Bermuda: its history, geology, climate, products, agriculture, commerce, and government, from the earliest period to the present time; with hints to invalids

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BERMUDA:

ITS HISTORY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, PRODUCTS,
AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND
GOVERNMENT,

FROM ‘THO EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME;

Wit

HINTS TO INVALIDS.

BY

THEODORE L. GODET, M.D.

LONDON:
SMITH, ELDER AND CO., 65, CORNHILL.

——

M.DCCO.EX.

[ The riyht of translation is reserved.|

DEDICATION.

To his Excellency Colonel Freeman Murray, Governor and
Commander-in-Chief, ge. §c., of Bermuda, or Somers’
Islands.

Sim,—It is with the highest gratification that I avail myself
of your kind permission to dedicate this volume to your Excel-
lency—not only as a memento of my personal esteem, but
from a conviction that no one can more appreciate any efforts
in behalf of this Colony than your Excellency, who has the
power of rendering them available.

T have had the pleasure of finding myself encouraged in the
publication of this work by numerous subscribers; but to
your Excellency I am indebted for many additions to the
names that adorn the list.

I have the honour to subscribe myself, with every sentiment
of gratitude and respect,

Your Excellency’s

Very obliged and humble servant,

T. L. Gover.
Hamilion, Bermuda, 1860.

PREFACE.

ey

Tue aim of this volume is to give an historical
account of the origin and progress of the settlement
made by emigrants from England in Bermuda, or
Somers’ Islands, and of the constitutional establish-
mont, internal government, and political system
maintained by Great Britain in these Islands. I
have also endeavoured to describe the mamners and
ilispositions of the presont inhabitants, as influenced
by climate, situation, and other local causes; and
have offered some observations on the character and
genius of the coloured race in this colony.

In these pages will be found a more comprehensive
account than has hitherto appeared of the agricul-
ture of these Islands in general, and of their staple
commodities, and the various branches of the com-

vi PRs ACE,

merce of Bermuda; pointing out the relations of
each towards the other.

On the subject of the character of the coloured
inhabitants so much has been said of late by others,
that it may be supposed there remains but little to be
- added by me; it is certain, however, that my views
of the character and genius of the coloured inhabi-
tants differ very essentially from the representations
that have lately been given in a variety of pub-
lications,

From having resided many years in Bermuda—of
which place I am a native—I presume to think that
I am somewhat better qualified to judge of the
influence of climate and situation on the disposition,
temper, and intellect of the inhabitants, than some
of those writers who have not had the same ad-
vantages.

The precarious position of our commerce, and
the agitated and morbid condition of our white
and coloured population, sufficiently attest the im-
portance of a correct knowledge of the relative
circumstances of the two races that compose the

people of Bermuda.

PREFACE. vil

I do not attempt to conceal from myself the direct
bearing of the observations I have made on the
Colonial Government of these islands; for I feel the
full responsibility which, under the circumstances of
the times, devolves on any one who adventures on
* the dangerous precipice of telling unbiassed truth,”
regardless of the prepossessions of party, or the pre-
judice of class interests.

Having no personal interest with which that of
the community of Bermuda is not identical, I have
’ sought to benefit the colony by a full and fearless
development of the truth. In so doing, I feel that I
am acting in accordance with the spirit which ani-
mates the able representative of her Most Gracious
Majesty, and humbly aiding in promoting the inte-
rests of Bermuda, and those of Great Britain, so far

as the-colony is concerned.
T. L. GODET.

CONTENTS.

Seiuneia nce

Cnarter I,

HISTORY,
Pages

Modern Cathay—-New highway of nattons—Coast econory—
Discovery—Shipwreck of Barbotldre and Henry May—
Of Sir George Somers—Extension of charter by King
James I. to the Virginia Company — Formation of tho
Bermuda Company—Colony under Governor Moor—
Governor Tucker— Governor Butler — First cultivators
of the soil—The black African—The kidnappers—Com-
position of the first General Assembly — Distinguished
emigrants—Edmund Waller—His Battel of the Summer
Eslands—Is a member of the Long Parliament —- Con-
spiracy, escape, and residence in the Bermudaz ‘ 2 A

Cuarrsr IT,
CLIMATE

Warmth of the Gulf Stream—The Island celebrated by the
Bard of Erin—EHffeots of residence in Bermuda on persons
predisposed to scrofula or pulmonary consumption—Hifects
of the Gulf Stream on the climate of Bermuda— The
operations of the climate on agricultural produce —
Seasons-—Sailing directions between Bermuda and New
York or the Chesapeake— Yellow fever-——-H. M.’s hulk
Thames—The unhealthy character of the Tenedos—The
medical board—Some account of the yellow fever of 1858
—Its severity among the natives—Less fatal to Huropeans
—Hints to invalids from northern climates as to the pre-
servation of health in Bermuda . : 5 5 . 18

x CONTENTS.

Cuarrer III.

GOVERNMENT.

PAGE

Medical Practitioners— Government— Practical Republics—
The colonies of a free State—The Spanish possessions in
America—The evils and absurdities of the Constitution
of Bermuda—Party spirit—Private relations of life—A
Tory and a Radical—Families of different parties—The
public spirit extinguished— Tyranny of a majority—
Reform—Vice-regal government, with a Council of Advice
—Bitterness of party spirit in the House of Assembly—
Insult to the Representative of the Sovereign .

Cuarter IV.
BRITISH WEST INDIES.

The British establishments in the West Indies—The branches
of the Legislature— The Governor—The Council—The
House of Assembly . 3 é :

Cuarter V.

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC.

Church Establishment— Courts of Law—The Court of
Chancery—The Court of General Assize—The Court of
Exchequer—The Court of Ordinary—Instance Court of
Vice-Admiralty —The Court of Quarter Sessions — The
art of legislation—The Public Press—Trade—Revenue

Cuarter VI.

FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC.

Fisheries—The most esteemed fish—Their brilliant colours—
Peculiar fashion of baiting a hook—A “ full bait”’—The
fisherman taking it easy—-The goat-fish—The doctor-fish,
and their curious glassy lancets—The soap-fish, &c.—
Description of Bermuda—The group of islands—Their

40

49

60

CONTENTS. xl

PAGE
calcareous formation—Subterranean channels—Oval form

of the group—Eight ‘“tribes”—The town of Hamilton
and its general aspect—The shops—The houses in the
suburbs—The semi-circular suburb—Mount Langton—
Flag-staff—The public buildings a . 2 ° eae

Cuaprer VII.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Paget Tribe—Warwick and Sandy’s Tribes—Ireland Island—
The Royal Dockyard—Naval Establishment—Hospital—
The officers’ residences—Anchorages—Grassy Bay—Boaz
Island—New convict prisons—Somerset Island—Ellis Har-
pbour—Reef extending from Spanish Point—Natural break-
water to the Great Sound—Romantic road from Clarence
Lodge to Hamilton—“ Brackish Pond ”—* The Wells ”—
Wreck Hill—Gibbs’ Hill—Description of Lighthouse on
Gibbs’ Hill—Telegraphic post—The “Sand Hills’’—The
direction of the great road—Shore of white sand—Holo-
thuria— Views from the hills—Deep chasms—Declivities—
Surfaces of sand-hills—Incrustation of the layers of sand
—tTransition of sand into crystalline limestone—Castle
Harbour—St. George’s Island—Harbour of St. George—
Description of scenery by Thomas Moore—Fort Cunning-
ham— The streets—The houses—The barracks — The
roadstead . ‘ 7 . . 7 . es 88

CuartTer VIII.
AGRICULTURE.

Neglect of agriculture—Ignorance of the Bermuda farmers—
Continual spring—Bermuda takes the lead of all the
Northern markets, in exporting her farming produce—
Fertility of the soil—Proposed agricultural and horti-
cultural Society—Advantages of Societies of scientific
men—Proper rotation of crops, &c. &c.—Little attempt
to improve stock—The state of horticulture in Bermuda—
The funds for carrying on its operations—The business
of the Society . Z . . c : - . 98

se

XH CONTENTS,

Cuarten IX.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL
PAGE
The flax plants—The opuntia—Inexhaustible source of wealth
~-Negligence of the Colonial government in not furthering
scientific objects—Local prejudices—Agriculture—Soil of
the Bermudas—Practical directions in agriculture and
horticulture, with a calendar, &c, &e.—Agricultural asso-
eiations of Englend and Scotland—The Home Govern-
ment-—Sympathy from England te ca ae ae AOS:

Cuarter X.
INHABITANTS,

The white people—Delicate languor of the women-—-The
Tuckers—Rose of the Iskes—Tom Moore and Nea—
Difkrent elasses of people of colour—Distinetions of the
tribes by Don Antonio de Ulloa—Little knowledge of
imitative arts—Development of the vocal organs—Display
in vocal harmony — Improvisateri— Christmas holidays
—Pyrrhie dance of the Gomhays—Their dress—Preju-
dice against people of colour less in Bermuda than in the
United States — Enjoyment of municipal righta, &c. —

_. People of colour not often united with the white popula-
tion in matrimony—Jealousy of public feeling-—Cheerful

-- disposition of people of colour proverbial-——Their natural
kindness to offspring and friends is equally well known
as characteristic of the people of colour—The rising genera-
tion of the coloured race—Their readiness of perception
aveater than that of their progenitors —Soclal state of
coloured population superior to that of the States of
America—The want of intelligence a drawback—The
census shows a steady increase of the inhabitants . 9. 147

CONTENTS. xii

Crarter XT.
EDUCATION.

Varied classes of the population — Enterprising and indus-
trious Americans—They contribute to maintain and sup-
port the energies of the Bermudans —Extraordinary
resources of Bermuda cannot be viewed with indifference
by the philosophic and contemplative mind—Diifusion of sr
the humanizing arts—Character of Berkeley Collego—A ---—~ >,
magnificent charity—Great desideratum of a place of study ‘
and retirement for young mena—Berkeley College should be Ly
thrown open to white and coloured people ia the West
Indies—Great advantage of the college to Bermuda— ----
National feeling—School education of young people of
colour—Prejudice of the white population—Bishop Berkeley
~The colony a centre of commerce and its advantages—

The spirit of Nterature and philauthropy—Free schools
—Facts relating to the education of the poor 6 153

Cuarren XID

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

Evening assemblages — Balis— Dinner-parties —Shooting—
Fishing — Boating — Regatta —- Spectators — Bermuda
damsels—Royal Bermuda Yacht Club-—Superiority of

PAGE,

gailing-boats —Sea-bathing—Fishing on the open sca— ¢
Intellectual resources 1 as a ae Jgaleo
Cuarter SUT

NATURAL HISTORY.

Native birds—Mangrove-trees—Cceasional visitants — Ento-
mology —Genus Diurna (or butterflies) —Genus Sphinx
(or the hawk-moth)—Genus Phalena (or moths)—Coleop-
tera—Cidarie—Chanteuses (or singers}—A phidii (or plané-
lice)— Genus Coceus (or acale insects)—Coceus cacti (or
cochineal insect)—-Insect changes—Apterous inseets—
Jigger (Pulex penetrans)—Death-wateh (Anobium per-
tinax)—Genus Forfioula (or earwigs)—Genus Biatte (or
cockroaches) — Arachnides (or spiders)— Genus Scorpio
(seorpions)—Silk-spider (Tetragnatha extense) 5 . 198

xiv CONTENTS.

Caarrer XIV.

SHELLS.
PAGE
Crustacea—Cancer Pagurus—Gelasimus vocans—Genus Maia

—Genus Calapa—Genus Ranina—Mollusca (or Shells)—
Circulation—Organs of respiration—Form of the body in
the Mollusca—The nervous system, &c.—Octopus cepha-
lopoda—Sepiaria—Pteropoda—Gasteropoda—Pulmonea—
Testacella—Vitrina — Helix—Pupa—Clausilia— Bulimus
—Achatina—Succinea—Aquatic Pulmonea—Genus Lim-
neus—Genus Physe—Genus Auricula—Nudibranchiata—
Genus Tritonia—Inferobranchiata—Genus Ancylus—Rec-
tibranchiata — Bullea — Heteropoda— Genus Carinaria—
Pectinibranchiata — Trochoides —Trochus zizyphinus —
T. cinerarius—T. maculata—T. jujubinus—Genus Turbo
(or Periwinkles)—Turbo littoreus—T. chrysostomus—T.
pica—Genus Phasianella—P. Rubeus—Genus Nerita—N.
peloronta (or bleeding tooth)—N. versicolor—Capuloides
—Genus Crepidula—C. onyx—Buccinoides—Genus Conus
—Genus Cyprza (Cowries)—C. pediculus—C. coccinella—
Genus Colombella—C. mercatoria—Genus Buccinum (the
Whelks)—B. undatum—B. lunatum—B. reticulatum—
Genus Purpura—P. patulata—P. lapillus—Genus Cassis—
C, rufa—C. testiculus—C. flamnea—Genus Strombus—S.
gallus—Tubulibranchiata—Genus Vermetus—Genus Ma-
gilus—Scutibranchiata—Genus Fissurella—F. Greca—
Genus Emarginula—E. Fissura—Cyclobranchiata—Genus
patella (or Limpets)—P. pellucida—Genus Chiton—C.
marginatus—Acephala—A. testacea—Genus Ostrea (the
Oyster)—O. folium—O. crista galli—O. parasitica—Genus
Pecten—P. concentricus (or Scallop)—Genus Arca—Arca-
cee (or Ark Shells) —Arca Noew—A. barbata—Genus
Lima—Lima glacialis—Mytilacee—Genus Mytilus—My-
tilus exustus—M. elongatus—Carnacea—Genus Chama—
Chama arcinella — Cardiacea — Genus Cardium (the
Cockles)—Cardium levigatum—C. unedo—C. cardissa—
Genus Tellina—T. radiata—T. depressa—T, tenuis—Genus
Venus—Venus gemma—V. granulata—V. plicata—Genus
Cytherea—C. tigerina—C. castrensis—Genus Cyclas—C.

,

CONTENTS. xV

PAGE
cornea—Myae—Genus Mya—M. arenaria—M. truncata

—Genus Anatina—Mya globulosa—Genus Solen—Solen
endis—Genus Teredo—T. navalis—Acephala nuda—A.
Segregata—Genus Ascidie—A. rustica—A. lobifera—A.
Aggregata—Genus Pyrosoma—P. Atlanticum—Brachio-
podes—Cirrhopodes—Genus Anatifa—Lepas anatifera—
Genus Balanus (or Acorn Shells)—Balanus tintinna-
bulum ‘ ‘ . : - 5 % : é . 211

CHAPTER XV.
CORALS.

Polypifera—Alcyonium digitatum—Alcyonidium gelatinosum
—Alcyonidium echinatum—Asteroida —Fungia, or Sea-
mushrooms—Meandrina cerebriformis, or Brainstone coral
—Gorgonia—Isis hippuris—Gorgonia flabellum (or Sea-
fan)—Flabellum Veneris (or Venus’ fan}—Gorgonia anceps
—Gorgonia verrucosa —Gorgonia placomus — Gorgonia
lepidifera—Actinee (or Sea-anemones)—Holothurie (or
Sea-slugs) — Mammalia — Balena mysticetus — Balena
nodosa—Reptilia i . ‘ : a 2 : . 244

Conciupinc Remarks . 2 3 SS BERT

APPENDICES . Z A : Fi ‘ : s . 259

BERMUDA.

CHAPTER I,

HISTORY.

Modern Cathay—New highway of nations—Coast scenery—
Discovery—Shipwreck of Barbotitre and Henry May—Of
Sir George Somers—Extension of charter by King James I.
to the Virginia Company—Formation of the Bermuda Com-
pany—Colony under Governor Moor—Governor Tucker—
Governor Butler—First cultivators of the soil—The black
African—The kidnappers—Composition of the first General
Assembly— Distinguished emigrants—Edmund Waller—His
Battel of the Summer Islands—Is a member of the Long Par-
liament—Conspiracy, escape, and residence in the Bermudas.

In searching into the scanty records of the voyages
of Columbus, we find no evidence of his having
visited Bermuda in his extraordinary mission to the
New World, and in his eager and absorbing anxiety
for the final discovery of Cathay—that region of
gold, pearls, and diamonds, which was to enrich
every hardy adventurer.

But I think the reader will perceive, after

perusing this work, that although we find neither
1

2 BERMUDA.

gold, pearls, nor diamonds in this modern Cathay, ,
yet, nevertheless, there are other gems of equal value
in its climate, soil, and fisheries.

In tracing the general history of this ancient and
important settlement, the object which has chiefly
prompted the author, is to develop its resources, to
assist its commerce, to make it better known, as it
deserves to be, in the Old World.

In the new highway of nations speedily to be
opened up across that part of the Isthmus of
Central America, having for its points of arrival
and departure the harbour of Puerto Cabellos in
the Gulf of Honduras, on the Atlantic side, and the
capacious and beautiful bay of Fonseca on the
Pacific side, Bermuda will derive a share of the
abundant benefits which will accrue to all parts of
the world from the new route of ‘travel, as we think
can be easily made apparent.

A. fleet of steamships will regularly cross the
Atlantic between England and Honduras, and
Bermuda occupies a remarkable position as the
place for a “house of call” for the passenger-
ships travelling over this desirable line. A stock
of coals for seven days’ steaming would be all
that these packets would require on leaving Hon-
duras; and, if in good trim, and having the Gulf

,

HISTORY. 3

stream in their favour, they would invariably
make a rapid run to Bermuda. Here, with one-
third of their passage already accomplished, they
could replenish their fuel for the remainder of the
homeward trip, reaching England within eighteen
days from the time of quitting the shores of Central
America,

But the importance of establishing very speedily
a steam communication with Great Britain is be-
coming every day more obvious. As we may
fairly conjecture that steam is to supersede sailing
vessels for war purposes, and as it is not probable
that the Americans will always continue at peace
with us, it becomes necessary, in order to protect
our colonies and their commerce, that we should
have a more rapid and steady communication with
Halifax and the West Indies—since Bermuda, con-
jointly with Halifax, holds in check the whole
Atlantic coast of the United States, upon which
nature has bestowed no equivalent for naval pur-
poses, and also controls the West Indies, the Gulf
of Mexico, and the south coasts of the United
States. Since the extensive Government works at
Bermuda have been undertaken, the island is found
more convenient, in conjunction with Halifax, as
the seat of naval power, as it greatly facilitates

J—~2

4 BERMUDA.

the despatch of ships to the West India stations and
the American Atlantic coast.

In 1522, when the discovery of insular America
had become well known in the Old World, we find
that Berrauda was first visited by Juan Bermudas,
captain of a Spanish ship, La‘ Garza, when on a
voyage from Old Spain to Cuba with a cargo of
hogs, and by that illustrious historian of the Indies,
Gonzales Oviedo.

History informs us that the Spaniards’ benevolent
intention of leaving a few hogs, which might breed
and be useful afterwards, was frustrated, on the eve
of their debarking, by the springing up of a strong
gale, which obliged them to steer off, and be con-
tented with only a partial view, as they thought, of a
single island.

Bermuda, sometimes called the “ Bermudas,” after
the name of the individual who first saw them,
is a cluster of small islands situated in the North
Atlantic Ocean. That portion of the coast which
looks to the east and to the south is in general
shelving towards the sea, with a flat, ‘shallow beach;
while the western and northern shores rise almost
perpendicularly from the ocean to a height of from
twenty to thirty feet; and except in some of the
small creeks, where steep sandy beaches occur, under

HISTORY. 5

the rocky cliffs, the water is deep close to the shore.
The south-eastern coast, to the extent of six or eight
miles, exhibits a mixed character; the low land
sinking very gradually under the sea, and the
rugged and conical hills terminating, not in wall-
like precipices, but sloping abruptly to a flat, extended
beach.

Bermuda is encircled with coral reefs: many of
them extending a considerable distance from the land;
but the greater part of them lying under the surface
of the water, at no great distance from the shore.

In 1543, Ferdinand Camelo took formal possession
of Bermuda, and is stated to have cut his name on a
rock still known as the “Spanish Rock,” on the
south side of the main island. Z

On the 7th December, 1593, Barbotiére, a French
captain, was shipwrecked here, and with twenty-six,
out of fifty composing the crew, escaped to the shore;
among them was Henry May, an Englishman, who
afterwards published an account of the shipwreck.

Again, it was not until after an English vessel
was wrecked here, being one of an expedition con-
sisting of nine ships and five hundred men, on their
way to Virginia, and the capabilities of Bermuda
were examined into, that these islands excited any
attention in Europe.

6 BERMUDA.

The expedition, after a favourable run to the
Gulf of Bahama, encountered a severe hurricane.
The vessels were each driven in a different direction,
and the crew of the principal one, the Sea Adventure,
with whom were Sir Thomas Gates, Admiral Sir:
George Somers, and Captain Newport,—the former
to act as deputy governor under Lord Delaware,—
were miraculously preserved from a watery grave,
by the vessel being wedged between two rocks,” at
the east end of Bermuda; and by means of a boat
and skiff, the whole, to the number of one hundred
and fifty men, with a great portion of the provi-
sions and tackling, were landed.

With as little delay as possible after their sad
disaster, the crew of the ill-fated vessel got in
readiness and despatched the long-boat, with Raven
the mate, and eight men, to Virginia, to bring ship-
ping for. their conveyance; but after eight months
had elapsed, no tidings of the boat’s crew arrived ; .
and Sir George and his men built two cedar vessels,
one of eighty tons, the Deliverance, and the other
of thirty tons, the Patience. There was but one bolt
of iron in Sir George’s vessel, and that was in her
keel. The seams of both vessels were closed up

* The shore is now called, from the name of the ship, Sea
Adventure Flat.

HISTORY. 7

with a mixture of lime and oil, for the purpose of
making them water-tight.

In commemoration of the unfortunate shipwreck,
Gates attached a wooden cross to a large cedar-tree,
and placed a silver coin, together with an inscription
on a copper plate, in the middle of it, which ran
as follows: —“ That the cross was the remains of
a ship of three hundred tons, called the Sea Adven-
ture, bound, with eight more, to Virginia. That
she contained two knights, —Sir Thomas Gates,
Governor of the Colony, and Sir George Summers,
Admiral of the Seas,—who, together with her
captain, Christopher Newport, and one hundred
and fifty marines and passengers besides, had
got safe ashore, when she was lost, 28th J uly,
1609.”

Gates and Somers left Bermuda for Virginia on the
10th May, 1610, in their little cedar vessels, having
left two men behind; and they arrived at Jamestown
on the 23rd May. Sir George, after remaining but a
short time at Jamestown, left that place for Bermuda
in company with Captain Argall, afterwards Go-
vernor of Virginia. They were driven northwards
by contrary winds, near to Cape Cod, where they
were enveloped in such dense fogs that their two
vessels were separated, and Argall returned to his

8 BERMUDA.

station. Somers, whase name the islands then bore,
though the original one of Bermuda has since pre-
vailed, pushed steadily on, and arrived at Bermuda
on the 19th June; but from age, and fatigue of the
voyage, he survived only a short time; his body
was embalmed; and the colonists, alarmed at the
untimely fate of their energetic commander, dis-
regarded his dying exhortation to use their utmost
endeavours for the benefit of the plantations, and
to return to Virginia, sailed for England with his
remains, in the little vessel of thirty tons, and,
shortly after their arrival, the embalmed body of
their hero was buried in White Church, Dorsetshire.
In a narrow enclosure, at the lower end of Govern-
ment House Garden at St. George’s, in the midst of
weeds and rubbish, a mutilated slab, of a coarse de-
scription of stone, may be perceived, on which was
engraved the following epitaph, composed to the me-
mory of Sir George Somers, by Governor Nathaniel
Butler :—

“In toe Yerurn 1611.

“ Noble Sir George Summers went hence to Heaven,
Whose well-tried worth, that held him still imploid,
Gave him the knowledge of the world so wide;
Hence, ’twas by Heaven’s decree, to this place
He brought new quests and name to mutual grace;
At last his soul and body being to part,

He here bequeathed his entrails and his heart.”

HISTORY. 9

Attempts were now seriously made by England
to colonize Bermuda, and on the 11th July, 1612,
a vessel with sixty emigrants arrived, and was
conducted into harbour by three men who had
been left on the islands. They were attracted
hither by the hope of finding ambergris.

The attention of England was now roused in
favour of Bermuda by the report of Captain
Matthew Somers, the nephew and heir of Sir
George. Publicity was given to highly-coloured
statements, and great exaggerations, in contrast
with the dark ideas formerly prevalent. Jourdan
remarks that “this prodigious and enchanted place,
which had been shunned as a Scylla and Charybdis,
and where no one had ever landed but against his
will, was really the richest, healthfullest, and most
pleasing land ever man set foot on.” Strachy sums
up his pithy remark by saying, that the Company
“ liked it very well.”

The Virginia Company, after having bestirred
themselves in representations to King James L,
showing the vast importance and the proximity of
Bermuda to his Majesty’s “plantation” of Virginia,
succeeded in procuring an extension of their charter,
on the 12th March, 1612, to embrace Bermuda in
their boundaries, for the purpose of trade with the

10 BERMUDA.

mother country and British America; and England
was now actively engaged in fostering it. Shortly
afterwards the islands were sold by that Company
to one hundred and twenty gentlemen, who formed
a company of their own, under the name and style
of the Governor and Company of the City of
London, for the “ plantation” of the Somer Islands.

Amidst all this additional strength to its resources,
Richard Moor was sent out as Governor for Bermuda.
Governor Moor’s administration was an active one;
he Jaid the foundation of eight or nine forts, and
had everything placed in readiness in case of hostili-
ties or aggression. He removed the seat of govern-
ment from Smith’s Island to St. George's, and having
built a cabin, which he thatched with palmetto leaves,
as a residence, the rest of the colonists soon followed
his example. He built, also, a church of eedar,
which was in time destroyed by a tempest, and he
afterwards directed another to be built of palmetto
branches, in a place better sheltered from the
weather.

Scarcity and want prevailed for two years, to an
alarming extent, and the colony was covered with
a veil of gloom and despondency, which was in-
creased by a fatal sickness, of which many died.
Some time after, the ship Welcome arrived with

HISTORY. ll

stores, which afforded relief to the people. About
this time the potato and tobacco were first cultivated.
During Governor Moor’s administration, the com-
pany employed Richard Norwood in dividing the
island into tribes and shares, fifty shares being
allotted to each tribe. Moor displeased the Com-
pany by opposing their projected division of the
colony into shares, in which he insisted that neither
his own interest nor that of the colonists was duly
considered. This displeasure of the Company was
followed by Moor’s recall, and the ship Welcome
took him home, leaving the administration in charge
of six persons, who were to rule, each in turn,
one month. Governor Moor was indefatigable in —
his exertions for the benefit of the colony. He was
a man of ordinary condition, a carpenter by trade,
but by his firmness, prudence, and popular manners,
he soon silenced all impertinence, and shamed all
attempts at opposition in England.

He was succeeded by Daniel Tucker, in May,
1616, when a very important era dawned upon the
island, as a Court of General Assize was held at
St. George in the second month of Tucker’s admi-
nistration, being the first real attempt to establish
law and justice in the island.

This measure met with the usual opposition, and

12 BERMUDA.

a Frenchman was hanged for speaking “many
distasteful and mutinous speeches against the Go-
vernor.”* The discouraging and afflicting circum-
stances of the state of society at this period naturally
required a remedy, and it was thought necessary by
Tucker to make an example of the first culprit for
the suppression of the mutiny.

Tucker appears to have been a most persevering
and painstaking Governor, and although thoroughly
initiated into the mysteries of his duties, yet in
attempting to establish order among the boisterous
colohists, and to correct the mutinous spirit which
then existed among them, he appears to have adopted
high-handed measures.

The island, however, underwent many convulsions,
and society was in a wretched condition, owing to
the constant animosity between the Governor and the
settlers; the latter being still held more in check
by the absurd policy of the Governor: the cruel dis-
cipline and severe labour which he exacted of them
created great disgust, and excited many to attempt
desperate means to escape from the island. Five per-
sons succeeded in building a boat of three tons, under,
the pretence of its being for the use of the Governor;
and previous to their departure for England, one of

* Smith’s History of Virginia, &c., vol. ii. p. 137,

HISTORY. 13

the party borrowed a compass of Hughes, for whom
he left a very ludicrous note, recommending patience
under the loss.* Three weeks after they sailed, they
encountered a strong gale, but their little craft was
fortunate in her contest with the winds and the waves,
and after great privations the bold-hearted sailors
arrived in Ireland; there their cruise was held to
be so marvellous, that the Earl of Thomond ordered
that they should be received and entertained, and
their brave little bark hung up as a monument of
the extraordinary voyage.t The Governor was
highly enraged at their escape, and threatened to
hang the whole if they returned.

Shortly after Governor Tucker’s arrival] he was
successful in obtaining from the West Indies “ Figgs,
Pynes, an Indian, and a Negar.” These were the
first slaves brought to the islands; but slavery
became very general as early as 1632.

The ship Diana arrived from Europe with a
supply of stores and men, and, after remaining a
few weeks, returned to England with 30,000 pounds
of tobacco, which gave great satisfaction to the
proprietors.

* Mr. Hughes had preached several sermons on patience about
this time.

+ Smith’s History of Virginia, &c. vol. ii. p. 137,138; Murray’s
British America, vol. ii. p. 155.

14 BERMUDA.

Great complaints. of Tucker’s cruelty were for-
warded by this ship, and, to justify himself, he went
home in December, 1628, leaving the government
"in charge of Captain Kendall.

The Company did not think fit to send him back,
but appointed in his place Captain Nathaniel Butler,
who sailed in July, 1619, and arrived in October,
with four ships and 500 men: this doubled the
number already in the colony. Butler gave great
satisfaction, by modelling his administration on the
principle of the Home Government.

We have seen that disputes, while as yet their
numbers scarcely amounted to hundreds, composed
the chief portion of the early history of the colo-
nists. The first cultivators of the soil, being
_white labourers, were soon found unequal to the
fatigues of agriculture in a warm climate, and
it therefore became necessary to procure Africans.
These, at the time of their first importation, were
actually considered an intermediate race between
man and monkey. :

Such a doctrine, I believe, was really promulgated,
for the purpose of removing somewhat of the dis-
gust which had come to prevail against the traffic
of buying and selling our fellow-creatures. There
were at this time, and long afterwards, as is well

HISTORY. 15

known, monsters in human shape, who sailed the
seas, and made it their chief business to steal the
Fielpless and unwary from the shores of England;
whole villages were laid desolate, and the inhabitants
carried off and sold in the colonies. No animal
more savage than such men. But the curse of God
was upon these pirates and man-stealers.

The colonists refused to purchase their Christian
brethren, or to receive their fellow-creatures into
slavery from these kidnappers; and hence it became
necessary, as I suppose, for the traders to assert that
the black African was only half human. The reader
may smile at this assertion; but the subject was seri-
ously discussed, both at home and in the colonies, and
it was decided at one time that they were unworthy
of baptism, and ought not to be allowed to enter
where the word of God was preached.

The first General Assembly for the despatch of
public business was held at St. George’s, according
to instructions from England, on the Ist August,
1620. The Assembly was composed of the Go-
vernor, council, bailiffs, burgesses, and a secretary,
numbering thirty-two in all; and during the session
fifteen Acts were passed, and approved by the pro-
prietors in England. Butler divided the islands into
parcels, which were soon peopled: for, in 1623,

16 BERMUDA.

there were above 300 English inhabitants. After
that time the population was increased by blacks,
who now form more than one-half of the entire
population.

The colony continued to enjoy a high reputation,
and at the period of civil commotion, along with
Virginia, was the resort of distinguished emigrants.
The islands gained additional lustre from the fact
that Edmund Waller, the poet, chose them for the
theme of his Battel of the Summer Islands, saying,
in the most flattering strains,—

“ The kind spring which but salutes us here,
Inhabits there, and courts them all the year ;
Ripe fruits and blossoms on the same trees live,
At once they promise what at once they give,—
So sweet the air, so moderate the clime,

None sickly lives, or dies before his time;
Heaven sure has kept this spot of earth uncurst,
To show how all things were created first!”

Waller was a member of the Long Parliament, and
at first joined the party against the king; but after-
wards entered into the conspiracy against the Par-
liament, for which Chaloner-and Tompkins were
executed. Waller, more fortunately, escaped by
paying a fine of 10,0007. Having spent some time
in the Bermudas, he proceeded to France, and on'
the elevation of Cromwell to the Protectorship, he

returned to England.

HISTORY. 17

The archives of the colony present nothing worthy
of notice after the Civil Wars, when many sought
a refuge from the tyranny of the ruling party
in the distant sanctuary: tradition only handing

down a succession of quarrels between the Governor
and the people.

18

CHAPTER II.

CLIMATE.

Warmth of the Gulf Stream—The Island celebrated by the
Bard of Erin—Effects of residence in Bermuda on persons
predisposed to scrofula or pulmonary consumption—Effects of
the Gulf Stream on the climate of Bermuda—tThe operations
of the climate on agricultural produce—Seasons— Sailing
directions between Bermuda and New York or the Chesapeake—
Yellow fever—H. M.’s hulk Thames—The unhealthy character
of the Yenedos—The medical board—Some account of the
yellow fever of 1856—Its severity among the natives—Less
fatal to Europeans—Hints to invalids from northern climates as
to the preservation of health in Bermuda.

Tue climate of the Bermuda islands has a mean
temperature between that of the West Indies and
British North America, partaking neither of the
extreme heat of the one, nor the excessive cold of
the other. It is greatly improved by the warmth
of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps along between
Bermuda and the American continent; the winter
months resembling the early part of October in
England, but without its frosts. The sweet strains

CLIMATE. 19

of the Bard of Erin have sounded the praises of
the éedar-groves and wood-nymphs of the “ Fairy
Isles,” as the Bermudas have been styled by Shak-
speare—
“No: ne'er did the wave in its element steep
An island of lovelier charms;
It blooms in the giant embrace of the deep,
Like Hebe in Hercules’ arms;
The blush of your bowers is light to the eye,
And their melody balm to the ear;
But the fiery planet of day is too nigh,
And the Snow Spirit never comes here.”
The official returns of deaths among the troops,
and the prisoners, confined, as they are, to the un-
wholesome atmosphere of the hulks, prove the place
to be remarkably healthy.

Bermuda is not so much subject to diseases as are
the more northern climates. Epidemics are of un-
frequent occurrence; and deaths from all causes, as
shown by the statistical tables, amount to no more
than 14°5 per cent. annually.

The climate of Bermuda would prove eminently
eligible for those natives of cold countries who, from
general delicacy of constitution, are unable to undergo
active continuous labour with exposure, or who other-
wise suffer from a cold and variable climate. As far
as the author’s observation goes, the effect of resi-
dence in Bermuda, on such persons, is usually bene-

2—2

20 BERMUDA.

ficial; especially on those who are predisposed to
scrofula or pulmonary consumption, or who "have
evinced a peculiar tendency to colds and bronchial
affections during the winter months. In such cases,
the physical energies usually undergo a rapid and
marked change, resulting in permanent good health.
I believe that immigrants of this description, by
observing common prudence in their mode of living,
might, with perfect safety, and with every prospect
of improved health, engage as farmers in the islands
generally.

The effects of the Gulf Stream on the climate of
Bermuda are very manifest. This powerful current,
after rising under the tropic, and flowing from the
Gulf of Mexico through the Straits of Bahama,
runs in a north-easterly direction along the American
coast, washing the Great Bank of Newfoundland, and,
after flowing upwards of 3,000 miles, finally reaches
the Azores, and even the Bay of Biscay. The tem-
perature of the water of this current is 8° above
that of the surrounding sea at the Great Bank, and
5° above the temperature of the sea at the Azores.
Rennel estimates the dimensions of the current and
the tract that receives it at 2,000 miles in length,
and 350 in breadth. Both are marked by the sea-
weed, and are well known to mariners. By this

CLIMATE. 21

cauldron of warm water the icebergs from the north
are dissolved; the surrounding waters and superin-
cumbent atmosphere are warmed, and the tempera-
ture of the neighbouring continent elevated. A proper |
retreat is also afforded to the various kinds of fish
after their season of spawning has passed, and while
the severity of the frost drives them from the shores.
Such are some of the leading operations perceived
in the economy of nature in this part of the world.

The atmosphere brought over the land from the
south-west, being loaded with vapour given off
from the warm sea surface, is frequently charged
with rain; and the condensation carried on by the
cooler land surface along the coast in the spring pro-
duces fogs. The atmosphere over the interior lands
soon acquires the temperature necessary to dispel
these fogs; and therefore, while some of the shores
are obscured by them, the inland districts enjoy a
clear sky. From the proximity of Bermuda to the
Mexican stream, it enjoys the improved climate
thus produced in a higher degree than any of the
British provinces.

The effects of the climate upon the agricultural
produce are more favourable than in other coun-
tries under the same mean annual temperature.
Besides many of the fruits of the temperate regions,

22 BERMUDA.

the heat of summer permits those of a tropical
character to flourish; hence a greater variety may
be produced than in any other part of the world.
The season for vegetation is sufficiently extended to
ripen a great many kinds of grain, vegetables, and
fruit.

The most agreeable season at Bermuda is the
winter, or cold season, which lasts from November
to March; the mean temperature being 60°. The
prevailing winds are then from the westward; but if
from, the north-west, fine, hard weather, with a
clear sky, accompanies them, the thermometer vary-
ing from 5U° to 56% This weather often terminates
in a very fine, bright day, with a very slight wind
and partial calms ;—afterwards the wind invariably
changes to the south-west, and the weather becomes
hazy, damp, and attended with heavy rains and
gales; the thermometer rising to 66° and 70°.

These alternate north-westerly and south-westerly
winds prevail during nine months of the year, the
wind remaining at no other point for any length of
time. The change is shown by a difference of 14°
in the temperature.*

_ Spring commences at the end of February, and’
the weather usually continues mild, with refreshing
* Vide Appendix A.

CLIMATE. 23

showers of rain and gentle breezes from the south
and west, until the end of May.

The summer begins in June, and the weather
becomes hot. Calms about this time generally re-
place the gentle breezes of May; the atmosphere
becomes sultry and oppressive, and long droughts are
common, which are usually succeeded by severe
thunder-storms.

The weather in September changes its character,
and again becomes mild and agreeable.

It may not be unimportant to the general reader to
give the following sailing directions between Ber-
muda and New York, or the Chesapeake :*—

“ The first half of a revolving gale is a fair wind
from Bermuda to New York, because in it the wind
blows from the east; but the last half is a fair wind
from New York to Bermuda. During the winter
season most of the gales which pass along the coast of
North America being revolving gales, vessels from
Bermuda, bound: to New York, should put to sea
when the north-west wind, which is the conclusion of
a passing gale, is becoming moderate, and the baro-
meter is rising to its usual level. The probability
‘will be, more particularly in the winter season, that

* From the latest edition of Sir William Reid’s work on the
Law of Storms.

24 BERMUDA.

after a short calm, the next succeeding wind will be
easterly, the first part of a fresh revolving wind
coming up from the south-west quarter.

“ A ship at Bermuda, bound to New York or the
Chesapeake, might sail whilst the wind is still west
and blowing hard, provided that the barometer indi-
cates that this west wind is owing to a revolving
gale, which will veer to northward. But as the
usual track which gales follow in this hemisphere is
northerly or north-easterly, such a ship should be
steered to the southward. As the wind at west veers
towards north-west and north, the vessel would come
up, and at last make a course to the westward, ready
to take advantage of the east wind at the setting in
of the next revolving gale.

‘“* A vessel at New York, and bound to Bermuda
at the time when a revolving wind is passing along

the North American coast, should not wait in port

for the westerly wind, but sail as soon as the first
portion of the gale has passed by, and the north-east
wind. is. veering towards north—provided it should
not. blow too hard; for the north wind will veer to
the westward, and become every hour fairer for
Bermuda.”

Yellow Fever.—These islands, which are generally
and properly allowed to be healthy, have only been

CLIMATE. 25

afflicted a seventh time since their settlement —a
period of above two centuries—with yellow fever.

I happened to be employed on board H.M.’s hulk
Thames, as acting assistant-surgeon, at the breaking
out of the yellow fever at Boaz Island, early in
September, 1856. I had charge of all the fever
patients at that time on board the Thames; but not-
withstanding the notoriously unhealthy character of
that hulk, I was more fortunate with my patients in
1856 than the medical officers were even in that
queen of hulks, the Tenedos, in 1853; less than half
the number of deaths (in the same ratio) occurring
in the Thames hulk. I must not omit to give due
praise to the officers, and especially to the prisoners
who acted as nurses after their own recovery from
the yellow fever. Yet in spite of every exertion
the fever raged fearfully, and after five weeks’ hard
work became so virulent, that the medical board
deemed it prudent to have the Thames cleared out
—which being accomplished, the sick prisoners were
conveyed to Boaz Island, and placed under the
medical charge of Doctors Beck and Warner.*
At the same time I was placed in medical charge
of the two prison-ships Dromedary and Medway—
both containing nearly 1,000 prisoners. I merely

* Since dead.

26 BERMUDA.

state these facts to show how short the Council
establishment was of medical officers, and how neces-
sary it is; during an epidemic, to have sufficient
medical aid.

The yellow fever which prevailed in 1856, and of
which I am about to give some account, for the most
part attacked the natives; persons from Europe, and
more particularly seamen and soldiers, were not
entirely exempt, but to them it rarely proved fatal.

This fever was ushered in by the same sensations
which precede other fevers—such as lassitude, stiff-
ness, and pain of the back, loins, and extremities—and
was generally accompanied by some degree of coldness.
These symptoms were soon succeeded by a severe pain .
in the head; a sense of fulness of the eyeballs; in-
tolerance of light; dry skin, which imparted a burning
heat to the hand; full and quick pulse; tongue covered
with a whitish mucus, but often not materially altered
from the state of health, I may here remark that
the actual degree of heat, as indicated by the ther-
mometer, was not in proportion to the intensity
communicated to the touch. It generally varied
between 97° and 100°, very seldom exceeded 102°;
yet the skin imparted a burning, caustic sensation to
the hand at these times.

If the patient had been attacked in the night, |

CLIMATE. ; 27

he awoke with oppressive heat. Headache and
other symptoms of the fever were ushered in by
an instant loss of muscular power and immediate
depression of nervous energy. The patient fell
down as if he were stunned by a blow, his eyes
swimming in tears. In those cases delirium was an
early symptom. In a few hours the pain of the loins
increased, and in aggravated cases stretched forward
towards the umbilicus; the countenance was flushed ;
the white of the eye was as if finely injected by
blood-vessels ; the albuginea appearing, through the
interstices of the network of vessels, of a peculiar
shining cartilaginous whiteness.

During the first twelve hours, the patient was not
particularly restless, enjoyed some sleep, and when
covered by the bedclothes had partial perspirations
on his face, neck, and breast.

About the end of this period there was a great
exacerbation of the fever; the patient became rest-
less ; the heat and dryness of the skin increased ; there
was much pain of the eyes and frontal sinuses ; the pain
of the thighs and legs was augmented ; thirst was
increased, with a sensation of pressure about the
region of the stomach. Nausea and vomiting
occurred towards the end of the first twenty-four
hours. If the fever was not checked within thirty-

28 BERMUDA.

six hours from its commencement, the patient was in
imminent danger, and all the symptoms were aggra-
vated; the pulse became strong and full, and pulsa-
tion of the carotids appeared distinct on each side of
the neck. The skin continued hot and dry; the
thirst was increased; there was much anxiety, the
patient continually shifting his posture; all his un-
easiness was referred to his head and loins. A
sensation of pain was felt about the umbilicus when
pressed upon; the white of the eye now appeared of
a dirty concentrated yellow colour, and apparently
thickened, so as to form a ring round the margin of
the cornea. The blood-vessels of the eye appeared
more enlarged and tortuous; the knees drawn up to
the abdomen; frequent vomiting; mucus and the
common drink only being ejected. Delirium came
on about the end of the second day.

There was now a dryness, or slight sensation of
soreness of the throat when swallowing; and, about
this. time, an urgent sensation of hunger frequently
came on, and a remarkable want of power in the
lower extremities, resembling partial paralysis of the
limbs. ‘About this time, also, the pain of the loins
was so severe that the patient expressed himself as if
his “ back was broken.”

The third day, or stage, began by apparent

CLIMATE, 29

amelioration of the bad symptoms, the vomiting and
thirst excepted. The matter ejected had small, mem-
branous-looking floculi floating in it, resembling the
crust washed from a port-wine bottle. The: thirst
was urgent, and there was an incipient demand for
cold water, which was almost immediately rejected
by the stomach. The heat of the skin was reduced ;
the pulse sank to, or below, its natural standard ;
the patient, for an hour or two, expressed himself
to be greatly relieved, and, at this time, a person
unacquainted with the nature of the disease would
have hopes of his recovery. This state, however, was
of short duration, and the delusion soon vanished.
The delirium increased ; the matter ejected from the
stomach became black as coffee-dregs, and was some-
what viscid. There was an acrid, burning sensation
of the stomach, and soreness of the throat, extend-
ing along the whole course of the cesophagus, in
attempting to swallow; eyes as if suffused with
blood; skin, a dirty yellow; parts round the neck,
and places pressed upon in bed, of a livid colour;
more or less hemorrhage took place from the nose
and mouth. The delirium became violent; the
body as it were writhed with pain; the knees
incessantly drawn up to the body. The patient,
with convulsive grasp, seized his bed, or anything

30 BERMUDA.

within his reach, and preferred the hard floor to
his bed. The pulse now sinks; respiration becomes
laborious; the countenance collapsed; the lustre of
the eye gone. For some hours, he lies in a state
of insensibility before death; at other times, expires
after some convulsive exertion, or ineffectual effort
to vomit. The tongue is sometimes but little altered
during the course of the fever; and if loaded in the
early stages, it often became clean and of a vivid
red before death.

Such was the regular succession of symptoms
which characterized this fever, but of longer or
shorter duration, according to the violence of the
disease, or strength of the powers of life to resist it.

In weakly habits, the vascular action at the begin-
ning was less marked ; and in these cases, the fever
was generally more protracted, and the patient ex-
pired unaffected by the laborious respiration and
convulsive motions which attended the last struggles
of life in the more violent degrees of the fever.
Very often the patient retained his senses till within
a few minutes of his death, and sometimes would
predict, with considerable precision, the hour of his
dissolution.

In the early stages of the worst cases, there was
much anxiety in the countenance of the patient,

CLIMATE, 31

who expressed a despair of recovery. This fear did
not seem to arise from any natural timidity, but
seemed rather a symptom of the disease. In the
last stage, there was as much resignation to his fate
as there was apprehension at the beginning.

Not a few of those attacked by this fever, if
proper remedies to subdue it had been employed,
recovered from its first stage. They exhibited sure
symptoms of improvement within the first twenty-
four, or, at farthest, thirty-six hours, from its first
attack.

Very many recovered from the second stage—that
is to say, before black-vomiting commenced; but
only a few recovered from the last stage.

In the former cases, the stomach gradually became
retentive; the eyes and skin became of a more vivid
yellow. They had refreshing sleep, but continued
extremely weak and languid for a long time. The
oozing of blood from the fauces and gums also
continued for some days.

Pain of the back, early stretching round to the
navel, soreness in the throat and cesophagus, heat
and acrid sensation in the stomach, urgent thirst,
hunger, want of power, resembling paralysis of the
limbs, violent delirium, despondency, enlargement
of the blood-vessels, and a red-yellow colour of the

32 BERMUDA.

white of the eye, either singly or collectively, indi-
cated extreme danger; and when the black vomit
had appeared, scarcely a hope remained.

The peculiar habit favourable to the morbid
motions which constitute this fever, is excited into
action by a variety of causes; the chief are—intem-
perance, excessive fatigue in the sun, perspiration
checked by being exposed to a current of air, or
sleeping exposed to the dews, &c. In fact, whatever
becomes an exciting cause of fever in any country
is equally so in this; but, unfortunately, it is not
the same fever that is induced. Contagion, as the
chief source of this fever, is entirely rejected by
those professional men who have had the greatest
opportunity of information.

Some hints to invalids from Northern climates, for
the preservation of health in Bermuda, may here
be given with advantage.

Dress. —The necessity which tyrant custom—per~
haps policy—has imposed on us, of continuing to
appear in European dress on almost all public occa-
sions, and in all formal parties, under a burning sky,
is not one of the least miseries of a tropical life;
but, fortunately for Europeans, there is some inter-
mission of solar heat in Bermuda; we are roasted
only three months in the year; whereas, in the West

CLIMATE. 33

Indies, the burning heat never ceases all the year
round. It is true that the custom of European dress
is often waived in the more social circles that gather
round the tea-table, where the light, cool and elegant
vestures of the East supersede the cumbrous garb
of Northern climates.

It “ were a consummation devoutly to be wished,”
though, I fear, little to be expected, that the Euro-
pean badges of distinction, in exterior decoration,
could be dispensed with’ at all festivals, public and
private, formal, social, or domestic, in warm latitudes.
It requires but the most superficial glance to per-
ceive that coolness during our repasts is salutary, as
well as comfortable; and that, from the extensive
sympathies existing between the skin and several
important organs, particularly the stomach and liver,
the converse of the position is equally true; espe-
cially as, in the latter case, we are led a little too
much to the use of “ gently stimulating liquids” to
support the discharge.

The newly arrived European justly observes that
he finds himself drenched with perspiration three or
four times a day, in which state he cannot remain
with either safety or comfort. Certainly, it would
be useless to point out the evil without suggesting
the remedy; and, happily, it may be obviated, to

3

34 BERMUDA.

a considerable extent, in a very simple and easy
manner. It must be recollected, that the tempe-
rature of the atmosphere, sub dio, in the summer
season, exceeds that of the blood by many degrees ;
therefore, cotton, from its slowness as a conductor
of heat, is admirably adapted for the hot season, and
cooler than linen, inasmuch as it conducts more
slowly the excess of external heat to our bodies.
Cotton, also, abstracts more slowly the heat from
our bodies, and thus preserves a more steady equili-
brium there, when. a vicissitude takes place, and the -
atmospherical’ temperature sinks suddenly far below
that of the body. To these must be added the
facility with which cotton absorbs the perspiration :
while linen would feel quite wet, and if exposed to
a breeze, under such circumstances, would often
occasion a shiver, which might be followed by dan-
gerous consequences.

Flannel, on the contrary, is superior to cotton in
the cooler months, and is adopted by many expe-
rienced and seasoned Europeans.

To guard against coup de soleil, a light palmetto
hat, covered with white cotton, should be worn when
exposed to the sun, between the hours of ten and four
in the day.

Food.—That vegetable food, generally speaking,

CLIMATE. 35

is better adapted to a warm climate than animal,
I think we may admit; and particularly among
unseasoned Europeans, as it is not so apt to induce
plethora.

The newly-arrived European invalid should con-
tent himself with plain breakfasts of bread-and-
butter, with tea or coffee; and avoid indulging in
meat, fish, eggs, or buttered toast.

In regard to dinner, Europeans appear to study
convenience rather than health, by deferring that meal
till after sunset. The gorgeous table,'the savoury
viands, the stimulating wines of the evening feast,
prolonged by the fascination of social converse,
greatly exacerbate the nocturnal paroxysm of fever
imposed on us by the hand of nature, and break with
feverish dreams the hours which should be dedicated
to repose.

The consequences resulting from this are quite
obvious. It may be observed that the natives them-
selves usually make their principal meal soon after
four o’clock, when the heat is less distressing, and
insects neither so numerous nor teasing,:as they
generally are in the summer months; but during
winter we are freer from these little pests and all the
disagreeableness accompanying hot weather.

He, then, who consults his health in Bermuda, or

3—2

36 BERMUDA.

in the tropics, will beware of indulging in the evening
feast, particularly during the period of his probation,
but will rather be satisfied with the early dinner,
when tea or coffee, at six or seven o’clock in the
evening, will be found a grateful refreshment. After
this, his rest will be as natural and refreshing as can
be expected in such a climate, and he will rise next
morning with infinitely more vigour than if he had
crowned a sumptuous dinner with a bottle of wine
the preceding evening. - +

We think it unnecessary to speak of supper, as
it is a mere matter of ceremony in warm climates,
excepting after assemblies, or on some public occa-
sions.

A moderate indulgence in fruit during the first
year is prudent. Good ripe oranges are very grateful
in hot weather, from their subacid and cooling juice ;
also lemonade, to allay the unpleasant sensation of
thirst. Plantains and bananas are wholesome and
nutritious, especially when frittered.

Drink.—The new-comer should never exceed one
or two glasses of wine after dinner, or, on any
account, admit it to his lips between meals, unless
in cases where excessive fatigue and thirst render
drink indispensable, when cold water alone might

be injurious.

CLIMATE. 37

It should be borne in mind, that when a course of
temperance is fully entered on, no consideration
should induce us to commit an occasional debauch,
especially during our seasoning; for we are at those
times in infinitely greater danger of endemic attacks,
than the habitual bacchanal.

Exercise.—The principal object and effect of exer-
cise appear to consist in keeping up a proper balance
in the circulation, in supporting the functions of the
skin, and promoting the various secretions.

It will doubtless appear strange to the general
reader, that by observing strict temperance in eating
and drinking, with regular habits, the European can
with safety enjoy his customary exercises in Bermuda,
and far excel the native white or black in laborious
exercise, even under a burning sun.

We have a remarkable instance of that superiority
in the case of European convict labour on the
public works in Ireland Island, which is pretty
well tested; strict temperance being one of the
standing rules of the convict establishment, and
carried out as far as practicable in the treatment of
the convicts at Bermuda. Therefore, when we hear
Europeans talk of the climate being so debilitating,
we must attribute the debility to irregular habits
and intemperance in eating or drinking; as, certain

38 BERMUDA.

secretions (the biliary, for instance), perspiration,
&c. being already in excess—which excess very soon
leads to debility and diminished action in the fanc-
tions alluded to, with a corresponding want of
equilibrium in the blood—it becomes necessary to
counteract these by active exercise in the winter,
and exercise of a more passive kind in the summer,
such as the climate will admit of, and at particular
periods of the day. This distinction must be carefully
guarded if we mean to preserve our health.

Bathing.—To moderate the action of atmospheric
heat, nature, or instinct itself, points out the external
application of cold water te the body. The cold bath
not only counteracts the influence of heat by sus-
pending its operation for the time, but it safely
inures us to the sudden access of cold, the fruitful
source of so many disorders. By keeping the skin
clean, cool, and soft, it moderates excessive, and
supports natural and equable cuticular discharge;
and from the cutaneo-hepatic sympathy, so often
noticed, the functions of the liver partake of this
salutary equilibrium—a circumstance hitherto over-
looked.

It is, however, imprudent to bathe while the pro-
cess of digestion is going on in the stomach, as it
disturbs that important operation. Where visceral

CLIMATE. 39

derangements of any extent, particularly in the liver,
have taken place, the cold bath must be hazardous,
from the sudden afflux of blood directed from the
surface to the interior, and also on account of the
subsequent vascular reaction. Another and less
hazardous form of using cold water is by the appli-
cation of a wet sponge to the surface of the body,
followed by friction with a coarse napkin. The last
resort—the tepid bath—if care be taken to avoid
a chill afterwards, will, in these cases, be substituted
with great advantage.

Sleep.—The hour of retirement to repose should
never be protracted beyond ten o’clock; and at day-
light we should start from our couch to enjoy the
cool, fragrant, and salubrious breath of morning.
Early hours are here indispensable. The fashionable
dissipation of Europe would soon cut the thread of
our existence in these regions; but the order of
nature is never inverted with impunity, even in the
most temperate climates.

40 BERMUDA.

CHAPTER IIL

GOVERNMENT.

Medical Practitioners —Government— Practical Republics—The
colonies of a free State—The Spanish possessions in America
—The evils and absurdities’ of the Constitution of Ber-
muda—Party spirit—Private relations of life—A Tory and a
Radical Families of different parties—-The public spirit

‘ extinguished—Tyranny of a majority —Reform—Vice-regal
government, with a Council of Advice—Bitterness of party
spirit in the House of Assembly—Insult to the Representative
of the Sovereign.

Tue climate being so healthy, a stranger might
naturally suppose that there would be very few of
the medical faculty in Bermuda; nevertheless, the
island is overstocked with M.D.’s—the young men
finding the United States so easy of access, the
expenses so trifling, and the good people of Bermuda
so easily satisfied with anything approaching to the
‘degree of doctor—in fact, anything in the shape of
an American diploma is sufficient. to entitle any one
to practise in the medical profession.

GOVERNMENT. 41

“Most of the medical practitioners in Bermuda are
able, intelligent, and well-educated men; but still,
any man who has a diploma from an American
college or university—or whether he has a diploma
or not—may commence practice as a doctor, with-
out being called upon to exhibit any proofs of his
knowledge or experience. The profession ought to.
be better regulated; and in a community now so
rapidly increasing, and where men of learning and
talent abound, some arrangement should be made to
prevent the mischief which ignorance and impudence
are calculated to produce in a population not yet
sufficiently enlightened to distinguish the true phy-
sician from the false pretender. I doubt not that the
present Governor of the colony is fully disposed to
support any measures which the faculty themselves
may suggest for the better ordering of their depart-
ment; and I do hope and trust that the leading men
of the profession will take the matter into their
serious consideration, and agree upon an ordinance
to be passed by the Governor and Council, for regu-
lating the practice of physic and surgery.

As to the form of government, Bermuda, and
most of the West Indian colonies, appear externally
‘to be governed on the model of England; but in
reality they -only possess in a small degree the

42. BERMUDA.

genuine spirit of the mother country. They are
practical republics, and present as faithful a picture
of the petty states of old Greece as the change of
manners and religion will allow. There is the same
equality amongst them, the same undue conception
of their own importance, the same irritability of
temper, which has ever been the characteristic curse
of all little commonwealths.

The forms, indeed, of the English Parliament are
too gigantic for the capacities of little islands; the
colonists are not elevated by the size, but lost in the
folds of the mighty robe, which was never destined
for their use.

The colonies of a free State are more embarrassing
problems of government than those of a country
where the monarch is absolute. The Spanish posses-
sions in America were twenty. times as large as Old
Spain; yet for three centuries they were regulated
by a European council, which, with the exception of
its errors in commerce, and prejudices concerning
race and rank, governed them well, and ultimately
effected the introduction of those humanizing decrees
which have justly raised the name of the Spanish
colonists over those of any other nation.

A different relation, however, arises between a
free nation and its distant settlements; the colonists

GOVERNMENT. 43

carry their freedom with them, and claim a right to the
same or similar privileges that exist within the pale
of the mother country. A thousand Englishmen leave
England and settle on an island in another hemi-
sphere. How shall they be governed? Not by the
Queen alone—for the Queen of England is no
despot; not by Parliament—for they are not repre-
sented in Parliament. Therefore the spirit of the
Constitution is obliged to grant to them and their
heirs the forms of the Constitution; and they must
govern themselves, accordingly, like the rest of their
fellow-subjects, with the consent of the common
Executive. If, then, they have a charter, or a right
without a charter, to be governed in this manner,
where is there room for the Parliament of another
part of the empire—in which their property does not
lie, where they themselves do not reside, wherein
they are neither actually nor virtually represented—
to legislate absolutely for them? They insist that
they have a right to be governed by those only
who, according to the provisions of the Constitution,
represent them —that they are not represented
actually in the British Parliament, because they
depute no member to that assembly—and that they
are not represented virtually in the British Parlia-
ment, for the best of all reasons, that they are

44 BERMUDA.

actually represented elsewhere. So slow is the
march of opinion in Bermuda, that the political con-
stitution which pleased the islanders two centuries
ago, pleases them still; and as regards the mass of
the people, there is yet no dawn of that crisis, which
must ever arrive where intellect advances and poli-
tical institutions stand still.

I shall now briefly state what is the Constitution of
Bermuda, in the hope that by making its evils and
absurdities generally known, a step may be made
towards its amendment.

The Legislature consists of three branches—the
Governor, who is the Queen’s representative; the
Legislative Council, consisting of a limited number,
appointed by the Queen; and the General Assembly,
consisting of thirty-six members, elected by the
people. The members of the Assembly and Council
are each paid eight shillings sterling per diem when
on duty; this sum is voted annually, and entails on
the colony a considerable expense.

The three branches of the Legislature enact laws
in a way similar to the Queen, Lords, and Commons
at home; but any Act may be set aside by the
Queen’s disallowing it.

The islands are divided into nine parishes, and
each parish sends four members to the House of

GOVERNMENT. 45

Assembly. The representative must be a person
qualified by possessing real estate of 2401. sterling
in value; and an elector must have a qualification
of 60/. sterling in real estate.

Thirty-six members, who compose the House of
Assembly, are thought necessary to represent a
population of only 12,000 inhabitants. At no time
‘does party spirit run so high as at the election of
a member. Upon such occasions, the whole island
isinaferment. To vote, is to stamp a man of one
party or another.

It is utterly impossible for any one unacquainted
with Bermuda to form an idea of the length to
which party spirit is carried. It enters into the
most private relations of life. A tory and a radical
are as distinct, and have as little in common between
them, as if they were men not only of different.
countries, but of countries hostile to each other.
The most admirable proposition that united wisdom
and patriotism ever contrived, if emanating from
one party, would be received with coolness by the
other. In private society, too, the distinction is very
strongly marked: families of different parties do
not mingle; and even tradesmen find their custom
affected in a considerable degree by these political
divisions.

46 BERMUDA.

Although this party spirit is in itself so thoroughly
unimportant and contémptible — to all, excepting
those who are under its influence—yet it deserves
this notice in as far as it influences the state of
society, in impeding the progress of civilization and
the march of improvement. It has extinguished
public spirit, which exists only among a few: for
the petty triumph of party is preferred, at all times,
to the public good.

The community have too frequently been encour-
aged to condemn all Government measures as
imbecile, and ruinous to the colony. “It requires,
therefore, no ordinary firmness and integrity of
purpose to bear up against such attacks, carried on
as they are in so limited a population, with the
rancour of political enmity, and (where personal
yanity has been touched) with the bitterness of
wounded pride and personal hatred. Even the
tyranny of one man over a whole colony, however
galling and severe it may be, can never be so intole-
rable as the tyranny of a majority over the minority,
particularly when the former feel that their power
is only transient, and that no time is to be lost in
revenging the annoyances and injuries received from
their opponents.

This is the case in Bermuda, and in almost all

GOVERNMENT. 47

the British colonies: where it is not only the con-
stant change and the individual tyranny of a governor
that are ruining the country, but the much greater
calamity of one great party continually trying to
supplant and destroy the other at all hazards. All
persons of intelligence must allow that—the natural
advantages of climate and productions of this colony
being so great—if there were a government, how-
ever severe, which had the will and power to ensure
protection to capital and investment, and to suppress
the evils attending on the periodical elections to the
House of Assembly, Bermuda would become one of
the richest colonies of the western world.

To remedy these evils, and to bring about a whole-
some state of things, we must have reform in the
colonial legislature, so as to keep pace with the
times.

I would suggest, therefore, that instead of the old
system, a viceregal government with a Council of
Advice should be substituted; the Council to be
composed of three elements, or three different classes
of persons: Ist, the representatives of the people ;
2nd, the official servants of her Majesty; 3rd, the
unofficial nominees of the Crown.

The last general election in 1856, of members for
the House of Assembly, fully shows to what a degree

48 BERMUDA.

of bitterness party spirit may be carried in the
colony—even to the subversion of all law and order ;
so little regard did the majority of the House of
Assembly entertain for the representative of our
gracious Sovereign, and so small was the value which
they attached to the proper administration of govern-
ment.

Before dismissing the subject of the civil govern-
ment, I think that it will not be out of place to
give some explanation to the general reader on the
subject of British establishments in the West India
colonies.

49

CHAPTER IV.

BRITISH WEST INDIES.

The British establishments in the West Indies—The branches of
the Legislature—The Governor—The Council—The House of
Assembly,

‘Tue British establishments in the West India colonies
conform very nearly, in their internal constitutions,
to that of the mother-country. Their different orders
of judicature are exactly like those of England; and
their legislatures, in general, respectively consist of
three distinct branches, 7. e. a Governor, representing
the Crown; Council, or Upper House; and a body
of Delegates, representing the people at large.

Of the powers and privileges claimed and exer-
cised by these branches respectively in their own
little sphere, and the source whence they are derived,
I give the following brief account.

Governor.—Every chief governor in the British
colonies is appointed by letters patent under the
great seal of Great Britain. He receives by courtesy

4

50 BERMUDA.

the title of Excellency, and is vested with the fol-
lowing powers :—

First. As captain-general and commander-in-chief,
he has the actual command of all the land forces
within his government (except only when a general
officer is employed on the staff), and he commissions
all officers of the militia. He appoints the judges
of all the different courts of common law, and in
all the islands, except Jamaica, I believe these
gentlemen hold their seats during the Governor's
good pleasure. He nominates and supersedes at
will the custodes, justices of the peace, and other
subordinate civil officers; and, although in respect
to some of the above appointments and dismissions
he is directed to ask the advice of his Council, this
direction is of little avail, inasmuch as the members
of this body are themselves liable to be suspended
by the Governor on the most frivolous pretences, or
even without any cause assigned: a circumstance,
by the way, which not unfrequently happens: and
having thus reduced the board under a number
limited by his instructions, he can immediately restore
it to its full complement. He has the power, with the
advice of his Council, to summon General Assemblies ;
he appoints the place of their meeting ; and when

_met, he possesses a negative voice in the legislature:

BRITISH WEST INDIES. 51

for without his consent no bill passes into a law ;—
and he may from time to time, as he alone shall
judge needful, adjourn, prorogue, or dissolve all
such General Assemblies. He has the disposal of all
such civil employments as the Crown does not dis-
pose of; and with respect to such offices as are
usually filled up by the British Government, if
vacancies happen, the Governor appoints pro tempore,
and the persons so appointed are entitled to all the
emoluments, until they are superseded from home, and
until the persons nominated to supersede them arrive
in the colony. The Governor claims the privilege
also, in extraordinary cases, and has been known
frequently to exercise it, of suspending even such
civil officers as act immediately under her Majesty’s
authority, or by commission from the Board of
Treasury or Admiralty, in high and_ lucrative
employments, such as the Attorney and Advocate
General, the Collectors of the Customs, &c., and of
nominating other persons to act in their room, until
the Queen’s pleasure shall be known therein. He
is also empowered to extend the Queen’s gracious
pardon to all criminals, except only in cases of
murder and high treason; and in these cases, the
Governor is allowed to reprieve, until the signifi-
cation of the royal pleasure.
4—2

52 BERMUDA.

Secondly. The Governor has the custody of the
great seal, and, in most of the colonies, presides
solely in the High Court of Chancery.

It is the practice in some of the Windward Islands
for the Council to sit as judges in the Court of
Chancery with the Governor. Process, however, is
issued by the Governor alone, and tested in his name ;
and the Governor commonly exercises within his
jurisdiction the same extensive powers as are pos-
sessed by the Lord High Chancellor of Great
Britain.

Thirdly. The Governor is Ordinary, and collates to
all vacant church benefices. He has also the power
of granting probate of wills, and administration of
the effects of persons dying intestate. He grants
licences for marriages, and licences for schools, &e.,
and is sole judge in all matters relating to the con-
sistorial or ecclesiastical law.

Fourthly. The Governor presides in the Court of
Error, of which he and the Council are judges, to
hear and determine all appeals, in the nature of
writs of error, from the superior courts of common
law.

Fifthly. The Governor is also Vice-Admiral within
the extent of his government. As such, he is entitled
to the rights of jetsam, flotsam, &c.; and in time of

BRITISH WEST INDIES. 53

war he issues his warrant to the judge of the Court
of Vice-Admiralty to grant commissions to privateers,
Lastly. A Governor of a colony, besides various
emoluments arising from fees, fines, forfeitures, and
escheats, has an honourable annual provision settled
upon him by Act of Assembly, for the whole term
of his administration. For, in order that he may
not be tempted to prostitute the dignity of his station
by improper condescensions to leading men in the
Assembly, he is restrained by his instructions from
accepting any salary, unless the same be settled
upon him by law, within the space of one year after
his entrance upon the government, and expressly
made irrevocable during the whole term of his resi-
dence in the administration, And this, in my
opinion, is a wise and most necessary restriction.
Armed with such authorities, and possessing such
transcendent pre-eminence and privileges as above
described, it is not to be expected, from the common
fallibility of human nature, that every Governor of
of a colony (placed at so great a distance from the
mother country,) should, on every occasion, bear
his honours meekly. Great caution is therefore un-
doubtedly necessary, on the part of a British Minis-
ter, in the choice of persons for a trust of such great
weight and dignity; the powers in question being

54 BERMUDA.

more extensive than those which the laws of England
allow to the Sovereign herself. It is, however, a
melancholy truth that party zeal and connections
are commonly the most forcible recommendations
with which a candidate for a distant government
can present, himself.

The Council—The members of this board are
severally appointed by the Royal mandamus, directed
to the Governor, and countersigned by the Secretary
of State, and the names of the several members for
the time being are inserted in the Governor’s in-
structions. In Jamaica their full complement is
twelve, in some of the smaller islands ten; and in
case of as many vacancies, by death, absence, or
suspension, as reduce the board under seven, the
Governor, or Commander-in-Chief, is empowered to
fill up to that number, but no further. Their privi-
leges, powers, and offices are as follows :— :

First. They are by courtesy severally addressed in
the colonies by the title “ Honourable;” they take
precedence next to the Commander-in-Chief; and,
on the death or absence of the Governor, the senior
military officer in command of the, troops succeeds
to the government, under the title of President.

Secondly. They are a Council of State, the Gover-
nor, or Commander-in-Chief, presiding in person, to

BRITISH WEST INDIES. 55

whom they stand in the same relation as the Privy
Council in Great Britain does to the Sovereign. But
although every Governor is directed by his instruc-
tions to advise with his Council on most occasions,
I do not know that in his executive capacity he
is absolutely bound to abide by their advice. Doubt-
less he is at liberty to act in most cases not only
without, but even against, their concurrence; he may,
it is true, by so doing, incur the Sovereign’s dis-
pleasure, but his proceedings are nevertheless efficient
and legal within the colony.

Thirdly. They are named, in every commission of
the peace, as justices throughout the colony to which
they belong.

Fourthly. The Council, together with the Gover-
nor, sit as judges in the Court of Error or Court of
Appeal in civil causes from the Courts of Record ;
and in some of the islands two or more of the
members sit with the Governor in the Court of
Chancery as Assistant-Commissioners of the Great
Seal, as I have before stated. Appeals from Chan-
cery, therefore, lie not before them, but are, by the
Sovereign’s order, transmitted before her Majesty in
Council.

Fifthly. The Council is a constituent part of the
legislature, their consent being necessary in the enact-

56 BERMUDA.

ing of laws. In this capacity of legislators they sit
as the Upper House, and in most of the colonies
are distinct from the Governor; claiming privilege of
Parliament, ordering the attendance of persons and
the production of papers and records, and committing
for contempt. They enter protests on their journals
after the manner of the House of Peers, and have
their chaplain, clerk, usher of the black rod, &c.

It might appear singular that the same body of
men should act in two such different capacities and
functions—as a Privy Council, sworn to secrecy and
fidelity, and as an Upper House of Legislature. “The
admitting such a distinction,” says a late Governor,
* may be supposed even ‘to free them from all obli-
gations of the oath they take as councillors; because
their duty to the people as legislators may seem to
oblige them very frequently to support opinions
repugnant to a Governor’s schemes.”

But to this it may be answered, that if the
Governor’s schemes are, in the opinion of the
Council, repugnant to the true interests of the people,
their opposition to such schemes cannot be deemed a
violation of their oath of fidelity, nor does it neces-
sarily follow that they thereby divulge what they
have sworn to keep secret.

We shall find that the colonial parliaments are re-

BRITISH WEST INDIES. 57

quired to copy, as nearly as circumstances will admit,
the example of the Parliament of Great Britain.

The freeholders are assembled in each town or
parish respectively by the Queen’s writ; their
suffrages are taken by an officer of the Crown, and
the persons elected are afterwards commanded, by
royal proclamation, to frame statutes and ordinances
for the public safety. When met, the oaths of
allegiance, &c. are administered to each of them ;
and a Speaker being chosen and approved, the
session opens by a speech from the Queen’s repre-
sentative. The Assembly then proceed, as a grand
provincial inquest, to hear grievances, and to correct
such public abuses as are not cognizable before
inferior tribunals. They commit for contempts; and
the courts of law have refused, after solemn argu-
ment, to discharge persons committed by the Speaker’s
warrant. They examine and control the accounts of
the public treasury; they vote such supplies, levy
such taxes, and frame such laws, statutes, and ordi-
nances as the exigencies of the province or colony
require. Jointly with the Governor and Council,
they exercise the highest acts of legislation, the
judges being sworn to give effect to their ordinances
even in matters of life and death; and many persons
are known to have undergone capital punishment

‘

58 BERMUDA.

awarded by laws passed in the colonies, even before
they had received the Royal assent. On the whole,
provided their commercial laws be not repugnant to
those of Great Britain, there are no concerns, of a
local and provincial nature, to which the authority
of the colonial legislature does not extend.

_ As the legislative power of Great Britain, there-
fore, is supreme only in a relative sense even within
the realm where the people themselves participate
in its authority, much less can it be said to be
supreme, in all cases whatsoever, over the colonies.
It has indeed been solemnly declared by Parliament
itself, that it has such a power. Nevertheless, it
would not be difficult to point out many cases, and to
imagine others, wherein the authority of Parliament
has been, and may again be constitutionally exerted,
in regard to the colonies, without abolishing every
restriction on the part of the Governors, and extin-
guishing every right on the part of the governed.

It is beyond all question, that every addition to
the wealth and greatness of the colonies contributes
at the same time to the augmentation of the mother
country’s own riches and power. And such, before
the unfortunate divisions which occasioned the De-
claration of Independence of the United States of
America, was the commercial system adopted by

BRITISH WEST INDIES. 59

Great Britain, and submitted to by her American
dependencies. To descant on the several parts, pro-
perties, and effects of the system of restriction and
monopoly,—to show that it secured every degree
of authority in the parent over the child, which is
compatible with the happiness and freedom of man-
kind; and, finally, that it might have answered in
the highest degree, if Great Britain had happily
confined her pretensions to the limits originally
prescribed by herself, for these purposes—it would
be necessary to enter into a large and comprehen-
sive discussion, to which the design of my work
does not extend.

60 BERMUDA.

CHAPTER V.

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC.

Church Establishment—Courts of Law—The Court of Chancery
—the Court of General Assize—The Court of Exchequer—
The Court of Ordinary—Instance Court of Vice-Admiralty—
The Court of Quarter Sessions—The art of legislation—-The
Public Press—Trade—Revenue.

Or our church establishment we have nothing to
say disparagingly, and can speak in very favourable
terms of the clergy in general.

The Episcopal is the established Church in Ber-
muda. It is comprised in the see of Newfoundland,
and the clergy are maintained on fixed salaries voted
by the legislature, and voluntary contributions of
the people.

The rectories are five, and there are ten churches,
and also five Episcopal chapels. In the parish of
Warwick there is a Presbyterian kirk, also a smaller
one in Hamilton. The Wesleyans have a fine chapel
in the town of St. George, a commodious one in
Hamilton, and seven smaller places of worship

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 61

throughout the islands. The Roman Catholics have
very recently built a neat chapel in the town of
Hamilton.

A few remarks concerning the constitution and
jurisdiction of the courts for the administration of the
laws in the colony, may not be out of place here.

And first as to the Court of Chancery.—This
court is constituted by the Governor and Council,
or any five of them, of whom the Governor must
be one; and has power and authority to hear,
examine, determine and decree all causes and matters
whatever, as fully and amply as the High Court of
Chancery in England.

The nest in order is the Court of General Assize,
or Court of Record, which is held at the town of
Hamilton twice a year (in May and November) by
the Chief Justice of the Colony and one or more—
not exceeding two—Assistant Justices; or, in case
the latter are absent or unable to attend, by the Chief
Justice alone. Should the Chief Justice be absent,
or prevented by illness, the court may be held by two
Assistant Justices. It was regulated by a Colonial
Act passed in 1814, and its proceedings and practice
have been simplified and amended by an Act passed
in 1834. In this court are vested the same rights,
powers, jurisdiction, and authority as belong to, or

62 BERMUDA.

are enjoyed and exercised by the Courts of Queen’s
Bench, Common Pleas, Oyer and Terminer, General
Gaol Delivery, and Assize in England.

The assizes commence on the first Mondays in
May and November, and continue, if necessary, for
the trial of jury causes until the second Saturday
following, on which day the juries are discharged.
The court has then power to adjourn for a period
not exceeding sixteen days, when it may sit for
hearing matters of law. This court holds pleas in
all manner of causes and actions, civil and criminal,
and has power to make rules and regulations re-
specting merely the practice of the courts, as may
be expedient, and, as nearly as conveniently may be,
agreeable to the practice established in the Common
Law Courts at Westminster Hall. An appeal lies
from this court by writ of error to the Court of
Errors, consisting of the Governor and Council, or
any five of them (except such as may be judges of
the court appealed from), of which five the Governor
must be one; and if the judgment. entered, or debt,
or damages. laid, exceed 300/. sterling, an appeal
lies from this court to the Queen in Council. This
court may also make rules of practice merely, agree-
able to the laws and practice in England.

The other courts of justice are,—a Court of

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 63

Exchequer, a Court of Ordinary (of limited powers),
an Instance Court of Vice-Admiralty, and a Court
of Quarter Sessions; and their proceedings are in
conformity to the laws and practice of England, as
nearly as local circumstances will admit.

We now come to speak more particularly of the
legislative machinery.

It must be admitted by every right-minded person,
after due reflection, that the present system is too
costly, too intricate,,and far too extensive for a
colony like Bermuda. No question was ever made
of this, except from some one who directly or in-
directly received or expected to receive advantage
from the continuation of the system. In the early
history of the. colony, we learn that at various
times attempts were made to reduce the number of
the Assembly-men; and, in later years, successive
Governors, if they have not openly attacked the
system, have in various ways evinced their sense
of the inconvenience attendant on it. It is well
known that Governor Reid was fully aware of the
absurdity of having thirty-six representatives for so
limited a population. Governor Elliot, on one occa-
sion, expressed himself in a decided manner as to
the protraction of the session unnecessarily, —a
subject of complaint intimately connected with the

64 BERMUDA.

extraordinarily large number of members; and other
persons well versed in colonial institutions, have
expressed their conviction that such a cumbrous
machinery is quite out of proportion to the limits
and requirements of the colony.

In the following table will be seen the cost entailed
on the country for six years’ pay to members of the
House of Assembly. For facility of calculation, we
give the amount in dollars, as they are commonly
understood in Bermuda :—.

In 1850 the House of Assembly cost wee $1,844

», 1851 ee Me ns 2,320

»» 1852 ive. Oey. cang> Cais. tee GO688 :

» 1853 we wees uy ae ase BG

y) 1854 i ees awe, as Gave’ BROOD

yy 1855 yee) a> Gara Site ata SRYARG
$13,716

From the above statement it appears that in six
years the House of Assembly cost the country, for
members’ salaries only, 13,716 dollars; but this is
very far from the actual expense of six years’ legisla-
tion. The allowance to the Legislative Council, which
amounts on an average to nearly one-fourth of that of
the Assembly, the pay of officers of the two Houses,
and other occasional charges, such as law expenses,
will double this amount. The gross expense there-

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 65

fore of six years’ legislation in Bermuda is certainly
not less than twenty-siv thousand dollars!

After comparing the expenditure with the revenue
of the colony, it will be found that upwards of one-
twelfth of the gross income from all sources is
swallowed up by the process of law making, mend-
ing, and renewing.

It does not follow that, as the House of Assembly
absorbs but one-half of this gross cost, it is therefore
an economical institution. We must not lose, sight
of the fact that the expenses of the Legislative
Council, and all the other larger items, bear an exact
proportion to the length of time the Assembly sits;
and as a matter of course, the whole expense of
legislation always bears an exact relation to the time
consumed in the Lower House. In 1852-3 the House
of Assembly cost but 1,456 dollars, and the Council
388 dollars; whilst in 1853-4, the former House
entailed a charge of 3,002 dollars, and the latter,
in consequence, 798 dollars.

- The public will hardly be prepared to learn to -
what an extent the temporary measures, so much
~ in vogue in this colony, are carried. It will be
seen by a few figures, that the principal object
of these enactments is the making work for future
legislators. Hence, a constant circle of employ-
5

66 BERMUDA.

ment is provided for the House, and a constant
drain is kept up on the public chest, or rather,
to speak more plainly, on the private chest; the
private pocket of each " tax-payer being, in fact,
the source from whence all this expenditure is met.
As matters now stand, every man, woman, and child
in the colony, of all ages and colours, pay, on an
average, nearly 2s. a year for legislation alone; and,
as a large number pay very little, or nothing at
all, a great many, of course, contribute considerably
more than this. ;

The following figures may throw some light on
law-making in Bermuda:—In 1850, 17 laws were
passed; in 1851, 10; in 1852, 24; in 1853, 11; in
1854, 19; and in 1855, 14; making a total of 95
Acts. Of these laws, 27 were permanent, and 68
temporary. In 1850, of the 17 Acts passed, 6 only
were temporary, and 12 were permanent; but in
1851 there was only 1 permanent Act to 9 tempo-
rary Acts. In 1852 there were 5 permanent to 18
temporary Acts. In 1853, of 11 Acts passed, not
one was permanent! ‘In 1854, 6 out of 19 were
permanent, but several of these 6 were in their
nature limited in point of time. In 1855 there were
3 permanent, and 11 temporary Acts passed.

As many persons, perhaps, may not know what is

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 67

meant by permanent and temporary Acts, a few words
here in explanation may not be deemed out of place.

A few of our Bermuda laws are passed without
any particular time being named during which they
are to continue in force; and therefore they remain
in force until the legislature repeals them. The
great majority of them are passed for a few years
only, and require every now and then to be con-
tinued. For instance, all the laws passed in 1853,
however excellent they may be, must, notwith-
standing, die a natural death within eight or ten
years of their enactment, unless by some subsequent
Acts they shall be continued in force.

We are aware that in former times, in some of
the colonies, Houses of Assembly adhered to this
temporary mode of legislation with great tenacity.
There are “temporary Acts,” which continue to be
renewed from time to time in Bermuda, that have
been in force for half a century ! *

The result is, that law-making becomes a much
more costly affair than there is any occasion for,—
since each successive House of Assembly is always
engaged in reviving the moribund measures of its
predecessor, and saving them from untimely death.
Eleven out of twenty-three Acts passed in 1852

* Vide Appendix B.

5— 2

68 BERMUDA.

would have been unnecessary, had the laws which.
they were merely passed for the purpose of “con-.
tinuing” been allowed to remain in operation, without
any limitation of time. Of the eleven Acts passed,
in 1853, four were for the purpose of prolonging,
for a short time, enactments already in force; and
the other seven (as has been already intimated) were
only to continue in force for a few years, after which
they must again be subjected to the same process
of renewal. This is certainly a very ingenious
mode of consuming time, if it were nothing ‘else.
Truly, the science of legislation is brought to great.
perfection in the Bermuda House of Assembly! I
would wish my readers to understand, that I con-
demn the system, not the individual members; for
“ they are all—all honourable men.” .

‘Of the Public Press a few words may be said
here. Doubtless, every European is very much
astonished, on his arrival, at the manner in which
the press is conducted in Bermuda: at the screaming
fits—to speak in medical parlance—with which it is
afflicted, when it fancies itself to be suffering under.
some grievous moral wrong, or attacked by some
daring assailant of public virtue.

It is fortunate for some of the quiet people of
our little community, that there are now only two

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 69

‘journals to contend with, these journals being the
organs of one or other of the two parties; and
so fearful are they of giving offence to the party
which patronizes them, that anything like freedom
of opinion is seldom or never found in their columns.
‘The party spirit of one of these journals must be
characterized as furious: it is conducted apparently
with the sole view of pleasing a few of its patrons.
The acrimony, invective, and personal abuse, which
formerly figured in its columns, and which are far
different now, undoubtedly surprised any stranger
who had been accustomed to the more gentlemanly
tone of the English press, and certainly reflected no
credit upon the taste of the public, who were not only
satisfied, but delighted with this style of writing,
and who, with few exceptions, looked upon the most
-powerful and most nervous writing as tame, if it
were not seasoned with personality. There was,
indeed, one excuse for this depraved appetite on the
part of the public: it was that in the House of
Assembly an example was set. The harangues in
that House were too frequently a tissue of person-
‘alities—such as in no well regulated assembly
would be endured for 2 moment; but I am happy
to state that, owing to Governor Murray’s showing
a timely and conciliating spirit, a better state of

70 BERMUDA.

affairs now exists. Nothing, by-the-by, can be a
better illustration of the indifference of the natives
of Bermuda towards all that lies beyond their little
world, than the contents of the local papers. These
are small sheets: one and a half or two of these
small pages, are filled with island news, the proceed-
ings of the House of Assembly, and original articles
and letters upon local politics: The most scanty
space imaginable is made to suffice for the world
at large. The most important debates in the British
Parliament are despatched in a paragraph; and
the foreign intelligence of Europe is evidently a
matter of very minor consideration. These journals
enjoy a large circulation, and are conducted with a
good deal of talent, though unhappily made subser-
vient to the narrow views of party.

Up to the year 1843, the trade of Bermuda had
‘been considerable, but, till within a recent period,
it has considerably decreased, in consequence of
the warehousing system having been abolished,
which assisted in supporting the commerce of the
Bermudas, by giving the British shipping the
privilege of carrying foreign pork, beef, and flour
to the West Indies, after having been landed in
the North American Provinces.*

* Vide Appendix C,

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC. 71

But little attention has as yet been paid to agri-
culture, nearly all the articles of food being im-
ported. Manufactured articles of almost every de-
scription are brought from England. Articles of
food—such as beef, pork, lard, butter, corn, flour,
pulse, rice, &c.—are principally imported from the
United States of “America; while dry salt fish,
salmon, mackerel, &c. are brought from Nova Scotia
and Newfoundland. Sugar and coffee are of late
years generally imported from the West Indies.

The revenue covers the expenditure of the colony ;
and an ad valorem duty of 3 per cent. levied on
imported articles in 1843 has since been reduced
to 24 per cent.* The imperial duties are collected
by a small staff of officers, with the colonial trea-
surer at their head, whose designation now is that
of receiver-general, and who also superintends the
collection of the local revenue. For his services as
collector he receives a salary of 300). per annum,
thereby making the collection of the revenue cost
a much lower rate than formerly. For statistics, see
the annexed tables.

* Vide Appendix D.

BERMUDA.

4 Gt secolr Il FT O6801F 4 1 166°8F
IL $ OPI 6 § 8% IL 1 18st
8 pb Isl O Il 281 oo a
b PF 98g 8 9 8IF 0 61 Lar
€ FL 608 9 61 88% O 61 918
L Lt 0028 F 9 86c'e OL 61 946%
0 0 FE 0 F 103 0 91 08
8 & .S8F b 1 9ge I 8st 9g¢
0 9 626% FO ser'g 6 L 969F
ps ps F ps

oe CN f
‘snooue]jeostyy

ry ooo eee

*** aBI0ax) “4G
‘aomyQ ysog [e1ouex) mos sesvysog

oe sq[0}-FqSTT
rn xe}-uoyony
oe te ‘ pqaodunr roqyo ITV
str tee eee ee grag goage
aa *** saeSI0 pus ‘Gnus ‘ooovqoy,
“ saonby] yyeur pue ‘ours ‘syridg

“9S8T “§STE Toe,
Surpua 19x

"GSST S18 Yous

surpue 1eax

“PSST “48Le yore,
Suipue 1eaX

‘onuaAcy JO soo1nog

"SUVEX DAILNOGSNOD AGUBT, Od VANWAAG sO GONTATY FHL 10 SISEONAG TAILVUVANOG

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC.

VALUE oF IMPORTS THAT PAID ad valorem Duty.
Year ending 31st March, 1853 we £96,189 1 4

” * 1854, = 89,919 15 9
$s i 1855 «= 97,199 14 11
: a‘ 1856 =... «119,090 15 8

73

ABSTRACT OF THE PPOCEEDINGS OF THE HONOURABLE

House or ASSEMBLY.

Estimated, Revenue and Expenditure at the Colonial Trea-
sury, from 31st March, 1859, to 31st March, 1860.

1859. June 1.—To payments from the Treasury
from 3lst March to 1st June, 1859 sak
To quarterly salaries and other fixed expenses for

quarter ending 30th June, 1859 oa oes
To Treasury liabilities for grants undrawn per
statement to this date ... «» £5,880 5 4

Less on account of Causeway,
1,381. 4s. 7d. Ditto St. George’s

Church, 600... wwe, 981 4 7
To expenses for legislature for 1859 <4 Sats
Public bills from 30th March, 1858,

to the 30th April, 1859 ... «. £1,157 12 7

Less amount paid quarterly under
Act No. 4, 2nd Session, 1851 ... 790 17 8

To Balance brought down ... ie ‘aie
To official salaries and annual expenses for the
service, ending 30th June, 1860, per statement

To public bills for the same period, estimated at
To expenses legislature for 1860, ditto... ao
To lighthouse expenses for same time, ditto ie

£

Ss.

d,

867 13 2

1,340 10 0

3,899 0 9
550 0 0

366 14 11

£7,023 18 10

3,679

5,922
1,200
550
250

£11,601

8

oooo

@

5

alhloocse

74 BERMUDA.

1859. March 31.—By balance in Treasury this

date as per report Auditing Committee eaiy
June 30.—Revenue for quarter ending 30th, 1859,
estimated at oes a oes aoe see

Balance estimated to be due from the Treasury to
30th June, 1859... wae nee oes ees

By estimated revenue from Lighthouse Tonnage
Duty for the year ending 30th June, 1860...

Ditto, ditto, under Post Office Act se eas
Maintenance lunatics, estimated at ven ep
Amount to be provided for the public service for

the ensuing year ... yes 0s ae _

£ sd,
1,644 10 5

1,700 0 0

‘3,679 8 5

£7,023 18 10

200
75

ooo
ooo

10,876 8 5

£11,601 8 5

Oficial Salaries and other Annual Expenses from the
the 30th June, 1859, to the 30th June, 1860.

Salary of his Excellency the Governor ... aes
Clergy of the Church of England... £600 0 0
Wesleyan Missionary Establishment 120 0 0
Presbyterian Establishment ead 120 0 0

Receiver General... we «. £300 0
Assistant Receiver General «- 170 0 0
Revenue officer, Hamilton, 1201;

allowance for boat, 202. ... -. 140 0 0
Revenue officer, St. George’s, 100/.;

allowance for boat, 20/7. ... -- 120 0 0
Revenue officer, Ireland, 100/.; allow-

ance for boat, 30/. ... cee -. 180 0 0
Treasury clerk aia a ».- 100 0 0
Controller of Customs, Hamilton ... 50 0 O

” i St. George’s 80 0 0
Carried forward <8 eee wei

£500 0 0

840. 0 0

1,040 0 0

£2,380 0 0

JUDICATURE, LEGISLATION, REVENUE, ETC.

Brought forward
2 police magistrates at 60/. each
4 Constables ... aan wae

4 Postmasters ae ies
8 Receiving officers ... ahs
Mail carriers ... ane re

Principal keeper, lunatic asylum

Assistant ,, 35
Matron 5
Assistant matron 5
Medical superintendent

2 Gaolers at 60/. each et
2 Matrons at 15/. ,, ase

2 Chaplains at 12/. each
2 Surgeons at 20/. each igs
Superintendent hard labour

Principal keeper of lighthouse
2 Assistant ,, ”

1 Clerk

1 Superintendent machinery

£120 0 0
180 0 0

300 0 0
24 0 0
335 0 0

100
60
30
20
50

oooo$o

oooo

ooooo

oooo

Courts of justice, jurors, constables, and witnesses

Provost Marshal General ...
Clerk of Council ass ae
Clerk of Assembly ... ae

Ferry keeper .. - ues
Annuity to G. F. Mallory :
Board of Education ... ees
Inspector of Schools ... eet

Clerk of the Board ... wat

ooo

£2,380

250

659

260

264

250

700
200
110
125
114

75

oooooo oo
ooooooc.6lU6Sm

76 BERMUDA.

The undersigned Committee appointed by the House of Assembly .
to inspect the annual accounts rendered against the public to
April 30th, 1859, beg leave to submit a statement thereof,
amounting to ... wae Ber soe wes £366 14 11
To which should be added the amounts of claims

against the Colony to March 3lst, audited and

passed by the Committee of the Council and

Assembly under the Act providing for the

quarterly payments of claims of certain cre-

ditors ae a Sit eae ee sis 790 17 8

£1,157 12 7

The Committee beg leave to submit a statement showing in the
whole the amount of 1481. 11s. 8d., which we refer to the con-
sideration of the House, most of which being expedient for the
public service, we recommend to be paid. .

Rost. S. Musson,
Wm. J. Cox,
Morzis M. Fairtu,
H. G. Hunt,

Wm. B. Perot.

Sessions House, Hamilton, June 13th, 1859.

oe

CHAPTER VI.

FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC.

Fisheries —The most esteemed fish—Their brilliant colours—
Peculiar fashion of baiting a hook—A “full bait”—The
fisherman taking it easy—The goat-fish—The doctor-fish, and
their curious glassy lancets—The soap-fish, &c.—Description
of Bermuda—The group of islands—Their calcareous forma-
tion—Subterranean channels—Oval form of the group—Eight
“tribes ”»—The town of Hamilton and its general aspect—The
shops—The houses in the suburbs—The semi-circular suburb—
Mount Langton—Flag-staff—The public buildings.

THERE is no part of the globe in which a greater

variety and excellence of fish abound, than in the

waters bordering on the shores of Bermuda, among
the most delicate of which, we may mention a few,

such as angel-fish, chub, grouper, rock-fish, &c.

These are considered by connoisseurs to be the

most esteemed fish for the table. The most common

descriptions are the snappers, yellowtails, hinds, the
grunts and the squirrels (species of Scianide).

Many of these are of brilliant colours. The yellow-

tail (Mesoprion chrysurus), for example, is pale azure

78 BERMUDA.

on the back, and pearly white below, with a broad

band of the richest yellow along each side, which
is the hue also of the dorsal and caudal fins.

The spotted snapper (Mesoprion uninotatus) is
white, traversed by longitudinal lines of yellow; the
dorsal and caudal fins have borders of rose pink,
and there is a large oval black spot on each flank.

The hind (a species of Serranus) is a handsome
fish. It is, studded with scarlet spots on a grayish
ground; the fins are yellow, especially the caudal,
with black borders, having a narrow white edge.
Sometimes the pectorals are brilliantly scarlet.

But the above-named yield to the different species of
Hemutlon, which, under the name of grunts, are well
known and highly esteemed throughout Bermuda.
Their characteristic markings and hues are oblique
parallel lines of gold, on a silver or metallic azure
ground, with delicately tinted fins, and sometimes
spots of peculiarly intense lustre; the whole interior
of their mouth is generally of the finest scarlet.

All of these are taken with the line, and with the
seine, as well as in pots. ‘The snappers are perhaps
more highly esteemed than the grunts, but both are
excellent.

They chiefly frequent what is called “broken
ground,” where patches of white sand alternate with

FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. 79

masses of rough rock and fields of grass-like weeds.
They range from deep water to the rocky shore;
are taken abundantly with the seine, and bite freely
at a bait of pilchard (Clupea pilchardus); but only
fish of small and middling size are commonly caught
in pots. The fish of large dimensions (of two feet
and a half’) will rarely bite at a hook worked in the
usual manner. For then the fisherman takes a wire
hook (No. 1 or 2) as large as a goosequill, which
he throws overboard, baited with a pilchard, but in
a peculiar fashion. One side of the pilchard is split
nearly off, remaining attached only by the tail; this
is allowed to hang free, and a slice from the back
and one from the belly are allowed to hang in the
same way. The hook is then passed in at the mouth,
out at the gills, and again through the middle, and
the head is tied to the top of the hook; another
slice is then put upon the hook, and made to hang
down. This is designated a “full bait.” No sinker
is attached, but its own weight is sufficient to carry
it nearly to the bottom. The line being passed with
two turns round the fisherman’s finger, he seats
himself comfortably in his boat, and awaits the bite
of the first large fish that may choose to essay the
baited hook; which it usually does by taking in the
whole at a gulp.

80 BERMUDA.

The seine is here, as.elsewhere, the chief resource
of the fisherman ; and many | kinds of fish are taken’
by this means that rarely enter a fish-pot or seize
a bait, together with many species that are called
rubbish, as being of no esteem in the market, though
_ often interesting to the naturalist.

Another fish of rather pleasing aspect (Upeneus
maculatus, Cuv.), is from its dependent beards called
goat-fish. This fish, in its general hue, is pink,
fading to white below, with three large livid spots
on each side; the central portion of each scale, on
the upper parts, is of pale pearly azure tint. We
have also the beautiful angel chetodon (Holocanthus
ciliaris); the doctor-fish (Ananthus chirurgus), so
called from the curious glassy lancets that they
carry in a sheath on each side of the tail; and a
parrot-fish (Scarus caruleus), remarkable for its
abrupt, almost vertical profile, white eye, and bril-
liant azure hue. Here also is a species of Aulas-
toma, or soap-fish, and a handsomely-marked fish
usually called the flounder, but in reality a kind of
turbot (Rhombus argus), being studded all over the,
upper side with large blue rings, enclosing pale
yellow areas, on a dusky brown ground colour.
There are many others, such as sharks, hedgehog
fishes, whales, et hoc genus omne; but these we

FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. 81

will not attempt to describe. A considerable ton-
nage in boats, and a number of people, are employed
in the Bermuda fisheries; the produce of which
forms a large item in the consumption of the
islands.

For a better comprehension of the “ Bermudas,”
I shall now give a geological and topographical
description of them.

The group of islands forming the little archipelago
will require minuter description, for the purpose
of showing the varied features of each, and of the
whole of them collectively. The surface is very
irregular; and although there are no lofty moun-
tains, we see one or two points that may be con-
sidered as rather high hills. There is no appearance
of wood until we approach close to the sea; and
then the cedar-trees, which grow along the shore,
show at once that we have reached a new world.
The valleys intersecting these hills are covered with
vegetation, but many of the hills themselves are
naked and barren, while others are richly clothed
with timber.

The formation of the islands is chiefly calcareous,
consisting of the spoils of zoophytes, of which
several species are strikingly evident. These are
so cemented together, that they sometimes form a

6

82 BERMUDA.

hard, compact limestone, with conchoidal fracture
and translucency on the edges; and at other places
they exist as a dry, soft, friable chalk, or soft marl,
in which are found a great variety of shells, many
of them in perfect preservation. In many places
the organic remains constitute the principal, and in
all, a very considerable proportion, of this formation ;
and it has been ‘observed, that although these
remains are intimately blended together in the
common structure, they still appear to be arranged
in families.

Upon the strata of the coralline mass, béds of a
white shelly sandstone are occasionally to be found.
This species of sandstone is quarried for building
purposes. It is very porous. When the beds are
sufficiently thick, they have some appearance of
stratification.

Calcareous spar occurs abundantly, and frequently
white granular limestone, which is attached to the
common rock, and, like the spar, appears to have
been deposited in accidental cavities at a compara-
tively recent period.

This calcareous formation is extremely cavernous ;
so that dislocations and sinking of the surface occa-
sionally take place; and, from general appearances,
I am inclined to believe that they occurred very

FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. 83

frequently, and, to a considerable extent, at former
periods.

There are immense fissures in almost every part
of the island, through which the water lodged on
the surface is drained off and conducted to the ocean
by means of subterranean channels. Superficial
springs of fresh water are very few, and the inhabi-
tants are supplied with this necessary article of
consumption principally from wells, and from cisterns
of rain-water.

The group of islands and the surrounding reef
are of an oval form, the longest diameter lying
north-east by east and south-west by west, in
length twenty-five miles; and the breadth is from
ten to twelve nautical miles. The islands them-
selves are on the south-east side of the reef, and
are shaped in the most irregular manner. In the
general direction of the reef given above, they
extend in length about fifteen miles. The greatest
breadth is about five miles. The islets are one
hundred and fifty in number. They are situated
in latitude 32° 15/ north, longitude 64° 51’ west,
and are distant from Cape Hatteras, in North Caro-
lina, about 600 miles.

The chief of the group is the Great Bermuda
Island, containing the town of Hamilton; St.

6—2

84 BERMUDA.

George’s, with its town of the same name; Somerset
Island; and Ireland Island, on which is the dock-
yard. Besides the above, there are St. David’s,
Longbird, Paget’s, Smith’s, Cooper’s, Nonsuch, Castle,
and many inferior islands and rocks.

The Great Bermuda, termed by way of distinction
the “ Mainland,” was originally divided into eight
districts, called “tribes.” A short description of
these small districts may be useful.

Hamilton Tribe, which is the most northern and
eastern, is a mere belt of sand, rock, and a little
vegetable mould, surrounding a lagoon, which is
called Harrington Sound. This fine sheet of water
might be made a secure harbour for shipping by
cutting a canal into it, the present channel being a
mere shallow creek.

The Hamlet of the Flatts is situated on the
southern bank of the creek, in Smith’s Tribe.
Tuckerstown, which lies eastward of the lagoon,
appertains to Hamilton Tribe. Smith and Devon-
shire Tribes follow in succession, in a south-western
direction. Pembroke occupies a spur of the island,
which there trends in an east arid west direction,
and is divided from Paget Tribe by an inlet called
Paget Port—commonly Crow Lane.

The town of Hamilton presents little that is

FISHERIES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. 85

attractive to a stranger, though its aspect is charac-
teristic enough of West Indian manners; it is
situated in Pembroke, and on the north side of the
inlet; it is a free port, and the seat of the legisla-
ture. You climb the wharf, and are immediately
in a broad, long, rather low and straight street,
which is the front street, nearly a mile in length,
bordered by a row of the Pride-of-India tree, which
forms a pleasant shade during the summer months.
There is no pavement, and the sandy earth is
ploughed into ruts by the carts. Most of the
houses are shops, or “stores,” as they are called in
America; each store, whatever the character of its
merchandise—whether shoes, drapery, “dry goods,”
hardware, spirits, tobacco, provisions, or what not—
being usually fitted in the same manner, and having
an open piazza in front, two or three yards wide, the
ceiling being supported by slender pillars. Behind
this piazza is the shop, which is fitted up with
counters and shelves, somewhat in the English style;
and over all are the rooms of the dwelling-house,
farnished with jalousies, or strong venetian-blinds,
which admit light and air from beneath, and exclude
the sun’s rays. Toward the suburbs the shops cease,
the houses become more elegant, each enclosed in a
court or garden, which is often adorned with the

86 BERMUDA.

beautiful fragrant blossoming trees and plants of the
island, or such as unite fruit with beauty and shade.
Of the former the rose geranium, the white jessa-
mine, and the oleander, or South Sea rose—both
beautiful and odorous—are great favourites; and of
the latter we meet with the wide-spreading pome-
granate, the tall papaw, and the golden-fruited
members of the citrus genus, from the gigantic
shaddock to the diminutive lime.

The town of Hamilton is backed by a range of
heights; but between these heights and the town
_ there is a level, varying from half a mile to a mile in
breadth. This level forms a semicircular suburb, the
arch of which is not less than three miles; and a
large portion of this space is occupied by villas and
cottage residences, with their gardens and orchards,
the property chiefly of the native inhabitants of Ber-
muda, and occupied either by themselves, or by the
English residents to whom they are let. These resi-
dences are not confined to the level ground; they
encroach upon the heights also, adorning the slopes
and crowning the eminences; and the general neat-
ness of the exterior of these villas, with the sub-
stantial garden-walls and luxuriant foliage, produce
a very favourable impression on the stranger.

The houses of those who are not connected with

FISHERIZES, TOPOGRAPHY, ETC. 87

trade, and of many of the most opulent merchants,
are to be found in the suburbs, and in those newer
streets which form the outlets; where also the
English residents principally abide. Some of these
streets are pretty, regular, and well built, having
an open space, together with an ornamental garden-
plot, in front of them. North of the town is a hill,
called Mount Langton, on which is the Government
House, and a flag-staff, by means of which commu-
nication is kept up between St. George, the Dock-
yard, and Gibbs’ Hill. A few miles to the north-
west of Mount Langton is the residence of the
Admiral—St. John’s Hill, or Clarence Lodge.

It is fortunate for the traveller that Bermuda pos-
sesses other attractions than those offered by its
public buildings; for these are devoid of either
beauty or interest; indeed, with the exception of
Trinity Church, the New Hotel, the public offices,
and two of the chapels in Hamilton, there are none
deserving the name; and of these, Trinity Church
and the New Hotel have alone any claim to architec-
tural design.

88

BERMUDA.

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Paget Tribe—Warwick and Sandy’s Tribes—Ireland Island—The

Royal Dockyard — Naval Establishment — Hospital — The
officers’ residences—Anchorages—Grassy Bay—Boaz Island
New convict prisons—Somerset Island—Ellis Harbour—Reef
extending from Spanish Point — Natural breakwater to the
Great Sound—Romantic road from Clarence Lodge to Hamil-
ton—“ Brackish Pond ”— The Wells””—Wreck Hill—Gibbs’
Hill—Description of Lighthouse on Gibbs’ Hill—Telegraphic
post—The “Sand Hills”—The direction of the great road—
Shore of white sand—Holothurie—Views from the hills—
Deep chasms—Declivities—Surfaces of sand-hills—Incrusta-
tion of the layers of sand—Transition of sand into crystal-
line limestone — Castle Harbour — St. George’s Island —
Harbour of St. George — Description of scenery by Thomas
Moore—Fort Cunningham—The streets—The houses—The
barracks—The roadstead.

Paget TRIBE commences at the head of the port of

to

that name, and, along with that of Warwick, runs

the south-west by west, the land trending with a

gentle curve to some distance below Gibbs’ Hill,
where the latter tribe is joined by that of South-

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 89

ampton, which, with Sandy’s, completes the district.
Beyond this extremity of the Great Bermuda, in
a north-north-east and south-south-west direction,
lie the islands of Somerset, Gate, and Ireland, the
latter being the property of Government.

Treland Island is one of the four telegraphic signal
stations established on the islands. The site of the
Royal Dockyard and Naval Establishment is on the
north extremity of this island, from the rest of which
it is separated by a deep dry ditch. The island is
one mile in length and a quarter of a mile broad.
It is nearly all occupied by the buildings required
for storehouses, and also with residences for the
officers and artisans. The Hospital is situated on
the highest part of the island, and is a very large
and commodious establishment.

The officers’ residences are built in the English
style, and are very comfortable. The most important
work is the Breakwater, which is similar to that of
Plymouth, and was constructed principally by con-
victs. The Dockyard is kept in fine order.

There are two anchorages for men-of-war here—
Grassy Bay, which lies outside a reef stretching
across the sound from Spanish Point, the extreme
of Pembroke Tribe; and another within that natural
breakwater. The remoteness of this rendezvous from

90 BERMUDA.

the point of egress into the open sea was formerly
considered as a great objection; but it no longer
applies, as steam-vessels can in a short time tow the
ships out to sea.

Between Ireland and Somerset Islands there are
several smaller ones, the chief of which is Boaz
Island, also the property of Government, and on
which convict prisons are being built. A bridge
connects Boaz with Ireland Island; and frequent
communication is held between Boaz and Somerset
Islands by means of a ferry-boat.

Somerset Island—one of the best portions of the
group—was so named from the title of the King’s
favourite, Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset. Between
the extremity of Sandy’s Tribe and the south-west
part of Somerset Island, there is a place of anchorage
for merchant vessels, which is called Ellis, or Elies,
Harbour. The passage through the shoals leading
to it from seaward is, however, intricate and dan-
gerous, and cannot be attempted by a stranger with-
out a pilot. Its western point is Daniel’s Head, off
which is a small island.

From Spanish Point there is a reef extending
towards Ireland Isle, about a mile and three-quarters
in a north-west direction, which forms a natural
breakwater to the Western or Great Sound.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 91

Through this barrier there are navigable channels;
that which is generally used by merchant vessels lies
nearest to Spanish Point.

The road leading from Clarence Lodge to Hamil-

ton town is an exceedingly romantic one. The re-
markable tranquillity and seclusion, the picturesque
effect of the little glens and their neat white abodes,
the delightful and refreshing fragrance of the cedar,
of the latana (or wild sage), and of other odori-
ferous plants that abound in these retired spots—
the bright sunshine and clear blue sky, the cooling
sea-breeze gently rustling the trees, the richness
of the plumage of the blue and red birds—all
conspire to render this place (which is about a mile
and a half in extent) one of the most attractive spots
in the island.
East of Mount Langton is Brackish Pond, near
which are “ The Wells,” a Government establishment
for supplying water to the navy, should there be no
water at the naval tanks on St. George’s Island.
The westernmost projecting headland is Wreck Hill;
it is the land looked for, and first seen, when
approaching the islands.

Gibbs’ Hill is the highest and most conspicuous
eminence observable near the south-west part of the
coast; it is a smooth mount, entirely clear of trees,

92 BERMUDA.

with a lighthouse and a telegraphic post on its
summit. To the westward, and contiguous to it, is

a table-land, crowned with a grove of dark, tall
cedars.*

Between Gibbs’ Hill and Castle Island, to the

* The lighthouse was erected on Gibbs’ Hill in the year
1845. It is of iron, and was constructed in London, at a cost of
5,5001., which was borne by the home Government. The light
was first exhibited on the Ist of May, 1846. It is a revolving
light, on what is called the catadioptric principle, having a lamp
of three concentric wicks, and is somewhat similar to one erected
on the Isle of May in the Firth of Forth in Scotland. The light
is 125 feet above the base, which is 245 feet above the sea; the
total height of the column to the top of the nave is 1333 feet.
The flash of the light is of extreme brilliancy, continuing for six
or eight seconds: the interval between the flashes is about sixty -
two or sixty-three seconds. The distances from which the light
can be seen at different elevations are as follows :—

Correct Distances in
Nautical Miles, English Miles.

From an elevation of 10 feet... 25°51 ane 29°35
Pa ‘i 20 4, «. 27°10 ae 31-08
# ‘a 40 4, w. 29°14 aes 33-538
x a 80 ,, ... 32°15 cae 37-00
< 6 100 ,, «. 33°87 ve 88°40

Refraction allowed for.
The horizon is intercepted to an observer at the light by two

hills, one intercepting an arc—

From N., 43° 24’ E, true, or N. 50° 24’ magnetic,

To N. 47° 34’ E. true, or N. 54° 34’ magnetic;
and the other hill, an arc—

From N, 49° 7’ £. true, or N. 56° 7’ magnetic,

To N.57° 35’ E. true, or N. 64° 35’ magnetic,
With these exceptions the light is visible all round the circle.
The latitude of the light is 32° 154” N.; long. 64° 51’ 36” W.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 93

east-north-east, there are several sandy mounts,
having the appearance of white cliffs, which in
moonlight may be mistaken for breakers. These
are very remarkable, and are called “sand-hills ;”
one of which is much more conspicuous than the
others, being of greater extent, and having less
verdure on its summit,

The great road of the southern side of the island,
after passing the “ sand-hills,” runs along the coast to
the lighthouse at Port Royal, often near the water’s
edge, and sometimes separated from the sea only by
a narrow belt of wood. Close to the “ sand-hills”
the beach is composed of white sand, not siliceous,
but consisting almost wholly of coral, shells, echin,
&c. bleached and pulverized by the long action of
the weather.

A few yards from the shore the bottom is com-
posed of white tenacious marl, covered with a dense
but short coat of marine grass. On this lie, in the
shallow water, many Holothurig; they are soft and
flaccid when first taken out of their element, but
after being held in the hand for a few moments
they become tense and stiff, and usually discharge
a small stream of water from the extremity of the
body. They do this, I find, even if held under
the water; it is doubtless the result of strong mus-

94 BERMUDA.

cular contraction. They are sluggish, unattractive
animals. ;

The beautiful views from several hills out on the
vales below them, especially from several eminences
near the great southern road, are worthy of notice ;
—nature at once displaying a great variety of sur-
prising prospects. Here the high impending rocks
have a dreary, rueful appearance. The several deep
chasms over which they project, are covered with
the ever-flourishing sage-bush and prickly pear.
The adjacent steep declivities are crowded with
irregular’ precipices and broken rocks; and the
view terminates in the tempestuous sea and the
white waves incessantly breaking on the craggy
shore.

The surfaces of the “ sand-hills ” undergo frequent
changes; during gales the sand composing them may
be seen driven by the wind, thickly covering the soil,
and the trees and herbs growing on it.

Saline particles from the sea cause an incrustation
on the surface of one layer of sand before a new one
is deposited by a second storm, and this appears
to be the cause why nearly all the rock lies in thin
lamine. This fact may explain why layers of dark-
coloured vegetable mould are often found below white

rock.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 95

The transition of the coral and shell sand cast
on shore by the waves and winds, may be traced
through various stages, even till it becomes crystalline
limestone.

At twelve miles east of the Great Sand-hill is
Castle Harbour, in the entrance to which are
several islets and rocks, On the largest of these
is an old castle, which gives name to the harbour.
These islets are remarkable for the colour of their
cliffs, and the dark verdure of the turf which covers
them.

St. George’s Island is about three miles long, and
in no place not exceeding half a mile broad. It is
the military station of the colony, and was formerly
the seat of Government.

The harbour of St. George is one of the most
beautiful and secure harbours in the world, being
land-locked and sheltered from all winds, with its
water as smooth as a mill-pond. The scenery is
everywhere pleasing and novel. It certainly realizes
the ne plus ultra of what may be considered the
beau idéal of a refuge haven. Tom Moore gives the
following short description of the place :—

“ Nothing can be more romantic than the little
harbour of St. George. The number of little islets,
the singular clearness of the water, and the animated

96 BERMUDA.

play of the graceful little boats gliding for ever
between the islands, and seeming to sail from one
cedar grove into another, form altogether the sweetest
miniature of nature that can be imagined—

* The morn was lovely, every wave was still,
When the first perfume of a cedar hill
Sweetly awak’d us, and with smiling charms
The fairy harbour woo’d us to its arms.”

The entrance to the harbour is narrow, and is
protected by Fort Cunningham. To the westward
of the town is a hill called Fort George, on which
the telegraph is situated.

The streets are extremely narrow, which is a great
disadvantage, as the accumulation of much confined
air is occasioned thereby, which consequently renders
the town unhealthy. The houses are low, scarcely
ever exceeding two stories, and are built substantially,
of Bermuda stone.

The barracks are situated ‘to the eastward of
the town, and are very commodious. The Govern-
ment have large tanks or reservoirs of water on
the north side of the town, for the supply of the
Navy.

The roadstead from whence ships proceed to St.
George’s harbour is called the “ Five Fathom,” or
* Outer Hole;” within this is the “Inner Hole,”

GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 97

which has a fairway buoy, chequered black and
white, marking the entrance to the Narrows, or
channel leading to Murray’s Anchorage. This buoy
is also in the proper direction for crossing the bar,
and bears N. by W. from the rock under St. David’s
Head.

98 BERMUDA.

CHAPTER VIIL

AGRICULTURE.

Neglect of agriculture—Ignorance of the Bermuda farmers—
Continual spring—Bermuda takes the lead of all the North-
ern markets, in exporting her farming produce—Fertility of
the soil—Proposed agricultural and horticultural Society —
Advantages of Societies of scientific men—Proper rotation of
crops, &c. &c, —Little attempt to improve stock—The state of
horticulture in Bermuda—The funds for carrying on its ope-
tations—The business of the Society.

Tue great neglect of agriculture in Bermuda is
owing principally to the want of competent scientific
knowledge, as well as to the lack of facilities for
transportation of farming produce. At present the
farmers of Bermuda have nothing to rely on but their
own experience, which is not derived from careful
observation or experiment, but is merely an erroneous
theory adopted in ignorance of cause and effect.
Such experience is of little value; for, except by
chance, no experiment in chemistry or agriculture
can lead to any useful result, if the experimenter has
not an acquaintance with the materials he employs.

AGRICULTURE. 99

A chemical or analytical establishment might be ad-
vantageously connected with an experimental farm,
which, besides a trial of different kinds of culture,
could also devote some experiments to our own and
foreign varieties of plants, and especially to the im-
provement of the breeds of domestic animals. The
right application and employment of manures, with
which farmers cannot be acquainted, render the
labours of the professional chemist extremely neces-
sary.

The Northern part of the United States, during
seven months of the year, is incapable of raising even
a blade of grass, whilst Bermuda is decked in her
mantle of green the whole year round; the former is
dependent on what she raises in the five months
for her consumption in twelve, whilst the vegetation
of the latter continues during the entire year. We
can send potatoes to the New York market till the
month of July, and always command good prices ;
and the same may be said of every other vege-
table product. In fact, Bermuda takes the lead of
all the northern markets, since she can export her
farming produce earlier in the season.

Until the arrival of Governor Reid, in 1839, the
plough, the harrow, or other common implements of
husbandry, were hardly known; and although he

7-2

100 BERMUDA.

accomplished a great deal, yet he only partially
succeeded in removing the absurd dislike entertained
to an occupation which had for a long series of years
been superseded exclusively by maritime pursuits.
The descendants of the early settlers appear to have
gradually lost much of the agricultural knowledge
of their forefathers.

Even now, a few patches only have been subjected to
cultivation; but such is the productiveness of the
soil, that the exports of the colony are surprisingly
great.

It is important that not only the attention of the
Bermuda parliament and of the community, but more
especially that of our merchants, should be directed
to this invaluable colony; for, if its resources were
once known, and its capabilities fully examined and
recognized, I have no doubt but that in a short time
it would become a very wealthy settlement.

If the valleys and other places sheltered from the
wind were to be planted with banana, plantain, and
cassava trees, and the open level land with potatoes,
yams, eddoes, corn, and pulse (especially pigeon
pease), and a sufficient number of cattle were kept to
provide manure, though it may seem incredible, it is
nevertheless true, that the island alone, without any
foreign assistance, could, in seasonable years, produce

AGRICULTURE. 101

a sufficiency of such food to maintain more than the
present number of its inhabitants.

The great fertility and prodigious growth of vege-
tables in warm climates, when compared with the
northern parts of the world, is almost incredible; at
least, it will appear to be so to those who are unac-
quainted with the nature of vegetation.

The advantages arising from a number of persons
uniting themselves as a society, for the purpose of
carrying forward an undertaking, are now so gene-
rally acknowledged, that to detail them appears
almost superfluous. Not only must the experience
and knowledge of an isolated individual be far less
than that of a body of men, but his means for
making experiments and conducting necessary opera-
tions, must be proportionably more circumscribed.
A body of men engaged in the same pursuits form a
joint stock of their information and experience, and
thereby put every individual in possession of the sum
total acquired by them all. Even the mistakes and
miscarriages of its members, when recorded, prove a
source of advantage to the body, while the labours of
every one communicate new energy to his associates,
and thus produce exertions which never would have
been made had they continued in their individual
capacity instead of uniting as a body. Men of

102 BERMUDA.

enlarged minds have been long convinced of the
great advantages to be derived from societies of
scientific men, and have occasionally recommended
them; yet scarcely a society was found in England
before the year 1640. Since the commencement of
the last century, however, these advantages have
been more and more developed, so that there is
scarcely ‘an object relating either to religion, to
science, or to the promotion of arts and manufactures,
which is not carried forward by a society formed for
that express purpose.

Among other objects, agriculture has, for some
years, been greatly promoted by societies, formed
with that view in England and other countries. The
benefits which have already arisen from them are
almost incalculable, and the prospects opened by
their present labours are of the most encouraging
nature. .

The capabilities of the soil to enrich a nation to an
almost indefinite extent have been clearly demon-
strated by their reports.

An agricultural society, among other things,
would pay close attention to the improvement of
land, by encouraging a superior mode of cultiva-
tion, by ascertaining the best kind of manure, and
the best method of applying it—by encouraging neat

AGRICULTURE. 103

workmanship, by drainage, embankments, and proper
rotation of crops, by a prudent management of stock,
and by other methods which their united experience
might suggest.

In many parts of Bermuda the same crop is inva-
riably raised, year after year, on the same ground;
and if any alteration is made, it depends more
upon the kind of seed the farmer happens to have
by him than upon the nature of the land, or upon
his wish to improve it. It is probable that the
distinction between those crops which improve, and
those which deteriorate the soil, is totally unknown
in Bermuda, and that a scientific rotation of crops
is a subject to which all cultivators are strangers.
The same may be said of manure, the greater part
of which is generally consumed for fuel, without any
idea of its value to enrich the soil, or of the quantity
which ought to be used to produce the greatest
effect.

Another object to be pursued by an agricultural
society is, the introduction of new and useful plants.
That there are great numbers of plants suited to
the soil and climate of Bermuda, besides those
already cultivated, no one will deny. The great
and increasing demand made by the arts and manu-
factures upon the produce of the soil, for particular

104 BERMUDA.

productions, is such as to require a variety of plants,
suited to every soil, and calculated to furnish crops
for all sorts of lands; and it only requires the united
efforts of public-spirited men to bring such articles
to notice, and encourage their cultivation.

Very little attempt to improve stock appears ever
to have taken place in Bermuda; everything being
left almost wholly to nature. There is, however,
every reason to think, that the breed of horses,
cows, sheep, goats, swine, and every other useful
animal, might be improved as effectually as it has
been in other countries, if proper means were only
employed to accomplish it. The quantity of milk
in cows might, undoubtedly, be increased; a stronger
and more useful race of cattle, both for draught
and burden, might be gradually introduced: in
short, everything might be expected from perse-
vering attempts to improve those animals which
come under the denomination of stock, whether
intended for labour, the dairy, or for food. This, then,
would form a proper object to call forth the exer- '
tions of an agricultural society.

It is also to be lamented that the state of horti-
culture in Bermuda is almost as low as that of
agriculture; so that, except in the gardens of a
few Europeans, who procure a limited number of

AGRICULTURE. 105

articles for the table, there is nothing to be met with
except a few products of the most inferior kind.
All that is seen of orchards, amounts to no more
than clumps of orange-trees, crowded together with-
out judgment, and in which the quality of the fruit
is but little consulted.

The improvement of fruit is almost neglected;
in fact everything which can contribute to furnish
the table with wholesome and agreeable vegetables,
or fine fruit, is yet to be commenced; not to men-
tion the fact that ornamental gardening is scarcely
known. The introduction of the potato, and more
recently of the strawberry, is sufficient to show
that the attempts of isolated individuals have not
been in vain. How much more, then, might be
accomplished by the joint efforts of a number of
persons zealously engaged in the same pursuit ?

By an agricultural society, premiums could be
given to deserving individuals, as a reward for such
operations as might be laid down in its rules. And
as the only way by which improvements may be
communicated, and modes of culture made known, is
by publishing reports of the proceedings of societies,
and letters from individuals, describing successful or
unsuccessful practice, it would be necessary that sucha
society should publish its reports at stated periods.

106 BERMUDA.

It seems highly desirable, therefore, that a society
should be formed in Bermuda for the encouragement
of both agriculture and horticulture. The funds requi-
site for carrying on its operations might easily be
furnished, by each member subscribing 4s. quarterly,
and any gentleman subscribing 51. might be a
member for life.

The business of the society might be conducted
by a president, two vice-presidents, and a committee,
to be chosen annually; each member might pay,
on his admission, a sum of not less than 20s.

It is from a sense of the importance of this subject
to the future welfare of Bermuda, that the author
has thus taken the liberty to recommend it to the
consideration of gentlemen who reside in various
parts of the colony, without whose cordial co-opera-
tion nothing of this nature can ever be attempted.
There is no doubt, that the example which England
sets will not be lost upon the colonies. The era
is grand and unparalleled in British history. The
highest nobility lead the way to a new national
glory—the glory of the perfection of agriculture!
The Dukes of Richmond, Rutland, Portland, Buc-
cleugh, and Sutherland; Lords Spencer, Ducie,
&c. &c., are at the head of the movement, and
identify themselves with that noble profession, “ upon

AGRICULTURE. 107

which the welfare and development of the whole
human species, the richness of states, and all com-
merce, depend.” Associations of all denominations,
men of all vocations, labour to diffuse truth and
to combat error and prejudice, and scientific contri-
butions are welcomed to England, from whatever
quarter they proceed.

108 BERMUDA.

‘CHAPTER IX.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL.

The flax plants—The opuntia—Inexhaustible source of wealth
— Negligence of the Colonial government in not furthering
scientific objects—Local prejudices—Agriculture—Soil of the
Bermudas—Practical directions in agriculture and horticul-
ture, with a calendar, &c. &c. — Agricultural associations of
England and Scotland—The Home Government—Sympathy

from England.

Tue productions of the soil are varied. The wheats
of the south of Europe, Egypt, and Africa, could
hardly fail in Bermuda. The American wheat has
been tried with success.

Excellent potatoes are easily cultivated ; the sweet
potato, of course, yields abundantly. Arrowroot,
cassava, yams, yield abundant crops; the profit
would be great, if a little agricultural and mechanical
skill were employed to abridge the labour required
in the culture and preparation of the soil.

Ginger and tobacco are easily cultivated; and
vegetable oils abound.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 109

The flax plants are the most important of all the
neglected products of Bermuda. The banana, the
‘plantain, Spanish dagger, the okra, and the wild
aloe, all produce flax and hemp of different textures;
but no steady or systematic attempt has been made
to turn them to account. The chief difficulty lies
in separating the vegetable matter from the flax;
this might easily be done, as it is elsewhere, by
mechanical pressure, and the cleansing be effected by
chemical agents.

The cotton raised in Bermuda is accounted very
firm and substantial. I feel confident that cloth
made from this cotton would almost vie with linen
in value.

The opuntia, or prickly pear, grows luxuriantly in
the most barren places of the Island. It is not turned
to the same account by the cultivation of the cochineal
insect on it, as in Teneriffe, from whence upwards
of 60,000. worth of this valuable dye is annually
exported.

Drugs are here in great abundance. The fruits
could be cultivated with much advantage; the
strawberry, the grape, the fig, the guava, the
shaddock, and many other tropical fruits, ripen
without assistance from art. Many European vege-
tables grow to perfection.

110 BERMUDA.

Such a soil and climate, with good husbandry,
would furnish an inexhaustible source of wealth.
Yet with all these natural advantages, little or
nothing, comparatively speaking, is done in the way
of cultivation. This is owing to the negligence
of the Colonial government in not identifying itself
with scientific objects, and in leaving the promotion
of science entirely to the efforts of individuals ;
which is quite preposterous. Unfortunately, jealou-
sies have arisen between the commercial and agricul-
tural interests, and local prejudices find their way
into the halls of legislation. To these evils have
been added endless party bickerings, and a thirst
for places of ease, emolument, and power. The
advocates for general and practical enterprise have
been swept away in the overwhelming current of
agitation, and the energies of the most useful men have
been paralyzed before the altar of popular bigotry.

The soil of the Bermudas is, in general, rich
and productive, yielding the labourer three crops a
year; the arable ground is of such an excellent
mould, that it contains neither flint, pebbles, nor
stones, sufficiently hard to grind knives.

There are five kinds of soil in the colony, viz. :—

Ist. The light red soil.

2nd. The red, or clayey soil.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 111

3rd. The light sandy soil.

4th. The dark or calcareous soil.

5th. The peaty soil.

The light red soil is well suited for Irish and
sweet potatoes, and for every kind of garden vege-
tables.

The red or clayey soil is best adapted for the
growth of arrowroot, onions, and Indian corn. Both
sweet and Irish potatoes, as well as most kinds of
garden vegetables, will thrive in it; but the lighter
soils will grow the former much better.

The light sandy soil is to be found chiefly
in the parishes of Southampton and Sandy. Irish
and sweet potatoes, indeed all kinds of vegetables,
grow abundantly, and come to high perfection here.
With plenty of manure and careful culture, this soil
will easily produce three good crops in a year.

The dark or calcareous soil is mostly to be found
on the hill-sides. It is of a blackish colour, and
is favourable to the growth of oats, turnips, and
sweet potatoes.

The peaty soil, or reclaimed marshes, are best
calculated for Indian corn, oats, turnips, carrots,
clover, and other grasses.

In ascertaining the composition of sterile soils
with a view to their improvement, any particular

112 BERMUDA.

ingredient which is the cause of their unproductive-
ness, should be particularly attended to; if possible,
they should be compared with fertile soils in the
same neighbourhood, and in similar situations, as
the difference of the composition may, in many cases,
indicate the most proper methods of improvement.
If, on washing a sterile soil, it is found to contain
the salt of iron, or any acid matter, it may be
ameliorated by the application of quicklime.

Soils too abundant in sand are benefited by the
use of clay, marl, or vegetable matter. A defi-
ciency of vegetable or animal matter must be
supplied by manure. An excess of vegetable matter
is to be removed by burning, or to be remedied
by the application of earthy materials. The im-
provement of peats, or bogs, or marsh lands, must
be preceded by drainage; stagnant water being
injurious to all the nutritive classes of plants. Soft
black peats, when drained, are often made productive
by the mere application of sand or clay as a top-
dressing. When peats are acid, or contain ferru-
ginous salts, calcareous matter is absolutely necessary
in bringing them into cultivation. When they
abound in the branches and roots of trees, or when
their surface entirely consists of living vegetables,
the wood or the vegetables must either be carried

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 113

off, or be destroyed by burning. In the last case,
their ashes afford earthy ingredients, fitted to improve
the texture of the peat.

The labour of improving the texture or consti-
tution of the soil is repaid by a great permanent advan-
tage; less manure is required, and its fertility insured.
Capital laid out in this way secures for ever the pro-
ductiveness, and, consequently, the value of the land.

The author deems it important to give the fol-
lowing practical directions in agriculture and horti-
culture, with a calendar, showing the work necessary
to be done every month throughout the year, for
the cultivation of vegetables and fruit-trees, &c.—
the whole adapted to the climate of Bermuda.

MONTHLY DIRECTIONS.

Work FoR JANUARY.

Sow most kinds of European seeds, which will
thrive in this latitude—the white Dutch or red-top
turnip, cabbage, lettuce and salad, onions, Windsor
beans, leeks, garlic, celery, parsley, thyme and
herbs, wheat, barley, oats, millet, broom corn, endive,
spinach, galba seeds for hedges, the seaside grape,
yellow lucerne, melilot, clover in pond land, and
all grass seeds; a crop of thin corn in sheltered

places for grain; carrots.
8

114 BERMUDA.

Plant arrowroot, cassava, onion plants, a full crop;
and general crops of Irish potatoes; a few scarlet
short-top radish may be put down, with a few
lettuce. Plant out tomatoes: they require to be
bushed, to keep the fruit from the ground.

Plant out the Cynara Hortensis, or globe arti-
choke, from suckers taken from old plants, or sow
the seed in the latter end of January, or at any time
in February; asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) —
(varieties: Gravesend, large white Reading, large
Battersea, large green, or giant); borecole or kale
(Brassica oleracea, &c.,)—(varieties: green curled
or Scotch, dwarf brown or German, purple fringed,
Jerusalem or Buda, Cesarean kale, thousand-headed
cabbage); Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea) ;
broccoli (Brassica oleracea Italica)—(varieties: large
purple cape, white or cauliflower, sulphur colour
cape, early white, early dwarf, branching purple) ;
cauliflower (Brassica oleracea cotrytis)—(varieties :
early white, late white, hardy red, or purple cauli-
flower); nasturtium, or sturtion (Tropzolum); rhu-
barb (Rheum).

Remarks.—During the first part of this month,
all -the manure should be got on the land, and
towards the latter end of the month, onions and
potatoes may be planted. If the weather be very

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 115

wet, the planting can be delayed for a few days;
if fine, commence to dig up arrowroot. The onions
should be planted in red soil, made very rich with
well-rotted manure. It is necessary to plant them
eight inches apart, as shallow as possible, with a
little Indian corn between to protect them from the
worms, to be cut out as soon as the onions become
strong. Irish potatoes can be cultivated here from
November till July. They will keep from May till
January. So that in Bermuda we can always have
potatoes for the table and for planting. The best
manner of planting the red potatoes is, after well
manuring the land, to place them two feet between
the rows, one foot between each set, each set
having two eyes. From the first to the tenth of the
month is the best time for planting them in light
soil, sheltered from the north and west winds, that
the plant may get strong before the blight or disease
destroy it. The western red is by far the best kind
for Bermuda.

Arrowroot should be taken up this month, if the
land is required for onions and potatoes; green sea-
weed is a good manure to dig in whilst taking up
the plant.

Carrots may be sown for a late crop. They should.
be kept free from weeds.

8—2

116. BERMUDA.

Cabbage.—Plant out the late plants for a crop in
May. Keep the ground loose and very free from
weeds.

Cauliflower.—This plant, being tender, requires
great care to bring it to perfection. To produce
early cauliflower, the seed should be sown in a bed
of clean rich earth towards the end of January or
early in February. When the plants are three or
four inches high, they must be pricked out three
or four inches apart into another bed, and by the
latter end of April they may be transplanted into
the ground, and treated in every respect the same as
for broccoli.

.Broccoli.—The proper time for sowing the seed of
purple Cape broccoli is from the tenth to the twenty-
fourth of January. It is best to sow the seed in
shallow drills, drawn three or four inches apart. In
which case, one ounce of seed will occupy a border
of about four feet in width by twelve in length, and
produce about four thousand strong plants. When
the plants are of sufficient size, they should be
transplanted into extraordinarily rich ground, which
should be previously brought into good condition.
This being done, plant them in rows two feet and
a half apart, and two feet distant in the rows, As
soon as they have taken root, give the ground a deep

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 117

hoeing, and repeat this two or three times in the
course of their growth, drawing some earth around
their stems. |

Brussels Sprouts.—The seed may be sown about
the middle of January, in the same manner as
broccoli, and the plants set out with a dibble early
in March. The subsequent treatment must be in
every respect as for borecole.

Borecole. — The dwarf curled or finely-fringed
sorts are much cultivated in Europe for the table;
and the coarse and tall growths are considered pro-
fitable for cattle. The thousand-headed cabbage and
Cesarean kale grow from three to five feet high,
and branch out from the stem, yielding an abundant
supply of leaves, and sprout in the winter and
spring. The seed may be sown from about the
middle of January to the first week in February,
and the plants set out in the month of March, in
good rich ground. One ounce of good borecole seed
will produce about four thousand plants, and may
be sown in a border four feet by ten, or there-
abouts.

Asparagus.—Asparagus may be raised by sowing
the seed in January and the early part of February.
One ounce of seed will produce about a thousand
plants. The seed may be sown in drills, ten or

118 BERMUDA. |

twelve inches apart, and covered about an inch with
light earth. When the plants are up, they will need
a careful hoeing, and if well cultivated and kept
free from weeds, they will be large enough to trans-
plant when they are a year old. A plantation of
asparagus, if the beds are properly dressed every
year, will produce good buds for twenty years or
more.

Those who may wish to raise asparagus in large
quantities for market should prepare the ground with
a plough, and plant two rows in each bed, which may
be carried to any length required. If several beds
are wanted, they may be planted in single rows four
or five feet apart, in order that the plough may be
worked freely between them. Frequent ploughing
will cause the roots to spread, so as to widen the
beds, and the winter dressing may be performed in a
great measure with the plough. After the asparagus
is cut, the ground between the beds may be ploughed,
and planted with cabbage, potatoes, or any other
vegetable usually cultivated in rows.

Artichoke-—The globe artichoke, which produces
large globular heads, is best for general culture, the
heads being considerably larger, and the eatable parts
more thick and plump. It may be raised from seed,
or young suckers taken from old plants. The most

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 119

likely way to obtain a supply of artichokes from seed
is to sow the seed in the latter end of January or at
any time in February, in a bed of good rich earth, or
it may be planted in drills one inch in depth, and
about twelve inches apart. The ground should be
light and moist, not such as is apt to become bound
up by heat, or that in consequence of containing too
large a proportion of sand is liable to become violently,
hot in summer, for this is extremely injurious to these
plants. After the plants are up they should be kept
free from weeds, and the earth often loosened around
them. The business of transplanting them may be
done in cloudy or wet weather, at any time after the
plants are from nine to twelve inches high. After
having trenched the ground well with rotten manure,
take up the plants, shorten their tap-roots a little,
and dress their leaves; plant them with a dibble, in
rows five feet asunder and two feet from plant to
plant, leaving part of their green tops above ground.
Take off the side suckers, or small artichokes, when
they are about the size of hen’s eggs. These meet
with a ready sale in the market, and the principle
heads that are left are always larger and more hand-
some. The maturity of a full-grown artichoke is
apparent by the opening of the scales, and it should
always be cut off before the flower appears .in the

120 BERMUDA.

centre ; the stem should be cut close to the ground at
the same time. Artichokes are esteemed a luxury by
epicures. To have them in perfection they should
be thrown into cold water as soon as gathered, and
after having been soaked and well washed, put into
the boiler when the water is hot, with a little salt,
‘and kept boiling until tender, which generally re-
quires, for full grown artichokes, from an hour and a
half to two hours. When taken up, drain and trim
them; then serve them up with melted butter, pep-
per, salt, and such other condiments as may best suit
the palate.

Nasturtium.—The seed should be sown in January
or early in February, in drills about an inch deep, near
fences or ,pales; and trellises should be constructed,
on which they can climb and have support, for they
will always be more productive in this way than
when suffered to trail on the ground. The berries,
if gathered while green, and pickled in vinegar, make
a good substitute for capers, and are used in melted
butter, with boiled mutton, &c.

Rhubarb is a genus of exotic plants, comprising
seven species, of which the following are the prin-
cipal: 1st, Rhoponticum, or common rhubarb, a
native of Thrace and Syria, has long been cultivated
in British gardens for the footstalks of the leaves,

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 121

which are frequently used in pies and tarts. 2nd,
Rheum undulatum is also cultivated for the same
use. 38rd, the Palmatum, or true officinal rhubarb, is
a native of China and the East Indies, whence its
culture has been introduced into Europe; it produces
a thick fleshy root, externally yellowish brown, but
internally of a bright yellow colour, streaked with
red veins. The several kinds of rhubarb may be
propagated by offsets taken from the roots early in
January, or from seed sown late in September, or in
January or February, in drills one inch deep and a
foot apart. The indispensable points to the pro-
duction of good roots of the palmatum are depth and
richness of soil, which should be well pulverized
before the plants are set out. Prepare beds of fine
mould eighteen inches deep; in these put in the
plants from the seed-bed, ten or twelve inches apart;
this must be done when they have attained the height
of four or five inches, and have thrown out as many
‘leaves. Those who cultivate the palmatum for the
sake of the roots should dig the ground two or three
spades deep, and place the plants three feet apart
every way. The roots of the palmatum must not be
taken up until six or seven years old. The stalks of
the other kinds may be cut every spring, or as soon
as the leaves are expanded. After the roots of the

122 BERMUDA.

palmatum have ‘been well washed, and the small
fibres cut off, they are to be cut transversely into
pieces about two inches thick, and dried on boards,
turning them several times a day, in order to prevent
the escape of the yellow juice, on which its medicinal
qualities depend. In four or five days they may be
strung upon strings, and suspended in a shady but
airy and dry situation, and in two months afterwards
they will be fit for the market.

Pot Herbs.—Plant out and keep clean.

Peas.—Plant dwarf marrowfat in sheltered places
for a crop in May; also tomatoes in rich light soil,
four feet apart, and keep very clean.

Beans.—Plant six-week and Windsor in rich soil.

Swedish turnip for a crop in May.

Work For FEpRvARY.

Lose no time now in planting the onions and
potatoes that are not already in the ground; dig up
arrowroot; plant a little (thin) white Indian corn in
sheltered places. Sow all sorts of French and Lima
beans ; plant sweet potatoes in hot beds for springers;
sow carrots for a late crop; sow cucumbers and
melons for an early crop, and pumpkin seeds; sow
barley and oats; lay in the points of pumpkin vines,
to transplant in March and April; gourd seed, arrow-

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 123

root, cassava, white beans and peas, celery (Apium
graveolens )—(varieties, white solid, red-coloured solid,
new white lion’s paw, North’s red giant); plant the
Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosum); sow
the parsnip seed (Pastinaca sativa)—varieties, long
Guernsey cup, large Dutch, or common.

Remarks.—This month is a busy time with the
gardener; it is the season for taking up arrowroot
and planting out the roots, getting down Irish pota-
toes, and planting a few sweet potatoes for springers.
Potatoes raised from Bermuda seed, if shipped to
New York this month, will bring a good price.
Onions planted this month in good red soil will be
ripe as early as those planted last month in light
soil. .

Turnips.—The white globe can be sown in waste
lands.

Beans.—White and six-week beans can be planted.

Cabbage.—A few early York can be planted out.
Those that are planted must be kept clean and
moulded, and a little manure be placed among them.

Oats.—In all waste land sow oats for fodder or
crop.

Indian Corn.—Plant the thin white for an early
crop.

Carrots.—Sow the early horn for a late crop.

124 BERMUDA.

Salad.—Lettuce in warm places can be sown:

likewise radish.
Sweet Potatoes may be raised by means of a
moderate hotbed, in which they should be planted
whole early in February, three or four inches deep,
and about the same distance apart. In about a
month they will throw up sprouts. When these
are three inches above ground, part them off from
the potato, which if suffered to remain will produce
more sprouts for a successive planting; transplant
them into rich light soil, in rows four feet apart, and
the plants about a foot apart in the rows, or in hills
four feet apart. Keep them clear of weeds until the
vines begin to cover the ground ; after which they
will grow freely. In sandy ground, it is well to put
a shovelful of rotten manure to each plant. A
moderate hotbed five feet square, with half a peck of
good sound sweet potatoes placed therein early in
the month of April, will send forth a succession of
sprouts in May and June, which if planted and
managed as directed, will yield about fifteen bushels
of good roots.

Pumpkin.—( Cucurbita pepo)—(varieties, finest Chi-
nese or family; mammoth or Spanish, Connecticut
field, white bell): This plant is highly deserving of
cultivation, particularly in new settlements; the

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 125

large sorts are profitable for cattle, as some of the
mammoth tribe have been known to weigh upwards
of two hundred pounds each. The other kinds are
also very productive, and may be raised on any
waste land, provided it will admit of digging small
spots of the dimensions of one or two feet—every
ten or twelve feet—for the hills, and the residue of the
ground be unencumbered for the plants to run on.
They are generally raised on cultivated farms,
between hills of Indian corn, and may be planted in
the garden or open field, in February and March, in
hills eight or ten feet apart, with four seeds in each ~
hill. The finest quality of pumpkins are known to
make good pies, and may also, after being boiled, be
worked up with wheaten flour into bread, for which
purpose they are fully equal to Indian meal.

Celery (Apium graveolens).—This vegetable, so
much esteemed as a salad, is known in its wild
state by the name of swallage. The seed for a
general crop may be sown the last week in
February, or early in March, in rich, mellow
ground. Some sow the seed broadcast, but the
plants will be much stouter if raised in drills.
The drills may be half an inch deep, and six inches
apart, so that a small hoe can be worked between
the rows; and, if properly attended to, every ounce

126 BERMUDA.

of seed so sown will produce ten thousand strong
plants or more. Previous to planting, trim the
plants, by cutting off the long straggling leaves,
and also the ends of the roots. Let them be planted
with a dibble, in single rows, along the middle of
each trench, five or six inches between plant and
plant, The main crops may be planted in the
following manner :—Lay out the ground into beds
four feet wide, with alleys between, three feet; dig
the beds a spade deep, throwing the earth on the
alleys: when done, lay four or five inches of well-
rotted manure all over the bottom of the beds, dig
and incorporate it with the loose earth, and cover
the whole with an inch or two of earth from the
alleys. Plant four rows in each bed, at equal
distances, and from six to eight inches apart in
the rows. The plants must be hoed occasionally,
until grown of sufficient size for earthing, which
should be performed in fine weather. As the plants
progress in growth, repeat the earthing every two
weeks, at which time care should be taken to gather
up all the leaves neatly, and not to bury the hearts
of the plants. When they are grown two feet high,
and well blanched, they are fit for the table.
Jerusalem Artichoke.—This plant is a native of
America, the tubers of which are generally abundant,

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL 127

and are considered a fine flavoured and nutritious
food, when boiled and mashed with butter. They
may be easily propagated by cutting the roots into
sets, with two eyes in each, and planting them in
the same manner as potatoes, in February and
March. To have them in perfection, they should
be hoed frequently, and the ground kept loose around
them.

Parsnip.—Parsnip seed may be planted from the
middle of February to the middle of March, in
drills one inch deep and fourteen inches apart. Sow
the seed thick along the drills, at the rate of five
or six pounds per acre, and rake them in evenly.
When the plants are two or three inches high, thin
them to the distance of six or eight inches in the
rows.

Work For Marcu.

(First Part.)—Sow melons, pumpkins, squashes,
cucumbers, okras, pigeon-peas for forage, oats, cotton,
barley, Southern Indian-corn, and round peas for
forage, buckwheat, lucerne, turnips, white-beans,
spinach, parsley, tomatoes, hay-seeds, peppers, orange-
seed. Plant arrowroot, tous-les-mois, Guinea-grass,
aloes, vine-cuttings, cabbage, onions, leeks, garlic,
salad, cassava-trees, sweet potatoes in hot-beds.

128 BERMUDA.

(Latter part.)—Plant tropical seeds, flower seeds,
melons, pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, okras, cotton,
tobacco, flax, almonds, figs, raisins, dates, palmetto~
nuts, rape, olives, flint-corn for crop, sweet-corn for
domestic use. Plant fruit and other trees, and
oleander cuttings for hedges. Sow salsify (Trago-
pogon porrifolius.)

Remarks.—Potatoes and onions must be all planted,
or no crop can be expected; likewise sweet potatoes
and Indian-corn—the thin early (corn) for fodder,
the flint late; if for a crop, let the hills be three
feet apart each way, and not more than two or three
grains in a hill; it can be planted between the rows
of the Irish potatoes, as when the potatoes are taken
up it cleans and moulds the corn; all the onions
should be planted by the middle of the month. A
' crop of white turnips does well in this month; they
may be shipped to New York in barrels, to supply
that market before their own crop comes in. Varie-
ties of the turnip are the early garden stone, early
white Dutch, large English Norfolk, long tankard,
or Hanover, early snowball, early red-top, strap-
leaved red-top, early green-top, yellow Aberdeen,
long white, white flat or globe, yellow Maltese,
yellow stone, Dale’s yellow hybrid, long yellow,
Russia, Swedish, or Ruta boga. This is a whole-

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 129

some and useful plant, both for man and beast, and
deserving of cultivation. But when we further
recollect that it enables the agriculturist to re-
claim and cultivate land which, without its aid,
would remain in a hopeless state of natural barren-
ness; that it leaves the land clean and in fine con-
dition, and also insures a good crop of barley and of
clover; and that clover is found a most excellent
preparation for wheat; it will appear that the sub-
sequent advantages derived from a crop of turnips
must infinitely exceed its estimated value as fodder
for cattle. For general crops, it will be better to
have the ground manured with compost containing
a considerable proportion of coal, wood, peat, or
soaper’s ashes. Ground that has been well manured,
for preceding crops, and also ground fresh broken
up, will do well for turnips. To have turnips in
perfection, they should be hoed in about a month
after they are sown, or by the time the plants have
spread to a circle of about four inches, and again
about a month from the first hoeing, leaving them
from six to nine inches apart. They will yield the
cultivator more profit when treated in this way than
when left to nature, as is too frequently done.

Three crops of turnips may be obtained in one
year, by sowing seed for the jirst crop early in

9

130 BERMUDA.

January, for the second crop in April, and for the
third in September. By sowing the seed in drills,
greater facilities are afforded of hoeing between the
rows, which more than compensates for the extra
labour.

Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius)—This plant re-
quires the same kind of soil and management as
carrots and parsnips.

In England the tops are considered excellent food
when boiled tender, and served up with poached
eggs and melted butter. They are by some con-
sidered salutary for persons inclined to consumption ;
and if the roots are eaten when attainable, they
may, perhaps, answer a still better purpose, and
even the liquor in which they are boiled may possess
some of the most valuable properties of the plant.

Palmetto-tops should be got for onion-baskets.

Work FOR APRIL.

Plant flint corn early in this month for crop, corn
for fodder, and oats, Guinea-grass, white beans, a
few melons and cucumbers, white turnip, radish,
arrowroot, any kind of fruit and other trees, sweet
potatoes for a general crop, and Guinea-corn.

Remarks.—The work for this month is mostly in
cleaning onions and potatoes; putting down sweet

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 131

potatoes, which should be completed before the end
of the month. The fruit-vines will require care, or
the worm will take them.

Arrowroot.—This is the best month for planting
it. It does well planted between the Irish potatoes
in good red soil.

Lrish potatoes.—Mould and clean them. Begin to
get the barrels ready to put them in for shipping.

Onions.—Clean and loosen them for the last time;
pull up any corn that may have been planted through
them, as any that shades them will keep them from
heading. The baskets must be soon got in readiness
for them.

Sweet potatoes.—Trench into the ground vegetable
manure, such as sage-bush, cedar-brush, or seaweed
—the latter is the best; you must finish planting
them this month.

Turnips.—A few white globe or réed-top can be
sown in waste land, and will yield a good crop if the
weather is favourable.

Fruit vines—Cucumbers and melons can now be
planted, if not already planted. Those that are
growing must be freed from weeds, and a little soot
or ashes strewn around them.

Tomatoes.—Keep plenty of sage-bushes under the
vines as they run. Let the sun get to them as much

9—2

132 BERMUDA.

as possible to ripen the fruit. Ship some this month
if you can. The fruit must not be too ripe to ship
—they should be just turning red at the flower end;
the packages should be made of laths eighteen inches
long, eight inches broad, and six inches deep, which
will hold about six dozen, with layers of paper or
hay.

Indian corn.—Should be planted for fodder and
crop in spare land.

Guineascorn.—The seeds should be sown in beds
for transplanting. '

Oats.—Plant all spare ground for fodder or
manure.

Plant cuttings of fruit-trees ; transplant flowers
and shrubs.

Guinea-grass.—Transplant round the borders.

Work ror May.

Sow pigeon-peas, buckwheat, Guinea corn, Lima
beans, tomatoes, peppers, orange-seeds, flower-seeds,
melons, pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, okras, cotton,
almonds, figs, raisins, dates, palmetto-nuts, olives,
black-eyed-peas, and other tropical seeds. Plant
arrowroot, tous-les-mois, aloes, trees, oleander and
tamarisk cuttings for shelter, ground-nuts, eddoes,

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 133

melons, cucumbers and pumpkins from seed-beds,
yams, and early sweet potato slips.

Remarks.—The main work for this month will be
in pulling onions, digging potatoes, and shipping
them. During the first part of the month all the
packages for the onions and potatoes should be got
ready; all the sweet potato slips and springers should
be put down that can be obtained.

Arrowroot.—Finish planting. This is a very good
month for it.

Onions.—Should be kept very clean from weeds;
the early ones will be fit to pull from about the 20th
to the 25th; care should be taken to pull them up as
soon as the stalk falls, as they will not keep long if
allowed to stand in the ground after they are ripe.

Irish Potatoes.—The early planted ones will begin
to ripen, and should be taken up, but not exposed to
the sun; pick out the very small ones for the pigs,
the second size put away for seed, the remainder
ship, eat, or keep, as you may deem best.

Peas.—Plant a few bird’s-eye peas in the Irish
potato ground for an early crop, fodder, or manure
for slips.

Pumpkins.—Plant the’ slips in all waste land, side
of hills, &. The slip will yield a better crop than
the seed.

134 BERMUDA.

Turnips.—A few white globe may be sown, if the
weather is wet.

Guinea-corn should be planted out in all spare
land ; it will grow in any soil, and is a valuable crop
for fodder.

Sweet potatoes.—Put down all the springers and
slips that you can obtain; they will give a good crop
in September. Plant them on ridges, as they do
better—the ridges eighteen inches apart, the slip
one foot.

Melons.—Clean and trench the vines as they run,
and nip off the tops of the shoots, which will make
them spread and put out more fruit; dust them over
with a little soot and ashes.

Bud and engraft sweet orange or healthy young
Seville orange or lemon trees. Keep the roots con-
tinually watered, and the grafted buds moist in dry
weather. |

Work For JUNE.

Plant early crops, such as sweet potato slips and
Nigel’s bird’s-eye. peas for a full crop. Plant oats,
Guinea-corn, in rich ground, and not too thick;
collect grass-seeds as they ripen; bud orange and
other trees ; transplant arrowroot.

Remarks.—This is a busy time in getting up the

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 135

‘potatoes and onions, stowing away those intended to
be kept, and shipping the others; if rain, plant slips
and peas; trench the fruit vines. .

Arrowroot.—Clean and transplant, if too thick.

Irish Potatoes should be all taken up, and others
put away, to keep or to be shipped. If they lie in
the ground long after they are ripe, they will not be
fit to eat.

Onions should be all taken up; those not shipped
should be put up in bunches and hung in a dry
place; they will keep till October quite sound, and
then fetch a good price.

Sweet potatoes.—Plant the slips fifteen or eighteen
inches apart, to give them room to grow.

Pumpkins.—Trench and manure the vines as they
run, pick off the tip end of the slip when about two
yards long.

Peas.—Plant bird’s-eye peas for a full crop in
waste land. This is a valuable but neglected crop,
as they can be planted in any soil, will yield a good
return in peas, which will sell readily, give abun-
dance of fodder for cattle, and employ ground which
would otherwise be full of weeds.

Melons.—Clean the vines, as the fruit will begin to
ripen. Do not plant cucumbers and melons in the
same land, or the bees will spoil both.

136 BERMUDA.

Guinea-corn.—Finish planting out in all spare
land for fodder in September and October.

Work For JULy.

Plant bird’s-eye peas for a full crop or for fodder ;
potato and pumpkin slips.

Remarks.—Not much doing, except in planting
sweet potato slips, which should be planted in rainy
weather for full crops. Clean Guinea-grass and
corn ; clear up the waste land; remove the cattle
out of the sun; keep the manure-pits covered, to
protect them from the sun; strew the manure over
with salt or lime occasionally, to preserve the gases
and to kill the insects; clean the arrowroot, and put
the weeds on the manure, as they protect it from
the sun. The pigsty and cowsheds should have
between two or three inches of soil or sand laid over
the bottom, which ought to be lower than the sur-
rounding ground, and then bedded up with the
refuse of the garden, sage-bushes, sea-weed, or any
such thing, and be allowed to lie two or three
months without cleaning, as this, with stable manure,
makes the best compost.

In milking cows great care should be taken to
milk them quite dry, or the best cow will soon be
ruined. A calf to be made fat should be tied up

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 137

when two days old in a shed, with as little light as
possible, kept very clean and warm, and allowed to
go to the cow but two or three times a day.

Work For August.

Plant sweet potato slips, black-eye peas for fodder
or green manure; plant cabbage slips; sow Bermuda
carrot-seed for carrots at Christmas. Sow turnips,
oats ; plant Irish potatoes.

Remarks.—We may in general expect rain this
month, and should take advantage of it to put down
all the slips. Sow oats for early fodder, Irish
potatoes (Bermuda seed), and dig any land for oats
and potatoes for next month.

Irish potatoes.—Pick them over for seed, and let
them be in good order for planting. In wet weather
plant some for a crop in November.

Onions.—Have the seed in good order for planting
next month.

Carrots.—Sow some fresh seed of early horn for
an early crop; old seed will not answer.

Cabbage.—Sow a little early York or sugar-loaf.

Turnips.—Sow a little white globe or red-top; old
seed will come up.

138 BERMUDA.

Work ror SEPTEMBER.

Plant most European plants. Collect grasses of all
kinds as they ripen. Sow tomatoes, carrots, turnips,
beets, cabbage, lettuce, marrowfat peas, French beans,
and generally all the seeds of the European garden.
For forage, sow barley, oats, lucerne, rape, buck-
wheat, broom, barn millets. Plant aloes, cabbage
slips, and onions for seed, Sow radish and other
kinds of salad in very rich land, to be watered in dry
weather. Sow mangel-wurtzel.

Remarks.—All the sweet potato slips should be
planted this month; the onion beds manured and
dug; the ground for garden seed be made ready,
and good seed should be sown in seasonable weather.
The ground for onion seed should be manured at
‘least one month before the seed is sown, and dug
twice. Carrots should be sown this month, if pos-
sible, as they thrive well in warm weather.

Arrowroot.— W eed for the last time.

Sweet potatoes.—Plant slips all the month; cut
the slips from the old stem, as they are stronger and
will give a better crop.

Irish Potatoes.—Plant all the Bermuda seed you
can get; rather closer than in January; cut all that
are long enough; don’t plant the very small ones.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 139

Oats.—Plant in all spare ground; they will keep
the weeds down.

Turnips.—Sow early Dutch, red-top, and Swedish,
not too thick, in light soil, well manured.

Cabbage.—Sow early York, early drumhead, large
late drumhead.

Carrots.—Sow long orange for a late crop; early
horn for an early crop. Sow in light soil; they are
the best winter food for cattle.

Beet (Beta vulgaris) —( varieties: early blood turnip,
rooted ; ‘early long blood; extra dark blood; yellow
turnip, rooted; early scarcity; mangel-wurtzel ;
French sugar, or Silesia; Sir John Sinclair’s)—The
mangel-wurtzel and sugar beets are cultivated for
cattle. Domestic animals eat the leaves and roots
with great avidity ; they are excellent food for swine,
and also for milch cows, and possess the quality of
making them give a large quantity of the best
flavoured milk. The roots-are equally fit for oxen
and horses, after being cut up into small pieces and
mixed with cut straw, hay, or other dry feed; and
an acre of good, rich, loamy soil has been known
to yield two thousand bushels of beet-roots, some of
which weighed from fifteen to twenty pounds each.
To produce such enormously large roots, they should
be cultivated in drills from two to three feet apart,

140 BERMUDA.

and the plants thinned to ten or twelve inches in the
rows. It is believed, however, that moderate-sized
roots contain proportionally more saccharine matter
than extra large roots, and that twenty tons, or about
seven hundred bushels, are a very profitable crop
for an acre of land, and would be amply sufficient
to feed ten cows for three or four months of the year.

Draw drills a foot apart, and from one to two
inches deep. Drop the seed along the drills, one or
two inches from each other, and cover them with
earth. When the plants are up and strong, thin
them to the distance of six or eight inches from each
other inthe rows. The ground should be afterwards
hoed deep round the plants, and kept free from
weeds. Ifthe planting of beet-seed for general crops
be delayed until September, the roots will be much
larger and better than those from earlier planting.
The most suitable ground for beets is that which has
been well manured for previous crops, and requires
no fresh manure, provided it be well pulverized. It
may be necessary to add, that one pound of beet-
seed will measure about two quarts, and as each
capsule contains four or five small seed, thinning out
the surplus plants is indispensable to the production
of good roots. Soak the seed twenty-four hours in
water previous to sowing it.

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 141

Work ror Ocroserr.

Sow all kinds of European seeds, which will
thrive in this latitude—tomatoes, carrots, turnips,
beets, cabbage, lettuce, and salad, marrowfat peas,
French beans, Lima beans, onions, leeks, garlic,
celery, thyme, and pot-herbs, parsley, oats, rape,
vetches, lucerne, mangel-wurtzel, buckwheat, millet,
broom corn. Plant onion bulbs for seed, cabbage
slips, aloes, Irish potatoes of Bermuda seed, seedlings
of all kinds which require transplanting, trees of
every kind, pond grass from cuttings where meadows
are to be formed, pumpkin slips, cuttings of the
oleander and the tamarisk, and of all trees which
grow from cuttings. The shores of the Bermuda
islands should be belted with the tamarisk for shelter.
Collect native grasses, grasses of all kinds as they
ripen. White grass, now everywhere ripening,.
should be carefully saved to be resown on tilled
ground in the spring. Plant sweet potato slips in
sheltered places for stock.

Trees, §c.—Prune and train grape vines, peach,
and other fruit-trees; open the soil around the root,
and manures.

Remarks. —Peas and beans should be planted
three feet apart in the rows; the Windsor beans

142 BERMUDA.

should be topped as soon as they begin'to flower,
or they will not hold. Seed beds should not be
more than three feet broad, on account of cleaning
them; cabbage plants should be set out in a second
bed before planting ; Swedish turnips should be set
out two feet apart between the rows; one ounce
of good cabbage or Swedish turnip seed will yield,
with care, 1,000 plants; full crops of onion seed
should be put down this month—a bottle of good
onion seed contains 10,000 seeds, and will yield,
with care, from 20,000 to 30,000 lbs.; the beds
should be rich soil; one bottle will plant, on an
average, half an acre. Cabbage and Swedish turnips
delight in green or fresh manure just out of the
stable or cow-shed, which should be dug into the
ground immediately before planting. Carrots should
be sown after cabbage, without manure, as they do
not like fresh manure, it makes them strong, and
causes the roots to spread. Oats should be sown in
spare land, as they will be off in time for full crops of
Irish potatoes in February, and will enrich the land.
This is a good month to sow tomatoes, an ounce of
seed will give at least 1,000 good plants, if the
seed is new. They suffer much when too thick .
in the beds, so that the sooner they are trans-
planted, three or four inches apart, the better, as

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 143

it also improves them when transplanted finally in
the open field..

For the planting of the several kinds of seeds
see last month.

Work ror Novemser.

Same as October. Sow galba seeds for hedges,
palmetto nuts, canary bird seed, almonds, a few
Irish potatoes can be planted, but not for a full
crop; barley and oats for fodder. Sow all kinds
of European seeds, which thrive in these latitudes.
Sow tomatoes, gather them in April as they become
a little pale, and they will then ripen in about ten
days for the New York market. Sow onions, tobacco,
and wheat, until the middle of next month, for
good full crops. Plant out strong plants of straw-
berries to produce next spring. Sow oats, and
continue as in September, with carrots, turnips, &c.

Remarks. — The Swedish turnips not previously
set out, ought now to be; the cabbage plants are
ready to set out from the second bed, they require
strong ground, and should be placed three feet apart
in the row, and one foot between the plant, to bring
them to perfection; they must be kept very clean.
Seaweed may now be expected to accumulate in
the bays; it should be preserved as fresh as possible

)

144 BERMUDA.

and either dug into the land green, or made into
a large heap and covered with soil; coarse baysand
is good for very stiff land.

Onions.—Get the seed down by the tenth if pos-
sible, cover the seed with new soil, it will grow
faster ; clean those set out for seed.

Carrots.—Clean and thin those sown.

Cabbage.—Set out the plants, the early two feet
between the rows, one foot between the plants. The
late kinds three feet between the rows.

Tomatoes.—If not all sown in last month, sow
early this.

Irish potatoes.—If arity Bermuda seed, put it down
for a crop in February.

Oats.—Plant in all spare land; also barley and
wheat.

Work ror Decemser.

Plant wheat, barley, and oats, Windsor beans,
garden peas, white Dutch turnip; plant out cabbage
plants, sow onion seed, and a few Irish potatoes
in sheltered places.. This is a good month to sow
cucumbers for the New York market; they should be
well manured to support them against the weather ;
many people have them growing well at this season;
they require to be packed in damp rushes or straw

PRODUCTIONS OF THE SOIL. 145

to-keep them plump; they will keep, thus packed,
three weeks. Peas may also be sown in this month,
for the New York market in April; they will remain
in good order for ten days; the packages should be
small, to prevent fermentation.

Remarks.—Should the manure pit or pen be com-
posed of long coarse materials, it will be necessary
to turn it over, to cause it to take fresh ferment, and
thereby decompose it the better for the immediate
use of vegetables; it may also be requisite to notice
it, when sand intermixed in turning will also have
good effect in rotting it; the manure, in turning,
must be shaken up lightly, and not trod upon after-
wards, to allow the air to penetrate and the fer-
mentation to pass through the heap: dig in rough
manure, as such can best be spared, around the
roots of orange-trees to the full extent of the
. branches, and also the grape-vines; if salt brine, or
bones broken small, can be procured, they will be
serviceable to both; the grape-vine will bear the
greatest proportion of salt without injury. Tomatoes
planted out this month will yield fruit, with care,
in March; they must be bushed to keep the fruit
from the ground; four feet six inches between the
rows, and about three feet on the rows, is probably
a sufficient distance for them to be planted. They

10

146 BERMUDA.

will grow in soil of any colour, with manure and
shelter; they are saleable in America, from January
until July, when the market is supplied with the
native growth. For directions in packing, see April.

We have now seen what may be done with a
soil and climate so favourable for the production of
such a variety of European and tropical fruits and
vegetables.

Let us hope that the agricultural associations of
England and Scotland may not remain indifferent to
the advance of agriculture in Bermuda; also that
the Home Government, which has so liberally aided
in England the application of geological science to all
branches of industry, may remember that the agricul-
turists of Bermuda are at a distance of 3,000 miles
from the focus of inventions and reference.

Would such a movement in England have no reac-
tion on Bermuda?

In my opinion, no one deserves a greater sympathy
from England than the settler in these islands, and
no colony will react more beneficially on the welfare
of the mother country than Bermuda.

147

CHAPTER X.

INHABITANTS,

The white people—Delicate languor of the women—The Tuckers
—Rose of the Isles—Tom Moore and Nea—Different classes of
people of colour—Distinctions of the tribes by Don Antonio de
Ulloa—Little knowledge of imitative arts—Development of the
vocal organs—Display in vocal harmony — Improvisatori —
Christmas holidays—Pyrrhic dance of the Gombays—Their
dress—Prejudice against people of colour less in Bermuda than
in the United States—Enjoyment of municipal rights, &c.—
People of colour not often united with the white population in
matrimony—Jealousy of public feeling—Cheerful disposition
of people of colour proverbial — Their natural kindness to
offspring and friends is equally well known as characteristic
of the people of colour—The rising generation of the coloured
race—Their readiness of perception greater than that of their
progenitors — Social state of coloured population superior to
that of the States of America—The want of intelligence a draw-
back—The census shows a steady increase of the inhabitants.

Tue white inhabitants are hospitable and amiable;
the women are generally handsome, agreeable, well-
informed, and virtuous, possessing that delicate
languor in their look and manner, which is always

charming. Some of the descendants of the original
10—e2

148 BERMUDA.

settlers are to be found at the present day, among
whom are the Tuckers. Of this family there was
one lady, who in the days of her youth, was
esteemed the “ Rose of the Isles ;” but Tom Moore,
who sang her praises, whatever may have been the
sincerity of his vocal lyre, did not, like the noted
Toby, “ bear off the belle.” The fair one has long
since passed away, but she has left a very pretty
representative in her granddaughter, who is looked
upon as the belle of Bermuda.

The beautiful lines of the “ Snow Spirit,” addressed
to “ Nea,” Miss Fanny Tucker, of Bermuda, were not
of any avail; she heeded not the invitation of the
amatory bard, “to fly to the region of snow,” but
seemed to have been content with the silvery bowers
and perfumed isle, and preferred being united to
a cousin, a gentleman of her family name.

Péople of Colour and Native Blacks.—The coloured
inhabitants are persons of mixed blood (usually
termed people of colour), and native blacks. Of
the former, all the different classes, or varieties, are
not easily discriminated. In the British West Indies
they are commonly known by the names of sambos,
mulattos, quadroons, and mestizos. Thus a sambo
is the offspring of a black woman by a mulatto man,
or vice verséd ; a mulatto is the offspring of a black

INHABITANTS. | 149

woman by a white man; a quadroon is the offspring
of a mulatto woman by a white man; and a mestizo,
or mustee, is the offspring of a white man and a
quadroon woman. The Spaniards, from whom these
appellations are borrowed, have’many other and much
nicer distinctions, of which the following account is
given by Don Antonio de Ulloa, in his description
of the inhabitants of Carthagena :—

* Among the tribes which are derived from an
intermixture of the whites with the blacks, the first
are the mulattos; next to these are the tercerons,
produced from a white and a mulatto, with some
approximation to the former, but not so near
as to obliterate their origin. After these, follow
the quarterons, proceeding from a white and a
terceron. The last are the quinterons, who owe
their origin to a white and a quarteron. This is
the last gradation, there being no visible difference
between them and the whites, either in colour or
features; nay, they are often fairer than the
Spaniards. The children of a white and quinteron
consider themselves free from all taint of the African
race. Every person is so jealous of the order of
their tribe or caste, that if, through inadvertence,
you call them bya degree lower than what they
are, they are highly offended. Before they attain

150 BERMUDA.

the class of the quinterons, there are several inter-
vening circumstances which throw them back; for
between the mulatto and the black, there is an inter-
mediate race, which they call sambos, owing their
origin to a mixture between one of these with an
Indian, or among themselves. Betwixt the tercerons
and mulattos, the quarterons and the tercerons, &c.,
are those called tente en il ayre (‘suspended in the
air’), because they neither advance nor recede.
Children whose parents are quarteron or quinteron,
and a mulatto or terceron, salto altras retrogades ;
because, instead of advancing towards being whites,
they have gone backwards toward the black race.
The children between a black and a quinteron are
called sambos de negroe, de mulatto, de terceron, &c.”

The advantage possessed by a few of these people,
of being able to read and write, is a circumstance
on which they pride themselves greatly among the
rest of the people of colour, to whom they consider
themselves much superior.

Of those arts in which perfection can be attained
only in an improved state of society, it is natural
to suppose that the people of colour have but little
knowledge. They undoubtedly possess organs pecu-
liarly adapted to the science of music. In vocal
harmony they display both variety and compass.

INHABITANTS. 151

Nature seems in this respect to have dealt more
bountifully to them than to the rest of the human
race.

As practical musicians, many of them, by assiduous
labour and careful instruction, become sufficiently
expert to bear an inferior part in a private concert.
Their songs are commonly impromptu; and there
are among them individuals who resemble the im-
provisatori, or extempore bards of Italy; though
I cannot say much for their poetry.

At times, especially during the Christmas holidays,
they are not without ballads of a kind adapted to the
occasion; and they give full scope to a talent for
ridicule and derision. Their chief musical instru-
ment is the gombay, a rustic drum, formed of a small
barrel, one end of which is covered with a sheepskin.
From such an instrument nothing like a regular
tune can be expected; nor is it attempted. Hence,
on such occasions, they are denominated gombays.
They exhibit a sort of pyrrhic, or warlike dance,
during which they perform certain feats in running,
leaping, jumping, with frantic gestures and contor-
tions.

The dancer’s dress is very fantastic; he is orna-
mented about the head with a miniature chateau, and
his face is enveloped in a hideous mask.

152 BERMUDA.

The prejudice which exists in Bermuda against
people of colour is much less than it is in the United
States. This great barrier, therefore, which prevents
the coloured race from rising in society, the emanci-
pated people in Bermuda do not sensibly feel. In
this colony they have for several years enjoyed the
same municipal rights and immunities as the white
population. In civil affairs, and in the transaction
of business, there is no distinction. By the Act of
Emancipation, the freed people are admitted to the
same standing as the whites; and may now fill any
office, from a seat in the Assembly down to that of a
rural constable.

There is, indeed, a prejudice in Bermuda which
excludes people of colour from social intercourse
with the higher classes of society. Nor is pure
white and mixed blood often united in matrimony.
Public feeling does not allow this, or, at the least,
regards it with jealousy. The people of colour
have, unquestionably, a temperament peculiar to
themselves.

Their cheerful and easy disposition and good-
natured humour are proverbial. Their natural kind-
ness, and their attachment to their offspring and
friends, when not counteracted by adverse influences,
are equally well known.

INHABITANTS. 153

The rising free generation are quite a superior order
of beings to their ancestors, and exhibit a readiness of
perception and adaptation rarely shown by the pre-
ceding race. They enjoy a freer intercourse with the
white people, and observe enough of their habits and
manners to acquire the ideas and modes of thinking
which are peculiar to civilized society.

It will therefore be obvious that the people of
colour in Bermuda stand on entirely different ground
from those in the free States of America. Instead of
being a redundant portion of the community, they
fill a place of the utmost importance. They will, in
fact, constitute the bone and sinew of society; and
nothing but the want of intelligence can prevent
them from assuming the rank of the labouring classes
among the white population of the islands. What
their position in society may eventually be, it is im-
possible to predict; but should the fostering care of
the colonial government be secured for them, and
should the means of education and religious know-
ledge be adequately supplied, I see no obstacle in
the way of their advancement. .

The annexed tables give the census of 1843 and of
1851; but at the present time, the population is not
less than 12,000, a little more than half of whom are
of coloured or mixed race. Before the Emancipation

154

BERMUDA.

Act was passed, the greater number were slaves.

They are a hardy race of people, and, with. proper

training, become excellent sailors:—

ComPaRATIVE TABLE OF THE POPULATION OF BERMUDA
in 1851 anv 1843.

Census, 1851.
White. Coloured.
Parishes. Total.
Males. |Females.| Males. | Females.

Pembroke......... 431 606 495. | —708- 2,235—
Devonshire ...... 129 217 208 230 784
i 103 135 128 148 514
177 200 330 387 1,094
365 436 431 659 1,891
195 293 233 347 1,038
180 270 241 283 983
Southampton ... 145 218 246 308 917
Sandy’s......socee 231 329 , 520 556 1,636

> % ws
Total.esse.) ose we POR 11,092
telcsial PES |opgi | 1002.5
24? P55 oA

Census, 1843 ilo at”
Pembroke...) 422 572 444 641 | 2,079
Devonshire ...... 120 208 173 224 729
Smith ............ 81 122 113 126 442
Hamilton ......... 152 209 303 327 991
St. George ..... 260 375 394 -578 1,607
Paget........ aia alae 176 276 189 231 867
Warwick 170 267 201 256 895
Southampton 125 232 231 800 888
Sandy’s davervansoes 213 354 414 451 1,432
Total......) .. ae oe ste 9,930

155

CHAPTER XI.

EDUCATION.

Varied classes of the population — Enterprising and industrious
Americans—They contribute to maintain and support the
energies of the Bermudans—Extraordinary resources of Ber-
muda cannot be viewed: with indifference by the philosophic
and contemplative mind—Diffusion of the humanizing arts—
Character of Berkeley College—A magnificent charity—Great
desideratum of a place of study and retirement for young men
—Berkeley College should be thrown open to white and coloured
people in the West Indies—Great advantage of the college to
Bermuda—National feeling—School education of young people
of colour—Prejudice of the white population—Bishop Berkeley
—The colony a centre of commerce and its advantages—The
spirit of literature and philanthropy — Free schools— Facts
relating to the education of the poor.

From the review taken in the preceding chapters, it
will be seen how varied is the population of this
archipelago, both in character and employments; and
that it consists both of agricultural and commercial
classes of different ranks in the scale of each—from
the poorest, who seek a precarious subsistence in the

156 BERMUDA.

fields and around the shores, to the civilized Ber-
mudan, who has drawn forth the riches of the
soil; and from the petty trader, who collects the
scattered produce of the islands, to the native capi-
talist, who receives and disperses it to more distant
regions.

Situated between the rich and populous continent
of America on the one hand, and the West Indies on
the other, the demand for the produce of the colony
is unfailing ; and that produce is only limited by the
extent of the population.

When we consider that Bermuda is situated on
the very threshold of America—a country overflow-
ing with an enterprising and industrious people,
anxious and eager to settle wherever security and
protection are afforded ; that it is the Americans who
‘have chiefly contributed to maintain and support the
energies of the population, and diffuse the stimulus
of their own activity wherever they have settled ;—
if we consider this, the resources of these islands will
at once appear unlimited.

Circumstances like these cannot be viewed with
indifference by the philosophic and contemplative
mind. The diversified form in which the human
character is exhibited, the new and original features
which it displays, the things which have restrained

EDUCATION. 157

or accelerated the development of men’s nature in
these regions, offer sources of almost inexhaustible
inquiry and research.

Children of the ocean, as we may call the inhabi-
tants of this archipelago, and maintaining with the
adjacent continent a constant and rapidly increasing
intercourse, the means ought to be afforded them of
prosecuting literary and scientific studies with facility
and advantage.

Such may be the range of inquiry open to the
philosopher; but to him who is interested in the
cause of humanity, who believes that the diffusion of
the humanizing arts is as essential to the character
of our nation as the acquisition of power and wealth,
and that wherever our flag floats it should confer the
benefits of civilization on those whom it protects,—
to such a man it will seem no less important that, in
proportion as we extend the field of our researches
and knowledge, we should equally endeavour to
promote the advantage of those with whom we are
connected, and diffuse among them the means of
moral and intellectual advancement.

To this end the revival of Berkeley College was
attempted. The object was merely, with the least
possible pretension, to commence an institution. This

institution, although in its infancy, and at present

158 BERMUDA.

all but useless, may be made the foundation and
instrument of a great and lasting change in the
entire West Indies. That it was originally intended
as a university for youths, and not a mere school
for boys, is evident from the terms of the founder’s
will; and it is in this light alone, and with a view
of commencing and ultimately perfecting its original
design, that it deserves the most serious attention
of the trustees of the insular legislature, and even
of the Government at home. It is quite ridiculous
that the object of such a magnificent charity, with
such large actual funds, should be left wholly to the
support of the people of colour. |

A great desideratum in Bermuda is a place of
study and retirement for young men. 4s it is, those
who cannot afford the heavy expense of gonig to
Oxford or Cambridge, are obliged to break off the
yet unfinished work of their education, to set up
at seventeen or eighteen for men, and undertake
duties for which they are utterly unqualified. They
come away from school half educated in heart and
intellect, and are then for the most part placed in
situations where every temptation to licentiousness
besets their path, and many dangerous privileges
are of necessity committed to their discretionary
exercise.

EDUCATION. 159

A college on the plan of a university—that is to
say, where a reasonable approach to universality of
instruction is proposed—would supply this deficiency,
remedy the consequent evils, and be a blessing and a
source of blessing to the colonies. Its hall and lec-
tures should be thrown open to every white resident,
as well as to the people of colour, in the British West
Indies. For their rooms and commons the students
should of course pay, and the surplus funds of the
charity should be laid out in the erection of fel-
lowships, in salaries to professors, and prizes for
youthful talent. Tutors of undoubted zeal and
ability should be provided, and the principal should
be a man of that nerve and judgment which will be
requisite to govern and defend a great and novel
institution.

The domestic economy of the college would be on
a much simpler and less expensive plan than that of
the universities in England; less than half what is
now spent by the creoles in travelling or idleness, ,
would decently maintain them.

In the widely-extended operations of the Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts,
this college might be made to exercise an influence
prolific of incalculable good; and with all deference
to the members of that venerable body, I exhort

160 BERMUDA.

them most earnestly to give this subject closer atten-
tion than heretofore, and examine with hope and
faith its capabilities of benefiting mankind. It is 10
be wished by every philanthropist that no obstacles
may arise in any quarter to a thorough reformation
of the present institution, but that it may be made
“capable of communicating its advantages to the
natives of the other islands. Bermuda itself would
increase. in importance and wealth from the constant
influx of strangers, and the excitement of domestic
industry.

As Englishmen, we obey the impulse of our
nature in striving to raise all mankind to a level
with ourselves. We believe that the Queen’s com-
mission should in all places impart equality of pro-
tection; that justice, in the east and west, should
plant the staff; and that a charter should lie in the
waving flag of England. To this national feeling
the colonists must be respectful ;—it is a feeling too
virtuous to be hurt by insinuation and too powerful
to be resisted by violence.

In regard to school education and religious in-
struction of young people of colour in Bermuda,
though they have time and unrestricted liberty to
attend to such subjects, and though perfect toleration
is secured by law to religious teachers of all denomi-

EDUCATION. 161

nations—yet the means of imparting knowledge are
very inadequately provided, and the encouragement
given to improve these means is far less general and
hearty than the urgency of the case demands. If
anything is to elevate the character of the people of
colour, it is the inculcation of moral and religious
principles, and the imbuing of their minds with
knowledge. In no other way can they be taught
self-respect, and effectually guarded against the de-
teriorating tendencies of their situation. Yet this is
a point, to the importance of which long prejudice
blinds the understandings of the white people, and
which the British Parliament seems not fully to have
considered, or at least not to have adopted adequate
means to attain.

Bishop Berkeley most wisely selected Bermuda as
the most suitable place for a college, from whence as
a centre its influence may be diffused, and its sphere
gradually extended, until it at length embraces even
the whole of that wide field whose nature has already
been shown.

The rays of intellect now divided and lost, will
be concentrated into a focus, from whence they will
be again radiated with added lustre, brightened and
strengthened by European ‘light. Thus will our
colony not only become the centre of commerce and

11

162 BERMUDA.

its luxuries, but of refinement and the liberal arts.
If commerce brings wealth to our shores, it is the
spirit of literature and philanthropy that teaches us
how to employ it for the noblest purposes. It is
this that has made Britain go forth among the
nations, strong in her native might, to dispense
blessings to all around her. If the time may come
when her empire shall have passed away, these
monuments of virtue will endure when her triumphs
shall only be a name.

Let it still be the boast of Britain to anit her
name in characters of light; let her not be remem-
bered as the tempest, whose course was desolation,
but_as the gale of spring, reviving the slumbering
seeds of mind, and calling them to life from the
winter of ignorance and oppression. Let the sun
of Britain arise on these islands, not to wither and
scorch them in its fierceness, but like that of her own
genial skies, whose mild and benignant influence is
hailed and blessed by all who feel its beams.

In the tables given at pp. 187, 188, will be found
returns of free schools in operation in the colony
from the 30th day of June, 1854, to the 30th day of
June, 1855, and 3lst March, 1857, to 30th June,
1858, for the education of the poor; by whom
taught; under what superintendence; the average

EDUCATION. 163

daily attendance of pupils; the present salary and
emoluments of the teachers, and from what source
derived.

The colony owes much to the benevolence and
kindness of Bishop Spencer, in promoting education
among the poorer classes and coloured inhabitants.
He established and maintained not only many others,
but promoted the few schools which he found, by his
influence.

Facts are stubborn and sturdy things to deal with,
and it will be sufficiently seen and proved by the
annexed tables. The extent of the grievous calamity
the poor of Bermuda suffer in this respect may be
gathered at a glance from the most cursory view of
these two returns of free schools for the education
of the poor in operation in Bermuda, between
30th June, 1854, and 30th June, 1855; also 31st
March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858. The latter
return, with the report of the committee, is parti-
cularly interesting. Let us now compare the average
daily attendance with the census of the population
in 1851; wherein it will be seen that these poor
people have few chances of enlightening their minds.
Additional light may be thrown on the subject by
the following report by W. H. Mayor, Esq., Inspector
of Public Schools, dated June 7, 1859 :—

1ll—2

164 BERMUDA.

1

Report by Wittiam Henry Mayor, Esq., Inspector
of Public Schools, on the Parochial and other
Schools in Bermuda receiving aid from the Public
Treasury, to his Excellency the Governor, the
Honourable Members of her Majesty's Council, and
the Members of the Honourable House of Assembly,
in Legislation.

Sandy’s Parish, Bermuda,

GENTLEMEN, June 7th, 1859.

On the lst October last, I received from his

Excellency the Governor, my appointment, and, a

few days subsequently, my commission, as Inspector

of Public Schools, under and by virtue of a certain

Act of your legislature, intituled “An Act to aid in

the Establishment, and to provide for the Inspection

of Public Schools;” and by the 9th section of the
said Act, it is enacted, that “Reports of all the
schools receiving aid from the Public Treasury shall
annually be made to the Legislature by the Board of

Education and by the Inspector of Schools.”

In conformity with the said enactment, I beg,
respectfully, to submit the following report :—

On the 29th October, I received my instructions
from the Board of Education, directing me “ to visit,
inspect, and report upon” twenty schools, “ for which

EDUCATION. 165

application had been made for aid.” In accordance
with the said instructions, I commenced my first
visit of inspection on the 2nd, and completed it on
the 19th November. I found the school at Tucker’s
Town (one ‘on the list) without a teacher, conse-
quently nineteen schools only were given in to the
Board as having been visited and inspected. A report
was made, separately, upon each school, which,
proving satisfactory to the Board, the whole were
admitted on the list of schools to receive “ aid.”

I found the teachers, generally speaking, possessed
of sufficient knowledge of the several branches of
education which they professed to teach to enable
them. to conduct the description of schools in which
they were engaged. But, in many instances, they
were deficient in other qualifications, essential to
constitute them efficient teachers.

It is admitted, that among all the great improve-
ments which have taken place within the last thirty
years in the several arts and sciences, one of the
most valuable (at least to the rising generation) is
that in the science of imparting knowledge and
instruction to the young—as particularly adapted
to those schools in Bermuda which it is my duty
to inspect. Some quarter of a century ago, the
old parish clerk and ancient dame of the village

166 BERMUDA.

were the keepers of the rural parochial schools in
England; and they had an idea (never having been
better instructed) that the birch rod, with an occa-
sional rap with their horny knuckles upon the poor
pates of their unfortunate pupils, was the best, if not
the only method, of instilling “the rudiments.” But
this state of things happily exists no longer. In the
place of these (doubtless well-intentioned) worthies,
are to be found well-educated and enlightened
teachers, of both sexes, who have been regularly
trained for their work in colleges set apart for that
purpose, in which, it may be said, they graduate—
if acquiring a first, second, or third-class certificate,
according to their attainments, may be so termed.
When a vacancy occurs in a charity school in
England, it is, without delay or difficulty, filled
up with a properly trained and efficient teacher.
Not so in Bermuda. If a vacancy occurs, say in
one of the parochial schools, it is perhaps closed for
weeks before the rector can hear of any person
whatever likely to fill it. When he does, that
person may not be one after his own heart; but,
rather than the school should remain longer closed,
makes the engagement, though, perhaps, at the same
time, very dubious of the person’s competency. The
same difficulty is doubtless experienced by other

EDUCATION. 167

denominations in procuring suitable teachers for their
schools.

The charity schools in Bermuda cannot possibly
keep pace with similar schools in Great Britain,
Ireland, and America, or with our military schools
at St. George’s, and our convict schools at Boaz
Island, unless the teachers are trained to their
work.

The art of teaching, or imparting knowledge,
according to the method and discipline of the im-
proved system, is in itself a science, and, like all
other sciences, must be learnt and acquired.

To improve the present defective system, which,
with few exceptions, exists in the schools receiving
aid from the Treasury, and to provide efficient
teachers to fill any vacancies which may occur in
them and in other similar schools at any future
time, I would, with the greatest deference, recom-
mend that a trained master, with a first-class certifi-
cate, should be introduced into the colony.

Such an one would doubtless be induced to
come out if an annual salary of 801. or 90/. were
guaranteed to him for a period of two years. This
trained master might keep one of the central schools,
which would become “the model.” A few young
men would, doubtless, gladly avail themselves of

168 BERMUDA.

an opportunity of qualifying themselves as teachers,
paying a moderate premium for the privilege, and
in a short time they would become competent to fill
any vacancies. This trained master, thus keeping
one of the central schools, might give his weekly
holiday. on Friday, instead of Saturday, which
would enable him on Friday to visit the several
schools in rotation, in order to give instruction to
the teachers; and on Saturday the teachers might
attend, occasionally, at his school for that purpose.

Should this suggestion be considered expedient
and feasible, it would appear that the emoluments
arising from the school (say 60/. or 701.), together
with the premiums to be paid by the training
pupils, would nearly equal the amount of the salary
guaranteed. So that a small amount only would be
required from the public chest. In case that I shall
be continued in the office of inspector, and that my.
visits be rendered less frequent, it will afford me
much pleasure to relinquish a part of my small
emoluments, if it might in any way assist in attain-
ing so desirable an object. I beg to apologize for
this lengthy digression—my deep sense of the great.
importance of the subject must plead my excuse.

In resuming my report, I would beg to state that
during my visits I have received from the teachers,.

EDUCATION. 169

without exception, every facility in the examination
of the schools, and much courtesy—many of them
expressing their conviction that the periodical visits
of the inspector would have a beneficial tendency ;
not only in exciting an increased diligence in their
pupils, but would also be the means of correcting
any errors in their system of tuition of which they
might be unconscious.

I found the registers, with few exceptions, pro-
perly kept. Two or three of them, however, did
not distinguish whether the pupils attended both
parts of the day or not; proving that the roll, in
these cases, had not been called twice a day;
although'so important to be done, in order to pre-
serve proper order and discipline. This error has
since been rectified.

In many of the schools, errors existed in the
method of tuition: the principal one, most prevalent,
appeared to be an over-anxiety on the part of the
teachers to get their pupils through a certain book,
without due regard to frequent repetitions and cate-
chetical exercises, to cause them to retain and
understand what they had previously committed to
memory. The consequence was, that a class which
had gone through the greatest part of the geography
or grammar, when examined by questions on the first

170 BERMUDA.

two or three pages of their book, the answers were
very imperfectly given, if at all.

The pupils are frequently placed in books too
difficult for them. A class may be in Carpenter’s
spelling, as far as words of five or six syllables, with
theit meanings; but when tested by writing from
dictation or memory, they were found deficient in
spelling correctly very simple monosyllables. In
reading also, pupils had been frequently placed in
the Bible class, when just out of the primer; the
result was that they stammered and guessed at every
word; thereby, through their blunders, converting
the Holy Scriptures into nonsense, if not into some-
thing worse. The excuse in many schools was, that
they had no intermediate books between the primer
and the Bible, such as the second and third books
as issued by the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge; many of the children being orphans,
and the parents of others being too poor to purchase
them.

I do not consider that religious instruction is
sufficiently attended to in the schools generally. I
fear that the pupils are more anxious to acquire the
knowledge of writing, grammar, geography, and
arithmetic, rather than to be able to recite correctly
and to understand thoroughly, scripture history and

EDUCATION. 171

the catechism: and the teachers, perhaps, in some
instances, may consider that they gain more credit
with the parents of their pupils by advancing them
in those branches, even if it be attained by the
partial neglect of their Christian knowledge. I do
not scruple to endeavour to impress upon the minds
of the teachers, that the Legislature contemplates,
and the Board of Education expects and requires,
that religious instruction shall constitute a prominent
part of the education given in the schools receiving
aid from the Public Treasury, and to the catechists
of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge
(comprising sixteen out of the nineteen teachers), I
state, that the very name of the society which
patronizes them should be a constant memento, that
“ Christian knowledge” is especially expected and
required to be inculcated in their schools.

In some of the schools the pupils read and recite
very indistinctly ; more particularly in reciting the
catechism; so much so, that it is difficult, if not
impossible, to ascertain whether they say it correctly
or otherwise. To test the state of the case in many
of the schools, I set such of the pupils who were
competent, to write from memory the Lord’s Prayer,
the Creed, a Commandment, or some other part of
the catechism. The result sadly proved my fears

172 BERMUDA.

to be too well founded,—that they understood not
what they said. Words of somewhat similar sound,
but of quite different meaning, were in some cases
substituted; in others, words appeared to be coined
without any meaning in them at all. These errors,
in many instances, were committed by pupils learning
grammar and geography. I am happy to report,
however, that some improvement has since taken
place in this respect.

The infant portion of the pupils (comprising more
than one half) are the greater sufferers for the want
of the improved system being introduced into the
schools. The teachers, with few exceptions, consider
that until their pupils can read, no other instruction
can be given them. Consequently, in a great ma-
jority of the schools, no oral instruction is intro-
duced, so well calculated as it is to call forth and
expand their reasoning faculties, to strengthen their
memories, and last, not least, to relieve the tedium
and monotony of their A B C’s and monosyllables.

On my second visit, I found in one school nineteen
children who could not read, said the Lord’s Prayer
very imperfectly, and knew nothing of the Creed. I
inquired of the teacher “why they were not taught
the Creed?” I was answered, “because they cannot
read.” I took the nineteen children, and made them

EDUCATION. 173

all repeat the Creed together for half an hour; at
the expiration of that time, many of them could
answer simple questions upon it. On a subsequent
visit, I found that they had made considerable pro-
gress; but evidently sufficient pains had not been
taken. In another school, I found twelve or fourteen
infants in their A BC who were entirely ignorant
of the Creed. I took them up as in the former case,
with similar success: at my next visit these infants
could not only separately say the Creed perfectly,
and answer questions on the same, but could also
recite some other parts of the Church Catechism.
The teacher appeared much pleased with his success,
and stated that the children were very much in-
terested in this exercise, and that, at my next visit,
he hoped they would be able to say the Command-
ments also. In one school, Mrs. Trimmer’s Teacher's
Assistant is used with much success. It is a book
containing a series of instruction on various subjects,
chiefly religious, by question and answer, adapted
entirely to the capacity of infants. “Lessons” from
this work are on the catalogue of the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge, and are to be
obtained at the depository. I have strongly recom-
mended the book to several of the teachers.

In the schools generally are taught reading,

174 BERMUDA.

writing, arithmetic, grammar, and geography, and
in three or four geometry. The latter science was
introduced into many of the schools by the late
lamented Sir William Reid, who paid a sergeant of
Royal Engineers to give instruction to the teachers
every Saturday afternoon, at Hamilton—he paying
the passages per mail of those residing at a distance.
Some persons (perhaps without due consideration)
have ridiculed the idea of geometry being taught in
these schools, but it must be admitted that this
science is particularly useful to the mechanic or
artisan, whether he be a mason, a house or ship
carpenter, a wheelwright, or even a gardener; not
that he need dive into the abstruse problems of
Euclid, but merely that he should understand the
first principles.

The history of our mother country, to my surprise,
is not taught in any of the schools.

Psalmody is practised in every school, and taught
in several. This delightful recreation is much en-
couraged in the parochial and other charity schools
in England. Indeed, in the training colleges for
masters or mistresses, instruction is given in vocal
music; and in some of the colleges for masters,
instrumental music is taught also, to qualify the
pupils for organists and choir-masters for the several

EDUCATION. 175

parishes in which they may be engaged. Sacred
music is found to have a. very beneficial effect upon
the pupils, in calming their passions and softening
and elevating their minds and feelings. It is natural
that they who have been taught, or they who have
practised sacred music, should take a deeper interest
in public worship, enabling them to join in the
chants and other services of the church, or of any
other place of worship they may attend: and these
habits and feelings, thus engendered, will probably
continue with them through life.

The teachers, in too many instances, do not appear
to hold that position with regard to the parents of
their pupils which they ought to do. The teacher
receiving aid from the Treasury, and a further small
gratuity from some charitable society, is considered
by many to keep a “free school;” consequently, ,
those parents who can well afford to pay something
towards their children’s schooling, do so very irregu-
larly and reluctantly—more as a matter of favour
than of right and duty; and after placing their
children at school, they think that they can be sent
to school or kept at home at pleasure. Children are
frequently kept from school for weeks together, with-
out any reasonable cause (as sickness, &c.), and sent
again without the slightest excuse being offered for

176 BERMUDA.

their absence. The teacher receives them, and is
content to lose his small emolument which ought to
be paid for the time they were absent; but he has
also the additional trouble of teaching over again
what their absence has caused them to forget. This
conduct is allowed to be repeated with impunity, the
teacher fearing to be too particular, lest the pupils
should be withdrawn altogether.

Great irregularity exists in some of the schools in
consequence of the pupils not attending punctually
at the appointed hour. The teacher, instead of
remonstrating with the parents, postpones calling
the roll and opening the school for perhaps half an
hour or more, awaiting the arrival of the pupils.
This course only encourages and increases the
evil, and is subversive of all good government and
discipline.

I regret that the teachers do not evince more
firmness and independence as regards their conduct,
both towards pupils and parents. If they are in
want of a motto, I would recommend this rather
hackneyed one—Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re—
some possess the one, some the other; but unless
both are combined, a teacher, with all his other
qualifications, will not be sufficient.

A code of rules for the regulation of teachers,

EDUCATION. 177

pupils, and parents would have a very salutary
effect. By them, the parents should be obliged to
make their weekly payments regularly, inclusive of
the time their children are kept from school without
reasonable cause. They should also be obliged to
provide such books and other requisites as the
teacher may direct; for they now furnish such as
they please, or as may be most convenient for them
to procure, causing such a diversity, that the teacher
is prevented properly classifying his pupils, thereby
greatly retarding their progress, and giving consider-
able additional trouble to the teacher. So badly do
the parents supply their children even with slate-
pencil, that frequently a class is called up for
exercise, and it is with much delay and difficulty
that a sufficiency can be found in the whole school
for that particular class.

In the schools, with few exceptions, books and
other school requisites are much needed and required.
In every school there are orphans and other children
whose parents are too poor to provide them. The
XIVth Section of the Act relating to Public Schools
provides that orphan children may be sent by the
vestries to the several schools receiving aid from
the Treasury, and that the teacher to whom the
order is sent shall receive and educate the same.

12

178 BERMUDA.

It will appear by the tabular statement annexed,
that only two children have been received by the
teachers under the Act, and those two in Sandy’s
parish. It seems that an order for six children was
made to Mrs. H. Nichols by the vestry of that parish,
but four of them had been previously admitted into
her school.

I cannot attribute the circumstances of one vestry
only having taken advantage of this enactment, to
any supineness, or neglect, on the part of the gentle-
men constituting the several vestries; but I should
rather consider that it reflects credit on the several
teachers; inasmuch that I have every reason to
suppose and believe that they have sought out and
taken the very description of children which the Act
provides should be sent to them. It may be inferred,
therefore, that the orphan children, contemplated
by the Act, to be sent to these schools, are now
there, and receiving education; but your Legislature
has made no provision for books and other requisites
for them, There are also in these schools other
children, whose parents are too poor to provide those
necessaries of books, &c; I therefore, with great
deference, venture to hope and trust that your
Legislature may be pleased to grant a small sum
for the purpose of providing the necessary books

EDUCATION. 179

and other school requisites for the use of these
poor orphans, and such other children, whose parents,
from sickness or destitution, are unable to provide
them; so that the benevolent intentions of your
Legislature may not be frustrated. In justice to
the teachers, I must state that I believe that they
do all in their power to remedy this evil; but it is
unreasonable to expect that they should furnish
all the requisites for these pupils at their own
expense. -

An impression exists in the minds of many, that
the pupils remain after their education is completed,
and until after they have arrived at the age of
puberty; merely for the purpose of placing in the
pockets of the teachers the annual sum of five or
six shillings capitation money. This appears too
absurd to require refutation.

The Board of Education, understanding that such
an idea was prevalent, directed me to take a census
of the classified ages of the pupils ;—this I am now
doing in my fourth inspection; and when completed,
the result will prove that this impression is quite
erroneous. There are a few instances of pupils
being above the age of fifteen years; but they are
those whose education was entirely neglected in

12—2

180 ‘BERMUDA.

early youth. The complaint, by teachers generally,
is, that the pupils are removed too prematurely,
before it is possible for them to have received the
necessary instruction.

I postponed commencing my visit of inspection at
the proper time (15th May), understanding that the
attendance of the pupils at school was interrupted
by their assisting in the crops; and at the com-
mencement of last week (when I intended to visit
St. George’s) the weather looked so suspicious that I
did not venture, knowing that if it were rainy, the
pupils would not attend, and my journey would be for
nought. Yesterday I intended to visit St. George’s
per Siren, but to my disappointment found that she
was not going, It was not my intention to begin
this report, until I had finished the inspection, in
order to be enabled to complete the tabular state-
ment annexed (page 182); but, as it will take a week,
at least, to accomplish it, and understanding inquiries
were being made for the report, I have thought it
best to submit it without delay, leaving the tabular -
return to be completed afterwards.

I will conclude by stating that improvements have
taken place in the schools generally, but not to
the extent I had hoped and expected very sanguinely,

EDUCATION. 181

would have been the case. I found several of the
schools in a very creditable state, both as regards
system and discipline; the teachers having spared
neither time nor expense in availing themselves of
every advantage the islands afforded to qualify for
their important office; and their schools evince that
their time and money were not expended in vain.

Iam somewhat dubious whether your Legislature
may not expect and require a separate report on
each of the schools; if so, it will give me much
pleasure to furnish it, as also any other information
you may be pleased to call for.

I have the honour to be, &e.
W. H. Mayor,

Inspector of Schools.

BERMUDA.

182

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EDUCATION. 183

Report on the Pustic ScHoois in operation between
8lst March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858.—Pre-
sented to the Legislature, 13th September, 1858.

The Committee of the Council and Assembly ap-
pointed to inquire and to report to both Houses as to
the number of schools in operation in the colony,
between the 31st March, 1857, and the 30th June,
1858, for the education of the poor, by whom they
were taught, and under what superintendence, and
other particulars respecting the same, has the honour
of now submitting the result of its inquiries.

The particulars of the schools in the parishes of
Saint George, Devonshire, Pembroke, Paget, War-
wick, Southampton, Sandys, Hamilton, and Smith,
will be found in the tabular return given at page 187.
The particulars respecting the schools in the
two last-named parishes, namely, that formerly kept
by Benjamin Burchall, and afterwards reopened
under Nathaniel Gardiner, and that kept by Eleanor
Outerbridge, were received from the Ecclesiastical
Commissary, the Rev. Dr. Tucker, who, in the ab-
sence of the rector, and during the vacancy in the
living, issued, as the committee learns, the certificates
required by the District Committee of the Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge. These schools

184 BERMUDA.

have been superintended by the rector of the parish,
but the committee would remark that during a con-
siderable time the rector was absent from the colony,
and during the remainder the living was vacant, The
committee, therefore, concludes that what is meant is
that since the living was filled, that is to say, within
the last month, the schools referred to have been
visited by the new rector. The committee is informed
that during the vacancy the school of Miss Eleanor
Outerbridge was visited by the officiating minister.
But there are, or have been, other schools in ope-
ration in the two parishes in question, of which no
particulars have reached the committee through any
official channel. Two of these have been accustomed
to receive aid from the Public Treasury in former
years, namely, Mrs. North’s and Mrs. Wells’s.
Mrs. North closed her school on the 26th August,
1857, and her connection with the Society for Pro-
moting Christian Knowledge on the 30th June, 1857.
Mrs. Wells kept school in connection with the Society
during the whole period embraced by the report, it
seems. The particulars of Mrs. Wells’s school have
been furnished by her to a member of the committee
as follow, namely :—Number of pupils, 38, including
13 males and 25 females; daily attendance, 28 ; sub-
jects taught, the usual branches, with grammar,

EDUCATION. 185

catechism, and sewing; salary from Society for Pro-
moting Christian Knowledge for year ending 31st
March, 1858, 4/., and receipts from pupils, 3/. Os. 5d. ;
school superintended by the officiating minister, the
Rev. Francis J. B. Lightbourn.

In Hamilton parish there is a large school kept by
John G. Allen, who has himself furnished the com-
mittee with the following particulars. The school is
supported by the Hamilton Parish Temperance
Society, which guaranteed the teacher 30/. a year,
hoping to obtain a similar sum from the public.
There are on the books 74 males and 55 females,
total 129, and in daily attendance, on an average, 83.
Besides the usual branches are taught grammar,
geography, stenography, vocal music, and catechism.
The school was established 24th August, 1857, and,
according to Mr. Allen’s report, has been superin-
tended by the rector; but, for reasons before adverted
to, this can only mean that since the period em-
braced in the return the new rector has visited the
school, which the committee learns to have been the
case. Indeed, the committee has received from the
Rev. Frederic J. M. Evans, the rector, a certificate
of his having inspected this school, and being satisfied
with the manner in which it was conducted.
Mr. Evans found 99 children in attendance. A

186 BERMUDA.

member of the committee was present on the occasion
referred to.

In conclusion, the committee must express its
regret that it has no means of reporting to the legis-
lature the state of efficiency, actual or comparative,
of any of the schools seeking aid from the Public
Treasury, with the single exception just mentioned,
which afforded one member of the committee an
opportunity of judging favourably of one of the
schools. This question, the most important con-
nected with these institutions, the present system of
prank aid provides no machinery for solving.

Taos. A. DARRELL,
T. W. Menrcer,
S. Browntow Gray,
J. H. Harvey,

10th September, 1858. Committee.

EDUCATION. 187
Return of Pusiic ScHoots, having been in operation in this Colony between 31st March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858.
No. of Pupils. & 3 Salary Received
. Bg Subjects of Tuition. from Other Date of from
ees eh Superin- . as March 31, i ‘i Whence Treasury for
‘arishes. ‘eachers. 2 F eu . 1857, to ence derived. Emolu- Establishment | Year ending
tended by| ¢ | 3 |g] Be | hades Wen Brasdie bre Svaling, Tune 30, derived. March 31,
g 2 BS a gy Woriting, and ArTiwnmetc. 1858. ments. of School. 1857.
£s. d. £58. da. £ os. d.
St. George’s .| Eliza Trott . é Rector of | 9} 9] 18 | 14 | Theusual branches and catechism, sewing | 12 0 0 | District Committee | 6 3 | From pupils 1855 30 0 0
id Parish. and knitting. of S. P. C. K.
Ditto . Benjamin Burchall Ditto 46 | 40} 86] 55 Do. do. do. grammar and geography 410 0 Ditto 1216 4 Ditto Jan. 1, 1858. Nil.
Ditto * George Nathaniel Only Ditto 24116] 40} 36 Do. do. do. 8 0 0 Ditto 31 4 0 Ditto Jan. 1, 1857 . 710 0
Ditto t William Henry Mallory | Ditto | 23] 14| 37] 29 Do. do. do. 310 0 Ditto 315 0 Ditto Jan. 1, 1858 . Nil.
Devonshire .| Eleanor J. Williams Ditto 13 | 11 | 24! 17 | The usual branches . 12 0 0 Ditto 030 Ditto 1856¢ . 22:10 0§
Ditto . Rebecca A. Newbold . Ditto 14413] 27] 21 Do. do. and sewing 12 0 0 Ditto 25 6 Ditto 1849 30 0 0
Pembroke Ellen Hinson Ditto 3] 8] 11) 11 Do. do. do. grammar and geography 013 4i) Ditto 016 Ol} Ditto June 1, 1858 Nil.
Ditto . Peter F. Tucker . . Ditto 26} 14] 40] 80 Do. do. and psalmody, do. ard do. 12 0 0 Ditto 11 0 0 Ditto Sept., 1836 .| 30 0 0
Paget . Sarah Redmon. Ditto 10] 6] 16] 12 Do. do. and catechism . ‘ - 12 0 0 Ditto 915 0 Ditto 1854 30 0 0
Ditto] Israel T. Richardson Ditto 15 | 19 | 24} 20 Do. do. anddo. grammar and geography | 10 13 4 Ditto 13 3 6 Ditto 1839 30 0 0
Warwick Anne Moore . Ditto 9| 3/12] 10 Do. do. and catechism . 12 0 0 Ditto 800 Ditto 1839. 30 0 0
Ditto . David Tucker Ditto 34] 27] 61 | 45 Do. do. and do. grammar and geography | 12 0 0 Ditto 26 11 0 Ditto 1839 30 0 6
Southampton | Elizabeth Newbold Ditto ll} 5/16] 14 Do. do. and do. 12 0 0 Ditto 800 Ditto 1841 30 0 0
Ditto . W. O. F. Bascome i Ditto 16 | 18 | 34] 28 Do. do. and do. grammar and geography | 12 0 0 Ditto 140 3 Ditto 1838 30 0 0
37:16 4 Ditto
Sandy’s Honora B. Nichols Ditto 31) 16) 47] 42 Do. do. do. do. with book-keeping and| 12 0 0 Ditto { 210 0| From Gaamerees 1818 30 0 0
composition, and needlework for girls. Lodge.
Ditto. James Wade i Ditto 23125] 48| 84 | The usual branches and grammar, geo-| 12 0 0 Ditto 12 2 10 | From pupils 1836 30 0 0
graphy and catechism.
Report of Pustic Scuoots in Hamron and Smitn’s Pariswes, which were in operation between 31st March, 1857, and 30th June, 1858.
‘ £s8. da £5. da. £ sd.
Hamilton .| Benjamin Burchall** .| Ditto | 39{ 14/53) a4 | Reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, | 3 0 0 District Committee | 8 6 2] From pupils .| July 1, 1857.
grammar, geography, singing, and of 8. P. C. K.
catechism. < .
Ditto . Nathaniel Gardiner tt . oe 83 | 15 | 48 | 37 s Nil Ditto 315 0 Ditto
Smith’s. .| Eleanor Outerbridge Ditto 4| 12] 16 9 | Reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, | 4 0 Ott Ditto 440 Ditto July 1, 1854.] 30 0 0
grammar, geography, and catechism.
* Tucker’s Town. t St. David's Island. d 1854; again closed, and re-opened 1856. § For nine months. || For one month.

{ Closed April 30, 1858.

t Opened 1836; afterwards closed ; re-opene
** From July 1, 1857, to December 81, 1857.

¢t From April 2, 1858, to June 30, 1858.

tt From March 31 to Aug. 22, 1858,

12—6

188

BERMUDA.

A Return of Free Scuoors for the Epucation of the Poor in operation in Bermupa, between 30th June, 1854, and 30th June, 1855.

Parish.
| Sandys . .
Ditto...
Southampton
Ditto. .
Warwick =.
Ditto. .
Paget . .
Ditto .
Pembroke .
Devonshire .
Smith’s. .
Ditto. .

Hamilton .
St. George’s .
Ditto.

Tepcher's Name.

Honora B. Nichols :

James Wade . oo.
Elizabeth Newbold .
Wm. Bascome* . .
Ann Moore . : .
David Tucker,t George
Kimball,t A. Corbu-
sier.$
Sarah B. Redmon . .
Israel T. Richardson .
Peter F. Tucker . ‘
Rebecca A. Newbold
Amelia E. Wells .
Eleanor M. Outerbridge
Martha M. North .
John G. Allen

Eliza Trott . . .

Superin-

tended by.

Rector of
Parish.

Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto

Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto
Ditto .

When
Esta-
plished.

1839

1836
1841
1851
1838
1838

1852
1838
1836
1848
1847
1852
1850
1839
‘1838

Number of Pupils belong-
ing to the School.

Males. |Females.) Total.
27 16 43
36 26 62
13 7 20
22 7 39

8 9 WW
12 6 18
8 9 7
31 al 52
38 12 50
7 7 34
12 14 26
3 10 13
17 31 48
33 6 39
8 10 18

Average
Number
in daily
attend-
ance,

38

42
18
36
14
16

14
36
36

Subjects Taught.

Spelling, reading, writing, grammar,
arithmetic, geography, Church Cate-
chism, sewing.

Do. do. do. do. do. do. do. . es

Do. do. do, do. catechism, sewing Y

Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism, gardening.
Do. do. do. do. catechism, sewing ‘

Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism.

Do. do. do. do. grammar, catechism,
sewing.

Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism, drawing.

Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism, psalmody.

Do. do, do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism, sewing.

Do. do. do. do, catechism, sewing ‘

Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism, sewing.

Do. do. do. do. grammar, catechism,
sewing.

Do. do. do. do. grammar, geography,
catechism.

Do. do. do. do. catechism, sewing.

Legislative

Grant for | Annual| From what Other

Year ending 7

Om sane Salary. /Source derived.|/Emoluments.
£5. a. | £8. Te 8d.
2210 0 4.0 |SocietyP.C.K.) 2216 0
22 10 0 4 0 Ditto 816 0
22 10 0 4.0 Ditto 10 16 0
2210 0 4 0 Ditto 23 3 «4
2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 612 0
2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 210 0
2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 1518 0
2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 26 3 4
1617 6i| | 10 0 Ditto 169 3
2210 0 10 0 Ditto 110 7
22:10 0 4 0 , Ditto 6 0n
22:10 0 4 0 Ditto 10 2 0

a 4 0 Ditto 8 00

2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto lo 0
2210 0 | 10 0 Ditto 100

From what,

Source derived.

Parents of
children.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.
Ditto.

* Trom 14th August, 1854,

¢ From 30th June, 1854, to August, 1854.
§ 15th February, 1855, to 15th March, 1855.

} 15th August to 3lst December, 1854.

|| Broken period.

189

CHAPTER XII.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.

Evening assemblages—Balls—Dinner-parties—Shooting—Fishing
—Boating — Regatta —Spectators— Bermuda damsels—Royal
Bermuda Yacht Club—Superiority of sailing-boats—Sea-bath-
ing—Fishing on the open sea—Intellectual resources,

THE amusements of the higher classes in Bermuda
are much the same as in other colonies; and as all
are engaged either in public or private business,
or professional pursuits, their hours of relaxation are
spent either in dinner-parties, or in evening assem-
blages at each other’s houses, where quadrilles and
dancing keep the younger members of society in
pleasant occupation, whilst their elders look on,
play at cards, or converse upon the topics of the
day.

The Government House has usually given the ton
in dinners and balls, with now and then a state
dinner to the superior officials. The Admiralty
House, too, is usually gay during the visit of the

190 BERMUDA.

Admiral and his squadron. All these parties are
carried on during the winter.

Some fine shooting of migratory birds may be
mentioned as a source of amusement during the
winter months; but it is confined chiefly to snipe,
plover, and wild duck.

In summer, fishing and boating in the harbour
form other recreations. The young men usually get
up a regatta on Hamilton Water for sailing and
oared boats, and some very spirited matches take
place; when the adjacent hills and vales are covered
by spectators of both sexes, representing the Cau-
casian as well as the Ethiopian race, and there are
damsels of divers hues,—the sable Venus, the bright
mulatto, the delicate mustee, and the fair Bermudan
sylph.

The “ Royal Bermuda Yacht Club,” too, a little
later in the season, usually come out very strong,
and afford a great degree of amusement to lovers
of aquatic sports. They usually wind up the enter-
tainment with a ball to the inhabitants, where the
Bermudan fair are seen to great advantage in
the dizzy waltz, the graceful polka, or the stately
quadrille.

The far-famed sailing-boats of the Bermudans
are rigged with one, and some of them with two

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 191

shoulder-of-mutton sails, are extremely stiff, buoyant,
work well, and sail remarkably fast, but require to
be well ballasted. These little vessels are very
numerous, and are, like the larger vessels, built of
the native cedar, an expensive but durable wood.
They do not rise in a lively manner in a heavy
sea, in consequence of their having generally iron
ballast, but throw the spray over the deck, the lee
gunwale, when it blows hard, being under water,
which is protected by a deck of about eighteen inches
wide, that extends from the forecastle to the stern.
These little boats are unsurpassed in their good
qualities, and are more easily managed than any
similar class of vessels we have ever met with in
Europe.

Sea-bathing is very delightful along the shores to
those who are accustomed to that source of health
and enjoyment. A walk along the margin of the
ocean, from Middleton’s Beach to Port Royal, is one
of the best relaxations to a stranger who is fond
of walking, and musing, as he goes, on man and
nature; for there the sea in all its grandeur on a
stormy day wages war with the land. There, too,
late in spring, you may see the huge whale gam-
bolling; and there man, busy man, is fishing for
the finny treasure of the sea in a boat, reduced by

192 BERMUDA.

distance to almost a speck, for the means of sup-
porting his existence, whilst the angry waves rolling
over the coral reefs and bellowing on the precipices
under your feet, give ample evidence that his occu-
pation is precarious.

Horse-racing, and amateur theatricals also, are
occasional pastimes.

Amongst the resources of mental indulgence, we
have a good public library in the town of Hamilton,
established in 1839, by the Colonial Government, at
the recommendation of Governor Reid. Access to
the books is easy, and the subscriptions are very
small, thereby placing at the disposal of every mem-
ber of the community a fund of information.

A museum has also been established in the colony,
but I am sorry to say very little interest is taken
in enriching its shelves with curiosities of nature.

193

CHAPTER XIII.

NATURAL HISTORY.

Native birds—Mangrove-trees—Occasional visitants — Entomo-
logy—Genus Diurna (or butterflies)—Genus Sphinx (or the
hawk-moth)—G enus Phalena (or moths )—Coleoptera—Cidarie
—Chanteuses (or singers} — Aphidii (or plant-lice)— Genus
Coccus (or scale insects)—Coccus cacti (or cochineal insect )}—
Insect changes—Apterous insects—Jigger (Pulex penetrans)—
Death-watch—(Anobium pertinax)—Genus Forficula (or ear-
wigs)—Genus Blatte (or cockroaches )—Arachnides (or spiders)
—Genus Scorpio (scorpions) — Silk-spider (Tetragnatha
extensa).

Birds.—To the naturalist, the groves, fields, bays,

and shores of Bermuda are full of interest.

The groves and fields of these sunny islands ring
with the melody of some of our native birds. The
clear whistle of the white-eyed greenlet, or chick of
the village (Virco musicus), like the shrill flute,
resound from the fruit-trees, among whose deep
green foliage his gay hues—rich green, white, and
black—glance fitfully, as he shoots to and fro; and
his companion the cardinal grosbeak, or red bird

(Pitylus cardinalis), accompanies his shrill notes with

———

194 BERMUDA.

strains full of soft warbling music. It is the music
of the red bird that makes our sunny glades and
shady groves eminently melodious by day, sustaining
almost the whole burden himself. On account of
the beauty of its plumage and notes, it is often
reared in cages.

Among the other native birds we may enumerate

' the following: viz. the common blue bird (Sylvia

sialis) resembles very much in its manners and
habits the Sazicola rubicola, or robin redbreast of
Europe. It is very useful in destroying multitudes
of noxious insects. We have a species of merle,
the black merle, or blackbird, commonly called cat-
bird, also improperly called mocking-bird (Turdus
merula), a mistrustful species. Its plumage is
entirely black. It inhabits gardens and sylvan dis-
tricts, and is very frugivorous, and is remarkable,
particularly, for the singularity of its note, which
consists of a few harmonious sounds. It is a loud
but monotonous songster, heard throughout the year.
The ground dove (Columba passerina) is the smallest
and only American species peculiar to Bermuda. It
has a pretty cooing note, resembling that of the ring-
dove. Lastly, the tropic-bird, or longtail (Phaeton
Athenus), belongs to a species which fly very far
from land, on the high seas; and as they rarely quit

NATURAL HISTORY. 195

the boundaries of the torrid zone, their appearance
serves to indicate to mariners the vicinity of the
tropic, whence their common name of tropic-birds.
On Jand, where they seldom resort, except to feed,
they perch upon trees. They are closely related by
affinity to the gannets. The occasional visitants are
very numerous, many of them accidental and of great
interest.

Eminently characteristic of a tropical shore is the
dense belt of mangrove-bushes which lines a bay
at Somerset, termed Long Bay. To a European, it
is a strange sight to see a grove of trees growing
actually out of the sea; and his admiration is not
diminished when he examines more closely the struc-
ture of these singular ‘plants. The trunk of every
tree springs from the union of a number of slender
arches, each forming the quadrant of a circle,
whose extremities penetrate into the mud. These
are the roots of the tree, which always shoot out
in this arched form, often taking a regular curve of
six feet in length before they dip into the mud.
The larger ones send out side-shoots, which take
the same curved form at right angles; and thus,
by the crossing of the roots of neighbouring trees,
and of the subordinate roots of each, a complex
array of arches is produced, on which one may

13

196 BERMUDA.

securely walk for several yards, about eighteen
inches above the mud, or above the surface of the
water when the tide is in. The average thickness
of these natural bows is about an inch, and if
stretched straight, they would hardly support the
weight of a man; but their vaulted form greatly
increases their strength, and though they frequently
swerve a little under the foot, I never knew one to
break.

There seems to be a continual encroachment of
the land upon the sea in certain parts of Hamilton
Harbour by the agency of this tree. The mangrove,
growing irregularly, projects its sombre shrubberies
into the sea in capes and points, inclosing little bays,
which, by the gradual growth of the encircling
points, by and by become lagoons, or shallow salt
lakes. On the sheltered expanse of these beautiful
but treacherous lakes, the seeds of the surrounding
groves begin to root, and presently we see rising
here and there rounded clumps of mangroves, like
little wooded islets spotting its broad bosom. These
continually increase in extent, approach each other,
and, in the course of years, unite into a continuous
grove.

Occasional Visitants—The unbroken silence and
sheltered retirement of these lagoons offer tempta-

NATURAL HISTORY. 197

tions to aquatic fowl, of which they are not slow
to avail themselves. The shallowness of the water,
which often does not exceed eight or ten inches in
depth, the abundance of marine animals that inhabit
the mud, and the facilities for roosting presented
by the arching roots and spreading branches every-
where around, enable these birds to pass their short
sojourn here in security. Among the autumnal
and winter visitants may be seen the Virginian rail
(Rallus Virginianus), slowly running over the vaulted
roots, or hurrying through the shallow water from
the shelter of one clump to another, or wading about,
picking up the small crabs on which it habitually
feeds. Many of the little gambets and sandpipers
(Tringe and Totani) also run about here; and,
occasionally, that very curious bird, the hooded
merganser (Mergus cucullatus), and many of the
Ardeada@, from the American bittern and the elegant
egrets, to the great blue heron (Ardea Herodeus),
and the great American white egret (Ardea egretta),
with its sweeping plumes of snowy whiteness, are
commonly to be found here. One of these, the
black-crowned night heron, or Qua bird (Ardea
nycticorax), is peculiarly characteristic of these
sombre solitudes; for though its jealous wariness
precludes it from being’ often seen, its hoarse voice,
13—2

198 BERMUDA.

long, sudden, and startling, not unfrequently surprises
the traveller as he passes near their obscure depths.

Entomology.—Among the riches of the Bermudan
entomology, I have noticed, among the species of
butterflies, the Pieris brassice, the great garden white
butterfly, &c. The Argynnis Paphia, the Heliconia,
and the Nymphalis, are common enough at all times,
and in almost all situations. Others are abundant
at a particular season or locality; but, in general,
butterflies are to be obtained only occasionally. -The
insects belonging to the genus Diurna (or butterflies),
and among the first family of the Lepidopterous
order, are possessed of four wings, which are gene-
rally covered with microscopic scales, frequently
exhibiting the most beautiful colours. The larve
are provided with feet and a distinct head; the
mouth of the perfect insect is a long spiral proboscis.
The butterflies, so conspicuous for their beauty,
are well-known representatives of this order, and
the usual forms of these insects in the larva, pupa,
and imago state are familiar to all.

To the second family of the Lepidoptera belong
the Crepuscularia. They mostly fly either in the
morning or evening (twilight). This family com-
poses the genus Sphinx. They make a humming
noise during flight. The Sphinz (or the hawk-moths)

NATURAL HISTORY. 199

are a genus distinguished by the antenne or horns
tapering at each end, which are generally short in
proportion to the animal 5 and are also remarkable
from the thickness of their bodies, which mostly ter-
minate in a point.

The species are numerous and of very large size ;
one of the largest and most common is the death’s-
head moth (Sphinx atropus, belonging to the sub-
genus Acherontia), remarkable for the skull-like
patch on the back of the thorax, and for the squeak-
ing kind of noise it emits. The caterpillar is of a
very large size, and feeds on potatoes, jasmine, &c.

The third (and last) family of the Lepidoptera, the
Nocturina, presents to us ordinarily the wings bridled
in repose by a bristle or bunch of hairs arising at the
base of the outer edge of the lower pair, and passing
through a ring on the under side of the upper. The
wings are horizontal or deflexed, and sometimes
rolled round the body. The antenne gradually
diminish to the tips, or are setaceous. This family is
composed, in the Linnean system, of the single
genus Phalona, or moths.

These insects in general fly only during the night
or after sunset; many are destitute of a proboscis ;
some females are destitute of wings, or have only
very small ones.

200 BERMUDA.

The classification of this family is exceedingly
embarrassing, and our systems are yet but imperfect
sketches. The great swift or ghost moth (Hepialus
humuli) is a very common insect; the male, with silvery
white wings, and the female, buff with reddish marks.

In the summer season, and more particularly on
rainy nights, that section of nocturnal Lepidoptera,
Noctualites, the Pyralis, the Phalonites, also that of
the Tineites, &c., fly in at the open windows in great
numbers, and speckle the ceiling or flutter around the
glass shades with which the candles are protected
from the draughts. A great number of small beetles
and other insects also fly in on such occasions;
and several interesting species may then be met.
with. But in general beetles and the other orders
are extremely scarce, and especially Diptera. During
the month of August the shrubs and trees that
border the roads are alive with insects of all orders,
but particularly Coleoptera. Many species of Longi-
cornes, Cassidarie (or tortoise beetles), Chrysomelius,
Coccinella (or lady-birds), &c. occur by hundreds on
the twigs and leaves; and the air is alive with butter-
flies, Hymenoptera, and Diptera.

Throughout the summer months, in the hottest part
of the day, the “chanteuses,” or singers, produce
a monotonous and noisy kind of music. These

NATURAL HISTORY. 201

* chanteuses,” which are a species of Cidarie, com-
prise the Cicade masinifere.

The cicade are found upon trees or shrubs, of
which they suck the sap. The female pierces the
small twigs of dead branches of trees as far as the pith
with her ovipositor—which is lodged in a semitubular
sheath, formed of two valves, and composed of three
scaly pieces of a narrow and elongated form, two of
which are terminated like a file—in order to deposit
her eggs therein; the number of which being great,
the female makes a succession of slits, the place of
which is indicated by so many elevations on the
exterior. The young larve quit their birthplace,
however, in order to descend into the ground, where
they increase in size and become pupe. Their fore-
legs are short, the fore-thighs being very strong and
armed with teeth, fitted for burrowing in the earth.
The Greeks devoured the pupee—which they called
tettigometre—as well as the perfect insect. Before
coupling the males were preferred, but afterwards the
females were selected, being filled with eggs. The
male insect is the musician. The organs of sound
are placed at each side of the base of the abdomen,
internal, and covered by a cartilaginous plate, like a
shutter, which is an appendage of the under side
of the metathorax. The cavity which encloses these

202 BERMUDA.

instruments is divided into two partitions by a scaly
and triangular edge, seen from the under side of the
body ; each cell exhibits anteriorly a white and folded
membrane, and in the hollow part a stretched-out,
slender membrane, which Réaumur calls the mirrors.
If this part of the body be opened from above on each
side, there is seen another folded membrane, which
is moved by a very powerful muscle, composed of a
great number of straight and parallel fibres, extend-
ing from the scaly ridge; this membrane is the
timbale. The rouscles, by contracting and relaxing
with quickness, act upon the timbales, stretching them
out or bringing them into their natural state, whereby
the sounds are produced, which, even after the
death of the animal, may be repeated by moving the
parts over each other in the manner they act whilst |
alive. The Cicada Ormi, by puncturing the elm,
causes it to discharge the saccharine fluid which has
been termed manna.

All the homopterous hemiptera section feed only
upon the fluids of vegetables; the females have a
scaly ovipositor generally composed of three denticu-
lated plates, and lodged in a scabbard of two valves.
They use this instrument as a saw, to make notches
in vegetables, in order to deposit their eggs. Cuvier
divides this section into three families—Cicadaria,

w

NATURAL HISTORY. 203

Aphidii, and Gallinsecta—the former of which (Cica-
dariz) we have already discussed.

The Aphidii, commonly called plant-lice, are dis-
tinguished from the preceding by having only two
points in the tarsi, and the antenne filiform, or like a
thread, and longer than the head, composed of from
six to eleven joints.

The winged individuals have always two wing-
covers and two wings. These are very small insects,
having the body generally soft and the wing-covers
very similar to wings, differing only in being larger
and somewhat thicker. They multiply with exceed-
ing rapidity.

The third family of the homopterous hemiptera,
the Gallinsecta, have only a single joint in the tarsi,
with a single hook at the tip. The male is destitute
of a proboscis, has only two wings, which shut hori-
zontally upon the body; the abdomen is terminated
by two threads. The female is without wings and
furnished with a proboscis. The antennz are fili-
form or threadlike, and often eleven-jointed. These
insects compose the genus Coccus (or scale insects).
The bark of many of our trees appears often warty,
by reason of a great number of small oval or rounded
bodies, like a shield or a scale, which are fixed to
them, and in which no external traces of the insect

204 BERMUDA.

are to be observed. They nevertheless belong to
this class of animals, and to the genus Coccus.

The Cocci appear to injure the trees in causing by
their punctures a too abundant overflowing of the
sap. Hence they require the attention of those
persons who cultivate peaches, oranges, figs, and
olives. Some species attack the roots of plants,
some are precious on account of the splendid scarlet
colour they furnish for the dyer. Further researches
on these insects might detect others equally useful in
this respect.

The female of Coccus cacti (the cochineal insect of
commerce) is of a dark brown colour, covered with
a white down, flat beneath, convex above, margined,
with the segments rather distinct, but becoming
obliterated at the period of oviposition. The male is
of a dark red, with white wings. It is cultivated in
Mexico upon a species of cactus or opuntia, and is
distinguished by the name of Mestique, or fine cochi-
neal, from another closely allied species, smaller and
more cottony, called the wild cochineal. It is cele-
brated for the crimson dye that it produces; it also
furnishes carmine. This production is one of the
chief riches of Mexico.

Coccus Polonicus (or the scarlet grain of Poland)
was also employed in that country as a considerable

NATURAL HISTORY. 205

object of commerce, before the introduction of the
Coccus cacti as a dye. It lives upon the roots of Scler-
anthus perennis, and some other plants. The colour
produced from this species is almost equal to that of
the Coccus cacti. A species from the East Indies pro-
duces gum lac, and another is employed in China for
the manufacture of wax tapers.

Insect changes.—The metamorphoses of the insect
race offer very curious and wonderful natural pheno-
mena for contemplation. «We see,” says an old
author, “some of these creatures crawl for a time as
helpless worms upon the earth, like ourselves; they
then retire into a covering, which answers the end of
a coffin or a sepulchre, wherein they are invisibly
transformed, and come forth in glorious array, with
wings and painted plumes, more like the inhabitants
of the heavens than such worms as they were in their
former state. This transformation is so striking and
pleasant an emblem of the present, intermediate, and
glorified states of man, that people of the most remote
antiquity, when they buried their dead, embalmed
and enclosed them in an artificial covering, so figured
and painted as to resemble the caterpillar in the in-
termediate state; and as Joseph was the first we
read of that was embalmed in Egypt—where this
custom prevailed—it was probably of Hebrew origin.”

206 BERMUDA.

We may easily perceive in the caterpillar a faint
and imperfect symbol of the metamorphosis awaiting
our own frail bodies, with the many intermediate
degrees of corporeal and spiritual perfection, result-
ing in one universal chain of being.

Among the Apterous insects we shall notice the
jigger (Pulea penetrans). Its beak is of the length
of its body; it introduces itself under the nails of the
feet and hands, and the skin of the heel particularly ;
other parts of the feet and hands are also attacked by
this insect, but not so frequently as the before-men-
tioned parts. No vigilance can prevent the attacks of
the jigger ; even the stockings and shoes of Europeans
are not proof against the insidious assaults of this
tiny flea; the very cleanest persons of the highest
rank in society are obliged to have their feet examined
regularly. The presence of a jigger beneath the
skin, during the process of its gradual increase, com-
monly produces a titillation, rather pleasing than pain-
ful; but as no pain is felt till the sore is produced, the
extreme laziness of the lower order of the blacks fre-
quently makes them neglect the precaution of extract-
ing them, till all kinds of dirt getting into the wound
increases the difficulty of a cure, and sometimes the
consequence is lameness for life.

The blacks, from mutual practice on each other,

NATURAL HISTORY. 207

are quick at discovering, and skilful in extracting
them. The operator begins with a short needle to
open and widen the minute orifice in the cuticle,
between which and the cutis vera (true skin) the
swollen body of the pregnant female has taken its
place; slowly and cautiously the depredator is ex-
posed, until at length he removes the insect uninjured,
without giving any pain, or drawing the least drop of
blood.

The great danger to be guarded against is the
rupture of the delicate skin of the jigger’s abdomen,
stretched and attenuated as it is by the great increase
of its contents; if this should occur, the nits would
escape into the wound, and produce a dreadful ulcer ;
such, however, is the skill of the sable practitioners,
that it very rarely occurs. After the operation, a
little grease and the ash of tobacco is rubbed into the
empty cavity. There are two species of jigger, the
white, and the green or poison jigger, both of which
are very numerous and annoying,

Among the numerous family of the Coleoptera
we have a species of the genus Anobium. Anobium
pertinax is of uniform brownish-black colour, and
is very common in our houses. The two sexes
in the season of love have the habit of calling one
another by beating with the mandibles upon the

208 BERMUDA.

wood-work on which they are stationed, for a suc-
cession of times, mutually answering each other.
This noise, similar to the accelerated beating of a
watch, has occasioned their receiving the vulgar
name of death-watch.

We find among the family of the Orthoptera, a
species of the genus Forjicula—the earwigs—Vorfi-
cula auricularia ; the body is elongated, ferruginous
brown, shining, with a reddish head; the female
guards her eggs with much care, as well as her
young, for a considerable time.

Also, the well-known genus Blatt, or cockroaches.
Two species of the genus are very commonly known
here: lst, the Blatta orientalis—the body of which is
of a deep brown colour, of a soft texture, head small,
almost triangular, elytra and wings alittle longer than
the body; has six legs, feet spinous; it sheds its skin
once a year, when it obtains wings, but does not
make much use of them. 2nd, the Blatta occidentalis
is a larger species of cockroach; it is termed hard-
back ; a very disgusting looking animal.

The animals belonging to the class Arachnides (or
spiders) differ from the Crustacea, in having their
respiratory organs always in the interior of the body ;
and also, from the insects in not undergoing a
metamorphosis. Some live on land, others in the

NATURAL HISTORY. 209

water, and a third group are parasitical, and live on
different animals.

The terrestrial species are in general solitary ani-
mals, and of a forbidding aspect; many of them
shunning the light, and living in concealment. Several
of these are poisonous, and their bite dangerous. Many
have mandibles, which exercise the office of a sucker,
and others have an isolated sucker, often, however,
joined with mandibles and palpi.

The genus Scorpio (scorpions) furnishes a species
known in these islands as the Scorpio afer. The body
is blackish, with the joints of the feet and antenne
white. It grows sometimes to the length of four or
five inches, but when they breed in houses they do
not then attain above half the size before mentioned.

Among the species termed, by Latreille, sedentary
spiders, we shall notice the silk spider (Tetragnatha
extensa). The body is of a light brown colour, with
diagonal stripes of green, its fore feet of a yellowish
colour. It is about two inches in length. Its legs
are very long and slender, the first pair longest, then
the second, and afterwards the fourth. It spins a
large silky web of very firm texture, equal, if not
superior, to that of the silk-worm, but which is put
to no manner of use in Bermuda. This species is
common in our woods. They make their webs with

210 BERMUDA.

regular meshes, arranged in concentric circles, crossed
by straight radii extending from the circumference,
and meeting in the centre, where the insects remain
stationary and in a reverse position. They have the
external spinnerets nearly conical. The jaws are
straight, and perceptibly wider towards their upper
extremity.* .

* Appendix E.

211

CHAPTER XIV.

SHELLS.

Crustacea—Cancer Pagurus—Gelasimus vocans—Genus Maia—
Genus Calapa—Genus Ranina—Mollusca (or Shells)— Cir-
culation—Organs of respiration—Form of the body in the
Mollusca—The nervous system, &c.—Octopus cephalopoda—
Sepiaria—Pteropoda—Gasteropoda—Pulmonea — Testacella—
Vitrina—Helix—Pupa —Clausilia—Bulimus—Achatina—Suc-
cinea—Aquatic pulmonea—Genus Limneus—Genus Physe—
Genus Auricula—Nudibranchiata— Genus Tritonia—TInfero-
branchiata—Genus Ancylus—Rectibranchiata—Bullesa—Hete-
ropoda—Genus Carinaria — Pectinibranchiata—Trochoides —
Trochus zizyphinus—T., cinerarius—T. maculata—T. jujubinus
—Genus Turbo (or Periwinkles)—Turbo littoreus—T. chry-
sostomus—T. pica—Genus Phasianella—P. Rubeus—Genus
Nerita—N. peloronta (or bleeding tooth)—N. versicolor—
Capuloides — Genus Crepidula — C. onyx — Buccinoides —
Genus Conus—Genus Cyprea (Cowries) —C. rediculus
—C. coccinella—Genus Colombella—C. mercatoria — Genus
Buccinum (the Whelks)— B. undatum — B..lunatum — B.
reticulatum—Genus purpura—P. patulata—P. lapillus—Genus
Cassis—C. rufa—c. testiculus—C. flamnea—Genus Strombus—
8. gallus —Tubulibranchiata— Genus Vermetus— Genus Ma-
gilus—Scutibranchiata—Genus Fissurella—F. Graca—Genus
Emarginula—E. Fissura—Cyclobranchiata—Genus patella (or
Limpets)—P. pellucida—Genus Chiton—C. marginatus—Ace-
phala—A. testacea—Genus Ostrea (the Oyster)—O. folium—
O. crista galli—O. parasitica—Genus Pecten—P. concentricus

14

212 BERMUDA.

(or Scallop)—Genus Arca—Arcacee (or Ark Shells)—Arca
Nox—A. barbata—Genus Lima—Lima glacialis—Mytilacee—
Genus Mytilus—Mytilus exustus—M. elongatus—Carnacea—
Genus Chama—Chama, arcinella—Cardiacea—Genus Cardium
(the Cockles)—Cardium levigatum—C. unedo—C. cardissa—
Genus Tellina—T. radiata—T. depressa—T. tenuis— Genus
Venus—Venus gemma— V. granulata—V. plicata — Genus
Cytherea—C. tigerina—C. castrensis—Genus cyclas—C. cornea
—Mye—Genus Mya—M. arenaria—M. truncata—Genus Ana-
tina—Mya globulosa—Genus Solen — Solen endis— Genus
Teredo—T. navalis—Acephala nuda—A. Segregata—Genus
Ascidia—A. rustica—A. lobifera—A. Aggregata—Genus Pyro-
soma—P. Atlanticum—Brachiopodes—Cirrhopodes— Genus
Anatifa—Lepas anatifera—Genus balanus (or Acorn Shells)—
Balanus tintinnabulum.

Crustacea (or Crabs.)—The Crustacea are generally
catnivorous, feeding on dead or decomposed animal
matters. Some are constantly fixed on cetaceous
animals, aquatic reptiles, dnd fishes. The greater
portion live in the sea, at different depths, and in
localities proper to their various habits; others are
found in fresh water, or on land. Those which have
fin-like feet swim on their side or back, and the
greater part of the others walk sideways or back-
wards; some run with extreme rapidity, and others
are constructed for climbing trees. Many species
afford an agreeable food, and are taken for this pur-
pose in numbers, or for bait.

The members of the Crustacea, when injured or
disabled, are speedily reproduced, and they change
their crustaceous covering annually.

SHELLS. 213

The single genus Cancer (according to Cuvier)
comprising the numerous species of crabs, is divided
into sections. Of these, the majority have the legs
attached at the sides of the breast, and always
exposed. The species thus characterized constitute
the first five sections—Pinnipedes, Arcuata, Quadri-
latera, Orbiculata, and Trigona.

Amongst the first section (Pinnipedes), we may
especially mention a species of swimming crab (Lupa
forceps). It is very active and fierce, extending its
open claws in a threatening manner when danger is
near; but if allowed to escape by swimming, it does
so rapidly, bending up the claw of the side which
happens to be foremost, and allowing the other to
stretch out behind. Probably this is the arrangement
in which these unwieldy members offer least resist-
ance to the water in progression.

In the second section (Arcuata), we find the com-
mon edible crab (Cancer pagurus) of Bermuda.
During the summer months it is very abundant in
our bays. The carapax is granulated, and arched
along the sides, with nine folds on each side, and the
middle in front, with three short teeth.

The third section (Quadrilatera) have the carapax
almost square, sometimes heart-shaped, widened and
rounded at the anterior angles, and truncated trans-

14—a

214 BERMUDA.

versely at the posterior extremity; front advanced,
_and more or less inclined; none of the feet termi-
nated by a fin.

In this section we find the genus Gelasimus—the
typical species is the calling crab (Gelasimus vocans).
This. species of land-crab has the carapax smooth,
entire, sinuous anteriorly, and nearly quadrilateral,
but rather broader in front; right claw generally
larger than the left, the fingers of the smaller claw
being spoon-shaped ; colour, soiled brown above, with
a bluish-green mark on the anterior part of the shell.
This species burrows oblique and very deep holes in
our marshes near the seashore with its large claw ;
in its movements, which are very rapid, it holds up
the large claw in front of the body, upon the
slightest alarm, and extends the fingers in a menacing
attitude, This bold demeanour has doubtless given
rise to the name of Soldier crab. It has also obtained
the name of calling crab, from its habit of holding up
the large claw in front of the body, as though beckon-
ing to some one.

The fourth section (Orbiculata) have the carapax
somewhat.orbicular, or ovoid, and always very solid.
To this section belongs the genus Leucosia. The
animal which forms the type of this genus is the
Leucosia braniolaris: shell smooth above, depressed

SHELLS. 215

on each side before, with the anterior margin crene-
lated, front slightly advanced, tridentate, arms warty>
length five inches.

The fifth section (Trigona) have the carapax gene-
rally triangular or subovoid, with the anterior extre-
mity narrowed and pointed, ordinarily very rough
and uneven, with the eyes lateral; claws often larger
in the males than in the females. Many of these
crabs are commonly called Sea Spiders.

In this section we find the genus Maia. The
animals of this genus live on rocky or muddy shores
around Bermuda, and conceal themselves among
fluci. The type of this genus is the Maia squinado.

Another species common to Bermuda is the Hyas
araneus, belonging to the genus Hyas.

The sixth section comprise the Cryptopoda. A
few species of the animals of this section withdraw
their feet within the vaulted margin of the shell
when at rest, with the exception of the large claws.
Belonging to this section we find the genus Calapa.
Of this genus we find only one representative around
our shores—the Calapa granulata.

The seventh and last section—the Notopoda—is
formed of crabs having the two or four posterior
feet inserted on the back, or above the line of the
others. In the Notopada we find the genus Ranina ,

216 BERMUDA.

The animals of this genus differ from all other
Brachynra, in having the abdomen extended; and
from the other Notopoda, in having the six inter-
mediate legs terminated by oval plates or fins.
Shell, wedge-shaped, or oblong; truncated anteriorly.
The typical species most common around our shores
is the Ranina serrata.

Motuvsca (or Shells)—The mollusca, or shells
and shell-fish, as they are usually called, although
several have no shells or calcareous coverings, pre-
sent many objects of interest to the naturalist, and
are not unimportant in their various uses to man.

As the great vertebrate division includes the four
distinct elasses of beasts, birds, reptiles, and fishes,
so does the great division of mollusca contain six
classes, distinguished by characters which I shall
presently enumerate.

It has been observed, as a distinction between the
vertebral and the invertebral animals, that while in
the former the bones or hard parts are more or less
formed of phosphate of lime, the hard parts of the
latter, such as the shells of the mollusca and crus-
tacea, and the stony matter of corals and madre-
pores, are chiefly composed of carbonate of lime.

The Mollusca present every kind of mastication
and deglutition ; their stomachs are sometimes simple,

SHELLS. 217

sometimes multiplicate, often furnished with peculiar
armatures, and their intestines are variously elon-
gated. They have, in general, salivary glands, and
always a liver of considerable size, but no pancreas
or mesentery; several have secretions which are
peculiar to them.

The food of the mollusca consists of almost all
sorts of substances, animal and vegetable—in all
states, living or dead, fresh or putrid; but each
species is in general confined to a certain kind.

All the senses common to the higher animals are
found in the mollusca, though some are, doubtless,
wanting in the humble classes of the division. In
the Cephalopoda, the organs of sight and hearing _
are distinct and well-developed; and Professor Owen
is of opinion that the Nautilus, an animal of this
class, possesses an organ of “ passive smell.”

The Gasteropoda are almost invariably furnished
with eyes; and, according to M. Siebold and other
zodlogists, have ears—a pair of round capsules,
placed near the bases of the tentacles, and enclosing
one or more crystalline globules, called otolites.
Some of the Conchifera are furnished with numerous
eyes placed among the tentacles, examples of which
are found in the claws and scallops (Pecten) of our
own shores. .

218 BERMUDA.

The circulation is complete in the mollusca. The
heart is situated, in general, in the back, above the
intestinal canal. It is not contained in a true peri-
cardium, but in a muscular cell of the imperfect
diaphragm which separates the visceral cavity from
the branchia.

The organs of respiration vary considerably, not
only with respect to their form and the place which
they occupy in the animal, but also with respect to
structure.

The form of the body in the mollusca is extremely
various. It is frequently oval, more or less elon-
gated, convex above and flat beneath, as in the
genera Doris, Limaz, &c. It is also sometimes
oval, and equally convex above and below, as in
the Sepie; elongated and cylindrical, as in certain
Loligines: globular, as in the Octopodes. It is often
more or less compressed on the sides, as in the
Scyllee. In very many cases a large portion of the
body is rolled up in a spiral form. A considerable
number of these animals present a very distinct
separation between the head and the rest of the
body, as in the Octopodes; this distinction is some-
times much less marked, as in the genus Doris. The
distinction of neck,. breast, abdomen, and tail is still
less obvious, the body forming only a simple mass.

SHELLS. 219

The nervous system consists of a central part or
brain, situated above the intestinal canal; of ganglia
for the different organs of sense, as well as for the
locomotive apparatus; of a few visceral ganglia,
together with conducting filaments or nerves.

To the first class of Mollusca belongs the Cepha-
lopoda (or head-footed). The fleshy, flexible feet
are instruments of locomotion, the animal being
enabled to crawl awkwardly upon this circle of feet
head downwards. But their chief use to the animal
is as organs for seizing and holding prey, and for
this purpose they are eminently qualified, Each
arm is furnished with a double row of sucking disks,
each of which, on being applied to any surface,
adheres to it at the will of the animal with immense
force, so that it is easier to tear away the substance
of the limb while the creature maintains its hold,
than to release it from its attachment; and even
after death the suckers continue to retain a consider-
able power of adhesion.

The skin of these animals, particularly of the
Octopus, changes colour, in patches and in spots,
with a rapidity greatly superior to that of the
chameleon.

These animals are voracious and savage; and as
they are agile, and are furnished with numerous

220 BERMUDA.

organs for seizing their prey, they destroy many
fishes and crustaceans.

The animals of this order, which are found around
the shores of Bermuda, naturally arrange themselves
under three divisions, which are as follows :—

1. Naked Cephalopoda; no shell, either internal
or external. 2. Monothalamous testaceous Cepha-
lopoda: the shell unilocular, entirely external.
3. Polythalamous testaceous Cephalopoda: the shell
multilocular, subinternal.

I. Cephalopoda Sepiaria :—

The Sepiaria are marine animals, some of which
creep along the bottom, and others swim at large.
They are all destitute of shell.

In the first division we meet with the two following
genera around our shores :—

1. Genus Octopus (the Polypes).—Body fleshy,
obtuse beneath, and contained in a sac, which is
destitute of wings; no internal dorsal bone, or only
a very small one; mouth terminal, surrounded with
eight simple, elongated arms, furnished with sessile
cups.

The only species known here is the Octopus
octopodia. Body rounded, smooth, mantle con-
nected with the head behind; suckers sessile, in a
single row; arms six times as long as the body.

SHELLS. 221

2. Genus Loligo.—The species known here is the
Loligo punctata. The body is generally lengthened,
more or less flattened, with the skin dilated on each
side, so as to form a pair of wings or fins. Its usual
mode of swimming is by dilating its body and filling
it with water. The body is then suddenly contracted,
and the water forcibly ejected, so as to propel it
backward with great rapidity, shooting like an arrow
through the water.

The animals comprising this genus have been
celebrated from the earliest times for their singular
property of surrounding themselves with an inky
fluid, with which they envelop themselves to evade
pursuit. They are carnivorous, destroying many
fish and crabs.

II. Cephalepoda monothalama :—

This division contains only one genus, viz. Argo-
nauta; but we have seen no species to represent it.

III. Cephalopoda polythalama :—

The greater portion of the shells of this division
are fossils, and many of them very minute.

Only one species is known here of the genus
Spirula, viz., Spirula peronii: shell white, fragile,
about a quarter of an inch in diameter, with two or
three spiral turns, which do not touch each other.
The place of the partitions of the chambers within

222 BERMUDA.

are exhibited by circular grooves in the shell. The
beautiful little shell belonging to this species is
occasionally picked up along our shores after heavy
storms.

To the second class of Mollusca belong the Ptero-
poda. This is a very small class, comprising a few
species of curious structure. They swim, like the
Cephalopoda, in the sea, but cannot fix themselves
there, nor creep, from want of feet. They are all
characterized by having a membranous expansion,
resembling a large fin, on each side of the head.
Some genera only are furnished with a thin, cartila-
ginous, or horny shell.

The only genus known here is the Limacine,
which is represented by a single species—Lunacina
helicialis. Its body is terminated with a spiral tail,
and is lodged in a very thin shell, of one whorl and
a half. The shell serves the purpose of a boat; and
when the creature wishes to swim on the surface,
it uses its fins as oars.

To the third class of Mollusca belong the Gastero-
poda, Cuvier has given the name of Gasteropoda
to all the animals of this class which have a foot or
muscular disk proper for crawling, whether this foot
extends the whole length of the lower surface of the
body, or adheres only to the base of the neck. The

SHELLS. 223

Gasteropoda constitute a very numerous class, of
which the slug and the snail give a good general
idea. Some species of this class—few as compared
with the great body—are naked, but the majority
are protected by a shell, in some cases very thin,
brittle, and glassy, in others somewhat horny, but
more generally of a stony texture, and of great
solidity and hardness.

The upper surface of the body of this class of
animal is covered with a fleshy cloak, the edges of
which usually project in a greater or less degree,
overlapping the foot-disk and other organs. This is
called the mantle, or cloak.

These shells are secreted by the mantle, which in
one family—that of the Chitons—consists of several
pieces; but in general it is simple, and takes the
form of a hollow bone, produced in various degrees.
In the limpets, which we see adhering abundantly to
our sea-side rocks, the cone is low and nearly sym-
metrical; but in the great majority of this class the
bone is greatly lengthened and twisted upon itself, so
as to form a spire.

The species of Gasteropoda are very numerous
around Bermuda, among which we shall briefly
enumerate a few of the most interesting. We will
follow Cuvier in his division of the class into the

224 BERMUDA.

following orders—the characters of which he has
drawn from the position and the form of the branchiz.

I. The Pulmonea.—These animals breathe the
atmosphere, receiving the air within a cavity, whose
narrow orifice they can open and close at will: they
are hermaphroditical, with reciprocal copulation;
some have no shell, others carry one, which is often
truly turbinate, but never furnished with an oper-
culum. Many of the species inhabit fresh waters;
but the greater number are denizens of the land—
requiring, however, a damp atmosphere to preserve
them in health and vigour. The aquatic species
form, notwithstanding the element in which they live,
no exception to the leading character of the order ;
they also breathe air, which they obtain by coming
periodically to the surface.

Those of them which have no apparent shell, form
1. The genus Limaz of Linnzus, or slugs, as they
are more commonly known. The species known
here is the Limazx cinereus ; they are very voracious,
and destroy kitchen vegetables and ripe fruits in
field or garden, wherever they are found.

2. The Testacella— These animals resemble the
slugs in all respects, with the exception of the shell,
which is earshaped, and placed at the posterior
extremity of the body. One species is found here,

SHELLS. 225

living under ground, and feeding principally on
earth-worms ; viz. the Testacella haliotidea.

3. Vitrina: species Vitrina pellucida—shell minute,
earshaped, slightly spiral at its summit; aperture
large. When the aperture of the shell assumes a
erescent-like figure, and the lunated aperature is
wider than it is deep, the shells belong to Helix.
In some, the shell is globular.

4. Heliz—Shell globular, spiral, varying very
much in its form, and receiving the body more or
less completely. The species observed here are not
very numerous. Helix concava and H. hortensis are
commonly observed. The great majority of the
species deposit a number of eggs glued together into
a mass, and concealed under rubbish, the bark of
decaying trees, dead leaves, or moss, or beneath the
surface of the ground.

5. Pupa.—tThe species are very small, living in
moist situations, amongst mosses, &c. One species
is very common here, the Pupa chrysalis; they
derive their name from the resemblance of the shell
in shape to the pupa or chrysalis of an insect.
The animal resembles the Helix.

6. Clausilia.—Clausilia papillaris is a type of
the genus, resembling the Helix in shape, but more
slender.

296 BERMUDA.

7. Bulimus.—These animals are terrestrial, and
some of them are remarkable for the size and stony
hardness of their eggs. This genus is numerous
in species, and may be represented by Bulimus
lubricus.

8. Achatina—We have a species, the Achatina
columaria, one of the most remarkable of land
shells; it is reversed, and the columella forms a
winding pillar, visible within, quite to the summit of
the spire. A small species found in the South Sea
Islands is strung by the natives, and used for an
ornament.

9. Succineaa—We have a species which we shall
call Succinea Bermudiensis. Shell, ovate-oblong,
very thin, pellucid, yellowish; spire short; aperture
dilated. .

The Aquatic Pulmonea have only two tentacula;
they come ever and anon to the surface to breathe,
so that they can only inhabit waters of inconsiderable
depth; thus they live in fresh waters or brackish
pools. .

1. Genus Limneus (the fresh-water snails)—The
species observed here is the Limnza auricularia.

2. Genus Physe.—These animals are most fre-
quently found on the under side of the leaves of
aquatic plants; they have a very singular way of

SHELLS. 227

adhering to the surface of the water with the shell
downwards, and crawl in that direction with as
much apparent ease as on a solid surface, and they
will occasionally let themselves down gradually by
a thread. This power of crawling under water
against its surface is not wholly confined to this and
the preceding species. The Physa fontinalis is a
representative of the genus.

3. Genus Auricula.—The name is derived from a
fancied resemblance to the ears of some animals.
They are for the most part covered with an epidermis,
but some are often delicately sculptured. One
. species is found here, near the sea-shore, Auricula
Mida.

Il. Gasteropoda Nudibranchiata. — These have
neither a shell nor a pulmonary cavity, but their
branchie, or gills, are exposed naked upon some part
of the back. The animals of this order are remark-
ably elegant in their forms, which present great
variety. Their motions aye graceful and lively, their
colours peculiarly brilliant, and their history and
economy marked by points of great interest. They
often swim in a reversed position, the foot applied
against the surface, and made concave like a boat,
and they assist their progress by using the edges
of the cloak and the tentacula as oars.

15

228 BERMUDA.

We know of only one genus representing this
order, viz. the Tritonia. The Mollusca which form
this genus have the body oval-oblong. The species
observed here is the Tritonia arborescens.

III. Gasteropoda Inferobranchiata.—These have
nearly the habit and organization of the preceding
order; but their branchiz, instead of being placed
on the back, resemble one or two long series of
lamine under the mantle, either surrounding the
body, or on the right side only. The species are
strictly littoral, being gasteropodous, and incapable
of swimming.

Genus Ancylus represents this order; the species
is the Ancylus rivularis. It is found adhering to
stones and aquatic plants in ponds.

IV. Gasteropoda Rectibranchiata.— These have
their branchie on the back, a little inclining to
the right, composed of laminz more or less divided,
but not symmetrical, generally protected by expan-
sions of the mantle, in which there is usually a
small shell.

They are hermaphrodites, like the Nudibranchiata
and Pulmonea; and resemble the Pectinibranchiata
in the form of the respiratory organs, and, like them,
live in the sea.

The genus belonging to this order is the Bullea.

SHELLS. 229

The shells of this genus are very simple in form;
they are all slightly rolled up, without being spiral.

The only known species is the Bullea aperta; shell
somewhat rounded, pellucid, slightly striated trans-
versely, and the aperture very large; it climbs
aquatic plants well, but swims badly.

V. Gasteropoda Heteropoda.— These are distin-
guished from all other Mollusca by their feet, which,
instead of forming a horizontal disk, are compressed
into vertical muscular lamin, which they use as fins.
They swim horizontally, and can inflate the body
with water in a manner which is not yet well under-
stood. The only representative of this order is the
genus Carinaria, and the species observed here is
Carinaria cymbium.

VI. Gasteropoda Pectinibranchiata.—This order
comprises almost all the univalve spiral shells, and
many that are simply conical; it is consequently
the most numerous in species. Cuvier arranges
these Mollusca under several families, from the form
of their shells, which appear to be in sufficiently con-
stant harmony with those of their respective animals.

The first family of Pectinibranchiata,—the Tro-
choides—are recognized by their shell, being of a
conical form, with the spire more or less elevated,
and the base generally flat or concave, rarely convex.

: 15—a

230, BERMUDA.

The genera are as follows:—1. Trochuside. The
species of this genus are the Trochus Zizyphinus, the
Trochus cinerarius, the Trochus maculata (spotted
Trochus), and the Trochus jujubinus; which last is
remarkable for its peculiar colouring; the upper
whorls being blackish, whilst the apex and two last
are red or flesh-coloured. Many species are very
iridescent at the mouth and under the epidermis.

2. Genus Turbo.—The species of this genus are
the Turbo littoreus, or common periwinkle, which
is used as an article of food, and is found on the
shores in great numbers. The shells are often
highly iridescent; and the mouth, in some species,
as in the Turbo chrysostomus, is of a deep and beau-
tiful golden colour. The Turbo pica is a very hand-
some species.

3. Genus Phasianella.—The shells of this genus
are smooth, shining, without an epidermis, and orna-
mented with agreeable colours. The Phasianella
rubeus is a beautifully coloured species.

4. Genus Nerita.— The Nerite are all marine
shells, solid, thick, and agreeably coloured. They
are remarkable for their oblique columella, relative
to the axis of the shell, which gives the opening a
semicircular form. We have a familiar example of
the genus in the Nerita peloronta. It is called

SHELLS. 231

“bleeding tooth,” from the red appearance of the
teeth on the inner lip. We have also another species,
Nerita versicolor. Its shell is thick, transversely
sulcated, and tesselated with red and dark spots
in transverse rows; inner and outer lip toothed,
and the latter striated within.

The second family of the Pectinibranchiata are
the Capuloides. Cuvier divides this family into five
genera. All of them have a widely open shell,
scarcely turbinate, without an operculum, and with-
out emargination or canal. Genus Crepidula is the
only representative of this family. The species known
here is the Crepidula onyx. This is a curious and
often a very beautiful shell, and of the most brilliant
colour—black in the inside, with the little half-deck,
as it may be called, of a beautiful white, and having
the margin of the shell tinged with a rich brown.

The third family of the Pectinibranchiata are the
Buccinoides. Cuvier groups this family into genera
according to the length of the sinus or canal (when
it exists), the greater or less width of the aperture,
and the various forms of the columella.

The following genera belong to the Buccinoides,
viz.: 1. Genus Conus, which is the most beautiful,
most extensive, and most interesting of the spiral
and unilocular univalves. It contains shells remark-

232 BERMUDA.

able for the regularity of their form and variety
and elegance of their colours, and which are highly
prized by collectors. They are all marine. Many
species of this genus are marked with the most beau-
tiful and extraordinary figures, some of them re-
sembling Hebrew, Greek, or Arabic characters,
and bearing a most exquisite polish ; in other varieties
the colours are arranged in almost endless shapes,
being clouded, veined, marbled, dotted, striped, and
banded in every kind of form. Many of them are
‘very rare; and the specimen of the Conus gloria
maris has been sold for as much as one hundred
guineas. The famous Conus cedo nulli, formerly
in the cabinet of Lyonnet, at the Hague, is said to
have been sold for three hundred guineas.

2. Genus Cyprea (Cowries).—The shells of this
genus are distinguished, if not for elegance of form,
yet for beauty of colouring and richness of polish.
The polish is preserved by the animal, while alive,
enveloping the shell in a membraneous fold. The
young shell presents the appearance of an olive,
having the spire acute, the outer lip sharp, and both
lips destitute of teeth. Many of the species, which
in their perfect state are spotted, are when young
transversely banded. We have found on our shores
the Cyprea pediculus and the Cyprea coccinella.

SHELLS, 233

When at rest, the Cyprea remains buried under
the sand at the bottom of the sea at a short distance
from the shore; it occasionally traverses the rocks
and coast, and may be found under stones and corals.

3. Genus Colombella.—These are small, short, and in
general prettily coloured shells. Colombella mercatoria
is the only species of the genus known at Bermuda.

4. Genus Buccinum (Whelks) comprises all the
shells furnished with an emargination, or short canal,
bent to the left, and whose columella is not plaited.

The following species are generally found on our
shores—viz. Buccinum undatum, Buccinum lunatum,
and Buccinum reticulatum.

5. Genus Purpura.—The species are two: Pur-
pura patulata.—It was from the animal of this
species that the Roman purple dye was obtained.
The shell is ovate, transversely sulcate, tubercular,
reddish black; spire, shortish ; aperture, patulous ;
columella, reddish yellow; outer lip, white within.
The other species—Purpura lapillus—affords also a
purple dye. The colouring matter occurs in a vesi-
cular reservoir near the stomach. It is no longer
used, however, the discovery of cochineal having
furnished an abundant supply of equally beautiful
and more easily procured colour.

6. Genus Cassis—The shells of the Cassis rufa

234 BERMUDA.

and other species are exquisitely sculptured by
Italian artists in imitation of antique cameos, the
different strata of colouring matter resembling those
of the onyx and other precious stones. Of these,
a great variety of ornaments are made; and of late
‘years a considerable trade has been carried on in
them on the Continent.

We have a species very common in our bays, viz.
Cassis testiculus and Cassis flamnea.

7. Genus Strombus.— The Strombi are distin-
guished generically from the right lip being much
dilated and entire, and by the canal at the base being
very short, truncated, or notched. Strombus gallus
is an example of the genus. The shell is turbinate,
tuberculated, transversely sulcate, variegated with
white and red; the last turn crowned above with
large compressed tubercles. The tubercles are
united by a transverse ridge. Lip thin, extended
above into a long lobe. The animals of the Strombus
occasionally produce pearls.

VII. Gasteropoda Tubulibranchiata.—Cuvier dis-
tinguishes these from the Pectinibranchiata, with
which, nevertheless, they have many affinities, because
their shell, in the shape of a more or less irregular
tube, and only spiral at its apex, is permanently
fixed to other bodies.

. SHELLS. 235

The genera are as follows:—1. Genus Vermetus,
which is represented by the Vermetus lumbricalis.
2. Genus Magilus. The Magilus antiquus is the
only species known in Bermuda. The animal esta-
blishes itself in the excavations of madrepores; and
as the coral increases round it, the Magilus is obliged,
in order to have its aperture on a level with the
surrounding surface, or near it, to construct a tube,
the growth of the coral determining its length.

VIII. Gasteropoda Scutibranchiata.—TVhe shells in
this order are very open, having no operculum, and
the greater number are not in any degree spiral:
so that they cover their animals, and particularly
the branchiz, in the manner of a shield.

The following are the genera belonging to this
family :—1. Genus Fissurella have the perforation on
the top of the shell, very much resembling a key-
hole. This aperture is for the purpose of respiration,
as the water thus communicates to the branchial
cavity, which is placed, something like that of the
Doris, on the forepart of the back. The Fissurella
Greca is a familiar example of the genus.

2. Genus Emarginula, the Emarginula fissura
being an example.

IX. Gasteropoda Cyclobranchiata.—The genera of
this order are the following :—

(236 BERMUDA.

_ 1. Genus Patella.—The Patella (or Limpets) have
the body entirely covered with a conical shell. We
have an example of the genus in the species Patella
pellucida.

2. Genus Chiton.—The Chitons crawl upon their
feet or fleshy disks, and are attached to rocks and
stones, like the limpets. They are found along our
shores at no great depth. They have power of
rolling themseves up into a ball, like the woodlouse
‘or hedgehog. Chiton marginatus is an example of
the genus.

To the fourth class of Mollusca belong the Acephala,
The animals of this class are divided by Cuvier into
two sections; the-first, which is most numerous, con~
tains all the bivalve and some of the multivalve
shells. The other, Acephala nuda, comprises those
in which the shell is replaced by a cartilaginous
membrane.

I. First Order of Acephala: Testacea (or Ace-
phales with four branchial leaflets)—The shells of
this elass are more or less inequivalve, and open by
a hinge. A considerable number of bivalves possess
what is called a byssus, that is, a bundle of more or
less delicate filaments issuing from the base of the
foot, and by means of which the animal fixes itself to
foreign bodies. It employs the foot to guide the

SHELLS... 237

filaments to the proper place, and to glue them
there; and it can reproduce them when they have
been cut away; but their true nature is not yet well
ascertained.

The first family of the Acephala Testacea com-
prise the Ostrea, or oysters. As to the testaceous
Acephales, known in a living state, Linnzus has
united under the genus Ostrea all those which have
neither teeth nor transverse lamine in the hinge;
the valves being held together by a ligament lodged
in a little cavity on both sides. Among the species
common to our shores, we may notice the Ostrea
folium, the Ostrea crista galli, and the Ostrea
parasitica.

To this family also belong the following genera,
viz. :—

1. Genus Pecten.—The shells of this genus are
in general of a depressed form, more or less inequi-
valve, always eared, and almost always rayed longi-
tudinally by ribs more or less fine. The valves are
in general thin, of the same size, the upper one
being flattened. The species most usually found in
our bays is the Pecten concentricus. This is known
under the popular name of scallop, or scallop-
shell.

2. Genus Arca.—The Arcacee, or ark-shells, are

238 BERMUDA.

distinguished from all the others by their nume-
rous teeth, which have the appearance of those of a
fine saw, and form a straight or curved continuous
line. That handsome species, the Arca Noe, is found
here, the shell of which is strongly striated in a
longitudinal direction, with the apices incurved and
very remote; margin entire and gaping; colour
whitish, with diagonal, parallel, zigzag chesnut
stripes. The Arca barbata is another species, but
smaller than the preceding.

3. Genus Lima.—The shells of this genus are all
marine, and almost always white. The Lima glacialis
is a species usually seen on our shores. The Lime
swim rapidly by flapping their valves.

To the second family of the Acephala Testacea
belong the Mytilacee. These are commonly known
by the name of Mussels. The Genus Mytilus have
the shell somewhat triangular. The species known
in Bermuda are the Mytilus exustus and Mytilus
elongatus.

To the third family of the Acephala Testacea
belong the Carnacea. According to Cuvier, this
family comprises only the genus Chama, the shells
of which are generally found at no great depth.
They are always seen attached by their larger valve
to rocks or corals, or grouped together in various

SHELLS. 239

forms. The only species known in Bermuda is the
Chama arcinella.

The fourth family of the Acephala Testacea com
prise the Cardicea, the greater part of which are
furnished with longitudinal ribs, and have the shape
of a heart when viewed anteriorly. To this family
belong the following genera, viz :—

1. Genus Cardium (Cockles).—The species of
cockle are numerous on our shores, among which we
may notice Cardium levigatum (the smooth cockle),
Cardium unedo, and Cardium cardissa. In the latter
species the valves are flattened, but in a contrary
manner to the generality of flat bivalves.

2. Genus Tellina.—The Tellinas are all attractive,
from their beautiful colour and elegant shape. The
species are as follows: Tellina radiata, Tellina de-
pressa, and Tellina tenuis.

3. Genus Venus is one of the most beautiful among
the conchifera. The following species are some-
times found:—Venus gemma, Venus granulata, and
Venus plicata.

4. Genus Cytherea.—This genus resembles much
the Venus in beauty and colouring, but the fourth
cardinal tooth, which is supposed to distinguish it, is
sometimes scarcely visible. The species are Cytherea
tigerina and Cytherea castrensis.

240 BERMUDA.

5. Genus Cyclas.—The shells of this. genus are
not larger than a hazel-nut, and some of the species
are very thin and transparent, striped transversely
with light colours. Cyclas carnea is a familiar
species.

To the fifth family of the Acephala Testacea,
belong the Mya, which comprise the following
genera:—1. Genus Mya. These burrow in the sand,
and. project a long tube to the surface. The species
most common on our shores are the Mya arenaria
and M. truncata. ;

2. Genus Anatina.—The shells of this genus are
distinguished from the Myz by their having a spoon-
shaped tooth in each valve, while the Myz have
only one. Mya globulosa is the most common species
found near Bermuda.

3. Genus Solen.—The Solen, or razor-fish, has a
shell in the form of an elongated cylinder. A few
species, more especially the Solen endis, are found on
our shores.

4, Genus Teredo.—The Teredines do much injury
to the timbers of ships, perforating them in all
directions, and rendering them unserviceable. Teredo
navalis is a very familiar example of the genus.

II. Second Order of the Acephala: Shell-less
Acephales (A. nuda).—The animals of this order,

SHELLS. 241

according to Cuvier, form a group under the name of
Acephala nuda, arranged immediately after the
testaceous Acephala. Cuvier divides the order into
two families, viz. :—

The first family of the Acephala nuda being the
Segregata, and embracing the genera whose indi-
viduals are isolated and without mutual organic
connection, although they often live in societies. Only
one genus represents this family, viz. :—Genus
Ascidiea. The Ascidiz live in the sea, fixed to rocks,
shells, or marine plants. The species are Ascidia
rustica and Ascidia lobifera.

The second family of the Acephala nuda com-
prise the Aggregata. These are more or less ana-
logous to the Ascidie, but are always united, and
constitute a common mass by their union. The
Pyrosoma is the only known genus found here
belonging to this family. The animals of this
genus are gelatinous and transparent, and, placed
horizontally in the sea, appear capable of executing
slight movements. They are very phosphorescent,
and during the darkness of night often exhibit
masses of floating light of the most brilliant and
varying colours. A small species is known in
our harbours (Pyrosoma Atlanticum), in which the
animals are arranged in very regular rings.

242 BERMUDA.

The fifth class of Mollusca embrace the Brachio-
podes. There are no genera, to our knowledge, which
represent this family.

The sixth class of the Mollusca comprise the
Cirrhopodes. These animals are soft and destitute
of head or eyes; they are testaceous, having the body
fixed, and provided with a mantle; they have also
tentacula, with curled tufts. The arms vary in
number and are unequal in size; the shell is either
sessile, or elevated on a flexible pedicle, and it
is composed of several valves, which are sometimes
moveable, sometimes fixed.

There are two genera to this family, viz.:—
1. Genus Anatifa.—This genus, as well as the fol-
lowing one, is found attached to ships, logs of wood,
bottles, corks of nets, fuci, floating testaceous mol-
lusca (the Jantha,, for instance), and even to whales,
turtles, and serpents. The most numerous species
in our seas (Lepas anatifera, Linn.) derives its name
from the opinion once seriously entertained, that it
was the young of a kind of goose.

2. Genus Balanus (or Acorn Shells).—The shell
of the Balani is immovable in all its external parts.
It is of a conical shape, sometimes elongated ; and
is found adhering to rocks, stones, and marine

bodies.

SHELLS. 243

Balanus tintinnabulum is an accidental visitor
of the Bermudan shores. Its shell is purplish,
with the valves irregularly and strongly marked
in a longitudinal direction, and the interstices deli-
cately striated across their surface. .

16

244 BERMUDA.

CHAPTER XY.

CORALS.

Polypifera — Alcyonium digitatum— Alcyonidium gelatinosum—
; Alcyonidium echinatum — Asteroida — Fungia, or Sea-mush-
rooms — Meandrina cerebriformis, or Brainstone coral—Gor-
gonia —Isis hippuris— Gorgonia flabellum (or Sea-fan) —
Flabellum Veneris (or Venus’ fan)— Gorgonia anceps —
Gorgonia verrucosa—Gorgonia placomus—Gorgonia lepidifera
—Actinez (or Sea-anemones)—Holothurie (or Sea-slugs)—
Mammalia—Balena mysticetus—Balena nodosa—Reptilia.

Corallide (or Corals).—The family of zodphytes
necessarily embraces many corals. They are as
interesting as they are important to man, being,
during the span of their existence, the original
founders of many countries, in which, when nature
has clothed them with luxuriant verdure, the human
family subsist in affluence and abundance. When
we see the profusion of fragrant vegetation and
delicious food almost spontaneously produced in these
lovely islands, it is startling to reflect that they
are almost entirely formed by the cells of deceased

s

CORALS. 245

polypi, which, rising up in beautiful and delicate
forms, displace the mighty ocean, defying its
gigantic strength, and displaying a shelly bosom
to the expanse of day! The vegetation of the sea,
cast on its surface, undergoes a chemical change ;
the deposit from rains aids in filling up the little
gaping catacombs; the fowls of the air and of the
ocean find a resting-place, and assist in clothing
the rocks; mosses carpet the surface; seed brought
by birds, plants carried by the oceanic currents,
animalcule floating in the atmosphere, live, propa-
gate, and die, and are succeeded by more advanced
vegetable and animal life. This process continues
while generation after generation is passing away;
and at length these coral islands bloom out like a
paradise, filled with the choicest exotics, most beau-
tiful birds, and most delicious fruits—where man
may indolently revel to the utmost desire of his
heart !

Polypifera (Polypes).— Several species of z00-
phytes, or polypes, are found in the water around
the smaller islands. The Alcyonium digitatwm (which
signifies toes, or claws) is one of the commonest of
the polypes, being attached to almost every stone
or shell brought up from the bottom of the sea.
Sometimes it is very small, but when larger, it is

16—2

246 BERMUDA.

named by the fisherman cow’s-paps; and others,
which differ a little in form, are called dead-men’s
toes, or dead-men’s hands.

Alcyonidium Gelatinoseum.—This is found attached
to old stones and shells, and is a jelly-like, trans-
parent, spongy zodphyte, growing to a height of
nearly a foot, sometimes much longer. It is
branched, and of a brown colour, dotted with
polypes, which are attached to the cells, and
through angular openings they protrude their arms
or feelers.

Alcyonidium Echinatum.—This parasite incrusts
dead univalve shells exclusively, and is about one-
twentieth of an inch in thickness. When taken out
of the water, it is soft and spongy, but becomes
rigid on drying. It has little sharp-pointed, spinous,
nipple-like protuberances.

Asteroida.—The next order of zodphytes that
claims our notice is named Asteroida, from the
polypes presenting the form of a star on the surface
of the fleshy mass in which they reside. Their orga-
nization is superior to those previously described ;
there being this difference, that instead of the animal
domiciling in a hard cell, it exists in a fleshy, tough
crust, which is supported by hard, calcareous spicula;
and others have thick branching processes, which

CORALS. 247

perform the part of the skeleton in the human
frame. This central internal support is usually
denominated the axis. The fleshy mass, or cover-
ing, possesses sensation, and is ramified by various
tubes and canals for the sustenance and other vital
functions of the polypi. The Asteroida are fre-
quently thrown on the sea-shore, and when dried
by the sun the skeleton weighs but a few grains.

Allied to the Turbinolia and Caryophyllia are the
Fungia, or sea-mushrooms. These elegant forms are
found in a great variety; the corals are white, of a
flattened, round shape, made up of thin plates or
scales, around which is a translucent, jelly-like sub-
stance, and amidst it a large polype; for, unlike
others, they exist as individuals; the lower part is of
a strong nature, by which the animal is affixed to the
rock whereon it lives.

Another very abundant coral around our islands is
the Brainstone coral, or Meandrina cerebriformis,—
so named from its surface resembling the convolu-
tions of the medullary matter in the human brain. It
attaches itself by a strong stony secretion to rocks.

Gorgonia.—The Gorgonie are found widely diffused
around the reefs of Bermuda; they appear to dwell
usually in deep water; when observed in shallow
water, their colours are richer, deeper, and brighter.

248 BERMUDA.

The Gorgoniz are flexible, and seem like plants
growing from the rocks to which they are fixed.
Some are branching, and covered with lace-like —
work; others are like a feather or a fan; while
some, again, are straight, and some of a drooping
form. The stems are flat, angular, or round, and
of a dark colour, with an outer crust of a soft
substance, full of pores, out of which the polypes
thrust themselves.

When a dry branch is macerated in mineral acid,
a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime is
entirely removed, without altering the original size
and figure of the branch: this shows the framework
to be an irregular close texture of corneous ‘fibres,
the interstices of which had been ee filled in
part with a gelatinous fluid.

Isis hippuris is the type by which this anti is
illustrated. It has a jointed stony stem, which rises
into many loose branches. The bone or support of
the animal consists of white, cylindrical, stony-
channelled joints, connected together by black, con-
tracted, horny, intermediate ones. The flesh is
whitish, plump, and full of minute vessels; the
surface of it is full of the little mouths of the cells,
which are disposed in a quincunx order, covering the
polypes with eight claws.

CORALS. i 249

There are also the Gorgonia flabellum, sometimes
called the Sea-fan, Flabellum Veneris, or Venus’
fan. It grows in the form of a net, with its
branches compressed inwardly. The bone is black,
horny, and slightly striated on the large branches.

We have many other beautiful species; among
which, we shall describe the following :—

The Gorgonia anceps is branched nearly in a
subdivided manner. The bone is roundish, being
small at the ends, of a horny nature, somewhat in-
clining to leather. The Gorgonia verrucosa is much
and irregularly branched, the branches spreading
laterally, being cylindrical, flexuous, barked when
dry with a white warted crust. The segments of
the cells are unequal and obtuse. The Gorgonia
placomus has irregular branches, which are disposed
in a dichotomous order, of a flattish form, cylindrical,
and warty; the cells are protuberant and conical,
and are surrounded at the top by little spines. The
Gorgonia lepidifera is dichotomous; it is almost
covered with mouths, which are placed close toge-
ther, hanging over one another. These mouths
are bell-shaped, bent downwards, and full of small
scales. The flesh is covered with minute whitish
scales. There is in the larger branches testaceous sub-
stances like bone, and the smaller ones resemble horn.

250 BERMUDA.

Around Hamilton Harbour, and the sea-shore
generally, we frequently observe the Actiniz, or
“sea-anemones.” These polypes have the body
fleshy, often brilliantly coloured; and the tentacula
are arranged in several rows round the mouth, some-
what like the petals of a double flower. They are
very sensitive, to light, and expand or close their
tentacula acccording to the fineness of the day.
When the tentacula are retracted, the aperture
from which they proceed closes like the mouth
of a purse, and the animal appears a simple fleshy
tubercle, adhering to the rock. Many Actiniw, when
their tentacula are expanded, have as gay an appear-
ance as the flowers of almost any plants.

Besides the above-mentioned, ‘the Holothuria (sea-
slugs) are very numerous, and many of them are
splendidly coloured; so that, together with the
Radiata, they make the sea-bottom, when seen by
the light of an almost vertical sun, look as gay as a
tropical garden.

A remarkable feature of Bermuda is the paucity
of its mammalia—of the wild animals. There are
three indigenous species of rats properly so called
(Mus, Cuy.) The water-rat is very common (Mus

MAMMALIA—REPTILES. 251

amphibius). The fur is blackish gray, slightly
mixed with yellow, and lighter beneath; the tail is
black. It is a little larger than the common rat,
There is also the Arvicola alliarius (Desm.), which
is about four inches long; fur, ash-coloured above,
white beneath; ears large, almost naked. Lastly,
the Arvicola socialis (Desm.), (Mus gregarius, Linn.);
fur, pale gray above, white underneath; ears short,
broad, almost naked. About 24 inches long; tail,
one inch.

In the order Cetacea we find the common whale
(Balena mysticetus, Linn.) This species seems gra-
dually diminishing in number as well as in size. The
species most usually captured on our coast is the
hunchback (Balena nodosa, Desm.) The flesh of
this whale, when properly cooked, is very wholesome
for consumptive persons, and is considered a great
luxury by the native blacks.

We find, then, that the only representatives of
the class Mammalia are the rat tribe and the whales
among the wild animals.

In the class Reptilia (reptiles), we find the order
Chelonia (the turtle tribe). This order is represented
by the green turtle (Chelonia mydas, Holbrook); and
the hawk’s-bill (Chelonia carretta, Holbrook) is more
or less brown or rufous.

252 BERMUDA.

In the order Sawria we have the lizard tribe.
The saurian reptiles are distinguished from the
chelonian by the want of a shield and by the
presence of teeth. The blue-tailed skink (Scincus
nasciatus, Holbrook) and the Scincus ocellatus (Da.)
are representatives of this order. The Scincus ocel-
latus burrows in the sand so quickly that it is out
of sight in an instant, and appears rather to have
found a hole than made one.

In the class Reptilia, we have had occasion to
name but a few genera and species; so barren are
these islands in that class of animals which respire
by lungs, having red and cold blood, and bodies
covered with horny or cartilaginous plates, or with
hard scales.

253

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to
give an honest and correct general account of the
Bermudas, from the period of their settlement to
the present time. The original formation of the
islands is a matter of doubt, unless, indeed, they
may be considered as the remains of the vast conti-
nent (Atlantis) which tradition informs us: was,
with its immense population, submerged in the
ocean, after being shaken for three days by the
incessant and hourly increasing concussions of an

‘

earthquake.* :

It may ‘be necessary to notice one great evil
existing in Bermuda, which arises from the minute
subdivision of land. Modern writers on Political
Economy mention the subdivision of landed pro-
perty as the principal cause of the poverty and
barbarism which have long prevailed in Ireland: the

misery proceeding, not from the smallness, but from

* This is the recorded tradition of Plato and the ancients.

254 BERMUDA.

the uncertainty of the tenure; and the land being
so parcelled out, as barely to suffice, even in the
growth of potatoes, to sustain the occupier’s family.
The poor are then made to outbid one another in
the price at which they may obtain possession—the
term being so short,-and the rent so high, that
the object of the occupier is not to improve the
spot, but to procure a miserable existence for the
year.

In Bermuda, the interest of the occupier in the
soil is also limited and precarious; hence, as in
Treland, the general discontent of the poorer agri-
cultural classes. Improvement is not, therefore, to
be expected, until a permanent interest in the soil
is afforded to the tenant.

Nevertheless, throughout Bermuda there has been
remarkable progress in agriculture during the last
fifteen years. The following statistics of the culti-
vation of the potato, at three distinct periods, go far
to prove the fact :—

In the year of 1843, the quantity of potatoes
raised in Bermuda was 13,436 bushels. Eight years
afterwards, namely, in 1851, the growth of the same
esculent had increased to 24,946 bushels, or, in
other words, had just doubled. Six years later, in
1857, the quantity rose to 97,500 bushels—nearly

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 255

four times the production of 1851, and more than
seven times that of 1843. We need no further
evidence to show what can be accomplished with
industry in the culture of but one product—the
Trish potato.

The remark of a late author, to the effect that
the capabilities of this colony cannot be much
further developed, is merely the reverse of true.
There are hundreds of acres of the finest arable
land still lying in a state of barrenness; in fact,
there is no reason why the colony should not be
raised to a high degree of wealth by infusing
into the colonists a better spirit of agricultural
enterprise.

During the past year we have witnessed the
arrival of numerous steam-vessels, from ports to the
south of these islands, for the purpose of procuring
fuel for the completion of their voyage to Europe.
This fact tells strongly in favour of Bermuda as a
convenient stopping place for steamers plying between
America and Europe.

We had hoped that the magnificent project of the
Atlantic Electric Telegraph would not have proved
a failure: and that the Old World and the New
would have been linked ere now in ties of amity
and friendship which no future disagreement should

256 BERMUDA.

ever interrupt. Three quarters of a century ago,
England had sought, by means of the sword, to win
back her intractable American colonies; and it was
a thing earnestly to be desired, that the peaceful
victories of intellect and science might be able to
effect, in a far different manner, that which brute
strife had failed to accomplish ;—binding free Ame-
rica to the mother country in a union closer and
more lasting than had ever existed before. We had
fondly trusted that this close alliance of Britain and
America would be the means of connecting all parts
of. the world, and of incalculably hastening the
triumphs of Christianity and of civilization. The
people of Bermuda still eagerly look forward to
this glorious consummation ;—since it is closely con-
nected with the future advancement of these islands ;
but it remains for them totturn all their resources
to account, so as to prove to the foreigner that it is
to his own advantage to visit these shores:

“ Those leafy islets on the ocean thrown,
Like studs of emerald on a silver zone.”

It was a lamentable act of the Home Government,
when, with the view to perform a laudable deed in
favour of free trade, it so seriously compromised the

character of great and free England, by inflicting

CONCLUDING REMARKS. 257

untold miseries on our sugar colonies, which were
just then emerging from a state of bondage into
liberty. The inconsistency of abolishing slavery in
the British dominions is seen in the importation
of slave-grown sugar, and the levelling competition
with slave-employing countries, over which the
British Parliament has cast its shield. The present
Government appears disposed to do something for
our colonies; and if our colonists would only put
their shoulders to the wheel, forgetting their old
grievances and local differences, and looking upon
their interests as identical, they might excite the
favourable attention of the British Parliament.
Were the vor populi universally heard, no Govern-
ment could resist it. There is wisdom, benevolence,
courage, public spirit enough in England to wipe out
the foul blot of free trade, as affecting her colonies,
from British legislation.

To go about the work in a business-like manner,
deputations from each colony should be sent to
England, where a regularly organized congress
might be held. And there is no doubt but that
our amiable Queen would give her royal assent
most gladly to any measure which should have for
its object to relieve the unprecedented injustice in-

258 BERMUDA.

flicted on her loyal and much attached trans-Atlantic
subjects.

Although sugar is not the staple product of
Bermuda, yet free trade, as before noticed, exerts
a very baneful influence on the colony. Notwith-
standing this, however, there is every reason to
believe that with greater advancement in agricul-
tural industry, and a more rapid communication
established with the United States by means of
steam-vessels, the islands may, ere long, be rendered
very prosperous.

APPENDICES.

Appenpix A.

Temperature of Bermuda.—Range of the Barometer
and Thermometer, Average for Four Years.

Barometer. Thermometer.

Maximum bil .- 80°480 ... 85°85
Minimum aie wee 29°286 2... 49°00
Mean... age «» 29°858 1... 28°25
Oscillation or range we 11244... 85°05

Apprnpix B.

A List of Acts, passed by the Legislature of Bermuda,
during the Session which commenced on the 20th
day of May, 1858, and ended on the 6th day of
October, instant, viz. :—

1. An Act to continue the Acts to establish Regulations
for the performance of Quarantine, and certain other Acts
in addition to and amendment thereof—In force to end
of 1869.

2. An Act to continue the Act for the Regulation of the
17

260 BERMUDA.

Public Gaols, and certain Acts in addition to and Amend-
ment thereof.—In force to end of 1869.

3. An Act for raising a Revenue for the support of the
Government of these her Majesty’s Islands, and to appro-
priate certain Sums to the discharge of the Expenses of
Government as therein expressed.—In force to 30th of
June, 1859.

4, An Act to continue the Act intituled ‘ An Act for the
safe custody of Insane Persons charged with Offences.”—
Indefinite.

5. An Act to continue and amend the Act for the
regulation of an Hospital for Insane Paupers, and certain
other Acts in addition to and Amendment thereof.—In
force to end of 1869.

6. An Act to amend and continue the Acts regulating
Prison Labour.—In force to end of 1865.

7. An Act to continue the Act for the summary Punish-
ment of common Assaults and Batteries.—Indefinite.

8. An Act to continue and amend the Act for the better
regulation of Vestries, Constables, and Churchwardens in
these Islands.—In force to end of 1868.

9. An Act to amend the Law relating to the Election of :
Members to serve in the General Assembly.—Indefinite.

10. An Act to continue and amend the Act providing
an annual Allowance for the Provost-Marshal General.—
In force to end of 1863.

11. An Act to continue and amend the Act intituled
“ An Act relative to the Conviction of Offenders transported
to these Islands from Great Britain, and other parts of his
Majesty’s Dominions,” and certain other Acts in amend-
ment thereof.—In force to end of 1868.

12. An Act to render transported Convicts liable to

APPENDICES. 261

additional Terms of Penal Servitude at the Convict Esta-
blishment at these Islands, in cases of Conviction of Offences
within these Islands subject to Penal Servitude in the
United Kingdom.—Indefinite.

13. An Act further to amend the Acts relating to Post
Offices.—In force to end of 1860.

14, An Act regulating the Weight and Sale of Bread.
—In force to end of 1860.

15. An Act to amend the Act “ Providing an Allowance
for the Maintenance of Persons imprisoned for Debt.”—In
force to end of 1860.

16. An Act to aid in the Establishment, and to provide
for the Inspection, of Public Schools.—In force to end of
1860.

17. An Act to amend an Act intituled “ An Act to con-
tinue the Act to maintain a Light House,” and certain
other Acts in amendment thereof.—In force to end of 1868.

APPENDIX C,
Total Value in Sterling Money of the Imports and
Exports of the Colony of Bermuda, from and to each
Country in the Year 1857.

Imports from Exports to
s. d. £ os. d.
Unitep Kinepom... 41,026 15 11... 4,728 0 0

British CoLonies :—

Halifax... .. 6,144 0 0 656 18 2
Prince EdwardIsland 1,050 18 0 203 0 0
Newfoundland... 28 0 0 «... —_
Demerara ... -. 5,884 7 3 1,170 9 0
Carried forward 54,084 1 2 6,758 7 2

17—2

262 BERMUDA.

Imports from Exports to
3s. £ & a.
Brought forward 54,084 1 2 6,758 7 2
British CoLonies cont. :—
Barbados ... -. 1,632 7 7 1,218 15 7
St. Vincent dae 13 7 0 331 2 0
Trinidad ... .. 1,244 8 10 827 5 0
Antigua ... - 248 14 11 259 12 11
St. Kitts .. ... 442 6 0 216 4 0
Turks’ Islands... 3801 9 2 | 503 12 1
Nassau — 80 0 0
Foreign CountRIES :—
St. Thomas Sas 690 9 8 765 138 0
Porto Rico .. 98,3804 7 8 1,089 7 0
Cuba aes .. 1,046 7 2 738 9 O
Hayti i «. = 1,272 7 0 —_—
Dutch Guiana... 804 2 0 ... =
Brazil a Sle 869 14 0 —
Oporto... -. 481 8 3 —_
Egypt... akg 426 0 0 ... —
United States -» 70,552 12 11... 22,571 10 9
Martinique 1s — we 293 0 0

Total ...186,914 8 4 ... 35,102 18 6

Number of Vessels entered Inwards and Outwards,
between 1st January and 31st December, 1857.

Inwarbs.
Number. Tons. Men.
Hamilton ie «. 187... 19,997... 1,100
St. Georges rae «. 83... 28,059 ... 1,845

Total... «220... 43,056... 2,445

APPENDICES. 263

Ourwarps.
Number. Tons. Men.
Hamilton ae os 185... 19,148... 935
St. Georges ne w» 82 4... 28,851 ... 1,876
Total ... w. 217... 42,994 1... 2,811

Number of Vessels belonging to the Colony, with
Amount of Tonnage and Number of Mariners.
Year ending 31st December, 1857.

Number. Tons. Men.
33 cae 3,250 ws. 240
New vessels ... 4 2... 3387. —

Exports of Vegetables,—1857 compared with 1858.

Exported in Exported in
Produce. 1857. 1858. Decrease.

Potatoes (barrels) 87,657 ... 28,960 ... 8,697
Tomatoes (boxes) 13,764 ... 1,993... 11,771
Onions (Ibs.) ... 1,059,179... 575,167... 484,012

Apprennix D.

Schedule of Duties payable at the Treasury Office, from
Ist July, 1858, to 30th June, 1859, inclusive.

Arrowroot, unmanufactured, TOs. per 100 Ibs.

Arrowroot starch, 6d. per lb.

Wine of all kinds, 20 per cent. on cost.

Arrack, alcohol, brandy, gin, whiskey, shrub, cordials,
peppermint water, 2s. 6d. per gallon.

Rum, 2s. per gallon.

264 BERMUDA.

Malt liquor, cider, and perry, on each and every hogshead
thereof, not imported in bottles, 15s. ; when imported in
bottles called quart bottles, for each and every dozen
thereof, 9d.

Cigars, per 1000, 8s.; or, at the option of the importer or
consignee, on every pound weight thereof, including the
weight of the packages, 1s.

Tobacco and snuff of all kinds, other than cigars, 2d.
per Ib.

Oxen and cows, 4s. per head.

On all goods imported, except articles subject to specific
duties, and those contained in the Table of Exemptions,
as follows :—Coal; agricultural implements—ploughs,
harrows, scarifiers, rollers, seed drillers, corn shellers,
corn mills, hay forks, hay rakes, iron rakes, potato forks,
weeding hoes, scythes, reaping hooks, chaff-cutters,
pruning knives; spades and shovels; machinery for the
manufacture of arrowroot; bullion; books, not reprints
of British publications; coin; coals; diamonds; fresh
fruit; ice; implements and boats for whaling; manures;
specimens of natural history; plants and trees for plant-
ing; provisions and stores of every description for the
use of her Majesty’s land and sea forces, or for her
Majesty’s establishment for convicts transported to these
islands, subject to certain conditions; passengers’ bag-
gage, apparel, and professional apparatus; the personal
household effects of inhabitants of these islands dying
abroad, and not intended for sale; shrubs; seeds for
planting; fresh vegetables, potatoes, and empty barrels
—23 per cent.

Goods in the bonded warehouses to be subject to existing
duties.

APPENDICES. 265

No goods to be warehoused unless the duties amount to 51.,
or unless intended for ulterior market.

No goods to be taken out of warehouse unless the duties
amount to 21., &.

Personal property sold at auction (property sold under
execution for debt or belonging to estate of deceased
persons excepted) subject to duty of 25 per cent., less
23 per cent. on such duty to auctioneers, for collecting
and paying the same.

Parties exporting goods are entitled, on certain conditions,
to the whole of the duty paid on the importation thereof,
when said goods are of the value of 25/. and upwards.

The auctioneers’ bonds expire on the 30th June.

Light Duties.

4d. per ton on merchant-vessels.

Steam-packets carrying royal mails, and steamers coming
to coal, exceeding 600 tons, 3/.; not exceeding 600
tons, 1/. 4s.

Store-ships and other vessels wholly employed in her
Majesty’s service are exempt from this duty.

Appenpix E.

Some species of spiders are known to possess the power
of not merely forming a web, but also of spinning, for the
protection of their eggs, a bag, somewhat similar in form
and substance to the cocoon of the silkworm.

At the commencement of the last century, Monsieur
Bon discovered, in France, a method of procuring silk

266 BERMUDA.

from these spiders’ bags, and its use was attempted in the
manufacture of several articles. M. Bon has noticed only
two kinds of silk-spiders, and these he has distinguished
from each other as having either long or short legs, the
last variety producing the finest quality of raw silk.
M. Bon asserts that the silk formed by these insects is
equally beautiful, strong, and glossy with that formed by
the Bombyx. The spider spins minute fibres from fine
papill, or small nipples, placed in the hinder part of its
body. These papille serve the office of so many wire-
drawing irons, to form and mould a viscous liquor, which,
after being drawn through them, dries on exposure to the
air, and forms the silk. An objection that has been urged
by M. Réaumur against the rearing of spiders, was the
small quantity, as well as deficient quality of the silk they
produce. The advantages of the culture of silk from the
silkworm, when compared with its production from spiders,
are so prodigious, and at the same time so evident, that to
prove the futility of M. Bon’s scheme needs not the aid of
exaggeration.

In the Mediterranean Sea is found the largest and most
remarkable species of Limax—the Pinna, its shell being
often found two feet long. In common with the mussel, it
has the power of spinning a viscid matter from its body,
in the manner of the spider and caterpillar, and of pro-
ducing slender filaments, scarcely inferior in fineness and
beauty to the single filament of the comparatively minute
silkworm.

Several beautiful manufactures are wrought with these
threads at Palermo. They are in many places the chief
object of the fishery, and the silk is found to be excellent.
The produce of a considerable number of pinne is required

APPENDICES. 267

to make only one pair of stockings. The delicacy of this
singular thread is such that a pair of stockings made of it
can be easily contained in a snuff-box of ordinary size.
Stockings and gloves of this production, however thin, are
too warm for common wear, but are esteemed useful in
gouty and rheumatic cases. This great warmth of the
byssus, like the similar quality in silk, results probably
from both being imperfect conductors of heat as well.as
electricity.

At the close of the thirteenth century, the celebrated
traveller Marco Polo gave to the world a narrative of his
wanderings, wherein is contained a particular and interest-
ing account of Cambalu, the royal city of China. In
evidence of the abundance of silk in which it traded,—
“No fewer,” he informs us, “than 1,000 carriages and
pack-horses, loaded with raw silk, make their daily entry
into the city; and silks of various textures are manu-
factured to an immense extent.” He describes the whole
country of China to be filled with great, rich, and crowded
cities, thronged with manufacturers of silk and other valu-
able merchandise.

The climate of Bermuda is so congenial to the nature
of silkworms, and the mulberry-trees so fertile, I know
of no reason why a large quantity of silk should not be
produced.

It may not be uninteresting to the general reader to call
attention to the examination of the various transforma-
tions of the silkworm, or Bombyx, and to the study of its
nature and habits.

Silkworms proceed from eggs, which are deposited
during the summer by a greyish kind of moth, of the
genus Phalene. These eggs are about equal in size to a

268 BERMUDA.

grain of mustard-seed ; their colour when first laid is
yellow, but in three or four days after they acquire a
bluish cast. :

The whole of the curious changes and labours which
accompany and characterize the life of the silkworm are
performed within the space of a very few weeks.

The three successive states of being put on by this
insect are,—that of the worm, or caterpillar; that of the
chrysalis, or aurelia; and that of the moth. In addition
to these more decided transformations, the progress of the
silkworm in its caterpillar state is marked by five distinct
stages of being.

When first hatched, it appears as a small black worm
about a quarter of an inch in length. Its first indication
of animation, is the desire which it evinces for obtaining
food ; in search of which, if not immediately supplied, it
will exhibit more power of locomotion than characterizes
it at any other period.

In about eight days from its being hatched, its head
becomes perceptibly larger, and the worm is attacked by
its first sickness. This lasts for three days, during
which time it refuses food, and remains motionless in a
kind of lethargy. At the end of the third day from its
first refusal of food, the animal appears, on that account,
much wasted in its bodily frame, a circumstance which
materially assists in the painful operation of casting its
skin. This it very soon proceeds to accomplish.

This moulting is so complete, that not only is the whole
covering of the body cast off, but that of the feet, of the
entire skull, and even the jaws, including the teeth.

In two or three minutes from the beginning of its
efforts, the worm is wholly freed, and again puts on the

APPENDICES. 269

appearance of health and vigour, feeding with recruited
appetite upon its leafy banquet.

Every fifth day it is attacked with sickness, and under-
goes four successive moultings; at the end of its fourth
sickness, it casts ,its skin for the last time in the cater-
pillar state. The worm is now about one and a half or
two inches long. This last change completed, the silk-
worm devours its food most voraciously, and increases
rapidly in size during ten days. The silkworm has now
attained to its full growth, and is a slender caterpillar from
two and a half to three inches in length.

At the period above mentioned, the desire of the worm
for food begins to abate. The first symptom of this is
the appearance of the leaves nibbled into minute portions
and wasted.

The substance of which the silk is composed is secreted
in the form of a fine yellow transparent gum in two
separate vessels of slender dimensions, which are wound,
as it were, on two spindles in the stomach. If unfolded,
these vessels would be about ten inches in length.

When the worm has fixed upon some angle, or hollow
place, whose dimensions agree with the size of its intended
silken ball or cocoon, it begins its labour by spinning thin
and irregular threads, which are intended to support its
future dwelling. During the first day, the insect forms
upon these a loose structure of an oval shape, which is
called floss-silk, and within which covering, in the three
following days, it forms the firm and consistent yellow
ball. At the end of the third or fourth day, the worm
will have completed its task, and formed its cocoon.
When the insect has finished its labour of spinning, it
smears the entire internal surface of the cocoon with a

270 BERMUDA.

peculiar kind of gum, very similar in its nature to the
matter which forms the silk itself. When the formation
of the ball is finished, the insect rests awhile from its toil,
and then throws off its caterpillar garb. If the cocoon
be now opened, its inhabitant will appear in the form of a
chrysalis or aurelia, in shape somewhat resembling a
kidney-bean, but pointed at one end, having a smooth
brown skin.

The weight and length of reeled silk that can be
obtained from each cocoon are very variously stated by
different authors. Miss Rhodes, of Yorkshire, found that
one of her largest cocoons measured 404 yards. Pullein
considers the average to be 800 yards.

The attendance required for the care of silkworms does
not wholly occupy the time of those employed, and it is,
therefore, difficult to ascertain its amount with correctness.
Pullein states, that for rearing the worms produced: from
six ounces of eggs, two attendants are necessary until the
fourth age; and that after this period five or six persons
are required. :

From these data, it is found that to obtain one pound
of reeled silk, it requires twelve pounds of cocoons; that
rather more than 2,800 worms are employed in forming
these cocoons ; and that to feed these during their cater-
pillar state, 152 pounds of mulberry leaves must be
gathered.

This pound of reeled silk is capable of being converted
into sixteen yards of gros de Naples, of ordinary quality,
or into fourteen yards of the best description.

Experience has shown that some regulation of tempe-
rature is necessary in producing the moths from the
cocoons. If the heat in which these are placed, be above

APPENDICES. 271

73 degrees, their transition would be too rapid, and their
productiveness would be lessened. On the other hand,
if the temperature be below 66 degrees, the development
of the moths is tardy, and their produce equally falls
below the due proportion.

The moths should begin to issue from the cocoons in
about fifteen days. The female deposits her eggs upon
sheets of paper, or strips of linen, which are then hung
in a cool situation, and when dry are preserved in an
airy place, and securely shielded from damp and vermin,
that premature hatching may be avoided in the winter
months.

Some fair specimens of cocoons were shown me a
short time since by an Englishman, who spoke very
sanguinely of what might be done in Bermuda with the
silkworm.

THE END.

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