History and methods of ancient & modern painting

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History and methods of ancient & modern

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HISTORY AND METHODS OF
ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

HISTORY AND METHODS
OF ANCIENT & MODERN
PAINTING

VOL. II

ITALIAN PAINTING FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE

RENAISSANCE PERIOD INCLUDING THE WORK OF

THE PRINCIPAL ARTISTS FROM CIMABUE TO THE

POLLAIUOLI

BY

JAMES WARD

author of

'the principles of ornament," *' colour harmony and contrast,'

"historic ornament," "fresco painting," etc.

IFITH 24 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

NEW YORK
P. DUTTON & COMPANY
681 FIFTH AVENUE
1917

Printed in Great Britain by
EicHASD Clay & Sons, Limited,

BEDNaWICKST., STAMFORD ST., 9.E. 1,
AND EUNGAT, SUFFOLK.

PREFACE

This volume is a continuation of the first, on
The History and Methods of Ancient and Modern
Painting, and treats of Italian Painting from the
days of Cimabue, or a little earlier, until the
period ending with the life and times of the
PoUaiuoli. I hope in the third volume, which
will shortly follow the publication of the present
one, to complete a survey of the work and
methods of the principal masters of Italy who
practised their art in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries.

I have not attempted to give a complete list
of the numerous painters of Italy who worked
during the period covered by this treatise, nor
yet a copious list of the works executed by the
artists whose names are mentioned therein, which
is hardly necessary in view of the fact that all
this has been well-nigh exhaustively accomplished
by writers and critics of the past and present.
My aims have been to indicate how the various
Schools of Painting mutually influenced each
other, and to trace also the influence of individual
masters upon the work of their contemporaries,

vi PREFACE

and on their own pupils and followers. Also, to

offer some criticism on the works of the artists,

and, finally, to describe, to the best of my ability,

the various methods and mediums adopted by

some of the more important Italian masters in

the execution of their works.

J. Ward.

CONTENTS

I. ART IN CENTRAL ITALY IN THE THIRTEENTH

CENTTTRY — EARLY PISAN PAINTINa . ' . 1

II. ITALIAN SCULPTURE OF THE TWELFTH AND

THIRTEENTH CENTURIES .... 7

III. FLORENTINE PAINTING IN THE THIRTEENTH

AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES PREVIOUS TO

THE TIME OF GIOTTO 21

IV. GIOTTO 29

V. IMMEDIATE FOLLOWERS OF GIOTTO ... 56

VI. ORCAGNA 69

VII. SIENESE PAINTING OF THE FOURTEENTH

CENTURY 97

VIII. THE LORENZETTI 120

II. SIENESE PAINTING OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 140

X. SIENESE PAINTING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
— INFLUENCE AND WORK OF THE FOREIGN
ARTISTS IN SIENNA 161

XI. THE UMBRIAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING: THIR-
TEENTH, FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH
CENTURIES 183

XII. PIETRO PERUGINO, BERNARDINO PINTURICCHIO

AND LO SPAGNA 201

vii

viii CONTENTS

OHAP. 'AQB

XIII. PAINTERS OF BOLOGNA, FEERARA, MODENA,

VERONA, PADUA AND VENICE : FOURTEENTH
CENTURY 231

XIV. FLORENTINE PAINTERS OF THE FIFTEENTH

CENTURY: MASOLINO, MASAOCIO, FRA AN-
GELICO, UCCELLO, DOMENICO VENEZIANO,
CASTAGNO, FILIPPO LIPPI .... 247

XV. THE PESSELLI, ALESSIO BALDOVINETTI AND THE

POLLAIUOLI 284

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Facing pagt
NlOCOLA PiSANO.

The Annunciation, Birth and Adoration of the Saviour :
Baptistery, Pisa 14

CiMABXIE.

Fresco in Lower Church, S. Francesco, Assisi ... 27

Giotto.

St. Francis in Glory : Lower Church, Assisi .... 33
Presentation of the Virgia : Fresco in the Arena Chapel,

Padua 40

The Deposition : Fresco in the Arena Chapel ... 45

Taddbo Gaddi.

Meeting of Joachim and Anna : Fresco in S. Croce, Florence 68

GlOTTTSO ( ?).

The Deposition : Fresco in S. Croce 62

GlOVAlINI DA MiLANO.

The Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple : Fresco in S.
Croce, Florence 64

Andeea Oboaona,

The Marriage of the Virgin : Panel of the Tabernacle,
Orsanmichele, Florence 70

AlTDBEA FntENZE.

The Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas : Portion of the Fresco
in the Spanish Chapel, S. Maria Novella, Florence . . 96

Dtjcoio di Btjoninsbgna.

The Crucifixion : Part of the Altar-piece in the Opera del
Duomo, Siena 105

SmoKB Mabteni.

Angel of the Annunciation : Antwerp Gallery . . 114, 115
Virgin of the Ann\inciation 114, 115

Amsbooio Lobenzetti.

Fresco of the Good Government of a City : Palazzo della

Signoiia, Siena 128

ix

X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Facing pagi

Taddbo di Baotolo.

Death of the Virgin : Chapel of the Palazzo Pubblico, Siena 138

Baidassarb Pbettzzi.

Madonna and Child, with SS. Bridget and Catherine:
Church of S. Maria della Pace, Rome . . ■ . 17d

Gentile da Pabeiano.

Four panels of the Quaratesi Altar-piece : Uffizi Gallery,
Horenoe 187

Ottaviano Nblli.

The Madonna del Belvedere : S. Maria Nuova, Gubbio . 190

PBEtTGINO.

The Crucifixion, with the Virgin and St. Jerome : Antique
and Modern Gallery, Florence 218

Masacoio.

The Tribute Money : Fresco in the Brancacci Chapel,
Church of the Carmine, Florence 257

Fea Anqelioo.

The Annunciation : Museum of S. Marco, Florence . . 269

Paolo Uccbllo.

The Rout of San Romano, 1432 : National Gtallery, London 269

Fea FiLipro Lippi.

Coronation of the Virgin : Pinacoteca, Cittit di Castello . 280

Antonio Pollaiuolo.

Martyrdom of St. Sebastian : National Gallery, London . 298

ERRATA

Page 3, footnote, for Roscroe's read Roscoe's.

Page 23, line 18, /or af&rms read afBrm.

Page 39, line 12, for to rexiA from.

Page 40, line 2 from foot, for receive rettd receiving.

Page 43, line 4 from foot, for that read and.

Page 44, lines 18, 20, for their read his.

Page 53, line 10 from foot, for in a read in such a.

Page 54, line 17, ddeie is.

Page 57, line 3, for organic-like read functional.

Page 58, line 4, deMe latter.

History and Methods of
Ancient and Modern Painting

CHAPTER I

AKT IN CENTRAL ITALY IN THE THIRTEENTH
CENTURY — EARLY PISAN PAINTING

Before treating the subject of Florentine
painting from the advent of Cimabue, it will
be necessary to consider the state of early art
in other parts of Central Italy, more particularly
as practised by the Pisan painters and sculptors,
for Pisan art, especially that of sculpture, had
a considerable influence in the moulding and
development of Florentine art.

During the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth
centuries Pisa held the proud position of being
the most important city of Tuscany. This was
mainly due to its geographical situation and
great maritime power, which placed it in the
first rank of the commercial and seafaring towns
on the Mediterranean. In the year 1025 the
Pisans expelled the Saracens from Sardinia and
took possession of the island. This victory and
their further successes against the infidels at
Tunis, Palermo and the Balearic Isles, as well

VOL. II. B

2 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

as in the great Crusades, brought them an extra-
ordinary measure of prestige and power, as well
as an increase of wealth, the acquisition of
which stimulated the ruling powers to great
activity in building and in beautifying many
churches and other edifices in Pisa. The most
important building of this time was the Duomo,
a basilica in the Tuscan-Romanesque style,
erected after the naval victory of Palermo
(1063). Many other splendid buildings were
erected in Pisa shortly after this date, the more
important of which were the churches of Santa
Maria della Spina (1230), Santa Caterina (1253),
the Campo Santo and the Baptistery, both
finished about 1278.

During the thirteenth century Pisan painting,
though largely practised by many native artists,
could show no redeeming features that would
distinguish it from the general decline of this
form of art, that marked the productions of
other painters who flourished at this time in the
other cities and provinces of Italy.

Among the early Pisan painters was one
named Bonaventura Berlingheri, who had two
brothers, both of whom were artists, and Deodati
Orlandi, who lived and worked towards the close
of the thirteenth century. There are some panel
pictures and Crucifixes at Lucca and the neigh-
bourhood with dated inscriptions by these artists.
The Art Gallery at Pisa contains an example of
Deodati's work, which is signed and dated 1301.
It is a painting in five compartments, having
for its subject the "Virgin and Child" attended by

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 3

four saints. A "Crucifix" by the same painter,
which was formerly in the Church of San Cerbone,
near Lucca, is now in the palace at Parma. It
bears the date of 1288. All these works, how-
ever, only serve as illustrations of the general
decadence of the work of this period. A better-
known painter than any of the above was
GiUNTA PiSANO, who lived and worked in the
first half of the thirteenth century at Pisa. He
is mentioned (1210) as having received his early
education from Greek painters, and that in 1236
he painted a " Crucifixion " at Assisi, on a large
panel, with a portrait of Father Elias, the first
General of the Franciscans, at the foot of the
cross. This work survived until the early years
of the seventeenth century, when it was last
seen, but the inscription that was on the picture,
" F. Helios fecit fieri . . . Juncta Pisano me
pinxit, AN.D. 1236," has been preserved by P.
Wadingo of Pisa in the Annals of the Franciscan
Order for that year.^

In the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli, at
Assisi, there is a much-damaged "Crucifix" by
Giunta, which is inscribed with his name. It
is of the usual composition of the Crucifixes of
this date, having the Saviour on the Cross, and
in glory above, with half-figures of the Virgin
and St. John on the horizontal arms, and figures
of two other saints at the sides, the latter are
repainted and of a later date. The style of
drawing and the execution and colouring of the
forms are coarse and exaggerated, and illustrate
^ Lanzi, vol. i, p. 86 (Roscroe's trans.).

4 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

the prevailing degenerated form of art that
Giunta was unaBle to escape from. It is more
than likely that he was the painter who executed
the frescoes on the walls of the south transept
of the Upper Church at Assisi, as far as can be
judged from their present state of decay, and
that he may have also been responsible for the
paintings of the choir, which Vasari assigns to
Cimabue.

The Pisan records contain the names of many
followers and successors of Giunta, the great
majority of whom were even more feeble in their
art than Qiunta himself. Many of these second-
er third-rate artists are represented by works in
the Academy of Pisa and in the churches of that
city and surrounding district. The most im-
portant of them was Francesco, who was Capo-
maestro for the mosaics of the tribune in the
Duomo, previous to the appointment of Cimabue
to this office. He and his son Vittorio, Lapo,
an assistant, and others, helped Cimabue in the
mosaics of the Duomo.

The early paintings, chiefly Crucifixes, of the
eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries at
Lucca, Pisa and Siena, have been described in
the first volume of this work, pp. 150-2, also
the methods of the painter Margaritone of
Arezzo, 1236. The works executed in these
places in the centuries named consisted chiefly
of Crucifixes, pictures of the Madonna, and
almost endless representations of St. Francis,
and, generally speaking, were works of a very
rude, childish and almost repulsive character.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 5

Early Sienese painting was not any more
advanced in its nature than that of the other
early schools of Tuscany, although Siena was
destined to rival Florence in painting in the
fourteenth century. It is worthy of notice that
the earliest work of the Sienese painters, how-
ever rude, differed in technique from the con-
temporary work of other places in Tuscany,
being generally a mixture of relief and painting.
The Sienese painters also developed an early
love for elaborate ornamentation on the nimbi,
the backgrounds, and rich embroidery of draperies.
This, together with the light, rich and warm
colouring of their paintings, all go to prove that
the school of Sienese art was founded on Byzan-
tine miniature painting. Just as the mosaics of
the twelfth century, at Cefalu and Monreale, in
Sicily, and those of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries in Venice, Rome and Florence, are
more or less enlarged Byzantine miniatures,
so also were the frescoes and panel pictures of
the period, of almost all of the schools of Central
Italy, paraphrases, if not absolute copies, of
Byzantine miniatures. Particularly so in paint-
ing, the early Sienese artists founded their methods
and style on the rich and sumptuous decorations
of the illuminated Byzantine Gospels .^ We know
that, owing to the inter-communication of Pisa
with the East, not only were these Greek books
brought to Pisa and Siena, but many Greek
artists also settled in these cities. At Pisa, and
more especially at Siena, miniature painting

^ See chapters on " Mosaics " and " Miniatures," in vol. i.

6 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

developed into an important art. The decora-
tion of books and their covers, both ecclesiastical
and of other kinds, was not entirely executed by
the monks, for almost all of the greatest Sienese
painters from Duccio, in the second half of the
thirteenth century, to those of later times, were
employed in this branch of art.

GuiDO or Siena is the best-known represen-
tative painter of Siena in the first half of the
thirteenth century. A picture, signed by this
artist, of " The Virgin and Christ Enthroned "
attended by angels, is now in the Palazzo Publico.
This work is dated 1221, though this date is
disputed by more than one archivist, but as
the faces of the principal figures have been re-
painted by a later artist, it is impossible to form
any judgment on the merits of this master in
comparison with those of his contemporaries.
Dietisalvi, Salvanello and Mino, the brother of
Guido, are the names of Sienese artists of the
thirteenth century, who, however, have not
produced any work of a marked importance,
but, on the other hand, have contributed to the
general decUne of painting in Siena, prior to the
time of Duccio Buoninsegna (1255-1319), who
was the first great painter of the Sienese school.
His work will be noticed further on.

Owing to the importance of Pisan sculpture
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and
chiefly on account of its influence on the art
of Italy, it will be necessary to treat this subject
briefly in the following chapter.

CHAPTER II

ITALIAN SCULPTURE OF THE TWELFTH AND
THIRTEENTH CENTURIES

Sculpture of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries in Italy, and we might say that of
France also of the same periods, had a remark-
able influence on contemporary and subsequent
painting and design, so that it will be necessary
here to attempt to give an outline of this branch
of artistic activity in the periods mentioned,
and more particularly with a reference to the
work of the early Pisan sculptors.

If Pisan painting was in a low and degenerate
state in the thirteenth century, sculpture in the
middle of the century at Pisa contributed in a
remarkable degree to the Renaissance not only
of itself, but of all its sister arts.

To Niccola Pisano and his son Giovanni
sculpture in Central Italy owed its regeneration,
and the work of these great Pisan sculptors had
a strong influence on the designs and com-
positions of Duccio of Siena, Giotto and other
contemporary painters.

Before Niccola's time plastic art in Central
and Northern Italy was of a rude and childish
character, though in some examples of the work
of the twelfth century distinct efforts were made

7

8 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

in the imitation of the older classic forms and
details, such efforts having, if not their culmina-
tion, at least their fuller expression in the great
work of the Baptistery pulpit at Pisa by Niccola
Pisano, completed by him in 1260.

It will be sufficient here to mention the names
and some of the works of a few of the better-
known old sculptors who practised their art at
such places as Pistoia, Lucca, Pisa and Parma.
The names of Gruamons, Enricus and Rodol-
flnus are inscribed on various rude sculptures
and carvings at Pistoia. Over the entrance of
the romanesque Church of San Giovanni Fuor-
civitas at Pistoia is a rude relief of " The Last
Supper," inscribed with the name of Gruamons,
and on the entrance architrave of Sant' Andrea
in the same city is another inscribed work by
this sculptor, an " Adoration of the Magi."
Both works were executed about the middle
of the twelfth century. Enricus also executed
some sculptures at S. Andrea, those on the
pilasters of the chief entrance of the church.
On the fa9ade above the entrance of the basiUca
Church of San Bartolomeo-in-Pantano, Pistoia,
is a series of rude sculptures of "Christ and
the Apostles" inscribed with the name of the
sculptor, Rodolfinus, and dated " Anni Domni,
MCLXVII." This work does not rise above the
low level of similar contemporary performances.

There are some equally rude sculptures and
carvings at Lucca, which date about the middle
or near the end of the twelfth century, con-
nected with which are the names of the sculptors

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 9

Biduinus and Robertus. On the architrave of
the portal of the south side door of San Salvatore
is a twelfth-century relief sculptured subject of
" St. Nicholas," inscribed as the work of Biduinus,
and ascribed to the same sculptor is a twelfth-
century sarcophagus, in imitation of a Roman
one in the Campp Santo at Pisa.

If the name and date are genuine, Robertus
was the sculptor of the baptismal font, 1151, in
the right aisle of the Church of San Frediano at
Lucca, which he has adorned with archaic reUefs
representing scenes from the Old Testament.

Bonamico was a Pisan sculptor of the twelfth
century, and was one of the first employed on
the work of the Baptistery ; but one of the best
sculptors of this early period was Bonanno of
Pisa, who executed the bronze gates of the
Duomo of Pisa in 1180, which perished in the
fire of 1595. These gates had representations
of scenes from the Old and New Testaments.
The present doors replaced the older ones in
1606. The old door, known as the gates of
S. Raineri, in the south transept, is assigned
to Bonanno. It is a work belonging to the
later half of the twelfth century, and is similar
in style and character to the work on the bronze
portal doors of the Cathedral of Monreale, near
Palermo, which were executed by Bonanno in
1186, and are likely to be replicas of the perished
gates of the Duomo at Pisa. Bonanno was one
of the architects of the Campanile or Leaning
Tower at Pisa.

The present bronze doors of the side portals

10 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

at Monreale were executed about the end of
the twelfth century by Barisano, who was a
sculptor and brass-founder of Trani in Apulia,
Southern Italy. The interesting bronze doors
of the Cathedral of Trani were modelled and
cast in 1179 by Barisano. Replicas of these
doors with their relief figures of saints and
ornamental decorations may be seen in the
Cathedral at Ravello. These bronze doors by
Barisano are superior in design and workman-
ship to the contemporary sculpture and metal-
work produced in this period in other parts of
Italy, and proves that plastic art, and we might
add that of mosaics, were in a more advanced
state in the twelfth century in Southern Italy
than in other parts of the country.

At Parma some examples of twelfth-century
sculpture may be seen on the lunette and pilasters
of the portals of the Baptistery, and some in the
third chapel on the right in the cathedral.
These works are by Benedictus, or Benedetto
Antelani (1178-96), who was also the architect
of the Baptistery. His name is inscribed on
the sculptures of the north portal, where he has
carved an " Adoration of the Magi," and scenes
from the life of St. John the Baptist. The
pilasters are adorned with the subjects of the
Root of Jesse, and of Jacob. The reliefs of the
other portals represent scenes from the Old and
New Testaments, and some allegorical subjects,
all of which are quaintly conceived and interest-
ing but of not much artistic merit. Benedetto's
work in the third chapel on the right in the

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 11

Cathedral of Parma is a boldly executed "De-
scent from the Cross " in high relief. It is a
dramatic conception of the subject, and is
crowded with figures of sacred personages, angels
and soldiers surrounding the central figure of
the Saviour on the Cross. Most of the figures
bear inscriptions, and their forms and propor-
tions have the usual character of the art of the
period — namely, stiff and constrained attitudes,
large heads, and linear draperies that are devoid
of any organic or natural arrangement. From
the traces of gold and colour found on this
work it would appear to have been treated
originally in a rich scheme of polychromy, in
common with the usual treatment of all carved
work of the romanesque and early Gothic
periods.

In the first decade of the thirteenth century
the name of Guidectus is mentioned as the
architect of the Church of St. Martin at Lucca
(1204) and the sculptor who executed the works
which adorn its front.

Guido of Como was the sculptor of the white
marble pulpit (1250) in the Church of S. Barto-
lomeo-in-Pantano, Pistoia, and as late as 1293
worked in the Cathedral of Orvieto. The pulpit,
though very unequal in design and execution,
is not without merit; a decided expression of
religious sentiment marks the reposeful forms of
the figures, and it may be said that Vasari's
strong condemnation of this work cannot be
justified.

The work of the foregoing early Italian

12 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

sculptors is highly interesting, inasmuch as it
serves to show the exact state of art immedi-
ately prior to, and also contemporary with, that
of the great Pisan master, Niccola Pisano, who
finished his celebrated and first-known work—
the pulpit of the Baptistery of Pisa— in the year
1260. To the above-mentioned sculptors and
their work, where their execution and realization
were much inferior to the design and general
conception of the subject, Niccola owed little
or nothing, if we except certain traditions which
no artist in any age can escape from.

There are no authentic evidences in regard
to the antecedents of Niccola, or as to how he
passed his earlier years before he appeared at
Pisa, except that his father, who was not ahve
after 1266, was known as Pietro of ApuUa, and
it is conjectured that Niccola may have learned
and practised his art in some place in the south
of Italy before coming to Pisa. We have men-
tioned that the work of the Apulian sculptor
and brass-founder, Barisano of Trani, was greatly
in advance of that of his contemporaries in
Central Italy, and as a further illustration of the
superiority of Southern Italian art at this time
we may instance the beautiful marble pulpit,
inlaid with mosaics, in the Cathedral of S. Panta-
leone at Ravello, north-east of Amalfi. This
pulpit, according to its inscription, was commis-
sioned in 1272 by Nicolo Rufolo, and is the
work of Nicholas de Bartolommeus of Foggia,
a city in Apulia. Foggia, it may be mentioned,
was, in the thirteenth century, the chief residence

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 13

of the Emperor Frederick II, a great patron of
art and literature. The year 1223 is the date
of the erection of his palace at Foggia, according
to the inscription on a remaining arch of its
ruins. As regards the design of the pulpit at
Ravello, it may be said it has a good deal in
common with that of Niccola's in the Pisan
Baptistery. Both pulpits have columns sup-
porting the upper portions, and in each case
the columns are supported by carved lions.
In the arch of the Ravello pulpit doorway there
is a finely chiselled female bust. The concep-
tion and style of this bust are strongly reminis-
cent of the antique, and the handling of the
material bears a great resemblance to the work-
manship of Niccola Pisano, shown in his classic-
like figures in the panels of the Baptistery pulpit
at Pisa.

These examples of Southern Italian art afford
some proofs that the sculptors of Apulia and
the south generally were returning to a serious
study of the antique, and in some cases even
before the advent of Niccola in Pisa, and also
that the latter himself was quite likely to have
been imbued with his new ideas for the regenera-
tion of his art, when in the south of Italy during
his early days, and where he and his fellow-
students were surrounded by a wealth of archi-
tectural and sculptural remains — a heritage from
classic times. It was a breeze from the south
that ushered in the dawn of the Renaissance and
awakened slumbering Italy to strenuous work
for the realization of her long-cherished dreams

14 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of rivalling the glory and grandeur of ancient
Greece and Rome.

Vasari credits Niccola Pisano with some early-
work in sculpture and architecture at Bologna
(1231) and other places, but there is no con-
clusive evidence of such beyond this author's
statement, or that any earlier work can be
assigned to the sculptor that he executed before his
appearance at Pisa on the work of the Baptistery
pulpit. The pulpit is hexagonal in shape and
supported by nine columns. The central one is
borne on a base composed of animals, griffins
and a human figure grouped together. Two
columns are resting on the backs of lions, one
on a lioness and cubs, three on base pedestals,
while the remaining two support the steps.
Between each pair of the outer pillars are tre-
foiled arches, and over the capitals of each
pillar are pilasters which support a carved
cornice, which in its turn acts as a base for the
superstructure. In front of each pilaster are
symbolic figures representing the Virtues. In
the spandrels of the arches are reliefs of the
Evangelists and six Prophets. The highly re-
lieved panels of the superstructure are framed
by mouldings, and between each is a cluster of
three pillars. The subjects of these reliefs are :
" The Birth of Christ," " The Adoration of the
Magi," " The Presentation in the Temple," " The
Crucifixion," and " The Last Judgment." In
these reliefs Niccola has shown evidence of his
deep study of the antique, while at the same
time he has given to many of his figures certain

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 15

new attitudes and expressions of the natural
passions which are not usually found in antique
sculpture ; but whether this was the outcome of
the sculptor's observation and study from life,
or whether it was partly due to the influence of
the French sculpture of the mediaeval period, is
not sufficiently clear. While there is no evidence
that Niccola had ever journeyed to France, it
does not preclude the possibility of his having seen
some of the work of the early French school,
and in the absence of proofs of his not having
visited France one is strongly inclined to believe
that he was acquainted with the work of the
early French sculptors, seeing that there is so
much in common, in the matters of sentiment
and feeling, that is alike characteristic of Niccola's
work and that of the early Gothic sculptors of
France.

These early French sculptors, the anonymous
imagiers of the Middle Ages, were craftsmen,
who like Niccola of Pisa imitated in a measure
the antique in form and style, but like him also
they gradually gave to their conceptions an
entirely new character, which never belonged to
the antique, nor yet to the later debased classical
art. The new features which distinguished the
French mediaeval sculpture were expressed, by
variety of composition, by the rendering of the
spiritual graces of Christianity with a certain
naivete and charm to the images of sacred
personages, as well as the portraying of the
various human passions.

This new form of Christian art in sculpture

16 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

had its birthplace in France, as testified by the
work on the churches and cathedrals of the
twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries in
Picardy, Burgundy, in the Isle-of-France and
other places. The great wealth of the thirteenth-
century sculpture which adorns the wide porches
and doorways of the cathedrals at Chartres,
Amiens, Rheims, Paris, etc., consists not only
of scriptural subjects, but all branches of human
knowledge, including the liberal arts, were repre-
sented. The French imagiers of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries were the founders of the
modern schools of sculpture, just as Giotto was
the first exponent of modern painting. The
former in sculpture and the latter in painting
accomplished an analogous evolution in art, by
the variety which they both gave to their com-
positions, also by the introduction and develop-
ment of expression, sentiment and dramatic
action, which in both instances was due to an
earnest study of nature from a more realistic
point of view.

Immediately after Niccola had finished his
great work at Pisa he was commissioned to exe-
cute a similar work for the Cathedral of Siena,
which he finished in 1268, or eight years after
the completion of the pulpit of the Baptistery at
Pisa. He was assisted in the sculpture of the
Siena pulpit by his son, Giovanni, and by his
pupils, Arnolfo, Lapo and some others. The
Siena pulpit is octagonal in form, resting on
nine columns, four of which are supported by
lions and lionesses and four on pediments, while

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 17

the remaining central one is supported on an
admirable group of nine figures in low relief,
representing the arts and sciences. The seven
panels have bas-reliefs of "The Nativity,"
" Adoration of the Magi," " Presentation in
the Temple," " The Fhght into Egypt," " The
Massacre of the Innocents," " The Crucifixion,"
and " The Last Judgment." Other groups of
angels and scriptural personages adorn the corner
angles of the panels. If we compare the design
and workmanship of this pulpit with that of
the Baptistery one at Pisa, we shall find in it
a great change from the classical forms and
pagan stateliness of pose which belongs to the
figures in the panels of the earlier pulpit, especially
in regard to the figures of the Virgin in the
Annunciation and Nativity composition. The
later work has nothing of the grandeur of pose
in the figures or severity of composition which
is seen in the earlier work, although it has still
some reminiscences of the antique in some of
the figures and draperies. But there is a new
and a more decided rendering of natural forms,
and a more intense expression of Christian senti-
ment, which are clearly apparent in the panel
compositions of the Siena pulpit, and which go
to prove that if the change in style and character
of Niccola's later work was not due to a closer
study of nature — and we could scarcely say that
the short time between the completion of the
two works would permit of sufficient study of
nature to account for their difference in char-
acter and style — ^it must be inferred that the

VOL. II. c

18 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

great Pisan sculptor was becoming more in-
fluenced by the contemporary school of French
Gothic sculpture. Even the architectural forms
in some of the panel backgrounds in the Siena
pulpit are in the French Gothic style, as Mr.
Roger Fry has pointed out, where similar forms
in those of the Pisan pulpit are of classic design.
Giovanni of Pisa (1246-1321?), the illus-
trious son of Niccola, surpassed his father in
having a greater breadth of style, and in the
expression of a more refined sentiment and
feeling for nature in the modelling of his figures
and draperies. He was the greatest sculptor
and architect of his time, and his influence was
not confined to the plastic art of his own and
succeeding days, but the sister art of painting
owed much to him for many of its new impulses
and its general advancement. The development
of pictorial invention and dramatic composition,
combined with a deeper study of nature, were
the chief factors that characterized the new
complexion of both sculpture and painting, and
if the great Pisan masters were not the first
initiators of these great changes in the art of
the time, they were at least responsible for the
introduction of such into Central Italy. For
example, it cannot be denied that the work of
Giovanni Pisano greatly influenced that of Giotto,
and notwithstanding the genius and greatness
of the Florentine painter, his work more than
often reflects the spirit and aims of the Pisan
sculptor. Giotto advanced his art on the lines
of the new methods which had been previously

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 19

adopted by Giovanni. If Cimabue was the
first instructor of Giotto, his real master was
Giovanni, for his art was not in any way de-
veloped from that of Cimabue, but, on the other
hand, it had much in common with the dramatic
style and emotional character of the achievements
in sculpture by the Pisan master.'

Giovanni in a great measure followed the aims
and style of the contemporary French sculptors
in a greater degree than his father had done,
and therefore we find in his work a similar ex-
pression of Christian sentiment and of the deep
emotional traits, all of which also characterized
the works of the old French imagiers. It is
true, however, that he never quite abandoned
the classical type of figure, which was a reminis-
cence of his father's teaching ; this is seen more
particularly in his single figures and smaller
groups of statuary, as may be instanced by his
classical group of the " Madonna and Child" in
the Campo Santo at Pisa, and generally by all
his figures of the Madonna. But in regard to
his successful rendering of emotion and his deep
feeling for religious sentiment, as expressed in
his plastic groups, he was unequalled by his
contemporaries, and it might be added he was
unsurpassed in this direction by the great artists
of later periods.

One of his finest works is the pulpit in the
Duomo of Pisa, on which he was occupied about
nine years (1302-11). Though the work on the
panels of this pulpit is unequal, there is much
of sufficient merit to prove the greatness of the

20 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

sculptor. The two best panels are those which
represent " The Birth of the Saviour " and
" The Adoration of the Magi." The little scene
representing the latter subject is one of Gio-
vanni's finest conceptions. A beautifully con-
ceived figure of an angel, on the left, guards
and directs the three kings to where the Virgin
is seated with the Infant on her knees. All
the figures in the scene are finely grouped and
have natural poses, the whole design making a
perfect composition. This design, as well as
other compositions by Giovanni, has often been
copied or adapted by many later sculptors and
painters. Another fine work by this sculptor
is the baptismal font of S. Giovanni Evangelista
at Pistoia. The font rests on a group of three
figures as a central feature, and at each of the
four angles are single figures which represent
thfe Virtues. The figures are classical in style,
dignified in design, and are well executed.

If the work of these two great Pisan sculptors,
father and son, was not perfect in regard to the
accurate rendering of natural form, their other
claims as creative artists were so powerful and
great that they are entitled to the distinction
of having laid the foundations of the new school
of modern Italian art.

CHAPTER III

FLORENTINE PAINTING IN THE THIRTEENTH AND
FOURTEENTH CENTURIES PREVIOUS TO THE
TIME OF GIOTTO

Before the time of Cimabue, in the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, there were many old
painters who exercised their art at Florence,
but in nearly all of these cases the only evidences
of their existence are found in documents.

It may be said that the earUest Florentine art
which is still in existence is that of mosaic. The
subject of mosaics has been treated in the first
volume of this work, Chapter VI, and where
at pp. 104-5 mention is made of the work of
Andrea Tafi (1213-94) in the Baptistery at
Florence.

An early Florentine artist, named Coppo di
Marco valdo, was a contemporary of Tafi. His
work was not of any great importance, or in
any way distinctive from the average attempts
of the early thirteenth-century Italian artists.
He painted some Crucifixes and pictures on wood
panels, prepared with coarse gesso grounds, and
also some wall paintings in the Cappella S.
Jacopo of the Duomo at Pistoia in 1265; but
these works were destroyed in the middle of
the fourteenth century to make room for others.

21

22 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

A " Madonna and Child," now ascribed to him, is
in the Convent Church of Ste Servi, at Siena,
a work which had formerly been assigned to
Dietisalvi, a Sienese painter who worked in the
middle period of the thirteenth century. If this
work is really by Marcovaldo he had been strongly
influenced by Sienese painting at the time he
executed his task. The picture has much of the
Sienese style and characteristics, as may be seen
in the profusion of ornamentation in the nimbi
and draperies and in the general feeling for
decorative effect.

CiMABUE (1240-1302 ?). Painting in Florence
at the advent of Cenno di Pepi, better known
as Cimabue, was in a very enfeebled state. The
work of the early Florentines did not go much
beyond the traditional later Greek. The native
Italian art of this period showed very defective
drawing and stilted composition. The strong,
dark outlines and flat treatment which belonged
to all pictorial efforts of the time were reflections
or reminiscences of mosaic decoration. Although
Cimabue never completely shook off the tra-
ditional style of composition and methods of
this rude age of Italian art, we may admit that
in the works which have been ascribed to him
he infused life, energy and sentiments into his
creations, just the qualities that were lacking
in the older models and types of the barbarous
productions of his predecessors. He also went
considerably beyond the dreary efforts of the
latter in the technical matters of better drawing
and still better colouring. To have accom-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 23

plished all this even in moderate degrees is
sufficient testimony to the reputed greatness of
Cimabue when we consider the feeble state of
art in his days. That he was thought the best
painter of his time, previous to Giotto, is proved
by the well-known lines in Dante's Purgatorio,
Canto XI, V. 34, to the effect that Cimabue,
as a painter, formerly " held the field," but that
now he was eclipsed by the fame of Giotto.
Although nearly all, if not all, the work of
Cimabue is lost to us, and we are obliged to trust
to tradition, to Vasari and others for information
regarding his paintings, the testimony of Dante
remains as an eloquent proof of his traditional
fame as a great master.

There are some works still existing that are
ascribed to Cimabue, but the critics are numerous
who affirms that there is nothing remaining that
can with certainty be said to have come from his
hand if we except the mosaic of the " Majesty,''
or " The Saviour Enthroned in Glory between
the Virgin and St, John Evangelist," in the
Apsis of the Duomo of Pisa. This work has been
so greatly damaged through the course of time,
and has been so very much restored, that very
little of the original is left except the outline and
the composition. Cimabue was appointed Capo-
maestro of the mosaics in the Duomo of Pisa in
the last years of the thirteenth century, and he
excuted the work in the apsis in 1301-2, at the
end of his Ufe.

The picture of the " Colossal Madonna " of the
Rucellai Chapel in the Church of S. Maria

24 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Novella, Florence, has been for centuries tra-
ditionally attributed to Cimabue, and is still
given to him by some authorities, while others
say it is the work of Duccio di Buoninsegna, the
Sienese master, and others declare that this work
is neither by Cimabue nor Duccio, but that it
has been painted by some unknown Sienese
master. This celebrated work, if we can credit
Vasari, was painted by Cimabue about 1266,
when he was only twenty-six years of age, but
the advanced character of the technical skill
displayed in the fusion of the flesh tints, and
the great freedom of drawing, especially in the
figures of the attendant angels, would lead us
to infer that if it be a genuine work of Cimabue's
it certainly must have been executed much later
in his life, at a period when he would have gained
great dexterity with his brush in the manipula-
tion of the flesh tones. It may be mentioned
as one instance of the difficulties experienced in
accepting the testimony of Vasari regarding the
reputed work of Cimabue, namely, where we
find him assigning to this Florentine master
works so far apart in merit as the archaic efforts
of so rude a painter as Margaritone of Arezzo
and the Rucellai Madonna. He assigned the
"St. Francis," in the Church of S. Francesco
at Pisa, a work by Margaritone, to Cimabue.

It may be of interest to quote the differences
of opinions regarding the painter of the Rucellai
Madonna expressed by some modern critics.
The German critics, F. Wickoff and Dr. J. P.
Richter, agree in declaring that nothing with

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 25

certainty can be ascribed to Cimabue. Richter
gives the Rucellai picture to Duccio, for the reason
that he sees a similarity to it in work and style
of the great " Majestas " by the latter painter, in
the Opera del Duomo, Siena.^ Langton Douglas
is of the same opinion, and in an able argument
in his History of Siena concludes that Duccio
was the painter of this work. Wood Brown
asserts that Cimabue was not the painter of any of
the works that are ascribed to him.^ E. Hutton,
editor of History of Painting in Italy, by Crowe
and Cavalcaselle, finds himself " in agreement
with Suida" (in Jahrbuch der K. Preuss Kunst-
sammlungen, 1905), " who is of opinion that
the Madonna of the Rucellai is neither by
Cimabue nor by Duccio, but by a third hand,
a Sienese artist." ^ On the other hand, Mr.
Roger Fry, in his essay on Giotto in the Monthly
Review, defends Cimabue, and is of the opinion
that the Rucellai picture is a work of that
master. Mr. Fry points out that certain marks
and peculiarities, such as the drawing of the
features, treatment of drapery, etc., in this work
are common to the work of other reputed paint-
ings by Cimabue, and quite different to Duccio's
methods of drawing and general treatment.*
Langton Douglas replies to this, stating that

^ Richter, Lectures on the National Gallery, London,
1898.

^ Wood Brown, The Church of S. Maria Novella, Edin-
burg, 1902.

' Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy,
note, vol. i, p. 168, London, Dent.

* Roger Fry, Monthly Review, December 1900, p. 147.

26 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

the peculiarities which Mr. Fry points out as
being those which distinguish the work of
Cimabue, are also found in the early authentic
works by Duccio and in the works of other
artists of the early Sienese school. He therefore
does not hesitate to give the Rucellai picture to
Duccio, and further states that it is the earliest
work of importance from the hand of this
master.^

In 1908 we made as careful an examination
of this disputed work as possible in the bad
light in which it is seen, and while we should
hesitate to assign it to Duccio, yet in the
drawing, technique and the feeling for sym-
metrical " pattern " in the general composition,
the whole work is decidedly Sienese in character
and has much in common with the productions
of the Sienese school of the thirteenth century.

There are pictures of a similar kind to " The
Virgin and Child " of the Rucellai Chapel in the
Academy of Arts at Florence, in the Louvre and
in the National Gallery, all of which have usually
been assigned to Cimabue, but the consensus of
modern criticism ascribes these works to a
Sienese rather than a Florentine origin. One
of the greatest difficulties in ascribing these dis-
puted works to either Cimabue or Duccio is the
similarity of their form and style, which are
almost alike characteristic of each of the two
schools of painting in the thirteenth century.
This leads us to the conclusion that Cimabue,

^ Langton Douglas, History of Siena, 1902, p. 337 and
Appendix III.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 27

Duccio and other artists of both schools, at this
time, must be regarded as painters who, in a
sense, had not completely abandoned the Byzan-
tine methods, and who therefore must be placed
more or less as exponents of such, or at the
utmost their work illustrated the transition stage
between the later period of Byzantine painting
and the more modem art of Giotto.

Vasari says that Cimabue painted many
frescoes in the Lower Church of San Francesco
at Assisi, with scenes from the life of Christ and
St. Francis, and that he executed these works
in company with certain Greek masters, but of
such of these works which still exist, they have
all been assigned by later authorities to Giunta
of Pisa and other unknown hands. While we
may admit that Cimabue painted some of the
frescoes of the Upper and Lower Churches at
Assisi, and also that he was a great and living
force in the early history of Italian painting,
we cannot, as already stated, be positive that
there is anything existing that is absolutely from
his hand, if we except the much-restored remains
of the mosaic in the Duomo of Pisa.

Gaddo Gaddi (1239-1312), a Florentine artist,
who was a friend and a contemporary of Cimabue,
was better known as a worker in mosaic than a
painter. He executed with Andrea Tafi (1213-
94), his instructor, some of the mosaics in
the Baptistery of Florence, and others in the
same edifice at a later period (1307). Crowe
and Cavalcaselle affirm that Gaddo painted the
second, third, fourth and fifth frescoes in the

28 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

Upper Church at Assisi, that have formerly-
been assigned to Giotto, and which represent
scenes from the hfe of St. Francis.^ They base
their assumption on the similarity of style and
composition with the mosaics which Gaddo
executed in the Church of S. Maria Maggiore
at Rome. The art of Gaddo, while still having
many of the Byzantine characteristics, had, on
the other hand, something in common with the
style of Giotto's work. This is explained when
it is remembered that Gaddo was the intimate
friend of the greater painter. This is proved
by the fact that Taddeo Gaddi, the son of
Gaddo, was the godson of Giotto, and who
eventually became his chief assistant and also a
most successful imitator of his master's style.
Gaddo, in his early works, followed closely the
style of Cimabue and his contemporaries, but
in his later efforts he was more influenced by
the newer art of Giotto ; his work may therefore
be considered as forming a connecting-hnk
between that of these two masters.

^ Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy,
pp. 194-5, Dent, 1908.

CHAPTER IV

GIOTTO

Giotto Bond one was born about the year
1276, and died in 1336. The well-known story,
related first by Ghiberti (1450) and afterwards
by Vasari, tells of the discovery of Giotto by
Cimabue on the plains of Vespignano, fourteen
miles from Florence, where he found the shepherd
boy making a drawing of his father's sheep on a
stone, and how astonished Cimabue was with the
artistic ability of the youth that he prevailed
on the boy's father to permit him to take the boy
to his home in Florence. In this way we are
told that Cimabue was the first master of Giotto.

There is no evidence, however, of any particular
influence of Cimabue in the existing works of
Giotto, whatever there may have been in his
earliest works which are not preserved. Vasari
mentions that the first pictures by Giotto were
painted for the Chapel of the High Altar in the
Abbey of Florence, where he executed many fine
works, all of which, however, are now lost.

While it would be difficult to overestimate
the great originality, power and imagination of
Giotto, when considered in comparison with the
artists of his age, it would be true enough, on
the other hand, to say that his art was made

29

30 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

possible, and its greatness was in a chief measure
due to the existence and influence of such great
men in art as the sculptor Giovanni Pisano and
the Roman master Pietro Cavallini. He was
also in some way influenced by the work of the
old mosaicists, and by his study of antique sculp-
tures; for such a great master as Giotto would
not scruple to take lessons from the best con-
temporary and ancient art, just as Raffaelle, in
a later age, did not hesitate to improve his art
by his study of the creations of other great
masters and of the work of the ancients.

The historians have rightly honoured Giotto
as one who had revolutionized art by his work and
his influence on his followers and others of later
times. His contemporaries also awarded him a
full measure of honour and fame, and the greatest
of them, the poet Dante, has sung his praises
in the Divina Commedia. Throughout Italy,
from north to south, his influence was felt, and
even extended beyond the Alps to France and
Germany. He was the first master who finally
shook off the formality and severity of the Byzan-
tine traditions in painting, and introduced the
more modern methods in his inventions, such' as
the representation of natural incidents, coupled
with a dramatic style of composition that was
formerly unknown. While many of his works
were in a sense allegorical, the greater part of his
art was illustrative of legends and scenes of
striking reality, and all of it highly didactic.
Giotto was not only a painter, but, like other
artists of his time, was also an architect and

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 31

sculptor. His beautiful Campanile by the side
of the Cathedral at Florence testifies to his skill
in these directions ; for he was not only the
architect of this tower, but he enriched it with
designs in sculpture, some of which he carved
with his own hands.

Giotto at Assisi

According to Vasari, Giotto was invited to
Assisi in the year 1296, while he was a young man
of about twenty years of age, by Fra Giovanni
di Muro, the General of the Order of St. Francis,
to paint the series of frescoes in the aisle of the
Upper Church, illustrating the incidents in the
life of the saint, and also to paint the " Alle-
gories " in the ceiling panels of the Lower Church.
These statements cannot, however, be relied
upon ; for as regards the latter works they must
have been painted at a much later date, as they
bear undoubted evidence that they were executed
when he was of a mature age, when his art had
developed to a very high degree of excellence.

Giotto executed, with the help of some assist-
ants, the lower series of frescoes in the aisle of
the Upper Church at Assisi, which consists of
twenty-eight small frescoes illustrating the piety,
abstinence and miracles of St. Francis. There
are many conflicting statements as to how far
Giotto was responsible for the design and execu-
tion of these works, but there cannot be any doubt
that he was the master who planned and con-
ceived them, however much he may have been

32 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

helped in the carrying out of the work. As it
is generally agreed that Giotto worked for a
long time at Assisi, first, perhaps, as a pupil of
Cimabue, and afterwards with some other of the
numerous artists who were employed to decorate
the basilica of S. Francesco, and as his practice
and powers became more developed, it would be
expected that many original works would be
entrusted to the painter who was rapidly becom-
ing more famous than any of the artists employed
at Assisi.

The damaged state of these frescoes has revealed,
where the colouring and intonaco have fallen off,
the process of execution, which, like that adopted
by Giotto in most of his works, was the fresco-
secco method, a kind of distemper painting on the
dry wall, and not executed on the plaster while
it was wet and freshly laid on, as in the fresco-
buono method. Whether these lower series of
frescoes are the work of many hands or not, there
is clearly a similarity of method and style common
to them all, which would point out the presence
of the guiding hand and spirit of a master, who,
if he did not execute the whole of them, infused
his influence among his assistants, and directed
the work throughout.

The new method of representing scenes and
incidents as they might have occurred in the
everyday life of the thirteenth century, the
dressing of the actors of the scenes in contem-
porary costumes, while giving them an almost
monumental dignity of pose, the imaginative
conceptions of the compositions and the elimina-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 38

tion of the trivial and commonplace, were all
characteristic of the work of Giotto, the guiding
spirit of early Italian painting.

In the Lower Church at Assisi Giotto painted
in the early years of his manhood the celebrated
" Allegories " on the ceilings, and with the aid
of assistants the series of frescoes in three courses
on the east and west walls of the transepts,
illustrating scenes from the life of Christ, the
Passion and the miracles of St. Francis. These
beautifully conceived "Allegories" prove that
Giotto was a poet as well as a painter, and
that he could express the naivete, innocence and
mystic charm which we usually associate with
the work of Era Angelico, but with less excess
of rehgious sentiment, and more virility than
the later master. In these ceiling paintings
Giotto is also seen at his best as a colourist.
He has used tender shades of a soft and clear
blue for his backgrounds, and rosy and golden
tints with warm whites for the architectural
accessories, the flesh and the draperies, which
altogether has produced a fine colour scheme,
that has often been used as a model by many
of the Giottesques and subsequent painters of
the Renaissance.

The frescoes in the transepts of the Lower
Church by Giotto may have been executed at a
later period than the ceiling "Allegories," but they
are certainly of a later date than those by Giotto
in the Upper Church when judged by their more
perfect drawing, better proportion of the figures,
and general improvement in the composition,

VOL. II. D

34 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

together with the deeper feeling for religious
sentiment displayed in the majority of these
works. The subjects here treated are : " The
Birth of Christ," " The Salutation," " The Adora-
tion of the Magi," " Christ in the Temple,"
" Flight into Egypt," " Massacre of the Inno-
cents," "Christ taken Home by his Parents,"
" Resurrection of a Child," and " St. Francis by
the Side of a Skeleton of Death."

In the backgrounds of his compositions Giotto
often introduced many quaint designs of houses,
churches, towers and pulpits, which, although
not always of logical construction, were for the
greater part of a light and fanciful romanesque
style, though some were Gothic in design and a
few severely classical. Some of his figures are
also classical in dress, for example, those in the
fresco of "St. Francis before the Sultan," one of
the St. Francis series at Assisi, and other ex-
amples. This would indicate that Giotto was
indebted to the Roman artists who helped him
in the frescoes at Assisi, and who may have
designed the classical buildings for the back-
grounds. In this connection we may mention
the names of the Roman artists Cavallini, who
was a friend and fellow-artist of Giotto, and
also the Cosmati family. Some of the architec-
tural features of the backgrounds are decorated
with little patterns of hexagons, diamonds and
other geometric forms, similar to the mosaic and
tessellated patterns that were so characteristic
of the designs for such work made by the Roman
artists of the Cosmati family. In a few of his

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 35

frescoes and for the designs of the thrones in his
panel pictures, Giotto adopted a distinctly Gothic
style, a fine example of which is the throne design
in the altar-piece of " Christ Enthroned " in the
sacristy of St. Peter's at Rome, and another is
the archway in the picture of " The Crucifixion
of St. Peter," in the same place.

Mention of these two works reminds us of
Giotto's visit to Rome, where he went in the year
1298, after working some time at Assisi. At
Rome he was commissioned by Cardinal Stefa-
neschi to execute several important works, one
of which was the celebrated mosaic of the
"Navicella," for the Church of St. Peter, which
is now, however, so much restored, that hardly
anything of the original work is left. In addi-
tion to the two panels mentioned above, Giotto
painted for the Cardinal an altar-piece in the
form of a triptych. All these are fine and authentic
examples of his work, but they have bden much
restored and damaged in places, although per-
haps less so than any of his work. They are
interesting as still showing, in the parts that
have not been repainted, Giotto's method of
pa,inting in a thin and almost transparent applica-
tion of tempera colours on a white gesso ground,
a method that certainly was a great improvement
on the thick " loading " of the lights that was
practised by his predecessors, and most of his
contemporaries. From what can be judged
from the present state of these paintings they
must have been originally beautiful in colour,
and as fine in this respect as his best fresco

36 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

work. They are painted on parchment, stretched
on wood, the parchment being coated with a
gesso ground. Before the final painting was
executed an under-painting of pale grey tints
was made, instead of the green verde usually
employed in the preparatory painting by the
earlier artists.

The central panel of the altar-piece, having the
subject of the " Enthronement," has the portrait
figure of Cardinal Stefaneschi in a small scale
kneeling at the foot of the throne. In the
picture of " The Crucifixion of St. Peter," where
he is represented as crucified head downwards,
we see in the crowd of figures below one of the
finest of Giotto's efforts in figure-grouping. The
spectators belong to many nationalities, and some
of them, especially the sorrowful and weeping
women, are very natural in their dramatically
rendered attitudes of despair, which contrasts with
the stoical figures of the soldiers. Giotto gener-
ally contrived to make the greatest possible use of
his draperies to help out his dramatic telhng of
the story, but in the drawing of his nude figures
he was not so successful. In this work the nude
figure of St. Peter is poor and thin in the arms
and legs, and the head is excessively large. The
angels and half-figures in the upper part, together
with the oblique lines of the Roman towers at
each side, make an almost symmetrical pattern,
but the otherwise dryness of the symmetry is
counteracted by the variety of the dramatic
poses of the lower group of spectators. This
picture, which has a gold background, is the left-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 37

hand panel of the triptych, the ciborium of
Cardinal Stefaneschi.

The right panel has the subject of " The Martyr-
dom of St. Paul." The headless body of the
saint kneels in prayer, and on the ground is the
head with the nimbus. The executioner has a
deep expression of sorrow in his features, and is
sheathing his sword. Two women kneel and
lament over the body, while on either side are
groups of soldiers. The whole composition is
marked by a strong realism.

On one of the piers in the Church of St. John
Lateran, at Rome, there is still the darkened
remains of a fresco of " The Benediction by Pope
Boniface VIII," an event which took place in
Rome in the year 1300. The portrait figure of the
Pope is represented in full robes, as he appears
at a balcony giving an address on the occasion
of the Jubilee.

It was at Rome that Giotto met and made
a lasting friendship with Pietro Cavallini, the
best Roman master of that time.^ He was an
eminent painter and mosaicist, and enjoyed the
favour and patronage of Cardinal Stefaneschi,
nephew of Pope Boniface. At Rome also Giotto
made the acquaintance of the poet Dante, where
the latter went on a visit for the Jubilee celebra-
tions — an acquaintance which ripened into a closer
friendship during the two years that followed
after they both returned to Florence. It may
be mentioned here that Dante went again to
Rome in the year 1302, on an embassy from
^ See vol, i of this work, p. 110-12.

38 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Florence to Boniface VIII, and while he was
there, the pronouncement of his exile was issued
(January 1302) by his political enemies at
Florence. The political condition of Florence
at this time, and for five years previous, was
greatly unsettled by the struggles between the
nobles and the rich traders for the supremacy of
the Government. Added to this was the family
feud between the Cerchi and the Donati, whose
followers were known as the " Whites " and
" Blacks," the Bianchi and the Neri, respec-
tively. Dante was a member of the Government,
which was in the hands of the " Whites " until
November 1801, when it was overthrown, and
the " Blacks," then coming into power, sentenced
Dante, with many others, to exile, with fines and
the confiscation of their property. The second
sentence against Dante was one of perpetual exile,
and was published on the 10th of March, 1302.^

It was likely that about this time Giotto was
commissioned to decorate the Chapel of the
Podesta in the Bargello, Florence, where he
painted one of the incidents which illustrate the
feud between the " Whites " and " Blacks."
The historians Manetti, Villani and Vasari agree
in stating that Giotto painted this chapel, and
that one of the frescoes, " The Paradisi," on the
wall opposite the door, contained the portrait
figures of Dante, Brunno Latini and that of
Corso Donati, the leader of the Neri party, but
with the exception of Dante's portrait they are
only conjectural, although they are portraits
1 A. G. Terrers Howell, Dante, His Life and Work, p. 15.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 39

from the life. The chapel was converted into a
prison and a magazine after Vasari's time, and
the frescoes whitewashed out, but about the
middle of the last century the whitewash was
scraped off, and although the works were restored
to the light of day, they were considerably
damaged by the operation. The revealed por-
trait of Dante has been repainted. The upper
portion of the eye, the cap and pendant hood,
and the general outline of the profile have all
been restored by repainting and altered in the
drawing. The cap is of a different form to the
original one, as proved by the tracing taken by
Mr. Seymour Kirkup previous to the restoration,
and published by the Arundel Society. This
fresco also contains the reputed portrait figures
of the Portuguese Cardinal d'Acquasparta and
the youthful prince Charles of Valois, cousin of
the King of Naples and Sicily. Another figure
in this fresco, which is on the opposite side,
behind that of Acquasparta and looks towards
Dante, has a resemblance to the traditional
portrait of Giotto, which is found in one of his
frescoes in the Arena Chapel at Padua. The
rest of the figures, chiefly angels, saints, nimbed
and crowned personages are almost obliterated,
but have been drawn with an individuality of
form and expression which distinguishes the art
of Giotto.

The other frescoes in the Chapel of the Podesta
represented scenes from the lives of Mary
Magdalen and Mary of Egypt, which occupy the
upper spaces of the walls on the right and left

40 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of the oblong chapel. Some of these works are
now obliterated and only fragments of figures
still remain on others. The frescoes were divided
from each other by bands of beautiful fourteenth-
century ornament, frequently used by Giotto,
and at the corners of each border were lozenge-
shaped forms containing half -figures of angels.

Giotto at Padua

About the year 1305 Giotto was invited to
Avignon by Pope Benedict XI, but owing to the
death of the latter, soon after this, the painter
did not go to that place, and notwithstanding
Vasari's statement that Giotto went there with
Benedict's successor, Clement V, there is no
evidence that he ever painted at Avignon or at
any other place in France. The paintings in the
cathedral and palace of the popes at Avignon,
formerly ascribed to Giotto, are the works of
Simone Martini of Siena. Instead of going to
France Giotto went northwards to Padua about
the year 1306, where he was invited by Enrico
Scrovegno, a rich citizen of Padua, to decorate
the walls of the chapel which the latter had
built on the site of the old circus, and known as
the Chapel of the Arena. At Padua Giotto met
his friend Dante, who in 1306 lodged there in the
Contrada San Lorenzo.

The Chapel of the Arena is a building without
any architectural pretensions, and was designed
with a view to receive its pictorial and decorative
colour finish, consisting of numerous composi-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 41

tions almost evenly distributed on its walls in
rectangular spaces. The body of the church is
a single-vaulted aisle separated by an arch from
the chancel end, which is lighted by six windows
in the south wall, and by other small windows in
the end walls. The arrangement of the painted
subjects has been followed by Giotto in accord-
ance with the accepted traditional manner; on
the space above the archway that leads to the
chancel was painted the subject of " Christ in
Glory," where the Saviour is represented seated
in the centre, and surrounded by a host of angels.
The two spaces below this fresco, on either side
of the arch, contain " The Annunciation," one of
the spaces having the figure of the Angel, and
the other the Virgin, both of whom are kneeling,
and both are beautifully conceived. At the
opposite end, on the wall above the entrance
door, is the fresco of " The Last Judgment."
The upper spaces of the right and left walls are
divided into a series of thirty-eight rectangular
spaces, containing subjects that illustrate the
life of Christ, and the life of the Virgin.
Below these, on either side, are the series of
smaller panels having allegorical representations
of the Seven Virtues and Seven Vices. The
virtues, Hope, Charity, Faith, Justice, Temper-
ance, Fortitude and Prudence are opposed,
respectively, by the vices. Despair, Envy,
Unbelief, Injustice, Anger, Inconstancy and
Folly. In these personified allegories we can
see the hand of Giotto, both in their design and
execution, that is, in the remaining original

42 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

portions. The conception and composition of
each subject expresses in a new and effective
manner a feeling for dignified beauty that clothes
the Virtues, and, on the other hand, the tragic
and sordid characteristics of the Vices. Here
Giotto has given us the best of himself, for how-
ever much he may have been assisted in the
carrying out of his other compositions in this
chapel, this series of allegories must be credited
to himself.

Giotto's work in the Arena Chapel has been
exhaustively noticed and described by Ruskin,
and by Crowe and Cavalcaselle, to whose works
the reader is referred for fuller details, but we
may here briefly consider some interesting points
in connection with the series of frescoes which
decorate the north and south walls of the chapel.
In these thirty-eight paintings we see a decided
similarity in many respects to those in the Lower
Church of Assisi, especially in their general
design and composition. There are, however,
certain differences between the two series of
frescoes which would go to prove that Giotto
must have painted those of the Arena Chapel
at a later date than the time of the execution of
his work at Assisi. Some of the frescoes in the
nave of the Arena Chapel have a more decorative
rhythm of line, more sense of pattern and balance
than those at Assisi, obtained by the introduction
of additional figures and elements that are not
found in the similar subjects of the Assisian
frescoes ; still these additions and changes, while
making for greater richness and elaboration of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 43

the design, have deprived these later and more
perfect compositions of the intense charm of
spontaneity and simpUcity of arrangement, and
we might add that they are also lacking in certain
touches of the imperfect on the would-be perfect,
which gives, in reality, more nature and more life
itself to many of the earlier and simpler com-
positions of this master. If we compare the
Paduan fresco, " Christ appearing to Mary Mag-
dalen," with the Assisian version, we shall find
that the latter fresco has the four actors in the
scene, Christ, the Magdalen, and the two angels,
placed almost equidistant from each other. Two
smaller figures of angels are floating in the sky
at the right. The background is a hillside and
a rocky precipice, giving to the scene a sad and
morose effect. Though this version is perhaps
a trifle empty in composition, yet there is suffi-
cient incident to impress the spectator with its
accurate and highly dramatic rendering of the
" Noli me tangere " subject. Nothing seems
wanting here, in spite of its simplicity of design,
and if any other figures were added they would
be redundant and would only provide a disturb-
ing element or a distraction from the protagonists
in the sacred drama. This has indeed hap-
pened in the Paduan fresco, for although the
composition is similar to that of the Assisian
version there are certain alterations and addi-
tions made in it, that however much they improve
the work in the matters of greater elaborateness
and incident, it cannot be denied that the
prominence given to the design of the central

44 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

figure of the angel, and the gesticulation of the
other on the left, together with the added group
of the five sleeping figures, provide too much
distraction and so minimize the importance that
should be given to the two chief figures— Christ
and the Magdalen. It may be also pointed out
that in the Paduan version neither of these figures
have the same beauty and dignity that they
have in the fresco at Assisi. There is also in the
latter version of this subject a greater intensity
of supplication in the kneeling figure of the
Magdalen, and a more exalted grandeur and dig-
nity in the figure of our Saviour than in the more
perfected composition in the Arena Chapel.

It was often with Giotto as it has been with
many other artists, who have produced second
or third versions of their first compositions, that
their later and more perfected essays, paradoxical
as it may seem, have considerably less of the
spontaneity and dramatic intensity of their first
versions. In " The Raising of Lazarus," for
example, in the Paduan version, the figures are
better drawn, and are more evenly distributed
in the space than in the earlier version of this
subject in the Lower Church at Assisi, and there
is also a falling off in the earnest depth of feeling
and solemnity which permeates the whole design
and also characterizes the individual figures in
the similar subject at Assisi.

One of the finest, if not the best, of the Arena
frescoes is the " Pieta," or " Deposition." Here
Giotto has produced a perfect and beautiful work
not only in the matter of composition, but also

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 45

as regards the extremely careful handling and
finish of the execution in the flesh painting, and
the broad and sweeping technique of the brush-
work in the lights and shades of the draperies.

In his general practice, as mentioned before,
Giotto made great use of his draperies to help
the action of his figures ; and so by their arrange-
ment in opposing masses and lines they assisted,
in a great measure, the production of a lively
virility in the composition and thus prevented
any appearance of monotony. In the " Pieta "
draperies he has surpassed himself, by making
them integral factors, not only of the composi-
tion, but in using them in such a skilful way in
his great drama, so that they act almost in a
greater degree than the figures they clothe as
exponents of the story of the Deposition. In
this fresco the Saviour is represented in a recum-
bent position with His head in the Virgin's arms.
His arms are outstretched, and two kneeling
women kiss His hands, while Mary Magdalen sits
holding His feet. St. John Evangelist stands
behind and almost in the middle of the picture
in a stooping position with his arms outstretched
behind him, and bending forward he gazes on
the Saviour's face. On the left is a group of
sorrowing women, and on the right are two stand-
ing figures of disciples. The composition is
completed by the ten angels in the sky above,
who in great commotion appear to be crying out
with loud voices of lamentation, and with despair-
ing looks on their faces as they gaze on the figure
of the dead Saviour below.

46 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

The subject of the Deposition has often been
treated by painters of the Renaissance and of
later times, but no one has excelled Giotto in the
passionate and noble rendering of this sacred
theme. The beautiful and dramatic attitude of
St. John in this picture was a favourite one with
Giotto, and has often been used by him for male
and female figures.

On the wall space above the entrance door in
the Arena Chapel is the finely conceived design
of " The Last Judgment," but the execution of
it shows the work of Giotto's assistants rather
than that of the master. It has suffered much
by decay and the falling away of the intonaco in
places, as well as by restoration. The seated
Saviour, surrounded by a glory of cherubs and
seraphim, is blessing the righteous with His right
hand and condemning the unrighteous with His
left. Four archangels sound the trumpets of
the Last Judgment, while crowds of warriors
with shields and swords, and angels with banners
guard the Majesty of the Redeemer. The
apostles are seated on rows of thrones, and at
the left, below the Saviour, the Virgin, accom-
panied by St. Anna and angels, head the pro-
cession of the righteous ones. At the left are
three standing figures, the central one of the
group is traditionally believed to be that of
Giotto. Near the cross, which is held up by
three angels, is the kneeling figure of Enrico
Scrovegno in a purple garment, offering a model
of the chapel to three graceful females who
appear before him. The scene of the Resurrec-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 47

tion is in the left foreground, and the Inferno
portion of the picture on the right, where the
struggling masses of evil-doers are enveloped in
streams of fire, while Lucifer is represented as
a colossal figure with three heads, sitting on two
dragons whose mouths imprison the wretched
sinners.

According to Vasari Giotto painted at other
places in Padua and also at Verona and Ravenna.
There need scarcely be any doubt that he painted
many frescoes in Padua, after his great success
in the Arena Chapel, but there is nothing left of
any other work that can be assigned to him in
Padua. The works usually attributed to him
in the two churches of San Francesco and in
others at Verona and Ravenna are believed to
be by his followers.

Giotto's Work in the Peruzzi and Bardi
Chapels in Santa Croce, Florence

If the Arena Chapel at Padua contains one of
the most complete series of Giotto's works, the
Peruzzi and Bardi Chapels in Santa Croce at
Florence contain the most perfect examples of
his more advanced essays in composition. As
the master advanced in years his style, composi-
tion and drawing improved, and his later works
became more stately and dignified in line, mass,
distribution and general grouping, showing much
more of an academical perfection than his earlier
pictures and frescoes. This later development
of Giotto's art was not achieved without some

48 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

loss of dramatic power and of certain picturesque
contrasts in the attitudes and poses of the figures
that were among the strongly marked features
of his earlier work — features which were his own
inventions, and therefore peculiar to himself
and in no way traditional. In his later and more
mature work at Santa Croce his compositions
appear more monumental and more decorative
in design, but less picturesque and less dramatic
than his works at Assisi and Padua; but while
the grouping of his figures and the design of his
draperies became in his later works almost
classical and sculpturesque in style and feeling,
they are redeemed from the cold severity and
dryness of purely academic art by the direct
swiftness of line which intensified the movement,
by the variety of expression, gesture and individ-
uality given to his figures ; also by the introduc-
tion of little side incidents and accessories, and,
lastly, by the picturesque treatment of his back-
grounds.

That in his later work in the Peruzzi and Bardi
Chapels Giotto reverted to classic types and
treatment, is apparent to any one who studies
such of his frescoes as " The Raising of Drusiana,"
" The Ascension of St. John," " The Dance of
Salome," " Zacharius in the Temple," " Birth of
St. John Baptist," " The Death of St. Francis,"
"St. Francis before the Soldan," etc. In many
of these frescoes the dresses are not only Roman
or classical in form and style, but the grouping
and the poses of the figures also. The beautiful
architectural designs which are a feature of his

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 49

backgrounds became more and more classical
in these later works. All this points out that
Giotto had become convinced that a sculpturesque
treatment of his subjects, where almost every line
and fold of his draperies had an architectural
value, made them more suitable as monumental
wall decorations. These lessons which Giotto
taught himself, and were the outcome of his close
study of the antique, were not lost on the Italian
frescanti who followed in his footsteps ; for those
great masters, like Masaccio in the Brancacci
Chapel in the Church of the Carmine, Fra
Angelico in San Marco, Ghirlandajo in Santa
Maria Novella, and Raffaelle in his cartoons and
Vatican frescoes, were all influenced by the later
and more classic-like art of Giotto at Santa
Croce.

Though most of the work of Giotto in the
chapels of the Peruzzi and the Bardi are only
now outlines with little of the colouring which
has not been restored, the general harmony of
these fine compositions, and the variety and
individuality which characterizes the figures may
still be seen. One of the best compositions by
Giotto is that of " The Death of St. Francis " in
the Bardi Chapel. It is the fresco lowest on the
left wall, and is now not much more than a
coloured outline. The principal figures are al-
most in grisaille, with the exception of the cloak
of the kneeling figure of the podesta, which is a
deep red. The sky, repainted, is a dark blue,
in the centre of which appears the figure of the
saint in a halo, surrounded and supported by four

VOL. II. E

50 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

angels. The colouring of this portion is in
beautiful golden tints, and is evidently the original
colour. The architecture of the background is
painted in broken tints of a yellowish stone colour.
The composition of this work is excellent in every
way, and would excite more general admiration
and attention if it had not been so much copied
and adapted by numerous painters after Giotto's
time. Even with the master himself it was a
favourite scheme of design. For example, he has
used a similar arrangement in the " St. Francis
fleeing from his Father's House," and in " The
Ordeal of Fire," two of the frescoes in the Bardi
Chapel, as well as in other of his works. The
main features of this composition consist of the
placing of the more animated and chief actors
in the story or scene in the central part of the
picture, and the more quiescent and choragic
figures in standing attitudes at each side of the
picture. It is a moot question whether Giotto
thought the illustration of the incident or story,
or the correct balance and distribution of the
units of his composition the more important;
in any case, however, he invariably told his story
well, no one before him told it better, while at the
same time his later compositions are undoubtedly
consistent with the principles of good decora-
tion. It may be of interest to notice that Ghir-
landajo has copied the composition of Giotto's
" Death of St. Francis," in his fresco of the same
subject, which he painted in the Church of
S. Trinita, Florence.

In the Chapel of the Bardi, Giotto has painted

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 51

life-size figures of St. Louis (King of France),
St. Louis of Toulouse, St. Elizabeth of Hun-
gary, and St. Claire. Each is represented stand-
ing under a painted niche of the Campanile -
Gothic architecture. The St. Louis of France
is the most interesting, and the finest figure of
the series ; and, although considerably repainted,
has still some of Giotto's work left untouched,
especially in the head and hexagonal crown.
It is a dignified and serious rendering of the
saintly king, as he stands in a firm and easy pose,
Osiris-like, with his kingly attributes of sceptre
and whip of authority in either hand.

The large altar-piece representing " The Corona-
tion of the Virgin," which Vasari says was painted
by Giotto for the Baroncelli Chapel in Santa
Croce, has the inscription " Opus magistri locti,"
and is now in the Chapel of the Medici. Not-
withstanding the inscription and the beauty of
several parts of the composition, this work is so
unequal in execution that it must be ascribed to
inferior hands or assistants. It is now much
discoloured by dark varnishing, and has been
greatly restored in places.

Vasari also states that Giotto painted scenes
from the life of St. John the Baptist in the Church
of the Carmine at Florence. Six of these frescoes
and five heads from others were engraved by
Thomas Patch, after coming into his possession,
and published by him in his work on the Carmine
frescoes in 1771. Three of these fragments are
now in the Liverpool Gallery, some are in the
Capella Ammanati of the Campo Santo at Pisa,

52 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and one is in the National Gallery, London. The
latter consists of the heads of St. John and St.
Paul, but is now, however, assigned to Spinello
Aretino. None of the former works can with
certainty be ascribed to Giotto, but are more
likely to have come from the hand of his godson,
Taddeo Gaddi, or from one who worked in a
coarser and more laboured manner than Giotto.

Giotto at Naples

Vasari relates, in his lives of the sculptors
Agostino and Agnolo of Siena, who were pupils
of Niccola and Giovanni of Pisa, that Giotto on
his way from Florence to Naples paid a visit to
Orvieto in 1326, where he saw the work of the
two first-named sculptors, and was so much
pleased with it, he recommended them as being
the most worthy to carry out his own design for
the tomb of the Bishop Guido of Arezzo. The
year 1326, mentioned by Vasari, is evidently a
mistake for 1330, for it was in the latter year
that Giotto went to Naples on the invitation of
King Robert to decorate some churches and con-
vents in that city. There is nothing, however,
at present remaining of Giotto's work at Naples,
except the ruined fresco on the wall of the old
Convent Church of S. Chiara. This fresco
occupies a square space on the end wall of a
large room, which had for a long time been con-
verted into a furniture shop. The subject of this
fresco is " The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes,"
in which is symbolized the almsgiving charity of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 53

the Franciscan Order at Naples. Christ is here
represented as a youthful figure, and with His
disciples He is giving bread and fishes to the poor.
The Saviour, His disciples, and the kneeling
figure of St. Francis are all nobly rendered in
design, and from what remains of the original
work testifies to some of the best efforts of Giotto.

The frescoes in the Chapel of the Incoronata
representing " The Seven Sacraments " were
formerly ascribed to Giotto, but as the church
was only built after 1352, and at least sixteen
years after his death, the Incoronata frescoes
must be the work of some follower of the master,
and possibly by a Sienese artist, who closely
imitated his style. The rich decoration of the
dresses, the profusion of the embroideries, and
the elaborate ornateness of the buildings, would
also suggest a Sienese painter as their author
rather than a Florentine.

Many other works, consisting chiefly of panel
pictures and Crucifixes, that are preserved in
churches and galleries in Italy, are still ascribed
to Giotto, most of which, however, are doubtful,
and some that are given to him are in a fragmen-
tary, discoloured and decayed state, that it is
impossible to prove their authenticity. To men-
tion a few of these that are ascribed to him, there
is the celebrated " Madonna and Child, with
Angels," now in the Academy at Florence, where
the more modern method of treatment may be
compared with the form and painting of the
similar subject assigned to Cimabue, in the same
gallery. In the Pinacoteca of Bologna is an altar-

54 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

piece which has " The Virgin and Child " as the
subject of the central panel, and on the wings
the Archangels Michael and Gabriel, SS. Paul
and Peter, The predella portion has medallions
of Christ and the saints. In the Louvre, Paris,
is a signed work, "St. Francis receiving the
Stigmata," but this is very much restored.
Among the Crucifixes assigned to Giotto are those
in the Churches of S. Maria Novella, S. Marco,
and in the Church of Ognissanti at Florence, and
although these works may not have come from
his hand, they have all, in the representation of
the Redeemer, the erect type of pose, with the
head gently inclined, which Giotto usually gave
to the figure of the Saviour.

A Crucifix painted by Giotto formerly hung in
the Arena Chapel at Padua, but is now in the
Museo Civico, is a natural and dignified inter-
pretation of the Divine tragedy.

Giotto died in 1336 and was buried in the
cathedral of his native city of Florence. His
portrait bust on his tomb was sculptured by
Benedetto da Maiano (1490). For about ninety
years or more after the death of Giotto, there
did not appear any artist in Florence that could
be placed in the same plane with him. The
forces of nature did not seem equal to the pro-
duction of any great painters who were worthy
to wear the mantle that Giotto had laid aside
until after the beginning of the fifteenth century.
There was, of course, a great deal of painting
carried on during this intervening period, but,
generally speaking, Giotto's immediate followers

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 55

seemed content to produce numerous works that
all more or less were imitative in composition
and colour of their great predecessor's creations.
We shall endeavour to name and describe some
of the work of the more important Giottesque
painters, many of whom produced panel pictures
and frescoes that were not without merit, charm
and dignity of composition, although not always
conspicuous for their originaUty of conception.

CHAPTER V

IMMEDIATE FOLLOWERS OF GIOTTO

Taddeo Gaddi (1300 ?-1383 ?), son of Gaddo
Gaddi, was the favourite pupil and godson of
Giotto, It may be said that all of his work
reflected that of his illustrious master, but the
reflection could hardly be called a brilliant one.
Cennino Cennini, in the first chapter of his Treatise
on Painting, tells us that Taddeo was for twenty-
four years the disciple of Giotto, from which
we may infer that he must have been a great
helpmate to his master, and that when he did
finally produce works of his own they would
certainly be in a great measure " echoes " of the
composition, if not always of the execution, that
distinguished the work of the greater painter.
Some of his panel pictures are signed and dated,
and from the style and methods shown in them
we are enabled to ascribe to this artist certain
frescoes that show the same kind of handling
in the execution. Although Taddeo imitated
his master in many ways, and sometimes equalled
him in the beauty of expression in his heads, he
was as a rule inferior to him in his drawing and
colouring. His figures are not drawn in good
proportion, being too elongated in character,
for, like many of his contemporaries, he was not

66

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 57

entirely free from the influence of the Byzantine
traditions ; his draperies are artificial rather than
organic-like in their folds, the craniums of his
figures are too small, and the eyes are often
suggested by horizontal slits. From the re-
mains of the original colouring on his works we
can conceive that he was extremely fond of
using bright and sharply contrasting tints, and,
lastly, it may be said that Taddeo, like the other
disciples of his master, was incapable of carrying
on the traditions of the latter in anything like
a complete degree, and anything that was not
reminiscent of Giotto's art in that of his disciples
and followers did not so much express their own
ideas or originality, but was, as we have said, due
to a continued adherence to the slowly dying
Byzantine influence.

In the Berlin Museum there is an altar-piece
by Taddeo, which is signed and dated 1334,
and another in the Gallery of Siena, dated 1350.
Both of these works show strongly the influence
of Giotto, particularly in the compositions, which
are almost if not wholly adapted from the latter's
works in the church at Assisi; but here the
similarity ends, for Taddeo's drawing and execu-
tion are weaker and more slovenly, while the
deep religious sentiment that the older master
expressed in his work is wanting in the efforts
of his pupil.

Taddeo painted a series of panels which formed
the decoration of the presses in the sacristy of
Santa Croce at Florence, some of which are now
in the Berlin Gallery, but the greater number of

58 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

them are in the Academy of Arts in Florence.
In these panels the compositions are in most
cases almost copies of Giotto's works at Assisi,
and in all of them the latter master's influence
is strongly marked. The execution is, however,
slight and sketchy, and they have the defects
of drawing peculiar to Gaddeo, such as the stiff
attitudes and long necks of the figures, badly
drawn extremities and artificial arrangement of
the draperies.

There is an important series of frescoes by
Taddeo Gaddi on the left side of the BaroncelU
Chapel in Santa Croce, executed about 1332-38,
which illustrate the life of the Virgin. The
subjects of " The Expulsion of Joachim from the
Temple " and " The Presentation of the Virgin "
are both fine Giottesque compositions. In the
"Presentation" fresco are two standing male
figures on the right, the inner one of which is said to
have the lineaments of Gaddo Gaddi, the artist's
father, and the figure on the extreme right
those of Andrea Tafi. These works have suffered
much by decay and restoration; some of the
plaster from time to time had fallen off, and
the new intonaco has been repainted. Taddeo
painted a good many other frescoes in Santa
Croce which are now no longer in existence.
This artist was also an architect; he was the
designer of the original plans for the first bridges
built across the Arno, known as the Ponte
Vecchio, rebuilt 1345, and Ponte Santa Trinita,
built in 1377. The latter bridge was swept
away in the sixteenth century. Vasari and others

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 59

mention Taddeo as one of the architects of
Orsanmichele.

The Spanish Chapel. Vasari has mentioned
Taddeo Gaddi as the painter who decorated the
west side of the Cappella degh Spagnuoh — ^the
Spanish Chapel — in the cloisters of Santa Maria
Novella, and all the rest of the work, which
forms the decoration of this great chapel, he
has given to Simone Memmi, the Sienese painter.
Subsequent investigations have shed great doubts
on, if not entirely disproved, Vasari' s statements.
Considerable pains have been taken by many
critics and authorities, including Ruskin, to assign
the frescoes in the Spanish Chapel to Taddeo and
his son Agnolo, to Simone Memmi and his
brother Philip, and to Antonio Veneziano, giving
certain figures and parts to each. There may be
some truth in the statements of the critics as
to the names of the artists who had a share in the
decorating of the chapel, but the evidences set
forth are not very convincing. While we must
admit that many parts of this great scheme of
decoration are of great interest and value to the
student, and some of the figures are good in
drawing, expression, and in execution, which
proves that one or two of the best artists of the
period were employed by the priori, who gave
them the subjects to illustrate, the greater
part of the work shows that many second-rate
artists who practised after the death of Giotto
must have been engaged as assistants to carry
out this vast scheme of decoration.

The chapel was built between 1320 and 1350

60 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

by one of the Dominican architects, the cost
being defrayed by Guidalotti, a Florentine mer-
chant, and the decoration must have been begun
immediately after it was erected, as the frescoes,
though well advanced, were not completed at
the death of Guidalotti in 1356. The subjects
of the paintings having been given to the artists
by their patrons, the priori of the church, we
can understand their diversified nature, and we
can also understand that the artists who were
employed did their best to please and satisfy the
priori by literally illustrating scriptural scenes
and events, and by depicting the numerous
allegories, philosophers, prophets, saints, and
fathers of the Church, including also portrait
figures of notable persons, in a decidedly obvious
manner.i If the painted personifications of the
sciences, divinity, literature, laws, rhetoric,
music, logic, etc., which form a great part of the
decoration, did not seem to sufficiently explain
their meaning or identity to the spectator, the
artists who laboured in the Spanish Chapel did
not hesitate to clear away all doubts by obligingly
placing descriptive scrolls in the hands of the
figures.

Among the numerous followers or imitators
of Giotto may be mentioned the names of
Puccio Campagna, a Florentine, Ottaviano, Pace
da Faenza, and Guglielmo da Forli, whom Vasari
states were his disciples, who assisted him in
various works, and after his death had executed
works at Assisi, Bologna, Ferrara and Forh.
^ See postea, p. 94.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 61

It is now hardly possible to point out any of the
work that may have been done at these places
by the artists named; but the supposed work
of one of them, such as the " Passion " frescoes in
the Lower Church of Assisi, assigned to Puccio by
Vasari, are now believed to be by Giotto himself.

Stefano Fiorentino (1301 ?-1350 ?) is claimed
by Vasari to have been a disciple and also
a grandson of Giotto, and according to his
biographer " he not only surpassed all those
who had preceded him in the art, but even
left his master, Giotto, far behind him," Lanzi
says of him that " he possessed a genius for
penetrating the difficulties of the art and an
insuperable desire for conquering them. He
first introduced foreshortenings . . . greatly im-
proved the perspective of buildings, the attitudes
and the variety and expression of the heads."
As a testimony to his versatility he is said to
have been called in his time the " Ape of Nature "
— Scimmia della Nature. There are, however,
no works existing that can be definitely assigned
to him, though his historians say that he painted
frescoes in the Ara Coeli at Rome, also in the
Church of S. Spirito at Florence, the Campo
Santo of Pisa and other places, all of which are
said to have showed the influence of Giotto.
Stefano, however, interests us chiefly as being
the father of his better -known son, Tommaso
di Stefano, but more widely known as Giottino.

GiOTTiNO (1324-1368?). This Florentine
painter, who was called Maso by Ghiberti, more
than any of the immediate followers of Giotto

62 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

imitated the style and design of his great pre-
decessor, so closely in many instances, that if it
were not for the smallness of the heads and the
minute and careful treatment of the ornamental
embroideries, and the employment of gold, the
works of Giottino might well be mistaken for
those of the former master. Nearly all the
attitudes and poses of the figures in Giottino's
productions are commonly found in the more
original works of Giotto. Vasari says of him
that " he was more perfect than his master
Giotto." Although he had not the power or
originality of his greater contemporary Orcagna,
it may be said that he shared with the latter the
distinction of having preserved the vitality of
Florentine painting in the period of its diminished
glory that followed on the death of its great
exponent.

The frescoes by Giottino in the Chapel of
S. Silvestro in Santa Croce, representing the
miracles of St. Silvester, though now much
damaged, are well-arranged Giottesque composi-
tions. They have a Florentine breadth of treat-
ment and more care and finish, together with a
greater realism in the drawing of the figures and
draperies, than is shown in the work of his con-
temporaries. In some respects his realism is in
advance of Giotto's, while his colouring is of a
light and warm character like that of the latter
master's.

The frescoes of the Cappella del Sacremento
in the Lower Church of Assisi, illustrating inci-
dents in the life of St. Nicholas, have been assigned

Allnarl

THE DEPOSITION. PRESCO IN S. CROCE, FLORENCE : GIOTTINO ['.)

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 63

to Giottino. From what still remains of these
almost obliterated and damaged works it would
be difficult to ascribe them to any painter other
than one who had closely followed the traditions
of Giotto, and who had worked in the first half of
the fourteenth century. The remains of the fresco
above the pulpit, in the arch of the Lower Church,
having the subject of " The Coronation of the
Virgin " is, on the authority of Vasari, a work of
Giottino. The altar-piece picture with a gold
ground of the "Deposition " or "Pi eta," numbered
27 in the Uffizi Gallery, is also ascribed to Giot-
tino, though by some authorities it is considered
to be of a later date than the fourteenth century.
It is, however, extremely Giottesque in design
and colouring, and as it appears to have a close
resemblance to the style and composition of
Giotto's work, without, however, the dramatic
feeling and vigour that we associate with the
latter's designs, it is quite likely to be a work
from the hand of Giottino.

Vasari relates, when Taddeo Gaddi was on
his deathbed he confided his son Agnolo to the
care of the painters Giovanni da Milano and
Jacopo da Casentino, both of whom had been
the disciples or assistants of Taddeo. To the
former he recommended his son for instruction
in art, and to the latter for his direction in worldly
affairs.

Giovanni da Milano, whose real name was
Giovanni Jacobi, was a native of Milan, but
worked for many years in Florence before he
went back to his native place. The dates of the

64 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

birth and death of this painter are unknown,
but he worked in the middle and later half of
the fourteenth century. Giovanni was in many
respects an interesting painter, for although he
was not great in design and composition, his
work is marked by an unusual realism and by
more precision of drawing than is found in the
work of the Florentine master Taddeo. His style
appears to be a mixture of the Florentine and
Sienese methods, for he was greatly influenced
by the latter school. One of his most important
works is a panel picture which forms the large
altar-piece of " The Madonna and Saints," now
in the picture gallery of the Palazzo Comunale
at Prato, and which, though damaged and partly
repainted, still shows the mixture of the Floren-
tine and Sienese manners peculiar to his work,
having much of the vigour and breadth of the
former and the softer grace of the latter. This
example bears an inscription which includes the
name of the painter. Another signed work of
his, and dated 1365, is his altar-piece in the
Academy of Florence. The National Gallery,
London, contains an example of Giovanni's
work; it is numbered 579a, and consists of the
terminal panels of an altar-piece, having repre-
sentations of "The Almighty," "The Virgin"
and " St. Isaiah." He assisted Taddeo Gaddi
in some fresco paintings at Arezzo, but these
works are no longer in existence. The Rinuc-
cini Chapel in Santa Croce contains the frescoes
of scenes from the life of Christ, "The Virgin"
and " Mary Magdalen," painted by Giovanni.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 65

The realistic renderings of many of the figures,
accessories and backgrounds of architecture and
landscape, the broad but careful treatment of the
draperies, and the warm and transparent nature
of the colouring, on such parts as have not
been repainted, all have their counterparts in the
authentic panel pictures by the same painter.
The art of Giovanni da Milano shows an advance-
ment in the study of nature, and better colouring
than that of his contemporaries, and in these
respects he considerably assisted in the develop-
ment of Florentine painting.

BuoNAMico BuFFALMACCO (lived first half 14th
century). This Florentine painter was, according
to Vasari, a scholar of Andrea Tafi, and is credited
by his Aretine historian, as well as by Ghiberti,
as having painted numerous frescoes and pictures
at Florence, Arezzo, Bologna, Pisa and Perugia,
but there is nothing remaining at any of these
places that can with certainty be attributed to
him. Ghiberti speaks well of him as being a good
painter and excellent colourist, and Vasari echoes
the former in this respect, and also, in his zeal
to credit Buffalmacco with a long list of works
from his hand, mentions that he painted the
frescoes in the Chapel of Santa Caterina in the
Church of San Domenico at Perugia ; while in his
life of Stefano Fiorentino he says that the
decoration of this chapel was begun but left
unfinished by the latter painter. It is, however,
quite possible that Buffalmacco may have com-
pleted the decoration of this chapel, whph may
have been left unfinished by Stefano. Tie result

VOL. II. F

66 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of their labours, however, has disappeared, for
what remains at the present time of this decora-
tion belongs to a much later period.

Buffalmacco is said to have painted the
" Genesis " frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa,
and also " The Crucifixion," " The Resurrec-
tion," and other scenes from the life of Christ;
but these frescoes are the works of some unknown
Sienese artists.

Even the stories re-told by Vasari from Sac-
chetti and Boccaccio, in reference to the very
amusing practical jokes that Buffalmacco was
always indulging in throughout his merry and
lively existence, have a decided air of romance
rather than truth, like the tales of the Decameron,
which " make Fiesole's hills and vales remembered
for Boccaccio's sake."

Jacopo da Casentino (1310 ?-1390 ?), the
other friend and assistant of Taddeo Gaddi, was
also known under the name of Jacopo Landini.
He was born at Prato Vecchio in the Casentino,
and his family surname was Landino. His
artistic powers were much inferior to those of his
companion, Giovanni da Milano, for while the
latter was striving to keep alight the flickering
flame of Florentine art after the death of Giotto,
Jacopo was really one of the leaders of the
decline of painting which had set in after Giotto's
time.

If Jacopo's claims are only those of a second-
rate painter, he appears to have been a very use-
ful friend to his brother artists, and had great
business-like qualities as an organiser. He was

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 67

one of the chief members of the Painting Corpora-
tion, or Painters' Company, which was estabUshed
in 1339 to promote the interests of artists, and
which met once a month in the Church of
S. Maria Nuova in Florence. This company of
artists adopted St. Luke as their patron saint.
Vasari in his hfe of Jacopo give a list of the nine
counsellors of this brotherhood of painters,
among whom were the painters Jacopo da
Casentino and Bernardo Daddi, who joined the
company in 1349.

Jacopo painted many frescoes in Florence and
its neighbourhood, also at Arezzo and Prato
Vecchio ; most of them, however, are not now in
existence. He was commissioned to paint ceil-
ings, pilasters and walls in Orsanmichele, some
vestiges of which work still remains. One of his
most important works is the altar-piece which
he painted for the Church of S. Giovanni Evan-
gelista at Prato Vecchio, his native place. This
work consists of three principal pictures, the
centre and two sides, and three terminal panels.
The subject is "St. John the Evangelist lifted up
into Heaven." All the panels which form the
complete altar-piece are now in the London
National Gallery (Nos. 580 and 580a), and are
imder the artist's proper name of Landini. Some
authorities, however, among whom is Mr. C.
Fairfax Murray, attributes this work to Giovanni
dal Ponte. The composition of this large altar-
piece is almost monotonous in its decorative
balance, both as regards the figures and their
colouring. The general colour is somewhat harsh

68 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

and commonplace, owing to the prevalence of
cold and rank pinks and greens.

If the small pictures of the predella are by the
same hand that painted the larger work above
them, which appears doubtful, they are certainly
more successful in design and handling. One
of these small works, " The Vision of the Apoca-
lypse," might be designed by Giotto, it has so
much in common with Giotto's treatment of
the same subject in the " Patmos " fresco in Santa
Croce.

According to Vasari, Landini was a pupil of
Buffalmacco, " whom he imitated rather in his
attachment to the pleasures of life, than in the
effort to become a good painter."

CHAPTER VI

ORCAGNA

Andrea Orcagna (1308?-1368) was the son of
Clone, who had also two other sons, the painters
Nardo (Bernardo or Leonardo) and Jacopo Clone.
Orcagna's full name was Andrea di Clone I'Arca-
gnuolo, which was shortened or corrupted to
Orcagna. This remarkable artist possessed a
universal genius, and was not only the greatest
Florentine painter of his time, but as an archi-
tect, a sculptor, a worker In mosaic, and a glass
painter he also achieved great and well-merited
fame. He was said to have been one of the
pupils of Andrea Plsano the sculptor, but was
taught painting by his elder brother Bernardo.
His work, however, was greatly Influenced by
Giotto and by the Slenese painter Ambroglo
Lorenzettl. Notwithstanding such Influences, his
productions were distinguished by consider-
able power and marked originality. In his
virile conceptions he united the breadth and
grandeur of Florentine design and composition
with the suavity and softness of Slenese colour-
ing and technique, thus adopting the finest
characteristics of both schools, and by combin-
ing with these the creative force of his own
genius he succeeded in producing works both in

69

70 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

painting and in sculpture of greater value and
importance than any executed by Florentine
artists since Giotto's time. In his technical
methods, particularly in the modelling or fusing
of his flesh tints, and in the expression of the
human forms by the folds and functional dis-
position of the draperies over them, his work was
in these respects in advance of Giotto's, and
although his perspective was faulty he also ad-
vanced this science to a greater degree than that
which had hitherto been done by the Italian
painters.

From what can be judged of his remaining
original work Orcagna's colouring was of a bold
and daring richness, and harmonious as a rule.
Like Titian he miade the best use of strong
masses of blue and red, harmonizing these
powerful colours with passages of umbery whites,
orange, pale rose, grey and gold.

In plastic art he was unequalled by any
sculptor of the fourteenth century, as his famous
tabernacle in the oratory of Orsanmichele at
Florence clearly testifies. This great mommient
was completed, according to the inscription on
it, in 1359, and is a work in marble and precious
stones. The numerous statuettes and reliefs
have a high degree of finish and represent scenes
from the life of the Virgin. The finest of these
sculptures is the panel of " The Assumption,"
at the back of the tabernacle, where the Virgin
is shown carried up to heaven by angels. The
reliefs of " The Annunciation " and " The Mar-
riage of the Virgin " of the front panels are also

THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRQIN. PANEL OF THE TABERNACLE IN
ORSANMICHELE, FLORENCE : ANDREA ORCAGNA

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 71

masterly works, all of which show the influence
of Giotto and Andrea Pisano, as they remind us
of the sculptured bas-reliefs of the Campanile of
Florence. Orcagna's work on this tabernacle is,
however, a great advancement on that of the
Campanile sculptures in regard to its greater
perfection in the rendering of nature in the human
forms, its finer modelling, and to the more finished
and highly polished surfaces of the marble under
his chisel. The architectural setting of the
sculptures is light and graceful and in thorough
harmony with its sculptured decoration, the
monument on the whole presenting a rare ex-
ample of structural completeness, where archi-
tecture and sculpture have been nicely balanced
by the masterly mind and hand of the designer,
and in such a happy manner that each enhances
the beauty and dignity of the other.

Though Orcagna was a distinguished sculptor,
it was more in the medium of painting that he
produced his best work. The most important
example of Orcagna's painting which still sur-
vives is perhaps his great altar-piece, which he
was commissioned to paint in 1354 by Tommaso
di Rossello Strozzi for his chapel in the Church
of S. Maria Novella, Florence. This work is
dated 1357, the year of its completion. The
large frescoes of " The Paradise " and " The
Inferno " which decorate the left and right walls
respectively, of the Strozzi Chapel, are quite
likely to have been painted by Orcagna before
the altar-piece was commenced, as well as the sub-
ject of " The Last Judgment " on the wall between

72 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

them, for in 1344 Andrea was mentioned as a
master painter of Florence Previous to 1358
he had painted the choir of S, Maria Novella,
but these frescoes being in a bad condition to-
wards the end of the following century, and as
large wall spaces were more difficult to find than
artists of ability about that time, Orcagna's
work was cleaned off and replaced by new
frescoes which still remain, as the celebrated
works of Ghirlandajo that he completed about
the year 1490. Some of the scenes and sub-
jects of Orcagna's original frescoes were made use
of by Ghirlandajo when the repainting of the
choir was done.

In the fresco of " The Paradise," on the left
wall of the Strozzi Chapel, the seated figures of
the Saviour and the Virgin are represented
side by side at the top, and in the centre of the
picture, under the canopy of the throne. These
figures are larger in scale than any of the others
in the composition. The Saviour's mantle has
been originally blue, and the Virgin is dressed in
white. Immediately below the foot of the throne
and occupying the central portion are two
grandly-designed angels resting on clouds and
playing instruments of music. On either side of
these angels are rows of warrior seraphs and
cherubs in prayer, and dressed in red and blue
robes. Further below is the multitude of the
heavenly host in which are included apostles,
saints, prophets and martyrs, attended by their
guardian angels, who are singing, praying, ador-
ing, and making heavenly music. In the lower

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 73

portion a crowd of dancers and other figures
are arranged in horizontal rows, like the other
figures on the right and left, which tend to pro-
duce a formal and symmetrical effect, but at the
same time this particular arrangement assists in
giving a solemn dignity to the composition,
fitting to the deep significance of the imagined
scene. It is also extremely effective as a great
wall decoration from the sense of pattern it
produces, where we see the units of the pattern
projected on one plane. From a pictorial point
of view this might be considered a defect, as
there is here no attempt at aerial perspective,
but if there had been, it is quite possible
Orcagna's work would not have been so success-
ful as a wall decoration. This fresco, as well
as the others in the chapel, has suffered very
much from damp and restoration, many of the
figures being now only faded outhnes.

The fresco of " The Last Judgment," now in a
decayed state and difficult to see, is painted on
the wall above and on either side of the pointed
window. Here the Saviour is represented in a
blue tunic and red mantle, and is soaring to
heaven, attended by angels and by two heralds
who announce His coming. The Virgin, in a
white dress, kneels below on the left, and with
her are six kneeling apostles. Opposite, on the
right side of the window, is John the Baptist
kneeling, with his arms raised towards the
Saviour. He also heads a double row of six
kneeling apostles. Below the Virgin there are
rows of patriarchs, prophets, saints, kings and

74 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

martyrs, and a group of female dancers. Be-
neath the Baptist, on the right side, are repre-
sented the guilty and condemned in Hades.

In these rows of the heavenly hosts, angels,
and especially in the groups of figures expressing
ecstasy of movement and naivete of pose, we see
the prototypes, furnished by Orcagna, of the
angels and divine dancers which have been so
charmingly rendered by Fra Angelico in many of
his pictures, for example, in the exquisite altar-
piece of " The Last Judgment," which the
Dominican of Fiesole painted for the Friars of
the Angeli, and now in the Academy of Arts
at Florence. This work shows how strongly
Angelico was influenced by the form, character
and style of the frescoes of " The Last Judgment,"
" The Paradise," and " Inferno " of the Strozzi
Chapel. Also in the charming figures of the
angels that surround " The Virgin and Child " in
the tabernacle of the Flax Merchants' Guild, now
in the Uffizi gallery, and in the whole composition
of " The Coronation of the Virgin," in the Louvre,
as well as in many other pictures by Angelico,
the influence of Orcagna is clearly manifested.
In the still later work of Benozzo Gozzoli, who
was a disciple of Fra Angelico, the Orcagna tra-
dition is further exemplified. In illustration of
this we may mention the fresco of " The Para-
dise," painted by Gozzoli in the Chapel of the
Riccardi at Florence, as one example where this
painter was strongly influenced by the works
of Orcagna, either directly or through the medium
of Angelico's compositions.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 75

The fresco of " The Inferno " on the right wall
of the Strozzi Chapel is chiefly the work of
Bernardo — ^Nardo di Clone — ^the elder brother
of Andrea. It appears to be in a better state
of preservation than the others, but this is on
account of its having been entirely repainted;
perhaps nothing of the original work remains.
The composition consists of a series of compart-
ments or bolge — ^the dark and cavernous abodes
of Dante's Inferno, in which are illustrations of
highly imaginative conceptions of the under-
world of lost souls.

The altar-piece, completed in 1357, is on the
whole the finest work of Orcagna. The Saviour
is here represented as having a youthful appear-
ance, and is seated on a throne surrounded by
seraphim and cherubim. He is dressed in a blue
mantle, and is presenting the Gospel to St.
Thomas Aquinas with His right hand, and the
keys to St. Peter with His left. The heads and the
figures generally of these three figures are good in
form and full of animation. Both saints are
kneeling at the sides of the Saviour, and are
accompanied by two angels with sounding trum-
pets. On the right side is the Virgin with St.
Catherine and St. Michael, and on the left St.
John the Baptist, with St. Lawrence and St. Paul.
The above occupy the five upper compartments
of the altar-piece, which rest on a predella of
three divisions, the central one having the sub-
ject of " St. Peter's rescue by the Saviour from the
Waters," and those on either side " The Celebra-
tion of the Mass " and " The Death of a King,"

76 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

where an angel is weighing his soul in a balance.
These portions have lost their colour in places, and
some parts are repainted. Though greatly injured,
this important work still retains some of the
charm of its light but rich colouring, which at
one time must have greatly distinguished it.

Another of Orcagna's altar-pieces is the trip-
tych of " The Coronation of the Virgin," with
numerous saints and angels in adoration, which
was painted for the Church of San Pietro Mag-
giore in Florence, and is now in the National
Gallery, numbered 569. This large work meas-
ures over nine feet in height and thirteen feet
in width, and there are nine other panels in the
same gallery, numbered 570 to 578, which belong
to this altar-piece and were formerly placed above
it. Though ascribed to Orcagna, it is evidently
the work of many hands, and has been greatly
restored. The painting numbered 581 in this
gallery, consisting of three panels having full-
length standing figures of SS. John the Evan-
gelist, John the Baptist and James the Greater,
was formerly ascribed to Spinello Aretino; but
this, together with the above-mentioned works,
may be considered as belonging to the school
of Orcagna. They are all painted in tempera on
gesso grounds, the backgrounds to the figures
being in gold, and the nimbi of the saints stamped
or slightly relieved on the gesso. In the large
altar-piece the Saviour, placed on the right,
crowns the Virgin. Both are in robes of a warm
white tone, on which is superimposed an ex-
tremely fine pattern of gold embroidery. The

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 77

throne, which is of a pink- white colour, is partly-
covered with a blue drapery on which a pattern
of a bird-motive is painted in gold. Two angels
in deep red robes stand on either side of the
throne, and ten others kneel below and play
musical instnmients. The rest of the composi-
tion consists of forty-eight figures, somewhat
symmetrically arranged, of saints, apostles, mar-
tyrs, kings and other dignitaries kneeling in
adoration, and looking on either side at the
central group. The colours of their draperies
are light reds, scarlet, pale blue, orange and
grey, which together with their gold embroideries
and the gold background produce a light and gay
effect. No perspective is attempted, nor is
any notice taken of the folds of the draperies in
the drawing of the embroidered patterns, which
are simply superimposed over the prominences
and hollows alike and in one plane.

Other works ascribed to Orcagna may be
mentioned — namely, one in the north portal of
S. Maria del Fiore at Florence, which represents
S. Zanobius, the patron saint of the city,
enthroned, with his feet on the allegorical vices
of Pride and Cruelty, and with kneeling figures
of saints on either side ; another picture of four
saints, dated 1363, is in the Medici Chapel in
S. Croce, and in the same chapel a work illus-
trating the apotheosis of S. Giovanni Gualberto.
In the refectory of S. Croce there is a painting
by him of " The Virgin and Child " with Pope
Gregory and Job on either side.

Orcagna was appointed Capo-maestro of the

78 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

great Cathedral of Orvieto in the year 1358, and
was employed to design and execute a mosaic
for the front of that edifice. This he did with
the aid of several assistants, among whom was his
brother, Matteo di Clone. This mosaic was one
of his last-recorded works, and was finished about
1361, though he doubtless produced many others
between that time and 1368, the year of his death.

Vasari states that Andrea Orcagna and his
brother Bernardo painted the great frescoes of
"The Triumph of Death, " The Last Judgment,"
and " The Inferno " in the Campo Santo at Pisa,
and subsequent writers on art history until recent
times have not questioned Vasari's statement,
but modern research has proved that the painters
who were responsible for the frescoes of the
Strozzi Chapel could not possibly have executed
the works in the Campo Santo, which Vasari
assigned to Orcagna and his brother Bernardo,
as the frescoes in question are Sienese in style,
in spacing, handling and character, and are not
painted in the Florentine manner. They may
therefore be the work of the Sienese painters
Pietro and his brother Ambrogio ,Lorenzetti,
or, if not, they are the works of some disciples
or followers of these painters, whose names are
unknown.

Bernardo Daddi was also known as Ber-
nardo da Firenze, but is not to be confused with
Nardo, or Bernardo, the elder brother of Orcagna,
who was also known as Bernardo of Florence.^

^ E. Hutton, in History of Painting in Italy, Crowe and
Cavalcaselle, vol. i, p. 421, note 2.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 79

His merits as a painter have been duly recog-
nized by modern critics. Vasari gives a very
scant notice of him in his life of Jacopd di Casen-
tino, but says that " his works were numerous
and highly prized." Jacopo and Bernardo were
enrolled as fellow-members of the Florentine
Painters' Guild in 1349. Vasari says that the
latter executed paintings in the Chapels of San
Lorenzo and San Stefano, in the Church of
Santa Croce, which belonged to the families of
Pulci and Berardi, and also some frescoes over
the gates of the old city of Florence. Paintings
of this period, which are signed " Bernardus de
FlorEtia " and mostly dated, are works by Ber-
nardo Daddi." ^ Mr. E. Hutton gives him the
following works — ^namely, "The Madonna and
Saints," No. 271, in the Academy of Florence,
which is signed and dated 1332 ; the triptych. No.
60, in the Gallery of Siena, dated 1336 ; the polyp-
tych, having a Crucifixion and eight saints, signed
and dated 1348, now in the Parry Collection at
Highnam Court, Gloucester, and the Giottesque-
like picture of " The Madonna and Child, with
two Saints," No. 26, in the Gallery of the Uffizi.
Though Bernardo Daddi cannot be considered
in the first rank in the matters of originality and
design, yet his works, in their painter-like qualities
of technique and colouring, give him an important
place amongst the Italian artists who upheld
the traditions of Giotto.

Spinello di Luca Spinelli, known as Spi-

1 E. Hutton, in History of Painting in Italy, Crowe and
Cavalcaselle, vol. i, p. 378, note 1.

80 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

nello Aretino (1333 ?-1410), was born at Arezzo.
He painted frescoes at S. Miniato al Monte, and
in the Church of the Carmine and other churches
in Florence, as well as those which he executed
in the Campo Santo at Pisa. In the later years
of his life, about 1405 and after, he executed
paintings in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena. At
Arezzo he painted " The Fall of the Rebel
Angels " in the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli,
three fragments of which are now in the National
Gallery. There is also a fragment of another
fresco from S. Maria del Carmine, Florence,
by Spinello in the same gallery, " Two Apostles,"
where the heads and shoulders are represented;
other portions of this fresco are in the Liver-
pool Gallery and at Pisa. Spinello is said to
have studied for some time under Jacopo da
Casentino.

His work is generally characterized by a
vigorous treatment of light and shade, and there
is much dramatic element in his compositions,
showing a strong influence of Giotto's work.
The general action, attitudes, and arrangement
of his figures, whether singly or in groups, were
as a rule well chosen, and disposed to advantage
for his end in view of illustrating the particular
incident that at the moment occupied his atten-
tion, but his powers of drawing did not run
parallel with his abilities as a designer, for his
figures, especially the extremities and articula-
tions of limbs, show his deficiency as a draughts-
man. His colouring is of a light and gay
character, which he seemed to have obtained by

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 81

a transparent method of painting over a white
ground, using his colours as glazes. Where his
work has not been restored or repainted it has all
the evidences of being executed with a light and
swift hand. Spinello was essentially a fresco
painter, his best work being executed in this
medium, and in every instance was superior to
his panel pictures. His methods of execution
show that he must have worked in a swift and
direct manner, which successful painting in
fresco calls for; but these methods, in his case,
when applied to his panel pictures, did not lend
themselves to the achievement of the same
measure of success, where more care and labour
would be necessary to produce a workmanlike
finish.

His best frescoes are those which he painted
about 1408-1410 in the public palace at Siena,
in which work he was assisted by his son Parri.
The subjects represented are spirited scenes from
the life of the Sienese pope, Alexander III. Mr.
E. Hutton states that Spinello painted the side
walls and arch of the Cappella di S. Caterina,
near Antella and Florence, with scenes from the
life of St. Catherine of Alexandria, which he
considers " the finest and certainly the most
charming work of Spinello." ^ The altar-piece.
No. 129, in the Academy of Arts, Florence, is a
work by this master, or, to speak more precisely,
the general design is his, and the work in the
left of its three compartments has been painted

^ Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy,
vol. i, p. 432, note 2. Dent,

VOL. II. G

82 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

by him, while the central portion is the work
of his assistant Lorenzo di Niccold Gerino, and
the right side is ascribed to Niccold di Pietro, the
father of Lorenzo, who sometimes collaborated
with Spinello in his work. The subject of this
altar-piece is " The Coronation of the Virgin,"
which occupies the central panel, while the right
and left wings have figures of the apostles and
saints. It was painted for the Monastery of
S. Felicita at Florence in 1401, according to
the inscription below the central panel. Another
painting by Spinello, signed and dated 1391, is
" The Madonna with Saints " in the Academy of
Arts, Florence, but is not, however, a work of
much importance. There are other examples
of this painter's work now at Paris, Copenhagen,
Budapest, and Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. Paint-
ings in S. Francesco, S. Domenico, and SS.
Annunziata at Arezzo exist which are ascribed
to him, and at this place, his native city, where
he had retired to in his later days of life, he died
in 1410.

Lorenzo Monaco (1370 ?-1425). This Floren-
tine painter was a monk of the Camaldolese
Order of the Convent of the Angeli at Florence,
and was a pupil or follower of Agnolo Gaddi.
He achieved considerable fame as a miniaturist,
and his smaller paintings are more successful
than his works of a larger scale. This master,
who is also known by the name of Don Lorenzo
II Monaco, often shortened to II Monaco, is
credited by Vasari as being a most laborious
man, as proved by the many books he adorned

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 83

with his own hand, which remained in the author's
time in the Monastery of the Angeli, and in the
Hermitage of the CamaldoU, as well as by the
pictures which Don Lorenzo had painted in the
same places. Lorenzo's chief and only signed
work is the great altar-piece, which he painted
in 1413, for the church of his own Monastery of
the Angeli, but which was removed about the
end of the sixteenth century to the branch Chapel
of the CamaldoU, the Abbey of San Piero at
Ceretto, near Certaldo. This high altar-piece
was removed to make room for the new picture
by Alessandro AUori (1535-1607). The Ceretto
altar-piece, being a signed and authentic work by
Don Lorenzo, has led to the discovery of many
other works of his now in the galleries of Florence,
Empoli, near Pisa, Paris and London, all of
which bear the impress of style, colour and
composition of the master of the Ceretto picture.
This work is fifteen feet in length by twelve feet
in width, and consists of three gabled panels
on pilasters, with a predella below. The large
central panel has for its subject " The Coronation
of the Virgin." The throne rests on a rainbow
decorated with stars, and around it is a choir
of sixteen angels, while in front three angels
are waving censers. The side panels have re-
presentations of saints, apostles and prophets.
There are three courses of pilasters, and on each
of them are paintings of prophets. The central
one of the three pinnacles has the figure of the
Eternal, and the other two the Angel and the
Virgin Annunciate; while the central panel

84 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of the predella has the Adoration of the Magi
and of the Shepherds, and the side panels scenes
from the life of St. Bernard. The general com-
position conforms to the traditional subjects,
and the careful workmanship and light and gay
colouring is very characteristic of the miniature
painter's methods. In feeling and style Lorenzo's
work furnishes a link between the later Giot-
tesques and the more developed art of Fra
Angelico. There is, indeed, a good deal in
common in the works of these two painters,
which is not surprising when we know that
although Lorenzo was the elder of the two, he
was frequently employed as an assistant by Fra
Angelico.

In the Cluny Museum, at Paris, there is a small
but fine example of Lorenzo's work, numbered
1667 and dated 1408. It represents Christ on the
Mount and the Holy Women at the Sepulchre.
The triptych, No. 143, in the Academy of Flor-
ence, is an interesting work by this painter, where
the subject of " The Annunciation " occupies
the central panel. Here the Virgin is represented
in a shrinking attitude, with a terrified expression
as she regards the visiting angel, and it was
because of this dramatic rendering of the figure
of the Virgin that Vasari assigned the work to
Giotto. His altar-piece, No. 41, in the Uffizi
Gallery, is a well-preserved and carefully -painted
work representing the Madonna and Saints.
It is executed in tempera on a gold ground, and
is dated 1410.

II Monaco is represented in the National Gallery

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 85

by three panels, two of these, numbered 215 and
216, are paintings of various saints, which were
formerly ascribed to Taddeo Gaddi, and seem
to have been the right and left wings of an altar-
piece. The general colouring is a harmonic
arrangement in broken tones of scarlet, yellow,
blue and green, which is considerably helped by
the gold of the backgrounds. The large work.
No. 1897, is a " Coronation of the Virgin by the
Saviour." Below the two principal sacred figures
seated on the throne, are three kneeling angels,
which remind us of such in the works of Fra
Angelico. This important work is a fine example
of beautiful colouring. The Virgin, whose head
is bowed and her arms crossed on her breast,
wears a robe of greyish and somewhat yellowish
pink, embroidered with a gold pattern, and has a
blue hood. The robe of Christ is deep crimson,
and His mantle is blue with a yellow lining. The
central kneeling angel plays an organ, and has
a dress of lemon-yellow with orange-red and
blue lining. The angel on the right has a blue
dress, and the one on the left is in pale greyish
pink. Their wings are in black and light greys,
blues and reds. The mat, or unvarnished surface,
of this picture helps to heighten the pearly-like
tone of the colouring and to give it the effect
of a neutral bloom. This unvarnished tempera
painting may be taken as an example of the
methods and treatment adopted by Lorenzo in
his miniature paintings as well as in his larger
works, and that he always painted in a light
scheme of colour, striving as he did for luminosity

86 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

rather than depth and richness. Many of his
smaller pictures are brownish in tone, and some
have a general golden effect, but works of this
class from his hand owe their depth of colouring
to subsequent varnishing, for it is almost certain
that he left his paintings in the mat tempera
state and other people varnished some of them
after his time.

It may be mentioned that quite recently the
National Gallery has acquired another small
picture by II Monaco, No. 2862, " S. Giovanni
Gualberto instituting the Order of Vallambrosa."
In this little picture there are about a dozen
small figures of monks dressed in white, and the
walls of a room are a greyish-yellow stone colour.
The saint invests a Cistercian, who kneels on a
red orange-tiled floor, with the mantle of the
Order, and at the right side are some rocks, as
part of the background.

There are some fine examples of miniatures
in the Biblioteca Laurenziano, and in the Bargello
at Florence, by this painter, executed, according
to their dates, from 1409 to 1413.

Agnolo Gaddi (1333?-1396) was taught by
his father, Taddeo Gaddi. He was one of the
later followers of Giotto, though his work showed
a decline on that of his great predecessor. In
many respects he was superior to his father,
especially in the general composition of his
works and in the matter of figure drawing.
His individual figures were also finer in design
and pose than those of the elder Gaddi, and his
draperies simpler and broader in the folds.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 87

In methods and execution his work was generally
less laboured, approaching more to the decorative
side of art, and further removed from realism
as he advanced in life. His colouring was not
without harmony in its contrasted tones and of
a transparent lightness and softness. On the
other hand, there is not much beauty of expres-
sion in his faces, as they are often coarse, heavy
and severe ; the types of his heads were square,
rather than elongated, but they bear evidences
of a closer study of nature than is foimd in the
works of his contemporaries.

The most important work by Agnolo is the
fresco decoration of the Chapel of the Cintola,
or Girdle of the Virgin, in the Cathedral at
Prato, where he painted scenes from the life of
the Virgin, which include " The Meeting of
Joachim and Anna," " The Presentation in the
Temple," " The Marriage of Joseph and Mary,"
" The Annunciation " and " The Nativity." He
also painted here the subject of the Virgin present-
ing her girdle to St, Thomas, and the discovery
of the girdle by Michele dei Dagomari, a native
of Prato. The story is told that the latter
received the sacred relic as a dowry with his
wife, who was the daughter of a priest in the
Holy Land, and at his death he bequeathed the
girdle to the Cathedral of Prato. This highly
revered relic is exhibited to the people at special
times in the year.

The vaults of this chapel contain some faded
frescoes by Agnolo, " The Four Evangelists,"
"The Four Doctors of the Church," and the

88 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Twelve Apostles painted in medallions. All
these works are much damaged by time and
neglect, but what is remaining of them serves
to show the good decorative balance of the
composition and general broad treatment in
the rendering of the draperies, which are dis-
tinguished by their great simplicity of folds and
a sparing use of light and shade. Some small
pictures on the tabernacles placed on the exterior
of houses at the corners of streets in Prato and
its neighbourhood have been ascribed to Agnolo.
The subject of these pictures is the Virgin and
Child with, or without, attendant angels, but
these paintings are now almost faded away to
slight vestiges of their former appearance.

In 1394 Agnolo painted eight frescoes in the
choir of Santa Croce at Florence, representing
scenes from the Legend of the Cross. The
first of these, on the right entrance, shows the
Archangel presenting the Tree of Knowledge
to Seth, in the foreground of the picture Adam
lies dead. In the next scene the Queen of Sheba
with her suite kneels at the waterside, and
carpenters are shaping the cross from a tree,
Another scene represents the wood being sunk
in the water by the orders of King Solomon, and
the next one is where the Empress Helena appears
with her women attendants, and three men bear
the cross. The story is continued in the other
frescoes until the last, where the Emperor
Heraclius enters Jerusalem bearing the cross
on his shoulders. Near the Emperor in this
fresco is the figure of a man with a red hood,

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 89

that is mentioned by Vasari as being a portrait
of the artist. In the triangular compartments
of the ceihng Agnolo has painted a figure
of St. Francis in glory, and the Evangelists
with their emblems on a gold ground diapered
with stars. All these works, though harmonious
in colour and of great decorative value, are
inferior in drawing and composition to the Prato
frescoes.

In the National Gallery there is an early work
by Agnolo, numbered 568, a " Coronation,"
where the Virgin is crowned by the Saviour, and
four angels kneel at the front of the throne, two
of which are holding golden vessels. The figures
are a little less than life size. This work was
formerly in the Convent of the Minori at San
Miniato, Florence. The earlier works by this
painter were better in drawing and design than
those by him of a later period ; but his later efforts,
though more defective in drawing than the earlier
ones, show, on the other hand, that the vigour
of his execution was not only maintained, but in
many instances surpassed.

Agnolo had many followers who were greatly
influenced by his work, some of whom were his
own pupils, and this would account for many
altar-pieces and panels in the various European
galleries that have been ascribed to him. Though
most of his works of this nature cannot be
traced, there are records in existence proving
that he received payments and commissions for
such.

Agnolo was not a great artist in the sense of

90 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Orcagna's greatness and originality, but in many
respects he was one of the best practicians of
the school of Giotto, and also one who thoroughly
understood the principles and requirements of
good decoration. Crowe and Cavalcaselle, when
speaking of his work at Prato, say, that " at a
distance his frescoes at Prato are imposing, but
they bear no close analysis, and this is a proof
that the art in his hands had in a certain sense
degenerated and become decorative." It is a
curious and questionable criticism to infer that
when art degenerates it becomes decorative;
for if decorative art is a degenerate form, then
at least nine-tenths of the art of the Renaissance
must be degenerate, inasmuch as it was purely
decorative.

Among Agnolo's pupils may be mentioned
the names of the artists Antonio of Ferrara,
Stefano of Verona, Michele of Milan and Cennino
Cennini. The latter tells us so himself in his
Treatise on Painting, which he wrote and finished
in 1437. Cennini mentions in his book that for
twelve years he was Agnolo Gaddi's disciple, and
that he learnt the art of painting, and the
chemistry of colours and vehicles, etc., from his
master Agnolo. We have no positive knowledge
of the existence of any works that Cennini may
have painted, but there are a few that are
ascribed to him. One of these is a picture of
"The Madonna with St. John Baptist and St.
Peter," now in the Uffizi Gallery, and another
work is the " Legend of the Cross " frescoes in the
Church of the Compagnia della Croce at Volterra,

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 91

which are of a Giottesque character. These
frescoes have also been ascribed to Cenni di
Francesco, a Florentine painter {circa 1410),
and to Cienni of Volterra; but it is more than
likely that a confusion of names has arisen,
and also that Cennino Cennini may be the painter
of these frescoes.

Antonio Veneziano ( ?-1387). Very little

is known of the early history of this painter, but
he was probably a Venetian who had acquired
his knowledge and practice of art in Tuscany.
Vasari states that he went to Venice, after he
had evidently been some years in Florence,
and had learned painting imder Agnolo Gaddi,
and that he was commissioned to paint some
frescoes in the Council Hall of the Venetian city,
but owing to the envy and jealousy of the
Venetian painters and others he was driven
from there and returned humbled to Florence,
resolved to make it his future home. There
are, however, no works of his to be found in
Florence, except some frescoes of the ceiling of
the Spanish Chapel that have been ascribed to
him ; and it is doubtful whether he ever painted
any frescoes at Venice. There are records of
his employment at Siena, and at Pisa in 1386-87,
which would go to prove, as well as the marked
difference in the style and character of his work
from that of Agnolo Gaddi, that he was hardly
a pupil of the latter, but his contemporary and
rival. He departed from the methods and style
affected by the early Giottesques by devoting
himself to a closer study of nature, and by

92 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

depicting scenes where he gave to his figures a
worldly and everyday aspect, rather than the
more usual devotional or religious one. In
his methods of work, especially in his flesh paint-
ing, he sought to obtain some variety of the
tints and tones he saw in the life model by the
adoption of transparent glazes over a more solid
under-painting, which was rendered in light
and shade in a greenish-grey monochrome, the
warm yellowish lights being painted in a solid
impasto. While following out the broad prin-
ciples of Florentine composition he gave greater
attention to the study of the human form and
character than any of his contemporaries, which
enabled him to represent the various character-
istics of youth, age, sickness, afiliction and
death, with a great fidelity to nature. The
significance and aim of the art of Veneziano,
combined with his technical methods of treat-
ment, justifies its consideration as a connecting
link with the art of Giotto and of Masolino,
Masaccio, Ghirlandaio and Raffaelle. The Rai-
neri series of frescoes in the Campo Santo at
Pisa were, according to existing records, com-
menced by Andrea Firenze, or Andrea of Florence,
in 1377, and finished by Antonio Veneziano in
1386-87. The frescoes, which are now in a very
bad state of decay, illustrate the legend of S.
Rainerius, the patron saint of Pisa. They occupy
the wall spaces between the south side of the
Campo Santo. The four upper frescoes represent
" The Saint's Conversion," " His Journey to
Palestine," " His Victory over Temptation " and

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 93

" His Retirement to the Monastery." These
are the work of Andrea of Florence, while the
four lower ones, which depict, respectively,
"The Saint's Return from Palestine," "His
" Miracles," " His Death " and " The Removal
of his Remains to the Cathedral of Pisa," are the
works of Antonio Veneziano. These last four
were attributed by Vasari to Simone Martini of
Siena, but the records show that this is an error
on the part of that historian. The remains of
the work by Antonio in the Raineri frescoes not
only show his power as an original artist, but
prove that he was a skilled worker in the method
of buon fresco. He justly merits the praise of
Vasari as being an excellent painter in the fresco
methods, who did not retouch his first painting
on the wet plaster with tempera, and who did
not paint in the dry method fresco secco) as
many of his contemporaries and subsequent
painters had done. Consequently his work had
remained bright, clear and luminous, until time,
damp, and unskilful restorers have now almost
destroyed it. Vasari also relates that Antonio
studied chemistry and botany, and that he was
a skilful physician, as well as a painter — a man,
indeed, of wide accomplishments, which would
account for his sound knowledge of the con-
stituency of pigments and their preparation,
and which enabled him to select and use them
in such a manner as preserved the lucidity and
gaiety of the colouring that was characteristic
of his frescoes.

Antonio was employed to paint border subjects

94 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

to other frescoes in the Campo Santo in 1386-87,
and to restore portions of the works of the
Lorenzetti in the same building. His method
of restoring was to cut out the perished and
damaged parts, and on an entirely new intonaco
to paint these parts completely afresh, keeping
at the same time as closely as possible to the
style, composition and colouring of the rest of
the original work. The parts thus restored by
him have, however, been discovered by their
having the characteristics and qualities peculiar
to his own methods of fresco technique. In the
Church of S. Niccolo at Palermo there is a
painting by Antonio, signed and dated 1388,
the year after the completion of the Campo
Santo frescoes. This picture, executed in tem-
pera on a parchment and gesso ground, was
painted for the brotherhood of S. Francesco
and S. Niccolo. It is in the form of a gabled
square, and has the subject of " The Flagellation
of Christ," with the Virgin and St. John pictured
in sorrow. In the medallions of the corners are
paintings of the evangelists and apostles, and at
the sides are cowled figures of the brethren.

Modern criticism ascribes the restored frescoes
of the Spanish Chapel in S. Maria Novella,
Florence, to Andrea Firenze and Antonio Vene-
ziano, which were formerly assigned by Vasari
and others to Taddeo Gaddi and Simone Martini.
The ceiling frescoes of this chapel representing
"The Resurrection," "The Navicella " and
" The Descent of the Holy Spirit," in many
respects have a strong resemblance to Antonio's

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 95

work in the Campo Santo at Pisa, while the
Ascension frescoes, and those on the four walls
that illustrate " The Doctrines and Triumph of
the Great Dominican, St. Thomas Aquinas,"
are in all probability the work of the painter,
Andrea Firenze, assisted by several unknown
painters of the Giottesque school.

Gherardo di Jacopo Starnina (1354-1408 ?)
was a reputed disciple of Antonio Veneziano and
master of Masolino. These statements, however,
in the absence of definite proof are conjectural.
There are no works now existing that can be
assigned to this painter, Vasari mentions that
he decorated the Chapel of the Castellani in
the Church of Santa Croce, but these paintings
are now assigned to Taddeo Gaddi. The same
author mentions that Starnina painted various
scenes from the life of San Girolamo in the Church
of the Carmine at Florence, after he had come
from his first visit to Spain, and in these paint-
ings he introduced Spanish costumes and some
humorous features. These works, however, no
longer exist. He was living in Florence in 1387,
for in that year he was there given the freedom
of the Painters' Company. One of his pupils
was the painter Antonio Vite of Pistoia, who
was sent by Stamina, in the latter's stead, to
paint on the walls of the chapter-house of S.
Niccold. Lanzi has referred to Vite as " one
who adhered the longest to the manner of
Giotto." Vite was a feeble artist, though certain
frescoes attributed to him in the Chapel of the
Duomo at Prato are interesting in showing some

96 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

serious attempts in the application of anatomy
and perspective. The subjects of these works
are scenes from the hfe of the Virgin and the
Ufe of St. Stephen, and very Ukely the combined
efforts of Stamina and his pupil Vite.

CHAPTER VII

SIENESE PAINTING OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

In the first chapter of this volume we have
noticed and described the general character of
early Sienese painting. We have mentioned
how it was, in common with the early schools
of Pisan and Florentine painting, a development
or evolution of the still earlier Byzantine arts
of miniature painting and mosaics. Though in
each of the chief cities of Tuscany in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries there existed native
schools of Italian painting, yet at their best
they only represented a feeble and degenerate
form of art, as may be seen in the works of
such painters as Giunta of Pisa, Margaritone of
Arezzo, and Guido of Siena, as well as in similar
productions of other unknown artists of this
period, which were painted for the churches of
Tuscany, but are now preserved in the European
galleries. The Gallery of Siena contains many
of these early works, both of the native Italian
school and of the purely Byzantine manner.
It is, however, difficult to classify these paintings,
as they have all so much in common with the
design and subjects of the Byzantine miniatures.
Painting in Siena, during the first half of the
thirteenth century, and even later, prior to the

VOL. II. 97 H

98 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

advent of Duccio, was chiefly practised by
copyists and artisans, whose work consisted
mainly in the making of enlargements from these
old miniatures.

We know that after the fall of Constantinople
in 1204 the Greek artists of Byzantium found
their way to Sicily, Pisa, and also to Siena, and
that all these places traded extensively with
Byzantium and the East in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries. The result was that among
other activities new centres of art were formed
in Sicily, Pisa and Siena in the latter century.
The Emperor Frederick II (1220-50) greatly
encouraged all forms of art in Sicily, and invited
the Byzantine artists to his kingdom, where they
decorated many churches with splendid mosaics
and introduced miniature painting not only
there but in Pisa and Siena. In Siena, however,
more attention was given to the development
of painting as a special form of art than in the
case of the other two places.

We have seen that the early Sienese painting,
whether the work of native artists or of the
Byzantines who had settled in Siena, was at its
best more traditional than inventive, evolved
from the still earlier miniatures and mosaics.
Even when Siena in later times produced her
more inventive artists, whose work rivalled that
of the Florentine school, their painting never
quite lost the finer qualities that it had in-
herited from Byzantine art, such as a bright
and harmonious splendour of colouring, a per-
fected finish of technique, a careful and searching

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 99

representation of rich embroideries, jewellery
and other elaborate ornamental details. It was
due to the persistent love of rendering these rich
decorative schemes, combined with the beauty of
line and tender grace of their figure compositions,
that the Sienese painters succeeded in founding
a new and original school of art in Italy.

The art of Siena had a great influence on the
works of the painters of Pisa and the Umbrian
masters of Perugia, Gubbio, Fabriano and
Orvieto, while much of the grace and beauty
that often tempered the noble austerity of
Florentine painting was derived from the Sienese
school. The works of such Florentine painters
as Giovanni da Milano, Lorenzo Monaco, Orcagna,
Spinello Aretino, and later Fra Angelico, Benozzo
Gozzoli, in his earlier work, and many other
Florentines show strong reflections of the
decorative splendour of Sienese painting.

At first Sienese painting took the form of
panel or easel pictures and miniature painting.
Tempera painting on canvas stretched on wood
and prepared with a gesso ground was the
favourite surface adopted by Duccio and his
contemporaries, and although fresco painting
was practised by Simone Martini, Lippo Memmi,
the Lorenzetti, and other Sienese painters, it
was not carried on to the same extent by them as
it was by the Florentine masters ; so it may be
said that the best work of the Sienese school
is found in its tempera easel paintings, and the
highest efforts of Florentine paintings are ex-
pressed in the medium of fresco.

100 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Duccio BuoNiNSEGNA (1255 ?-1319) was the
first great Sienese master of whom we have any
record. He was born about fifteen years after
Cimabue, and twenty-one years before Giotto.
It may be said that he surpassed the former in
his artistic powers, and his abihties were scarcely
inferior to those of the latter. If in Cimabue's
reputed works there are many marked traits
of the Byzantine tradition, in those from the
hand of Duccio there are fewer; but it cannot
be said that the Sienese master ever completely
abandoned the older traditional methods.

Italian painting in the hands of Duccio and
Giotto in many respects developed in parallel
lines, inasmuch as both of these masters strove
to express a more vitalized and humanized
form of art than that of the older schools.
Better drawing of the human figure, more truth
in anatomy and perspective, better grouping
and composition, figures placed in dramatic
but natural attitudes, improved technique, care-
ful modelling of the flesh tints, combined with
harmonious colouring, were common to the works
of these two great exponents of the newer schools
of Tuscan painting.

One of the earliest works by Duccio is the
small picture of " The Madonna and Child "
(No. 20 in the Gallery of Siena). This work is
more Byzantine in character than any of his
subsequent paintings, but shows at the same
time some distinguishing evidences of the Sienese
feeling in the manipulation of the flesh tints,
especially in those of the Infant Saviour, and in

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 101

the half -figures of the four angels, the worshipping
monks below, and in the ornamental portions
of the work. If Duccio could with certainty be
credited as the author of the Rucellai Madonna,
in S. Maria Novella at Florence, this work,
though a still later production than the Siena
Madonna, must be classed with it as belonging
to the first or Byzantine period of Duccio's
career (see Chapter III of this volume).

There are altogether six panels by Duccio in
the Gallery of Siena illustrating the periods of
his early and mid-career. To the latter period,
when he was influenced by the Roman style,
belongs the small triptych in the Buckingham
Palace collection. This is a representation of
" The Crucifixion," with the Virgin and Child
and other figures, and is one of the finest
examples of Duccio's work. The efforts of his
later years show that he was, like Giotto, strongly
influenced by the old French Gothic art. This
influence is noticeable in the smaller panels of
his " Majestas " altar-piece at Siena, and in
the other smaller panels that formerly belonged
to it, which are now in the London National
Gallery.

An early industry of Siena seems to have
been the decorating of book-covers, with which
the name of Duccio is closely connected. The
book-covers of the Bicchema— the Exchequer of
Siena — ^were decorated by Duccio between the
years 1285 and 1294, as proved by records of
Siena. In the year 1285 he received a com-
mission to paint a picture of the Madonna for

102 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

the Church of S. Maria Novella at Florence/
and in the year 1302 he was commissioned to
paint a " Majestas " for the Public Palace of
Siena. His greatest work, however, was the
celebrated altar-piece for the Duomo, on which
he was occupied during the period of three years,
1308 to 1311. The Sienese chronicles of that
time describe how, on June 7, 1311, which was
proclaimed as a public holiday, Duccio's great
masterpiece was carried in procession to the
Duomo, when a numerous company of bishops,
priests, priors, the officers of the Commune and
principal inhabitants of the city, all marched in
procession to do honour to the artist and his
work.

Though Duccio was held in the highest esteem
as a great artist by his fellow-countrymen, his
life did not appear to be a happy one, as we are
informed that he was constantly being fined at
the courts for debt and for other offences.

The great " Majestas " by Duccio is now in
the Opera del Duomo at Siena. It was originally
placed on the high double altar of the cathedral
and was painted with subjects on both its sides.
When it was taken from its original position it
was divided through the thickness of the panel,
so that the two picture surfaces are now placed
side by side on the wall of the Opera. On the
side of the altar-piece that faced the east, in its
original position, is the painting of " The Madonna
Enthroned, with the Child," and on either side

^ Langton Douglas, History of Siena, p. 335. See also
pp. 23-26 of this volume.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 103

of the central group there are three rows of
attendant saints and angels; the four figures
of the front row are kneeling. The heads of
each row of figures form almost horizontal lines,
and the arrangement and position of their nimbi
produce a marked diaper effect. Ten smaller
figures of the prophets and apostles occupy
circular-headed compartments at the top corners
of the picture. The altar-piece had originally a
Gothic frame with pinnacles, and in the com-
partments between the pinnacles were some small
pictures of scenes from the life of the Virgin.
Below the chief compositions on either side were
predelle containing a series of little pictures of
scenes from the Gospels, each separated by
figures of prophets. The other side of the altar-
piece, that which faced the east, was divided
into thirty-four sections, having small pictures
depicting scenes from the life of Christ, the finest
of these being " The Crucifixion " and " The
Entry into Jerusalem."

The panel, having the subject of the
" Majestas "— " The Madonna Enthroned "—re-
veals the Byzantine influence which here and
there shows itself in the work of Duccio. We see
this particularly in the central figure of the great
Madonna and in some of the heads of the male
figures. But in the figure of the Child, the
female figures, the draperies, and in the attitudes
of the kneeling figures there is nothing Byzantine,
except perhaps their arrangement in the pic-
ture. Each of these figures have individuality of
expression, the outcome of a study from nature.

104 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

In technical methods, such as the careful fusing
of the flesh tints and the painting of the draperies,
this picture illustrates the great advance and
improvements made by Duccio on the older as
well as on all contemporary Sienese art.

Near the " Majestas " picture is placed what
was originally the back surface of the altar-
piece, and now consists of twenty-six sections,
being small pictures representing scenes in the
Life and Passion of Christ. The original altar-
piece had some additional twelve or more panels,
including those of the predelle, three of which
are now in the National Gallery, two in BerUn,
and others that are now in private collections.

The subjects and to some extent the form of
the compositions of these small panels are derived
from the earlier Byzantine miniatures, for Duccio,
like all the painters of his time, was indebted to
these Greek sources for much of the design and
arrangement of their compositions. We have
already seen how the mosaic workers of the
Siculo-Norman period at Cefalu, Monreale and
Palermo in Sicily, made use of the Byzantine
miniatures as models for their mosaic wall
decorations.^ In all the scenes which occupy the
numerous compartments of the back of this
altar-piece the old Byzantine ideals are strongly
reflected, sometimes in the single figures, but
more often in the massing of the groups and
their arrangement in the picture. Duccio, how-
ever, surpassed the Greek artists in giving greater
action to his figures; he intensified the super-
^ See vol. i, p. 125.

THIi: CRUCIFIXION. PART OF THE A\I/rAKriE(E IX THE OPERA DEL DUOMO,
SIENA : DUCCIO Dl BUONIXSEOXA

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 105

natural element where necessary, while his
greater power of drawing, better colouring and
finer technique enabled him to produce works
that far surpassed the achievements of the
older men.

If we examine the three finest panels of those
that Duccio painted on the back of the Duomo
altar-piece— namely, " Christ's Entry into Jeru-
salem," "The Crucifixion" and "The Three
Maries at the Sepulchre" — we shall find that
while they are all permeated with Byzantine
characteristics they reveal in the individual
figures, as well as in the several groups, the more
emotional and imaginative side of art, here ex-
pressed by Duccio in an improved method of
treatment, but without any apparent attempt
of going beyond the lines of traditional design.
At times Duccio could be as dramatic as Giotto :
witness the grouping and action of the figures
in the crowds below in the intensely impressive
picture of "The Crucifixion," where each figure,
though marked with an interesting individuality,
bears its proper relationship to the crowded
group as a whole. In this finely conceived work
the elder men in the crowd are typical of those
found in Byzantine painting, the soldiers are in
Roman dress, but the women's dresses, and
particularly the draperies of the two Maries and
the fainting Virgin, are more Gothic in character
and treatment, like those of the old French
sculptures.

Another of these panels is the picture of
" The Three Maries at the Sepulchre," the design

106 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of which is a copy of a very fine twelfth-century
miniature. The angel seated on the edge of the
sepulchre could hardly be more ideal in concep-
tion. The majesty of this angelic figure is
intensified and made more evident to us when
we regard the awed expressions and shrinking
attitudes of the three Maries on the left side of
the picture, and finally the pyramidal forms of
the rocks in the background are of great value
in serving to bind the units of the composition
together.

Three panels that formed part of this great
altar-piece— namely, " Christ Healing the Blind,"
" The Transfiguration " and " The Anmmcia-
tion " — are now in the National Gallery, and four
panels of the same work are in Mr. Benson's
collection. A small triptych by Duccio of " The
Madonna and Child," with four angels, half-
figures of the prophets, and two full-length
figures of saints at the sides is also in the National
Gallery.

Ugolino da Siena was a contemporary of
Duccio, but the date of his birth is unknown,
and that of his death, though said to be the year
1339, is doubtful. He was the most important
of the four Sienese artists who bore the name of
Ugolino. The names of the other three were
Ugolino Neri, U. di Pietro and U. di Prete Ilario.
The latter painted the frescoes of " The Miracle
of Bolsena," in the Duomo of Orvieto (1357-
64). There was also a skilful goldsmith of Siena,
named Ugolino di Veri, who designed and made
the celebrated silver-gilt and enamelled reliquary

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 107

of the Capella del Corporale in the Duomo of
Orvieto in 1337, This reliquary takes the form
of the fagade of the cathedral, and its twelve
panels of translucent enamel have representations
of scenes of "The Miracle of Bolsena," which is
also the subject of a fresco by Raffaelle in the
Vatican.

Ugolino da Siena worked somewhat in the
manner of Duccio, but remained more constant
to the traditional methods of the old school
than the latter master. His work, though
Sienese in form and feeling, has at the same
time a strong mixture of Byzantine stiffness and
austerity. This is seen even in his most im-
portant work, the altar-piece which he painted
for the high altar of the Church of S. Croce at
Florence. The altar-piece was removed from
its position to the dormitory of the Convent,
and after remaining there for many years it was
divided into its numerous parts and sold to
English private collections. Two of the panels,
" The Betrayal of Christ " and " The Procession
to Calvary," are now in the National Gallery, and
five others are in the Berlin Museum.

The colour schemes of Ugolino's pictures
consist of strong contrasts, chiefly of reds and
greens, pale blue and orange, with gold back-
grounds. His technical execution is soft and
lustrous, resembling that of Duccio, but his
figures are more exaggerated in length and more
stiff in action, and the accessories are drawn in
an archaic and conventional manner. The altar-
piece of " The Madonna and Saints " (No. 33)

108 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

in the Gallery of Siena is assigned, as an early
work, to Ugolino.

The Sienese painter, Segna di Buonaventuea,
was a pupil of Duccio. He is known to have
worked at Siena from 1305 to 1326. Like
Ugolino he followed more or less in the footsteps
of the Byzantine painters, though he was in-
fluenced in his earlier work by Duccio, and later
by Simone Martini. As a rule, his figures were
too long to be of good proportion, but in the
case of his female types he generally succeeded
in giving to them more grace and charm than is
found in the work of painters of his own period.
There are four pictures in the Gallery of Siena
inscribed with Segna's name. One is a repre-
sentation of " The Madonna and Child," and the
other three are of various saints. These panels
are portions of an altar-piece which he finished
for the Biccherna of Siena in 1305-6. On the
sword of St. Paul, in one of these pictures, is
inscribed the words " Segna me fecit." The
National Gallery contains a fairly well-preserved
work of this master (No. 567) representing
" Christ on the Cross," with the Virgin and St.
John. The Church of Castiglione, near Arezzo,
contains one of the best of Segna's pictures,
now much damaged in parts. It is in the form
of a " Majesty " picture—" The Virgin En-
throned " — with a standing figure of the Infant
Saviour, and angels around the throne. Saints
and guardians of the four donors, who are kneeling
below, complete the composition.

Simone Martini (1284-1344). This celebrated

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 109

Sienese master was a follower of Duccio, and may-
be regarded as the typical exponent of the
tender grace, softness and decorative beauty of
line, which, combined with the splendour of
harmonious colouring, perfecting of detail, and
careful technical finish, were peculiarly char-
acteristic of Sienese painting in its best period.
This period may be dated from the advent of
Duccio until a little later than the middle of
the fourteenth century.

Simone's father was named Martino of Siena.
He married in the year 1324 Giovanna, the
daughter of a painter named Memmo di Filip-
pucio, and sister to the Sienese painter Lippo
Memmi. Vasari has, in mistake, given Memmi
as the surname of Simone, and he is also in error
in stating that he was the pupil of Giotto. The
art of Simone has the essence of what we under-
stand as Sienese, and just as Giotto influenced
not only his contemporaries but Florentine art
of a subsequent time, Simone likewise, and
even in a greater degree than Duccio, moulded
the types and methods that were adopted by
his followers in Siena, and his influence extended
among other painters of the Italian schools.

The aim of Simone was to portray a lofty
ideahsm ; he sought to produce something noble
and beautiful in meaning and sentiment as well
as in line and colour. He avoided all ugliness,
mere illustration and the commonplace, and in
spite of certain defects in drawing, proportion
and perspective, it would be difficult to name
any other artist who has given more grace and

110 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

charm to the attitudes and expression of the
figures of the Madonna, female saints, and
angels. He has often been charged with affecta-
tion in respect to the attitudes and graceful poses
of his figures; but the intense seriousness of
mien, dignity, and look of perfect restfulness
which he succeeds in imparting to many of his
figures, ought to neutralize this charge of affecta-
tion, and augment our admiration for the great
artist who was too sincere to be affected, and
whose first and last endeavour was to produce
an impressive work of satisfying beauty, whether
the work in hand was the portrait of a warrior
or statesman, or a picture saturated with a deep
religious sentiment.

Great as Simone was as a decorative artist, he
has never been excelled as a creator of female
types of beauty of a pleasing serenity. Not to
speak of his many followers in his own school who
adopted his types, we can see in the works of
Orcagna and Fra Angelico, as well as in those of
other Florentine painters, how much they have
all been indebted to Simone. If we would give
some instances of Simone's power as a creator
of beauty we might mention the altar-piece
(No. 23) in the Uffizi Gallery, where the central
subject of "The Annunciation" is painted by
him. Here the spiritual and lovely Angel of
the Annunciation, in whose hand is a branch of
olive, kneels before the shrinking, yet dignified,
figure of the Virgin, while she listens with an
awed expression to the heavenly message. The
two saints who stand at either side of the central

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 111

scene of the Annunciation in this altar-piece
were painted by Lippo Memmi, the pupil of
Simone. And again, in the whole range of
Italian art, where can we find a more touching
and intensely beautiful figure of the youthful
and adorable Christ, than that in the small
signed picture by this master in the Liverpool
Gallery ? This little picture is one of the gems
of the Liverpool collection. The subject is
" Christ Found in the Temple "— " Behold Thy
Father and I have sought Thee sorrowing."
In all the three figures, Christ, the Virgin and
Joseph, the expressions and attitudes are digni-
fied and lovable in the extreme. Though the
drawing in parts is defective, and the modelling
of the flesh tints and draperies is lacking in
light and shade, the colouring is good and the
execution delicate and careful in finish. The
subject has been treated by numerous painters
from the early Christian times to the present
day, but no one has given a more imaginative,
more simple, or more beautiful rendering of this
sacred incident.

Simone's work was not confined to his native
city; examples of it are still in existence at
Orvieto, Pisa, Assisi, Naples and Avignon. At
the last-named place, in the Palace of the Popes,
and in the portal of the cathedral, there are still
the remains of his frescoes which he painted in
the later years of his life.

His earliest existing work is the fresco of the
" Majestas," in the Sala del Mappamondo of
the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena, painted in 1315.

112 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Six years later, in 1321, it is recorded that, owing
to some defect in the plaster surface, Simone was
employed to repaint a considerable portion of
this work. The damage was probably due to
some " blow holes " caused by the use of lime
that had been insufficiently burnt, or, that was
not matured enough by age, before mixing it
with the sand to form the intonaco. This flaking
off in plaster wall surfaces is a common occurrence
when the lime is used too fresh, or imperfectly
calcined, and to guard against such accidents
the Italian frescanti, as a rule, used lime that
had been burnt and kept in a soft wet state for
many years. The ravages of time and restora-
tions have left little of the original work except
the outlines, but even these, in the case of some
of the female heads, still show some of the tender
grace and beauty of line of Simone's draughts-
manship. The general composition reveals the
strong influence of Duccio. The majestic and
regal figure of the Madonna is seated xmder a
richly decorated canopy, with the Infant Saviour
standing on her left knee. A great number of
saints and angels surround the central group and
support the canopy. Four beautiful kneeling
figures, offering flowers, occupy the foreground.
On the opposite wall is Simone's celebrated
equestrian portrait picture of Guido Riccio da
Fogliano, the great war commander of Siena,
painted in 1328. Here again, the composition
and general outlines are all that remain of
Simone's work, as this fresco has been greatly
repainted. This vigorous design shows the

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 118

proud and stately figures of both man and horse,
with their decorative trapping and ornamenta-
tion, and present a type of the viriUty and
splendour which characterized Simone's repre-
sentations of the knightly chivalry and noble
ideals of the age in which he lived.

Before 1333 Simone had visited Naples, Pisa
and Orvieto. Robert of Anjou, King of Naples,
had visited Siena in 1310, when, as Duke of
Calabria, he had admired the work of the Sienese
artists, and had his portrait painted by Simone
Martini. The Angevin king was a warm patron
of art, and after the death of his elder brother,
St. Louis of Toulouse, and the latter's canoniza-
tion in 1317, the king, in order to perpetuate the
memory of his elder brother, who had renounced
the kingdom of Naples in Robert's favour,
invited Simone to Naples, and commissioned him
to paint an altar-piece for one of the churches of
his capital. This faded but beautiful work is in
the seventh chapel on the right in the Church of
S. Lorenzo Maggiore at Naples, and represents
" The Crowning of King Robert by his Brother,
the Bishop of Toulouse." Other Sienese artists
besides Simone were invited to Naples by King
Robert, which accounts for the great influence
that Siena subsequently exercised on Neapolitan
art.

Simone painted an altar-piece for the Church
of St. Catherine of Pisa in 1320. It formerly
consisted of seven compartments, but for a
long time it has been dismembered. The central
part has the subject of "The Virgin and Child

TOL. II. I

114 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

between Saints," and the other parts are "The
Apostles," and "The Fathers of the Church."
Six of the panels are now in the library of the
old Church of St. Catherine, and the seventh is
in the Museo Civico at Pisa.

About the same time, 1320-21, Simone painted
an altar-piece for the high altar of the Dominican
Convent at Orvieto. This work, which is signed
and dated, is now in the Opera del Duomo of
Orvieto. This picture represents Trasmundo,
the Bishop of Savona, kneeling before the
Virgin and Child, who holds an orb and scroll.
The chief apostles and various saints are repre-
sented, and the dresses are painted in bright and
strong colours. Minute and careful attention
has been given to the general execution. On the
trefoil arches over each figure and the nimbi are
beautifully engraved and stamped ornaments
in gold. The glazes of the flesh tints on some of
the figures are partially destroyed, and other
parts are injured, but, generally speaking, the
work is in a fair state of preservation and is a
good example of Simone's art.

His best work in fresco is the decoration of
the hexagonal Chapel of S. Martino in the Lower
Church of S. Francesco at Assisi, which he
adorned throughout with scenes from the life
of St. Martin, and with figures of saints and
holy personages, the latter occupjdng niches in
the vaulting of the entrance way and sides of
the windows. Among the best of the frescoes
which illustrate the legend are, " St. Martin
Celebrating Mass," where he sees the vision of

VIEGIN OF THE ANNUNCIATION. ANTWERP GALLERY : SIMONE MARTINI

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 115

the two angels, a simple and dignified com-
position; "The Emperor JuUan girding St.
Martin with a Sword " ; this well-arranged com-
position might have been designed by Giotto,
for it has the spirit and character of his work;
" St. Martin dividing His Cloak with the Beg-
gar," and "The Funeral of the Saint," where
there is a remarkable realism in the faces, with
their varied expressions, which testify to Simone's
power and skill in portraiture. Though the date
of the painter's visit to Assisi is not known, it is
conjectured from the nature, style and character
of these " Legend " frescoes that they must have
been painted towards the later period of his life.
Simone is represented in the Berlin Gallery
by a picture of " The Entombment " ; in the
Louvre, Paris, by " The Via Crucis " ; in the
Museo Christiano, Rome, by the picture of " Our
Lord in Benediction," and in the Borghese
Gallery, one of " The Madonna and Child."
Three works of his are in the Gallery of Antwerp
(or were until the year 1915, but may have
been carried off by the Germans, with other
looted works of art, to Berlin). These three
works are parts of a triptych, and represent,
respectively, " The Crucifixion," " The Descent
from the Cross " and " The Annunciation."
The Angel of the Annunciation and the Virgin
are two beautiful figures, noticeable for their
decorative beauty of line, graceful and tender
in feeling, which together with the breadth of
treatment mark them as typical examples of
Simone's painting.

116 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

In the year 1339 Simone left Siena with his
wife and his brother Donato to reside at the Papal
Court at Avignon. He was invited there, or,
according to Vasari, was sent there by Pandolfo
Malestata to paint the portrait of Petrarch,
where he was also credited with the painting of
the likeness of the beautiful Laura, and of intro-
ducing her portrait in one of his frescoes in the
portico of the Cathedral at Avignon. Simone
enjoyed the friendship of Petrarch as Giotto
did that of Dante. The great Italian poet, who
sang the praise and charms of Laura through
many sighing sonnets, did not forget to record
his friendship and eulogies of the two great
painters he had known, and had in his possession
some of their works. He says in one of his
letters, " I have known two painters, talented
both, and excellent, Giotto of Florence, whose
fame among moderns is great, and Simone of
Siena."

Besides the frescoes he painted in the Papal
Palace and Cathedral at Avignon Simone foimd
time to paint smaller pictures, among which was
the one in the Liverpool Gallery, which was
painted in 1342. He died at Avignon in the
year 1344.

Like most of the Sienese artists Simone was
also a painter of miniatures, Lanzi and others
suggest that he painted the miniatures that
illustrate the manuscript of the small Virgil,
now in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, as these
illustrations greatly resemble his work.

Lippo Memmi ( ? 1356) was the brother-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 117

in-law of Simone Martini, and was born at Siena,
but the date of his birth is unknown. He was
the most important pupil or follower of Simone,
and also his chief assistant. Both artists occu-
pied the same bottega in Siena, and worked in
collaboration with each other. Lippo was in-
ferior in talent to his master, but as his work
sometimes bore a great resemblance to Simone's
there has often been difficulty in assigning paint-
ings exclusively to the one or the other. In
some cases Lippo executed paintings, the lineal
designs of which were made by Simone. We
have already mentioned Lippo' s share in the
painting of the altar-piece of " The Annunciation ' '
in the Uffizi Gallery, the central portion of which
is painted by Simone Martini.

While his skill in drawing and composition
fell short of his master's powers in these direc-
tions, yet in execution he displayed much tech-
nical ability, and modelled his tints with great
care, so that he generally produced a soft and
extremely minute finish. He excelled as a colour-
ist, and usually employed clear and light tones.
In his representations of the Virgin he adopted
the types favoured by Duccio and the older
Byzantines rather than those of Simone's
creation.

In the early days of Lippo's activity, about
1317, he was commissioned to paint a large fresco
in the Hall of Justice of the Palazzo del Podesta
at S. Gemignano. The fresco resembles in
style and composition the " Majestas " by Simone
in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena. In the central

118 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

portion is the seated Virgin and Child, and below
is represented St. Nicholas introducing the kneel-
ing Podest^, Mino de' Tolomei, who holds a scroll
in his left hand, on which is inscribed an invoca-
tion in Latin. The head of this figure is evidently
a portrait of Mino, who has a blue-and-white
striped dress with a fur lining, and has red socks.
The fresco contains twenty -eight figures of saints,
apostles and other personages. This large work
is remarkable for its miniature-like treatment
and finish. The colouring is light and gay, and
the painting is very flatly rendered and almost
without any relief. The dresses are richly orna-
mented. The work might almost have been
copied from one of the pages of miniatures which
adorn the sumptuous Sienese choir-books of the
fourteenth century, many of which are doubtless
the work of Lippo himself, and especially those
which are preserved at S. Gemignano. Benozzo
Gozzoli restored this fresco and added some
figures to it on the right in the year 1467.

A picture inscribed with Lippo' s name is " The
Madonna of Mercy " in the Capella del Corporale
of the Duomo of Orvieto, where the figure of the
Madonna is of a colossal scale compared with the
numerous small figures in the painting. The ex-
ceedingly long and upright figure of the Madonna
stands in the centre of the picture, full-faced,
and her hands placed together in the attitude
of prayer. At either side of her shoulders
groups of angels are in the background, some of
whom are holding up her outspretid mantle, and
underneath its protecting folds on the right and

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 119

left are kneeling crowds of kings, monks, nuns
and other persons, all in adoration. The Virgin's
mantle is blue and lined with ermine, and the
general colouring is rich and harmonious. Her
dress and mantle is richly embroidered, and her
crown and nimbus, as well as the nimbi of the
angels, are beautifully stamped with gold orna-
mentation. The execution is careful in finish
and almost entirely in flat tones.

Among other works by Lippo is the picture
of " The Madonna and Child," formerly in the
sacristy of the Servi, now in the Gallery at Siena,
and a similar one, as well as a polyptych, in
the Gardner Collection at Boston, U.S. A., and
others in various European galleries and private
collections.

Before speaking of the Lorenzetti and their
work we only mention the names of the Sienese
painters Barna, Luca di Tome, Lippo Vanni,
Giacomo del Pellicciaio, Paolo di Giovanni Fei,
and Giacomo di Mino, who with varying but
sometimes with considerable success carried out
the traditions of the Sienese school of painting
in the fourteenth century. As a rule these
painters excelled in the production of small
pictures, altar-pieces, and in miniature painting
rather than in the larger methods of fresco.

CHAPTER VIII

THE LORENZETTI

Two of the greatest fresco painters of Siena in
the earUer half of the fourteenth century were
the brothers Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti.
PiETRO Lorenzetti (active 1306-1348) was the
elder of these brothers, and is supposed to have
been a pupil of Duccio, but his works show the
strong influence of Simone Martini and of the
sculptor Giovanni Pisano, and that also of
other Florentine painters. Ambrogio the younger
was taught by his elder brother, but the latter
in his later period came himself under the in-
fluence of Ambrogio, who had developed a greater
breadth of form and style and an enlargement of
artistic and poetic ideals, which he was striving
to express in his great allegorical frescoes.

Although the works of the Lorenzetti show
the influence of Duccio, Simone, Giovanni the
Pisan sculptor, as well as that of the Florentine
masters Giotto and Orcagna, they were great
innovators in Sienese art, inasmuch as they helped
to express in form and line the new movement
of the Renaissance, that tended to glorify,
among other things, the ideals of civic life, and
other branches of human activities. They took
upon themselves the task of illustrating the

120

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 121

poetry and literature of the period by noble and
well-composed allegories, and at the same time
did not neglect to treat in form and colour the
common incidents of everyday life. They also
executed commissions for the painting of altar-
pieces and other pictures of an idealized and re-
ligious character; but previous to their time no
Sienese painters showed anything like the unre-
strained and naturalistic treatment which is so
characteristic of their large fresco subjects, and
also of some of their tempera paintings.

The first mention of Pietro Lorenzetti is in
a Sienese document of 1305-6, where he is stated
to have received payment for a work done to
the order of the Government of Siena, in the Sala
dei Nove, in Siena. There are pictures by him
in the Berlin Gallery and in the Uffizi and
Academy at Florence, which he painted in
Florence in 1315-16.

A most important and typical work by Pietro
is the altar-piece in S. Maria della Pieve at Arezzo,
and is in the form of a polyptych. It is a signed
work, and was painted in 1320. The central
panel contains a half-length figure of the Virgin,
who is dressed in a white mantle diapered with
blue flowers. She holds the Infant Saviour on
her left arm. On the Virgin's left are half-
length figures of St. John the Baptist and St.
John the Evangelist, and on her right are SS.
Mathew and Donato. At the top of the central
panel is an " Annunciation," and on either side of
this subject, forming an upper course, is a series of
twelve panels containing half -figures of saints.

122 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

The whole work is broadly and vigorously
handled as to the execution, and so presents a
strong contrast in treatment to the usual Sienese
methods. This vigorous and frank manipulation
of the colours, together with a marked restraint
in the matter of decorative detail, would point
out that Pietro, about this time, had been
influenced by Florentine painting.

In the Church of Sant' Ansano in Dofana,
near Siena, there is an altar-piece by Pietro,
signed and dated 1328. The subject is " The
Madonna and Child Enthroned." The figure of
the Madonna is nearly life size; she is guarded
by four angels, and there are figures of SS.
Nicholas and Antony Abbot at either side.
The colouring of this work, though now much
faded, has evidently been of a light and warm
character. The ornamentation here is delicately
rendered and drawn with great precision. Two
interesting panels from the predella of an altar-
piece, painted about this time for the Church of
the Carmine at Siena, are now in the Siena Gallery
(Nos. 83 and 84). They are good examples of
Pietro' s style and colouring, one of which has a
repi'esentation of a sleeping monk, where an angel
appears to him in his dream, and the other panel
shows Pope Honorius granting a habit to the
Order of the Carmelites. Mr. B. Berenson men-
tions twelve other examples by Pietro in the
Gallery of Siena.^

The frescoes in the left transept of the Lower
Church of S. Francesco at Assisi, representing

1 B. Berenson, Central Painters of the Renaissance, p. 189.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 123

scenes from the Passion, " The Madonna with
St. Francis and St, John the EvangeUst," and
various figures of saints, are the work of Pietro.
Vasari had assigned these frescoes to CavaUini,
the Roman painter, and until recent years they
have been accepted as the work of this artist.
The arrangement of the subjects on the walls as
to sequence and place, as well as the style and
methods of their execution, have led to the justi-
fiable conclusion, as the outcome of modern
research, that these frescoes are the works of a
Sienese painter, and also that the author of them
could be none other than Pietro Lorenzetti. It
is also evident because of the similar beauties,
as well as similar defects, that respectively
repeat themselves in almost every fresco of the
series, that they have been designed and for the
most part executed by the same hand, and by
one who had inherited the traditions of Duccio
and the old Sienese masters. The painter of
these frescoes, while using the types that are
found in the best works of the Sienese school,
has gone far beyond the older men in his forceful
virility of outline, in his frankly vigorous methods
of execution, and in his expression of a fuller
measure of dramatic power in his conceptions.
The heads of Pietro's old men and of the angels
testify to his indebtedness to Duccio and Simone.
Though Pietro often falls short of Duccio,
Simone and Lippo Memmi in the beauty of line,
and in the grace and softness of their female
figures, he excelled them in giving more natural-
ness to his human and animal forms, which

124 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

shows that he and his brother Ambrogio were
earnest students of nature. Also, the frequent
use of portraiture and of certain commonplace
yet natural forms further emphasizes the study
of nature on the part of the Lorenzetti.

The frescoes by Pietro in the Lower Church
cover the sides, the end wall and vaulting of
the left transept. The series are divided by
ornamented bands and ribs, in which are lozenges
and medallions that contain small paintings of
the apostles, prophets and angels. The subjects
of the compartments begin with " The Entry
into Jerusalem " and " The Last Supper." Be-
neath these are represented " The Washing of
the Apostles' Feet," " The Suicide of Judas
Iscariot," " The Capture " and " St. Francis receiv-
ing the Stigmata." On the opposite curve there
are painted " The Flagellation," " The Way to
Calvary " and the large fresco of " The Cruci-
fixion." Other subjects represented are " The
Deposition," " The Entombment," " The Resur-
rection " and " The Inferno." The " Crucifixion "
fresco is the largest and most impressive of the
series. The figure of our Saviour is larger in
scale than others in the composition, and His
figure, as well as two crucified thieves, prove that
Pietro well understood the anatomical construc-
tion of the human figure. Where terror or pain,
torment or suffering agony, called for expression
Pietro never shrank from portraying such in a
vigorous manner by the most vehement forms of
action, and even with an exaggeration that often
bordered on vulgarity. His frank and deliberate

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 125

realism, which he expressed more forcibly than
any of his contemporaries, is well illustrated in
such examples as the suffering figure of the im-
penitent thief on the cross in the " Crucifixion "
fresco, where the executioner is breaking his
bones, and in the fresco where the wretched
form of Judas Iscariot is hanging from a beam.
Though these frescoes are much damaged, faded,
and repainted in parts, they are still reminiscent
of the light and harmonious colouring of Pietro's
work, and the dramatic power here displayed is
unequalled in contemporary Sienese or Florentine
painting, if we except the work of Giotto.

The large frescoes on the south wall of
the Campo Santo at Pisa, representing " The
Triumph of Death," "The Last Judgment"
and " The Hermits of the Thebaid," are full of
Sienese types, both as regards the individual
figures and the various groupings. These dam-
aged works, however, are unequal in drawing and
execution, which would go to show that they have
been painted by various hands, who had assisted
some skilful designer in the carrying out of the
work, and that the designer was a Sienese master
of considerable versatility and power. It may
therefore be reasonable to conclude that Pietro
Lorenzetti was responsible for the general scheme
of the design in each of these large frescoes, but
that the work may have been largely executed
by his followers or pupils.

Numerous pictures of the Madonna were painted
by Pietro, among which may be mentioned one
over a door in the Duomo of Siena, painted in

126 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

1333 ; a " Madonna with Angels " at Cortona, in
the Duomo, painted in 1335. Another of the
same subject, painted in 1340 for the Church of
S. Francesco at Pistoia, now in the Uffizi Gallery
(No. 15), and others now in Milan, Rome and
Siena. He is represented in the National Gallery
by a small picture (No. 1113) entitled " A Legend-
ary Subject," that has a rich and warm scheme
of colouring. The picture shows an assemblage
of bishops and other ecclesiastics, with officers
of state, in a vaulted interior having decorated
arches and columns, and attending some function,
the nature of which is difficult of explanation.
The latest record we have of Pietro is dated 1344.
It is supposed that he and his brother Ambrogio
both died of the plague in the year 1348.

Ambrogio Lorenzetti (active 1323-1348).
Ambrogio, who was taught painting by his elder
brother Pietro, was first heard of in the year
1324, according to the Sienese documents; but
it is now stated by several authorities that he
executed some works perhaps earlier than 1330.
The most important of his early works are the
frescoes he painted, about 1331, in the chapter-
house of the convent adjoining the Church of San
Francesco of Siena, but which are now in the first
and third choir chapels of the church. These
damaged frescoes, which still retain some evidence
of their former beauty, show the influence of
Simone Martini on Ambrogio's work, and repre-
sent " The Death of the Martyred Franciscan
Monks in Morocco," " St. Louis of Toulouse
kneeUng before Boniface VIII " and " The Cruci-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 127

fixion." An early and very important work by
Ambrogio is the beautiful "Ancona," an altar-
piece in five compartments, in the Scuola Com-
munale at Massa Marittima, a town in the district
of the Maremme. It was painted about 1330-31,
and is a work of great decorative beauty.

Ambrogio was in Florence in the year 1332,
where he painted at that time an altar-piece
for the Church of San Procolo, of which there
now only remain the four small pictures of it
predella, representing scenes from the life of
S. Niccolo di Bari. These works are now in the
Academy at Florence. In the year 1335 he
worked, in conjunction with his brother Pietro,
on the fresco decoration of the Hospital della
Scala at Siena.

After this, in 1337, he undertook the work of
his great frescoes in the Sala della Pace in the
Palazzo Pubblico of Siena, for which he was com-
missioned by the Sienese Government. On these
works he was occupied for more than two years,
probably with the assistance of his brother
Pietro and his own pupils. The four large
frescoes that adorn the walls of this apartment
are, namely, " Good Government," which is
painted on the wall to the right of the entrance,
" The Effects of Good Government," painted on
the entrance wall, and on the opposite wall the
two frescoes which represent " Bad Government,"
or " Tyranny," and " The Effects of Bad Govern-
ment." These great paintings are full of allegory
and symbolism, and their subject-matter, as
such, marks a great departure from the usual

128 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

religious subjects which almost exclusively occu-
pied the attention of the painters and sculptors
of the early Italian and Byzantine schools.

In the fresco of " Good Government " Am-
brogio has represented, in the centre of the left
half of the picture, a colossal seated figure who
symbolizes, in his majestic and kingly bearing,
the Comune of Siena. This personage is shown
as a man of ripe years, with severe features and
with silvered hair and beard. He has a high
cap on his head ; his mantle is white in the upper
part and black in the lower, and is richly em-
broidered and edged with gold ornamentation.
White and black are the symbolic colours of
Siena. The legendary founders of Siena, Senio
and Aschio, sons of Remus, the founder of Rome,
adopted the halzana as their badge. This was a
shield, the upper half of which was white and
the lower half black. In his right hand he holds
a sceptre and in his left a shield, on which is
emblazoned as a device the figures of the Madonna
and Child, as the city of Siena was then imder
the protection of the Virgin. From the right
hand of this figure two cords or lines are connected
with the scales of Justice at the right end of the
picture. A group of two babes being suckled
by a she-wolf, the symbol of the city, form the
footstool for the " Comune," and above his head
and on either side are three small hovering figures
representing Faith, Hope and Charity. Seated
on either side of him are the six female figures
representing the Virtues ; on his right, Fortitude,
Prudence and Peace, and on his left, Magnanimity,

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 129

Temperance and Justice. All these figures have
their respective attributes, and are well designed
as symbols of the Virtues. The white-robed
figure of Peace especially arrests the attention
of the spectator as she reclines on the extreme
right of the bench, resting her head on her right
arm, and holding in her left hand a branch of
olive, while her feet rest on a helmet and shield,
the symbols of war. Her demeanour and atti-
tude, together with the broad and simple design
of her white drapery, combine to make this
allegorical figure an interesting and beautiful
personification of Peace. Below, to the right
and left of the extended throne, are standing
groups of soldiers with spears, and others are
on horseback, while some of them are guarding
a group of prisoners. On the left of the picture
is represented the seated figure of " Justice,"
which is perhaps the finest and most impressive
figure in the whole fresco. Justice here appears
under the lineaments of a youthful woman,
noble in form and features, seated on a throne
in a dignified and easy attitude, and looking
out full-face towards the spectator. She wears
a diadem on her thickly-plaited hair. Her regal
dress is high-waisted, red in colour and richly
embroidered with gold. Above her is the half-
figure of Wisdom, clothed in a yellow mantle
spotted with black, hovering on her wings, and
holding a great pair of scales, the beam of which
almost rests on the head of Justice, and in each
disk of the balance is the figure of a kneeling
angel. The angel in the left disk is " Distributive

VOL. II. K

130 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Justice," and wears a red tunic; she is placing
a crown on the kneeUng figure below with one
hand, and with a sword in the other she strikes
off the head of a malefactor. The angel in the
right disk bends down to take something out of
a box that is held up by a figure below, and
presents a lance and sword to another. Directly
below the figure of Justice is another beautiful
female figure representing " Concord." She is
seated also on a throne, with her head turned in
profile to the right, on which she wears a diadem.
Resting across her knees is a carpenter's plane, on
the front of which is inscribed the word " Con-
cordia." She holds with her left hand the
double line or cord, which comes from the angels
in the scales of Justice, and passes it on to the
first figure of a group of twenty-four persons
who are walking in procession towards the right
of the picture. These are the " Twenty-four " of
the nobles and people who formed the Govern-
ment of Siena, and whose portraits are here
given.

In the year 1342 Ambrogio painted the picture
of " The Presentation in the Temple " for the
Spedaletto of Mona Agnese at Siena. This work,
which is signed and dated, is now in the Academy
at Florence, numbered 134. There are records
of some other altar-pieces and frescoes that were
painted by him between 1340 and 1844 for
various churches in Siena, but of which there are
no traces left. In the Academy of Arts at Siena
there are several works by Ambrogio, one of
which is the picture of " The Annunciation,"

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 131

No. 88, which is signed and dated " 17th December
1344." This picture, though damaged and often
revarnished, is an important work of the master.
Also a little picture, No. 65 in the catalogue, of
" The Virgin and Child adored by Saints and
Angels." And among others ascribed to him
in the same gallery is a polyptych of the same
subject.

Like all the Sienese painters Ambrogio also
painted miniatures to illustrate choir-books and
covers of other books, but more often only
designed such works, the execution of which was
entrusted to assistants and pupils. A collection
of these Tavolette, dating from 1257 to 1456, is
now preserved in the Archivio di Stato, the reposi-
tory of the municipal archives of Siena, among
which are works by Ambrogio, consisting of
paintings on book-covers. One of these, by
Ambrogio, has a representation of an allegorical
figure of the "Comune" enthroned and dressed in
a black-and-white robe, his feet resting on the
group of the she-wolf and twins. The figure is
nobly conceived, and the head is finely painted
in clear soft tones. This is the cover of one of
the municipal tax registers, that was executed
for the Gabelle, the assessors of taxes. Other
sumptuous bindings of this character were painted
for the Bicchema, the office of the State Ex-
chequer, that employed Duccio and others in
this kind of book decoration.

With the passing of the Lorenzetti the heyday
of Sienese art declined. Fitful flickerings of the
old fire here and there illuminated the shadows

132 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

that had crept over Sienese art, after its greater
lights were extinguished ; but even the greatest of
the later and lesser lights were only borrowed or
reflected, in diminishing degrees, from the brilliant
suns or fixed stars of the previous century.

Some of the immediate followers of the Loren-
zetti were strongly influenced by the latter, in
regard to both their aims and style, while a good
many others attempted to follow in the footsteps
of Simone Martini. A few of them were con-
scientious and capable artists, but unconvincing
and unemotional in feeling, without much genius,
and few, if any, expressed anything in the nature
of original ideals. A parallel to the dechne of
Sienese painting is found in the state of art that
for a time existed in the hands of the Florentines
immediately after the death of Giotto.

Among the best -known followers or pupils
of the Lorenzetti were the painters Paolo del
Maestro Neri, mentioned on the roll of painters
of Siena in 1355, Bartolo di Fredi (1330-1410),
his companion Andrea Vanni (1332-1414), and
Niccold di Buonaccorso (1350-1388). Bartolo
and Andrea often worked together on the same
pictures, the latter being greatly influenced by
Bartolo di Fredi. The fresco of " The Madonna
of Mercy " over the high altar in S. Maria delle
Grazie at Arezzo is a work by Bartolo, as well as the
frescoes of " Christ " and " The Four Evangelists "
in the vaulting of the ground-floor of the Palazzo
Pubblico of Siena, and others in two chapels
of the Duomo. Bartolo was a prolific painter,
many of his pictures are found in public and pri-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 133

vate collections. Mr. Berenson mentions twelve
that are now in the Gallery of Siena. Buonac-
corso is represented in the National Gallery by a
small signed picture (No. 1109), " The Marriage
of the Virgin"; this appears to be the central
panel of a triptych, another part of which is now
in the Uffizi Gallery.

Taddeo di Bartoli (1362-1422) was a pupil
of Bartolo di Fredi. He seems to have been an
exceedingly industrious painter, judging from the
great amount of work of his which is still in exist-
ence, and also one who in a great measure carried
forward the traditions of the earlier Sienese
masters into the fifteenth century. Although
he stood at the head of the Sienese school in
his time, he was unable to add much, if any-
thing, to its former greatness. He sought to
rival the Lorenzetti, but was inferior to them in
vigour and style, though in many instances, in
his treatment of human forms in energetic move
ment, with their well-designed and broadly
painted draperies, and if he did not reach the
standard set by his great predecessors, he was
unequalled in breadth and power by any painter
of the contemporary Sienese school. And although
Taddeo succeeded in giving a new lease of
life to painting in Siena, he imitated the style
and technique of Duccio, Simone and the Loren-
zetti too closely to be regarded as an original
innovator. He was therefore unable to arrest
the general decline of painting that had already
set in— a decline which was not altogether due to
the dearth of native painters of marked genius.

134 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

but quite as much due to the long series of
conflicts between Siena and the countries out-
side her borders, as well as to her own interior
troubles, which were the outcome of her riotous
and luxurious living, which even the teaching
and the preaching of a San Bernardino failed to
stem.

Wars, competition with Florence and lost
trade produced commercial depression, disorder
and revolution. Siena was in a sick and un-
happy state in the fifteenth century, but if her
former glories, including those of her great
school of painting, were then passing away, the
influence of Sienese art on other schools of
Italian painting was remarkable. It was per-
haps greatest in the formation of the Umbrian
school at Perugia, Gubbio and Fabriano, and
on the development of painting at Pisa and
Orvieto, where in the case of the latter city so
many examples of Sienese architecture, sculp-
ture and painting are to be found. Naples also
is rich in the work of Sienese masters, who
exercised a preponderating influence in the art
of that southern city, and it may be added that
the Florentines, since the days of Giotto, owe
more to the early painters of Siena than has
been acknowledged by Vasari and other his-
torians. Much of the tender and subtle grace
of expression and action, the flowing lines of
beauty, and the soft, rich colouring which we
admire in the works of Orcagna, Fra Angelico,
Perugino and Raffaelle, may be traced back to
their original sources in the paintings of the

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 185

early Sienese masters, and more particularly to
Simone and the Lorenzetti.

Taddeo di Bartoli seems to have been a
popular man in Siena, for when he was about
twenty-seven years of age, in 1389, he was
elected on the council for the works of the
cathedral, and previous to this he had done
some decorative work in the same edifice. In
1390 he painted an altar-piece for the Church of
S. Paolo of Pisa, which is now in the Museum of
Grenoble. In 1395 he completed an altar-piece
of " The Virgin and Child with Saints " for the
Chapel of the Sardi and Compigli in S. Francesco
at Pisa, a work which has now found its way
to Vienna. After completing this work he was
commissioned to paint frescoes on the vaults of
this chapel for the representatives of the Sardi
family. The chapel is now the sacristy, and
here Taddeo painted scenes from the life of the
Virgin, the Assumption and her Death. The
compositions are spirited and animated; some
of the figures are full of action and movement,
helped out by the draperies which are agitated
by the wind, and the general work is executed
with boldness and surety of hand. These
paintings, however, are badly damaged, having
at one time been whitewashed over.

After executing these frescoes Taddeo returned
to Siena, where he painted several works for
the cathedral, among which were twelve small
panels, illustrating sentences from the Creed,
nine of these panels being now in the Opera of
the Duomo. Here there are also six other panels

136 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

by Taddeo, each having representations of an
apostle and an angel. The figures in these
small works have well-designed draperies, and
are characterized by the animation which Taddeo
usually imparted to his figure compositions.

In the Gallery of Siena, which contains about
a dozen of his works, there is a very large painted
Crucifix by him, which is designed on the tradi-
tional lines of the early Sienese form. In 1393
he painted an altar-piece for the Church of
S. Luca at San Gemignano, and about the same
time some frescoes on the walls of the central
aisle of the Duomo of the same place. Other
works by Taddeo are preserved in the Palazzo
del Comune at San Gemignano.

At Montepulciano he painted a great altar-
piece, signed and dated 1401, with subjects of
" The Crucifixion," which occupies the largest
space, " The Annunciation," " Assumption " and
" Coronation of the Virgin," and numerous other
scenes of the Creation and Passion. It is alto-
gether a well-designed work on the Sienese
plan.

In the year 1403 Taddeo visited Perugia,
where he executed numerous and important
works for the religious brotherhoods of that
city, and as at this period he was doing his
best work, his influence, together with that of
his Sienese followers, on the art and artists of
Perugia was extremely great and lasting. There
is a picture by Taddeo, signed and dated 1403,
in the Pinacoteca of Perugia (No. 18, Sala V),
which he painted for the Church of S. Agostino,

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 137

the subject being " The Descent of the Holy
Spirit." In the same room are preserved the
panels of the altar-piece (Nos. 21, 22), now
separated, which he painted about this time for
the Church of S. Francesco, representing " The
Virgin and Child" and "St. Francis." These
panels are examples of the finest work of Taddeo.
The drawing is good, the technique is frankly
vigorous, and the flesh tints are carefully worked
over the verde foundation. The Sienese love of
ornament is here shown in the engraved and
painted embroideries. These important works
have suffered injury through accidents and neg-
lect; there is a good deal of free restoration,
some of the figures being repainted in oil. Vasari
states that in the Church of S. Domenico he
painted a series of frescoes illustrating the life
of St. Catherine, but these have disappeared.

Early in 1404 Taddeo returned to Siena and
painted some frescoes in the choir of the cathe-
dral, for which he was paid, what seems to have
been his usual remuneration, twelve and a half
florins a month. These works, however, no
longer exist. About this time he painted the
altar-piece, representing " The Adoration of the
Shepherds," for the Church of the Servi at Siena.
This work is signed and dated 1404, and still
hangs over the fourth altar to the right in the
church and above the work by Matteo Giovanni,
" The Massacre of the Innocents " (1491).

Taddeo was employed on various works in
the Duomo of Siena during the years 1405-6,
and in August of the latter year he was com-

138 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

missioned to repaint the Council Chapel of the
Palazzo Pubblico at Siena. He was authorized
to remove some old paintings that had pre-
viously adorned the walls, in order to obtain
the spaces for his own works. The inside of
the chapel was decorated by him with similar
subjects, and in the same order as he had painted
them in the Chapel of the Sardi in S. Francesco
at Pisa ten years before. These frescoes, which
are injured by time and repainting, are spirited
and vigorous in design, like those of the Sardi
Chapel, and show Taddeo at his best. The two
best preserved of the series are those on the
left wall which represent the Death and Assump-
tion of the Virgin, both of which are good in
composition and in decorative spacing. The
attitudes and draperies of the three kneeling
figures in the lower part of the fresco of " The
Death of the Virgin " are very finely rendered.

The outer colonnade or vestibule adjacent to
the Council Chapel was decorated by Taddeo at
a later period (1414) with frescoes representing
ancient heroes and figures of saints, a mixture
of pagan and sacred personages and elements,
which was common enough in most periods of
ItaUan painting. Here Taddeo painted Scipio
Africanus, Furius and Marcus Denatus in Roman
dress, placed in niches, as the heroes illustrating
the virtue of Magnanimity, while in the lunette
above their heads is an allegorical figure sym-
boUzing that virtue. In a similar way Scipio
Nascia, Cato and Cicero represent Justice.

Taddeo worked at Volterra about 1410, where

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 139

he painted altar-pieces for the Churches of
S. Francesco and S. Ottaviano. A character-
istic work of his adorns the fourth altar in the
Church of the Convento dell' Osservanza, about
two miles outside the Porta Ovile of Siena.

CHAPTER IX

SIENESE PAINTING OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

In the list of the Sienese painters of the
fifteenth century there is no one of outstanding
merit or so great as to equal the best of the
Florentine masters of this period. The Sienese
Quattrocentists appear to have lived and worked
too much within themselves, and to have been
content to imitate and perpetuate the aims,
methods and style of their greater predecessors ;
but, great as the latter undoubtedly were, a sus-
tained system of reproducing their types and
technical methods on the part of their followers
could only lead to mediocrity, to the abandon-
ment of all initiative, and to the production of
work that, however pleasing and charming in
line, colour and composition, as it often was,
on the other hand was often deficient in origin-
ality and virility, and strongly reminiscent of
the older art of Duccio, Simone, Lippo Memmi
and the Lorenzetti. If we would look for an
exceptional figure who rose above the general
level of the Sienese Quattrocentists we are
attracted to the personahty and work of Matteo
di Giovanni, who laboured during the latter half
of the century. This artist was endowed with
more genius than any of his Sienese contem-

140

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 141

poraries, and although he was strongly influenced
by the quiet beauty of Simone's art, he did not
hesitate to go further afield in order to gather
fresh flowers from the garden of Florentine
painting, which he entwined with the blossoms of
his native Sienese to make garlands of his own.^

DoMENico Di Bartolo (active 1428-1444). This
Sienese painter was probably a pupil, or at all
events a faithful follower, of Taddeo di Bartoli.
He was born at Asciano in the early years of
the fifteenth century, but the exact date is
unknown. In the Gallery of Siena there is an
early work by Domenico (No. 164) which is
signed and dated 1433. This is a picture of the
Virgin and Child, seated on the ground, and
attended by angels. It is unpleasant in colour,
like the majority of Domenico's works, as he
was an inferior colourist. He was attracted by
the works of the Florentine painters, and occa-
sionally borrowed figures and various motives
from the artists and architects of Florence,
which he introduced into his large compositions,
notably in his latest works (1444), the frescoes,
or tempera paintings, " Almsgiving," " Marriage
of the Foundlings," " Visit of the Bishop to
the Hospital," and other paintings that adorn
the walls of the sick ward of the Spedale, or
Hospital, of S. M. della Scala at Siena. These
second-rate works, now much damaged, are con-
fused in composition, much too full of incident,
and dull and heavy in colour; but at the same
time there are some interesting figures, costumes
* See postea, pp. 151-1S4.

142 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and lively attitudes, which, as Lanzi says,
attracted the attention of Pinturicchio and
Raffaelle,^ who, " while painting at Siena, took
many of their notions of national costume, and
perhaps some other particulars," from the hospital
frescoes.

One of the best examples of Domenico's work
is the beautiful altar-piece of " The Virgin and
Child," which he painted in 1437 for the Church
of S. Agostino of Asciano, his native town,
where it still remains over the high altar. This
meritorious example affords proof that Domenico
could occasionally produce works that were in
no way inferior to the best efforts of the con-
temporary Sienese school. Another important
work of this master is the remarkably fine com-
position of " The Emperor Sigismund Enthroned,"
which he designed in 1434 for one of the coloured
marble pavement panels of the Siena Cathedral.
Many Sienese artists from Duccio's time con-
tributed designs for the decoration of this
sumptuous pavement of the cathedral, whose
work in this connection we shall speak about
later on.

Stefano di Giovanni, called Sassetta (1392-
1450 ?). This painter is said to have been a pupil
of Bartolo di Fredi, but he was chiefly influenced
by Simone Martini. This is seen in his tender
drawing of the features, and in the soft and
delicate technique of his rosy-coloured flesh
tints. Though not a painter of great talent,
he had considerable influence on the work of
^ Lanzi, History of Painting in Italy, Roscoe, vol. i, p. 287.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 143

other Sienese masters, such as Sano di Pietro,
Matteo di Giovanni, and the Umbrian painters
Benedetto Buonfigh and Piero della Francesca,
He was contemporary with Domenico di Bartolo
and Vecchietta. His earliest authentic work is
the altar-piece of "The Madonna Enthroned,"
painted in 1436 for the Osservanza, Siena, and
is one of his best works. Another early work is
his small picture of " The Madonna," now in
the Museum of Pienza. The altar-piece of " The
Birth of the Virgin," in the CoUegiata at Asciano,
is a beautiful work by Sassetta. It is in the
form of a triptych, with three large panels below
and three smaller above. The central and
largest of the three upper panels is a composi-
tion finely designed and of great charm. The
Virgin is seated in the centre of the picture in
an easy and regal attitude, with the Infant
Saviour in her lap, while four beautiful rose-
crowned angels in adoration surround the central
group. The figures are painted on a gold
ground.

In 1437 Sassetta was engaged by the Fran-
ciscans of Borgo San Sepolcro to paint a large
altar-piece for the Church of S. Francesco at that
place. This work has been dismembered, and
portions of it now belong to different collectors.
The principal parts, including the panel of
" St. Francis in Ecstasy," are now in the pos-
session of Mr. B. Berenson, at Settignano. Six
scenes from the life of St. Francis, also parts
of this altar-piece, are in the collection of M.
Chalandon, at Paris ; and another part, " St.

144 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Francis and the Three Monastic Virtues," ^ is
now in the Museum at Chantilly. In the paint-
ing of this great work, which occupied from three
to four years, Sassetta is quite certain to have
had the assistance of his favourite pupil, Sano
di Pietro. His visit to Borgo San Sepolcro was
the means of perpetuating the Sienese methods
and ideals in that Umbrian city, and particu-
larly influenced the work of the great Umbrian
master, Piero della Francesca, who was a native
of that place.

In the Palazzo Saracini, at Siena, there are
two works by Sassetta; one is a small picture
of " The Adoration of the Magi," and the other
a triptych of " The Madonna and Saints."
When he visited Cortona he painted an altar-
piece for the Church of S. Domenico, and would
there have seen the works of Fra Angelico,
which to some extent had an influence on his
own work.

Sassetta was engaged in the year 1447 to
complete the frescoes on the Porta Romano,
Siena, which were begun thirty years previous
to this by Taddeo di Bartolo. He began the
large fresco over the gate, representing " The
Coronation of the Virgin," but left it unfinished
at his death in 1450. This work, now much
damaged and repainted, was finished by Sano di
Pietro, his pupil. The National Gallery contains
an interesting fragment of this fresco which,
according to Mr. B. Berenson, is from the hand
of Sassetta. The fragment consists of a fresco
^ Langton Douglas, History of Siena, p. 386, note 1.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 145

painting of " Three Angels' Heads," and is in
fairly good condition. The flesh tints are warm,
though low in tone, the heads have gold-stamped
nimbi, and the dresses are pale blue, pale rose
and dull Venetian red respectively, on a medium
grey background.

Sano di Pietro di Mencio (1406-1481) was
the chief pupil of Sassetta, and a painter who
thoroughly followed out the Sienese traditions
both in his frescoes and panel paintings. Though
Sassetta may have been his more immediate
instructor, Simone's and Lippo Memmi's works
were his models. Careful and laborious as he
undoubtedly was, he produced an extraordinary
number of works during his lifetime. Much of
his work is beautiful and charming from a
decorative point of view, but nothing highly
distinctive in character or of great originality.
Mr. Berenson gives a list of Sano's existing
works in fresco, tempera and miniature painting
amounting to about two hundred. The Gallery
of Siena, according to the same authority, con-
tains fifty-two of his pictures,^ and in the city
there are altogether about ninety-five.

In his drawing of the human figure there is a
deficiency of realism and vigour, but, on the
other hand, his work is not wanting in the
characteristic and graceful ideals which we asso-
ciate with Sienese painting. His colouring,
though bright and gay and of a variegated kind,
is so arranged that it presents satisfactory

1 B. Berenson, Central Italian Painters of the Renaissance,
pp. 237-43.

VOL. n. L

146 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

effects of an even distribution in the picture,
and in this respect is in accordance with the
traditional colour schemes of the Sienese school.
Pictures by Sano di Pietro, in many respects,
remind us of the works of Fra Angelico, and if
the latter was the greater artist of the two,
Sano often equalled him in his drawing and
painting of his beautiful types of angels and
other female figures, and in his exceedingly
delicate and careful manipulation of ornamental
tracery.

The most important of the frescoes painted by
Sano di Pietro is that which decorates a wall
of the apartment on the grotmd floor of the
Palazzo Pubblico of Siena. This fresco was
painted about 1445, and represents " The Corona-
tion of the Virgin," where, in addition to the
figures of the Virgin and other sacred personages
in the Paradise, there is a large figure of St.
Catherine, which has been repainted, and another
of S. Bernardino. Good examples of his work
are also to be seen on the first and third altars
of the chapel on the left in the monastery Church
deir Osservanza, near Siena. In the Sala IV
and Sala V of the Siena Gallery Sano can be
studied to advantage, where, as before men-
tioned, there are no less than fifty-two of his
paintings, among which are his most successful
works.

Lorenzo di Pietro, better known as Vec-
CHIETTA (1412-1480), was an architect and gold-
smith, as well as a painter. He was a pupil of
Sassetta and a contemporary of Domenico di

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 147

Bartolo and of Sano di Pietro, He had a par-
tiality for painting, in a hard and dry manner,
figures of an old and lean type, and owing to
this peculiarity on his part he was nicknamed
Vecchietta.

In the year 1441 Vecchietta painted frescoes
in the chapel and sacristy of the Hospital of
S. Maria della Scala at Siena, and one above
the door of the Pellegrinaio. He decorated,
with the aid of his pupils, in 1449-50, the ceil-
ings and part of the tribune of the Baptistery
of S. Giovanni at Siena. He was commissioned
in 1461 to paint the altar-piece of " The Assump-
tion of the Virgin " for one of the chapels of
the Duomo of Pienza. The Virgin is attended
by four saints. This is one of the best works
by Vecchietta; the colouring is light in general
tone, the execution is careful but flat in treat-
ment, and there is a wealth of painted and gold
ornamentation in the picture. He painted in
1460-61 two frescoes in the Palazzo Pubblico of
Siena, one of which is the " St. Catherine," at
the entrance of the chapel, and the other is
" The Madonna of Mercy," which is painted on
the wall of a small apartment on the ground
floor. The latter is one of Lorenzo's best works,
but has been repainted in parts. In the Uffizi
Gallery Vecchietta is represented by a signed
and dated (1457) altar-piece of " The Madonna
and Saints," with a kneeling figure of a king.
The principal figures are life size, with four
small figures of saints and heads of others in the
pilasters. There is a picture of " S. Bernardino

148 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Preaching " by him in the Liverpool Gallery, and
a triptych in the Cluny Museum, Paris. Two or
three book-cases, or covers, in the Archivio of
Siena are ascribed to him by Mr. Berenson.

Vecchietta had for many years been in adverse
circumstances, but at length he had become
more prosperous, and about the year 1476 he
offered to decorate a chapel in the Hospital of
S. M. della Scala with paintings and sculptured
metal-work, if the authorities would consent to
consecrate one with his name; and he also
agreed to leave, after his wife's death, all his
property to the foundation. The authorities
consented to this arrangement, and Vecchietta
painted an altar-piece for the chapel, which is
now in the Siena Gallery (No. 210). He also
executed a bronze statue of " The Risen Christ,"
which is still in position on the altar of the
chapel, and is signed and dated 1479. These
works were probably the last from his hand, as
he died in 1480.

Francesco di Giorgio (1459-1502), Nerroc-
cio DI Bartolommeo (1447-1500) and Ben-
VENUTO DI Giovanni (1436-1518), also known
as Benvenuto da Siena, were pupils of Lorenzo
Vecchietta, who all followed his style, but who
also studied the works of Simone Lippo Memmi
and the early Sienese masters. They all pro-
duced work that showed the marked influence
of the sources of their study and inspiration,
and although much of their work was charac-
terized by the decorative beauty of their native
school, they did not contribute much to the

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 149

advancement of Sienese art. The first and last
named of these pupils of Vecchietta carried the
traditions of the school of Siena into the six-
teenth century.

Francesco di Giorgio was more celebrated as
a military and civil architect than a painter.
He and Nerroccio kept a bottega together, but
in 1475 Francesco left his younger partner and
devoted himself to architecture and military
works. He acquired great fame in the design-
ing and building of fortresses, in which work
he was only second to Leonardo da Vinci. It
is recorded that these two famous men met
together in conference at Pavia in the year
1490, when they were sent there by Gian
Galeazzo to report on the plan of the new
cathedral.

The works of Vecchietta's pupils may be seen
in the Galleries of Siena, Perugia and the Uffizi
and in other European cities, Francesco di
Giorgio is represented in the National Gallery
by a small picture of St. Dorothy (No. 1682).
The saint is dressed in a robe of a pale yellow
and blue, and has a mantle of pale red with a
deep green lining. She leads the Heavenly
Child, who is dressed in a light yellowish-pink
robe edged with black and gold, and carries a
basket of fruit and flowers. The ground is
white with red and black streaks, and the back-
ground and nimbi are gold with stamped orna-
mentation. The flesh tints are of a warm grey
colour. This is a little work of delicate refine-
ment. Francesco collaborated with Nerroccio

150 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

in many works, notably in a series depicting the
life of San Bernardino, some of which are now
in the Galleries of Perugia, the Uffizi and at
Siena. He designed many of the famous Siena
book -co vers, and also the subject of " The Relief
of Bethulia " for the pavement of the Siena
Cathedral.

Benvenuto di Giovanni was engaged in the
decoration of the Baptistery of Siena in 1458.
His earliest signed work, 1466, is " The Annun-
ciation, with Saints," now in the Gallery at
Volterra. In the Churches of S. Lucia and of
the Osservanza at Sinalunga there are altar-
pieces by him. Many of the illuminated choir-
books of the Siena Cathedral were designed by
him about 1480-82, and he also made designs for
the pavement of the cathedral. He was an
excellent colourist, and was inclined to use
deeper and richer schemes than the lighter ones
so often adopted by the Sienese painters. An
example of his work which is extremely rich in
its colouring is the altar-piece, No. 909, in the
National Gallery. This work is in three panels,
the central one having a representation of " The
Virgin Enthroned," and on the side panels,
" St. Peter " on the right and " St. Nicholas of
Bari " on the left. The Virgin is giving a spray
of white roses to the Infant Saviour. At either
side and above the throne are angels with
musical instruments. The Virgin wears a deep
crimson and gold-embroidered dress ; her mantle
is dark blue, with a dull, but rich, green lining.
In contrast with the colouring of the Virgin's

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 151

robes is the soft purple and gold of the Divine
Infant's dress, the whole presenting a fine har-
mony of rich colour, not inferior to the finest
examples of Venetian colouring. The wings of
this altar-piece, on which the two full-length
figures of the saints are painted, are equally fine
in colour, the harmony being helped out by the
gold backgrounds. Another beautiful example
of this master in the same gallery. No. 2482,
is a little picture of " The Virgin and Child,"
bequeathed by the late G. Salting. The Virgin
is a three-quarter length figure, who holds the
Child, as His right foot rests on a cushion placed
on a balcony. The background is covered with
roses and jasmine.

Matteo di Giovanni di Bartoli (about
1435-1495). This Sienese master was one of
the greatest, if not the greatest, painter of the
school of Siena in his time. He was born at
Borgo San Sepolcro, the home and birthplace
of Piero della Francesca, where at times he
worked in collaboration with the latter; for
example, the portions of the polyptych, with
the figures of SS. Peter and Paul, now on the
left wall of the Duomo at Borgo San Sepolcro,
are by Matteo, while the central panel of this
altar-piece is the picture of " The Baptism of
Christ," now one of the treasures of the National
Gallery, is the work of Piero della Francesca.

Matteo di Giovanni was a pupil of Domenico
di Bartolo, but his early works show the influence
of many of the Sienese masters, such as Vecchietta,
Sassetta, Sano di Pietro and Francesco di Giorgio ;

152 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and in his later time he studied to some advan-
tage the works of the Florentine painters Antonio
PoUaiuolo and Botticelli. Notwithstanding the
influences of these masters, which were only
partial in their effect on his work, he remained
on the whole a faithful and accomplished ex-
ponent of the Sienese school of painting and
a zealous worshipper at the shrine of Simone
Martini.

Matteo executed some paintings in the Chapel
of S. Bernardino in the Duomo of Siena as early
as 1457, in which he was assisted by his com-
panion Giovanni di Pietro, but these works
have disappeared. His earliest existing works
are those which he painted for the Church of
S. Maria dei Servi at Siena in 1470, a " Madonna
and Child, with attendant Angels," which is now
in the Gallery of Siena, No. 286, and " The
Massacre of the Innocents," which is still on
the fourth altar to the right in the above-named
church, and is signed and dated 1471. The
subject of " The Massacre of the Innocents "
was a favourite one with Matteo, as he has
repeated it in the altar-piece of a chapel in the
Church of S. Agostino at Siena, and again in
his picture in the Museum at Naples, and also
in his pavement design of the Siena Cathedral.^

The Church of S. Domenico at Siena contains
three examples of Matteo's work, namely, a
" Pieta," in a lunette, a triptych of " The
Madonna, with St. John Baptist and St. Jerome,"
and in the second chapel to the left of the choir
1 See pp. 159-160.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 153

a picture, almost square in form, with a repre-
sentation of " St. Barbara with Saints and
Angels," over which is a lunette shape containing
an " Adoration of the Magi." The lower por-
tion of this work is of an almost symmetrical
composition, but by no means of a dry symmetry,
for the space is decoratively filled with noble
forms drawn with a fine feeling for the beauty
and freedom of line. The lunette above is a
beautiful composition, each figure of which is
full of interest, and the whole admirably ar-
ranged to give an artistic balance rather than
symmetry.

There are three interesting works by Matteo
in the National Gallery : one is a head of " Christ
Crowned with Thorns " {Ecce Homo), the hands
crossed on the breast. Another example is his
large picture, " The Assumption of the Virgin,"
which is painted in tempera on a wood panel
enclosed in a Gothic frame, and has a gold
background. The colouring is well balanced,
and even now is fairly brilliant, though its former
richness has been lowered by time. The Virgin
wears a white and grey embroidered mantle
and a soft red tunic. A multitude of angels,
of graceful forms, are dancing and playing on
musical instruments, having variegated colours
of red, blue, grey, brown and golden draperies.
Some of the angels are rose-crowned, and their
faces, as well as the coxmtenance of the Virgin,
have a quiet and happy expression of religious
repose. The flesh tints are well modelled and
fused, but in contrast to this the draperies of

154 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

all the figures are much too " pipey " or fur-
rowed, which takes away dignity and breadth,
and gives them a very artificial appearance.
Matteo evidently invented the folds of his
draperies, and did not study them from their
position on the figure. The third picture in
this gallery is a "St. Sebastian," where two
angels above crown the arrow-pierced full-length
figure of the saint, who stands against a low
landscape background. The general colouring
of this work is faded and is now very low in
tone.

Matteo di Giovanni was one of the last, if
not the last, of the Sienese masters who remained
faithful to the traditions and methods of his
school. In his best works there is revealed
much of the charm and repose which we find in
Simone's achievements. The forms and atti-
tudes of his female figures of children, saints
and angels were graceful; he aimed at a per-
fected execution of ornament and rich em-
broideries on splendid vestments and accessories,
and scarcely ever failed in expressing the decora-
tive or Sienese-like feeling for the beauty of line.

After Matteo's time, at the beginning of the
sixteenth century, a change came over Sienese
painting, due in one respect to the lack of native
artists strong enough to carry on or to improve
on the Sienese ideals, but perhaps principally to
the great influence of foreign artists, those of
the other Italian schools of painting, such as
Pinturicchio, Giovanni Antonio, Bazzi (Sodoma),
Perugino, Signorelli and others who had been

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 155

invited by the Piccolomini, Petrucci and Span-
nochi families, who contended with each other
in the patronage of art, as well as in power, in
the Republic of Siena during the early years of
the sixteenth century.

The Pavement Decoration of the
Cathedral of Siena

The Italians did not confine their attention
to the decoration of the walls and ceilings of
their churches and public buildings only, but
often decorated the floors with black and white
and with coloured marbles and mosaic. The
finest and most suitable floor or pavement
decoration was the Byzantine and romanesque
varieties of the O'pus Alexandrinum and Opus
Sectile, where slabs and small pieces of coloured
marbles were used in the production of simple
geometrical designs, the coloured marbles being
usually red porphyry, green serpentine, relieved
with black and white marble, and the ornament
composed of circles, squares, lozenges, lines and
interlacing bands. In the case, however, of the
designs of the pavement decoration of the
Cathedral of Siena, and of other churches where
the work dates from the early part of the four-
teenth century, the geometrical nature of the
designs became less in evidence, and a more
pictorial kind of design was adopted, where the
hiunan figure and other natural forms were used,
and eventually became the predominant features
of the compositions.

156 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

In the oldest examples of the Siena Cathedral
pavement designs the figures are in white marble
on a black ground, or sometimes white on a
black and red ground. In order to show the
features, folds of drapery and other inner forms,
lines were incised in the white marble and filled
in with a black cement. This method of work
was followed for about a hundred years or so,
after the year 1372, the date when the pave-
ment decoration was begun. Coloured marbles
were adopted at a later period when yellow,
grey, red, black and white marbles were used
in combination, but no attempts at the pro-
duction of pictorial light and shade effects or
perspective were made until the sixteenth cen-
tury, when Beccafumi designed what were really
wall pictures, and degraded them by using them
as floor decorations. In these later pictorial
designs the shaded effects were obtained by the
use of grey marbles, and also coloured varieties,
of different gradations of tone. This somewhat
resembled mosaic work, and was often carried
out to great lengths in the misappHed floor
pictures by Beccafumi, where he represented
scenes from the Old Testament, with an utter
disregard for the material and for the architec-
tonic fitness of the design. He succeeded in
obtaining perspective and light and shade effects
by engraving lines in all directions in the marble,
by the use of coloured marbles for the same
objects. One of the best of Beccafumi's designs
of the cathedral pavement is the frieze-like
composition of " Moses Striking the Rock."

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 157

This composition is very fine, and the figures
are remarkably well drawn. The outlines,
hatchings and other accentuations are of a
black stucco composition; the shadows of the
draperies are masterly rendered in various tones
of different depths in grey marble, and small
bits of red and yellow marble are used in the
hems of the garments. The date of this work
is 1531.

These attempts to decorate a floor, which is
meant for people to walk on, with pictures
must appear to any one as something absurd,
and it seems a great pity that these fine and
important works were not placed on a wall or
a frieze, where they might fulfil their legitimate
function, and remain longer as a monument to
the genius of the artist.

A floor design should above all things present
an appearance of absolute flatness, and the
colouring should be quiet and subdued. If the
human figure is used at all it should be con-
sidered as a unit or portion of the pattern, and
fit into some suitable surrounding shape, so as
to prevent it from having any appearance of a
pictorial representation. It is obvious that it
should not be expressed in light and shade, nor
have any positive contrasts of colour. It may
be mentioned that among the designs conform-
ing to these principles are those having silhouetted
figures representing the five Virtues which deco-
rate the pavement outside the choir of the
Duomo. These are in white and black marble,
the figures being enclosed in Gothic-cusped round

158 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

forms, the work being executed in the latter half
of the fourteenth century.

About the year 1423 Domenico di Niccolo
and his assistants were employed in the decora-
tion of the pavement that runs across the church
below and in front of the high altar. The
central subject of these designs is King David,
who is surrounded by four musicians. All the
figures are designed as silhouettes, and are in
harmony with the cusped Gothic circular framing.
The work is perfectly flat in treatment, and is
executed in white marble on a black and red
ground. The other subjects of this portion of
the pavement are representations of Moses,
Solomon, Judas Maccabeus and Joshua. Dome-
nico di Niccolo was also a famous artist in
wood-carving and intarsia — wood-inlay. The
choir stalls of the Chapel of the Palazzo Pubblico
at Siena are fine examples of his carving and
intarsia work (1415-29).

Pietro del Minella was another celebrated
wood-carver of Siena, and the chief pupil of the
sculptor Jacopo della Querela. He designed
one of the most interesting of the pavement
decorations, which has the subject of " Absalom
Caught by his Hair." This panel is of a square
form, in which Absalom is seen hanging by his
hair on the tree. Two well-designed conven-
tional trees, a group of soldiers with spears, on
the left, who attack the hanging body of Absalom,
a hill, some rocks and the hindquarters of a
horse, on the right, are the elements that make
up this fine and spirited composition. This is

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 159

a work of great beauty, but misplaced as a floor
decoration.

When commenting on the work of the Sienese
painter Domenico di Bartolo we mentioned that
in 1434 he designed the remarkably fine com-
position of " The Emperor Sigismund Enthroned,"
which is one of the subjects of the pavement
decoration. In this work, which is classical in
style and spirit, the artist has represented the
Emperor seated on a throne, above which is a
canopy of classic design, supported by Ionic
colxmms. The use of these columns with their
capitals and of other classical details affords one
of the earliest instances where the neo-classic
forms, introduced in Italian architecture by
Brunelleschi and Michelozzo, were adopted in
pictorial designs.

The black and white design representing in
a somewhat pictorial scene " The Relief of
Bethulia " is assigned to Francesco di Giorgio
(1473), and the architect and sculptor Antonio
Federighi was the designer of the panels repre-
senting " The Seven Ages of Man," which are
admirably rendered as a series of single figures
enclosed in decorative framework.

One of the most important and ambitious
floor designs is " The Massacre of the Innocents "
by Matteo di Giovanni, a subject often treated
in painting by this master. This work is executed
in various coloured marbles. The scene is en-
closed in an architectural setting of columns, and
pilasters supporting the arches, frieze and en-
tablature. The design is carried out in white,

160 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

yellow, grey arid red marbles relieved by a black
background, the lower part or foreground being
red. The colours are agreeably contrasted, and
the work is free from any attempt at shaded
relief, other than the contrast given by the
juxtaposition of the different colours. In this
respect and in regard to the drawing and com-
position it is a fine example of Matteo's work.
Another and later specimen of this master's work
is the pavement picture of a " Sibyl," where a
simpler colour arrangement of black, white and
red is used. This design, however, is not a very
satisfactory work.

One of the best works of the cathedral pave-
ment is an allegorical composition by Pinturic-
chio, " The Ship of Fortune," where there is a
well-designed and well-drawn nude female figure
representing " Fortune." Coloured marbles are
used, and the work is flatly treated. Pinturicchio
furnished the cartoon for this work in the early
part of 1505, when he was engaged in painting
the frescoes in the Piccolomini Library at Siena.

From a logical point of view it is qtiite true
that most of the beautiful work on the pavement
of the Duomo of Siena is in a wrong situation;
in order to preserve it a wooden floor covers it
for the best part of the year; but we are glad
that these works exist, not only as specimens of
Sienese craftsmanship and design, but also as
examples of the work of the old Sienese masters
in another medium besides that of painting.

CHAPTER X

SIENESE PAINTING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY —
INFLUENCE AND WORK OF THE FOREIGN
ARTISTS IN SIENA

As already mentioned, the native Sienese
painters, about the beginning of the sixteenth
century, came under the strong influence of the
Umbrian painters Pinturicchio, Signorelli, Peru-
gino, and of Bazzi of VerceUi, who was called
Sodoma, all of whom had worked for varying
periods in Siena. Many examples of Roman
and Florentine paintings also about this time
found their way to Siena, and this imported
work in some degree helped in the transforma-
tion of Sienese painting. Notwithstanding the
forces of these outside influences, a few of the
native Sienese painters never quite lost their
love and admiration for the work of the former
masters of their own school, but still clung,
though feebly, to the older traditions they had
inherited from their predecessors in Sienese
painting. Some of them, however, like Fungai
and Peruzzi, eventually came under the influence
of other schools, particularly that of Umbria,
and ceased to keep to the old native ideals, so
that these artists and their work must be classed
as Umbro-Sienese.

VOL. II. 161 M

162 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Bernardino Fungai (1460-1516) was a pupil
of the Sienese painter Giovanni di Paolo (1403-
82), and was influenced by Francesco di Giorgio,
and by the Umbrian painter Fiorenzo di Lorenzo,
and also by Signorelli, the Umbro-Florentine.
Formerly many of his works were attributed to
other artists of Umbria, perhaps from the fact
that he was so susceptible to the influences of
the Umbrian school. Modern research has, how-
ever, increased the number of his authentic
works; Mr. B. Berenson has now placed many
works to the credit of Bernardino which had
formerly been ascribed to others.

In his drawing of the human figure there is
want of flexibility at times, and a slight stiffness
in the draperies due to the straight, rather than
flowing, lines of the folds. The faces of the
Virgin, angels and children have, however, much
of the charm and quiet repose of the old Sienese
types. His colouring is generally less brilUant
and lower-toned than what is usually associated
with Sienese colouring, but this may in a great
measure be due to age and neglect, and possibly
to the effects of restoration.

A well-proportioned and very effective com-
position is Bernardino's picture of " The Madonna
and Child with Saints," No. 431, in the Gallery
of Siena. The Virgin is seated on a high throne,
on the lower step of which are two infant angels,
one holding a cardinal's hat, and the other a
bishop's sceptre. At each side are two saints,
one standing and the other kneeling, while two
angels hover in the sky above the Virgin and

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 163

hold a crown over her head. The background
shows a very fine landscape, where the rivers,
woods, buildings are all treated carefully, with
elaborate details, probably copied from a line
engraving of German origin. Two characteristic
examples of Fungai's work may be seen in the
National Gallery. One of these. No. 1331, is a
circular-shaped panel, representing " The Virgin
and Child surrounded by Six Cherub Angels," in
the midst of a well- wooded and hilly landscape,
and where there is a small incident represented
on the left, of the Virgin and Joseph adoring
the Infant Saviour. The general colour tone is
greyish and low, but the original colour has con-
siderably faded. The Virgin's mantle is a white
brocade with a latge ornamental pattern in gold,
and her dress beneath is crimson and gold.
The other work is a smaller picture of " The
Virgin and Child," and two saints with bowed
heads behind the central figures. This painting
has a gold background.

Like most of the Sienese painters, Bernardino
decorated many book-covers. Two examples of
this kind of work by him are preserved in the
Archivio di Stato at Siena. They are dated
1485 and 1487, and illustrate " The Sacrifice of
Isaac " and " The Madonna Guiding a Ship into
Port." There are about twenty works by Ber-
nardino in Siena, and a few others in European
galleries.

Pacchiarotto (Giacomo di Bartolommeo)
(1474-1540). This painter was a pupil of Matteo
Giovanni and of Bernardino Fungai. His works

164 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

in many respects resemble those of the latter
master, but, generally speaking, show more
action than Bernardino's, which was probably
the outcome of his acquaintance with the works
of Signorelli. From all accounts this artist led
a stirring and lawless kind of life in Siena during
the troublous days of the early part of the six-
te,enth century. Owing to some offences against
the law, he was banished from Siena in the year
1539, but came back and died there in the
following year. His paintings are of a second-
rate order, for though a follower of Fxmgai he
borrowed poses and other features from the
works of many painters, such as Pinturicchio,
Perugino, Signorelli, and was therefore incUned
to lean on others too much, which was not con-
ducive to the production of distinctively original
work.

Pacchiarotto was employed very frequently in
purely decorative work. He executed in stucco
some heads of the emperors in the nave of the
Duomo at Siena, he painted many standards
for religious societies, and designed various
triumphal arches. The Gallery of Siena con-
tains many of his paintings; some are also in
the Academy at Florence, one in the Parry
Collection at Highnam Court, representing four
saints, and one in the National Gallery, a
" Nativity," numbered 1849. This is an interest-
ing work; the treatment of the subject is some-
what out of the common. A shed projects in
front of a cave in a rock, in the opening of which
appear the heads of an ox and an ass. The

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 165

Infant Christ lies on the ground in front, and
on the left the Virgin kneels, dressed in a blue
and green mantle and a red robe. On the other
side is John the Baptist, four other saints, and
above is the Eternal with two angels. The
picture is circular-headed, and has a series of
three niches on either side, in the panels of
which are upright figures of saints and apostles.
The predella has five panels, with scenes of the
Passion. It is painted in tempera, executed in
a thin transparent method, which, together with
its mat, unvarnished, surface, gives it the quality
and appearance of fresco.

From the similarity of their names, Pacchia-
rotto and Pacchia, his Sienese contemporary and
follower, who was the better artist of the two,
have often been confounded with each other
from their own days, and also, as Pacchia was
to a great extent influenced by Pacchiarotto,
the sifting of their works has been a difficult
task, and is even now incomplete.

GiOBOLOMA DEL Pacchia (1477-1535?) was
the son of a Hungarian cannon-founder who
settled in Siena and married a Sienese wife. He
was a pupil of Fungai, but was influenced by
numerous painters, such as Sodoma, Andrea del
Sarto, Raffaelle, Fra Bartolommeo and Genga,
the Umbrian painter and pupil of Signorelli.

Pacchia had visited and worked in Rome and
Florence from the year 1500 to 1508, where he
saw the works and came in contact with many
of the great artists of those cities, all of whom
influenced him in turns. Coming back to Siena

166 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

in 1508, he painted various pictures, some of
which are now lost, but a few of this period are
still in the Gallery of Siena.

About 1518 Sodoma was engaged in painting
frescoes in the oratory of S. Bernardino, when
Pacchia was commissioned to paint others in
the same oratory. One of these frescoes, " The
Birth of the Virgin," in its design, arrangement
of the figures and architectural backgroimd, is
far more Florentine than Sienese, and shows the
extent of Andrea del Sarto's and possibly Ghir-
landajo's influence on the work of Pacchia.
The stately Florentine-like figure of the lady
visitor on the right might have been painted by
Ghirlandaio.

In the right transept of the Church of S.
Martino, at Sinalunga, there is a large and
meritorious work by Pacchia which has the
subject of " The Deposition " and other smaller
scenes in the predelle.

Mr. Berenson mentions an early fresco (1495)
by this painter, which is in the Church of S.
Sebastiano at Asciano, representing SS. Lucy,
Roch and other saints, where there are also
frescoes by the Sienese painter Benvenuto di
Giovanni (1436-1518). There are pictures by
Pacchia in the Gallery and in many of the
palaces and churches of Siena. At Highnam
Court, Parry Collection, is a Tondo of "The
Holy Family with St. Catherine," and at
Berlin a " Sposalizio " (105) and a "Holy
Family and St. Francis" (277). A late work
is a " Crucifixion," No. 1642, in the Louvre,

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 16T

Paris, besides others in European and American
collections.

One of Pacchia's best works is the oil-painting
of " The Madonna and Child," No. 246, in the
National Gallery. The figure of the Madonna
in this work might have been posed and drawn
by Raffaelle. The naked Babe in her arms has
a sweet and charming expression. The Virgin
is dressed in a black hooded mantle and a tunic
of a low-toned red colour, and is seated against
a hilly landscape background. Pacchia in this
work shows very little traces of his Sienese
education. Another Raffaellesque work by
Pacchia is the fine " Coronation of the Virgin "
in the Church of S. Spirito at Siena, on the third
altar to the left. This work, which is painted
on a wood panel with an arched top, is a vigorous
and dignified example of the master, harmonious
in colouring and broadly treated in its light and
shade. The drawing is good, and the various
foreshortenings of some of the figures are well
rendered and tmderstood. Another work which
has much of the Florentine feature is " The
Madonna and SS. Luke and Raymond," in the
well-designed and finely painted altar-piece by
Pacchia in the Church of S. Cristofero, Siena.
This work is painted in oil, the colouring is rich
and soft, transparent glazings are spread over
the thick impasto beneath to get the desired
effects of depth and richness recalling the
Venetian technique. These two fine works by
Pacchia were formerly ascribed to Pacchiarotto.
Like the latter painter, Pacchia seems to have

168 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

been involved in the political troubles of the
times, as he with other companions fled Siena
in the year 1535, and was not heard of afterwards,
so the exact date of his death is unknown.

Beccafumi (Domenico di Jacopo di Pace)
(1486-1541). Domenico Beccafumi was the son
of a labourer, who worked at Montaperto, in
the province of Siena, on the estate of his em-
ployer, Lorenzo Beccafumi. The boy, showing
signs of an artistic talent, was sent by his patron
to be instructed in art at Siena. He was the
reputed pupil of Pacchiarotto, or probably of
some Umbro-Sienese painter, but his real masters
were Sodoma and Fra Bartolommeo, whose work
influenced him most. In his early years he
visited Rome, when Michelangelo was at work
on the frescoes of the Sixtine Chapel, and there
came under the influence of the great Florentine,
but more especially of Fra Bartolommeo.

While not being an artist of a marked origin-
ality, he succeeded, however, in getting many
commissions for work, which always kept him
fully employed, for his business instincts were
greater than his artistic abilities. His work
reminds us first of one painter and then of
another, but occasionally he produced a work
of merit that was distinguished by the dignity
of its composition, and a high standard in the
drawing of the human figure. In this cate-
gory we must place his fine designs for the
pavement of the Duomo of Siena, which have
been previously mentioned, and his great altar-
piece, where he has represented St. Michael

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 169

vanquishing Lucifer, and which adorns the second
altar on the left in the Church of the Carmine
in Siena. This work, with its strong contrasts
of light and shade, could hardly be further re-
moved from the typical style and methods of
Sienese design and technique, as it is so thor-
oughly cast in the Florentine mould. Another
fine work of his, which is one of his numerous
altar-pieces, has the subject of " St. Catherine
receiving the Stigmata," now in the Gallery of
Siena, No. 420.

Among his many commissions Beccafumi
painted numerous Cassone with subjects of a
classical kind; three of these are now in the
Palazzo Martelli, Florence, besides others in
private collections in that city, and one with
the subject of " The Rape of the Sabines " is
in the Palazzo Saracini at Siena. On the left
wall of the third chapel on the right in S. Spirito
at Siena is a fresco by Beccafumi, " The Corona-
tion of the Virgin," and the remains of some
others by him in the choir of the Duomo, painted
in 1544. The prolific painter decorated many
walls and ceilings in the palaces of Siena, none
of which were of any particular merit. There is
a picture in the National Gallery ascribed to
him, the subject of which is not quite clear.
It is suggested that it may represent " The Visit
of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon," or " Esther
before King Ahasuerus." A lady with her
attendants is being introduced to the seated
king by a person standing on the steps of a
throne; there is an arched building represented.

170 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

groups of figures in the foreground, and a land-
scape background with buildings and riiins. In
method and technique this work reflects some
of the qualities and characteristics of Florentine
painting.

Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537). Though
born in Siena and a pupil of Pacchiarotto, Peruzzi
must be regarded as belonging to the Umbro-
Sienese school of painting. He was more dis-
tinguished as a draughtsman and an architect
than a painter. In painting he was strongly
influenced by Raffaelle, and in a hardly lesser
degree by Sodoma, whom he came in contact
with in Siena, He excelled Beccafumi, his con-
temporary, and was the last Sienese painter of
distinction. Owing to his wide knowledge of
the principles and his skill in the practice
of architecture he became one of the greatest
decorators of his time, for his architectural
training enabled him to design his decorative
figure compositions in correct proportion, and
with due relation and harmony of parts to the
whole design and to the architectural setting,
all of which are essential factors in the production
of good decoration.

About 1501, when Peruzzi was a young man
of about twenty years of age, he was employed
in the decoration of the Chapel of S. Giovanni
in the Duomo of Siena, where he afterwards met
and came under the influence of Pinturicchio,
who had come to work in Siena in 1502. The
latter employed Peruzzi as his assistant, and
there are still some of the frescoes in the Chapel

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 171

of S. Giovanni, namely, " The Youthful Baptist
in the Desert " and " The Preaching in the
Desert," which are ascribed to Peruzzi, but
which he painted at this time from the designs
of Pinturicchio,

After spending his early years in Siena Peruzzi
went to Rome, as Vasari states, in company with
an artist named Piero of Volterra, about the
year 1504, and here he stored his imagination
with ideas derived from the classical remains of
Roman and Grecian sculpture and architecture.
To an architect and artist like Peruzzi it is not
surprising that the antique and all that was
classical in art should strongly appeal. When
living at Rome, in the year 1508, or earlier,
Peruzzi designed the fine mosaics which adorn
the vaulting of the Helena Chapel in Santa
Croce in Gerusalemme, which represent Christ,
the Four Evangelists, St. Helena, St. Sylvester
and the Apostles. About the same time he
painted the ceiling frescoes, now much damaged,
of the Stanza d'Eliodoro, where he represented
scenes from the Old Testament. On the walls
of this apartment are the celebrated frescoes by
Raffaelle. This great painter showed his judg-
ment and kindness to Peruzzi by allowing the
works of the latter to remain in company with
his own great creations.

About 1509-10 he was commissioned by Agos-
tino Chigi, a banker of Siena, and a patron of
Raffaelle, who then lived at Rome, to design
the plans and to erect a palace or villa on the
banks of the Tiber, which is now known as the

172 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Farnesina Palace. This is a graceful and finely
proportioned building in the Renaissance style,
and a monument to the architectural skill of
Peruzzi. The interior is adorned with the series of
beautiful paintings by Raffaelle, in which he was
assisted by Giulio Romano, illustrating " The
Story of Cupid and Psyche," and here also is his
famous picture of " The Triumph of Galatea."
The ceiling of the room containing the " Galatea "
was decorated in a masterly way by Peruzzi
about 1511, with some well-designed and well-
executed frescoes, in the painting of which he
reveals his Sienese education and also the
influence from Florentine sources. His own
originality and neo-classic taste are, however,
shown in the composition and design of these
works, as well as in the selection of the subjects,
which represent imaginary and mythological
figures and scenes, as " Venus and Saturn,"
"Ganymede," "Leda," "Pallas," "Hercules,"
" Jove," " Europa," etc. The subjects are painted
on gold, blue and green grounds. In the hall of
the upper floor he decorated the ceiling friezes
and door-heads with bold and classical designs
painted in colour and in monochrome. Also, a
room on the ground floor contains a series of
powerfully rendered mythological compositions
designed and painted by Peruzzi in harmony
with the architecture of the building.

Peruzzi was largely employed in designing and
painting many works in Rome of an architectural
and decorative kind, one of the more important
of which was the decoration of the Ponzetti

Alinari

MADOXNA AKD THILD. WITH SS. BRIDGET AND fATHERINE.
CIIUECH OF S. MAKIA DELLA TACE, KOJIF. : EALIIASSARE I'ERVZZI

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 173

Chapel in S. Maria della Pace, where his works
are of the highest order, and show, more than
anything else he has done, his ambition to rival
Raffaelle and Michelangelo. The altar-piece here,
of " The Madonna with Saints and Donor," is a
painting in fresco. The central group might
have been designed, if not painted, by Raffaelle,
as the pose of the standing figure of the Infant
on the Virgin's knee, and the beautiful head of
the Madonna, as well as the general pose of the
figure, have all the characteristics of Raffaelle's
design. The figures of St. Bridget and the donor,
Ponzetti, on the left, are more Sienese in type,
but the dignified figure of St. Catherine, on the
right, restful in pose, and with all the stateliness
of a Greek statue, presents a fine example of
the classic ideal which Peruzzi always sought
after. The semi-dome of this chapel is decorated
by him in three courses with subjects from the
Old and New Testaments, where the whole com-
position has a sculpturesque and architectonic
harmony of line and spacing, which invests it
with a dignified grandeur. On the right of the
high altar he painted " The Presentation in the
Temple," a work which is, or rather was, a most
important example of his style, but has been
damaged and repainted very much.

Peruzzi did not excel as a colourist; his aim
and energies were directed to the beauty and
balance of his design and composition rather
than to the harmony of colour. There is a
well-drawn half-length nude figure by him under
the title of " Venus," No. 92, in the Borghese

174 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Gallery, Rome, the flesh tints of which are well
modelled, but in this example he has been very-
reticent in the use of decided shadow. The
famous group of antique statuary known as
" The Three Graces," now preserved in the
Piccolomini Library, Siena, were copied, and
reproduced as a fresco painting in the Chigi
Palace, Rome, by Peruzzi, and among other
works of his at Rome are the restored frescoes
of the tribune of Sant' Onofrio, which represent
" The Assumption of the Virgin," and others in
the Capitol, Sala IV, representing " Judith," and
"A Roman Triumph." A fresco of "A Sibyl
announcing to Augustus the Nativity of Christ "
adorns the first altar on the left; in the church
at Fontegiusta, Siena, is a late work of this
master, but it has been much restored.

It has been previously stated that Bernardino
Betti, known as Pinturicchio, and Giovanni
Antonio Bazzi, called Sodoma, were extensively
employed at Siena during the early part of the
sixteenth century, and that they helped more
than any others to bring about the great change
which took place about this time in Sienese
painting. We have now to notice some of the
more important works and results due to the
influence of these two painters at Siena.

It will first be necessary to bear in mind that
before the coming of Sodoma and Pinturicchio
to Siena, the great Umbro-Florentine, Luca
Signorelli, had appeared in that city and district
as their forerunner. Signorelli left his native
city of Cortona in 1497 to paint a series of frescoes

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 175

in the Convent of Mont Oliveto di Chiusuri,
between Siena and Rome. These works, now
much damaged, and some conlpletely destroyed,
consisted of eight scenes from the Ufe of St.
Benedict. Ahout the same time he painted an
altar-piece for a chapel in the Church of S.
Agostino, and about 1509 he decorated a room
in the Petrucci Palace, where he covered the
walls with paintings of classical subjects for his
Sienese patron, Pandolfo Petrucci. One of these
frescoes, ascribed to him, has been transferred
to canvas and is now in the National Gallery
(No. 910). It has the title, "The Punishment
and Triumph of Cupid." It is a very fine com-
position, full of vigour and movement, but is
much injured by time and repainting of parts.
There cannot be much doubt that Signorelli
had a strong influence on Sienese painting, and
that during his prolonged stay in Siena he must
have executed many works that are now lost.

Pinturicchio's chief works at Siena are the
decorations of the library of the cathedral,
which he executed for Cardinal Francesco Picco-
lomini, uncle of Pope Pius II. This work was
begun about 1503 and finished, after some inter-
ruptions, in 1508. The frescoes of this library,
which are ten in number, represent episodes, or
stories, of the life of ^Eneas Sylvius Piccolomini,
nephew of the Cardinal, who was raised to the
Pontificate under the title of Pius II. The first
and best of the ten frescoes represent " The De-
parture of ^neas Sylvius for the Council at
Basle." A crowd of figures are seen, some on

176 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

horseback and some on foot, against the sea
and landscape background. On the left are
ships at sea, and on the right groups of castel-
lated buildings; a rainbow is against a cloudy
sky and some land in the extreme distance.
The frescoes that come next are : ^neas re-
ceived by James I of Scotland as Envoy of the
Council of Basle; ^neas crowned as Laureate
by Frederic III; Ambassador of the Emperor
before the Throne of the Pontiff, Eugenius IV;
He escorts and presents to the Emperor his
Bride, Infanta of Portugal, before the Gates of
Siena ; Receives the Cardinal's Hat from Calixtus
III in the Vatican; Carried in the Procession
after his Elevation to the Papal Chair as Pius
II ; Presides at Mantua in the Assembly at the
Proclamation of a Crusade; Canonizes St.
Catherine of Siena; He gives the Signal of De-
parture to the Crusaders from Ancona. These
frescoes, which have been executed on the wet
plaster and here and there finished in secco, or
tempera, according to contract, are fairly well
preserved; in some of them there is still a
brilliancy and freshness of tints. The com-
positions, as a rule, are too crowded and too
pictorial in effect, and as decorations they suffer
in consequence ; but, on the other hand, the
figures are not overmodelled in the execution,
nor are there any pronounced effects of Hght and
shade aimed at, so that their broad treatment
in painting partially redeems the crowding and
over-pictorial style of the figure composition.
Gilt gesso, or stucco, is employed in various

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 177

parts of the pictures and of their framework,
notably in the fresco of " The Betrothal of the
Emperor to his Bride." Similar raised ornamen-
tation has been effectively employed by Pinturic-
chio in the frescoes of the Borgia apartments
in the Vatican. The vaulted ceiling of the
library was finished first during the year 1503.
It is panelled out in an elegant framework of
gilded relief, enclosing panels on which there
are subjects from mythological history painted
in colour and in monochrome. Other panels
have the heraldic arms of the Piccolomini family,
cardinal's hat, etc., emblazoned on shields. This
library presents one of the finest decorated
interiors in Italy, as the decoration is designed
in harmony with the architecture. The frescoes
are each enclosed in an arched opening sup-
ported by clusters of richly arabesqued pilasters,
resting on a plinth, and having capitals of gilt
stucco. Between each wall picture, and resting
on the plinth, boy-angels are supporting escut-
cheons. Above the door of the library, in the
cathedral, is another fresco by Pinturicchio,
representing " The Coronation of Pius III."

No doubt all of the ornamental work and the
greater part of the painting in these library
frescoes were executed by assistants and pupils,
with the exception of the heads and other details
of the flesh painting, but one can scarcely be-
lieve that Pinturicchio was not responsible for
the designs of the works, for if he had not been
capable of furnishing the designs, he would
hardly have been employed by his patron to

VOL. il. N

178 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

decorate the library. Many writers, however,
have suggested that Raffaelle not only helped
Pinturicchio in the painting of these frescoes,
but that he also was the author of some of the
designs. There is no positive evidence that
Sanzio was in Siena at the time when the library
was decorated, and these statements are echoes
more or less of Vasari's assertions in relation
to this question. In his life of Pinturicchio
Vasari informs us that " the sketches and cartoons
for all the stories which he (Pinturicchio) executed
in that place were by the hand of Raffaello da
Urbino," and in the same biographer's hfe of
the latter painter he reduces the "all" to
" some " of the sketches and cartoons. We
would, however, be more inclined to accept the
first or the second assertion if Vasari had not
shown so much prejudice and dislike to this
admirable master and his work.

In the year 1508 Pinturicchio visited Rome,
but returned to Siena in 1509, accompanied by
Signorelli, who stood godfather to his son, born
in that year. Shortly after he arrived in Siena
he was engaged, like Signorelh also, by Pandolfo
Petrucci to paint some frescoes in his palace.
Some remains of these frescoes still exist in the
Palazzo Petrucci, and one fragment of these
works by Pinturicchio, consisting of a fresco
transferred to canvas, is now in the National
Gallery, No. 911. The subject is " The Return
of Ulysses to Penelope." The latter is seated
on the right at her loom, dressed in a robe of
blue and gold, and below her a girl sits winding

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 179

thread. In the foreground Ulysses advances
with outstretched arm towards Penelope; he
is dressed in a green tunic and red and blue
hose, leading a group of others who are coming
through a doorway on the right. Through the
large window behind is the sea and landscape
with scenes from the Odyssey, and the ships of
Ulysses. Vasari speaks of a picture of " The
Birth of the Virgin," which was painted by
Pinturicchio for the Church of San Francesco
in Siena about the year 1513. This was likely
to have been his last work, as he died in that
year at the age of fifty-nine, but this work
perished in the fire of that church in 1665.
Mention will be made later on concerning the
labours of this master at Rome and other places ;
in addition to his work at Siena we have now to
notice the work and life of Sodoma, another
foreign painter, who assisted more than any other
in the transformation of Sienese painting during
the earlier half of the sixteenth century.

Giovanni Antonio Bazza, called Sodoma
(1477-1549), was also known under the name
of d'Jacobi Tisioni, as he was in some way re-
lated to the house of Tisoni of Vercelli in Pied-
mont, though his father, who was a shoemaker,
was named Bazzi. Sodoma was born at Ver-
celli, and was a pupil of a Piedmontese painter,
named Spanzotti, but in his early life he came
under the strong influence of Leonardo da Vinci
in Milan. He came to Siena in the year 1501,
invited and patronized by the Spannochi family
of that city. Sodoma brought the Leonardesque

180 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

style and manner of painting to Siena, and
became a successful innovator and leader among
the Sienese. It may be said that there was
scarcely any of his contemporaries in Siena that
failed to come under his influence ; Pacchia and
Pacchiarotto, Beccafumi and Peruzzi, in some
degree, were of his following.

From 1501 until about 1508 Sodoma worked
in Siena, where he painted numerous pictures
on panel and in fresco, many of which are still
to be seen in that city. He was unsurpassed
by the Sienese painters of his time in his draughts-
manship of the human figure, and especially in
his drawing and painting of the female form,
to which he often imparted much beauty and
charm. He was also unequalled in his great
technical skill as a fresco painter. His beautiful
nude figure of Eve, in the fresco of " Christ in
Hades," now in the Gallery of Siena, affords a
convincing proof of his powers in this direction ;
but while he produced individual figures here and
there, and some groups, that rivalled the best
creations of the Florentines, he was very un-
equal in the design and general composition of
most of his works. His compositions as a rule
are too disorderly, too crowded and unrestrained,
for if he did often put all his power and technical
skill into some units of his composition, he
treated others in a sUght and superficial manner
of design and workmanship.

One of Sodoma's best works is his well-known
fresco in the Chapel of St. Catherine, in S.
Domenico, Siena, where he has painted a finely

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 181

composed group of three women, representing
the " Fainting, or Ecstasy of St. Catherine," at
the moment when she receives the Stigmata.
In this work the artist gives us a fine example
of his technical skill and power. The natural
pose and attitudes of the three well-drawn
figures of this group, where the swooning saint
is supported by the two women, are admirable
and true, and the skilful design of the draperies
contributes greatly to the vivid portrayal of this
incident in the life of St. Catherine.

Among other typical works by Sodoma may
be mentioned his picture of " The Descent from
the Cross," No. 413, in the Gallery of Siena,
" The Scourging of Christ," which is the re-
mains of a fresco brought from the Church of
S. Francesco, now No. 352, in the same gallery,
also his beautiful altar-piece of "The Madonna
and Child " in the Chapel of the Palazzo Pubblico,
Siena, "St. George and the Dragon " in the Cook
Collection, " The Nativity of the Virgin " in the
Church of S. Maria del Carmine, Siena, and his
celebrated picture of " S. Sebastian," No. 1279,
in the Ufiizi Gallery, which is painted on the front
side of a banner. All these works which show
Sodoma at his best, are fine illustrations of his
virile style and masterly technique, and are all
strongly marked with the Florentine and Roman
characteristics which impregnated his greatest
achievements.

Two small works by Sodoma are in the National
Gallery, " The Madonna and Child with Saints,"
No. 1144, and a loosely painted fragment of a

182 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

large picture representing the head of the
Saviour. The former in the colouring of the
draperies presents a strong contrast of rose reds
and green blues, with the very cold tones of
the flesh.

CHAPTER XI

THE UMBEIAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING : THIRTEENTH,
FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES

The early Umbrian school had its inception
in the school of miniature painting, and was
developed under the incentive of Sienese paint-
ing. Oderisio, a native of Gubbio, who died
about 1299, and Franco Bolognese, were painters
of miniatures, and were known to Dante, who
mentions them when speaking of the gay and
brilliant paintings of the Umbrians. He has
honoured these artists and their works in his
poem of the Purgatorio, Canto XI, but little, if
anything, is now known of their productions.
After the time of Oderisio, and for the next fifty
years, Umbrian art followed closely on the Unes
of the Sienese. Judging from the remains of the
works ascribed to its early exponents, the types
and character of the figures in Umbrian painting
lacked vigour and movement, though they
thereby gained in an augmentation of mediaeval
wistfulness and serenity. In the matter of colour
Umbrian works became still more gay, clearer or
more transparent and lighter in purity oFtint than
those of the Sienese school, and with an even
greater richness of ornamentation. The same
methods, style, colour and general flat treatment

183

184 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

were common alike to miniatures, panel pictures
and fresco paintings, so that it has been said
the early Umbrian frescoes were only enlarged
miniature paintings.

It was due to the work and efforts of Gentile
da Fabriano (1360 ?-1427), the greatest Umbrian
painter of his time, who became impressed with
the vigour and virility of Florentine art, that
we see the creation and beginnings of a new
force that cleared the way along a route which
afterwards led through Perugia, and helped to
bring about the culmination of the Renaissance
in the noble achievements of Raffaelle.

After Gentile's time, however, there was no
immediate, or even gradual, development in
Umbrian painting, for we find that another
period of stagnation had set in; the promise of
Gentile was not to be at once fulfilled, for the
native painters of that time, such as Ottaviano
Nelli, Giovanni Boccatis, Giovanni Francesco da
Rimini and their followers were not able to make
any marked advance on the work of their
predecessors.

About the middle of the fifteenth century
Umbrian painting was beginning to feel the
strong influences of the Florentine school, which
were brought to it through the agency of certain
artists of the latter school, and also by other
native painters who had learned much from
their contact with the great Florentines. In
the year 1449 Benozzo Gozzoli, after he had
left his old master, Fra Angehco, at Orvieto,
where he had been assisting him in the decora-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 185

tion of the Duomo in that city, found his
way to Umbria and settled in that year at
Montefalco, near Foligno, In these places and
neighbouring districts he executed some of
his best works. He remained in Umbria until
the year 1456, when he painted a picture for
a church in Perugia — " The Madonna and
Saints " — ^which is now in the Academy of that
city. Benozzo thus, during his stay in Umbria,
carried the influence of his master, and also
his own, among the Umbrian painters, which
led them to a closer study of Florentine art.
Era Angelico also had previously painted, in
1433, an altar-piece of great beauty for the
Church of S. Domenico at Perugia. Piero della
Francesca and Luca Signorelli, as well, con-
tributed the weight of their Florentine influence
to the Umbrian school at Perugia. Niccol6 da
Foligno and Bonfigli were pupils of Benozzo
Gozzoh, and Matteo de Gualdo and Giovanni
Boccatis, who may be mentioned as followers
of Benozzo, were all Umbrian painters who
worked in the latter half of the fifteenth century,
and who, while they were susceptible to strong
Florentine influences, still maintained the main
features of the Umbrian methods and its mellowed
golden colouring that finally reached its highest
expression in the art of Perugino. We may now
consider the development of the Umbrian school
as illustrated and carried forward by some of
the more important artists of this central province
of Italy.

Gentile da Fabeiano (1360 ?-1 428) was the

186 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

first artist of outstanding importance of the early
Umbrian school. He was born at Fabriano, and
was a pupil of Allegretto Nuzi, an older painter
of that city. He may have executed many com-
missions at Fabriano, but as his fame extended
beyond Umbria, his works were eagerly sought
after in other cities of Italy, and consequently
they have all disappeared from Fabriano with
the exception of one example, " St. Francis re-
ceiving the Stigmata," which is now in the Casa
Fornari Collection in that city.

Gentile's style, though founded on the Sienese,
has many points of resemblance to Flemish
painting of the fifteenth century, such as careful
and minute finish, the use of copious ornament,
bright contrasting colouring, laboured modelUng
of the flesh tints, general flatness of treatment,
and conventional landscape backgrotmds. It
was because of these aspects of Gentile's work
that the Flemish master, Roger van der Weyden,
when he made his journey through Italy, in
1450, was more pleased with the pictures painted
by Gentile than with those of any other of the
Italian masters, for he declared him to be
" the greatest man in Italy." This may have
been said by Van der Weyden, because he found
that Gentile's work was in most complete har-
mony with his own, or with his own notions of
art.

Gentile da Fabriano and Antonio, or Vittore,
Pisano, called Pisanello (1397 ?-1455), were great
friends. The latter was a native of Verona, and
a painter and medallist of a rare talent. These

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 187

two painters, whose work and sympathies had
much in common, worked together in the Lateran
at Rome, and also at Venice, and it is recorded
that Pisano never lost an opportunity of praising
the work of his friend and fellow-artist. It was
considered a mark of the great popularity of
Gentile Fabriano when he was chosen by Pope
Martin V, about 1421, to decorate the ceiling of
S. Giovanni Laterano, as well as to execute
many other works, which, however, are no longer
in existence. The Lateran frescoes have also
disappeared, but there is a fragment of a fresco
representing " The Head of Charlemagne," now
in the Museo Christiano in the Vatican, which
Mr. B. Berenson gives to Gentile Fabriano, and
as a portion of the Lateran frescoes.

In the Uffizi Gallery there is a work by Gentile
representing four saints, namely, the Mag-
dalen, which is a beautiful figure ; St. Nicholas,
dressed in a bishop's cope, on which is painted
a series of wonderful miniature scenes from the
Passion; another panel has St. John the
Baptist, and the fourth a fine figure of St.
George. The four panels have gabled tops in
which are medallions containing four busts of
canonized friars between angels. These panels
form the greater part of what is known as the
Quaratesi altar-piece, so called from the family
name of the donor, the central panel of which
has the subject of " The Madonna," and is now
in the Buckingham Palace Collection. The altar-
piece was painted by Gentile in 1425 for the
Church of S. Niccol6 di la d'Arno, and is

188 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

mentioned by Vasari as the best of all things he
had seen by Gentile.

Among other works by this master is the
early polyptych, No. 497, in the Brera, Milan,
and a fresco, now badly damaged, of " The
Madonna," painted on the left wall of the
Cathedral of Orvieto about 1425. Perhaps one
of the finest, if not the best work by Gentile,
is the beautifully conceived rendering of " The
Adoration of the Magi," No. 165, in the Academy
of Florence. This work, which is signed and
dated 1423, was for a long time in the sacristy
of St. Trinity at Florence, where he had executed
this work for the altar of the church. In this
picture Gentile has shown much of the Florentine
influence grafted on his own Umbrian methods
and feeling. The figures are extremely graceful
in pose ; the colouring is of a gay and harmonious
scheme, and the work is enriched by a free use
of raised and gilded ornamentation. In addition
to the sacred personages the compositions are
enriched by the introduction of followers, hunts-
men, dogs and other animals.

Gentile and Pisano worked together in Venice
on some frescoes in the Ducal Palace previous to
the year 1422, and at Venice the works of Gentile
were greatly admired by the painters of the
city. Consequently his influence was consider-
able in early Venetian painting, as he had many
followers there, and a few pupils, among whom
was his talented apprentice Jacopo Bellini, the
father of Gentile and Giovanni Bellini, the
founders of the Venetian school of painting.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 189

Jacopo came with his master Gentile to Florence,
and when his eldest son was born, he was named
Gentile after the Umbrian master. From all
these circumstances it is interesting to see how
much really Venetian painting owed to the in-
fluence of Umbria through Gentile da Fabriano.
Otta VIANG Nelli (activc from 1403-1444) was
a native of Gubbio, but belonged to the school
of Fabriano and was a pupil or follower of Alle-
gretto Nuzi. He was an artist of some standing
in Gubbio, but was greatly eclipsed by his con-
temporary Gentile da Fabriano. His father was
an artist named Mattiolo Nelli, and his grand-
father was a sculptor who worked in the first
half of the fourteenth century. There was some
Sienese influence in his work, seen in the graceful
and languid forms of his female figures, sym-
metrical arrangement of composition, even dis-
tribution of variegated colouring, flatness of
treatment, and profusion of ornamental detail;
but in the case of Nelli's work all these char-
acteristics were insisted upon to such a degree
that his paintings look like ornamental patterns,
where, generally speaking, his figures, designed
to many different degrees of scale, are arranged
in an almost perfect and dry kind of symmetry.
His wall paintings, therefore, resemble enlarged
ornamental book decorations, where he has sub-
ordinated the human figure in varying scales to
ornamental units, in order to make a gay and
pleasant pattern. His compositions are, there-
fore, not in any sense pictorial, and suffer from his
insistence on the bi-lateral and almost geometrical

190 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

type of symmetry, which is only partially re-
deemed by the variegation of their colouring.
Laborious execution, and the elaboration of orna-
mental detail of embroideries and other parts in
the wall paintings by Nelli, could not be adopted
in the true method of fresco, so, like many of his
contemporaries, he was obliged to resort to the
use of tempera on the dry plaster.

The foregoing methods and style of Otta-
viano are exemplified in his most important
existing work, the wall painting of " The Virgin
and Child surrounded by Saints and Angels,"
known as " The Madonna del Belvedere." This
painting is executed on the right wall of the
Church of S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio. There
are other examples of his work at Gubbio —
namely, the wall painting of " The Madonna,"
above the second altar to the right in the Church
of S. Agostino; "The Last Judgment," on the
great arch between the nave and chancel, and
the paintings representing scenes from the life
of St. Augustine in the choir of the same church.
At Foligno, in the Chapel of the Palazzo del
Governo, which was formerly the palace of the
Trinci family, Ottaviano, in 1424, painted the
walls with scenes from the history of the
Virgin, St. Joachim and St. Anna." All these
works are now much damaged. They show
the influence which Taddeo di Bartoli some-
times had on the work of Ottaviano, both
as regards the figure composition and in the
adoption of architectural backgrounds of an
arcaded design.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 191

Niccol6 da Foligno, known also as Niccol6
d'Alunno (about 1430-1502). This Umbrian
painter was born at Foligno. He was a con-
temporary of Piero A. Mezzastris of Foligno,
and both were fellow-pupils of Benozzo Goz-
zoli, but Niccolo was, in his later life, at-
tracted by the works of Crivelli, the Venetian
painter. Though not an artist of highly gifted
talent, Alunno was in many respects an interest-
ing painter. Many of his works consist of
paintings of the Madonna, to whose features he
generally gave an expression of purity and
tender melancholy, combined with maternal
affection. In these respects his beautiful repre-
sentations of the Virgin, his prevailing theme,
were the prototypes of that happy combination
of beauty with dreamy reverie which is so finely
rendered in the paintings of the Madonna by
Perugino and Raffaelle.

The earliest signed work by Niccolo is an
altar-piece at Deruta, " The Madonna dei Con-
soli," painted in 1457-58, for the Church of S.
Francesco, but the principal remaining portion
of this work is now in the Pinacoteca of Deruta,
where there is also a processional standard, which
he painted on both sides, for the Brotherhood of
S. Antonio Abate. The standard is painted on
a gold ground, and both it and the altar-piece
are considerably damaged.

Among his works in his native city of Foligno
are the frescoes in the Church of S. Maria in
Campis, where in the chapel on the left there
is a painting of " The Crucifixion," the date of

192 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

which is given as 1456, and in the old Church
of S, Maria infra Portis, the much-faded frescoes
of " Christ bearing the Cross," " S. Roch and
Angels," and, in the bell tower, the subjects of
" The Annunciation," " Crucifixion," and other
early frescoes. In the chapel to the right of the
high altar in S. Niccol6 at Foligno is a polyp-
tych by this painter with the subject of " The
Coronation of the Virgin " (1492), which is one
of his latest works. Another chapel on the right
contains a large altar-piece of " The Nativity "
with twelve saints at the sides, and a finely
conceived subject of " The Resurrection " above,
which is also ascribed to this painter. The
predella of this ancona is now in the Louvre,
No. 1120, and consists of six panels with subjects
of the Passion.

The Brera Gallery at Milan contains a polyp-
tych by Niccolo, No. 504, and painted in 1465.
The subject is " The Virgin and Child with
Saints and Angels." It is damaged and has
been repainted in parts, but is not on the whole
a successful work. Another altar-piece of this
type is the much -panelled, pilastered, and double-
predelled ancona of Montelpare, which Niccold
painted in the following year (1466), and is now
in the Vatican Gallery. A picture by this
master, known as " The Madonna del Soccorso,"
where the Madonna is rescuing a child from a
demon, is preserved in the Colonna Gallery at
Rome. At San Severino in the Marches there is
another of the large ancone, numerous examples
of which were painted by Niccol6, and which

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 193

consist of a series of panels united by an elaborate
architectural framing. This polyptych is painted
with usual subjects, and was finished in the year
1468 for the Chiesa del Castello. It has now
found a resting-place in the town hall of San
Severino.

This painter is represented in the National
Gallery by a triptych, No. 1107, where the
central panel is occupied by the subject of " The
Crucifixion," and on the four panels of the wings
are other subjects of the Passion. It is
inscribed with the painter's name and dated
1487.

According to Vasari, Niccol6 da Foligno exe-
cuted many works in fresco, tempera painting
on panels, and banner paintings at Assisi, but
few, if any, of these works are now in existence,
although there are some which Vasari ascribed
to Niccolo, but these are the works of his son
Lattanzio. The latter helped his father in many
of his works, and finished those which his father,
at his death, had left uncompleted. A well-
composed work which has been designed by
Niccolo is the triptych in the Duomo of Assisi.
It has an extremely elaborate pinnacled framing
and the painted subjects of " The Virgin and
Child with four Saints."

Benedetto Bonfigli (1425-1496). Though
an Umbrian, born at Perugia, and supposed
pupil or follower of Boccatis (1435-1480), this
painter owed more in the formation of his style
to the Florentines, for he was greatly influenced
by Era Angelico, Benozzo Gozzoli, Era Eilippo

VOL. II. o

194 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and also by Piero della Francesca, from whom
he learned to improve his knowledge of perspec-
tive, and further, it may be said that some of
Bonfigli's works are reminiscent of the com-
positions of Domenico Veneziano, the Florentine
master of Piero della Francesca. Domenico was
at Perugia in 1438 when Bonfigli was a young
man, and it is possible that the yoimger painter
was employed as Veneziano's assistant in com-
pany with Piero. This has been suggested by
Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the conjecture may
be quite accurate.^ It is little wonder that the
receptive mind of this capable painter assimi-
lated the Florentine methods and ideals to such
an extent that he became the first of the Peru-
gians to lay aside most of the early Umbrian
methods that had prevailed up to his time.

The transformation of the early local art was
begun by Bonfigli, and largely contributed to
by his contemporary Niccolo da Foligno and
by his own pupil Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, and
carried on further by Perugino. It must be
conceded, however, that notwithstanding the
innovations of the foreign schools which led to
improvement in drawing and contributed more
realism, movement and a broader treatment,
Umbrian painting still kept in possession many
of its traditional characteristics, before it was
finally merged into the Florentine and Venetian
schools of the sixteenth century, such as its
elegance and grace, finish and perfection of

1 Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy,
vol. ii, pp. 175-76: Dent.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 195

detail, and the dusky gold of its mellowed
colouring.

Bonfigli was commissioned in the year 1454
to paint a series of frescoes illustrating the
legends of S. Louis of Toulouse and S. Ercolano
in the hall and chapel of the Palazzo Comtmale,
now Sala II of the Pinacoteca Vanucci, Perugia.
These frescoes occupied Bonfigli intermittently
for a period of more than forty years, practi-
cally nearly all of his professional life, and they
were left incomplete at his death in 1496.
It is natural that they should show, as they
do, the result of the various influences of the
foreign schools owing to the long periods of time
spent in their execution. Generally speaking,
they combine the characteristics of the Umbrian
and Florentine schools as well as those in a
lesser degree of other foreign schools, which
testify to the diversity and extent of Bonfigli's
studies.

The painting of church banners was an art
industry of the Umbrians as well as the Sienese,
some examples of which may be seen in the
Pinacoteca of Perugia that were painted by
Bonfigli and by his contemporary and assistant,
Bartolommeo Caporali. The church banner or
standard, gonf alone, of S. Bernardino, now in
the Pinacoteca, Sala IX, is a finely designed
work ascribed to Bonfigli. Christ is here repre-
sented seated, holding a banner, and surrounded
by angels. The Saviour is in the act of blessing
the saint, who stands a little to the left, and
below and in front of a church is a procession

196 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of figures. The background is gold. There are
also other standards by Bonfigli, which are
commemorative banners, in the churches of S.
Maria Nuova, and a very fine one in S. Fiorenzo
at Perugia, also another of the same kind of
banner in the Church at Corciano, near Perugia,
which has the subject of " The Madonna of
Mercy."

Bonfigli was the founder of the school of
Perugia, if we are to consider any single artist
as its founder, for the efforts of Fiorenzo Lorenzo
considerably helped in its establishment. There
are a few works by Bonfigli in some of the
European galleries, but the greater number are
at Perugia, and it is therefore in this city
that he can be studied to advantage. In the
National Gallery there is a small work by him,
No. 1843, an " Adoration of the Magi," where
the three kings make offerings of gold vessels,
and the crucified Saviour is represented on the
right and St. Joseph on the left.

Bartolommeo Caporali, who lived in the time
of Bonfigli and assisted the latter in various
works, was a craftsman, rather than an original
artist, and sometimes he copied other artists'
works. He was employed by the city authorities
of Perugia to paint banners in 1472, and in 1487
he was commissioned to paint an altar-piece for
the Church of S. Maria Maddalena at Castiglione
del Lago. In the Uffizi Gallery there is a picture
of " The Madonna and Child with four Angels,"
No. 1544, ascribed to him, which has an agree-
able form of decorative design ; and a fresco at

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 197

Perugia having an arched top, with the subject
of " Christ and the Virgin in Glory." The two
central figures are flanked by four angels arranged
on either side in a very decided symmetry, so
that one-half of the picture might be a reversed
tracing of the other. This fresco is preserved
in the Pinacoteca of Perugia, and is No. 8 in
Sala VIII.

FioRENZo Di Lorenzo (1440-1521). This
Umbrian painter was a pupil of Benedetto
Bonfigli, and, perhaps, of Piero Antonio Mez-
zastris (1456-1506) of Foligno. He came early
imder the influence of Benozzo Gozzoli, and after-
wards. Also, it is generally thought that he must
have visited Florence, as he was strongly in-
fluenced by the works of Piero della Francesca,
Signorelli, Verrocchio and Antonio Pollaiuolo.
In the attitudes of his saints and angels, in their
devout mien, and in the cast of their draperies,
with their long radiating and branching lines and
folds, we see a great similarity to the work of
Perugino, which would afford a reasonable proof
that Lorenzo was the first master of that great
Umbrian painter. The works of Lorenzo abound
in so many Peruginesque features that if it were
not the case that Perugino was the younger of
the two we should be inclined to say that Lorenzo
was a pupil of the former. At the same time it
is still a debatable question as to who was the
master, or pupil, in the case of these two painters,
for the difference in age between them was only
about six years, and it is quite possible that
Lorenzo, the elder of the two, was in some

198 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

measure indebted to his younger contemporary.
For example, the types of the beautiful angels,
with their decided and almost mannered Perugin-
esque draperies, their wistful mien and de-
votional attitudes, are found alike in the works
of Fiorenzo, Perugino, Lo Spagna, and in Raffa-
elle's early work, and so alike, that they might
all have been designed if not painted by the one
hand; but as Perugino perfected this type to a
higher degree than any of his predecessors, con-
temporaries or followers, we may come to the
conclusion that Lorenzo, the reputed master of
Peinigino, came under the spell and influence of
his own pupil. The reredos with the subject of
" The Virgin, two Angels and Saints," by Fiorenzo
in the Sala XII of the Gallery at Perugia, is
thoroughly Peruginesque in design and feeUng,
and other later works by him present similar
features to those found in the works of Perugino.
The earliest known work by Fiorenzo di Lorenzo
is a predella with the subject of " The Madonna,
Saints and Worshippers," and is now in the
Gallery of Perugia, Sala XII, No. 21. There are
altogether twenty-one works by him in this
gallery mentioned in Mr. Berenson's list. Lorenzo
was commissioned in 1472 to paint a double
altar-piece for the Church of S. Maria Nuova at
Perugia, with the subject of " The Assumption,
numerous Saints and Apostles," five panels of
which are now in the Gallery of Perugia. A
series of four panels in the same gallery, illustrat-
ing the performance of certain miracles, were
painted by him in 1473, the figures in which

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 199

are very graceful in form and pose, and the
landscape backgrounds with decorative arcades
and buildings are good examples of idealized
scenery. These interesting works are strongly
Umbrian in character and feeling, yet show
many features of the Florentine spirit and
manner in their composition, which Fiorenzo
acquired by his contact with the masters of that
school.

He painted the fresco with the subject of
" The Eternal Father and SS. Romanus and
Roch " in 1476-78 in the Church of S. Francesco
at Deruta, and an earlier one (1475), " The
Madonna of Mercy " in S. Antonio in the same
town. In the Municipio at Assisi there is another
fresco of the Madonna from his hand. The
gallery at Berlin contains a picture by Fiorenzo
of "The Virgin and Child" with a gold background,
and which is not without Florentine influences ;
it bears the date 1481. A picture of " The
Birth of John the Baptist " in the Liverpool
Gallery, No. 22, is a work by this master, and
in the National Gallery there is a small picture
with the subject of " The Virgin and Child under
a Rose Garland " (No. 2483). Here the figure
of the Virgin is represented about three-quarter
length, and has a rose-coloured robe and mantle
with a hood of olive-green colour. The Infant
stands on the ledge of a parapet and holds a
crystal in His left hand. The wall behind the
figures is enriched with ornament, and above it
is a landscape where across the sky is a garland
of roses. One of the finest works of his later

200 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

years is " The Adoration of the Magi," painted
for the Church of S. Maria Nuova of Perugia.
This work, which is now in the Gallery of Perugia,
is mentioned by Vasari as an early painting by
Perugino.

CHAPTER XII

PIETRO PERUGINO, BERNARDINO PINTURICCHIO
AND LO SPAGNA

Perhaps the two greatest and most familiar
names in Umbrian art are Perugino and Pinturic-
chio, for though Raffaelle was an Umbrian he
belonged more to the Florentine school. It is
generally thought that the two first-named
masters had their early training, or at least a
great part of it, in the atelier of Fiorenzo di
Lorenzo. But whether they were his pupils or
his companions their first works were composed
and painted in the manner and style of the
Umbrian painters of Perugia, as represented by
Fiorenzo and Bonfigli. Fellow-students as they
were, Perugino and Pinturicchio were also for a
time partners, and in this capacity they went to
Rome about the year 1481 to paint frescoes in
the Sixtine Chapel.

Pietro Vannucci, or Pier della Pieve, more
commonly known as Perugino (1446-1523),
was born at Citta della Pieve in 1446. His
father, Cristofori Vannucci, was a small farmer
of that district, and sent his young son, when he
was about nine years of age, to Perugia, and
placed him under a master there to learn paint-
ing. In all probability this master was Fiorenzo

201

202 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

di Lorenzo. He most likely helped his master
and other painters there in his early years, and
afterwards acted in the capacity of an assistant
to other painters outside of Perugia. It is known
that in this way he was associated with Piero
della Francesca, from whom he learned many
secrets of his art, among which was a good know-
ledge of perspective and of the chemistry of
pigments and mediums, also, possibly, something
of the new method of painting in oil. These
technical studies were still further pursued when
later he came in contact with Leonardo da Vinci
and Lorenzo di Credi in the workshop of Ver-
rocchio at Florence. The date of Perugino's first
visit to Florence is uncertain, but it may have
been just previous to 1475, or between that year
and 1479. His first independent works were the
frescoes he was commissioned to paint in the
Palazzo Pubblico of Perugia in 1475, which,
however, no longer exist. In 1478 he painted
some frescoes in the Church of Cerqueto, near
Perugia, of which work there still remains a
fresco of St. Sebastian, and some other ruined
fragments. A work of a still earlier time, but
not wholly his own, is " The Assumption," in the
choir of the Duomo of Borgo San Sepolcro, on
which he worked with Piero della Francesca.

The deep devotional sentiment and feehng
which strongly mark the work of Perugino, and
the nature and character of the painter himself,
have often been commented upon. It has been
said of him that he was an atheist, and a mean
and sordid person who worked for the love of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 203

money. If this be true of him, it is quite clear
that his atheism and his worldliness did not
have the least effect in modifying the religi-
ous and devotional aspect of his art, for no
painter has ever produced better types of devo-
tional figures, which are both sweet and impres-
sive in the highest degree. On the other hand,
it might be urged if he had not produced so many
of them in the same poses and attitudes, clothed
in the same cast of drapery, which he seemed
to design by receipt, he would have not laid him-
self under the charge of mannerism ; for with all
the grace, sweetness and beauty of Perugino's
angels, female and often male figures, his grace-
fulness becomes monotonous and of so ordered
a kind that we sometimes feel it would have been
better if he had given a little more contrast and
variety in the attitudes and drapery design of
his devotional figures. We must not, however,
blame Perugino altogether for giving us so much
of his beautiful mannerism, as he was hardly a
free agent in the exercise of his art, for once he
had established himself as a painter of the highly
devotional picture, which became an icon to
the faithful, every one religiously inclined, who
commissioned him for a work from his hand,
demanded that it should be decidedly Perugin-
esque, and would no more accept a picture from
him without the usual types of his figures, than
the modern collector would purchase a picture by
Alma Tadema that did not show in some part the
painted similitude of a piece of costly marble,
Perugino designed his draperies by rule, in

204 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

radiating, branching and flowing lines. He
nearly always carried the upper cloak or garment
across the figure, leaving the under garment to
show in a pleaching of upright and parallel folds,
and in many cases he carried large horizontal
folds across the middle of the body. This system
of disposing the folds of the drapery was admir-
able, for it provided an artistic contrast between
the vertical and horizontal tendencies, and to the
monotonous appearance which upright vertical
folds usually give to a crowd or group of stand-
ing figures. Nothing could be said against this
method of drapery design, which was productive
of much grace, if Perugino had been content to
adopt it in a more limited way, and not used it
so persistently. It was in one sense a great
virtue that by constant repetition had almost
become a vice in this artist's work. Raffaelle
often adopted a similar drapery arrangement in
his earlier works, when he was under the influ-
ence of his master, Perugino, and even in his
later Florentine manner he still adopted the large
horizontal folds that enveloped the waists of his
upright figures and gave them an air of firmness
and strength. Illustration of this Peruginesque
artifice as used by Raffaelle may be noticed in
some figures in the fresco of " The School of
Athens " ; in " The Marriage of the Virgin," in the
Brera Gallery at Milan; in "The Coronation of
the Virgin," Vatican, and in the " St. Catherine "
of the National Gallery, as well as in many other
works of this master.

A parallel may be found to Perugino's system

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 205

of drapery design in the still more mannered
work of Lorenzo Ghiberti, the Florentine sculp-
tor, whose bronze gates of the Baptistery at
Florence (1447) afford numerous examples of
richly festooned but graceful draperies, which
clothe the figures in this highly relieved and
excessively pictorial masterpiece of plastic art.

In the arrangement and distribution of figures
to fill the space or area of a wall or panel Peru-
gino was not so successful as many other great
artists, such as Raffaelle, Signorelli, Ghirlandaio,
or even Pinturicchio at times. He had a good
knowledge of perspective that he had learned from
Piera dell Francesca and Leonardo da Vinci,
which he admirably applied in his landscapes
and buildings, but not so convincingly in his
figure compositions. His upright figures in many
instances do not appear to stand securely on the
ground, a defect mainly arising from his endeavour
to show one of the legs bent at the knee, and so
giving the action of a partial stride — a favourite
attitude of Perugino's figures, which sometimes
gave a graceful appearance to the figure, but more
often an affectation of it, so that a lack of balance
is the result— ^the figures seeming to be poised
on their toes. This appUes in a general way to
Perugino's figures of saints, apostles, and to other
personages of a symbolical or allegorical origin,
which are evidently designed without much refer-
ence to nature. In the case of portrait figures
he was more successful in making them stand
securely on the ground, for such figures would be
studied from nature.

206 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

From the excellence of the various portraits he
has left us, we find that Perugino proved him-
self a master in this branch of painting. The
portrait in the Uffizi Gallery, No. 287, of Fran-
cesco deir Opere, painted in 1494, was formerly
thought to have been the likeness of the painter
himself. This is one of the most powerfully
painted portraits in Italian art, and shows the
lineaments of a man of a very firm character,
both mentally and physically; he wears a black
skull-cap, a red vest over a white shirt, and a
purple coat. The flesh is finely modelled in well-
fused tints that are laid in boldly, and the type
of the face is square and smooth, the neck thick
and framed in dark bushy hair. The hands are
well formed and good in drawing, while the por-
trait is painted against a dreamy and soft land-
scape backgroimd. Another fine portrait in this
gallery is that of Alessandro Braccessi, besides
two portrait studies of a lady and a young
man painted by Perugino. In the Academy at
Florence there are two other portraits by him,
those of Dom Blasio and Dom Balthazar of
Vallombrosa, both painted about 1500.

Perugino's landscape backgrounds give a great
air of spaciousness to his compositions, the effect
of which is largely assisted by the perspective of
his buildings and arcaded constructions, whose
openings reveal the quiet and sunny country
beyond. While he excelled in plein-air effects
and in truthfulness to natiure in his landscape
painting, he still kept to the more decorative and
conventional treatment in his figure painting, so

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 207

that there is often a want of harmony between
the realism of his landscapes and his imaginative
treatment of his more academic figures. The
light and shade treatment of Perugino's, and we
might also say of Lo Spagna's figures, was not
always in accordance with the lighting and atmo-
sphere of the landscape backgrounds. In this
respect the work of Pinturicchio was more truth-
ful. More perfect unity between the figures and
landscape may be seen in the works of Piero della
Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci, Mantegna and the
great masters of the Venetian school.

Perugino was a very industrious and prolific
painter, for although many of his productions
have been lost there are still a great number in
existence. We need only mention here some of
his more important works.

One of his earliest pictures is the Tondo,
No. 1564, in the Louvre Gallery, a tempera paint-
ing on panel, with the subject of " The Virgin and
Child between Angels," having a landscape back-
ground. This work is purely Umbrian in the
careful handling, in the finished painting of its
graceful forms, and in the mellowed softness of
its rich and warm colouring. The Louvre con-
tains eight pictures by Perugino, among which
is the large "St. Sebastian," that has a very fine
landscape background, a work of his early period,
and a small picture of the same subject, and of
his later years, which is a delightful example of
his work. Another work here is his extremely
poetic conception of "Apollo and Marsyas," and
also his picture of " The Combat between Love

208 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and Chastity," which he painted in 1505 for
the Paradiso of Isabella d'Este, in the Ducal
Palace of Mantua. Two pictures by Mantegna,
and two others by Lorenzo Costa, together Avith
Perugino's picture, which were all painted for
the decoration of this Camerino, are now in the
Louvre. Isabella d'Este selected the subject and
sent a description of it to Perugino, but when
she received the picture, after two years of wait-
ing, she did not like it, and wrote to him, saying,
" If the picture had been painted more conscienti-
ously it would do you more honour." This work
is really a fine landscape painting with many
small and stiffly drawn figures spotted about in
the foreground in somewhat theatrical attitudes.
It was evidently a subject that did not appeal
to the painter, and he also laboured under the
difficulty of painting a picture to order, and from
Isabella's written description.

The National Gallery possesses four good ex-
amples of Perugino's work — ^three panel pictures
and a fresco, his last work. The most important
of these is the beautiful triptych. No. 288, which
has in the central panel the Virgin adoring the
infant Christ, and in the sky overhead are three
singing angels. The panel on the left has the
figure of the Archangel Michael, and that on the
right the Angel Raphael and the boy Tobias.
Behind the figures is the spacious sky, and a
sunny landscape where the tender gradations of
colour tones are in perfect accord with the general
figure-colouring, and even in spite of the exces-
sive quantity of ultramarine blue of the Virgin's

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 209

mantle, the great charm of this work is the
lustrous, warm and mellowed effect of its colour-
ing. The flesh and hair tints melt into a golden-
umbery tone. The dress of the angel in the sky,
on the left, is lemon, pale green, with a touch of
pale rose, the other two being dressed in white
robes. Perugino can hardly have produced any-
thing finer in colour, and in this respect it is
unsurpassed outside the best efforts of the great
Venetian colourists. Though not so distinguished
in colouring as the last-mentioned work, the
small picture. No. 181 in this gallery, of " The
Virgin and Child with St. John" is a dainty
and carefully finished example of this master's
work. The so-called oil-painting, No. 1075,
representing " The Virgin and Child with SS.
Jerome and Francis," has the panel space well
filled, but the arrangement here of the three
upright figures below and the two angels holding
the crown over the head of the Virgin show a
dry and formal type of arrangement. Although
this picture is described as an oil-painting, and
although Crowe and Cavalcaselle state that the
triptych. No. 288, is also painted in the same
medium, there is nothing in the quality of the
painting in regard to technical methods of either
of these works that precludes them from being
described as varnished tempera paintings, and,
besides, it has not yet been clearly proved that
Perugino ever did paint in oil colours.

The remaining example of Perugino's work in
the National Gallery is the large tempera or

fresco-secco wall painting, which has been trans-
\oL. n. t

210 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

f erred to canvas. It was painted for the Church
of Fontignano in 1522, and was the last work
undertaken by this master, who left it unfinished
at his death. He died of the plague in 1523.
This work was never painted to the full strength
of its intended depth of colouring, and, besides,
must have faded considerably and suffered
damage in its removal from the wall in 1843; it
still appears beautiful in its bleached and faded
hues.

This master worked for a few years in Florence
in the early part of his career, with a few visits to
Perugia, until about 1481-82, when he went to
Rome to paint frescoes in the Sixtine Chapel.
In the painting of these works he was assisted by
his partner, Pinturicchio, and by Bartolommeo
della Gatta (1448-91), who was probably a
native of Florence, and who began his art career
as a miniature painter, his style and manner being
subsequently formed on the work of Signorelli
and Verrocchio. He was employed by Perugino
on the fresco of " The Delivery of the Keys," and
also by SignorelU on his fresco of " The Last Days
of Moses," both of which are part of the wall
decorations of the Sixtine Chapel. Previous to
his coming to Rome, Della Gatta had worked at
Arezzo, where there are still some interesting
examples of his work in the Pinacoteca of that
city. Two panels by him in this gallery are
devoted to representations of S. Roch : one where
the saint is kneeling and looking upward, and
above is seen the Eternal supported by angels,
who are throwing darts below, and the other

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 211

represents S. Roch standing bareheaded in the
attitude of prayer, looking up to heaven, where
the Virgin appears in the clouds between two
angels, who are dressed in white, the clouds being
bordered by a row of cherubs' heads. Both these
works are carefully painted, though in a dry and
dull scheme of colouring, and were executed in
the year 1429. In the sacristy of the Duomo, at
Arezzo, Delia Gatta painted a fresco of " St.
Jerome in Penitence," and in the lunette over
the entrance, in the Church of S. Bernardo, a
fresco representing " The Vision of St. Bernard."

Perugino not only painted, with the aid of his
assistants, the fresco of "The Delivery of the
Keys to St. Peter," but also three others in the
Sixtine Chapel, namely, " The Assumption," " The
Nativity," and " The Finding of Moses," which
formerly occupied the altar-face of the chapel,
but were removed some years later in order that
Michelangelo might paint in their place his
fresco of " The Last Judgment."

The frescoes of " Moses and Zipporah " and
" The Baptism " were formerly ascribed to Peru-
gino, but are now known to be the joint labours
of Pinturicchio, Delia Gatta and Signorelli. The
three other frescoes on the walls of the Sixtine
Chapel, illustrating the life of Moses, were painted
by BotticeUi in 1482.

The fresco of " The Dehvery of the Keys " is
remarkable for its air of spaciousness, which is
the first thing that attracts the eye. The whole
composition is well balanced and almost sym-
metrical, thus presenting features which are

212 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

almost indispensable to a good wall decoration.
The horizontal line made by the heads of the
large figures in the foreground is agreeably con-
trasted by the vertical lines of the central and
side buildings beyond. Balance and variety are
also obtained by the shapes and size of the
buildings themselves. The central octagonal
temple, with its open porticoes in Renaissance
style of architecture, is a very effective feature in
the design, and is interesting in other connections,
for it has been used in a similar way in Raffaelle's
picture of " The Marriage of the Virgin," and in
the similar picture of "The Sposalizio" at Caen.

A still finer composition than " The Delivery of
the Keys " is Perugino's beautifiil altar-piece, in
the Villa Albani, near Rome, which is signed and
dated 1491 . The Albani altar-piece is in the form of
a triptych, and has the subject of " The Nativity."
The background of the figures consists of arches
and piers, which form a masterly composition of
architectural design, and which does not inter-
fere, but rather helps the plein-air effect. The
figures, some of which are half life size, are ex-
tremely interesting in their variety of scale and
pose, and all of them have a full measure of that
devout and tender grace which Perugino could
express so well. The painting is executed with
extreme care, and the colouring presents a fine
balance of warm and cool tones.

When Perugino left Rome and returned to
Florence, about 1493, he set up a studio in the latter
city, where he painted many of his panel pictures
for patrons in and outside Florence, and also

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 213

executed various frescoes for churches and con-
vents in the city. He painted, about this time,
for the Monastery of the Gesuati, outside the
Porta a Pinta, altar-pieces for the convent church
and frescoes on the cloister walls, but at the siege
of Florence in 1529 by Philip of Orange, the
Florentines levelled the monastery in order to
prevent the enemy from making use of the
building, and all Perugino's frescoes were thus
destroyed, but the panel pictures were saved, one
of which was the beautiful " Pieta," now in the
Academy at Florence, No. 56. Another fine
example of this period (1494) is the picture of
" The Madonna and two Saints," now in the
Chxirch of S. Agostino at Cremona, a work which
is more Florentine than Umbrian in design and
feeling.

In the year 1495 Perugino painted an altar-
piece of great merit, representing " The Entomb-
ment," for the Convent of S. Chiara at Florence,
but is now in the Pitti Palace Collection, No. 164.
This work shows, still further, his leanings to-
wards the principles of Florentine composition.
The beauty of the work was so great that the
convent authorities were offered three times the
price they had paid for it, if they would exchange
it for a replica of itself to be painted by Perugino.
This offer, however, was refused.

Vasari has stated that Verrocchio was the
master of Perugino ; this may be true in the sense
that during the latter's long residence in Florence
he came under the direct influence of the former
master, and in the same way it may be said he

214 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

was indebted to other great Florentines. One
of his firni friends was Lorenzo di Credi, the
favourite pupil of Verrocchio, and we know that,
on the other hand, Lorenzo was very susceptible
to the counter influence of Perugino. At Ver-
rocchio's studio the Umbrian painter also met
Leonardo da Vinci.

Perugino was responsible for certain Umbrian
influences that were shed on Florentine painting
about this time, which may be more particularly
seen in the works of Lorenzo di Credi, such as
greater devotional grace of attitude and mien in
his figures of the Madonna, saints and angels,
greater smoothness of surface, and a more "liney "
cast of draperies — all of which were Umbrian
features in painting, A parallel to this happened
in the previous century, when the Sienese influ-
ence tempered the severity of Florentine art by
its softness and tender grace, an example of which
is found in Orcagna's works, and we know that
the same influence played a great part in the
formation and development of Fra Angelico's
style.

During the period from 1493 till 1496 Perugino
was engaged on the large and important fresco
of "The Crucifixion," which is painted in three
compartments on the walls of the chapter-house
of S. Maria Maddelena de' Pazzi, in the Via
Colonna, Florence. This work, though restored
in places, is still in a fairly good condition. The
design and much of the work, especially the heads,
are by the master's own hand, but much of it has
been done by assistants. The standing figures

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 215

have the devotional pose, and the upcast faces of
SS. John and Benedict the wistful and resigned
expressions which strongly characterize the work
of this master. The fine landscape backgroxuid
gives a great air of spaciousness to the work.
About this period he painted the so-called
" Cenaeolo di Foligno " on the walls of the
refectory of the old convent of S. Onofrio, in the
Via Faenza. This work has been repainted in
places.

About the year 1497 Perugino began the decora-
tion of the " Sala del Cambio," or Hall of Ex-
change, Perugia, where he painted a series of
frescoes on the walls and ceiling — a great work,
which he executed for the corporation or guild
of the money-changers of Perugia, in accordance
with a resolution passed unanimously at a meet-
ing of that body, held in January 1496. The hall
is in the form of a cube, and each wall is divided
into two elliptical-arched spaces, above which is
the groined ceiling. One of the wall spaces is
taken up with the large bench for the notaries,
which is richly carved and adorned with inlaid
woodwork. This large bench, and the auditors'
high-backed benches, are the work of Domenico
del Tasso, a famous Florentine wood-carver.
Domenico had already carved the choir-stalls in
the Cathedral of Perugia. The entrance door,
with its finely ornamented panels, and the seats
fixed round the walls, are the work of Antonio
du Mercatello, an eminent Umbrian carver.

The frescoes have both sacred and profane
subjects, the latter consisting of representations

216 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of pagan divinities, warriors, allegorical and
mythological figures and legends. Pietro was
indebted for these subjects to one of the humanist
doctors, or professors of rhetoric of the time,
who had a more profound classical knowledge
than he, the painter, could lay claim to, and the
same professor was doubtless the author of the
Latin verses and inscriptions which appear on the
various scrolls and labels in some of the frescoes.
The first fresco on the right of the entrance is
"The Prophets and Sibyls." Nothing could be
more typical of Perugino's manner and composi-
tion than this work. A row of six prophets on the
left, and of six sibyls on the right, bearing scrolls,
are symmetrically arranged, six figures being in
the first plane, and six behind them in the second
plane, with a landscape backgroimd. Above in
a circle is the half-figure of the Eternal in bene-
diction, and a beautiful adoring angel on either
side, with a row of cherubs' heads between. The
prophets, from left to right, are Isaiah, Moses,
Daniel, David, Jeremiah and Solomon. The
figure of Daniel is said to bear the lineaments of
Raffaelle, and Jeremiah those of Pinturicchio.
The sibyls on the right, which are very graceful
in pose and action, are Erythea, Persica, Cumana,
Libica, Tiburtina and Delphica. The finest and
best-painted figure is that of the splendid Tibur-
tine sibyl. Two frescoes at the end of the room
represent " The Nativity " and " The Transfigur-
ation," and so typify the Advent and the Gorifi-
cation of Christ's message to mankind and His
mission on earth. The fresco of " The Nativity "

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 217

is the same design, with a sUght alteration in two
of the kneeling figures, and the addition of the
three singing angels above, as that of the central
panel of the Albani Nativity, now in the Torlonia
Gallery in Rome. On the left side of the room
the fresco under the first arch represents Temper-
ance and Fortitude with warriors, and the second
arched panel has Prudence and Justice, with
figures of philosophers, and on the pilaster which
divides them is a portrait of Perugino. The
medallions and panels of the richly decorated
ceiling contain representations of pagan divini-
ties, and the heavenly constellations, the finest of
which are the representations of Luna and Venus.
While the whole of these celebrated frescoes are
from the designs of Perugino, it is clear from the
unequal execution that several assistants have
been employed on the work.

The Room of Perugino in the Academy at
Florence contains some of his finest paintings
which he executed in 1500, when he was producing
his best work. One of the finest is the celebrated
" Assumpti6n of the Virgin," with SS. Michael,
Giovanni Gualberto, Dominic and Bernard (No.
57), which he painted for the monks of Vallom-
brosa in 1500, just after he had completed the
Cambio frescoes. The angels and seraphs in this
work are similar in pose and type to many in his
other paintings, but the noble and beautiful
figure of the Virgin has not been surpassed by
any of Pietro's figures of the Madonna, and the
four very fine figures of the saints rank among the
best of his creations, where he has succeeded in

218 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

giving to each a distinctive individuality. This
room also contains his picture of " The Agony in
the Garden " (No. 53), which is admirable in
composition and colour, and the early " Piet^,"
No. 56. In the same gallery, but in the Botti-
celli Room, there is a fine picture by Pietro of
" The Crucifixion," with the Virgin and St.
Jerome standing at the foot of the Cross, in a
landscape after sunset (No. 78). This was painted
about 1495, for the Church of S. Girolamo,
Florence. The figure of Christ on the Cross
is realistic and well formed, and the general
colouring is in a warm but low tone.

About 1508 Perugino painted the ceiHng
decoration of the Stanza Incendio del Borgo
in the Vatican with subjects of the Glorification
of the Trinity. These works occupy the four
circular compartments of the ceiling, but, are
inferior to his fresco decorations of the Cambio
at Perugia. At this time the artists Sodoma and
Peruzzi were also painting in the Vatican, the
former adorning the ceiling of the Camera della
Segnatura, and the latter that of the Stanza
deir Eliodoro. Here also Perugino found that
his young pupil, Raffaelle, had been entrusted to
paint frescoes on the walls of the room, the ceiling
of which had been decorated by himself. It
was therefore greatly to the credit of Sanzio that
he had respect to the work of his old master, by
suffering his ceiling frescoes to remain, as he
also did in the case of Sodoma and Peruzzi's
work in the other rooms.

In his late years Perugino was employed in

THE CEUCIFIXIOS, WITH THE VIRGIK AKD S. JEROME. ANTIQUE AND
MODERN CALLERV, FLORENCE : PERUOINO

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 219

painting various works at Siena, Assisi, Florence
and Perugia, but in spite of a feverish industry,
and perhaps owing to it, his later work bears
many signs of a hasty and careless freedom,
betraying the evidences of his declining powers.

Bernardino Pinturicchio (1454-1513). Ber-
nard di Betto, or Biagio, commonly called Pin-
turicchio, " the little painter," was born at
Perugia. He was in all probability the pupil of
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, but owed something in the
formation of his early style to Bonfigli. In his
more mature work he was very much influenced
by Perugino and Luca Signorelli.

Pinturicchio was one of the greatest of the
Italian frescanti of his time. He had a fine sense
of decorative composition and of treating the
wall spaces in harmony with the architectural
features of the building. His faults at times were
an overcrowding of figures in the groups, and of
illustrating too many incidents in the one com-
position. Vasari, for some inexplicable reason,
does scant justice to this painter's work, and was
more inclined to give the honours to other
painters that in some cases rightly belonged
to Pinturicchio. Other writers have followed
Vasari in his mistaken judgment, but modern
criticism has awarded to Pinturicchio a more
deserved position as an artist of considerable
power. He may not have been so great as
Perugino, but at least his works are more free
from mannerism than those of the latter Umbrian
painter.

Bernardino and Perugino were for some time

220 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

partners, and in this capacity the former accom-
panied the latter to Rome, where, as a partner
or chief assistant, he helped Perugino in painting
frescoes in the Sixtine Chapel for Sixtus IV. The
fresco of " The Baptism of Christ," formerly
attributed to Perugino, is the work of Pinturicchio,
and also nearly all of the fresco of "The Last
Days of Moses," which was formerly thought to
be the work of Signorelli.

When his work in the Sixtine Chapel was
nearly finished, Pinturicchio was selected by
Cardinal della Rovere to decorate the ceiling of
the choir and also two chapels in S. Maria del
Popolo, Rome. He was engaged on these works
until the year 1485, after which he decorated
another chapel in the same church for the Cardinal
Innocenzo Cibo.

The choir ceiling has a large central medallion, in
which is painted " The Coronation of the Virgin " ;
in the angles are niches in which the four doctors
of the church are represented in standing posi-
tions, and above each are shovel-shaped panels
containing figures of sibyls. Between each of
these panels are circular-shaped ones, each con-
taining a figure of an Evangelist. The general
proportion and design of this fine ceiling decora-
tion affords ample testimony to the abilities and
powers of Pinturicchio as a master in decorative
design. There are doubts concerning the date
of these ceiling frescoes, but most likely they were
painted between the years 1505 and 1509.

The St. Jerome Chapel in S. Maria del Popolo
was the first of the chapels decorated by Pintu-

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 221

ricchio, on the altar-face of which he has painted
" The Adoration of the Shepherds," with a
representation of the full-robed Cardinal kneel-
ing before the Infant Christ. In five lunettes are
scenes from the life of St. Jerome. In all these
works the figures and their landscape settings
are distinctly Umbrian in type and feeling. The
second chapel, or oratory, was decorated after
the death of Giovanni della Rovere, Duke of
Sora and Sinigalia, in 1485, who built the oratory.
His monument in the chapel consists of a rich
white marble tabernacle, with a carving of the
Rovere Stemma. The panels of this tabernacle
and the rest of the chapel interior has been
frescoed by Pinturicchio with scenes from the
New Testament painted in colour, and in some
cases in monochrome in feigned relief. Orna-
mental foliage, children, busts of prophets and
angels, are painted on the vaulted ceiling. The
whole work, however, has been much damaged
by damp and neglect.

After completing his labours in this church,
Pinturicchio was employed on various commis-
sions in Rome untill491, when he went to Orvieto,
where he painted two prophets and two doctors
of the Church in the cathedral, and was to have
done other work, but he and the Orvietans
quarrelled very much over the price of " gold and
blue pigments," for use in the proposed decora-
tion of the ceilings; in the end the painter's
patience was exhausted, and leaving Orvieto he
returned at the close of the year 1492 to Rome,
where he was engaged at once to decorate the

222 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

suite of rooms in the Vatican Palace, known as
the " Appartamento Borgia," for the newly
elected Pope, Alexander VI.

These apartmetits consist of a suite of six rooms,
the largest of which coincides with the dimen-
sions of the Hall of Constantine above it, and is
known as the Room of the Popes from its having
been originally decorated with portraits of the
martyred Pontiffs and other frescoes by Pintu-
ricchio, which were destroyed by order of Pope
Leo X (1513-22), and the room redecorated by
Giovanni da Udine and Perino del Vaga, pupils
of Raffaelle, with representations of pagan deities,
the constellations, and stucco ornamentation on
the ceiling. The walls are hung with tapestries,
where mythological subjects are represented.

The Second Room is decorated by Pinturicchio
with frescoes of " The Nativity," " The Adora-
tion," " Resurrection," " The Assumption " and
" Ascension." At the left side of the Resur-
rection fresco there is a fine kneeling figure of
Pope Alexander VI, evidently painted by Pin-
turicchio himself. The scene is represented in a
dark landscape.

The Third Room is the best decorated of the
suite, and contains more work from the hand of
Pintxiricchio than any of the others. The whole
of the wall opposite the window is taken up with
the fresco of "St. Catherine disputing before
Maximianus." This is a dignified and well-
balanced composition and a most interesting and
rich wall decoration, and is entirely the work of
Pinturicchio. In the centre of the picture is a

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 228

representation of the Arch of Constantine. The
Emperor, before whom St. Catherine is standing,
is seated on the left, while around the throne
are standing the doctors and groups of quaintly
dressed and turbaned figures. The disputing
Catherine is well drawn and finely painted, and
is said to be a portrait of Lucretia Borgia. The
figures in this work are well proportioned, and
the faces for the greater part appear to be por-
traits. A considerable quantity of low-relieved
and gilt stucco work appears in the architectural
parts of this fresco, as well as in the embroidery
of the dresses and other ornamental details, the
use of which found great favour with Pintu-
ricchio, especially in his large wall and ceiling
decorations, and which was a tradition inherited
by him from the Sienese and Umbrian painters.
Vasari and certain purists in painting condemned
the use of gesso or stucco relief ornamentation,
but this may have been simply because Pin-
turicchio was fond of using it in his frescoes. It
cannot be denied that it has given an added
strength, richness and emphasis, and has assisted
in augmenting and intensifying the decorative
effect of these great wall and ceiling frescoes.
The general colour of this work is a harmony of
azure and gold.

Fourth Room. The frescoes in this room are
devoted to allegorical representations of the Seven
Liberal Arts — namely. Music, Grammar, Dialec-
tics, Rhetoric, Astronomy, Arithmetic and As-
trology. Here again the general colour scheme
is blue and gold. The subject of " Music " is very

224 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

fine in colour and composition and is the best of
the series. The central and refined figure of
Music is seated on a throne playing a violin, two
angels behind hold up the drapery of the throne,
at the left boys and youths are playing on musical
instruments on the steps, girls and an old man
are singing on the right, and in the background
is a terrace and landscape beyond.

Fifth Room. This room has been called the
Room of the Creed, owing to the lunettes having
twenty-four half-length figures of the apostles,
prophets and sibyls, who hold ribbon scrolls on
which are inscribed portions of the Creed. Most
of the work here, if not all, has been executed
by pupils from the designs of the master.

Sixth Room. This apartment is known as the
Room of the Sibyls. It is decorated with a series
of three-quarter length male and female figures,
prophets and sibyls, arranged conversely in the
three lunettes of the vaulted coves on each wall.
The planets or constellations occupy the spandrels
of the springing curves of the ceiling, while below
each are allusive incidents to each constellation.
Some of these are beautiful compositions, but
have been much injured by repainting.

For a great number of years the Borgia apart-
ments had been locked up and not used, and the
frescoes were practically ruined by damp or
great neglect, but during the years 1889-97 they
were carefully cleaned and restored by the
artist L. Seitz.

The frescoes of the Borgia apartments were
finished in 1495, and the extraordinary amount of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 225

work done in the short space of three years con-
clusively proves that a great number of assistants
must have been employed to carry out this vast
undertaking so rapidly, and this is all the more
surprising when we must remember that part of
this time Pinturicchio was away at Orvieto, in
the year 1498, when he painted some frescoes in
the Duomo of that city.

From the year 1496 till 1500 he was engaged
on many commissions at Rome, among which
we may mention his decoration of the Buffalini
Chapel in S. Maria Ara Cceli, some large decora-
tions in fresco in the apartments of the Castle
of S. Angelo, the ceiling of the Sacristy of S.
Cecilia in Trastevere, and the large decorative
landscapes, depicting Italian cities on the walls
of the Belvedere of the Vatican.

During this period he also made occasional
visits to Perugia, where he painted a good many
altar-pieces. In the year 1501 he decorated the
Baglioni in the Cathedral of Spello with frescoes
representing " The Adoration of the Holy Child,"
on the wall opposite the entrance ; " Christ in the
Temple," painted on the right wall, and the
subject of " The Annunciation " on the left,
where he introduced the portrait of himself and
his signature, while on the ceiling he painted
four sibyls.

We have already made mention of Pintu-
ricchio's chief works, and of his influence in
Siena, where in the year 1503 he began the impor-
tant decorations of the Piccolomini Library (see
Chapter X, pp. 174-178), and spoken of his design

VOL. II. Q

226 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of " The Ship of Fortune " for the pavement of
the Cathedral of Siena (p. 160) in 1505. An
interesting tempera painting of the head of a
young man by this master is now in the Dresden
Gallery, No. 41. This work is a valuable
example of Pinturicchio's technical methods of
tempera painting, and has been fully described
in the first volume of this work, Chapter VII,
pp. 149-50.

Lo Spagna (active 1500-1528). This interest-
ing painter belonged to the Umbrian school,
and was a pupil of Perugino and perhaps also
of Pinturicchio, but he was greatly influenced
by Raffaelle, whom he would have met in
Perugino's studio. His real name was Giovanni
de Pietro, but he was called Lo Spagna, or Spag-
nuolo, from his nationality, but though a Spaniard
by birth, his artistic education was entirely
Italian. Much of his work bears the impress of
Perugino's and of Raffaelle's earlier manner in
such a degree that it has been assigned to one or
the other of these two painters. Mr. B. Beren-
son seems to have made the most startling dis-
covery in this connection, as he argues, in a very
able manner, that the celebrated Caen " Sposa-
lizio," which every writer and all the artistic
world formerly ascribed to the hand of Perugino,
is really the work of Lo Spagna.^ Not only
have we been educated to believe that this
picture is a work by Perugino, but it has even
been described as his masterpiece. It is difficult

^ See B. Berenson, Caen Sposalizio, Study and Criticism
of Italian Art, 1910.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 227

to get over the facts as related by Passavant,
namely, that Raffaelle borrowed much of the
general ordering of his " Marriage of the Virgin "
from Perugino's " Sposalizio." ^ The latter pic-
ture, he says, was painted by Perugino in 1495
for the Cathedral of Perugia, and that Raffaelle,
when commissioned in 1504 by the monks of
the Church of the Franciscans at Citta di Castello
to paint " The Marriage of the Virgin " (now in
the Brera at Milan), was either asked by the
monks for a similar painting to that of Peru-
gino, " or else Raffaelle, induced by the beauty
of that work, thought it right to imitate it."

Lo Spagna's work, though often captivating in
form and colour, is inferior to Perugino's. There
is a lack of originality in his efforts, as his crea-
tive powers were very limited, but he shows
great skill in technical methods. His colouring
was at times much brighter and more crude than
that of the masters he imitated, but it lacked, for
example, the rich golden harmony of Vannucci's
work, and was more like the colouring of
Pinturicchio.

This painter lived the greater part of his life
at Spoleto, and painted many frescoes in the
churches of that town and in the neighbouring
places, Trevi, Todi, Narni, Gavelli and Eggi, and
also at Assisi and Perugia. One of his earliest
existing works is a " Nativity " that was painted
for a convent near Todi, and is now in the Gallery
of the Vatican. This is painted in oil, but in
respect to the drawing and colouring is a very
^ Passavant, Raphael of UrUno, p. 45 : London, 1872,

228 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

moderate production, but has, however, an air
of spaciousness and a group of finely drawn
angels at the top of the picture. Another charac-
teristic work by Lo Spagna is the picture.
No. 19 in the Gallery of Perugia, of "The
Madonna and Child with four Saints," who
stand around the Virgin in very natural atti-
tudes. The angels above are of the usual
Peruginesque type. In the drawing of the forms
and draperies of the Virgin and Child there are
strong reminiscences of the softness and beauty
of Raffaelle's work, while the art of Perugino
and Pinturicchio is reflected in the other parts.
These are the three masters on whose shoulders
Lo Spagna often climbed. But if he did borrow
light from these three gifted men, it must be
admitted that his ability and cleverness are
shown by his admirable and judicious manner of
using it for the illumination of his own work.

Spagna was made a citizen of Spoleto in 1516,
and was elected head of the painters in that
place in the following year; but he must have
lived in Spoleto many years previous to this
date, for in the year 1507 he was commissioned
to paint a " Coronation of the Virgin," a favourite
subject of his, for the Reformati of Monte Santo
di Todi. This work was not finished before 1511,
and has now found a resting-place in the Muni-
cipal Gallery of Todi. Although it is perhaps
the most important work of this master, it is
more or less an adaptation of Domenico Ghir-
landaio's great tempera painting of the same
subject, which was executed for the Church of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 229

S. Girolamo at Narni in 1486, and is now pre-
served in the Municipal Gallery of that town.
This altar-piece, though Umbrian in its method
of execution, is practically a copy in its com-
position of the Florentine master's work, and
affords another illustration of Spagna's peculiar
and successful powers of adaptation. A simple
and pleasing Raffaellesque work is his fresco of
" The Virgin and Child with SS. Francis, Jerome,
Catherine and Brizzo," which once adorned the
Citadel of Spoleto, but is now in the Municipal
Gallery.

The Chapel of S. Stefano, in the left transept
of the Lower Church at Assisi, contains a very
fine altar-piece painted in oil by Lo Spagna and
finished in 1516. This is one of his finest works.
In many respects it is distinctly Raffaellesque,
especially in the graceful figure of the Virgin
and in the beautiful and chaste figure of St.
Catherine. The Virgin is seated with the Infant
on an elevated throne, and around her are six
saints standing in dignified attitudes, while
above, in the clouds, are two angels kneeling
in adoration. At Assisi also, in the Chapel of
S. Bona Ventura in S. Maria degli Angeli, there
are some important frescoes painted by Spagna
about this time, which form the decoration of
the cell in which it is said St. Francis died. In
this cell there is a fine statue of the saint by
Luca della Robbia. The frescoes represent por-
trait figures of various Franciscan saints; most
of them are studied from nature. They are all
drawn and modelled with great vigour, and the

230 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

colour scheme is an unusually rich and forcible
arrangement of harmonious tones.

In the Church of S. Giacomo, near Spoleto,
the frescoes of the choir were painted by Lo
Spagna, with some assistance, and were finished
about 1526-27. The " Coronation " fresco which
adorns the apsis is another adaptation of Ghir-
landaio's " Coronation " design at Narni, while
some of the figures in the horizontal rows of
sibyls and saints are adaptations of similar ones
in the more important fresco by Filippo Lippi
in the choir of the Cathedral of Spoleto, which
the latter master left unfinished at his death in
1469. Spagna's frescoes in S. Giacomo, though
now in a very damaged state, show that they
have been executed with his customary vigour
and carefulness. These are the last known
works of this painter, who died some time
between 1528 and 1530.

Among other Umbrian pupils and followers of
Perugino and Pinturicchio may be mentioned
the names of Giannicolo Manni, active about
1493-1544 ; Eusebio di San Giorgio, active from
1492 till 1527 ; and Gerino of Pistoia, active 1502-
1529, all of whom, however, were overshadowed in
ability by the great Umbrian masters from whom
they drew the greater part of their inspiration.

CHAPTER XIII

PAINTERS OF BOLOGNA, FERRARA, MODENA,
VERONA, PADUA AND VENICE : FOURTEENTH
CENTURY

Like the early Umbrian and Sienese painting,
that also of Bologna was derived from miniature
painting and mosaics. Malvasia, the Bolognese
writer, in his Felsina Pittrice (1698) states that
the miniature painter Franco Bolognese founded
the art of painting in Bologna, his native city,
and also that he was the pupil of Oderisio, the
early miniature painter of Gubbio, both of whom
are mentioned in the eleventh canto of Dante's
Purgatorio} There are, however, no authentic
works by Franco in existence, and it is only a
conjecture at best as to whether he ever did
live at Bologna. After Franco comes the painter
whose name is given as Vitale, who painted two
pictures of " The Madonna," that bear the dates
of 1320 and 1345, and are now in the Gallery of
Bologna.

Early miniaturists and painters bearing the
names of Lorenzo, Simone, Jacopo and Cristo-
fano are mentioned by Malvasia as some of
those who worked at Bologna in the fourteenth
century, and whose work was founded on the

1 See p. 183,
231

232 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Sienese school. Simone of Bologna was known
under the name " de' Crocifissi," probably for
the reason that nearly all of his works were
painted Crucifixes. In the third chapel behind
the choir in S. Giacomo Maggiore at Bologna
there is a large painted " Crucifix " by Simone,
and a rudely painted fresco of " The Virgin and
St. Ursula " in the seventh of the eight different
edifices that compose the Church of S. Stefano
in Bologna is attributed to him.

Lippo Dalmasi, who is said to have been a
pupil of Vitale, was a more important painter
than any of the above mentioned. Two works
of his may be seen in the Gallery of Bologna,
numbered 225 and 500, both of which have the
subject of " The Coronation of the Virgin " ; the
latter of the two is a carefully finished work and
bears the date of 1394.

We now come to the painter named Jacopo
degli Avanzi of Bologna, who worked at the
close of the fourteenth century, and who has
often been confounded with Jacopo d'Avanzo,
the Paduan artist, who painted some of the
frescoes in the Capella S. Giorgio at Padua, in
collaboration with Altichiero of Verona, about
the same period (1377). Vasari and others have
credited Jacopo of Bologna as the painter who
worked at Padua with Altichiero, and were evi-
dently not aware of the existence of another artist
of the same name, who was possibly a native of
Padua, but whose style in painting was formed
on the school of Verona, and who was also
strongly influenced by Giotto and the Florentine

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 233

school. Jacopo of Bologna, however, though
perhaps the most talented of his Bolognese
contemporaries, shows in his work all the charac-
teristics of the early school of Bologna, so it
may be said that the authentic work of these two
painters is divergent in style, and has very little
in common. Three works by Jacopo of Bologna
may be seen in the Academy of that city — ^namely,
a " Crucifixion " (No. 160), which is the upper
part of an altar-piece, and two damaged panels,
divided into small spaces, with scriptural sub-
jects, Nos. 159 and 161. There is also a signed
" Crucifix " by this painter in the Colonna
Gallery at Rome. Though an interesting and
carefully painted work, the drawing of the
figures and the expressions denote more of the
intensity of grief than the dignified pathos of
sorrow.

Tomasso da Modena was an early master of
some importance, who is said to have been born
at Treviso, but whose father, named Barisino,
was a native of Modena, and also a painter of
that city. His birth-date is not known, but he
died in 1379. He always added Modena to his
name on his works, and it may be said he was
the most capable among the Modenese artists
of his time, who as a rule were only of mediocre
talent. He was commissioned in 1352 to paint
some frescoes in S, Niccold at Treviso, where,
on the pillars of the church, he painted some
figures of saints, and portraits of Dominicans in
the chapter-house.

He visited Prague in 1357, and about this

234 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

time he was employed by the Emperor Charles IV
to decorate the Castle of Carlstein. A picture of
his of this period is " The Virgin and Child
between Wenceslaus of Bohemia and S. Palma-
sius." This work, which was for a long time in
the Gallery at Vienna, has been returned to the
Castle of Carlstein, for which it was originally
painted. It is inscribed with the painter's name,
" Thomas de Mutina," Kugler ascribes to him
the frescoes in the chapel of the Carlstein Castle,
and speaks of the panel in the recess of the
altar as " a picture of great sweetness, especially
as regards the principal figure (the Virgin), the
head of which partakes more of the Sienese
character." ^ He also mentions a very carefully
executed " Vera Icon " of mild expression in
the Cathedral of Prague. In the Gallery of
Modena there is an altar-piece with six compart-
ments by Tommaso, having the subjects of " The
Madonna " and various scriptural scenes, but
this work has greatly lost its original character
by much repainting.

The painter known as Barnaba of Modena,
who worked 1367-1380, was a contemporary
of Tommaso. He was influenced more by the
schools of Siena and Pisa than by the local
schools of Modena and Bologna. He had even
a greater fondness for the old Byzantine methods
and types than many of the early Sienese. In
his figures of the Madonna he invariably clung
to the traditional type, though to the newer and

^ Kugler, Handbook of Italian Schools, Part I, pp. 170-71 :
Murray, 1855.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 235

prevailing manner in his more naturalistic treat-
ment of saints and other figures. His favourite
subject was " The Virgin and Child," to the
representation of whom he always gave an
affected grace of pose and the fixed expressions
common to the early Sienese pictures of the
Madonna. His draperies, particularly those of
the Virgin, have the old "liney" and inflexible
Byzantine character, but he excelled in his
pictorial composition, as he always succeeded in
placing his figures in a proportionate regularity
in regard to the space enclosed by the framing.
This, with rich and transparent colouring, copious
ornamentation and use of gold lines to heighten
the draperies, give to his works a decorative
beauty that equalled the best work of the early
Sienese. On his paintings, which are very rare,
he has inscribed " Barnabas De Mutina Pinxit."
His earliest existing work is the half-length
" Virgin and Child " in the Stadel Gallery at
Frankfort, which he painted in Genoa, where he
went to live in 1367, The flesh tints in this
work are of a general warm olive tone, which
has been obtained by painting the lights in a
stippled method over a verde preparation, and
by glazing both lights and unconvincing shadows
with transparent rosy tints, the usual method
followed by the Sienese. Like the latter, Barnaba
was extremely reticent in his use of shade or
shadow in his work, consequently it is extremely
flat in general treatment. A similar work to
the above is now in the Gallery of Berlin, which
he painted in 1369. It is much damaged and

236 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

very dark in tone. In the year 1370 he painted
a picture of " The Madonna " for the Church of
S. Domenico at Turin, which is now in the
Gallery of this city.

Barnaba went from Genoa to Pisa in 1380,
where he may have been invited to work on the
S. Raineri frescoes in the Campo Santo; how-
ever, he painted several altar-pieces for the
churches of Pisa and the district, two of which
are now in the Museo Civico of Pisa, transferred
from S. Francesco and from the suppressed
monastery of S. Giovanni.

The picture by him in the Modena Gallery is
a good example of his style and work, and there
is a small and interesting picture of his in the
National Gallery with the subject of " The
Pentecost." The Virgin and the apostles are
seated in a room, with their hands folded in
prayer. Their heads are encircled with gold
nimbi, from which arise tongues of fire.

Gelasio de Niccolo was one of the earliest
painters of Ferrara, and is mentioned by Lanzi,
who, quoting from an old Memorial, says that
Gelasio was employed by Azzo d'Este, first lord
of Ferrara, in 1242, to paint a picture of " The
Fall of Phaeton," and that the same painter
was commissioned by Filippo, Bishop of Ferrara,
to paint an image of Our Lady and an en-
sign of St. George. It was also stated in the
Memorial that Gelasio was a pupil of Teofane of
Constantinople, and doubtless from the latter
circumstance Lanzi suggests that " the Ferrarese
school took its twin origin, so as to say, with

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 237

that of Venice." ^ Vasari mentions that Giotto
was employed in the service of the lords of Este
to paint in the palace at Ferrara, now the univer-
sity of that city. If this is correct, there is
nothing left of such work, except some doubtful
fragments, which can hardly be the remains of
Giotto's work, but it may be inferred that if he
did work there his influence would have been
seen in the work of the local painters.

The Ferrarese painter known as Antonio
Alberta da Ferrara studied in Florence, where
he was a pupil of Agnolo Gaddi, and was bom
a few years previous to 1380, but his work more
properly belonged to the fifteenth century. He
painted some frescoes in the Palazzo Estense,
at Ferrara, about 1438; these are no longer in
existence, but a fresco ascribed to him with the
date of 1433 still exists in the inner choir of the
Church of S. Antonio Abate at Ferrara, and an
altar-piece painted in tempera, signed and dated
1439, is now in the sacristy of S. Bernardino,
near Urbino. In the old Chapel of the Bolognini
in S. Petronio are some frescoes by Antonio
which were formerly assigned by Vasari to
Buffalmacco.

Throughout the Lombardo- Venetian territory,
embracing the cities of Verona, Padua, Milan
and Venice, painting, in its aims and methods,
during the thirteenth century and into the first
half of the foTirteenth, continued to present the
traditional t3rpes of the Italo-Byzantine style,
except in a few isolated instances. The old
^ Lanzi, vol. iii, p. 185.

238 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

traditions were strongest in the early Venetian
art, and it was chiefly owing to this that the
painters of Northern Italy found it so difficult
to break away from the older methods, in spite
of the Florentine influence that the art of Giotto
might have been supposed to exercise through
his great works in the Chapel of the Arena at
Padua and his long residence there. Even if he
did visit Verona and Ravenna, and work at those
places, his influence does not appear to have
been great or lasting, if we except the work of
Altichiero of Verona, who, however, worked
chiefly at Padua.

Altichiero was the most eminent master of
the early Veronese school, who worked in the
latter half of the fourteenth century. Another
form of his name was Aldigieri da Zevio. He is
mentioned by Vasari as being the familiar of
the lords of the Scala of Verona, where he
painted, besides many other works, the great
hall of the palace, depicting there " The War of
Jerusalem," and portraits of many great men of
the time, particularly of the Scaligeri. Among
the portraits was one of Petrarch.

Vasari goes on to say that Jacopo Avanzi, a
Bolognese painter, was Aldigieri's competitor,
and that the former executed some frescoes
above the works of the latter " in such a happy
style that Mantegna praised them as rare pro-
ductions." Unfortunately, there are none of
these frescoes described by Vasari now in exist-
ence. This writer also states that Jacopo of
Bologna worked with Altichiero of Verona in

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 239

painting the Chapel of St. George at Padua.
The chapel, though dedicated to St. George,
contains, besides the scenes from the life of that
saint, others illustrating the legends of St. Cathe-
rine and St. Lucy, numbering altogether twenty-
one compositions. The frescoes of " The Cruci-
fixion " and " The Coronation of the Virgin "
occupy the altar wall. On the right wall, below,
is " The Legend of St. Lucy," and above is " The
Legend of St. Catherine," while on the left
wall, above and below, is depicted " The Legend
of St. George." The entrance wall is adorned
with frescoes representing " The Flight into
Egypt," "The Adoration of the Magi" and
" The Nativity."

The decoration of the Chapel of S. Felice in
the right transept of Sant' Antonio, the sepul-
chral Church of St. Anthony of ^ Padua, was
completed about 1376, just before the work was
undertaken in the Chapel of St. George. On
the wall behind the altar in S. Felice is painted,
in three compartments, the subject of " The
Crucifixion," and in the lunettes above and in
others on the side walls are a series of frescoes
representing scenes and incidents in the life of
St. James. These important frescoes of both
chapels have suffered much through damp,
neglect and other causes, and have at various
times been repainted in parts. Those of S.
Felice were skilfully cleaned and restored by
the artist Ernst Forster in 1840.

There have been endless arguments and
much controversy in reference to the claims of

240 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Altichiero and Avanzo respecting the parts taken
by each in the painting of these two chapels,
which remain as monuments to the genius and
ability of both painters, and although the dispute
is still going on, the consensus of modern criticism
favours the opinion that Altichiero was respon-
sible for the designs of the subjects in both
chapels, and that he carried out the work with
the help of his extremely able assistant, Jacopo
d' Avanzo.

There is little or nothing known of the ante-
cedents or of the masters of Altichiero or
Jacopo d' Avanzo, but we can say from the
style and quality of their work that they were
worthy followers of Giotto and were much
influenced by his work, whether they had
seen some of it at Verona or only that of the
Arena Chapel at Padua. In the second chapel
on the right in Sant' Anastasia at Verona the
frescoes of the knights of the Cavalli family
kneeling before the Virgin are assigned to
Altichiero.

Giusto di Giovanni, known as Justus of Padua
(13— ?-1400), was a Florentine of the family of
Menabuoi. He was born at Florence in the
early part of the fourteenth century, and died
in 1400. His style was based on the work of
Giovanni da Milano and Giotto, whose work he
had studied at Padua. Justus settled at Padua
in 1375, where he was made a citizen of the city.
Previous to this he had painted some important
works. There is a work by this painter in the
National Gallery, which is signed and dated 1367.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 241

This is a small triptych, No. 701, carefully
painted in tempera, and very fresh in colouring.
The wings of the triptych are painted on both
sides with sacred subjects, the principal of which
is " The Coronation of the Virgin." The Giot-
tesque frescoes of the Baptistery of Padua are
ascribed to Giusto, also an altar-piece in the side
chapel, where the Virgin and Child is repre-
sented with saints and the doctors of the church,
and the frescoes on the walls of this chapel are
the works of Giusto and his assistants. In the
year 1370 this painter decorated the Chapel of
St. Augustine in the Ermitani at Padua with
frescoes representing the Liberal Arts and
the Vices and Virtues, works which have been
referred to by Vasari and other writers, but they
no longer exist, as the walls of this chapel were
destroyed in 1610. Designs for these frescoes,
however, are preserved in a manuscript now in
the Galleria Nazionale at Rome.

Guariento was a painter of Padua. He was
born in that city, and lived there during the
early and middle period of the fourteenth century,
but was not an artist of any great ability. His
efforts were not much in advance of the old
Italo-Byzantine school. In the year 1365 he
decorated the great Council Hall at Venice with
monochrome paintings representing a Paradise,
and also scenes of the War of Spoletti. In
course of time the spaces occupied by these
works were repainted with similar and in
some cases different subjects by Gentile da
Fabriano, Bellini, Titian and Tintoretto. When

VOL. II. E

242 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

the latter's great oil-painting of " The Paradise,"
the largest canvas picture in the world, was
taken down for cleaning and repairs in 1903,
the great monochrome of the same subject by
Guariento was still foimd on the wall behind.
At Bassano, in the Convent of S. Francesco, are
some frescoes ascribed to him. In the Ermitani
at Padua he painted various monochromes and
coloured works, subjects from the life of St.
Augustine, all of which have been restored very
much.

Twenty-nine panels painted in tempera by
Guariento are now preserved in the Municipal
Gallery of Padua. These panels once formed
the ceiling decoration of the chapel in the Castle
of Carrara. They consist of paintings of the
Virgin, angels and saints, and are good examples
of this painter's work.

Painting in Venice from the earliest times
until a period well within the fifteenth century
remained in an unprogressive state. The painters
of Venice and neighbouring districts were the
last in Italy to discard the old Byzantine tradi-
tions, and if we seek for an explanation of this
conservatism we shall find that it is due to various
causes and circumstances among which, to begin
with, is that the Venetians themselves were of a
decided oriental ancestry, and that they main-
tained a long and close intercourse with the
Eastern nations in trade and commerce, and
they naturally clung closely and more tenaciously

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 243

to old forms and long-accepted types of art, and
were the last of the Italian States to feel the
Florentine and Western influence. The city of
the lagoons was originally a settlement of people
who had come from the East, who had brought
with them a love of colour, and of everything
that appealed to the senses, which was reflected
in the gaiety and splendour of their dress, decora-
tion of their public buildings, mosaics, carpets,
enamels, illuminated books, banners, and the
sumptuous pomp of public ceremonies. Although
the Venetians had inherited their love of colour
which has always been a great feature of their
art, the early Venetian painting was more positive
and more barbaric than harmonious ; for it was
not xmtil the time of the Bellini, who were strongly
influenced by the Florentine, Sienese and Um-
brian painting, that we find in Venetian painting
a more cultured expression of colour harmony.
Gentile da Fabriano the Umbrian painter, and
later Antonella da Messina, had a great influence
in the development of both form and colour in
Venetian painting, which in the Renaissance
became renowned above all the Italian schools
for the glory of its colour. In the twelfth and
early thirteenth centuries Venice had many old
painters, who also designed for mosaics, tapestry,
miniatures and enamels, all of whom followed the
Byzantine traditions.

Paolo, or Paulus, who inscribed his name as
" Paulus de Venetiis " on his works, was a painter
of the early Venetian school, and is responsible

244 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

for the design of the altar-piece that covers the
Pala d'Oro, the altar front in St. Mark's, Venice,
which is enamelled on plates of silver and gold.
The painted altar-piece by Paolo represents the
dead body of Christ, apostles, and incidents from
the life of St. Mark, but it has been so much
repainted that the outline only can be ascribed
to Paolo. The date of its original execution is
1345. Another work, either by Paolo or a
painter of the same name, is that of " The Virgin
and Saints," now in the Pinacoteca of Vicenza,
which is dated 1323. There are records of other
works by this painter, but which cannot now be
traced.

A more important painter was Lorenzo Vene-
ziano, who is represented by several works in the
Academy of Arts at Venice. One of these, his
earliest, is an altar-piece. No. 10, with the subject
of " The Annunciation " in the centre, and above it
" God the Father in Benediction, with various
Saints," which was painted for the Church of
S. Antonio of Castello in 1357. Two others
in the Academy were painted in 1371, one of
which is a painting of a series of six saints, and
the other is an " Annunciation " ; both are
signed and dated. The best work from the hand
of Lorenzo is a fine altar-piece, now in the Museo
Correr at Venice. This work represents the
Saviour enthroned in the midst of apostles, and
with angels around the Saviour's head. The
Redeemer gives the keys to St. Peter. In this
work the drawing of the forms and drapery

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 245

shows a considerable advance on that of the
earher types, and an improvement in colour and
technique. Its present lustrous surface may have
been given to it by subsequent varnishing, as in
this respect it is quite different to Lorenzo's
other works, which are noted for the dry and solid
treatment of the tempera painting.

The Venetian painter Niccolo Semitecolo was
in every respect the best artist of the fourteenth
century in Venice. His earliest work was exe-
cuted about the middle of the century, and his
latest after the beginning of the fifteenth. His
first known painting is signed and dated 1351,
but this date is considerfed doubtful. The picture
is " The Coronation of the Virgin," and is now
in the Academy of Venice. In 1367 he painted
an important altar-piece representing " The Virgin
and Child with the Trinity," where the Eternal
holds the Saviour, whose arms are outstretched
in the form of a cross. There are also several
scenes of St. Sebastian's trial, martyrdom and
deposition. This work, which is now in the library
of the chapter-house of the Duomo at Padua,
shows considerable power and vigour in the
drawing and in the manipulation of the colours,
but like most of the contemporary work retains
much of the form and feeling of the old Greek
manner. Later works signed and dated by
Semitecolo show an inferiority to the last-men-
tioned altar-piece, one of which, a " Madonna and
Child with Angels," is in the Museo Correr,
and is dated 1400. Similar old paintings which

246 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

are quite in the manner and style of Semitecolo's
work are signed with the name of " Nicholas,"
and in all probability they have been painted
by Niccol6 Semitecolo, or by assistants working
under his direction.

CHAPTER XIV

FLORENTINE PAINTERS OF THE FIFTEENTH CEN-
TURY : MASOLINO, MASACCIO, FRA ANGELICO,
UCCELLO, DOMENICO VENEZIANO, CASTAGNO,
FILIPPO LIPPI

Masolino (1383-1447). We have been in-
formed by Vasari that this Florentine master
was the pupil of Jacopo Stamina (1354-1408 ?),
although there is nothing but records of
Stamina's work left. If the latter's work should
have had a natural resemblance to that of
Antonio Veneziano, which is more than likely to
have been the case, seeing that he was a reputed
pupil or follower of Veneziano, we may come
to the conclusion that Vasari's statement is
correct. Masolino's style and methods have been
founded on Veneziano's work, and he may have
derived them through Stamina, the follower of
Veneziano.

The art of Masolino and also of Masaccio, his
great pupil, have much in common with that of
the painter of the lower series of the Raineri
frescoes in the Campo Santo at Pisa, and of
the ceiling paintings of the Spanish Chapel, both
of which are now ascribed to Antonio Veneziano.

Florentine painting, as represented by Giotto,
was linked up at the end of the fourteenth

247

248 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

century by Veneziano and Masolino to the fif-
teenth, and carried on further into the latter
century by Masaccio and Fra Angelico.

Masohno, whose full name was Tommaso di
Cristoforo di Fino, was born in 1383 at Panicale
in CoUe di Val d'Elsa. An early work by Maso-
lino is the picture of " The Madonna," now in the
Kunsthalle at Bremen, which he painted in the
year 1423, the same year in which he was admitted
to the Painters' Guild of Florence, and when he
was living in the S. Felicita quarter of that
city. Mr. Berenson, however, is to be credited
with the discovery of a still earlier work by
Masolino, the date of which he gives as about
1420. The picture is a charming composition,
representing the Madonna and Child, with two
small angels at each side, the Eternal abov^
and below Him the Dove. This " Trinity "
is in the Munich Gallery, No. 1019, and has
been catalogued as a Florentine work of 1440.
A no less interesting work is the fresco in the
Baptistery at Empoli, a "Pieta," which formerly
has been ascribed to Masaccio ; but a work of
much more importance is another fresco painted
by Masolino in a recess in the Church of S.
Stefano at Empoli, in form of a pointed arch.
The subject is " The Madonna and Angels," and
is considered by Mr. Berenson to be a work of
great refinement and beauty, the colouring of
which he describes as " of a radiant splendour
quite unparalleled elsewhere in Tuscan painting."^
Mr. Berenson also assigns to Masolino the large and
1 B. Berenson, Study and Criticism of Italian Art, p. 86.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 249

interesting decorative panel of " The Annunci-
ation," now at Gosford House, the Scottish seat
of Lord Wemyss.

Masolino was engaged shortly after 1423 by
Filippo Scolari to do some work in Hungary,
where the great Florentine soldier and states-
man had become Obergespann of Temeswar
in Hungary, known also as " Pippo Spano,"
the Conqueror of the Turks. He built churches
and palaces in his adopted country and in-
vited Florentine artists to decorate them; but
there is no work left to mark the stay of Maso-
lino in Hungary, except for a record of the year
1427, which states that this painter was paid
the sum of 360 florins for certain work he had
done there for Scolari. His benefactor died in
1427, and Masolino shortly afterward left Hungary
and went to paint frescoes for Cardinal Branda
in the choir of the Collegiate Church of Casti-
glione d'Olona, near Milan, in 1428. These
works are very much injured, as they were for
many years hidden under a coat of whitewash.
The colours of the draperies are almost obliter-
ated, some are quite gone, the outlines only
remaining, which, however, give some idea of
Masolino's composition. The drawing in these
frescoes shows how Masolino must have studied
nature, especially in the case of some fore-
shortened figures. In the subject of " The Nati-
vity," where the Virgin in the centre kneels
before the reclining Infant, the very finely
drawn figure of Cardinal Branda is represented
kneeling on the right, with his hands joined in

250 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

prayer, while St. Joseph kneels on the left.
The features of both these figures are noble and
life-like.

The Baptistery, close by the church, was also
decorated by Masolino with scenes from the life
of St. John Baptist. This edifice is oblong in
plan, with a similar shaped but smaller tribune
attached at the end. On the principal ceiling,
which is divided by diagonals, are paintings of
the four Evangelists, and on that of the tribune
is the Saviour surrounded by a host of angels.
The original blue ground of the ceilings has now
gone, and the other colours have blackened very
much. On the left wall of the tribune is the
subject of " St. John preaching " ; in the lunette
and sides of the end wall is " The Baptism of the
Saviour," and on the right wall is the fresco of
" St. John in Prison." With the exception of
" The Dance of the Daughter of Herodias " and
the picture where Zacharias writes the name of
his newborn son, the frescoes have nearly all
disappeared. What is left of the work which
formerly covered all the walls and ceilings shows
the bold and decisive style of Masolino's drawing,
and although the general arrangement of the
figures and grouping did not reach the standard
of the great maxims of Florentine composition,
there is much careful and searching drawing in
the individual figures, the heads especially being
of great beauty and interest ; and where groups
of people are represented great care has been
taken to give each figure its distinguishing
features of youth, manhood, or old age. The

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 251

laws of perspective have either not been fully
understood by Masolino, or have not been always
carried out in a truthful manner. Where the
figures of angels and female features have been
rendered by Masolino, they appear to have a
close resemblance to those in Era Angelico's
works.

This master was an excellent painter in fresco,
and has been highly praised as such by Vasari.
He painted usually in a thin and transparent
method on a white ground, by which means he
obtained great luminosity and brilliancy of colour-
ing. He used greenish-grey shadow tints, but
inclining to a warm tone, with rosy-yellowish
lights, and modelled his light and shade in hatch-
ings and stipplings, manipulated in lines that
followed the natural curves and forms of the
muscles, but as his shade hatchings were sparingly
used the flesh forms were rather flat than rotund
in appearance. His technical methods in fresco
painting were similar to those adopted by Antonio
Veneziano, which he may have learned from
Stamina, his own reputed master, and pupil
of Veneziano. Although by this method of his
technique Masolino was enabled to get effects
of transparent brilliancy and great delicacy, his
work lacked the vigour and robustness of his
pupil Masaccio, who adopted the method of
painting with a greater impasto, and who showed
in his work more fusion of the tones in the passages
from light to shade. Masolino draperies were
in some cases loose and calligraphic-like in the
design of the lines of the folds, and in others

252 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

the drapery fitted the body too tightly, showing
an incomplete emancipation from the traditional
methods of drapery drawing. They had not,
for example, the massive breadth and organic
or functional construction of Masaccio's more
naturally drawn draperies. The oriental-like
turbans, and large and quaint head-dresses,
were curious and common features in Masolino's
paintings.

The frescoes in the Chapel of St. Catherine
in S. Clemente, Rome, now much repainted,
were formerly attributed to Masaccio, but are
now believed on good authority to have been
originally the work of Masolino and his assistants.
It has always been a great difficulty to definitely
assign to the right person certain important
works that broadly resemble each other in
general character and form, as Masolino's and
his pupil Masaccio's work sometimes do, and
especially when expert authorities of former days
have differed in their assertions and conclusions
in this respect. It is almost impossible to allo-
cate correctly certain parts of a work to the
master's hand and others to the pupil's, especially
when it is known that both master and pupil
worked together in the painting of the same
fresco or picture. We shall notice Masolino's
work in the Brancacci Chapel of the Carmine,
Florence, when now treating of the life and work
of Masaccio.

Masaccio (1401-1428). The full name of this
great Florentine master was Tommaso di Ser
Giovanni Guidi. He was the son of a notary of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 253

the family of Scheggia, and was born at Castel
S. Giovanni di Val d'Arno. He was the pupil
of Masolino, but influenced by the sculptor
Donatello and the architect and sculptor Brunel-
leschi, whose works he evidently admired on
principle, and by doing so was able to imitate
in his painting something of their design and
spiritual breadth, without losing anything of his
own originality.

Masaccio's share in the advancement of
Florentine painting was greater than that of
any other artist of his time, and might have
been still greater if he had not died at the youth-
ful age of twenty-seven. His wonderful talents
were shown at a very early age, for he was not
much more than nineteen when, as an accom-
plished painter, he was elected a member of the
Guild of Speziali at Florence. Lanzi says of
Masaccio, that " he was a genius calculated to
mark an era " ; and Vasari says, " what was exe-
cuted before his time might be called paintings,
but his pictures seem to live, they are so true and
natural," and in another place he adds, " no
master of that age so truly approached the
moderns."

His early works, executed in Florence, and
mentioned by Vasari, have for the most part
been lost, and those assigned to him by the same
writer in the Church of S. Clemente at Rome,
which had been placed among his early works,
have now, as before stated, been given to
Masolino, Masaccio's great and noble works in
fresco are the principal decorations of the

254 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Brancacci Chapel in the Church of the Carmine,
Florence, which he began about 1423, and worked
on them until 1428, the year of his death, leaving
the work unfinished. Some of the frescoes in
this chapel were painted by Masolino, and others
were added in completion of Masaccio's work by
Filippino Lippi many years after, about 1484-85.
Formerly the whole of the chapel, with the excep-
tion of the frescoes by Filippino Lippi, was
believed to have been the work of Masaccio,
although Vasari has said that the latter was
employed to finish the decoration " commenced
by Masolino da Panicale, of which he had com-
pleted a certain part."

It is generally now agreed that Masolino painted
the following frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel —
namely, " Adam and Eve under the Tree of
Knowledge," on the right pilaster of the entrance ;
"St. Peter healing Tabitha," upper course of the
wall to right of entrance ; "St. Peter's Sermon,"
upper course of end wall, left of altar. Those
now, as before, assigned to Masaccio are — " The
Expiilsion from Paradise," painted on left pilaster
of entrance ; " The Tribute Money," with its
three incidents ; " St. Peter administering the
Rite of Baptism," upper course of end wall, right
of altar; below the foregoing, "St. Peter distri-
buting Alms to the Poor " ; " St. Peter and St.
John healing the Sick." The remaining frescoes
are by Filippino Lippi — ^namely, " The Angel
delivering St. Peter " ; " Paul visiting Peter
in Prison " ; " Peter and John before the Pro-
consul " ; " Martyrdom of St. Peter," and part

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 255

of the " Raising of the King's Son," which in
part is the work of Masaccio.

Vasari speaks of these works, which must have
created a sensation among the Itahan artists
when first seen, as forming a veritable school of
art, which attracted not only the painters of the
day, but nearly all of the greatest Italian and
other European painters of the Renaissance. We
know that Raffaelle himself took lessons from
these works of Masaccio, as regards composition,
the cast and grandeur of the draperies, and even
to the borrowing of the earlier master's ideas,
which he skilfully adapted to some of his own
great compositions ; for example, " The Expulsion
from Paradise," which Raffaelle painted in the
Loggie of the Vatican, is based on the design
of Masaccio's fresco of the same subject. That
Ghirlandaio and others studied the frescoes of
the Brancacci Chapel is clearly apparent from
their works.

The great revolution in Tuscan painting, begun
by Masolino and brought to a head by Masaccio,
was chiefly determined by the study and draw-
ing of the human figure and drapery from a
constructive point of view and in correct pro-
portion ; their aim being to represent the bodily
form for its own sake, without losing sight of its
use as a factor or medium for the conveyance of
the artist's idea of beauty in the composition of
real or imaginative scenes and incidents. To-
gether with a closer study of the external forms
of the nude, we see drapery for the first time
almost in Italian painting becoming functional

256 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

in drawing and design, and almost as organic
in its grand and broad folds as the forms of the
figure underneath it, quite different from the
drapery in the earlier painting, which up to the
timie of Masaccio was, as a rule, of the festooned
and artificial variety, that rarely showed any
conformity to the shapes of the figure-forms
underneath.

Masaccio also carried the art of raising or
relieving his figures from the background, and
from each other, to a greater extent than had
hitherto been done, which he attained by a more
truthful retidering of light and shade and atmo-
sphere, but at the same time he was mindful
enough to fix £ln artistic limitation to these
pictorial effects. He did not lose sight of the
fact that his task was to decorate a flat wall
surface, and not to make his figures appear as
if one could walk around them — a fault from
which some of the later frescanti were not entirely
free. Masaccio was far in the advance of any
artist of his time in his complete mastery of the
human figure, as shown by his searching and
accurate draughtsmanship, his great knowledge
of anatomy, and his facility in giving spirit,
action and vitality to his decorative compositions.
His gifts in these directions place him at the head
of the greatest artists of the first half of the
fifteenth century.

The finest authentic work from his hand is
" The Tribute Money," painted on the left wall
of the Brancacci Chapel. This fresco includes
three incidents in its composition — ^namely,

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 257

the central group, where Christ rebukes St.
Peter, around whom are the standing figures of
the apostles, with varied expressions of indig-
nation ; the figure in the foreground, back view,
of this group is that of the tax-collector, and the
last figure of this central group on the left is a
pbrtrait of the painter. The incident on the
left, middle distance, represents St. Peter finding
the money in the mouth of the fish, and on the
right St. Peter is giving the money to the tax-
collector. The figures are all admirably drawn,
and painted with great breadth of treatment ;
the back view of the tax-collector is more espe-
cially a remarkable example of accurate drawing,
and of an easy freedom of pose and action. The
same person, but in front view, represented in
the right scene, has a similar freedom of pose
and an intensely gratified expression on his face
as he receives the tribute money. The natural
treatment of the hilly landscape of the back-
ground is also far in advance of the landscape
painting of the time.

The fresco of " St. Peter Baptizing," which is
painted on the right of the altar wall, though
now in a very damaged state, is extremely inter-
esting as an example of Masaccio's great power
in the rendering of the nude figure in art.
Among other naked figures is the remarkable
nude of a benumbed and shivering youth stand-
ing at the edge of the water, a figure so well
drawn and so correct in anatomy, that, as
Lanzi says, " it has made an epoch in the his-
tory of art." The " Expulsion from Paradise,"

VOL. II. 8

258 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

painted on the left pilaster of the entrance, is
another fine example of this master's treatment
of the nude, in the figures of Adam and Eve,
who are driven from the gates of Eden by the
angel with the flaming sword.

Panel pictures by this artist are extremely
rare. There are four examples assigned to him
in the Berlin Gallery. A " Madonna with
Angels " is in the Rev. A. F. Sutton's collection
at Brant Broughton, Lincolnshire; a " St. Paul"
in the Gallery at Pisa, and a "St. Andrew"
in the Lanckoronski Collection, Vienna. All of
these were probably painted near the end of his
hfe, about 1426.

He painted a fresco of " The Trinity " and
other sacred figures, with the donors, on the right
wall of the entrance, in the nave of S. Maria
Novella, Florence. This was one of his finest
works, but is now much blackened and almost
destroyed. The fresco has had a sad history,
for at one time Vasari painted a very bad picture
of his own over it, and in later years this was
cleaned off and the original fresco removed from
its place to another wall in the church. So after
such treatment the wonder is that anything can
be left of the original work.

The last days of this great master, who changed
the aspect of Florentine art, are veiled in mystery.
It is said that he died in Rome in 1428, and it
has been suspected that he was poisoned. It
was only after his death that his real greatness
was discovered. Vasari tells us that he to
whom so many others were indebted was " little

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 259

esteemed in life," but years after his death
some one wrote this epitaph on him —

"I painted, and my picture was as life;
Spirit and movement to my forms I gave —
I gave them soul and being. He who taught
All others — ^Michael Angelo — I taught :
He deigned to learn of me ..."

Fra Angelico, or Frate Giovanni da Fiesole
(1387-1455). This Florentine master, who was
also known as II Beato Angelico, was born at
Vicehio di Mugello in 1387. He became a brother
of the Order of Predicants at Fiesole in 1407.
His first works were miniature paintings, and
most of his panel pictures testify to the character
and style of the miniaturist. He adopted, how-
ever, a much broader and simpler method of
technique in his frescoes, as may be seen in those
which he has painted on the walls of the Convent
of San Marco at Florence, some of which, espe-
cially those on the walls of the cells, still remain
as examples of the finest work from his hands.

The Camaldolese monk and painter, Lorenzo
Monaco, is credited with being the master of Fra
Angelico, and this may be quite true, seeing
that there is a deal of similarity in their work,
and especially in the earlier examples of Fra
Angelico. Lorenzo worked at Florence as a
miniature painter and as a painter of small
pictures, and was doing his best work when
Angelico was a young man, so everything points
to their close connection in Florence. But
Angelicp was also strongly influenced by Masolino,
Masaccio, and certainly by Orcagna.

260 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

It is well known that Fra Angelico was a man
of rare and singular piety. Vasari says of him :
" The life of this really angelic father was devoted
to the service of God, the benefit of the world,
and duty towards his neighbour. He painted
incessantly, but would never lay his hand to
anything that was not saintly." He loved to
paint highly devotional pictures thronged with the
most charming and radiant angels, and celestial
beings of a sweet and dreamy serenity, who
peopled the paradise of his exalted imagination.
He clothed these lovely creations in shining
garments, and gave them wings pencilled with
rainbow tints and heightened with burnished
gold.

The devotional and deeply religious subject-
matter of Angelico's work has rightly called for
the merited and unstinted praise and admiration
of writers and critics of past and present genera-
tions, but the almost overwhelming importance
of the subject-matter in this painter's work has
prevented even many of his greatest admirers
from doing proper justice to his great powers
as an artist ; for, apart from the sentimental and
spiritual qualities of his work, his technical
methods, his draughtsmanship, his colouring and
composition were all of such excellence, that as
an artist he is entitled to one of the highest seats
among the greatest painters of the Renaissance.
The master who designed and painted the
S. Marco frescoes and those in the Chapel of
St. Nicholas in the Vatican, combined the higher
qualities of Florentine composition and technical

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 261

methods with the spiritual and decorative beauty
of the Sienese school.

Angelico's art has been called mystic, in
opposition to realistic, which may be true enough ;
but his mysticism was that of the religious
idealism of subject and sentiment, and although
his figures are gentle and graceful in motion and
demeanour, the compositions of his larger works
are grand in idea, the figures are well drawn, the
perspective of his buildings is good, to which
may be added the charm of harmonious colouring
and masterly technique. His work is totally
different from that of Michelangelo and Raffaelle,
and fell short of the virility and grandeur of the
works of these two masters; but it must be
remembered their ideals were also different from
those of the spiritually humble and self-denying
Angelico, who was gifted with the means and
the language that best expressed his own ideals,
as were Michelangelo and Raffaelle to their own
respective forms of art and methods of expres-
sion.

The Brotherhood of the Dominicans in 1409
were obliged to retire to Foligno in Umbria
from Fiesole, on account of their adherence to
Pope Gregory XII, when the Council at Pisa had
elected Alexander V. Some of the yoiuiger
brothers went to Cortona, and Fra Angelico
being one of their number was, for the time being,
cut off froin the influence of the Florentine
school of painting, but in Umbria he had the
opportunity of studying the art of that province,
and also the works of the Sienese painters. The

262 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Brotherhood lived at Foligno for about five years,
but it is not known for certain that Angehco
stayed with them during any part of that time.

He executed many commissions at Cortona,
and at that time did some of his best work there,
and in that city some of his important paintings
are still preserved, three of which are now in the
Baptistery (Gesu) — namely, the beautiful " An-
nunciation " and two exquisite predelle painted
with scenes from the life of the Virgin and
S. Dominic. In the Church of S. Domenico
at Cortona he painted the fresco of " The
Madonna and Saints " over the entrance, and
also a triptych with the same subject about 1414.

Angelico returned with the Brotherhood to
their old home at Fiesole in 1418, where he
afterwards spent eighteen years of his life. Dur-
ing these eighteen years of his residence at
Fiesole there is little or nothing known of the
work he may have executed in that period, but we
may be sure he was not idle aU that time. In the
Academy of Florence there are more than thirty
panels, numbered from 223 onward, which were
painted for the plate cupboards of SS. Annun-
ziata, Florence, some of which he may have
painted during this time, but some of them are
later productions. He painted an "Annimci-
ation " for the Church of S. Alessandro at Brescia
in 1432, and an extremely beautiful tabernacle
altar-piece for the corporation of the Linaiuoli
in 1433, which is now in the Gallery of the
Uffizi. The central part and wings of this
tabernacle contain a life-size figure of the

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 263

Madonna, the Child and saints, and also twelve
charming angels of great beauty. This portion is
numbered 17. The large picture of " The Coro-
nation," No. 1290, has the Virgin and Child
in the centre, male and female saints below,
and groups of lovely angels, blowing trumpets
painted in bright tints of blue, red and green on a
gold-rayed ground. There are here three predelle
with the subjects of the " Sposalizio," " Birth of
St. John " and " Dormition, " which belong to
the last-mentioned " Coronation."

Though most European galleries contain ex-
amples of Fra Angelico's work, the greater number
are in Florence, where this master can be studied
best. One of his works is in the National
Gallery, and is a very valuable example. It is
the predella that formerly belonged to the
altar-piece still remaining in S. Domenico at
Fiesole. This predella is a work in five com-
partments, with the subject of " The Paradise,"
where Christ as the central figure is shown with
the Banner of the Resurrection in His hand,
surrounded by a choir of angels with musical
instruments. Crowds of the Blessed are kneeling
at either side, and at the ends are rows of black-
robed Dominicans, over two hundred and sixty
figures being represented.

Through the influence of Angelico's great
patron, Cosimo de' Medici, the fraternity were
removed from Fiesole, and installed in the
Convent of S. Marco about 1436. In Florence
Angelico was brought into contact with the full
forces of the Renaissance. Donatello, Ghiberti

264 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and Brunelleschi were making themselves famous
as sculptors and architects of the new and pro-
gressive movement; the walls of the Brancacci
Chapel had already been adorned with frescoes
by Masolino and Masaccio — all of which had their
lasting effects on the mind and work of Fra
Angelico, in the broadening of his ideas in design
and in the improvement of his skill of hand, but
no external agency affected the purely and
intensely religious character of his work, which
remained in this respect unchanged to the end
of his life.

In the year 1436, or shortly after, Fra Angelico
began to decorate the walls of S. Marco, and
finished this work about 1445. His best works
are the small frescoes, each measuring about six
feet in height and four feet in width, fourteen
or more of which he painted in the cells formerly
occupied by the monks, one fresco in each cell.
The rest of the frescoes in the other cells are
doubtless the work of Fra Benedetto, brother of
Angelico, or other assistants, as they are of
inferior workmanship and design.

The first cell on the left has the fresco of
" Christ appearing to the Magdalen." The robe
of Christ is a linen-white tone with umberish
shades; that of the Magdalen of a yellowish-
pink colour ; the hurdle fence, which runs across
in the background, is of a golden straw colour;
trees, flowers and foliage are chiefly in tints of
broken greens, and the rock-work and entrance
doorway to the tomb are in cool greys. In the
fresco of the second cell, " The Deposition of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 265

Christ," the composing lines of the draperies
and rocks are harmonious in their flow. The
six figures are well composed so as to form a
decorative pattern-like effect, at the same time
the intense fervour and piety of the subject is
admirably expressed. The draperies are in reds,
purples, black and white. " The Resurrection "
fresco in the eighth cell has a very harmonious
colour arrangement, a combination of pale purples,
greens, white and dark blue. The colouring of
the fresco in the last or inner cell on the right,
" The Adoration of the. Magi," though faded is
still very beautiful ; the Virgin has a blue dress,
and for the rest of the colouring, peach and plum
and golden tints prevail. The colour schemes
of the other cell frescoes from Era Angelico's
hands are similar to the first and second of the
series. The ninth cell has " The Coronation "
subject, where humility is finely expressed in the
countenance of the Virgin. Twelve or more of
the cells contain each the subject of " The
Crucifixion " ; some of these are in a faded and
damaged state.

The execution of these frescoes by Angelico
is exceedingly firm and direct, frankly painted
without any hesitation of touch ; in these paint-
ings the student will find a more masterly freedom
of workmanship than in the miniature-like and
more popular altar-pieces and easel pictures of
this master.

" The Annunciation " on the wall of the upper
corridor, facing the staircase, is a simple but
effective composition; it has been considerably

266 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

repainted, but the colouring, though now dull
and opaque, is still reminiscent of Angelico's
work. The Virgin's dress is dark blue with olive-
green lining ; the angel's is a pinkish dove colour ;
grass, foliage, and flowers grey greens and white ;
the architecture a light stone colour, and the
paling behind a warm grey.

The great " Crucifixion " in the chapter-house
appears to be in a fairly sound condition, but has
also been much repainted. The sky in the back-
ground of this fresco now appears as three broad
horizontal bands of dark purplish red, at the
top; next this a light straw-coloured band, and
at the horizon a golden yellow band. The
supposition is that it was originally an evening
sky, and the upper part has been blue; but all
the blues in the sky have fallen off and left the
reddish preparation. Other frescoes by Angelico
in the Monastery of S. Marco are in the cloister :
" St. Peter Martyr," " S. Dominic at the Foot
of the Cross," " Pieta," "Christ as Pilgrim
welcomed by two Dominicans "—the last is a
noble and beautiful work.

In 1447 Fra Angelico painted the ceiling
frescoes in the Chapel of S. Brizio, in the Duomo
of Orvieto, with the subjects of " Christ as the
Judge " and " The Prophets." He was assisted
in this work by his pupil Benozzo Gozzoli, but
it was left incomplete.

His last works were the frescoes which he
painted in the Chapel of Nicholas V in the
Vatican (1447-49) with incidents from the
lives of St. Stephen and St. Lawrence. These

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 26T

last works of Fra Angelico show how strongly
he was influenced by Masaccio. He had also
the assistance of Benozzo Gozzoli in the painting
of these frescoes.

Fra Benedetto, the brother of Angelico, is
known better as a miniaturist than a painter,
but he no doubt assisted his brother in many of
the S. Marco frescoes, though to what extent it
would be difficult to say. He adorned all the
choir-books and psalters for the Church of S.
Domenico at Fiesole and for the Convent of S.
Marco. Many of Benedetto's illuminated books
are now preserved in the Museo San Marco. He
died in 1448.

Paolo Uccello (1397-1475). The painter
Paolo di Dono was better known as Uccello. It
has been suggested that he was given this name
because of his fondness for keeping and painting
birds. He was born at Florence, and first worked
as a goldsmith and sculptor in bronze, in which
capacity he assisted Lorenzo Ghiberti in making
the celebrated gates of the Baptistery at Florence.
He was greatly influenced by Donatello, and
in painting by his contemporary, Domenico
Veneziano. There is not much left of his works,
as his paintings are very scarce, and the few
frescoes by him that still remain are much
damaged or much restored. All his works in
painting show unmistakably the influences of his
early training in sculpture, in their bas-relief
like effects, in grouping, and in the severity
and hardness of their outlines. There are stories
related by Vasari and others of Uccello's enthu-

268 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

siasm for the science and study of perspective,
and his love for this science must have been very
great, as we judge of this by the direct and pointed
way he has shown it, in his amusing figure of the
dead knight, very much foreshortened, together
with spear-shafts and swords lying on the ground,
geometrically arranged, and drawn to vanish
in the " point of sight." About this time the
science of perspective was brought to great per-
fection by Brunelleschi . Ghiberti and all the great
painters were zealous in their efforts to improve
their knowledge of the subject, and among these,
perhaps, Uccello was the greatest enthusiast.

Uccello was among the first realists of the
Florentine school, not only a realist in design
and in the drawing of the figure, but in choice
of subject. He was not a painter of religious
pictures, such as Angelico and his predecessors
in Italian painting. His study in realism and its
details, together with perspective, led him to
explore the domain of nature for suggestions,
hints, and even for subjects; and besides, in
his time a change was coming over the great
mass of the people, when purely devotional
pictures, except those painted for churches and
convents, were not in much demand. Com-
missions were given for pictures illustrating
stories from the antique, or from mythological,
historical and allegorical sources, including also
battle scenes and incidents from national and
civic life. There was a decline in the produc-
tion of religious pictures, where the subjects
were taken from the Bible, or from legends of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 269

saints, which had almost solely occupied the
attention of the artists of the preceding ages.

We are fortunate in possessing, in the National
Gallery, a fine example of Uccello's work in his
picture of "The Rout of San Romano," formerly
known as " The Battle of S. Egidio." The battle
took place in 1416, and the picture must have
been painted a long time after that, perhaps
fifty to sixty years. This picture is one of a
series of three representing incidents of the battle,
one of which is in the Uffizi Gallery, and one is
now in the Louvre. The National Gallery pic-
ture is the best of the three. It is a highly
decorative composition, where warriors in armour
and on horseback are charging each other in
combat. An armoured knight on a white horse
in the centre, with a very ornamental kind of
red hat, leads the warriors on the left, who are
armed with swords and great lances, two of
which bear the standard of the Condottiere,
Niccol6 da Tolentino. A knight is seen fighting
with three others on the right, and is mounted
on a white horse ; all the other horses are black.
There is a background of rose and orange trees,
and on the rising ground beyond a number of
small figures of soldiers are seen. A knight in
armour lies on his face in the foreground to the
left, his figure being very much foreshortened
and drawn, together with some spear-shafts, to
the point of sight. The general colouring is
black or very dark brownish grey and white, with
small bits of red, blue and yellow. The armour
of some of the knights is in silver. There is no

270 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

doubt that time and dust have considerably
helped to darken and dull this highly interesting
work. The Uffizi and Louvre panels that formed
the other portions of " The Rout of San Romano "
are not nearly so good in composition, colour or
condition as the London example.

Uccello painted various frescoes in terre-verde,
or grisaille, among which are those which decorate
the ambulatory walls of the monastery cloisters
of S. Maria Novella, Florence, and the monu-
mental painting (1437) of the equestrian figure
of Sir John Hawkwood, a great Enghsh soldier,
who served the Florentine RepubUc in 1392.
This is a painting in simulation of a marble
monument, and is a fine example of perspective
drawing. It occupies a place over the side portal
on the right in the Cathedral of Florence, and on
the left is a similar painting representing a mural
tomb of Niccolo da Tolentino, executed by Andrea
del Castagno in 1456. Both these frescoes were
originally painted on the north wall of the cathe-
dral, but have been transferred to canvas and
removed to their present position.

Paolo's compositions on the walls of the
cloisters are among his best works. The figure
drawing is excellent, and the technical method
of execution is bold and vigorous. The subjects
are " The Creation of Adam," " Creation of Eve,"
" Creation of Animals," " The Deluge," " Noah's
Sacrifice," the last named being the finest of the
series. These paintings have suffered very much
from exposure to damp; some of the work is
completely obliterated, and some of the intonaco

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 271

has dropped off the walls. Attempts, which
promise to be successful, have been made in
recent years to remove them, by transferring
them to a metallic galvanized netting or frame-
work, in order that they be placed under cover
in a drier atmosphere.

In the Louvre there is a portrait group of
life-sized heads by Uccello (No. 1272), where he
has introduced his own portrait together with
those of Giotto, Donatello, Brunelleschi and
Antonio Manetti the mathematician ; and in the
gallery of the Ducal Palace at Urbino is his
picture of " The Legend of the Desecrated Host."
In Madame Andre's collection at Paris there is a
small picture of "St. George and the Dragon "
by this master.

DoMENico Veneziano (about 1400-1461).
There is nothing known of the early life of this
painter. He belonged to the Florentine school,
but he called himself a Venetian. He was known
to have been in Perugia in 1438, where, as Vasari
states, he adorned a hall in the Casa Baglioni,
and afterwards he was called to Florence. The
records of the Hospital of S. Maria Novella
prove that he worked there from 1439 till 1445,
painting frescoes in the choir of the Chapel of S.
Egido in that hospital, but these works are no
longer in existence. Vasari relates that these
paintings were executed in an oil medium, and
the chapel records have many entries of payments
for linseed oil, which was furnished to Domenico
for these wall paintings. The painters of Florence
in the first half of the fifteenth century were

272 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

experimenting in the use of oils and varnishes
as new mediums, Veneziano being one of the
leaders in this direction. Piera della Francesca
and Alessio Baldovinetti, both pupils of Do-
menico, experimented further with the new oil
mediums, but with no definite success, and
sometimes the results, especially in wall painting,
were disastrous. The Florentines were among
the greatest exponents of the buon-fresco methods
of wall painting, but some of them became
tired of working in a medium that only permitted
them to work on the plaster while it kept its wet
or very damp surface, and the time it remained
wet being only three or four hours, it was not
thought long enough to enable the artist to get
much finish or elaboration into his work.
They sought, therefore, to apply the oil or varnish
medium to wall painting, not as it had been done
in panel painting, where the oil-varnish was put
over the dry tempera painting as a finishing
coating, but they tried the experiment of mixing
oil or oil-varnish with the tempera egg-size
medium, and thus obtained what was an emul-
sion, in which they ground their colours. Paint-
ings executed on walls in this medium may be
effective, and may look well for a considerable
length of time, but unless they are protected
from the damp atmosphere by some kind of oil-
varnish the colours will disintegrate and fall off
the surface, owing to the fact that an emulsion
is not nearly so effective as a " binding " agent
for the pigments as a purely oil or a purely water
medium. It may also be added that colours

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 273

applied to a plaster wall with an emulsion
medium will not adhere to its surface so firmly
as those which have been ground either in water
or in oil alone.

Many wall paintings executed by Florentine
painters in this experimental period, and with
this complicated medium, have either disap-
peared or are at present in a deplorable state.
For example, the almost destroyed wall painting
of " The Nativity," by Alessio Baldovinetti, in
the Church of SS. Annunziata, Florence, was
unfortunately painted in this oil-and-water
emulsion, which largely accounts for its present
bad state .^ The present writer is strongly of
opinion that Leonardo da Vinci's great painting
of " The Last Supper " chiefly owes its destruc-
tion to the artist's experiments in painting in a
mixed medium of oil and tempera. It has
always been asserted that this great work was
an oil-painting, but it is neither a pure oil nor
a tempera painting, and is more than likely
to have been painted in a mixture of both.

Domenico Veneziano may have acquired a
knowledge of painting in his early days at Venice.
Vasari relates in his life of Antonella da Messina
that Domenico met Antonella at Venice, and
that the latter imparted to him the secret of
painting in oil. Domenico, however, founded his
style on that of Fra Angelico and Masaccio, and,
like Castagno, he was greatly influenced by Dona-
tello. His works are extremely rare, so many
having perished. Only two signed works of his
^ See postea, p. 289.

VOL. II. T

274 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

are known, namely, " The Enthroned Madonna
and Child," with four attendant saints standing
under vaulted arcades, which was formerly in
S. Lucia de' Bardi, but is now in the Uffizi Gallery,
and the other is a fresco transferred to canvas,
and now in the National Gallery, No. 1215. This
has the subject of " The Madonna Enthroned."
The Infant, whose figure is very naturally drawn,
stands on the Virgin's knee, and with His finger
he makes the sign of benediction. The Virgin
has a diapered red robe and blue mantle ; above
her head is the Dove, and the Eternal surroimded
by an aureole. The marble throne is of a beauti-
ful and unusual design, and is inlaid with bands
of mosaic. This fresco originally occupied a
niche or tabernacle which also contained two
heads of canonized monks, which are now also
in this gallery, Nos. 766 and 767.

A late fresco by Veneziano, with the subject of
" The Baptist and St. Francis," remains on the
right wall of S. Croce, Florence, and a picture of
" The Madonna and Child " is now in the Louvre,
this being the detail of an altar-piece ; and in the
Berlin Gallery there is a " Martyrdom of St.
Lucy " assigned to him. Veneziano died in the
year 1461, which was four years after he was
supposed to have been murdered by Andrea
Castagno.^,

Andrea dal Castagno (1410 ?-1457). This

painter was a contemporary of Paolo Uccello.

He was born at Scarperia, near Florence, and

was sent to the latter city by his patron

^ See postea, p. 277.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 275

Bernardetto de' Medici. At Florence he came
under the influence of Donatello and Uccello,
and was himself the forerunner of Antonio
PoUaiuolo. His supposed earliest work was the
picture of a nude " Charity," which he painted
above the gateway of the palace of the vicars of
the Republic at Scarperia, but this work has now
perished. His works are strong, a trifle coarse,
but full of vigour and swing, showing great
realism, and have much in common with the
character and style of Uccello's productions.

Castagno is represented in the Uffizi Gallery
by his fine fresco (No. 12) of " The Crucifixion,"
which has been removed from the Monastery of
the Angeli at Florence to this gallery. The cen-
tral figure of the Redeemer on the Cross is of a
well-studied realistic type, and though it is some-
what forced in the accentuation of the bone and
muscle articulations, it is well constructed and is a
good example of the painter's knowledge of the
human form, and of his power to express it.
The composition is in the form of a lunette, the
treatment of the design is sculpturesque, and
would make a fine design for a bas-relief. The
relief effect is augmented by the flat treatment
of the background, which is almost black in
colour, and by the architectonic arrangement of
the five figures that nearly fill the space. The
two figures on the left are the Virgin and St.
Benedict, and those on the right are SS. John and
Romauldo. The heads are remarkably small, but
the features are carefully drawn and natural in
expression, the best figure of the four being that

276 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

of St. John, which is very fine in pose and action.
His robe is of a pink colour, with a green-sleeved
under garment; the Virgin's draperies are blue,
and the dresses of the two saints at the sides
are of a warm umbery white. The figure of the
Virgin is a fine conception of dignified sorrow.
Vasari relates, that " for Pandolfo Pandolfino
Andrea depicted certain illustrious persons in
one of the halls of his palace at Legnaia." This
was the Palazzo Pandolfino of Vasari's time,
now the Palazzo Nenceni. These frescoes con-
sisted of nine portrait figures of celebrated people,
and have now been transferred to canvas, and re-
moved from the palace by the Italian Government
to the picture gallery attached to the refectory
of S. Appolonia in Florence, situated north-west
of the Piazza San Marco. These works, which
have been freely restored, represent Boccaccio,
Petrarch, Dante, Filippo Scolari (known as
"Pippo Spano"), Obergespann of Temeswar in
Hungary (who was the patron of MasoUno), Queen
Thomyris (Cumsean sibyl), Esther (a half-figure),
and two others. The heroic figure of Pippo
Spano is a splendid conception of " The Conqueror
of the Turks," noble in attitude and powerful
in its realism. Wearing a coat of armour, he
stands bareheaded facing the spectator, with
legs apart, while with both hands he bends the
blade of his sword, trying the temper of the steel.
This figure and the " St. John " in the Uffizi fresco,
in the dignified grandeur of their conception,
would of themselves justify Castagno's claim as
one of the most original masters of his time, and

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 277

make us all the more regret that so little of his
work has escaped destruction.

The painting in grisaille, representing the
mural tomb of Niccold da Tolentino, has been
already mentioned in connection with the similar
Hawkwood fresco by Uccello, both of which are
in the Cathedral of Florence. Vasari mentions
many other frescoes painted by Castagno which
are now lost, or cannot be traced. Authentic
panel pictures by him are extremely rare, and
some that are ascribed to him are doubtful.

A small example of his work is a " Crucifixion,"
No. 1388 in the National Gallery, where the
grief-stricken Virgin and St. John stand one on
each side of the crucified Saviour, and the two
dying malefactors are in the foreground of the
picture. Castagno died on May 15th, 1461.
Vasari relates that in a fit of jealousy, or bad
temper, which it appears this painter was always
liable to, he killed Domenico Veneziano ; but as
it has been proved by a later record that the
latter survived Castagno by nearly four years,
the traditional story is more conjectural than
convincing.

Fra Filippo Lippi (1406-1469), Filippo Lippi
was the son of a butcher named Tommaso Lippi.
He was left an orphan at an early age, and
as a youth of fifteen he joined the Community
of the Carmine at Florence in 1421. It is there-
fore more than likely that his art career first
began by his study of the frescoes in the neigh-
bouring Brancacci Chapel, which had been com-
pleted by Masaccio before Lippo had entered the

278 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

Community as one of the Brotherhood, in which
he remained until 1437.

Like Fra Angelico, Lippi was greatly in-
fluenced by Lorenzo Monaco, and was quite
likely to have been one of his pupils ; but Lippi
was also influenced by Angelico, Masolino and
Masaccio. In its composition, colour and tech-
nical qualities his work is always vivacious and
interesting, for he was one of the great men of
bis time. The influence of Lorenzo Monaco
and of Fra Angelico, especially in Lippi's earlier
work, is seen in his clear, fresh and luxurious
style of colouring ; in his fondness for rich orna-
mentation on the dresses of his figures and archi-
tectural accessories, and in his reticence in shade
or relief. Though Florentine in style and spirit,
his work has still many points in common with
the decorative features and finish of Sienese and
Umbrian painting. In his flesh painting he
obtained a solid kind of finish where the colours
are so well fused that they appear to melt into
each other. Many of his works prove that he
quite understood the laws of perspective ; but, on
the other hand, some of his works are faulty in
perspective, which may have been the result, on
his part, of carelessness or of hasty execution.
Although Lippi cannot be considered as a reahst,
he was one of the best draughtsmen of the human
figure among his contemporaries. He studied
nature, not to reproduce it in a realistic or a
commonplace way, but in order to generaUze its
forms into an abstract beauty of his own inven-
tion. In his later works, especially, the result

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 279

of his study from nature is very apparent; for
example, his representations of the Virgin and
saints, though full of purity and grace, are of a
much more earthly type than those of the
heavenly minded monk of Fiesole. Generally
speaking, in the style formulated by Lippi we
see much that reminds us of the spiritual idealism
of Angelico, mixed with something of the realism
of Castagno and Masaccio.

Among the early works by Filippo Lippi
that strongly show Angelico's influence, may be
mentioned the picture of " The Annunciation,"
No. 666, and " St. John Baptist with six other
Saints," No. 667 in the National Gallery; " The
Virgin Adoring the Child " and " The Nativity,"
both in the Academy of Florence. The two
first named, in the National Gallery, are each in
the form of a lunette, and were removed from
the Riccardi (Medici) Palace at Florence in
1846. Another picture in the same gallery is
" The Vision of St. Bernard," which is one of the
two pictures that were painted by Lippi, the other
being an Annunciation, in 1447, for the space above
the door of the Cancelleria in the Palazzo della
Signoria at Florence. This panel is hexagonal
in shape, and represents St. Bernard dressed in
white and seated before his desk, which rests
on a rock, and opposite the saint on the left
appears the Virgin to his vision. She is dressed
in dull pink and blue draperies, and is attended
by three angels. The general colouring in this
work is dull and low-toned, forming a marked
contrast to the rich golden hues of his other

280 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

works in this gallery. It may be mentioned
that the same subject has been painted by his
son Filippino Lippi about 1487, and has much in
common with Fra Filippo's work. The latter work
is now, and has been since 1529, in the Badia,
Florence. All these works by Fra Filippo are
pervaded by the quiet mystic character and
deep religious sentiment which we see expressed
in the works of Beato Angelico, and were pro-
bably executed either while he remained with
the Brotherhood of the Carmine or immediately
after he left that Community, and were painted
for his patron, Cosimo de' Medici. In the
" Annunciation " picture, in the National Gallery,
the crest of the Medici family, three feathers
tied together in a ring, may be seen on the
pedestal beneath the faultily drawn vase of hUes.
One of the finest works by this master, and also
one of the best examples of early Italian painting,
is the beautiful Tondo of " The Virgin and Child,"
No. 343 in the Pitti Gallery, Florence. The
composition of this work is extremely good and
very interesting, as it embraces, in addition to
the central group, other incidents of the Nativity
of the Virgin, SS. Joachim and Anna, besides
visitors, servants and attendants in the back-
ground. There is also an architectural setting of
well-designed interior and exterior features. The
Virgin in this picture is distinguished for her
natural expression, which is pensive and thought-
ful, while it is replete with maternal affection.
Fra Filippo was the first of the Italian masters who
depicted the Virgin with an earthly yet solemn

CORONATION OF THE VIRGIN. PINACOTECA, CITTA DI CASTELLO :

TEA FILIPPO i.irri.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 281

cast of feature, for hitherto in the pictures of the
Madonna the traditional and more devotional
type was adhered to. This innovation suggests
that the face of the Virgin in this picture was
painted from nature, and it is quite possible that
we have here the lineaments of Lucretia Buti,
who was the mother of Filippino Lippi. The
love story of Lucretia and Filippo related by
Vasari, but discredited by other writers, has,
however, been substa,ntiated by later records.
In other pictures of the Madonna by this artist
he has also painted the same type of face. The
Tondo of the Pitti Gallery was likely to have been
painted at Prato, about the year 1452, just be-
fore Filippo began the frescoes in the choir of
Duomo, in which work he was assisted by his
companion, Fra Diamante.

The frescoes in the choir of the Cathedral at
Prato, though now considerably injured, are the
finest of Fra Filippo's wall paintings, and the work
occupied the painter's time from 1452 till 1456.
The subjects are representations of incidents
in the hves of St. John the Baptist and St.
Stephen, the lunette and lower courses on the
right of the choir being decorated with the St.
John histories. In the scene of "The Birth of
St. John " there is an exceedingly fine figure of
St. Elizabeth on her couch. The lowest course
extends not only along the side wall, but occupies
a portion of the end wall, and this space is
subdivided into compartments containing, re-
spectively, the incidents of " The Saint's Decapi-
tation," " The giving of the Head to Herodias "

282 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and " The Dance of Salome." In the latter scene
the guests are sitting at a table, forming three
sides of a square or rectangle, and in front, on
the left, the very graceful figure of Salome is
represented dancing, while some musicians are
standing about. On the right of the picture
Salome gives the head to Herodias, who is
seated behind the table, surrounded by ladies
clad in richly designed dresses, their hair being
done up in ornamental plaitings. Subsequent
painters, including Michelangelo, have copied
or taken hints from the dressing of the hair, and
from the richly ornamented costumes of the female
figures in Fra FiUppo's paintings. The features
of Salome are said to represent those of Lucretia
Buti.

The finest piece of composition in this series
of frescoes is the group representing " The part-
ing of St. John from his Parents," where Eliza-
beth, stooping, embraces her son, and Zacharias,
resting on a pole, gazes down on them ; the figure
of a servant in the background adding the
necessary balance to the pleasing arrangement
of the group.

On the left wall of the choir are the frescoes
illustrating the life and legends of St. Stephen.
Beginning from above are the subjects of " The
Birth of St. Stephen," "His Ordination," "Care
for the Poor," "The Stoning" and "His Burial."
In the last-named fresco there are some excellent
portrait figures, the finest being that of Carlo
de' Medici, the donor. Filippo's own portrait is
also here, and is the one on the extreme right.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 283

where he is dressed in a black robe and black
skull-cap.

In the later years of his life Fra Filippo deco-
rated the apsis of the Cathedral at Spoleto with
scenes from the life of the Virgin. These
frescoes were left unfinished at his death in
1469, but completed afterwards by his assistant,
Fra Diamante, in 1470. They are now in a very
ruined state through damp and restoring, some
of the figures being entirely gone. Though
they may be classed as works of considerable
merit, they are inferior in composition when com-
pared with the finer Prato frescoes.

CHAPTER XV

THE PESSELLI, ALESSIO BALDOVINETTI AND THE
POLLAIUOLI

There is very little known concerning the
life and work of the elder of the two Pesselli,
who was commonly called Pessello, but whose
full name was GiuUano d'Arrigo Giuochi. We
do know, however, that he brought up and first
taught his grandson, Francesco Pessello, the more
distinguished painter of the two. The latter is
better known under the name of Pessellino, who
has left a fair number of altar-pieces, panel
pictures, and cassone decorations that are works
of great merit, and are now much scattered and
preserved in European and American galleries
and private collections.

Giuliano was born at Florence about 1367,
and died in 1446. His more distinguished grand-
son, Francesco, only survived his grandfather
eleven years, for he died in 1457, when he had
reached his thirty-fifth year.

The elder painter, as proved by records, prac-
tised sculpture and architecture as well. He
was one of the competitors for the erection of
the Cupola of S. M. del Fiore in 1419, when
Brunelleschi's model was accepted, but his
abilities as an architect must have been of

284

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 285

considerable merit, as the superintendent of the
building elected Giuliano as a substitute to take
the place of Brunelleschi in the event of the
latter's illness or death, so that the work might
still be carried on.

There are no paintings preserved that can be
definitely ascribed to Giuliano, but most of the
work that came from the studio where both of
the Pesselli laboured was usually assigned to the
elder Pessello. Vasari has also confounded the
relationship and names of these two artists in
his very short notice of their lives.

The painter Stefano, who died in 1428, had
married a daughter of Pessello, and as his
son Francesco, who at the death of his father
was only five years old, as we have seen, was
brought up by his grandfather, it may be
reasonably inferred that at least the earlier
works of Pessellino were more or less carried out
under Pessello' s guidance and inspiration.

Francesco Pessellino (1422-1457). In addi-
tion to what this painter may have learned
from his grandfather Giuliano, he owed more
to Fra FiUppo Lippi, who was perhaps his real
master. He was also in some degree a follower
of Angelico, and was further influenced by
Masaccio and Domenieo Veneziano. In his
colouring and technical methods much of his
work reveals his indebtedness to Fra Lippi, and
in his smaller works, especially, there are many
reminiscences of Angelico's daintiness and charm.
He usually painted in clear tones, with a strong
and rich impasto, and excelled in the drawing

286 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and painting of animals and landscape. Many of
his best works are his decorations of cassone, or
wedding chests, on which he painted " Triumphs "
from sacred as well as from mythological sources,
in which he generally dressed his personages in
the stately and rich Florentine costumes of his
time. The figures on foot and on horseback
appear in beautiful landscapes, where animals
of all kinds are represented. A great number of
these cassone must have come from the work-
shop of the Pesselli, some of which are still
preserved to the present day. Two of them
are in Lady Wantage's collection at Lockinge
House, Berkshire, and depict " The Trixmiph of
David," and two are in the Gardner Collection
at Boston, U.S.A., representing " The Triumph
of Petrarch." It will be remembered that during
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the Sienese
painters executed many of these interesting
cassone decorations, some of which, from the
ateliers of Beccafumi and others, are still
preserved.

The earliest known independent work by
Pessellino is the beautiful predella in the Buona-
rotti Collection at Florence, which represents
three scenes from the legend of St. Nicholas.
Another predella painted by him, originally
belonging to the altar-piece which Fra Lippi
painted for the Church of S. Croce, consists of
five subjects, but has been divided into two
parts, one of which, containing three subjects,
namely, "The Nativity," "Martyrdom of SS.
Cosmas and Damian," and " The Miracle of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 287

St. Anthony of Padua," is now in the Academy
at Florence, No. 72 ; and the other has the two
subjects, " The Miracle of SS. Cosmas and
Damian," and " St. Francis receiving the Stig-
mata," and is now in the Louvre Gallery, No.
1414. The figures in these interesting predelle
panels are very natural, lively and animated,
and the colouring and technical methods show
the influence of Fra Lippi on Pessellino's work.
The same influence is strongly marked in the two
very fine predella pictures by this master, Nos.
29 and 30 in the Doria Gallery, Rome. In
these works the colouring is clear and bright,
and the drawing and execution are very careful
and decidedly firm, while great animation and
movement are expressed in the natural render-
ing of the figures. The subjects chosen for
illustration are, " Pope Sylvester before Con-
stantine " and " Sylvester in Confinement,"
painted on one panel, and on the other
" Sylvester restoring the Two Magi," and his
" Subduing of the Dragon."

Pessellino is represented in the National Gallery
by his picture of " The Trinity," No. 727. This
interesting work is the central panel of the
altar-piece of " The Trinity, with Saints and
Angels," which he painted for the Church of
the Trinity at Pistoia, but left unfinished when
he died in 1457. He had taken the two painters,
P. di Lorenzo Pratese and Zenobi di Migliore,
into partnership in 1453, and they were assisting
him in the painting of this work, which they
finished after his death. The other portions of

288 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

this altar-piece are in various collections in
England and Italy. The central panel in the
National Gallery is painted in tempera, and has
the form of a cross, the upper part being
octagonal-shaped, where the Eternal Father,
dressed in grey-blue and rose-coloured garments,
is seated on the clouds in a gold-edged aureole,
and surrounded by red and white cherubim.
With outstretched arms He supports the Cross
on which hangs the crucified Saviovir. The
head of the Eternal and the figure of Christ are
bathed in a bright fight, the flesh tones being
of a general golden grey. The blue sky is over
a decorative type of brown and green landscape,
which with the flowery but dark foreground
form the setting of the figures. The Dove, with
outspread wings, hovers above the Saviour's
head.

Alessio Baldovinetti (1435-1499). There has
been argument as to who was the real master
of Alessio Baldovinetti. The names of the
painters Paolo Uccello, Castagno, the Pesselli
and Domenico Veneziano have formerly been
mentioned as his masters, because his work and
his methods of execution bear relationship to
the works of these painters; but according to
Mr. B. Berenson, who has made an extended
study of the methods and style of this painter,
his real master was Domenico Veneziano, and
he was also influenced by Paolo Uccello.^

It has been already mentioned, under the

1 B. Berenson, Study and Criticism of Italian Art, p. 23
(Second Series).

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 289

notice of Domenico Veneziano's life and works
in this volume, that Alessio and Domenico had
experimented in the use of the tempera varnish
and linseed oil in mixture with the old egg-size
tempera medium, which would form a kind of
emulsion, and also that the interesting fresco
of " The Nativity " painted by Baldovinetti in
the Church of SS. Annunziata, Florence, was
partially executed in this new medium, and in
consequence of its instability as a medium for
wall paintings, the work in question has almost
been destroyed. Vasari has stated in his life
of this painter that " Alessio sketched his stories
in fresco, but finished them a secco, tempering
his colours with the yolk of eggs, mingled with
a liquid varnish, prepared over the fire; by
means of this vehicle he hoped to defend his
work from the effects of damp . . . but he foimd
himself deceived in his expectations."

The fresco of " The Nativity " in SS. Annun-
ziata was executed by Baldovinetti about 1462,
and is the earliest existing work from the hand
of this master. It is remarkable for its fine
landscape treatment, which is superior to the
figure composition of the work.

Alessio was an unequal painter. He gave
more attention to experimenting in vehicles,
mediums, new methods of craftsmanship, and
new treatment of mosaics than to the improve-
ment of his drawing and painting. He painted
trees, foliage, still-life and ornamental details
with great fidelity and realistic truth, but often
neglected the broader principles of composition

VOL. 11. u

290 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

and correct pictorial balance of mass and pro-
portion. Sometimes, however, Alessio had his
great moments, and produced on such occasions
a true masterpiece of pictorial beauty and refined
composition. His picture of " The Madonna and
Child," a recent acquisition to the Louvre Collec-
tion, No, 1300a, is a magnificent example of
Baldovinetti's work. It was sold as a picture
by Piero della Francesca, but it is not only a
work by Alessio, but the finest known example
of his painting.^

Another interesting composition is his altar-
piece, No. 60 in the Uffizi Gallery. In this
picture the Virgin is seated in the centre, and
underneath her feet is a richly patterned carpet
spread on a flowery meadow; behind is a screen
of scalloped-edged tapestry drawn tightly across,
above which is the sky and a row of cypress,
palm and other trees, most carefully, but con-
ventionally, drawn and painted. The execution
throughout the work is extremely careful in
finish. There are three saints standing on either
side of the Virgin, and two kneeling in front.
The Uffizi contains another picture by Baldo-
vinetti, " The Annunciation," No. 56, where he
has introduced his usual typical trees in the
background against the sky and above the
marble cornice of the garden wall.

The frescoes of the choir in S. Trinity, Florence,
were painted by Baldovinetti after 1471. These
works were executed in the same kind of medivim

1 See B. Berenson, Study and Criticism of Italian Art,
p. 27 (Second Series).

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 291

he had adopted in his earlier wall paintings—
namely, a mixture of the tempera oil-varnish,
or probably linseed oil, and the yolk of eggs.
On the ceiling of the choir he painted the figures
of Noah, Moses, Abraham and David, and on
the walls " The Sacrifice of Isaac," " Moses
receiving the Tables of the Law," etc.; but of
these works there are only some fragments
remaining. Some portions of them have been
carried away, including a supposed portrait
of himself, which is now at Bergamo, in the
Morelli Gallery of the Academy, No. 23.

Baldovinetti interested himself in discovering
proper means for the restoration of mosaics.
Vasari states that he repaired the old mosaics
over the portal of S. Miniato al Monte in 1481,
and those of the Baptistery of Florence, above
the portal, and in the Tribune in 1482-83. Alessio
was continually experimenting in the chemistry
and technical branches of art craftsmanship, and
he claimed to have taught Ghirlandaio the craft
of mosaic working.

The Pollaiuoli : Antonio (1432-1498), Piero
(1443-1496). Antonio PoUaiuolo was the elder
of these brothers, and a much superior artist to
his younger brother, Piero. He was a gold-
smith and sculptor as well as a painter. Piero
was chiefly employed as his brother's assistant,
but his talents were so inferior to Antonio's that
it is to be regretted that the latter' s good nature
was extended to the degree of permitting his
younger brother to spoil so many of his own
masterpieces by an indifferent and weak execu-

292 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

tion. Miss Maud Cruttwell, in her work on
Antonio Pollaiuolo, has carefully distinguished
between the claims and merits of the two
brothers, and has written a most exhaustive
treatise on the life and works of these two
Florentine artists.^

Antonio, according to Vasari, was apprenticed
to Bartoluccio Ghiberti, the master of Lorenzo
Ghiberti, but his real masters, those who in-
fluenced him most, were Andrea dal Castagno,
Donatello and Baldovinetti. Piero was chiefly
indebted to his brother Antonio for his art educa-
tion, and was also influenced by Baldovinetti.

Antonio advanced the study of anatomy and
of the nude figure more than any master before
him or of his time, and it may be said that he
went further than any of his contemporaries
in giving movement and action to the human
figure in sculpture and in painting, and by doing
so he laid the foundations on which the art of
Signorelli and Michelangelo was securely built.
Michelangelo carried Florentine art to its greatest
perfection in regard to movement, action, ana-
tomy, and study of the nude, but just as one
must always be the child of somebody, credit
must be given to Antonio Pollaiuolo as the real
precursor of the mighty Florentine.

The family name of the Poliaiuoli was Benci,
but our artists took their adopted name from
the trade of their father, Jacopo, who kept a
poulterer's shop. With these artists, as in the
case of all Florentine masters of this period, the
1 Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo ; Duckworth, 1907.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 293

study of drawing and design formed the most
important part of their early education, which
they applied afterwards either to goldsmiths'
work, sculpture, painting, engraving or archi-
tecture; and accident, inclination, or other cir-
cumstances led them to specialize in one, or
rarely more than two, of these branches of art
in their after lives. It is to be regretted that
the Florentine method of art education does not
meet with universal favour in the present day,
for it is rapidly becoming more fashionable to
begin our education in art just at the point
where the old masters left theirs off.

Antonio, though great as a painter, was still
greater as a goldsmith and worker in metals, and
that he also considered himself as a goldsmith
first, and perhaps a painter in a secondary degree,
is proved by the signing of himself " Orafo,"
when his name appeared on documents. The
chief place, however, that Antonio occupies in
the history of art is that of the pioneer of scien-
tific draughtsmanship of the human figure; all
else that he has done is subordinate to this. He
drew the human figure in a scientific way from
its constructional point of view, giving great
attention to the mechanism of the joints, and to
the bones as the scaffolding of the frame ; and not
only did he study the surface forms of the muscles
when at rest, but the play of them under the skin,
when he sought to represent the human figure
in violent action or in any kind of movement.
Antonio, therefore, carried the constructive study
of the figure to greater lengths than the Greeks

294 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

or Italians had previously attempted, and in a few
instances even to the point of exaggeration, though
without overstepping the limits of natural action.

This master, like many of the leading artists
in Italy, set up a bottega, where he not only worked
himself and taught others the art and craft of
the goldsmith, but he also held a life-class,
where many of the best Florentine sculptors
and painters came to learn his methods of
drawing, and of acquiring a knowledge of the
anatomy of the human figure. Vasari says,
" he understood the nude in a more modern way
than any of the masters before him," and that
" his bottega became in a short time the most
popular in Florence, and he the most renowned
draughtsman of his day." Cellini testifies that
" he was so great a draughtsman that nearly all
the goldsmiths used his beautiful designs."

Though Antonio developed and brought to a
high perfection the study of the nude, it may be
said he followed on tlae fines that had been
adopted by Andrea dal Castagno, the great real-
ist. The latter, however, more than often, like
Masaccio, partially concealed the frame and its
anatomy under copious draperies or armour,
but in spite of the clothing Castagno was able to
show the natural action, virility and freedom of
the body underneath.

One of the finest of Antonio's compositions,
and perhaps the best example of his figure
draughtsmanship, is the only known engraving
from his hand, " The Battle of the Ten Nudes,"
an impression of which is in the collection of

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 295

Prince Lichenstein, at Feldsberg, and another
in the Uffizi Gallery. This superb example of
drawing from the nude in violent action exhibits
Antonio's style and great knowledge of the figure,
not only from its anatomical and constructive
point of view, but in regard also to the excessive
beauty of the figures themselves, and the masterly
arrangement of them in the composition, where,
as units of a harmonious pattern, they admirably
fulfil their part. The ten figures are opposed,
one against another, using swords, axes, bows
and arrows, and daggers. There is a certain
symmetry between each of the right and left
pairs of the combatants in regard to mass, but
great variety is obtained by the separate actions
and the difference in position of the limbs. An
interesting background is afforded by a thicket
of maize, vine and tree stems, the upright ten-
dency of which forms a valuable element of con-
trast in this beautiful and vigorous composition.
Antonio must have executed many other
engraved works, which are now lost. We know
that he had assistants, or partners, in his metal-
working and goldsmith's craft, one of whom
was Maso or Tommaso Finiguerra, the famous
niello worker. Niello-work is a form of engrav-
ing where the silver or other metal plate or object
is first engraved with a figure subject or orna-
mental pattern, and the incised lines afterwards
filled in with a black cement. The only one
existing example of Finiguerra's niello-work
which has escaped the melting-pot is the Pace,
now in the Museo Nazionale, Florence. On this

296 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

beautiful work there is a representation of the
Crucifixion. Finiguerra was from his early days
until his death, in 1464, in close friendship with
Antonio.

There are very few existing paintings from the
hand of Antonio. Miss Cruttwell gives eleven
only that are genuine, and of these, four are the
joint work of himself and his brother Piero.
The early works by Antonio were untouched by
Piero, but some of them are not in existence,
and some only known through engravings.
Lorenzo de' Medici commissioned Antonio, in
1459, after his work on the S. Giovanni Silver
Cross had come to an end, to paint three large
canvases for the Palace Medici, now the Riccardi
Palace, with " The Combats of Hercules." These
works are now lost, but two of them have been
engraved by Robetta^-namely, " Hercules slay-
ing the Hydra " and " Hercules and Antaeus."
The third canvas had the subject of " Hercules
rending the Lion." In the Uflfizi Gallery there
are two small panels, No. 1153, with the subjects
of " Hercules slaying the Hydra " and " Hercules
and Antaeus," being the same subjects as two
of the large canvases, and painted about the same
time by Antonio, or earlier than 1460, the date
of the painting of the larger works. These small
paintings in regard to their drawing and composi-
tion rank among the highest efforts in Italian
art. It would be difficult to point out any other
works in Florentine painting where strength,
movement, action and expression are better ren-
dered. The composition of the Hercules and

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 297

Antaeus is faultless, while the drawing of the
nude muscular action and facial expression in
both pictures could hardly be better given. In
these works, which are remarkable illustrations
of physical force, we see Antonio at his best.
There is a small but vigorously modelled bronze
group of the last-named subject, by Antonio, in
the Museo Nazionale, Florence.

About this time Antonio may have painted
his small picture of " David," now in the Berlin
Museum, and also the " Apollo and Daphne " of
the National Gallery, both of which are exquisite
works, romantic in sentiment, and highly poetic
in conception. In the Berlin picture David
stands with his slender but well-shaped legs wide
apart, his head erect and shoulders well thrown
back, having a serious expression on his youthful
face. His torso is powerful, and his hand and
feet are delicate and well formed. Between his
feet is the head of Goliath. His coat is of rich
brown velvet a,nd is lined with white fur, while
his tunic underneath and sleeves are blue, em-
broidered with gold. This beautiful work is
more of a poetic symbol of the strength and con-
fidence of youth than a mere picture of the
David who slew Goliath. The " Apollo and
Daphne " of the National Gallery (No. 928) is
another little work of idyllic charm, with its rich
and dark colouring of sombre crimsons and
golden greens. Apollo running has seized the
nymph, who is being transformed to a laurel, as
the foliage is already sprouting from her out-
stretched finger-ends above her head. Behind

298 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

them flows the Arno through a rich and delicately
painted landscape.

The celebrated picture of " The Martyrdom of
St. Sebastian," No. 292 in the National Gallery,
was painted for the Chapel of the Pucci in SS.
Annunziata, Florence, and finished about the
year 1475. It is one of the largest and most
important works by the PoUaiuoli, for both of
the brothers collaborated in the painting of this
picture. The design of the work is due entirely
to Antonio, and the two stooping archers in the
foreground, also the landscape background and
smaller figures in the distance ; but the painting
of St. Sebastian and the other four archers is
said to be the work of Piero.^ We should, how-
ever, be inclined to say that the painting of the
archer on the right is also the work of Antonio,
as it is certainly finer in workmanship and more
vigorous than any of the three others usually
assigned to Piero. Also, the question might be
asked : Is it not possible that the indifferent
painting of the saint and the archers ascribed
to Piero may be, after all, the work of restorers ?
It is almost incredible that Antonio, having de-
signed such an important work and painted the
landscape and two figures, should have left the
painting of the remaining figures to the inefficient
hand of his younger brother. One must believe
that at least Antonio would have painted the
St. Sebastian — the principal figure in the picture
— even if he painted nothing else in the composi-
tion. The figures are arranged in this picture in
1 Maud Cruttwell, Antonio Pollaiuolo : Duckworth, 1907.

MARTYRDOM OF S. SEBASTIAN. NATIONAL OALLEKV : ANTONIO POLLAIUOLO

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 299

an almost formal pyramid, having the four archers
in the foreground as the base and St. Sebastian
as the apex. It may be noted, however, that this
formality is not nearly so apparent in the picture
itself as it is in photographs of it, or in black-
and-white reproductions. It is undoubtedly a
work of great power, the colouring is strong and
rich, and the landscape is remarkable for its
aerial perspective and the delicate beauty of its
far-stretching distance.

Three paintings, which are the joint work of
Antonio and Piero, are the altar-piece of " The
Three Saints, James, Eustace and Vincent,"
now in the Uffizi Gallery; "Tobias and the
Archangel," with its beautiful landscape back-
ground, now in the Gallery at Turin, and an
" Annunciation," in the Berlin Museum. These
are all examples of good composition, and
fine in the movement, action and pose of the
figures, all of which is due to Antonio ; but the
painting, like that of the "St. Sebastian," is
imequal.

Another branch of Antonio's artistic activities
was the designing of sumptuous embroideries.
He designed a great number of these for the
enrichment of tunics, chasubles, copes, etc., for
the Church of S. Giovanni in Florence. The
embroidered work was executed by eleven master-
craftsmen from Venice, Antwerp, Navarre and
Verona, and the work was done in the time be-
tween the years 1466 and 1480, by order of the
Arte della Mercatanzia. The chief embroiderer
was Paolo da Verona, of whom Vasari speaks as

300 HISTORY AND METHODS OF

one " divine in that craft, excelling every other
master."

These embroideries have been taken off the old
vestments and have been placed under glass in
the Museum of the Opera del Duomo, Florence.
The subjects of these beautiful works are scenes
from the life of St. John the Baptist. Twenty-
seven examples have been preserved, less than
half of which are attributed to Antonio, and the
others have been designed by his assistants.
Those that have been designed by Antonio rank
among his finest efforts at figure composition;
the best of them are, " St. John Baptizing,"
" The Banquet of Herod," " The Decollation,"
and " Salome presenting the Head of St. John
to Herodias." In the latter work the figure of
Salome is fine in action and movement. In the
subjects named there are many figures that are
full of realism and intensely dramatic in con-
ception. As examples of pure illustration these
embroideries occupy a very high position, and
their decorative beauty is enhanced by the
splendid Florentine costumes of the male and
female figures, and their ornamental and quaint
head-dresses.

Piero's talents as an artist were a long way
inferior to those of his celebrated brother. It
has been the subject of much comment and sur-
prise, that the good-natured and easy-going
Antonio should have permitted his younger
brother to spoil so many of his (Antonio's) fine
creations by indifferent and unskilful workman-
ship.

ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING 801

In the year 1470 Piero painted a series of six
panels with subjects of " The Virtues " for the
Council Hall of the Palace of the Mercatanzia in
the Piazza Signoria, Florence. The designs of
some of these panels may have been suggested
but not drawn by Antonio, and he may have
superintended the work, and doubtless had some
small share in the painting of some parts of them.
The figures of each panel are seated on imposing
thrones of an ornate style of Renaissance design,
with hooded and arched canopy -construction.
Though the figures all possess a certain grandeur
of pose, and have each a grave and dignified mien,
they are of such an exaggerated length that if
they stood erect they would measure about ten
heads in height. This alone would suggest that
they were the work of Piero. The " Prudence "
and " Charity " panels are the best of the series,
and the best preserved. There is a cartoon or
outline sketch of the figure of Charity drawn on
the back of the panel of that subject, which is
the work of Antonio. Certain bits of rich and
beautiful colouring in the draperies and acces-
sories would suggest, if not the hand, the super-
intendence of Antonio. These works, which are
now in the Uffizi Gallery, have suffered as much
perhaps from repainting as they have from time
and neglect.

Piero is said to have painted the portrait of
Galeazzo Forza, No. 30 of the Uffizi Gallery.
It may be a portrait of Galeazzo, but it shows
a person of coarse features, though firm in ex-
pression. The painting is hard and dry in

302 ANCIENT AND MODERN PAINTING

execution, but as it is understood to be a copy
from another painting and not from the life, this
would account for its dry and laboured manner
of execution.

In the centre of the right wall of the choir of
the CoUegiata at San Gemignano there is a picture
of " The Coronation of the Virgin," which is
designed and entirely painted by the hand of
Piero. In the upper central part Christ crowns
the Virgin; below there are six saints, and at
either sides above are crowded groups of angels
with various musical instruments. The com-
position is of a. formal and symmetrical kind, each
figure on one side has almost its exact counterpart
on the other, both in pose and action. The seated
figures of Christ and the Virgin are of an extra-
ordinary length, and the disposition of the folds
of their lay-figure-like draperies and their bodies
also would be much more agreeable if they were
not so uncompromisingly symmetrical. The saints
below are much better in drawing and in propor-
tion than is usual in Piero' s work. This picture
is painted in oil-colours, and formerly adorned
the high altar of S. Agostino in San Gemignano.
It was painted in 1483, is signed by Piero, and
is the best of his unassisted works.

INDEX

Agnolo Gaddi, 63, 83, 86-91, 237

Alberta de Perrara, 237

Altiohiero da Zevio, 232, 238, 240

Andrea Pirenze, 92, 94

Andrea Pisano, 69, 71

Andrea Tafi, 21, 65

Angeli, monastery of, Florence,

82,83
Antonella da Messina, 273
Antonio du Meroatello, Umbrian

wood-carver, 215
Antonio Pederighi, 159
Antonio of Perrara, 90
Arena CJhapel, Padua, 40-47, 238,

240
Arezzo, 64, 80, 82
Assisi, 4, 27, 28
' , Giotto at, 31-36

Baldovinetti, Alessio, 272, 273,
288-291, 292

, , methods of painting

and mediums, 289

Baptistery, Parma, 10

, Pisa, 12, 15

Bargello, Florence, 86

Barisano, 10, 12

Bamaba of Modena, 234

Bartolo di Predi, 132, 133

Becoafumi, 156, 168-170

Bellini, Jaoopo, 188

Benedetto, Antelina, Pisan archi-
tect and sculptor, 10

Benozzo Gozzoli, 184, 185, 266,
267

Benvenuto di Giovanni of Siena,
148, 150, 151

Berenson, B., 143, 144, 148, 162,
166, 187, 198, 226, 248, 288

Berlingheri, Bonaventura, 2

Bicohema, 101, 131

303

Bonamico, 9
Bonanno of Pisa, 9
Bonfigli, Benedetto, 193-196
Brancacci Chapel, Florence, 262,

254, 255, 256, 277
Brown, Wood, 25
Brunellesohi, 264, 271, 284
Buffalmacco, Buonamico, 65-66,

68, 237
Byzantine miniatures and early

Sienese painting, 5

Camera della Segnatura, Vatican,

218
Campo Santo, Pisa, 66, 78, 80,

94, 95, 236, 247
Carlstein Castle, 234

Carmine, Church of, Florence,

95, 264
Casaone, 169, 286

Castagno, Andrea dal, 270, 273,

274-277, 279, 292, 294
Cellini, 294

Cenni di Francesco, 91
Cennino Cennini, 90, 91
Charles IV, Emperor, 234
Chigi, Agostino, 171
Cienni of Volterra, 91
Cimabue, 4, 22, 23, 24-26, 27, 29
Cortona, 174
Crivelli, 191
Crowe and Cavaloaselle, 25, 27,

90 194
" Crucifixes," 3, 21, 54, 232, 233
Cruttwell, Maud, 292, 296, 298

Daddi, Bernardo (da Firenze),

78-79
Dante, 23, 30, 116, 183, 231,

276
Deodati, Orlandi, 2, 3

804

INDEX

Domenioo del Tasso, wood-oarver,

215
Domenico di Barfx)lo, 141, 159
Domenioo di Niooolo, 158
Donatello, 267, 273, 274, 292
Douglas, Langton, 25, 2ft, 102,

144
Duocio Buoninsegna, 24, 25, 26,

27, 100-106
"Majestas" altar-piece, 101,

102, 103, 104

Ermitani, the, Padua, 240, 242

Fairfax Murray, C, 67
Parnesina Palace, 172
Filippiao Lippi, 277-283, 285
Filippo Soolari, "Pippo Spano,"

249, 276
Finiguerra, Maso, engraver, 296-

296
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, 194, 197-

200
Forster, Ernst, 239
Fra Angelioo, 38, 74, 85, 184, 248,

267, 259-267, 273, 278, 279, 285
Era Benedetto, 264, 267
Fra Diamente, 281, 283
Francesco di Giorgio, 148-150,

159
Frederick II, 13, 98
Fry, Roger, 25, 26

Gaddo Gaddi, 27-28

Gelasio de Mocolo (Ferrara), 236

Gentile da Fabriano, 184, 185-

189
Ghiberti, Bartoluccio, 292
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, sculptor, 205,

263, 267
Ghirlandaio, 72, 92, 256
Giottino (Tommaso di Stefano),

61-63
Giotto, 7, 16, 18, 19, 28-35, 238
Giovanni da Milano, 63, 64-66
Giovanni dal Ponte, 67
Giovanni Pisano, 7, 16, 19-20, 30
Giunta Pisano, 3, 4, 16, 27, 97
Guariento, 241, 242
Giiideotus, architect and sculptor,

11
Guido of Como, sculptor, 11

Guido of Siena, 6, 97
" Guido Ricoio da Fogliano," 112-
113

"Hawkwood, Sir John," fresco,

270, 277
Hutton, E., 78, 79

Imagiers, early French, 15, 16
Isabella d'Este, Paradiso of, 208

Jacopo degli Avanzi (Bologna),
232-233, 238-239

Jacopo d'Avanzo (Padua), 232-
233,240

Justus of Padua (Giusto di Gio-
vanni), 240

Kugler, 234

Langton Douglas, 25, 26, 144

Lanzi, 3, 142, 236, 237

"Last Supper," Leonardo da

Vinci, 273
Leonardo da Vinci, 202, 205, 214,

273
Lippo Dalmasi, 232
Lippo Memmi, 116-119, 145
Lombardo - Venetian territory,

237-238
Lorenzetti, the (Ambrogio and

Pietro), 69, 78, 94, 120-133
, Ambrogio, frescoes in the

Palazzo Pubblioo, Siena, 127-

130

, followers of the, 132

Lorenzo da Costa, 208
Lorenzo di Credi, 202, 214
Lorenzo di Pietro (Vecchietta), 146
Lorenzo Monaco (D Monaco), 82-

86, 269, 278
Lorenzo Pratise, P. di, 287
Lorenzo Veneziano, 244, 245
Lo Spagna, 198, 207, 226-230
, the Caen " Sposalizio," 226-

227
Lucca, 8, 11
Luoretia Buti, 281, 282

Malvasia, Bolognese writer, 231
Mantegna, 208, 238
Margaritone, 4, 97

INDEX

305

Masaooio, 92, 247, 277-279, 285,

294
, methods of painting and

drapery-drawing, 261-2S2
Maflolino, 93, 95, 247-262
, method of fresco painting,

261
Matteo di Giovanni, 140, 141, 161-

154, 169, 160
Mezzastris, Fiero A., 191
Michelangelo, 259, 261, 292
Michele of Milan, 90
Miniature painting, 5, 6
Monreale Cathedral, 9, 10
Mosaics, 5, 21, 22, 23, 27

Nardo, or Bernardo, di Clone, 69,

76,78
Nicoola Pisano, 7, 12-16
Niccolo da Foligno (Alunno), 191-

193
Niccolo Semiteoolo, 246-246
Nicholas de Bartolommeus, 12
Nidh-ieork, 296

Oderisio, 183, 231

Oil and tempera emulsion, 272-

273
Oil and varnish mediums, 271-

282
Opus Alexandrinum, 155
Opus Seelik, 156
Orcagna, 62, 69-78, 89, 214
Orsanmichele, 67, 70
Orvieto, Cathedral of, 78
Ottaviano Nelli, 184, 189-190

Paochia, Giroloma del, 165-168
Pacchiarotto, 163-166
Painters' Corporation, 67, 79, 96
Palazzo Communale, Prato, 64

Pandolflno, 276

Petrucci, Siena, 178

Pubhlico, Siena, 80

Palermo, S. Niccol6, at, 94
Paolo, or " Paulus de Venetiis,"

243-246
Paolo da Verona, embroiderer,

299
Parma, 10, 11
Pavement decorations, Siena

Cathedral, 165-160
VOL II.

Perugia, 65

Perugino (Pietro Vannucoi), 161,

186, 197, 198, 200, 201-219
, system of drapery-drawing,

203-206
Peruzzi, Baldassare, 170-174
Peruzzi Chapel, 48
Pesselli, the, Giuliano and Fran-
cesco, 284-288
Pessellino, Francesco, 285-288
Pessello, Giuliano, 284^285
Petrarch, 116, 238, 276
Piero della Francesca, 185, 194,

205-272
Pietro Cavallini, 30, 37
Pietro del Minella, 158
Pinturicchio, Bernardino, 160,

174r-179, 201, 219-226
, frescoes of the Sixtine

Chapel, 220
— - — , decoration of the Library,

Siena, 176-178
, the Borgia Apartments,

Vatican, 222-225
Pisa, 1, 8, 9

Pisan sculpture, 7, 13, 14, 17-20
Pisanello, 186, 187, 188
Pisano, Giovanni, 18-20

, Niccola, 7-8

Pistoia, 8, 11, 20
PoUaiuoli, the, 291-302
PoUaiuolo, Antonio, 275, 291-300

, Piero, 298, 299, 300-302

Prato Vecchio, 67

Qtiaratcsi altar-piece, 187

BafEaelle, 171, 201, 204, 218, 226,

256
Raineri frescoes, Pisa, 92, 93, 236,

247
Ravello Cathedral, 10, 12, 13
Biccardi Chapel, Florence, 74
Riohter, Dr. J. P., 24, 25
Robert, King of Anjou, 113
Robertus, 9
Robetta, engraver, 296
Roger van der Weyden, 186
" Rucellai Madonna," 24, 25

Saint Louis of Toulouse, 61,
113

306

INDEX

" Sala del Cambio," Perugia, Stamina, Gherardo di Jacopo, 95,

decorations of, 215-216
S. Maria Maddelena de Pazzi,

" Crucifixion," 214
San Marco, Florence, frescoes of

the cells of, 259, 264-265
, • , fresco of " The Cruci-
fixion," 266
San Miniato, Florence, 80, 89
Sano di Pietro di Mencio, 145-

146
Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni),

142-145
Sculpture, early French, 15, 16,

18
Segna di Buenaventura, 108
Siena, 6, 6, 16, 17, 81
Sienese book-covers, 101, 131,

163

choir-books, 131

painting, 5, 98, 99

, influence of early, 99

Signorelli, Luca, 161, 174, 185,

205, 292
Simone Martini, 93, 94, 108-116,

145
Simone Memmi, 59, 109
Simone of Bologna (" de Crooi-

fissi "), 232
Sodoma (Bazzi of Vercelli), 161,

174, 179-182
Spanish Chapel, S. Maria Novella,

Florence, 59, 60, 91, 94, 247
Spinello Aretino, 79, 82, 99
Stadel Gallery, Frankfort, 235
Stanza d'Eliodoro, Vatican, 171,

218
Stanza Incendio del Borgo, ceiling

of, 218

96,247
Stefano, 285
Stefano of Verona, 90
Suida, quoted, 25

Taddeo di Bartoli, 133-139, 190
Taddeo Gaddi, 28, 52, 56, 63, 64,

66, 94, 95
Tavoktte, 131
" The Tribute Money " (Masaccio),

256-257
Titian, 70
Tomasso da Modena, 233

Uccello, Paolo, 267-271, 274
Ugolino da Siena, 106-108
Ugolino di Neri, goldsmith, 106-

107
Umbrian School, early, 183
, 14th and 15th cen-
turies, 184-200

Vasari, 14, 24, 68, 178, 219, 232,

237, 247, 260, 267, 271, 276,

294
Vecchietta (Lorenzo di Pietro),

146-148

, pupils of, 148-151

Veneziano, Antonio, 91, 95, 247,

248,251
, Domenico, 194, 267, 271-

274, 285, 289
Verrocchio, 202, 214
Vite, Antonio, 95, 96

Wickoff, F., 24

Zenobi di Miglioie, 287

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