, as they usually will not if busily gathering, we can 
proceed in the open air. If theydo, we must go into some 
room. I have frequently transferred the comb in my kitchen, 
and often in a barn. 

Now knock the old hive apart, as already described, cut 
the combs from the sides, and get the combs out of the old 
hive with just as little breakage as possible. Mr. Baldridge, 
if transferring in spring, saws the combs and cross-sticks 


260 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


loose from the sides, turns the hive into the natural position, 
then strikes against the top of the hive with a hammer till the 
fastenings are broken loose, when he lifts the hive, and the 
combs are all free and in convenient shape for rapid work. 

We now need a barrel, set on end, on which we placea 
board fifteen to twenty inches square, covered with several 
thicknesses of cloth. Some apiarists think the cioth useless, 
but it serves, I think, to prevent injury to comb, brood or 
honey. We now place a comb on this cloth, and seta frame 
on the comb, and cut out a piece of the comb the size of the 
inside of the frame, taking pains to save all the worker-brood. 
Now crowd the frame over the comb, so that the latter will be 
in the same position that it was when in the old hive ; that is, 
so the honey will be above—the position is not very important 
—then fasten the comb in the frame, by winding about all one 
or two small wires, or pieces of wrapping-twine. To raise the 
frame and comb before fastening, raise the board beneath till 


Fic. 121. Fie. 122, 


x 


b° ta 


Transferring-Clasp.— 
From American Bee Journal. 


Transferred Comb.—From American Bee Journal. 


the frame is vertical. Set this frame in the new hive, and 
proceed with the others in the same way till we have all the 
worker-comb—that with small cells—fastened in. To secure 
the pieces, which we shall find abundant at the end, take thin 
pieces of wood, one-half inch wide, and a trifle longer than the 
frame is deep, place these in pairs either side the comb, 
extending up and down, and enough to hold the pieces secure 
till the bees shall fasten them (Fig. 121), and secure the strips 
by winding with small wire, just below the frame (Fig. 122), 
or by use of small rubber bands, or else tack them to the frame 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 261 


with small tacks. Some bee-keepers use U-shaped pieces of 
wire or tin to hold the comb in the frame. 

Captain Hetherington has invented and practices a very 
neat method of fastening comb into frames. In constructing 
his frames, he bores small holes through the top, side and 
bottom bars of his frames, about two inches apart ; these holes 
are just large enough to permit the passage of the long spines 
of the hawthorn. Now, in transferring comb, he has but to 
stick these thorns through into the comb to hold it securely. 
He can also use all the pieces, and still make a neat and secure 
frame of comb. He finds this arrangement convenient, too, 
in strengthening insecure combs. In answer to my inquiry, 
this gentleman said it paid well to bore such holesin all his 
frames, which are eleven by sixteen inches, inside measure. 
I discarded such frames because of the liability of the comb 
to fall out. 

Having fastened all the nice worker-comb into the frames 
—of course, all other comb will be melted into wax—we place 
all the frames containing brood together in the center of our 
new hive, especially if the colony is weak, or the weather cool, 
and confine the space by use of the division-board, adding the 
other frames as the bees may need them. We now place the 
new hive on the stand, opening the entrance wide, so that the 
bees can enter anywhere along the alighting-board. We then 
shake all the bees from the box, and any young bees that may 
have clustered on any part of the old hive, or on the floor or 
ground, where we transferred the comb, immediately in front 
of the hive. They will enter at once and soon be at work, all 
the busier for having passed ‘‘from the old house into the 
new.’? Intwo or three days remove the wires, or strings or 
sticks, when we shall find the combs all fastened and smoothed 
off, and the bees as busily engaged as though their present 
home had always been the seat of their labors. 

In practicing this method, many proceed at once to trans- 
fer without drumming out the bees. In this case the bees 
should be well smoked, should be driven, by the use of the 
smoker, away from the side of the old hive where the combs 
are being cut loose, and may be brushed direct from the old 
combs into the new hive. This method will only be preferred 


262 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


by the experienced. The beginner will find it more easy and 
pleasant first to drum out all the bees before he commences to 
cut out the combs. 

Of course, in transferring from one frame to another, the 
matter is much simplified. In this case, after thoroughly 
smoking the bees, we have but to lift the frames and shake or 
brush the bees into the new hive. Fora brush, a chicken or 
turkey wing, a large wing or tail feather from a turkey, goose 
or peacock, or atwig of pine or bunch of asparagus twigs 
serves admirably. Cheap and excellent brushes (Fig. 154) are 
now for sale by all supply-dealers. Now cut out the comb in 
the best form to accommodate the new frames, and fasten as 
already suggested. After the combs are alltransferred, shake 
all remaining bees in front of the new hive, which has already 
been placed on the stand previously occupied by the old hive. 

Sometimes bees from trees in the forest are transferred to 
hives and the apiary. 


HUNTING BEE-TREES. 


Except for recreation, this is seldom profitable. It is 
slow and uncertain work. The tree, when found, is not our 
own, and though the owner may consent to our cutting it, he 
may dislike to do so. The bees, when found, are difficult to 
get alive; itis even more difficult to get the honey in good 
condition, and, when secured, the honey and bees are often 
almost worthless. 

The principle upon which bees are ‘‘lined’’ is this: ‘That 
after filling with honey, a bee always takes a direct course— 
“(a bee-line ’’—to its hive. To hunt the bee-trees we needa 
bottle of sweetened water, a little honey-comb, unless the bees 
are gathering freely from forest flowers, and a small bottom- 
less box with a sliding glass cover, and a small shelf attached 
to the middle of one side on the inside of the box. A shallow 
tray, or piece of honey-comb, is to be fastened to this shelf. 
If the bees are not found on flowers, we can attract them by 
burning a piece of honey-comb. If on a flower, set the box 
over them after turning a little of the sweetened water in the 
comb or tray on the shelf. It is easy to get them to sipping 
this sweet. Then slide the glass, and, when they fly, watch 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 263 


closely and see the direction they take. By following this 
line we come to the bee-tree, or more likely to some neighbor’s 
apiary. By getting two lines, if the bees are from the same 
tree, the tree will be where the lines meet. We should be care- 
ful not to be led to neighboring apiaries, and should look very 
closely when the bees fly, to be sure of theline. Experience 
makes a person quite skillful. It need hardly be said that in 
warm days in winter, when there is snow on the ground, we 
may often find bee-trees by noting dead bees on the snow, as 
also the spotting of the snow, as the bees void their feces. 
When a tree is found, we must use all possible ingenuity to 
get the combs whole if we wish to transfer the bees. We may 
cut in and remove the comb; may cut out the section of tree 
containing the bees and lower this by use of a rope; or we 
may fell the tree. In this last case we may make the destruc- 
tion less complete if we fall the tree on other smaller trees to 
lessen the jar. ; 


We 
ra 


264 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


CHAPTER VIIL 


FEEDING AND FEEDERS. 


As already stated, it is only when the worker-bees are 
storing that the queen deposits to the full extent of her capa- 
bility, and that brood-rearing is at its height. In fact, when 
storing ceases, general indolence characterizes the hive. This 
is peculiarly true of the German and Italian races of bees. 
Hence, if we would achieve the best success, we must keep the 
workers active, even before gathering commences, as also in 
the interims of honey-secretion by the flowers; and to do this 
we must feed sparingly before the advent of bloomin the 
spring, and whenever the workersare forced to idleness during 
any part of the season, by the absence of honey-producing 
flowers. For a number of yearsI have tried experiments in 
this direction by feeding a portion of my colonies early in the 
season, and in the intervals of honey-gathering, and always 
with marked results in favor of the practice. Ofcourse it is 
not well to feed unless we expect a honey harvest the same 
season. ‘Thus, I would not feed after clover or basswood 
bloom unless I expected a fall harvest. The fact that honey 
seasons are uncertain, makes the policy of feeding merely 
to stimulate questionable. 

Mr. D. A. Jones has truly said that if feeeding in the 
autumn be deferred too long, till the queen ceases laying, it 
often takes much time to get her to resume, and not infre- 
quently we fail entirely. 

Every apiarist, whether novice or veteran, will often 
receive ample reward by practicing stimulative feeding early 
in the season; then his hive at the dawn of the white clover 
era will be redundant with bees, well filled with brood, and in 
just the trim to receive a bountiful harvest of this most 
delicious nectar. 

Feeding is often necessary to secure sufficient stores for 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 265 


winter—for no apiarist, worthy of the name, will suffer his 
faithful, willing subjects to starve, when so little care and 
expense will prevent it. This is peculiarly true in Southern 
California, where severe drouths often prevent any harvest, 
and these may occur on two successive years. 

If we only wish to stimulate, the amount fed need not be 
great. A half pounda day, or even less, will be all that is 
necessary to encourage the bees to active preparation for the 
good time coming. For information in regard to supplying 
stores for winter, see Chapter XVIII. 

Bees, when very active, especially in very warm weather, 
like most higher animals, need water. This very likely is to 
permit evaporation in respiration, and the necessary cooling 
of the body. At such times bees repair to pool, stream or 
watering-trough. As with other animals, the addition of salt 
makes the water more appetizing, and doubtless more valuable. 
Unless water is near, it always ought to be furnished to bees. 
Any vessel containing chips or small pieces of boards to secure 
against drowning will serve for giving water. In case bees 
trouble about watering-troughs, a little carbolic acid or kero- 
sene-oil on the edge of the trough will often send them away. 


WHAT TO FEED. 


For this purpose I would feed granulated sugar, reduced to 
the consistency of honey, or else extracted honey kept over 
from the previous year. If we use two-thirds syrup and one- 
third good honey we save all danger of crystallization or 
granulation. We add the honey when the syrup is hot, and 
stir. The price of the honey will decide which is the more 
profitable. The careful experiments of R. L. Taylor show 
that nearly three times as much honey as syrup will be con- 
sumed. This argues strongly for the syrup. Dark, inferior 
honey often serves well for stimulative feeding, and as it is 
not salable, may well be used in this way. To make the 
syrup, I use one quart of water to two of sugar, and heat till 
the sugar is dissolved. Mr. R. lL. Taylor first boils the water, 
hen stirs in the sugar till all boils, when he says it will not 
granulate even with no acid added. This also removes all 
danger of burning the syrup, which must never bedone. By 


266 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


stirring till allthe sugar is dissolved we may make the syrup 
without any heat. We use equal parts of sugar and water, 
and may easily stir by using the honey extractor. We putin 
the water and add the sugar as we turn the machine. A little 
tartaric acid—an even teaspoonful to fifteen pounds of syrup— 
or evena little extracted honey, will also prevent crystalliza- 
tion. If fed warm in early spring it is all the better. 

Many advise feedin the poorer grades of sugar in spring. 
My own experience makes me question the policy of ever using 
such feed for bees. The feeding of glucose or grape sugar is 
even worse policy. It is bad food for the bees, and its use is 
dangerous to the bee-keeper’s reputation, and injurious to our 
brother bee-keepers. Glucose is so coupled with fraud and 
adulteration that he who would ‘‘avoid the appearance of 
evil’’ must let it severely alone. 

In all feeding, unless extracted honey is what we are 
using, we can not exercise too great care that such feed is not 
carried to the surplus boxes. Only let our customers once 
taste sugar in their comb honey, and not only is our own repu- 
tation gone, but the whole fraternity is injured. In case we 
wish to have our combs in the sections filled or capped, we 
must feed extracted honey, which may often be done with 
great advantage. I have often fed extracted honey back to 
the bees, after the honey-flow ceased, when it would be quickly 
stored in the sections. More frequently, however, I have 
utterly failed of success. 


HOW TO FEED. 


The requisites of a good feeder are: Cheapness, a form to 
admit quick feeding, to permit no loss of heat, and so arranged 
that we can feed at all seasons without in any way disturbing 
the bees. The feeder (Fig. 123), which I have used with good 
satisfaction, isa modified division-board, the top-bar of which 
(Fig. 123, 6) is two inches wide. From the upper central por- 
tion, beneath the top-bar, a rectangular piece the size of an 
oyster-can is replaced with an oyster-can (Fig. 123, g), after 
the top of the latter has been removed. A vertical piece of 
wood (Fig. 123, d) is fitted into the can so as to separate a 
space about one inch square, on one side, from the balance of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 267 


the chamber. This piece does not reach quite to the bottom 
of the can, there being a one-eighth inch space beneath. In 
the top-bar there is an opening (Fig. 123, ¢) just above the 
smaller space below. In the larger space is a wooden float 
(Fig. 123, /) full of holes. On one side opposite the larger 
chamber of the can, a half-inch piece of the top (Fig. 123, e) is 
cut off, so that the bees can pass between the can and top-bar 
ou to the float, where they can sip the feed. The feed is 
turned into the hole in the top-bar (Fig. 123, ¢), and without 
touching a bee, passes down under the vertical strip (Fig. 123, 
ad) and raises the float (Fig. 123, /). The can may be tacked to 


Fic. 123. 


‘i 


Division- Board Feeder.—Original. 


Lower part of the face of the can removed, to show float, ete. 
—Original. 


the board at the ends near the top. Two or three tacks 
through the can into the vertical piece (Fig. 123, d) will hold 
the latter firmly in place; or the top-bar may press on the 
vertical piece so that it can not move. Crowding a narrow 
piece of woolen cloth between the can and board, and nailing 
a similar strip around the beveled edge of the division-board, 
makes all snug. ‘The objection to this feeder is that it can not 
be placed just above the cluster of bees. On very cold days in 
spring the bees can not reach their food in any other position. 
The feeder is placed at the end of the brood-chamber, and the 


268 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


top-bar covered by the quilt. To feed, we have only to fold 
‘the quilt over, when with a tea-pot we pour the feed into the 
hole in the top-bar. Ifa honey-board is used, there must bea 
hole in this just above the holein the division-board feeder. 
In either case no bees can escape, the heat is confined, and our 
division-board feeder is but little more expensive than a 
division-board alone. 
Some apiarists prefer a quart can set on a block (Fig. 
124), or it may be used witha finely perforated cover. This is 


Fic. 124. 


Fruit-Jar Feeder.—From A. I. Root Co. 


filled with liquid, the cover put on, andthe whole quickly 
inverted and set above a hole in the cover just above the bees. 
Owing to the pressure of the air, the liquid will not descend so 
rapidly that the bees can not sipit up. The objections to this 
feeder are, that it is awkward, raises the cushions so as to per- 
mit the escape of heat, and must be removed to receive the 
feed. Mr. A. I. Root recommends the little butter-trays sold 
at the groceries, for feeding. These cost only one-third of a 
cent. ‘‘Need no float, and work admirably.’’ I have tried 
these, and think they have only their cheapness to recom- 
mendthem. They raise the cover, can not be filled without 
disturbing the bees, leak, and daub the bees. Even paper 
sacks of good quality, with small holes in them, have been 
used. They are laid on the frames, and cost very little. As 
feeders last fora lifetime, I prefer to pay more and get good 
ones. 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 269 


The Simplicity feeder (Fig. 125), invented by A. I. Root, 
is shown on its side in the illustration. This is used at the 
entrance, and sois not good for cold weather. As the feed is 


Fic. 125, 


Simplicity Bee-Feeder.—From A, I. Root Co. 


exposed it can only be used at night, when the bees are not 
flying. It is never, I think, desirable to feed outside the hive. 

The Shuck feeder (Fig. 126) is a modification of the Sim- 
plicity, anda great improvement. This is used at the en- 
trance of the hive, or by nailing two together, so that the sides 
marked D will face each other, we can use it above the bees. 
We then would place the opening D above a hole in the cloth 


Fic. 126, 


Shuck’s Boss Bee-Feeder.—From American Bee Journal. 


cover, or honey-board, turn the feed in at C, and the bees 
would come up at D, pass under the cover, and down into the 
saw-cuts (Fig. 126, 4, A), when they would sip the feed, and 
then crawl up on the partitions. This feeder works admirably. 
but it is patented, costs too much, and is improved in the 


270 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


SMITH FEEDER. 


This feeder (Fig. 127) is larger than the Shuck—I make 
them eight by twelve inches—and is covered all over with wire 
gauze (Fig. 127, a), which is raised by the wooden rim so that 
the bees can pass readily over the partitions (Fig. 127). The 
central saw-cuts (Fig. 127) do not “reach the end of the feeder, 
sothereisa platform left (Fig. 127, 6) through which a hole 
(Fig. 127, c)is made. This rests above a hole in the cloth 


Fic. 127, 


Smith Bee-Feeder.—Original. 


below, and is the door through which the bees reach the feed. 
When in position just above the bees it may be covered by a 
shingle or piece of pasteboard, to prevent daubing the cloth or 
cushion, and all by the chaff cushion. To feed, we have only 
to raise the cushion and the pasteboard, and turn the food 
through the gauze. No bees can get out, there is no disturb- 
ance, no danger from the robbers, and we can feed at any 
time, and can feed very rapidly if desired. I like this feeder 
the best of any I have ever tried. I make them out of two-inch 
plank. 

The Heddon feeder (Fig. 128) is much the same in princi- 
ple as the Smith, and has all the advantages. It is the size of 
a section-crate, and soholds many pounds. The figure makes 
it plain. The spaces in this are not saw-cuts, but are formed 
by thin boards nailed in a box vertically, anda space on one 
or both sides (Fig. 128) does not connect with the food réser- 
voir, but serves as a passage-way for the bees from hive to 


OR, MANUAL OF THIS APIARY. 271 


feeder. In the center is a passage (Fig. 128, c) which connects 
with the food reservoir, but is not accessible to the bees. In 
this the food is poured when feeding, which makes it unneces- 
sary to have the wire gauze above, or tosmear the top when 
feeding, asin case of the Smith feeder, yet this feeder does 
not retain the heat in spring. The center of the cover slides 
back, so the whole cover need not be removed when feeding is 
done. The vertical partitions, except the one next to the space 
(Fig. 128) where the food is added, do not run quite to the 
board which covers the feeder, and so the bees can pass into 


Fic. 128. 


Heddon Bee-Feeder.—F'rom James Heddon, 


all the spaces except where we pour in the food. No partition 
except the one next to the space where the bees pass to and 
from the hive runs quite to the bottom, so the food will pass 
readily from one space to the other, and will always be equally 
high in all. 

Mr. D. A. Jones and many others having tight bottom- 
boards to their hives use no feeder, but turn the feed right 
into the hive. Dr. C.C. Miller, like L. C. Root, prefers to 
feed by filling frames of empty comb with the syrup or honey. 
The empty combs are laid flat, in a deep box or tub, under a 
colander or finely perforated pan. The syrup, as it falls, fills 
the cellsof comb. After the comb is filled on both sides, we 
have only to hang it in the hive. I have found that by use of 
a fine spray-nozzle and force-pump we can fill frames very fast. 

The best time to feed is just at nightfall. In this case the 


272 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


feed will be carried away before the next day, and the danger 
to weak colonies from robbing is avoided. 

In feeding during the cold days of April, all should be 
close above the bees to economize heat. In all feeding, care is 
requisite that we may not spill the feed about the apiary, as 
this may, and very generally will, induce robbing. 

If, through neglect, the bees are found to be destitute of 
stores in mid-winter, it is not best to feed liquid food, but solid 
food, like the Viallon candy or the Good mixture of honey and 
sugar, which will be described under the head of shipping 
queens. Cakes of either of these should be placed on the 
frames above the cluster of bees. Mr. Root has had excellent 
success in feeding cakes of hard candy made as follows: 
Granulated sugar is put in a pan and a very little water 
added. Thisis heated by placing on a stove, but never in 
direct contact with the fire. In the latter case it may be 
burned, as shown by the taste, odor, or from the fact thatit 
kills the bees. If the pan is placed on the stove, the contents 
will never be burned. It must be boiled untilif dropped ona 
saucer in cold water, or if the finger is wet in cold water, then 
dipped in the hot sugar, and again in water, the hard sugar is 
brittle. It must be boiled until the hardened product is brittle, 
or else it will be too soft and will drip. It can now be stirred 
untilit begins to thicken and then molded in dishes, or in the 
regular comb frames. In this last case we lay the frame close 
on a board covered with thin paper, and turn the thickening 
sugar intoit. By adding one-fourth rye-meal we havea good 
substitute for pollen, which may be used in case of a scarcity 
of the latter. Of course, frames of this hard candy may be 
hung right in the hive. Inacellar or on warm days outside 
frames of honey may be given to the bees. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 273 


CHAPTER IX, 


QUEEN-REARING. 


Suppose the queen is laying two thousand eggs a day, and 
that the full number of bees is forty thousand, or even more— 
though as the bees are liable to so many accidents, and as the 
queen does not always lay to her full capacity, it is quite 
probable that this is about an average number—it will be seen 
that each day that a colony is without a queen there is a loss 
equal to about one-twentieth of the working force of the colony, 
and this a compound loss, as the aggregate loss of auy day is 
its special loss augmented by the several losses of the previous 
days. Now, as queens are liable to die or to become impotent, 
and as the work of increasing colonies demands the absence of 
queens, unless the apiarist has extra ones at his command, it 
is imperative, would we secure the best results, ever to have at 
hand extra queens. Queen-rearing for the market is often 
very remunerative, and often may well engage the apiarist’s 
exclusive attention. So the young apiarist must learn early 


HOW TO REAR QUEENS. 


As queens may be needed early in the spring, preparations 
looking to the rearing of queens must commence early. As 
soon as the bees are able to fly regularly, we must see that 
they have a supply of bee-bread. If there is not a supply from 
the past season, and the locality of the bee-keeper does not 
furnish an early supply, then place unbolted flour (that of rye 
or oats is best) in shallow troughs near the hives. It may be 
well to give the whole apiary the benefit of such feeding before 
the flowers yield pollen. If the bees are not attracted to this 
we need not add honey, etc., to induce them totakeit. This 
isa sure sign that itis not needed. I found that in Central 
Michigan bees can usually gather pollen by the first week of 
April, which, I think, is as early as they should be allowed to 
fly, and, in fact, as early as they will fly with sufficient 


274 THE BEE-KREPHR’S GUIDE; 


regularity to make it pay to feed the meal. I much question, 
after some years of experiment, if it is ever necessary at this 
place to give the bees a substitute for pollen. In case of long 
storms, the bee-bread may be exhausted. I have never known 
such a case, when the hard candy frames with rye meal 
described at the close of the last chapter may be hung in the 
hive. 

The best colony in the apiary—or if there are several colo- 
nies of equal merit, one of these—should be stimulated to the 
utmost, by daily feeding with warm syrup, and by increase of 
brood taken from other colonies. As this colony becomes 
strong, a comb containing drone-cells should be placed in the 
center of the brood-nest. Very soon drone-eggs will be laid. 
I have often had drones flying early in May. As soon as the 
drones commence to appear, remove the queen and all eggs 
and uncapped brood from some good, strong colony, and re- 
place it with eggs or brood just hatched from the colony con- 
taining the queen from which it is desired to breed. By hav- 
ing placed one or two bright, new, empty combs in the midst 
of the brood-nest of this colony four days beforehand, we shall 
have in these combs just such eggs and newly hatching brood 
as we desire, with no brood that is too old. 

If we have more than one colony whose excellence war- 
rants their use to breed from, then these eggs should be taken 
from some other than the one which has produced our drones. 
This will prevent the close in-breeding which would neces- 
sarily occur if both queens and drones were reared in the same 
colony; and which, though regarded as deleterious in the 
breeding of all animals, should be practiced in case one single 
queen is of decided superiority to all others of the apiary. The 
queen and the brood that have been removed may be used in 
making a new colony, in a manner soon to be described under 
“Dividing or Increasing the Number of Colonies.’? This 
queenless colony will immediately commence forming queen- 
cells (Fig. 93). Sometimes these are formed to the number of 
fifteen or twenty, and in case of the Syrian and Cyprian races 
fifty or sixty, andthey are startedin a full, vigorous colony ; 
in fact, under the most favorable conditions. Cutting off 
edges of the comb, or cutting holes in’ the same where there 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 275 


are eggs or larve just hatched, will almost always insure the 
starting of queen-cells in such places. It will be noticed that 
our queens are started from eggs, or from larve but just 
hatched, as we have given the bees no other, and so they are 
fed the royal pabulum from the first. Thus we have met every 
possible requisite to secure the most superior queens. As we 
removed all the brood the nurse-bees will have plenty of time, 
and be sure to care well for these young queens. By removal 
of the queen we also secure a large number of cells, while if 
we waited for the bees to start the cells preparatory to natural 
swarming, in which case we secure the two desirable condi- 
tions named above, we shall probably fail to secure so many 
cells, and may have to wait longer than we can afford. 

Even the apiarist who keeps black bees and desires no 
others, or who has only pure Italians, will still find that it 
pays to practice this selection, for, as with the poultry fancier, 
or the breeder of our larger domestic animals, the apiarist is 
ever observing some individuals of marked superiority, and he 
who carefully selects such queens to breed from, will be the 
one whose profits will make him rejoice, and whose apiary will 
be worthy of all commendation. It occurs to me that in this 
matter of careful selection and improvement of our bees by 
breeding, rests our greatest opportunity to advance the art of 
bee-keeping. As will be patent to all, by the above process we 
exercise a care in breeding which is not surpassed by the best 
breeders of horses and cattle, and which no wise apiarist will 
ever neglect. Nor do I believe that Vogel can be correct in 
thinking that drones give invariably one set of character and 
the queens the others. This is contrary to all experience in 
breeding larger animals. 

It is often urged, and I think with truth, that we shall 
secure better queens if we wait for the queen-cells to be started 
naturally by the bees, under the swarming impulse; and by 
early feeding and adding brood from other colonies we can 
hasten this period; yet, if we feed to stimulate, whenever the 
bees are not storing, and keep the colony redundant in bees 
of all ages by adding plenty of capped brood from other colo- 
nies, we shall find that our queens are little, if any, inferior, 
even if their production is hastened by removal of a queen 


276 THE BEE-KKEPER’S GUIDE; 


from the hive. If these directions are closely followed, there 
will be little brood for the bees to feed, and the queen-cells 
will not suffer neglect. Mr. Quinby not only advised this 
course, but he recommended starting queen-cells in nuclei; 
but he emphasized the importance of giving but very little 
brood, so nearly all the strength of the nurse-bees would be 
expended on the queen-cells. 

After we have removed all the queen-cells. in a manner 
soon to be described, we can again supply eggs, or newly- 
hatched larve—always from those queens which close obser- 
vation has shown to be the most vigorous and prolific in the 
apiary—and thus keep the same queenless colony or colonies 
engaged in starting queen-cells till we have all we desire. 
Yet we must not fail to keep this colony strong by the addition 
of capped brood, which we may take from any colony as most 
convenient. It is well also to feed a little each day in case the 
bees are not gathering. We must be cautious that our cells 
are started from only such brood as we take from the choicest 
queen. I have good reason to believe that queen-cells should 
not be started after the first of September, as I have observed 
that late queens are not only less prolific, but shorter lived. 
In nature, late queens are rarely produced, and if it is true 
that they are inferior, it might be explained in the fact that 
their ovaries remain so long inactive. As queens that are so 
long unmated are utterly worthless, so, too, freshly mated 
queens long inactive may become enfeebled. However, some 
of our queen-breeders think late queens just as good. Possibly 
they may be, if reared with the proper cautions. 

In eight or ten days the cells are capped, and the apiarist 
is ready to form his nuclei. For the rearing of a small num- 
ber of queens, the above is very satisfactory. If, however, we 
are rearing queens for the market, in which we must have 
numerous cells at our command, and to avoid cutting comb and 
to secure better spacing better methods have been devised. 
Mr. Henry Alley cut narrow single-celled strips of worker- 
comb with newly-hatched larve, fastened these to the top-bar 
of his frame, or to bars inserted parallel to the top-bar, and by 
inserting the brimstone end of a match and turning it destroys 
each alternate larva, These put in a colony dequeened, but 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 277 


with many young bees and much hatching brood, gave him 
good cells rightly spaced. Others have used drone comb cut 
in the same way, and in each alternate cell have inserteda 
little royal jelly from a queen-cell about ready to be capped, 
and then added a worker-larva. This accomplishes the same 
purpose, and mutilates no worker-comb. 

Mr. Doolittle, who has given much time to research in this 
line, first used the partially built queen-cells always to be 
found in every hive. These could be fixed to comb or cross- 
bars at pleasure, and by placing in eacha particle of royal 
jelly and a newly-hatched larva, he secured good queen-cells. 
If these were in a queenless colony with abundant young bees, 
the best of queens were reared. Mr. Doolittle found, what I 
am sure is true, that the best queens, bred naturally, were 
those reared before the natural swarm issued, or were always 
started as queens very early, if not from the egg itself, were 
reared with plenty of nurse or young bees in the hive, and in 
times, usually, of rapid gathering of honey. Mr. Doolittle 
found that he could not always get his queen-cups or incipient 
queen-cells when needed, and soon invented the valuable 


Fic. 129, 


Form for making Cups.—From A. I. Root Co. 


method of dipping and producing artificial cups at pleasure. 
He describes the whole method of discovery in his valuable 
and very interesting book. The mould, or dipping-stick (Fig. 
129), is like a rake-tooth with one end fashioned so as just to 
fit into a good, normal queen-cell. This is immersed first in 
water, then for nine-sixteenths of an inch into melted wax 
which is kept melted by use of alamp. It is inserted seven or 
eight times alternately in the water and in the wax, but fora 
jess and less distance each time in the latter. This makes the 
cup heavy and thick at the bottom andthin at the top. A 
twirling motion, when held at various angles, makes the walls 


278 THER BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


of the cup uniform. Atleast a little pressure loosens the cell 
from the stick, when it is dipped once more and stuck to the 
strip (Fig. 130), which will hold itin the frame. Usually there 
are twelve or fourteen to one strip. This can be fastened 
close below the comb in a partly filled frame. A little royal 
jelly from a queen-cell just ready to be capped is now inserted 
in each cup, anda larva less than one day old, always with 


Fic. 130. 


Doolittle Cell-Cups.—From George W. York & Co. 


food about it, is transferred to this in precisely the same posi- 
tion it had in the worker-cell. Anear-spoon or quill toothpick, 
cut and bent into a spoon-like form, or hard-wood stick of 
similar shape, is excellent to transfer the jelly and larve. 
One queen-cell will furnish enough jelly for from eight to 
twelve or fourteen cells. Of course, the larve will be taken 
from the best queen in the apiary. To get these cells cared 
for, the frame is put in an upper story of a strong colony with 
a queen-excluding honey-board (Fig. 91) between two frames 
full of brood in all stages. They can be built out and finished 
below by using a perforated-zinc division-board (Fig. 88, 92), 
which will surely keep the queen away. It should be placed 
between the same kind of frames as when put above. In ten 
or twelve days we have probably twelve very fine capped 
queen-cells which can be easily removed. 

Mr. W. H. Pridgen, of North Carolina, has improved Mr. 
Doolittle’s scheme by a wholesale method of forming the cups. 
He fastens twelve or more of the dipping-sticks to a strip of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 279 


wood and dips all of them at once. He even suggests that 
these may be mounted on the circumference of a wheel which 
carries them alternately through the water and wax and auto- 
matically raises so as to preserve the right depth in the melted 
waxeach time. They may be inserted in close-filling holes in 
a narrow board so as to be quite easily moved up and 
down. ‘These are dipped till the cups are satisfactory, then all 
dipped once more at the end, touched to a narrow board (Fig. 
131) to which they will adhere. Then by wetting the tips and 


Fic. 131. 


Pridgen Cell-Cups.—From George W. York & Co. 


board, the dipping-sticks are easily removed one at a time 
(Fig. 131). Each dipping-stick is five-eighths of an inch in 
diameter. It commences to taper five-sixteenths of an inch 
from the end, tapers strongly one-eighth of an inch, then grad- 
ually to the end. The strips with cells adhering are one-half 
inch square, and are fastened in frames by a single wire nail 
at each end passing through the side of the frame and into the 
end of the square piece. Comb may be close above them. As 
already explained, each worker brood-cellis lined with a sec- 
ond cell consisting of many cocoons. By cutting off the walls 


280 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


of old dark comb to within an eighth of an inch of the base by 
use of a sharp, warmed knife, these inner cells, which Mr. 
Pridgen and others call cocoons, may be easily loosened by 
bending the comb. These were first used by the Atchleys. 
He loosens them in this way, when they contain larve about a 
day old, from his best queen. By pushing into these a trans- 
ferring stick, concave at the end (Fig. 132), he can raise the 
inner cell-larva, food and all, and insert them into a cup. This 
isa quick way to people the cells with larve. Mr. Pridgen 
often bores small five-sixteenth inch holes nearly through the 
stick to receive the cups, waxes the stick, and then presses the 
newly-formed cups into these. In this case he pushes them in 


with a stick much like the dipping-sticks, only longer and& 
trifle smaller. In these may be placed a little jelly and the 


larve as already described. Mr. Pridgen places these fora 


Fic. 132. 


Pridyen Transferring-Stick (full length and size.) 
—from George W. York & Co. 


few hours in a hive which was filled with brood twelve days 
before, and placed with a queen-excluder on another colony. 
When he wishes to give the cups and larve, he removes the 
upper hive, shakes the bees that they may soon find that they 
are queenless, shuts them in over a broadly ventilated bottom- 
board, and in a few hours gives them the cups. They accept 
the Care of these at once. He has had thirty-six received and 
fedin this way. Hesoon removes these to an upper story over 
a colony, with the queen-excluder, of course, between them. 
In from ten to twelve days he has a fine lot of cells for the 
nuclei. Mr. Pridgen puts a comb partly-filled with water in 
the hive that is shut up. As we have seen, this would bea 
time when water would be very essential. The bees are con- 
fined and worried. While some queen-breeders still use the 
Alley method, most now use the Doolittle, and most will soon 
adopt the Pridgen improvemeut, as many have done already. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 281 


NUCLEI. 


A nucleus is simply a miniature colony of bees—a hive 
and colony on a small scale—for the purpose of rearing and 
keeping queens. We want the queens, but can afford to each 
nucleus only a few bees. The nucleus hive, if we use frames 
not more then one foot square, need be nothing more than an 
ordinary hive, with chamber confined by a division-board to 
the capacity of three frames. If our frames are large, then it 
may be thought best to construct special nucleus hives. These 
are small hives, which need not be more than six inches each 
way, thatis,in length, breadth and thickness, and made to 
contain from four to six frames of corresponding size. These 
frames are filled with comb. I have for many years used the 
first-named style of nucleus hive, and have found it advanta- 
geous to have a few long hives made,‘each to contain five 
chambers ; while each chamber is entirely separate from the 
one next to it, is five inches wide, and is covered by a separate, 
close-fitting board, and the whole by acommon cover. The 
entrances to the twoend chambers are at the ends near the 
same side of the hive. The middle chamber has its entrance 
at the middle of the side near which are the end entrances, 
while the other two chambers open on the opposite side, as far 
apart as possible. The outside might be painted different col- 
ors to correspond with the divisions, if thought necessary, 
especially on the side with two openings. Yet I have never 
taken this precaution, nor have I been troubled much by losing 
queens. They have almost invariably entered their own 
apartments when returning from their wedding-tour. It seems 
from observation that the queen is more influenced by position 
than by color of hive in returning to it from mating. Who 
that has watched his bees after moving a hive a little one side 
of its previous position—even if only a few inches—can doubt 
but that the sameis true of the worker-bees. These hivesI 
use to keep queens in during thesummer. Except the apiarist 
engage in queen-rearing extensively as a business, I doubt the 
propriety of building such special nucleus hives. The usual 
hives are good property to have in the apiary, will soon be 
needed, and may be economically used for all nuclei. In 


282 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


spring Imake use of my hives which are prepared for pro- 
spective summer use, for my nuclei. 

Mr. E. M. Hayhurst, one of our best queen-breeders, uses 
the full-size Langstroth frame, in full-sized hives, for queen- 
rearing, while Mr. Root uses the same frames in small special 
hives which hold three frames. These (Fig. 119) he fastens 
high up on his grape-vine trellises, just back of his other hives, 
which can be used for seats as he works with the nuclei. 

We now go to different hives of the apiary, and take out 
three frames for each nucleus, at least one of which has brood, 
and so on, till there are as many nuclei prepared as we have 
queen-cells to dispose of. The bees should be left adhering to 
the frames of comb, only we must be certain that the queen is 
not among them, as this would take the queen from where she 
is most needed, and would lead to the sure destruction of one 
queen-cell. To be sure of this, we never take such frames till 
we have seen the queen, that we may be sure she is left behind. 
It is well to close the nucleus for at least twenty-four hours, 
so that enough bees will surely remain to cover the combs, 
and so prevent the brood from becoming chilled. Another 
good way to form nuclei, is to remove the queen from a full 
colony, and as soon as she is missed use all the frames and 
bees for nuclei. Weform them as already described. In this 
way we are not troubled to find but one queen. If any desire 
the nuclei with smaller frames, these frames must of course 
be filled with comb, and then we can shake bees immediately 
into the nuclei, till they have sufficient to preserve a proper 
temperature. Such special articles about the apiary are costly 
and inconvenient. I believe that I should use hives even with 
the largest frames for nuclei. L. C. Root, who uses the large 
Quinby frame, uses the same for his nuclei. In this case we 
should need togive more bees. Twenty-four hours after we 
have formed this nucleus, we are ready to insert the queen-cell. 
We may do it sooner, even at once, but always at the risk of 
having the cell destroyed. To insert the queen-cell—for we 
are now to give one to each nucleus, so we can never form 
more nuclei than we have capped queen-cells—the old way was 
to cut it out, using a sharp thin-bladed knife, commencing to 
cut on either side the base of the cell, at least one-half inch 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 283 


distant, for we must notin the least compress the cell, then cut- 
ting up and out for two inches, then across opposite the cell. 
’ This leaves the cell attached to a wedge-shaped piece of comb 
(Fig. 133), whose apex is next tothe cell. If we get our cells 
by the Doolittle or other improved methods, we can easily cut 
down and pry each cell off. A similar cut in the middle frame 
of the nucleus, which, in case of the regular frames, is the one 
containing brood, will furnish an opening to receive the wedge 
containing the cell. The comb should also be cut away 


Fie. 133. 


Grafted Queen-Cell.—From A. I. Root Co.  Queen-Cell with Hinged Cap. 
From A. I. Root Co. 


beneath (Fig. 133), so that the cell can not be compressed. Mr. 
Root advises a circular cut (Fig. 133). Of late I have just 
placed the cell between two frames, and succeed just as weli. 
If two or more fine cells are so close together that separation 
is impossible, then all may be inserted in a nucleus. By close 
watching afterward we may save allthe queens. If we have 
used bright new comb as advised above, we can see the queen 
move in the cell if she is ready to come out, by holding it 
between us and the sun, and may uncap such cells, and let the 


284 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


queen run in at the entrance of any queenless hive or nucleus 
atonce. In selecting combs for queen-cells, we should reject 
any that have drone-comb. Bees sometimes start queen-cells 
over drone-larve. Such cells are smoother than the others, 
and of course are worthless. 

After all the nuclei have received their cells and bees, they 
have only to be set in a shady place and watched to see that 


Fic. 134. 


Entrance-Guarda. 


sufficient bees remain. Should too many leave, give them 
more by removing the cover and shaking a frame loaded with 
bees over the nucleus; keep the opening nearly closed, and 
cover the bees so as to preserve the heat. The main caution 


Fic. 135. 


Drone-Trap.—From A. I. Root Co. 


in this zs to be sure not to get any old queen in a nucleus. In 
two or three days the queens will appear, and in a week longer 
will have become fecundated, and that, too, in case of the first 
queens, by selected drones, for as yet there are no othersin 
the apiary. Ican not over-estimate the advantage of always 
having extra queens. To secure mating from selected drones, 
later, we must cut all drone-comb from inferior colonies, so 
that they shall rear no drones. If drone-larvzare in uncapped 
cells, they may be killed by sprinkling the comb with cold 
water. By giving the jet of water some force, as may be easily 
done by use of a fountain pump, they may be washed out, or 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 285 


we may throw them out with the extractor, and then use the 
comb for starters in our sections. 

It is very important that those who rear queens to sell 
shall have no near neighbors who keep bees, and shall keep 
only very superior bees, that undesirable mating may be 
prevented. If one has neighbors who keep bees, he can see 
that they keep only the best, or possibly he can rear his queens 
before others have drones flying. He can also get his neigh- 
bor to use the Alley drone-trap (Fig. 135). If drones are flying 
from undesirable colonies, they can be kept from leaving the 
hive by use of the entrance-guards (Fig. 134), or may be cap- 
tured or destroyed by use of the Alley drone-trap (Fig. 135). 
These are made of the perforated-zinc, and while they permit 
the passage of the workers, they restrain the queen and drones. 


Fic. 136, 


Queen-Cage.—From A. I. Root Co. 


The spaces in these are .165. In England they make them .180 
of an inch, but small queens may pass through these larger 
spaces. By shaking all the bees in front of the hive, we can, 
by use of these, soon weed out all the drones. With these in 
front of hive, we can keep the queen from leaving witha 
swarm. Occasionally, however, a queen will pass through 
unless the smaller spaced zinc is used. By keeping empty 


286 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


frames and empty cells in the nuclei, the bees may be kept 
active ; yet with so few bees one can not expect very much 
from the nuclei. After cutting all the queen-cells from our 
old hive, we can again insert eggs, as above suggested, and 
obtain another lot of cells, or, if we havea sufficient number, 
we can leave a single queen-cell, and this colony will soon be 
the happy possessor of a queen, and just as flourishing as if 
the even tenor of its ways had not been disturbed. If it is 
preferred, the bees of this colony may be used in forming the 
nuclei, in which case there is no danger of getting a queen in 
any nucleus thus formed, or of having the queen-cells destroyed. 
We can thus start seven or eight nuclei very quickly. Mr. 
Doolittle forms nuclei by disturbing the bees—jarring the 
hive—till they fill with honey, then shakes them intoa hive or 
box and sets them in a dark room or cellar for twenty-four 
hours. Then they will always, he says, accept a queen-cell or 
a virgin queen of any age at once. A full colony may be 
usually re-queened in the same way. 


QUEEN LAMP-NURSERY. 


This aid to bee-keeping was first used by F. R. Shaw, of 
Chatham, Ohio. The double wall enclosing water was the 
invention of A.I. Root. It is substantially a tin hive, with 
two walls enclosing a water-tight space an inch wide, which, 
when in use, is filled with- water through a hole at the top. 
Each nursery may hold from six to eight frames. Some pre- 
fer to have special frames for this nursery,each of which 
contains several close chambers. The queen-cells are cut out 
and put in these chambers. 

By use of a common kerosene lamp placed under this nur- 
sery, the temperature must be kept from 80 degrees F. to 100 
degrees F. By placing the frames with capped queen-cells in 
this, the queens develop as well as if ina hive or nucleus. If 
the young queens, just from the cell, are introduced intoa 
queenless colony or nucleus, as first shown by Mr. Langstroth, 
they are usually well received. Unless one is rearing a great 
many queens, this lamp-nursery is not desirable, as we still 
have to use the nucleus to get the young queens fecundated, 
have to watch carefully to get the young queens as soon as 


OR, MANUAL OF THH APIARY. 287 


they appear, must guardit carefully as moths are apt to get 
in, and, finally, unless great pains are taken, this method will 
give us inferior queens. Mr. W. Z. Hutchinson, one of our 
best queen-breeders, thinks very highly of the lamp-nursery. 
Some bee-keepers use a cage (Fig. 136) with projecting 
pins which are pushed into the comb, so that they hold the 
cage. Acellis put into each of these, and then they may be 
put into any hive. Of course the bees can not destroy the cell, 
as they can not get at it. Dr. Jewell Davis’ queen-nursery 


Fic. 137. 


Fooo ° 
HOLDER 


West Cell-Protector.—From A. I. Root Co. 


consists of a frame filled with such cages, which can be hung 
in any hive. I have tried both, and prefer this to the lamp- 
nursery. The West cell-protector (Fig. 137) is excellent. The 
cell can not be destroyed, and as the protector is open at the 
end the queen comes forth into the nucleus, and is almost sure 
to be well received. This is an excellent way to insert queen- 
cells. Mr. Root recommends putting a little honey at the end 
of the cell, so the queen will get this at once. Mr. Doolittle, 
tointroduce virgins, puts them in a cage with candy, and 
covers the opening with paper, as well as candy, so as to delay 
her egress. Rarely they fail to eat through this, when they 
must be liberated, 


288 THE BEE-KREPER’S GUIDE; 


SHALL WE CLIP THE QUEEN’S WING ? 


In the above operation, as in many other manipulations 
of the hive, we shall often gain sight of the queen, and 
can, if we desire, clip her wing, if she has met the drone; but 
never before, that in no case she shall lead the colony away to 
parts unknown. Thisis an old practice, for Virgil speaks of 
retaining the bees by tearing off the wings of ‘‘the king.’’ 
This does not injure the queen, as some have claimed. General 
Adair once stated that such treatment injured the queen, as it 
cut off some of the air-tubes, which view was approved by so 
excellent a naturalist as Dr. Packard. Yet Iam sure that this 
is alla mistake. The air-tube and blood-vessel, as we have 
seen, go to the wings to carry nourishment to these members. 
With the wing goes the necessity of nourishment and the need 
of the tubes. Aswell say that the amputation of the human 
leg or arm would enfeeble the constitution, as it would cut off 
the supply of blood. 

Many of our best apiarists have practiced this clipping of 
the queen’s wing for years. Yet these queens show no diminu- 
tion of vigor; we should suppose they would be even more 
vigorous, as useless organs are always nourished at the 
expense of the organism, and, if entirely useless, are seldom 
long continued by nature. The ants set us an example in this 
matter, as they bite the wings off their queens, after mating 
has transpired. They mean that the queen shall remain at 
home, zolen volens, and why shall not we require the same of 
the queen-bee? Wereit not forthe necessity of swarming in 
nature, we should doubtless have been anticipated in this mat- 
ter by Nature herself. 

Some of our first apiarists think that queens with wings 
clipped are not as acceptable to the other bees. I have now 
had experience for thirty years in this practice, and have yet 
to see the first indication that the aboveistrue. Still, if the 
queen essays to go with the swarm, and if the apiarist is not 
at hand, she will sometimes be lost, never regaining the hive; 
but in this case the bees will be saved, as ¢hey will return with- 
out fail. Many of our farmers are now keeping bees with 
marked success and large profits, who could not continue at 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 289 


all except for this practice. Mr. GeorgeGrimm kept about 
eighty colonies of bees, and said he worked only ten days in 
the year. But he clipped the queens’ wings, and his wife did 
the hiving. 

Some apiarists clip one primary wing the first year, the 
secondary the second year, the other primary the third, and, if 
age of the queen permits, the remaining wing the fourth year. 
Yet, such data, with other matters of interest and importance, 
better be kept on a slate or card, and firmly attached to the 
hive, or else kept in a record opposite the number of the hive. 
The tithe required to find the queen is sufficient argument 
against the ‘‘queen-wing record.’? Thisis not an argument 
against the once clipping of the queen’s wings, for, in the 
nucleus hives, queens are readily found, and even in full colo- 
nies this is not very difficult, especially if we keep Italians or 
any other races of yellow bees. It will be best, even though 
we have to look up black queens in full colonies. The loss of 
one good colony, or the vexatious trouble of separating two or 
three swarms which had clustered together, and finding each 
queen, or the hiving of a colony perched high up on some 
towering tree, would soon vanquish this argument of time. 

To clip the queen’s wing, which we must never do until 
she commences to lay eggs, take hold of her wings with the 
right thumb and index finger—never grasp her body, especially 
her abdomen, as this will be very apt to injure her—raise her 
off the comb, then turn from the bees, place her gently on the 
left hand, and press on her feet with the left thumb sufficiently 
to hold her. Now with the right hand, by use of a small, 
delicate pair of scissors, cut off about one-half of one of the 
front or primary wings. ‘This method prevents any movement 
of legs or wings, and is easy and quick. I think Mr. Root 
advises grasping the queen by the thorax. I prefer the method 
given here. 

Some bee-keepers—inexperienced they must be—complain 
that queens thus handled often receive a foreign scent, and 
are destroyed by the worker-bees. I have clipped hundreds 
and never lost one. 

LAYING WORKERS. 


We have already described laying workers. As these can 


290 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


only produce unimpreginated eggs, they are, of course, value- 
less, and unless superseded by a queen will soon cause the 
destruction of the colony. As their presence often prevents 
the acceptance of celisor a queen, by the common workers, 
they area serious pest. The absence of worker-brood, and 
the abundant and careless deposition of eggs—some cells being 
skipped, while others have received several eggs—are pretty 
sure indications of their presence. The condition that favors 


Fic. 138. 


Hive-Scraper.—Original. 


these pests, is continued absence of a queen or means to pro- 
duce one; thus they are very likely to appear in nuclei. They 
seem more common with the Cyprian and Syrian bees. 

To rid a colony of these, unite it with some colony witha 
good queen, after which the colony may be divided if very 
strong. Simply exchanging places of a colony with a laying 
worker, and a good, strong colony will often cause the destruc- 
tion of the wrong-doer. In this case, brood should be given to 
the colony which had the laying worker, that they may reara 
queen ; or better, a queen-cell or queen should be given them. 
Caging a queen in a hive, with a laying worker, for thirty-six 
hours, wili almost always cause the bees to accept her. We 
may also use the Doolittle candy cage with the opening covered 
with paper. Her escape is so tardy that she will be safe. 
Shaking the bees off the frames two rods from the hive, will 
often rid them of the counterfeit queen, after which they will 
receive a queen-cell ora queen. But prevention is best of all. 
We should never have a colony or nucleus without eithera 
queen or means torear one. It is well to keep young brood in 
our nucleiat all times. Queens reared from brood four days 
from the egg are often drone-layers, and never desirable. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 291 


In all manipulation with the bees we need something to 
loosen the frames. Many use a chiselor smallironclaw. I 
have found an iron scraper (Fig. 138), which I had made by a 
blacksmith, very convenient. It serves to loosen the frames, 
draw tacks, and scrape off propolis. It would be easy to add 


the hammer. 


QUEEN-REGISTER OR APIARY REGISTER. 


With more than a half dozen colonies it is not easy to 


know just the condition of each colony. 


Something to mark 


the date of each examination, and the condition of the colony 


Fic. 139. 
QUEEN REGISTER. apy sls Rede 
EGGS. & fp 
i Ss = 
MISSING. BROOD. 8 ° B 
4 & 
a, & 
NOT APPROVED. o CELL. ey, : &\ 
Perey 8? 
APPROVED. HACTHED MARCH. 
ocT. APRIL, 
LAYING. 

DIRECTIONS.— ae the cont ona eco reus pant of SEPT. ° MAY. 
common pin into the center of each circle, after tt isbent © AUG. JUNE 
in such a manner that the head will press securely on any 
figure or word. These Cards mailed free, at 6c. per doz. JULY. 


or 40c. per hundred. ; ; 
Use tinned or galvanized tacks; they will stand rain, &c. 


A. I. Root, MEp1NA, O. 


at that time is very desirable. Mr. Root furnishes the Queen- 
Register (Fig. 139). With this it is very easy to mark the date 


of examination of each hive, and the condition of the colony at 
the time. Mr. Hutchinson prefers this. Mr. Newman fur- 
nished an Apiary Register which served admirably for the 
same purpose. Ejach hive is numbered. Dr. Miller tacks a 
small square piece of tin bearing the number in black paint to 


292 THE BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


each hive. A corresponding number in the Register gives us 
all desired facts. We have only to note down at the time the 
condition of each colony and date of examination in the Regis- 
ter. Mr. Root prefers a slate whose position on the cover of 
the hive shows the condition of colony, and dates can be writ- 
ten on it. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 293 


CHAPTER X, 
INCREASE OF COLONIES. 


No subject will be of more interest to the beginner than 
that of increasing colonies. He has one or two, he desires as 
many more, or, if very aspiring, as many hundred, and if a 
Jones, a Hetherington, or a Harbison, as many thousand. This 
isa subject, too, that may well engage the thought and study 
of men of no inconsiderable experience. I believe that many 
veterans are not practicing the best methods in obtaining an 
increase of colonies. 

Before proceeding to name the ways, or to detail the 
methods, let me state and enforce that it is always safest, and 
generally wisest, especially for the beginner, to be content 
with doubling, or certainly with tripling, his number of colo- 
nies each season. Especially let all remember the motto: 
** Keep all colonies strong.” 

There are two ways to increase: The natural, known as 
swarming, already described under natural history of the bee; 
and the artificial, improperly styled artificial swarming. This 
is also called, and more properly, ‘“ dividing.” 


SWARMING. 


In case of the specialist, or in case some one can be near 
by to watch the bees, swarming is without doubt the best way 
toincrease. ‘Therefore, the apiarist should be always ready 
with both means and knowledge for immediate action. Of 
course, necessary hives were all secured the previous winter, 
and will never be wanting. Neglect to provide hives before 
the swarming season is convincing proof that the wrong pur- 
suit has been chosen. 

If, as I have advised, the queen has her wing clipped, the 
matter becomes very simple, in fact, so much simpiified that 
were there no other argument, this would be sufficient to 


294 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


recommend the practice of clipping the queen’s wing. Now, 
if several swarmscluster together, we have not to separate 
them ; they will usually separate of themselves and return to 
their old homes. To migrate without the queen means death, 
and life is sweet even to bees. and is not willingly to be given 
up except for home and kindred. Even if they all enter 
one hive, the queens are not with them, and it is very easy to 
divide them as desired. Neither has the apiarist to climb 
trees, tosecure his bees from bushy trunks, from off the lattice- 
work or pickets of his fence, from the very top of a tall, slen- 
der, fragile fruit-tree, or other most inconvenient places. Nor 
will he even be tempted to pay his money for patent non- 
swarming hivers or patent swarm-catchers, He knows his 
bees will return to their old quarters, so he is not perturbed by 
the fear of loss or plans to capture the unapproachable. It 
requires no effort ‘‘to possess his soul in patience.’’ If he 
wishes to increase, he steps out, takes the queen by the 
remaining wings, as she emerges from the hive, soon after the 
bees commence their hilarious leave-taking, puts her in a 
cage, opens the hive, destroys, or, if he wishes to use them, 
cuts out the queen-cells as already described, gives more room 
—either by adding a super of sections or taking out some of 
the frames of brood, as they may well be spared—places the 
cage enclosing the queen under the quilt, and leaves the bees 
to return at their pleasure. At nightfall the queen is liber- 
ated, the hive may be removed to another place, and very 
likely the swarming-fever is subdued for the season. 

If it is desired to unite the swarm with a nucleus, exchange 
the places of the old hive with the caged queen, as soon as the 
swarm is out, andthe nucleus hive, to which, of course, the 
swarm will now come. The queen-cells should be removed at 
once from the old hive, and the queen liberated. The nucleus 
colony, now strongly enforced, should have empty frames, but 
always with starters, added, making five in all; and a super of 
sections with thin foundation added at once. ‘The five frames 
Langstroth size, more if smaller—are put on one side and the 
rest of the space filled by division-boards. Here the nucleus is 
at once transformed into a large, strong colony. 

If it is desired to hive the swarm separately—and usually 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 295 


this gives the best results, even if we do not care for increase 
—we remove the old hive to one side, and turn it entirely 
around, so that the entrance that was eastis now west. We 
now place a new hive with five or six empty frames, which 
have narrow starters, right where the old hive previously 
stood, in which the caged queen is put. We fill the extra 
space in this hive with division-boards, and set on it the super 
of sections previously placed on the old hive; or in case this 
colony that just swarmed had not previously received a super 
of sections, we place a super witha queen-excluding honey- 
board on the hive where the new swarm is now to enter. 

As this colony has no comb in the brood-chamber, only 
foundation starters, and has sections with comb or thin foun- 
dation, the bees will commence to work vigorously in the sec- 
tions, especially as the brood-chamber is so restricted. This 
idea originated with Messrs. Doolittle and Hutchinson, and is 
fully explained in ‘‘ Advanced Bee-Culture,’’ Mr. Hutchinson’s 
excellent book, which should be in the hands of every comb- 
honey producer. 

The hive from which the swarm issued—now close beside 
the hive with the new colony—should be turned a little each 
day so that by the eighth day the entrance will be as before to 
the east, or close to that of the other hive. On the eighth day 
this hive is carried to some distant part of the bee-yard. Of 
course all the bees that are gathering—and by this time they 
are numerous—will go to the other hive, which will so weaken 
the still queeuless colony that they will not care to send out 
another or second swarm, and so will destroy all remaining 
queen-cells and queens after the first queen comes forth. This 
isa quick, easy way to prevent after, or second, swarms. It 
originated with Mr. James Heddon, andI find that, with rare 
exception, it works well. I believe where one is with his bees, 
this last-described plan is the most profitable that the bee- 
keeper can adopt. Sometimes the mere introducing of a new 
queen into the old hive will prevent any further swarming. 
The queen at once destroys the queen-cells. 

Some extensive apiarists, who desire to prevent increase 
of colonies, when a colony swarms, cage the old queen, destroy 
all queen-cells, and exchange this hive—after taking out three 


296 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


or four frames of brood to strengthen nuclei, replacing these 
with frames with starters of foundation—with one that recently 
swarmed, which was previously treated the same way. Thus 
a colony that recently sent out a swarm, but retained their 
queen, has probably, from the decrease of bees, loss of brood, 
and removal of queen-cells, lost the swarming-fever, and if we 
give them plenty of room and ventilation, they will accept the 
bees froma new swarm, and spend their future energies in 
storing honey. If the swarming-fever is not broken up, we 
shall only have to repeat the operation again in a few days. 

Still another modification, in case no increase of bees but 
rather comb honey is desired, is recommended by such apia- 
rists as Doolittle, Davis, and others. The queen is caged seven 
days, the queen-cells in the hive are then destroyed, the queen 
liberated, and everything is arranged for immense yields of 
combhoney. In this case the queen is idle, but the bees seem 
to have lost not one jot of theirenergy. I tried this plan many 
years ago with great success, and recommended it to Mrs. L. 
B. Baker, who prized it highly. Dr. C. C. Miller, instead of 
caging the queen, places her with a nucleus on top of the old 
hive, thus keeping her at work, by exchange of frames. After 
seven days he destroys the queen-cells in the old hive and 
unites the nucleus with it. Here the queenis kept at work, 
the swarming impulse subdued, and a mighty colony made 
ready for business. This plan slightly modified has the sanc- 
tion of such admirable apiarists as Messrs. Elwood and 
Hetherington. 

Two objections are sometimes raised right here. Suppose 
several swarms issue at once, one of which is a second swarm, 
which of course has a virgin queen, then all will go off 
together, and our lossis grevous indeed. I answer that sec- 
ond swarmsare unprofitable, and should never be permitted. 
We should be so vigilant that this fate would never befall us. 
If we will not give this close attention without such stimulus, 
then it were well to have this threatening danger hanging over 
us. Again, suppose we are not right at hand when the swarm 
issues, the queen wanders away and is lost. Yes, but if 
unclipped the whole colony would go, now it is only the queen. 
Usually the queen gets back. If not,a little looking will 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 297 


generally find her not far away within a ball of friendly 
workers. At nightfall smoke these bees, and by watching we 
learn the colony which swarmed, as the bees about the queen 
will repair at once to it. Mr. Doolittle suggests that we may 
always find what colony swarmed when a swarm is out. If 
we take a portion of the bees from the cluster into a pail and 
swing them around lively, then throw them out, they will at 
once, he says, fly to the old home. When aswarm first issues, 
young bees, too young to fly, crawling about the hive, will 
often reveal the colony that swarmed. 


HIVING SWARMS. 


But in clipping wings, some queens may be omitted, or, 
from taste, or other motive, some bee-keepers may not desire 
to ‘‘deform her royal highness.’”’ Then the apiarist must 
possess the means to save the would-be rovers. The means 
are: good hives in readiness ; some kind of a brush—a turkey- 
wing will do; a basket with open top, which should be at least 
eighteen inches in diameter, and so made that it may be 
attached to the end of the pole; and two poles, one very long 
and the other of medium length. 

Now, let us attend to the method: As soon as the cluster 
commences to form, place the hive in position where we wish 
the colony to remain, leaving the entrance wide open. As 
soon as the bees are fully clustered, we must manage as best 
we can to empty the whole cluster in front of the hive. As the 
bees are full of honey they are not likely to sting, but will 
sometimes. I have known bees, when clustered in a swarm, to 
be very cross. This, however, is not usual. Should the bees 
be on a twig that could be sacrificed, this might be easily cut 
off with either a knife or saw (Fig. 140), and so carefully as 
hardly to disturb the bees, then carry (Fig. 76) and shake the 
bees in front of the hive, when with joyful hum they will at 
once proceed to enter. If the twig must not be cut, shake 
them all into the basket, and empty before the hive. Should 
they be on a tree trunk, or a fence, then brush them with the 
wing into the basket, and proceed as before. If they are high 
up on a tree, take the pole and basket, and perhaps a ladder 
will also be necessary. Many devices like a bag on a hoop, a 


298 THE BEH-KEEPHR’S GUIDE; 


Fic. 140. 


Whitman's 
Fountain Pump. 
—from 
A, I. Root Co. 


Ald 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 299 


suspended wire-basket, with a tripod to sustain it, etc., are 
often recommended. These are not much seen in the apiaries 
of our best bee-keepers. Always let ingenuity have its perfect 
work, not forgetting that the object to be gained is to get just 
as many of the bees as is possible on the alighting-board in 
front of the hive. Carelessness as to the quantity might 
involve the loss of the queen, which would be serious. The 
bees w7i/ not remain unless the queen enters the hive. Should 
a cluster form where it is impossible to brush or shake them 
off, they can be driven into a basket, or hive, by holding it 
above them and blowing smoke among them. All washes for 
the hive are more than useless. Itis better that it be clean 
and pure. With such, if they are shaded, bees will generally 
be satisfied. But assurance will be made doubly sure by 
giving them a frame of brood, in all stages of growth, from 
an old hive. This may be inserted before the work of hiving 
is commenced. Mr. Doolittle thinks this does little or no good, 
and tends to induce the building of drone-comb. Mr. Bet- 
singer says they are even more apt to gooff ; but I think he will 
not be sustained by the experience of other apiarists. He 
certainly is not by mine. I never knew but one colony to. 
leave uncapped brood; I have often known them to swarm out 
of an empty hive once or twice, and to be returned, after brood 
had been placed in the hive, when they accepted the changed 
conditions, and went at once to work. We should expect this, 
in view of the attachment of bees for their nest of brood, as 
also from analogy. How eager the ant to convey her larve 
and pupze—the so-called eggs—to a place of safety, when the 
nest has been invaded and danger threatens. Bees doubtless 
have the same desire to protect their young, and as they can 
not carry them away to a new home, they remain to care for 
them in one that may not be quite to their taste. Of course if 
swarming is permitted either with or without clipped queens, 
the bees must be closely watched at the swarming season. Dr. 
Miller secures a bright, active girlor boy to watch. He says 
the watcher can sit in the shade and go and look once in every 
four or five minutes. For 100 colonies it takes the whole time 
of one person, as the noise made by somany flying bees makes 
actual inspection of all hives necessary. This watching is 


300 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


necessary from 8 a.m. till 2 p.m.; or in very best weather from 
6a.m.to4p.m., or even later. Of course there is relief on 
rainy days. 

Farmers can keep many colonies and attend to their farm 
work as usual. They have only to havea boy or girl to catch 
and cage the queens—the ‘‘ gude wife’? may do this—and 
inform at noon or night what colonies have swarmed. When 
acolony swarms, the impulse seems to be general, and often a 
half dozen colonies will be on the wing in atrice. These will 
very often—generally, in truth—cluster together. In this 
case, to find the queens is well nigh impossible, and we can 
ouly divide up the bees into suitable colonies, and as soon as 
we find any starting queen-cells, givethem a queen. Of course 
we may lose every queen but one. In view of this trouble, 
and the expense and doubtful practicality of the various 
swarm-catchers in vogue, I would say, Clip the queen's 
wing. 

If no more colonies are desired, the swarm may be given 
to acolony which has previously swarmed, after removing 
from the latter all queen-cells, and adding to the room by 
putting on the sections, and removing some frames of brood 
to strengthen nuclei. These frames may be replaced with 
empty combs, foundation, or frames with starters. We may 
even return the bees to their old home, by taking the same 
precautionary measures, with a good hope that storing and 
not swarming will engage their attention in future; and if we 
change their position, or better, exchange their position with 
that of a nucleus, we shall be still more likely to succeed in 
overcoming the desire toswarm. A swarm may be given toa 
colony that was hived as a swarm a day or two before with 
great safety, by shaking all the bees of both in front of the 
hive. Some seasons, usually when honey is being gathered 
each day for long intervals, but not in large quantities, the 
desire and determination of some colonies to swarm is im- 
placable. Room, ventilation, changed position of hive, each 
and all will fail. Then we can do no better than to gratify 
the propensity by giving the swarm a new home, and make 
au effort. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 301 


TO PREVENT SECOND SWARMS. 


The Heddon method of preventing second swarms has 
already been explained. This method is valuable because it 
requires no looking up of queen-cells, and thus saves time. 

As already stated, the wise apiarist will always have on 
hand extra queens. Now, if. he does not desire to form nuclei 
(as already explained), and thus use these queen-cells, he will 
at once give the old colony a fertile queen. At the same time 
this practice secures only carefully reared queens from his best 
colonies. As the queen usually destroys all queen-cells, 
farther swarming is prevented. The method of introduction 
will be given hereafter, though in such cases there is very 
little danger incurred by giving them a queen at once. If 
desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, in man- 
ner before described. If extra queens are wanting, we have 
only to look carefully—very carefully, as it is easy to miss a 
small, worthless cell in some cranny or corner of the comb— 
through the old hive and remove all but one of the queen-cells. 
A little care will certainly make sure work, as after swarming 
the old hive is so thinned of bees that only carelessness will 
overlook queen-cells in sucha quest. Mr. Doolittle waits till 
the eighth day, or till he hears the piping of the young 
queen ; then cuts out all queen-cells, when, of course, he cer- 
tainly inhibits second swarms. When this practice fails, as 
it very rarely does, it is because two cells were left. 


TO PREVENT SWARMING. 


As yet wecan only partly avert it. Mr. Quinby offered 
a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had 
tomake the payment. Mr. Hazen attempted it, and partially 
succeeded, by granting much space tothe bees, so that they 
should not beimpelled to vacate for lack of room. The Quinby 
hive, already described, by the large capacity of the brood- 
chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side storing, 
looks to the same end. Mr. Simmins, of England, thinks he 
can prevent swarming by keeping unoccupied cells between 
the brood-nest and entrance to the hive. Mr. Muth says if we 
always have empty cells in the brood-nest swarming will sel- 


302 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE; 


dom occur. Yet he says ‘‘seldom.’’ We may safely say that 
a perfect non-swarming hive or systemis not yet before the 
bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming are 
shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. Butas we shall seein 
the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, unless we work 
for extracted honey—by which means we may greatly repress 
the swarming fever—prevents our obtaining honey in a desir- 
ablestyle. If we add sections, unless the connection is quite 
free—in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly 
vex us—we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections. 
Such crowding is almost sure to lead toswarming. I have, by 
uncapping the combsof honey in the brood-chamber, as sug- 
gested tome years ago by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the 
honey to run down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to 
the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming. Those 
who have frames that can be turned upside down, or invertible 
hives, may often secure the same results by simple inversion. 
By placing the sections in the brood-chamber till the bees 
commence to work on them, and then removing them above, 
or by carrying brood up beside the sections, the bees are gen- 
erally induced to commence working in sections. Some sec- 
tions with combs in them often aids much. This requires too 
much manipulation, and sois not practical with the general 
bee-keeper. 

Itis possible that by extracting freely when storing is 
very rapid, and then by freely feeding the extracted honey in 
the interims of honey-secretion, we might prevent swarming, 
secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections. 
My experiments in this direction have not been as successful 
as I had hoped, and I can not recommend the practice, though 
some apiarists claim to have succeeded. E,ven if this could be 
made to work it involves too much labor to make it advisable. 

The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure 
honey without increase, is practiced and advised by some even 
of our distinguished apiarists. As already stated, I have done 
this with excellent results. Dr. C. C. Miller’s method, already 
described, accomplishes the same object, and keeps all the 
queens at work all the time, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 303 


ARTIFICIAL INCREASE. 


While, as already remarked, there is no better way than to 
allow swarming as just described, when one’s circumstances 
make it possible todo so, yet itis true that some of our best 
bee-keepers prefer to divide. In somecases the bee-keeper can 
be with his bees only at certain times—often early in the 
morning, late in the afternoon, or perchance at the noontide 
hour; then, of course, artificial dividing becomes necessary. 
It is practiced to secure any desired increase of colonies, also to 
prevent loss from swarming when no one is by. This requires 
more time than swarming, as detailed above, and may not— 
probably often doos not—secure quite as good results. Yet I 
am very sure, from a long experience, that, with sufficient care, 
artificial colonies may be fdrmed that will fully equal natural 
swarms in the profits they bring to their owners. Iam sureI 
could get ten colenies from one in a season, and if I had combs 
and should feed I think I could nearly double these figures. 


HOW TO DIVIDE. 


Mr. Cheshire argues against natural swarming and in 
favor of dividing, as the former tends, through selection, to 
develop the swarming habit. I do not accept his reasoning, as, 
unless we permit swarming, we can not tell what colonies to 
breed from, as we have no way to know their tendencies. 
Often, too, swarming only indicates great prolificness. By 
the process already described, we have secured a goodly num- 
ber of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed 
time. Now, as soon asthe white clover harvest is well com- 
menced, early in June, we may commence operations. If we 
have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they become 
pretty populous, but not until they swarm. Take one of our 
waiting hives, which now holdsa nucleus with laying queen, 
and place the same close alongside the colony we wish to 
divide. This must be done on a warm day, when the bees are 
active, and better be done while the bees are busy, in the mid- 
dle of the day. Remove the division-board of the new hive, 
and then remove five combs well loaded with brood, and. of 
course, containing some honey, from the old colony, bees and 
all, to the new hive. Also take the remaining frames and 


304 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE; 


shake the bees into the new hive; only be sure that the queen 
still remains in the old hive. Fill both the hives with empty 
frames—if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be 
still better; if not, it will always pay to give at least starters 
of comb or foundation—and return the new hive to its former 
position. The old bees will return to the old colony, while the 
young ones will remain peaceably with the newqueen. The 
old colony will now possess at least seven frames of brood, 
honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so that they 
will work on as though naught had transpired, though perhaps 
moved to a little harder effort, by the added space and five 
empty combs or frames with starters or full sheets of founda- 
tion. These last may all be placed at one end, or placed 
between the others, though not so as greatly to divide brood. 
The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., 
three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young 
laying queen, plenty of bees(those of the previous nucleus and 
the young bees from the old colony), and will work with a sur- 
prising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony. 

If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the 
new colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one 
frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two 
from each of three. and carry them, bees and all, and place 
with the nucleus. Be sure that no queen is removed. Fillall 
the hives with empty combs, or frames with starters of foun- 
dation, as before. In this way we increase without in the 
least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony 
every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of 
our apiary, andcan thus almost always, so experience says, 
prevent swarming. 

By taking only brood that is allcapped, we can safely add 
one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without-adding 
any bees, asthere would be no danger of loss by chilling the 
brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend 
no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei 
into full colonies, and keep back the swarming impulse with 
great facility. 

These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and 
so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others, The 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 305 


only objection that can be urged against them—and even this 
does not apply to the last—is that we must seek out the queen 
in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her, 
though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians or 
other races of yellow bees, as, of course, we all will. I might 
give other methods which would render unnecessary this cau- 
tion, but, to my mind, they are inferior, and not to be recom- 
mended. If we proceed as above described, the bees will sel- 
dom prepare to swarm at all, and, if they do, they will be dis- 
covered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the 
work may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies, as 
first explained, and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired, 
using them for forming new nuclei. 


CAPTURING ABSCONDING SWARMS. 


Sometimes swarms break cluster and take wing for their 
prospective home before the bee-keeper has hived them. 
Throwing dirt among them will sometimes cause them to 
alight again. Throwing water among them inthe form of a 
fine spray (Fig. 140) will almost alwaysdo this. For such pur- 
pose some hand pump is very desirable. Whitman’s fountain 
pump is one of the most convenient. It costs about $7.00. 
Another important use for such a pump in the apiary is this: 
If a swarm, when clustered, is sprinkled occasionally, it will 
remain clustered indefinitely. This permits us to retain a 
swarm in case it is more convenient to hive it later. While 
most customs have a reasonable basis, the common one of 
horns and bells and beating of pans to stop a swarm is a nota- 
ble exception. It does not do the least good. 


306 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


CHAPTER XI. 
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING. 


The history and description of Italian bees have already 
been considered, so it only remains to discuss the subjectina 
practical light. ; 

The superiority of the Italians seems no longer a mooted 
question. Inow know of no one among the able apiarists in 
our country who takes the ground that a thorough balancing 
of qualities will make as favorable a showing for the German 
as for the Italian bees, though I think that the late Baron of 
Berlepsch held to this view. 

I think Iam capable of acting as judge on this subject. I 
have never sold a dozen queens in my life, and so have not 
been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have 
never had, if Iexcept six years, any direct interest in bees at 
all, and all my work and experiments had only the promotion 
and spread of truth as the ultimatum. Again, I have kept 
both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully observed 
and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have 
carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of 
storing, early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of 
flowers visited, amiability, etc., and I am more than persuaded 
that the general verdict, that they are superior to the German 
race, is entirely correct. The Italians are far superior to the 
German bees in many respects, and, though I am acquainted 
with all the works on apiculture printedin our language, and 
have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of 
ourcountry from Maine to California, yet I know hardly a man 
that has opportunity to form a correct judgment, does not 
give strong preference to the Italians. The black bees are in 
some respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper’s 
methods cause him to give these points undue importance, in 
forming his judgments, then his conclusions may be wrong. 
Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong conclusions, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 307 


The Italians certainly possess the following points of 
superiority : 

first. They possess longer tongues, and so can gather 
from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point 
has already been sufficiently considered. How much value 
hangs upon this structural peculiarity Iam unable to state. I 
have frequently seen Italians working on red clover. I never 
saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy to see that this 
might be, at certain times and certain seasons, a very material 
aid. How much of thesuperior storing qualities of the Italians 
is due to this lengthened ligula, lam unable tosay. Mr. J. 
H. Martin hasa very ingenious tongue measurer by which the 
length of the tongues of beesin the several hives can be 
quickly and accurately compared. I have made a very simple 
and convenient instrument to accomplish the same end; two 
rectangular pieces, one of glass and the other of wire gauze, 
are so set ina frame that the glass inclines to the gauze. At 
one end they touch; at the other they are separated three- 
fourths of an inch. Honey is spread on the glassand all set 
in the hive. The bees can only sip the honey through the 
gauze. The bees that clean the farthest from the end where 
it touches the gauze have the longest tongues. This gives 
only relative lengths, while Mr. Martin’s register tells the 
absolute length. 

Second. 'They are more active, and, with the same oppor- 
tunities, will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter 
of observation, which I have tested over and overagain. Yet 
I will give the figures of another: Mr. Doolittle secured from 
two colonies 309 pounds and 301 pounds, respectively, of comd 
honey, during the one season. These surprising figures, the 
best he could give, were from his best Italian colonies. 
Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the 
sea, and from hosts of our own apiarists. 

Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true 
of the day, but of the season. Oncool days in spring I have 
seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not a black 
bee was to be seen. On May 7, 1877, I walked less than half a 
mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gathering from dandelions, 
yet only two were black bees. This might be considered an 


308 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


undesirable feature. Yet, from careful observation covering 
thirty years, I think that Italian bees are quite as apt to win- 
ter well and pass the spring months without harm as are black 
bees. 

Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against 
robber-bees. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their 
hard-earned stores soon find that they have ‘‘dared to beard 
the lion in his den.’’ Thisis so patent that even the advo- 
cates of black bees are ready to concede it. 

Fifth. They are proof against the ravages of the bee- 
moth’s larve. Thisis also universally conceded. This is no 
very great advantage, as no respectable bee-keeper would 
dread moths, even with the black bees. 

Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is 
probably in part dueto the greater and more constant activity 
of the workers. This is observable at all seasons, but more 
especially when building upin the spring. Noone who will 
take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain 
in doubt on this point. 

Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is 
desirable to have the bees very quiet. 

Eighth. 'The queen is more readily found, which is a great 
advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is 
frequently desirable to findthe queen. In fullcolonies I would 
rather find three Italian queens than one black one. Where 
time is money this becomes a matter of much importance. 

Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb 
while being handled, which some might regarda doubtful 
compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality. 

Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other 
bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and 
the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may 
explain the above peculiarity. 

Eleventh. In my estimation, a sufficient ground for pref- 
erence, did it stand alone, is that the Italian bees are far more 
amiable. Years agol got rid of my black bees because they 
were socross. A few years later I got two or three colonies, 
that my students might see the difference, but to my regret; 
for;as we removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 309 


perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might 
devour, and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more 
numerous Italians were safely handled, even without smoke. 
The experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as 
to superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being 
cross, and Capt. Hetherington tells me that if not much 
handled they are more cross than the blacks. From myown 
experience, I can not tnderstand this. Hybrids, between 
blacks and Italians, are ofttimes even more cross than are the 
pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as desirable as the 
pure Italians. 

Ihave kept these two races side by side for years; I have 
studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the 
foregoing eleven points of excellence are too strongly stated. 

The black bees will go into sections more readily than 
Italians, yet the skillful apiarist will find it easy to overcome 
this objection in the manner already described. 

There is no question but that the German bees produce 
nicer, whiter comb honey than do the Italians. This supe- 
Yiority is due in part to thicker cappings, and to a wider air- 
space between honey and capping. This, however, is too nice 
a point to count very greatly in their favor. The comb honey 
produced by Italians does not have to go begging in the 
markets. 

The advantages of the Italians, which have been consid- 
ered thus fully, are more than sufficient to warrant the exclu- 
sion of the German bees from the apiary. I say truly, no one 
needs to be urged to a course that adds to the ease, profit and 
agreeableness of his vocation. Darwin showed, years ago, 
that introduced or newly imported plants or animals usually 
possessed more vigor than those ‘‘ to the manor born.’’ Hence 
the wisdom of frequent and repeated importations from Italy. 
This is the more desirable unless the queen-breeder works 
carefully and scientifically to improve his stock. No doubt we 

.-have American queen-breeders whose bees are superior to any 
they might secure from Italy. Yet even these may find it 
desirable to bring occasional fresh stock from the Ligurian 
hills. 


310 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


THE NEW RACES OF BEES. 


All of the valuable characteristics of the Italian bees are 
exaggerated in the Syrian bees, except that of amiability. 
This feature—irritability—would not be an objection toan 
experienced bee-keeper. I believe, after several years’ experi- 
ence with the Syrians, that they would soon become as pleas- 
ant to manage and handle as are the Italians. They are not 
so readily subdued with smoke as are the Italians, and require 
careful handling. They are astonishingly prolific, and keep 
up the brood-rearing whether there are nectar-secreting flowers 
or not. As the queen fills a comb before leaving it, the brood 
is kept very compact. They start a large numberof queen- 
cells, and so for queen-rearing they are super-excellent. The 
comb honey of these bees is said to be quite inferior, because 
of thin caps—a pointI have failed to observe. I think the 
honey about equal to that of the Italians in appearance. The 
Cyprian bees are in no way superior to the Syrians, so far as 
I can learn, though I have had no experience with them, and 
they are considerably more irritable. The Carniolans (Figs. 
11, 12, 13) are much praised by European bee-keepers. They 
are certainly very amiable, and soexcellent for the beginner. 
From seeing Mr. Frank Benton handle his Carniolans the 
summer of 1899, in Washington City, I am persuaded that their 
amiability has not been exaggerated. The bees were not 
gathering, it was about sunset, and yet Mr. Benton handled 
them with no smoke or protection, and that very roughly, yet 
we received no stings. Mr. Benton, whose experience surely 
makes him a competent judge, values the Carniolan bees as of 
superior excellence. 


WHAT BEES SHALL WE KEEP? 


The beginner certainly better keep Italians or Carniolans. 
The Italians are so excellent that the Syrians, good as they 
are, did not take root among us. 


HOW TO ITALIANIZEH. 


From what has been already explained regarding the natural 
history of bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change 
our bees is to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize a col- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 311 


ony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian queen. 
The same, of course, is true of Cyprianizing or Syrianizing. If 
we change the queen we soon change the bees. 


HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN. 


In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony 
composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to intro- 
duce a queen in the manner explained in the section on arti- 
ficial increase of colonies. To introduce a queen to a colony 
composed of old bees requires more care. First, we should 
seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian 
queen in a wire cage (Fig. 141), which may be made by wind- 


Fic. 141. 


Queen-Cage.—From A. I. Root Co. 


ing a strip of wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and 
containing fifteen to twenty meshes to the inch, about the 
finger. Let it lap each way one-half inch, then cut it off. 
Ravel out the half-inch on each side, and weave in the ends of 
the wires, forming a tube the size of the finger. We now have 
only to put the queen in the tube and pinch the ends together, 
and the queen iscaged. The cagecontaining the queen should 
be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey, 
each of which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as 
she needs it. If we fear the queen may not be able to sip the 
honey through the meshes of the wire, we may. dip a piece of 
clean sponge in honey and insert itin the upper end of the 
cage before we compress this end. This will furnish the 
queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again 
open the hive, aftera thorough smoking, and also the cage, 
which is easily done by pressing the upper end at right angles 
to the direction of the pressure when we closedit. In doing 


312 THE BEK-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


this do not remove the cage. Now keep watch, and if, as the 
bees enter the cage, or as the queen emerges, the bees attack 
her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another forty- 
eight hours. Ihave introduced many queens in this manner, 
and have very rarely been unsuccessful. At such times if the 
queen is not well received by the bees, then she is “balled,” 
asit is termed. By the expression, “‘ balling the queen,’ we 
mean that the worker-bees press about her in a compact cluster, 
so as to form a real live ball as large as a good-sized peach. 
Here the queen is held till she dies; or at least I have 


Fic. 142. 


Queen-Cage.—From A, I. Root Co. 


repeatedly had queens balled and the next day would find them 
in front of the hive dead. By smoking the ball or throwing it 
into water the queen may be speedily liberated. Mr. Dadant 
stops the cage with a plug of wood (Fig. 141), and when he 
goes to liberate the queen replaces the wooden stopple with 
one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eat- 
ing out the comb. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at 
one end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of 
the cage reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the 
queen is thus held by comb and cage till the bees liberate her. 
It is a better way to forma nucleus, all of young bees, and let 
the bees liberate the queen from a cage with the opening 
stopped with candy. 

If, upon liberating the queen, we find that the bees ‘ ball”’ 
her, that is, gather so closely about her as to form a compact 


° 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 313 
cluster, we must at once smoke the bees off and re-cage the 
queen, else they will hold her a prisoner till she is dead. 

The Peet cage (Figs. 136 and 142), which is not only an 
introducing but a shipping cage, is a most valuable invention. 
The back of the cage is tin (Fig. 142), and may be drawn out, 
which leaves the back of the cage entirely open. The piecesin 
front (Fig. 136) are to be tacked on in shipping. They prevent 
the accompanying bees from stinging any one who may handle 
the cage, and also secure ventilation. The tin points, which 
turn easily, are turned at right angles to the cage, as shown 
in the figure. The cage is pressed close up to a smooth piece 
of comb containing both brood and honey, where it is held by 
the tin points, and then the tin back is withdrawn. The bees 
will soon eat under the comb and thus liberate the queen and 
almost always accept her. I have had such admirable success 
with this cage that I heartily recommend it. The food in the 
cage will keep the queen, even though the bees do not feed her 
through the wire, and there is no honey in the comb. The 
Benton cage (Fig. 144) is a modification of the Peet cage, and 
asit is now almost universally used for shipping and intro- 
ducing, it must be an improvement. Here candy holds the 
queen a prisoner, and she is safe from starvation until the bees 
liberate her by eating the candy, which ought, and usually 
does, make them sweet and amiable. 

Judge Andrews, of Texas, states a valuable point in this 
connection, which, though I have not tried, I am glad to give. 
The reputation of Judge Andrews and the value of the sug- 
gestion alike warrant it. He says the queens will be accepted 
just as quickly when caged ina hive with a colony of bees, 
even though the old queen is stili at large in the hive. Such 
caged queens, says the Judge, after two or three days, are just 
as satisfactory to the worker-bees as though ‘“‘tothe manor 
born,’’ and even more safe when liberated—of course the old 
queen is first removed—as the bees start no queen-cells, if the 
old queen has remained in the hive until this time, and the 
presence of queen-cells agitates the newly liberated queen, 
which is pretty sure to cause her destruction. Here, then, we 
may cage and keep our queens after they have been fecundated 
in the nuclei, and at any time can take one of these, or the old 


314 THR BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


queen, at pleasure, to use elsewhere, though, if the latter, we 
must liberate one of the caged queens, which, says the Judge, 
“will always be welcomed by the bees.’”’ Mr. Doolittle, as 
already stated, causes the bees to fill themselves with honey, 
then shakes them into a box, which is set for a day in a cool, 
dark room, when the new queen can be given them at once, 
even though she be a virgin. It is also stated that if we 
remove a queen at noonday, and after dark smoke the colony, 
after keeping the queen fasting for half an hour, we may 
safely introduce her at once. I have tried neither of these 
methods. I think this is the method of Mr. Simmins, of 
England. 

When bees are not strong, especially if robber-bees are 
abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at such times the 
utmost caution will occasionally fail of success if the bees are 
not all young. Sometimes a queen may be safely introduced 
into a queenless colony by simply shaking the bees all down 
in front of the hive, and as they pass in, letting the queen run 
in with them. If the queen to be introduced is in a nucleus, 
wecan almost always introduce hersafely by taking the frame 
containing the queen, bees and all, and setting it in the mid- 
dle of the hive containing the queenless colony; though it is 
well to smoke the colony well. 

A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can always be 
safely given at once to a colony, after destroying the old 
queen. 

A queen-cell is usually received with favor, especially if 
the colony has been queenless for twenty-four hours. If we 
use a cell we must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells 
that may be formed ; and if the one we supply is destroyed, 
wait twenty-four hours and introduce another. If we wait 
seven or eight days, and then destroy all their queen-cells, the 
bees are sure to accept a cell. If we use the West cell-protec- 
tor (Fig. 137) then there is of course no danger. 

If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very 
great value, we might make a new colony, all of young bees. 
We simply place two or three combs of fully matured brood in 
ahive, andthe queen on them. By nightfall there will bea 
goodly cluster of young bees. Unless the day and night are 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 315 


warm the hive must be set in a warm room. The entrance 
should be closed, in any case. This keeps the queen from 
leaving, and robber-bees from doing harm. As the number of 
bees warrant it, more brood may be added, and by adding 
capped brood alone we may very soon have a full-sized colony. 

By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may 
commence the next spring, and, as described in the section 
explaining the rearing of queens, we may control our rearing 
of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn have only 


Fic. 143, 


| 


Valentine's Comb-Stand. Young’s Easel, 
—From A. I, Root Co. 


the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians. I have done 
this several times, and with the most perfect satisfaction. I 
think by making this change in blood, we add certainly two 
dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no other 
way to make money so easily and pleasantly. Newly intro- 
duced queens will often commence laying at once; almost 
always within two or three days; although if introduced in 


316 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE; 


late autumn, when the bees have ceased activity for the win- 
ter, they may not lay until spring. 


VALENTINE’S COMB-STAND. 


In the work of finding queens, and in other manipulations, 
it is often desirable to take out frames. If these are set down 
beside the hive they are liable to injury. J. M. Valentine has 
given us a ‘‘comb stand”’’ (Fig. 143). As will be seen this 
holds two frames. The platform is handy to receive tools, 
and the drawer serves well to hold scissors, knife, queen- 
cages, etc. 

Mr. M. G. Young has invented an ‘“‘ Kasel’’ (Fig. 143) for 
the same purpose. This will hold several combs. Of course 
it will not do to leave combs thus exposed, except when bees 
are busy in the field, or we will have great trouble with rob- 
ber-bees. Ihave not found such devices of sufficient use to 
trouble with them. 


TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEENS. 


At present the novice, and probably the honey-producer 
who prefers to purchase rather than rear his queens, better 
send to some reliable, experienced breeder, and procure ‘‘ dollar 
queens.’’ Unless these are impurely mated, which will rarely 
happen with first-class breeders, they are just as good as 
“tested queens.’’ Testing only refers to the matter of pure 
mating. 

I have felt, and still feel, that this cheap queen-traffic 
tends to haste, not care, in breeding, and that with ‘‘dollar 
queens ’”’ ruling in the market, there is lack of inducement for 
that careful, painstaking labor that is absolutely requisite to 
give us the best race of bees. It is justly claimed, however, 
in favor of the ‘‘ dollar queen ”’ business, that it has hastened 
the spread of Italian bees, gives those who rather buy than 
rear their queens a cheap market in which to purchase, and, 
best of all, weeds out of the business all but the most skillful, 
cautious, and honest breeders. Only skillful men can make it 
pay. Only cautious, honest men can finda market for their 
stock. Weknow that men are making a handsome profit in 
the business, and at the same time are giving excellent satis- 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 317 


faction. This is the best argument in favorof any business. 
I repeat, then, that the beginner better purchase ‘dollar 
queens’’ of some reliable breeder—one who has made queen- 
rearing a success for years, and given general satisfaction. 

I have feared that this ‘‘cheap queen”’ traffic would crush 
the hard effort, requiring study, time, money, and the most 
cautious experiment and observation, necessary to giveusa 
very superior race of bees. There is reason to hope now that 
it will, at most, only delay it. Enterprising apiarists see in 
this the greatest promise for improved apiculture, and already 
are moving forward. Enterprising bee-keepers will purchase 
and pay well for the bee of the future that gives sure evidence 
of superior excellence. One thing is certain, ‘‘dollar queens ”’ 
are in the market, and are in demand; so, whether the busi- 


Fic. 144. 


Benton Cage.— From Department of Agriculture. 


ness tends to our good or evil, as rational men we must accept 
the situation and make the most of things as they exist. 

Let me urge, however, upon the progressive apiarist, that 
there is no possible doubt but that the bees of the future will 
be immensely superior to those of to-day. Man can and will 
advance hereas he has in breeding all other stock. If the 
obstacles in the way are greater because of the peculiar natural 
history of the bee, then the triumph, when it comes, will be 
greater, and the success more praiseworthy. 


TO SHIP QUEENS. 


For shipping queens the character of the shipping-cage 
and of the food are of the first importance. Nothing serves 
better fora cage than Benton’s (Fig. 144), already mentioned. 


318 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


As shown in the figure, the block from which the cage is made 
has three holes bored almost through it, which do not touch, 
but are connected by another smaller hole. The hole at one 
end is ventilated by small holes, as seen in the figure. The 
grooves prevent suffocation when the cage is wrapped or is 
snug inthe mail-bags. At the other end the hole is waxed, 
and into this the candy is packed, and before the wire-gauze 
is added comb foundation is laid on to preserve the moisture. 
Over the wire-gauze, which covers the holes, wood is tacked. 
The candy or food apartment has a corked opening at the end, 
the others at the side. The food should never be honey. This 
may daub the queen and cause her death. If the food consists 
of hard candy, then the cage must contain a bottle of water, 
the cork of which has a small opening, through which is 
passed a small cotton string. These bottles are not satisfac- 
tory, and so our queen-breeders have discovered a moist candy 
which makes them unnecessary. Fig. 145 shows the cages 
ready for mailing. 
THE ‘‘GOOD”’ CANDY. 

This consists of powdered sugar moistened with the best 
extracted honey. We are indebted to Mr. I. R. Good for this 
cheap and excellent food, although a similar candy was recom- 
mended in Germany by Scholz years ago. The only caution 
required is to get it just moist enough to keep it soft, and not 
so moist that it will drip at all. The honey is heated, but only 
to thin it; then the sugar is stirred in and kneaded. It should 
stand twoor three days. If too thin more sugar may be added. 
For spring feeding, as before stated, it has been suggested to 
stir in one-fourth of rye meal, to serve for pollen. In many 
sections this is unnecessary. 


PREPARATIONS TO SHIP. 


We have only to catch the queen and about ten workers 
and introduce them into the cage. We hold the cage in the 
left hand with the thumb over the hole, to keep the bees in, 
and with the right hand pick up the queen and eight or ten 
worker-bees—bright ones, neither very young nor old—by 
grasping the wings with thumb and index finger, and put 
them into the cage. Close the opening by inserting the cork, 
and our queen is ready to mail, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 319 


We shonid send queens by mail (Fig. 145). They go as 
safely as by express, and it costs butacent ortwo. No one 
should presume, on any account, to send a queen by mail, unless 
the queen-cage ts covered by thts double screen and ts provisioned 
as before directed, instead of with honey. lf shippers neglect 
these precautions, so that the mails become daubed, or the 
mail agents stung, we shall again lose the privilege of send- 
ing queens by mail. 

We have already learned how to introduce the queen. We 
have only to place her in the hive under the quilt or between 


“Fre. 145. 


Mailing-Cuge.—From A. I. Root Co. 


two frames, and to withdraw the cork at the candy end. The 
bees will soon eat the candy, and the queen will befree. If 
we use this cage to introduce a virgin of some age, we may 
well paste paper over the holes to delay the exit. 


TO MOVE COLONIES. 


Should we desire to purchase Italians or other colonies, 
the only requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover 
for ventilation—in shipping by express in hot weather it is 
wise to put wire below as well as above—securely fastening 
the frames so they can not possibly move, and combs so old 
that they shall not break down and fallout. Of course the 
Hoffman (Fig. 99) close-fitting frames need little fastening. 


320 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


They fasten themselves. In spring, wire-gauze over the 
entrance usually affords enough ventilation. If the colony is 
very large, and the weather very warm, the entire top of the 
hive should be open and covered with gauze, or the bees may 
smother. The entrance ought also to be covered with gauze. 
Dr. C. C. Miller, in his valuable little book, ‘A Year Among 
the Bees,”’ offers a good suggestion. It is to double a narrow 
piece of wire-gauze, a little longer than the entrance to the 
hive, and tack the cut edges to one side of a similar shaped 
piece of soft wood, so that it will project one-half inch below. 
By screwing or tacking this strip just above the entrance of a 
hive, we quickly shut the bees in. Severalof these may be 
made in advance. I find them very convenient. If combs are 
built from wired foundation they will not break down, even if 
new. Bees thus shut up should never be left where the sun 
can shine on them. I believe that comb partly filled with 
water would be grateful to the bees in case of a long journey 
in hot weather. In the cars the frames should extend length- 
wise of the cars. In moving in a wagon, springsor a good 
bed of straw should be used, and the frames should extend 
crosswise of the wagon. I would never advise moving bees in 
regions of cold winters, though it has often been done with 
entire safety. I should wish the bees to have a flight very 
soon after such disturbance. Of course this does not apply to 
such localities as California. 


Q 
& 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 321 


CHAPTER XIL 
EXTRACTING AND THE EXTRACTOR. 


The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the 
queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there isany 
neglect to give other room forstoring. Honey in brood-combs 
is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size unde- 
sirable. Comb is very valuable, and should never be taken 
from the bees, except when desired to render the honey more 
marketable. Hence, theapiarist finds a very efficient auxiliary 


in the 
HONEYV-EXTRACTOR. 


No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for 
this machine. It is equally true that some have blundered 
quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since Mr. 
Langstroth gave the practical movable frame to the world, the 
apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to 
him who gave us, in 1865, the ‘‘Mel Extractor,’’ Herr von 
Hruschka, of Germany. 

The principle which makes this machine effective is that 
of centrifugal force, and it was .suggested to Major von 
Hruschka by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled 
by his boy at the end of a string was emptied of its honey. 
Herr von Hruschka’s machine was essentially like those now 
socommon, thoughin lightness and convenience there has 
been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a 
wooden tub, with a vertical axle in the center, which revolved 
in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from the 
top of the tub fastenings extended to the axle, which projected 
for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the 
center of the tub. Attached to the axle wasa frameor rack 
to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth. 
The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the 
uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwind 


322 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


ing a string which had been previously wound about the axle, 
after the manner of top-spininng. Replace the wooden tub 
with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will be 
seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of to-day. 


Fic. 146. Fic. 147. 


Comb- Basket. 
—From C.F. Muth. 


Fic. 148. 


United States Extractor. Muth Extractor. 
—From American Bee Journal. —From C.F, Auth, 


The machine is of foreign invention, is not covered by a patent, 
and so may be made by any one who desires to do so. 

The first American honey-extractor was that made by 
Messrs. Langstroth and Wagner (see American Bee Journal, 
Vol. III, No. 10), inthe year 1867. As we should expect, our 
enterprising friends, A. I. Root (Novice), M. M. Baldridge, 
who, I think, was first, and others were soon in the field, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 323 


Some of these early extractors, like the Peabody, ran without 
gearing; others, like Mr. Baldridge’s, were of wood, while 
Mr. Langstroth’s, if we may judge from the engraving, was 
very much like the ones of to-day. 


DESIRABLE POINTS IN AN EXTRACTOR. 


The machine (Fig. 146) should be as light as is consistent 
with strength. It is desirable that the can be made of tin, as 
it will be neater and more easily kept sweet andclean. The 
can should be stationary, so that only a light frame (Fig. 147) 
shall revolve with the comb. In some of the extractors (Fig. 
147) the walls of this frame incline. This keeps the frames 
from falling in when the machine is at rest, but varies the 
centrifugal force at the top and bottom of the comb, which is 
urged as an objection. Of course this difference in force is 
very slight. Some of the extractors, like the United States 
(Fig. 146), are made so that the whole center can be removed in 
a moment, and with the central axis removed so that combs can 
be reversed without removal from the extractor, both of which 
are substantial improvements. But the most decided improve- 
ment is seen in the automatic extractor. This extractor (Fig. 
149) is so made that the combs can be quickly reversed without 
removal from the extractor. This machine, although it costs 
more than any other, will be especially prized in large apiaries. 
By simply reversing the motion the combs are also reversed. 

It is desirable that the machine should run with gearing, 
not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion, 
so that we need not throw even drone-larve from the brood- 
cells while in the act of extracting. In some machines the 
crank runs in a horizontal plane (Fig. 146), in others in a ver- 
tical plane (Fig. 148). Both styles have their friends. I think 
there is little choice between them. The arrangement for exit 
of the honey should permit a speedy and perfect shut-off. A 
molasses-gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I also prefer 
that the can should hold 30 or 40 pounds of honey before it 
would be necessary to let the honey flow from it. Large api- 
arists, like Mr. McIntyre, use power to run the extractor, and 
let the honey run continuously into a large tank below. 

In case of small frames, I should prefer that the comb- 


324 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


basket might hold four, or even more, frames. The comb- 
basket should be placed so lowin the can that no honey will 
be thrown over the top to daub the person using the extractor. 
I think that a wire attachment with a tin bottom (Fig. 150, a, 5) 
and made to hook on to the comb-basket, which will hold pieces 
of comb not in frames, is a desirable addition to an extractor. 
At present all our large apiarists use automatic reversing 


Fic. 149. 


Inside Comars Automatie Extractor, 
—From A. I, LeootCo. 


extractors, invented, I think, by Mr. Thos. W. Cowan. ‘These : 
reverse the combs automatically while in motion, and so area 
great saving of time. 

The can, if metal, which is lighter, and to be preferred to 
wood, as it does not sour nor absorb the honey, should be of 
tin, soas not to rust. A cover (Fig. 148) to protect the honey 
from dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The circular 
cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a string or a rubber, 
as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent for this purpose. As 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 325 


no capped honey can be extracted, it is necessary to uncap it, 
which is done by shaving off the thin caps. ‘To do this, noth- 
ing is comparable in excellence to the Bingham & Hethering- 
ton honey-knife (Fig. 151). After a thorough trial of this 


Fic. 150. 


From American Bee Journal. 


knife, here at the college, we pronounced it decidedly superior 
to any other that we have used, though we have several of the 
principal knives made in the United States. I do not think 
the bee-keeper can afford to use any other knife. This knife 
is peculiar for its thick blade, which is beveledon the edge. 


USE OF THE EXTRACTOR. 


Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it 
is nevertheless a fact, that the queen sometimes remains idle, 


Fic. 151. 


Bingham Knife.—From T. F. Bingham. 


or extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are 
noempty cells. The honey-yield isso great that the workers 
occupy every available space, and sometimes they even become 
unwilling idlers simply because of necessity. It is true that 
the proper arrangement and best management of frames for 
surplus would prevent this. Yet in every apiary such a condi- 


326 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


tion will occasionally occur; at such times we should always 
extract from the brood-chamber. 

The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey— 
extracted honey—in poor seasons, when hecould get very little, 
if any, in sections or boxes. By use of the extractor we can 
largely avoid swarming, and thus work for honey instead of 
increase of colonies. 

By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist 
—especially the beginner—can secure nearly, if not quite, 
double the amount of honey that he could get in combs. It 
requires much more skill to succeed in procuring comb honey 
than is required to secure extracted. The beginner will 
usually succeed far better if he work for extracted honey. 

The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the 
fall, which, if left in the hive, may prove injurious to the bees. 
It is usually better, however, to letthe beesdo this. By giving 
many frames—hundreds at a time—these may be given to bees 
in a box orin hives piled high above each other, right in the 
apiary. 

By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from 
our surplus brood-combs in the fall, and thus havea salable 
article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for 
use the next spring. 

If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket 
attachment (Fig. 150), as Ihave suggested, the uncapped sec- 
tions can be emptied in the falland used the following spring 
ata marked advantage. These, of course, may be cleaned by 
the bees, as above described, or, if we have but few, by plac- 
ing them in a super aboveanystrongcolony. Pieces of drone- 
comb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admirable for 
starters in the sections, can be emptied of their honey at any 
season. 

By use of the extractor we can furnish at two-thirds the 
price we ask for comb honey, an article which is equal, if not 
superior, tothe best comb honey, and, which, were it not for 
appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market. 
Extracted honey is also much more easily and safely shipped. 

Indeed, extracted honey is gaining so rapidly in public 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 327 


favor that even now its production is far in excess of that 
of comb honey. 

Of course, extracted honey will never sell ata price equal 
to that of comb. Yet many bee-keepers will secure enough 
more to more than make up for this. Again, the extractor is 
ever a temptation to rob the bees, so that with winter will 
come starvation. 


WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR. 


The novice should not extract unless the bees are working, 
else he will be very likely to induce robbing, Even the experi- 
enced bee-keeper must be very careful at such times. The 
bee-tent, soon to be described, is a great help then. 

If extracted honey can be sold for half that secured for 
comb honey, the extractor may be used profitably the summer 
through ; otherwise it may be used as suggested by the prin- 
ciples stated above. 

I would always extract just as the bees commence capping 
the honey. Then we avoid the labor of uncapping, and still 
have the honey thick and nearly ripe, as it is styled. I have 
proved over and over that honey may be extracted when quite 
thin, and artificially ripened or evaporated, and be equal to the 
very best. However,as there is danger of imperfect ripening itis 
wisest to leave it in the combs till the bees commence capping 
it. Many tier up and leave all in the hive till the busy season 
is over, then extract all, when the honey is of course thick and 
of the best quality. This is the method advised and practiced 
by such able authorities as the Dadants. This requires great 
care because of robbing. Unripe honey usually has a greenish 
tinge, and does not granulate as completely as does well- 
ripened honey. If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to 
the fluid state with no injury by heating, though the tempera- 
ture should never rise above 200 degrees F. This can best be 
done by placing the vessel containing the honey in another 
containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a stove, 
a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel 
from touching the bottom, else the honey will burn. As before 
stated, the best honey is pretty sure to crystallize, but it may 
often be prevented by keeping it ina temperature which is 


328 THE BRE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


constantly above 80 degrees F. If canned honey is set on 
top of a furnace in which a fire is kept burning, it will remain 
liquid indefinitely. If honey is heated to 180 degrees F. and 
sealed, it will be uninjured, and generally remains ever after 
liquid. It may be cheaply canned in the usual fruit cans, or 
in bottles, if we dip the tops in melted wax after corking, to 
insure making all air-tight. Granulated honey, if reduced, 
will often remain permanently liquid. It is a curious fact that 
unripe honey is quicker to granulate than is honey that is 
thoroughly evaporated. If we drain the liquid from honey 
thatis partially granulated, and melt the hard crystals, we 
secure a very superior product. If candied honey is but par- 
tially crystallized, the liquid part may color all as we melt the 
crystals, even though we do not burn it. 

The fact that honey granulates is the best test of its 
purity. To be sure, some honey does not crystallize, but if 
honey does we may pretty safely decide that it is unadulterated. 

To render the honey free from small pieces of comb or 
other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or 
wire sieve—I purposely refrain from the use of the word 
strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow 
it to be used, in connection with extracted honey—or else draw 
it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses-gate near the 
lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have risen to 
the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. In case of 
very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the 
first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner, 
and will of course pass more readily through common towel- 
ing or fine wire-cloth. If a sheet of queen-excluding zinc is 
used between the brood-chamber and upper story we shall 
have no brood above. This saves great loss in honey, for 
rearing drones is very expensive, and also saves a deal of 
vexation. The apiarist enjoys full frames of honey, and is 
annoyed at great patches of drone-brood in the extracting 
supers; neither does he enjoy cutting off the heads of drone- 
brood to rid the hives of these expensive hangers on. 

Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want 
of empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and 
the honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 329 


unless we allow the bees toclean the combs as above described. 
The honey should also be thrown from pieces of drone-comb 
which are cut from the brood-frames, and from the uncapped 
comb in sections at the close of the season. 


Fic. 152. 


Comb-Boz.—From A, I. Root Co. 


The apiarist should possess one or two light comb-boxes or 
baskets (Fig. 152) of sufficient size to hold all the frames from 
asingle hive. ‘These should have convenient handles, anda 
close-fitting cover. Many large apiarists prefer a comb-cart 


Fic. 153. 


Stn 
. Loot Co. 


Osburn’s Comb- Cart. —From A, 


(Fig. 153). The box of this is much likea hive, and to one 
end a cloth cover is tacked. Thus, the combs are easily cov- 
ered and carried. The bees may be shaken off or brushed off 
with a large feather, pinetwig, or other brush. A little experi- 


330 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


ence makes it easy to shake bees—even Italians—from a comb. 
A quick, forcible, vertical jerk will always doit. We often 
find that a mild jar, quickly followed by an energetic one, will 
fell nearly every bee from the comb. The Davis brush (Fig. 


Fic. 154. 


154) is excellent for removing bees from the combs. It is kept 
for sale by supply dealers. A soft brush broom (Fig. 155) is 
excellent. It should be long and slim, and will be less harsh 
if partially thinned. If the bees are troublesome, close the 


Fic. 155. 


box or cart cover as soon as each comb is placed inside. The 
Porter or other good bee-escape (Fig. 160) is a bonanza in 
extracting. Weshould have several honey-boards, each with 
anescape. Oneis placed under the extracting-combs of each 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 331 


colony at nightfall. Inthe morning the bees will be all below, 
and so each extracting-hive of combs can be carried at once to 
the extractor. By having extra sets of extracting-combs we 
may at once replace the ones removed, and thus have only to 
gotoahive once. Because of the cool nights these escapes 
do not always work as wellin California, Extract the honey 
from these, using care not to turn so hard as to throw out the 
brood. If capped, and it always should be partially capped 
before extracting, with a thin knife pare off the caps, and 
after throwing the honey from one side turn the comb around 


Fic. 156. 


Fic. 157. 


in 


my 


MeIntyre’s Uncapping-Box.— 
From A. I. Root Co, 


Dadant’s Uncapping-Can.— 
From A. I. Root Co. 


and extract it from the other. The Dadant uncapping-can 
(Fig. 156) will be very convenient. It is formed like the extrac- 
tor, and consists of two parts, about equal. The upper fits 
into the lower, which hasa fine wire screen at the top, anda 
discharge gate at the bottom. A comb-rest holds the combs. 
This drains the cappings, and gives us a very superior quality 
of honey. Mr. McIntyre uses a large box (Fig. 157) six feet 
long, with a tin tray at the bottom. The comb-restis ona 
pivot, so as to turn readily. The large size insures quick 
drainage, so that the cappings are soon ready for the solar 


332 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


wax-extractor. If the combs are of very different weights, it 
will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal 
weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. 
Now take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall 
be replaced by them. Then close the hive, extract this second 
set of combs, and thus proceed till all the honey has been 
extracted. At theclose, the one or two colonies from which 
the first combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set 


Fic. 158. 


—From A, I. Root Co, 


extracted, and thus, with much saving of robbing, in case 
there is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary. 

Some apiarists take the first set of combs froma single 
colony, and leave the colony without combs till they are 
through for the day. A better way is to keep an extra set of 
combs on hand. If the bee-keeper works for extracted honey, 
the extracting-combs should be kept separately in an upper 
story (Figs. 84 and 87), while the queen and breeding should 
be kept below in the lower story of the hive. 

In case the bees are not gathering, we shall escape rob- 
bing and stings by the use of the tent (Fig. 158). This covers 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 333 


the hive and operator. The one figured is very ingenious in 
its construction, is light and cheap. Mr. Root sells it all made 
for use for $1.50. 


TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONKY. 


Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be 
run into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick, 
and the vessels may be sealed or corked, and boxed at once. 

If large quantities of honey are extracted, it may be most 
conveniently kept in barrels. These should be first-class, and 
ought to be waxed before using them, to make assurance 
doubly sure against any leakage. No rosin should be used 
with the wax, as it injures the honey. Goodsecond-hand alco- 
hol barrels are excellent, and cost but $1.00. These and 
whisky barrels need no waxing. They must be thoroughly 
cleaned, but must never be charred by burning inside. To 
wax the barrels, we may use beeswax, but paraffine is cheaper, 
and just as efficient. Three or four quarts of the hot paraffine 
or wax should be turned into the barrel, the bung driven in 
tight, the barrel twirled in every position, after which the 
bung is loosened by a blow with the hammer, and the residue 
of the wax turned out. Economy requires that the barrels be 
warm when waxed, so that only athin coat will be appro- 
priated. Barrels must be tight without soaking, though it is 
best to drive the hoops well before using them. We should 
also test them by use of a little hot water before use. If, when 
sealed, no steam escapes they, are surely tight. Cypress kegs 
are much used for smaller vessels, but are more expensive, 
while the second-hand alcohol barrel holds about 500 pounds. 
Kegs that hold respectively 50, 100, and 175 pounds cost 40, 60, 
and 80cents. Barrels or kegs should never be soaked, as the 
honey absorbs the water, and leaking will almost surely fol- 
low. If driving the hoops and waxing will not make them 
tight, then they are unfit for use. 

Large tin cans, waxed and soldered at the openings after 
being filled, are cheap, and may be the most desirable recepta- 
cles for extracted honey. Tin cans are rapidly replacing bar- 
rels for honey. These are made of various sizes, and are 
shipped either in a wooden jacket (Fig. 189) or packed in bar- 


334 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


rels. Inthe dry climate of California these are absolutely 
necessary. Barrels are unsafe. ; 

Extracted honey, unless sealed, should always be kept in 
dry apartments. If thin when extracted, it should be kept in 
open barrels or cans in a warm, dry room till it has thoroughly 
ripened. If quite thin it must be kept in a quite warm room, 
in very shallow vessels. In this way I have ripened very thin 
honey, so it was of excellent quality. In all such cases the 
vessels should be covered by cheese-cloth. To remove ex- 
tracted honey from a barrel, etc., we may remove one head, or, 
if practicable, the vessel may be put in hot water, which 
should never be above 180° F., and soon the honey will run 
off. 


Miz 
an 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 335 


CHAPTER XIil. 
WORKING FOR COMB HONEY. 


While extracted honey has so much to recommend it, and 
is rapidly growing in favor with American apiarists, still such 
reports as that of Dr. C. C. Miller, who in 1884 increased his 
174 colonies to 202, and took 16,000 pounds of comb honey in 
one-pound sections, which netted him very nearly $3000; and 
that of Mr. Doolittle, who has secured nearly 100 pounds of 
comb honey per colony fora long series of years, may well 
lead us not to ignore this branch of our business. ‘The showy 
horse, or the red short-horn, may not be intrinsically superior 
to the less attractive animals; but they will always win in the 
market. Socomb honey, in the beautiful one-pound sections, 
will always attract buyersand secure the highest price. As 
more embark in the production of extracted honey, higher will 
be the price of the irresistible, incomparable comb honey. 
Well, then, may we study howto secure the most of this 
exquisite product of the bees, in a form that shall rival in 
attractiveness that of the product itself, for very likely the 
state of the market in some localities will make its production 
the most profitable feature of apiculture. 


POINTS TO CONSIDER. 


To secure abundance of comb honey the colonies must be 
very strong, and the brood-combs full of brood at the dawn of 
the honey harvest. The swarming-fever must be kept at bay 
or cured before the rapid storing commences, and the honey 
should be secured in the most attractive form. 


TO SECURE STRONG COLONIES. 


By feeding daily, whenever the bees are not storing, com- 
mencing as soon as the bees commence to store pollen, we 
shall most certainly, if the bees have been well wintered, 
secure this result. Yet bees are naturally active after their 


336 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


long winter’s rest, and this stimulative feeding rarely pays. 
We should also use the division-board, and keep the bees 
crowded, especially if weak in the spring. Only give them 
the number of combs that they can cover. It is very impor- 
tant to keep all warm. Doolittle says this necessitates a tele- 
scope cover to the hive. Though this last may with proper 
management be unnecessary, it certainly does no harm; it 
may aid greatly. True, Mr. Heddon objects to this work of 
feeding and manipulating division-boards, and secures much 
honey and money. I have often wondered what his genius 
and skill would accomplish should he vary his method in this 
respect. Instead of feeding by use of the Smith (Fig. 127) or 
other feeder, we may uncap a comb of honey and with it 
separate combs of brood as the bees get twoor three full frames 
of the latter. This will stimulate the bees, and as they will 
carry the honey from the uncapped cells the queen will be 
impelled to most rapid laying. We may also fill empty combs 
as already described, and place these in or close beside the 
brood-nest. By turning around the brood-combs, or separating 
them by adding combs with empty cells as the colonies gain 
in strength, we hasten brood-rearing to the utmost. This 
matter of separating the brood-combs must be very cautiously 
managed or brood will be chilled and much harm done. Most 
bee-keepers do not take all this pains. Each one’s experience 
must be guide. 


TO AVOID THE SWARMING-FEVER. 


This is not always possible by any method, and has ever 
been the obstacle in the way of successful comb-honey produc- 
tion. The swarming impulse and great yields of this delecta- 
ble product are entirely antagonistic. Messrs. Heddon, Davis, 
and others, let the bees swarm. ‘They hive these swarms on 
foundation, and hope to have this all done, and both colonies 
strong, in time for the honey harvest. Messrs. Hutchinson 
and Doolittle hive the swarm on empty frames, always, how- 
ever, with starters, placing sections with their foundation, or 
better, comb, on the hive at once. It is specially desirable to 
have a few combs in the sections, to bait the bees and attract 
them to the supers. They also restrict the brood-chamber, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 337 


either by filling the space with division-boards (Doolittle), or by 
using the lower half of a horizontally divided brood-chamber 
(Hutchinson), see new Heddon hive, p.189. In this way the 
whole working force is put at once into the sections. Some of 
our best Michigan and New York bee-keepers, with Dr. Miller, 
let the bees swarm, and return them, either caging the queen 
or placing her in a nucleus for seven days, then return her to 
the bees, after cutting out the queen-cells. This takes nothing 
from the energy of the bees, and will doubtless work best of 
all methods in the hands of the beginner. In this case, as the 
full energy of the colony is turned to storing, the amount of 
honey would be theoretically greater. My practice sustains 
the theory. Such authorities as Messrs. Hetherington and 
Elwood practice this method. J. H. Robertson kills the old 
queen, and in seven days destroysall but the largest queen-cell, 
and so gains the same end, and requeens his apiary. If 
increase is desired, however, then Mr. Hutchinson’s method 
should be followed. The yield of comb honey in this last case 
will not usually be so great, though in excellent seasons it 
may be greater. 

Some very able bee-keepers manipulate so skillfully by 
adding empty combs to the hives, as to keep this swarming 
impulse in check, and still keep the bees increasing most 
rapidly. Others divide the colonies, and so hold at bay the 
swarming-fever. All must practice as their own experience 
proves best, as the same method will not have equal value 
with different persons. We must work as best we can to secure 
strong colonies, and check or retard the swarming-fever, and, 
while learning by experience to do this, may well work the 
most of our bees for extracted honey, whichis more easily 
secured, and is sure to be in demand, even though the price is 
less. The quantity may more than compensate for lower 
price. 

ADJUSTMENT OF SECTIONS. 

As before suggested, a wide space between bottom-bars of 
sections—three-eighths inch—is desirable. J. A. Green has 
half-story supers with frames only one-half as deep for 
extracting. These are put one on each hive at the dawn of 
the honey harvest. As soon as the bees commence to work in 


333 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE; 


them, they are removed or raised and a section-case put in 
their place. As the bees commence in the sections these 
extracting half-story hives are used one above another with 
such colonies as are worked forextracted honey. The sections 
should be on at the very dawn of each honey harvest, as white 
clover, basswood, etc. At first the full set of sections better 
not be added, but as soon as the bees commence to work well 
in them, they all should be added, on side and top, if side-stor- 
ing is practiced, and, if we wish to tier up, the case of sections 
first added should be raised and others added below. I like 
this practice of tiering up very much. As soon as the bees are 
working wellin all the sections I raise the case and place 
another underneath. This‘is continued, often till there are 
three cases of sections on a single hive. Some think that if 
the unfilled case of sections is placed above instead of below, 
that less unfilled sections will remain at the close of the 
season, as the warmth higher upis grateful to the bees. As 
already stated, it is best not to have the sections too closely 
shutin. Slight ventilation is often desirable. 

If the queen troubles by entering the sections, use may be 
made of the perforated zinc (Fig. 91), or, better still, the queen- 
excluding honey-board (Fig. 91), to keep her fromthem. As 
already suggested, we must arrange the form and size of sec- 
tions as the market and our hives and apparatus make most 
desirable. We may vary the size and form of our sections so 
as to make them smaller, and yet use the same cases or frames 
that we used with larger sections. Small sections are most 
ready of sale, and safest to ship; yet with their use we may 
secure less honey. 

If we can get nice, straight combs by having them less 
thick without using separators in the sections, so that these 
latter can be readily placed side by side in shipping-cases, 
then we, by all means, better omit the separators. If we use 
separators, we can use wood ortin. Wood is cheapest, and I 
find that in practice it serves even better than tin. The plain 
sections with fence (page 241) give separators and wide con- 
nections, and are sure to grow in favor. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 339 


.GETTING BEES INTO SECTIONS. 


The crowded hive or brood-chamber, with no intent to 
swarm, the wide spaces between sections, and a rich harvest 
of nectar will usually send-the bees into the sections with a, 
rush. If they refuse to go, sections with comb, a little drone- 
brood, or the exchange of sections temporarily from above to 
the brood-nest, or the moving of a brood-frame up beside the 
sections for a short time, as before described, will frequently 
start the bees into the sections. Some apiarists will have their 
cases with sections so made that they can be placed between 
the brood-frames till the bees commence to work in the sec- 
tions; others accomplish the same end by inverting the frames. 
Sections filled with foundation—only very thin foundation 
should be used in sections—are more attractive to the worker- 
bees. I find that a few sections full of combin the section- 
case very greatly aid to tempt the bees to work in the sections. 
We often may gain our point by taking a case of sections, bees 
and all, from a hive whose bees are working in the sections, 
and giving them to the reluctant colony. Or we may gain the 
same end by giving the bees a one-half story or case of 
extracting-combs. The bees may enter these at once, when 
we may raise them and add our section-cases. Later these 
half-story extracting-combs may be used elsewhere, and may 
serve there to cut short unprofitable loafing, and to prevent 
swarming. Ialso have used the invertible frames to excellent 
purpose in obtaining the same result. I invert the frames and 
at the same time uncap the honey inthem. The hives must 
always be shaded from the hot sun. With experience will 
come the skill which can accomplish this, and make comb- 
honey production the most fascinating feature of bee-keeping. 


REMOVAL OF SECTIONS. 


The three-eighths inch space between the upper as well as 
the lower bars of the sections enables us to see quickly the con- 
dition of each section just by removal of the cover. Each 
section should be removed as soon as capped, if we would have 
it very nice. Yet it is certainly true that the rich, delicate 
flavor will be increased if left on the hive even for a month or 


340 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


more. This, of course, can not be done unless we use separa- 
tors. Any delay will make it dark and hurtitssale. During 
the harvest we should add other sections to take the place of 
those removed. ‘Towards the close of the harvest we should 
not add other sections, for, by contracting the space, the last 
sections will be more surely filled and quickly capped. To 


Fic. 159. 


The Reese Cones.—From A, I. Root Co. 


remove the bees from single sections taken from frame or 
case, we have only to brush them off. 

Few bee-keepers will stop to remove single sections. In 
fact, the tiering-up process is, in my opinion, the key to the 
successful production of comb honey. If we remove a full 
case we can often shake a large portion of the bees from the 
sections, then by piling the cases in a box overspread bya 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 341 


sheet, or in a bee-tent, or even in the honey-house, the bees 
will all leave the sections. J. S. Reese, of Kentucky, invented 
double cones of wire-gauze, one smaller than and within the 
other, to remove the bees from sections. These are fastened 
with their bases (Fig. 159) just over an inch holeina board 
just the size of a section-case. When it is desired to cleara 


Fic. 160. 


ce 


ro ll 


Porter Bee-Escape.—From A, I, Root Co. 


case of sections of bees, the case is raised and an empty case 
with the board upon it, and the cones projecting downward, is 
placed beneath (Fig. 159). One need not try this to know that 
it would be practical. 

‘The Porter bee-escape (Fig. 160) is much superior to the 
cones. It lies horizontal, and so requires no more space than 
the board (Fig. 161) which contains it. 


Fic. 161. 


Porter Bee-Escape in Honey-Board.—From A. I, Root Co. 


To remove the sections from the case, we invert the case 
and set it on a shallow box just the size of the case. This need 
not be more than two inches high. We now lay a block, which 
will cover a row, on the sections, when, by a smart blow from 
a mallet, a whole row of sections is loosened at once. Even 
with the best care and management there will be some unfilled 
sections at the close of the season. In large apiaries, where 
there are thousands of these, they may be safely placed in 


342 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


hives, one above the other, and fed to the bees right in the 
apiary. This will never do except on a very large scale, as it 
would cause robbing. If nearly fullthey may be sold in the 
local market. They may be extracted and the sections used as 
decoys the next year. Occasionally we can feed extracted 
honey, and have them filled. This is likely to cause robbing 
unless very carefully managed, and usually fails to pay. 

Of course, all sections must be scraped, as any stain or 
show of propolis makes second-grade honey. Scraping requires 
much care, or the honey will be bruised, which would makea 
bad matter worse. Special boxes of convenient height, with 
shelves at ends to hold sections so that the edge of section may 
be flush with edge of the shelf, are used to advantage in clean- 
ing sections. Some have used machinery, such as moving 
belts, wheels, or moving sandpaper, to accomplish this work. 
Most use the common case-knife, and usually, especially with 
the small bee-keeper, that is the best. The box, however, to 
catch litter, and with end shelves to bear the sections, first sug- 
gested by Mr. Boomhower, of New York, is a valuable feature. 

If there is any possible danger of moths, the comb honey 
should be fumigated by use of burning sulphur (see Bee-Moth). 
Bisulphide of carbon may be used instead of sulphur. It is 
equally good, and requires less labor. As this last is thought 
to kill the eggs, it is much to be preferred. This is a wise pre- 
caution, even though the bee-keeper rarely sees one of these 
insects. A single moth can stock several cases of sections 
with the fatal eggs. 

R. L. Taylor, one of Michigan’s most successful bee- 
keepers, who produces large harvests of comb honey, gives 
the following points to be heeded in producing comb honey : 

1. Bees must winter well. 

2. There must be a goodly amount of honey in the hive in 
the spring. Bees never prosper on scant rations. 

3. Keep colonies warm in spring. 

4. Tier up and leave sections on the hive till just at the 
close of the season. 

5. When removed, pile the cases of sections one upon 
another, fumigate, and keep in a warm room till sold. 

The above are points well worthy consideration, and may 
be called the axioms of comb-honey production. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 343 


CHAPTER XIV. 
HANDLING BEES. 


But some one asks the question, Shall we not receive those 
merciless stings, or be introduced to what ‘“‘Josh”’’ calls the 
“business end of the bee?’? Perhaps there is no more cause- 
less or more common dread in existence than thisof bees’ 
stings. When bees are gathering, they will never sting unless 
provoked. When at the hives—especially if Italians or Car- 
niolans—they will rarely make an attack. The common 
belief, too, that some persons are more liable to attack than 
others, is, I think, erroneous. With the best opportunity to 
judge, with our hundreds of students, I think I may safely say 
that one is almost always as liable to attack as another, except 
that he is more quiet, or does not greet the usually amiable 
passer-by with those terrific thrusts, which would vanquish 
even a practiced pugilist. Occasionally a person may havea 
peculiar odor about his person that angers bees and invites 
their darting tilts, with drawn swords, venom-tipped; yet, 
though I take my large classes each season, at frequent inter- 
vals, to see and handle the bees, each for himself, I still await 
the first proof of the fact that one person is more liable to be 
stung than another, providing each carries himself with that 
composed and dignified bearing that is so pleasing to the bees. 
True, some people, filled with dread, and the belief that bees 
regard them with special hate and malice, are so ready for the 
pattle that they commence the strife with nervous head-shakes 
and beating of the air, and thus force the bees to battle, 
nolentes volentes. I believe that only such are regarded with 
special aversion by the bees. Hence,I believe that xo one 
need be stung. 

Bees should never be jarred, nor irritated by quick 
motions. It is always wise, also, to stand at one side and 
never in frontofthe hive. Those with nervous temperament— 
and I plead very guilty on this point—need not give up, but at 


344 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


first better protect their faces, and, perhaps, even their hands, 
till time and experience show them that fear is vain; then 
they will divest themselves of all such useless encumbrances. 
Bees are more cross when they are gathering no honey, and at 
such times, black bees and hybrids especially, are so irritable 
that even the experienced apiarist will wish a veil. Exposing 
honey about the apiary at such times willincrease quickly this 
irritability. There are some bees that are chronically cross, 
and are ever about with their menacing cry. Doolittle advises 
killing these at once. He usesa small paddle-like board for 
this purpose. Ihave never minded these chronic grumblers. 
They usually respect indifference; at least they rarely sting me. 


THE BEST BEE VEIL. 


This should be made of black tarlatan, or, better, silk 
tulle, sewed up like a bag,a half yard long, without top or 
bottom, and with a diameter of the rim of a common straw- 
hat. Gather the top with braid, so that it will just slip over 
the crown of the hat—else, sew it to the edge of the rim of 
some cheap, cool hat; in fact, I prefer this style—and gather 
the bottom with rubber cord or rubber tape, so that it may be 
drawn over the hat rim, and then over the head, as we adjust 
the hat. 

Some prefer to dispense with the rubber cord at the bottom 
(Fig. 162), and have the veil long so as to be gathered in by 
the coat or dress. If the black tarlatan troubles by coloring 
the shirt or collar, or if the silk tulle is thought too expensive, 
the lower part may be made of white netting ; indeed, all may 
be made of white netting except a small square to be worn 
just in front of the eyes. When in use, the rubber cord draws 
the lower part close about the neck, or the lower part tucks 
within the coat or vest (Fig. 162), and we are safe. This kind 
of a veil is cool, does not impede vision atall, and can be made 
by any woman ata cost of less than 20 cents. Common buck- 
skin or sheepskin gloves can be used, as it will scarcely pay to 
get special gloves for the purpose, for the most timid person— 
I speak from experience—will soon consider gloves as unneces- 
sary and awkward. 

Special rubber gloves are sold by those who keep on hand 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 345 


apiarian supplies. It is reported that heavily starched linen 
is proof against the bee’s sting, and so may be used for gloves 
or other clothing. Some apiarists think that dark clothing is 
specially obnoxious to bees. It is certainly true that fuzzy 
woolen, and even hairs on one’s hands, are very irritating to 
them. Clothes with a heavy nap should be rejected by the 
bee-keeper, and the Esaus should singe the hair from their 
hands. 

For ladies, my friend, Mrs. Baker, recommendsa dress 
which, by use of a rubber skirt-lift or other device, can be 


Fic. 162. 


Bee- Veil.— Original. 


instantly raised or lowered. This will be convenient in the 
apiary, and tidy anywhere. The Gabrielle style is preferred, 
and of a length just to reach the floor. It should be belted at 
the waist, and cut down from the neck in front one-third 
the length of the waist, to permit the tucking in of the veil. 
The underwaist should fasten close about the neck. The 
sleeves should be quite long to allow free use of the arms, and 
gathered in with a rubber cord at the wrist, which will hug 
the rubber gauntlets or arm, and prevent bees from crawling 
up the sleeves. The pantalets should be straight and full, and 
should also have the rubbercord in the hemto draw them 
close about the top of the shoes. 


346 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE} 


Mrs. Baker also places great stress on the wet ‘“‘ head-cap,”’ 
which she believes the men even would find a great comfort. 
This isa simple, close-fitting cap, made of two thicknesses of 
coarse toweling. The head is wet with cold water, and the 
cap wetin the same, wrung out, and placed on the head. 

Mrs. Baker would have the dress neat and clean, and so 
trimmed that the lady apiarist would ever be ready to greet 
her brother or sister apiarists. In such a dress there is no 
danger of stings, and withit there is that show of neatness 
and taste, without which no pursuit could attract the attention, 
or at least the patronage, of our refined women. 


TO QUIET BEES. 


In harvest seasons the bees, especially if Italians, can 
almost always be handled without their showing resentment. 
Our college bees—hybrids, between Syrians and Carniolans— 
are so gentle that I go freely among them without protection 
each May and June, with my large classes. At first each 
student puts on the veil, but soon these are thrown aside, and 
it is rare indeed that any one gets a sting. Even Mr. Doolittle 
always uses a veil when steadily at work in the apiary. But 
at other times, and whenever they object to necessary famil- 
jarity, we have only tocausethem to fill with honey—very 
likely it is the scare that quiets the bees—to render them 
harmless, unless we pinch them. ‘This can be done by closing 
the hive so that the bees can not get out, and then rapping on 
the hive fora short time. Those within will fill with honey, 
those without will be tamed by surprise, and all will be quiet. 
Sprinkling the bees with sweetened water will also tend to 
render them amiable, and will make them more ready to unite 
to receive a queen, and lessapt tosting. Still another method, 
more convenient, is to smoke the bees. A little smoke blown 
among the bees will scarcely ever fail to quiet them, though I 
have known black bees, in autumn, to be very slow to yield. 
It is always wise upon opening a hive to blow a little smoke in 
at the entrance. 

The Syrian bees, when first imported, are maddened rather 
than quieted by use of smoke. I find, however, that with 
handling they soon become more likeItalians. Deliberation is 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 347 


specially desirable when we first open the hive of Syrian bees. 
Dry cotton-cloth, closely wound and sewed or tied, or, 
better, pieces of dry, rotten wood are excellent for the purpose 
of smoking. ‘These are easily handled, and will burn fora 
long time. But best of allisa 


. BELLOWS SMOKER. 


This is a tin tube attached to a bellows. Cloth, corn-cobs, 
damp shavings, or rotten wood (that which has been attacked 
by dry-rot is the best) can be burned in the tube, and will 
temain burning a long time. The smoke can be directed at 


Fie. 164. 


Direct-Draft Perfect 
BINGHAM 


BeeSmoker 


Fic. 163. 


Quinby Smoker. 
—From L. C. Root. + 


PATENTED 
1878, 1882 and 1892. 


Bingham Smoker.—From T, F, Bingham. 


pleasure, the bellows easily worked, and the smoker used with- 
out any disagreeable effects or danger from fire. 


THE QUINBY SMOKER. 


This smoker (Fig. 163) was a gift to bee-keepers by the 
late Mr. Quinby, and was not patented. Though a similar 
device had been previously used in Europe, without doubt Mr. 
Quinby was not aware of the fact, and as he was the person to 
bring it to the notice of bee-keepers, and to make it so perfect 


348 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


as to challenge the attention and win the favor of apiarists 
instanter, he is certainly worthy of great praise, and deserving 
of hearty gratitude. 

Mr. Bingham was the first to improve the old Quinby 
smoker in establishing a direct draft (Fig. 164). Later Mr. 
Bingham added a wire fire-guard to the chimney, and hinged 
the latter to the fire-tube. Mr. Clark next added the cold draft 
(Fig. 165). This hasa large fire-chamber, but it is awkward 
in form, and the small cold-air tube soon chokes with soot. 


Fic. 165. 


Clark Smoker.—From A. I. Root Co. 


There are now several smokers on the market, each of 
which has its merits andits friends. I have tried nearly all, 
and, in my opinion, the Bingham is incomparably superior to 
any other. I should have it at double or triple the price of any 
other. Still, I know excellent bee-keepers who prefer the 
Clark. No person who keeps even a single colony of bees can 
afford to do without some one of them. 


TO SMOKE BEES. 


Approach the hive, blow a little smoke in at the entrance, 
then open from above, and blowin smoke as required. If, at 
any time, the bees seem irritable. a few puffs from the smoker 
will subdue them. Thus, any person may handle his bees 
with perfect freedom and safety. If, at any time, the fire- 


OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 349 


.. chamber and escape-pipe of the smoker become filled with soot, 
they can easily be cleaned by revolving an iron or hardwood 
stick inside of them. 

CHLOROFORM. 


Mr. Jones finds that chloroform is very useful in quieting 
bees. He puts a dry sponge in the tube of the smoker, then a 
sponge wet in chloroform—it takes but a few drops—then puts 
in another dry sponge. ‘These dry sponges prevent the escape 
of the chloroform, except when the bellows is worked. Mr. 
Jones finds that bees partially stupefied with chloroform 
receive queens without any show of ill-will, Assoon as the 
bees begin to fall, the queen is put into the hive, and no more 
of the vapor added. I tried this one summer with perfect suc- 
cess. This was recommended yearsago in Germany, but its 
use seems to have beenabandoned. It is more than likely that 
“Mr. Jones’ method of applying the anesthetic is what makes 
it more valuable. The smoker diffuses the vapor so that all 
bees receive it, and none get too much. I should use ether 
instead of chloroform, as with higher animals it is a little 
more mild and safe. Our British friends of late are recom- 
mending carbolic acid in lieu of smoke to quiet bees. By 
means of a feather the liquid is brushed about the entrance 
and along the top of the frames, or else a cloth dampened with 
the acid is placed over the frames. This is also used to fumi- 
gate the bees for the same purpose. Mr. Cheshire advises a 
little creosote placed in the common smoker, to make the 
smoke more effective. There is no question but that this 
obnoxious substance will quiet the bees; butit seems to me, 
from a brief experience, that it is far less convenient than the 
smoker. With fuller experience I say unhesitatingly that for 
convenience and effectiveness, smoke is quite superior to any 
of these substances. 

TO CURE STINGS. 


In case a person is stung, he should step back a little for a 
moment, as the pungent odor of the venom is likely to anger 
the bees and induce further stinging. By forcing a little 
‘smoke from the smoker on the part stung, we. will obscure 
this odor. The sting should be rubbed off at once. I say 


350 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


rubbed, for we should not grasp it with the finger-nails, as 
that crowds more poison into the wound. If the pain is such 
as to prove troublesome, apply a little ammonia. The venom is 
an acid, and is neutralized by the alkali. A strong solution 
of saltpeter I have found nearly as good torelieve pain as the 
ammonia. Ice-cold water drives the blood from any part of 
our body to which it is applied, and so it often gives relief to 
quickly immerse the part stung in very cold water. In case 
horses are badly stung, as sometimes happens, they should be 
taken as speedily as possible into a barn (a man, too, may 
escape angry bees by entering a building), where the bees will 
seldom follow, then wash the horses in soda water, and cover 
with blankets wet in cold water. Cows picketed many rods 
from the apiary, in the line of flight to a spring, have been 
stung to death. Unlike horses, cows will not run off. This 
fact surely suggests caution. 

A wash or lotion, ‘‘Apifuge,’’ is praised in England asa 
preventive of stings. The hands and face are simply washed 
init. Ihave tried it, but could see no advantage. The sub- 
stances used are oil of wintergreen or methyl salicylate. 


THE SWEAT THEORY. 


It is often stated that sweaty horses and people are obnox- 
ious tothe bees, and hence almost sure targets for their barbed 
arrows. In warm weatherI perspire most profusely, yet am 
scarcely ever stung, since I have learned to control my nerves. 
Ionce kept my bees in the front yard—they looked beautiful 
on the green lawn—within two rods of a main thoroughfare, 
and not infrequently let my horse, covered with sweat upon 
my return from a drive, crop the grass while cooling off, right 
in the same yard. Of course, there was some danger, though 
less as I always kept careful watch, but I never knew my horse 
to get stung. Why, then, the theory? May not the more 
frequent stings be consequent upon the warm, nervous condi- 
tion of the individual? The man is more ready to strike and 
jerk, the horse to stamp and switch. The switching of the 
horse’s tail, like the whisker trap of a full beard, will anger 
even a good-natured bee. I should dread the motions more 
than the sweat. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 351 


Often when there is nohoney to gather, as when we take 
the last honey in autumn, or prepare the bees for winter, the 
bees are inordinately cross. This is especially true of black 


Fic. 166. 
uy i Pe kw Tit 
LESTE i oe Pe 
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gu OCH HEHE a 
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i ua HLL 1] 
a mn i Y 
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. 4 a 
" ro HH Theo 
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Titty i aul 
i a mui 


is 
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if 


i 

T 

1st t 
T 

t 

i 


ttt tye 


Sat 2 


Bee- Tent.—Original. 


bees and hybrids. At suchtimesI have found an invaluable 
aid in 
THE BEE-TENT. 

This also keeps all robbers from mischief. It is simply a 
tent which entirely covers the hives, bees, bee-keeper and all. 
The one I use (Fig. 166) is light, large, and easily moved, or 
folded up if we wish to put it in the house. The sides are 
rectangulur frames made of light pine strips, well braced (Fig. 
166, 4, 6), and covered with wire-cloth. ‘The top and ends are 


352 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


covered with factory-cloth, firmly tacked except at one end, 
where it is fastened, at will, by rings which hook over screws. 
‘The two sides have no permanent connection of wood, except 
at the ends (Fig. 166, ¢, c). The small strips which connect at 
these places are double, and hinged to the side frames, and the 
two parts of each hinged together. Thus these may drop, and 
so permit the side frames to come close together where we 
wish to ‘‘ fold our tent.’? The sides are kept apart by center 
cross-strips at the ends (Fig. 166, a, a), from which braces (Fig. 
166, z, 7) extend to the double cross-strips above. ‘These center 
strips, with their braces hinged to them, are separate from the 
rest of the frame, except when hooked on as we spread the 
tent. I have since made a similar tent, and for end-pieces 
used simply four round sticks, the ends of wiich fitted very 
closely into holes bored into the uprights of the side frames, 
one into the top and one into the middle of each. These end- 
pieces are as long as can be crowded in. This is very simple 
and excellent. 

After use of this tent several years, I can not praise it too 
highly. It is also admirable in aiding to get bees out of sec- 
tions—in which case cones, like the Reese cones (Fig. 159), will 
permit the bees to escape, and to use at fairs, when bees can 
be manipulated in the tent. I have so used it. The tent 
should always be used, if we must handle bees when no gath- 
ering is being done. There norobbing will be caused. Ihave 
already referred to a cheap tent made by A. I. Root (Fig. 158). 
That, however, is not as convenient as this one. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 353 


CHAPTER XV. 
COMB FOUNDATION. 


Every apiarist of experience knows that empty combs in 
frames, comb-guides in the sections, to tempt the bees and to 
insure the proper position of the full combs, in fact, combs of 
almost any kind or shape, are of great importance. So every 
skillful apiarist is very careful to save all drone-comb that is 
cut out of the brood-chamber—where it is worse than useless, 
as it brings with it myriads of those useless gourmands, the 
drones—to kill-the eggs, remove the brood, or extract the 
honey, and transfer it to the sections. He is equally careful 
to keep all his worker-comb, so long as the cells are of proper 
size to domicile full-sized larve, and never to sell any comb, 
or even comb honey, unless a greater price makes it desirable. 


Fic. 167. 


in 


ne 


Comb Foundation.—From American Bee Journal. 


No wonder, then, if comb is so desirable, that German 
thought and Yankee ingenuity have devised means of giving 
the bees at least a start in this important yet expensive work 
of comb-building, and hence the origin of another great aid to 
the apiarist—comb foundation (Fig, 167). 

HISTORY. 


For more than forty years the Germans have used im- 
pressed sheets of wax as a foundation for comb, as it was first 
made by Herr Mehring,in 1857, These sheets are several 

* 


354 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE ; 


times as thick as the partition at the centerof natural comb, 
This is pressed between metal plates so accurately formed that 
the wax receives rhomboidal impressions which are a fac simile 
of the basal wall or partition between the opposite cells of 
naturalcomb. The thickness of this sheet is an objection, as 
it is found that the bees do not thin it down to the natural 
thickness, though they may thin it much, and they use the 
shavings to form the walls. Prof. C. P. Gillette (Bulletin 54, 
Colorado Experiment Station), by mixing lampblack with wax, 
proved what we have long known, that bees extend the midrib 
and foundation to complete the cells. As we have seen, the 
bees form comb in the same way, when they make their own 
foundation. 


AMERICAN FOUNDATION. 


Mr. Wagner secured a patent on foundation in 1861, but as 
the article was already in use in Germany, the patent was, as 
we understand, of no legal value, and, certainly, as it did noth- 
ing to bring this desirable article into use, it had no virtual 
value. Mr. Wagner was alsothe first to suggest the idea of 
rollers. In Langstroth’s work, edition of 1859, page 373, occurs 
the following in reference to printing or stamping combs: 
‘“Mr. Wagner suggests forming these outlines with a simple 
instrument somewhat like a wheel cake-cutter. Whena large 
number are to be made, a machine might easily be constructed 
which would stamp them with great rapidity.’’ In 1866, the 
King Brothers, of New York, in accordance with the above 
suggestion, made the first machine with-rollers, the product of 
which they tried to get patented, but failed. These stamped 
rollers were less than two inches long. This machine was 
useless, and failed to bring foundation into general use. 

In 1874, Mr. Frederick Weiss, a poor German, invented the 
machine which brought the foundation into general use. This 
was the machine on which was made the beautiful and practi- 
cal foundation sent out by ‘‘ John Long,” in 1874 and 1875, and 
which proved to the American apiarists that foundation 
machines, and foundation, were to be a success. 

In 1876, A. I. Root commenced in his energetic, enthusi- 
astic way, and soon brought the roller machine (Fig. 168) and 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 355 


foundation into general use. These machines, though a great 
aid to apiculture, were still imperfect, and though sold at an 
extravagantly high price—through no fault of Mr. Root, as he 
informs me—were in great demand. Next, Mrs. F. Dunham 
greatly improved the machine by so making the rolls that the 
foundation would have a very thin base and high, thick walls, 
which, in the manufacture, were not greatly pressed. These 
three points are very desirable in all foundation—thin base 
and thick, high walls, which shall not be compactly pressed. 


Fic. 168. 


AT 
rrr A 


LU i 
i A 


Roller Comb Foundation Machine.—From American Bee Journal. 


Mr. Chas. Ohlm invented a machine for cutting the plates, 
which greatly cheapened the machines. This was purchased 
by Mr. Root, and he says that ninety percent of the foundation 
made in the United States has been made on machines, the 
rollers of which were embossed by this Ohlm machine. 

Mrs. Dunham is not.only entitled to gratitude for the 
superior excellence of the machines she manufactured, but by 


356 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


putting so excellent a machine on the market at a lower price, 
all roller machines had to be sold more reasonably. Mr. Van- 
dervort also improved the rollers, so that his machine secures 
the same results as does Mrs. Dunham’s, while the form of the 
foundation is somewhat more natural, though not preferred by 
the bees, I think. Another form of foundation—that with flat 
bottom—is made by the Van Deusen mill. This has a very 


Fic. 169. 


Given Press.—From American Bee Journal. 


thin base, and is very handsome. It was made to use with 
wires. This can be made very thin, and many bee-keepe-s 
praise it very highly. Mr. P. H. Elwood, I think, still prefers 
it for use in sections. Mr. Root has kept his machine abreast 
with the latest improvements. Mr. A. B. Weed has shown 
great inventive genius in manufacturing very complete comb 
with natural base and cells nearly complete, so that it is very 
like natural comb. ‘The bees, however, seem to prefer that 
with less length of cell, and the greater cost and more difficult 
transportation makes its use undesirable. At least, it has 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 357 


made no hit in practical bee-keeping. Mr. Weed uses types 
for the cells, and so the cells must be exactly alike. 


THE PRESS FOR FOUNDATION. 


Mr. D. A. Given, of Illinois, has made a press (Fig. 169) 
that stamps the sheets by plates and not by rolls, which, for a 
time gave nearly, if not quite, as good satisfaction as the 
improved roller machines. This shuts up like a book, and the 
wax sheets, instead of passing between curved metal rollers, 
are stamped by a press after being placedin position. The 
advantages of this press, as claimed by its friends, are that 
the foundation has the requisites already referred to, par 
excellence, that it is easily and rapidly worked, and that. 
foundation can at once be pressed into the wired frames. 
Rubber plates have also been made, but as yet have not won 
general favor or acceptance. Plaster of Paris molds made 
directly from the foundation are made and used satisfactorily 
by some excellent bee-keepers. At present I think the press is 
little used. The roller machine seems to have quite displaced 
it. Mr. Root says this is becauseit isslow. Yet he thinks 
the press gives the most perfect foundation. Allof the im- 
provea machines give us foundation of exquisite mold, and 
with such rapidity that it can be made cheap and practical. 
As Mr. Heddon says, the bees in two days, with foundation, 
will do more than they would in eight days without it. Every 
one who wishes the best success must use foundation, often in 
the brood-chamber, and always in the sections, unless nice 
white comb is at hand. Whoever has 100 colonies of bees may 
well own a machine for himself, though it usually pays better 
to purchase. The specialist can make nicer foundation than 
the mere amateur. 

HOW FOUNDATION IS MADE. 


The process of making the foundation is very simple. 
Thin sheets of wax, of the desired thickness, are pressed 
between the plates or passed between therolls, which are made 
so as to stamp either drone or worker foundation, as desired. 
Worker is best, I think, even for sections. The only difficulty 
in the way of very rapid work is that from sticking of the 
wax sheets to the dies. Mr. Heddon finds that by wetting the 


358 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


dies with concentrated lye the wax is not injured, and sticking 
is prevented. Mr. Jones uses soapsuds with excellent success 
for the same purpose. Think of two men running through 
fifty pounds of foundation in an hour! That is what I saw 
two men do at M1. Jones’, with a Dunham machine, by use of 
soapsuds. The man who put in the wax sheets was not 
delayed at all. The kind of soap should be selected with care. 
Mr. Root prefers common starch to either lye or soapsuds. 
New machines are more liableto trouble with sticking than 
are those that have been used for some time. It is said that 
dipping the sheets in salt brine also prevents this troublesome 
sticking. Mr. Baldridge gives this hint, but conceals the 
name of the discoverer. Mr. Weed now secures the wax in 
continuous sheets, wound on a spool, and these are fed con 
tinuously. So the old, sticking trouble is done away with. 
Mr. Root says three-fourths of our foundation and one-half of 
that of the world is now made by this new Weed process. 


TO SECURE THE WAX SHEETS. 


The wax should be melted in a double-walled tin vessel, 
with water between the walls, so thatin no case would it be 
burned or overheated. 

To form the sheets, a dipping-board of the width and 
length of the desired sheets is the best. It should be made of 
pine, and should be true and verysmooth. This is first dipped 
into-cold water—saltin the water makes it easier to remove 
the sheets—then one end is dipped quickly into the melted 
wax, then raised till dripping ceases—only a second—this end 
dipped into the cold water, grasped by meansof a dextrous 
toss with the hands, and the other end treated the same way. 
The thing is repeated, if necessary, till the sheet is thick 
enough. Twice dipping is enough for brood-combs, once for 
sections. We now only have to shave the edges with a sharp 
knife, and we can peel off two fine sheets of wax. As the Weed 
machine forms continuous sheets which can be readily fed 
into a roller machine, and the sheets of foundation accurately 
cut and all perfect and automatic, of course, the dipping of 
wax sheets will soon be entirely a thing of the past. 

For cutting foundation nothing is so admirable as the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 359 


Carlin cutter (Fig. 170, a), which is like the wheel glass-cutters 
sold in the shops, except that a larger wheel of tin takes the 
place of the one of hardened steel. Mr. A. I. Root has sug- 
gested a grooved board (Fig. 170, 6) to go with the above, the 
distance between the grooves being equal to the desired width 
of the strips of comb foundation to be cut. 

For cutting smaller sheets for the sections the same device 


Fic. 170. 


From A. I. Root Co. 


may be used. I saw Mr. Jones cut these as fast as a boy would 
cut circular wads for his shot-gun, by use of a sort of modified 
cake-cutter (Fig. 171). 


USH OF FOUNDATION. 


Unless to force the bees into sections, when, as we have 
seen, it is better tohive swarms on empty frames, with mere 
starters, we better always use foundation in brood-frames. It 
isastonishing to see how rapidly the bees will extend the cells, 
and how readily the queen will stock them with eggs. The 
foundation should always be the right size for worker-comb. 
Even for surplus comb honey the smallcells are best. The 
honey evaporates more quickly, and so will be sooner capped, 
and it looks better. For brood-combsI prefer wired frames. 
The sheet of foundation should not quite fill the frame. The 
advantage of foundation is, first, to insure worker-comb, and 


360 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


thus worker-brood; and, second, to furnish straight, nice 
combs. We have proved in our apiary repeatedly, that by use 
of foundation and a little care in pruning out the drone-comb, 
we could limit or even exclude drones from our hives, and we 
have but to examine the capacious and constantly crowded 
stomachs of these idlers to appreciate the advantage of sucha 
course. Bees may occasionally tear down worker-cells, and 
build drone-cells in their place; but such action, I believe, is 
not sufficiently extensive ever to cause anxiety. Iam also 
certain that bees that have to secrete wax to form comb do less 
gathering. Wax-secretion seems voluntary, and when rapid 
seems to require quiet and great consumption of food. As 
before suggested, may this not be due to greater or less activity 
of the bees? If we make two artificial colonies equally 
strong, supply the one with combs, and withhold them from 
the other, we will find that this last sends less bees to the 
fields, while all the bees are more or less engaged in wax- 
secretion. Thus, the other colony gains much more rapidly in 
honey ; first, because more bees are storing; second, because 
less food is consumed. This is undoubtedly the reason why 
extracted honey can be secured in greater abundance than can 
comb honey. : 

It also pays remarkably well to use foundation in the 
sections. If we use very thin foundation—eleven or twelve 
feetto the pound—all talk about ‘‘the fish-bone’’ need not 
frighten any one. Foundation for the sections should be 
twelve or thirteen feet to the pound, while that for the brood- 
chamber is better at seven or eight feet. Prof. Gillette’s 
experiments and measurements show that the thickness of 
midrib of natural comb varies from .003 to .006 of an inchin 
worker, and from .0048 to .008 in drone, and is thickest towards 
the top. The cell-walls were found as thin where foundation 
was used as were the natural walls. The walls vary in thick- 
ness from .0018 to .0028 of an inch. Bees always thin the base 
if thicker than natural, but never thin it to equal the natural 
base. Prof. Gillette found drone-comb weighed 4.32 feet to 
the pound, worker 5.40, and that from thin foundation 4.23. 
As comb honey is generally in drone or store comb, we see we get 
but little more in wax honey from thin foundation. The foun- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 361 


dation may or may not fill these sections. It is recommended 
by Dr. Miller and our Canadian friends, to put two pieces of 
foundation in each section—an inch strip from the bottom, 
and a piece from the top to reach within one-eighth of an inch 
of the lowerstrip. Of course, this takes time andcare. When 
only one piece is used, I have had best success leaving one- 
eighth inch space on sides and bottom. Many prefer to fasten 
to both top and bottom. Of course, foundation for the sec- 
tions—in fact, all foundation—should be made only of nicest, 
cleanest wax. Only pure, clean, unbleached wax should be used 
in making foundation. We should be very careful not to put 
on the market any comb honey where the foundation has not 


Fic. 172. 


Parker Foundation Fastener.—From American Bee Journal. 


been properly thinned by the bees. If we always use thin 
foundation there will be no trouble. 

Foundation can be fastened into the sections by means of 
melted wax. This method, however, is too slow; though my 
friend, R. L. Taylor, hasan ingenious arrangement whereby 
he melts the edges of the foundation and fastens itin the 
sections with great accuracy and rapidity. 

The Parker foundation fastener (Fig. 172) for pressing 
starters or full sheets of foundation into sections, is prized 
very highly by most who have used it. The figure shows how 
it is used. 


362 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


The Daisy fastener (Fig. 173) uses heat from a lamp, and 
so fixes by melting rather than pressure. It is preferred, as it 
is quicker, neater, and saves wax. In the Parker the pressed 
portion is of course lost. 

Still other machines for the same purpose are in the mar- 
ket. Our British friends recommend grooving the sections on 
all sides in the center to receive the foundation, as we often 
groove the top. They also recommend splitting the top in 


Fic. 173. 


Daisy Foundation Fastener.—From A. I, Root Co. 


the middle andin placing together, after adjusting one-half, 
add the foundation, and then crowd down the other side, thus 
holding the foundation in place. These methods may be 
easily tried. 

Foundation can be fastened in the brood-frames rapidly 
and very securely by simply pressing it against the rectan- 
gular projection from the top-bar already described. This may 
be done by use of a case-knife, dipped in honey to prevent its 
sticking. In this case a block (Fig. 174, a) should reach up 
into the frame from the side which is nearest to the rectan- 
gular projection—it will be remembered that the projection is 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 363 


alittle to one side of the center of the top-bar, so that the 
foundation shall hang exactly in the center—so far that 
its upper surface would be exactly level with the upper 
surface of the rectangular projection. This block has shoul- 
ders (Fig. 174, c), so that it will always reach just the proper 
distance into the frame. It is also rabbeted at the edge where 
the projection of the top-bar of the frame willrest (Fig. 174, 0), 
so that the projection has a solid support, and will not split off 
with pressure. We now set the frame on this block, lay on 
the foundation, cut the size we desire, which will be as long 
as the frame, and nearly as wide. The foundation will rest 
firmly on the projection and block, and touch the top-bar at 
every point. We now take a board as thick as the projection 


Fic. 174, 


| ; Un t 


L 


ji 


Original. 


is deep, and as wide (Fig. 175, d) as the frame is long, which 
may be trimmed off, soas to have a convenient handle (Fig. 
175, e), and by wetting the edge of this (Fig. 175, d) either in 
water, or better, starch-water, and pressing with it on the 
foundation above the projection, the foundation will be made 
to adhere firmly to the latter, when the frame may be raised 
with the block, taken off, and another fastened as before. I 
have practiced this plan for years,and have had admirable 
success. I have very rarely known the foundation to drop if 
made of good wax, though it must be remembered that our 
hives are shaded, and our frames small. If the top-bar of 


364 THE BEH-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


the frame has not the projection, the comb can be pressed 
directly on the top-bar and then bent at right angles, as with 
the Parker foundation fastener. To make this more secure 
a narrow strip may be tacked to the top-bar, pressing the 
foundation. Our English friends use a doubletop-bar which 
is dovetailed to the uprights of the frame. Thus, in putting 
together the frame the foundation is pressed between the two 


Fic. 176. 


From A. I. Root Co. 


halves of the top-bar, and so firmly held in place. Sometimes 
a groove is cut into the top-bar, which may receive the edge of 
the foundation, which is held by a wedge (Fig. 176), which is 
pressed in beside it. 

The above methods are successful, but probably will 
receive valuable modifications at the hands of the ingenious 
apiarists of our land. If we have frames with the V-shaped 
top-bar (Fig. 96), we may easily break the foundation and 
press it on, as shown in Fig. 177. 


WIRED FRAMES. 


But as foundation does sometimes fall or sag, so that 
many cells are changed to drone-cells, or warp in awkward 
shapes, especially if the hive is unshaded, or receivesa full 
colony of bees with all its frames full of foundation, and as 
the wax is sometimes so brittle that it will not hold together, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 365 


however well fastened, wired frames (Figs. 178 and 70) are 
rapidly coming into use. Another point strongly in favor of 
such frames is that they can be handled or shipped, and there 
is not the least danger of their combs falling from the frames. 
Mr. Jones states that with wired frames we may use thinner 


From American Bee Journal. 


foundation, and thus save one-third the expense. The wires 
should be two inches apart, and the extreme wires not more 
than one-half inch from the side of the frame. They may be 
fastened by passing through holes in the top and bottom bars 
of the frames, which must be exactly in the center, or they 
may be hooked over little hooks, such as may be made by driv- 


Fic. 178. 
NE 4 


Root’s Wired Frame. End-wires are too far from End-bars, 
—From A. I. Root Co. 


ing a staple into the frame after we have cut one limb of 
the staple off near the curve. If holes are not made through 
the top-bar of the frame, they can be easily formed by use of 
sharp awls. If these are set ina strong block, like an iron 
take, each bar can be pierced at one stroke by use of a lever 
press. If the foundation is to be stamped in the frame by the 
Given press, then the wire should be No. 36; if it is to be put 


366 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


on by hand, then No. 30 must be used. Tinned wire should be 
used. To cut wire the right length for frames and not have it 
tangle, it may be wound lengthwise about a board of the right 
length, so that one round of wire will be just enough fora 
frame. Then tie two or three strings tightly around board, 
wire andall. The strings extend at right angles to the wire. 
We now cut across all the wires at oneend of the board. Thus, 
the wires are all the proper length, and are held firmly ready 
for use. Some, even with the Given press, prefer to put the 
foundation on the wires by hand. In this case the foundation 
should be warmed till quite soft, then laid on a board and the 
frame placed over all so that the wires rest on the foundation. 
Then by use of a shoe-buttoner, with a longitudinal groove cut 
into the convex side of the curve, the wires are pressed into the 
foundation. This  workis easily andrapidly performed. A tin 


Fic. 179. 


Wire-Imbedder.—From A. I. Root Co. 


wire-imbedder (Fig. 179) works admirably and costs very little. 
Mr. Cheshire states that the brood dies over the wires. There is 
no such trouble in my apiary. In Germany it is recommended 
to press the foundation for extracting-combs on a board, and 
so have the cells built out only on one side and elongated so 
as to hold much honey. This gives strong combs and saves 
turning the frames when extracting. But wired combs are 
strong, and our improved extractors make turning very easy 
and rapid. Again, evaporation or ripening in deep cells is 
very slow. Ihavealso found that bees object to foundation 
on a board, and often bite it off. 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 367 


SAVE THE WAX. 


As foundation is becomiug so popular, it behooves us all 
to be very careful that no old comb goes to waste. Even now 
the supply of wax in the country is scarce equal to the demand. 
Soiled drone-comb, old, worthless worker-comb, all the comb 
in the old hives, if we use Mr. Heddon’s method of transfer- 


Fic. 180. 


Swiss Wax-Fxtractor.—From American Bee Journal, 


ring, and all fragments that can not be used in the hives, 
together with cappings, after the honey is drained out, should 
be melted, cleansed and molded into cakes of wax, soon to be 
again stamped, not by the bees, but by wondrous art. 


METHODS. 


A slow and primitive method is to melt in a vessel of 
heated water, and to purify by turning off the top, or allowing 
it to cool, when the impurities at the bottom are scraped off, 
and the process repeated till all impurities are eliminated. 

A better method to separate the wax isto putit intoa 
strong, rather coarse bag, then sink this in water and boil. 
At intervals the comb in the bag should be pressed and stirred. 
The wax will collect on top of the water. 

To prevent the wax from burning, the bag should be kept 
from touching the bottom of the vessel by inverting a basin 
in the bottom of the latter, or else by using a double-walled 
vessel with hot water between the walls. The process should 
be repeated till the wax is perfectly cleansed, 


368 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


But as wax is to become so important, and as the above 
methods are slow, wasteful, and apt to give a poor quality of 
wax, specialists, and even amateurs who keep ten or twenty 
colonies of bees, may well procure a wax-extractor (Fig. 180). 
This is also a foreign invention, the first being made by Prof. 
Gerster, of Berne, Switzerland. These cost from five to seven 


Fic. 181. 


ir 


a 3 


A = 


TN! 


Jones Wax-Extractor.—Rrom D, A. Jones. 


dollars, are made of tin, are very convenient and admirable, 
and can be procured of any dealer in apiarian supplies. 

The comb is placed in the perforated vessel, and this in 
the larger can, which is set on a kettle of boiling water. The 
clean, pure wax passes out the spout. Mr. Jones has improved 
the common wax-extractor (Fig. 181). This is what he says 
of it: 

“Put the extractor on the stove in the same manner as an 
ordinary pot, having beforehand filled the lower tank with 
water, and the perforated basket above the tank with broken 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 369 


comb or whatever material you wish to extract wax from. 
The steam passes through the perforated metal walls of the 
basket, melting every particleof wax from the crude material: 
the wax runsoutof aspout forthe purpose, turned downwards ; 
under this spout have a receptacle, which have slightly oiled, 
to keep the wax from adhering to its walls. The tube turned 
upwards serves two very important purposes, viz.: To fill 
water into the lower tank, and to see if the tank requires 
replenishing, without taking out the basket above. Keep 
everything but the spout closed, in order to lose no steam and 
give it full force. When not in use as an extractor it is 
excellent as an uncapping-can ; the cappings drop into basket, 


Fic. 182. 


Solar Waz-Extractor.—From A. I. Root Co. 


the honey drains off, leaving the cappings just where you want 
them to extract from.”’ 

Still better than the above is the solar wax-extrac tor (Fig. 
182). This is cheap, and can be easily made at small cost. 
A box lined with tin has hinged to its top, first, a glass cover, 
and then to the top of this glass cover, a wooden cover lined 
with tin, or a glass mirror. 

A perforated tin wax-pan is madeto set just undcr the 
glass cover. This is placed conveniently where the sun can 
strike it, and is always ready for pieces of wax. By raising 
the upper cover the reflector hastens the work. I value the 
solar wax-extractor very highly. It is always ready for pieces 
ofcomb. The Boardman extractor (Fig. 183) has only the 
glass cover, and is on rockers to give proper incline to catch 
the sun. The solar wax-extractor, indeed, all the methods 


370 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


thus far described, failto secure all the wax from old, black 


combs, hence the 
WAX-PRESS. 


This valuable invention wasgiven us by Mr. Wm. W. Cary. 
Mr. C. A. Hatch says it will pay if one has one hundred pounds 
of wax torender. In old combs it will save ten percent or 
more. Mr. Hatch says two men will render three hundred 
poundsin one day. Itisalsoaneat way. Neatness, despatch, 
thoroughness—surely, a grand trio. 

The press is used much as we use a cider-press to express 
apple-juice. Mr. Hatch uses a large kettle in which to melt 


Fic. 183. 


Boardman Solar Wax-Extractor.—From A. I. Root Co. 


the wax. ‘This is done out-of-doors. About eight gallons of 
water are kept in the kettle. Only four other parts are needed. 
A frame with screw (Fig. 184), which may be turned down as 
seen in figure; a tray about eighteen inches square with lip, 
aform fifteen inches square and four inches high, and the 
slotted rack, which Mr. Hatch makes of triangular pieces. 
such as he uses for the top-bars of his frames. ‘These may be 
one-eighth of an inch apart. Of course, a good quality of 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY,. 371 


burlap and a square board follower are required. The cheese 
is made by dipping the melted comb and wax into the form, 
which has the slotted rack below, and the burlaps laid over 
all. Mr. Hatch pins the burlaps over the cheese with long, 
slim wire nails. Of course the form is in the tray, and it is 
easy to see that the press will do the work. 

By these last inventions all the wax, even of the oldest 
combs, can be secured, in beautiful condition, and as it is per- 
fectly neat, there is no danger of provoking the ‘‘ best woman 


Fic. 184. 


Wax-Press.—From A. I. Root Co. 


in the world,” as weare in danger of doing by use of either 
of the first-named methods—for what is more untidy and per- 
plexing than to have wax boil over on the stove, and perhaps 
get on the floor, and be generally scattered about ? 

All pieces of comb should be put into a close box, or in the 
solar wax-extractor if we have one, and if any larve are in it, 
the comb should be melted so frequently that it will not smell 


372 THE BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE’ 


badly. It will often pay to use the press on comb that has 
been melted in the solar wax-extractor—nearly always in case 
of very old comb. By taking pains, both in collecting and 
melting, the apiarist will be surprised at the close of the sea- 
son, as he views his numerous and beautiful cakes of wax, and 
rejoice as he thinks how little trouble it has all cost. 

Beeswax as bought on the market is of all colors, and often 
full of impurities. If this is melted in water containing sul- 
phuric acid—one pound to overy 100 gallons of water—it may 
be entirely cleansed, and made uniform. In very dirty comb 
the acid should be doubled. If the combis quite clean, not 
more than half as much is required. Mr. Doolittle uses vin- 
egar and water, half and half. One pint of vinegar answers 
for ten pounds of wax. This is more expensive than is the 
sulphuric acid. Thisis usually melted in a wooden vessel—a 
barrel serves well. Itis melted by steam, and so there is no 
danger of burning. Care is necessary that it does not boil 
over, and that all the wax is melted. Thus, after it seems 
melted it should simmer for a time. When cooled down to 
near the point of solidification, it is dipped out, down to any 
foreign matter, then cooled, and any remaining wax scraped 
off. Wax thus cleansed makes the finest foundation. 

Wax is readily bleached by placing thin sheets or ribbons 
in the sun. Unbleached wax is better for foundation, and in 
use is practically as beautiful. 

Wax is adulterated with tallow, paraffine and ceresin. We 
can usually detect tallow by the odor and taste. The latter is 
betrayed by chewing. Wax is brittle, while wax adulterated 
with these coal-oil products is salvy, and so chews up like 
gum. As stated on page 176, these petroleum products are 
lighter than wax, so if we add alcohol to water untila speci- 
men of wax of known purity just sinks, we have a sure detec- 
tion of this latter kind of adulteration. Mr. Root says he can 
nearly always detect adulteration in these ways. 

Hot water and benzine are excellent to clean wax from ves- 
sels, etc. We must not melt wax in galvanized-iron vessels, 
as it will injure the wax, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 373 


CHAPTER XVIL 
MARKETING HONEY. 


No subject merits more attention by the apiarist than that 
of marketing honey. There is no question but that the supply 
is going to increase continually; hence, to sustain the price 
we must stimulate the demand, and by doing this we shall not 
only supply the people with a food element which is necessary 
to health, but we shall also supersede in part the commercial 
syrups, which are so often adulterated as not only to be 
crowded with filth the most revolting, but are often even teem- 
ing with poison. (Report of Michigan Board of Health for 
1874, pages 75-79.) To bring, then, to our neighbor’s table the 
pure, wholesome, delicious nectar, right from the hive, is 
philanthropy, whether he realizes it or not. 

Nor is it difficult to stimulate the demand. I have given 
special attention to this topic for the last few years, and am 
free to say that nota tithe of the honey is consumed in our 
country that might and should be. 


HOW TO INVIGORATE THE MARKET. 


First. See that no honey goes to market from your apiary 
that is not in the most inviting form possible. Grade all the 
honey thoroughly, and expect prices to correspond with the 
grade. If,as estimated by twoof our most successful bee- 
keepers, it costs from five to eight cents to produce extracted 
honey, and from seven to thirteen cents to produce comb 
honey, we see that all should labor that prices for first-class 
honey should never fall below eight cents for extracted and 
twelve cents forcomb. The best grades ought always to sell 
for ten cents for extracted and fifteen cents for comb. See 
that every package and vessel is not only attractive, but so 
arranged as not to make the dealer any trouble, or cause him 
any vexation. One leaky can or case may do great injury. 

Second. See that every grocer in your vicinity has honey 


374 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


constantly on hand. Doall you can to build up a home mar- 
ket. The advice to sell to only one or two dealers is, I think, 
wrong. Whether we are to buy or sell, we shall find almost 
always that it will be most satisfactory todeal with men whom 


if 


Mh 


a a i 


Show-Case.—From A. I. Root Co. 


we know, and who are close at hand. Only when you outgrow 
your home market should you ship to distant places. This 
course willlimit the supply in large cities, and thus raise the 
prices in the great marts, whose prices fixthose in the country. 
Be sure to keep honey constantly in the markets. 

Third. Insist that each grocer make the honey very con- 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 375 


spicuous. If necessary, supply large, fine labels, with your 
own name almost as prominent as that of the article. 

fourth. Deliver the honey in small lots, so that it will be 
sure to be kept in inviting form, and, if possible, attend to the 
delivery yourself, that you may know that all is done 
“decently and in order.” 

Fifth. Instruct your grocers that they may make the 
honey show to the best effect (Fig. 185), and thus captivate the 
purchaser through the sight alone. 

Sixth. Never send honey toa commission man of whose 
standing you are’ not assured. Your banker may be able to 
secure this for you. The fact that a commission man adver- 
tises in the bee-papers is a pretty safe guarantee of his honesty. 
It is for the interest of the journals to protect the bee-keepers 
in this regard. 

Seventh. Call local and general conventions, that allin the 
community may know and practice the best methods, so that 
the markets may not be demoralized by poor, unsalable honey. 

Eighth. There should be a Bee-Keepers’ Exchange which 
should be modeled after the very successful Citrus Fruit 
Exchange, of Southern California. Such co-operation in every 
State would remove all uncertainty. It is suretocome. All 
bee-keepers should do allin their power to hasten the day of 
its coming. 

It is of the greatest importance to encourage State, inter- 
State, and National Associations. Happily, our civilization 
makes every person affected by the acts of each person. Self- 
ishness, not less than Christianity, urges us all to be inter- 
ested in each other. The honey-traffic reaches from State to 
State. Bee-keeping will never be perfect as an art till all bee- 
keepers actasone man. He is short-sighted that decries con- 
ventions. It is the experience of the world that they are 
valuable in other arts. Bee-keeping is no exception. Let us 
all urge that the associations act in unison, from the local to 
the general; that all other apiarian interests no less than the 
markets shall be in the highest degree fostered. Hach asso- 
ciation, from the most local to the most general, has its spe- 
cial mission which no other can perform. Such associations 
will usually promote general co-operation. 


376 OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 


PREPARATIONS FOR MARKETS. 


Of course, the method of preparation will depend largely 
upon the style of honey to be sold, so we will consider the 
kinds separately. 


EXTRACTED HONEY. 


As before intimated, extracted honey has all the flavor, 
and is in every way equal, if not superior—comb itself is 
innutritious and very indigestible—to comb honey. As Dr. 


Fic. 186. 


a ge ag 
ween! Ms 
HARES F-MWUTH 


CINCINNATHO 
Reece 


Wa aT : 


CEB 


i 
(@) 


: sane | | 


My f 


| e 


D Tal 


jlevie. 
HONEY, 


Ta 


URE || 


rlllataad stb 
\ | 


hi@ 


hora 


Miller has pointed out, granulated honey, thoroughly drained 
and then melted, gives a most delicious article. When people 
once know its excellence—know that it is not ‘‘ strained ’’— 
then the demand for extracted honey will be vastly increased, 
to the advantage both of the consumer and the apiarist. 
Explain to each grocer what we mean by the word 
‘“‘extracted,’? and ask him to spread wide the name and char- 
acter of the honey. Leave cups of honey with the editors and 
men of influence, and get them to discussits origin and merits. 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 377 


I speak from experience, when I say thatin these ways the 
reputation and demand for extracted honey can be increased 
toa surprising degree, and with astonishing rapidity. 


HOW TO TEMPT THE CONSUMER. 


First, Have it chiefly in small cups or pails. Many per- 
sons will pay twenty-five cents for an article, when, if it cost 
fifty cents, they would not think of purchasing. 

Second. Study the kinds of receptacles that will take best 
with the buyers. Some persons will prefer such vessels as 
jelly-cups or glass fruit-jars, etc., that will be usefulin every 
household when the honey is gone. As Dr. Mason and Mr. 
Cutting have shown, jelly-cups, by simply dipping the upper 
edge in melted wax, then quickly filled and covered, are quite 
securely sealed. Mr. Root recommends that the honey be 
covered with a paper dipped in white of egg, which further 
seals the vessel. Others will prefer more showy vessels, like 
the Muth one-pound and two-pound jars (Fig. 186), even 


Fic. 187. 


From American Bee Journal. 


though they cost more. At present the neat tin pails (Fig. 
187), holding from one-half pound to twelve pounds, are very 
popularinthe markets. The’ covers shut inside, and if the 
honey is granulated they are very excellent. The bails make 
them more convenient and salable. Mr. Jones has a pail that 
is easily sealed with wax strings, and is beautifully decorated 
with chromoed labels. Such pails are cheap, convenient, and 
leave little to be desired. Their beauty aidsthe sale. Mr. A. 
I. Root pronounces them the best receptacle for extracted 
honey. 


378 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


If the honey is to be sent to adistant market it may be put 
in soft wood—spruce, pine or hemlock—kegs (Fig. 188). These 
are light, andif we carefully drive the hoops, and test by use 
of boiling water, we need not wax them. Hard wood barrels 


Fic. 188. 


From American Bee Journal, 


must be waxed, then if the honey granulates the hoops must 
be loosened to take out the head. This cracks the wax anda 
leak results. As before stated on page 333, alcohol barrels are 
cheap, and safe even without waxing. At present large tin 


Fic. 189, 


Cans for Lutructed Ree, in Jucket.—From A. I. Root Co. 


vessels in wooden jackets (Fig. 189) are rapidly gaining in 
favor. These are absolutely necessary in such dry climates 
as California. Even small tin vessels of honey can be safely 
and cheaply shipped as freight by packing in barrels, using 
straw tomake all close and secure. Mr. Doolittle has even 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 379 


boxed thoroughly candied honey and shipped it safely for long 
distances. He has quite a trade in such packages. 

Third. Explain to the grocer thatif kept above the tem- 
perature of 70° or 80° F., it will not granulate; that granula- 
tion isa pledge of purity and superiority, and show him how 
easy it is to reduce the crystals, and ask him to explain this to 
his customers. If necessary, liquefy some of the granulated 
honey in his presence. Put on the labels directions for 
reliquefying candied honey. Honey, like many other sub- 
stances, will not granulate if heated to 180° F., and then sealed 
while hot. This does no injury to the honey, but it is trouble, 
and makes the honey less convenient to ship, though at times 
it may pay until we can educate our patrons in reference to 
the excellence of granulated houey. 

Lastly. If you do not deliver the honey yourself, be sure 
that the vessels will not leak in transit. It is best, in case 
jelly-cups are used, that they be filled at the grocery, and 
sealed as already described. Do not forget the large label, 
which gives the kind of honey, grade, and producer’s name. 

If the honey is extracted before it is fully ripened—before 
the bees cap it—it should always be kept in an open can or 
barrel, covered with cloth, and ina dry, warm room. Thus 
arranged it will thicken as wellas in the hive. No honey 
should ever be kept in a cool, damp room. 

The admirable work of the late Mr. C. F. Muth, in Cincin- 
nati, educating people in reference to extracted honey, fighting 
all adulteration, pushing it into the candy, tobacco, and con- 
fectionery establishments, deserves our hearty gratitude. Mr. 
Muth’s market became stupendous, and graphically shows 
what this trade is to be in the near future, when all our cities 
have a Muth to work for us. I would also recommend to all 
the very valuable little pamphlet of Mr. Chas. Dadant, on the 
production and sale of extracted honey. It is most interesting 
reading to the honey-producer, and shows what energy and 
thought may accomplish in this direction. Every bee-keeper 
should watch the markets, and so must have one, or, better, 
two of the best bee-periodicals. He shouldalso circulate honey 
leaflets to encourage sales. 


380 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


This, from its wondrous beauty, especially when light- 
colored andimmaculate, will always be a coveted article for 
the table, and will ever, with proper care, bring the highest 
ptice paid for honey. So it will always be best to work for 
this, even though we may not be able to procure it in such 
ample profusion as we may the extracted. He who has all 
kinds will be able to satisfy every demand, and will most 
surely meet with success. 


RULES TO BE OBSERVED. 


This should be chiefly in small sections (Fig. 108), for, as 
before stated, such are the packages that surely sell. Sections 
from three to six inches square will just fill a plate nicely, and 
look very tempting to the proud housewife, especially if some 
epicurean friends are to be entertained. 

‘The sections should surely be in place at the dawn of the 
white clover season, so that the apiarist may secure the most 
of this irresistible nectar, chaste as if capped by the very snow 
itself. They should be taken away as soon as all are capped, 
or at least as soon as the harvest is over, as delay makes them 
highways of travel for the bees, which always mars their 
beauty. 

In case old combs are near by, the bees incorporate chip- 
pings from it in the cappings, much to the injury of the comb 
honey. Thus sections should be always produced in supers 
above the brood-combs, or distant from old, dark combs. 

When removed, if demanded, glass the sections, but before 
this we should place them in hives one upon another, or spe- 
cial boxes made tight, with a close cover, in which to store 
either brood-frames in winter or sections at any season, and 
fume them with burning sulphur. This is quickly and easily 
done by use of the smoker. Get the fire in the smoker well to 
burning, add the sulphur, then place this in the top hive, or 
top of the special box. The sulphurous fumes will descend 
and deal out death to all moth-larve. This should always be 
done before shipping the honey, if we regard our reputations 
as precious. Itis well to do this within two weeks after re- 
moval, and also two weeks later, so as to destroy the moth- 
larve not hatched when the sections are removed. Bisulphide 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 381 


of carbon is more easily used than is sulphur, and is quite as 
effective. This needs only to be turned into the close box 
holding the sections. Sections may be treated in a close barrel 
covered with oil-cloth. The vapors form very quickly, and are 
deadly to allinsects. It is used in mills to kill flourinsects ; in 
special houses or barrels to kill pea and bean weevils; in their 
runs to kill squirrels and gophers; in holes, or in their hills, 
to killants. Inallsuch use great care must be exercised, as 
itis as inflammableasis gasoline, and it vaporizes even more 
quickly. The quick vaporization is what makes it so effective. 
An inferior article, which is as good for all these purposes, 
sells very cheaply. 

If one-pound sections are used with separators bees will 
seldom enter them to store pollen, and, with no pollen at all in 


Fie. 190. 


12-lb. and 24-lb, Shipping-Cases.—From A. I. Root Co. 


the combs, moths are not likely to be troublesome. If separa- 
tors have been used, these sections are in good condition to ship, 
as they may stand side by side and not mar the comb. 

The shipping-case (Fig. 190) should be strong, neat and 
cheap, with handles—such handles are also convenient in the 
ends of the hives (Fig. 159), and can be cutin an instant by 
having the circular saw set to wabble. With handles the case 
is more convenient, and is more sure to be set on its bottom. 
The case should also be glassed, as the sight of the comb will 
say: ‘Handle with care.” It is always wiser to buy ship- 
ping-cases in the “ knock-down.’’ They are neater, and 
usually cheaper than home-made ones. Strong paper trays 


382 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


should be placed in them. The sections should rest on cleats, 
which are nailed to hold the paper. We must do all possible 
to prevent leaking. 

Mr. Heddon makes a larger case (Fig. 191), which is neat 
and cheap. Itis best to have single-tier cases (Fig. 190), and 
when full they should not weigh more than twenty-four pounds. 


Fie, 191. 


Shipping-Case.—From James Heddon. 


However, some prefer forty-eight pound cases. These are 
double (Fig. 191). Even twelve-pound cases are preferred by 


many. 
Fic. 192. 


Carton for Comb-Honey.—From A, I. Root Co. 


It may be wellto wrap the sections in paper, as thus 
breakage of one will not mean generalruin. A carton (Fig. 
192) is often very helpful. These are neat and convenient, 
and with neat label cost less than one cent. Mr. Crane, of 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 383 


Vermont, praises these very highly. Grocerymen may well be 
urged to use them. 

In shipping in freight cars, it is desirable that the sections 
be set lengthwise of the cars, as the danger from the shocks of 
starting and stopping will be much less. Always ship a car- 


Fic. 193 


Fancy. No. 1. No. 2. 
Comb-Honey.—From A. I. Root Co. 


load, if possible, so as to avoid re-shipping. When moving 
honey in a wagon the combs should extend crosswise of the 
wagon. 

In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it will 
pay him, unless the groceryman will use a fine exhibition case, 
to furnish his own boxes. These should be made of white- 
wood, very neat, and glassed in front to show the honey, and 
the cover so fixed that unglassed sections—and these, probably 
will soon become the most popular—can not be punched or 
fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, with kind of honey, 
grade, and name of apiarist (Fig.185) be so plain that “he 
who runs may read.”’ 


384 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


The grading of the honey can not be too carefully and 
honestly done. One or more inferior sections in the middle of 
acase may, and ought to, do the packer great harm. ‘‘An 
honest pack ’’ should be the motto and pride of every man who 
has honey or any other commodity to sell. All sections well 
filled should be called *‘ fancy’’ (Fig. 193), and all filled wholly, 
‘‘extra fancy’ (Fig. 194). If not quite filled out at the coruers 


Fic. 194. 


Comb Honey, Extra Fancy, in Plain Sections. 
—From A. I. Root Co. 


itmay be No.1; when quite a space is empty, No.2. (See . 
Fig. 193.) These four grades will be enough. The kind of 
honey should be on the label, as ‘‘ Buckwheat, Extra Fancy,” 
“Clover, Fancy,’’ etc. All honey below No. 2 should be kept, 
and after being cleaned out as before described, retained for 
baits the next season. 

Every bee-keeper should encourage the sale of honey by 
broadly circulating the honey leaflets, showing how honey can 
be used in cookery, etc. The following recipes are used in 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 385 


making gems and jumbles, which are largely sold in the 
markets: 

GxEMs.—2 quarts flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, % pint 
honey, % pint molasses, 4 heaping tablespoonsfuls brown 


sugar, 1% even tablespoonfuls soda, one even teaspoonful salt, 
¥ pint water, % teaspoonful vanilla extract. 


JUMBLES.—2 quarts flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, 1 
pint honey, 4% pint molasses. 114 even teaspoonfuls soda, 1 
even teaspoonful salt, 4% pint water, % teaspoonful vanilla 
extract. 


Mr. Root, in the “A B C of Bee-Culture,’ gives many 
recipes, besides the above, which call for honey. 

Comb honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of 
autumn, or the cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, 
or the comb will break from the sections when handled. By 
keeping it quite warm for some days previous to shipment, it 
may be sent to market even in winter, but must be handled 
very carefully, and must make a quick transit. 

Above all, let ‘‘ taste and neatness”’ ever be your motto. 


MARKETING BEES. 


Before leaving this subject, let me say a word about selling 


bees. 
SELLING QUEENS. 


As queen-rearing and shipping have already been suffi- 
ciently described, it only remains to be said that the vender of 
queens can not be too prompt, or fair, or cautious. Success, 
noless than morality, demands the most perfect honesty. If, 
for any reason, queens can not be sent promptly, the money 
should be returned at once, explanation made, and, if reason- 
able, delay may be requested. The breeder, who, by careful 
selection and care in following the rules of breeding, shall 
secure a type of bees pronounced in excellence, will surely win 
in the race. Thereis no reason why the capable, persistent 
breeder of bees should not equal in success the best breeders 
of cattle and horses. 

I have described shipping bees. The rules just given 
should guide also in selling whole colonies. 


386 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


SELLING BEES BY THE POUND. 


This has been quite a business, and originated, I think, 
with Mr. A. I. Root. The bees are put, by use of a large tin 
funnel, into a cage (Fig. 195) made of sections, as shown in the 
figure. The handle makes it easy to carry them, and they get 
careful handling without any special request. It is said that 
a pound of bees can be prepared for shipment in five minutes. 
‘The cages are provisioned with ‘‘Good candy.’”’ It is always 


Fic. 195. 


From A. I. Root Co. 


safe to get a pound of bees in Juneor July, with a queen, 
expecting to have a good colony by winter. It is reported that 
from such a start, even five good colonies have been secured, 
all of which wintered. In this case they were fed. 


VINEGAR FROM HONEY. 


Mr. T. F. Bingham utilizes the cappings secured while 
extracting to produce wax and a most excellent quality of 
vinegar. The honey is drained from the cappings, which are 
then covered for an hour or two with water. The cappings 
from 1000 pounds of honey will sweeten enough water for forty- 
five gallons of vinegar. The water is now drained into an 
open barrel, which should be keptcovered with cloth. The 
scum should be removed as it rises. In about a year the 
change to first-class vinegar will have been accomplished. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 387 


After the water is drained from the cappings they can be con- 
verted into pure wax, as already described. 

The poorer grades of honey and rinsings from cleaning 
barrels and honey from utensils may also be profitably used 
in the same way. One and one-half pounds of honey will 
make one gallon of the best vinegar. Mr. EK. France adds 
honey to water until an egg sinks soas to expose a surface 
about the size of a ten-cent piece. It should be put in a close 
barrel with a one-inch auger-hole to permit escape of gases. 
Some good vinegar or yeast should be added to start fermen- 
tation. After working or fermentation commences draw off a 
pailful occasionally and turn it back. If one or two kegs or 
barrels are working at the same time, turn from one into the 
other. It is wellto turn old vinegar into new or unripe, but 
the reverse should never be done, as it injures the keeping 
qualities. By using old, sour barrels and old vinegar to start 
fermentation, vinegar may be made in one year, else it will 
take two. 

FAIRS AND THE MARKET. 


Our English friends have demonstrated that large honey 
exhibitions are most powerful aids in developing the honey 
market. 

Till within a few years our American honey exhibits have 
been a disgrace and a hindrance, and they are largely so to- 
day. A little second-rate honey sandwiched in with sugar and 
syrups, and supplemented by a cake or two of black, dirty wax, 
describes the honey exhibit of most of our fairs to-day. The 
premiums range from twenty-five cents to fifty cents. 


WHAT SHOULD WE HAVE? 


Our industry demands a separate building, filled with 
tons, not pounds, of honey, and exhibiting everything that is 
valuable in modern apiculture. Bees may be exhibited in 
hives covered by wire-gauze, and if it is desired to manipulate 
them, this can be readily done in a bee-tent, to the great satis- 
faction and pleasure of many who know nothing of such mat- 
ters. I have proved this by actual trial. 

It can be arranged with the managers that sales of honey 


388 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


and all apparatus be made at any timeat this building, on 
conditions that the exhibit should be in nowise interfered with. 
The premiums should range from one dollar to twenty, and the 
total should reach to the hundreds. 

We have found in Michigan that all that is necessary to 
effect this grand and invaluable transformation is a little life 
and energy on the part of the bee-keepers. Through the enter- 
prise of H. D. Cutting and others, the bee-keeping exhibit of 
our State fairs, in a separate building, leaves little to be 
desired, and is a credit to the industry. 


EFFECTS OF SUCH EXHIBITS. 


They show that apiculture is no second-rate business. 
They attract attention and educate as nothing else can. They 
gohand in hand with local conventions in instructing bee- 
keepers so that no inferior honey will go on the markets. 
They enable bee-keepers to see and buy just what they need 
in the more intelligent prosecution of their business. They 
scatter the little pint, half-pint, and gill pails of honey into 
thousands of homes, and develop a knowledge and taste that 
stimulate the honey market most powerfully. Tons of honey 
have been sold at the Toronto fairs, the influence of which has 
been a lasting surprise even to the most enterprising pro- 
ducers. I believe that the great quartet that is to advance 
apiculture is fairs, associations, co-operative organizations, 
and improved bees. 


Qe 
LOR, 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 389 


CHAPTER XVII 
HONEY-PLANTS. 


As bees are dependent mainly upon flowers for honey, it 
of course follows that the apiarist’s success will depend largely 
upon the abundance of honey-secreting plantsin the vicinity 
of hisapiary. True it is that certain bark and plant lice 


Fic. 196, 
3 


Tulip-Tree Bark-Louse, 3, 4, 5, and 6, Greatly Magnified.—Original. 
1 Scale on Twig. 2 Underside of scale. 
8, 4 Young Lice. 6 Leg. 
5 Antenna. 
secrete a kind of liquid sweet, which, in the dearth of any- 
thing better, the bees seem glad to appropriate. I have thus 
seen the bees thick about a large bark-louse which attacks the 
tulip-tree, and thus often destroys one of our best honey-trees. 
I have described this insect (Fig. 196) under the name of 


390 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Lecanium tulipifera. In 1870 it did no small injury to our 
tulip-trees at the Michigan Agricultural College. It has seri- 
ously injured this tree in the States bordering the Ohio River. 
The tulip is often called poplar, which is quite incorrect. The 
poplar belongs to the willow family, the tulip to the magnolia. 
This louse is of double interest to bee-keepers. It ruins one of 
our best honey-trees, and supplies a poor substitute for plant 
nectar to the bees. All bark-lice, which include the orange- 
tree scale and the San Jose scale, are best destroyed by use of 
kerosene oil. ‘This latter is best applied in the form of an 
emulsion, with soap. Tomake the keroseneand soap emulsion 
Imake a very strong suds, using one-eighth of a pound of 
whale-oil soap, or one quart of soft soap, and two quarts of 
water. Tothis is added one quart of kerosene oil, and all 
churned by use of a force-pump, pumping it back into itself till 
itis thoroughly and permanently mixed. I then dilute with 
water till the kerosene oil forms one-twelfth of the whole. In 
California it is found that a distillate emulsion is more 
effective than kerosene emulsion. One-fourth pound of whale- 
oil soap is dissolved in one gallon of water. Then one gallon 
of untreated distillate is added and allis violently stirred. 
This is then diluted with water one to ten. Itis cheap and 
effective. It is found that spraying can not be done thor- 
oughly enough for evergreens like the orange-tree, and so 
fumigation by aid of tents with cyanide of potassium is 
adopted by most of the progressive citrus fruit-men of Cali- 
fornia. ‘This emulsion often spots the fruit. 

I have also seen the bees thick about several species of 
plant-lice. One—the Erisoma imbricator, Fitch—works on 
beech-tree. Its abdomen is thickly covered with long wool, 
and it makes a comical show as it wagsthis up and down upon 
the least disturbance. The leaves of trees attacked by this 
louse, as also those beneath the trees, are fairly gummed with 
a sweetish substance. I have found that the bees avoid this 
substance, except at times of extreme drouth and long-pro- 
tracted absence of honeyed bloom. 

Another species, Thalaxes ulmicola, gives rise to certain 
solitary galls, which appear on the upper surface of the leaves 
of the redelm. These galls are hollow, with a thin skin, aud 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 391 


within the hollows are the lice, which secrete an abundant 
sweet that often attracts the bees to a feast of fat things, as 
the gall is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the sweet exudes. 
This sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be un- 


Fic. 197. 


Female. Male. 


Sycamore Plant-Louse, much enlarged.—Original. 


Fic. 198. 


Female. Male. 
Apple-Tree Aphis, much magnified.— Original. 


wholesome to the bees. The larch-louse, Lachnus laricis, 
secretes a liquid that is greedily taken by the bees. The honey 
is very excellent. 

Another of the aphides, of a black hue, works on the 


392 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


branches of our willows, which they often entirely cover, and 
thus greatly damage another tree valuable for both honey and 
pollen. Were it not that they are seldom numerous two years 
in succession, they would certainly banish from among us one 
of our most ornamental and valuable honey-producing trees. 
These are fairly thronged in September and October, and not 
infrequently in spring and summer, if the lice are abundant, 
by bees, wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager 
to lap up the oozing sweets. This louse is the Lachnus den- 
tatus of Le Baron, and the Aphis salicti of Harris. 

I have received from apiarists of Indiana and Ohio a large, 
dark-gray plant-louse, which worked on the sycamore, and is 
reported from both States as keeping the bees actively em- 
ployed for some weeks. This louse is one-fourth of an inch 
long. The winged lice measure three-eighths of an inch to 
the tips of their wings. The veins of the wings, as also the 
short nectaries—the tubes at the posterior part of the abdomen 
—show that this louse (Fig. 197) belongs to the genus Lachnus. 
The lice of the genus Aphis—of which there are innumerable 
species—have longer nectaries (Fig. 198), from which ooze 
large drops of nectar. This is much relished by the ants, 
which often care for these lice as tenderly as for their own 
young. 

Doubtless many have supposed that the bees were gather- 
ing secretion from the plants, when closer inspection would 
have shown that some species of plant-lice was wholly re- 
sponsible. Honey-dew may not always be a secretion from 
insects; but that it is almost always is certainly true. We 
can see how it serves the insects. It attracts the bees and 
wasps, which repel the birds, which else would devour the 
insects. If plants do secrete nectar (?) from their leaves, it 
surely serves them some valuable purpose. It would seem, in 
attracting the black fungus—smut—that it harmed the foliage. 
Is honey-dew ever a product of the foliage? This nectar from 
plant-lice is very often entirely wholesome and unobjection- 
able. I would, however, never consider it a safe food for bees 
in winter, unless it was agreeable to my taste, and fit for my 
own table. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 393 


REAL HONEY-DEW. 


Many plants, like the cotton and cow-pea (Fig. 199) of the 
South, have extra floral-glands which secrete nectar. Incase 
of the cow-pea these glands are on the peduncles or flower- 


Fic. 199. 


Cow-Pea—Original. 


u, a Glands. b Flower. e Pods. 


stems, just at the base of the flowers (Fig. 199, a, a). Prof. 
Trelese thinks that this nectar serves the plant by attracting 
bees, wasps, etc., which keep injurious insects from attacking 


394 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


it. If honey-dew is secreted from the general foliage, as so 
many believe, then surely, as stated above, it serves the plants 
in some such way. 


SWEET SAP AND JUICES. 


Bees often gather much nectar from the stubble of wheat 
that is cut early, while the straw is yet green. The sap from 
the maple and other trees and plants also furnishes them 
sweets. They gather juices of questionable repute from about 
cider-mills, some from grapes and other fruit which have been 
crushed or eaten and torn by wasps and otherinsects. Bees 
in gathering from cider-mills annoy the cider-maker, and 
store a product unfit for winter use. They are also often 
drowned in great numbers. It is wise, then, to screen them 
from the room where the juice is being expressed. By use of 
mosquito-netting this may be quickly and cheaply done. That 
bees ever tear grapes or other fruit isa question of whichI 
have failed to receive any personal proof, though for years I 
have been carefully seeking it. I have lived among the vine- 
yards of California, and have often watched bees about vines 
in Michigan, but never saw bees tearopen the grapes. I have 
laid crushed grapes in the apiary, when the bees were not 
gathering, and when they were ravenous for stores, which, 
when covered with sipping bees, were replaced with sound 
grape-clusters, which, in no instance, were mutilated. I have 
even shut bees in empty hiveson warm days and closed the 
entrance with grape-clusters, which even then were not cut. 
I have thus been led to doubt if bees ever attack sound fruit, 
though quick to improve the opportunities which the oriole’s 
beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer them. Mr. Root 
finds that the Cape May warbler is even more ready than the 
oriole to pierce the grapes. Such habit is exceptional with 
the warblers, which are usually wholly insectivorous. My 
friend, Prof. Prentiss, suggests that when the weather is very 
warm and damp, and the grapes very ripe, the juice may ooze 
through small openings of the grapes and so attract the bees. 
It is at just such times that attacks are observed. I feel very 
certain that bees never attack sound grapes. I judge not only 
from observation and inquiry, but from the habits of the bee. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 395 


Bees never bore for nectar, but seek, or even know only of that 
which is fully exposed. Bees are, however, a tremendous aid 
to the fruit-grower in the great work of cross-pollination, 
which is imperatively necessary to his success, as has been so 
well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. It is true 
that cross-pollination of the flowers, which can only be 
accomplished by insects, and early in the season by the honey- 
bee, is often, if not always, necessary to a full yield of fruit 
and vegetables. In dicecious plants, like the willows and 
many nut-bearing trees, the stamens that bear the pollen or 
male element, are on one plant or flower (Fig. 202), and the 


Fic. 200. 


Blossoms of Figwort, after Gray. 


A Developed stamens and pollen. S In two left-hand flowers ripe 
S In right-hand flower unripe stigma. stigma. 
n Nectar. P Unripe stamens. 


pistils that grow the ovules—the female element—on another. 
Here, then, insects must act as ‘‘marriage priests’? that 
fructification may be accomplished at all. In other plants, 
where the organs areall in the same flower, pollination is 
wholly dependent upon insects. The pollen-grains must reach 
the stigma. Often this is, from the very structure of the 
flower, entirely dependent upon insects. Often, as in the 
willow-herb (Fig. 252) and figwort (Fig. 200), as my colleague 
and esteemed friend, Dr. Beal, was first to discover, the 
pollen and stigma are not ripe simultaneously, and so pollen 


396 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


must be brought from one flower to the stigma of another, and 
this must be done by insects—chiefly bees. Nature thus 
makes close pollination impossible. Indeed, color and odor 
in flowers are solely to attract insects for the good of the 
flowers. In cases like red clover, where pollination is pos- 
sible without aid, my colleague, Prof. Beal, has shown that, 
unless insects are present, the yield of seed is meager indeed. 
The seeds in the uncovered blossoms were to those in the 
covered as 236:5. Prof. Waite, of the Department of Agricul- 
ture, has shown that many varieties of pears, apples, etc., 
will fruit very scantily unless cross-pollinated by insects. I 
have proved the same in California with pears, plums, olives, 
and citrus fruits. The navelorange is an exception. It fruits 
just as fully without pollination, and so, of course, is usually 
seedless. It bears no pollen. Thus many fruit-growers keep 
bees to do this very important work, which they find they can 
not afford to neglect. I'suspect in very favorable years, or in 
very favored localities, fruits like the Bartlett pear may be fer- 
tile to their own pollen, when at other times they will be 
wholly sterile. The fruit-men, then, must see that bees are 
abundant hard by their orchards. Thereis then entire reci- 
procity between the bees and flowers. The bees are as neces- 
sary to the plantsas are the plantsto the bees. I am informed 
by Prof. W. W. Tracy, that the gardeners in the vicinity of 
Boston keep bees that they may perform this duty. Mr. Root 
found in New York a greenhouse, where bees were kept at 
work all winter, to save the otherwise necessary hand-pollina- 
tion, which was very laborious and expensive. That bees 
ever injure blossoms and thus effect damage to the fruitage of 
such plants as buckwheat—or to any plants, as is sometimes 
claimed—is utterly absurd and without foundation. It is now 
contended by able authorities, like Profs. Waite and Pierce, 
that bees carry the germs of pear-blight. Very likely this is 
true. Yet other insects are sufficiently abundant to do this, 
and yet too few to do the work of pollination. A few inocula- 
tions will scatter the blight, while pollination must be done in 
wholesale fashion. 

But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 397 


WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY-PLANTS ? 


In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance, 
for May, is the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In 
June, white clover, alsike clover, and raspberries yield largely 
of the most attractive honey, both as to appearance and 
flavor. In July, the incomparable basswood and sweet clover 
make both bees and apiarist jubilant. In August, buckwheat 
offers a tribute, which we welcome, though it be dark and 
pungent in flavor, while in Michigan, August and September 
give a profusion of bloom which yields to no other in the rich- 
ness of its capacity to secrete nectar, and is not cut off till the 
autumn frosts—usually abort Sept. 15. 

Thousands of acres of willow-herb (Fig. 252), goldenrod, 
boneset, asters, and other autumn flowers of northern Michi- 
ganas yet have blushed unseen, with fragrance wasted. This 
unoccupied territory, unsurpassed in its capability for fruit- 
production, covered with grand forests of mapleand basswood, 
and spread with the richest of autumn bloom, offers oppor- 
tunities to the practical apiarist rarely equaled except in Texas 
and the Pacific States. 

In the following table will be found a list of valuable 
honey-plants. Those mentioned first are annual, biennial 
or perennial; the annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: 
(); the biennial enclosed in brackets thus: []; while those 
mentioned later are shrubs or trees; the names of shrubs 
being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of the commence- 
ment of bloom is, of course, not invariable. The one appended, 
in case of plants which grow in that State, is about average 
for Central Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in 
small capitals yield very superior honey. Those with (a) are 
useful for other purposes than honey-secretion. All but those 
with a * are native or very common in Michigan. Those 
written in the plural refer to more than one species. ‘Those 
followed by a + are very numerous in species. Of course I 
have not named all, as that would include some hundreds 
which have been observed at the college, taking nearly all of 
the two great orders, Compositaz and Rosacexe. I have only 
aimed to give the most important, omitting many foreign 
plants of notoriety, asI have had no personal knowledge of them, 


398 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


HERBACEOUS HONEY-PLANTS, TREES AND SHRUBS. 


DATE OF BLOOMING. ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS, 


February to July....... 
February and March.... 
March ofall scares 


DT eas omnes saaly onles x 
April and May.......... 
April and May.......... 
April and May... cossss 
April and May.......... 
May. 
May and June.......... 
May and June... cys vx 
May and June.......... 
May and June.......... 
May and June... 
Mayand June... 
May io August 
May to August 
May to Ted. «coh wspusasas 


June to August......... 
June to August......... 
June tofrost............ 
JUDO LPOSL ss « vce wena x 
June to frost 
June to frost 
June to frost.. 
Junetofrost.. 
June to frost 
Juneio frost 
June to frost 


July to August ......... 
July to August......... 


*Gilias—California—Blue Pollen. 
*Gallberry—South. 


i ALFALFA oR LUCERNE (a)—Calif., Colo.:- 


Skunk Cabbage. 
Crocus. 
Dandelion. 
Crowfoot. 
Strawberry. (a) 


Crimson Clover (a)—South—Not California. 


(Seven-Top Turnip.) 
*Hoarhound—California. 
*Sumac—California. 
*Cotfee-Berry—California. 

K *HORSEMINT—Texas. 

False Indigo. s 

Lupine. 

Ground Ivy or Gill. 

Cow-Pea. («) 

(Cow-Pea.) («)—South. 
*Stone Crop—South. 

Mammoth Red Clover. (a) 
*California Figwort—California, 
(Hemp.) (a) 

Gumbo or Okra. ¢ 

MWHITE CLOVER. (a) 

Beans (a) —California. 

« ALSIKE CLOVER. (a) 

« RED CLOVER. (a) 

~~ CRIMSON CLOVER. (a) 

Be ecage CLOVER. ] 

oarhound. 
Ox-Eyed Daisy—Bad Weed. 
Bush Honeysuckle. 

*( Partridge Pea.) 
Burdock— White Pollen. 
Matrimony Vine. 

*Sage. 

Motherwort. 
*(Borage.) 
*(Cotton.) (a) 

Pleurisy Root. 

Silk or Milk Weeds, 

[Cabbage.] (a) 

(Mustard) + 

*(Rape.) (« 

St. John’s Wort. 

(MIGNONETTE.) (a) 

(Corn.) (a) 

*(Teasel.) (a) 

Basils or Mountain Mint. 


Catnip. (a) 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 


July to August ......... 
July to August ......... 
July to August......... 
July to August......... 
July to August........ 

July to August ......... 
July to August......... 
July to August......... 
July to AUSUSE.... bcows 
duly tO frost, 2 exo6 2 ee 
HOY LO TLOM iw ceases ces 
DULY tO ILORE oan annie 
Jilly tO ItOSb: « aviexs xaees 
July to frost............ 
July to frost.. ve 

July to frost.. $a 
JULY tO TrOSts ene eee ss 
Jtly te POSteccaes enaau 
Py TO TOS 008 vidas v 
July to frost............ 
August 


August to September ... 
August to September... 
August to September ... 
August to September ... 
August to frost......... 
August to frost......... 
August to frost......... 
August to frost......... 
August to frost.. 4 

August to frost. ees 
August to frost......... 


January to January..... 
January to January 
January to May ........ 
January to May......... 
January to May ........ 
January to May ........ 
February to June....... 


Apriland May.......... 
April and May.......... 
April and May.......... 
April t6 Jane. vice cece 
April to July........... 


399 


Chamomile. 
*Asparagus. (a) 
(Cucumber,Squash, Pumpkins, Melons,etc) (a) 
*(Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant)—Colorado. 
*Viper’s Bugloss (Blue Thistle. ) 

Blue Vervain or Verbena. 

White Vervain or Verbena. 
*Fog-fruit, Lippia—Texas. 

Marsh Milkweed. 

Boneset. 

Bergamot. 

Chicory. 

Figwort or Carpenter’s Square. 

Giant Hyssop. 

Malva. 

Tronweed. 

Fireweed. 

Culver’s Root. 

Indian Plantains, 


K *SPIDER FLOWER. 


cee eae (a) 
Snapdragon. ) 
(Touch-me-not or Swamp Balsam.) 


X(Great WiLtow-Herps, Fireweed. 


Golden Honey-Plant. 

*Heartsease, or Smartweed, or Knotweed— 
Mississippi Valley. 

Large Smartweed. 


X(GOLDENROD.) t 


ASTERS. t 

Marsh Sunflower. t 

Tick-Seed. + 

Beggar-Ticks or Bur Marigold. t 
Spanish Needles. t+ Coreopsis. 
Rattlesnake Root or Tall White Lettuce. 


TREES AND SHRUBS. 


Lemon—South and California. 
Eucalyptus, many species—California. 
*Manzanita—California. 
*Rattan—South. 
eee) +—California. 
*Chaparall—California Lilac. 
Mtoe Berry)—South. 
*Orange—South and California. 
Madrona—California. 
Box-Elder or Ash-Leaf Maple. 
Red or Soft Maple. (a) 
Elm. 
Poplar or Aspen. 
Silver Maple. 
(Willows) + also Trees. 
*Black Gum—South. 
*Judas Tree—South. 
(Chinkapin, Chinquapin Dwarf Chestnut. ) 
Mesquite—Texas and West, 


400 


April to July........... 
April to July ........... 
April to July ........... 
APTULtO JU os coc cece 


y 

May and June.......... 
May and June.......... 
May and June.......... 
May and June.......... 
May and June.. " 

May and June.. oe 
May and June.......... 
May and June.......... 
May to September 
May to September 


PMN C3 csi ashe dos wanes § atin’ 
June to July 
June to July 
June to July 
June to frost 


July to August......... 
July to September...... 
BUMS ce a oie vegans eae & 
August to September... 
August to September ... 
August to frost......... 
August to December.... 
August to January..... 


THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


K *WaiTE Sagze—California. 


*BALL, BLACK, or BuTTON SacEe.—California. 
*Rhododendron— South and West. 
Honeysuckle. 
Shadbush, or June-berry, or Service-berry.) 
Alder.) 
Maples—Sugar Maple. (a) 
Crab-Apple. 
Apricot. 
(Hawthorns.) 
Fruit Trees—Apple, Plum,Cherry,Pear,etc(a) 
(Currant and Gooseberry. (a) 
*(Wistaria Vine—South.) 
*(Chinese Wistaria Vine—South). 
*(Japan Privet—South.) 
*Varnish Tree—South. 
*Acacia—South and California. 
(Bladder Nut.) 
*Persimmon (a) —South. 


f*Saw Patmerro—South. 


Mountain Laurel—South. 
Buckeye. 
Horse-Chestnut. 
(Barberry.) 
(Grape Vine.) (a) 
Poplar, Tulip. 
Tulip-tree or Whitewood, Poplar—South. 
(Sumace.) 
*Buckthorns—South. California Feb. to July. 


if *BLack MancRovE—Florida. 


Locust or Black Locust. 
*Banana— South. 
Cobcea scandens. 
Catalpa. 
*Magnolias—South. California. 
Honey-Lucust. 
Wild Plum. 
(Black Raspberry.) (a) 
Locusts. 
¥(RED RasPBERRY.) (a) 
(Blackberry. ) 
Chestnut. (a) 
*Sourwood—South. 
Wild Buckwheat—California. 
(Button Bush.) 


Vine. 


IZ Basswoop. (a) 


(Virginia Creeper.) (a) Vine. 


**CanBpaGE PaLMEeTro.—South. 


*Blue-Gum—California. 
Catalpa. (a) 
*Pepper-tree—California, 
*(St. John’s Worts.) 
(Late Sumac.) 
Indian Currant, Coralberry, or Buckbush, 
or Snowdrop. 
*Rea-Gum—California, 
*Japan Plum—South. 
(Germander or Wood-Sage.) 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 401 


DESCRIPTION, WITH PRACTICAL REMARKS. 


As this subject of bee-pasturage is of such prime impor- 
tance, andas theinterest in the subject is so great and wide- 
spread, I feel that details with illustrations will be more than 
warranted. 

We have abundant experience to show that forty or fifty 
colonies of bees, take the seasons as they average (except in 
such very highly-favored localities as Southern California, 
where in good seasons two or three hundred are profitably 
kept in a single apiary, even six hundred having been proved 
in the best seasons to do well), are all that a single place will 
sustain to the greatest advantage. Then how significant the 
fact that when the season is the best full three times that 
number of colonies will find ample resources to keep all 
employed. So this subject of artificial pasturage becomes 
one well worthy of close study and observation. The subject, 
too, is a very important one in reference to the location of the 
apiary. 

It is well to remember in this connection, that while bees 
do sometimes go from five to seven miles for nectar, two or 
three miles should be regarded as the limit of profitable gath- 
ering. That is, apiaries of from fifty to one hundred or more 
colonies should not be nearer than four or five miles of each 


other. 
MARCH PLANTS. 


In Florida the orange gives early bloom, and the thou- 
sands of trees in that land, not only of flowers but of honey, 
will have no small influence in building up the colonies for 
the grand harvest of mangrove and palmetto soon to follow. 

The gall-berry of the South commences to bloom even in 
February, and yields abundant nectar. In Florida this shrub 
gives the main supply of honey during the swarming season. 


APRIL PLANTS. 


As we have already seen, the apiarist does not secure the 
best results, even in the early spring, unless the bees are 
encouraged by the increase of their stores of pollen and honey ; 
hence, in case we do not practice stimulative feeding—and 


402 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


many will not—it becomes very desirable to have some early 
bloom. Happily, in all sections of the United States our 
desires are not in vain. 

Early in spring there are many scattering wild-flowers, as 
skunk-cabbage (Symplocarpus fcetidus), which supplies abun- 
dant pollen and some honey; the blood-root (Sanguinaria 
canadensis), liver-leaf (Hepatica acutiloba), and various others 


Fic. 201. 


Red Maple.—Original. 


M Male blossoms. F Female blossoms. 
Ft Fruit. 


of the crow-foot family, as also many species of cress, which 
belong to the mustard family, and the gay dandelion (Taraxa- 
cum dens-leonis), which keeps on blooming for weeks, etc., all 
of which are valuable and important. The dandelion affords 
nectar for excellent honey. Wereit not so concurrent with 
fruit-bloom, it would be more valuable, yet it anticipates and 
succeeds the orchard bloom. 

The maples, which are all valuable honey-plants, also con- 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 403 


tribute to the early stores. Especially valuable are the silver 
maples (Acer dasycarpum), the red or soft maples (Acer 
rubrum) (Fig. 201), and the box-elder or ash-leaf maple 
(Negundo aceroides), as they bloom so very early, long before 
the leaves appear. ‘The bees work on these in Michigan the 
first week of April, and often in March. They arealso mag- 
nificent shade-trees, especially those that have the weeping 
habit. Their early bloom is very pleasing, their summer form 


Fic. 202, 


Willow.— Original. 


and foliage beautiful, while their flaming tints in autumn are 
indescribable. The foreign maples, sycamore (Acer psendo- 
platanus), and Norway (Acer platanoides), are also very beau- 
tiful, Whether superior to ours as honey-plants I am unable 
to say. : 

The willows, too (Fig. 202), rival the maples in the early 
period of bloom. Someare very early, blossoming in March, 
while others, like the white willow (Salix alba) (Fig. 202), 
bloom in May. ‘The flowers on one tree or bush of the willow 
are all pistillate—that is, have pistils but no stamens—while 


404 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


on others they are all staminate, having no pistils. On the 
former, bees can gather only honey, on the latter only pollen. 
That the willow furnishes both honey and pollen is attested 
by the fact that Isaw both kinds of trees, the pistillate and 
the staminate, thronged with bees the past season. Indeed, 
the willow furnishes abundant honey nearly every spring. 


Fic. 204. 


Mesquite.—From Dept. of Agriculture. Judas Tree.—Original. 


Were bees numerous thus early, and were the weather propi- 
tious, the honey from willow would be very important. It is 
in stimulating breeding. The willow, too, from its elegant 
form and silvery foliage, is one of our finest shade-trees. It 
grows everywhere in the United States. The mesquite (Proso- 
pis juliflora),a shrub or tree of the bean family (Fig. 203), is 
exceedingly valuable for honey from Texas to Arizona. The 
honey is excellent in quality and very abundant. It blooms 
from April on to July. 

In the south of Michigan, and thence southward to Ken- 
tucky, and even beyond, the Judas tree, or red-bud (Cercis 
canadensis), (Fig. 204), is not only worthy of cultivation as a 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 405 


honey-plant, but is also very attractive, and well deserving of 
attention for its ornamental qualities alone. The red flowers 
precede the foliage, and are very striking. This blooms from 
March to May, according to the latitude. 


Fic. 205. 


Eucalyptus Robusta.—Zrom University of California. 


The poplars—not the tulip—also bloom in April, and are 
freely visited by the bees. The wood is immaculate, and is 
used for toothpicks and sections for comb honey. 

In California, the unique and exquisite Manzanitas (spe- 


406 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


cies of Arctostaphylos), together with the willows and many 
other flowering plants, keep the bees busy from January till 
March. ‘The Gilias, many of which furnish blue pollen, bloom 
in January and on tillJune. The wondrously fragrant orange 
and lemon hang out their profuse bloom even in January, and 
the lemon is alwaysin bloom. Some species of gum eucalyp- 


Fic. 206. 


Pepper.—Original. 


tus (Fig. 205) is in bloom nearly every month of the year. The 
beautiful peppers (Fig. 206), so exquisite in grace, have a very 
wide period of bloom. The eucalyptus honey is agreeable, as 
I have surely proved. I think the pepper only furnishes pollen 
extensively. The tree is dicecious. The female trees are the 
more attractive for the red fruit of winter. They are tran- 
scendently beautiful for roadside planting, as are many of the 
gums. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 407 


MAY PLANTS. 


In May we have the grand sugar maple (Acer saccha- 
rinum), (Fig. 207), incomparable for beauty, also all our vari- 


Fic. 207. 


SN rns 3 


ss 
—s 


me 


Sugar-Maple.—Original. 


ous fruit-trees, peach, cherry, plum, apple, etc.; in fact all the 
Rosacee family. Despite adverse criticism, I have found fruit 
honey excellent. Our beautiful American wistaria (Wistaria 


408 THE BER-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


frutescens), (Fig. 208), the very ornamental climber, or the 
still more lovely Chinese wistaria (Wistaria sinensis), (Fig. 
209), which has longer racemes than the native, and often 
blossoms twice in the season. These are the woody twiners 
for the apiarist. I regret to say that neither one is hardy in 
Michigan. 

The barberry, too (Berberis vulgaris), (Fig. 210), comes 
after fruit-blossoms, and is thronged with bees in search of 
nectar in spring, as with children in winter, in quest of the 
beautiful scarlet berries, so pleasingly tart. 


Fic. 208. 


Americun Wistaria.—Original. 


In California, the sumac, the hoarhound, the famous ball 
or black sages (Fig. 211), (Ramona stachyoidesand R. palmeri), 
with their most beautiful and delicious honey, and the more 
common and equally excellent white sage (Ramona poly- 
stachya), (Fig. 212), keep the bees roaring with activity, in 
favorable seasons, from April even unto June. It is charac- 
teristic of California bloom to continue for weeks. The long 
racemes of white sage may open in April and continue in 
blossom away to June. 

In the South, asI learn from that able apiarist, Dr. J. P. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 409 


H. Brown, they are no less favored. The Japan privet, the 
varnish tree, the acacia, the black-gum or sour-gum (Nyssa 
aquatica), and the persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) stir the 
bees up to their best endeavorin May. The banana (Musa 
sapientum) blooms not only in May, but, as Mr. W.S. Bart, 
of Florida, writes me, it is in blossom the year around. So 
rich are the flower-tubes in nectar that Mr. Hart says he could 


Fic. 209, 


Fie. 210. 


Chinese Wistaria.—Original. Barberry.—Original. 


soon gather a teacupful, by hand, of clear, beautiful nectar of 
good flavor. Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) is an excellent 
honey-plant in the Carolinas. 

The horse-mint (Fig. 213), (Monarda aristata), especially 
in Texas, is sending the bees loaded to their hives with its 
peculiar, aromatic nectar. This, with the buckthorns, species 
of Rhamnus and Ceonothus, yield honey into June. These 
plants often cover acres in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Mr. 


410 


THE BEH-KREPER'S GUIDE; 
Fic. 211. 


Bail or Black Sage.—Original, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 411 


Freeborn, of Wisconsin, has often secured a large harvest 
from this source when all else failed. The buckthorns are 
very common in California. Some of the blooms are delicate 


Fic. 212, 


White Sage.—From A. I. Root Co. 


blue, and are known as the ‘“‘ California lilacs.” They are in 
bloom—different species—from March to July. 
The saw palmetto (Serenoa serrulata) forms a dense growth 


412 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


aud makes clearing the land no smail expense in Florida. The 
slim trunk creeps along the ground for twenty feet, and sends 
roots beneath for nourishment. The leaves arise from this 
stem, and are from four to six feet long. The clusters of 


Fic. 213, 


Horsemint,—Oriyinal. 


small, yellowish-white blossoms are immense in size. The 
blossoms last from the middle of April til: June. The honey 
is yellow, thick and fine. The fruit of this palm is about 
twice the sizeof the Concord grape, and from October till 
Christmas the oozing nectar keeps the bees at work. This is 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 412 


dark honey, but very good for stimulative feeding. The date- 
palms (species of Phoenix), and many others, grow magnifi- 
cently in California, and are valuable aids to the bee-keeper. 
The growing of date-palms promises a rich harvest in Califor- 
nia and Arizona. 

JUNE PLANTS. 


With June comes the incomparable white or Dutch clover 
(Trifolium repens), (Fig. 214), whose chaste and modest bloom 
petokens the beautiful, luscious, and unrivaled sweets which 


Fic. 214. 


White or Dutch Clover. 


are hidden in itscorolla-tube; alsoits sister, Alsike or Swedish 
clover (Trifolium hybridum), (Fig. 215), which seems to 
resemble both the white and red clover, is now beautiful and 
fragrant. Thisis not a hybrid, as its name would suggest. 
It is a stronger grower than the white, and has a whitish 
blossom tinged with pink. Mr. Doolittle says the honey is 
often a little off-color, and its presence may so tinge basswood 
honey as to make it second grade. Messrs. Doolittle and Root 
think that white clover furnishes about fifty pounds of honey 
tothe acre during the season. I am sure that Alsike may 
furnish much more than this, and I believe the same is true of 


414 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Fic. 215. 


Alsike Clover.—From American Bee Journal. 


THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 415 


white. This forms excellent pasture and hay for cattle, 
sheep, etc., and may well be sown by the apiarist. When pas- 
tured the bloom is much prolonged. It will often pay apiarists 
to furnish neighboring farmers with seed as an inducement to 
grow this excellent honey-plant. It will be easy to get all 
farmers within two miles of the apiary to sow this seed, if we 
sell it to them for six dollars per bushel of sixty pounds, when 
the price is eight or nine dollars. This would be a wise plan. 


Fic. 216. 


Mammoth Red Clover.—From A. I. Root Co. 


Like white clover, it blooms all through June and 
into July. Both of these should be sown early in spring with 
timothy, four or five pounds of seed to the acre, in the same 
manner that red clover seed is sown. As Alsike seeds itself 
each year, and so lasts much longer than red clover, I think it 
pays well to mix the seed, using about three pounds of Alsike 
clover seed and five or six of redclover. As Alsike clover is 
visited freely by honey-bees the first growth of the season, 
unlike red clover, itseeds bountifully. By cutting Alsike clover 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 417 


just as it commences to bloom, it may be made to come into 
blossom the second time, so as just to fill the vacant space in 
August. This is a very important fact, and may well be 
acted upon. I have known Alsike clover to give a good harvest 
of nectar during a dry year, when white clover utterly failed. 
Red clover (Trifolium pretense), especially mammoth (Fig. 
216), is a wondrous honey-plant, but its long flower-tubes 
place the nectar beyond the reach of black bees, and of most 


Fic. 218. 


Melilot Clover.—Original. 


Italians. Can we breed longer tongues in our bees, or shorter 
tubes in the clover? I see no reason why we may not do both. 
Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum), (Fig.217), is popular 
in some sections. It isa failure in Southern California. The 
blossoms are large and fine, and they are visited freely by the 
bees. Itis used in the Kast and South for green manuring. I 
do not think it will compare with white or Alsike clover asa 
honey-plant. 
Sweet clover, yellow and white (Melilotus officinalis and 
Melilotus alba), (Fig. 218), are well named. They bloom from 
the middle of June tothe first of October. Their perfume 


418 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


scents the air for long distances, and the hum of bees that 
throng their flowers is like music to the apiarist’sear. The 
honey, too, is just exquisite. ‘These clovers are biennial, not 


Fic. 219, 


) \ 


rh 


ih 


Alfalfa Honey-Plant.—From A, I, Root Co. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 419 


Fic. 220. 


Alfalfa.—From A. I. Root Co. 


blooming the second season. They perpetuate themselves, 
however, through the seed, so as really to become perennial. 
A disagreeable fact is that they have little value except for 


420 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


honey. Some bee-keepers claim to have found them valuable 
for pasturage and for hay. Ihave wished and tried to use 
them, but my horses and cow would not co-operate. The 
Bokhara clover is only a variety of the above. 


Fic. 221. 


Alfalfa in Bloom.—From A, I. Rvot Co. 
a, b Seed pods. c Seed. 


The other clovers—lucerne, yellow trefoil, scarlet trefoil, 
and alfalfa—(Figs. 219, 220 and 221) have not proved of any 
value in Michigan, perhaps owing to locality. The alfalfa is 
valued highly for bees in the Western States. In California,. 
Nevada, Arizona and Colorado it is a marvelous plant for both 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 421 


hay and honey. Hight cuttings a season have~been made, 
though five are the average in Southern California. A yield 
of three tons per cutting per acre is not exceptional. The hay 
is the very best. It is pre-eminently a crop for irrigation, and 
sois not stayed by the drouth. Bee-keepers in central Cali- 
fornia and Arizona report two hundred pounds per colony 
from alfalfa, even with very largeapiaries. While most prefer 
to cut before it is in full bloom, as it is eaten better, yet there 


Fic. 222. Fic. 223. 


Borage.—Original. Mignonette. 


is always much bloom where it is grown extensively. Itisa 
sure honey-producer in the famous San Joaquin Valley of 
California. 

Borage (Borago officinalis), (Fig. 222), an excellent bee- 
plant, blooms from June till frost, and is visited by bees even 
in very rainy weather. It seems not to be a favorite, but is 
eagerly visited when all others fail to yield nectar. 

Mignonette (Reseda odorata), (Fig. 223) blooms from the 
middle of June till frost, is unparalleled for its sweet odor, 
furnishes nectar in profusion, and is well worthy cultivation. 
It does not secrete well in wet weather, but in favorable 


422 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


weather it is hardly equaled. It will never be grown in 
quantities to give any large returns. 

Okra, or gumbo (Hibiscus esculentus), (Fig. 224), also 
bloomsin June. It is as much sought after by the beesin 
quest of honey, as by the cook in search of a savory vegetable, 
or one to give tone to soup. 

Sage (Salvia officinalis), hoarhound (Marrubium vulgare), 
motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), and catnip (Nepeta cataria), 
which latter does not eommence to bloom till July, all furnish 
nice, white honey, remain in bloom a long time, and are very 


Fie. 224. Fic. 225. 


Okra.—Original. Mint.— Original. 


desirable, as they are in bloom in the honey-dearth of July 
and August. They, like many others of the mint family (Fig. 
225), are thronged with bees during the season of bloom. ‘The 
first andlast are of commercial importance, while very few of 
our native plants afford so much nectar, are such favorites 
with the bees, and are so independent of weather as mother- 
wort (Fig. 226). It is crowded with bees from the dawn of its 
bloom till the last flower withers. By cutting it back in May 
it can be made to blossom just at the dearth of nectar-secreting 
ploom ; otherwise it comes in June and early July, just when 


OR MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 423 


linden is yielding its precious harvest. Few plants are more 
desirable to sow in waste-places. Mr. Doolittle says truly, 
“Tf any plant will pay to grow solely for honey, itis this 
one.’’? He is correct in the opinion that none will pay. 


Fic. 226. 


Motherwort.—Original. 


The silk or milkweed furnishes abundant nectar from . 
June to frost, as there are several species of the genus Asclep- 
jas, which is wide-spread in our country. Indeed, pleurisy- 
root or butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) is the bee-plant 
that Mr. Heddon has praised so highly. He thinks it one of 


424 THE BRE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


our best indigenous honey-plants. These are the plants 
which-have large pollen-masses which often adhere to the 
legs of the bees (Fig. 227), and sometimes so entrap them as to 
cause their death. Prof. Riley once very graciously advised 
planting them to kill bees! I say graciously, as I have 
watched these very closely, and am sure they do little harm, 
and are rich in nectar. Seldom a bee gets caught so as to hold 
it long, and when these awkward masses are carried away 
with the bee, they are usually left at the door of the hive, 


Fic, 228. 


Fic. 227. 


Pollen of Mitk- Weed on Bee's Foot. Black Mustard.—Original. 
—Original. : 


where I have often seen them in considerable numbers. The 
river bank, hard by our apiary,is lined with these sweet- 
smelling herbs, and we would like even more. Occasionally, 
however, the bees are held to the plant by them, and more 
often become so burdened with these pollen-masses that the 
other bees drag or drive them from the hive, as no longer fit 
for labor or worthy to live. Bees are veritable Hottentots— 
they kill, though they do not eat the old and the feeble. 

Black mustard (Sinapis nigra), (Fig. 228), white mustard 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 425 


(Sinapis alba) and rape (Brassica campestris), (Fig. 229), all 
look much alike—all are species of the great family Crucifere— 
and are all admirable bee-plants, as they furnish much and 
beautiful honey. The first, if self-sown, blooms in Michigan 
July Ist, the others June 1st; the first about eight weeks after 
sowing, the others three or four. The mustards bloom for 
four weeks, rape for three. These are all specially commend- 
able, as they may be made to bloom during the honey-dearth 
of July and August, secrete honey late as well as early in 


Fic. 229. 


Rape. 


the season, and are valuable plants to raise for seed. The 
mustards were grown in Southern California for seed during 
the Civil War, and have run wild in parts of San Diego County 
where they grow very extensively. Though the hills are 
yellow with this plant for miles, I have heard no special com- 
mendation of it for honey. Very likely our scant rainfall is 
not favorable for nectar-secretion. Rape seems to be very 
attractive to insects, as the flea-beetles and the blister-beetles 
are often quite too much for it, though they do not usually 
destroy the plants till after they have blossomed. Rape is 


426 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


now grown extensively in Michigan and contiguous States for 
sheep, etc. It pleases the stockmen and the bee-keepers alike. 
Three pounds per acre of seed is the amount to sow. I have 


Fie. 230. 


Tulip.—Original. 


several times purchased what purported to be Chinese mus- 
tard, dwarf and tall, but Prof. Beal, than whom there is no 
better authority, tells me they are only the white and black, 
and certainly they are no whit better as bee-plants. These 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 427 


plants, with buckwheat, the mints, borage and mignonette, 
are specially interesting, as they cover, or may be made to 
cover, the honey-dearth from about July 20th to August 20th. 

The mustards may be planted in drills about eight inches 
apart, any time from May 1st to July 15th. Four quarts will 
plant an acre. 

In this month (though I have known it to bloom in Micnhi- 
gan in May, while South it blossoms in April) blooms the 


Fic. 231. 


Teasel.—Original. 


tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), (Fig. 230)—often called 
poplar in the South, which is not only an excellent honey- 
producer, but is oneof our most stately and admirable shade- 
trees. Itis also very valuable for its lumber, which is known 
as whitewood. It would be of more worth did it not shrink so 
much, Dr. Brown, of Georgia, says this is the great depend- 
ence—the basswood of the South. He says that along rivers 
especially the bloom is so prolonged, being earlier on the up- 
lands, that the harvest is long as bountiful. Now bloom the 
sumacs, though one species blooms in May, the wild plum, the 
raspberries, whose nectar is unsurpassed in color and flavor, 
and the blackberry. The raspberry is specially to be praised, 


428 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


It blooms between the usual fruit-blossoms and clover. It 
yields nectar in wet weather, which most plants fail to do, and 
the honey is unexcelled. Bees sometimes gather the juice 
from very ripe raspberries. This colors the honey red. The 
blackberry comes quite late, some days after the raspberry. I 
think itis far less valuable as a honey-plant. Corn yields 
largely of honey as well as pollen, and the teasel (Dipsacus 
fullonum), (Fig. 231), is said, not only by Mr. Doolittle, but by 
English and German apiarists, to yield richly of beautiful 


Fic. 232. 


Common Locust.—From American Bee Journal. 


honey. It blossoms at the same time with basswood, and the 
honey is much thinner at first. This last has commercial 
importance. In central New York it is raised in large quanti- 
ties. The spinous fruit-heads are used in preparing woolen 
cloth. Machinery is now taking the place of teasel, and as no 
plant can be profitably grown for honey alone, this plant will 
be of little importance in the future. The fragrant locust 
(Robinia pseudacacia), (Fig. 232), opens its petals in June 
opportunely, for it comes between fruit-bloom and clover. 
Unfortunately, it furnishes nectar only occasionally. The 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 429 


honey is fine, as we should expect, as it belongs with the 
clovers, tothe great family of Leguminose. From its rapid 
growth, beautiful form, and handsome foliage, it would rank 
among our first shade-trees, were it not that it is so tardy in 
spreading its canopy of green, and so liable to ruinous attack 
by the borers, which last peculiarity it shares with the incom- 


Fic. 233. 


fi 


—d! 
v | 


RY 


it 


Partridge Pea.—Original. 


parable maples. Washing the trunks of the trees in June and 
July with soft soap will in great part remove this trouble. 

In June, mammoth red clover (Trifolium pratense), (Fig. 216) 
comes out in one mass of crimson. This, unlike common red 
clover, has flower-tubes short enough for even the ligula of the 
black bee. It is pretty coarse for hay, but excellent for pas- 
ture and for green manuring. The partridge-pea (Cassia 
chamecrista), (Fig. 233), furnishes abundant nectar, and, like 


430 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


the cow-pea (Vigna sinensis) of the South, (Fig. 199) has extra 
floral as well as floral glands. Lupine (Lupinus perennis) and 
gill or ground-ivy (Nepeta glechoma) began blooming in May, 
and now are fully out. This last isa mint, a near relative of 
catnip. I find there are foreign mints which are excellent 
honey-plants, and very likely would pay well to sow in waste- 
places. The matrimony vine (Lycium vulgare), and the bean- 
tiful honey-locust (Gleditschia triacanthos), (Fig. 234) are now 


Fic. 234. 


Honey-Locust.—From American Bee Journal. 


full of life, as the bees come and go full-loaded with nectar. 
In California, the figwort (Scrophularia californica) contributes 
to the honey-supply. The wild buckwheat (Fig. 235) blooms 
profusely in all parts of Southern California from June to 
frost. It yields much amber honey of excellent quality, 
though from its color it is second grade. Next to the sages it 
is the best wild honey-plant of the section. Our brothers of 
the South reap a rich harvest from the great staple, cotton 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY,. 431 


(Gossypium herbaceum), (Fig. 236), which commences to bloom 
early in June, and remains in blossom even to October. ‘This 
belongs to the same family—Mallow—as the hollyhock, and, 
like it, blooms and fruits through the season. 


Fic. 235. 


eat 
rts QaN, 


Wild Buckwheat.—Original. 


The cow-pea, which blooms from April to August (Fig. 
199), is not only good for bees, but for feed, and to enrich the 
soil. The stone-crop (Sedum pulchellum) is another valuable 
honey-plant of the South, In June the magnolias (Fig. 237)— 


432 THE BER-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


there are several species in the South—are in bloom. In many 
parts they commence to blossom in May. One of the finest of 
these is the Magnolia glauca (Fig. 237). One would suspect at 
once that it was a near relative of the tulip tree. This is also 
common in Southern California. 


Fic. 236. 


Cotton.—Original, 


JULY PLANTS. 


Early in this month opens the far-famed basswood or lin- 
den (Tilia Americana), (Fig. 238), which, for the profusion and 
quality of its honey, has no superior. Mr. Doolittle got 66 
pounds of linden honey from a single colony in three days. It 
is what has given Wisconsin its proud place as a bee-section. 
There is rarely a year that it does not give us some of its 
incomparable nectar. It has been estimated that one linden 
tree would furnish, in a favorable year, fifty pounds of honey. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 433 


The tree, too, from its great, spreading top and fine foliage, is 
magnificent for shade. Five of these trees were within two 
rods of my study window, and their grateful fragrance and 


Fic. 237 


Magnolia.—Original. 


beautiful form and shade were often the subject of remark by 
visitors. ‘This tree is par excellence for roadside planting. It 
bears transplanting admirably, andis very little disturbed by 


434 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


insects. Wehave only to keep stock away from it, and they 
are death to any tree. Maples, and even elms in many parts 


Fic. 238. 


Ih 
i 


ls 


i} 
/ 


H . 


\ rs 


Basswood.—From A. I. Root Co. 


of the United States, may well give place to the linden. The 
beautiful white lumber, and its rapidly growing use for boxes, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 435 


sections, and furniture, as also for pulp for paper, threaten the 
continuance of this incomparable honey-tree. Yet the fact 


Fic. 239. 


Z 
Z 


ZF 


Figwort.—From A. I. Root Co. 


that it will grow toa large tree in fifteen years, and will com- 
mence to bloom in five years from setting, is full of promise. 
Figwort (Scrophularia nodosa), (Fig. 239), often called 


436 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Rattleweed, as the seeds will rattle in the pod, and Carpenter’s 
Square, as it hasa square stalk, is an insignificant looking 
weed, with inconspicuous flowers, that afford abundant nectar 
from the middle of July till frost. I have received almost as 
many for identification as I have of the asters and goldenrods. 
Prof. Beal remarked to me, years since, that it hardly seemed 
possible that it could be so valuable. We can not always 
rightly estimate by appearances alone. Itis a very valuable 


Fic. 240. 


Chapman Honey-Plant.—From A. I. Root Co. 


plant to be scattered in waste-places. The Chapman honey- 
plant (Echiops spherocephalus), (Fig.240), commences to bloom 
late in July and continues till in August. We have many 
better native plants, and as no plant can be profitably grown 
for honey alone, we have no use for this foreigner. It takes 
its first name from its spines, and the second from its round 
flower-head, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 437 


Fic. 241. 


Rocky Mountain Bee-Plant.—Original. 


438 THE BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Fic, 242. 


Z 
Y 
Z 
7 
Z 
| 


SN 


Boneset,—Originat, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 439 


That beautiful and valuable honey-plant from Minnesota, 
Colorado, and the Rocky Mountains, Cleome, or the Rocky 
Mountain bee-plant (Cleome serrulata), (Fig. 241), if self-sown, 
or sown in the fall, blooms by the middle of July and lasts for 
long weeks. Norcan anything be more gay than these bril- 
liant flowers, alive with bees all through the long fall. While 
this is a very valuable honey-plant in its native Colorado, it 
gives little or no promise East. 


Fic. 243. 


Button-Ball.—Original. 


Now commence to bloom the numerous Eupatoriums, or 
bonesets, or thoroughworts (Fig. 242), which fill the marshes 
of our country, andthe hives as well, with their rich, golden 
nectar. These are precursors of that profusion of this com- 
posite order, whose many species are even now budding, in 
preparation for the sea of flowers which will deck the marsh- 
lands of August and September. Wild bergamot (Monarda 
fistulosa), which, like the thistles, is of importance to the api- 


440 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


arist, also blooms in July. As before remarked, this is one of 
the plants whose long flower-ttbes are pierced by the Xylocopa 
bees. Then the honey-bees help to gather the abundant nec- 
tar. This is a near relative of the horsemint which, as will be 


Fic. 244. 


Sour- Wood.—Original. 


seen, it closely resembles. The golden honey-plant (Actino- 
meris squatrosa), so praised by Dr. Tinker, and rattlesnake 
root (Nabalus altissimus), which swarms with beés all the day 
Tong, are alsocomposite plants. 

The little shrub of our marshes, appropriately named but- 
ton-bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), (Fig. 243), also shares 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 441 


the attention of the bees with the linden ; while apiarists of 
the South find sourwood, or sorrel tree (Oxydendrum arboreum), 
(Fig. 244), a valuable honey-tree. It yields much very excel- 
lent honey. The honey is not quite as light-colored as sage, 
clover and basswood. It is slow to granulate. This plant is 
grown at the Michigan Agricultural College, but it is not 


Mountain Laurel.—From Department of Agriculture 


A Flowering branch. J Filaments. . 
BC Expanded flower. pg Shower of pollen-grains. 
ap, ap Antler pockets. it a Free anthers. — ‘ 
s Stigma. ca Calyx. Boge 
e Enlarged stamens. : d Section flower-bud. 


hardy, as it kills back nearly every winter. It belongs to the 
Heath family, which includes the far-famed heather-bloom of 
England. It also includes our whortleberry, cranberry, blue- 
berry, and one plant which has no enviable reputation, as 
furnishing honey which is very poisonous, even fatal to those 
who éat, the mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), (Fig. 245). 
There is good reason to question these reports as to poisonous 


442 THE BEE-KREPER’S GUIDE; 


honey. Wecan easily see how mistakes could occur. It is not 
easy to understand, if these plants furnish poisonous nectar, 
why poisonous honey (?) issovery rare an occurrence. A near 
relative of K. latifolia, which grows at the South (Andromeda 
nitida), is said to furnish beautiful and wholesome honey in 


Fic. 246, 


From A. I. Root Co. 


great quantities. The yellow jasmine (Gelsemium semper- 
virens), (Fig. 246), is also said to furnish honey that is poison- 
ous to both peopleand bees. It blooms in Georgia in February 
and March. Like Kalmia, it is a poisonous plant, which pos- 
sibly accounts for the evil reputation of the honey. I have 
eaten freely of several samples of this so-called poisonous 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 443 


honey with not the slightest inconvenience. The Virginia 
creeper also blooms in July. I wish that I could say that this 
beautiful vine, transplendent in autumn, is a favorite with the 
honey-bee. Though it often, nay always, swarms with wild 
bees when in blossom, yet I have rarely seen honey-bees visit 
the ample bloom amidst its rich, green, vigorous foliage. 

The St. John’s wort (Hypericum), with its many species, 
both shrubby and herbaceous, offers bountiful contributions 


Fic. 247, 


Cabbage Palmetto.—Original, 


to the delicious stores of the honey-bee. The catnip (Nepeta 
cataria), which Quinby said he believed would pay better than 
any other plant for special planting, blooms at this time; also 
asparagus—which, if uncut in spring, will bloom in June—so 
delectable for the table, and so elegant for trimming table 
meats and for banquets in autumn, come now to offer their 
nectarian gifts, and beautiful, orange pollen. 

Basil, or mountain mint (Pycnanthemum lanceolatum), we 
might almost include all the mints; the blue and white ver- 


vy MAR-RIG.* o x . . ' . 


THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


444 


also fog-' 


other of this family, is valued very 
beautiful 


(Verbena hastata and V. stricta) ; 


oides), an 
highly in Texas—it grows ten feet high, and bears 


r verbenas 
lycer 


fruit (Lippia 


True Mangrove.—Original. 


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OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 445 


blue thistle—all contribute to the apiary in July ; the viper’s 
bugloss (Echium vulgare), so-called blue thistle, though most 
common South, is very abundant at Beeton, Canada. Mr. 
Jones has it growing allabout his apiaries. It is a near rela- 
tive of borage, and does not belong even to the family—Com- 
posite—of the thistles. Like the borage, it is not a trouble- 
some weed. 

In California, the blue-gum and the red-gum (Eucalyptus 
globulus and E. rostrata), introduced from Australia, furnish 


Fic. 249, 


{ { 
Buckwheat.—Originat. 
honey from July and August till December. There are over 
one hundred species of gum-trees (Fig. 205). Some are very 
beautiful in habit, foliage and blossom. They blossom at 
nearly all seasons, summer and winter, so by carefully select- 
ing the species, the apiarist may have the flowers at will. 

The catalpa, a very rapid-growing tree, throws its large, 
showy blossoms to the breeze and beesin July. It is rapidly 
growing in favor as a shade-tree, and is incomparable for 
posts. It lasts fora great many years when imbedded in the 
earth. But ‘the noblest Roman of them all” is the cabbage 


446 THE BHE-KERPER’S GUIDE}; 


palmetto—Chamecerops palmetto (Fig. 247). As Mr. Hart, of 
Florida, says, this is the linden of the South. It yields abun- 
dant honey, which, as all who saw and tasted it at the last 
convention at Cincinnati, can vouch, is unsurpassed in flavor. 
Mr. Muth well said that he wished no finer. This tree grows 
to the height of seventy feet. The trunk is leafless nearly to 


Fic. 250. 


Golden-Rod.—From A, I. Root Co 


the top. The small, white blossoms nestle among the long 
palm leaves in profusion, and are rich in both nectar and pol- 
len, from June 1st till August. The tree is found from the 
Carolinas to the Gulf. The various palms, as already stated— 
Chamerops, Phoenix, Cocus, etc.—add not only to the beauty 
but to the honey-resources of California. The true date-palm 
(Phoenix dactylifera) bids fair to become an important fruit- 
tree of Arizona. If it does, it will be very valuable for honey, 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 447 


and add further to the excellent reputation of that section for 
bees. 

At the same time with the above, the white blossom of the 
black mangrove (Avicennia tomentosa), and its near relative, 
Avicennia oblongifolia, come forth with their abundant and 
incomparable nectar, which hangs in drops. The honey from 
this and the cabbage palmetto is clear, and as fine and beauti- 


Fic. 251. 


Aster. 


ful as that of white clover. This tree is confined to the 
Peninsula of Florida, where itis regarded as the best honey- 
plant that grows in that locality. 

Here we see the danger of common names. This is nota 
mangrove at all; though the leaves resemble those of the true 
mangrove, they are more tomentose or hairy, and, like that 
tree, it grows down to the very water’s edge, so it is not 
affected by drouth. This is an evergreen, and forms. an 


448 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


impenetrable thicket on the muddy shores of the sea. It 
belongs to the same family as our verbenas—the vervain 
family. 

The true mangrove (Fig. 248) has yellow blossoms, and 
like the renowned banyan tree, sends numerous stems to the 
earth, each of which takes root. This tree belongs to the 
mangrove family, and is Rhizophora mangle. 


AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER PLANTS. 


The cultivated buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), (Fig. 
249), usually blooms in August, as it is sown the first of July— 
three pecks per acre is the amount to sow—but by sowing the 
first of June, it may be made to bloom the middle of July, 
when there is generally, in most localities, an absence of 
nectar-secreting flowers. Farmers have often grown oats, 
then raised a crop of buckwheat which matures in two months 
from sowing, and then have sown to wheat all the same sea- 
son, and have secured good crops of each, all on the same 
ground. Itoften failsto givea cropof honey, though even 
then it may serve to keep the bees at work and breeding. The 
bees rarely work on buckwheat after eleven o’clock. Their 
visits are always a benefit, and never an injury, to the grain. 
The honey is inferior in color and flavor, though some people 
prefer this to all other honey. It usually sells for much less 
than clover or linden honey. ‘The silver-leaf buckwheat 
blooms longer, has more numerous flowers, and thus yields 
more grain than the common variety. The Japan buckwheat 
is much superior to either the common or silver-hull. The 
grain is larger, and one thousand have been taken from a 
single stalk. Eighty bushels have been grown on a single 
acre. Buckwheat is often plowed under to enrich the soil. It 
is good to loosen the soil and furnish humus, but does not add 
nitrogen, and so isnot equal to clover, peas, lupines, or other 
legumes. Sown on ground infested with wire-worms, it 
flourishes, and the insects disappear. Heartsease, or western 
smart-weed (Polygonum persicaria),is a close relative of the 
buckwheat. It grows very luxuriantly along the Mississippi 
River. The white or purple flowers hangin great clusters. 
Mr. T. R. Delong reported at the Lincoln, Nebr., convention 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 449 


that each of two colonies gathered 450 pounds of honey from 
this plant; and that his entire apiary averaged 250 pounds, all 
from heartsease. The honey is quite light-colored, and very 
excellent in quality. 

The odd shrub, Hercules’ club (Aralia spinosa), is grown 
as a curiosity North, but is indigenous in Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee, and yields abundant nectar. It blooms at Lookout 
Mountain early in August, just after the sourwood. 

Now come the numerous goldenrods. The species of the 
genus Solidago (Fig. 250), in the Eastern United States, num- 
ber nearly two score, and occupy all kinds of soils, and are at’ 
home on upland, prairie and morass. These abound in all 
parts of the United States. They yield abundance of rich, 
golden honey, with flavor that is unsurpassed by any other. 
Fortunate the apiarist who can boast of a thicket of Solidagos 
in his locality. 

The many plants usually styled sunflowers, because of 
their resemblance to our cultivated plants of that name, which 
deck the hillside, meadow and marsh land, now unfurl their 
showy involucres, and open their modest corollas, to invite the 
myriad insects to sip the precious nectar which each of the 
clustered flowers secretes. Our cultivated sunflowers, I think, 
are indifferent honey-plants, though some think them big 
with beauty, and their seeds are relished by poultry. But the 
numerous species of asters (Fig. 251), so wide-spread, the beg- 
gar-ticks and Spanish-needles, Bidens, of our marshes, the 
tick-seed, Coreopsis, also, of the low, marshy places, with 
hundreds more of the great family Composite, are replete with 
precious nectar, and with favorable seasons make the apiarist 
who dwells in their midst jubilant, as he watches the bees 
which fairly flood the hives with the rich and delicious honey. 
The Hon. J. M. Hambaugh found Spanish-needles—Coreopsis 
—very abundant in the low flats of Illinois. Almost every 
year it gave much very thick and excellent honey. It weighed 
twelve pounds to the gallon. Often the bees took over twelve 
pounds daily for more than a week at a time. For several 
years, also, those fifty colonies of bees stored over a ton of this 
most excellent honey each season. In allof this great family, 
the flowers are small and inconspicuous, clustered in compact 


450 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


heads, and when the plants are showy with bloom, like the 
sunflowers, the brilliancy is due to the involucre, or bracts, 
which serve as a frill to decorate the more modest flowers. 
The great willow-herb, or fireweed (Epilobium angusti- 
folium), (Fig. 252), is often the source of immense honey-har- 
vests. The downy seeds blow to great distances, and, finding 


Fic. 252. 


Great Willow-Herb, after Gray. 


A Flower with ripe stigma. S Ripe stigma. 
St Unripe stamens. # Flower with ripe pollen. 
P Petal. Po Pollen-grain. 


T Pollen-tube. 


a lodgment, their vitality makes them burst forth whenever 
brush is burned or forest fires rage. Hence the name, fire- 
weed. This handsome plant often covers acres of burnt lands 
in northern Michigan with its beautiful pink bloom. Unlike 
most nectar from late bloom, the honey from this flower is 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 451 


white as clover honey. It often givesa rich harvest to the 
apiarist of northern Michigan. 


Fie. 253. 
Spider-Plant. 


Another excellent fall honey-plant of wide range is the 
coral-berry or Indian currant (Symphoricarpus vulgaris). The 


452 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


honey-product of this plant is worthy its name. The closely 
related snow-drop (S. racemosus), common in cultivation, is 
also a honey-plant. I close this account with mention of 
another, Cleome, the famous spider-plant (Cleome spinosa), 
(Fig. 253). This plant thrives best in rich, damp, clay soil. It 
is only open for a little time before nightfall and at early 
dawn, closing by the middle of the forenoon ; but when open 
its huge drops of nectar keep the bees wild with excitement, 
calling them up even before daylight, and enticing them to 
the field long after dusk. Itisa native of the tropics, and is 
found now from south New Jersey to Florida and Louisiana. 

I have thus mentioned the most valuable honey-plants of 
our country. Of course, there are many omissions. Let all 
apiarists, by constant observation, help to fill up the list. 


BOOKS ON BOTANY. 


Iam often asked what books are best to make apiarists 
botanists. Iam glad to answer this question, as the study of 
botany will not only be valuable discipline, but will also 
furnish abundant pleasure, and give important practical 
information. Gray’s Lessons and Manual of Botany, in one 
volume, published by Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman & Co., New 
York, is the most desirable treatise on this subject. A more 
recent work by Prof. C. E. Bessey, and published by Henry 
Holt & Co., is also very excellent. Coulter’s and Atkinson’s 
Botanies are also most excellent. The first treats of syste- 
matic, the second of physiological botany, while the last two 
are up to date and very fascinating. 


PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS. 


It will pay well for the apiarist to decorate his grounds 
with soft and silver maples, for their beauty and early bloom. 
If his soilis rich, sugar-maples and lindens may well servea 
similar purpose. Indeed, every apiarist should strive to have 
others plant the linden. No tree is so worthy a place by the 
roadside. The Judas and tulip trees, both North and South, 
may well be made to ornament his home. For vines, obtain 
the wistarias, where they arehardy. In California, encourage 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 453 


long avenues of eucalyptus, the graceful peppers, and the 
incomparable date-palms. 

Sow and encourage the sowing of alsike clover and silver- 
leaf or Japanese buckwheat in your neighborhood. Be sure 
that your wife, children, and bees can often repair to a large 
bed of the new giant or grandiflora mignonettte, and remem- 
ber that it, with figwort, spider-plant, Rocky Mountain bee- 
plant, and borage, bloom till frost. Study the bee-plants of 
your region, and then study the foregoing table, and provide 
for a succession, remembering that the mustards, rape and 
buckwheat may be made to bloom almost at pleasure, by sow- 
ing at the proper time. Do not forget that borage and the 
mustards seem comparatively indifferent to wet weather. Be 
sure that all waste-places are stocked with motherwort, catnip, 
pleurisy-root, figwort, cleome, viper’s-bugloss, asters, etc. 

The foregoing dates, unless specially mentioned, are only 
correct for Michigan, northern Ohio, and similar latitudes, 
and for more Southern latitudes must be varied, which, by 


comparison of a few, as the fruit-trees, becomes no difficult 
matter. 


454 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


CHAPTER XVIIL 
WINTERING BEES. 


This isa subject, of course, of paramount importance to 
the apiarists of the Northern States, as this is the rockon 
which some of even the most successful have split. YetI 
come fearlessly to consider this question, as from all the mul- 
titude of disasters I see no occasion for discouragement. If 
the problem of successful wintering has not been solved 
already, it surely will be, and that speedily. So important an 
interest was never yet vanquished by misfortune, and there is 
no reason to think that history is now going to be reversed. 
Of course this chapter has no practical value to the apiarists 
of the South and Pacific Coast. There safe wintering is 
assured, except as the careless bee-keeper permits starvation. 


THE CAUSES OF DISASTROUS WINTERING. 


I fully believe (and to no branch of this subject have I 
given more thought, study, and observation) that all the 
losses may be traced to either unwholesome food, extremes of 
temperature, or protracted cold. I know from actualand wide- 
spread observation, that the severe loss of 1870 and 1871 was 
attended in Michigan with unsuitable honey in the hive. The 
previous autumn was unprecedentedly dry. Flowers were 
rare, and the stores were largely honey-dew, collected from 
scale insects, and consequently were unwholesome. I tasted 
of honey from many hives only to find it nauseating. Cider, 
if collected too freely, will also workruin in winter. We must 
remember that bees do not void their intestines for long 
months, so good food is absolutely imperative. 

Extremes of heat and cold are also detrimental to the 
bees. If the temperature of the hive becomes too high, the 
bees become restless, eat more than they ought, and if con- 
fined to their hives are distended with their feces, become 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 455 


diseased, besmear their comb and hives, and die. If, when 
they become thus disturbed, they could have a purifying 
flight, all would be well. Again, if the temperature become 
extremely low, the bees, to keep up the animal heat, must 
take more food; they are uneasy, exhale much moisture, which 
may settle and freeze on the outer combs about the cluster, 
preventing the bees from getting the needed food, and thus in 
this case both dysentery and starvation confront the bees. 
That able and far-seeing apiarist, the lamented M. Quinby, 
was one of the first to discover this fact; and here, as else- 
where, gave advice that, if heeded, would have saved great 
loss and sore disappointment. Dr. Miller is doubtless correct 
in the belief that he has cured and prevented dysentery by use 
of a coal-stove in the cellar. Of course, Dr. Miller’s good 
judgment and caution were coupled with the artificial heat. I 
have little doubt, in fact I know from actual investigation, 
that in the past severe winters, those bees which under con- 
finement have been subject to severe extremes, were the ones 
that invariably perished. Had the bees been keptin a uniform 
temperature, ranging from 40 to 45 degrees, F., the record 
would have been materially changed. Bees do not hibernate 
in the sense that other insects do, though if the tempcrature is 
just right, from 40 to 45 degrees F., they are very quiet and 
eat but little. Yet that they are even then functionally active 
is readily shown by the high, independent temperature in the 
hive and their frequent change of position in the cluster. 

Excessive moisture, especially in cases of protracted cold, 
is always to be avoided. Bees, like all other animals, are 
constantly giving off moisture, which, of course, will be 
accelerated if the bees become disturbed and are thus led to 
consume more food. This moisture not only acts as explained 
above, but also induces fungous growths. The mouldy comb 
is not wholesome, though it may never cause death. Hence, 
another necessity for sufficient warmth to drive this moisture 
from the hive, and some means to absorb it without opening 
the hive above and permitting a current which will disturb the 
bees, and cause the greater consumption of honey. It is 
probable that, with the proper temperature, moisture will do 
little harm. 


456 THE BHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


THE REQUISITE TO SAFE WINTERING—GOOD FOOD. 


To winter safely, then, demands that the bees have thirty 
pounds by weight, not guess—I have known many cases where 
guessing meant starvation—of good, capped honey (granulated 
sugar is just as good). With the extractor the temptation is 
ever with us, to take too much honey from the hive. It is 
always safest to leave enough, thirty to sixty pounds of the 
best honey—the best is none too good—for a year’s, or in 
California for two years’, stores. It is now proved that it is 
even safer to feed a syrup made of granulated sugar. We 
thus are sure that the stores are good and suitable. Often it 
pays to do this, as we get enough for the extracted honey to 
pay well for the sugar and our time and trouble. If desired, 
this may be fed as previously explained, which should be done 
so early that all will be capped during the warm days of 
October. 

The bees should be able to pass over or through the combs. 
Hill’s device—bent pieces placed above the frames so as to 
raise the cloth cover—will permit the first, while small holes 
cut through the combs will enable the bees to pass from one 
comb to another without having to pass around. In a good 
cellar it is not necessary to domore at most than so to arrange 
that the bees can pass over the frames. I used to cut holes, 
but dosono more. This preparatory work I always do early 
in October, when I extract all uncapped honey, take out all 
frames after I have given each colony the thirty pounds, by 
weight, of honey, confine the space with a division-board, 
cover with the quilt and chaff, and then leave undisturbed till 
the cold of Novembercalls for further care. We must most 
carefully exclude honey-dew from scale insects, and must see 
that cider is not stored for winter food. I prefer that the 
combs have no pollen in them, and that they be so full of 
honey that six or eight will be enough. Pollen usually does 
no harm, though sometimes it is injurious. If the bees can fly 
often, or if keptin a uniform temperature at from 40 to 45 
degrees F., the pollen willdo no harm. The combs may well 
be one-half inch apart. If the bees have been neglected, and 
mid-winter finds them destitute of stores, then they should not 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 457 


be fed liquid honey, though this has been done with success, 
but either the Good or Viallon, or some other solid candy, 
should be placed on the frames just above the cluster. Or we 
may run the candy into a frame and hang it in the hive. (See 
Candy, page 318.) 


SECURE LATE BREEDING. 


Keep the bees breeding till the first of September. Except 
in years of excessive drouth, this will occur without extra care. 
Failure may result from the presence of worthless queens. 
Any queens which seem not to be prolific should be superseded 
whenever the fact becomes evident. / regard this as most 
important. Few know how much is lost by tolerating feeble, 
impotent queens in the apiary, whose ability can only keep 
the colonies alive. Never keep such queens about. Here, 
then, is another reason for always keeping extra queens on 
hand. Even with excellent queens,a failure in the honey- 
yield may occasionally cause breeding to cease. In such 
cases, we have only to feed as directed under the head of Feed- 
ing. It is not true that very large colonies will winter better 
than smaller ones. Yetitis important that the bees be nor- 
malin age and condition. 


TO SECURE AND MAINTAIN THE PROPER TEMPERATURE. 


We ought also to provide against extremes of temperature. 
It is desirable to keep the temperature about the hive between 
38 and 50 degrees F., through the entire winter, from Novem- 
ber to April. If no cellar or house is at hand, this may be 
partially accomplished as follows: Some pleasant, dry day in 
late October or early November, raise the stand and place 
straw beneath ; then surround the hive with a box a foot out- 
side the hive, with movable top, and open on the east ; or else 
have a long wooden tube, opposite the entrance, to permit 
flight ; this tube should be six or eight inches square to permit 
easy examination in winter. The same end may be gained by 
driving stakes and putting boards around. Then we crowd 
between the box and the hive either cut straw, chaff or shav- 
ings. After placing a good thickness of cut straw above the 
hive, lay on the cover of the box, or cover with boards. This 


458 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


preserves against changes of temperature during the winter, 
and also permits the bees to fly, if it becomes necessary from 
a protracted period of warm weather. I havethus kept all our 
beessafely during two of the disastrous winters. This plan 
usually succeeds well, but will fail in a very severe winter like 
that of 1880-81. As some may wish totry, and possibly to 


Fic. 254, 


Packing Box.—Original, 


adopt it, I will describe the box used at our College, which 
costs but one dollar, and is convenient to store away in 


summer, 
BOX FOR PACKING. 


The sides of this (Fig. 254, a, a) facing east and west are 
three and a half feet long, two feet high at the south end, 
and two and a half feet at the north. They are in one 
piece, which is secured by nailing the matched boards which 
form them to cleats, which are one inch from the ends. ‘The 
north end (Fig. 254, 6) is three feet by two and a half feet, the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 459 


south (Fig. 254, 6) three feet by two feet, and made the same 
as are the sides. Theslanting edges of the side (Fig. 254, a, a) 
are made by using for the upper boards the strips formed by 
sawing diagonally from corner to corner a board six inches 
wide and three feet long. The cover (Fig. 254, g), which is 
removed in the figure, is large enough to cover the top and 
project one inch at both ends. It should be battened, and held 
in one piece by cleats (Fig. 254, 2) four inches wide, nailed on 
tothe ends. These will drop over the ends of the box, and 
thus hold the cover in place, and prevent rain and snow from 
driving in. When in place this slanting cover permits the 
rain to run off easily, and will dry quickly aftera storm. By 
asingle nail at each corner the four sides may be tacked 
together about the hive, when it can be packed in with cut 
straw (Fig. 254) or fine chaff, which should be carefully done, 
if the day is cold, so as not to disquiet the bees. At the center 
and bottom of the east side (Fig. 254, c) cut out a square eight 
inches each way, and between this and the hive place a bot- 
tomless tube (the top of this tube is represented as removed in 
figure to show entrance to hive), before putting in the cut 
straw or chaff and adding the cover. This box should be put 
in place before the bleak, cold days of November, and retained 
in position till the stormy winds of April are passed. This 
permits the bees to fly when very warm weather comes in win- 
ter or spring, and requires no attention from the apiarist. By 
placing two or three hives close together in autumn—yet never 
move the colonies more than three or four feet at any one time. 
as such removals involve the loss of many bees—one box may 
be made to cover all, and at less expense. This will also be 
more trustworthy in very cold winters. Late in spring these 
boxes may be removed and packed away, and the straw or 
chaff carried away, or removed a short distance and burned. 


CHAFF-HIVES. 


Messrs. Townley, Butler, Root, Poppleton, and others, 
prefer chaff-hives, which are simply double-walled hives, with 
the four-inch or five-inch chambers filled with chaff. The 
objections to these I take to be: First, they are not proof 
against severe and long-continued cold, like the winter of 


460 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


1880-81: second, such cumbrous hives are inconvenient to 
handle in summer; and, third, they are expensive. That they 
would in part supply the place of shade, is, perhaps, in their 
favor, while Mr. A. I. Root thinks they are not expensive. 

Mr. O. O. Poppleton, one of our most intelligent bee- 
keepers, shows practically that the first objection given above 
is not valid. So, very likely, the failure in so many apiaries 
in 1880-81 was rather due to improper use. Mr. Poppleton 
claims numerous advantages for these hives: 

1st. In his hands, success. 

2d. They permit early preparation for winter. 

3d. They giveentire freedom from care of the bees from 
September till March. 

4th. Preparation for winter requires only slight labor. 

5th. We can easily get at the bees at any time. 

6th. The bees are not excited by a slight rise in tempera- 
ture, and so are not lost by flying on cold days; do not breed 
in winter and spring when they need quiet, and do not 
‘dwindle ’’ in spring. 

7th. They are valuable aids in building up nuclei and 
weak colonies at cold periods at any one time of the year. 

8th. They are specially desirable to protect the bees in 
April and May, and prevent ‘‘ spring dwindling.”’ 


RULES FOR THEIR USE. 


Mr. Poppleton urges the following important points: 

1st. Pack early in autumn before cold weather, and do not 
remove the packing till the warm weather has come to stay. 

2d. Have five or six inches on all sides of the bees, of fine 
chaff—timothy is best—entirely freed from straw. 

3d. Be sure and have the.chaff below the bees, as well as 
above and on the sides. 

4th. Do not put the chaff above the bees on loose, but con- 
fine in sacks. This is for convenience and neatness. 

5th. Have as much empty space as possible inside the hive 
and outside the packing ; and never let the cover to the hive 
rest immediately on the packing. 

6th. Crowd the bees on to a few frames—never more than 
eight—and the packing close to the bees. 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. - 461 


7th. Winter passages should be made through all the 
combs. 

Mr. Jones prefers that the outer wall of the chaff-hive 
should be of narrow boards so asto be more impervious to 
dampness. He also uses fine, dry sawdust instead of chaff. 
Mr. Root, in his two-story hives (Fig. 255), uses a thicker layer 


Fic. 255. 


Section of a Chaff-Hive.—From A, I, Root Co. 


of chaff below, but carries it tothe top. Of course, the double 
wall need not extend on the sidesof theframes. The division- 
boards on the sides of the frames may make the double wall. 


WINTERING IN A BEK-HOUSE. 


As Mr. D. A. Jones has tested bee-houses on a very large 
scale, and met with success, I will quote directly from him : 

“The house should be soconstructed that the outdoor 
temperature can not affect that of the bee-house ; and in order 
to accomplish this its walls should be packed tightly with 
two feet of dry sawdust or three feet of chaff packing, over- 
head the same thickness, and the bottom so protected that no 


462 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


frost can penetrate. Next,it should have a ventilating tube 
at the top, of not less than one square inch to each colony of 
bees. It should have sub-earth ventilation by means of a 
tube laid below the depth frost will penetrate, and from one to 
three hundred feet in length, coming in contact with outside 
atmosphere at the other end; as air passes through this tube 
itis tempered by the distance through the earth, and comes 
into the house at an even temperature. By means of slides at 
these ventilators, the temperature can be arranged in the bee- 
house, which should stand from 43 to 46 degrees, andin no 
case should it fall lower than 42 degrees. There should be 
tight-fitting, triple doors, which will make two dead-air spaces. 
‘When the bee-house is filled, and during warm weather 
inthe spring, the bees should not be set ont on the summer 
stands until the first pollen appears (which is generally from 
the tag alder or black willow)—it is necessary that the tempera- 
ture of the room be kept at the wintering standpoint. This 
may be done by means of an ice-box or refrigerator, filled with 
ice or snow, and suspended at the top of the room in close 
proximity to the ceiling. The bottom of the box must be so 
constructed that while the warm air may be allowed to pass up 
through the refrigerator, the drippings will not drop to the 
floorand create moisture. This latter may be prevented by 
means of a tube running from the box down through the floor.” 
The rules for removing and storing in the house are the 
same as those for cellar. From expense and difficulty in main- 
taining a uniform temperature, I think the house less desirable 


than the cellar. 
WINTERING IN A CELLAR. 


North of the latitude of Central (and I think we may say 
Southern) Ohio, I think a good cellar is not only the safest, 
but the best place in which to winter bees. I have kept bees 
for many years in such acellar with noloss. The great point 
is to have perfect control of the temperature. This must be 
kept between 38 degrees F. and 50 degrees F., and should never 
vary suddenly. It were best if it were always at 45 degrees F. 
With a cellar all is under ground, and we are thus fortified 
against the effects of our sudden changes of temperature. The 
sub-earth ventilator, as described above, though noi necessary, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 463 


as the experience of many has fully proved,isa help. It is 
still better if the vertical shaft or pipe connect with a stove 
above which is much used in winter. This creates a draft, 
and as the air is brought underground through the long sub- 
earth pipe, the air is warmed. The pipe should connect with 
the stove-pipe above at quite a height above the stove, or the 
stove may smoke. I found at the Michigan Agricultural Col- 
lege that we got quite a draft, especially on windy days, even 
if there was no fire, but the vertical pipe—a common stove-pipe 
served excellently well—connects simply with a chimney 
which projects above the house. Such an arrangement not 
only controls the temperature but ventilates the cellar. A 
large cistern full of water, or water running through a cellar 
deep under ground, is a wonderful moderator, and will surely 
keep the temperatureat the proper point. It isimperative that 
every bee-keeper have a thermometer in his cellar, and by 
frequent examination KNOW that the temperature is at the 
proper point. Unless he finds that he can not control the tem- 
perature without, he would better not goto the expense of 
either sub-earth ventilation or a cistern. 

Dr. C. C. Miller keeps a small coal-stove burning with an 
open stove-door in each cellar, and thus keeps the temperature 
justas he desires. My brother keeps as many beesin his 
house-cellar with no such pains or labor, and yet is as success- 
fulasis Dr. Miller. The thing to remember is, we must con- 
trol the temperature. 

I commence preparation for winter as soon as the first 
frost shows that the harvest isover. I then put five Lang- 
stroth or seven Gallup frames at one side or endof the hive, 
where they are to remain for the winter. If these have not 
enough food I feed till they have. If other frames have brood 
I put these close beside, and remove them as soon as the brood 
has all matured, and close up the other frames by use of a 
division-board. I now cover all with a cloth and with a super 
of chaff or dry sawdust. For the past two years I have left all 
the combs in very strong colonies, and covered simply with a 
board, and these colonies have done well. In a good cellar 
bees need no packing about or above the brood-chamber. 

Before cold weather—any time from the first to the middle 


. 


464 THD BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


of November—the bees are carried intothe cellar. This would 
better be done carefully, soas notto disturb the bees. YetI 
am not sure that such disturbance is any specialinjury. To 
prevent the bees from coming out in case of disturbance, the 
entrance-blocks must close the entrances. Dr. Miller uses wet 
cloths to effect this. 

In the cellar the hives should rest a foot from the bottom, 
and may rest on each other, breaking joints, the weakest colo- 
nies atthe top. When all arein, and quiet, the entrances are 
opened wide. I would (if it were not for the expense, and I 
had loose bottom-boards so that I could) place a rim under each 
hive soasto raise it two or three inches above the bottom- 
board. Except for the open entrance, I give no special venti- 
lation to each hive. Now we shut our two or three doors, and 
if our cellar is right we have no more care for the bees till the 
succeeding April. Should the bees become uneasy and soil 
their hives about the entrance—they will not if the food is all 
right and the temperature keeps at the right point (from 38 
degrees to 50 degrees F'.)—then it may be well to put the bees 
out fora flight in February or March, in case a warm day 
affords opportunity. In case there is snow, a little straw may 
be scattered over it. The day must be quite warm. It is far 
wiser to have our cellar right so we shall not need to do this. 

If the bees get short of stores in winter—this would show 
great neglect on the part of the bee-keeper—they should be 
fed ‘‘ Good candy,” cakes of which may be laid on the frames 
and covered with cloth. Frames of honey or syrup, filled as 
already described, may be given bees in mid-winter. The idea 
that bees can not be examined in winter is incorrect. Frames 
may be taken out or added, though it were doubtless better to 
leave the bees undisturbed. The cellar should be dark and 
quiet. If everything is just right, light does no harm; but if 
it gets pretty cold or too warm then the bees become uneasy 
and fly out, never to return. Some bees always leave the hive 
in winter. These are veterans, and are ready todie. Thus, 
with 100 colonies of bees in a cellar, we need not be anxious 
even if a good many quarts come out to die. 

In spring, when the flowers have started, so that the bees 
can gather honey and pollen, theymay besetout, This better 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 465 


be too late than too early. In Central Michigan, April 15th is 
usually early enough. I repeat: Better too late than too early. 
The colonies are put each on its own stand, and each hive well 
cleaned out. Each colony should have plenty of honey. Scant 
stores in spring always bring loss, if not ruin. We now take 
away extra frames of comb, giving the bees simply what they 
will cover, but alwaysa good amountof honey. A frame of 
pollen taken away the previous autumn may also be added. 
We close up about the bees with a division-board, and cover 
warmly above by adding a chaff-filled super. 

If we give abundant stores, I am not sure but for strong 
colonies a full set of frames and board above, which, however, 
must fit very snugly, is as good as a chaff covering or chaff- 
hive. For the simple Heddon-Langstroth hive, however, I 
think a warm cloth under the cover is very desirable. I tried 
some colonies in this way in two springs, and was pleased with 
the results. I am not yet sure but itis always better to cover 
with chaff, sawdust or leaves; but we must give plenty of honey, 
and perhaps we must cover warmly and snugly, to win the best 
success. Ialways thought soin the past, but nowlam in 
doubt. Even if better, it may still prove more profitable to 
give plenty of honey, and let the hives alone, witha full set 
of combs in each. This saves much time. Geo. Grimm and 
my brother have long practiced this and have succeeded. 

Perhaps I ought to say that all colonies should be strong 
in autumn; but Ihave said before, never have weak colonies. 
As before stated, a colony need not be very large to winter 
well; but they should be strong, in possession of a good queen, 
and the proper proportion of young and vigorous bees. Yet 
for fear some have been negligent, I remark that weak colonies 
and nuclei should be united in preparing for winter. To do 
this, approximate the colonies each day, four or five feet, till 
they are side by side. Now remove the poorest queen, then 
smoke thoroughly, sprinkle both colonies with sweetened water 
scented with essence of peppermint, put a sufficient number of 
the best frames, alternating them as taken from the hives, and 
put all the bees into one of the hives, and then set this midway 
between the position of the hives at the commencement of the 
uniting. Shaking the beesin front of the hive also tends to 


466 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


make the union morecomplete. The bees will unite peaceably, 
and make a strong colony. In case of nucleiI usually unite 
three for winter. Uniting colonies may pay at other seasons. 

It may seem rash to some, yetI fully believe that if the 
above suggestions are carried out in full, I may guarantee 
successful wintering. Butif wedo lose our bees, having all 
our hives, combs and honey, we can buy colonies in the spring 
with a perfect certainty of making a good percent on our 
investment. Even with the worst condition of things, we are 
still ahead, in way of profit, of most other vocations. 


BURYING BEES, OR WINTERING IN CLAMPS. 


In principle this is the same as cellar-wintering. There 
are two serious objections to it. First, we do not know that 
the temperature is just right, and, secondly, if aught goes 
wrong we know nothing of it—the bees are away out of sight. 
If this is practiced, the ground should be either sandy or well 
drained. If we can choose a side-hill it should be done. 
Beneath the hives, and around them, straw should be placed. 
I should advise leaving the entrance well open, yet secure 
against mice. The hives should all be placed beneath the sur- 
face level of the earth, and a mound should be raised above 
them sufficient to preserve against extreme warmth or cold. 
Atrench about the mound to carry the water off quickly is 
desirable. In this arrangement the ground acts as a modera- 
tor. I would urge the suggestion that no one try this with 
more than a few colonies, for several years, till repeated suc- 
cesses show that it is reliable in all seasons. I tried burying 
very successfully for a time, then for two winters lost heavily. 
‘These last winters the bees would have wintered well on their 
summer stands, as the weather was very warm. The bees 
became too warm, and were worried to death. 


SPRING DWINDLING. 


In the early years, before the forests were cleared away, 
the winters were less severe and disastrous, wintering or 
spring dwindling were seldom experienced. The warmer 
winters, and possibly better honey in the hive, were the reasons. 

As already suggested, spring dwindling is not to be feared 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 467 


if we keep our bees breeding till autumn, prepare them well 
and early for winter, and use a good cellar for wintering. It 
may be further prevented by forbidding late autumn flights, 
frequent flights in winter, when the weather is warm, and too 
early flying in spring. 

Iam aware that this matter of spring dwindling is most 
stoutly urged as an objection to cellar-wintering, and as an 
argument in favor of chaff-hives. I have had excellent success 
in cellar-wintering, and never yet lost a colony by “spring 
dwindling.’? Crowd the bees on a few frames when taken 
from the cellar; give them abundant food; cover warmly 
above and at the sides of division-boards with generous bags of 
sawdust, and leave these on the hives if the weather remains 
cool, until we wish to place the section supers or extracting 
second story on the hives, and bees from the cellar—a good 
cellar—will come through the spring in excellent condition. 
In the winter of 1881-82, I put some chaff-hives into my cellar 
alongside of my _ single-walled hives, arranged as just 
described, and the bees in them did no better in spring after 
removal from the cellar than in other hives. Be sure in early 
spring that the bees have no more combs than they can cover, 
and cover warmly, and spring dwindling will lose its terror. 
Good wintering, and ample spring stores, are the antidote to 
spring dwindling. Never set bees permanently on their sum- 
mer stands from the cellar till the flowers and warmth will 
enable them to work. Below 60 degrees F. in the shade is too 
cold for bees to fly. At 70 degrees F. we may safely handle 
our bees without chilling the brood. When not clustered, bees 
chill at about 55 degrees. : 

I have little doubt but that bees will do better if no breed- 
ing takes place in winter. Perfect quiet should be our desire. 
If the bees have no pollen, of course no breeding will take 
place, and so I advised its removal. It is not for winter use. 


468 THE BEE-KEEPER’'S GUIDE; 


CHAPTER XIX, 
THE HOUSE-APIARY AND BEE-HOUSE. 


The house-apiary (Fig. 256) is a frost-proof house in which 
the bees are kept the year through. The entrances to the 
hives are through the sides of the house, and all manipulation 
of the bees is carried on inside. From what I have said about 


Fic. 256. 


House-Apiary.—From A. I. Root Co. 


wintering, it at once appears that such a house should preserve 
a uniform temperature. As many such houses were built a 
few years ago, and are now, with very few exceptions, used for 
other purposes, I would advise all to study the matter well 
before building a house-apiary. Where queen-rearing is car- 
ried on extensively, or where little room is at command, they 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 46¢ 


may be desirable. Several excellent bee-keepers are now using 
them with success, and great satisfaction. The old-time 
objection, of bees collecting in houses while working with 
them, is now removed, as are the bees by aid of bee-escapes. 
If the bee-escapes are put on the hives the night before, the 
extracting or comb honey supers will be practically free of 
bees in the morning, and all work can be done inthe house 
with very slight annoyance from the presence of the bees. As 
we all know, cross colonies lose their pugnacity if placed in a 
house-apiary. They seem cowed by the enclosure. The walls, 


Fic. 257. 


House-Apiary on Wheels.—From A. I. Root Co. 


of course, should be double, and filled in with shavings, and 
the hives should be the same as are used out-of-doors. A mov- 
able house-apiary, on wheels (Fig. 257), has been used, and in 
some cases may be desirable. 


BEE-HOUSES. 


Asa goodand convenient bee-house is very desirable in 
every apiary of any considerable size, I will rive a few hints 
in reference to its construction. 

First, I should have a good cellar under the house, entirely 
under ground so as certainly to be frost-proof, mouse and rat 
proof, thoroughly grouted, and ventilated as already described. 


470 THH BRE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


I would have three doors to this from the east, the outer one 


inclined. In our college apiary we hada vestibule to the cel- 
Fic. 258. 
03 
SS eS oe ae Se 
Z| | Cistern. 8 x 14, | 
es] 2 outside measure, 
a3 44 ft. high. 
oe 
7 
\ i 
Ig HP on 
\e Cellar, 7 feet high, ne 
3 grouted on the bot- ' a 
2 tom, and plastered | 2 
z with water-lime or 
ceiled above. 
’ 
\ 
' 
! 
1 
’ 
1 
\ 
| 
ae ear a9 ee ies eaten eaten) 
30 feet, outside meusure. 
Diagram of Cellar. 
w 3-ft. De w 
‘ 30 ft., outside measure, 
2 
3 
Wa Ceiling 8 ft. ais 
x Pump 
324-ft. Stairs 
at Chimuey af 
15 ft. 
2 
2 
2 This Room 
w Hard-wood Floor. Lathed and w 
Plastered. 
2 Cellar Trap- 
nN Door-double, 
w ay w 


oe 


Diagram of First Floor.—Original. 


lar.and four doors beside the slanting one, two to the inner 


one or bee-cellar, and two to the outer or vestibule. 


I should 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 471 


have the entrance an inclined plane, which, especially if the 
apiary is large, should be so gradual in its descent that a car 
could pass down it into the cellarona temporary track. The 
cellar should be well drained, or if water be permitted to pass 
through it, this should be kept in prescribed channels. In our 
cellar we have a large cistern. This is mostly in the outer 
cellar, but partly in the inner or bee-cellar. A tight partition 
separates the two rooms except at bottom of the cistern. In 
case of large apiaries the track and car make the removal of 
the bees to and from the cellar an easy matter. The first floor 
I should have, if my apiary was large, on a level with the 
ground. This (Fig. 258) should contain three rooms, one on 
the north for a shop, one on the southeast for comb honey, and 
one on the southwest for extracting, and storing extracted 
honey and brood-combs. For 100 colonies of bees, this build- 
ing need not be more than 20x24 feet. A chimney should pass 
from the attic at the common angle of these three rooms 
through the roof. Wide doors on the south, if the apiary is 
large, should permit the car to enter either of the rooms on 
an extemporized track, whenever extracting or taking off comb 
honey isin operation. 

The house should be so constructed as tobe always free 
from rats and mice. In summer, wire-gauze docrs should be 
used, also wire-gauze window-screens made to swing out like 
common window-blinds. Ours are single, not double, light, 
and so hung that when opened they remain sotill shut. At 
the top the gauze extends outside the upper piece of the frame, 
and is separated from it bya bee-space width. Atthetopa 
few three-eighths inch round holes are made. This permits 
all bees to leave the house, while the character of the opening 
precludes outside bees from entering. Inside doors should per- 
mit our passing directly from any of these rooms to the others. 
The position of the chimney makes it easy to havea fire in 
any of the rooms. This would be desirable in the shop, in 
winter, when hive-making, etc., is in operation, or when visit- 
‘ng with other bee-keepers is in progress. The ripening of 
honey or late extracting make it often desirable to have a fire 
in the extracting-room. If comb honey is kept in the desig- 
nated room late in the season, it is desirable to warm that 


472 THE BHE-KEHPER’S GUIDE; 


room, Of course, alarge stove in the shop might be made to 
heat any or all of the rooms. I would have the comb-honey 
room very tight, and ventilated by an easily regulated slide 
into the chimney for the purpose of easy fumigation. 

The extractor-room should have close, moth-proof cup- 
boards for receiving brood-combs. Those in our house are 
high enough for three rows of frames, and wide enough just 
to receive the top-bar of a frame crosswise. Cleats nailed on 
to the inside hold the frames, which are turned diagonally a 
little to pass them to the lower tier. This room ought also to 
have a table for work, uncapping-box (Fig. 156), andlarge open 
tanks, open barrels, or extractor-caus, to hold the honey while 
itripens. If the building is painted dark, this room will be 
warmer in summer. ‘The warmer it becomes the more rapidly 
the honey thickens. 

A chamber above costs but little, and serves admirably as 
a place for storage. This may be entered by stairs from the 
shop. 

A neat bench and sharp tools, all conveniently placed, 
make the shop a very desirable fixture to every apiary. 

I have spoken of a car and track in large apiaries; such 
an arrangement, which costs but little, is exceedingly desir- 
able. The tracks run close to the rows of hives, and by means 
of simple switches, the car can be run anywhere in the apiary. 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 473 


CHAPTER XX. 
EVILS THAT CONFRONT THE APIARIST. 


There are various dangers that are likely to vex the api- 
arist, and even to stand inthe way of successful apiculture, 
Yet, with knowledge, most, if not all, of these evils may be 
wholly vanquished. Among these are: Robbing among the 
bees, disease, and depredations from other animals. 


ROBBING. 


This is a trouble that often very greatly annoys the inex- 
perienced. Whenever bees leave the hives, except at a time of 
swarming, with the honey-stomach full, we may be sure rob- 
bing isin the air. Bees only rob at such times as the general 
scarcity of nectar forbids honest gains. Whenthe question 
comes: Famine or theft? like many another, they are not 
slow to choose the latter. It is often induced by working with 
the bees at such times, especially if honey is scattered about or 
left lying around the apiary. It is especially to be feared in 
spring, when colonies are apt to be weak in both honey and 
bees, and thus are unable to protect their own meager stores. 
The remedies for this evil are not far to seek : 

First.—Strong colonies are very rarely molested, and are 
almost sure to defend themselves against marauders; hence, 
itis only the weaklings of the apiarist’s flock that are in dan- 
ger. Therefore, regard for our motto, ‘‘Keep all colonies 
strong,’’ will secure against harm from this cause. 

Second.—italians—the Cyprians and Syrians are even 
more spirited in this work of defense than are the Italians—as 
before stated, are fully able, and quite as ready, to protect 
their rights against neighboring tramps. Woe be to the 
thieving bee that dares to violate the sacred rig=ts of the home 
of our beautiful Italians, for such temerity is almost sure to 
cost the intruder its life. 

But weak colonies, like our nuclei, and black bees, are still 


474 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


easily kept from harm. Usually, the closing of the entrance, 
so that but a single bee can pass through, is all sufficient. Mr. 
Jones closes the entrance by use of wet grass, straw, or shav- 
ings. Mr. Hayhurst places a frame six inches by eighteen 
inches covered by wire-gauze over theentrance. This keeps 
the robbers out, and still affords ventilation. 


Another way to secure such colonies against robbing is to 
move them into the cellar for afew days. Thisis a further 
advantage, as less food is eaten, and thestrength of the indi- 
vidual bees is conserved by the quiet, and as there is no nectar 
in the fields no lossis suffered. Mr. Root recommends ‘‘ quiet ”’ 
robbing at such times to cure robbing. He places hives con- 
taining honey near by, with the entrances so contracted that 
only one bee can enter at a time. The bees seem to prefer 
this quiet, unresisted robbing, and cease from the other. This, 
of course, would be expensive in case other apiaries were near 
by. Itisa good way to get partially-filled sections or combs 
emptied. It works very wellin case we give them access to a 
larger quantity of honey, else robbing may still be kept up. 

In all the work of the apiary at times of no honey-gather- 
ing, we can not be too careful to keep all honey from the bees 
unless placed in the hives. The hives, too, should not be kept 
open long at atime. Neat, quick work should be the watch- 
word. Mr. Root does necessary work at such times by night, 
using alantern. I do not like night work; the bees crawl 
about one’s clothes, and often reach quite objectionable places. 
During times when robbers are essaying to practice their 
nefarious designs, the bees are likely to be more than usually 
irritable, and likely to resent intrusion; hence, the impor- 
tance of more than usual caution, if it is desired to introduce a 
queen. Working under the bee-tent (Figs. 158 and 166) prevents 
all danger of inciting the bees to rob. Dr. Miller inserts a 
funnel-shaped (Fig. 159) bee-escapein the top of the tent. Such 
atent might be placed over the colony being robbed. Mr. 
Doolittle prizes highly a common sheet in the apiary. In case 
of robbing he covers the entire hive being robbed with this 
sheet. 


OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 475 


DISEASE. 


The common dysentery—indicated by the bees soiling 
their hives, as they void their faeces within instead of without 
—which so frequently works havoc in our apiaries, is, without 
doubt, I think, consequent upon wrong management on the 
part of the apiarist, poor honey, like cider, rotten apple-juice, 
rank honey-dew, or burnt sugar, or bad wintering, usually the 
result of severe weather, as already suggested in Chapter 
XVIII. As the methods to prevent this have already been 
sufficiently considered, we pass to the terrible 


FOUL BROOD. 


This disease, said to have been known to Aristotle— 
though this is doubtful, as a stench attends common dysen- 
tery—though it has occurred in our State as well as in States 
about us, is not very familiar to me. Of late I receive many 
samples of this affected brood each season. It is causing sad 
havoc in manyregions of our country. No bee-malady can 
compare with this in malignancy. By it Dzierzon once lost 
his whole apiary of 500 colonies. Mr. E. Rood, first President 
of the Michigan Association, lost all his bees two or three 
times by this terrible plague. 

The symptoms areas follows: Decline in the prosperity 
of the colony, because of failure to rear brood. The brood 
seems to putrefy, becomes ‘‘brown and salvy,”’ and gives off 
a stench which is by no means agreeable. With a slight 
attack, the bad smell is not apparent. In aclose box very 
little of the brood gives the characteristic odor. I often detect 
it in boxes received by mail before I open them. Later the 
caps are concave instead of convex, and many will have little 
holes through them. Holes will often be found in healthy 
prood-cells. As the cappings were never completed, such holes 
are smooth at the margins, while those of foul brood are jag- 
ged. The most decided symptom is the salvy, elastic mass in 
the brood-cell. With a pin-head we never draw forth a larva, 
of pupa, but this brown, stringy mass which afterwards dries 
down in the cell, when it lets go of the pin-head, because of 
its elasticity, it flies or springs back. Thisis sometimes less 


marked. 


476 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


Fic. 259. 


Foul Brood Photographed._From A. I. Root Co. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 477 


There is no longer any doubt as to the cause of this fearful 
plague. Like the fell ‘‘ Pebrine,’’ which came so near exter- 
minating the silk-worm, anda most lucrative and extensive 
industry in Europe, it, as conclusively shown by Drs. Preusz 
and Schonfeld, of Germany, is the result of minute parasitic 
organisms, Schonfeld not only infected healthy bee-larve, 
but those of other insects, both by means of the putrescent 
foul brood and by taking the spores. Professor Cohn discov- 


Fic. 260. 


Healthy Stage. Early Stage. 


Foul Brood—From A. I. Root Co. 


ered, in 1874, that the cause of foul brood was a microbe, 
Bacillus alveolaris. Mr. Hilbert, the following year, showed 
that these micro-organisms existed in the mature bees as well 
as in the brood. Later Mr. Cheshire gave the microbe the 
name of Bacillus alvei. 

Fungoid growths are very minute, and the spores are so 
infinitesimally small as often to elude the sharp detection of 
the expert microscopist. Most of the terrible contagious dis- 
eases that human flesh is heir to—like typhus, diphtheria, 


478 THE BEE-KHEPER’S GUIDE; 


cholera, smallpox, etc.—are now known tobe due to micro- 
scopic germs, and hence to be spread from home to home, and 
from hamlet to hamlet, it is only necessary that the germs or 
the contained spores, the minute seeds, either by contact or by 
some sustaining air current, be brought to new soil of flesh, 
blood, or other tissue—their garden-spot—when they at once 
spring into growth, and thus lick up the very vitality of their 
victims. The huge mushroom will grow ina night. So, too, 
these other plants—the disease-germs—will develop with mar- 


Fre. 261 


Middle Stage. Late Stage. 
Foul Brood.—From A. I. Root Co. 


velous rapidity; and, hence, the horrors of yellow fever, scar- 
letina and cholera. The foul-brood Bacillus, like all bacilli, 
is rod-shaped (Fig. 261). The spore develops in one end, which 
becomes slightly enlarged. 

Tocure such diseases the microbes must be killed. To 
prevent their spread they must be destroyed, or else confined. 
But as these are so small, so light,and so invisible—easily 
borne and wafted by the slightest zephyr of summer—this is 
often a matter of the utmost difficulty. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 479 


In ‘‘foul brood’’ these germs feed on the larvz of the 
bees, and thus.convert life and vigor into death and decay. If 
we can kill this miniature forest of the hive, and destroy the 
spores, we shall extirpate the terrible plague. The spores 
resist heat, are more tenacious of life, and more difficult to 
kill than are the bacilli themselves. 

Some of the facts connected with ‘foul brood’’ would 
lead us to think that the germs or spores of this fungus are 
only conveyed in the honey. This supposition, alone, enables 
us to understand one of the remedies which some of our ablest 
apiarists hold to be entirely sure. 


REMEDIES. 


‘Prevention is better than cure.’? In case foul brood, 
black brood, or any suspected germ malady isin the neighbor- 
hood or apiary, it will always be wise to feed medicated syrup. 
Beta napthol is now preferred, as it is non-odorous, and not 
offensive to the bees. Mr. Thos. W. Cowan uses this success- 
fully as follows: One ounce of the powder is put into a half- 
pint bottle; just enough wood alcohol is added to dissolve it 
fully, when the bottle is filled with water. This will medicate 
280 pounds of syrup, made by mixing 140 pounds each of water 
and granulated sugar. The solution and mixing can best be 
performed by use of the extractor. Gentle turning soon dis- 
solves the sugar, and thoroughly mixes the beta napthol. Thus 
we use no heat. (See page 266.) 


TO CURE. 


No doubt Mr. Hilbert, of Germany, cured foul brood by 
use of salicylic acid. Mr. Muth did the same, and rendered 
the solution more easy by adding borax. That this extract of 
the willow is a powerful germicide is well known. In the cure 
of foul brood it has so often proved a partial or complete fail- 
ure, that no one, except for experiment, can afford to use it 
in this warfare at all. 

In 1874, Bontleroff, of Russia, suggested the use of car- 
bolic acid or phenol asa cure of foul brood. Dr. Preusz also 
thought very highly of it. There is no doubt that this is also 
avery excellent bacillicide. Only the purest crystals of the 
acid should be used, To use this to medicate the syrup—one- 


480 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


fortieth of an ounce to a pound of syrup—would be wise as a 
prevention except that, as stated above, beta napthol is pref- 
erable. But, like salicylic acid, these carbolic acid derivatives 
are too uncertain. So many have failed to cure with these 
remedies. 

Solong as we have a safe, sure remedy which works in 
the hands of all, we can illy afford to risk our success with 
remedies that so generally fail. 

Mr. D. A. Jones, and scores of others, are successful with 
what is termed the starvation method: ‘The beesare drummed 
into an empty hive, placed in a cellar, and given no food 
for three or four days, till they have digested all honey in their 
stomachs. They are then given foundation and food, and the 
combs melted for wax, the honey scalded, and the hives 
scalded thoroughly before being again used. It would seem 
that the spores are in the honey—we know surely that they 
are in the chyle, though Schonfeld finds that they are notin 
the blood of the bee—and by taking that, the contagion is 
administered to the young bees. The honey may be purified 
from these noxious germs by subjecting it to the boiling tem- 
perature, which is generally, if not always, fatal to the spores 
of fungoid life. The microbe is killed surely by a tempera- 
ture even less than the usual boiling, 212 degrees FE. The 
Spores, however, are only killed by prolonged boiling. So we 
better add water to the honey and then boil for an hour to 
make it safe, after which the honey may be safely fed. Some 
of wide experience say that it is safe to use the hives, even 
though they have not been boiled. Mr. McEvoy, of Ontario, 
after his very extensive experience, urges this. The combs 
are melted for wax. ‘The disease is probably spread by robber- 
bees visiting affected hives, and carrying with them in the 
honey the fatal germs. Mr. Doolittle, after some experience, 
agrees with the lamented Quinby, that it is not necessary to 
cause the bees to fast as described by Mr. Jones. They can at 
once be hived safely on foundation, In this case, all honey is 
used up before any brood is present to be fed. ‘To secure this, 
they are after four days changed again on to new foundation. 
We must in all this be most careful not to scatter honey, or to 
permit a single robber-bee to get at it. Great care, and the 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 481 


wisest exercise of judgment, is allimportant. A wee blunder, 
or little carelessness, may spread the evil rather than effect a 
cure. 

From this remedy it would seem certain that the germs are 
in the honey. 

It should be remembered that it is easy to scatter these 
fatal germs, and whatever cure is adopted, too great care can 
not be exercised. Mr. R. L. Taylor tells me that after an 
experience of two years he does not greatly fear this malady. 
He finds it easy, by means of the fasting cure, and free use of 
carbolic acid, to hold it in check or tocureit. Yet he admits 
that without much care and judgment it might work fearful 
havoc. 

(I have found that a paste made of gum tragacanth and 
water is very superior, andI much prefer it for either general 
or special use to gum arabic. Yet it soon sours—which means 
that it is nourishing these fungoid plants-—and thus becomes 
disagreeable. I have found that a very little salicylic acid 
will render it sterile, and thus preserve it indefinitely.) 


BHE-PARALYSIS. 


This isa common malady, more serious, it is claimed, in 
the warmer parts of the country. The bees become black, 
show a curious trembling motion, and are often dragged from 
the hive. Often so many die that the colony is seriously 
depleted. Change of queen is often a cure. Spraying with 
salt water has been thought to be of service. I believe this to 
bea fungoid disease, and, if so, feeding the medicated syrup 
(page 479) will be a wise practice. I have often seen this 
trouble in my apiary, but it always disappeared with no serious 
harm. 

NEW BEE-DISEASE. 

In California and some other sections, the brood dies with- 
out losing its form. We use the pin-head, and we draw forth 
alarva much discolored, often black, but not atall like the 
salvy mass that we see in foul brood. This is doubtlessa 
germ disease, which Ihave greatly mitigated by simply feed- 
ing. I believe with this and the similar, if not identical black 
brood, and all kindred maladies, we should feed freely with 


482 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


the medicated syrup. The removal of old combs and honey, 
forcing the bees to build new, thus to remove germs would also 
abet the cure. 

Black brood is not ropy like foul brood, and the brood 
shows affection earlier. It is serious in New York, and is 
treated precisely as is foul brood. The bees are transferred 
to other hives on starters of foundation, and this repeated in 


four days. 
ENEMIES OF BEES. 


Swift was no mean entomologist, as is shown in the fol- 
lowing stanza: 


“The little fleas that do us tease, 
Have lesser fleas to bite them, 
And these again have lesser fleas, 
And so ad infinitum.” 


Bees are no exception to this law, as they have to brave 
the attacks of reptiles, birds, and other insects. In fact, they 
are beset with perils at home and perils abroad, perils by night 
and perils by day. 


THE BEHK-MOTH—GALLERIA MELLONELLA. 


This insect, formerly known as G. cereana, belongs to the 
family of snout-moths, Pyralide. This snout is not the 
tongue, but the palpi, which fact was not known by Mr. Lang- 
stroth, who was usually so accurate,as he essayed to correct 
Dr. Harris, who stated correctly that the tongue was ‘‘ very 
short and hardly visible.’? This family includes the destruc- 
tive hop-moth, and the noxious meal and clover moths, and its 
members are very readily recognized by their usually long 
palpi, the so-called snouts. The family is now more restricted, 
and named Galleriide. 

The eggs of the bee-moth are. white, globular, and very 
small, These are usually pushed into crevices by the female 
moth as she extrudes them, which she can easily do by aid of 
her spy-glass-like ovipositor. They may be laid in the hive, 
in the crevice underneath it, or about the entrance. Soon 
these eggs hatch, when the gray, dirty-looking caterpillars, 
with brown heads, seek the comb on which they feed. To pro- 
tect themselves better from the bees, they wrap themselves in 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 483 


a silken tube (Fig. 262), which they have power to spin. They 
remain in this tunnel of silk during all their growth, enlarg- 
ing it as they eat. The noise, as they eat, can be heard 
plainly by holding the comb to the ear. As they tunnel 


Fic. 262. Fic. 263. 


Tunnel of Bee-Moth Larva.—-Original. Tunnel in Comb.— Original. 


among the larve in brood-combs, the larve are destroyed, and 
will be removed from the hives. Thus, the presence of dead 
larve in front of the hiveis often asign of the presence of 
insects in the hive. By looking closely, the presence of these 


Fic, 264. 


Larve of Bee-Moth.—Original. 


larve may be known by this robe of glistening silk, as it 
extends in branching outlines (Fig. 263) along the surface of 
thecomb. A more speedy detection, even, than the defaced 
comb, comes from the particles of comb, intermingled with 


484 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


the powder-like droppings of the caterpillars, which will 
always be seen on the bottom-board in case the moth-larve 
are at work. Soon,in three or four weeks, the larvez are full 
grown (Fig. 264). Now the six-jointed and the ten prop-legs— 
making sixteen in all, the usual number possessed by cater- 
pillars—are plainly visible. These larve are about an inch 
long, and show by their plump appearance that ¢hey at least 
can digest comb. However, though these are styled wax- 
moths they must have either pollen or dead bees to mingle 
with their wax. While it is true that there is a little nitrogen- 
ous material in wax, there is not enough so that even the wax- 


Fic. 265. Fic. 266. 


Cocoons.—Original, 


moth larva could thrive on it alone. They now spin their 
cocoons, either in some crevice about the hive, or, if very 
numerous, singly (Fig. 265, a) or in clusters (Fig. 265, 6) on the 
comb, or even in the drone-cells (Fig. 265, c), in which they 
become pup, and in two weeks, even less sometimes, during 
the extreme heat of summer, the moths again appear. In 
winter they may remain as pupe for months. The moths or 
millers—sometimes incorrectly called moth-millers—are of an’ 
obscure gray color, and thus so mimic old boards that they are 
very readily passed unobserved by the apiarist. They are 
about three-fourths of an inch long, and expand (Fig. 266) 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 485 


nearly one and one-fourth inches. The females are darker 
than the males, possess a longer snout, and are usually a little 
larger. The wings, when the moths are quiet, are flat on the 
back for a narrow space, then slope very abruptly. They rest 
by day, yet, when disturbed, will dart forth with great swift- 
ness, so Reaumur styled them ‘‘nimble-footed.’? They are 
active by night, when they essay to enter the hive and deposit 
their one or two hundred eggs. If the females are held in the 
hand they will often extrude their eggs; in fact, they have 
been known to do this even after the head and thorax were 
severed from the abdomen, and, still more strange, while the 
latter was being dissected. 

It is generally stated that these are two-brooded, the first 
moths occurring in May, the second in August. Yet, as I have 
seen these moths in every month from May to September, and 
asI have proved by actual observation that they may pass 
from egg to moth in less than six weeks, I think under favor- 
able conditions there may be even three broods a year. It is 
true that the varied conditions of temperature—as the moth- 
larve may grow in a deserted hive, in one with few bees, or 
one crowded with bee-life—will have much todo with the 
rapidity of development. Circumstances may so retard growth 
and development that there may be, not more than two, and pos- 
sibly, in extreme cases, not more than one brood in a season. 

It is stated by Mr. Quinby that a freezing temperature 
will kill these insects in all stages, while Mr. Betsinger thinks 
that a deserted hive is safe; neither of which assertions is 
entirely correct. Still, I believe exposure of combs to cold the 
winter through would kill most,if notall, of the bee-moth 
larve. I believe, in very mild winters, the moth and the 
chrysalids might be so protected as to escape unharmed, even 
outside the hive. It is probable, too, that the insects may pass 
the winter in any one of the various stages, though they gen- 
erally exist as pup during the cold season. 


HISTORY. 


These moths were known to writers of antiquity, as even 
Aristotle tells of their injuries. They are wholly of Oriental 
origin, and are often referred to by European writers as a 


486 THE BEE-KEEPER'S GUIDE} 


terrible pest. The late Dr. Kirtland, the able scientist, and 
first president of our American bee-association, once said in a 
letter to Mr. Langstroth, that the moth was first introduced 
into America in 1805, though bees had been introduced long 
before. They first seemed to be very destructive. It is quite 
probable, as has been suggested, that the bees had to learn to 
fear and repel them ; for, unquestionably, the bees do grow in 
wisdom. In fact, may not the whole of instinct be inherited 
knowledge, which once had to be acquired by the animal? 
Surely bees and other animals learn to battle new enemies, 
and vary their habits with changed conditions, and they also 
transmit this knowledge and their acquired habits to their 
offspring, as illustrated by setter and pointer dogs. In time, 
may not this account for all those varied actions, usually 
ascribed toinstinct? At least I believe the bee to be a crea- 
ture of no small intelligence. 


REMEDIES. 

In Europe, late writers give very little space to this moth. 
Once a serious pest, it has now ceased to alarm, or even to 
disquiet the intelligent apiarist. In fact, we may almost call 
it a blessed evil, as it will destroy the bees of the heedless, and 
thus prevent injury to the markets by their unsalable honey, 
while to the attentive bee-keeper it will work no injury at all. 
Neglect and ignorance are the moth-breeders. 

As already stated, Italian bees are rarely injured by 
moths, and strong colonies never. As the enterprising api- 
arist will possess only these, it is clear that he is free from 
danger. Theintelligent apiarist will also provide not only 
against weak but queenless colonies as well, which, from their 
abject discouragement, are the surest victims to moth inva- 
sion. Knowing that destruction is sure, they seem, if not to 
court death, to make no effort to delay it. 

As my friend, Judge W. H. Andrews, asserts, no bees, 
black or Italian, will be troubled with these insects so long as 
all the combs are covered with bees. 

In working with bees an occasional web will be seen glis- 
tening in the comb, which should be picked out with a knife 
till the manufacturer—the ruthless larva—is found, when it 


, OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 487 


should be crushed. Any larva seen about the bottom-board, 
seeking place to spin its cocoon, or any pupae, either on comb 
orincrack, should also be killed. If, through carelessness, a 
colony has become thoroughly victimized by these filthy wax- 
devourers, then the bees and any combs not attacked should 
be transferred to another hive, after which the old hive should 
be sulphured by use of the smoker, as before described; then 
by giving one or twoeach of the remaining combs to strong 
colonies, after killing any pupe that may be on them, they 
will be cleaned and used, while by giving the enfeebled colony 
brood, and if necessary a good queen, if it has any vigor 
remaining it will soon be rejoicing in strength and prosperity. 

We have already spoken of caution as to comb honey and 
frames of comb (page 380), and so need not speak further of 
them. 

THE WEE BEEH-MOTH. 


In 1887 another smaller moth attacked comb in New York 
and Michigan. Mr. W. J. Ellison, of South Carolina, wrote 
me that this insect does much harm in his State. It is Ephestia 


Fic. 267. 


Wee Bee-Moth.—Original. Wing.—Original. 


interpunctella, Hub., and belongs to the same family of moths, 
Pyralidz, or snout-moths, that contains the old bee-moth. I 
shall call this (Fig. 267) the Wee bee-moth. The moths lay 
eggsin Julyand August, upon thecomb. The larve feed in 
August, September and October upon the pollen, and do mis- 
chief by spreading a thin layer of silk over thecombs. Mr. 
Ellison says the web on the comb honey is no small injury. 
Very likely there is an early summer brood. 


REMEDIES. 


The only suggestion I can offer at present is that the 
combs shall not be exposed. Fumigation, of course, either 


488 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


with the bisulphide of carbon or sulphur fumes, will destroy 
these also, and might be desirable in case comb honey is 
injured. 

TWO DHSTRUCTIVE BEETLES. 

There are two destructive beetles that often work on the 
comb, more, however, for the pollen and dead bees than for 
the wax. One of these, Tenebrio molitor, Linn., is the 
common flour or meal beetle. It is dark brown in color, and 
five-eighths of an inch (16mm.) long. The larva or grubis of 
a lighter color, and when fully developed is one inch (25 mm.) 
long. It resembles very closely the larva of our Elater beetles 
—the wire-worms. The other is the bacon beetle, Dermestes 
lardarius, Linn. (Fig. 268), which is a sore pestin museums, 


Fic. 268. 


D. Lardarius.—Original. 


as it feeds on all kinds of dried animal tissues. The beetle is 
black, while nearly one-half of the wing-covers, next to the 
thorax, are yellowish-gray, lined in the middle with black. 
The beetle is three-eighths of an inch (10mm.) long. The 
larva is some longer, very hairy, and ringed with brown and 
black bands. These beetles are not very troublesome in the 
apiary, and can be readily destroyed by use of bisulphide of 
carbon. Care is necessary, however, in the use of this very 
inflammable and explosive liquid. It is no more to be feared 
than would be gasoline. We have only to keep the match or 
lighted cigar away. There are other beetles and moths of 
similar habits, which are likely at any time to invade the 
apiary. 
ROBBER-FLIES. 

There are several of these flies that prey upon bees. The 
most common is Asilus missouriensis, Riley. This is a two- 
winged fly, of the predacious family Asilide, which attacks 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 489 


and takes captive the bee and then feeds upon its fluids. It is 
more common in the southern part of our country. The fly 
(Fig. 269) has a long, pointed abdomen, strong wings, and is 
very powerful. I have seenan allied species attack and over- 
come the powerful tiger-beetle, whereupon I took them both 
with my net, and now they are pinned, as they were captured, 
in the college cabinet. These flies delight in the warm sun- 
shine, are very quick on the wing, and so are. not easily cap- 
tured. It is to be hoped that they will not become very numer- 


Fic. 269. 


Robber-Fly.—Original. 


ous. If they should, I hardly know how they could be kept 
from their evil work. Frightening them or catching witha 
net.might be tried, yet these methods would irritate the bees, 
and need to be tried before they are recommended. I have 
received specimens of this fly from nearly every Southern 
State. During the summer-time these flies are usually well 
employed in Michigan. They have been observed to kill the 
cabbage butterfly by scores. The Asilids are very common in 
California, yet I am persuaded that they do far more good than 
harm. 

I have alsoa fly of the same family, with the same bee- 


490 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


destroying habits, a species of Erax (Fig. 270). In form it 
resembles the one referred to above. The wing (Fig. 269), as 
will be seen, is quite different in its venation. I received this 


Fic. 270. Fic, 271. 


Robber-Fly and Wing.—Original. 


species from Louisiana. Fig. 272 shows the antennz magni- 
fied. The Nebraska bee-killer, Promachus bastardi, is the 


Fic. 272. Fic. 273. 


Head and Tarsus of Robber-Fly.—Original. 


same in general appearance as the above. The second vein of 
the primary wing, not the third, asin the case of Asilus, forks. 
In Erax, as seen in Fig. 271, this branch is disconnected. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 491 


There are two other insects of this family, Mallophora 
orcina and: Mallophora bomboides, which differ greatly in 
form from those mentioned above; they look more like bum- 
ble-bees, for which they have been mistaken. 

I have received these insects from several of our enterpris- 
ing bee-keepers of the South—Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida 
—with the information that they dart forth from some conven- 
ient perch, and with swiftand sure aim graspa bee, and bear 
it to some bush, when they leisurely suck out all but the mere 
crust, and cast away the remains. 

The insects in question, which in form, size, and color 
much resemble bumble-bees, belong to Loew’s third group, 


Fic. 274, 


Wing of Mallophora.—Original. 


Asilina, as the antenne endin a bristle (Fig. 272), while the 
second longitudinal vein of the wing (Fig. 274, 6) runs into 
the first (Fig. 274, a). 

The genus is Mallophora. The venation of the wings 
much resembles that of the genus Promachus, though the 
form of these insects is very different. 

In Mallophora and Promachus the venation is as repre- 
sented in Fig. 274, where, as will be seen, the second vein (Fig. 
274, 6) forks, while in the genus Asilus (Fig. 269) the third 
vein is forked, though in all three genera the third joint of the 
antenne (Fig. 272) ends in a prolonged bristle. 

One of the most common of these pests, which I am 
informed by Dr. Hagen, is Mallaphora orcina, Weid., is one 
inch long, and expands one and three-fourths inches (Fig. 275). 
The head (Fig. 272) is broad, the eyes black and prominent, 
the antennz three-jointed, the last joint terminating in a 
bristle, while the beak is very large, strong, and, like the eyes 


492 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


and antennz, coal-black. This is mostly concealed by the 
light yellow hairs, which are crowded thick about the mouth 
and between the eyes. 

The thorax is prominent and thickly set with light yellow 
hairs. The abdomen is narrow, tapering, and covered with 
yellow hairs, except the tip, which is black, though there are 
scattering hairs of a grayish yellow coloron the black legs. 
The pulvilli, or feet-pads (Fig. 273, 6), are two in number, 
bright yellow in color, surmounted by strong, black claws 
(Fig. 273, a), while below and between is the sharp spine (Fig. 
273, c), technically known as the empodium. 

The habits of the flies are interesting, if not to our liking. 
Their flight is like the wind, and, perched near the hive, they 


Fic. 275. 


M. oricina.—Original. 


rush upon the unwary bee returning to the hive with its full 
load of nectar, and grasping it with their hard, strong legs, 
they bear it to some perch near by, when they pierce the crust, 
suck out the blood, and drop the carcass, and are then ready 
to repeat the operation. A hole in the bee shows the cause of 
its sudden taking off. The eviscerated bee is not always killed 
at once by this rude onslaught, but often can crawl some dis- 
tance away from where it falls, before it expires. 

Another insect nearly as common is Mallophora bomboides, 
Weid. This fly might be called a larger edition of the one 
just described, as in form, habits, and appearance it closely 
resembles the other. It belongs to the same genus, possessing 
all the generic characters already pointed out. It is very diffi- 
cult to capture this one, as it is so quick and active. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 493 


This fly is one and five-sixteenths inches long, and 
expands twoandahalfinches. The head and thorax are much 
asin the other species. The wings are very long and strong, 
and, asin other species, are of a smoky brown color. The 
abdomen is short, pointed, concave from side to side on the 
under surface, while the grayish yellow hairs are abundant on 
the legs and whole under portion of the body. The color is a 
lighter yellow than in the other species. These insects are 
powerfully built, and if they become numerous must prove a 
formidable enemy to the bees. I believe all of the robber-flies 
are our friends. They destroy few bees, comparatively, and 
hosts of our insect enemies. 

Another insect very common and destructive in Georgia, 
though it closely resembles the two just described, is of a 
different genus. It is the Laphria thoracica, of Fabricius. In 
this genus the third vein is forked, and the third joint of the 
antenna is without the bristle, though it is elongated and 
tapering. The insect is black, with yellow hair covering the 
upper surface of the thorax. The abdomen is wholly black, 
both above and below, though the legs have yellow hairs on 
the femurs and tibiz. This insect belongs to the same family 
as the others, and has the same habits. It is found North as 
well as South. 


THE STINGING BUG—PHYMATA EROSA, FABR. 


This insect is very widely distributed throughout the 
United States. Ihave receivedit from Maryland to Missouri 
on the South, and from Michigan to Minnesota on the North. 
The insect will lie concealed among the flowers, and upon 
occasion will grasp a bee, hold it off at arm’s length, and suck 
out its blood and life. 

This is a Hemipteron, or true bug, and belongs to the 
family Phymatide, Uhler. It is the Phymata erosa, Fabr., 
the specific name erosa referring to its jagged appearance. It 
is also called the ‘‘ stinging bug,’’ in reference to its habit of 
repelling intrusion by a painful thrust with its sharp, strong 
beak. 

The ‘stinging bug’? is somewhat jagged in appearance, 
about three-eighths of an inch long, and generally of a yellow 


494 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


color, though this latter seems quite variable. Frequently 
there is a distinct greenish hue. Beneath the abdomen, and 
on the back of the head, thorax, and abdomen, it is more or 
less specked with brown ; while across the dorsal aspect of the 
broadened abdomen is a marked stripe of brown (Fig. 277, d, d). 
Sometimes this stripe is almost wanting, sometimes a mere 
patch, while rarely the whole abdomen is very slightly marked, 
and as often we find it almost wholly brown above and below. 
The legs (Fig. 277, 6), beak and antenne (Fig. 278, a) are 
greenish yellow. The beak has three joints (Fig. 278, a, 6, ¢), 
anda sharp point (Fig. 278, d). This beak is not only the 
great weapon of offense, but also the organ through which the 


Fic. 276. Fic. 277. Fic. 278. 


. 
9 > 
Side mew, natural size. Magnified twice. Beak much magnified. 
—Original. —Original. —Original. 


food is sucked. By the use of this, the insect has gained the 
sobriquet of ‘‘stinging bug.’’ This compact, jointed beak is 
peculiar to all true bugs, and by observing it alone we are able 
to distinguish all the very varied formsof this group. The 
antenna is four-jointed. The first joint (Fig. 279, a) is short, 
the second and third (Fig, 279, band c) are longand slim, while 
the terminal one (Fig. 279, d)is muchenlarged. This enlarged 
joint is one of the characteristics of the genus Phymata, as 
described by Latreille. But the most curious structural pecu- 
liarity of this insect, and the chief character of the genus 
Phymata, are the enlarged anterior legs (Figs. 280 and 281). 
These, were they only to aid in locomotion, would seem like 
awkward, clumsy organs, but when we learn that they are 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 495 


used to grasp and hold their prey, then we can but appreciate 
and admire their modified form. The femur (Fig. 281, 6) and 
the tarsus (Fig. 281, a) are toothed, while the latter is greatly 


Fic. 279. 
Fic. 280. Fic. 281. 
% 
G 
> 
» Interior view, Exterior view, 
Antenna, much magnified. Anterior Leg, magnified.—Original. 


enlarged. From the interior iower aspect of the femur (Fig. 
282) is the small tibia, while on the lower end of the tarsus 
(Fig. 281, d) isa cavity in which rests the single claw. The 
other four legs (Fig. 283) are much as usual. 


Fic. 282. Fic. 283. 


Claw, enlarged.—Original. Middle Leg, much magnified.— Original. 


This insect, as already intimated, is very predaceous, 
lying in wait, often almost concealed, among flowers, ready to 
capture and destroy unwary plant-lice, caterpillars, beetles, 
butterflies, moths, and even bees andwasps. We have already 


496 THE BERE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


noticed how well prepared it is for this work by its jaw-like 
anterior legs, and its sharp, strong, sword-like beak. 

It is often caught on the golden-rod. This plant, from its 
color, tends to conceal the bug, and from the character of the 
plant—being attractive as a honey-plant to bees—the slow bug 
is enabled to catch the spry and active honey-bee. 

As Prof. Uhler well says of the ‘stinging bug’’: ‘It is 
very useful in destroying caterpillars and other vegetable- 
feeding insects, but is not very discriminating in its tastes, and 
would as soon seize the useful honey-beeas the pernicious saw- 
fly.” And he might have added that it is equally indifferent 


Fie. 284. 


Bee-Stabber, and Beak.—Original, 


tothe virtues of our friendly insects, like the parasitic and 
predaceous species. 

We note, then, that this bug is not wholly evil, and as its 
destruction would be well-nigh impossible, for it is as widely 
scattered as are the flowers in which it lurks, we may well rest 
its case, at least until its destructiveness becomes more serious 
than at present. 

THE BEE-STABBER. 


In the Southern States there is another bug, Euthyrhyn- 
chus floridanus, Linn. (Fig. 284), which I have named the 
‘bee-stabber. This bug places itself at the entrance of the 
hive and stabs and sucks the bees till they are bloodless. As 
will be seen, its powerful four-jointed beak fits it well for this 
purpose. This bug is purplish or greenish blue, with dull, 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. “497 


yellowish markings, as seen in the figure. It is also yellowish 
beneath. It is one-half of aninch long. Other similar bugs 
may also learn that bees with their ample honey-sac full of 
nectar are most toothsome. 


BEE-HAWK—LIBELLULA. 


These large, fine, lace-wings (Fig. 285) are Neuropterous 
insects. They work harm to the bees mostly in the Southern 
States, and are called mosquito-hawks. Insects of this genus 
are called dragon-flies, devil’s darning-needles, etc. They are 


Fic. 285. 


Bee-Hawk.— Original, 


exceedingly predaceous. Infact, the whole order is insectivo- 
rous. From its four netted veined wings, we can tell it at once 
from the Asilids, before mentioned, which have but two wings. 
The bee or mosquito hawks are resplendent with metallic hues, 
while the bee-killers are of sober gray. The mosquito-hawks 
are not inaptly named, as they not only prey upon other 
insects, swooping down upon them with the dexterity of a 
hawk, but their graceful gyrations, as they sport in the warm 
sunshine at noonday, are not unlike those of our graceful 
hawks and falcons. These insects are found most abundant 
near water, as they lay their eggs in water, where the larve 


498 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


live and feed upon other animals. The larve are peculiar in 
breathing by gillsin the rectum. ‘The same water that bathes 
these organs and furnishes oxygen, is. sent out ina jet, and 
thus sends the insect darting along. The larve also possess 
enormous jaws, which formidable weapons are masked till it 
is desired to use them, when the dipper-shaped mask is dropped 
or unhinged, and the terrible jaws open and close upon the 
unsuspecting victim, which has but a brief time to bewail its 
temerity. 

A writer from Georgia, in Gleanings in Bee-Culture, Vol. 
IV, page 35, states that these destroyers are easily scared 
away, or brought down by boys with whips, who soon become 
as expert in capturing the insects as are the latter in seizing 


Fic. 286. 


Tachina-Fly.— Original. 


the bees. One of the largest and most beautiful of these (Fig. 
285) is Anax junius. It has a wide range in the United States 
(North and South), and everywhere preys upon the honey-bee. 


TACHINA-FLY. 


From descriptions which I have received, I feel certain 
that there is a two-winged fly, probably of the genus Tachina 
(Fig. 286), that works on bees. I have never seen these, 
though I have repeatedly requested those who have to send 
them tome. My friend, J.L. Davis, put some sick-looking 
bees into a cage and hatched the flies, which, he told me, 
looked not unlike a small house-fly. It is the habit of these 
flies, which are closely related to our house-flies, which they 
much resemble, to lay their eggs on other insects. Their 
young, upon hatching, burrow into the insect that is being 
victimized, and grow by eatingit. It would be difficult to cope 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 499 


with this evil, should it become of great magnitude. We may 
well hope that this habit of eating bees is an exceptional one 
with it. The affected bees will be found dead at early dawn in 
front of the hives. 


BEE-LOUSE—BRAULA CQGiCA, NITSCH. 


This louse (Fig. 287) is a wingless Dipteron, and one of 
the uniques among insects. It is a blind, spider-like parasite, 
and serves as a very good connecting link between insects and 
spiders, or, still better, between the Diptera, where it belongs, 
and the Hemiptera, which contains the bugs and most of the 
lice. It assumes the semi-pupa state almost as soon as 


Fic. 287. 


Larva. 
B, ceca.—Original. 


hatched, and, strangest of all, is, considering the size of the 
bee on which it lives, and from which it sucks its nourishment, 
enormously large. Twoor three, and sometimes as many as 
ten, are found ona single bee. When we consider their great 
size, we canuot wonder that they soon devitalize the bees. 
These have done little damage, except in the south of Con- 
tinental Europe, Cyprus, and other parts of the Orient. The 
reason that they have not been naturalized in other parts of 
Europeand America may be owing to climate, though I think 
more likely it is due to improved apiculture. Mr. Frank Ben- 
ton, who has had much experience with these bee-lice in 
Cyprus, writes me that the Braula is no serious pest if the bees 


500 THH BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


are properly cared for. ‘‘In fact, if hives are kept clean inside, 
and colonies supplied with young queens and kept strong, the 
damage done by the Braula is very slight, if anything. In 
old, immovable-comb Hives, where the combs are black and 
thickened, and in case the queens are old; or where through 
some extraneous cause the colonies have become weak, these 
lice are numerous on queens and workers. I have not noticed 
them onthe drones. Since they are found on workers as well 
as the queen, their removal from the latter will bring tem- 
porary relief. About tenis the greatest number that I have 
seen on one queen. I have only thought it necessary to 
remove them in case there were three or more on a queen. The 
only way to remove them isto pick them off with a knife, 
scissors, forcepsor similarinstrument. They are quick-footed, 
and glide from one place to another like the wax-moth. I hold 
the queen between the thumb and first finger of the left hand, 
and with pocket-knife or clipping scissors shave off the para- 
site. Itis no easy matter to get them the first time, as when 
you attempt their removal they glide around to the other side 
of the queen so adroitly that you have to turn the queen over 
to try again.’’ Mr. Benton says that it is not practicable to 
remove these lice by lessening the size of the entrance to the 
hive. He thinks that, with the attention given to bees in 
America, the Braula will never become a serious pest, if intro- 
duced here. While these lice have been imported to America 
several times, they seem to disappear almost at once, which 
verifies Mr. Benton’s prophecy. 


ANTS. 


These cluster about the hives in spring for warmth, and 
seldom, if ever, I think, do any harm in our cold climates, 
though in California and the South they do much harm. 
Should the apiarist feel nervous, he can very readily brush 
them away, or destroy them by use of any of the fly-poisons 
which are kept in the markets. As these poisons are made 
attractive by adding sweets, we must be careful to preclude 
the bees from gaining access to them. As we should use them 
in spring, and as we then need to keep the quilt or honey-board 
close above the bees, and as the ants cluster above the brood- 


OR, MANUAL, OF THER APIARY. 501 


chamber, it is not difficult to practice poisoning. One year I 
tried Paris-green with success. There are several reports of 
ants entering the hives and killing the bees; even the queen 
is said to have been thus destroyed. 

I learn from Mr. H. E. Hill, of Florida, of a large, red ant 
peculiar to that section (Fig. 288), which is a terror to bees. It 
has destroyed nineteen nuclei in one week, and hundreds of 
dollars worth of bees, for Mr. Hill. It hides and burrows in 
rotten wood, above and below ground, in hive-covers, in parts 
of hives separated by the division-boards—anywhere where 


Fic. 288. 


Florida Ant, in all stages.—Original. 


concealment is possible. So numerous are they that Mr. Hill 
thinks there may be thousands in a colony, and he has 
destroyed hundreds of colonies within the past two years. 
Weak and queenless colonies suffer most, but none are exempt. 
Scouts are sent out to locate the prey in the early twilight. 
Later the chosen victims are stormed by the ant army and 
routed, though many ants diein the conflict. This ant (Fig. 
288) is known as the bull-dog ant in Florida. It isknown to 
science as Camponotus esuriens. (See American Bee Journal, 
Vol XLI, page 72.) Mr. Hill finds only one way—burning—to 
destroy them, and only one to keep them at bay. The legs of 
the hive stands are cut with a basin (Fig. 289), which is waxed 
and kept filled with carbolic acid. This is not satisfactory, as 
it evaporates quickly. I would suggest mixing kerosene and 
lard, both of which are very obnoxious to insects, and fill the 


502 THE BEH-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


basins with this. Ants in California are killed by saturating 
the runs with gasoline, and then burning all. Itisa quick 
remedy, but hard for the ants. 

This ant is red except the eyes and abdomen, which may 
be nearly all black, large soldiers, or tipped with black—com- 
mon workers. There are many hairs on the abdomen, 

In such cases, if they occur, it is best to put a sweet poi- 
sonous mixture in a box and permit the ants to enter through 


Fic. 289. 


Leg of Hive-Stand.—Original. 


an opening too small to admit bees, and thus poison the ants. 
Or we may find the ant’s nest, and, with a crowbar, makea 
hole init, turnin this an ounce of bisulphide of carbon, and 
quickly plug it up by packing clay in the hole and on the nest. 
The liquid will kill the ants. This better be done when the 
ants are mostly in their nest. 


THE COW-KILLER. 


This ant-like insect, Mutilla coccinea (Fig. 290), has been 
sent me from Illinois and the South as faras Texas. Itis a 
formidable enemy of the bees. The male has wings and no 
sting. The female has no wings, but is possessed of a power- 
ful sting. She is an inch (25 mm.) long, very hairy, and black, 
except the top of her head and thorax, and a broad basal band 
and the tip of the upper part of herabdomen, which are bright 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 503 


red. Accentral band of black divides the red spaces of the 
abdomen. The entire under part of the body and all the mem- 
bers are black. There are several species of varying size and 
color in California. Grayish white species are nearly as com- 
mon as the red and black ones. Some are as large as a 
worker-bee. 

So hard and dense is the chitinous crust of these insects 
that they enter the hives fearlessly, and, unmindful of stings, 


Fic. 290. 


Cow-Killer.—Original. 


deliberately kill the bees and feed on the young. ‘The males 
are said tosting. This is certainly a mistake. The sting isa 
modified ovipositor—an organ not possessed by males. These 
insects belong to the family Mutillidz, so called because the 
females are wingless. They are closely allied in structure to 
the ants, which they much resemble. 


THE PRAYING MANTIS. 


This strange insect I have received from Indiana and other 
Southern and Western States. Its scientific name is Mantis 
carolina, Linn. A similar species I often take in Los Angeles 
County, Calif. It is very predaceous, and the female has been 
known to eat up her mate immediately after the sexual act. 
No wonder that they make our friends of the hive contribute 
to their support. This insect (Fig. 291) is a sort of nonde- 
script. In the South it is known as devil’s race-horse. Itis a 
corpulent ‘‘ walking-stick’’? with wings. In fact, is closely 
related to the ‘‘ walking-sticks’’ of the North. Its anterior 
legs are very curious. Asit rests upon them, it appears as if 
in the attitude of devotion, hence the name, praying mantis, 
It also raises these anterior legsin a supplicating attitude, 


£04 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 

which would also suggest thename. It might well be preying 
mantis. These peculiar anterior legs, like the same in Phy- 
mata erosa, are used to grasp its victims. It is reported to 
move with surprising rapidity, as it grasps its prey. 


Fic. 291. 


Mantis.—Original. 


Its eggs (Fig. 292) are glued to some twig, in a scale-like 
mass, and covered with a sort of varnish. Some of these 
hatched out in one of my boxes, and the depravity of these 
insects was manifest in the fact that those first hatched fell to 


Fic. 292. 


Eggs of Mantis.— Original. 


and ate the others. They do much good in destroying our 
insect enemies. 
BLISTER-BEETLES. 

I have received from Mr. Rainbow, of San Diego Co., 
Calif., the larve (Fig. 293, a2) of some blister-beetles, probably 
Meloe barbarus, Lec., as that is a common species in Califor- 
nia. Mr. Rainbow took as many as seven from one worker- 
bee. Fig. 293, &, represents the female of Meloe angusticollis, 
acommon species in Michigan and the East. I have also 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 505 


received larve from Mr. Hammond, of New York, who took 
them from his bees. He says they make the bees uncomfort- 
able. These are likely M. angusticollis. As will be seen, the 
wing-covers are short, and the beetle’s abdomen fairly drags 
withits weight ofeggs. The eggsare laidin the earth. The 
larve, when first hatched, crawl upon some flower, and, as 
occasion permits, crawl upon a bee and thus are borne to the 
hive, where they feast on eggs, honey and pollen. These 


Fic. 293. 


Blister-Beetle and Larve.—Original. 


insects undergo what M. Faher styles hyper-metamorphosis, 
asthe larva appears in four different forms instead of one. 
Two of these forms show in the figure. The Spanish-fly— 
Cantharides of the shops—is an allied insect. Some of our 
common blister-beetles are very destructive to plants. Girard, 
in his excellent work on bees, gives illustrations of all the 
forms of this insect. 
WASPS. 

I have never seen bees injured by wasps. In the South, as 
in Europe, we hear of such depredations. I have received 
wasps, sent by our Southern brothers, which were caught 
destroying bees. The wasp sent me is the large, handsome 
Stizus speciosus, Drury. It is black, with its abdomen imper- 
fectly ringed with yellow. The wasps are very predaceous, 
and do immense benefit by capturing and eating our insect 
pests. I have seen wasps carry off “‘ currant worms’’ with a 
celerity that was most refreshing. 


506 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE} 


As the solitary wasps are too few in numbers to do much 
damage—even if they ever do any—any great damage which 
may occur would doubtless come from the social paper-makers. 
In this case, we have only to find the nests and apply the torch, 
or hold the muzzle of a shot-gun to the nest and shoot. This 
should be done at nightfall, when the wasps have all gathered 
home. Let us not forget that the wasps do much good, and so 
not practice wholesale slaughter unless we have strong evi- 
dence against them. 

A BEE-MITE. 


It has long been known to chicken fanciers that our poul- 
try often suffer serious injury from a small mite. These little 
arachnids often enter houses in countless thousands, much to 
the annoyance of the owners. Kerosene may be used to repel 
them, Other mites attack the cow, the horse, the sheep, etc. 


Fic, 294. 


Mite.— Original. 


The Texas cattle-tick—Boophalus bovis—which so often wor- 
ries horses and cattle, and which carries the minute protozoan 
(Pyrosoma bigeminum) that causes the terrible Texas fever, is 
a colossal mite. 

One spring a lady bee-keeper of Connecticut discovered 
these mites in her hives while investigating to learn the cause 
of their rapid depletion. She had noticed that the colonies 
were greatly reduced in number of bees, and upon close obser- 
vation she found that the diseased or failing colonies were 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 507 


covered with these mites. A celebrated queen-breeder of New 
York State sent me these same mites in 1887, with the report 
that they killed his queens while yet in the cell. I found great 
numbers in a cell sent by this gentleman. The strong and 
prosperous colonies were exempt from the annoyance. So 
small are these little pests that a score could take possession of 
a single bee, and not be near neighbors, either. The lady 
states that the bees roll and scratch in their vain attempts to 
rid themselves of these annoying stick-tights, and, finally, 
worried out, either fall to the bottom of the hive or go forth 
to die outside. 

The bee-mite (Fig. 294) is very small, hardly more than 
five mm. (1-50 of aninch) long. The female is slightly larger 
than the male, and somewhattransparent. The color is black, 
though the legs and more transparent areas of the females 
appear yellowish. 

REMEDIES. 

The fact that what would be poison to the mite would 
probably be death to the bees, makes this question of remedy 
quite a difficult one. I can only suggest what Mrs. Squire has 
tried—frequent changing of the bees from one hive to another, 
after which the hive can be freed from the mites by scalding. 
Of course, the more frequent the transfer the more thorough 
the remedy. 

I would suggest placing pieces of fresh meat, greased or 
sugared paper, etc., in the hives, in hopes to attract the pests, 
which, when massed on these decoys, could easily be killed. 


CALIFORNIA BEE-KILLER. 


Mr. J. D. Enas, of Napa Co., Calif., sent me specimens of 
a curious bee-enemy (Fig. 295), which he finds quite a serious 
enemy of bees. I havetaken many of these here at Claremont, 
but have not known of their disturbing bees. 

This is a Datames, possibly D. Californicus, Simon, though 
it does not quite agree with the description of that species. It, 
like the mites just described, belongs to the sub-class Arachnida 
or spiders, and is related to the scorpions. The group of ani- 
mals is known as the family Solpulgide. As will be seen, the 
head and thorax are not separate, asthey are in true insects, 


508 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE}; 


The abdomen is long and segmented, a shield-like plate covers 
the head, andthe eyes are far forward, small and globular. 
The most peculiar organs are the jaws or falces, which are. 
immense, and armed with formidable teeth, spines, hairs, etc. 
The family is small, little known, and, except in one case, 


Fic. 295. 


California Bee-Killer.—Original. 
(Jaws and falces, and posterior leg.) 


Datames pallipes, Say., which is said to live in houses in Colo- 
rado, and to feed on bed-bugs; the habits have not been 
described. 

Mr. Enas finds this species in his hives, killing and eating 


the bees. The remedy must be hand-picking, which will not 
be very difficult. 


SPIDERS. 
These sometimes spread their nets soas to capture bees. 
If porticos—which are, I think, worse than a useless expense— 
are omitted, there will very seldom be any cause for complaint 
against the spiders, which, on the whole, are friends. As the 
bee-keeper who would permit spiders to worry his bees would 
not read books, I will discuss this subject no further. 


THE KING-BIRD—TYRANNUS CAROLINENSIS. 


This bird, often called the bee-martin, is one of the fly- 
catchers, a very valuable family of birds, as they are wholly 


OR, MANUAL, OF THE APIARY. 509 


insectivorous, and do immense good by destroying our insect 
pests. The king-birds are the only onesin the United States 
that deserve censure. The species in California is Tyrannus 
verticalis, or Western king-bird; thatof the East, Tyrannus 
tyrannus, Another, the chimney swallow of Europe, has the 
same evil habit. Our chimney swallow has no evil ways. I 
am sure, from personal observation, that these birds capture 
and eat the workers, as wellas drones, as I have taken worker- 
bees from their stomachs; and, I dare say, they would pay no 
more respect to the finest Italian queen. They perch ona tree 
or post and dart with the speed of an arrow as their poor victim 
comes heavily laden towards the hives. How isit that the 
bird is not stung ? Some say that they pull the bees apart and 
simply eat the honey’stomach. Do they handle the bee so as 
to avoid the stings? Who will determine this point? King- 
‘birds killed close by an apiary here at Claremont had only rob- 
ber-flies in their stomachs; thus it was befriending the bees. 
Yet, in view of the good that these birds do, unless they are 
far more numerous and troublesome than I have ever observed 
them to be, I should certainly be slow to recommend the death 
warrant. 
TOADS. 


The same may be said of toads, which may often be seen 
sitting demurely at the entrance of the hives, and lapping up 
the full-laden bees with the lightning-like movement of their 
tongues, in a manner which can but be regarded with interest, 
even by him who suffers loss. Mr. Moon, the well-known api- 
arist, made this an objection to low hives; yet, the advantage 
of such hives far more than compensates, and with a bottom- 
board, such as described in the chapter on hives, we shall find 
that the toads do very little damage. Incase of toads, the bees 
sting their throats, asI have taken, on several occasions, the 
stings from the throats of the toads, after seeing the latter 
capture the bees. As the toads make no fuss, it seems prob- 
able that their throats are callous against the stings. 


MICE. 


These little pests are a consummate nuisance about the 
apiary. They enter the hives in winter, mutilate the combs, 


510 THE BEE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


especially those with pollen or old combs that have been long 
used for breeding, irritate, perhaps destroy, the bees, and 
create a very offensive stench. They often greatly injure 
comb which is outside the hive, destroy smokers, by eating the 
leather off the bellows, and, if they get at the seeds of honey- 
plants, they never retreat till they make complete the work of 
destruction. 

In the house and cellar, unless they are made as they 
should always be—mouse-proof—these plagues should be, by 
use of cat or trap, completely exterminated. If we winter bees 
on the summer stands, the hive-entrance should be so con- 
tracted that mice can not enter the hive. Incase of packing, 
as I have recommended, I should prefer a more ample opening, 
which may be safely secured by taking a piece of wire-cloth or 
perforated tin or zinc, and, tacking it over the entrance, letting 
it come within one-fourth of an inchof the bottom-board. This 
will give more air, and still preclude the entrance of these 


oy, : 
miserable vermin. 
SHREWS. 


These are mole-like animals (Fig. 295), and look not unlike 
amouse. They havea long, pointed nose like the moles, to: 
which they are closely related. They are insectivorous, and 


. Fic. 295. 


Shrew.— Original, 


have needle-shaped teeth, quite unlike those of the Rodentia, 
which includes the true mice. I have received from Illinois 
and Missouri species of the short-tailed shrews—Blarina— 
which enter the hives in winter and eat the bees, only refusing 
the head and wings. They injure the combs but little. As 
they will pass through a space three-eighths of an inch wide, 
itis not easy to keep them out of hives where the bees are 
wintering on their summer stands. I have received a short- 


OR, MANUAI, OF THE APIARY. 511 


tailed shrew—Blarina brevicauda, Gray—which was taken in 
the hives by Mr. Little, of Illinois. 


SKUNKS. c 


Skunks sometimes annoy bee-keepers. They disturb the 
bees at nightfall, and as the bees come out of the hive they 
gulp them down. Of course, they can be poisoned or trapped. 
But as insect-destroyers they do great good, and I doubtif we 
can ever afford to kill the skunks. The small, striped skunk 
in Southern California depredates on our poultry. YetI would 
use wire-netting and keep them out of the poultry-house, and 
not kill them. 


DR, 


512 THE BHE-KEHEPER’S GUIDE; 


CHAPTER XXI. 


CALENDAR AND AXIOMS. 
WORK FOR DIFFHRENT MONTHS. 


Though every apiarist will take one, atleast, of the sev- 
eral excellent journals relating to this art, printed in our coun- 
try, in which the necessary work of each month will be detailed, 
yet it may be well to give some brief hints in this place. 

These dates are arranged for the Northern States, where 
the fruit-trees blossom about the middle of May. By noting 
these flowers, the dates can be easily changed to suit any 
locality. 

JANUARY. 


During this month the bees will need little attention. 
Should the bees in the cellar or depository become uneasy, 
which will not happen if the requisite precautions are taken, 
and there comes a warm day, it were well to set them on their 
summer stands, that they may enjoy a purifying flight. At 
night, when all are again quiet, return them to thecellar. 
While out I would clean the bottom-boards, especially if there 
are many dead bees. This is the time to read, visit, study, 
and plan for the ensuing season’s work. 


FEBRUARY, 


No advice is necessary further than that given for Jan- 
uary, though if the bees havea good flightin January, they 
will scarcely need attention in this month. The presence of 
snow on the ground need not deter the apiarist from giving 
his bees a flight, providing the day is warm and still. Itis 
better to let them alone if they are quiet, as they should and 
will be if allis right. In California we must be sure the stores 
are sufficient. 

MARCH. 

Bees should be kept housed, and those outside still retain 

about them the packing of straw, shavings, etc. Frequent 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 513 


flights do no good, and wear out the bees. Colonies that are 
uneasy and besmear their hives are not wintering well, and 
may be set out and allowed a good flight and then returned. 
In California we do the April work of the East. 


APRIL. 


Early in this month the bees may all be put out. It will 
be best to feed all, and give all access to flour, when they will 
work at it, though usually they can get pollen as soon as they 
can fly out to advantage. Keep the brood-chamber contracted 
so that the frames will all be covered, and cover well above 
the bees to economize heat. 

The colony or colonies from which we desire to rear queens 
and drones should now be fed to stimulate breeding. By care- 
ful pruning, too, we may and should prevent the rearing of 
drones in any but the best colonies. If from lack of care the 
previous autumn any of our colonies are short of stores, now 
is when it will be felt. In suchcases feed either honey, sugar, 
or syrup, or place candy on top of the frames beneath the oil- 
cloth cover. Remember that plenty of stores insures rapid 
breeding. In California we will do the May work of the East 
in April. ' 

MAY. 


Prepare nuclei to start extra queens. Feed sparingly till 
bloom appears. Give room for storing. Extract if necessary, 
and keep close watch for swarms. Now, too, is the best time 


to transfer. 
JUNE. 


Keep all colonies supplied with vigorous, prolific queens. 
Divide the colonies or allow swarming as may be desired, 
Extract if necessary, or best, adjust frames or sections, if comb 
honey is desired, and be sure to keep all the white clover honey, 
in whatever form taken, separate from allother. Now is the 
best time to Italianize. 

JULY. 


The work this monthis about the sameas thatof June. 
Keep the basswood honey by itself, and tier up sections as 


514 THE BEHE-KEEPER’S GUIDE; 


soon as the bees are wellat work inthem. Be sure that queens 
and workers have plenty of room to do their best, and do not 
suffer the hot sun to strike the hives. 


AUGUST. 


Do not fail to supersede impotent queens. Between bass- 
wood and fall bloom it may pay to feed sparingly. Give 
plenty of room for queen and workers, as fall storing com- 
mences. 

SEPTEMBER. 


Remove all surplus boxes and frames as soon as storing 
ceases, which usually occurs about the middle of this month. 
See that all colonies have enough stores for winter. If neces- 
sary to feed honey or sugar for winter, it should be done at this 
time. 

OCTOBER. 


If not already done, prepare colonies for winter. See that 
all have at least 30 pounds, by weight, of good, capped stores, 
and that all are strong in bees. If the bees are to be packed, 
it should be done early in October. 


NOVEMBER. 


Before the cold days come, remove the bees to the cellar or 
depository. 
DECEMBER. 


Now isthe time to make hives, honey-boxes, etc., for the 
coming year. Also labels for hives. These may contain just 
the name of the colony, in which case the full record will be 
keptin a book; or the label may be made to contain a full 
register as totime of formation, age of queen, etc. Slates are 
also used for the same purpose. 

I know from experience that any who heed all of the above 
may succeed in bee-keeping—may win a double success— 
receive pleasure and make money. I feel sure that many 
experienced apiarists will findadvice that it may pay to follow. 
It is probable that errors abound, and certain that much 
remains unsaid, for of all apiarists it is true that what they do 
not know is greatly in excess of what they do know. 


OR, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 515 


AXIOMS. 


The following axioms, given by Mr. Langstroth, are just 
as true to-day as they were when written by that noted author : 


There are a few first principles in bee-keeping which ought 
to be as familiar to the apiarist as the letters of the alphabet. 


First.—Bees gorged with honey never volunteer an attack. 


Second.—Bees may always be made peaceable by inducing 
them to accept of liquid sweets. 


Third.—Bees, when frightened by smoke or by drumming 
on their hives, fill themselves with honey and lose all disposi- 
tion to sting, unless they are hurt. 


Fourth.—Bees dislike any guick movements about their 
hives, especially any motion which jars their combs. 


Fifth.—In districts where forage is abundant only fora 
short period, the largest yield of honey will be secured, bya 
very moderate increase of colonies. 


Sixth.—A moderate increase of colonies in any one season 
will, in the long run, prove to be the easist, safest, and cheapest 
-mode of managing bees. 


Seventh.—A queenless colony, unless supplied with a queen, 
will inevitably dwindle away, or be destroyed by the bee-moth 
or by robber-bees. 


Eighth.—The formation of new colonies should ordinarily 
be confined to the season when bees are accumulating honey ; 
andif this or any other operation must be performed when 
forage is scarce, the greatest precaution should be used to 
prevent robbing. 

The essence of all profitable bee-keeping is contained in 
Oetti’s Golden Rule: KEP YOUR COLONIES STRONG. If you 
can not succeed in doing this, the more money you invest in 
bees the heavier will be your losses; while, if your colonies 
are strong, you will show that you are a dce-master as well as 
a bee-keeper, and may safely calculate on generous returns 
from your industrious subjects. 


“ Keep all colonies strong.”’ 


GLOSSARY. 


Abdomen—The third or last part of bee’s body, p. 54, 65. 

Absconding Swarm—Swarm that has separated from cluster and is going 
to its new home, p. 305. 

Adulteration—Making impure, as mixing glucose with honey, p. 175. 

Sie eng ne Swerns that issue within a few days after the first swarms, 
p. 168. 

Air-Tubes—Trachee; Lungs of insects, p. 86. 

Albino—Usually applied to animals with no pigment in skin, hair, ete. In 
bee-culture it refers to a variety of Italians with white rings, p. 55. 

Alighting-Board—Board in front of entrance, on which bees alight as they 
return to their hives, p. 214. 

American Hive—Langstroth hive with frames one foot square. 

Antenne—Horn-like organs of insects, p. 70. 

Antenna Cleaner—Organ on anterior leg of bees, wasps, etc., to dust an- 
tenne, p. 148. 

Apiarian—Adjective, as apiarian implements; incorrectly used as a noun 
for apiarist. 

Apiarist—One who keeps bees. 

Apiary—Place where bees are kept, including bees and all. 

Apiculture—Art of bee-keeping. 

Apide—Family of bees, p. 38. 

Aphis—Plant-lice, p. 390. 

Apis—Genus of the honey-bee, p. 44. 

Arthropada—Branch or phylum of insects, p. 31. 

Articulata—Old name for branch containing insects, p. 31. 

Artificial Fecundation or Impregnation—Fecundation in confinement (?). 

Artificial Heat, Swarms, Pasturage, etc.—Furnished by man; not natural. 

Atavism—Inheriting from a remote ancestor. 


Balling of Queen—Bees gathering snugly about the queen in form of a 
sphere, p. 312. 

Bar-Hives—Hives with bars across the top to which the combs are at- 
tached, p. 210. 

Barren—Sterile; not able to produce eggs or young, p. 118. 

Bees—Insects of the Family Apide, p. 38. 

Bee-Bird or Bee-Martin—A fly-catcher that captures bees, p. 508. 

Bee-Bread—The albuminous food of bees, usually pollen, p. 186. 

Bee-Culture—Keeping bees. 

Bee-Dress—Special suit worn by apiarist while working with bees, p. 345. 

Bee-Escape—Device for clearing upper story of hive or section-case of 
bees, pp. 330, 341, 469. 

Bee-Glue—Propolis, p. 190. 


518 GLOSSARY. 


Bee-Gum—Section of hollow tree used as a bee-hive. 

Bee-Hat—Hat so arranged as to prevent bees from stinging the face, p. 344. 

Bee-Hawk—Dragon fly, p. 497. 

Bee-Hive—Box for bees. See bee-gum and skep, p. 207. 

Bee-House—House where bees are kept, where bee-work is done, or bees 
wintered, p. 468. 

Bee-Keeper—One who keeps bees; apiarist. 

Bee-Line—Straight line, like the route of bee from field to hive, p. 262. 

Bee-Louse—Braula Ceca, p. 499. 

Bee-Martin—King or bee bird, p. 508. 

Bee-Master—English, bee-keeper. 

Bee-Moth—Galleria mellonella, formerly G. cereana, moth that feeds on 
wax, etc., p. 482. 

Bee-Pasturage—Honey-plants, p. 389. 

Bee-Plants—Plants which secrete nectar, and so are visited by bees, p. 389. 

Bee-Space—Space that will just allow a bee to pass: it is three-sixteenths 
of aninch. A double bee-space, three-eighths of an inch minus, is 
the space that bees do not fill with brace-combs or glue. 

Beeswax—NSecretion of the bee from which comb is fashioned, p. 176. 

Bee-Tent—Tent covering hive and bee-keeper, pp. 332, 351. In England, 
tent for lectures on bees. 

Bee-tree— A hollow tree in which bees breed and store, p. 262. 

Bee-Veil—Veil for protecting face while working with bees, p. 344. 

Bell-Glass—Glass vessel used for surplus comb-honey storing. 

Bingham-Knife—Uncapping knife with beveled edge, p. 325. 

Bingham-Smoker—Bee-smoker with open draft, p. 348. 

Bisulphide of Carbon—Valuable insecticide, pp. 380, 487. 

Black Bee— Common or German race of bees, p- 52. 

Black Brood—Diseased brood, but not foul brood, p. 482. 

Bottom-Board—Floor of hive, pp. 215, 217, 226. 

Box-Hive—Plain box in which bees are kept, p. 207. 

Box-Honey—Comb honey stored in boxes. 

Brace-Combs—Incorrectly called ‘‘ burr-combs.’? Small columns of wax 
connecting brood-combs, p. 219. 

Brain—Nerve mass in head of insects, p. 82. 

Breed—Race; Italian breed, p. 53. 

Breeding-In—Close breeding, as when a queen is fecundated by one of 
her own drones. 

Bridal Trip—Flight of queen to meet drone, p. 112. 

ee ae bees with sulphur. Now happily obsolete, pp. 380, 


Brimstone—Fumigation with sulphur fumes, pp. 380, 487. 

Broad-Frame—Wide frame for holding sections, p. 244. 

Brood—Immature bees, or bees yet in the cell, p. 98. 

Brood-Comb—Comb used for breeding, p. 179. 

Brood-Nest—Space in hive used for breeding. 

Brood-Rearing—Rearing of brood. 

Brown Bee—A supposed variety of the common black bee, p. 52. 

Bumble-Bee—Our large wild bee or humble-bee, p. 40. 

bee aaa pieces of wax built above the top-bars of the frames, 
pe A 


Candied Honey—Honey crystallized or granulated, p. 175. 
Cane Sugar—Common sugar, or the sugar of nectar, p. 17° 
Cap—Box to shut over top of a hive, p. 220. 


GLOSSARY. 519 


Cap—To seal or close a cell. 

Capped Brood—Brood sealed. 

Capped Honey—Honey sealed. 

Cappings or Caps—Thin wax sheets cut off in extracting. 

Card—Frame of comb. Rare. 

Cardo—Part of maxilla, p. 66. 

Carniolans—Same as Krainer. Race of black bees from Krain, Austria, 
pp. 57, 310, 346. 

Carton—Paper box to hold comb honey, p. 382. 

Casts—After-swarms. Rare. 

Caterpillar--Larva of butterfly or moth. 

Caucasian Bee---Variety of black bee,from Caucasian Mountains,pp. 48,52. 

Cell—Opening in comb for brood, honey or bee-bread, p. 179. 

Chaff-Hive—A double-walled hive with space filled with chaff, pp. 215,459. 

Chitine—Substance which makes crust of insects hard, p, 32. 

Chyle—Digested food; probable food of larva, p. 141. 

Chyme—Partially digested food; word of doubtful use, p. 141. 

Chrysalid or Chrysalis--Pupa of butterflies. Sometimes applied to other 


pape. 

Clamp—Hives placed close together and covered, p. 466. 

Cleansing Flight—Removing bees from cellar that they may fly, p. 464. 

Closed End or Top Frames—Where end-bars of frames and ends of top- 
bars are close fitting, p. 233. 

Cluster—Bees in compact mass, pp. 166, 167. 

Clustering—Many bees hanging together, pp. 166, 167. 

Clypeus—-Portion of head of insects below the eyes, p. 66. 

Cocoon—Case, often containing silk fibers, which surrounds a pupa; cup 
lining cells of comb, pp. 90, 101, 162, 184. * 

Collateral System—Side-storing. English. 

Colon—Part of intestine, rectum, pp. 89, 145. 

Colony—tThe bees of one hive. 

Comb—The fabric which holds the brood and honey, p. 179. 

Comb-Basket—The frame of an extractor which holds the comb, p. 323. 

Comb-Carrier—Box for carrying combs; most used in extracting, p. 329. 

Comb foundation—Thin sheets of impressed wax, like the foundation of 

, real comb, p. 353. 

Comb Foundation Machine—Machine for making comb foundation, p. 354. 

Comb-Guide—Strip of wood, comb or foundation on the bottom of top- 
bar of frame, to induce bees to build comb in proper place, p. 361. 

Comb-Holder—Device for holding combs, 324. 

Comb Honey—Honey in comb, p. 335. 

Compound Eyes—Large eyes of insects, so called as they consist of many 
simple eyes, p. 73. 

Corbicula—Pollen-basket on hind leg of worker-bee, p. 154. 

Cover—Lid of hive, or cover of brood-frames, pp. 220, 223, 233. 

Coxa—First part or joint of the insect’s leg, p. 79. 

Crate—Box for sections on the hive,or for shipping comb honey, pp.247,381. 

Cushion—Quilt or bag for covering bees, p. 223. 

Cyprian Bees—A yellow race from the Isle of Cyprus, p. 55. 


Dalmation Bees—A variety of black bees from Dalmatia, the Southwest- 
ern Province of Austria, p. 58. : 

Darts—Lancets of sting, p. 157. 

Decoy Hive—Hives set to catch absconding swarms. 

Diarrhea—Dysentery, p. 475. 


520 GLOSSARY. 


Dipping-Board—Board for securing thin wax sheets in making founda- 
tion, p. 358. 

Dividing—Forming colonies artificially, p. 303. 

Division-Board—Board for reducing the size of the brood-chamber, p. 222. 

Dollar Queens—Queen sold for one dollar, p. 361. 

Driving Bees—Causing the bees to pass out of a hiveintoa box placed 
above by rapping on the hive, 258. 

Drone—Male bee, p. 121. 

Drone-Brood—Brood which produces drone-bees, p. 126. 

Drone-Comb—Comb with large cells,in which drones may be reared,p.183. 

Drone-Eggs—Eggs that produce drones, p. 126. 

Drone-Trap—Trap for catching drones, p. 285. 

Drumming Bees—Forcing bees from one hive to another hive or box by 
rapping on the first with a stick or hammer, p. 258. 

Dry Feces—Supposed dry excreta of bees. 

Ductus Ejaculatorus—Part of male apparatus, p. 92. 

Dummies—Division-boards, p. 222. 

Dysentery--Winter disease of bees, p. 475. 

Dzierzon Theory—Parthenogenesis; agamic reproduction; theory that 
unfecundated eggs will develop, and in bees such eggs always pro- 
duce drones, p. 126. 


Egg—The initial or first stage of all the higher animals, pp. 95, 101. 

Egyptian Bee—Yellow bee from Egypt, p. 57. 

Eke—Rim to raise and enlarge the hive; often a half hive. 

Embryo—The young animal while yet in the egg or before birth. 

Entrance—Opening of the hive where the bees enter, p. 217. 

Entrance-Blocks—Pieces of wood, usually triangular, for contracting or 
closing the entrance of hive, p. 217. 

Entrance-Guard—Perforated zine to prevent drones or queen from leay- 
ing the hive, p. 285. 

Epicranium—Part of head between and above the eyes, p. 66. 

Epipharynx—Part of mouth. 

Extracted Honey—Honey thrown from comb by use of extractor, p. 281. 

Extractor—Machine for extracting, p. 321. 

Exuvium—Cast-skin of larva. Substance left in cell when bee emerges, 


p. 89. 
Eyes—Organs of sight in insects; there are usually two large compound 
and three small simple or Ocelli, p. 73. 


Feces—Iintestinal excreta of animals. 

Farina—Flour; incorrectly used for pollen. 

Fecundate—Union of sperm and germ cells; to impregnate, p. 103. 

Feeder— Device for feeding bees, p. 266. 

Femur—Third and largest joint of an insect’s legs, p. 78. 

Fence—Separator to be used with plain sections, p. 242. 

Fertile—Productive; often used for impregnated or fecundated. A queen 
that can lay eves is fertile; after mating she is fecund. 

Flagellum—Outer part of antenna, p. 69. 

Foul Brood—Malignant disease of a fungoid character which attacks 
bees, p. 475. 

Foundation, Fdn.—Stamped wax sheets, p. 353. 

Frame—Device for holding comb in the hive, p. 227. 

Fumigate—To surround with fumes. We fumigate the bees with smoke 
and the combs with sulphur fumes, pp. 380, 487. 


GLOSSARY, 521 


Gallup Frame—Frame 11 inches square, p. 229. 

Ganglha—Knots of nerve matter like the brain, p. 81. 

Gastric Juice—Digestive ferment secreted by stomach. 

Gena—Cheek of insects. 

German Bee—Common black bee, p. 52. 

Glands—Tubular or sack-like organs which form from elements taken 
from the blood a liquid called a secretion. Bees have several pairs 
of glands, p. 134. 

Glassing—Covering or protecting sections of comb honey with glass. 

Glucose—Reducing sugar, p. 172. 

Good Candy—Candy made by mixing sugar and honey, p. 318. 

Grafted Cells—Queen-Cells with the larva replaced by another, p. 278. 

Grafting Cells—Taking small larvw from cells and placing them in queen- 
cells, p. 278. 


Granulated Honey—Honey that has crystallized or candied, p. 175. 

Green Honey—Unripe honey, p. 327. 

Grub—Larva or beetle, p. 98. 

Guide Comb—Narrow piece of combor starters fastened to top-bar of 
frame or section, p. 295. 

Gullet—Csophagus, pp. 89, 142. 


Hatch—To issue from egg; egg hatches, the brood develops and emerges 
from cell. ; 

Hatching Broof—Incorrectly used to refer to bees coming from cells. 

Heart—Circulating organ; in insects a tube along the back, p. 84. 

Heath Bees—Variety of German bees from Luneberg Heath, Europe, p. 57. 

Heddon Hive—Hive with divided brood-chamber, the division being hori- 
zontal, p. 223. 

Heddon-Langstroth Hive—Langstroth hive as used by Heddon, p. 215. 

Hexapoda—Class insects, p. 32. 

Hill’s Device—Curved sticks used to raise cloth a little from the frames 
in winter. p. 456. 

Hive—Box or receptacle for bees, p. 207. 

Hiving—Removing a swarm of bees from cluster to hive, p. 297. 

Hiving Basket or Box—Basket or box used in hiving swarms, p. 297. 

Holy-Land Bees—Yellow bees from Southern Palestine, p. 48. 

Honey—Nectar digested by the bees, p. 171. 

Honey-Bee—Apis Mellifera, the domestic bee, p. 52. 

Honey-Bag—Honey stomach, pp. 89, 143. 

Honey-Board—Board between brood-chamber and section-case, p. 219. 

Honey-Box—Box for surplus comb honey. 

Honey-Comb—Fabric that holds the honey and brood, p. 179. 

Honey-Dew—Nectar from insects like Aphides and bark-lice, or from ex- 
tra floral glands, pp. 392, 393. 

Honey-Extractor—Machine for extracting honey, p. 321. 

Honey-Gate—Faucet to draw extracted honey from an extractor or barrel. 
It is closed instantly by a slide or gate. 


Honey-Knife—A knife for uncapping honey, p. 325. 

Honey-Sac—Honey stomach, pp. 89, 143. . 
Honey-Slinger—Honey extractor, p. 321. 

Honey-Stomach—Honey-sac where bee carries honey, pp. 89, 143. 
House-Apiary—Building frost-proof where bees are kept continually,p.468. 
Hungarian Bee—Variety of the black bee from Hungary, p. 58. 


522 GLOSSARY. 


Hybrid—Properly an animal which is a cross between two different spe- 
cies. A hybrid bee is across between two different races; all the 
bees except the drones from an Italian queen mated to a black 
drone will be hybrids; the drones will be pure if the queen is (see 
Dzierzon theory). © 

Hymenoptera—Order of insects which includes bees, ants and wasps, p. 35. 

Hymettus—A mountain of Greece famed for its delicious honey. 

Hypopharnyx~ Membrane or curtain connecting the base of the mouth 
organs. 


Tleum—Small intestine, pp. 89, 145. 

Imago—The mature insect; the last or winged stage of an insect, p. 101. 

Insects—-Hexapoda—Class of bee, p. 32. 

Intestine—Digestive tube beyond the stomach, p. 145. 

Introducing—Method of making bees accept a strange queen. p. 311. 

Introducing-Cage—Cage for introducing a queen, p. 312. 

Inverting—Turning a hive, section, case or frame bottom up. Reversing 
is also used, p. 230. 

Italian Bee—A yellow race from Italy. Every worker-bee has three well 
marked yellow bands, pp. 538, 307. 

Italianizing—Changing bees from some other race to Italians, p. 306. 


Jaws—Same as mandibles, p. 146. 


Krainer Bees—Bees from Krain, Austria; same as Carniolans, pp. 57, 
310, 346. 


Labium—Under lip of an insect, pp. 66, 131. 

Labrum—Upper lip of an insect, p. 66. 

Lamp-Nursery—Tin double-walled box used for rearing queens. p. 286, 

ea ae -eaoptes by Mr. Langstroth for his hive; size 173g by 
94g, p. 4 

Langstroth Hive—L. Hive; hive with frame suspended ina case or box; 
invented by Rev. L. L. Langstroth, p. 210. 

Larva—plu. Larve—Immature bees, p. 98. 

Laying Worker—Worker-bee that lays eggs, p. 130. 

Ligula—End of Jabium, the tongue in bees, pp. 66, 131. 

Ligurian Bee—Same as Italian; named from Liguria, a province in Italy, 
pp. 53, 307. 

Lining Bees—Noting direction of flight to find bee-tree, etc., p. 262. 

Loose Frames—Frames not fixed, p. 233. 

Lora—Part of labium, p. 1382. 


Mage sete larva of two-winged flies; often applied to any footless 
arvie. 

Maiden Swarm—First swarm. 

Malpighian Tubules—Renal tubules attached to the stomach, p. 90. 
Mandibles—Main jaws of insects, p. 146. 

Manipulation—Handling. 

Marriage Flight—Mating of queen, p. 112. 

Mat—Flexible cover to place over brood-frames, made of slats, straw, etc. 
Maturing Brood—Where the bees are just emerging from the cells. 
Maxilla—The second or under jaws of insects, pp. 66, 181. 

Mel Extractor—Honey extractor, p, 321. 

Meliput—Honey extractor, p, 321. 

Mentum—Second joint of labium or under lip, p. 181. 


GLOSSARY. 523 


Meso-Thorax—Second joint of thorax, p. 78. 
Meta-Thorax—Third joint of thorax, p, 78. 

Metal Corners—Tins to fasten and unite corners of frames. 
Micropyle—Openings in eggs where sperm-cells enter, p. 101. 
Midrib of Comb—Center partition of comb, p. 182. 
Miller—Moth, which is the more proper word, p. 482. 
Mismated—Not purely mated. 

Moth—All scale-winged insects except butterflies. 
Moth-Larva—Immature moth, p. 483. 
Moth-Miller—Incorrect term often used for moth, p. 484. 
Moth-Trap—tTrap for catching moths. 

Movable-Frame Hive—Langstroth hive, p. 210. 
Muscles—Organs that produce motion, p. 80. 


Nadir—The under story of a two-story hive; a wide eke, p. 213, 

Nectar—Sweet substance, as the liquid in nectaries of flowers, p. 171. 

Nectaries—Nectar-glands of flowers. 

Nerves—White threads which connect organsto convey impressions or 
impulses, p. 81. 

Nervures of Wings—Same as veins, p. 45. 

Neuter—Incorrect name for worker-bees; they are not neuters, but unde- 
veloped females, p. 129. 

New Idea Hive—Long one-story hive with many frames. 

Non-Swarming Hive—A purely ideal hive, supposed to prevent swarming. 

Normal—Usual; regular. 

Nucleus—plural, nuclei; miniature colony of bees for queen-rearing,p.281. 

Nurse-Bees—Young bees or ones that feed the brood, p. 164. 

Nursery—Device for rearing queens. See lamp-nursery, p. 286. 

Nymph—An insect in the pupa state; the immature bee in cell that is the 
form of adult kes is a nymph, p. 99. 


Observatory Hive—Hive with glass sides, so that beescan be seen without 
disturbing them, p. 238. t 

Ocelli—Simple eyes on epicranium, usually three, p. 73. 

(sophagus—Tube leading from pharynx to honey-stomach, pp. 89, 142. 

Open Sections—Sections that do not touch on sides, p. 240. 

Ovary—Essential organs of the female, where the eggs grow, p. 94. 

Over-stocking— Where more bees are kept than a locality can supply with 
a full harvest of nectar. 

Oviduct—Tube for passage of egg from ovary, p. 94. 

Ovipositor—Same as oviduct, p. 94. 

Ovum—Egg, pp. 95, 101. 


Palestine Bees—Race of yellow bees found in Southern Syria; the so- 
called Holy-Land bees, p. 48. 

Paraffine—Wax-like crystalline substance used to coat barrels and pre- 
vent leakage; one of the products of crude petroleum. 

Parasite—An organism that feeds upon another, p. 37. 

Parent Colony—The colony from which a swarm has issued. 

Paraglosse—Short appendages at base of tongue, pp, 67, 132. 

Parthenogenesis—Reproduction without males, p. 126. 

Pasturage—Plants from which food is secured, p. 389. 

Pecten of Legs—Fringe or comb of hairs. 

Perforated Zinc—Zine with holes cut so worker-bees can pass, but drones 

and queens can not, p. 219. 
Pharynx—Throat or back of the mouth, p. 89. 


524 GLOSSARY. 


Phenol—Pure carbolic acid, p. 479. 

Pincers—Wax jaws of hind legs, p. 153. 

Piping of Queens—Noise made by young queens when one has emerged 
from cell and others have not, p. 168. 

Plain Sections—Sections with no inset or bee-way; the edges are straight, 


p. 241. 
Planta—Soles or bottom of feet, p. 150. 
Poison-Sac—Sae at base of sting to hold the poison, p. 157. 
Pollen—Male cell or element of flowers; bee-bread. 
Pollen-Basket—Corbicula; cavity on posterior leg for carrying pollen, 


p. 186. 

Pollen-Combs—Rows of hairs on first tarsus of second and third pairs of 
legs of worker, on the inside, also pecten, p. 153. 

Pollen-Hairs—Compound or webbed hairs of bees, used for collecting 
pollen, p. 7Y. 

Portico—Porch to hive, p. 210. 

Pound Section—Section 414 inches square, p. 242. 

Prime Swarm—First swarin. 

Prize Section—Section 61, by 51¢ inches, p. 242. 

Propolis—Bee-glue. 

Propolize—To cover with propolis, p. 190. 

Prothorax— First joint of thorax, p. 78. 

Prune—To cut out undesirable comb, as drone or old. 

Puff-Ball—A large fungus, which, when pressed, sends out myriads of 
spores; it is sometimes used to subdue bees. 

Pulvilli—Adhesive disks on the last joint of an insect’s leg, p. 150. 

Pupa—Third stage of insects, that between larva and imago; also called 
nymph, p. 99. 

Pygidium—Last joint of abdomen. 


Queen—Mother-bee, p. 102. 

Queen-Cage—Cage for introducing queen, p. 312. 

Queen-Cell—Cell in which queen is reared, pp. 100, 111. 

Queenless—Having no queen. 

(Queen-Rearing—Rearing of queens, p. 273. 

Queen Register—Card to show state of hive as to queen, p. 291. 

Queen’s Voice—Noise wade by queen like piping; true voice, p. 168. 

Queen-Yard--Box with perforated zinc, to keep a clipped queen from 
being lost when she comes out with aswarm; alsocvalled queen-trap. 

Quilt—Cover for brood-frames, consisting of two cloths containing wool 
or cotton sewed together, p. 223. 

Quinby Hive--Large Huber style of hive, p. 235. 

Quinby Franie—Large frame 1815 by 1114 inches, p. 227. 

Quincunx— W here things in rows alternate, thus,.° - 


Rabbet— Where one side of the edge of a board is planed down for a short 
distance, p. 216. 

Race—Breed. Where a variety has been closely bred so long as to trans- 
mit its peculiarities to its offspring. Race is a natural breed, p. 52. 

Rack—Crate or case; section-rack. 

Rectal Glands—Glands in the rectum, p. 146. 

Rectum—Large intestine, p. 146. 

Rendering Wax—Melting and cleaning wax, 367. 

Reversing—Inverting; turning bottom up, pp. 229, 339. 

Rhomb—Four equal sided figure, two of whose opposite angles are equal 
and acute, the others equal and obtuse. 


GLOSSARY. 525 


Ripe Honey—Honey that has cured or evaporated, soit is thick, p. 327. 
Robbing—When bees steal honey from another colony, p. 473. 
Royal Jelly—Food fed to queen-larvee, p. 108. 


Saliva—Secretion of the mouth, p. 91. 

Scape—Base of antenna, p. 69. 

Scouts—-Bees that go forth just before swarming to find and prepare the 
new home, p. 166. 5 

Seal—To close. 

Sealed Brood—Brood in cells that the bees have capped, p. 162. 

Sealed Honey—Honey in cells that are capped, p. 183. 

Section—Small frame for comb honey, 239. 

Seminal Vesicle—Sac to hold sperm-cells or semen, p. 93. 
Separator—Wood or tin strip, very thin, for separating sections, so that 
bees will build straight and true combs, p. 250. . 

Septum—Base between cells of comb; incorrectly called midrib, p. 182. 

Sholtz Candy—Good candy; sugar and honey mixed; invented years ago 
by Sholtz, a German, p. 318. 

Skep—Straw hive, such as were used in olden times. 

Smell—Sense located in antenne of insects, p. 70. 

Smoker—Instrument used to smoke or quiet bees, p. 348. 

Smyrnian Bees—A variety or race of bees froma province—Smyrna—in 
Asiatic Turkey, p. 58. 

Species—Animals so long bred as to have distinctive characteristics more 
fixed, p. 52. 

Spent Queen—One sterile with age, p. 118. 

Spermatheca—The sac off oviduct of queen that holds the sperm, p, 104. 

Spermatozoe—Sperm-cells; the male element or fecundating principle, 

124. 


Siniae berindling—linpid dying of bees in the spring, p. 466. 

Stand—Support of hive. Incorrectly used for colony. 

Starter--A small piece of comb or foundation fastened to the top-bar of a 
hive, 295. 

Sterile Queen—One that does not lay, or whose eggs do not hatch, p. 118. 

Sting—The organ of defense of bees, wasps, etc., p. 156. 

Stock—Wrongly used for colony; if used at all it should refer to bees, 
hive and all. 

Stomach— Where the food is mainly digested, pp. 90, 143. 

Stomach-Mouth—Organ at base of honey-stomach, p. 142, 

Storify—Used in England for adding upper stories to hives. 

Storifying—English, tiering up. 

Strain—A variety, as a strain of bees, developed by the bee-keeper. 

Strained Honey—Honey strained through a cloth, not extracted honey. 

Sulphur—A yellow mineral used to fumigate honey. ; ; 

Super—Upper story, either for extracted honey or honey in sections,p.214. 

Supersede—-To replace with another. 

Swarm-_-Bees that leave hive in natural division, p. 166. 

Swarming-Basket—Basket to convey swarm from place of clustering to 
hive, 297. 

Swarming Impulse or Fever—Desire of the bees to swarm. 

Swarming Season—Season of year when bees are likely to swarm. 

Syrian Bee—Race of yellow bees from Northern Palestine, p. 55. 


Taking up Bees—Destroying bees to get the honey. Rare now. 
Tarsus—Last one to five joints of insect leg; foot, p. 79. ; 
Tested Queen—One proved pure by examination of her offspring. 


526 GLOSSARY. 


Thorax—-Second part of insect’s body, p. 64. 

Tibia—Fourth joint of an insect’s leg, from the body, p. 79. 

Tibial Spur—Spur at end of tibia, p. 79. ; 

Tier Up—Setting additional stories or supers of sections on a hive. 
Tongue—Sucking tube of bee, p, 132 

Trachee—Air-tubes or turbular lungs of insects, p. 81. 
Transferring—Removing colony of bees from one hive to another, p. 258. 
Transformations--Changes from larva to pupa to imago, p. 96. 
Travel-Stain—Soil of comb when left long in hive. 

Trochanter—Second joint of insect’s leg, 79. 


Uncapping—Cutting caps from comb-cells, p. 325. 
Unfertile—Queen or eggs that can not produce young. 
Uunicomb Hive—Hive with one comb and glass sides; observatory hive, 


Uniting—To put two or more colonies into one, p. 465. 
Unqueening—Removing queen from colony. 

Unripe—Thin honey; honey not cured or evaporated, p. 327. 
Unsealed—Applied to honey and brood when not capped. 
Untested Queen— One whose purity has not been demonstrated. 
Urinary Tubules—Tubes attached to the stomach of a bee, p. 9u. 


Variety—Division of a race; a strain, p. 52. 

Veil—Protection for face, p. 344. 

Velum—Part of antenna cleaner, p. 148. . 
Ventilation—C hanging the air so it shall be constantly pure. 
Virgin—Unmated queen. 


Wax—Secretion formed between the abdominal segments of worker-bees, 


Wax-press—Press for expressing wax, p. 371. 

Wax-extractor—Device for separating the wax from comb, p. 367. 

Wax Plates or Pockets—Place where the wax-scales form on the underside 
of a worker-bee, p. 155. 

Wedding Flight—Flight of queen to mate with the drone, p. 112. 

Wild Bees—Bees in the forest, etc., with no owner. 

Wind-Break—High fence or evergreen hedge to protect from wind, p. 253. 

Winter-Passages—Holes through the center of combs so bees can pass 
through, p. 456. 

Wired-Frames—Frames with opposite sides connected with fine wire, pp. 


230, 364. 

Worker-Bees—The undeveloped females; the bees that do the work ex- 
cept that of egg-laying. 

Worker-Eggs—Eggs that develop into workers, p. 129. 

Worm—-Term usually applied to a larva; really a footless cylindrical 
animal like an angle-worm, p. 31. 


INDEX. 


A B Cof Bee-Culture.. 


Abnormal swarming .......... 
Absconding swarms........... 
prevented: sos views: enue e 
CMOS a2. io wririe arsssraaserat sare dPeueiatee 
Advanced bee-culture 
Adulteration ......... 
ALTier SWATTIS. ¢ 2.050.054 sseke 
Agamic reproduction 
BAP CUES. aasne errs 46 Seed eiwsinne 
AlbinO De@8 os «ccc: eves weet & 
VPA E RE pre istaielenarcvesasieaddtes Gennes 
figure of.......... 
Alighting-board .............. 2 
Alimentary canal........... 
Alley queen-rearing........... 
Ashe CLOVER cick a eee oad é 
BOUT Ol... sen shana eee 41 
Amateur bee-keepers....13, 16, 305 
American Bee Journal ........ 22 
American Bee-Keeper......... 23 
Anatomy of honey-bee........ 1u2 
Anatomy of insects. .o.4 . 0s 64 
Antenna cleaner .............. 148 
Meare OF. 6.ccacscnen diese oh 148 
PUUCHON Ol cans scene se i554 149 
PION NEE facia views Suede aioe 70 
description of....... 70 
figure: Of a. wogisg snes wee, “OD 
function of............... 70 
Bmell Organs cs. 2 eco neste 70 
DOE on eased gw Cae eee ses 37, 500 
WIOVIda. 00.254 sore cites ead s 501 
Apatus (cuckoo bees)......... 43 
DDIG ca: sssrahd si wieicteon tina wae esentisians 390 
ls eee 
grape-vine . 
‘grounds of.......... on 
SPOVE LOE oa275 2 eves ewes 
location Of.............665 


shade £60 45 onaqs es 8 4 ke 


DITOR Oe sccsnie sae cenarrh ceoweerae.s 350 
ADIG sine donne s aathtg toes shad 39, 
BOOGICS Olu enn ona ee 45 
wholly foreign......... 48, 52 
Apis COPrsalas..cacs+ aes eeos 4 48 
FIP UTC OF 35 scsidioeieh wiceaes é 49 
Apis melilera: coc, «ex cane oy 52 
Apparatus for comb honey.... 239 
April honey-plants....,....... 40t 


Arachnida ............ ...B4, 85 
Aristotle... . .58, 59 
ATEDPOPOO A. 6.x vas se cae sie 8 31 
PRION a p pxcdis d ncehee'e nie ae 31 
APMC). TOTERSE «esis eek ve 303 
Method Oly ess 5 sasees sea 2% 303 
Asparagus................ 0088 443 
Associations .................. 375 
SAS LOMB’: hci cceiese chaise tuned i Saved vane des 449 
figure Offs see cciove evce ees 447 
ARAOMB i225 sales 5 Wleh 5-2 tiene eels 515 
PADI 26 s.r cones 2 Seeresend Sanava s seeeged tia 38 
description Of ., crs y sass 38 
RIVE OL 94 Aessvive eceud a ceasucters 38 
Bacon NOC eyev ye cbees aes He 488 
PUL OL. ids Wetinacinis es 488 
Baker, Mrs. L. B.............. 18 
Balling of queen.............. 312 
BANOMNB J hazii elnedts Gane eee ties ea 409 
Barberry’: vccea thax cates anckss 408 
PBS IG clon aia Sasoacase 409 
WAG ss cancxaeed acd Aeedwd 389 
WONTOl. a bcs sv cer ies 389 
honey from............... 390 
how to kill............... 390 
Barrels for honey ......... 333, 378 
POMPOM os nace eens che 8 pe 
soft wood 


528 INDEX. 
Bee-books (see books) ........ 24 | Bee-Moth—(Continued): 
Bee-bread (see pollen) ........ 186 
Bee-dress ...... 0... ee eee eee 345 figure of.............. 484 
for ladies................. 345 description of............. 48% 
Bee-enemies .................. 482 figure of................-. 484 
Bee-escapes................... 340 fumigation Pia cucee hy oye 487 
figure of..............000. 8341 PROS OE cud actus weed 
Bee-glue (see propolis)........ 190 __ figure of.. 
function of............... 190 history of .... 
Bee-hat..........0ccceee eee 3d4 remedies for.............. 
figure Ofiaie detets sonny Sleantee nts 345 WCC aii Mus ie ai Seas acacia ee 
B@C-ha@WK cence dann eases oe 497 figure of.............. 
PUG BE pias s neous ein eae 497 | Bee-papers— 
B€e*biveSe-nsaisg exer ¢ eee se 207 American Bee Journal..... 29 
DeO-HO UGG. aioe dbase as non 461, 469 American Bee-Keeper..... 23 
AUTO Ofe eevee cau caves AA Se 470 Bee-Keepers’ Review...... 23 
for winter ................ 461 British Bee Journal....... 25 
Bee-journals................-. 22 Canadian Bee Journal.... 23 
Bee-keepers— Gleanings in Bee-Culture.. 23 
farmers as ............. 3, 14 Lone Star Apiarist........ 24 
IM CI1ti6s opi veces rete Progressive Bee-Keeper... 24 
Cl 18, I? | Bee-pasturage ................ 389 
Bee-Keepers’ Review 23 | Bee-poison...... Ges Saihhest aah te 14 
Bee-Keeping for Beginners.... 25 inoculated with, < nsec x ease 14 
Bee-keeping.................. 901 | Bee-space..................0.. 217 
aids the nation............ 20 | Bee-stabber................... 496 
BIAS TO) cdr asticcctaser oa 21 figure of.................. 496 
attending coventions.. 21 BOOS secrete ccycy x canine dastese ee 38, 102 
HOOKS en sun 94 SPEDE ost ea ds dcr eae 31 
PAS 2 ok die Sse an 22 collections of .... ie 
visiting bee-keepers... 21 diseases of....... we .. 475 
for women................ 17 do not injure fruit........ 394 
inducements to........... 14 do not injure flowers...... 304 
preparation for ........... 201 handling of............... 34 
proceeds from ............ 20 how tomove.............. 
PLOPESIOL csiecesn cots v scedy sive 15 kinds of in colony 
requisites to successful.... 21 ABW Aes ccieey jennie epee te 
enthusiasm........... 27 MOVING... ... 2 eee eee ee . 
experience............ 21 natural history S, 
mental effort.......... 21 oye eee 
promptitude.......... 26 8 DG see ee eee eee mg 
Bee-killers.................05. 488 sold by the pound,........ 386 
Georgia .................. 491 epecies Of................. 52 
figure of USCCOL tienen dasiawe salad g 18, 395 
Louisiana ................ which are best... ci. + 305, 310 
figure of who may keep............ 13 
Missouri.................. amateurs ............. 13 
figure of.............. specialists ............ 18 
Weienen SPH ie nadie? 490 who should not keep...... 14 
BCC OU ac dae Gouna cies ed 499 | Beesand honey............... 25 
MOONE OL cay wees yo 8g aa 499 | BeeSWaXii vs cacin sees yates 364 
B@G-Mit6. i. ie escen dein dca we BOG | SET bu. 6 ciwuwvewe u vous 332, 351 
WG Ola eee sca d ee 5UG FIGULE Of soe ees asee 332, 851 
Beene ters scaed pine. aay ee 482 ROG Rie Sa nens ebere sous yey 332 
COCOONS OF ese cnn navews ar 454 figure Of,............. 332 


INDEX. 


Beetles ties ceseqeieuidccssed enc 36 
DRCOM 2 crete Sioyoce wre teataiee es 488 
figure of.............. 488 
DUB Gr sssces 2 cadhes wcencaccens 504 
figure of.......... 505 
MNOS fey xt cre ipe tne, a aes 488 
HEUTE! OL ss sees esaseene esa 488 
BOGATCES 5 is. ccsenictictes g heoed eee 262 
hunting .......... . +. 262 
Bee-veil .......... 344 
figure of. 345 
Beggar-ticks.......... ....... 4 


Benton, Fran 


Black gum................0004 
Black sage...............00005 
figure of..... 
Blister beetles ................ 
HgUre Obi x aiineee neice vs ves 505 
Block for frame making....... 231 
figure of 2 
Blood of insects 
Blue-gum,.................... 
Blue-thistle (viper’s bugloss) .. 
Boardman’s wax-extractor .... 
FEO C OL iss. sak eect cid csare 370 
Bokhara clover............... 420 
BOMDUS ss secsises sc cievendse wamons on 39, 40 
Bonese ti i:c-¢ sas ancunes tee ve te 439 
FFU OF oioce decades 6 visyece tas 438 
BOOKS? ec csreasiey ¢tucre 5 ¢ , 57, 191 
ABC of Bee-Culture..... 24 


Advanced Bee-Culture.... 25 
Bee-Keeping for Beginners 25 


Bees and Bee-Keeping..... 25 
Bees and Honey........... 25 
ORCI Dose ohn ace ovine 25 


529 


Books— (Continued): 


Scientific Bee-Keeping .... 25 
The Honey-Bee........... 26 
Borage 


figure of 
Box for packing hives ........ 458 
Box-hivesi icine oscre 4 thee erasayi sens 207 


figure of............ 
Branch Arthropoda 


Bridal trip.............. a 12 
Brimstone............ 342, 380, 487 
British Bee Journal........... 25 


fiGUre.Of, caves cvcae ss, 330 
Buckthorn.................... 409 
Buckwheat ................... 448 

HEUTE: Of esis: dea atraeseres aus 445 
WANG ce secsee a acaratece:b danlone cies 430 
TUG Of5 v.ccns doves s ase 431 
Bumble-bees.............. .. 40 
Burying bees .. 406 
Button-bush. .. 440 
Hur OF siascia sacked aseouie. ae ate 439 

BGs ocnies 2 aes 25 287, 311, 317, B18 
figureof...... 285, 311, 312, 317 
for queens... .287, 311, 317, 319 
PUB gobs use eae ReeR Z 
PERG 2 sssyscdniahnals seokovreseneeets 

Caging queens............ 

Cale alt cachuce ss scan a. erdekea orachoess 

California bee-killer........... 
fFUPCO ba sacias cea 

Canadian Bee Journal. 

Candied honey........ 


reliquified ........... pense 


Sian fen hee als aie 318, 
ptsrsnciseeduenae Ss cces 318, 


for extracted honey.... 
uncapping................ 
Carbolic acid 
for foul brood 
to quiet bees.............. 
Carniolan bees............. 57, 
description of............. 
figure of 
Carpenter bees. 
Cases 


one story 
plain section............-. 
Southard 


Catnip.... 
Cell 


Cellar 
Centipedes ... 

Benton 

UTC OCs Senior cases 08 Kaban te 
Chaff hive 

AES Ds w tse dicate 6 
Chapman’s honey-plant 
Cheshire . .25, 72, 107, 233, 303, 
Chinquapin 
Chitine 


Kita wes aw as eines eeue eRe 
figure of 


Claws 

‘figure of 
Cleansing flight. ............. 
ClOONG sonis'4 da ag vents Suet 439, 


POW GONE... cade naked ae cman 
Clover 


crimson 


red 


INDEX. 
457 | Clover—(Continued): 
457 
378 SWOCU se tien y Wet bean ets 
378 WHILE ocho cites earsniet & 
93] | Clustering............ 
479 figure of.. 
47g | Clute, O..... 
349 7 Clypets oo... cece eee 
310 | Cocoon— 
57 OL DEO B ise se vriivie siad. aie Sets ase 162 
Of INSeCtS i. v sia zeiee sak 100 
of queen.... 110 
Coggshall brush . -- + 130 
ABUTS Ol) occas ccusiere totes: 130 
Cold-draft smoker ............ 348 
College bee-house............. 469 
MOUS OL. 6 coc taans Su bon 470 
249 | Colonies, how to move........ 319 
247 | Columella 
: OMB ois oe ceases saunas: daneies cuemiera 
cells of 
fastening 
figure of 
how to keep........... 380, 487 
thickness of ............. 360 


S1ZO 7 Ole. so sicths recs tans or ececans terete 


ME UTO208 5 oe siches tra lniecuaete 


how made 


figure of......... : 
Comb-cutter..............0006 


Comb honey............4. 00. Be 
desirable ... . : 
high priced... 
how to secure 


remove queens........ 337 
restrict brood-chamber 33! 
strong colonies ....... 335 


swarming checked,... 


INDEX. 531 
Comb Honey—( Continued) : Dipping-board,............... 358 
marketing of Pipe e suc as a tila earn ee es 207 
_ Tules for Dinter 
shipping case for...... ... 281 | Diseasesof bees... 
figure of....... c:+----881, 882 | Dissecting microscope 
, stor d before shipping .... 380 figure of 
Comb s BD) s,s waits wsaias ores 6 | Dissection ................. 
Valentine’s 316 instruments for 
y figure of Dividing si. crave sien cages guace 
OUN GB ose ¥ sasces dactae cares method of 
figure of Division-board.. 
Compound eyes ficure of 
Copulation................. perforated-zine 
only once,................ use of 
kills the drone......... 95, 127 | Dollar queens ...............- 316 
Coral... aka fo ien 0s mien casa'gdece ts Se “E2st6 186 | Doolittle’s Queen-Rearing..... 25 
fossil honey-comb......... 186 | Dovetailed hive........... 1. 217 
é fee of Eure Ofc vaceen eSehesstcs es 217 
OTA DEITY we eee eee veer eee Driving bees.................. 25S 
Corbicula..............020. DONG F 5 gio. csc ncgeiedsced & hinecd ieee al 121 
WHLENGA OF 64st eh ees 123 
DPOOG Of: 2.0.43 kanes 126 
characters of ............. 12L 
COMDIOL is, 1s scorn eevacdes ntecshaare 18L 
eopulation OF .. ...wiseces. 12% 
destruction Of . < cu0sc ean «2 126 
development of........... 126 
OCB ESix. anni wes cael ie Ao 126 
GOUPOOT ces cov daa ee 122 
i Kove): G0] Seen See ee eee 126 
function :OL seve actsds oo04 ie 
SIANOS OL. si cec dene peau 125 
hesdObce + vicest ened awe 122 
+ PUPOO lies Secswas eng on 123 
NQULOOL, .eens sea wess sees 417 how 5 select ......... ... OSs 
Crustacea ........ 0.000... eens 84 Tem Ofcecadcans st cena once 123 
Cyprian THCOS soa Dds Naa bp, 310 firure of.............. 122 
description of............. 55 longevity of.............. 126 
Cuckoo bees.................. 45 mating of ....... 127 
Culver’s-root ................. 444 mouth parts of..........-. 122 
QUIVER Gs scence ehesbcaia's cierdicns spate 381 organs Of...............0. 123 
Cyprian bees............... 55, 310 figure of.............. 93 
PUPILS OF sacceecues cuetue'y 128 
DACA ts 35 6.., wexcieree.al cuteeye ectetas a 327 spermatozoa of........... 124 
pamphlet of occa. cs 379 figure of... .. 124 
Dadant’s uncapping-can ...... 381 testes of...... 12 
FIG UPS OL oo eee ieges ewes 882 figure Ofc soc u.ahhies 124 
Daisy foundation fastener..... 362 CPAP LOR as cewdea-ceypaiits xs: 285 
POLO OL cain Sa vg ance sied 362 “BRUTE OF 4 cacancdene 284 
Dalmatian bees............... 581 WEIGH Of) deve ss duos vauaes s 121 
Da OOO ano ex cne acy os Saneax 402 | DDrumimalne OUb, cence nanan ee 258 
DStAM CS cis si ciie oscars cose sed oe 85, 507 | Dufour’s theory .............. 146 
WIGX*TOSO 40; e's, shea iasiass wadetad dain! 172 | Dummy (see division-board) ., 222 
Digestive system of insects.... 89 Dunham foundation machine, 355 
HG UTO Of os55002 9 sears sacstos soy 81 ' Dzierzon theory...... guage kbd, 126 


BABE os ericwe'e uxten's tae PAGE ee 316 
NO OB OE sesh ve sheesh tala acute 315 
Valentine’s ............... 316 
WOUNQ Scie dens thas sa 316 

Bes ace bee Ree Ada HS 96, 104 
development of ........... 

FTA VINE. oe aoe eanwre omens ee 


Eggs of insects...............- 

figures of... 
Egyptian bees .. 
Enemies of bees 


PUTV GB chi sieve akjdies mauaye ee ne 
Florida ants wc waess. 501 
bacon-beetle .............. 488 
bee-hawks............-... 497 
bee-killers ............ 488, 507 
bee-stabber ............... 496 


MANTIS -04 ee ahre pages eens 6 503 


RES ica vais oe unkee a se 387 
what they should be.. . 387 
PRUTICIMB cy «sy en deawa duane 6 ae 61 
Family of honey-bee.......... 38 
Farmers as bee-keepers.13, 17, 300 
Favositescoral..............0. 186 
PORCS cos sce py ahs Lay RERTAG SE 91 
Fecundation, voluntary....... 116 
FGO0 TOU DGG. ccesa cewlae a nnas es 
how much.. 
howto.... 
PONE T OS sce ash oeka vee cs 
WHED! tO cies ae nore Gee 
REGGERS) 8 oceceietincigee sees Sena a 
close bottom-board for .... 271 
division-board ............ 267 
fiGlire Oli «i acees xas 267 
fruit-jars for.............. 268 
NGOUTO OF cn near x 268 
PICMGOM as o puns oa ceexs 270 
AiGULE Of. cess wees 271 
SUCKS ccc.. Macgontangnre cca tess 269 
figure Of.............. 269 


BPIGETS isc cake ebame eieeee 508 
stinging-bug.............. 493 
tachina-fly ..............0. 498 
eal Banca bdendgshere te: Matus 509 
WASPS obus vor. s cite eee ae 505 
Hatomolvoteal books....... 59, 191 
ENtran Ce... bec coats 214, 217 
Entrance-blocks ... = 
Entrance-guards... vp 
BOUTS Oli: s saga a cee ees 
Eucalyptus...............- 
figuTre:Of 2. sites eases Hees 
Extracted honey 
Dadant’s book on......... 327 
how to keep .............. 333 
management of ........... 327 
PIPOWINE OF es an cvad a dses 334 
Bxtracting. « ceic vecievscvea denen 329 
Extractor ..........00 0c eee 321, 367 
DONSY 6's aye dere ees hanes 321 
WAX jos Seana ena ty oath ed heen 367 
Eyes of insects................ %3 
compound .........0..008- 73 


illustrated... 7 


winter 


figure OL ses vices eens 
Fertilization by bees . 
FIG WOP 2.: 5 cs sede es af 
Pere 08 « wataieria eouney as 


BOUTS OT Was 5 ee we eee eens 
Flight of bees................ 
TARE OL, oon eran a dvacws 
Florvidaant, 1:05 5 oseew dane ewe 
PTE OF oo sect d eens Cea 
Flowers, fertilized by bees... .. 394 
Foot-power saw pe 
DETR ccs x Gives «ke ne ae mee 
Foreign books ................ 
Formalin 


Hewes Of. 2ca5 5% 


INDEX. 533 


Foul Brood—(Continwed): Galleberry: coca sueay cae x eens css 401 
TASS cacy x dean dees 480 1 Gallfies. ci. coe c ceca ceauaen 38 
PHENO ye. eseeag sce 479 | Gallup frame cc. cic cees 228 
salicylic acid.......... MS | AGATA oie vy whys vee eae ay 81 
Foundation................... BPS GODS ves ccvayant cars ed assdece ie Sk 44 
American...... é ADIS icin fea nas coat eee 44 
cutting of or the honey-bee.......... 44 
TAStONE? 4 ons cave ee German race ............... 52, 309 
figure of.............. 853 descriptiion of............ 52 
for brood-frames.......... 359 | Gill or ground-ivy............. 430 
TOF SECUONS. «cass cesar y see 360 | Gillette, Prof.............. 354, 360 
BISHOT POL os ewe cies eos 353 experiments withcomb.... 360 
how made ................ 857 experiments with fdn..... 354 
MACHINGB ie s0:5 vga sne es es BOE: || GHPALG soe tines pds ates 83, 104, 154 
figure of. .. 355 | Given press... . 857 
to fasten... ax BOL figure of.. 356 
MBO OL 19 tanked dele, Masur nes BOO: |, GBD AS itera csnecsirn actin vesonchowossenlert 136 
Weeds wien ancectien suadenss 356 figures of.......... 
Foundation cutter ............ 359 DE DROS sinc paige eae xo wees 
PEWTE OF ccna cadnd omens 359 OL TORCRT6 so ce sp dae nd ae 
Foundation machine.......... 855 Of larvae: scage views secu? 
DUBE ieee sawide s paiee 355 of Meckel................. 
figure Of. ...e ssc eevs > 855 of Ramdobr............... 
ROO iss istawe ene s vena yo 354 OL BUI «s panw sew, -euies 
Vat Deusen .. <cncncasaaes 356 OF CHOPAK oi. oes iaian e eseince s scence 
Foundation press ............. 357 functions of .. 
APULC Of a vessccse sewed pam 356 of upper head... 2... ...4 


functions of .......... 137 


Glucose : 

Langstrotn...4siers seas es Golden honey-plant ........... 440 

reversible.............-065 GOVE oa 32 eho 626s toa aes 

figure of figure of 

BOCUONE bude nye eeead oad 244 | Good candy................... 
BPACID Dc iiassa! sisane cst ee Ose Bh Grading honey............ 373, 384 
WIG. 5 weeds cones i setae ae PCUPOOL. oc pean tein xe 373, 384 
figure of .. Granulated honey. ....... 175, 328 
Frame hives ...... .. 209 | Grapes and bees............... 894 
Munn 2 yenscinincs ihe Grape-vine apiary . 255 
figure of figure of...... , 257 
DeBeauvoys Grounds for apiary..... wee 203 
Frame-making........ mista we made safe in city.......... 254 
bloc: LOL: cde secees eae Grove for apiary .......... 258, 256 
figure of TUS 3c canna 3 eens eee 98 
Fruit,sound,not injured by bees a Guide-comh. cas xieevisane 228, 364 
feeder ibs cere sharers wiaseca a8 ; 
roi jer Oh a vclulends awe 4 OC | Tamdline Dees oc... e500 ccenaes 343 


Fumigation ..........-.+6 380, 487 | Harrison, Mrs. L.............. 17 


534 


Heuser acs sexs s sets weatnls vanes 


Hearing in insects ............ 
Heart of insects... i...0 cass 04 

PO FE Se ss oak duke keds 
Heath bees ... ws 
Heddon feeder.. 


INDEX. 


AGUTC Oly cicaln eras ogee 2 
Heddon hive.................. 
POUT Ole aice esha ude ee ee 
Heddon L. hive............... 
PPUTC Oo sisia sea See eaereat 2 
Heddon surplus-case,......... 
PUTCO. occurred yntenienaders 
Hercules’ club................ 
Hermapbhrodites ..... 
Herzegovinian bees .. ee 
OS GOVICE oe cece inc cus a 
GENO OF os oaks cauen ween es 
HL, Hlagry Bo. y wegeraus < vedy 
DVO Se 8 8 gana Ath ie etc lin 
Bingham, wi. tases Se enacts 
Re pen ote WAS S Gees 
QT ene Jha she ERASE 8 215, 459 
ROVER OE fy axed yuna medie se 220 
DeBeauvoys...........505 210 
GOVOUMNE. wes sexes esas ees 2 
figure of 
DAO ex shee een eee 
entrance tO ........... 
PIRI OU & cotor weet a een De ah 
figure of 
CG Ot Uy 65. vecwe Java on 
figure of 
Faber sce ics 
kind to buy 
Langstroth 
figure of.............. 210 
TOPE? TOP os once vious pee 213 
AMDT Dy 55 ec atevesh ve seaicierarterio’s 209 
ASUS Of. vac gscesc es 209 
observatory.............-. 238 
figure Of. 2. cece dus 238 
one-story ..........-.-008- 218 
PI UTS: Oban atesrerd nate ss 212 
PIGORIOE uae pais 2Geee es 254 
CUINDY oo ales sehen eee nese 235 
DeUTe Ole s ceivdenh aces 235 
FEVErSIDIG:...5 ccbaccaake eee 224 
Senmidty novices os 4 geese x ere 210 
PSO ea sets tasiecog esgines dias tue te Brees 226 
SipNCUy sea y cede a vance en 213 


Hive— (Continued): 


two-story ............. 213, 218 
FIBUTE 2Of 8 se, siecle -eevctocss 213 
LUV AN yo ceasleee essed, wes Gn wieren gcd 297 
HI GUNE Obie esis 'evek 2 seakeinees 298 
Hiving-basket ................ nie 
LOM Maa TTRMOS 2 oc wads c Kone xs 233 
MEULES MOL. 3 secon Widcsww wens vtec as 233 
BONO Tse eles 4 BS ak Pres hae teas 171 
albumen of............ 171, 178 
analysis of................ 172 
composition of........ 171, 1738 
TOU DOOM Se sic vin a. wrarnie'a's 373 
from cider-mills........... 394 
TROUE MB PLO is 6 eae cae es 394 
FPOUE SAD. 6 ccd se ceve a yaceas 394 
from stubble.............. 394 
function of ............... 176 
PTA OIN Gees cco is stesiste scecyiccs 373 
granulation of ........ 175, 328 
recipes for use ........... 384 
ripening of ............... 334 
BOUTCCIOL 5 s.c63. aniedianands ae deh 
Lestsel Ono ssn we saln-< uote bs 172 
WHOA NC feiss 6 seocw cd 172 
HOMEY DOC oss. eccccey 6 eae es oe en's 102 
DANG DOF ease aviaerv a eis one 31 
natural history of......... 102 
Honey-board (slatted) ........ 219 
queen-excluding ...... 218, 338 
Honey-comb,.............0.85 179 
COLIBIOR 9. s.e raed ciense Setierarats 179 
description of............. 179 
figure Of. csinasy weds oe 181 
POSSI coccis Seishdoa aihcay dh ydeeorse 186 
figure of .......... 184, 185: 
not uniform .............. 180 
opaque, why...... .....-. 184 
strength of ............0.. 183 
PPANSLUCOH Eke eeca ve 184 
thickness of .............. 179 
Honey-combcoral............. 186 
figures of ............. 184, 185 
Honey-dew................ 389, 393 
Honey-extractor .............. 821 
American................. 328 
figure of 
automatic ..............88 
figure of 
cover for ................. B25 
good points in ............ 223 
DISQOPY OF cor cacerdinas awa s x 321 
Airis hase ..ci,¢ 3 aieresnse ee 321 
WhEN tOUSE ss wie s vee os 327 


Honey-locust 


INDEX. 


Honey-knife ................86 325 


figure of 


figure of 


Honey-plants...............4. 889 


pea Siesad SEE Kecaea ETERS 401 
BOOT baa emuar dl Ramee ad 
DANAND sw sissahs es harescnnien e's 


barberry .. 
asthe a's sacra dais os Same: § 


beggar-ticks .............. 449 
bergamot <.iiasde dese vostee 4389 
BORDON oc aed Fetes caewe 427 
DlAGK GUM e020 aeene eee 409 
WGC SB OG aig tanaka 408 
BISOG-TOOty yc. yee 55 eee 402 
BING PONE sins ccore cus 406, 445 
Bokhara-elover. .an-¢c4245 420 


COLAIDS ses 8 hie Ses cand ea sisi 
CALNIP: ox sous enaieyterdic 
Chapman’s 
chinquapin ok 
CLOVER: 5. 5 ahs esincel vss tees 


cow-pes.. 
cresson 
Culver’s root ...........6 444 
Candelionivs ¢ cies g cies eco 402 
Co UH ee 0). 3] 0 ¢ ae ee oe ee 413 
eucalyptus......... .1..0e 406 
TOWOTY «cv aeade news SH 395, 4385 
fireweed 2... ...cesnans tees 450 
fog-fruit... 
sy hcg ‘4 


Collen honey-plant ....... 440 
goldenrod ............-+-- 449 


Honey-Plants— (Continued): 


HOartsewse .cou edea cee 9% oe 448 
Hereules’ elub...... 22... 449 
honey-locust.............. 430 
HOreWOUN cus ae tex ee acd 422 


Jessamine: fc ever sexe ae 442 
FG ureOf hs scan deekies 442 
Judas-tree .......... 0.0008 404 
DULY: DANES! 5-306 sgecave a.teen os 432 
SUT WANES nas a ce ew aces 2 413 
Hiver-leal xu cons si sea ee 402 
CIS cai a Whichaniann poker eed 428 
POROING a5 ccAka a ts eee 420 
Vip it 0 55 javatens: seactoe-s cadens’ eee 430 
PONE sis oscars veaen aves 431 
WA NMOW ei oe ede we mee es 431 
malva .. . 444 
mangrove. .. 447 
POMUZON INA, 62 oss gy has olen 405 
THAPIO® : sceciecs cased sere exept 402 
March cvs. sedans weary athens 401 
matrimony-vine........... 430 
May plants ............... 401 
MNESQUUIEE: tase sghese-s Bucci sw tae 404 
mignonette .............. 421 
MOC Weetl.. cay, «cee apese a 423 
TOE abound nnra a .. 422 
mountain-laurel ... .. 441 
mountain-mint............ 443 
motherwort............... 422 
MAUSTA EG catsg teeidinccassAvew a vues 424 
OUR Bs 55 catuecs Seegewhatetebbeds Boeke 422 
OVAN GO ice stains adiernadvans ate 401 
palmetto ...........-. 411, 445 
PAM Sexes ease elas ase 412, 445 
partrid@espee: «aso saan eeme 429 
DEDDEGR 2 date eee see TO es 406 
persimmons .............. 409 
pleurisy-root.............. 423 
POPES fone Mone cate alas 405 
TAD OC isedicrateiciavenc reas doteted tse 425 
PASPDOLLY: so. csoeagde es 397, 427 
rattle-snake root.......... 440 
PO OM. cican danke cnda etry 445 
Rocky Mountain bee-plant 439 
SADC satcice ee sdiesecuyeveees deena 9 ha 42 
saw-palmetto . 
skunk-cabbage. 
SOUE-CUM 2d cat vise oats 
BOUL WOOK 5 csv sks 5 ease 


536 INDEX. 

Honey-Plants— (Continued): Tmerease of colonies. ¢ ecncse os 
: : eo prevented................. 
special planting........... 452) Indian currant................ 
spider-plant .............. 452 Indian plantain............... 
ee Sage ce ae a Inducements to bee-keeping... 
panish-needie.......,.... adaptation to women...... 

St. John’s-wort ........... 443 aidsthe nation 
stone CrOp...........000 Sh |) ee aatiamets Haus senate Fe 


sugar-maple........... ‘ 


SAC a us ae thaw eew ure x ee 
sweet clover . 
table of....... 
Be Sah pu kan WO ein 0A 
tick-seed.. 0... 2... eee. 
CWP tous <aurWenchars rales 
VALUMONE oie, Menudo gues one 
VANRISNATOG «ces vee gown ae 
VERDORGS, wis te ce eeuw ee ee 
viper’s-bugloss............ 
Virginia-creeper 
WHOS bse cock cian decals hou é 
white clover 
WHEE BOGE oa ace on. 
WIOW ss p2be vans yeaa 397, 403 
willow-herb....... 395, 897, 450 
WSOPE: et eeu cane Ye 407 
Honey-stomach .............. 148 
PB UPE OL. id ea cutters testcase) ee 142 
Honey-vinegar................ 386 
Horehound ...... 422 
Horsesstung. . .. 206 
FLOTSONIN yo Gas wake a une dae 409 
AGUS OF 8 ose sic sis Benes Mane 412 
Horse-power...............0.. 251 
GO UPO OE os6s ce Gakx ers nee 251 
House-apiary ................. 468 
BORO oo uiasy sg wise ow ae BS 468 
OO WHEE ak aka dae 6 ee 469 
GUIS OE, « aves viele us 469 
PEO esse 95 Kc aul Be wis es 821 
Huber, Francis............. 22, 103 
FVUDOR DIVE: S055 sashie winteae el scenekecens 234 
objection to............... 238 
Hum of insects,.............. 122 
Hummarian Dees... nce ca cans 58 
Hunting bee-trees.  .......... 262 
Hutchinson, W. Z............. 23 
HiyienOptere .. io. 6 cua cand a 35 
description of............. 35 
highest of insects....... 36, 388 
Ichneumon flies............... 37 
PUNO os oes oie y eagle wteR ney 145 
Imago state... 26. eee eee 101 
Teipret nation os 4es evens 116, 127 
Increase, artificial............. 303 


excellence for amateurs. .. 
GIVES: 100 6 cseicigs enay eras 
mental discipline.......... 
pollinates flowers ......... 
DIDHUS, one dake Xeon oes 


TBC ae ins vaca ace «ae 


PPV T peed cuse ee eee wes 
UPB OR: aicudon sfdunsectne Gyih nies a0 
respiration. Of 4 .eas evas as xe 
Internal anatomy of insects... 
Intestines,..............406 
figureof.... 
Introducing-cage. 
Introduction of queen 
Simmins’ method 
very valuable 
TRON= WCE gees stence cneag olan 
Italianizing ............... 306, 
Italian race ................ 53, 
description of 
figure of 
history of 
OE GT acti Las Bayan ¢ 
points of excellence in .... 


Japan buckwheat 
J apan privet 


figure of 


JOURN ox siece a casters 48 Ricievce’ : 
American Bee Journal.... 
American Bee-Keeper 
Bee-Keeper’s Review 
British Bee Journal 


Gleanings in Bee-Culture. . 
Lone Star Apiarist........ 
Progressive Bee-Keeper ... 


7, B11, 317, 


INDEX. 537 


UNCAPDINE ng coos ca wea vs 325 
Krainer bees (see Carniolan) .. 57 
Tea Dit. oyectniudsdsae ken nets 66, 131 
EMO OUI 6.) scacie's chaste’ cn ose ceatnens 66 
Ladies’ bee-dress.............. 345 
LOvUlOS€: 6655 esis cents a aoe es 172 
Lamp-nursery ..............4. 286 
LANGOINS: + suse ccroans Shale wees ee 

THEORY. Of: oo ccicanceeen s totes 122 
Langstroth, Rev. L. L......... 211 
Langstroth frame....... . 227 
Langstroth hive..... .. 210 


figure of... 


EWO-BUOLY 2 pecs ween seen 210 
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee. 24 
Larval worker ................ 161 

LOC WAG ics eccusidesgarns eaves 161 

figure Of»). joucide calace se: 433 
Laying workers............... 180 

caused by................ 131 

destroyed................. 290 

ovaries Of................. 130 

figure of.............. 130 

why present.............. 131 
Larva of bees................. 39 
Larva of insects............... 98 

PIG UTE Of. 5 o55)4.2 wasertecavonen a 100 

great eaters............... 98 

moulting of............... 98 
WBCP OTL Gia sace acenecayist aeseanacs. snnsaann cece 61 
Leeeo8 mseCtse. yo ceawn cacy x oes 79 
Lepidoptera ... . 86 
Leuckart... ..103, 104 
POUR oie shee wake yp oe e 66, 133 
Ligurian bee (see Italian) ..... 53 

AM GUPE OF. vay sates os ea ee 4 
WANG ON f-isicie cd etitrarndrnetene ghee es 432 
MING DOCS: 5.0.8 c ate scenes siete a 20 262 

PON BUS eH « «evn lwaetde raphe Ye 60 
TLODBEOR  eos5-suseses 2 Wide stinker 34 
TOCUSE. sciee’n wesntieteacabese setae 898 428 

ficurevOf cds tvcananras.2% 428 
Lubboek.... ...... Nea geucet 76, 77 
TEC OIE gs 9 aa pais Sx Semis Gay Fs 420 
Lumber for hives ............. 212 

right side out.. .. 212 


figure of. es 
Bupinesicccisda sonics sais os 430 


figure of......... Ga Sier een 415 
Malpighian ........... ere 90, 145 
Mandibles.................... 66 


figure of .............. 
March honey-plants 
Marketing .......... 


CASES BOP ie cv ies nieces 5 
cases fOr... 1... .. ce eee eee 
figure of 


MO is Sev Feu netawaarwar's 
QUCONE Oe Nan ab needa e da 


Marriage-flight 
Mason bees................... 
Mating of queen 
Matrimony-vine 


IMEC TGUIIIN s cosnacnre acentustopantisun cxebagecelons 


IMTOO hess ciacesa coumadin soak a era 
MOE ese bchas tek aces oe 
MIGIOSCODE: say pass cake asda o 0x 

figure of 
Mignonette ..... 

figure of. 
Mills WeeG } s jes-sisinec cid vaiiea dae 


538 INDEX. 
Milkweed—( Continued) Open sections................. 240 
pollen OF Jax wees ae ass 424 | Order of honey-bee ........... 35 
TIQUTC Ol iden aes die Gece BE, AVIS 5 aces oe ade 48% Sha So werg 43 
Miller, Dr. C. C............... AG “ONAPIOS 5 5 0533502 cic esas eaeces 93 
Millipeds ..i4 y unos eeess cakes vac 34 MUTC OL sce ae secs shins ack 94 
IMGT CTY aoe clk 2) Sete coha den anne eae 35 of laying workers......... 130 
Mints... a. atacde ae peat each oa 422 figure of 
AG UTC HOT: a dirs cons araressnels 38 422 Of WORK Ef ie eee es a are 
AE cud eacauticed Shaucgantis ee 506 figure of. . 
PiguTe® Offs sos 2 vee veecies 35% DOG | OVA b ies accsean ci seoeseed isla vie ee 
Moth (see bee-moth).......... 482 
MOUDErWOPtss sis x pads ned se ee 422 | Packing-box .................. 458 
HQ UNE: Of 55 cane cteuarveanceied a 423 FGUTE: OF. cose sissies a wesc e's 458 
Mountain-laurel . 00065. ees 441 | Pails forhoney................ 3t7 
BOUPOO oo ven eyed Hees V2 441 fgure-Of: sasuwsnen y eae se oer 
Mountain-mint ............... 
Mouth organs.............. 
MOTO aise ent onions 


Movahle-frame hives 


history of.. 


Moving bees.... 


Moving colonies .............. 319 
Min WAV 6 iso eces i decadent tle, See 
figure of 
Muscles of insects 
Mustard. wcsiccs dais acecconsed eee se 
figure of 
WG, U7, Moon 4b cecegle temo ay ok 
Muth bottles 
figure of 
Myriopods........... 

WOCIRi is ss neavwso lab eaters ws 
digestion fs 
Nervous system of insects..... 81 

figure: Of eciaa eee es 81, 82 

OL VAR VIC ie ccgonatae este notte 83 
fGUTS Ofc sc.es ws eens 84 

DUCE COS os scr scca ow mca 129 
New bee-disease .............. 481 
Newman, Thomas G........... 22 
INUCIE ious DincmrGaes eens 281 
hives: fOPn: occ wkex belied. 281 
TOW OUIIE oy coca ny ee ae 282 
Doolittle’s plan....... 283 

TSEC DERS cua veg he mua eae d 164 
WI RROE os paces wd neeen S axes O58 286 
JAMAD: othe a styne sce waewsietonss 286 
UMC OD eek ecaie a alag Wendie 286 
Nymph 99 


Papers (see bee-papers) ....... 22 
PBTAGIOSEB 5.5 cuios- a5 sensia wares a’ 8 67 
MPATASILES ccs sei seoe 5 ccarsindl execces ace 37 
Parker foundation fastener 361 
TOUTE OF cca & pawn enasee 861 
Parthenogenesis «. ...4.4 ease os 114 
Partridge-pea,................ 429 
EOL 4 i cee kaa ode 429 
Pasturage oe 8 
Peet-cagel 
figure of 
POD POL 4 2 darah ew tachwasaDiee geben 
FOG OT cts oo as new nace 406 
Per opened 2 sc go uvciva ewads oy 219 
Periodicals (see papers)....... 22 
PersimMMon ven. 2 reas 1 hase Gosek: 409 
Phagocytes ...............0005 86 
PRU N Ss ss oe seca so tshay nen ob 89 
PHENOL: 3. siivounulels palaaa adey eo 479 
for foul brood ............ 479 
Pickled broods ¢ os ¢ 505 occa « 481 
Pipine Of Queeitiss cesses ceca y 169 
Pla BECHIONS. 005 eo cue e tegen 240 
CASE TOPS ecicatnaee 4 gaa 4 tee 241 
figures.of ... . 1... R41, 242 


Planta, DE. ANS, 141, 161, 157, a 
analyses of chyle radnoes platessa 
analyses of wax........... 17 
composition of pollen..... 188 

Plant-lice 


of sycamore she 
OF WillO Wiss cinion cease cows 


INDEX. 539 


Plants (see honey-plants) ..... 397 | Queen—(Continued): 
Pleurisy-root ................. 423 
Poisonous honey.............. 441 how reared .............., 
Poison-sack................... 151 UNPerbHe 5 srsice asses 8 heey 2% 
Pollen (bee-bread)............ 186 introduction of 
albuminous............... 188 NO GS) Oli s ccpsniwecsrchsteatsctan 
composition of............ 188 ASULC: OF. ve scceis we aaiey 04 
figure of.............. 187 longevity of .............. 
function of............... 190 LOSE ses daveate- coves a Waid 2 Hare 
how gathered............. 188 mailing of................ 
nature of................. marketing ................ 
Pollen-basket................. mating of,................ 
APOE OF. veces s oincenies emeons mouth-parts of 
Pollen-combs . ovaries of...... 
figure of.. figure of. . bs 
Pollen-hairs .................. piping of ......... snes 
Pollen in winter TOATING Of 5... sicces weve teen 
Pollination of flowers Alley method......... 276 
Dy: bees. news <4 eso aa s Doolittle method...... 277 
very important............ 395 Pridgen method....... 278 
POplArS 5 sscie 3 sage oi nieib F soerare « 405 removing of .............. 337 
Porter bee-escape ............. 341 shipping of............... 317 
Portico .......... .. 212 spermatheca of... .. 103 
Pound section ................ 242 sterile ........... 
Praying mantis (see mantis) sting of... 
Pridgen’s queen-rearing COUP UE Doe eee sc eihi cue es 
Products of bees .............. 171 figure Obs. ¢ stecseie ++ 104 
of other insects........... 171 GRAD LORS 5 6 x0 4 -ciciennce say he 285 
Profits of bee-keeping......... 15 where to purchase ........ 316 
PLOPOLIS) 53s vascterenanees Saree 190 why developed............ 112 
nature Of..............005 190 young virgin easily intro- 
function of ............... 190 duced 
PUPAE igs e-asecetec aera 0 tes 150 | Queen-cage 311 
figure of................05 150 figure of,..... 311, 312, 317, 319 
Pupa of insects............... 99 | Queen-cells................... 110 
NEUE OF ve sacsaedaiee ye cece 100 figures of ............. 111, 288 
UDB os dei ies dante: & anaieae oc 277 
WC ORE ou, ody ney souks e cabs 2 Hae 103 figures of ......... 278, 279 
DPPC ives beds vn ee was 118 formed when.......... 165, 274 
eage for .......... all, B17, 318 LOPMS? FOP os. ciasessiioecevice ecaiece 277 
POY LOY a lewc aw venus oRee 318 MOO Olgas vous odes 277 
OO okci pecan od nar ewes 110 placing innucleus......... 282 
heure of .. 111, 283 When! Dest)... 255-20 eats sas 274 
clipping wing of. ..... 288 | Queen-excluding honey-board. 
Gevelopment Of .c.4scaexe A SI a stories Wf eatin Gedencbok 338 
GOW sys.5. 'syraiscaw/als eas ececaten 316 figure Of os sicics acsntce was 219 
OE ES OF ao. sscvoreateietire seuss es 106 | Queen lamp-nursery .......... 286 
MOUS Ol. cnsueue vis s¢ 101 | Queen-rearing 
CUES Diy Keown 4a pees weed 105 how done 
fecundity OF oo. ccs eae os 106 selection in 
ted by workers..5. asa: 107 | Queen-register 
figure of.. case LOM, figure of.. 
food of..... ... 107 | Queen-trap ... 8 
POTN oa ea wants waeencnn oe 105 OURS: Oh a catda temas o wlpcales ore 


PUNCUON OF 3c cues ceca sees ALO? |: QUINDY DIVES sieve sicss daieqs sane 
Glands Of 5 css onsiss 4 2 105 ABU Obi. ude n aes 


540 INDEX. 
Quinby smoker ............... DAP t OCUO BE va ak a vacen vars awewae we 239 
figure of é adjusting of.............. 339 
comb honey in............ 239 
Lager POSE RA ee Oe i cha Se ea con 
MUPOOL 2 sis: 2 piss &s He 
Pere ee eeesa tte 340 
Rusubaery a getting bees into.......... 339 
Reaiiae. ee eo Bistory oe cae Reed 4 gtgie eae 5 
ROQ- PUM 6 2 sciences eink tecrie Fe i Daecens taint Stee 
Red or soft maple....... AON CTA DEB ya ci 
figure of 2) 402 | gy igttes of... BAT, BAB, 249 
< wide frames............ 
Bee Sas ce actus one lapels aden 46 341 figure of 244. 245 
ULC OF cei es ciaege ec wage a ees 340 Racca w ee Lae ey aa : 
Register for queen............ Q71 age ati ea Pena 340 
Reproductive organs. ..92, 103, 124 lai SUNG Obs 2 2aeET ASC Se 941 
Peale ees 93, 103 plain .. S  Ohgeecienas : 
figure of 011.0121! 94; 105 case ton a 
sae ewe aidea A hagean aaa 93, 124 
MPG (OB, 2 se 5.308 ode A 
Respiration of insects...... 86, 88 Prize eye cee oN a 
figure of.............0 000. 33 pra se can eee 
Respiratory system of insects.. 86 ha i. yle of...... ee 
Reversible frames.......,..... 229 | g ibe ONE eaten ts tS) eae 
Reversing........ eparators............ 242, 250, 338 
Ripe honey Shade-board .................. 221 
Robber-flies._. Shade for bees ................ 254 
Robbing PTAVE-VING 04 oy ders eaeeud 255 
remedy for................ 474 Sh Sohn sidaed ees eee eres eee 
Rocky Mountain bee-plant .... 439 TAPPING COronies -- B19, 3e 2 
figure of...............248 437 ONICHIE ye SAPURiam HRe EES 320 
Root, A.L....... 23 im wagon ................. 820 
Royal jelly.................0.. 108 See Ee acaeh a inmie ieaieiles ne 
SAO Hecels sd geikn neues dae 2 anton 422 Shnok Co) eae re 269 
DIA CK os. ashe eae saseed 2 staat 408 AEUTC Olja sie oer aie ode 269 
figure of.............. 410 | Shuck hive ................... 226 
WACO yng aoe ahs eeeac teh 8 decrees 408 + Simrplicity hive ..44, 2... <ss« 213 
FPN CIE csecne yok ems Sexe 411 tigure of.... . 213 
Bay NO RC io cakes none wma 479 | Skunk-cabbage ..... . 402 
for foul brood ............ 479 | Slatted honey-board........... 219 
for mucilage.............. 481° FUT EOF go des i hesneseee 218 
cola PN ee ven enh ded vee 91, 134 | Slotted honey-board....... 219, 338 
SAW speeuiians vaidoa a eer ccamyne acter 252 | Small intestine 
Saw-flies............ 0.0.0. c eae Smell in insects 
Saw-palmetto................. illustrated 
Saw-table ................0... 5 Lan ide wile lese a ecole bash seananl 
Scale insects...... . Smith feeder........ 
a figure of...... 
remedy for STOKER hc xcsteas sisbeuise hi Reoncsers a teates 
Schiemenz ................ SMOKENSs ssscw saves gees 2 SESS 
EHOOTY Of. cc 4 odo e caceue 139 BIGONAOY so conc w etna gan = 3458 
Schonfeld. .......... FUL OF 55.6 oscecect cad ss 347 
NClapers 2 ccc stiaw aia x daly owas Clarks, csiceoe castes een owane 348 
PIG UES Of. 5 score evs daisieve a diacii a's 30 figure of.............. 348 
Sealed ROO: c.csa vee Stee ows 162 Quinbyis -ouses vines Koes: 347 
Secretory organs ........... 91, 134 HEUTE LO Lricsssee ns esoatse dhe 347 


INDEX. 541 
Smyrnian bees................ 58 | Surplus case...............4.. 247 
Sourwood ... ..............05 441 Heddon...........0..s.005 220 
figure OL ac. s ips uugunnnt scone 440 | Surplus comb honey .......... 239 
Spanish-needles EELS ote Ae ee 449 | Swammerdam,............. 59, 74 
Species of APIS cece coed es 52 | Swarming...... 165, 293 
adonsoni ................. 46 cutshort.............0..0. 168 
florea, 51 Preparation FOF voc ccewiss 165 
comb of 51 prevented................. 301 
dorsata 48 | Swarms— 
Indica 51 absconding ............... 
comb of 50 TOONS solo espe ss ee. Feechqore gate 
; i 50 DEVAN Bia peeea coe wegnahddans tte ss 
unicolor 48 BECO oie. 2: aiasesasanecacesstiva os ae 
zonata 46 prevented. . 
Specialists ...............0.008 13 several at once. 2 
Species of honey-bee.......... 52 | Sweat theory ................. 
Spermatheca............... 94, 103 | Sweet clover.................. 
Sperm-cells................ 92, 124 AUTO) OFS acics suey doacuote gee 
BONING FE osc srterssa oni, a teat de4 1 Syrian Paes 2 dass xe 448 6 48 
Spermatophore ............... 124 description ............... 
Spermatozoa .............. 92, 124 
Spider-plant .................. 452 | Tachina-fly ................... 498 
figure Of 2 cwapteucrds cayenne 451 figure Of jis ova nes oes 498 
Spiders ..................0. 35, 508 | Tailor-bee ..................4. 42 
Spring dwindling ............. 466. |) “Tarsus: aice saa iii ees sesecrcses 148 
Sc) ae .... 861 | Taylor’s foundation fastener .. 361 
Sterile Queen 0. dese seasas TIS. | Weasel: 20... 4c eee enscsaied dyer 428 
Stimulative feeding. ..264, 273, 401 TI GULC Ol ses <usity sinnete aenene 427 
Stinging bug ................. 493- b "DOLSONY «cease 65: siene vacevase diave sbi 128 
AeCuUTe OL a: os scxe esdaces 494, 495 | Temperature for winter ....... 457 
Stingless bees................. 40 | Test for honey................ 175 
Sting of bees.................. UG} | “ROXAS LOVER: esis c eos ecco er 35 
ammonia for.............. Oe | GU so caiegs sands pune Saerey %8 
anatomy of... 156 muscles of..... ua 48 
GeseriptiOn Ofis4 se ccos <6 x 156 figure of 48 
figure 0f o.0.co.c64< 157, 159 OPANSECES 35 is sce) ie canny 64 
glands of................8 156 organs Of................. 65 
how cured................ ee: | ee Ces es acdous visas igen es 35 
how to prevent............ AS | NCSC no os dices neem wom 449 
of other Hymenoptera. .... PS | MER ENG. oc 5 verses wane a nas & 9 6k BES 148 
physiology of............. 156 | TIBIAE SOU sk eee a xen owe 79 
Db, oP ONM SWORE 6 oiss a hots wane Bas WOGUS & ¢ sony eu athy Vaeee Song He 509 
NtOMACD Ys « seiatex siezhse sects veeee 145 
of insects................. 90 
Stomach-mouth............... 144 
PIGUTE OL) os cce is diecdacsst ore 143, 144 
Stomach-valve ................ 144 
HPONG Ol vas acces e heee 142 
BORE-CLOD ooo cea wanderenrdn 431 figure of ........... 67, 132 
Sub-earth ventilator........... 462 | Tongue register 07 
SUBAPE ids ered emigre tee Trachew® ........ 6... e eee 
Sulphuring........... PPULS: OF eke cid Ao e6 4 es 
SuMaG. tcc etpawene sans vedas of insects. : 
Sunflowers. . Transferring... 2 
BUDCES iss seu ae paises pee Boots 6 ClaSDSy asics as velnesed ence 
GUIDO 5 sc sete A Sonica ie endete wate 


542 INDEX. 


Transferring— (Continued): Wax—(Continued): 
Heddon’s method......... 258 BORE 5. essensy vin eteeaians o 
old method .........0.0... 259 ths aucenraa es . 
Transformations of insects.... 96 Swiss...... POSE SaaS rs 
complete ................- 96 figure of.............. ic 
incomplete................ 102 function Olin: «aes ened s 179 
stages Of...............0.. 96 Row sou ed... sees. ae 
Traps— ss origin of...............00. 176 
CPONG iiss vee eo eeaests sys 285 secretion of............... 178 
MLO OTL cs ageisies seeve naaent ald “ats 285 voluntary vas hae 178 
read power ese tras cne es Pel epee ae 
Trigona ........ 62. eee eee 40 | Wax-extractor................ 367 
POCHANCED 325 scssay ccc stent Soe 79 Boardman 369 
ED SUPET oe tnrcicchies oo enniion sins 38 OS 248 TOUSSL ike cee 368 
DOWIE OE e oc ec tues dee 08 248 figure of RIO Aas 368 
Tulip bark-louse.......... 389 BON ec ee 369 
MUTE Ol lors. Se as 389 figure of..........-.-. 369 
Tualip=tree sess se yace ese ey Ja 427 SSS oan tucye 368 
Aoure: OL. sos sasciw wees oe 426 figure OP oes 367 
Tunisian bee.........-....-. ++ 58 | Wax-jaws.................... 14 
figure of .............. 152, ie 
Uncapping ................... Wax-plates ................... 155 
Uneapping-can ............... 3: figure of................." 
HOUTO! OB se: sais y vicecteon wi aden eee Wax-pockets ................. 
Uncapping-box .. POUT EY Of aia: a cintte ns Pauicerce, 
figure of..............eeee PESOS ais csc yen ventas Wha 
Uncapping-knife AloUTes Oley eos 4s orn soccer s 
Bingham’s................ ; Wax-sheets................00. 
_,_ figure of > | Wedding-flight 
Uniting Beir atate ds hint shew es Gh catches ane Wee bee-moth .. 
Drimary tubules, gic. + savaes figure of... ones 
POMOC Y TOP os ooo oaks o gees 
Varnish-tree.................. 409 | Weight of bees 121, 130 
VOL careesscescinss cuatehe ts astavaucnsGutcsens 344 | Weight of honey-load......... 130 
figure: Of ona. « once uve cat 345 | Weight of pollen-load......... 130 
WERDEN sesso se sutonunrnceie veatcdarn he 444 | West cell-protector 
Vinegar ibuas coke Garena aA 386 ACUTE! Ofte seeders aronteass 
Viper’s-bugloss ............... 444 | White clover.............. 
WAL QI. 2 sspears manbiseoageen dicate: 53, 59 MULE. OL ss 2 esse occa es 
Virginia-creeper .............. 443 | White sage ............ 
Visor OF THSCGES. 6 is oo see ne oe Te POE OE ode ciey demain aredee 
Voice of bee.... p Whiter pump. ¢ocxa science 
Voice of queen Who may keep bees 
Who should not keep bees. . 14 
Wagner, Samuel.............. 22 | Wide frames.................. | 244 
TSR ys cea vod wera: ou wes al 505 POUES Oo oc cs cae 244, 245, 246 
Water for Dees es sos cickiers aces 161 | Wild bees ........... 
Dey Mi icacaan eran thin ed eadeds TG Se PO WANGW anc cada ecoeae wants 
adulteration of........ 176, 372 figure of.. 
DICACUIN Eo 3 Casce d Gaede vem 372. | Willow-herb .. 
cleansing. ............... 372 figure of 
FREON eine seeeg galway oun 367 | Wind-break 
Boardman ............ BOL OBS aces oases seeeeegaeane ard ven 
Jones ....... 2.0.5.2. 868 OF DOC ss eevee, tutu waded 
figure of ......... 368 figure of 


INDEX. 543 


Wings— (Continued): 


Workers—(Continued): 


of insects................. 78 figure of...... 
Wintering bees ............... 454 middle ............... 
why difficult cadena nas oid . 454 posterior.............. 
requisites to.............. 456 figure of.. 
Wired frames longevity of .............. 
_ figure of........ mouth-parts of ........... 
Wire imbedder TH PUPES OL cc seca sw 
_ figure of........ OVAT1ES! OL. 2 oci4.4 aves ¢ sels 
WHGEATIB hoes. cuces 5. xhessta eoharne te BOC OT cise evans even 
figures of BUDS OP ioe cicctrnz seuss sates 
Women as bee-keepers AGUPC OF seis Sanz weds 
WV OVENS), ccs a gaa wb perce He tongue of................. 
development. .cc54 «604% 130 HOUTO WE yn ales xe 
MIPH COL es cide cons. Seaviens 147 VOICE OB oe. a seine wesnacet scores 
food of larva.............. 146 WIDE: Oleh cess ieee spsiere 121 
function of ............... 163 i 
SOLOING: sn cedeccresese a tines 164 
‘OF “YOUNLS 6 esses s s-caae 164 
ee Sua leudeaiensitdenste 134 
CEG OU en einer a aeniees Yume 44 | Xylocopa........ cece ee 
figure of.............. 47 er ireg wate seers = 
ABW BO gos dea as ds Babee «States 146 | York, George W............... 22 
figure of .......... 139, 146 | Young’s easel................. 316 
LE VLD By 2 asi Wel alate saa ain A BUNC Of ic yscantes viens. < aca 315 
AGUNG OF sivas css ones 130 
NOS EE pec n casa sears we 16 TOL 1 A cls ta enandn peewee aed 219 
anterior .............. perforated ............ 219, 338 
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MANUAL OF THE APIARY, 


By A. J. COOK, Pomona College, Claremont, California, 
Late Professor of Entomology in the Michigan State Agricultural College. 


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This edition has been thoroughly revised, much new matterand many 
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bees; full descriptions of honey-producing plants, trees, shrubs, ete., 
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READ THE FOLLOWING OPINIONS OF THE BOOK. 


I believe yours the best practical work in the world.—L. L. Lang- 
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I feel like thanking God that we have sucha man as Prof. Cook to 
take hold of the subject of bee-culture in the masterly way in which he 
has done it.—Gleanings in Bee-Culture. 

It isa book which does credit to our calling; one that every bee- 
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Cook’s new “Manual of the Apiary’? comes with high encomiums 
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Prof. A. J. Cook’s ‘‘ Manual of the Apiary’’ contains, besides the 
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Every point connected with the subject is handled in a clear, exhaus- 
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The most thorough work on the apiary ever published, and the only 
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It is the fullest, most practical and most satisfactory treatise on the 
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It is so greatly superior to all the other works that I recommend no 
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Price, by mail, $1.20. Liberal discount made to dealers, and to news- 
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